Encyclopaedia Britannica [3, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH FIFTH

EDITION EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801 1815 i

SIXTH

EDITION

SEVENTH

EDITION

EIGHTH EDITION NINTH EDITION

A x pn GAA

1823

1830

1853

TENTH EDITION ELEVENTH EDITION TWELFTH EDITION

1875 1902 1910 1922

THIRTEENTH

1926

FOURTEENTH

EDITION EDITION

ras F|

m= ara ade D ha

o

19290,1932

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Ip OR

ie x A Bal

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EE

$ S RZ So AE Q Belief.

shi

Editor

;

ee aphy; 3):

Mac-

ooks (in p wh ); ;

Book-Collecting (2m part). Banker and Customer (i

Gilbart Lecturer on Banking, King’s

ie

part).

B. R. Coan. In charge Delta Laboratory, Bureau Entomology, United States Department ofBotWeevil, Cotton. Entomology, Washington. B. Re. B.

W.

B.

a BERTHA REMBAUGH, A.M., LL.B. Lawyer. Author of Political Status of Women in United States. }Blackmail: United States. BaRRY WALLACE BRUCE. Specialist in Advertising and Commercial Organizing. Late Editor, Boxmaker’s >Box-making. Journal; etc. Author of Business Simplified; etc.

B. W. Be.

B. W. BEST.

B. Wi.

Editor, Cycling, London. A. F. Basit Wittiams, O.B.E.

C.A. W.

C. A. WARREN.

C. Be.

CHARLES BENNION.

C. Bem.

CHARLES BEMONT, D.ESL., Litt.D.

C.

395 to 1270. See biographical article Bémont, CHARLES. C. ERNEST FAYLE.

E.

}Bicycle.

ist Class Classical Moderations, 2nd Class Litterae Humaniores, Oxford; Professor of History at Edinburgh University.

Author of Brewing Waiters.

pBotha, Louis.

; }Beer (tm pari).

Boot and Shoe Machinery (zn

Late of The British United Shoe Machinery Company, Leicester.

F.

C. E.T. C. F. B.

C. G. S.

C. H.

C. H. K. B. C. H. Tu.

French Scholar.

part).

:

Béarn.

Author of Seaborne Trade (Official History of the Great War), 3 vols.; The War and -Blockade, Ministry of. the Shipping Industry; A History of Lloyds (with Charles Wright). j : F C. E. Trey, B.Sc., Pg.D., F.G.S. }Basalt; Batholith. Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge. ; CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A. Professor of Political Economy, Dublin. Regius Professor of Laws since 1908. Author -Bimetallism. of Theory of International Trade; Commerce of Nations; Public Finance, etc. CHARLES GABRIEL SELIGMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Barabra; Professor of Ethnology, London School of Economics, University of London. For- Bari-speaking Tribes; merly President of the Royal Anthropological Institute. Author of The Melanesians —_~— Beja. of British New Guinea.

Banjermasin (in part); Beri-Beri; Hon. Fellow, Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in service of Rajah of Sarawak. Blackwater Fever (in part); Member of the Supreme Council and Judge of the Supreme Court of Sarawak (1904); Blowgun; Member of the Sarawak State Advisory Council at Westminster (1919); Director Borneo (in part); of Agricultural and Industrial Exhibits, Sarawak Pavilion, British Empire Exhibition, —_+ Borneo, British North (in Wembley (1924). Author of many books and articles. part). THe Rev. CHARLES HENRY KNOWLER Boucuton, B.D.

CHar es Hoss, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.L, F.R.S.A.

Vicar of St. John the Baptist, Knighton. Secretary British and Foreign Bible Society, 1922-8. CUTHBERT HAMILTON TURNER, F.B.A., Hon.D.Liırr. (Durham), LL.D. (Aberdeen).

C. P.C.

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, 1889; Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint, 1925-7. Author of Studies in Early Church History, etc. C. P. Crosz, B.S.A., M.S.

C;

TuE REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A.

Pi.

i

Etienne; Baluze, | Author of Les Chartes des Libertés anglaises; History of Europe jrom

Senior Extension Horticulturist, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Author of many bulletins on horticulture.

TA of Corpus Christi College, Oxford,

Bible Societies.

~

T Bible: New New Testament, Chroible: nology. >Blueberry.

Author of Life and Times of Alfred the Bede.

eat,

C. Ric.

a aident Royal I the Royal of the resident of

the U Upper Arts,the the Arts, Archaeology and d H History of fthe Institute of f Archaeol Board of the Fine Arts, and the Casa di Dante, Rome. Author of I} Correggio;

Il Pintoricchio; etc.

C. S. G.

CYRIL S. FOX. Superintendent, Geological Survey, India. C. STUART GAGER, A.B., PH.D., Sc.D.

C. Si.

CHARLES

C. S. F.

Director, Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Author of Fundamentals of Botany.

a

E

T

‘ Baroque Architecture.

ee \Bauxite (in part). Editor,

Brooklyn

Botanic

Garden Record.

Botanic Garden.

i

University College, University of London. edicine, Lecturer in the History o Formerly Lecturer in History of Biological Sciences at Oxford. Author of Greek Biology and Greek Medicine; History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood.

Up; uo Biology: History.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

vi

o jam

Cect W. ROWNTREE, M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S. Surgeon to the Cancer Hospital; Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine; Fellow of |Bones, Diseases and Injuries British Association of Surgeons; Formerly Hunterian

D. Co. D. C. McM.

Dovucras C. McMourtrie. Director of Typography of the Ludlow Typograph Company, Chicago. The Golden Book; American Type Design.

D. Coc.

Professor of Surgery, Royal

of.

College of Surgeons of England. Dorotuy ANNE DoNDORE, A.M., Px.D. Professor of English, Elmira College, Elmira, N.Y. Author of The Prairie and the Biography: United States. Making of Middle America. Dorotuy Cocks, B.A. Director of Advertising for the Marinello Company, New York. Author of The | Beauty Culture. Etiquette of Beauty. Editor of Ars Typographica.

Author of }Books: Modern American.

Dovuctas B. COCKERELL. English Bookbinder. Teacher at the London County Council of Arts and Crafts; Lecturer on Binding to the School of Librarianship, University College, London. Author of Bookbinding and the Care of Books.

Bookbinding: Theory and Practice.

D. E. Sh. D. F.T.

DoROTHEA E. SHARP, PH.D.

D. L. Mu.

Davip LESLIE MuRRAY.

D. R.C.

Davi RaymMonpd Curtiss, A.M., PH.D.

D. Wd.

DANIEL WILLARD.

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C. B., R.N. es Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution, since 1927; | Battleship (in part);

Bonaventura, Saint.

DonaLD F. Tovey, M.A. Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis comprising the Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations and analyses of many other classical works.

Beethoven, Ludvig von; Boccherini. Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of.

Author of Disraeli.

Bessel Function.

Professor of Mathematics, Northwestern University, Evanston, III.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Il Company. es es ys

President of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, Baltimore, Md.

Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-9. of the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. A. A.

E. A. ATKINS, M.I.MeEcu.E.

E. A. Sp.

ELMER A. SPERRY, E.D., Sc.D.

E. Bn.

al m~~

Secretary and Editor

Editor for Naval Affairs,

pBeatty, David; Belgian Coast Operations.

Member of the Iron and Steel Institute; Member of the Institute of Welding EngiBarbed Wire. neers; Director of Research, The Pearson and Knowles and Ryland Brothers Research —__ m Laboratories. Chairman of the Board, Sperry Gyroscope Company, Brooklyn, N.Y. Inventor of the Gyro-Compass, Sperry Gyro-Stabilizer, and other special devices, mainly for the Beacon (in part). United States Navy. —

EDUARD BERNSTEIN.

German politician and writer. Editor, with August Bebel, of Sozialdemokrat. Author of Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie; Die Deutsche Revolution, ihre Entstehung, ihr Verlauf und ihr Werk.

E. B. O.

E. B. OSBORN.

E. Bra.

ERICH BRANDENBURG. ; :

Boxing (in part). Berlin: H; 3 : ; History; in Philosophy and History at the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bierlin: ck, Prince Otto von.

Literary Editor of The Morning Post, London. ooe

E. Ca. E. Cas.

E. C. B. E. D. An.

Author of The New Elizabethans; etc.

~A

EmıLE CAMMAERTS, C.B.E., Hon.LL.D.(Grascow); Chevalier de POrdre de Léopold; F.R.Hist.S. {petganLiterature (in part). Professor of French Literature at Queen’s College, London. EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of English Book Plates; Bibliotheca Dimicatoria; +Book-Plates. etc. Ricut Rev. Epwarp CUTHBERT Butter, D.Lirt.(DuBLIn). l Benedict of Nursia. Late Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

E. D. ANGELL, B.S., M.D. Physical director and writer.

} Basket Ball (in part).

Author of Basket Ball for Men; etc.

a

E. E. L.

E. E. Lone, C.B.E.

E. F. Ph.

E. F. Puririps, A.B., PH.D. Professor of Apiculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Author of Bee-Keeping. Sır Epmund Gosse, Kr., M.A., C.B., LL.D., Hon.Lirt.D.

E.G.

Foreign Office, as Officer-in-Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, Special Correspondent, 1924-5.

1918-21;

Librarian, House ofLords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian British Museum; Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. President of the English Association, 1921. Author of History of Eighteenth Century

E. G. Gr.

E. Hn.

Bebel, August.

Literature; Collected Poems; Books on the Table; etc. E. G. GRACE. President, Bethlehem Steel Corporation. Eva Hipsert, M.Sc., TEcuH.

Assistant Lecturer in Applied Chemistry, University of Manchester. EDWARD HUTTON. Author of Italy and the Italians; The Cities of Umbria; Florence and Northern cany; Cities of Sicily; Giovanni Boccaccio and many other works,

Bant t Bat a

}Bee-Keeping (in part). : ; Re oe On i); : Bi mn p - oie

lography (in part). Bethlehem Steel Corporation.

.

?

$ Bleaching. Tus-

French

}

Boccaccio, Giovanni.

Vili

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

E. J. T.

Epwarb J. THomas, Px.D. Translator Vedic Hymns.

E. L.

P. R. Exrsa LEwxowi1rscu, Pu.D., B.Sc.Hons., A.R.C.S.

E. M.

ELMER MANTz, PH.D.

a arlaam and Josaphat.

Author of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History.

Beeswax (in part); Bone, Industrial Uses of (in

part).

E. M. C. D.

Columbia University, New York. EDWARD M. C. Denny, M.C., B.A. Barrister-at-Law of Gray’s Inn and the Western Circuit, England. of Jesus College, Oxford.

E. M. N.

Epwarp Max NICHOLSON.

\Banks, History of (în part). Formerly Scholar Bi of Exchange (in part).

;

Ornithologist, Oxford University Greenland Expedition, 1928.

Author of Birds in -Birds (in part).

England; How Birds Live; etc.

E. N. Da C.A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA C. ANDRADE, D.Sc., P.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London.

tion, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. O. J.

Editor of the Physics Sec- |Barometric Light;

Author of The Structure of the Atom; | Bohr, Niels.

The Mechamsm of Nature, etc. EDWIN OakES JORDAN, S.B., Pu.D., Hon.Sc.D.

Chairman, Department Hygiene and Bacteriology, University of Chicago. Editor of Journal of Preventive Medicine; Joint Editor, Journal of Infectious Diseases. Author of General Bacteriology; Food Poisoning; Epidemic Influenza.

|p Station

.

E. Rh.

ERNEST REYS.

E. Ro.

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

\Bashan

E. S.

EDWARD SALMON, O.B.E.

} Blackwater

E. Str.

EDWARD STREETER.

E. Va.

EMILE VANDERVELDE.

Author.

Editor of United Empire, Journal of Royal Empire Society. The Saturday Review.

Author of Life of General Wolfe; etc.

E. W.N.

(in part);

Borneo (in part).

j

}Banker s’ Trust Company.

Assistant Vice-President, Bankers’ Trust Company, New York. Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Belgian Government.

j

Formerly on Staff of pBlackwater Fever (in part);

Formerly Minister of |Belgium:

Justice. Represented Belgium at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Aspects of the Russian Revolution; Le Parti ouvrier belge; etc.

E. Wa.

}Bookselling (in part).

Editor of Everyman's Library, 800 volumes, 1927 (in progress).

Author of Three

Rev. EpĮmond Warre. C.B., C.V.O., M.A., D.D.. D.C.L.

Late Provost of Eton. Head Master of Eton College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing. E. W. NEtson, A.M., Pa.D. Principal Biologist, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture,

Washington. Author of numerous monographs and other scientific papers on North

ment.

Economic Develop-

Boat.

e

|p;

Biological Survey.

American birds and mammals.

E. W. P.

binding Author of A Course of Bookbinding Po

PALMER.of Kingsport Press, Kingsport, Tenn. E. W,President

Machine Book-

for Vocational Schools.

F. A.G. F. A. P.

F. A. Goutp, M.A.

;

Senior Assistant in the Metrology Department, Teddington, Middlesex. FRANK A. Pattie, M.A., Pa.D. Instructor in Psychology, Harvard University.

National

Physical

Laboratory, pBarometer. Basilar Membrane.

au

F. Ba.

FERNAND BAUDHUIN.

F.C.

F. Crements, M.Inst.C.E., M.Ixsrt.MECE.E., A.M.IL.E.E.

F. Ca.

of History of Moe Mathematics, aa De toe arrofessor

F. C. B.

FrRANcIS CrRawrorp Burritt, F.B.A., D.D., Hon.D.D., D.THEOL.

F. J. H.

Francis Joan HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A., F.S.A.

F. M.

FRANCIS MEYNELL,

Late Professor of Commerce in the University of Louvain, Belgium.

General Manager, The Park Gate Iron and Steel Company, Ltd., Rotherham. University of f Calif California, Berkeley, Berkeley, Calif. Calif, L Late President, Mathematical Association of America. Author of A History of Mathematics; History of Mathematical Notations; etc.

Fellow of Trinity College; Norrisian

Cambridge.

}Belgium: Finance.

ena Steel;

Blast Furnace.

Up; . Binomial Formula.

;

in.

Professor of Divinity in the University o|Binsi) New

part).

Testament

s

Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of Boadicea. Brasenose College. Author of monographs on Roman History.

Publisher.

.

;

B.A. (Dublin).

Author of The Art of Advertisement Typography.

F. Mi.

Fleuron. F. MICHOTTE.

F. R.C.

FRANK RICHARDSON CaNa, F.R.G.S.

F. Sh.

FREDERICK WILLIAM SHERWOOD, B.A.

F. T. B.

ciation, the Grotius Society, The Lingard Society. F. T. BROWETT.

Professor of Geography in the University of Louvain.

Contributor to TheBooks: M ae nee and

oniinental

Books.

}Belgium: Geography.

Basutoland (in part);

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914~-5; staff of The Times, |Bechuanaland (in port); London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The | Belgian Congo; Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement.

Barrister-at-Law, Recorder of Worcester.

Benin.

Blackstone, Sir William. Member of the International Law Asso-

Technical Editor of The Shoe and Leather Record (London).

(in

Boot and Shoe Industry.

INITIALS E.

W.

M.

G. B. Gr.

PE

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Tae a MAITLAND. English Jurist and Historian. Late Downing Professor Cambridge University. Author of Bracton’s Note-Book; History of English Law (with Sir F. Pollock); English Law and the Renatssance; etc. See biographical article MAITLAND, F. W.

GEORGE BUCHANAN Gray, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. Formerly Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Mansfield Oxford and Examiner in Hebrew, University of Wales. pline of Israel; etc.

G. BURRARD, D.S.O., F.R.G.S.

College, | Bible: Old Testament (in

G. E.

THE Rev. GEORGE Epmunpson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. GEORGE GLASGOW.

Major Royal Artillery, retired. Gun expert to The Field since 1919. Author of Notes

on Sporting Rifles; Big Game Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet.

Affairs’’ section of The Contemporary Review since 1922.

MAJOR GENERAL SIR GEORGE AsTON, K.C.B.

G.G. S.

GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A.

part).

f

pBig Game Hunting.

?Brabant.

Author of The Minoans; Ronald Borrows: a Memoir; From Macdonald as a Diplomatist; General Strikes and Road Transport.

G. G. A.

Bracton, Henry De.

Author of The Divine Disci-

G. Bu.

G.G.

1x

Dawes io Locarno; Editor of ‘‘Foreign

Beneš, Edward. }

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Formerly Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Sea, Land and Air Belgium: Defence. Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of Today; Editor of The Study of War.

Barbour, John.

G. H.

Professor of English Literature at Queen’s University, Belfast. GEORGE HANNAUER. President, Boston and Maine Railroad.

: : }Boston and Maine Railroad.

G. H. W.

GEORGE H. WARBURTON.

| Bone,fa (in part);

Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch and Chief

Chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories.

G. J. W. G. L. K.

=

NEE

>Bone, Industrial Uses of (in

part).

and author of articles on the drapery and allied trades.

}Bead Manufacture.

“Edited Wetines -t Wilthams Biake. Author of William Blake, etc. }Blake, William.

a

G. Ma.

Defence; oana aC Moooi de Al o o a o DMGT india,Baluchistan: 1920-4. Author of The Armies of India; A Free Lance in Kashmir; etc. ROMAI,

G. M1.

GABRIEL MARCEL. Dramatist and Literary Critic for L’ Europe nouvelle. Contributor to La nouvelle revue française.

Author of Studies on Contemporary English and American Philosophers.

G. M. McB.

GEORGE M. McBRDE, B.A., PH.D.

G. R. D.

G. R. DRIVER.

University of California at Los Angeles, California. Communities of Highland Bolivia.

Author of Agrarian

Indian

pBernard, Jean Jacques.

O

>Bolivia.

Bible: Old Testament (in part).

Professor of Comparative Semitic Philology, University of Oxford.

G. Sa.

GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.Litt., F.B.A. English Man of Letters, Essayist and Critic. Late Professor of Rhetoric and English Balzac, Honoré de. Literature at Edinburgh University. Author of Essays on French Novelists; Short Syn um History of French Literature. See biographical article SAINTsBURY, GEORGE E. B.

G. Sc.

G. SCHOTT.

G. S. De.

G. Sn.

Oceanographer, German Naval Observatory, Hamburg. ography, University of Hamburg.

GEORGE S. DERBY, A.B., M.D.

Hon. Professor of Ocean-

Black Sea. ey

,

Professor of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School; Ophthalmic Chief, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary. Contributor to Ophthalmic Journals.

Blindness, Causes of. ——

GEORGE Sampson, Hon.M.A.(Camb.). i Inspector of Schools (L.C.C.). Late Honorary General Secretary of the English |Biography: Association; Member of the Departmental Committee on English Studies;

of Cambridge Advisory Committee on Religious Instruction.

Member

G. T.

GENE TUNNEY. World’s Heavyweight Champion, 1926. Retired, 1928.

G. T. B.

G. T. Burrows.

G.T. M.

GILBERT T. Morcan, O.B.E., F.R.S.

G. W.H.

G. W. Herse, B.S., M.S. Research Chemist, National Carbon Company, Cleveland, Ohio. Author of numerous

:

Modern

Boxing: United States.

Agricultural Correspondent of the Daily Telegraph, London, and Editor of the Live Bowls (in part). Stock Journal; a winner of ten separate championships at Bowls, including Lord Rosebery’s medal. HH ee

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Bismuth. Ireland, Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe's Dictionary of apblied Chemistry. Editor of the Chemical Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia ——— ritannica.

articles in technical journals.

Develop-

ment.

Battery. Vey

INITIALS H. A. S.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

H. Be.

H. A. SLoĮman, M.A., B.Sc., A.I.C. ers Metallurgy Department, iddlesex. Horace Becr, F.S.A.

H. Br.

of The Classification and Nomenclature of Beads and Pendants; etc. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D.

H. Ca.

National

Physical

Laboratory,

Teddington, Beryl

(im part),

Specialist on beads; arranged the Egyptian beads in the British Museum, and the beads in the Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Author

Beads

Joint Editor of The New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; etc.

>Beowulf (in part).

HELEN M. Cam, M.A., F.R.Hist.5, Lecturer in History, Girton College, Cambridge. in History, University of Cambridge.

Probationary University Lecturer

Author of Studies in the Hundred Rolls.

:

pBorough (in part).

H. C. B.

Howarp C. BAID. Designed and Supervised Construction of Bear Mountain Hudson River Bridge. pBear Mountain Bridge.

H. Cl.

Str Hucs Crrrrorp, G.B.E., G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

Member of Council, American Institute of Consulting Engineers, New York.

:

Governor of the Straits Settlements; High Commissioner for the Malay States and British Agent for Borneo since 1927. Governor of Ceylon, 1925-7. Author of Further India and many other works. tionary of the Malay Language.

Joint Author with Sir Frank Swettenham of a Dic-

Huc E. AGNEW, A.B. Chairman of the Department of Marketing, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance.

H. G. W. H. H. H.

Borneo (in part); >Borneo, British North

Author of Co-operative Advertising by Competitors.

, pBillboards.

HERBERT GEORGE Woop, M.A. Director of Studies, Woodbrooke, Birmingham; Lecturer in New Testament, Selley pBible: Introduction. Oak College. Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. THe RicHt REVEREND HERBERT HENSLEY HENson, M.A., D.D. \Bible: English (in part).

H. H. L. B.

Lord Bishop of Durham. Author of Anglicanism and many other works. Hucu Hate Leicu Betrot, M.A., D.C.L. Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International; Honorary Secretary, International Law Association and Grotius Society; Acting Professor of Constitutional Law, Uni-

H. J. L.

HAROLD J. LASKI.

H. L. A-F.

Major Henry LANCELOT AUBREY-FLETCHER,

H. L. C.

HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, M.A., F.R.C.S., LL.D., F.R.S.

?

H. L. Hi.

H. LrLoyo Hwb, B.Sc., F.I.C. Consulting and Analytical Chemist. Hans LIETZMANN, D.THEOL.

\ Beer: Brewing.

H. Li. H. Lo.

versity of London and Secretary, Breaches of the Laws of War Committee.

D.S.O.,

ockade (in part).

Author of Foundations of Bolshevism.

Professor of Political Science, University of London. Sovereigniy; A Grammar of Politics; etc. Late Grenadier Guards.

Betterment: \Blasphem 7 BI p d y3

M.V.O.

Author of A History of the Foot Guards to 856.

}Barrosa, Battle of.

Professor of Physics, Imperial College of Science, London.

f Black Body.

}Baptism (in part).

Professor of Church History in the University of Berlin. Henry Louis, M.A., D.Sc., A.R.S.M., M.Inst.C.E., F.1.C., F.G.S., etc. Vice President of the Iron and Steel Institute; Vice President of the Institution of , Mining and Metallurgy; President Designate of the Institution of Mining Engineers. -Blowing Engines. Professor of Mining (1896-1923), Armstrong College, University of Durham. Author of numerous works on mining engineering and metallurgy.

H. Ow.

HERBERT L. STONE. Editor of The Yachting Magazine; Chairman, Bermuda Race Committee. Author of >Bermuda Rig. America’s Cub Races; The Yachisman's Handbook. Heten M. Murr-Woop. Temporary Assistant, Biological Department, Natural History Museum, SouthBrachiopoda. Kensington. HamILTon OwENS, A.B. }Baltimore.

H. Pi..

HENRI PIRENNE.

H. L. St.

H. M-W.

(in

part).

Editor, Baltimore Evening Sun, Baltimore, Maryland.

Professor of Mediaeval History, University of Ghent; Member of the Royal Academy bBelgium: History (in part). of Belgium and the Institut de France. Author of Histoire de Belgique; etc. H. St. J. B. P. HARRY ST. JOonN BRIDGER PurLBy, C.I.E., F.R.G.S., I.C.S. (retired). Explorer.

Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Author of The Heart of Arabia;-BellGertrude, M.L.

Arabian Mandates; The Truth About Arabia.

H. Tho.

Henry Tuomas, D.Litt.

H. W. C. D.

HENRY Wittiam Caress Davis, M.A Ae”

I. A. R.

1895-1902. Late Director, Dictionary National Biography. Irma A. RICHTER.

I. F. D. M.

}Bookbinding: History.

Deputy Keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. Late Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford.

Fellow of All Souls’, Oxford,

Becket, Thomas; 2

AR

Benedictus Abbas; Bohun. ee

Artist.

Bouts, Dierick. Beust, Friedrich

Tomi

Ian F. D. Morrow, Pu.D.

e

Formerly Senior Moderator, Trinity College, Dublin.

Ferdinand

5

Her-

a ’

Black Sea: History. I. Fr.

CAPTAIN IAN FRASER. Chairman of the Executive Council Worcester College for the Blind.

of St. Dunstan’s

since 1921.

Governor o | Blindness (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Xi

J. A. F. M.

JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. Musical Critic. Author of Life of Schumann; The Musician’s Pilgrimage; Masters of >Brabms, Johannes.

J. A. M.

James ALEXANDER MANSON.

J. A. St.

German Music; English Music in the Nineteenth Century; etc.

Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, London.

Handbook; etc.

ao

P

J. Bar.

J. B. B.

J. B. Fo. J. B. P. J. B. W. J. C. D. J. E. W. J. F-K.

J. F. S. J. Har.

J. Has.

J. H. H.

>Bowls (in part).

ANDREW PIRAAT LL.D. arrister-at-Law.

J. A. Th.

Author of The Bowler’s

Emeritus

Professor

of Jurisprudence,

of Equity, Inns of Court, London.

University

of Belfast; |.:

Author of The Bench and Bar of Eng-

.

Bill of Sale (in part);

and; etc.

SIR JOHN ARTHUR THomson, M.A., LL.D.

;

s

fh

Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen; Gifford Lecturer, | Biology (in part); St. Andrews, 1915. Author of The Study of Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Heredity; pBiology: Economic; Darwinism and Human Life; What Is Man? Concerning Evolution. Joint Author | Birds (in part). (with Professor Patrick Geddes) of Evolution; Sex; Biology. Josers BarcrorrT, C.B.E., M.A.(Camb.), B.Sc. (London), M.D., E.R.S. Fellow and Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge; Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge; Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution, >Blood. 1923-6. Author of The Respiratory Function of the Blood and many other works. Editor for Physiology Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. JoHN BAGNELL Bury, D.Litt., LL.D., D.C.L. Late Regius Professor of Modern History, University of Cambridge; Regius Professor of Greek, Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1902. Author of History of the Roman | Basil I; Empire 27 B.C-180 A.D.; History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great; History { Basil I. of the Later Roman Empire, 395-5065. Editor of Gibbon’s Decline and Fail of the Roman Empire (1896-1900).

JouN B. Foster.

Editor of Spalding’s Official Baseball Guide, New York.

National Association of Professional Base-Baill Leagues.

a p:n: f : ae Billiards: American Billiards

Author of A History of

J. B. PEARMAN. Secretary of the Avi Publishing Company, Incorporated, New York. An authority on Athletics and Walking races. Author of Heel-and-Toe Walking. JoHN Broapus Watson, A.M., Px.D., LL.D. Formerly Professor of Psychology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Author of Behaviorist; Psychological Care of Infant and Child; Ways of Behavior.

>Bowls:

United States.

pBehaviourism.

Joun Crecit Drummonp, D.Sc., F.I.C. Professor of Bio-Chemistry, University College, London. Author of numerous scien- >Biochemistry. tific papers. JamMES Epwarp WEsT, LL.B., LL.M., LL.D., M.H. Chief Scout Executive, Boy Scouts of America. Author of The Lone Scout of the Sky. }Boy Scouts (in part). JaMEs FirzMaurice-Ketty, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. }Barahona, De Soto, Luis. Author of A History of Spanish Literature. JoHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A., C.B., C.B.E ae Old Testament (in Warden of Wadham College Oxford; University Reader in Aramaic part). Jiro HARADA. Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan; formerly Professor in the Nagoya Col-

lege of Technology, and in the 8th Higher School. Imperial Japanese Government Commissioner to the Panama Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, 1915. Author of The Gardens of Japan. J. Hasserxus, A.M.Mecau.I., F.O.5. Managing Director, Ross, Ltd., Optical Works, London. President of the British Optical Instrument Manufacturers Association, 1928-9. J. H. Hurto, C.I.E., D.Sc. Director of Ethnology, Assam. Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills. Author of The

pBon-Seki.

Binocular Instrument. Batta.

Angami Nagas; The Sema Nagas.

J. H. He.

J. HERROD-HEMPSALL.

J. H. M.

J. Hamisa Mires.

J. H. R.

}Bee-Keeping (in part).

British Bee Journal, London.

Literary Critic.

? Author (with R. Mortimer) of The Oxford Circus.

Beerbohm, Max.

Baronet;

Joun Horace Rounp, M.A., LL.D. Late Historical

Adviser

to the Crown;

President,

Essex Archaeological

1916-21. Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree.

Society,

Se

y

;

aT

Roll Th .

Beouch, a

e;

J. Ma.

THE Rev. Sır James MARCHANT, K.B.E., F.R.S. Secretary of The National Birth-Rate Commission since 1913.

iBirth-Control (in part).

J. M.C.

THE REV. JOHN MARTIN CREED, B.A., B.D. Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge.

Baptism (in part);> ee : bam: New Testament (in

J. Na.

James NatsmitH, A.B., M.D., M.P.E. Department of Physical Education, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Author of Basketball Rules. Originator of the game Basketball. Joann Norman Prine, M.B.E., D.Sc.

J. N. P.

Head of Physical Chemistry Branch, Research Department, Royal Arsenal, Wool-

wich. Formerly John Hastings Professor of Physics and Reader in Electro-Chemistry, Victoria University, Manchester. Author of The Electric Furnace and a number o textbooks and publications of original research in scientific journals.

part).

, Basketball (in part). ,

pBattery (în part).

Xl J. P. J. P-B. J. P. E. J. Pi.

J. R. J. S. F. J. S. S. J. T. S. J. V. B.

J. W. H.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Joun PERcrIvalL, M.A., Sc.D. Professor of Agricultural Botany, University of Reading, England.

}Barley (in part).

JAMES PENDEREL-BRODHURST.

lB d (i

JEAN PAUL EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN.

Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris; Officer of the Legion of Honour; Membre de l'Institut. Author of Cours élémentaire d'histoire du drott français. JACQUES PIRENNE.

Avocat at the Court of Appealof Belgium.

of Belgtum.

JAMES Romanes,

Professor of History to the Prince Leopold

M.A., F.G.S., M.I.P.T.

Bitumen.

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in >Borolanite. Edinburgh University. JOHN STUART SCRIMGEOUR, O.B.E. } ; Barrister-at-Law of the Middle Temple. Betting Tax. JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Px.D., LL.D. Director, Division of Economics and History, Carnegie Endowment for International Boniface, Saint. Peace, New York. Professor of History, Columbia University. J. VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D PA ee of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The ae Epistle of.

JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM-MorteEy, M.A.

Historical Adviser to the Foreign Office, London; Late Fellow of King’s College,

Cambridge; Assistant Director, Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign

K. N. L.

KARL N. LLEWELLYN.

L. C. A.

BRIG.-GEN. LINCOLN CLARK ANDREWS (retired).

L. C. M.

SIR TECE

pa

Formerly in charge U.S. Coast Guard and Prohibition Unit charged with enforcing the Volstead Act. Author of Fundamentals of Military Service. Author and

S

Sears = eee

Journalist.

ember of the

War

ere Trade

of Exchange: United States.

5 Advisory

L. D. S.

LAURENCE Duptey Stamp, B.A., D.Sc., A.K.C., F.G.S., M.I.T.D.

L. E.

Lours EISENMANN, D-Ès-L.

L.

L. F. SALZMAN, M.A., F.S.A.

L. H. D. B.

-Benedetti, Vincent.

Associate Professor of Law, Columbia University, New York.

i

pBootlegging and Smuggling.

: Committee,

1915-8.

Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

L. G.

>Belgium: History (in part).

Sm Jonn Smıts FLETT, K.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Office, 1918-20; Member of the Political Section of the British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris, 1919. Author of The History of Twelve Days; The Issue.

F. S.

pBasoche.

? .

?

Petroleum Geologist.

i

(in part).

ed

Consulting Editor, formerly Editor, of The Guardian (London).

Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., .

|Bhamo

Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London.

Ernest Denis Professor in Slavonic History, University of Paris. Author of Le compromis austro-hongrois; La hongrie contemporaine. Editor of La revue historique.

Hon. Editor, Sussex Archaeological Society, late sub-editor, Victoria County History. Author of Mediaeval English Industries; English Life in the Middle Ages.

:

f

i

>Bohemia: History.

‘

>Bestiary.

LINDA GARDINER.

,

:

Secretary since 1900 of the Royal Society for Protection of Birds. Editor of Bird Birds, Protection of. Notes and News. L. H. DuprLEY Buxrton, M.A. Lecturer in Physical Anthropology, Oxford University. Author of Peoples of Asta. Basra.

Barytes;

L. J. Ss.

L. J. Spencer, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Keeper, Mineralogy Department, British Museum (Natural History).

L. R. D.

LAWRENCE R. DicksEE, M.Com., F.C.A. -

L. V.

LUIGI VILLARI.

M. D. C.

Biotite; Blende; Boracite; -—-——_, —_~+ Bornite; Bournonite.

Head of Sellars, Dicksee and Co. Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of Accountancy and Bookkeeping. Business Organisation in the University of London, 1919-26. Dean of the Faculty ofay Economics in the University of London, 1925-6.

Formerly Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Newspaper Correspondent in east of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907 and Boston, 1907-10. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country. Sm MaAcKENZTIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. Barrister-at-Law. First Parliamentary Counsel to Treasury, 1902-3; Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Home Department, 1902-8. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange; etc.

Moses GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig).

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities

of England; Vice-President,

Zionist

Congress, 1898, 1899 and 1900; Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzan-

tine Literature, 1886 and 1891; President, Folklore Society of England. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira.

M. P.

LÉON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.

Auxiliary of the Institut de France. Author of L’Indusirie du sel en Franche-Comté.

Bentivoglio, Giovanni;

Borgia, Cesare.

y

Bül of Exchange (in part). ——

-Bassarab.

Bar, Counts and Dukes of; Beauharnais.

yas L

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

MavuRIcE HENRY Woops.

Private Secretary to Earl of Birkenhead

brook since 1916.

1911-4.

OF CONTRIBUTORS Private Secretary to Lord Beaver:Birkenhead.

Leader writer, Daily Express, London, 1920.

NORMAN E. CRUMP. Statistical Correspondent, Financial Times, London; Member of the Council, Royal Statistical Society.

xili

Joint Author of Clare’s A. B. C. of the Foreign Exchanges.

Bank; Bank of England; Banks: History of (in part); Banque de France;

Bill of Exchange in Practice.

N. H. M.

N. G. GrepveE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.INst.C.E. Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Commission; Lt. Colonel (late R.E.). Acting Director, Civil Engineer-in-Chief’s Department, Admiralty; Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Harbours and Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport. THE REv. NEWTON HERBERT MARSHALL, M.A., PH.D. (Halle). Author of Gegenwartige Richtungen der Religionsphilosophie in England; Theology and

pBeacon (in part).

Baptists (in part).

ruth.

N. L. F.

Norman L. Forter. Translator and Archivist to H.B.M. Legation in Roumania.

Correspondent of the >Bessarabia: History.

Daily Telegraph and The Financial Times, London.

O.

SYDNEY OLIVIER, IST BARON OLIVIER OF RAMSDEN, P.C., K.C.M.G., B.A., LL.D.

O. B.

OswaLp Barron, F.S.A.

O. G. S.

ORRIN G. SHERMAN.

O. G. S. C.

OsBERT Guy STANHOPE CRAWFORD, F.S.A.

O. M. W.S.

Orrver M. W. SPRAGUE, A.B., A.M., Pu.D.

Secretary for India, 1924; Late Governor of Jamaica; Secretary, West India Commission, 1897. Author of White Capital and Coloured Labour.

Bill.

Policyholders’ Service Bureau, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York; President of the National Association of Office Managers.

Archaeology Officer of the British Ordnance Survey.

Author of Man and His Past.

Professor of Banking and Finance, Graduate School of Business Administration,

History of Banking.

O. R. A.

Beard;

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-5

Harvard University.

Author of Banking Reform in the United States; Theory and

Writer, Lecturer and Interpreter to the Assemblies of the League of Nations and the

International Economic Conference.

Lectured in the United States on Italian

PAUL BEAUJON.

P. C. M.

P. M. $.

BRIGADIER GENERAL SIR Percy Sykes, K.C.I.E., C.B., C.M.G.

R. A.

G.O.C., Southern Persia, 1916-8; Author 'of History of Persia with Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asta; etc. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.

R. B-P.

Sanow

i

|B anks, History of, United

States.

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. Childhood of Animals; etc.

Banca D'Italia. i

Part Author, Books American. SIR PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

R. A. F.

Bonus, Employee.

SIGNORA OLIVIA ROSSETTI AGRESTI.

economic conditions, I919, 1920, 1923. Author of Giovanni Costa, His Life and Times. On the editing staff of the General Fascist Confederation of Industries, Rome.

P. Be.

}Bermudas.

f

Books: Avi of ihe Book.

Author of Outlines of Biology; The

>Biogenesis.

|

Consul-General for Khurasan, 1905-13; Consul-General for Chinese Turkestan, 1915. |Baluchistan:

Philosopher, Professor of Logic, University of Glasgow, 1895-1902. Development of Modern Philosophy and other essays. R. A. FisHer, D.Sc. Rothamstead Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

Ella Sykes;

Author of The

part).

History (in

Berkeley, George.

}Biometry.

LIEUT.-GENERAL Lord BADEN-POWELL OF GILWELL., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., oe F.R.G.S.

Boy Scouts (i part).

Founder of The Boy Scout and Girl Guide Movement. R. D. Ca.

R. D. CARMICHAEL. Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, U.S.A.

, Author of The Logic of pBarycentric Calculus.

R. G. H.

RALPH GEORGE HAWTREY.

R. G. P. H.

Major REGINALD GORDON PULTENEY HUNTER, O.B.E., ROYAL ENGINEERS.

Discovery; etc. Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London.

Author of Currency and Credit; etc.

R. H. C.

Deputy Assistant Director of Works, War Office. SIR REGINALD HENRY CRADDOCK. Lieutenant-Governor of Burma, 1917—22. Member of the Royal Commission on the

R. H. Ch.

Tre VEN. ROBERT Henry Cuartes, M.A., Lirt.D., D.D., LL.D., F.B.A.

Civil Services of India, 1923-4.

R. H. R.

Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Archdeacon of Westminster. Author of Lectures on the Apocalypse; Studies in the Apocalypse; etc. Editor of Book of Enoch; Apocalypse of Baruch; etc.

Sır Henry Rew, K.C.B.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898; Assistant Secretary, 1906-18.

}Bankin and Credit (in part) £

}Barracks

g Bhinda: Bil ’

aspur.

Baruch (in part)

,

:

.

President, |Barley (im part);

Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2; Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916~7; Chair-

Beef (in part);

man Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance in Agriculture, | Beet. 1925-6. Author of A Primer of Agricultural Economics; etc.

R. Ld.

ROBERT LYND.

Literary Editor of the Daily News (London). Author of The Art of Leiters; Books and Authors; etc. Editor of the Literature Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Bennett, Enoch Arnold.

:

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

RoBERT Lours STEVENSON.

Bé

Pi

Novelist, Essayist and Poet. Author of Kidnapped; Treasure Island; Travels with a pP OTANger, Donkey in the Cevennes; Master of Ballantrae; etc., etc. part).

RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S. Member of Staff of Geological Survey of India, 1874-82.

Fossil Mammals; Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; etc. Miss R. M. FLEMING.

Librarian, The Geographical Association, Aberystwyth. from Many Lands; Storzes from the Early World.

;

F1erre Jean (in

Author of Catalogues of Bovidae.

Author of Ancient Tales

‘Bessarabia (in part).

ROBERT M. ORMEROD.

}Belting (in part).

Director of John Ormerod and Sons, Ltd., manufacturers of leather belting, etc. ROBERT r NISBET en BAIN. ee Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,

Bela IV;

j . : 1, 5estuzhev-Ryumin, Mikhail;

1613 to 1725; The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; etc. } POY4t-

R. N. Ba. R. Pe.

ViIcE-ADMIRAL ROBERT NEsHAM Bax, C.B., R.N. (retired). Director of the Mobilization Department at the Admiralty, 1924-6. to the King, 1922-3. ROBERT PEELE, E.M.

Naval A.D.C.

Blockade (in part).

Professor of Mining Engineering, Columbia University School of Mines, New York, 1892-1925. Editor of Mining Engineers’ Handbook; Compressed Air Plant. Received Gold Medal in 1923 from Mining'and Metallurgical Society of America for contributions to literature of Mining Engineering.

R. T.C.

R. T. Corearte, D.Sc., F.I.C., A.C.G.I., D.I.C.

R. T. W.

Rosert T. WILLIAMS, PH.B.

Blasting; Boring.

}Biscuit (in part).

Chief Chemist at Huntley and Palmers, Ltd., Reading, England.

,

Specialist in Printing and Lithography, Carrier Engineering Corporation, Newark, pBookbinder. N.J. Author of Manufactured Weather in the Printing and Lithographic Industries.

R. U. Sayce, M.A.

Basutoland (in part); Bechuanaland (in part).

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthropology, University of Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in Geology and Geography, Natal University College, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

R. van O.

Mayor R. vAN OVERSTRAETEN, D.S.O. Member of the Order of Leopold and the Legion of Honour. Aide-de-Camp to His Majesty the King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Belgian Staff College.

R. W. P.

RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE. Editorial Staff, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

R. W. S-W.

Theory; Revolution from 1789-1906; The Builders’ History. ROBERT WILLIAM SETON-WATSON, LitT.D.

-Belgium, Invasion of.

Author of The Bolshevik batang

Masaryk Professor of Central European History at King’s College, University of

S. C.

London. Founder of and Joint Editor of The New Europe, 1916-20. Joint Editor of The Slavonic Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; The New Slovakia; Serajevo; etc. SIR SIDNEY Corvin, M.A. English Literary and Art Critic. Late Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge.and

>Bosnia and Hercegovina.

>Bellini (in part).

Keeper of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum.

S.C. R.

SYDNEY CASTLE ROBERTS, M.A.

Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Secretary to the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press. Author of The Siory of Doctor Johnson; Boswell’s Tour to Corsica; etc.

S. D. C.

Louis Auguste.

Boswell, James.

SANFORD D. COLE. Barrister-at-Law.

Assistant Editor of seventh edition of Carver on Carriage of Goods

Bottomry.

by Sea. Formerly Board of Trade Pilotage Commissioner. Author of Insurance Law;

Joint Author of Pilotage Law.

S. De. J.

S. DE JASTRZEBSKI, F.S.S. Member

S. H. M.

S. H. P.

American

Academy

of Social and Political Science; Formerly Assistant

-Birth-Rate.

Registrar-General, Great Britain. : SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A., D.Sc. e Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford. Examiner in Philosophy, Universities of St. | Basilides; Andrews (1897-1902), London (1902-6), Edinburgh (1913-6). Lecturer in the Uni- (Bible: English (in part). versity of Manchester, 1911-21. Author of The Old Testament and the Modern World. STUART H. PATTERSON, C.P.A. , CN ; Comptroller of the ‘Guaranty Trust Company,

chism; Borrowing from Your Bank.

New York.

Author of Bank

Cate- Pa

?

tates.

and Credit:

S. L. Co.

SHERWIN LAWRENCE COOE. Journalist, Critic and Lecturer on English Literature, Emerson College of Oratory, } Boston,Mass.

S. M.

SHAILER Maruews,

Boston.

S. R. D.

Author of Boston, the Eighieenth Century Town.

D.D., LL.D.

‘

T. A. Cowarp, M.Sc., F.Z.S.

Ornithologist and journalist. Author of Birds of the British Isles; Migration of Birds;

T.A. IL

;

Dean of Divinity School and Professor of Historical Theology, University of Chicago. }Baptists (im part). SAMUEL ROLLES Driver, Hon.Litt.D., Hon.D.D. English Divine and Hebrew Scholar. Regius Professor of Hebrew, University of |Bible: Old Testament Oxford, 1883. Author of Isaiah, His Life and Time; Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament; etc. See biographical article DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES.

T. A. Co.

United

Birds and Their Young.

Tuomas ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.

Trinity College, Dublin.

part).

}

¿Bird Sanctuaries (in part).

tBin of Sale (in part).

(in

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

XV

T. B. H.

TERANCE B. HOLLIDAY.

;

T. E.G. T.F. H.

THEODOR E. G. Grecory, D.Sc. Sir E. Cassel Professor of Banking in the University of London. TAR F. PAN B.A., PR é

T.G. L.

T. G. LEE.

T. G. P.

T. GILBERT PEARSON, B.S., LL.D. President, National Association of Audubon Societies. Founder and President of the |Bird Sanctuaries:

Manager, The Holliday Bookshop, New York.

;

iBookselling (Gn part).

eae Charter Act; Bank Return. |

nstructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chairan 3 man, City Plan Committee, Merchants’ Association, New York. Author of The JBasilica; Baths; Battlement. Enjoyment of Architecture.

i

Vice-President of Armour and Company, Chicago.

International Committee for Bird Protection. Bird Study Book; Tales from Birdland.

}Beef (in part).

Author of Stories of Bird Life; The

T. H. R.

THEODORE H. Rosson, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, Cardiff.

T. O.

Tuomas OKEY, M.A.

United

States.

}Benjamin.

Professor of Italian, Cambridge University; Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, —

(in part).

Cambridge.

W. A. P.

WALTER ALISON PHILLIES, M.A.

W. A. W.

W. A. Wooster, PH.D. Demonstrator in Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge.

W. Br.

WirrraĮm Brown, M.D., D.Sc., M.R.C.P. } Psychotherapist and Lecturer on Psychotherapy, King’s College Hospital, London. Body and Mind. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy, Oxford University. Director of the Psychological Laboratory at King’s College, London. Author of Mind and Personality. WILLIAM CLARKE HALL. \ Bencher cf Gray’s Inn, Metropolitan Magistrate and Chairman of the Shoreditch Borstal System. Juvenile Court. Author of The Law Relating to Children; The State and the Child; etc.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St. John’s College, Oxford. Contributor to the Cambridge Modern History.

W. C. Ha.

wW.

C3 N.

W. C. S.

W. Da.

jies aron;

Berlin, Congress and Treaty

Author of Modern Europe.

}Bloodstone.

WINTHROP C. NEILSON, A.B. President, Republic Mining and Manufacturing Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. eneral Manager, Rail Railway DiDivision, The The Timken Timken R Roller B Bearing C Company, C Canton, eee i ee Ohio. Licensed Professional Engineer (Mechanical), New York State. Author of Ratlway Car Design and Construction.

W. DALTON.

Bauxite (in part). . . Bearings (in port).

W. de B. H.

Author of Bridge Abridged, or Practical Bridge. W. DE Bracy HERBERT.

W. D.O.

Wirrram Dana Orcutt, A.B.

W. E. AlL.

W. Espey ALBIG, A.B. Secretary, Board of Trustees, American Bankers’ Association F oundation for Edu- |Banker and Customer: Laws cation in Economics, New York. Author of various booklets on savings banking, of (in part).

Barrister-at-Law.

W. E. Cu. W. E. Cx.

W. E. D.

W.E. S. T.

Recorder of Newcastle-under-Lyme.

{Bigamy; Blackmail (in part).

Associated with Plimpton Press, Norwood, Massachusetts. Author of In Quest of the Book-Collecting (in part). Perfect Book; The Kingdom of Books; Master Makers of the Book. en’ HH

foreign banking. WILLIAM Epwarp Curtis, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., D.I.C., F.R.A.S. Professor of Physics, Armstrong College, University of Durham. WARREN E. Cox. Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. W. ERNEST DALBY, M.A., B.Sc., M.InsT.C.E.. M.I.MecH. E., F.R.S.

i Band Spectrum. lBati

Dean of, and London University Professor of Engineering at, the City and Guild’s Engineering College of the Imperial College of Science and Technology. WILLIAM ERNEST STEPHEN TURNER, O.B.E., D.Sc., M.Sc., F.Inst.P. Professor of Glass Technology, University of Shefheld. Secretary and Past President of the Society of Glass Technology. Modern Inorganic Chemistry; etc.

W. G.B.

-n

Author of Molecular Assoctation; Introduction to

WALTER GEORGE BELL, F.S.A., F.R.A. 5. Author of The Great Fire of London in 1666; Unknown

The Great Plague in London in 1665;

London; etc.

pBearings (in part).

Bottle Manufacture. } Barnet: Battle of;? ;

Bosworth Field, Battle of.

Sır WiLrLraĮm A. M. Goope, K.B.E.

Unofficial Adviser to the Hungarian Government. President of, and British Representative on, the Austrian Section of the Reparations Commission, Vienna, 1920-1. Author of Economic Conditions in Central Europe; etc.

W. Ham.

WALTER HamMppEN,

W. H. Wi.

Sır W. H. AO

‘

}Booth, Edwin (Thomas).

Actor Manager. President, Players’ Club, New York. Physician, and

W. J.B.

M.A., Litt.D. pepe

Lecturer on

A oe Chemical

ear

Pathology and

= on

TE Forensic

Hospital, London. Medical Adviser to Home Office, 1919. original papers on Medicine, Chemical Pathology, etc.

Str WILLIAM Jonn BERRY, K.C.B.

Bethlen, Stephen Bethlen de.

Medicine,

ay St.

Mary's

Author of numerous

Director of Naval Construction, Admiralty. Director of Warship Production, 191723; Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Architects.

oy

ue

*

Barbituric Acid.

Battleship: ples.

General

Princi-

XVI

W. J. E. W. L. W.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

W. J. EvERARD, M.I.N.A. Director of F. T. Everard and Sons, Ltd. }Barges and Canal Craft. THE Rev. W. L. Warptie, M.A., D.D. Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester Uni- pBeelzebub. versity.

Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

W. M.M.

Wirm M. MarsTtON, A.B., LL.B., Pu.D. Lecturer in Psychology, Columbia University and New York University. Author of rBlood Pressure.

W. M. SL.

WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, P#.D., LL.D. Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Secretary to George Bancroft

Emotions of Normal People; Psychology. while Ambassador in Berlin. Author of Life of Napoleon Bonaparte.

W. O.

ENGINEER-CAPTAIN WILLIAM Onyon, R.N., M.V.O., M.Inst.C.E.

Consulting Engineer, Marine Department, Vickers-Armstrong, Ltd. Promoted Engineer-Captain for service in connection with management and construction of machinery of Dreadnought. Past President, Institute of Marine Engineers.

W. O. D.

Witiiam O. Dovucras, A.B., LL.B.

W. 0. E. O.

THE Rev. Writiam W. O. E. OEsTERLEY, M.A., D.D.

Professor of Law, Yale University.

Member of the Bar, State of New York.

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London University. Author of The Books of the Apocrypha, Thetr Origin, Contenis and Teaching;

Bancroft, George. Boilers (in pari)

}

i

,

Bankruptcy (in part).

Baruch (in part)

i

etc.

W. R.R.

WILLIAM R. REppDEN, A.M., M.D. National Medical! Offices, American National Red Cross, Washington.

W. S. J.

Wriiram STANLEY Jevons, M.A. English Economist and Logician. Author of Theory of Political Economy; The Prin-

citation and Navy Cross for development of Influenza-Pneumonia Serum.

Received

i Bandages and Bandaging. -Boole, George.

ciples of Science. See the biographical article JEVoNS, STANLEY.

W. Sta.

WILLIAM STANIAR.

Mechanical Power Engineer and Division Head, Manufacturing Division, Dupont

Engineering Company, Wilmington, Delaware. MtSSION..

wW. S. W.

WILLIAM S. WILLIAMS.

W.T. C.

W. T. Carman, D.Sc., F.R.S.

W. Tho.

WALLACE THompson, B.Sc., Litr.D.

W. Tu.

WortH TUTTLE, A.B.

W. V. B.

W. VALENTINE BALL, O.B.E., M.A.

W. W.R.

WirLram WALKER ROCKWELL, A.B., PH.D.

Author of Mechanical Power Trans-

Lee

Superintendent of Engineering, J. A. Fay and Egan Company, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). Author of “Crustacea” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology. .

Belting (in part)

‘

{Band Saws. pBarnacle.

ee

Editor-in-Chief of Ingenieria Internacional, New York. Fellow of the Royal Geo- | Blaine, James Gillespie; graphical Society. Author of The People of Mexico; The Mexican Mind; Rainbow ( Bolivar, Simon Countries of Central America.

Writer. Contributor to the Saturday Review of Literature, New York, and numerous magazines.

Barrister-at-Law.

i

pBierce, Ambrose.

N

:

Master of the Supreme Court, King’s Bench Division. Author of pBankruptcy (in part).

The Law of Libel as Affecting Newspapers and Journalists; Bankruptcy; etc.

Y. K.

YOUNGHILL Kane, B.S., Ep.M. Instructor, Comparative Literature, New York University. Poetry at Labor Temple School, New York.

X.

i

:

Professor of Church History, and Librarian, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

Lecturer on Chinese

}Boniface. Bed (in part).

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 3 BALTIMORE TO BRAILA ALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, IST BARON (c. 1580-1632), English statesman, whose name is associated with the foundation of Maryland, son of Leonard Calvert, and Alice, daughter of John Crosland of Crosland, was born at Kipling in Yorkshire and educated at Trinity College, Oxford. After travelling on the continent, he entered the public service as

deep-water estuaries of the Chesapeake bay. The river, like most

Maryland rivers, divides and re-divides, there being no fewer than four broad stretches of water within the city limits. Curtis bay and creek, Middle branch and Spring gardens, Northwest branch and Colgate creek all cut more or less deeply into the city and carry the atmosphere of the sea to the very heart of the town. Around these tributaries of the Patapsco, the industrial and commercial life of the town has developed. There are more than a hundred miles of water-front, much of it in use for shipping secretary to Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. For his or industrial purposes. The original residential part of the town was close to the water various services he received knighthood in 1617, a secretaryship of state in 1619 and a pension of £2,000 a year in 1620. He repre- front. But to-day the meadow-land which borders the river and sented successively Bossiney (1609), Yorkshire (1621) and its branches offers few attractions to the dweller who can afford Oxford university (1624) in the House of Commons, where it to live at a distance from them. Fortunately for him, Baltimore fell to him in his official capacity to communicate the king’s policy is situated not only on deep water, but at the fall line of the Piedand to obtain supplies. He was distrusted by the parliament, and mont as well. Within a few hundred yards of the water-front, was in favour of the unpopular alliance with Spain and the Spanish the land begins to rise and within a mile or two is, in many places, marriage. He then declared himself a Roman Catholic, and on 100 or 200ft. above the sea-level. To the north and west the Feb. 12, 1625, threw up his office, when he was created Baron topography is all but mountainous. There are streams in deep Baltimore of Baltimore and received a grant of large estates in ravines, many of which are parked, and hills, which are the delight Ireland. He had established a small settlement in Newfoundland of the home-builder but the despair of city-planners and transporin 1621, for which under the name of Avalon he procured a charter tation experts. Baltimore is approximately ọm. from east to west and 12m. in 1623, and which he himself visited in 1627. In consequence of disputes and the unsuitable nature of the climate he sailed thence from north to south. The area is 91-93 sq.m., of which 78-72 sq.m. for Virginia, but was forbidden to settle there unless he took the are land: Within this area lives a population of 804,874 (1930). oaths of allegiance and supremacy. He returned home, and died on In 1920 14-8% of the native stock were negroes; of the white April 15, 1632, before a new concession was secured, the charter of population the native born was just over half. The city is governed under a grant of power from the State Maryland passing the great seal on June 20, 1632, in favour of his son Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, who founded the colony. known as the city charter. In theory much authority still remains Baltimore wrote Carmen funebre in D. Hen. Untonum (1596); with the State legislature and the city is not proportionately repreThe Answer to Tom Tell-Troth . . . (1642) is also attributed to sented in that body. Though more than half of the residents of him, and Wood mentions Baltimore as having composed “some- Maryland live in Baltimore less than a third of the members of thing concerning Maryland.” His letters are to be found in various the legislature are elected by the city vote. In practice, however, publications, including Strafford’s Letters, Clarendon State Papers the city is almost wholly master of its fiscal affairs. The legislature rarely refuses the requests of its chief municipality and has shown and the Calendars of State Papers. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—George and Cecilius Calvert by William Hand a tendency to be liberal even in the expenditure of funds raised Browne (1890); Wood’s Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss) ii. 522; Doyle’s by taxation. The English in America; Discourse on the Life and Character The city government is of moderate simplicity. The chief of Sir G. Calvert by J. P. Kennedy (1845), with the Review and the Reply to the same; London Magazine, June, 1768; “Sir G. Calvert,” by L. W. Wilhelm (Maryland Hist. Soc., April 14, 1884) ; The Nation, vol. 70, p. 95; American Historical Review, vol. 5, p. 577.

BALTIMORE, the chief town of Maryland, U.S.A., lies at the head of tidewater upon the Patapsco river, one of the many

officials are the mayor, the comptroller and the president of the city council, all elected by popular vote. These three, with the city engineer and the city solicitor, both appointed by the mayor, make up the board of estimates and, with the addition of the city register, the board of awards. The former body makes up the

BALTIMORE

2

annual budget and the latter awards contracts. The city council, whole Mississippi valley. By the time of the outbreak of the a unicameral body with 24 members, has broad powers on paper Revolutionary War, Baltimore had a population of 6,755, part but in practice is little more than a forum where municipal ques- of this growth being due to the influx of the Acadians who had tions are publicly discussed. been driven out of Nova Scotia by the British. French town is The per capita cost of government is relatively low, though it still a remembered section of the city. During the Revolution, the has shown a tendency to grow to a point comparable to that of city grew rapidly in importance. It had developed a hardy breed other cities of the size of Baltimore. In rors, for instance, the of sea-faring men and many privateers were fitted out and sailed from its harbour to prey upon British shipping. One of the most famous of these adventurers was Joshua Barney, who had the distinction of having commanded a ship on a trans-Atlantic voyage at the age of 14. It was the men trained in this war and in the war of 1812 who developed that type of early American ship known all over the world as the Baltimore clipper. The “Anne McKim” was the most famous of these vessels, and the fortune which she helped to bring her owners is the basis of the wealth of one of the best-known Baltimore families of the present time. Baltimore’s part in the Revolution, however, was not confined to privateering. The city supplied more than its quota of Continental troops and after the capture of Philadelphia by the British in 1776 it was for a time the meeting place of the Continental Congress. During the Revolution also, the first fortifications were erected on the present site of Ft. McHenry, but that place did not acquire fame until it helped to turn back the British fleet which “a” pe a

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cost per person of the city government was but $27.44. In 1925 it had reached $48.18 and the total expenditures of the municipality were $39,607,000. Of the municipal services, schools were the most expensive. They cost $9.14 per capita. Police and fire services cost $8.04, health and hygiene $3.56. A great part of the increase in the cost of government has been due to large capital outlay for better schools, for port improvements, for the construction of new streets and boulevards and for similar large scale undertakings. The bonded debt of the city increased from $509,614,000 in 1915 to $101,343,000 in 1925 and grew at a similar if not greater rate in the following two years. Baltimore has had an unusually high death rate and despite remarkable strides since 1915 it still does not compare favourably in this respect with most northern and western cities. The rate per thousand, in 1925, was 15-6. This high average, however, was almost entirely due to the presence of a large coloured population. The coloured rate, in 1925, was 26-6, while the white rate was only 13-9. The living conditions among the coloured folk have improved, however, and comparative figures show that their emergence from poverty has been reflected in the mortality tables. History.—It took Baltimore a long time to get under way. From the early days of the colony established on the Chesapeake by the Lords Baltimore, it had been planned to build a city called by their name. Two abortive efforts were made to establish towns and both of them were called Baltimore, but the very site of one is now doubtful and of the other but a single house and a few ruins remain. It was in 1729, finally, that the provincial legislature directed seven commissioners to purchase land on the north shore of the Patapsco river and lay out a township at the point where Jones falls emptied into the river. This choice proved to be a happy one and the town grew with fair rapidity gradually absorbing surrounding villages including especially Jones town, a hamlet on the other side of Jones falls. Even to-day Jones town, which is included in the district known locally as Old Town, has a character and quality of its own, and the names one sees on the shops are not infrequently those of the descendants of the original villagers. Baltimore’s site was well chosen because the deep tidal waters on which it lay cut deep into the heart of the rich grain and tobacco lands which lie around the head of the Chesapeake bay. These lands were being rapidly developed by the German immigrants of the time and in the 1750’s, or thereabouts, ships began to load grain in Baltimore harbour for British ports. The business thus established has never left the city, though now the field from which the city draws its grain for shipment is the

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sailed up the Patapsco in 1814 and so inspired Francis Scott Key to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Baltimore became an incorporated town in 1797, and after taking its part in the war of 1812, settled down to the cultivation of its trade and its industry. Its relations with the South had always been close and it considered itself a Southern city. It became the recognized market place of the planters of Virginia and points even further afield. Perhaps its most interesting period is that lying between the close of the war of 1812 and the outbreak of the Civil War. Trade was thriving. Industry was develop-

BALTIMORE ing. The political parties held their conventions as a matter of course in the city. The burghers thereof, becoming wealthy, as-

pired to culture. Their sons and daughters intermarried with the land-owning gentry of the surrounding country and of Virginia.

They had courage and initiative. When the building of the Erie canal made their own efforts seem puny and threatened to divert to New York all the produce of the region beyond the Alleghany mountains, they conceived and built the Baltimore and Ohio railroad whose ambition was to cross the mountains and go all the

way to the Ohio river. Most of the legends and heroic tales of Baltimore, which are passed on from generation to generation, date from this period.

3

areas have been taken over by the negroes, who formerly lived in the alleys behind the larger houses. Occasionally one of these blocks has been taken over for an apartment house, a department store, or an office building. Industries.—This change in outward aspect reflects a profounder change that has been going on in the economic structure. The old Baltimore was singularly self-contained. It was a port, but its great days as a port had passed with the passing of the Baltimore clipper. The two trunk line railroads which had their terminals there—the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania—

But the political struggles of the ’5os cast a

blight over the city. Political disorders became rampant.

The

Know-Nothing Party got a grip on the life of the town. The election of Abraham Lincoln and the outbreak of the Civil War brought the disruption to a climax. There was a period of wild disorder and then military occupation. For five years and more Baltimore was held by the Federal troops and every established routine of life and trade was interrupted or broken. These were Baltimore’s darkest days and their effects were felt for decades after the war had been finished.

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Up to the time of the great fire of 1904, the physical aspect of

the town was almost exactly what it had been at the close of the Civil War. There had been growth, but there had been little real development. The streets were paved mostly with cobble stones. There was hardly a sewer in the town worthy of the name. There were cesspools in nearly every back-yard and open drains in every street. The drinking water was contaminated and the typhoid rate was high.

Baltimore had always been a solidly-built town. Nearly every one, rich and poor, lived in a house in a block. The usual house was red brick, with white marble steps. There were miles upon miles of street lined on each side with these little Georgian edifices. Business was largely individual. There were many firms which boasted they had remained in the same premises for nearly a century. The warehouses in which they carried on their operations were simply the brick residential houses on a somewhat larger scale. In those days, while its manufactured products covered a wide range, Baltimore was essentially a commercial rather than an industrial town. Its chief business was jobbing and the South was its chief customer. Southerners came to Baltimore by the various ship lines which ran up and down the Chesapeake bay and the town in aspect, as in behaviour, was essentially Southern. The great fire broke out on Feb. 7, 1904, and, in the business district, with the exception of one or two so-called ‘‘sky-scrapers” and several banks which had been erected with unusual solidity, few buildings survived. Most of the great changes in the city began at that time. Some of its narrow, tortuous streets were widened and, after some delay, sewers were installed and modern paving laid. A few years later, a modern system for the purification of the water supply was installed. Meanwhile, a change had taken place in the architecture of the city. The old red brick Georgian houses disappeared, and with them went a lot of the old charm. Baltimore became a more bustling, more efficient, more strident city than it had ever been before. For a hundred years, perhaps, the wealth and fashion of the town had promenaded every afternoon along the length of Charles street. Hereon faced the smartest shops, the restaurants, the clubs, the hotels. Here, at its intersection with Monument street rose the tall Doric column which serves as a memorial to George Washington and which gave the city its one-time cognomen of “the Monumental city.” On the cross-shaped square about the

monument were the houses of the richest and most exclusive residents of the city. This was the very heart of fashionable Baltimore. But the residents have moved to the smart new suburbs to the north of the town. The middle classes have been spreading out in other directions. To the west and north-west are miles and miles of cottage and bungalow “developments.” The remaining houses in the centre of the town, bereft of their former owners and their former state, tend to become first lodging houses, then “converted” flats and finally, the abodes of small businesses. Great

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BY COURTESY OF THE BALTIMORE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE MONUMENT SQUARE, BALTIMORE, SHOWING THE COURT HOUSE ON THE LEFT AND IN THE CENTRE THE BATTLE MONUMENT ERECTED IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO FELL IN THE WAR OF 1812

handled for the most part bulk cargo, like coal and grain. The ordinary citizen was hardly conscious of the fact that the town was a seaport, for the big ships rarely came into the inner harbour. It was during the World War that large scale manufacturing business became the rule in Baltimore. There are in the city and immediately around it great steel plants, chemical and fertilizer works, copper works and similar heavy industries, each of which has drawn into its orbit great hordes of workers of a type with which the city was hardly familiar in the pre-War days. Many of these industries are not the result of local initiative, but of outside capital, drawn to Baltimore by its location on deep water and its rail facilities and by the fact that it is closer to the West than any other of the great seaports. As a result of these developments Baltimore is in much closer relation with the rest of the country and especially with New York, than ever before. To a greater extent, perhaps, than most people believe, Baltimore is tributary to New York. The only really great industrial enterprise which owes its being to Baltimore initiative and Baltimore capital is the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. That corporation usually has been loyal to the city of its birth and given Baltimore some consideration in all its plans for development. But the Pennsylvania railroad inevitably considers Baltimore as a subsidiary outlet, rather than a prime terminal. The Western Maryland and the Maryland and Pennsylvania, the two other independent steam roads operating out of Baltimore, are more local in character. The last mentioned has not even tide-water terminal facilities. Other great industries which operate in Baltimore, such as the Bethlehem Steel company and the United States Industrial Alcohol company, are controlled in New York. Exceptions are found in some of the chemical companies, particularly those engaged in the manufacture of fertilizers, but even in this group many that were formerly independent are now units in some national corporation. The centre of gravity of all such undertakings is inevitably found in New York. Note should be made here of one great exception to the general rule. There is a business, though not an industry, which originated in Baltimore and has always centred there. This is the so-called surety business. One of the original American companies for bonding employés was organized in Baltimore in 1890. Even after

4

BALTIMORE

AND

OHIO

the inevitable combinations, there were in 1928 still three large fidelity and casualty companies in the city doing, in the aggregate, more than $75,000,000 of business a year. In 1904 there were 2,158 manufacturing plants in Baltimore, employing 65,000 workers and with a payroll of $25,507,000 and a product valued at almost exactly $150,000,000. In 1927 the number of plants had dwindled to 2,090—excluding those with an annual product whose value was less than $5,000—but the number of workers had increased to 84,005, the payroll to $93,403,523 and the products were valued at $692,574,915. Nor do these figures tell the complete story, for several of the largest manufactories, like the Bethlehem Steel company, are situated just beyond the city’s limits. When it comes to detail the official figures are likely to be even more misleading, for they do not list those industries which are represented in the city by a single corporation. Sugar and copper are two of the most important of the city’s products, but in the list supplied from official sources, clothing leads. The table of leading industries (1927) was as follows: Item I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Clothing. š ' ; Slaughtering and meat packing Printing and publishing. Fertilizers ‘ Bread and other bakery ‘products . Foundry and machine shop products. Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam railroad companies i ; 8. Furnishing goods, men’s . g. Canning and preserving fruits and| vegetables 1o. Boxes, paper . ;

Value $ 59,256,986 34,195,001 28,022,952 23,677,055 21,694,766 20,224,053

18,531,373 13,421,407 9,329,939 7,619,911

The statistics which show the development of Baltimore as a port are more interesting and perhaps more significant. In 1900 the port handled 7,941,580 tons of cargo. In 1926 the figure had reached 22,906,205 tons. In 1900 Baltimore was a great shipping port for agricultural products. For obvious reasons much of this business has since disappeared. Corn exported in 1900 was valued at more than $18,000,000. In 1926 corn worth less than $3,000,000 left the port. During the same period oats declined from $1,300,000 to less than $400,000. Cotton declined from $8,000,000 to less than $1,000,ooo. Wheat showed a paradoxical increase, probably due to unusual conditions in Europe, but wheat flour declined from more than $11,000,000 to less than $3,000,000, while food animals dropped from $5,000,000 to less than $100,000. Less than $1,000,ooo worth of coal left Baltimore for foreign countries in 1900. In 1926 coal to the value of $30,000,000 was shipped. Iron and steel manufactures including machinery, tools and hardware grew from $6,000,000 to $25,000,000; copper from $16,000,000 to more than $32,000,000; chemicals from less than half a million to nearly a million and three quarters. As regards imports the figures indicate a port serving a growing industrial territory. Sugar, for instance, hardly appears in the

RAILROAD

COMPANY

development of the medical school, until it outshines the university proper, has brought into the social activities of the city a great number of physicians and research workers. The University of Maryland, a State-supported institution, whose agricultural and undergraduate departments are situated at College park, near Washington, maintains in Baltimore its professional departments, the schools of medicine, pharmacology, dentistry and law. Third of the trio of higher educational institutions comes the Peabody Institute. As originally endowed by George Peabody, the Boston philanthropist, the institute was in three parts, a library, an art gallery and a conservatory of music. The art gallery has been abandoned; the library, insufficiently endowed, has remained, nevertheless, of considerable dignity and importance, while the conservatory, whose funds have been increased by additional bequests, now contains thousands of students. Goucher college, formerly the Woman’s college of Baltimore, is a well-equipped undergraduate school of high standing for young women with a constantly increasing enrolment. Founded (1885) by the Methodist Episcopal Church, it is now almost completely non-sectarian and ranks with the better women’s colleges in the country. Loyola college (1852) is conducted by the Jesuits for the higher education of Roman Catholic youth. Its average enrolment is about 180 students. For negroes there is Morgan college (1867), an excellent co-educational institution which has a considerable endowment and a student body of about 400. In addition to the Peabody library the city also possesses the Enoch Pratt free library, and the support of this, the chief public library of the town, has been largely taken over by the city government which appropriated $3,000,000 (1927) for a central building to take the place of the existing plant. The Pratt library maintains 27 branches in various sections of the town and 68 stations. The Walters Art gallery is one of the striking private collections of the world, but it is closed during most of the year and is not a public gallery in any sense. The Maryland Institute, on the other hand, is one of the oldest art schools in the country, and while it has not sufficient gallery space to display the various collections which-have accrued to it by bequest, it holds a series of exhibitions during the year, some of which are of importance. Since private donors did not come forward to provide the city with an adequate gallery, a group of individuals formed, finally, the Baltimore museum of art and set up a tiny collection iin one of the old houses in the centre of the town. The interest aroused by this attempt emboldened them to ask for municipal support with the result that a handsome building has been put up in the northern section out of funds provided by the taxpayers.

(H. Ow.)

BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD COMPANY, THE, had its inception in a meeting held at the home of Ceorge Brown, banker, Baltimore, Md., on Feb. 12, 1827, to consider means of restoring to Baltimore the trade which the recently opened Erie Canal was diverting. A committee was appointed to

investigate, recommending on Feb. 19, 1827, that a charter be 1900 figures. It headed the list in 1926, its total value being about obtained from the Legislature of Maryland to incorporate a com$22,000,000, The same thing is true of petroleum, which was in- pany to construct a “double railroad” from Baltimore to the significant in 1900 but totalled about $12,500,000 in 1926. No cop- Ohio river. On Feb. 28, 1827, a charter, under which the railroad per ores or copper manufactures were imported in 1900. In 1926 still operates, was granted. A company was then organized and on this commodity was third on the list with a value of more than July 4, 1828, the “first stone” was laid by the Grand Lodge of + $9,500,000. Similarly there was no rubber in 1900 but the total Masons of Maryland, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the last sur. in 1926 was about $4,200,000, while coffee increased from $1,800,- viving signer of the Declaration of Independence, participating in 000 to $4,700,000. Baltimore’s imports during this period shifted the ceremony. On May 22, 1830, the first division of the road was largely from manufactured goods to raw materials for her own opened to Ellicott Mills, 14 m. distant from Baltimore, horses and the middle western industries. There was thus a great increase being used for motive power. On Aug. 30, 1830, an experiment in tonnage, but actually a slight decline in value. with its first steam locomotive, “Tom Thumb,” proved successful Education.—First among the educational institutions of Balti- and steam was then decided upon as the best power for operating more is the Johns Hopkins university. The two main divisions of the railroad. Wheeling, W. Va., was reached on Dec. 25, 1852, this, the city’s proudest possession, are the university proper, St. Louis in 1857, Chicago i in 1874 and Philadelphia in 1886. which lies in a section to the north called Homewood, and the medThe one hundredth anniversary of its charter was celebrated by ical school, together with the hospital, on Broadway, in the eastern a dinner given by the president and directors of the company part of town. The relations between town and gown have been in Baltimore on Feb. 27, 1927, and also by an Exposition and close ever since the days of Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president Pageant held in the fall of the same year, the latter being attended of the university, and the members of the faculty have almost in- by over a million and a quarter of people during its continuance variably played a considerable rôle in the civic life. The gradual of three weeks.

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APODYTERIUM OR DRESSING- ROOM STABAEAN BATHS, POMPEII

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TEPIDARIUM. BATHS OF CARACALLA ROME, RESTORED (EARLY 3RD CENTURY)

DOOR OF oF PERSIAN BATH ISPAHAN, 19TH CENTURY

Phat

PLAN. KARL MUELLER BATHS

12

MUNICH, GERMANY.EARLY 20TH CENTURY

MODERN JAPANESE POTER GASH 13

A, Fagdarium

8, Swimming-Pool or Plunge

INTERIOR. KARL MUELLER BATHS

C, Tepidarium

D, Calidarium

E, Laconscum

F, Reservoir

G, Dressing-Room

H, Courts

BATHS AND BATH HOUSES" 3, 5, 6, 8, 1f. FROM SALADIN, “MANUEL D'ART MUSULMAN,” (JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.} AND SUCH MODIFICATIONS LED EVENTUALLY TO THE DEVELOPER THE BATHS AT SERDJILLA (9) SHOW A SYRIAN MODIFICATION OF ROMAN PRECEDENT, RICHNESS OF THE ROMAN BATHS, AS SHOWN AT POMPEII LUXURIOUS THE 8). & (5 TURKEY BRUSA, OR (6), PERSIA ORIENTAL TYPE AS IN KASHAN, CHARACTER OF SOME MODERN PUBLIC BATHS, SUCH AS MONUMENTAL THE BY MATCHED IS (10), ROME AT CARACALLA OF (2) AND W THE BATHS (LIBRAIRIE ALPHONSE PICARD & FILS); 13, 14

AT MUNICH RYE (1).

(14);

BY SWIMMING

POOLS LIKE THAT OF THE SHELTON

HOTEL,

REPRINTED

NEW YORK

(4);

BY PERMISSION

FROM GERHARD, “MODERN

BY SHORE BATHING

ESTABLISHMENTS

LIKE THAT AT

BATHS The recently (1928) excavated baths of Leptis Magna have as their main feature a large swimming pool, lavishly cased in marble

and bordered by a monumental colonnade.

It was only in Rome, however, in the great imperial thermae

that the bath received its most complete architectural form. Here the problem was complicated by the development of the paths as great social centres in addition to their primary pur-

pose. Gardens, a stadium and exedrae, where lectures were given and poems read, all became necessary parts. The fully de-

veloped examples are those of Titus (aD.

1), Domitian (A.D. 95), Trajan (c. A.D. 100), Caracalla (A.D. 217) and Diocletian (a.D. 302). Extensive remains of the baths

of Titus, Caracalla and Diocletian exist.

The general scheme comprised a great open garden surrounded by subsidiary club

rooms, and a block of bath chambers either

inthe centre of the garden, as in the baths of Caracalla, or at its rear, as in the baths of Titus. The main block- contained, in addition to the frigidarium, calidarium and

tepidarium, courts and smaller bath-rooms. Of the three great bath-rooms in this block,

the tepidarium was made much the most important and was used, apparently, as the great assembly-hall or lounge. The frigi-

darium appears frequently to have been an Srrieits or SCRAPERS enormous unroofed swimming bath, and usep ANCIENTLY AFTER the calidariwm, on the other side of BATHING the tepidarium, is, in the baths of Diocletian and Caracalla, treated as a domed, circular hall. Service was furnished by means of underground passage ways; slaves could move swiftly and simply without being seen. In order to light and roof the

enormous rooms, the Romans were forced to develop an ingenious system of buttressing, cross vaulting and clerestory windows. Their scheme of groined vaults carried on interior columns and buttressed by cross buttresses, which form the walls of recesses opening from the room, has since been an inspiration to designers of great halls (e.g., St. George’s Hall, Liverpool; Pennsylvania Station, New York). The remains of the baths of Diocletian, whose tepidarium, slightly altered by Michelangelo, now forms the church of S. Maria Degli Angeli, gives an extraordinarily vivid impression of what the thermae must have been. The important pieces of sculpture, found in Roman baths, such as the Laocoén group from the baths of Caracalla, indicate the richness of their furnishings. Floors were universally of marble or mosaic. Walls were apparently sheathed with marble to a considerable height, and decorated above with stucco reliefs, colour and mosaic. Gilt bronze was used freely for doors, capitals and window screens. It is significant that in the great imperial thermae there is only one set of public rooms. The usage varied. At times women and men were admitted to the baths at different hours and at times mixed and promiscuous bathing was permitted. Outside of Rome the separation of the sexes into two different sets of rooms in the same establishment was more

common.

There are many

con-

temporary references to Roman baths and. bathing ‘scattered through the works of Pliny the Younger, Seneca, Juvenal, Suetonius and, in the later empire, Ausonius and Statius. Mediaeval Baths.—The excesses apparently common under the system of mixed bathing in the public baths were bound to produce a reaction and the church fathers generally agreed that bathing should be confined to the purposes of cleanliness and health, Moreover, the destruction of the great aqueducts (see

205

with large pools or basins of warmed water. In both cases the bathing was quite promiscuous; the abuse of this custom is

indicated by the colloquial use of the Italian word bagnio (bath)

for a brothel. During the Renaissance there was little additional development of bathing, and the mechanical arrangements were of the crudest, as in the famous bath of Marie Antoinette at Versailles. Mohammedan Baths.—Bath architecture, however, progressed in the countries under Mohammedan rule. There, either through the development of a primitive eastern bath tradition, or through the adoption of the Roman system, or, as is perhaps more likely, through a merging of the two, the complicated technique of bathing continued and with it the growth of adequate architectural forms. The Alhambra, at Granada, has a beautiful set of bath-rooms, all rectangular, which show the Moorish form at the beginning of the 14th century. Further east Roman or Byzantine forms were the basis of the baths. Constantinople baths, which are typical, and whose form seems to have varied little in five centuries, consist universally of a series of square rooms, carrying domes on pendentives. Each series of rooms is composed of a warm, hot and steam room, corresponding roughly to the fepidarium, calidarium and laconicum. The place of the frigidarium is generally taken by a basin of cold water at one end of the warm room. In addition to these vaulted chambers there are dressing rooms and frequently a luxurious rest room. Russian Baths.—In Russia, a great love of hot and steam baths has produced a multitude of bath houses. These are usually simple and consist only of a steam room and a cold bath; frequently even the cold bath is lacking and the bather plunges directly from the steam room into a river, or outdoor pool, or even snow. Modern Baths.—Contemporaneous with the Industrial Revolution a new feeling for personal cleanliness led quickly to the erection of public bath houses to compensate for the universal lack of home plumbing. Three main types have arisen. The mid-roth

century baths consisted of a range of small individual bathrooms and a control office; with the development of athleticism shower baths and swimming pools were added, the original form, without a pool, is less common (1928) than formerly because of the growing custom of having at least one bath-room in each residence. The second type, approximating the Roman, is a large and complex structure containing a swimming bath with adjacent ranges of showers, through which bathers are compelled to pass be. fore entering the pool, steam, massage and rest rooms, and occasionally restaurants. The third type was developed in connection with medicinal springs and is SECTION OF BATH DISCOVERED AT designed to include all units that TUSCULUM, SHOWING ARRANGEmight add attractiveness; such MENT OF CALIDARIUM. 1.—ALVEUS; establishments contain all neces2.—LABRUM sary bath and treatment rooms and also restaurants, card rooms, concert and dance halls and extensive gardens. Modern western architecture has developed no distinctive forms for either Turkish or Russian baths both of which have been very popular since the beginning of the roth century.

The European municipal swimming baths are, in many cases, works of great architectural interest. On the continent there are usually first and second class establishments under the same roof. The swimming pools are frequently large and often vaulted, and their resemblance to Roman prototypes is strong. Noteworthy AQUEDUCT) of Rome led to the closing of the baths. The habit, among these are the Guentz bath at Dresden, the municipal bath however, of the bath as a luxury, and of public buildings for it, at Hanover and the enormous and monumental Karl Mueller pubmust have continued alive in Europe, for by the rath century lic baths at Munich. The imperial baths and the Baca baths at we find indications that public baths were common, and in the Budapest are especially lavish in their appointments, and show, t4th and rsth centuries they again became notorious. Late in their use of domed rooms, strong Turkish influence. Medicinal Gothic tapestries and woodcuts indicate that the existence not only baths exist in all countries; among the best known are those of of much out door bathing in garden pools but also of bath houses Baden Baden and Karlsbad in Germany; Vichy and Aix-les-Bains

BATHURST

206

in France; Bath and Harrogate in England; White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., and Hot Springs, Ark., in the United States. The modern bath-room contains a tile tub and a shower that is often enclosed in glass; its walls and floors are embellished with tiles and mirrors; it is planned for cleanliness and convenience, and in large houses is often lavishly decorated as well. The design of swimming pools has become a science. By means of disinfectants, the same water can safely be used again and again, making a swimming pool possible even when the water supply is limited. Hotels, clubs and steamships maintain pools. The tank is usually of reinforced concrete lined with glazed or ceramic tile and furnished at the water level with a gutter that automatically removes floating scum. Outdoor swimming pools are also built. Another form of the modern bathing establishment is that found at seaside resorts, where the necessary cubicles, showers, suit and towel laundries, and storage space may be combined with terraces, restaurants and club house facilities; the beach clubs of the Florida, U.S.A., winter resorts represent the highest development of this type. Far Eastern Baths.—Although bathing has always been popular in both China and Japan, it has reached its highest development in the latter. There every house has a bath which usually consists of a circular wooden tub of considerable size. This tub is placed outdoors in the court or garden and all the members of one family are usually served by one filling of exceedingly hot water. In the more luxurious houses and native hotels the system is largely the same, although the tub may be indoors, and the bather is, in these, given a thorough massage at the same time. The Japanese have also built numerous bath establishments of great size near medicinal springs; a famous example is that near Matsuyama, on the island of Shikoku. In these, the bath proper consists of a large, shallow pool with steps on which the bather sits. Surrounding the pool are cubicles for dressing. The main bath-room is fre-

GROUND PLAN OF BATHS AT POMPEII. 5, CALIDARIUM; 6, ALVEUS; 7, LABRUM; 9, FURNACES; 12, CALIDARIUM; 13, ALVEUS; 14, LABRUM: 15, WARMING-ROOM; 17, DRESSING-ROOM; 20, ENTRANCE COURT; 21A, 21B, 21C, PUBLIC ENTRANCES

AND RADIATION), and baths of compressed air (see AEROTHERAPEUTICS) do not call for special mention here. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—In early literature see Vitruvius, de Architecture, and Lucian’s Hippias; G. Blouet, Restoration des Thermes d’ Antonin

Caracalla (1828); A. Brulloff, Les Thermes de Pompeii (1829); Seroux d’Agincourt, L’Histoire de L’art par les monuments, Eng, trans. 1847; Viollet-le-Duc, Entretiens sur VArchitecture; J. Marquardt, Das Privatleben der Römer, znd ed. by A. Mau (1886); G. Osthof, Die Bäder u. Bade Anstalten der Neuzeit (1887); E. Paulin, Thermes de Diocletien, 1890; Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, art. Gallus, by Becker, and art, Balnae, by Rich (1890); H. Pucey, Les Bains Publics & Budapest (1895); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopidie, art. Bader, by A. Mau (1896); F. A. H. Genzmer, Bade u. Schwimm Anstalten (1899); W. P. Gerhard, Modern Baths and Bath Houses (full bibliography)

(1908); Daremberg

and Saglio,

Dictionnarie des antiquités art. Balneum (1877-1919) ; G. T. Rivoira, Roman Architecture, Eng. trans. (1925). (T. F. H.

BATHURST, EARLS.

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GROUND PLAN OF BATHS AT CARACALLA (ROME). 2, ENTRANCE GATES; 3, FRIGIDARIUM; 4, TEPIDARIUM; 6, LABRA; 9, CALIDARIUM; 13 AND 16, SPHAERISTERIA: 15, BAPTISTERLA; 7 AND 18, THE EXEDRAE; 198 AND 20, RECREATION OR CLUB ROOMS; 21, AQUEDUCT; 22, STADIUM

quently of two storeys with tea-rooms, restaurants, etc., above. In all Japanese baths, public and private, there is no attempt to

achieve privacy. Public baths, for instance, will frequently have large, unprotected openings through which people in the streets can watch the bathers. The medium of the baths hitherto described has been water, vapour or hot dry air. Other substances used are sand, peat, radio-active mud, aromatic herbs in great variety, especially pine oil, scented and coloured soluble salts, ammonia. Electrical baths (see ELECTROTHERAPY), sun baths (see Herzoruerary and LICHT

Arren Barsgursr, Ist Earl Bath-

urst (1684—1775), was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst (d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d. 1727), daughter of Sir Allen Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a family which is said to have settled in Sussex before the Norman Conquest. He was educated at Trinity college, Oxford, and became member of parliament for Cirencester in May 1705. In 1711, he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden, Bedfordshire. He defended Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent of Sir Robert Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was made a privy councillor, and in Aug. 1772 was created Earl Bathurst, having previously received a pension of £2,000 a year chargeable upon the Irish revenues. He died on Sept. 16 1775. Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne and Congreve were among his friends. The letters which passed between him and Pope are . published in Pope’s Works, vol. viii. (London, 1872). Henry, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest surviving son of the rst earl. Educated at Balliol college, Oxford, he was called to the bar, and became a K.C. in 1745. From 1735 to 1754 he sat in parliament for Cirencester; in the latter year he became a judge of the court of common pleas and in 1771 lord high chancellor, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by his father’s death in Sept. 1775, he resigned his office somewhat unwillingly in July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord North. In Nov. 1779, he was appointed lord president of the council, and left

office with North in March 1782.

He died at Oakley Grove

207

BATHURST—BATIK near Cirencester on Aug. 6 1794.

Probably the latter is more nearly correct. There have been found ruins of temples in Java about 1,200 years old, among which were fragments of stone figures wearing garments similar to those worn to-day by the natives and decorated with similar patterns, and it is likely that these same designs have been handed down for centuries. Batik is used almost entirely throughout Indonesia for

Bathurst was a weak lord

his distribuchancellor, but appears to have been just and fair in

tion of patronage. HENRY, 3RD EARL BATHURST (1762-1834), the elder son of the

of second earl, was born on May 22, 1762. He was member the to d succeede he until 1783 from er Cirencest for t parliamen

earldom in Aug. 1794.

Owing mainly to his friendship with

William Pitt, he was a lord of the admiralty (1783-89), a lord

of of the treasury (1789-91), and commissioner of the board

1804 control (1793-1802). Returning to office with Pitt in May be became master of the mint, and was president of the board

of trade and master of the mint during the ministries of the duke

in of Portland and Spencer Perceval, only vacating these posts

June 1812 to become secretary for war and the colonies under the earl of Liverpool. For two months during the year 1809 he was in charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war and the colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827 and deserves some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War.

Bathurst’s official position brings his name frequently into the

history of the abolition of slavery. He was lord president of the council in the government of the duke of Wellington from 1828

to 1830, and favoured the removal of the disabilities of Roman

FIG. 1.—NATIVE JAVANESE DANCERS, PERFORMING AN ANCIENT DANCE

DRESSED

IN COSTUMES

OF

BATIK,

the decoration of the very simple clothing which the people wear, This clothing consists, in the main, of only four pieces:— (x) The Sarong, a strip of cloth from g to 14 ft. long by about ft. wide, which is worn twisted about the body in various ways. 34 BATHURST, 2 city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, (See fig. 4.) Australia. Pop. (1926) 9,380. It is situated on the south bank of (2) The Slendang, a piece of cloth about q ft. long and only 18 the Macquarie river, at an elevation of 2,153 ft., in a fertile in. wide, which may be twisted about the head or used by the undulating plain on the west side of the Blue Mountains. Bathurst women for carrying their babies or other burdens on their backs. is the centre of the chief wheat-growing district of New South (3) The Kemban, a narrow girdle or band, worn only on occaWales, while gold, copper and silver are extensively mined in sion by the women, twisted tightly about their waists or breasts. its vicinity. There are railway works, coach factories, tanneries, (4) The Sarong Kapala, a square piece of material not unlike breweries, flour-mills and manufactures of boots and shoes. The a large bandanna handkerchief, worn by the men, twisted about town was founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its their heads like a turban in some particular way which designates name from the 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary of state for the the locality from which the wearer comes and his station in life. colonies, and it has been a municipality since 1862. After this piece has been arranged on the head it is removed and BATHVILLITE, a naturally occurring organic substance. starched on the inside so that it will hold its shape. fawnof It is an amorphous, opaque, and very friable material Each of these pieces is decorated with a design and in colours brown colour, filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of indicate the part of the country from which it comes. The which is and ror, of gravity Bathville, Scotland. It has a specific insoluble in benzene.

Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the Reform Bill of 1832. He died on July 27 1834. Bathurst was made a knight of the Garter in 1817, and held several lucrative sinecures.

BATHYBIUS, a slimy substance, at one time supposed to

exist in great masses in the depths of the ocean, and to consist

of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding it as an organism which represented the simplest form of life, Huxley, about 1868,

named it Bathybius Haeckelii. But investigations carried out by the “Challenger” expedition indicated that it was a flocculent precipitate of gypsum thrown down from sea-water by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic character was abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.

BATHYCLES, an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commis-

sioned by the Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of

Apollo at Amyclae, about 55o B.c. Pausanias (ii. 18) gives a detailed description of this monument, which is of the greatest value to us, showing the character of Ionic art at the time.

It

was adorned with scenes from mythology in relief and supporting figures in the round. For a reconstruction, see Plastik, p. 706,

Furtwängler, Meisterwerke der griech.

i BATIK, a Javanese word meaning wax painting—the applica-

tion of a wax “resist” to various materials which are afterwards dyed, and certain portions of which are protected by the wax so that they do not absorb the dye, leaving as a result a pattern or

Fics.

2, 3.—JAVANESE

WOMEN

IN DRESS

COSTUME

OF

BATIK

designs and colours are all similar, but, on the other hand, they have very definite variations. In all parts of the country, however, d there are in use two types of sarong; the usual type, decorate dress type, worn on ceremonial the and pattern, all-over an with that dye the from g easily and sinks into the material, protectin occasions. The latter is enhanced by the addition of a wide band, part which it covers. body of the History and Uses in Java.—Little is known of the origin of across one end, more ornately decorative than the of a number of up made border ing surround a by also and piece, this art; it is, like many others, lost in antiquity. Some believe making a beauthat it originated in China, while others claim that it is a natural various-sized smaller borders of different widths, rugs. In all of the oriental on seen that to similar frame tiful India. in centuries for

design on them. The resist is usually composed of bees-wax, paraffin and sometimes a little resin, which makes it adhere more securely to the material. This resist is applied hot so that it flows

outgrowth of the methods

employed

BATIK

208

sections the designs are based upon the same origin and consist of conventionalized objects of nature, such as flowers, butterflies, birds, fruits, foliage, cuttlefish and shells and occasionally of a conventionalized Malay kris or knife. These designs are passed from generation to generation and taught by each mother to her daughter, for it is the women who draw them while the men do

the dyeing.

(See figs. rz and r2.)

the djegoel, which is simply a stick of wood with a wad of cotton attached to the end, forming a sort of crude brush which is useq for filling in the large areas with wax. (See fig. 5.) Native Practice.—Seated on the ground, the material hanging over a frame before her (fig. 11), the artist covers that part of

the design which is to remain the natural colour of the materia}

with a wax consisting of about six parts animal fat to one part

Javanese Practice—In Java batik is done, as a rule, upon resin and to which is sometimes added one part of pure bees-way | and a little of the old wax which, owing to carbonization and cotton cloth or sometimes silk. Whatever former contact with the indigo dye, has become dark, making the the material, it is first carefully prepared whole resist more easily seen upon the fabric. When this first by. several washings in hot water, alternatstep is finished the piece must be turned over and carefully waxed ing with steepings in coconut oil or castor on the back so that there is no possibility of the dye entering the oil (fig. 6). These washings are done in fabric from that side. It is then water containing an alkali, such as a weak immersed in cold water, which solution of soda or the ashes of burnt rice thoroughly hardens and solidifies stalks, and after each washing, before it is the wax, so that it is ready to steeped in the oil, it is dried in the sun enter the dye which has been until it finally assumes the soft creamy prepared for it. When it has tone so beautiful in the finer pieces. After been satisfactorily dyed, the wax the washing process it is hemmed and then e is removed and the piece restarched or sized in a solution of rice water, reeks waxed, leaving exposed other again dried in the sun and then rolled up ny Ee parts which are to be dyed a into a loose roll, placed on a board and Wh (eee different colour. gently pounded with a hammer or rolled [— 1-¥ In sharp contrast to the East with a wooden roller until it becomes soft Indian, and even more so to and pliable, when it is ready to be susmodern European methods, pended upon a frame. Sometimes the Fic. 4.—NATIVE WOMAN artists block in the designs with char- SHOWING METHOD OF stands this “Javanese practice” coal (see fig. 10), but many of them are TWISTING SARONG ABOUT of carefully waxing the back of the fabric and of removing the so sure in their art that they are capable THE BODY of drawing the intricately involved patterns without this aid. wax and replacing it in a different Instruments.—The fjaniting is the instrument used for apply- section of the design each time FIG 6.—WASHING THE CLOTH AS A a new colour is to be dyed. In PRELIMINARY TO BLEACHING AND ing the wax. It is a small copper cup, from the bottom of one DRYING IT IN THE SUN side of which curves outward and downward a delicate spout or Europe and America the custom is to dye one colour over another, removing the wax only when this becomes impossible. It is, as has been said, the native custom to confine themselves almost entirely to cotton and silk, while in

the West batik is also done upon woollens, velvets, ivory, straw or any other material which can be stained with dye. Sometimes

batik is employed upon metal or wood, the exposed surface of Wie

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DJEGOEL TJANTINGS

FIG.

5.—NATIVE

IMPLEMENTS

USED

IN

MAKING

BATIKS

The wax is melted on the charcoal stove and applied to the lines of the design with various types of tjantings, which will be noted as having different kinds of spouts. The larger areas are covered by the use of djegoe!, two types of which are shown

capillary tube, and from the opposite side of bamboo handle, cut in such a way that a spur line of the cup. These tjantings are of various large spouts and some very slender ones; some,

which projects a follows the lower forms: some have

called penembok,

have wide flat spouts, while others may have as many as two, three, four or even six, all springing from the same cup, so that it is possible to draw with them, simultaneously, a number of parallel

lines, Besides the tjanting, there is a primitive instrument called

FIGS,

7,

8.—LAYING

:

The dyes used by the natives were originally, withovt doubt. vegetable, but nowadays they are making use of some of the anilines brought to them from Holland. Indigo provides blue, and the other colours, such as red from madder and-yellow from the bark of mangosteen, are typical. Secondary colours are produced, at times, by dyeing one of these colours over another, and black is produced by the dyeing of brown over the indigo-blue; the range of colours, however, is not very great. and the native is far more interested in the intricacy of the design than inthe delicacy of colour.

OUT

CLOTH

FOR SUN-BLEACHING AND ING THE CLOTH TO SOFTEN

POUNDIT

Tjap

Printing.—Although

this is not true batik and is looked down upon by the natives them-

selves, it is a similar process, and

one with which beautiful results have been obtained. There is little doubt that the method originated in Madras, where it has at any rate been used extensively since the rs5th century. A tjap is a wooden block which has had set into the end of the grain small copper strips, similar to the cloissons which divide the different enamel colours in the well known cloisonné of China and Japan. These strips are carefully bent with tiny pliers until they

B ATIK

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BY COURTESY OF LANDSCH-INDIE,”

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LEYDEN,

(4)

SCULPTURED 1-2.

KOLONIAAL

the

Buddhist

personification

of supreme

INSTITUUT,

ORIGINALS

Figures 1 and 2 show side and front views of the goddess Prajnaparamita,

PLATE I

wisdom,

a lotus resting behind her left shoulder. The book the quintessence of Buddhist wisdom is in her hands

with

containing

AMSTERDAM,

OF

(3)

BATIK

3. Detail

ROUFFAER

JUYNBOLL,

FROM

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DESIGNS

of a design

its similarity

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THE

SIX STAGES

1. The fabric after the first application 2. The

fabric

dyed

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(N.

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being

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2. The wax removed, showing the first stage of the pattern

UITGAVE

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BATIK

4. The fabric after the second application of wax 5. The fabric dyed a second time 6. The wax removed and the design completed

209

BATIK assume the desired curves and are then fastened into the wood

block. For the application of the wax, the tjaps are made in pairs, one for each side of the material. They are simple to use, for the

process consists of dipping the block into the molten wax (which, in this case, must be somewhat

stiffer than that used for true

batik, and made of resin, paraffin and varnish gums) touching the

block to a pad to remove the excess wax, and then printing the wax

spouts which allow the wax to stay hot until it reaches the tip. These spouts extend about half way up into the cups so that the sediment sinks to the bottom and does not clog them. Thé technique of the brush, which was never properly developed in Java,

has been borrowed from Japan and has given its fluent vigour to the lines of these modern artists. The dyes are not only more varied, but infinitely clearer and purer in colour, and the removal of the wax by gasolene has facilitated the cleaning process. Not only is the art itself undergoing improvement; the materials upon which it is executed are becoming, due to modern machinery, more and more beautiful in their varied textures. And so batik has come to be thought of as an art comparable to painting in oils or water colours or to drawing with pastels, with the lithographic crayon or the etching point. In comparison with other arts batik has some limitations, but it has also many well-defined advantages over the other graphic arts and should, without doubt, eventually take its place among them. Swift, vigorous sketches can be executed with it. An utmost delicacy of colour is obtainable, and flat areas of rich tone as well as subtle variations of

mottling and “crackling” can be had when required.

Besides ail

these and many similar advantages, there is the possibility of the feel of material, the creation of that texture which not only appeals to the eye but to the sense of touch as well. (See TECHNIQUE IN ART.)

Modern Technique and Practice.—Modern technique varFROM JASPER, “DE INLANDSCHE KUNSTNIJVERHEIT IN NEDERLANDSCHE INDIE” FIG. 9.~-NATIVES MAKING BLOCKS FOR USE IN TJAP PRINTING

on to the material, after which the process is repeated for the

back and the dyeing is proceeded with exactly as in the case of real batik. Tjap printing is not considered equal to batik, but as the tjaps must be made in pairs so as to correspond perfectly in the printing of the front and back of the fabric, and as the making of the tjaps is, in itself, a most exacting and delicate craftsmanship, the work must not be neglected by the student, who should realize that sometimes really good specimens of tjap printing are fully as valuable as batiks. European History and Uses.—Batik was introduced into Europe by the Dutch, who, returning from Java, described the beautiful costumes of the natives. It was lectured about, and in due time some specimens were brought home by travellers, but very little attention was paid to them as works of art or to the method of execution pursued. Sporadic interest did occur, but when the Dutch acquired the islands, an industry was started in the printing of imitation batiks for sale and trade with the natives. This had an ill effect, as many people did not understand the difference between these printed atrocities and the beautiful creations of the natives, and it was not until the latter part of the

ies only a little from that which has been practised in Java for centuries, the chief difference being that the Western artist

prefers as a rule to do the application of wax on a horizontal or only slightly inclined table rather than on the rack which is preferred in Java. The design is generally sketched in pencil on the material, though some artists trust their ability sufficiently to do it direct with the wax itself. The application of wax is done with an improved type of tjanting or with a brush which may be pointed or wedge-shaped. The brush is usually a good type of water-colour brush made of tapered hairs, because it is necessary constantly to keep a large amount of wax in it, in order to maintain the heat that the wax may flow freely, and yet a fine point is necessary. It has become the practice to dip the brush in wax, touching it very gently to the edge of the pan so as to remove only a little, and then to take a razor blade or sharp knife and carefully trim it to a point. This practice, however, does not always produce a brush capable of the best work, especially where a line of variable width is desired, for when it is allowed to rest a little more heavily while paint-

ing in order to produce a broader line, the short trimmed hairs are sure to spread unevenly. A

different type of brush, preferred

19th century that the great strides made in the production of dyes led artists to experiment with them as a medium and to the

revival of this 2,000-year-old art. Some batik in Europe and America is executed like that in Java, for the purpose of wearing apparel, but the length of time involved in producing these fabrics makes it impossible to compete with the beautifully printed and woven fabrics done by machinery and therefore the art has been driven a step higher. Artists found that they could not spend the time to design and execute a batik gown unless they could first find patrons willing to spend large sums of money for their work; therefore, the application of this art to the more permanent elements of decoration such as wall hangings, lamp shades, table runners or throws, etc, for which comparatively higher prices could be asked, was necessary. The first artists who awoke to the possibilities of this medium of expression were those in Holland; then followed such artists as Arthur Crisp, Pieter Mijer, Bertrand Hartmann and

Ethelyn Stewart in America, who developed batik to a higher standard. These artists, equipped with an almost unlimited range of colour, produced by modern dyes, have created designs of a beauty never

before realized. Improved instruments have also aided them in obtaining good results. For instance, they now use heavier cups

for the tjantings, so that the heat can be held longer, and tapering

by some artists, is one with a wedge-shaped arrangement of hairs. This brush will, when held properly, produce a very fine line, one that can be made broader by the simple turning of the brush in the fingers. Of course, it has the disadvantage that in drawing a fine sharp curve one

must learn how to twist it in the fingers in just the right way to keep the line uniform. When a FIG. 10.—NATIVE DESIGN WHEN THE BEEN DYED

DRAWING

BORDER

THE

HAS

brush is first put in the hot wax the bristles spread into a great

bunch and it takes a few moments’ manipulation to slowly press the air and moisture out so that it will resume its natural

form.

This process should be done slowly and with care, as it

determines the form the brush will take in future use. One should always avoid touching a brush to the bottom of the pan,.or for any longer than a second to the edge of the pan, as the metal is so hot that it will burn and curl up the hairs. Cleaning.—The modern tjanting is so well made that one

does not need to exercise the precautions that used to be required

210

BATIK

in the care of the more fragile native instruments. When it becomes clogged through impurities in the wax, a fine wire, such as cam be obtained on a spool at any hardware store, will quickly

remove the dirt, though care should be taken in inserting the wire at the point of the spout as it is likely to cause rough edges,

which may catch in the fabric and cause an unpleasant stuttering of line or even an upsetting of the tjanting, which might destroy

but it is usually a mixture of one-half bees-wax and one-half

paraffin, to which is sometimes added a little resin, for the pur. pose of making it cling more securely to the fabric, and sometimes

a little old wax, which makes the mixture darker. The more paraf-

fin used the more brittle the mixture becomes when cooled, ang

therefore in producing the sometimes desired “crackle,” the pro.

portion of paraffin is increased. “Crackle” is an accidental texture which can be governed by the artist only with difficulty. There. Use of Tjanting.—In using the tjanting one must, first of all, fore, though it is perfectly characteristic of this art, it should not take the utmost precaution to see that no wax clings to the out- be made use of indiscriminately, and the best artists avoid it almost entirely. It is produced by the cracking up or crushing of the fabric after the wax has cooled and stiffened and then ffWy immersing it in a dye which is thus permitted to sink through the cracks and which produces irregular lines, wandering in a haphazard way wherever the wax has been broken. It is not easy to avoid crackle and in dyeing large pieces, a sufficiently large dye bath should be used to avoid crowding. It is advisable also to have the dye sufficiently warm so that the wax does not become too brittle. many days’ work.

The first step in treating the fabric is to wash it, as they do in

FIG. 1.—JAVANESE WOMEN, AS A RULE, APPLY THE WAX. IT WILL B NOTED THAT, CONTRARY TO THE EUROPEAN PRACTICE, THE FABRIC IS HUNG OVER A RACK, AS SHOWN HERE

side of the cup after it has been dipped in the wax pot. The usual method is to keep in the left hand a small bit of cloth or cotton waste with which the cup is gently wiped off over the wax pot each time it is filled. Another method which has worked out satisfactorily is the scraping of the bottom of the cup with a small fragment of cardboard which has been torn or cut into a square form. Some artists use for this purpose old laundry shirt boards, the backing to blocks of paper, etc. This same cardboard may be used to advantage in taking another precaution. It is often well to cover the material between the wax pot and the part of the design being worked on with two or three pieces so that in case of a spill, due to the jogging of one’s elbow, they will protect the fabric. In using the tjanting one should hold the hand with the back up and allow it to slide on the nails of the small and third fingers, if such support is necessary. The

Java, so as to remove all weighting or sizing, though certain craftsmen do not make use of oil, preferring to leave the fabric as clean and white as possible. It is then pressed, after having been rinsed thoroughly, and stretched either upon a frame, a piece of glass, or an enameled table-top. Sometimes this is done by painting a band of wax at the top which adheres to the surface beneath it when

cooled, and then stretching the fabric evenly and painting a band at the bottom following this by the same treatment of both sides, At other times the artist, preferring to move the material into different positions, may stretch it by means of weights placed along the edges. The advantage of the frame is that the wax sinks through and is not broken, as is sometimes the case when the cooled finished piece is removed from glass or enamel. Thus it often saves re-waxing the back.

Methods of Obtaining Colours.—After the first waxing is completed, the dyeing can be proceeded with and in this, again, the western method differs from the eastern, for while the eastem craftsman dyes a colour and then removes the wax, re-waxing other portions of the design toprepare it for the dyeing of another colour, the western craftsman through his knowledge of themixing of colours need never recommence his waxing more than three times, once for each of the three

tjanting should be held delicately and without tension, and the drawing should be done with a free arm movement. It is better

not to move the fingers at all, and some artists, whose nerves are

not sufficiently well under control, find a wrist rest of help. When it first touches the material it is likely to leave a small globule at the beginning of the line. To avoid this it will be found that if a small piece of cardboard or a piece of paper is held in the left hand with its edge exactly where the line is to begin, and the tjanting is brought down on this paper and carried forward so that it slides off at the proper place on to the fabric, the line will commence ‘with its usual width. It must of course, be ynderstood, that in good work with the tjanting it is possible to make all lines of a uniform width, for any attempt to make the lines narrower or wider is likely to result in a lumpy uneven quality not to be desired. Dots of various sizes, however, can be obtained with the tjanting by the simple process of allowing it to rest a shorter or longer time on the spot and it will not be found difficult to produce these dots in perfectly round form. Under no conditions should the tjanting be held over a flame to reheat the wax, causing clogging and even melting of the solder with which the small spout is attached to the cup, thus ruining the instrument. Fine, even lines can also be obtained with the brush, and the advantage to the skilled artist is that he can make these finer or broader with a sure, even touch. Added to this advantage is that of the technique of the almost dry or cooled brush which deposits the wax in the various textures so often desired. We may say, therefore, that for finer works of art in which the artist wishes to vary the line, the brush is better adapted, while for decorative works of art where an even unbroken line is desired, the tjanting will give a more structural effect. Wax.—The kind of wax used depends upon the result desired,

primary colours whose combinations give all other hues. It may be well to recall at this point that there are three primary colours—red, yellow and blue—and that through the proper mixing of these colours any other colour in the spectrum can be obtained. By mixing these colours secondary colours are obtained, for red and yellow produce orange; yellow and blue, green; red and

blue, purple. Making use of this fact, the western craftsman ust-

ally begins by reserving (covering with wax) that part of his design which he wishes to keep white and also that part in which no yellow is needed. When this waxing is completed he dyes the fabric a very pale yellow. Should he have use for a yellow red in his design or a yellow blue, that is

FIG. 12.—THE DYEING OF BATIK IN JAVA IS USUALLY DONE BY THE MEN

a green blue, he now blocks out the sections where these colours would occur as well as the sections where he wishes to keep the

shade of yellow just applied, and then dips the fabric again in 4 deeper yellow, reserving with the wax those sections which he intends to have orange and green or deeper yellow, and so on, keeping in mind exactly what hues he wishes to produce in each part

of the design and thinking always of their intensity. When he bas

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Top row: 1 (left). Pattern and colouring of design made in Surakarta, central Java.

2. Colouring and design from

Sumenep, Madura

Middle row: 1 (left), Pattern in red from Lasem, on the northern coast of Java. Java from Kain Kapala, coast region of Java. 3. Blue batik made in Indramaju, Lower row: Three designs from Surabaya, Djokjakarta and Batavia, Java

2.

(Centre).

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CRISP

BATIK An

HANGING,

“THE

LAND

by Arthur example of modern batik executed with the brush though original, shows traces of Eastern influence

OF Crisp

PLENTY” on

heavy

silk.

The

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HANGING BATIK GOTHIC

shown Stewart, Ethelyn Miss of technique as direct the des tapestry century 13th after cloth woollen Executed aonin ornamentation architectural vigorous but delicate

STUDIOS ECOX

W OF COURTESY BY

BATLEY—BATON

2II

completed the dyeing of the yellows he may take up the reds |placed in another clean bath of petrol. This work should be done

no quick moveor blues by first removing all the wax and then again covering | most carefully, away from all flames, and with as may be such electricity, static of spark a even for ments, | or white appear to are those parts, which in the final fabric known to ignite clear yellow. When this is completed he begins perhaps with a | caused by a shake or flip of the material, has been ventilation where this light red, dyeing it over white in certain places where he wishes | the fumes. It is advisable to have good are poisonous when fumes gasolene for undertaken, is cleaning | the exact colour to appear, over a pale yellow where he wishes of them as possible. little as breathe should one and concentrated | it wishes he where yellow deeper a over and tint this take to it

to be orange.

Often an electric fan, properly placed, will solve this difficulty.

Thus it will be

seen that modern batik makes use

When the cleaning by petrol has been accomplished the fabric

those employed in the process of four-colour printing, and it may also be seen that the artist must not only be an excellent draughts-

suds, to remove all traces of the acid, and then pressed. It will be seen that proper technique in batik is quite as difficult as that of etching or painting. It must be realized that this technique involves even surer understanding of line and colour, for it

must havea perfect knowledge of colour and of the analysis of colour, otherwise his work is sure to be a haphazard

has been made, and it is also very nearly impossible to correct a mistake in colour. This is no art for those who work with trial and error methods. It must be carried on by those who conceive clearly and completely their finished result before

should be rinsed and washed lightly in warm water and soap-

of colour principles not unlike

is practically impossible to correct a mistake in drawing once it

man or painter with the wax but

jumble of unrelated values.

hues

and

FIG, 13.—AFTER THE DYEING, THE|

The batik artist must also have saae HRA

undertaking the first step. Jn permanence, batik compares favourably with the weaving

BY WASHING THE | of rugs, for modern dyes are sufficiently fast to make it proof

against ordinary light conditions and easily cleaned without risk. ene a knowledge of the chemistry of modern dyes, which is a separate study (see Dyes). As to the | Used as lamp shades or hangings against windows, it is second technique of this side of the art, it is sufficient to state here in| only to stained glass in its brilliancy and exceeds stained glass in general that for the beginner’s use there are no better dyes than | its delicacy and variety of texture. This is then an art centuries those sold by reputable firms in small packages. From these or| old, little understood, demanding the utmost in technique, lasting from the other acid dyes, obtainable in larger quantities whole- | and varied in its possibilities. All drawings in this article are sale, can be made concentrated solutions by boiling them in the | from Jasper & Mas Pirngadie, “De Inlandsche Kunstnijverheid required amount of clear water. When the experienced artist sets | in Nederlandsch-Indie” (Boek & Kunstdrukkery). P. Myer, out to procure a certain colour he cuts a strip of the same material | | BretiocrapHy.—C. E. Pellew, Dyes and Dyeing (1913);

on which his design is to be worked and tests the colour carefully, adding a little at a time this concentrated solution to a bath

eo ha F. eee > ir oO a H 5 n oe ao Réal. The Batiks of Tasa 7eK TA Tohir Das Batiten Hine

Report of clear water, made properly acid, before immersing his work of | Blüte idonesischen Kunstlebens (Oldenburg 1926). See also Indien. art, In making these tests it is necessary that the small frag- | by Dutch Government, Die Batik-Kunst in Niederlandisch (W. E. Cx.) ment of material be kept in the bath for a given length of time, as

BATLEY, municipal borough, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8m. $.S.W. of Leeds. Pop. (1931) 34.573- It is at the just as carefully and thoroughly as the artist intends to rinse his | junction between the E. Pennines and the Yorkshire Plain, and as work of art, and finally, of course, the sample must be dried before | such became an important market town in the 18th and early it can be determined whether or not the colour is correct. The | roth century. Its situation on the south-west Yorkshire coalfield experienced artist is most careful in his testing and is never satis- | led to its rapid development as an industrial town, though it was fied until he has obtained the exact hue desired. It is in this work | overshadowed by the more favourably situated Dewsbury and alone that many amateurs fail, sometimes ruining what might | Wakefield. The town became the centre of the heavy woollen otherwise be a fine piece of craftsmanship. In testing the sample, | trade, manufacturing pilot cloths, druggets, flushings, etc. The the temperature of the dye-bath, the length of time it is im- | working up of old material as “shoddy” is largely carried on. mersed and all other conditions must be exactly similar to those | Modern processes (1918-28), especially the utilization of artificial which the batik itself must undergo. When the sample is ready| silk, have centred around Dewsbury, Batley and Wakefield. The and seems perfect, the material should be wetted in clear water | secondary industries based on the coalfield, such as the ironso that the dye can enter it at once, then immersed and kept | foundries and manufacturing of machinery, have suffered severely moving gently through the dye solution. Some artists do this with | during the trade depression since 1918. The town is included since sticks, but many prefer using their hands in spite of the discom- | 1918 in the Parliamentary Borough of Batley and Morley. It is fort involved, because in order to avoid crackle the motion must served by the L.N.E.R. and L.M.S.R. lines. BATMAN, from French, dat, a kind of pack-saddle, hence be gentle though constant. It is often wise to remove the material in just a little less time than has been given the sample, for it bét-horse (cheval de bat), a horse carrying a bat or pack, the will be found easy, if the colour is slightly pale, to give it one or bat-man being the servant in charge of the bat-horse. In course two more Sriei dippings, rinsing it each time thoroughly, and thus | of time the batman was given duties to perform more immediately arriving at the proper result. This system of gentle approach is about the person who employed him, e.g., an officer, such as tendinfinitely more satisfactory than the careless attempt at procuring | ing his quarters, equipment, etc, The officer’s batman of the 18th the desired colour in a single operation, only to find that one has | and early roth centuries was, to some extent, the counterpart of the mediaeval knight’s serving man. In the British service the overdone it, and must resort to unsatisfactory bleaching. Bleaching can be done with soda, ammonia or any of the well- | term batman strictly denotes the soldier who does the general known powders on the market, but it is very likely to attack the | cleaning work for a Warrant Officer, the term servant being rewax, and to work upon one colour more than another, giving the | served for the soldier who. performs similar duties for an officer.

under certain conditions the longer it stays the deeper the col-| our. It is also necessary that this test piece of material be rinsed

result, not of a simple paling of the hue, but of changing it to a|

BATON, the truncheon carried by a field-marshal as a sign

of authority, and by a police constable (Fr. bâton, baston, from. the fabric has been properly dyed, | Late Lat. basto, a stick or staff); in heraldry (q.v.), the fourth This can best be accomplished by part of a bend; in English coats of arms, only as a mark of it a preliminary ironing between sheets of newspapers, illegitimacy, the “baton sinister.” In music, the baton is the name for the light, pointed stick with absorb a good deal of the wax. Then it is immersed in and left to soak for some time so that a good deal of the which a conductor directs the performances of an orchestra or

distinctly different hue. Removing Wax.—After the ae wax must be removed.

giving

Which petrol;

remaining wax.is dissolved.

It is then carefully wrung out and | choir. The use of the baton is much older than is generally sup-

BATONI—BATTALION

212

posed, though in the first instance it took the form of a roll of | The Audubon sugar school of the university was established jy paper, which was used for this purpose in the rsth century in 1891 by the sugar planters’ association of Louisiana to train Italy and elsewhere. Later, when it became customary to conduct managers for sugar plantations. The sugar experiment station js from the harpsichord or pianoforte, the baton fell into disuse; but | in New Orleans. Special courses are offered in petroleum engi. its employment is now universal. There is great art in the proper neering. manipulation of the baton, which Hans Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in the State. It was incorporated in 1817; was the State capital from Richter (g.v.) once termed the “most diffi1849 to 1862; was occupied by U.S. troops from May 1862 unti cult instrument in the orchestra.” the end of the Civil War, and became the capital again in 183) BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO BATRACHIA, a term sometimes used for that.class of verte. (1708-1787), Italian painter, was born at brates more properly called Amphibia. The class includes the Lucca. In his day, he was regarded in frogs, toads, salamanders and caecilians. As pointed out in the Italy as a great painter. Many of his pic- |, article AMPHIBIA, the term Batrachia is a synonym of Salientia, tures are in the public buildings in Rome. It is, however, rarely used in this sense by modern students (seg He bad a great vogue as a portrait painter, AMPHIBIA). and is said to have numbered 22 soverBATRACHOMYOMACHIA: see Greex Literature, eigns among his sitters.

the capital of

BATTA (pl. Bartax, not to be confused with the Batak tribe

Louisiana, U.S.A., and of East Baton Rouge parish, on the bank of the Mississippi river, at the head of deep-water navigation, about 7om. N.W. of New Orleans. It is on the Jefferson and the Mississippi river scenic highways; is served by the Illinois Central, the Missouri Pacific, and the Southern Pacific railways, the Louisiana railway and Navigation company, and (through Port Allen, across the river) by the Texas and Pacific railway; has a municipal airport and a well-equipped river port which accommodates ocean-going vessels. The population was 11,269 in I000, 21,782 in 1920, of whom 39% were

BATON

ROUGE,

of Palawan in the Philippines), a Proto-Malayan tribe, probably derived from mixed Mongol and Indonesian stock, of North Sumatra, living in settled communities with hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies and written codes of law. The tribe is literate, using a variety of the Devanagari alphabet, and employing hollow tree-trunks at cross-roads as post-boxes. Maize and rice are cul.

and woodworking factories constitute the leading industries. Division headquarters of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley railroad (Illinois Central system) were established here in 1925, when large new passenger and freight stations were built. There is a refinery (of the Standard Oil Company of Louisiana) which has a daily

See Marsden, History of Sumatra (1783); Volz, Archiv für Anthropologie (Braunschweig), xxvi. p. 7173; 1900. (J. H. H)

tivated; the latter on terraces which are ploughed with the aid

of buffaloes; two-storied houses are built on piles, livestock being

kept below the houses; pottery, weaving, jewellery, iron-work, etc., are practised and gunpowder is manufactured. A trinity like that of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva is worshipped, the tribe having been influenced by Hindu civilization. At the same time cannibalism is practised on prisoners of war, criminals and the aged or infirm, the victim being apparently cut up and eaten alive. The eating of captives and criminals appears to be a method of negroes, and was 30,729 in 1930. The {ksvor messre. BoosEY AND satisfying revenge and conferring ignominy; in the case of the city and suburbs were estimated at ©. aged, it appears to be a form of pious interment, as the aged TWO TYPES OF BATON 45,000. invite their own children to eat them. Though the tribe generally a : The baton on the left i The city is built on bluffs, well above aah by "i iseal di is patriarchal the succession to chieftainship is matrilineal, going the highest flood on record. Every street ductor. That on the right to the chief’s sister’s son. Ancestral images are made of soft stone, within the city limits is paved. Charm is a] an > and are sometimes reinforced by the soul of a fallen warrior ingiven By old houses in the Spanish style Edward Vil. to Lord serted by means of a broth made of parts of his body sealed up and by sub-tropical foliage; and there are Kitchener in a cavity in the image. Carved sticks containing a soul which beautiful ante-bellum plantation homes in the vicinity. Sugar, hums are used as standards in war and to drive away disease. cotton, rice, vegetables and fruits are the leading products of the Cannibalism seems to replace headhunting (q.v.). The teeth rich surrounding country. Sugar mills, rice mills, chemical plants are filed and blackened.

capacity of 100,000 barrels of crude oil, covers 1,600ac., and employs 5,000 men. Crude oil comes to it by pipe lines from as far away as Oklahoma and Kansas, and by tank cars and steamers from Mexico, Texas and California; and from it naphtha, gasoline, refined and lubricating oils, gas and fuel oils, paraffin wax, grease, asphalt, and many other products go out to all parts of the world. The State penitentiary and State institutions for the deaf and blind are here. South of the city, 24m. from the capitol, is the

BATTA,

an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derivec

from the Canarese bhkatta (rice in the husk), meaning a specia allowance made to officers, soldiers or other public servants it the field. :

BATTAGLIA TERME, urban district, Venetia, Italy, prov

ince of Padua, 11m. S.S.W. from Padua. Pop. (1921) town 1,114 commune 2,403. It is on the eastern edge of the volcanic Euganeal

hills, and its warm saline springs and natural vapour grotto le the xr7th-century owner, Marchese Selvatico-Estense, to build Palladian palace. Near by is the Cattaio (Ital. for Cathay) palac (1573), of Pio Enea Obizzi, inventor of the shell (Ital. obice, F State university and agricultural and mechanical college, on a obus), after the summer palace of the Chinese court as describe 2,000ac. tract along the river, bought in 1920, and occupied in by Marco Polo.

1925, with 34 buildings (including a Greek theatre) at a cost

of $5,000,000. The university dates back to grants of land made by the United States to the State in 1806, 1811, and 1827 “for

the use of a seminary of learning.” The seminary was opened in 1860, near Alexandria, with General W. T. Sherman as superintendent.

It was suspended 1863-65, destroyed by fire in 1869

and reopened within a fortnight in Baton Rouge in the building of the school for the deaf. In 1877 it became the Louisiana

BATTAKBIN,

African “Arabs” of Semitic stock. The

occupy the banks of the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it wi against them that General Gordon fought most of his battles ne the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed Gordon’s troops on t 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the close investme of Khartum.

BATTALION,

a unit or military organization numbetl

from 500-1,000 men, the latter figure being usually the standa State university; and in the same year the State agricultural and in modern times. The term is used in nearly every army, and ist mechanical college, which had been opened in New Orleans in rived through Fr. from It. battaglione, Med. Lat. battalia (s 1874, was consolidated with it. In 1886 it found quarters in Battie). “Battalion” in the 16th and ryth centuries implied buildings of the United States army post, which are still used unit of infantry forming part of the line of battle, but at fl for part of the instruction. The total net enrolment in 1925—26 meant an unusually large battalic or a single large body of m was 3,358. A summer forestry camp is maintained at Bogalusa. formed of several battalias. In the British Army the infant

BATTAMBANG—BATTERING

213

RAM

battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel, and consists of usually in sections about 2 by 1 in. On board ship the name batten a headquarter wing and four companies, one of them being a | is applied to a strip of wood nailed to a mast to prevent rubbing, machine-gun company. A similar organization prevails in most or to fix down a tarpaulin over a hatchway, in rough weather. BATTENBERG, the name of a family of German counts, foreign armies. Until shortly before the World War the British battalion was divided into eight companies, an inconvenient which died out about 1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellertactical arrangement, and only in 1928 did the British Army burg, near Battenberg, a small place in the Prussian province of come into line with Continental practice by replacing one of Hesse-Nassau. The title was revived in 1851, when Alexander the former four rifle companies by a separate machine-gun (1823~88), a younger son of Louis II., grand-duke of Hesse, concompany. Machine-gun battalions were formed during the World tracted a morganatic marriage with a Polish lady, Countess Julia War, and although discarded since in the British Army, have been Theresa von Hauke (1825-95), who was then created countess revived abroad. Engineers, train, certain kinds of artillery, and of Battenberg. From 1858 the countess and her children were more rarely cavalry are also organized in battalions in some coun- raised to the rank of princes and princesses of Battenberg, with the right to use the additional title of Durchlaucht or Serene tries, and tanks universally. BATTAMBANG or BATTAMBONG (locally Phrata- Highness. In 1917 the eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander

(1854-1921), who had become an admiral in the British navy, was created Marquess of Milford Haven (see Mitrorp Haven, sion,” one of the eastern provinces of Siam. It is in the midst Lours ALEXANDER), and, at the request of King George V., of a fertile plain and on the river Sang Ke, which flows into the the members of the family who lived in England renounced the Tonle or Talé sap, the great lake of Cambodia. The town is a German title of prince of Battenberg and adopted the surname of The second son, Alexander Joseph (1857-89) collection of bamboo houses of no importance, but there is a Mountbatten. walled enceinte of some historical interest. Trade is small and is was elected Prince Alexander I. of Bulgaria in 1879. (See ALEx-

bong), the chief town of the north-western division of Cambodia, formerly capital of Monton Khmer, ze., “The Cambodian Divi-

carried on by Chinese settlers, overland with Bangkok, or by water with Saigon.

The population is about 5,000, two-thirds

Cambodian and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The language is Cambodian. Battambang was taken from Cambodia by the Siamese towards the end of the 18th century, and was recognized by.the French as belonging to Siam when the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted by treaty in 1867—72, but in 1904 Battambang was admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence. In March 1907 (see Sram), the district of Battambang was finally ceded to the French.

BATTANNI, a small tribe on the Waziri border of the North-

West Frontier Province of India from Bannu to the Gomal Valley. There are three sections. In the plains the land is divided into many small divisions, nálás, each forming a single plot, owned by a number of families generally closely related. See H. A. Rose, Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (1911).

BATTEL or BATTELS, a word used at Oxford university for the food ordered by members of the college as distinct from the usual “commons”; and hence college accounts for board and provisions supplied from kitchen,and buttery, and, generally, the

whole of a man’s college accounts. BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (f. 1626-1667), British sailor, son of Andrew Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as taking out letters of marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the post of surveyor to the navy. In March 1642 he was appointed second in command under the earl of Warwick, the parhamentary admiral who took the fleet out of the king’s hands. {t was Vice-Admiral Batten’s squadron which bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there and he was accused by the Royalists of directing his fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen. To the end of the first Civil War, Batten continued to patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in bringing into Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and merchantmen, which had refused the customary salute to the flag, was approved by parliament. When the second Civil War began he was distrusted by the Independents and removed from his command. When part of the fleet revolted against the parlia-

ment, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May 1648, Bat-

ten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, but refused to take command of the fleet, and was allowed to return to England. At the Restoration Sir William Batten became once more surveyor of the navy. In this office he was in constant intercourse oF Pepys, whose diary frequently mentions him. He died in 7 ' See Penn’s Life of Sir W. Penn, and Pepys’s Diary.

BATTEN, in industry a term used in joinery for a board, hot more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, employed for various purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together

laths and other wood-work.

It is also applied to the strips of wood

used in roofing for the fixing of slates or tiles; such battens are

ANDER

OF

BATTENBERG.)

Henry

Maurice,

the

third

son,

married on July 23, 1885, Beatrice, youngest daughter of Victoria, queen of England, became a naturalized Englishman and was appointed captain-general and governor of the Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke. He died at sea, on Jan. 20, 1896, of a fever contracted on active service with the British troops

during the Ashanti War. The fourth son, Francis Joseph (18611924) married, in 1897, Anna, daughter of Nicholas L., prince of Montenegro, and was the author of Die volkswirtschafiliche Entwickelung Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1891). The only daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie Caroline (1852-1923), was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest, prince of Erbach-Schénberg. (For the descendants, with three exceptions, of princes Louis Alexander and Henry Maurice see MOUNTBATTEN.) Princess Alice of Battenberg (b. 1885), only daughter of Prince Louis, and Victoria Eugénie (Princess Ena of

Battenberg) (b. 1887), only daughter of Prince Henry, were both married before 1917, when the German title was renounced, the former to Prince Andrew of Greece, and the latter to Alphonso XIII, king of Spain. Prince Henry’s youngest son, Maurice of Battenberg, was killed in action near Ypres on Oct. 27, 1914, when serving with the King’s Royal Fusiliers. ‘

BATTER, an architectural term used of the sloping surface

of a wall which is thicker at the base than at the top. Battered walls are commonly used where great strength and weight are necessary in the lower parts’ of a construction but not in the upper, as in retaining walls and masonry of weak materials, such as sun-dried brick. Frequently the lower portions of monumental buildings are battered to give the impression of great strength, although-no batter may be structurally necessary.

BATTERING

a military engine used before

the

invention of cannon, for breaking down the walls of besieged fortresses. It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber, armed at the extremity with iron fashioned something like the head of a ram. In its simplest form the beam was carried in the hands of the soldiers, who assailed the walls with it by main force. The improved ram was composed of a longer beam, in some cases extending to r2o0ft., shod with iron at one end, and suspended, either by the middle or from two points, from another beam laid across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus (B.J. ii. 7,19) as having been used at the siege of Jerusalem. The ram was shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse (vinea) or other overhead protection. It was often mounted on wheels,

which greatly facilitated its operations. A hundred soldiers at a time, and sometimes even a greater number, were employed to work it, and the parties were relieved in constant succession. No wall could resist the continued application of the ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to destroy it by various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head of the ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical posi-

214

BATTERSEA— BATTERY

tion by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress. Sometimes

the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse; this if successful would cause the whole engine to fall into the excavation. In mediaeval warfare the low penthouse, called cat, was generally employed with some form of ram. (See also FortirtCATION AND SIEGECRAFT; ENGINES OF War; CATAPULT,)

BATTERSEA,

a south-western metropolitan and parlia-

mentary borough of London, England, bounded north by the Thames, north-east by Lambeth, and south-east, south and west

by Wandsworth.

Pop. (1931) 159,542. The principal thorough-

solved and hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the cop or negative plates; but when the external connection is brokeų

this action ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly pure, probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however, even with open circuit a “local action” occurs due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc plate form miniature voltaic

couples with the zinc itself, thus causing its corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement in the voltaic cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon in 1830, that the evil was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc plates was amalgamated, by

being rubbed with mercury under dilute sulphuric acid. Another disadvantage of the simple cell composed of copper and

fares are Wandsworth road and Battersea Park and York roads from east to west, connected north and south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and Battersea bridges over the Thames. The first two of these three are suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a wooden bridge. An early form of the name is Patricsey or Peter’s Island. The manor in Domesday belonged to the abbey of St. Peter, Westminster, passing under Henry VIII. to the crown, and subsequently to the family of St. John and to the earls Spencer. York road recalls the existence of a palace of the archbishops of York, occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of Edward IV. and Mary. Battersea fields, bordering the river, were formerly a favourite resort. The art of enamelling was introduced, c. 1750, at works in Battersea,

examples from which are highly valued. There are several large factories by the river. The parish church of St. Mary, Church road (1776), preserves from an earlier building stained glass and monuments. Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 ac.) lie partly within the borough, but the public recreation ground is Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert and Victoria bridges. It was constructed by reclaiming marshy ground in 1858. Battersea has returned two members to Parliament since 1918. The borough council consists of a mayor, nine aldermen and 54 councillors. Area, 2,163 acres.

BATTERY, the action of beating, especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see Assautt). The term is applied to the apparatus used in battering, hence its use in military organization for the unit of mobile artillery of all kinds. (See BATTERY MILITARY; ARTILLERY; FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). Also used for the “pitcher” and “catcher” in baseball; for a collection of utensils, primarily of hammered copper or brass, especially in the French term batterie de cuisine; and for the instruments of percussion in an orchestra.

Electric Battery.—This term was formerly applied to a collection of Leyden jars, but is now used for a device for generating electricity by chemical action, or, more exactly, for a number of

such devices joined up together. There are two main classes of electric batteries. In primary batteries, composed of a number of galvanic or voltaic “cells,” “couples,” or “elements,” on the completion of the interactions between the substances on which the production of electricity depends the activity of the cells comes to an end, and can only be restored with the aid of a fresh supply of those substances; in secondary batteries, also called storage batteries or accumulators (qg.v.), the substances after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought back to a condition in which they will again yield an electric current, by means of an electric current passed through them in the reverse direction. The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by Alessandro Volta. In one form, the “voltaic pile,” he placed a series of pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other, separating each pair from the one above it by a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of common salt. In another form, the “couronne de tasses,” he took a number of vessels or cells containing brine or dilute acid and placed in each a zinc plate and a copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch each other within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements an electric current passes through a wire which is connected to the terminal plates

zinc in dilute acid is that the current it yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen

formed by the operation of the cell does not all escape, but some adheres as a film to the negative plate, and the result is the establishment of a counter or reverse electromotive force which opposes the main current flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force. This phenomenon is known as “polarization,” and various remBY COURTESY NEER”

OF

“THE

ENGI.

FIG. 1.—THE ''DARIMONT" CELL In this cell poles of zinc and carbon are separated by a porous pot. A liquid depolarizer of ferrous chloride surrounds the carbon

and a neutral emulsion around the zinc

is

edies have been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of primary batteries. The plan usually adopted, is either to prevent the formation of the film or to introduce into the cell some “‘depolarizer” which will destroy it as it is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see

also ELECTROLYSIS). The former method is exemplified in the

cell invented by J. F. Daniell in 1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric acid (or in a solution of zinc sulphate), and the copper in a saturated solution of copper sulphate, the two liquids being separated by a porous partition. The hydrogen formed by the action of the cell replaces copper in the copper sulphate, and the displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being deposited on the copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive force is about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of forms to suit different purposes. In one class of batteries the diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity alone is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids. The cell of J. H Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as a type of this class. The zinc is formed into a ring which fits the upper part of a glass beaker filled with zinc ‘sulphate solution. At the

(oe eee ee eee eh ee ers E Cie

toe

fede kA Q

et

“THE

ae Q

100

TIME FROM

AA

tet le eA eel ele L LELEL IN Hours

ENGINEER"

FIG. 2.—GRAPH SHOWING DISCHARGE VOLTAGE CURVE OF T:O ‘‘DARIMONT’’ TYPE CELL The cell has a nominal capacity of 50 ampere hours, and a zinc consumption

per ampere hour of 1-25 grammes

bottom of the beaker is placed a smaller beaker, in which stands a ring of copper with an insulated connecting wire. The mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid with a hole in the centre, through which passes the long tapering neck of a glass balloon filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow end of this neck dips into

at the two ends of the series. The direction of this current is the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate slowly runs out, and from copper to zinc; the zinc in each cell being the negative and the copper the positive pole. During the time that the external connection is maintained between the two poles and the current passes in the wire, the zinc or positive plates are gradually dis-

being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate it collects at the

bottom about the copper ring. Depolarization by Oxidation.—Sir W. R. Grove in 1839 employed nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his cell consisting of

215

BATTERY zinc positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid, separated by a porous

The cell was discharged through a resistance of 10 ohms down

from a platinum negative

to 6 volts. The total current yielded amounted to 49 amp. hrs. or

early two volts, but it has the objection of giving off disagreeable

the theoretical figure being 1-213. The Féry primary battery (Journ. Sci. Instr. 1926, 3, 313) is a modification of the Leclanché cell. The corrosion of the zinc at the surface of the liquid and the clogging of the porous pot with insoluble crystals which occurs in the Leclanché cell are obviated by removing the zinc from the surface and placing it as a flat plate in the bottom of the cell and by dispensing with the porous

japhragm of unglazed earthenware

mmersed in concentrated nitric acid. Its electromotive force is 62-1 watt hours. The zinc consumed per amp. hr. was 1-25 grm.,

itrous fumes. R. W. von Bunsen modified Grove’s cell by eplacing the platinum with the cheaper material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a depolarizer, and cells in vhich it is employed are about as powerful as, and more con-

pot and the contained manganese dioxide.

The carbon is in the

form of a long cylinder depending from the top of the cell so that its base is a short distance above the zinc plate, and a solution of sal ammoniac forms the electrolyte. When the battery is in action the zinc dissolves according to the reaction :—

Zn-+-2NH,C]+-2H.O=ZnCl,+-2NH.0H-+-F2 and the hydrogen rises up and is deposited on the carbon and escapes, while the ammoniacal solution, being lighter, also rises to the surface, leaving the heavier zinc chloride solution at the bottom. For low currents the ammonia diffuses into the air, but with heavy currents, when it is produced too fast to escape, it unites with the zinc chloride to form a hydrate as follows :— ZnCl,+-2NH.0OH= zn(OH) ot 2NH.Cl.

The hydrated oxide is, however, very soluble both in the zinc

SCALE OF CENTIMETERS. 0

chloride solution and in the ammonium hydrate, so that it is only in the neutral zone between the two solutions or at about a quar-

is

FROM “JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS”

ter or a third of the height of the carbon that the crystals of the double oxychloride of zinc and ammonium are deposited, and as this is well away from the base of the carbon cylinder near to the zinc, the action of the cell is but little interfered with. The hydrogen deposited on the carbon, which would ordinarily cause polarization is oxidized through absorption of atmospheric oxygen

FIG. 3.—-THREE TYPES OF FERY CELLS FOR PRIMARY BATTERIES

The zinc plate rests on the bottom

of the jar to prevent corrosion and the

carbon plate, in cylinder form, is suspended a few inches above it, a solution of sal ammoniac forming the electrolyte.

No porous pot is used

venient than, either of the preceding. In its two-fluid form the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot containing amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid and a carbon plate surrounded with sulphuric acid and a solution of potassium or sodium bichromate

by the carbon in the portion above the electrolyte. The carbon thus acts as a catalyst in effecting the oxidation of the hydrogen by the air. Fig. 3 shows sections of three types of these cells. In tests made during constant discharge the internal resistance of the battery was about o-25 ohm per cell three months after the commencement, rising to about 1 ohm per cell after nearly two years, and the zinc plates dissolved quite uniformly. Cells ro cm. square and 22 cm. high with a zinc plate weighing 160 grm. are claimed to yield a total energy, either in continuous or interrupted service, amounting to 125 amp. hours. In the “A.D.” Primary Cell (cf. Elect. Rev. [London], 1924, 94, 433) made by Le Carbone Co. the central carbon plate to which the connecting terminal is fixed is held between extremely porous carbons of special manufacture. The surfaces of the carbons are so prepared that they allow gases to pass through, while they remain impervious to liquids. The carbon blocks are sur-

or of chromic acid. But it is commonly used in a one-fluid form,

the porous pot being dispensed with and both zinc and carbon immersed in the chromic acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which either the zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the solution when the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution the sodium salt is preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid to either. In the cell devised by Georges Leclanché in 1868 a solid depolarizer is employed, consisting of manganese dioxide packed with fragments of carbon into a porous pot round a carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive plate, and the electrolyte is a solu-

tion of sal ammoniac. Sometimes no porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the carbon plate. The electromotive force is about one and a half volt. The cell is widely used for such purposes as ringing electric bells, where current is required intermittently, and for such service it will remain effective for

months or years, only needing water to be added to the outer jar occasionally to replace loss by evaporation. On a closed circuit the current rapidly falls off, because the manganese dioxide is unable to oxidize all the hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after polarization. Recent Cells.—In the Darimont cell, fig. 1 (cf. Engineer, 1924,

FROM

“LE

CARBONE”

FIG. 4.—THE “A.D.” PRIMARY CELL, WHICH ALLOWS DEPOLARIZATION TO PROCEED THROUGH ELIMINATION OF YHE HYDROGEN BY AIR ON THE UPPER PROJECTING SURFACES OF THE CARBON

137, 636), which is of the two-fluid type separated by a porous pot, the plates consist of carbon and zinc. The liquid depolarizer around the carbon consists largely of ferric chloride; whilst the electrolyte around the zinc consists of an emulsion formed of

rounded by wrappings of cloth bound in turn with string and rub-

in place of accumulators. Results of tests made on a cell of this

only im a relative sense to denote that the contents of the cell are in a pasty form and not sufficiently fluid to flow if the cell is in-

ber bands. The upper surfaces of the carbon are left well out of sodium chloride, calcium carbonate and other materials, so that the electrolyte and allow depolarization to proceed through conthe electrolyte is always maintained neutral and local action is tact with air. Owing to the absence of any chemical depolarizing consequently negligible. As the internal resistance remains prac- agent, local actions are eliminated and deterioration on standing tically constant when a given voltage has to be maintained, the thereby avoided. The voltage remains constant during discharge, number of cells required is less than usual and the voltage re- and the ampere-hour capacity is stated to be higher than that of mains very steady during the discharge. The capacity of the cell any other primary cell of equal dimensions. Dry Cells.—The term “dry” cell is, in this application, used ishigh and it is very suitable for use with valves for wireless work

type of a normal capacity of so amp. hrs. are shown in fig. 2.

Fg

BATTERY

216

verted. The first practical primary cell of the type in use at present was produced by Gassner in 1888. This cell consisted of a zinc can serving as anode and also as the container for the cell, a carbon rod surrounded by the depolarizing mixture, which was wrapped in cloth, and the electrolyte in the form of a jelly: The open-circuit voltage of this cell was about 1-3 volts, and its shortcircuit current about 6 amperes. At first these were made of a

size 24 in.x6 in. known as the standard dry cell. There soon appeared a miniature type known as the “flashlight” cell. About 1904 the demand for dry cells increased immensely owing to their use in automobile

ignition sys-

tems, though the starting and lighting systems at present in use finally put an end to that demand. A further extensive application for these cells which still continues is for the operation of telephones, for which a special type of cell has been developed. During the last few years a large demand for dry cells has resulted from their application to the “A” circuits of radio receiving sets,

are desirable, but are not always used. These are commonly rb.

ber bands in the small cells, such as are used for flashlight bat.

teries, or Manila cord, which is of considerable size in some of the foreign makes of cells. The solution of sal ammoniac and zine chloride is thickened with flour or other similar materials ang

may also contain other ingredients, differing with manufacturers and kept secret by them.

In the Siemens dry cell (Electrical Review [London], 1927, roo, 3), which is constructed for radio purposes, the carbon electrodes are made from purified retort carbon, which is ag. glomerated by pressure and baking, and the second electrode is made of sheet zinc and forms the outside canister. The depolariz. ing paste which is tamped in the vessel consists of manganese peroxide and carbon together with some graphite, to reduce the internal resistance, and gum. The space between the zinc canister and the depolarizer is filled by pouring in a thin exciting paste consisting of a solution of sal ammoniac, flour and plaster of Paris; the cell is finally filled up with seed husks which allow for

and this in turn has given rise toa F!G. 5.—DRY CELL ‘‘B’ BATTERY,

special type of cell adapted to the SHOWING SEE eae RUCHIN heavy demands imposed upon it in radio service. The application of batteries of miniature cells of this type for operating the “B” circuit also caused a very large expansion in the industry. In the construction most commonly employed at present the cylindrical container consists of zinc, which serves as the zinc plate. Formerly a layer of paste made of flour, plaster of Paris, ammonium chloride, and zinc chloride was then coated around the inside of the zinc container and allowed to set. In a procedure at present largely followed a double layer of paper board is used in place of the separating paste. A carbon rod is then mounted in the centre of the case and packed around with a depolarizing paste the exact composition of which is held as a trade secret, but is stated to be approximately as follows:— Manganese peroxide Carbon or graphite Sal ammoniac Zinc chloride

. 2

;

És

s

‘

;

>

R

.

.

l

:

. IO

E :

. 10

: :

i

. “fe

2 og

Sufficient water is added to make this mixture into a paste, when the zinc chloride prevents the contents becoming too dry.

For the general construction of typical dry cells see fig. 5. Sometimes the electrolyte is made into a jelly with such colloidal material as gum tragacanth, agar agar, gelatin, flour or starch. The electrolyte is therefore unspillable, whether the cell is completely sealed over the top, as is most common in American practice, or is provided with a vent for the escape of gas, as is common in European practice. As the cell is discharged the manganese dioxide is reduced and the effective surface of the electrode travels toward the carbon rad, which

is in the

centre

axially

L PAPER LINER IMPREGNATED WITH ELECTROLYTE a a

a

|\__ CARBON POSITIVE _/ ee

4

ee

CARBON

FIG.

6.-——DRY

SHOWING

ed

+

POSITIVE

CELL

°‘‘B’'

CROSS-SECTION

BATTERY, OF

CON-

with the cell. This carbon rod STRUCTION terminal. an tne common bag type of dry cell battery the manganese di-

a cloth bag or sack. The carbon rod is wrapped in muslin and tied with can be placed in the zine can, leavthe two for the electrolyte in the separate the bag from the zinc can

dioxide electrode in contact with the

solution of ammonium chloride becomes positively charged. This fact may be explained in at least two ways. According to the first theory, hydrogen ions (H;) are discharged at the surface of the composite electrode and render it positive. 2H" —> Ha +

The manganese would otherwise polarize the cell. duced to a lower

a a

\ MIX CAKE „CARBON.& MNO2

DRY.CELLS AND A BATTERY OF 36 CELLS

expansion, and covered with a paper disc through which two small glass ventilating tubes protrude in the case of large cells and the cell is finally sealed with pitch. . An illustration of three standard sizes of cells is shown in fig. 3. The battery shown in fig. 7 is made of 36 cells, connected in series to give a nominal em.f. of 50 volts; its weight is 20 lb. and maximum discharge rate 20 milliamperes. Chemical Reactions in the Dry Cell.—These are not exactly understood, but the. principal changes taking place at the electrodes may be briefly described as follows:— The zinc in contact with the solution of ammonium chloride becomes negatively charged because of the departure of positive zinc tons Zn-- from its surface. As zinc dissolves in the solution, zinc ions, ammonia and hydrogen ions are produced, according to the ionic equations :— Zn + 20 — Zn“. ; NH, — NH; + H’.

The carbon-manganese

only serves to conduct the current out of the mixture to the oxide mixture is contained in with its surrounding mixture string, forming a unit which ing sufficient space between form of a paste. Spacers to

FROM THE “ELECTRICAL REVIEW" FIG. 7.—-THREE SIEMENS

20.

dioxide rapidly oxidizes the hydrogen, which accumulate on the surface of the electrode and The manganese dioxide (MnOz) is thereby restate of oxidation, probably (Mn.03) 2Mn0:

+

He =

Mn:0;

+ H:O.

According to the second theory, the manganese

dioxide gives

tetravalent ions (Mn‘'), which are reduced during the acttion of the cell to ions of a lower valency and thereby furnish positive charges to the electrode

Mr” — Mr“ + @. The manganese dioxide thus diminishes the polarization of the cell, and is at the same time reduced to a lower state of oxida-

tion.

If the positively

charged

electrode

(carbon-manganese

dioxide) is connected with the negatively charged electrode (zinc)

by a wire, a current will flow through the wire from the carbon è

BATTERY

217

to the zinc. Within the cell the current will flow from the zinc

which flows through the voltmeter is generally so small that the

through the electrolyte to the carbon-manganese dioxide.

voltage of the cell is lowered by an amount which is negligible. An accurate voltmeter of at least 100 ohms resistance per volt

Recent Improvements.—These

have been made mainly in

the attainment of increase of amperage yield, capacity, the reduc-

tion of deterioration and the improvement in dependability. These advances have been secured by care in the selection of raw materials, close control

of manufacturing

and testing of the products. Experiments

conducted

methods

and processes,

by G. W. Vinal and R. M. Ritchie

show that dry cells deteriorate even though they are not in service. The small cell wastes away more rapidly than the larger one. Deterioration, however, can be measurably retarded by storing the cells and battery in a cool, dry place. The user of radio apparatus when employing dry cells should not allow them to freeze. Cels must not be tapped for excessive current requirements. A marked gain in capacity is obtained by making the drain on the current light. Desiccated cells are manufactured dry and require the addition of water before they are ready for use. Some of them are manufactured as paper-lined cells and others are of the bag type. Each cell is provided with an opening in the seal or centre of the carbon rod, through which the water necessary to make the cell active may be introduced. Some of them are also provided with a vent. Only two kinds of these cells are well known in this country, but others are now being developed. One of these, called a “reserve” cell, closely resembles an ordinary dry cell. The other, called the “add water,” is of bag-type construction with an inner zinc for the electrode. When in use it contains rather more electrolyte than the ordinary dry cell.

Action of Heat.—The effect of temperature on the opencircuit voltage of dry cells is small and for most purposes can be neglected entirely. The temperature coefficient is positive

of the scale and having at least so divisions per volt should be used for this purpose. The true open-circuit voltage of cells is most conveniently obtained by measuring them with a potentiometer, but this is possible only in the laboratory. The voltage of an unused cell is usually from 1-50 to 1-60 volts. Higher voltages are sometimes found, but do not indicate superiority of cell. Lower voltages than 1-45 volts may indicate manufacturing defects, deterioration due to age, or damage. Abnormally low values indicate probably low service capacity.

Hence the open-circuit voltage test made with a volt-

meter is the best test available for detecting defective cells. The open-circuit voltage, measured by a potentiometer changes

by only a small amount relatively during the life of the cell. In one instance a cell under observation for 20 years still showed 1-36 volts when measured on the potentiometer, although its resistance had increased so that a voltmeter measurement such as is described above showed only o.215 volt. In the short-circuit current test a deadbeat ammeter, accurately calibrated, is used. The resistance of the lead wires and shunt of the ammeter should have a value of o-or ohm to within 0-002 ohm. The maximum swing of the needle is taken as the short-circuit current of the cell. The lead wires are conveniently tipped with lead to make good contact and should be applied to the brass terminals of the cell. Results of tests vary with the temperature. They should be made only when the cell is at a normal room temperature; that is, about 70° F. Intermittent tests are made to imitate the use of cells under average conditions. The three standard intermittent tests are (1) Light intermittent tests, which represent telephone and other

light services. (2) Heavy intermittent test, which represents ignition service, and (3) Flashlight test, which represents flashBetween o° and 25° C (32° and 77° F) the short-circuit cur- light service. rent increases by approximately 1 ampere for each 3° C (5-5° F) Besides the tests mentioned above it may be desirable to make rise in temperature. At higher temperatures the rate of increase other tests, including other physical measurements, chemical exis somewhat less. amination, noise in radio batteries, and the effect of temperaHeat produces deterioration of dry cells in two ways. First, ture. For these no definite procedure has been established. A it tends to produce leakage, this may be observed when the sticky superficial physical examination will occasionally serve to indielectrolyte has oozed out around the seal of the cell. Second, it cate certain defects, such as loose terminals, leaking seals and increases the rate of the chemical reactions taking place within flaws in the zinc. (J.N. P.) the cell, The deterioration of the cells is usually measured by A recent successful departure from accepted standards of “B” the decrease in the short-circuit current with time when the cells battery construction in the United States involves the substitution are stored on open circuit. of flat cells for the usual cylindrical elements. The electrodes for Testing of Cells.—Service tests, which are applied to gauge these cells are made of sheet-zinc, coated on one side with a the efficiency .of cells, include determinations of ampere-hour and water-proof conducting plastic, the latter serving as the cathode watt-hour capacity at both constant current and constant resist- terminal. Upon the coated side of the metal plate is stamped a ance discharge. mix cake consisting of a suitable mixture of manganese dioxide, Since dry cells are mostly used on circuits of which the re- carbon and electrolyte, followed by a layer of wet, pasted pulpsistance is constant or nearly so, the capacity is usually ex- board and a second of coated zinc, this one with its metallic surpressed as the number of hours or days that the cell will continue face in contact with the pulp-board. Another mix cake is then to give service on such a circuit. This period is calculated to the added and the building-up process is continued until a block of time that the terminal voltage has fallen to some arbitrary value the requisite number of cells has been produced. Electrical conbelow which the service is not satisfactory. For example, the cut- tact between cells is obtained through the coated zinc, no separate off voltage of a group of three cells for telephone service is 2-8 connections being provided. The whole battery is finally placed volts. Such service is intermittent and extends over a number of in. a box and sealed. ' months. The capacity of dry cells may also be expressed in terms Lalande Cell.—Second only to the Leclanché in commercial of ampere hours and watt hours, but to obtain these data it is importance is the cell devised by Felix Lalande (1881) and necessary to integrate carefully measured discharge curves. In Georges Chaperon. This element (see Lorenz, Z. Elekirochem., any case the capacity, whether expressed as hours, ampere hours, vol. iv., p. 308, 1897) consists of an amalgamated zinc anode, a or watt hours, depends on the condition of the cells, the way they caustic alkali electrolyte (usually a 15 to 25% solution of sodium are made and the arbitrary choice of the cut-off voltage. hydroxide), and a copper oxide depolarizer-cathode. The copper Apart from the voltage on open circuit it is necessary to de- oxide may be either granular, in which case it is usually tamped termine the rate of exhaustion and the power of recuperation of into a perforated iron or copper container, or agglomerated and the cell. In a method which has now been adopted practically compacted into a cathode block. The use of heavily amalgamated

within the ordinary range of temperatures; that is, an increase

in temperature is accompanied by a rise in voltage.

as standard, the cell is discharged five minutes daily through a

4 se

cee until the e.m.f. falls to a value of 0-75 volt

per cell.

zinc (1-0 to 2.5% mercury) reduces wasteful zinc corrosion to such an extent that cell deterioration with time is very slight. The evaporation of electrolyte, or the access of carbon dioxide

The Open-Circuit Voltage test is usually made with a voltmeter through which some current necessarily flows. It is, there-

which is also deleterious to cell action, is obviated by pouring a

fore, not strictly an open circuit measurement, but the current

Lalande cell has an open-circuit voltage of 1-0 to 1-4 and an

layer of paraffin oil over the surface of the electrolyte.

The

218

BATTERY—BATTISHILL

operating voltage, depending on the current drain, usually ranging from o-6 to 0-85 volt in ordinary commercial practice. Depolarization is rapid and efficient, hence large currents can be drawn from the cell. During discharge zinc goes into solution,

while hydrogen is liberated at the cathode where it is oxidized

sections, one caisson section and one maintenance section. Each section contains the necessary personnel, animals and to perform its functions effectively. The battery is unit irrespective of calibre and type. In a division it is the French 75 mm. gun, model 1917. Each gun and

to water by the copper oxide; the latter is simultaneously reduced in successive stages to metallic copper during the process. Zinc in solution appears to be largely in the form of a zincate complex

equipment a four guy armed with limber, or caisson and limber, is drawn by a six-horse team (see ARTILLERY:

FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT).

BATTHYÁNY, LOUIS (Lajos), Count (1806-1849),

(HZnO,). Since the zinc ion concentration remains low and the Hungarian statesman, was born at Presburg in 1806. When Szé. voltage changes during copper oxide reduction (of the order of chenyi drew nearer to the court in 1839-40, Batthyany became 0-2 volt) are small, the cell has remarkably well-sustained operat- the leader of the opposition in the upper house. In 1847 he pro. ing voltage during the period of service life. Cell action proceeds cured the election of Kossuth, took part in the deputation of until the active electrodes are used up or, in case the electrolyte March 1s, and on March 31, 1848, became the first constitutional is the limiting factor, until zinc hydroxide [Zn(OH)2] or a prime minister of Hungary. His position became extremely diff. hydrated sodium zincate of the type (NaHZnO2-9H.0) crys- cult when Jellachich and the Croats took up arms. He did his wtallizes from the saturated solution and prevents further opera- most, in his frequent journeys to Innsbruck, to persuade the court tion by forming non-conducting deposits on the active electrode to condemn Jellachich and establish a strong national government surfaces. By the addition of small quantities of sulphur to the at Budapest. Unfortunately, however, he was persuaded to consent depolarizer as practised in the Columbia high voltage unit (manu- to the despatch of Magyar troops to quell the Italian rising, before factured in the United States), the operating voltage can be the Croat difficulty had been adjusted, and thenceforth his authorincreased by about o-1 volt. ity in Hungary declined. When Jellachich invaded Hungary, Bat. The Lalande cell is one of the most efficient and satisfactory thyany resigned, with the intention of forming a new ministry primary batteries known to-day for the special classes of service excluding Kossuth, but this had now become impossible. Then to which it is suited. It lends itself readily to rugged construction; Batthyany attempted to mediate between the two extreme parties, it is relatively cheap to make and operate; it is very reliable in its and subsequently raised a regiment from among his peasantry and action and has a high current output per unit of volume (about led them against the Croats. He formed the deputation from the I ampere hour per 8 cc. of electrolyte). The cell is made in units Hungarian diet to Prince Windischgratz, whom the Austrian comas large as 500 to 1,000 ampere hour sizes. Because it requires mander refused to receive. A few days later (Jan. 8, 1849) he no attention for long periods of time and because of its excellent was arrested at Budapest. As a magnate he was only indictable continuous discharge and heavy duty characteristics, the Lalande by the grand justiciary, as a minister he was responsible to the diet cell is at present much used in railway signal operation. It can alone. At Laibach, whither he was taken, he asked that Deak be made in dry or non-spillable form either by gelatinizing the might be his advocate, but this being refused, he wrote his own caustic soda solution with small quantities of starch or by using defence. Sentence of hanging was finally pronounced upon him at such expedients as making a paste out of electrolyte and mag- Olmiitz for violating the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the constitution, and aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this nesium oxide. Air cells of the Lalande type, in which a porous carbon acces- fate he stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled sible to air is substituted for the usual copper oxide element, are to death in the night of Oct. 5, 1849. See Bertalan Szemere, Batthyány, Kossuth, Görgei (Ger.) (Hamalso feasible. These have an even more horizontal discharge curve than the copper oxide cell, since the potential of the cathode burg, 1853). remains virtually unchanged during service life. The caustic BATTIADAE, descendants of Battus of Thera, who in the soda air cell has an open circuit voltage of 1-35 to 1-45 and an latter half of the 7th century B.c. led a colony from Thera to operating voltage even on comparatively heavy drains above Africa, on the instructions of the Delphic oracle. This colony was 1-0 volt—perhaps 0-4 to o-5 volt higher than that of a standard given the name Cyrene, and was ruled by his descendants for copper oxide cell. The carbon electrode can be used repeatedly, seven generations as kings. On the death of the last (Arcesilaus only zinc and electrolyte requiring renewal each time the cell is IV.) about 450, a democracy came into power. completely discharged. (G. W.H.) BATTICALOA, the administrative capital of the easter BrariocraPpHy.—W. R. Cooper, “Primary Batteries” (London, province of Ceylon, on the east coast 69m. south-south-east of 190r); Park Benjamin, “The Voltaic Cell” (New York, 1893); W. E. Trincomalee, situated on an island in lat. 7° 44’ N. and long. 81° Ayrton, “Practical Electricity” (London, 1896); H. S. Carhart, “Primary Batteries,” 1896. See also Circular of the Bureau of s2’ E. It is of importance for its haven and the adjacent salt Standards, No. 79, “Electrical Characteristics and Testing of Dry Cells” lagoons. The population of the town in 1921 was 10,564; of the (Washington, 1923). province (3,848 sq.m.) 192,821. The old Dutch fort dates from BATTERY, MILITARY, the men, horses, guns and vehicles 1682. Rice and coco-nuts are the two staple products of the disof the smallest independent artillery unit (from Fr. battre, to trict, and steamers trading round the island call regularly at the beat). The name was first employed in the British army at the port. The lagoon is famous for its “singing fish,” supposed to be time of the Crimean War, and in 1859 all existing artillery units shell-fish which give forth musical notes. The survivors of the were renamed batteries. The unit consists of four, six or eight guns Veddahs, the aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon, inhabit rockwith their teams, animals or tractors, and a corresponding number shelters and huts in this province. The average annual rainfall is of vehicles for ammunition. Field batteries are horse- or tractor- sshin.; the average temperature 80-4° F. A railway joining Bat drawn, and usually form an integral part of infantry divisions. ticaloa to the Trincomalee-Maho line, which it joins at Galoya, is Light, pack or mountain batteries, the guns of which are often under construction. BATTISHILL, JONATHAN (1738-1801), English comcarried in pieces on horses or mules, usually act independently, though in the British army some are incorporated in the divisional poser of church music. Until 1764 he wrote chiefly for the theatre organization. Medium and heavy batteries, which are usually (incidental songs, pantomime music, and an opera in collabora tractor-drawn, and anti-aircraft batteries, the guns of which are tion with Michael Arne, the son of Thomas Arne), but in 1764 mounted on lorries or on travelling platforms, are normally corps he became organist of a city parish, and his later compositions or army troops, and are not allotted to divisions.

;

United States.—The battery is the smallest administrative unit of field artillery in the United States military service and is normally commanded by a captain. One first lieutenant and two second lieutenants complete the offcer personnel. The enlisted strength varies with type of equipment. To facilitate technical operation it Is organized into a battery headquarters, four gun

are chiefly glees, part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had

married a singer at Covent Garden theatre where he was harp

sichordist.

She retired from her profession when she married.

After her death in 1777 he wrote little more.

ton on Dec. 10, 1801.

He died at Isling-

Batthishill published a collection of his

glees in 1776, and some of his anthems and chants were printed in 1804.

BATTLE—BATTLE

219

CREEK

BATTLE, urban district, Sussex, England, 544 m. S.E. by S.

names, and it seems to have been intended to show which families

sea the the the an

had “come over with the Conqueror,” and to have been compiled about the 14th century. The compiler appears to have been in-

from London by the Southern railway and 7 m. from the at Hastings. Pop. (1931) 3,490. Its name is derived from conflict in 1066, which ensured to William the Norman crown of England (see also BATTLE ABBEY Roti). Before battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to build

abbey on the spot if he should prove victorious, and in 1094 the consecration took place. The gatehouse at the end of the main street is Decorated; and parts of foundations of the Norman church, Perpendicular cloisters, and Early English refectory re-

main. A mansion incorporates some

of the ancient building.

The church of St. Mary is transitional Norman and later. The interests of the town lie in agricultural trade and in a considerable tourist traffic.

BATTLE, a general engagement between the armed forces,

naval or military, of enemies. The word is derived from the Fr. bataille, and tbis, like the Ital. battaglia, and Span. batalla, comes from the popular Lat. battalia. Battalia was used for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to the body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the use of the word

fluenced by the French sound of names, and to have included many families of later settlement, such as that of Grandson, which did

not come to England from Savoy quest.The roll itself appears to the 16th century, but other lists the 15th century, as the duchess

till two centuries after the Conbe unheard-of before and after were current at least as early as of Cleveland has shown.

See Leland, Collectanea; Holinshed, Chronicles of England; Duchesne, Historia Norm. Scriptores; Brydges, Censura Literaria; Thierry, Conquête de PAngleterre, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, The Roll of Battle Abbey (annotated, 1848); Planché, The Conqueror and His Companions (1874); duchess of Cleveland, Tke Battle Abbey Rol (1889); Round, “The Companions of the Conqueror” (Monthly Review, 1901, iii. pp. 91-111). (J. H. R.)

BATTLE-AXE,

a cleaving weapon for hand-fighting.

Its

use as a weapon of war dates from the bronze age. According to Homer, Agamemnon was atta.ked by Peisander with such a weapon. In the 11th century the Danish battle-axe was a regular part of the equipment of fighting men in England and under the Statute of Winchester of 1285 certain classes were required to “battalion” (q.v.). A “pitched battle,” loosely used as meaning almost a decisive maintain these weapons. In the r4th century the classic example engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on of its effective employment was when Robert the Bruce felled Sir ground previously selected, French bataille arrangée, opposed Henry de Bohun with a single blow the day before the battle of to bataille manoeuvrée, which is intended but may come off on Bannockburn (June 23, 1314). It was sometimes the custom to any ground. In modern English usage the two types are distin- secure the axe to the wrist by a chain to ensure its retention. The guished by the titles “deliberate” and “encounter.” With “battle,” oldest body-guard of the English sovereigns, the Honourable in its usual meaning of a general engagement of hostile armies, are Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, introduced battle-axes into its contrasted “skirmish,” a fight between small bodies (“‘skirmish- equipment in 1526 and for centuries all their duties were ordered ing” technically means fighting by troops in extended or irregular to be carried out “with their axes” or “with their pole-axes.” At order), and “action,” a more or less similar engagement between the funeral of a sovereign the axe was carried in the left hand, reversed and draped. In 1520 “The Battle-Axe Guard of Irelarger bodies of troops. (See also Tactics and StraTecy.) A “battle” is essentially a climax m which each army brings to land” came into existence with duties similar to those of the bear all its available forces and resources, and which, therefore, Yeomen of the Guard. It was disbanded in 1833. There is in the by the greatness of the stake is likely to have a vital influence Royal Artillery a battery known as “The Battle-Axe Company” on the fortunes of the campaign. The term “battle” was loosely which is the descendant of the Artillery Company which distinapplied to many of the prolonged trench-warfare operations of guished itself at the capture of Martinique in 1809 and was granted the World War, e.g., Battle of the Somme, but the term was not a battle-axe in commemoration of the service. The original axe is truly justified, both because the offensive effort was punctuated now in the possession of the 25th Medium Battery, Royal Artilby long pauses during which both sides could redistribute or lery, the “Battle-Axe Company.” BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, relieve the forces engaged—so creating a fresh situation—and because only a small proportion of the available forces were en- U.S.A., 115m. west of Detroit, at the confluence of Battle Creek gaged in any one episode. Certain of these episodes, e.g., the with the Kalamazoo river. It is on Federal highway r2; is served attacks of July 1 and July 14, 1916, had a better claim to be by the Michigan Central, the Grand Trunk, and the Michigan termed “battles”; but if qualified by the time test they are hardly (electric) railways; and has a municipal airport just outside the justified by the scale test, owing to the small fraction of the city limits. The population was 18,563 in 1900; 36,164 in 1920, armies which were actually engaged. On the other hand, their of whom 3,378 were foreign-born white, and 1,055 were negroes; : nature accords admirably with the terminology which is histori- and was 43,573 In 1930. The Battle Creek sanatorium, housing 1,200 patients, estabcally used of siege operations. The importance of this exact use of language is that it serves to place the Western front campaign lished in 1866 by Dr. J. H. Kellogg, was a pioneer in dietetic and hygienic treatment, and is a health resort of international rein its true form as a gigantic siege. BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to nown. It has also influenced the industrial development. The have been a list of William the Conqueror’s companions preserved city’s leading products are prepared cereal foods and beverages, at Battle Abbey, on the site of his victory over Harold. It is known which go to all parts of the world; and its other manufactures to us only from 16th century versions of it published by Leland, include cartons to hold these products; machines to line, fill, Holinshed, and Duchesne, all more or less imperfect and corrupt. seal, and wrap the cartons; electric-light bath cabinets, oxyHolinshed’s is much the fullest, but of its 629 names several are gentherapy and hydrotherapy apparatus, therapeutic lamps, viduplicates. The versions of Leland and Duchesne each contain bratory chairs, massage tables, trusses and other appliances, farm many names not found elsewhere. It was so obvious that several implements, steam pumps and gas stoves. The output of the 108 names had no right on the roll that Camden held them to have establishments within the city limits in 1927 was valued at been interpolated by the monks, “not without their own advan-

$74,257,588.

tage.” Modern writers have gone further, Sir Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as “a disgusting forgery,” and E. A. Freeman dismissing it as “a transparent fiction.” An attempt to vindicate

three schools conducted by the sanatorium:

the roll was made by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose Battle Abbey Roll (1889) is the best guide to its contents. It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family sur-

‘This is the same word as “scrimmage,” and is derived from the Ang.-Fr. eskrimir, modern

how to fence.

escrimer, properly to fight behind cover,

The origin of this is the O.H.G. scirman, to fight

behind a shield, scirm, M.G. Schirm.

Battle Creek college was formed in 1923 on the foundation of the nurses’ training

school, founded in 1880; the school of home economics; and the Kellogg school of physical education. Its equipment includes a summer camp on an island in Gull lake and a biological preserve of 113 acres. Battle Creek is the trade centre for a rich farming region. The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $63,700,000. Within 15m. are 20 lakes and numerous streams providing good fishing. There are three golf courses, one of them owned by the city. The site of the city was an Indian camping ground and the scene of

220

BATTLEDORE

AND

SHUTTLECOCK—BATTLESHIP

many early conflicts, to which it owes its name. It was settled in 1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, and chartered as a city in 1859. It has a commission form of government. BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two persons with small rackets, called battledores, made of parchment or rows of gut stretched across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, made of a base of some light material, like cork, with trimmed feathers fixed round the top. The object of the players is to bat the shuttlecock from one to the other as many times as possible without allowing it to fall to the ground. There are Greek drawings extant representing a game almost identical with battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, Japan, India, and Siam for at least 2,000 years. In Europe it has been played by children for centuries. A further development is Badminton (g.v.).

BATTLEMENT,

a term given to the parapet of a wall

shell, as distinct from solid shot, hastened the advent of the iron. clad. The sailing navy died hard, owing to the conservatism of the

times, and it was not until the tragic loss of the turret ship “Cap. tain,” which capsized in the Bay of Biscay, had proved the futility

of combining the obsolete with the modern, that masts and sails

finally disappeared from battleships.

Already there had started

the duel between guns and armour, a duel which continues to this

day and which, in practice, necessitates a compromise with speed in all big warships. From time to time the battleship has been declared to be useless and obsolete. The invention of the torpedo and the construction of the torpedo-boat were loudly proclaimed to have sounded her death-knell, but with these, as with all new forms of weapons, we see an example of the enduring principle that for every form of

attack there is an effective form of defence.

At the time, the

answer to the torpedo was the crinoline-like net defence with which the battleship surrounded herself, coupled with batteries of quick.

consisting of alternating low portions known as “crenels” (hence “crenellated” walls with battlements) and high portions called firing guns, and better watertight sub-division. With experience, “merlons.” Battlements were devised in order that warriors the limitations of the torpedo-boat, just as those of the submarine might be protected by the merlons and yet be able to discharge in later times, became more apparent. The torpedo-boat, like the arrows or other missiles through the crenels. The battlement is submarine, had to count for its success mainly on surprise. This it an early development in military architecture; it is found in secured by its speed and comparative invisibility, due to the diff. Chaldea, Egypt and prehistoric Greece as well as commonly in culty of seeing so small an object in the dark. But it was severely Roman fortifications. It was in the middle ages that the battle- handicapped by bad weather, and it had no great radius of action: ment received its highest development, crenels being narrowed, moreover, an antidote was found to this new menace in the deand frequently given splayed sides, the merlons often having in stroyer—the predominant typeof surface torpedo craft. The torpedo-boat, as a type, disappeared, and the destroyer bethe centre a thin slit sometimes cross-shaped to give the widest possible arc for the discharge of missiles. The developed mediae- came her sea-going successor and, in turn, a yet more formidable val battlement was frequently bracketed out from the face of the challenge to the battleship. This new danger was met by equipping wall and holes in its floor were furnished to allow objects to be the battle fleet with attendant -flotillas of destroyers, carrying a dropped directly downward upon attacking forces. In actual powerful armament of guns, to counter the enemy’s flotilla. In siege use the battlement was usually covered with a protecting addition these flotillas were given the support of fast light cruisers. It was found that, with the greatly increased speed of modem shed of timber and hides. In the Saracen countries and in Italy, through Eastern influ- battleships, a net defence at sea was impracticable, while immunity ence, the battlement frequently takes decorative shapes, and from torpedo attack in harbour was far better secured by local towards the end of the Gothic period, as the military necessity booms, fixed nets and batteries to guard the entrance. On the other decreased, the battlement became merely decorative. A similar hand, the battleships’ own defence was improved by better underpersistence of the battlement as a purely decorative form occurs water construction, including the system known as the “bulge” in much late Gothic throughout Europe; especially in the per- (see further TecuHnicaL Aspects), and by a powerful secondary pendicular work in England, when it is richly ornamented with armament, more efficient fire-control and laying systems for the guns and searchlights, star-shells and a number of other technical tracery and frequently pierced as well. | For a complete discussion see Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionaire raisonné de appliances. In this connection it is interesting to note that the P Architecture francaise, especially articles Architecture militaire, German battle fleet broke through, the massed flotillas of the Chateau, Donjon, Hourd, Machicoulis and Siége. ‘ Grand Fleet the night after Jutland (q.v.) and reached harbour BATTLESHIP. It is the mistaken notion of an uninformed with the loss of only one battleship due to destroyer attack. In section of the Press and public that the battleship is a warship of a the numerous destroyer attacks made during the daylight action, settled type and that, by reason of new forms of attack, this type no capital ship was lost on either side. It may fairly be said, thereis now, in great measure, obsolete. Actually the term “battleship” fore, that ‘the torpedo, fired from surface craft, has completely implies the “predominant surface ship,” a warship which can hit failed to render the battleship obsolete, but it should be noted harder, and better withstand all forms of attack than any other that the mobility of a battle fleet is dependent on it being properly ship afloat. Logically, therefore, if the battleship is doomed any equipped with cruiser squadrons and destroyer flotillas. Two new menaces to the surface ship generally have arisen in less powerful type of warship is doomed, because speed, the one quality in which lesser ships may be superior to the battleship, the shape of the elusive aeroplane capable of attacking with toris obviously not an all-sufficient defence, If the battleship cannot pedo or bomb, and the almost invisible submarine. These in their keep the sea owing to the menace of the submarine or the aircraft, turn have been proclaimed as being so formidable that once then neither can the cruiser, the destroyer, the aircraft-carrier nor again the battleship is doomed, but, as in the case of the torpedopatrol and escorting vessels. This can only lead to the conclusion boat, those who regard.such new weapons as irresistible fail to perthat in a future war all surface vessels, especially unprotected ceive their limitations, nor do they realize that the latest design af merchant ships, are helpless, in which case the fate of the British battleship is, both in its powers of resistance and in those of

Empire is already sealed. In reality this is very far from being the case and the conception of the battleship as a senile leviathan retained by a conservative Admiralty is ridiculous. The battleship of to-day is the lineal descendant of the ship of the line of the

sailing ship era, just as the cruiser is that of the frigate. Her busi-

ness is to fight in company with ships of her own class and the battle fleet is really the fulcrum on which the whole of sea power hinges; remove it, and the value of a surface fleet will be negligible

in the face of an enemy with more powerful warships. In the 18th century the standard “battleship” was the 74-gun two-decker and the “super-dreadnought” of that era was the 90- to

roo-gun three-decker.

Steam as an auxiliary form of propulsion

was installed in ships of the line about 1850; then the invention of

offence, as much an advance on the pre-war design as that was on the first iron-clad, or the latter on the wooden three-decker. Still less do they realize that, ultimately, an effective answer to both these new perils to sea security rests on the predominant surface warship, the so-called battleship. The torpedo- or bomb-dropping aircraft is an untried weapon, save for experiments on material. Up to date, these give no indication that the modern battleship is at the mercy of the aeroplane. The aircraft has to hit a comparatively small target when flying at very high speed, probably in the teeth of a hail of anti-aircraft

gunfire. It takes several torpedoes to sink a modern battleship; 3 bomb, to be most effective, must be dropped, not on the heavily armoured deck, but close alongside, and timed to explode under

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MODERN

BATTLESHIPS

l. U.S.S. “Colorado”; 32,600 tons; armour 16-14 in. belt; speed 21 knots 2. Italian battleship “Duilio”; 22,562 tons; armour 934-8 in.; 22 knots 3. Japanese battleship “Mutsu”; 33,800 tons; armour 12 in.; speed 25 knots

OF

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NATIONS

4. H.M.S. “Rodney”; 35,000 tons; armour 14 in. belt; speed 23 knots 5. French battleship “Bretagne’’; 23,128 tons; armour 1034 in.; 20 knots 6. U.S.S. “West Virginia’; of the same class as the U.S.S. “Colorado”

BATTLESHIP

221

TECHNICAL ASPECTS The modern battleship is the lineal descendant of the “ships of the line” of Nelson’s day of which the “Victory,” now jealously to-day, is so well armoured and protected under water that she can preserved in H.M. dockyard at Portsmouth, was the most famous withstand such attacks just as well, if not better, than the gunfire example. Such ships are at the head of the many types of ships forming a navy. They are fitted with the most powerful armawhich she has always had to endure. In the World War the submarine signally failed against the ment available and form the main striking force in a naval war. The history of the modern battleship, apart from the adoption battleship. Old battleships, unescorted, or lying stationary in the open, were naturally the victims of under-water attack; but no of all improvements in materials and methods due to general scisingle battleship of the Grand Fleet was hit, much less sunk, by entific advance, is one of continuous rivalry between guns and a submarine, even though they were constantly cruising in the armour, and when we speak of guns we must also include the shells narrow waters of the North Sea. On the other hand, an enemy which are fired from the guns, as a shell to do great damage must not only be fired to hit the target but must also be strong enough submarine was rammed and sunk by H.M.S. “Dreadnought.” Since the War, anti-submarine measures and devices have been to penetrate the armour (q.v.) and explode inside the ship with further developed and, although the submarine, too, has become devastating effect. With the gradual advance in the power of ordmore formidable, it is no exaggeration to say it is less of a menace nance it has been necessary to provide more and more efficient to the battleship now than it was during the War. Whatever inter- protection to enable the battleship to withstand the shot and shell national agreements may be signed in peace-time, there can be no of the enemy, and the size of each new ship laid down increases as absolute guarantee that a desperate enemy will not use both aero- the power of the gun increases. The climax of this development is planes and submarines to attack shipping in war-time. Aircraft shown on the table of the latest battleships of the five great Naval attack is met by escorting aircraft and by ships’ anti-aircraft guns. Powers at the end of this article. Owing to the Washington Treaty, Outside the range of air escort, working from a shore base, such a limit of displacement of 35,000 tons is now imposed on all defending aircraft may have to be launched from aircraft-carriers, future capital ships. possibly converted merchant ships fitted with catapults, while Ships of the British Navy up to the year 1860 were still being both the peaceful trader and her escort will have to be fitted with built of wood with broadside guns, after the manner of the “Vicguns capable of being used against both aircraft and submarines. tory.” For the next ten years, 44” wrought iron plates were used The experience of the World War showed that the most effective as armour on the sides of these vessels. This armour was proof form of defence against submarine attack was to sail shipping in against shot from the 68 pdr. gun at a range of 100 yards, this convoys (g.v.), with armed escorts, but such passive defence had being the largest gun in use at this period. In 1859, the “Warrior,” to be supplemented by active anti-submarine operations on a very an iron armoured ship was started. She was 380 ft. long, 9,200

water to give the effect of a mine: a most difficult thing to accom-

plish. In practice, fleet aircraft and the anti-aircraft batteries of adiacent ships will assist in the defence, while the battleship,

large scale. Unlike the aeroplane, the main antidote to the sub- tons displacement, and rather more than one half her length was marine is not the submarine, but the surface craft with detecting covered with 44” wrought iron plates. The armament was all on gear, depth charges, guns or mines. (See SUBMARINE CAMPAIGN.) the broadside and she was armed with the new Armstrong roo pdr. In the World War, the submarine menace, which almost secured a gun. The ship was fully rigged and her single-screw machinery strangle-hold on the Allies, was mainly defeated by an array of gave her a speed of 144 knots. There was great opposition to small surface craft. These could not have operated effectively and building a war vessel of iron, and it is narrated that the First must have been continually driven from their work, but for the Lord of the Admiralty remarked to the builder: “I often wonder covering support of destroyers and cruisers; but the latter, in how I mustered sufficient courage to order the construction of turn, would have been driven from the sea by the enemy’s battle- such a novel vessel,” to which the builder replied: “I often woncruisers and battleships had it not been for the Grand Fleet which der how I mustered sufficient courage to undertake the construceffectively contained the German High Sea Fleet and drove it back tion of such a novel vessel.” The “Warrior” was, of course, fully into harbour whenever it appeared. (See JUTLAND and DOGGER rigged; her single screw machinery was of sufficient power to propel her at a speed of 143 knots. BANK.) ! The “Warrior” and her sister ship, the “Black Prince,” were It will be seen, therefore, that the answer to the air menace to sea-borne commerce is, under certain conditions, the sea-borne succeeded by the “Achilles,” Minotaur,” “Agincourt” and “Noraeroplane and the escort vessel with anti-aircraft guns, and to the thumberland” of the same general type. The “Minotaur” was a submarine menace the convoy system, the armed escort and the vessel 400 ft. long, and of 10,690 tons displacement, with the array of surface submarine-hunters. It has also been demonstrated armour extending the whole length, thus protecting the vulnerable that the security against these new foes, as against the older sur- steering gear, and having a maximum thickness of 54”. These face raider, depends entirely on the existence of a surface navy, vessels proved too long to be handy under sail, and the next step the most important unit of which is the “predominant surface was the production of a shorter and handier ship, the “Belleroship"—the battleship. So well was this realized after the War that phon,” 300 ft. long, 7,550 tons. Vessels on somewhat similar lines

there seemed danger that the principal naval powers would embark

continued until about 1875, and as the series progressed fewer

on a race to produce the most powerful type of warship afloat.

guns of greater size were carried and these were placed in a battery amidships with thick armour on the sides. Thus, “Temeraire” in 1877 had a belt of 11” armour with 8” on the midship battery, her armament being 4-11”, 4-10”, and 6—4” guns.

The good sense and good will of the respective governments and their naval advisers, however, effected a check on such ruinous competition and by the Washington Treaty (g.v.) battleships

are now limited both in size and numbers. A further attempt to effect limitations in size was made by the British representatives

at the naval conference at Geneva in 1927, but, although the Japanese representatives were favourably disposed towards the proposal, the United States delegates were unable to subscribe to

them. In this connection, however, it should be realized that

whatever limitations are imposed on the battleship by international concessions, the principle of the “predominant surface ship” remains. This type of warship might, by agreement, become the fo,000 ton or even the 5,000 ton cruiser, but, with each reduction iN tonnage, the capabilities, offensive'and defensive, of the ship must necessarily decline, and with them the sense of sea security.

It is for this reason that responsible naval opinion is disinclined to teducedrastically the characteristics of the modern battleship. (E. A.)

The revolving armoured turret, mounted in a low freeboard Monitor came prominently to notice during the American Civil War, when Ericsson’s “Monitor” with a turret containing 2-11” guns, defeated the Confederate vessel “Merrimac.” Revolving armoured turrets were, first introduced into the British Navy in the “Royal Sovereign” in 1862; this ship was a 3-deck line-ofbattle ship, cut down to a height of about 7 ft. above the water and fitted with armoured turrets and side armour; but the ‘““Monarch,” designed in 1866, and the “Captain,” were the two first iron turret ships built as such for the Royal Navy; both were full rigged ships. The type-vessel for the turret ship was, however, the “Devastation,” laid down in 1869, in which the armament con-

sisted of 4-35 ton guns contained in 2 revolving turrets of 14”

thickness, placed on the middle line. Sails were definitely abandoned and the propelling machinery was duplicated. The armour

222

BATTLESHIP

belt had a maximum thickness of 12”, tapering to 8” at the ends. She was 285 ft. in length, 9,320 tons displacement, and had a speed of 14-2 knots. The “Devastation” type continued for the next 20 years, but owing to the rapid increase in the power of the large guns, the protecting armour had to be successively increased in thickness, and a stage was eventually reached, when, owing to limitations of weight, the area of side that could be armoured had to be confined to the most vulnerable portion of the ship amidships, where the machinery and the heavy guns were situated. The wrought-iron armour plates had then become 12” thick, and even with this thickness two layers had to be provided in some cases to give the necessary protection. Compound armour consisting of a wrought-iron plate with a steel face welded on was introduced about 1873, the steel face being hardened to break up projectiles, while the tough wrought-iron back prevented the cracking and shattering of the plate. With such armour a lesser thickness would give the same protection. Successive improvements in the manufacture of this armour increased its value as compared with wrought iron, from 1-25 to 1-7, and it was used in the British Navy up to 1889. Ships of the “Devastation” type carried a few heavy guns and no secondary armament. They had comparatively low freeboard and were greatly inferior to presentday ships in their power of keeping the sea. The last of the type were the “Admiral” class, of which 6 were built. They were 325 ft. long and 9,500 tons displacement, and had an armour belt 18” thick at the waterline, only 7’ 6” broad over rather less than half the length. The armament consisted of 4-12” guns, arranged in 2 barbettes at the end of the armoured citadels, with a secondary armament of six 6” guns. Speed was 164 knots. This class was much criticised, chiefly on account of the extent of the unprotected side abreast the 6” guns and the insufficiency of the area of the protected side of the citadel. It was rightly contended that a light vessel armed with many comparatively small quick-firing guns could quickly riddle the whole of their upper works and put them out of action. Up to this period the general idea had been to keep the displacement so that it should not exceed 10,000 tons, and to keep the dimensions so small that the ship should be capable of ramming in a fleet action. As a result of the controversies aroused, and the natures of the ships which other nations started to build, a radical departure was made in the “Royal Sovereign” Class of 1889. The length of the ship was substantially increased and the displacement raised to 14,150 tons. A secondary

armament of 10-6” guns in armoured casemates was provided.

instead of Harvey in “Formidable” Class (1900), 4-9-2” guns jp

ce

in addition to other armament in “King Edward VII"

1902). The modern Navy starts with the “Dreadnought,” which ship was the outcome of an Admiralty Committee appointed in Decem. ber 1904 to review the types of fighting ships which the Board of

Admiralty proposed to adopt for future building. The member

of the Committee were naval and civilian officers of large and

varied experience, and Admiral Sir John (later Lord) Fisher was appointed Chairman. Experience of earlier vessels in the Channel and Atlantic Fleets and the lessons of the naval actions in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 were taken into account and pointed to the great importance of increasing the number of the heavy long range gun. The advisability of extra speed was recog. nised and to obtain it propulsion by turbine machinery was

adopted, it having been experimented with in several small war. ships and used in fast passenger vessels. The design as finally adopted was 49oft. long and 17,900 tons displacement, armament 10—12” guns in 5 turrets, three on the centre line and two at the sides abreast the mast, no secondary armament of 6” guns, but 24 12pdrs. to deal with torpedo attack. The thickest armour was

11” and the belt and deck followed the arrangement of previous ships. The turbine machinery developed 23,coo H.P. on 4 shafts,

giving a speed of 2r knots. About one-third of her fuel supply consisted of oil fuel. Laid down in October 1905, she was completed and commissioned in December 1906, and immediately proceeded on long-distance trials in the Atlantic to test the turbine machinery for reliability and endurance. From this time onward till the World War, British battleships followed on progressively without departing from the essential principles of the type. `

This type was followed in all its main features in the ships laid down up to the year 1908, namely, the “‘Superb,” “Bellerophon” and “Temeraire,” “St. Vincent,” “Vanguard” and “Collingwood”; but ro to 12 4in, guns replaced the 12-pounders. In the “Neptune”

and “Hercules” laid down in 1909 the five turrets were disposed differently. In the latter ship the length had increased to 5uoit. and the displacement to 20,000 tons. In the next group of ships “Orion,” “Monarch,” “Conqueror” and “Thunderer,”’ the r2in gun gives way to the 13-sin. gun, all disposed on the centre line two pairs forward, two pairs aft, in each case the pair nearer amid ships firing over the adjacent pair, and a fifth pair right amidships “King George V.,” “Centurion,” “Ajax” and “Audacious” (1910 tz) were similar but slightly larger, the standard speed of 2 knots being maintained. These vessels were 555ft. long and 23,00 tons. The next step was the “Iron Duke” Class, four in number

Above the waterline belt of armour 11” thick the side to the main deck was plated of 4” nickel steel armour to give protection against the “Iron Duke” herself being the flagship of Admiral Jellico small quick-firing guns. ‘These ships were followed by the “Ma- while he was in command of the Grand Fleet. In these ships 1 jestic” Class, in the design of which all the experience gained by 13-sin, guns were retained, but 12 6in. guns replaced the 4in. a trials at sea of the “Admiral” and “Royal Sovereign” Classes was the secondary armament. The armour belt of r2in. maximu embodied. A new and powerful type of 12” gun and a new style thickness is carried to the upper deck with a battery above for 1 of mounting was available for them, also for the armour an im- of the 6in. guns. The length of ship was increased to 58oft. an proved type of manufacture known as the Harvey process was the displacement to 25,000 tons, the speed remaining at 21 knot adopted. This armour was of steel, homogeneous and with a hard The ships of the “Queen Elizabeth” Class were laid down| 1912 and completed in the first year of the World War. Th face obtained by chilling. It was more efficient than the compound armour previously employed, its efficiency compared with class, five in number, formed a division of fast battleships of : wrought iron being 1-8 to 2-2. The vessels were of high freeboard, knots requiring 75,000 H.P. The length was 600 ft. and displac 390 ft. long and 14,900 tons displacement. The armour protection ment 27,500 tons. The calibre of the main armament was i) was arranged on a new principle. The belt was 9 inches in thick- creased to isin. and the number of guns reduced to eight, tY ness, but it was carried up to the main deck a total depth of 15 pairs at each end. The armour belt had a maximum thickness | feet. The protective deck was level at the middle line and sloped 13in., the armour being carried to the upper deck, with a batte: down at the side to the bottom of the armour below water, being above for 12 of the 16 6in. guns carried. The other four 6in. gu 3 inches thick on the flat and 4 inches on the slope. This arrange- were removed later. In this class of ship oil fuel was exclusive ment reflected the influence of the larger quick-firing guns; al- employed, with very great advantages especially as regards e though the protection at the waterline was not sufficient to keep durance. An internal bulkhead 2in. in thickness was fitted as out the heaviest projectiles, it was backed up by the deck inside. protection against torpedo explosion; “Bulges” are now bel These vessels, which carried an armament of 4-12” guns and fitted to increase this protection still further. The ships of t 12~6” guns in armoured casemates, had a speed of 17 knots; they ‘Royal Sovereign” Class, five in number, were laid down 1913proved to be very satisfactory in every respect and formed the and completed in 1916. These vessels were designed for a spe type from which all British battleships and many of other coun- of 23 knots and had four rsin. guns with 14 6in. guns. No ship of the battleship class, as distinct from battle-cruise tries were built over the years which elapsed before the “Dreadnought” era started in 1905. Improvements in details were made was laid down for the British Navy between 1914 and Decem! in the successive classes as technical science progressed, i.e., water- 1922, when “Nelson” and “Rodney,” designed to displécemt tube boilers in “Canopus” Class (1897), Krupp type of armour limit agreed to at the Washington Conference, were commence

BATTUE—BATUM They were designed to the maximum

standard displacement al-

9-16” guns in triple | lowed, Viz., ` 35,000 :tons, and they carry :

forward gun-shields, : all of them: : ; . heavily armoured » ountings with of the machinery, the middle mountings being at a higher level than the others. 12—6” guns are carried as secondary armament

t

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a ships were completed in 1927 and cost about | |Great Brirary| Rodney|

23 knots.

{6,000,000 €acn.

The great advance in offensive power of the “Dreadnought,”

Uxrrep Srates|Colorado, Mutsu

.

combined with her increased speed, made the type so superior to| |Japax z

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previous ships that with her a new era was opened in battleship

construction, and other nations immediately started to build up a | |FRANcE i new fleet of vessels of the same type. Germany in particular . Iraty methodcontinued which construction of started on a programme

ically up to 1914, starting with the “Nassau” Class (4 ships), a with 12-11” and 12~5-9” guns; each succeeding class being of contemporary British ships. These classes

size and power equal to (4 ships), “Kaiser” (5 ships), “Konig” (4 e “Helgoland” “Bayern” (3 ships). The speeds were 20-21 knots in

ships), and

the “Nassau,” “Helgoland” and “Kaiser” Classes, and 23-24 knots in later ships. The guns were 12 in the “Helgoland,” “Kaiser” and “König” Classes, the “Bayem” Class having a main armament of 8-15”; in each class the secondary armament com-

prised 12 to 165-9” guns.

The United States of America also embarked in 1906 on a

building programme of battleships of the type, with the “Delaware” Class (2 ships), with ro-12” and 14-5” guns, followed by

the “Florida” (2), “Arkansas” (2), “Texas” (2), “Nevada” (2), “Pennsylvania” (2), “New Mexico” (3), “Tennessee” (2), and “Colorado” (3). The speed of all these ships was 21 knots.

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in 6 revolving gunhouses at the after end. The design speed is

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ia

1034 5 944

(W. J. B.)

BATTUE, the beating of game from cover under the sports-

men’s fire; by analogy the word is used to describe any slaughter of defenceless crowds.

BATTUS,

the legendary founder of the Greek colony of

Cyrene in Libya (c. 630 B.c.). The Greeks who accompanied him were, like himself, natives of Thera, and descended partly from the race of the Minyae. Various accounts are given both of the founding of Cyrene and of the origin of the founder’s name. Four kings named Battus, alternating with four named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (g.v.) till the fall of the dynasty about 450 B.c.

See R. W. Macan’s Herodotus IV -VI. (1895), voli, pp. 104 et seq.

and notes.

BATU or ROCK ISLANDS

(Dutch Batoe), three greater

and 48 lesser islands, Dutch East Indies, W. of Sumatra, between o° ro’ N. to 0° 45’ S. and 97° 50~98° 35’ E., belonging to the and As in other navies, the power of the guns and the dimensions i district of the lowlands of Padang (Sumatra). They Ayerbang the classes, e successiv in increased displacement of the ships by the strait of Sibirut from the Mentawi group. separated are tons, 20,000 ent length of “Delaware” being 518 ft. and displacem islands, from N. to S., are Pini or Mintao, Masa, chief three The and of “Colorado” 624 ft. and displacement 32,600 tons, the guns area 445sq.m. The islands are generally low, land Bala; and in 16” and “Texas” in 14” to being 12” in “Delaware,” increased forest, in which the coconut palm is conspicuwith covered and “Colorado,” the secondary armament being 12 or 14-5” guns. in copra, oil, and other forest produce. The trade is There ous. embody 1921-3, in completed The ships of “Colorado” Class, in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan 3,000 about natives, the lessons of the World War. The calibre of the main armathe island of Nias to the N.W. Only about of those to akin stock, ment guns was increased to 16”, and two armoured decks are 20 of the smaller islands are inhabited. Very designs. previous fitted, both thicker than those worked in

extensive underwater protection against torpedo attack is provided in the form of s longitudinal bulkheads on each side be-

tween the outer bottom and the machinery bulkheads, three of which are of thick plating. These ships, with the “Tennessee” Class and the Japanese “Mutsu,” are the only battleships which embody full war experience, with the exception of the “N elson”’ and “Rodney.”

Japan did not start building Dreadnoughts till 1909, when the “Kawachi” Class (2 ships) was started, the armament being

12-12”, 10-6” and 8-4-7” guns. This class has been followed by “Yamashiro” (2), “Hyuga” (2) and “Mutsu” (2)—speeds, 21 knots in “Kawachi” and 23 knots in the later classes. The guns were also increased to 14” in “Yamashiro” and 16” in “Mutsu,” the displacement increasing from. 20,800 to 33,800 tons. France started in r91z with “Jean Bart” (4 ships), the armament being 12~12” and 22~5-5” guns, followed by the “Bretagne”

BATU KHAN, Mongol chief, the grandson of Jenghiz Khan,

succeeded his father, Juji, as king of the Kipchaks in 1223, and in 1229 followed the new khan, Ogdai, in his expedition to China. On his return the latter sent Batu to Europe at the head of an invading army which spread over Russia, Poland and Hungary, and in 1236 attacked the Bulgars of the Volga, and advanced westward to Kiev, and Hungary in the following years. Western Europe was saved only by the death of Ogdai in 1241, which necessitated Batu’s return to take part in the election of a new khan. After this he settled on the river Akhtuba, and lived in great splendour at his capital, Sarai, in the present gubernia of Astrakhan. At the death of Batu in 1255 his brother Bereke succeeded to his kingdom, which extended from Lake Balkash as far west as the confines of modern Russia. See MONGOLS.

BATUM, chief town of the Autonomous Adzhar S.S.R., on

the east coast of the Black sea. Lat. 41° 41’ N., long. 41° 38” E.;

alt. 3oft.; average rainfall per annum 93-3in., the highest in the Caucasus; average temp., Jan. 43° F., Aug., 73-8° F.; Pop. (1926) 45,450. Batum is a port with no docks, but has five berths accomwhich needs Italy provided 3 classes of Dreadnoughts, starting in 1909 with modating 20 tank steamers in the petroleum harbour, it tends to “Dante Alighieri,” followed by the “Cesare” Class (2 ships) and constant dredging to maintain a depth of 26-28ft., for Baku. from rail by also and pipe by Batum to comes Oil silt. the “Duilio” (2 ships). All these ships had 12” guns for main at armament, and 4-7” or 6” for secondary armament; speed being The Standard Oil company has established an oil refinery is being conBatum to Baku from pipe-line roin. a and Batum, of consisting 1914, in 22 or 23 knots. A further class was ordered are naphtha, raw silk, cocoons, 4 ships of the “Caraccido” type of 30,900 tons displacement and structed (1928). The chief exportsManganese, wool, liquorice and rosewood. and walnut oil-cake, work but guns, 20-4” and 16-6” 25 knots speed armed with 8-15”, machinery, oilceased on these ships during the war. Subsequently one vessel was maize are also exported. Its chief imports are has a cathedral Batum ironware. and copperas completed as a merchant ship after the war, the others being dis- boring appliances, scourge. perpetual a is Malaria park. a and (1903) mantled. It is the Bathys of antiquity, Vati of the middle ages, and was Particulars of the latest type of Capital Ship possessed, 1930, by each of the five great Naval Powers, Great Britain, United only known as Bathumi after the beginning of the 17th century. when it belonged to the Turks. It was transferred to Russia, 1878. States, Japan, France and Italy, are as follows:—

(3) and “Normandie” (s), but the latter ships were dismantled at the conclusion of the World War. The armament of “Bretagne” was 10-13-4” guns and 18—5-5”,

224

BATWA— BAUDELAIRE

BATWA: see AKKas. BATYPHONE, a contrabass clarinet which was the outcome of F. W. Wieprecht’s endeavour to obtain a contrabass for the reed instruments. In practice, however, the instrument was found to be of little use, and it was superseded by the bass tuba. A Similar attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe Sax, and met with a like fate.

BATZ, JEAN, Baron DE (1761-1822), French Royalist, was born in Gascony on Dec. 6, 1761, and died at Chadieu, Jan. 10, 1822. At the time of the French Revolution he was grand seneschal of the duchy of Albret, and in 1789 was nominated deputy at the States General by the nobility of Nérac. In the constituent assembly De Batz was on the committee for finance; on July 3, 1790, he reported on the public debt, and he opposed the issue of assignats. On Jan. 21, 1793, the baron made a futile attempt to rescue Louis XVI., on his way to the guillotine; five months later he organized a conspiracy to help Marie Antoinette to escape from the Temple. On the failure of this plot on June 21, he left Paris for a time. His next step was to join the foreign conspiracy which aimed at the dissolution of the convention and the restoration of the monarchy. Drawing suspicion on himself by his connection with certain members of the convention, Fabre d’Eglantine, Chabot, Bazire, etc., who were accused of speculating in the public funds, De Batz was attacked on June 14, 1704, by Elie Lacoste, who accused him, before the convention, of conspiracy with Jacobins to restore the Bourbons. Of a number of proscribed men who were arrested and guillotined, De Batz was the only one to escape. After this, little is known of his movements; he served, apparently, in Condé’s army till 1800, and on the return of Louis XVIIL., in 1814, was made a Knight of St. Louis. In 1820 he retired to his estate at Chadieu, where he died in 1822. See R. de Batz, La vie et les conspirations de Jean, Baron de Batz (1908), and Les conspirations et la fin de Jean, Baron de Batz (1911).

BAUAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 38 barrios or districts), of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the head of Batangas

bay, about sam.

S. of

Manila by land and 91m. by sea. Pop. (1918), 27,729, of whom 13,219 were males and none were white. It is connected with Manila by railway. Bauan has a fine church and is a well-known market for “sinamay” or abaca cloth. Cloth, palm-fibre mats, fans, bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are made. The bay yields excellent and abundant fish. Hogs and cattle are raised for the Manila market. Oranges, sugar, corn, rice and other products are grown in the surrounding region. In 1918 it had nine manufacturing establishments with output valued at 48,300 pesos, besides 1,133 household industry establishments with output valued at 170,000 pesos. Of the 14 schools 13 were public. The language is Tagalog.

BAUBLE, a word applied to a stick with a weight attached, used in weighing; to a child’s.toy; and especially to the mock symbol of office carried by a court jester, a baton terminating in a figure of Folly with cap and bells; hence a term for any triviality or childish folly. The word is probably a blend of two different words, an Old French baubel, a child’s plaything, and an Old English babyll, something swinging to and fro. BAUCHI, a region of British West Africa, part of two provinces, Bauchi and Plateau, of Northern Nigeria, and noted for its tin mines. It lies north of the Benue river and west of Bornu. It includes the central Nigerian plateau—a great treeless plain over 4,o0o0ft. above sea-level, separated from the lower plains by precipitous walls—the valley of the Gongola and other rivers, and hilly regions. In 1926 the plateau proper was detached from Bauchi provinces, and with other areas constituted the Plateau province, with the town of Jos as capital. The upper classes are Fula, and there are some Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese}, but the bulk of the people are pagan tribes in a low state of civilization. Sixty-four tribes sufficiently differentiated from each other to speak different languages have been reported upon. Hausa is the lingua franca of the whole. Amongst the tribes many were cannibals, and all the pagans went about practically naked, Their usual weapons were bows and arrows,

but the tribes living on the plateau were horsemen and dependeg in battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen. The name “Bauchi,” which is of great antiquity, signifies the “Land of Slaves,” and from the earliest times the uplands had been the hunting ground of the slave-raider. Mohammedanism had been partly adopted by the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier, and a certain degree of civiliza. tion attained. Early in the roth century the son of a Mohan. medan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. The name of this

remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba (Jacob). His father's name was Daoud

(David), and his grand-father was Abdullah,

all names which indicate Arab or Mohammedan influence. The

town of Bauchi and capital of the province was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the emirate remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, in consequence of de. termined

slave-raiding

and the defiant misrule

of the emir, a

British expedition was sent against the capital, which submitted without fighting. The emir was deposed, another chief put in his place, and the country brought under British control. Gombe, which is included in Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the emirs of Bauchi. It forms a rich and important district. It was at Burmi in this district that the last stand was made by the religious following of the defeated sultan

of Sokoto, and here he was overthrown and killed in July 1903. The tin mines on the Bauchi plateau are worked by public companies on areas leased from the government. The centre of

the tin-fields is in the Jos division, where the ore had been worked

and smelted by the natives for at least roo years before exploitation by Europeans began in 1904. This was followed by a “boom” in 19to and by 1926 the export had reached over 10,000 tons annually.

A light railway had already

connected Jos with the

Lagos-Kano line, and in 1928 the completion of a standard gauge (3ft. 6in.) branch of the Eastern railway put the tin-fields in direct communication with Port Harcourt. BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet, was born in Paris on April 9, 1821. Baudelaire’s fa-

ther died in 1827, and his mother married Lieut.-Col. Aupick, who was afterwards ambassador of France at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons and at the Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris. The irregularities of his life after he left college induced his guardians, in 1841, to send him on a voyage to India. Mr. Arthur Symons declares that there is “something oriental in Baudelaire’s genius, a nostalgia that never left him after he had seen the East.” When he returned to Paris in 1843 he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small patrimony, and his family obtained a decree to place his property in trust. He wandered from one address to another in Paris, spending much of his time in the studios of Delacroix, Manet, and Daumier, and the first books he published, Le Salon de 1845 and the Salon de r846, showed his real critical genius. He took part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested himself in Republican politics, but his permanent convictions were aristocratic and catholic. Baudelaire was a slow and fastid-

ious worker, and it was not until 1857 that he produced his first and famous volume of poems, Fleurs du mal. Some of these had already appeared in the Revue des deux mondes when they were published by Baudelaire’s friend Auguste Poulet-Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alençon. The consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, writing to the poet, said, “Vous dotez le ciel de PArt d'un rayon macabre, vous créez un

frisson nouveau.” Baudelaire, the publisher, and the printer were successfully prosecuted for offending against public morals. The obnoxious pieces were suppressed but printed later as Les Epaves (Brussels, 1866). Another edition of the Fleurs du mai, without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1841.

Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found

some of his favourite reading in the English “Satanic” romances,

such as Lewis’s Monk. In 1846-47 he became acquainted with the

BAUDIER—BAUDRY works of Edgar Allan Poe, in which he discovered romances and

poems which had, he said, long existed in his own brain, but had

never taken shape. Poe was to him “the master of the horrible,

225

Politik, Kultur und Aufklirung des r8ten Jahrhunderts (4 vols.) (Leipzig, 1865-67) and two plays by Coppée, Zwei dramatische Dichtungen (Leipzig, 1874). ,

the prince of mystery.” From this time till 1865 he was largely BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LEON (18211892), French political economist, was born in Paris. His father, occupied with his version of Poe’s works, producing masterpieces of the art of translation in Histoires extraordinaires (1856), Nou- Jacques Joseph (1774-1832), was a distinguished writer on forvelles Histoires exiraordinaires (1857), Aventures d’ Arthur Gor- estry. Henri was professor of economic history at the University don Pym (1858), Eureka (1864), and Histoires grotesques et of Paris from 1866 onwards, and from 1881 professor of political sérieuses (1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in bis economy at the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées. His first work was Oeuvres complètes (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial an Eloge de Turgot (1846), which at once won him notice among difficulties grew upon him. He was involved in the failure of the economists. In 1853 he published an erudite work on Jean Poulet-Malassis in 1861, and in April 1864 he left Paris for Bel- Bodin et son temps; then in 1857 a Manuel d’économie politique ; gium, partly in the vain hope of disposing of his copyrights. He in 1860, Des rapports de la morale et de Véconomie politique; in had for many years a liaison with a coloured woman, whom he 1868, La Liberté du travail; and from 1878 to 1880, L’Histozre helped to the end of his life, in spite of her gross conduct. He had du luxe ... depuis Pantiquité jusqu’é nos jours, in four volumes. recourse to opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. At the instance of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques Paralysis followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in he investigated the condition of the farming classes of France, and maisons de santé in Brussels, and also in Paris, where he died on published the results in four volumes (1885, ef seg.). He was Aug. 31, 1867. editor of the Constitutionnel, and later, 1855-64, of the Journal His other works include: Petits Poémes en prose; a series of art des économistes. criticisms published in the Pays, Exposition universelle; studies BAUDRILLART, HENRI MARIE ALFRED (1859on Gustave Flaubert (in L’artiste, Oct. 18, 1857); on Théophile J, French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris Jan. 6, 1859, the son Gautier (Revue contemporaine, Sept. 1858); valuable notices con- of Henri Baudrillart. He was ordained priest in 1893, and occupied tributed to Eugéne Crépet’s Poétes francais; Les Paradis arti- the chair of history at the Catholic Institute of Paris, of which he ficiels, opium et haschisch (1860); Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser became rector in 1907. In 1908 he became vicar-general of Paris, é Paris (1861); Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de and in 1915 founded the Catholic committee of French propaganda Balzac (1880), originally an article entitled “(Comment on paye ses abroad. In 1918 he was made a member of the Académie frandettes quand on a du génie,” in which his criticism is turned çaise, and in 1921 was consecrated titular Bishop of Himeria. In against his friends H. de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, and Gérard Nov. 1925 he was made a papal count and bishop assistant at the de Nerval. pontifical throne. BrstiocraPpHy.—An edition of his Lettres (1841-66) was issued by the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His Oeuvres complétes were edited (1868-70) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a preface by Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication of his character from the attacks made upon it, in his Charles Baudelaire, sa vie, son oeuvre (1869). He left some material of more private interest in a ms, entitled Baudelaire. See Charles Baudelaire, souvenirs,

correspondance, bibliographie (1872), by Charles Cousin and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; Charles Baudelaire, oeuvres posthumes et correspondances inédites (1887), containing a journal entitled Mon coeur mis @ nu, and a biographical study by Eugéne Crépet; also Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire (1896), a collection of pieces unpublished or prohibited during the author’s lifetime, edited by S. Mallarmé and others, with a study of the text of the Fleurs du mal by Prince A. Ourousof; Feli Gautier, Charles Baudelaire (1904), with

facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la Fitzeliére and

G. Decaux, Charles Baudelaire (1868) in the series of Essais de bibliographie contemporaine; essays by Paul Bourget, Essais de Psychologie contemporaine (1883), and Maurice Spronck, Les Artistes littéraires (1889). Among English translations from Baudelaire are Poems in Prose, by A. Symons (1905), who also wrote an admirable study of the poet in Charles Baudelaire (1920) and translated The

Letters of Charles Baudelaire to his Mother

1833-66 (1928), with

bibliography. See also F. Porché, Ch. Baudelaire (1928); L. P. Sharles, Baudelaire (1930).

BAUDIER,

MICHEL

trans. J. Mavin

(c. 1589-1645), French historian,

wrote, in addition to many works on French history, an Histoire

de la cour du roi de Chine (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. of the Collection of Voyages and Travels of A. and J. Churchill, London, 1707-47), derived from the narrative of a Jesuit missionary. He also wrote Vie du cardinal Ximénés (Paris, 1635), reprinted with a notice of the author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious romance entitled Histoire de incomparable administration de Romieu, grand ministre d'état de Raymond Bérenger, comte de Provence (Paris, 1635).

Baudrillart’s works include: La politique de Henri IV. en Allemagne (1885); Philippe V. et la cour de France (1889-99) (Grand Prix Gobert) ; L’église catholique; La renaissance et le protestantisme (1905) ; Quatre cents ans de Concordat (1905) ; La vie catholique dans la France contemporaine

(1918), etc.

BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-1130), archbishop of Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire. He became abbot of Bourgueil in 1079, and archbishop of Dol in 1107. The most important of his Latin poems, from the historical point of view, have been published in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores, tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-49). His Historiae Hierosolymitanae, a history of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099, is drawn mainly from the anonymous Gesta Francorum, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus Vitalis for his Historiae ecclesiasticae; by William, archbishop of Tyre, for his Belli sacri historia; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his Speculum historiale. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which appears in the Recueil des historiens des croisades, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-87). Many other works attributed to Baudry are published by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Latina, tomes 160, 162, and 166 (Paris, 1844). See Histoire littéraire de la France, tome xi. (1865-69); H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuszuges (Leipzig, 1881) ; C. Thurot, “Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiére croisade; Baudri de Bourgueil” in the Revue historique (1876). ,

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French

painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendée) on Nov. 7 1828, and died in Paris on Jan. 17 1886. He studied under Drolling, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of See J. Lelong, Bibliothèque historique de La France (1768-78); “Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes.” Baudry derived L. Moréri, Le Grand Dictionnaire historique (Amsterdam, 1740). strong inspiration from Italian art with the mannerism of CoregBAUDISSIN, WOLF HEINRICH, Count (1789-1878), gio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited in the German man of letters, was born in Rantzau on Jan. 30, 1789, Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg. The and died at Dresden on April 4, 1878. As secretary to the lega- works that crowned Baudry’s reputation were his mural decoration, he was employed by the Danish diplomatic service, between tions, which show much imagination and a strong sense for colour, 1810-14, on missions to Stockholm, Vienna and Paris. In 1827, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation, at after travelling in Italy, France and Greece, Baudissin settled at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences—the hétel Dresden and began to write. In collaboration with Schlegel and Fould and hétel Paiva—but, above all, in the decorations of the Tieck he translated many of Shakespeare’s plays into German. Paris opera house.

Ben Jonson und seine Schule, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1836), contains translations of old English

drama.

He translated

plays from

See H. Delaborde, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry (1886) ; Ch. Ephrussi, Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre (1887).

BAUER—BAUMBACH

226 BAUER, BRUNO

(1809-1882), German theologian and his-

torian, was born on Sept. 6, 1809, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached himself to the “Right” of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred to Bonn. After the publication of his Kritzk der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes (1840) and Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker (1841), with their destructive criticism, his licence was revoked, and he retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin, where he died on April 13, 1882. The most important of his historical works is Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklärung des 18ten Jahrhunderts (4 vols.

1843-45).

BAUER,

GUSTAV

(1870-

), German politician, was

born at Darkehmen, East Prussia, Jan. 6 1870. He became connected at an early age with the German trade union movement, and in 1908 was elected president of the general committee of the trade unions of Germany. In rgr2 he entered the Reichstag as a Social Democrat, being appointed, in Oct. 1918, secretary of State for labour in the Government of Prince Max of Baden. Appointed minister of labour under the republic in Feb. 1910, on June 21 of the same year he became president of the ministry formed to accept the Peace Treaty of Versailles, resuming shortly afterwards the former title of chancellor. In 1920 he became minister of the treasury in Hermann Miiller’s cabinet and shortly afterwards minister of commerce. From May 10921 until Nov. 1923 he held, conjointly, the offices of vice-chancellor and minister of the treasury in Wirth’s cabinet.

BAUER,

HAROLD

(1873-

), Anglo-American pianist,

born at New Malden, near London, April 28, 1873. He began with the violin which he studied with his father and under Adolph Pollitzer, making his début at the age of ten and playing in concerts thereafter for nine years. He was then introduced to Paderewski, who was so impressed by his talents as a pianist that he advised him to take up the piano instead of the violin and undertook to give him lessons himself. The suggestion was adopted; he made his début as a concert pianist in 1893 and quickly obtained general recognition as one of the first virtuosi of the day. He made his first appearance in the United States in 1900 with the Boston Symphony Orchestra and has divided his time since between Europe and America. He became an American citizen in 1925. In rọrọ, with Kreisler and Pablo Casals, he founded the Beethoven Association, of New York, of which he became president. The function of this organization is to bring together artists of established reputation in a fraternity of service at annual concerts, the proceeds are devoted to musical objects.

BAUER, OTTO

(1881-

), Austrian politician, was born

at Vienna. Bauer was one of the founders of the Socialist educational movement, “Die Zukunft.” He founded with F. Adler, the theoretical Socialist periodical Der Kampf and collaborated on Kautsky’s journal Die Neue Zeit. He became secretary to the parliamentary fraction of the Social Democrat party in 1904 and at once proved himself the party’s most brilliant theoretician. His first work, Die Nationalitdtenfrage und die oesterreichische Sozialdemokratie, treated the problem of nationality in the Dual Monarchy with deep historical insight and on lines entirely borne out by later developments. As @ prisoner of war in Russia he studied Bolshevism at first hand, and on his return to Austria in 1917 became leader of the left wing of his party, which worked for a republic and selfdetermination for all nationalities. He was appointed undersecretary of state for foreign affairs by Victor Adler and became minister a few days later, on the latter’s death (Nov. r2 1018). He retained this post under the Austrian Republic until July tox9o. After 1918 it was Bauer’s brain which really guided the

international and internal policy of his party which he preserved as a non-Bolshevist but advanced Socialist organization. He launched the few Socialist experiments in Austria (see his pamphlet, Der Weg zum Sozialismus, 1920) and the Socialist agrarian policy (Der Kampf um Wald und Weide, 1925; Das Agrarprogramm der oesterr. S. D. Partei, 1926), as well as the revised programme of the same party brought forward in 1926.

He wrote an important account of his own and his party’s activities, Die oesterreickische Revolution (1923; English translation, 192 5)o His

other chief works are Bolshevismus oder Sozialdemokratie (1920) ; Der

neue Kurs in Sovietrussland (1921); Das Weltbild (in Der lebendige Marxismus, Jena, 1925).

des Kapitalismus

BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802—1890), Austrian

dramatist, was born at Vienna on Jan. 13, 1802, and died there on Aug. 9, 1890. He entered the Austrian civil service, and

remained a civil servant until after the revolution of 1848 whey

he retired in order to devote his whole energies to the drama

His earliest essays, the comedies Leichtsinn aus Liebe (1831):

Das Liebes-Protokoll (1831) and Die ewige Liebe (1834); Biir. gerlich und Romantisch (1835), were very popular. Later he turned his attention to so-called Salonstiicke (drawing-room

pieces), notably Aus der Gesellschaft (1866); Moderne Jugend (1869), and Der Landfrieden (1869), in which he gave a gay and witty picture of Viennese social life. A complete edition of Bauernfeld’s works, Gesammelte Schriften appeared in 1871-73; Dramatischer Nachlass, ed. by F (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (1905). Bauernfeld, Ein Dichierportrat (1890), R. von Gottschall, “E. voy Bauernfeld” (in Unsere Zeit, 1890), and E. Horner, Bauernjeld (1900),

BAUHIN,

GASPARD

(1560-1624),

Swiss botanist and

anatomist, was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (15111582), a Protestant exile in Switzerland. He was born at Basle on Jan. 7, 1560, and studied medicine at Padua, Montpelier, and some of the celebrated schools in Germany. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship at Basle, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basle on Dec. s,

1624. His most important botanical work was his Pinax Theatr Botanici, seu Index in Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo scripserunt opera (1596). He planned a Theatrum Botanicum, meant to be comprised in 12 parts folio, crwhich he finished three; only one, however, was published

1658). His son JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of

botany at Basle for 30 years. His elder brother, Jean Baunm (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tiibingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basle, where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. His great work, Historia plantarum nova et absolutissima, a compilation of all that was then known about botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in 1650-51, the Prodromus having appeared at the same place in 1619. He also wrote a book De aquis medicatis which was published in 1605.

BAULK

or BALK, a word of Teutonic origin meaning a

ridge or beam. The ridge left unploughed between furrows or ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary in the “open-field” system of agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short of an obstacle, of the ““baulk-line”’ in billiards, or of the feint of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original meaning, ż.e., “beam,” comes the use of

the word for the cross or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a r ft. or a 14 ft. square section (see JOINERY).

BAUMBACH,

RUDOLF

(1840-1905), German poet, was

born at Kranichfeld on the Iim, in Thuringia, on Sept. 28, 1840, and acted as a private tutor in various Austrian towns. In Trieste he caught the popular taste with an Alpine legend, Zlatorog (1877), and songs of a journeyman apprentice, Lieder eines

fahrenden Gesellen (1878), both of which ran into many editions.

In 1885 he returned to Germany and was appointed ducal librarian at Meiningen, where he died on Sept. 14, 1905. Baumbach was a poet of the vagabond school, and wrote, mM imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent drinking songs, among which Die Lindenwirtin has endeared him

to the German student world. But his real strength lay in narra tive verse, especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may

be made of Frau Holde (1881), Spielmannslieder (1882), Von der Landstrasse (1882), and Thüringer Lieder (1891).

BAUME—BAUR

227

B AUME, ANTOINE (17 28-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis. He devised many improvements in technical processes,

H. H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891; see also C. Schwartz, Neueste Theologie (1869); Lichtenberger, Hist. Germ. Theol., 1889; Calwer-Zeller, Kirchen-Lexikon.

with his name (often in this connection improperly spelt Beaumé).

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merseburg, and studied theology and philology at Leipzig. After

e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding, purifying saltpetre, etc., hut he is best known as the inventor of the hydrometer associated

His most important book is his Elémens de pharmacie théorique

et pratique (9 editions, 1762—1818).

BAUMES LAWS, aseries of criminal laws enacted in New Vork State in 1926 upon the recommendation of the crime commission of which Senator Caleb H. Baumes was chairman. The passing of these laws was induced by an unusually active period of wanton crime, involving frequent bloodshed. One of the new laws prohibited sawed-off guns and machine guns equally with pistols, and heavily penalized the possession of any of these in a

vehicle as well as on the person.

Another, which caused con-

sternation among criminals, provided that in cases where a felon convicted of a first offence was armed with a pistol while committing crime, fve to rọ years should be added to the sentence. For the second offence ro to 15 years, and for the third 15 to 25

years’ additional imprisonment was ordered. The fourth conviction entailed life imprisonment. The crime commission of the State of New York reported in 1927 that these laws had been so effective that many New York criminals had departed to other States. Murders of citizens resulting from robberies decreased 58% in 1927 compared with 1926, and 61% compared with 1925. Murders of police officers had decreased 44% compared with 1925 and 1926. In 1927 Senator Baumes introduced two bills aiming to strengthen the law in punishing “‘fences” or receivers of stolen property. One provided that a thief’s testimony should be considered even if uncorrob-

orated; the other declared that any person not making reasonable inquiry into the right of another to sell him goods should be held responsible if he bought stolen property. Defeated in 1927, these bills were re-introduced in 1928 and passed.

acting as Privatdocent at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his life rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died on May 31, 1842. His published works include: Lehrbuch der christlichen Sittenlehre (1826); Grundzüge der

biblischen Theologie (1828); Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1832); Compendium der Dogmengeschichte (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.

BAUR, FERDINAND

CHRISTIAN

(1792-1860), leader

of the Tiibingen school of theology, was born in Schmiden, near Cannstatt, on June 21, 1792. After receiving an early training in the theological seminary at Blaubeuren, he went in 18009 to the University of Tiibingen. In 1817 Baur returned to the theological seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. He had already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser’s Biblische Theologie for Bengel’s Archiv fiir Theologie (ii. 656); its tone was moderate and conservative. His first important work, Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Altertums (1824-25) showed signs of the influence of Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. In 1826 he was appointed professor of theology at Tiibingen. It is with Tiibingen that his greatest literary achievements are associated. His earlier publications here treated of mythology and the history of dogma. Das manichdische Religionssystem appeared in 1831, Apollonius von Tyana in 1832, Die

Christliche Gnosis in 1835, and Uber das Chrisiliche im Plato-

nismus oder Socrates und Christus in 1837. Meantime Baur had adopted completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. “Without See files of the New York Times: March 26, Aug. 8, Oct. 26 and philosophy,” he has said, “history is always for me dead and dumb.” The change of view is illustrated clearly in the essay, Dec. 15, 1926; Dec. 15 and March 28, 1927. See also records of N.Y. State crime commission, 1926. published in the Tübinger Zeitschrift for 1831, on the ChristBAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714- party in the Corinthian Church. Baur contends that St. Paul was 1762), German philosopher, was born in Berlin. He studied at opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party, and finds traces Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frank- of a keen conflict of parties in the post-apostolic age. The theory furt. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was distin- is further developed in a later work (1835, the year in which guished for separating aesthetics from the other philosophic David Strauss’ Leben Jesu was published), Über die sogenannten disciplines, and in marking out a definite object for its researches. Pastoralbriefe. In this Baur attempts to prove that the false Baumgarten’s first work preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and teachers mentioned in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus are the P. André, and Kant had a great admiration for him. His most Gnostics, particularly the Marcionites, of the second century, and important works are: Disputationes de nonnullis ad poema perti- consequently that the Epistles were produced in the middle of nentibus (1735); Aesthetica (1750); Metaphysica (1739); Ethica this century in opposition to Gnosticism. In Paulus, der Apostel philosophica (1740); Initia philosophiae practicae primae (1760). Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre After his death, his pupils published a Philosophia Generalis (1845) he contends that only the Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians and Romans are genuinely Pauline, and that the Paul (1770) and a Jus Naturae (1765). of Acts is a different person from the Paul of these genuine See Meier, Baumgarten’s Leben (1763); Abbt, Baumgarten’s Leben Epistles, the author being a Paulinist who is at pains to represent und Charakter (1765); H. G. Meyer, Leibnitz und Baumgarten (1874) ; J. Schmidt, Leibnitz und Baumgarten (Halle, 1873) ; Zimmer- Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as far as possible mann, Gesch. der Aesthetik (Vienna 1858). as a Petrinist. Those writings alone he considers genuine in His brother, StecmunpD JacoB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), Was which the conflict between Jewish-Christians and Gentile-Chris~ professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff tians is clearly marked. In his Kritische Untersuchungen über die to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler is sometimes kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhältniss zu einander, ihren called the father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he Charakter und Ursprung (1847) he maintains that the authors did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began the process which were conscious of the conflict of parties; the Gospels reveal a Semler completed. His works include Evangelische Glaubenslehre mediating or conciliatory tendency (Tendenz) on the part of the (1759); Auszug der Kirchengeschichte (1743-62). writers or redactors. The Gospels, in fact, are adaptations or See Life by Semler (Halle, 1758). redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the Hebrews, BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1809), German of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The Petrine Protestant theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-HolMatthew bears the closest relationship to this original Gospel stein on March 25, 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), (Urevangelium); the Pauline Luke is later and arose indepenand became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). dently; Mark represents a still later development; the account At a pastoral conference in 18 56 he defended evangelical freedom in John is idealistic: it “does not possess historical truth, and canas regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. He was deprived of his not and does not really lay claim to it.” He found in the conflict Professorship in 1858 for this and other attempts to liberalize between Petrinism and Paulinism the key to the literature of the religion. In 1865 he helped to found the Deutsche Protestanten- ist and 2nd centuries. But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical verein, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions (1874,

1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a Progressive.

critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work,

BAUT—BAUTZEN

228

Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der beiden Lehrbegriffe, a strong defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher’s Glau-

benslehre, and a vigorous reply to J. Möhler’s Symbolik (1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, Die Christliche Lehre von der Versöhnung in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung bis auf die neueste

Zeit

(1838), Die

Christliche

Lehre

von

der

Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung (1841-43), and the Lehrbuch der Christlichen Dogmengeschichte (1847). The value of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur’s habit of making the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel’s philosophy, a procedure “which only served to obscure the truth and profundity of his conception of history as a true development of the human mind” (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is marked in his Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (1852), Das Christenthum und die Christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (1853) and Die Christliche Kirche von Anfang des vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts (1859), works preparatory to his Kirchengeschichte, in which the change of view is specially pronounced. The Kirchen-

geschichte was published in five volumes during the years 1853—63, partly by Baur himself, partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him. Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as “a classic for all time.” “Taken as a whole, it is the first thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity and the Church on strictly historical lines, t.e., as a natural development of the religious spirit of our race under the combined operation of various human causes” (Development of Theology, p. 288). Baur’s lectures on the history of dogma, Ausführliche Vorlesungen über die Christliche Dogmengeschichte,

were published later by his son (1865—68). Baur’s views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic he rendered a great service to theological science. . full account of F. C. Baur’s labours, and a comBIBLIOGRAPHY—A plete list of his writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck,

Fee ec ocue ot Renae? O)

a

Saan

re eros

above sea and 32m. E.N.E. of Dresden.

The settlement dates

from before the conquest of Lusatia by Henry the Fowler in 92,

It became a town and fortress under Otto I., his successor, and the pilgrimages made to the “arm of St. Peter,” preserved in one of the churches, caused its growth.

It suffered during the Hussite

and Thirty Years’ Wars, and was burned in 1634.

In the folloy.

ing year, at the Peace of Prague, it passed with Lusatia to Saxony

as a war indemnity. The cathedral of St. Peter (15th century), with a tower 300ft. in height, has been used by both Protestants and Roman

Catholics since 1635, an iron screen separating the

two portions.

Bautzen has a famous grammar

school (gym.

nasium). Metal working (notably in aluminium) is carried on, and the general manufactures include wagons, woollen goods

(stockings and cloth), linen and cotton goods, leather and paper.

BATTLE OF BAUTZEN, 1813 The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on May 20 and 21, 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of Russians and Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The position chosen by the allies as that in which to receive the attack of Napoleon ran south-west to north-east from Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. Bautzen itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing (Russians), the main body of

which lay 2m. to the rear (east) near Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 24m. N.E. of Bautzen, was Kleist’s Prussian corps, with Yorck’s in support. On Kleist’s right at Pliskowitz (3m. N.E. of Burk) lay Bliicher’s corps, and on Bliicher’s right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards Gleina (7m. NE. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as battlegrounds of the Seven Years’ War. The whole line was covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence for the left and centre and an obstacle to any force moving to attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and watercourses. Napoleon's right and centre approached (on a broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was separated by nearly 4om. from the left of the main body, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weis-

noon on the 2oth, History.” See also H. S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism | S18 and Klix on to the allies’ right rear. At advanced the main of the New Testament (1901); Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of | Napoleon, after a prolonged reconnaissance, army against Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy’s right to be ee a C E Fe beEAER eee ‘ W. ; R. : i s (1863) ; A. S. Farrar, 4 The Tübingen School and its Critical History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion

dealt with by Ney on the MOLON: He equally neglected the P treme left of the allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to

Historical School,” in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862. . BAUT: see CASTE.

not’s corps, the extreme right wing, was to work round by country to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald’s corps was to

(Bampton Lectures,

BAUTAIN,

1862); and cf. the article on “The Tübingen | move his artillery and cavalry in the broken ground there.theOudihilly

LOUIS

EUGENE

MARIE

(1796-1867), | assault Bautzen, and Marmont’s corps to cross the Spree and

three corps wert French philosopher and theologian, was professor of philosophy at attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These corps was held Bertrand’s left, the to Farther Soult. by directed | 1849 In orders. holy took he when 1828, to 1819 from Strasbourg Weissig with reached then had who Ney, with connect to back | 1853 in and diocese, he settled in Paris where he was vicar of the reserves were in became professor of moral philosophy in the theological faculty | the head of his column. The Guard and other without of the university. Like the Scholastics Bautain distinguished | rear of Macdonald and Marmont. Bautzen was taken either between reason and faith, but, inspired by the Kantian view that | difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont easily passed the Spree on about by river the of bank other the on up formed were and side, | so he themselves, in things of knowledge yield never can reason evening the in place took combat indecisive and heavy A P.M. 4 | to 1840-1844 undervalued reason that he was required in 1835, sign articles denying that the existence of God, the spirituality | between Oudinot and the Russian left, directed by the tsar in pet

and immortality of the soul, the principles of metaphysics, and | son, in which Oudinot’s men made alittle progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont’s battle was more serious. The Prussians were not the credibility of revelation, are beyond the powers of reason. Many of his theories may well be compared with the arbitrary experienced troops, but were full of ardour and hatred of the mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics. The most important | French. Kleist made a stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and of his works are: Philosophie du Christianisme (1835); Psycho- Bertrand’s corps was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; logie expérimentale (1839), new edition entitled Esprit kumain | but part of Bliicher’s corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk et ses facultés (1859); Philosophie morale (1842); Religion et was not taken till 7 p.m. The French attack was much impeded

liberté (1848); La Morale de Vévangile comparée aux divers by the ground and by want of room to deploy between the river systèmes de morale (Strasbourg, 1827); De Péducation publique | and the enemy. But Napoleon’s object in thus forcing the fighting en France au X1IX¢ siécle (1876). See De Régny: L’abbé Bautaim, in the centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left sa vie et ses oeuvres (1884). BAUTZEN, capital of the eastern division of the republic and right to sustain the shock. Napoleon cared but little that the French centre was almost of Saxony, Germany. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1925) 40,335. It lies on the right bank of the Spree, not far from its source, 680ft. | fought out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive

229

BAUXITE point was to be Barclay’s position. Soon after daybreak fighting

was renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep

until the time appointed for Ney’s attack. To a heavy counterstroke against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal from the ground won on the 2oth, the emperor paid no more heed than to order Macdonald to support Oudinot. For in this second position of the allies, which was far more formidable than

the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only by Ney. That commander had his own corps, the corps of Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total force of 60.000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had been

sharply engaged on the rgth, but had spent the 2oth in calculated

the terra rossa of the Mediterranean seaboard and the bauxites of southern Europe awaits proof. There are some bauxites which evidently do not fit into either of the above types. The mode of occurrence of bauxite varies with the type to which it belongs; with the primary or detrital character of the deposit; and with the tectonic disturbances to which it has been subjected. In India bauxite is intimately, although irregularly,

associated with the primary laterite which caps many of the basaltic plateaux of the peninsula. No Indian plateau of this nature exceeds an elevation of 5,cooft. In Nyassaland bauxite has been located

on the Lichenya

plateau

at an

elevation

of 6,cooft.,

where it overlies decomposed syenite. Bauxite on the Gold Coast inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; Ney and is found in genetic association with horizontal beds of shale on Lauriston moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and Victor Mt. Ejuanema, and with steeply inclined phyllites and micaoperated by a wide turning movement against Barclay’s right rear. schists with auriferous quartz reefs on Mt. Supirri. In British The advance was carried out with precision; the Russians were Guiana bauxite occurs as the residual weathering product of quickly dislodged and Ney was now closing upon the rear of dolerite and epidiorite. This association is also true of the bauxite Bliicher’s corps at the village of Preititz. Napoleon at once or- in Surinam and French Guiana. In Arkansas (U.S.A.) bauxite dered Soult’s four corps to renew their attacks in order to prevent overlies kaolinized nepheline-syenite. An inter-trappean bed of the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical moment bauxite occurs among Tertiary basaltic lavas both in Ireland Ney punctiliously halted; he had received orders to be in Preititz (Ulster) and Germany (Hesse Nassau). The bauxites of Australia by 11 A.M. and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite appear to be similar to those of India. Common characteristics of bauxite are a pisolitic structure of an hour enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier and a mottled appearance. This is particularly true of lateritic could come upon the scene. At 1 P.m., when Ney resumed his ad- bauxite. The pisolites may be pea-size and cemented or potatovance, it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon size and loose. The colour of the mass often varies from cream now made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other and grey to pink and yellowish or dark red. In the terra rossa troops in the centre, 80,o00 strong and covered by a great mass bauxite the texture is frequently granular and impervious, unless of artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied a pisolitic structure exists. The exposed surface of lateritic centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose bauxite is rough, often scoriaceous, simulating vesicular lava. In Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Bliicher, now cliff sections lateritic bauxite may have a vermicular structure almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make with variegated colours. A common property of vermicular lateritic bauxite, which is head against Soult, and Ney’s four corps then carried all before them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney’s soft when freshly excavated, is its tendency to harden on exappearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered posure. Another peculiarity of lateritic bauxite is the readiness a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and with which its débris re-consolidates. Recognizable minerals are bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off un- rarely seen in hand-specimens of bauxite. Gibbsite is commonly harmed, leaving no trophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose distinguished in thin slices under the microscope, especially in success, tactically unquestionable, was, owing to the want of cav- the matrix of pisolitic bauxite. The specific gravity is variable, alry, and, above all, to Ney’s want of intelligent initiative, a coup from 2-45 to 3-25. The hardness also differs, some bauxites being manqué strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French soft and clay-like, others hard and tough. There is no reliable side 163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the test for ascertaining the quality of bauxite short of a chemical losses respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded. analysis. BAUXITE. P. Berthier (1821) discovered that a non-plasTypical lateritic bauxites average the following composition: tic, clay-like substance from Les Baux, near Arles (France) Silica 0-25 to 10%, titania 1 to 10%, alumina 50 to 65%, ferric was practically devoid of silica, either free or in combination. oxide 0-25 to 15% and combined water 20 to 33%. This is true His analysis of it indicated 52-0% alumina, 27-6% ferric oxide, of material from Arkansas, British Guiana, the Gold Coast and and 20-4% combined water. Berthier referred to it as “le mineral India. Terra rossa bauxites are slightly different. Silica 0-25 to des Beaux.” A. Dufrenoy (1847) coined the word Beauxite “nom 15%, titania 1-25 to 4%, alumina 56 to 75%, ferric oxide o-5 to donné a l’alumine hydraté de Beaux.” H. St. Clair Deville (1861), 25% and combined water from 8 to 15%. Such is the material the father of the aluminium industry, corrected the spelling to from France, the Adriatic seaboard and the Balkans. Bauxite to correspond with that of the type locality Les Baux. Appreciable percentages of titania characterize Indian bauxites Since then material of similar composition to that of Les Baux formed from the Deccan basaltic lavas. The oxides of mangahas been called Bauxite in Europe and America. nese, chromium, zirconium and vanadium have been noted in F - R. Mallet (1881) compared the iron clays of Ulster (Irish certain bauxites. Cobalt, nickel, tin, gold and diamonds have bauxite) with Indian laterite, suggesting a similar origin for both been found in others. The smaller percentage of combined water Max Bauer (1899) produced chemical evidence showing that in the terra rossa bauxite is usually characteristic. Neither type some Seychelles laterite was identical with bauxite in composi- of bauxite, when heated, gives up its combined water steadily— ton. H. and F. J. Warth (1903) conclusively proved that, chem- large emissions occur about 260°C. and 670°C. with complete ically, the aluminous laterite of India was bauxite. L. L. Fermor dehydration near 950°C. The silica in bauxite is usually combined (1916) considered that bauxite is not a mineral and should be with alumina and should not exceed 10% in ore intended for regarded as a variety of the rock laterite. F. W. Clarke (1920) aluminium reduction. In European practice this limit is about 3% expressed the opinion that bauxite shades into laterite and there and in America 5 to 6%. All the alumina in bauxite is not soluble iS no dividing line between them. C. S. Fox (1923) stated that in hydrochloric acid. Bauxite with over 50% soluble alumina conthe word bauxite implies chemical purity, and that it refers to stitutes fair aluminium ore. Material with more than 4% ferric aluminium ore composed almost entirely of the hydrated oxides oxide is not attractive to alum manufacturers. . of aluminium and ferric iron with the former element present in The mode of formation of lateritic bauxite is the same as à commercially extractable amount, whereas the word laterite laterite (see LATERITE). The current opinion is that laterite carries a genetic significance. As all bauxites are not of lateritic represents the residual weathering product of rocks containing origin, a distinction should be recognized in bauxites of various aluminium and iron silicates. W. A. K. Christie and C. S. Fox

origin. The terms Laterite Type and Terra Rossa Type have n provisionally suggested (1927). The relationship between

(1923) consider that Indian bauzites are indicative of the operation of capillary pressures, dialysis and electrolytic migration

230 during laterite formation. To ascribed the removal of the loidal aluminium hydroxides composed rock. Terra rossa

BAVAI—BAVARIA electrokinetic phenomena are largely silica and the separation of the colfrom those of ferric iron in the debauxites are presumed to have the

same genesis as terra rossa. The world’s annual production of bauxite exceeds one million tons. Over 60% of this output is used for the extraction of aluminium. Another 15% of the production is absorbed in the chemical industry, primarily for the preparation of aluminium hydroxide, but also for making sodium aluminate, aluminium chloride, aluminium sulphate and alum. The remainder of the bauxite output (about 15%) is used for the production of abrasives (emery) and refractories; in the manufacture of alumina

(fused) cements; and for kerosene purification. (C. S. F.) Bauxite in the United States.—The manufacture of bauxite elements is becoming an important industry. It was first located by Edward Nichols in 1883 in north-western Georgia. This ore of aluminium is claylike in appearance, some of it being soft and friable and some of it hard and brittle, ranging in colour from white and pink into brown and deep red. Bauxite is generally formed through the weathering of certain igneous and sedimentary rocks, such as granite, syenite, basalt, limestone and clay. The term “bauxite” is applied to a mixture of hydrates of aluminium with impurities. The monohydrate of aluminium is called diaspore. The tri-hydrate is called gibbsite. Chemically pure diaspore and gibbsite are seldom found in nature and the term “bauxite” is applied to the impure varieties of these minerals, as well as to the mixtures of the two. Generally speaking the bauxites of North and South America are tri-hydrates with varying amounts of silica, iron oxide and titanium oxide as the chief impurities; while the European ores, for the most part, are mixtures of mono-hydrates and tri-hydrates, also with silica, iron oxide and titanium oxide as the chief impurities. Typical American bauxite will analyze approximately 60% aluminium oxide, called alumina, 5% silica, 3% iron oxide, 3%

titanium oxide and 29% chemically combined water. The free

for making aluminium sulphate, which is largely used in paper (W. C. N.) making and water purification.

BAVAL, town of north France, department of Nord, rsm,

E.S.E. of Valenciennes. Pop. (1926) 1,544. It has been a focus of important roads since early times. The capital of the Nervii, it was known to the Romans as Bagacum or Bavacum, and was the meet-

ing place of eight of their roads. It was destroyed in the sth cep.

tury and has suffered much in later wars. It was the British ad. vanced headquarters in 1914 but was taken later, and recaptured in Nov. 1918.

BAVARIA

(Freistaat Bayern), the largest republic of Ger.

many in area and population, next to Prussia. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions, Bavaria proper, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from 25 to 40m. apart and are separated by the republics of Baden and Hesse. Bavaria proper is bounded

on the south by the Alps, on the north-east, over against Czecho-

slovakia, by the Böhmerwald; on the north by the Fichtelgebirge and the Frankenwald, and on the west by Württemberg and

Baden. Except for the valley of the Main in the north-west, nearly

all the surface is over 1,000ft., the ranges seldom exceed 3,000ft.; but the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain 9,000 or 10,000 feet. The country mainly belongs to the basin of the Danube, which, entering from Suabia as a navigable stream, traverses the republic with a winding course of 200m., receiving the Iller, Lech, Isar and Inn from the south, and the Altmiihl and Naab from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing from Upper Austria. The Main follows a winding course among the broken hills of Upper and Lower Franconia, and greatly

facilitates the trade of the provinces. The district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most part of the sub-Alpine plateau, with a mean elevation of 2,390 feet. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the

east by the Rhine, which divides it from Baden; on the south by Alsace, and on the west and north by the Haardtgebirge, which separate it from Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province. > Area and Population.—Bavaria proper contains an area of 27,210 sq.m., and the Palatinate or western (without the Saar Pop. district) 2,124 sq.m., making a total of 29,334 sq.m. (1925), 7,379,594. In 1925, 52% of the population were living in towns, etc., with 2,000 inhabitants and over. The towns with over 50,000 inhabitants (1925) are: Munich (680,704); Niimberg (392,494); Augsburg (165,522); Ludwigshafen (101,869); Würzburg (89,910); Regensburg (76,948); Fiirth (73,693); Kaiserslauten (59,336) and Bamberg (50,152). Politically the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows:

moisture in the ores as mined is generally driven off by heating in kilns before marketing. Bauxite occurs in most countries of the world, with a tendency towards tropical or semi-tropical districts. The mines of southern France and those of southern United States have been longest in operation and have produced the largest amounts of bauxite, although very extensive mining operations have been carried on in British and Dutch Guiana, in western Hungary and in Istria, Dalmatia and other Adriatic countries, where immense deposits of bauxite are found. Large deposits are known to exist also in central and western Africa, Australia, Rumania, India, Greece and Pop. of Area in Brazil, as well as in many other countries. The known deposits province Province Capital are of sufficient magnitude to supply the world’s requirements for in 1925 a very long period of time. Moreover, new discoveries are being 1,684,766 Munich 6,437 Upper Bavaria reported at frequent intervals. 4,148 Landshut 755,769 Lower Bavaria Aluminium was a rare and expensive metal, obtained from cryo629,262 Regensburg 39725 Upper Palatinate lite, until economical methods for its extraction from bauxite were Upper Franconia 2,898 discovered. In the year 1886 Charles M. Hall, of Oberlin, O., Bayreuth (including Coburg) . 757,515 25935 Ansbach Middle Franconia 998,386 while a student at Oberlin college, discovered an electrolytic proc3,260 Wurzburg 762,744 Lower Franconia . ess for extracting aluminium from alumina. Bauxite being the 3,807 Augsburg Suabia . . . 859,397 most readily available source of alumina, this material became The Palatinate (excluding aluminium. metal the for material raw natural the as recognized Speyer the Saar district) 931,755 In the year 1889 patents were issued to Charles M. Hall covering 29,334 Total . 7:379:594 his invention, and about this same time M. Paul Heroult of France invented a similar process, which has formed the basis of EuroReligion.—The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are pean development in aluminium manufacture. Metallic aluminium is made from bauxite by first removing the Roman Catholics. Protestants number over 2,000,000, The disPalatiimpurities from the latter, thus producing alumina, which in turn tricts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria, and the Upper is treated in an electrolytic bath which separates the metal from nate are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in the Rhine the oxygen. Four or five tons of bauxite are required to produce Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle Franconi, Protestants predominate. Of the Roman Catholic Church the one ton of metallic aluminium. The abrasive industry uses large quantities of bauxite, which in heads are the two archbishops of Munich and Bamberg, and the the process of manufacture is fused in specially designed electric six suffragan bishops of Eichstätt, Speyer, Würzburg, Augsburg, furnaces. Considerable quantities of bauxite are also used for Regensburg and Passau. The Protestant Church is under & making quick-hardening cement, in the refractory industry, in superior church council, with three general deaneries for Bavaria manufacturing aluminium chloride used in petroleum refining, and proper and one general church council for the Palatinate. The sq.

m

*

BAVARIA

HISTORY]

23I

republic has two Roman Catholic universities, Munich and Wiirzburg, and a Lutheran, Erlangen; Munich has a famous technical high school and academies of sciences and of art. It is famous as a centre of culture.

HISTORY The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria were a people, probably Celtic, who were subdued by the Romans just before the opening of the Christian era, their land

cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth mostly pas-

being included in the province of Raetia. The cities of Augsburg, Regensburg, and Passau were originally Roman colonies. During

Agriculture—Of

the total

area,

nearly

one-half

is under

ture. The level country of Lower Bavaria and parts of Franconia

are productive of rye, oats, wheat, barley and vines. The last are

grown chiefly in the vicinity of the Lake of Constance on the

hanks of the lower Main, and in the Palatinate.

Hops are ex-

tensively grown in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Ger-

many) is raised round Niirnberg and in the Palatinate, which also produces sugar-beet. Potatoes are cultivated especially in the Palatinate and in the Spessart district, which lies within a curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Suabia and Upper Bavaria, where pastureland predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and the dairy produce is extensive. The extensive forests are principally situated in the provinces of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate; they have played an important part in moulding the life of these areas. Minerals.—The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria

are coal,

iron ore, graphite, lignite, lead ore and salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Palatinate. Salt is obtained partly from brine springs and partly from mines, the principal centres being Halle, Berchtes-

gaden, Traunstein and Rosenheim. The ancient Government monopoly was abolished in 1867. There are numerous quarries of excellent marble, basalts, granite, alabaster and gypsum; and the porcelain-clay is among the finest in Europe. There are also numerous mineral springs, many of which have long been resorted to for their curative properties.

Manufactures and Trade.—aA great stimulus to Bavarian industry was given by the law of 1868, which abolished the remains of the old restrictions of the guilds, and gave the whole country the liberty which had been enjoyed by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief centres of industry are Munich, Nürnberg, Augsburg, Fürth, Erlangen, Aschaffenburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and Hof in Bavaria proper; and, in the Palatinate, Speyer and the Rhine port of Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware industry are Munich, Nürnberg, Augsburg and Fürth; the first two especially for locomotives and automobiles, the last for tinfoil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg manufactures fancy goods, Augsburg and Hof produce cloth, and Munich has a great reputation for scientifc instruments. In Franconia are numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. The breweries of Munich, Nürnberg, Erlangen and Kulmbach are famous. Other articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco, porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nürnberg), glass, sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets.

The exports

consist chiefly of corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the hop-trade is Nürnberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron. There are steamboat services on the navigable rivers to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The Ludwigskanal connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmühl. In 1921 work was begun on the Rhine-Main-Danube waterway; and the portion as far as Aschaffenburg was opened to through traffic in 1924. It was expected that the completion of the works for the transit of ships of 1,500 tons would take 12

years. The kingdom of Bavaria, incorporated with the German empire in 1871, was declared a republic on Nov. 28, 1918. Its constitution is dated Aug. 14, 1919. The supreme power lies with

the people. Religious associations have equal rights and are free In all their activities.

The diet consists of one chamber, elected

for four years and having (in 1928) 129 members, each repre-

senting about 62,000 inhabitants. On March 11, 1920, the Free State of Coburg was united by a bill with the republic of Bavaria,

the inhabitants of Coburg having unanimously decided in favour of union in 1919,

the sth century it was ravaged by the troops after being almost depopulated, was occupied by ing along the valley of the Danube, settled there and 520. They were, like the Franks, composed

of Odoacer and, tribes who, pushbetween A.D. 488 of a mixture of Teutonic tribes, and were known as Bawarii or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably from Baya and given to them because they came from Baya-Hemum or Bohemia. They are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520. Their country was bounded by the Enns, the Danube, the Lech, and the Alps. The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, and were ruled from 555 to 788 by dukes of the Agilolfing family, possibly of Frankish descent. For a century and a half these dukes resisted the inroads of the Slavs, and by the time of Duke Theodo I. (d. 727) were independent of the feeble Frankish kings. When Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of the Frankish realm he brought the Bavarians into strict dependence, and Pippin the Short was equally successful in maintaining his authority. Christianity was introduced into Bavaria by Rupert, bishop of Worms who came at the invitation of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He founded several monasteries, and a similar work was also performed by St. Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers. The 8th century witnessed indeed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg, and Passau. Union with Carolingian Empire.—Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the supremacy of the Frankish king, Pippin the Short, in 757, but soon showed signs of insubordination, and, during the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes, as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are obscure. The outcome, however, was that Tassilo had to surrender his duchy in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a battle with the Avars in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and assimilated with that of the rest of the Carolingian empire. When the empire was partitioned in 817, Bavaria was assigned to Louis the German, king of the East Franks, and thus formed part of the larger territories which were confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun. Louis made Regensburg his capital and was active in improving the condition of Bavaria. When he divided his possessions in 865 it passed to his eldest son Carloman, and after his death in 880 formed part of the territories of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as German king. Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Frankish kingdom, passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose reign it was constantly ravaged and all but depopulated by the Hungarians. For the defence of Bavaria the mark of Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern frontier, which during the reign of Louis the Child was ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, who fell in the disastrous defeat of the Bavarians by the Hungarians on July 5, 907. His son Arnulf I., surnamed the Bad, rallied the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by Conrad’s successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who admitted his right to appoint the bishops, coin money, and issue

laws. A similar conflict took place between Arnulf’s son Eber-

232

BAVARIA

hard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was less successful than his father, for in 938 he was driven from Bavaria, which was given by Otto, with reduced privileges, to the duke’s uncle, Bertold. When Bertold died in 947 Otto conferred the duchy upon his own brother Henry, who had married Judith, a daughter of Duke Arnulf; Henry’s short reign was spent mainly in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians ceased after their defeat by the emperor Otto on the Lechfeld in 955. In that year Henry I. was succeeded by his young son Henry, surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was implicated in a rising against King Otto II. The revolt was soon suppressed; and in 976 Henry was formally deposed, Bavaria being given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the same time Carinthia was made into a separate duchy. Restored in 985, Duke Henry II. proved himself a capable ruler by establishing internal order, issuing important laws and reforming the monasteries. His son, who was chosen German king as Henry II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-in-law, Henry of Luxemburg, after whose death in 1026 it passed successively to Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and to another member of the family of Luxemburg, as Duke Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and regent for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, when the duchy was granted to his son-in-law Count Welf, son of Azzo II., of Este. In consequence of his support of Pope Gregory VII., in his quarrel with Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was followed successively by his sons, Welf IIL. in rror, and Henry IX. in 1120. Henry was succeeded in 1126 by his son Henry X., the Proud, who -obtained the duchy of Saxony in 1137. King Conrad IH., however, refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same hands, declared Henry deposed, and bestowed Bavaria upon Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141 the king retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the scene of considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to Henry II., surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The struggle for its possession continued until 1156, when King Frederick I. persuaded Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the Lion, a son of Duke Henry the Proud. Rule of the Wittelsbachs.—A new era set in when in 1180 Henry was placed under the imperial ban, and the duchy was given by Frederick I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian family of Wittelsbach (g.v.), and a descendant of the counts of Scheyern. After the destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of Bavaria were continually changing and for a long period after 955 this process was one of expansion. To the west the Lech still divided Bavaria from Swabia, but on three other sides the duchy had been extended and embraced a large area north of the Danube. During the later years of the rule of the Welfs, however, the extent of Bavaria had been reduced. The energies of Duke Henry the Lion had been devoted to his northern rather than his southern duchy, and when the dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to Austria. The increasing importance of the mark of Styria, erected into a duchy in 1180, and the county of Tirol, had diminished the strength of Bavaria, which now had few opportunities for expansion. When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria in Sept. r180 the duchy was bounded by the Béhmerwald, the Inn, the Alps, and the Lech; and the power of the duke was practically confined to his extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim, and Straubing. Otto was succeeded in 1183 by his son Louis I., who took a leading part in German affairs during the earlier years of the reign of the emperor Frederick IL, and was assassinated at Kelheim in Sept. 123r. His son Otto II., called the Illustrious, increased the area of his lands by purchases; and he had strengthened his hold upon the duchy before he died in Nov. 1253. The efforts of the dukes to consolidate their power over the duchy had been fairly successful; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among different members of the family, which for 250 years made the history of Bavaria little more than a chronicle of territorial divisions, family feuds and petty

squabblings.

Division

[HISTORY of the Duchy.—The

first of these divisions was

made in 1255 between Louis IT. and Henry I., the sons of Duke

Otto II., Louis obtaining the western part of the duchy, after. wards called Upper Bavaria, and Henry the eastern, or Lower Bavaria. In the course of a long reign Louis, “the Stern,” became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was the uncle and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when this prince was put to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother Henry inherited the domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and else. where. He helped Rudolph of Habsburg to secure the German throne in 1273, married the new king’s daughter Mechtild, and

aided him in his campaigns.

For some years after the death of

Louis in 1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the ep. peror Louis IV., ruled their duchy in common; but in 1310 a dj.

vision of Upper Bavaria was made, by which Rudolph received the land east of the Isar, with the town of Munich, and Louis the district between the Isar and the Lech. This arrangement, how. ever, soon led to war between the brothers, and in 1317, three years after he had been chosen German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for 12 years ruled alone over the whole

of Upper Bavaria. But in 1329 a series of events induced him to conclude the treaty of Pavia with Rudolph’s sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he transferred the Palatinate of the Rhine, which

had been in the possession of the Wittelsbach family since 1214, and also a portion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube which was afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines alternately, and that in the event of either branch of the

family becoming extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.

When in 1290 Henry I. of Lower Bavaria died, the duchy was ruled by his three sons, Otto III., Louis ILI. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296; Stephen left two sons at his death

in 1310, namely, Henry II. and Otto IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to 1308, died in 1312, leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria was ruled by these three princes until 1333, when Henry ITI. died, followed in 1334 by his cousin Otto: and as both died without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria passed to Henry II. Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who died childless in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV. secured Lower Bavaria and united the whole duchy under his sway. The union of Bavaria under Louis lasted seven years, with much benefit to the country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his possessions, who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its history, however, was complicated by its con-

nection with Brandenburg, Holland, and Tirol, all of which had also been left by the emperor to his sons. All six brothers exercised some authority in Bavaria; but three alone left issue, and of these the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in 1361, his only son Meinhard dying two years later without issue. The two remaining brothers, Stephen II. and Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 his portion of Bavaria was ruled jointly by his three sons. In 1392, when all the lines except those of Stephen

and Albert had died out, an important partition took place, by which the greater part of the duchy was divided among Stephens three sons, Stephen III., Frederick, and John II., who founded respectively the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut, and Munich. Al bert’s duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his son William IT., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who re-

signed the bishopric of Liége on becoming duke. When John died in 1425 this family became extinct, and after a contest between various claimants Bavaria-Straubing was divided between the

three remaining branches of the family. The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was the temporary eclipse of Bavaria. Neighbouring states encroached upon

its borders and the nobles ignored the authority of the dukes. who for so years were mainly occupied with intestine strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not wholly harmful. The government of the country and the control of the finances passed mainly into the hands of an assembly called the Landtag or Landschaft, organized in 1392. The towns, assuming a certam inde-

BAVARIA

HISTORY]

233

pendence, becamel strong and wealthy as trade increased,C and the | in 1546, when the emperor Charles V. obtained the help of the citizens of Munich and Regensburg were often formidable an- duke during the war of the league of Schmalkalden by promising tagonists to the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth

of representative

institutions

and of a strong civic spirit.

The

rule of Stephen ITI., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was marked by struggles with various towns and with his brother, John of Ba-

yaria-Munich.

Dying in 1413, he was followed by his son Louis,

called the Bearded, a restless and quarrelsome prince, who had

played an important part in the affairs of France, where his sister

Isabella was the queen of King Charles VI. About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel with his cousin, Henry of Bayaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal and the imperial ban,

him the reversion of the Bohemian throne, and the electoral dig-

nity enjoyed by the count palatine of the Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to secure Bavaria for catholicism. The reformed doctrines made great progress in the duchy; but the duke, who had sympathized with Luther’s first protests, objected to doctrinal innovations, and while obtaining from the pope powers to reform the morals of the clergy, took measures to repress the reformers. In 1542, at his invitation, Loyola sent some

brethren of the new Society of Jesus to Bavaria, and later the

who had married a daughter of Frederick I. of Hohenzollern, mar-

university of Ingolstadt became the headquarters of the society in Germany. William, whose death occurred in March 1550, was succeeded by his son Albert V., who had married a daughter of

father to an illegitimate son. Aided by Albert Achilles, afterwards

Early in his reign, Albert made some concessions to the reformers,

and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis the Lame. This prince,

rave of Brandenburg, was incensed at the favour shown by his margrave of Brandenburg, he took the elder Louis prisoner and compelled him to abdicate in 1443. When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his father came into the power of his enemy, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, and died in prison in 1447. The duchy of BavariaIngolstadt passed to Henry, who had succeeded his father Frederick as duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was almost entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and was followed by his son, Louis IX., “the Rich,” and about this time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. Louis IX. expelled the Jews from his duchy, took some steps for the security of traders, and improved both the administration of justice and the condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded the university of Ingolstadt, and he made an attempt to reform the monasteries. On his death in 1479 he was succeeded

by his son George, also called the Rich, who died without sons in Dec. 1503, whereupon a war broke out for the possession of his duchy. Bavaria-Munich passed, on the death of John IT. in 1397, to his sons Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Both brothers were then engaged in warfare with the other branches of the family and with the citizens of Munich. Wiliam, a loyal servant of the emperor Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an only son, Adolf, who died five years later; and Ernest died in 1438. In 1440 the whole of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest’s son Albert, whose attempts to reform the monasteries earned for him the surname of Pious. He died in 1460, leaving five sons, the two elder of whom, John IV. and Sigismund, reigned in common until the death of John in 1463. The third brother, Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined his brother in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became sole ruler, in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. Reunion of the Duchy.—In 1504, Albert IV., called the Wise, became involved in the war which broke out for the possession

of Bavaria-Landshut on the death of George the Rich. Albert’s rival was George’s son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of Freising and son of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the emperor Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and count of Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504, and in 1505 an arrangement was made at the diet of Cologne by which the emperor and Philip’s grandson, Otto Henry, obtained certain outlying districts, while Albert, by securing the bulk of George's possessions, united Bavaria under his rule. In 1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass undivided according to the rules of primogeniture. He was partially successful in improving the condition of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one of the six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance of peace, He died in March

1508, and was succeeded by his son,

William IV., whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the emperor Frederick III. In spite of the decree of 1506 William was compelled, in 1516, to grant a share in the government to his brother Louis, an arrangement which lasted until the death of Louis in 1545. William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition

to the Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with

Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia.

This was strengthened

Ferdinand of Habsburg, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I.

who were still strong in Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed

forward the work of the counter-reformation.

As education passed

into the hands of the Jesuits, protestantism was effectually crushed

in Bavaria.

Albert V. was a great patron of art. His court at

Munich was the resort of artists of all kinds, and the city was enriched with splendid buildings. The expenses of a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel with the Landschaft, to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great burden of debt when he died in

Oct. 1579. The succeeding duke was Albert’s son, William V. (called the Pious) who was a devout pupil of the Jesuits. He secured the archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maxi-

milian I., and retired into a monastery, where he died in 1626. Maximilian found the duchy encumbered with debt and filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule effected a remarkable change. The finances and the judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants and a national militia founded, and sev-

eral small districts were brought under the duke’s authority. The

result was a unity and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to play an important part in the Thirty Years’ War; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In spite of subsequent reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war Bavaria suffered severely. In 1632 it was invaded by the Swedes and, when Maximilian violated the treaty of Ulm in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes. After repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in

Sept. 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. The recovery of the Upper Palatinate made Bavaria compact;

the acquisition of the electoral vote made it influential; and the duchy was able to play a part in European politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible for the past 400 years.

Beginning of Modern Period.—For the next two centuries

Bavaria was to suffer for the dynastic ambitions of her rulers. Maximilian’s son, Ferdinand Maria (1651-79), did much to repair the wounds caused by the Thirty Years’ War, encouraging

agriculture, industries, and building, and recalling in 1669 the diet,

which had been suspended since 1612. But his son, Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), went to war with the Turks, and joined

France in the war of the Spanish succession.

He shared in the

defeat at Héchstadt on Aug. 13, 1704, and his dominions were partitioned between Austria and the elector palatine, and only restored to him, harried and exhausted, at the Peace of Baden in 1714. His son, Charles Albert (1726-45), seized the opportunity of the death of the emperor Charles VI. to dispute the validity of the Pragmatic Sanction which secured the Habsburg succession to Maria Theresa, allied himself with France, conquered Upper Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague and, in 1742, emperor at Frankfurt. The price he had to pay, however, was the

occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops. The invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of Prussia enabled him to re-

turn to Munich, and at his death on Jan. 20, 1745, his successor,

234

BAVARIA

by the Peace of Füssen (April 22, 1745) obtained the restitution of his dominions in return for a formal acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction. The reign of Maximilian III. Joseph (174577) was peaceful and prosperous. War

of Bavarian

Succession.—At

his death the Bavarian

line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jiilich and Berg had been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. Joseph II., emperor of Austria, took this opportunity to put forward a claim to about a third of Bavaria, and sent troops across the frontier, with the secret consent of Charles Theodore who, having no legitimate heirs, hoped, in return, for the elevation of his natural children to the status of princes of the empire. The protests of the next heir, Charles, duke of Zweibriicken, supported by Frederick the Great of Prussia, led to the war of the Bavarian succession, and by the Peace of Teschen (May 13, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to Austria, and the succession secured to Charles of Zweibriicken. Meanwhile Charles Theodore abandoned the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor, the Government was inspired by the narrowest clericalism and on the eve of the revolution the intellectual and social condition of Bavaria remained that of the middle ages. The Revolutionary Wars.—In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795 the French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich—where they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals—and laid siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore fled to Saxony, leaving a regency to sign a convention with Moreau, who granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution (Sept. 7, 1796). Immediately afterwards he was forced to retire. Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in an evil case. Before the death of

Charles Theodore (Feb. 16, 1799) the Austrians had again occupied the country, preparatory to renewing the war with France. Maximilian IV. Joseph, the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his minister, Max Josef von Monitgelas (g.v.), were French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian finances and the disorganization of the troops placed him helpless in the hands of Austria. On Dec. 2, 1800, Bavaria shared in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the Treaty of Lunéville (Feb. 9, 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken and Jülich. The influence of Montgelas now gave Bavarian policy a new direction. On Aug. 24 a separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris by which compensation was promised at the expense of Austria, for the territory on the left bank of the Rhine ceded at the Treaty of Lunéville. Accordingly, in the territorial rearrangements of 1803, Bavaria received the bishoprics of Wirzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg and Freisingen, part of that of Passau, the territories of 12 abbeys, and 17 cities, the whole forming a compact territory. Pursuing the policy of alliance with France, Bavarian troops fought side by side with the French in the Ulm-Austerlitz campaign of 1805 and by the Treaty of Pressburg, Dec. 26, the principality of Eichstadt, the margraviate of Burgau and the lordship of Vorarlberg, and other territories were to be added to Bavaria. On the other hand Wiirzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Salzburg in exchange for Tirol; the treaty also acknowledged the assumption by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I. The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with Eugéne Beauharnais. For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian and Montgelas belonged to the 18th-century school of “enlightened” princes and politicians. But the revolutionary changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on May 1, 1808, were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of the mediaeval polity surviving in the somnolent local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law, universal liability to taxation, abolition

[HISTORY

of serfdom, security of person and property, liberty of conscience and of the Press. A representative assembly was created on paper

but never summoned. In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of France, and by the treaty signed at Schönbrunn on Oct, y; 1809, ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Württemberg, receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and Hausruck and the principalities of Bay. reuth and Regensburg. So far the policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of Napoleon had now reached

its zenith; already the astute opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change and on Oct. 8 was signed the Treaty of Ried, by which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies.

Tirol and Vorarlberg reverted to Austria at the first Peace of Paris (1814), but at the Congress of Vienna it was decided that

Bavaria was to add to these the greater part of Salzburg and the quarters of the Inn and Hausruck, receiving as compensation Würzburg, Aschaffenburg and other territories. But with the collapse of France the old fear and jealousy of Austria had revived in full force, and war was only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance. At the Congress of Aix (1818) and by the Treaty of Frankfurt, July 20, 1819, the territorial questions at issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. Constitution of 1818.—Meanwhile on Feb. 1, 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed, and a new era of constitutional reform begun. In the new German confederation Bavaria had assumed the rôle of defender of the smaller States against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia, and to obtain popular support for this policy the crown prince pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede it being the cause of his dismissal. On May 26, 1818, the constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist of two houses; the frst comprising the great hereditary landowners, government officials and nominees of the Crown; the second, elected on a very narrow franchise, representatives of the small landowners, the towns and the peasants. Religious equality and the rights of Protestants were guaranteed, concessions which were denounced at Rome as a breach of the recently concluded Concordat. The parliament was hardly opened (Feb. 5, 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members so alarmed the king, that he appealed to Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures they might recommend, but the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life depended on the good will of the king, moderated its tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a model constitutional monarch.

Ludwig I—On Oct. 13, 1825, he was succeeded by his son, Ludwig I., the earlier years of whose reign were marked bya liberal spirit and by financial reform; but the revolutions of 1831 and

the opposition of the parliament to his expenditure on building and works of art frightened him into reaction. In 1837 the Ultramontanes came into power with Karl von Abel (1788-1859) as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and a rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion of internal politics. The cob lapse of this régime was brought about by the king’s infatuation for an Irish adventuress, Lola Montez. Ultramontanes and radicals, equally incensed at the influence she exercised, joined in riotous demonstrations in 1847. Neither the Protestant Georg Ludwig von Maurer (q¢.v.), who had succeeded Abel as minister,

nor his successor, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein, the head of the cabinet nicknamed the “Lolaministerium,” was able to restore order; and on March 20, 1848, unable to deal effectually with the crisis caused by the Paris Revolution the king abdicated in favour of his son, Maximilian II.

Anti-Prussian Policy——The new sovereign was a zealous

supporter of the national effort to achieve German freedom and unity, accepting the authority of the central Government at

Frankfurt, and (Dec. 19) sanctioning the official promulgation of

the laws passed by the German parliament. But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the

BAVARIA

HISTORY]

offer of the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., Maximilian had the support of his parliament.

ihe new German Constitution, from the Confederation, he ran, of his people; but by this time broken, and in the events which

In withholding his assent to

by which Austria was excluded indeed, counter to the sentiment the back of the revolution was led to the humiliation of Prussia

at Olmiitz in 1851, and the restoration of the old diet of the Con-

federation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see GERMANY: History). The guiding spirit in this anti-Prussian policy was Ludwig Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-

30), who became minister for foreign affairs in April 1849, and

who aimed at establishing a Trias, i.e., a league of the Rhenish States as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. His reactionary internal policy, less severe than elsewhere in Germany, led none the less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten’s ministry on March 27, 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-84), an official of Liberal tendencies who introduced important reforms including the separation of the judicial and executive powers and the

drawing up of a-new criminal code. In foreign affairs Schrenk followed his predecessor’s policy.

Maximilian was succeeded on March 10, 1864, by his son, Ludwig II., a youth of 18. The Government was at first carried

on by Schrenk and Pfordten in concert.

Schrenk soon retired,

when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the Prussian Zollverein, to become a

235

long rule Bavaria shared in the common prosperity of Germany: but it was long before she forgot her “particularism,”

founded

on traditional racial and religious antagonism to Prussia. Towards the end of Luitpold’s regency the Catholic-Clerical Party came into power, after prolonged political struggles. On the defeat of the Podewil Ministry in the elections of Feb. 1912, Baron von Hertling, a leader of the Centre Party, formed a cabinet consisting mainly of officials. In December of the same year Luitpold died; on Nov. 5, 1913, his son Ludwig TII., who had succeeded him as regent, was made king. Revolution of 1918.—The World War brought a truce to party politics but in its later stages the discontent of the population gradually assumed alarming proportions. Von Dandl, who had succeeded von Hertling as minister-president, was confronted with the revolution, which broke out in Munich on the night of Nov. 7—8, 1918, before the fall of the Imperial Government in Berlin. The Wittelsbach dynasty was deposed, and Kurt Eisner,

the Independent Socialist, placed himself at the head of the Revolutionary Government. Pending a re-election of the diet, a provisional constitution of the Socialist Republic of Bavaria was set up. The diet was to meet on Feb. 21, 1919, but on that very day Eisner was shot dead. The result was the outbreak, on April 4, of a new revolution, inspired by the Bolsheviks, which col-

lapsed, after fierce fighting, on May 1. Once more the diet was assembled, and on May 5, 1919, Hoffmann, the minister-president, laid before it the Government’s scheme for the new constitution. The New

Constitution.—The

new constitution of Aug. 14,

party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France, signed in

1919, was based on the assumption that Bavaria was still a sov-

1862.

ereign state, though, by the Weimar Constitution of Aug. II, foreign policy, the army and railways had become the concern of the Reich. Bavaria’s economic policy also became severely restricted, as the financial legislation of the Reich had requisitioned her principal sources of Income. The form of the state was prescribed by the Reich; Bavaria became a democratic republic with parliamentary government, but without a president to act as a check on parliament. The diet has thus no superior authority ex-

In the complicated

Schleswig-Holstein

question

(qg.v.)

Bavaria consistently opposed Prussia and finally, in the war of 1866, sided actively with Austria.

Union with the German Empire.—The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria’s relation to Prussia and the

German question. The South German Confederation, contemplated by the Treaty of Prague, never came into being; and, though Prussia, in order not prematurely to excite the alarm of France, opposed the suggestion that the southern states should join the North German Confederation, an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia was signed at Berlin on Aug. 22, 1866, as the result of Napoleon’s demand for “compensation” in the Palatinate. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up and in the war of 1870-71, the Bavarian army marched against France under the command of the Prussian crown prince. On Nov. 23, 1870, a treaty was signed between Bavaria and the North German Confederation, by which, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic service, military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers on Jan. 21, 1871, in spite of the opposition of the “patriot” party. Their hostility was increased by the Kulturkampf, due to the promulgation in 1870 of the dogma of papal infallibility. Munich university, where Déllinger (g.v.) was professor, became the centre of the

cept that of the people, which elects its members and can dissolve it by a “popular demand” (Volksbegehren), or administer the laws directly by a referendum (Volksentscheidung). The diet is elected, like the Reichstag, by universal suffrage and secret ballot, on the system of proportional representation. It consists of a single chamber. The minister-president appointed by the diet has not the standing of a prime minister. The responsibility for administration rests upon individual ministers who may be forced to resign by a vote of non-confidence. Direct legislation by the people, by popular vote, may occur (1) when the diet rejects a “popular demand” for the enactment of a law or accepts it only in an amended form, and (2) when the diet has passed a law from which, within two months, an appeal is made by “popular demand” or a referendum called for by the whole of the Ministry but with these exceptions the constitution is based upon a system of representative democracy. The policy of Bavaria after 1919 was governed by (1) the fear

of a conflict with the Reich and (2) the risk of a counter-revolu-

tion by Nationalist and Monarchist organizations. The dominating parties in Bavaria held that the Weimar Constitution involved were protected by the king and the government. The federal excessive centralization, and wished to return to the old Federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on Sept. 6, Constitution of the Reich. On the question of the particular 1871, and was extended to the Redemptorists in 1873. On March rights to be retained by Bavaria there were constant battles be31, 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had tween the two Governments. been drawn closer by the acceptance of a number of Jaws of the The rise of the Nationalist organizations was due, on the one North German Confederation, of which the most important was hand, to a reaction against Bolshevism and, on the other, to the the new criminal code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria execution of the Versailles Treaty by the Entente. The attempted in 1879. The opposition of the “patriot” party, however, rein- counter-revolution in Berlin, the so-called “Kapp Putsch” (March forced by the strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued 1920), many participants in which sought refuge in Bavaria, was powerful, and the support given by the king to successive Liberal the indirect cause of the fall of Hoffmann’s Socialist Ministry and ministries alone prevented its finding disastrous expression in the Kahr’s bourgeois (non-Socialist) Cabinet took its place. On parliament. June 6 the bourgeois parties obtained a two-thirds majority in Regency of Prince Luitpold—Meanwhile, Ludwig II. and the elections, and the “‘law-and-order party” (“Ordnungsblock”) his brother, Otto I., both having been declared insane, the heir began its rule. Herr Escherich founded the Ezmwoknerwehr or presumptive, Prince Luitpold, was proclaimed regent on June 7, “Orgesch” (Organization Escherich), a voluntary militia, for pro1886: six days later Ludwig committed suicide. During Luitpold’s tection against possible repetitions of a Bolshevik revolution.

opposition to the new dogma, and the “old Catholics” (g.v.)

BAVARIAN

236

SUCCESSION—BAXTER attractive is the romantic and mystical feeling pervading so much

This organization was, however, dissolved by order of the Entente Commission, and Von Kahr resigned in consequence on Sept. 12, 1921.

His successor,

Count

Lerchenfeld,

of his work, with which characteristic may be associated his stro afanity for Irish folklore and legend and other aspects of the Celtic spirit. With the exception of opera, practically every branch of composition is represented in Bax’s extensive output,

had an equally good

majority but was also obliged to go out of office in the following year on account of a conflict with the Reich Government (Oct. 27, 1922). Von Knilling’s new Ministry leaned still more to the right and the Democrats left the Government. National feeling found its extreme expression in the views of the National Socialists, a militarist, nationalist and anti-semite body, nominally democratic in tendency, but actually largely used by the rich to break strikes and attack Socialism. This body led by one Hitler, a good demagogue but no politician, wavered between Bavarian separatism and pan-Germanism in a bewildering fashion. It became dangerous in the autumn of 1923, when Ludendorff joined it and gave it the backing of the secret military leagues. But it

For the orchestra his more notable works include three character.

istically imaginative symphonic poems “The Garden of Fand" (1916), “Tintagel” (1917) and “November Woods” (1917) together with a fine symphony (1921). Among a number of admirable chamber works may be mentioned two violin sonatas, a

string quartet and a fine piano quintet.

aroused opposition in Bavaria by setting itself against a restora-

tion of the Wittelsbach dynasty and against the Catholic Church. Herr von Kahr was appointed general state commissioner with full dictatorial powers. On Nov. 8, 1923, the counter-revolution broke out in Munich. It was suppressed with bloodshed, the Reich defence force having remained loyal to the Constitution. Von Kahr’s task was now at an end, and on Feb. 18, 1924, he retired. The elections for the diet gave no party a majority; a coalition Ministry was therefore once more formed, consisting of the Bavarian People’s Party, the German Nationals and the Farmers’ League (Bauernbund). Held, the leader of the Bavarian People’s Party, placed himself at the head. This Ministry offered a firm front to the National Socialist Party and strove to reach a settlement with the Reich Government. In the anti-Socialist and Federal tendency of its policy, it nevertheless followed in the track of its predecessors. The Mon-

archist (Wittelsbach) GERMANY: History).

movement

remained

very

strong

ous pianoforte pieces and songs are included also in a long list. BAX, ERNEST BELFORT (1854-1926), English writer and economist, was born at Leamington on July 24, 1854, and educated privately. When a young man he escaped from the strict

(see

BIBLiocRraPHy.—M onumenta Boica (Munich, 1763-1900) ; A. Buchner, Geschichte von Baiern (Munich, 1820-53); G. T. Rudhart, Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns (Hamburg, 1841); A. Quitzmann, Abstammung,

Ursitz, und älteste Geschichte

der Baiwaren

(Munich,

1857),

and Die Älteste Geschichte der Baiern bis ọrz (Brunswick, 1873); much valuable detail will be found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (Leipzig, 1875 f.); S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns (Gotha, 1878-99); E. Rosenthal, Geschichte des Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns (Würzburg, 1889); Ad. Brecher, Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen Staatsgebiets, map (1890) ; Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns, ed. K. von Reinhardstottner (1897 fol.); J. Reinach, La Restauration de ?Empire allemand, le rôle de Bavière (x911); G. Bainville, Louis II. de Bavière (1920) ; A. Got, La Terreur en Bavière (1922).

BAVARIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF (1778-79): see

Bavartra and Potato WAR.

BAVENO, village, Piedmont, Italy, province of Novara 13m.

N.N.W. of Arona by rail. A resort with fine valleys.

Its red

granite quarries supplied columns for Milan Cathedral, S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, etc.

BAWBEE, the Scottish name for a half-penny or other small

coin, and hence used of money generally. A writer in 1573, quoted in Tytler’s History of Scotland, speaks of “a coin called a bawbee, . . which is in value English one penny and a quarter.” The most plausible conjecture is that the word is a corruption from the name of one Sillebawby, master of the mint from which the coin was first issued about 1541.

- BAX,

ARNOLD

EDWARD

TREVOR

(18383-

In the way of choral

music a beautiful carol “Mater ora Filium” for double choir wnaccompanied may be especially noted, while three ballets, numer-

_+),;

English composer, born in London on Nov. 6, 1883, studied at the Royal Academy of Music under Frederick Corder for composition and Tobias Matthay for pianoforte. As a student his exceptional facility, alike in composition and as an executant, excited astonishment and was illustrated further by the tendency to excessive elaboration which distinguished his own earliest creative efforts and a tendency, it may be added which, though better controlled later, has never been entirely overcome. But as to the wealth and distinction of his ideas and the skill and resourcefulness displayed in their handling there was never any question and he has long taken a place among the most interesting and important of contemporary British composers. Especially

sabattarian atmosphere of his home, and went to study music in Germany, where he became interested in the work of the German philosophers. He subsequently returned to England, and associated himself with the early history of the socialist movement, He helped William Morris, in 1883, to found the Socialist League,

whose members seceded from the Democratic Federation (a league of London working men’s radical clubs), and edited its organ, the Commonweal. He left the Socialist League when it became extreme, and joined the Social Democratic Federation, editing Justice for it. In 1894 he was called to the Bar, and in the same year wrote Socialism, its growth and outcome, in collaboration

with Morris. He is, however, known rather for his philosophical and historical works than his writings on socialism. The socialist ideal, as Bax understood it, embraced a much wider field than

the re-organization of the material side of life, and he believed that in time such a strong bond of sympathy would be created between nations that racial conflicts would no longer be possible. In 1882 he edited Kant’s Prolegomena with biography and introduction. His philosophical works include: Handbook to the History of Philosophy (1884); The Problem of Reality (1893); The Roots of Reality (1907); Problems of Men, Mind and Morals (1912); The Real, the Rational and the Alogical (1920). On the historical side he has written on such varied subjects as Jean Marat, the French revolution, German society at the end of the middle ages, the Peasants’ War, the Anabaptists. In 1918 he published a volume of reminiscences which are valuable as a picture of the period in which he lived. Bax died in London on Nov. 26, 1926.

BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician,

born in Aberdeen and educated at King’s college. From 1741-47 he lived as a tutor with Lord Blantyre and Mr. Hay at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, France and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at Whittingehame, near Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. His chief work, An Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul (the 1750 edition of which contains an answer to an attack in Maclaurin’s Account of Sir I. Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries, and a dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. Since matter is characterized by inactivity, vis inertiae, all movement occurring in it must be caused by some immaterial force, namely, God. But in the case of the human body, movement is caused by a special immaterial force, the soul. The soul, being immaterial, is immortal, and possesses a consciousness independent of the body. The argument is supportable by the phenomena of dreams, which are due to direct spiritual influences.

Baxter’s work is an attack on Toland’s Letters to Serena (1704),

which argued that motion is essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley, but his criticism of Berkeley is based on the com-

mon misinterpretations (see BERKELEY). Sir Leslie Stephen speaks of him as a curious example of “the effects of an exploded metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious intellect.” Beside the Inquiry, Baxter wrote Matho sive Cosmotheorw Puerilis, a compendium of universal scientific knowledge (edi tions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, and Evidence of Reason in

Proof of the Immortality of the Soul (published posthumously from mss. by Dr. Duncan in 1779).

BAXTER, RICHARD See life in Kippis’s

Bzographia

Britannica;

McCosh’s

Scottish

Philosophy. BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English Puritan divine, called by Dean Stanley “the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen,” was born at Rowton, in Shropshire, at the house of his maternal grandfather, in November (probably the 12th) 161s. Educated at the free school of Wroxeter and under Richard

Wickstead, chaplain at Ludlow Castle, he went to London under

the patronage of Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow

that course, but he soon went home to study divinity. After three

months’ schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local

clergyman. About this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and Walter Cradock, two famous Nonconformists, whose fervour infuenced him. In 1638 he was nominated to the mastership of the free grammar school, Dudley, being ordained and licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His success as a preacher was at first not great; but he was soon transferred to Bridgnorth where, as assistant to a Mr. Madstard, he established a reputation. He remained there nearly two years, studying deeply the controversy relating to Nonconformity and the Church of England. He soon, on some points, especially of discipline, became alienated from the Church; and after the requirement of what is called “the ef cetera oath,” he rejected Episcopacy in its English form. He was, however,

a moderate

Nonconformist;

and

such

he

always continued to be. Classed as a Presbyterian, he had no exclusive attachment to Presbyterianism, and would have accepted

a modifed Episcopalianism. But all forms of Church government were regarded by him as indifferent. He was unanimously elected minister of Kidderminster in April 1641, when he was but 26 years of age.

His ministry lasted with interruptions about 19 years; he accomplished a work of reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood, as notable as any upon record. Civilized behaviour succeeded to brutality of manners; and, whereas the religious had been but few, the irreligious became in their turn rare. He formed the ministers in the country round about him into an association for the better fulfilment of their duties, uniting them together irrespective of their differences as Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which he acted may be judged of from his The Reformed Pastor. During the Civil War he was exposed to annoyance and danger at Kidderminster, and therefore removed for a time to Gloucester and afterwards (1643~45) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly both to the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he became chaplain to Colonel Whalley’s regiment, and continued so till Feb. 1647. During these stormy years he wrote his Aphorisms of Justification (1649), which excited great controversy. Baxter’s connection with the parliamentary army was characteristic of him; he joined it that he might, if possible, counteract the sectaries, and maintain the cause of constitutional government against republican

tendencies.

He

regretted that he had not

accepted an offer of Cromwell to become chaplain to the Ironsides, being confident in his power of persuasion under the most dificult circumstances. His success in converting the soldiery to his views was not great, but he kept his consistency remarkably. By disputation and conference, as well as by preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical and political, and shrank as little from urging what he conceived to be the truth upon the most powerful officers as from instructing the meanest followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked his loquacity and shunned his soci-

ety; but Baxter having to preach before him after he had assumed the Protectorship chose for his topic the divisions of the Church, and in interviews not only opposed him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the monarchy.

In 1647 at the

home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, in much physical weakness, he wrote a great part of his famous work, The Saints’ Everlasting

Rest (1650). On his recovery he returned to Kidderminster, where he also became a prominent leader, his sensitive conscience lead-

ing him into conflict with almost all the contending parties. His conduct always did “credit to his conscientiousness rather than to wisdom.”

237

After the Restoration Baxter, who had helped to bring it about, settled in London. He preached there till the Act of Uniformity took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking for such terms of comprehension as would have permitted the moderate dissenters with whom he acted to remain in the Church of England. In this hope he was disappointed. There was at that time on the part of the rulers of the Church no wish for comprehension, and their aim was to excuse the breach of faith which their rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the production of

Baxter’s Reformed Liturgy. He gained in the larger and more important circle of the metropolis the same vogue that he had gained in the country. The power of his preaching was universally felt, and his capacity for business placed him at the head of his party. He had been made a king’s chaplain, and was offered the bishopric of Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without sacrifice of principle. After his refusal he was not allowed to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was willing to serve unpaid. Bishop Morley prohibited him from preaching. Baxter, however, found much consolation in his marriage on Sept. 24, 1662, with Margaret Charlton, a woman like-minded with himself. She died in 168r. From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter’s life was disturbed by persecution of one kind or another. He retired to Acton in Middlesex, for quiet study, and was dragged thence to prison for keeping a conventicle. The mittimus was pronounced illegal and Baxter procured a habeas corpus. He was taken up for preaching in London after the licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. He was barred from the meetinghouse which he had built for himself in Oxenden Street after he had preached there but once. He was, in 1680, seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his life, and though he was released that he might die at home, his books and goods were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three times to the sessions house, being scarcely able to stand, and made to enter into a bond of £400 for his good behaviour. But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George Jeffreys, in May 1685. He had been committed to the king’s bench prison on the ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in his Paraphrase on the New Testament, and was tried before Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial is well known as among the most brutal perversions of justice which have occurred in England, though it must be remembered that no authoritative report of the trial exists. (See JEFFREYS, SiR GEORGE.) Baxter was sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was paid, and to be bound over for seven years. It was even asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be whipped at the cart’s tail through London. The old man, for he was now 70, remained in prison for 18 months, when the Government, vainly hoping to win him to their side, remitted the fine and released him. The long time of oppression from 1662 with bodily affliction, was the period of his greatest activity as a writer. He was a most voluminous author, his separate works, it is said, amounting to 168. They are as learned as they are elaborate and varied in their subjects. Such treatises as the Christian Directory, the Methodus Theologiae Christianae, and the Catholic Theology, might each have occupied the principal part of the life of an ordinary man. His Breviate of the Life of Mrs. Margaret Baxter records the virtues of his wife, and reveals his tenderness of heart. The remainder of Baxter’s life, from 1687 onwards, was passed in peace and honour. He preached and wrote almost to the end. He was surrounded by attached friends, and reverenced by the religious world. His saintly behaviour, his great talents, and his wide influence, added to his extended age, raised him to a position of unequalled reputation. He helped to bring about the downfall of James II. and complied with the Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in London on Dec. 8, 1691, and his funeral was attended by churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general esteem: was paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue was erected to his memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.

238

BAXTER— BAYARD

Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power of persuasive argument. He thought everyone was amenable to reason—bishops and levellers included. He was at once a man of fixed belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his liberality sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a preacher was pre-eminent; but he was a real student and in an age when it was the fashion even with the learned to deride the

schoolmen he honoured the Summa of St. Thomas Aquinas.

He

was well equipped for intellectual debate, but his devotional tendency was as strong as his logical aptitude. Some of his writings from their metaphysical subtility, will always puzzle the learned; but he could write to the level of the common heart without loss of dignity or pointedness. His Reasons for the Christian Religion is better than most work of its kind. His Poor Man’s Family Book is a manual that continues to be worthy of its title. His Saints’ Everlasting Rest will always command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also charged with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and unsought felicity of language that make it a masterpiece of style. Perhaps no thinker has exerted so great an influence upon Nonconformity as Baxter has done, and that not in one direction only, but in every form of development, doctrinal, ecclesiastical and practical. He is the type of a distinct class of the Christian ministry—that class which aspires after scholarly training, prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres to rational methods of religious investigation and appeal. He hated fanaticism. Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion was with him all and in all—that by which all besides was measured, and to whose interests all else

was subordinated. Isaac Barrow said that “his practical writings were never mended, and his controversial ones seldom confuted,” and John Wilkins, bishop of Chester, asserted that “if he had lived in the primitive time he had been one of the fathers of the Church.” BrsLioGRaPHyY.—Our most valuable source is Baxter’s autobiography called Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr. Richard Baxter's Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and Times (published by Matthew Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy abridged this work (1702). The abridgment forms the first volume of the account of the ejected ministers, but whoever refers to it should also acquaint himself with the reply to the accusations which had been brought against Baxter, and which will be found in the second volume of Calamy’s Continuation. William Orme’s Life and Times of Richard Baxter appeared in 1830; it also forms the first volume of “Practical Works” (1830, reprinted 1868). Sir James Stephen’s interesting paper on Baxter, contributed originally to the Edinburgh Review, is reprinted in the second volume of his Essays. For more recent estimates of Baxter see F. J. Powicke, Life of Richard Baxter, 16r5~1691 (1924) and A. R. Ladell, Richard Baxter: Puritan and Mystic (1925). See also John T. Wilkinson, ed., Richard Baxter and Margaret Baxter, a Puritan Love Story, being the Breviate of the Life of Margaret Baxter by Richard Baxter, 1681 (1928).

BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist and statisticlan, was born at Doncaster. He joined his father’s firm of Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he was connected till his death. His principal economic writings were The Budget and the Income Tax (1860), Railway Extension and tts Results (1866), The National Income (1868), The Taxation

of the United Kingdom (1869), National Debits of the World (1871), and Local Government and Taxation (1874); and his purely political writings included The Volunteer Movement (1860), The Redistribution of Seats and the Counties (1866), History of English Parties and Conservatism (1870), and The Political Progress of the Working Classes (1871). See In Memoriam R. D. Baxter (1878), by his widow. contains a good analysis of his elaborate works.

This book

istic of England. They usually occur at the end of the great hall of large Tudor and Jacobean manor houses and castles, reserve, ` for the lord’s dais, from which they open. Occasionally there iş

one on each side of the hall at each end of the dais. Befitting thej

position, they are often extremely rich, with fan vaults and windoy seats at the sill. They are also found in similar positions in the great halls of the English colleges. During the Jacobean period their use was much increased and they are found on the fronts

of houses wherever an accent was desired.

BAYA: see CASTE. BAYAMO, an old inland city on the north slope of the Sierm

Maestra in Santiago province, Cuba.

Pop. (1919) 4,102. It lies

on a plain by the Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated from sea and from railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily irregular. The streets are of all widths and of all degrees of

crookedness, and run in all directions.

Bayamo was the third of

the seven cities founded by Diego Velazquez, and was established in 1513. During much of the 16th century it was one of the most important agricultural and commercial settlements of the island. Its inland situation gave it relative security against the pirates who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes

of Santiago were the then open to the sea nillo, Bayamo drove the opening of the tremendous

fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzaa thriving contraband trade that made it at

17th century the leading town of Cuba. A

flood, in 1616, choking the Cauto

with trees and

wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access to the sea; but through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine traffic with Curaçao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the 17th and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine plantations. It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of 1868-78 it was an insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one of the most desperate conflicts of the war, and it was nearly destroyed by the opposing parties. Bayamo was the birthplace and the home of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (18r9—74), frst president of the “first?” Cuban republic, and was also the birthplace and home of Tomás Estrada Palma (1835—1908), first president of the present Cuban republic.

BAYAMÓN, an interior town in Porto Rico. The population of the town itself was 10,411 by the census of 1920 and 12,986 in 1930. The population of the municipal district in 1930 was 29,524. The town is situated in a beautiful and fertile valley about 12m.

from San Juan, the capital of Porto Rico. It is one of the oldest towns in the island, having its origin in a small community known as Pueblo Viejo, founded in 1509 by Ponce de Leon. The municipal district claims the distinction of being the one in which the first city in Porto Rico, originally known as “Villa de Caparra” was founded by the Spanish settlers. It was the capital of the island until 1521, when the present city of San Juan was made the seat of local government. The present town and municipality of Bayamón was founded in 1772. Bayamón is the centre of one of the most productive fruit regions in Porto Rico. Oranges, limes, lemons, bananas, grapefruit and pineapples are grown on well managed fruit farms, and canning is one of the principal industries. Sugar, tobacco and coffee are also produced in the municipality. The town is on the line of the American railroad, is connected also with San Juan by a trolley line, and motor-buses make frequent trips to and from the capital.

BAYARD,

PIERRE

TERRAIL,

Seitcneur pe (1473-

1524), French soldier, the descendant of a noble family, nearly

every head of which for two centuries past had fallen in battle,

BAY, an architectural term for any division of a building, be- was born at the chateau Bayard, Dauphiné (near Pontcharra. tween vertical lines or planes, especially ihe entire space included between two adjacent supports; thus the space from pier to pier in a church, including that part of the vaulting or ceiling between

them, is known as a bay. A term also applied to a roofed structure projecting from a wall and one storey high, a bay window being such a structure. When a bay window is carried on brackets, or a corbel, it is called an oriel. Bay windows came into use during the late Gothic period. Although found throughout Europe, they are peculiarly character-

Isére), about 1473. In 1494 he accompanied Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle of Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly afterwards, entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, he was taken prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by Lodovico Sforza. In 1502 he was wounded at the assault of Canossa. Bayard was the hero of 4 celebrated combat of 13 French knights against an equal number of Germans, and his restless energy and valour were conspicuous

throughout the Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it &

BAYARD—BAY said that, single-handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that

brought him such renown that Pope Julius II. sought to entice

him into the papal service, but unsuccessfully.

In 1508 he distin-

guished himself again, at the siege of Genoa by Louis XIL, and early in 1509 the king made him captain of a company of horse and foot. At the siege of Padua he won further distinction, not only by his valour, but by his consummate skill. At Brescia in

1212 his valour in first mounting the rampart cost him a severe wound. Before his wound was completely healed, he hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom. he served in the terrible

battle of Ravenna (1512).

In 1513, when Henry VIII. of Eng-

land routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, where Bayard’s father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of 1479), Bayard in trying to rally his countrymen found his

escape cut off. Unwilling to surrender, he rode suddenly up to an English officer who was resting unarmed, and summoned him to vield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn gave himself up to his prisoner. The king released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not to serve for six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515, Bayard was made lieutenant-general of Dauphiné; and after the victory of Marignan, to which his valour

largely contributed, he had the honour of conferring knighthood on his youthful sovereign. When war again broke out between Francis I. and Charles V., Bayard, with 1,000 men, held Méziéres, which had been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000 and after six weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the

siege. This stubborn resistance saved central France from invasion. All France rang with the achievement, and Francis gained time to collect the royal army

which drove out the invaders

(1521). After allaying a revolt at Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a pestilence in Dauphiné, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with Admiral Bonnivet, who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded in a combat during his retreat, implored Bayard to assume the command and save the army. He repulsed the foremost pursuers, but in guarding the rear at the passage of the Sesia was mortally wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30, 1524). He died in the midst of the enemy. His body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. Chivalry, free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in the character of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most skilful commanders of the age. He obtained exact and complete information of the enemy’s movements by careful reconnaissance and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In the midst of mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested, and to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche. His gaiety and kindness won him, even more frequently, another name bestowed by his contemporaries, le bon chevalier. Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:—Le loyal serviteur (? Jacques de Maille); La très joyeuse, plaisante, et recreative

histoire , . . des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart (original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions are very numerous, those of M. J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in 1878 and 1882, and that of O. H. Trier in 1927); Symphorien Champier, Les Gestes, ensemble la vie du preulx chevalier Bayard (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, Histoire des Allobroges (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see Bayard in Répertoire des sources historiques, by Ulysse Chevalier, and

in particular A. de Terrebasse, Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de

Bayart (1st ed., Paris, 1828; sth ed., Vienna, 1870).

BAYARD, THOMAS

FRANCIS

(1828-1898), American

diplomatist, was born in Wilmington, Del., on Oct. 29, 1828, of a distinguished family. His great-grandfather, Richard Bassett

(1745-1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James Asheton Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the United States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent

with Great Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard

Henry Bayard (1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton Bayard (1799-1880), a well-known

constitutional lawyer, all repre-

sented Delaware in the U.S. Senate. In 1848 he began the study of

law in the office of his father, and was admitted to the bar in 1851 and practised chiefly in Wilmington. He was a U.S. senator from

CITY

239

Delaware from 1869 to 1885. His abilities made him a leader of the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on financial and legal questions gave him a high reputation for statesmanship. He was a member of the electoral commission of 1877. In the Democratic national conventions of 1872, 1876, 1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination as the party candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of State, 1885-1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland, and pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs. As ambassador to Great Britain, 1893-97, he was considered by many Americans to have become too partial to English ways and for the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavourable to his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so far as to pass on Nov. 7, 1895, a vote of censure on him. The value of his diplomacy was, however, fully recognized in the United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line of American ministers. He was the first representative of the United States in Great Britain to hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He died in Dedham, Mass., on Sept. 28, 1898. See Edward Spencer, Public Life and Services of T. F. Bayard (1880); George F. Parker, “Thomas Francis Bayard,” in Contemporary Review, vol. Ixxiv., p. 674-680 (1898).

His son THomas

Francis

BAyAaRrD (1868—

), lawyer and

politician, was born in Wilmington, Del., June 4, 1868. He graduated at Yale in 1890, studied law at the Yale law school, 1890-91, and in his father’s office in Wilmington until his admission to the Delaware bar in 1893. From 1906 to 1916 he was chairman of the Democratic State committee, and from 1917 to r919 was city solicitor, Wilmington. In 1922 he was elected to the U.S. Senate. He was the fifth member of his family to attain that office, his great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, great-uncle and father, each in his time, having been chosen U.S. senator. This remarkable record for distinguished public service, generation after generation, is probably unequalled by any other family in America.

BAYAZID, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, chief town

of a vilayet of the same name, situated close to the frontiers of Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy plain to the great cone of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6,000 feet. It occupies a site of great antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions on the neighbouring rocks testify; the town stands on the site of the oid Armenian town of Pakovan. The great trade route from Trebizond by Erzerum into north-west Persia crosses the frontier at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the

town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined fort or palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by a Persian architect and considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Turkey. It contains two churches and a monastery, the Kasa Kilissa, famous for its antiquity and architectural grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are on the rock pinnacles above the town, with some rock chambers, indicating a town or fortress of the Vannic period. Pop. (1927), 20,467.

BAYBAY,

a municipality (with administration centre and

31 barrios or districts) of the province and island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on the west coast at the mouth of the Pagbanganan river, 45m. S.S.W. of Tacloban, the provincial capital. Pop. (1918), 36,917, of whom 19,139 were males and one was white. A superior grade of abaca is exported. Other products are rice, corn, copra, sugar, cattle and horses. In 1918 it had r4 manufacturing establishments, with output valued at 1,115,400 pesos, besides 233 household industry establishments, with output valued at 67,400 pesos. Of the 16 schools 13 were public. The language is a dialect of Bisayan.

BAY CITY, a city of Michigan, United States, room. N.N.W. of Detroit, built on both sides of the Saginaw river near its outfall into Saginaw bay (Lake Huron); a port of entry and the county seat of Bay county. It has 17m. of river frontage, and the channel has a uniform depth of 18 feet. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, the Detroit and Mackinac, and the Michigan (electric) railways, and by lake steamers; and has an airport. The population in 1920 was 47,554, of whom 8,954 were foreign-born white (3,367 from Canada and 1,256 from Germany); and in 1930 was 47,355 Federal census.

BAYEUX—BAYEZID

24.0

Bay City is in the midst of Michigan’s coal-fields, and of a fertile region producing large quantities of sugar-beet and diversified crops. It has extensive fisheries; a large produce commission business; large manufactures of beet-sugar and chicory, cigars, chemicals, hosiery and knitted goods, launches and motor-boat engines, pickles, cement, radio outfits, machinery, knock-down houses, veneer, maple flooring and other wood-working industries. The output of the 93 manufacturing establishments within the city limits

II.

though the actual end of the strip has perished. Along the top

and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of animal

scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry

and the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest

itself (see EMBROIDERY). Formerly known as the Toile de Si Jean, it was used on certain feast days to decorate the nave of Bayeux cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of the Reyvoly. tion, it was exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon’s desire, in 1803-04, and has since been in civil custody at Bayeux, where it is now ex.

hibited under glass. “The noblest monument in the world relating to our old Eng. lish history,” as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it has been repeatedly described, discussed and reproduced, both ip France and in England since 1730. The best coloured reproduc. tion is that by C. A. Stothard in 1818, published in the sixth volume of Vetusta Monumenta; but in 1871-72 the “tapestry”

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WASHINGTON AVENUE, THE MAIN BUSINESS STREET OF BAY CITY, MICH., BUILT BY THE LOCAL MANUFACTURING AND LUMBERING INTERESTS

in 1927 was valued at $27,446,302.

The assessed valuation

of

Conqueror’s wife de Bayeux (Caen, to connect it with Bayeux, and this view, which is now accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three

of the bishop’s followers mentioned in Domesday Book are among the very few named figures on the tapestry.

That Odo had it

property in 1926 was $48,197,345. Bay City has a planning com- executed for his cathedral seems tolerably certain, but whether it was worked by English fingers or not has been disputed, though mission and a commission-manager form of government. Fishermen and traders as early as 1837 made settlements here, some of the words upon it have been held to favour that view. called Lower Saginaw and Portsmouth. By 1859, when the village Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be “a contemporary of Bay City was incorporated, a number of sawmills were in opera- work,” and historically “a primary authority ... in fact the tion. Salt, discovered under the village in 1859, also became an highest authority on the Norman side.” As some of its evidence important factor in its development. At the height of the lumber- is unique, the question of its authority is important, and Freeing industry it shipped more rough lumber than any other place in man’s conclusions have been practically confirmed by subsequent the country. Gradually industries developed which dressed and discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan questioned, on archaeological manufactured the lumber before shipping, and in recent years grounds, the date assigned to the tapestry, as the Abbé de la Rue great quantities of timber have been imported from Canada and had questioned it 90 years before; but his arguments were refuted the Upper Peninsula. Coal was discovered in 1895. The city was by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, and the authority of the tapestry incorporated in 1865, with a population of 3,359, which grew to was vindicated. See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, Vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with 27,628 in 1900. In r905 West Bay City, which had a population summary of the discussion to date; Archaeologia, Vols. xvii—xix.; of 13,119 in 1900, was consolidated with it.

BAYEUX,

town of France, capital of an arrondissement

in the department of Calvados, 18m. N.W. of Caen. Pop. (1926) 6,489. It is situated on the Aure, five miles from the English Channel. Bayeux, the Augustodurum of the Romans, afterwards Civitas Baiocassium, had a bishopric from the late 4th century. Taken in 890 by the Scandinavian Rollo, it was soon after peopled by the Normans, one of whom, Duke Richard I., built about 960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During quarrels between sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged by Henry I. in 1106, and later it underwent siege and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years’ War and the religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was the capital of the Bessin, a district of lower Normandy. Its cathedral retains nave-arches and portions of the western towers from the Romanesque (12th century) church. The main structure is 13th century Gothic;

Dawson Turner, Your in Normandy (1820); Gentleman’s Magazine (1837); Bolton Corney, Researches and Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry (1836-38); A. de Caumont, “Un mot sur .. . la tapisserie de Bayeux,” in Bulletin monumental de Vinstitut des provinces, Vol viii. (1841); J. Laffetay, Notice historique et descriptive sur la tapisserie... (1874); J. Comte, Tapisserie de Bayeux; F. R. Fowke, The Bayeux Tapestry (ed. 1898); Marignan, Tapisserie de Bayeux (1902); G. Paris, “Tapisserie de Bayeux,” in Romania, Vol. xxx1; Lanore, “La Tapisserie de Bayeux,” in Bibliothégue de Vécole des chartes, Vol. Ixiv. (1903) ; and J. H. Round, “The Bayeux Tapestry,” in Monthly Review, xvii. (1904). (J. H. R)

BAYEZID I. (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed YILDERIM or “LIGHTNING,” from the great rapidity of his movements, succeeded his father, Murad I., on the latter’s assassination on the field of Kossovo, 1389, and signalized his accession by

ordering at once the execution of his brother Yakub, who had dis-

tinguished himself in the battle. He was the first Ottoman sovereign to be styled “sultan.” After routing the chivalry of The church is one of the finest in Normandy, its crypt is Christendom at the battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he attacked Greece, rtith century, restored in the r5th century. The former bishops’ and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before his attack palace (xrth—14th centuries) is now the hétel-de-ville, law courts, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him off by timely etc. Bayeux possesses many quaint timbered houses and stone concessions, which reduced him practically to the position of mansions in its quiet streets. The museum contains the celebrated Bayezid’s vassal. He met with an overpowering check at the Bayeux tapestry. Lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain hands of Timur (Tamerlane). Utterly defeated at Angora by the for domestic and laboratory purposes are carried on, The town is Mongol invader, Bayezid became his prisoner and died in capthe seat of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first tivity some months later. Bayezid married Devlet Shah Khatun, a daughter of the prince instance and of commerce, and an ecclesiastical seminary.

the central tower is rs5th century, with a modern top-storey.

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE.

This venerable relic con-

sists of a band of lnen, 231ft. long and 20in. wide, now light brown with age, on which have been worked with a needle, in worsteds of eight colours, scenes representing the conquest of England by the Normans, Of these scenes there are 72 beginning

with Harold’s visit to Bosham on his way to Normandy, and ending with the flight of the English from the battle of Hastings.

of Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its dependencies. BAYEZID

Il. (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son

of Mohammed II., whom he succeeded in 1481. Before he could establish himself on the throne a long struggle ensued with his brother Prince Jem and he succeeded only after pacifying the janissaries with a large placebo. Being routed, Jem fled for

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Normandy, was originally composed of 76 panels, of which The Bayeux Tapestry, now in the museum at Bayeux, inches plates. The tapestry, which is 230 feet long and 20 72 still exist; 12 are shown in this and the following the of coarse linen. It is believed to have been made at wide, is embroidered in coloured wools on a background forth set panels Bayeux. The at cathedral the for Normandy, of William of er request of Bishop Odo, a half-broth form an unequalled record of the customs of the time. in great detail the history of the Norman Conquest and holds a place of unique importance in mediaeval art From the point of view of design the Bayeux Tapestry Robert of Mortain between his two half-brothers, Bishop Odo and lI. From panels 52 and 53. At the left, building of earthworks for coming to Normandy. At 3. From panels 35 and 36, An English ship William's camp at Hastings. Centre, a messenger brings to William at Hastings news of Harold. At the right a woman and child escape the right Duke William orders the building of a fleet

from a house to whicn

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soldiers are setting fire

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the bishop blessing the meal at table. At the right William is seen

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men alike. he retained until his death, which occurred at Oviedo on Aug. 2, the hospital, Bethlehem of name popular BEDLAM, the 168s. The authorship of an anonymous work, Squitinio della Simon by founded first English lunatic asylum. It was originally libertà Veneta, published at Mirandola in 1612, has been attribFitzMary, sheriff of London, in 1247, as a priory for the sisters . order of the Star of Bethlehem. It had as uted to him.

on early French poetry which was crowned by the Académie Fran-

and brethren of the one of its special objects the housing and entertainment of the bishop and canons of St. Mary of Bethlehem, the mother-church, on their visits to England. Its first site was in Bishopsgate street. Tt is not certain when lunatics were first received in Bedlam, but it is mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there in 1403. In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues to the City of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the exception of one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem hospital was the first in Europe. It became famous and afterwards infamous for the brutal ill-treatment meted out to the insane. In 167s it was removed to new buildings in Moorfields and finally to its present site in St. George’s road, in south-east London. The word “Bedlam” has long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.

See C. V. de Saint-Réal, Oeuvres, tome iv. (1745); P. J. Grosley, Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de Venise (1756) 5 A. N. B. Daru, Histoire de la république de Venise (1853); A. Baschet, Histoire de la chancellerie secrète à Venise (1870). Ree et

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———— BUHLMANN, ARCHITECTURE”

in

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mouldings

projecting

from the wall or frieze directly

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LU

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BED-MOULD,

ture, the moulding, or combina-

ee

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cornice, as a means of support; AND

renaIse

the lowest member cornice.

See

of a classical

ORDER.

BEDOUIN: see Arass. BEDOUL. In the mountains of the Sinai peninsula, inhabit-

BEDLINGTON, urban district, Northumberland, England, ing the tombs, are the Bedouls, the “changed ones,”’ who are said sm. S.E. of Morpeth, on a ‘branch of the L.N.E.R. Pop. to have been Jews and to have abandoned their faith some (193z) 27,318. It lies on high ground above the river Blyth, centuries ago. BED-SORE, 2 form of ulceration or sloughing occurring in 24m. above its mouth. Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were bought by Cutheard, bishop of Durham, persons who, through sickness or old age, are confined to bed, and between goo and ors and, although in Northumberland, became resulting from pressure or irritation by faeces or urine. Bed-sores part of the county palatine of Durham over which Bishop denote a low nutritive condition of the tissues. They may occur Walcher was granted royal rights by William the Conqueror. wherever there is pressure, and lack of cleanliness is an important Bedlington lost these special privileges in 1536 although it re- factor in their production. Nevertheless, where the lower reflex mained in the hands of the bishops of Durham until taken over arc is broken by lesion of the spinal cord or of posterior nerves by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1866. Bedlingtonshire was or nerve-roots bed-sores of unusual severity and rapid onset are made part of Northumberland for civil purposes by acts of Parlia- almost inevitable. All parts subjected to pressure or friction must be frequently washed with soap and warm water, and dried with ment in 1832 and 1844. The church of St. Cuthbert shows good transitional Norman a warm, soft towel. The part should then be bathed in a solution details. Its dedication recalls the resting place of the body of of corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine and, finally, dusted with Cuthbert of Lindisfarne, removed from Durham after the Norman an oxide of zinc and starch powder. Pressure may be relieved over bony prominences by a water or air pillow. Where bed-sore Conquest. The modern growth depends almost entirely on the develop- threatens, the skin becomes dead white or dusky red and the ment of the rich coalfield. There are also iron foundries; and redness does not disappear on pressure. The surrounding tissues become oedematous and pain is often severe, except in paralysis. smiths, ironworkers and coal-miners compose the population. BEDLOE, WILLIAM (1650-1680), English informer, was As the condition progresses, pain ceases, the epidermis becomes born in Chepstow on April 20, 1650. He appears to have been raised as in a blister, and finally becomes detached. Even now well educated; he was certainly clever, and after coming to London actual ulceration can be prevented if proper care be taken; but this, m 1670 he became acquainted with some Jesuits and was occa- failing this, the skin sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating sionally employed by them. Calling himself now Capt. Williams, ‘the position of the patient must be such that no pressure is allowed now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or Lord Cornwallis, he trav- on the sloughing tissue, and the parts should be dusted with elled from one part of Europe to another; he underwent imprison- animal charcoal and iodoform and protected with a dry dressing.

302

BEDSTRAW— BEE

When the slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar’s balsam may hasten healing.

BEDSTRAW,

a genus of plants (Galium)

of the family

Rubiaceae with about 300 species, found chiefly in temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, many of them being common weeds. The flowers are minute, but are often aggregated into large panicles (see FLOWER). Common British species are the

feathery. The labium and maxillae are developed in the form of a proboscis for extracting nectar, the principal part concerned being the ligula which is modified to form the so-called tongue, Adaptations for pollen-collecting are found on the hind legs, the

tibia and first joint of the tarsus usually being dilated and densely

yellow bedstraw (G. verum) and the goosegrass or cleavers (G. Aparine), which bears hooks on the stems, leaves and fruits. Both the foregoing are found in Europe and North America. In the United States and Canada there are some 60 species of Galium, several of which are introduced weeds. Among the more conspicuous are the sweet-scented bedstraw (G. triflorum), which grows throughout that continent and also in Europe and Asia;

the northern bedstraw

BOUTON OR SPOON OF THE LIGULA ee

x

LIGULA OR "TONGUE" 5

oe

Ler I S Gd td oor

łTANT

(G. boreale), with profuse clusters of

= o i

ee niet Oe ended aieEO

white flowers, found across N. America and also in the British Isles and across northern Europe and Asia; the great bedstraw (G. Mollugo), called also wild madder and baby’s-breath, an Old World plant, naturalized from Newfoundland to Ohio; the wild licorice (G. circaezans), found in dry woods from Quebec to Min-

LABIAL PALP

D

1ST MAXILLA

OPPOSITE

nesota and southward; and the California bedstraw (G. californicum), a yellow-flowered species, native to the Coast ranges. Some species, including G. verum, G. trifidum and G. boreale, yield dyes. BEDWORTH, manufacturing town, Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-Coventry branch of the London Midland and Scottish railway, 34m. S. of Nuneaton. Population of parish (193r) 12,058. A tramway connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through. Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron-works, and bricks, hats, ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries are carried on in the populous district (including the villages of Exhall and Foleshill) which extends southward towards Coventry.

BEE, the name given to a large group of insects forming the superfamily Apoidea of the order HYMENOPTERA (g.v.). Their

MALE (DRONE)

2ND

TO GALEAE OFf

MAXILLAE (LABIUM)

MAXILLARY

PALP

EPIPHARYNX

ANTENNA

BY

PERM.SSION

OF

BAZAAR

FIG. 3.—MAGNIFIED THE HONEY-BEE

EXCHANGE

&

FROM

MART,

DETAIL STUDY

CHESHIRE,

OF THE HEAD

“BEES

AND

OR FEELER

BEE-KEEPING"

AND APPENDAGES OF

covered with pollen-carrying hairs; in some bees the under side of the abdomen is also beset with regularly arranged hairs. The eggs of bees are laid singly in chambers or cells, each nest

containing several or, in the hive bee, many thousand cells: along with each egg sufficient food is deposited to nourish the PETIOLE

ABDOMEN

OF QUEEN UNDER SIDE OVARIES

RUDIMENTARY OVARIES OF ORDINARY WORKER

POSITION FILLED BY HONEY-SACK

POSITION THROUGH WHICH DIGESTIVE SYSTEM PASSES

WORKER

RUDIMENTARY /“” SPERMATHECA Votan

ANA

AFTER BENTON, BY COURTESY OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FIG. 1.—THREE MEMBERS OF THE HONEY-BEE (APIS COMMUNITY

CHRYSALIS

APTN

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F l) iVLAKNea N y AT

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INTESTINE

NF

OVIDUCT

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RUDIMENTARY SPERMATHECA

SPERMATHECA

TONGUE

PARTIALLY

DEVELOPED OVARIES OF FERTILE WORKER

POISON

BAG

POISON

GLAND

MANDIBLE

EXCREMENT

ANTENNA

FEEDING

WE see WN

TD

SPIRACLES

Ca:

COMPOUND EYE

ed

EXCREMENT WING

+ SPINNING LARVA

Exuvium OF

SAZAAR

EXCHANGE

&

FIG. 2.—LARVA

MART,

FROM

CHESHIRE,

PALPS OR FEELERS OF STING

EXCREMENT

COCOON

PERMISSION

ANN

OVIDUCT

MELLIFICA)

chief distinguishing features are correlated with their habit of obtaining pollen and nectar from flowers. Most species of bees are hairy and over parts of the body the hairs are branched or

BY

Xs

EGG-PASSING

“BEES

AND PUPA OF THE BEE

AND

BEE-KEEPING”

BY

PERMISSION

OF

FIG.

BAZAAR

EXCHANGE

4.—THE

&

MART,

OVARIES

OF

FROM

CHESHIRE,

QUEEN

AND

“BEES

AND

BEE-KEEPING"

WORKERS

larva until it pupates. Nectar and pollen form the food of bees, and their larvae (or brood) are fed upon the same ingredients

except that the nectar is regurgitated as honey before being supplied to them. The majority of bees are “solitary,” like

BEEBE— BEECH other insects, and are represented by ordinary males and females,

On the other hand,

each female constructing a nest for her brood.

the bumble-bees, the hive-bee and the “‘stingless” bees of the tropics are “social” insects living in large communities. In addition to fertile females (queens) and males, such communities

comprise a far greater number of other females, “workers,” with

imperfectly developed ovaries. Social bees construct nests out wax secreted by themselves. The social

species are treated separately (see BEE-

KEEPING; SOCIAL InsEcTS). Solitary bees nest in a variety of situations: many,

burrows in the ground with the individual theane main anisepassage. cells leading off from ; Others, such as Osmia, utilise existing hollows or crevices whether they be in wood, bramble-stems or mortar: they may even occupy empty snail-shells or key-holes, About ro to 20 cells usually compose a cells is recorded.

The

mason

FROM

CHESHIRE,

“BEES

AND

see-xeerinc* FIG. 5.—UNDER SIDE OF WORKER,

SHOWING

WAX

SCALES ON ABDOMEN

nest, but one of 230 bee (Chalicodoma) of southern

Europe builds its nest often on large stones: the individual cells

are constructed of soil and small pebbles mixed with saliva and the whole nest is plastered over with the same material until

it assumes a dome-shaped form, about the size of half an orange.

The carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa include the largest of all bees and are chiefly found in warm countries, although one

INNER VIEW

sU

FORE-LEG OF APIS SHOWING NOTCH IN TARSAL SEGMENT FOR CLEANING FEELER

FEATHERED HAIRS WITH POLLEN GRAINS, MAGNIFIED

TIP OF INTERMEDIATE” SHIN WITH SPUR

HIVE- BEE (APIS)

OUTER VIEW OF HIND-LEG

INNER VIEW

STINGLESS

BEE

(MELIPONA)

OUTER VIEW OF HIND-LEG

INNER VIEW

HUMBLEBEE (BOMBUS) [AFTER RILEY, ”IN8EOT LIFE, ”

U S. DEPT AGR., VOL. 8)

FIG.

6.—MODIFICATIONS

IN THE

LEGS

OF

BEES

species occurs as far north as Paris. These giant bees tunnel by Means of their powerful jaws in dry wood for a distance of a foot or more, dividing their burrows into a series of cells formed

of agglutinated wood particles. The genus Megachile includes the leaf-cutting bees which nest in soil, in wood, or in hollow stems.

the bottoms and side-walls of the cells; these are closed by several circular pieces which are firmly pressed down to form closely fitting lids. (See SOCIAL INSECTS.) A number of solitary bees construct no nests of their own but live as inquilines or “cuckoo-parasites” in those of other species: such bees are less hairy than usual and lack special modifications for pollen-collecting. The black and yellow species of Nomada lay their eggs in nests of Andrena, and their larvae are nourished at the expense of those of the latter, which become starved out. Another parasitic bee, Stelis, utilises a species of Osmia as its host: its eggs are laid earlier than those of the Osmia and are placed towards

such as Andrena and Halictus, construct

The cells are thimble-like in form and constructed of

rounded pieces of leaves or petals which are cut by the jaws of the bee from roses and other plants: the more ovoid pieces form

303

the bottom

of the food-mass

in the cells,

whereas the eggs of the host are laid upon the surface of the food. Both larvae feed amicably at first but finally the Stelis larva attacks and devours that of the Osmia. BIBsLIocraPrgy.—Many

interesting

observations

on the habits

of

solitary bees will be found in J. H. Fabre, Souvenirs Entomologiques (1879-91) and C. Ferton, La Vie des Abeilles et des Giepes (1923). A very readable account of the chief European species is given by H. Friese, Die Europdischen Bienen (1923) and the British species are

described and figured by E. Saunders, The Hymenoptera Aculeata of the British Islands

(A. D. I.)

(18096).

BEEBE, CHARLES

WILLIAM

(1877-

‘), American

ornithologist and explorer, was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., July 2ọ, 1877. In 1899, after receiving the degree of B.S. at Columbia university, and completing a year of graduate study, he became honorary curator of ornithology of the New York Zoological society and was later made director of its department of scientific research. He originated the collection of living birds in the New York Zoological park and brought it up to the first rank with a census of goo species and 3,000 specimens. He also secured many rare marine specimens. His scientific expeditions took him to British Guiana, the Himalayas, Borneo, the Sargasso Sea—places which he described in glamorous prose that won him a high rank among contemporary writers on nature. For his Monograph of the Pheasants, later published as Pheasants, Their Lives and Homes (1926), he was awarded the Elliott Medal of the National Academy of Sciences.

Beebe has published many scientific papers on birds and evolution. Some of his most popular books are: Two Bird-Lovers ‘in Mexico (1905); Jungle Peace (1918); Galdpagos: World’s End (1923); Jungle Days (1925); The Arcturus Adventure (1926); and Pheasant Jungles (1927).

BEECH, the name for well known trees of the genus Fagus, members of the family Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnuts and the oaks. The'name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon boc, bece or beoce (Ger. Buche, Swedish, bok), words meaning at once a book and a beech-tree. The connection of the beech with the graphic arts is supposed to have originated in the fact that the ancient Runic tablets were formed of thin boards of beech-wood. Beech-mast, the fruit of the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as buck; and the county of Buckingham is so named from its fame as a beech-growing country. Beechmast has been used as food in times of distress and famine; and in autumn it yields an abundant supply of food to park deer and other game, and to pigs, which are turned into beech woods in order to utilize the fallen mast. In France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry. Well-ripened beechmast yields from 17 to 20% of non-drying oil, suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts of France and other European countries in cooking, and as a substitute for butter. There are only eight species and varieties of beeches. The European and American species are much alike, the latter having bark of a lighter colour and somewhat less shiny leaves which drop earlier in autumn than the European species. This species often holds its dead, brown leaves through most of the winter. The winter buds of beech are conspicuously elongated, and the leaves are dentate and shiny with small stipules; the flowers are monoecious. The bark of the American species is light grey and remains so even on very old trunks. The European species has an olivegrey bark which also holds its colour when old. The beech is one of the largest of forest trees. It grows, well on dryish sandy loam and limestone soils, shuns swamps, but endures shade. It is one of the main trees of the climax forests because its seedlings

304

BEECHAM—BEECHER

can grow in heavy shade. In this way new trees continue to take BEECH-DROPS (Epifagus virginiana or Leptamnium vp. the place of old mother trees and no other species can supplant ginianum), a North American perennial of the broom-rape family it. Close competitors are the hard maple and the hemlock. The Orobanchaceae, called also cancer-root. It is parasitic on the three together make what is called the final type or climax forest roots of the American beech from New Brunswick to Wis. of the sections of the world where they thrive. They make the consin, and southward to Florida and Louisiana. The slender wiry, much-branched brown stems bear scattered inconspicuous finest forest and are beloved by poets and nature enthusiasts. In America the beech ranges from New Brunswick to Minnesota scales but no leaves. The numerous flowers are borne in small and south to Florida and Texas. It is one of the common forest clusters at the ends of the branches; the uppermost flowers trees of temperate Europe, spreading from southern Norway and about $ in. long, are whitish-purple and sterile, while the lower Sweden to the Mediterranean. In England it is native but is are minute and seed-bearing. Throughout the woodlands of eastplanted in Scotland and Ireland. It is found on the Swiss Alps ern North America the beech-drops is usually the most common to about 5,000 ft. above sea level; it is plentiful in southern Rus- parasitic flowering plant. Its roots are attached by suckers to sia, and is widely distributed in Asia Minor, and the northern the roots of the beech and its seeds will germinate only when in provinces of Persia. As a forest plant the beech is a very impor- contact with the roots of that tree. tant tree. The hard, close-grained wood, though not especially BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON (1856-1904), Amerigood for building, is used in the manufacture of furniture, and can palaeontologist, was born at Dunkirk, N.Y., on Oct. 9 1856, many other articles. Owing to its handsome foliage, spreading or He graduated at the University of Michigan in 1878, and then drooping habit and conspicuous bark, it is unsurpassed as an became assistant to James Hall in the New York State Museum at ornamental tree. The European Fagus sylvatica, has a variety Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the charge of the pendula with drooping or weeping branches, a variety purpurea invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New Haven, under with purple or copper leaves, and several other forms in cultiva- O. C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator. Meanwhile tion. The American species, Fagus grandifolia, has also several in 1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale university for varieties, as pubescens, caroliniana and ferruginea. There are his memoir on the Brachiospongtdae, a remarkable group of Silurmany horticultural forms that are propagated and grown as ian sponges; later on he did good work among fossil corals, and ornamental trees. The wood of the beech makes excellent fuel other groups, being ultimately regarded as a leading authority on and charcoal. fossil crustaceans and brachiopods. His researches on the developBEECHAM, SIR THOMAS (1879), British conduc- ment of the brachiopods, and on the trilobites Triarthrus and Tritor and impresario, was born on April 29, 1879, the elder son of nucleus, were especially noteworthy. In 1892 he was appointed Sir Joseph Beecham, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Rossall professor of palaeontology in Yale university. He died on Feb. school and Wadham college, Oxford, and gave his first concert I4, 1904. Memoir by C. Schuchert in Amer. Journ. Science, vol. xvii., June with the Queen’s hall orchestra in London in 1905. He founded and afterwards conducted the New Symphony and Beecham 1904 (with portrait and bibliography). BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887), American Symphony orchestras, and also the Beecham Opera Company with which he produced “The Wreckers,” among other works, at His preacher, was born in Litchfield (Conn.), on June 24, 1813, eighth Majesty’s theatre in rg09. After producing operas by Delius child of the Calvinistic minister Lyman Beecher and his wife (“Village Romeo and Juliet”), Strauss (“Electra”) and others at Roxana. His early education included six months at his sister Covent Garden theatre in the spring of 1910 he followed this sea- Catherine’s seminary in Hartford and a dreamy period at the son in the summer with another at His Majesty’s, which had “Cosi Boston Latin school during which he said he “went to school in fan tutte,” “Tl Seraglio,” ‘“Feuersnot” and “Shamus O’Brien” Boston harbour’; in 1830 he entered Amherst college. Although achieving no special distinction as a among its leading features, and yet another at Covent Garden in student, he was active in college affairs and the autumn, when Strauss’s “Salome” was given for the first time through careful training became a fluent in London. In rg9rz and 1912 he was associated with the memorextemporaneous speaker and a successful able first appearance in London, at Covent Garden, of the Russian lecturer on temperance and phrenology in ballet. Not less noteworthy were his activities in 1913, when he his undergraduate days. But he had always produced “Der Rosenkavalier” at Covent Garden in the spring, looked upon his career as foreordained, “Ariadne auf Naxos” in the summer at His Majesty’s (in conjuncand it became a matter of course with him tion with Sir Herbert Tree) and in the autumn at Drury Lane a that he should enter the Lane Theological series of Russian operas, including “Boris Godounov,” “Ivan the Seminary in Cincinnati (O.), of -which his Terrible,” and “Khovantchina,” in which Chaljapin made his first father was president, and from which he appearance in England. Subsequent productions for which he graduated in 1837. was responsible included “Prince Igor,” “Coq d’Or,” “Nuit de His home and surroundings at this time Mai,” “Rossignol” and “La Légende de Joseph” in 1914, and a provided an unusually literary atmoslarge number of performances in English, given under the most phere; his elder sister Catherine at 35 difficult conditions, during the succeeding years of the World War. years of age already had two books to her In- 1916 he was knighted, and in the same year he succeeded to the credit and one in the press, while Harriet, baronetcy. After further seasons In rg19 and 1920 Sir Thomas who was destined to become famous as suspended for some years his operatic activities, which, though so AFTER THE STATUE RY WARD IN an authoress later (see STOWE, HARRIET successful artistically, had entailed heavy financial losses, and dis- BOROUGH HALL PARK, BROOKLYN had won a so-dollar prze banded his company, whose members subsequently formed themHENRY WARD BEECHER, BEECHER), selves into the British National Opera Company and carried on FAMOUS AS A PULPIT offered by the Western Literary Journal. independently upon a co-operative basis. In 1927, however, he ORATOR OF THE 19TH Henry Ward himself read omnivorously, and when his father needed the Rev. took up the cause again and invited the support of the general CENTURY musical public for an imperial league of opera, having for its Thomas Brainerd’s aid in his heresy trial his 23-year-old son was object the permanent establishment of opera in London, and also left in charge of what Harriet called “our family newspaper,” the in some of the leading provincial centres, upon an assured finan- Cincinnati Journal.

cial basis. Under this scheme opera lovers throughout the country were asked to pledge themselves to subscribe ros. per annum for five years, whereby it was estimated that a sum of £60,000 per annum would be obtained to serve as a subsidy for the undertaking. The project was cordially endorsed by the press and leading musical authorities, but the actual response of the public remains yet (1928) to be announced.

Probably influenced in part by Calvin Stowe, the youth was

already moving away from the stern theology of his father. To

his betrothed, Eunice Bullard, he wrote, “I cannot assent. What

then? Preach I will, licensed or not. On that point I am determined. If I can do no better, I will'go far out into the West, build a log cabin among the lumbermen and trappers, or whoever may seek employment in the forests, and devote myself to trying to

BEECHER—BEECHEY interest them in religious services, far from the busy haunts of

men. What will you do if’this is the only course left me? Will you go with me into the wilderness?” It was not necessary for the young preacher and his bride to go into the wilderness. Receiving a subsidy from the Home Missionary Society, he took up his pastorate at Lawrenceburgh, a little river town in Indiana,

where he acted both as sexton and preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to a new church in Indianapolis. His Seven Lectures to Young Men, which appeared in 1844, in which he treated the commoner vices with realistic description and with

youthful and exuberant rhetoric, won him not only a local but a national reputation. As a result of this literary success, added

to his activity in the State Horticultural Society, he was made editor of the Western Farmer and Gardener, which further helped to

make his name more widely known. In 1847 he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth church (Congregational), then

newly established in Brooklyn, New York. The situation of the church in such close proximity to New York, the stalwart charac-

ter of the man who had organized it, and the peculiar eloquence of Beecher combined to give it probably the largest membership of

any congregation of the day. Beecher at once became a recognized leader. Although investigations have shown that he may have been rather more backward even than other members of his family and church in declaring against slavery, and although he was never technically an abolitionist, the dramatic scene of his mock public auction of the white slave girl has impressed itself in the popular mind as one of the outstanding episodes in the anti-slavery crusade. His attitude was that slavery was to be overthrown under the Constitution and in the Union by trusting to an awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest. Later he also identified himself with the woman suffrage movement.

Large as was Beecher’s church and lecture audience, his sphere of influence was still further extended by his contributions to the Independent, to Robert Bonner’s Ledger and to other periodicals. He was editor-in-chief of the Independent from 1861 to 1863, and in 1870 he founded and became editor-in-chief of a religious undenominational weekly, The Christian Union, after-

wards the Outlook, in which as in his pastorate of Plymouth

church he was succeeded by Lyman Abbott (g.v.). Nevertheless, it was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. Because of his mastery of the English tongue, his dramatic power, his vivid imagination, the catholicity of his sympathies, his passionate

enthusiasm which for the moment made his immediate theme seem to him the one theme of transcendent importance, his humour alternating with pathos, he was a preacher with an almost unrivalled following in his own time and country. John Hay called him “the greatest preacher the world has seen since St. Paul preached on Mars Hill.” His favourite theme was love: love of man was to him the fulfilment of all law; love of God was the essence of all Christianity; religion was a life of liberty in love. The later years of his life were darkened by the charge which was brought against him by Theodore Tilton of having had improper relations with Tilton’s wife, and both before and during the law suit in which it involved him his reputation as a

BEECHER,

305

LYMAN

(1775-1863), American

clergyman,

born at New Haven (Conn.) on Oct. 12, 1775, was a descendant of one of the founders of the New Haven colony. He graduated from Yale (1797) having studied theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in several churches in the east and in the Second Presbyterian church of Cincinnati (O.) and became president and professor of didactic and polemic theology (1832-50) of

the newly established Lane theological seminary at Cincinnati. The last ten years of his life were spent with his son, Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn (N.Y.), where he died on Jan. 10, 1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and powerful in manner of expression, he was in his combative prime an unusually eloquent pulpit orator. His daughter, CATHERINE ESTHER (1800-1878), was born at East Hampton (L.I.) on Sept. 6, 1800. She was educated at Litchfield seminary, and conducted schools for girls in Hartford (Conn.) and in Cincinnati. She wrote and lectured on education of women and in favour of better primary schools; she radically opposed suffrage and college education for women, holding woman’s sphere to be domestic. The National Board of Popular Education, a charitable society which she founded, sent hundreds of women as teachers into the south and west. She died on May 12, 1878, in Elmira (N.Y.). Among her publications are An Essay on Slavery and Abolition with Reference to the Duty of American Females (1837); A Treatise on Domestic Economy (1842); The True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women (1851); and Woman’s Profession as Mother and Educator (1871). His son, Epwarp BEECHER (18031895), was born at East Hampton, (L.I.) on Aug. 27, 1803, graduated from Yale in 1822, and studied theology at Andover. He held several pastorates; from 1830-44 he was president of Illinois college, Jacksonville

(Ill); he was senior editor of the Congregationalist (1849-55), and an associate editor of the Christian Union from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn (N.Y.), where he was pastor of the Park-

ville church (1885-89), and where he died on July 28, 1895. He wrote History of the Alton Riots (1837), Statement of AntiSlavery Principles (1837), and several religious books. CHARLES BEECHER (1815-1900), another of Lyman’s sons, was born at Litchfield (Conn.) on Oct. 7, 1815. He graduated from Bowdoin college in 1834, and held pastorates at Fort Wayne (Ind.), Newark (N.J.), and Georgetown (Mass.). From 187077 he lived in Florida, where he was State superintendent of public instruction (1871-73). He died at Georgetown (Mass.) on April 21, 1900. He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the selection and arrangement of music in the Plymouth Collection of Hymns and Tunes. His works include David and His Throne (1855), and Spiritual Manifestations (1879). See Lyman Beecher, Collected Works (1852); Autobiography and Correspondence (1863-64), ed. by Charles Beecher; and studies by D. H. Allen (1863), J. G. White (1882), and E. Hayward (x904); see also Constance M. Rourke, Trumpets of Jubilee (1927).

BEECHEY,

FREDERICK

WILLIAM

(1796-1856),

English naval officer and geographer, son of Sir William Beechey,

R.A., was born in London on Feb. 17, 1796. In 1806 he entered the navy. In 1818 he served under Lieutenant (afterwards Sir)

man of honour and as a clergyman suffered. During a part of this time he also was the first incumbent of the Lyman Beecher lectureship on preaching at Yale Divinity school. He died of apoplexy in Brooklyn on March 8, 1887. Beecher’s books, besides his published sermons, include: Plymouth Collection of Hymns and Tunes (1855); Star Papers (1855); New Star Papers (1859); American Rebellion, Report

John Franklin in Buchan’s Arctic expedition, of which at a later

of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in Man-

their work in 1828 under the title of Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoly Eastward

chester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London (1864); Norwood: A Tale of Village Life in New England (1867); The

Life of Jesus the Christ (1871), completed by his sons (1891); and Vale Lectures on Preaching (1872-74).

period he published a narrative; and in the following year he accompanied Lieutenant W. E. Perry in the “Hecla.” In 1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, Wiliam Henry Smyth. He and his brother Henry Wiliam Beechey, made an overland survey of this coast, and published a full account of in 1821—1822. In 1825 Beechey was appointed to command the “Blossom,” which was intended to explore Bering strait, in concert

with Franklin and Parry operating from the east. He passed the

Among the works on Beecher are: N. L. Thompson, The History of Plymouth Church (1847~42); monographs by Felix Adler (1887);

strait and penetrated as far as 71° 23’ 31” N. and 156° 21’ 30” W., reaching a point only 146m. west of that reached by Franklin’s

Howard (1891); J. H. Barrows (1893) ; Lyman Abbott (1903); Paxton Hibben (1927), which contains further bibliography.

more than three years, and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape

F.S. Child (1887): T. W. Hanford (1887) ; T. W. Knox (1887);W. C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel Scoville and Mrs. H. W. Beecher (1888); J. R.

expedition from the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted

BEECHEY—BEEF

306

Prince of Wales. In 1831 there appeared his Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering’s Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions, 1825-1828. In 1835 and the following year Captain Beechey was employed on the coast survey of South America, and from 1837 to 1847 carried on the same work along the Irish coasts. He was appointed in 1850 to preside over the marine department of the Board of Trade. In 1854 he was made rearadmiral, and in the following year was elected president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died on Nov. 29, 1856.

BEECHEY,

SIR WILLIAM

(1753-1839), English por-

trait-painter, was born at Burford on Dec. 12 1753, and died on Jan. 28 1839. He became a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772. Some of his smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation, and in 1793 he was made portrait-painter to Queen Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members of the royal family, and of nearly all the most famous or fashionable persons of the time, some of which are in the National Gallery and at Hampton Court. A fine example, “The Brother and Sister,” is in the Louvre. His picture, now in Kensington Palace, of a review of cavalry in Hyde Park, earned him a knighthood in 1798. In the foreground of this painting he introduced portraits of George ITI., the prince of Wales, and the duke of York, surrounded by a brilliant staff on horseback.

BEECHING, HENRY

CHARLES

(1859-1919), dean of

Norwich and poet, was born May 15 1859, and educaied at the City of London school and at Balliol college, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1882, and after three years in a Liverpool curacy he was for fifteen years rector of Yattendon, Berkshire. From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and liturgical theology at King’s college, London, and was chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn, where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of Westminster In 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Carlisle in 1905. In 191x he became dean of Norwich, where he died on Feb. 25 t9rtg. As a poet he is best known by his share in two volumes— Love in Idleness (1883) and Love’s Looking Glass (1891)—which contained also poems by J. W. Mackail and J. Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor and critic of the works of 17th century poets, of Richard Crashaw (1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry Vaughan (1896). He published anonymously Pages from a Private Diary (1898), the second edition of which (1903) bore the pseudonym Urbanus Sylvan. A second volume of essays in 1906 was entitled Provincial Letters and other Papers. His works also include numerous volumes of sermons and essays on theological subjects.

beef is greater than that of any other form of animal food. J, England half the meat produced is beef or veal, the average quan. tity being 343,000 tons of beef and 30,000 tons of veal out of a total meat production of 746,000 tons. The British imports of beef in 1926 were as follows:— ; Fres Chilled F rozen

. .

.

: .

. :

; i

‘ :

; :

Tons. 2,076 483,917

;

;

:

:

:

1795335

Tinned, salted, etc. . Total

56,030

.

721,358 Of this total 62% was chilled beef from Argentina, which also sent 72,000 tons of frozen beef. Other chief sources of British supply are Australia, Uruguay and New Zealand. The international meat trade began with the exportation of tinned or canned beef from Australia. The earliest specimens of this method of preserving meat were shown at the Great Exhibjtion in London in 1851. Used at first chiefly on ships it gradually became established in the market, and by the end of the ’sixties was largely imported. Soon afterwards the experiment of sending

beef from the United States in a frozen state was tried, not very successfully; but in 1875 the first shipment of “chilled” beef to England was made by T. C. Eastman from New York. The trade

rapidly increased, and by 1880 all the steamships on the transatlantic route had a refrigerating equipment. That in common use

consisted of an ice box and fans to keep the cold air circulating, and in other cases a freezing mixture—salt and ice—was pumped

along pipes close to the beef. With the development of refrigeration, oversea British supplies of beef were divided into two classes viz., (a) chilled, (b) frozen. Chilled beef is shipped in cold chambers, where it is kept at a temperature a little above freezing point. It must, however, go into consumption in not more than six to eight weeks. Frozen beef is, in fact, reduced to a temperature below freezing point, and if so kept can be stored for a long time without deterioration. All beef shipped from Australia and New Zealand is frozen. From South America the greater part is exported in a chilled state. From the meat trader’s point of view imported beef is classed in the following order: (1) South American chilled, (2) South American frozen, (3) best Australian frozen, (4) best New Zealand frozen. The total value of the international trade in beef is nearly £40,000,000. Prior to the War Great Britain was practically the BEECHWORTH, a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Aus- only market, but in recent years the continent of Europe has tralia. Pop. c. 8,000. The town is a centre of gold-mining (Ovens taken a certain quantity, small in relation to the total trade and goldfields) but much of the surrounding land is under fruit and restricted generally to the lower qualities. Among the sources of supply South America stands first. Argengrain cultivation. The main industries of the town are tanning, tina holds a dominating position, but Uruguay is also important, ironfounding and coach-building. BEEF, flesh from mature cattle used as a food. It contains and there are possibilities of development in other parts of South the highest form of protein for human consumption, in the most America; e.g., Chile, Brazil, Venezuela, Paraguay and Colombia. Australia ranks next to Argentina as a supplier of beef to the palatable, stimulating and digestible form. It is an energy producer and a muscle builder; it supplies mineral salts and the British market. Queensland is the beef exporting state of the Comthree principal groups of vitamins. Combined with vegetables, monwealth, other states; e.g., New South Wales and Victoria, be it makes an ideal food in a mixed diet, the nutritive superiority of ing more concerned in the mutton and lamb trade. In competiwhich long years of human history have demonstrated. There are tion with South America, Australia is handicapped by distance eight standard wholesale cuts from a beef carcass; viz., the round, and by climate. Meat vessels take about three weeks for the loin, flank, rib, chuck, plate and shank, and suet secured from the voyage from the River Plate to London and five to six weeks free fat of the animal. There is a pronounced difference in the from Australia. The liability to drought and consequent shortvalue of various carcasses and in the value of the cuts produced age of grass not only makes cattle-raising a precarious business from different parts of the same carcass. The quality of the car- but affects the regularity of supplies to the meat works. Unlike cass is dependent upon the relative thickness of the lean meat, South America, Queensland has a beef “season”; że., killing does tenderness, interspersion of fat among the muscle fibres, firmness not take place throughout the year. The duration of the season of flesh, freedom from bruised spots, rich redness of the lean meat depends on the weather; if there has been sufficient rainfall cattle and the clear white of the sound firm fat. The division of beef may be sufficient in numbers and finish to supply the works until into joints for retail is different from the wholesale division. The the latter part of the year, but, on the other hand, the works may chief joints are: Forequariter, fore rib, middle rib, chuck rib, leg- not be able to operate for more than three or four months. of-mutton piece, brisket, clod, neck, shin, cheek; Hindquarter, Queensland beef is graded in three qualities, viz., first quality sirloin, rump, aitchbone, round, topside, silverside, thick flank, known as “g.a.q.” (good average quality), second quality “f.a.q.” mid flank and leg. (T. G. L.) (fair average quality), and third quality known as “second faq.” Although the total quantity of meat of all kinds in each year The last is not usually sent to the British market, but is exported produced is unknown, it is certain that the consumption of to the continent of Europe or used for canning.

BEEF-EATER—BEE-KEEPING Beef South Africa has begun to export beef and veal. In 1923 a

Export Bounties Act was passed authorizing the payment of 3d. er Ib. on beef exported. ‘The exports rose at once from 275 tons in 1924 to 3,836 tons in 1925. Beef is shipped to Italy and Belgium

397

rearing. In both Europe and America queen-rearing apliaries are plentiful, and in England some bee-keepers include queen rearing on the latest scientific systems, as well as breeding by selection and cross-breeding from such races as appear most suited to the

ag well as to Great Britain.

Beef of the first quality is produced in Great Britain, and at its

best commands the highest price in the market. But first quality

chilled beef competes closely with English beef of second quality. The trade in imported beef is highly organized, and the power-

exceptional climatic conditions, as a part of their business.

The

consumption of honey as an article of food has also largely increased of late years; and the value of bee-keeping as an occupation has now been recognized by the British Government as worthy of encouragement, by the promotion of technical education

and elseful companies owning freezing works in the Argentine t Great throughou agencies ve distributi efñcient very have where ritain. The imported beef which now rivals the British home product

MORTISED

owes its excellence to the fact that the cattle which supply it have been developed by the use of British stock, which was bought lavishly and at very heavy cost by breeders, first in the United States

AND TENONED

END

MORTISED AND TENONED END

and subsequently in South America and the British Dominions.

(R. H. R.) (See CATTLE.) Beef Tea is a light broth made from lean beef, popular in the sick room because it contains proteins in soluble form and stimulates the appetite. A favoured formula for beef tea calls for a pound of finely cut lean beef placed in a tightly covered

jar containing two pints of cold water and a pinch of salt. The jar is immersed to the height of its contents in a kettle-of warm water, allowed to simmer for two hours with the temperature at all times below the boiling point. In a second recipe, the same amount of lean beef is allowed to stand for two hours in one

pint of cold water and then simmered for three hours at a maximum temperature of 160° F. Any water lost by evaporation is replaced by cold water, so that upon completion of the process

a pint of the broth results. In either case, if desired, a flavour

can be imparted by adding carrots, celery, mixed herbs, onion or bay leaf previously scraped to a pulp. Beef tea with oatmeal and beef tea egg nogg require, in the former case, the addition of oatmeal and in the latter, brandy and an egg. The latter broths are, of course, more highly nutritious than the first two types.

BEEF-EATER: see YEOMAN OF THE GUARD.

BEEFSTEAK CLUB, the name of several clubs formed in

London during the 18th and roth centuries. The first seems to have been that founded in 1709 with Richard Estcourt, the actor, as steward: its badge was a gridiron. Its fame was eclipsed in 1735 when “The Sublime Society of Steaks” was established by John Rich at Covent Garden theatre, of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted with the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition of the meal the next week. From this started the club: among its members, who called themselves “the Steaks,” were Hogarth, Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington and many other celebrities. The rendezvous was the theatre till the fire in 1808, when the club moved first to the Bedford Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum. In 1785 the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the Lyceum, “The Steaks” met again in the Bedford Coffee House till 1838, when the New Lyceum was

JOINT WHEN IN THE FLAT

SAME JOINT CLOSED FOR USE

FROM

A.

B,

C,

OF

BEE

CULTURE”

FIG. 1.—SECTIONS

OF BOX TO HOLD

HONEY-COMB

This type in general use holds about 1 Ib. of comb States and Canada it is made of basswood

honey.

In the United

in the craft and by providing funds for research. The value of the

bee, moreover, to the fruit grower and the gardener is beyond dispute, and the fruit growing districts are known to be greatly benefited by the colonies of bees established in their midst. Bee-keepers’ Associations.—The British Bee-Keepers’ Association (instituted in 1874) has been untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency among those who are desirous of qualifying as experts and teachers of bee-keeping on modern methods. This body had for its first president the distinguished naturalist Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the Baroness Burdett-Coutts accepted the office in the year 1878, and was reelected annually until her death in 1906. Other societies of bee-keepers were established throughout the English counties, with the object of securing co-operation in promoting the sale of honey, and showing the most modern methods of producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions held for the purpose. VERTICAL SECTION Many of these county societies are afhliated with a central association, paying an affiliation fee yearly, and employ qualified men

opened, and a large room there was allotted the club. The club ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas Sheridan founded a Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in 1749, and of this Peg | Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak Club was

founded by A. Stuart-Wortley in 1876. Its first premises were over Toole’s theatre in King William St. Strand. In 1898 it moved to its present residence in Green St., Leicester Sq. See J. Timbs, Clubs and Club Life in London (1873) ; Walter Arnold,

“THE

who visit members in spring and

BEE SPACES

BROOD ENTRANCE FLOOR BOARD HORIZONTAL SECTION

BY

PERMISSION

MART,

FROM

OF

BAZAAR

CHESHIRE,

EXCHANGE

“BEES

AND

&

BEE-

KEEPING”

OF A STRAW FIG. 2.—SECTIONS HIVE, SHOWING VERTICAL AND HOR-

IZONTAL

SUB-DIVISIONS,

ARRANGEMENT OF COMBS

AND

autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving advice on bee management to those needing it. Another advantage of membership is the use of a “county label” for affixing to each section of honey in comb, or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members. These labels are numbered consecutively, and thus afford a guarantee of the genuineness and quality of the honey, the label enabling purchasers to trace the producer if needed.

‘The British Bee-Keepers’ Association

is an

entirely

philan-

Though bee-keeping is known to have

thropic body. The Scottish Bee-Keepers’ Association and the Apis Club are other important bodies, which, independently of the

heen revolutionized; nor has this revolution been confined to any country, but remarkable progress has been made in all coun-

are also many equally beneficial societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany, France, Russia, Switzerland, the United States, Canada and most of the British colonies.

Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Steaks (1871).

BEE-KEEPING.

existed from the most ancient times, it may be said that during the last 50 years almost everything connected with bee craft has

tries where commercial bee-keeping is carried on. In no branch

of the craft has more progress been made than in that of queen

British Bee-Keepers’ Association, exercise a wide influence.

There

The Bee-appliance Trade.—As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-appliance making has assumed enormous

BEE-KEEPING

308

proportions. In the United States extensive factories have been established, using electric-power machinery of the most modern type devoted entirely to the manufacture of apiarian requisites, and millions of the small wooden boxes used for holding combhoney are made and exported. The most generally approved form of this box is made from a strip of wood 4 in. thick, 1 in. wide, and of such length that when folded by joining the mortised and

tenoned ends (see fig. 1) it forms the section or box, meas-

uring 44” X 14”. The gross weight is usually less than 16 ounces, although this type of box is sometimes called a “1-pound section.”

allowed him to study the process of comb-building as well as in any hive we know of to-day. It must be admitted that Huber’s hive was defective in many respects; but it remained the only movable-comb hive till 1838, when Dr. Dzierzon (whose

theory of parthenogenesis has made his name famous) devised a box-hive with a loose top-bar on which the bees built their combs, and a movable side or door, by means of which the combs could be lifted out for inspection. This improvement was at once appreciated, and in the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a bottom-bar, thus completing the movable frame of comb. About the same time the Rev. L. L. Langstroth was experimenting on the same lines in America, and in 1852 his important invention was made known, giving to the world of beekeepers a movable frame which in its most important details js

not likely to be excelled.

We refer to the respective distances

left between the side-bars and hive walls on each side, + in., and

FRAMES HINGED TOGETHER

BY

PERMISSION

OF

BAZAAR

EXCHANGE

&

MART,

FROM

CHESHIRE,

“BEES

AND

BEE-KEEPING"

FIG. 3.—HUBER'’S BOOK, OR LEAF, HIVE, 1789, THE FIRST STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN MOVABLE-FRAME HIVE

This hive consists of 12 wooden frames hinged together, the outer two, corresponding to the covers of a book, being fitted with glass

between the lower edge of the bottom-bars and the floor-board, 4 in. Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon the happy mean which keeps bees from propolizing or fastening the frames to the hive body by filling the space with comb which rendered the frame immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth’s frame and hive possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon’s of being manipulated from above, so that any single frame of comb could be raised for inspection without disturbing the others,

Langstroth’s space-measurements have remained unaltered, not-

withstanding the many improvements in hive-making and in the sizes of frames since introduced and used in different various with marked be sections the Generally regulations require that parts of the world. their net weight. The V-shaped groove (cut across and partly Standard Hives—lIn the British Isles only one size of through the wood; see inset, fig. 1) shows the joint when in the frame is acknowledged by the flat, and the same joint when closed is shown immediately below great majority of bee-keepers, it. The section boxes used in the United Kingdom are made in the viz., the British Bee-keepers’ United States or Canada from the timber known as basswood, no Association “Standard” (fig. 4). native wood being suitable for the purpose. This frame, the outside measureDevelopment of the Movable-comb Hive.—The domement of which is 14 by 84 in., was shaped straw skep of our forefathers, though it has now largely the outcome of deliberations excountry, the of disappeared save from the more remote parts tending over a considerable time may be regarded as the traditional bee-hive of all time. A swarm on the part of a committee of waxen with home their furnish will skep straw a of bees hived in well-known bee-keepers, specially FRON “THE A.B.C. OF BEE CULTURE” shows 2 Fig. combs admirably adapted to their requirements. appointed in 1882 to consider the IMPROVED LANGSFIG. 5.—THE a straw skep in section, and illustrates the admirable way in which matter. In this way, whatever TROTH HIVE displays section vertical The dwelling. the bees furnish their This type, popular among American type or form of hive is used, the the bee-keepers, has a fiat roof-board the lower portion of the combs devoted to brood-rearing, frames are interchangeable. The covering the frames allowing '%4 in. higher combs being reserved for honey, and between the brood between roof and top bars for bees to typical hive of America is the in honey with mixing for required and food is stored the pollen pass from frame to frame . improved Langstroth (fig. 5), feeding the larvae. The horizontal section demonstrates the which has no other covering for the frame tops but a flat roofbee’s ingenuity in economizing space, showing how the outer board allowing 4 in. space between the roof and top-bars for combs are used exclusively for stores. The straw skep had, how- bees to pass from comb to comb. Consequently on the roof ever, the irredeemable fault that it was not open for handling being raised the bees can take wing. This feature finds no favour and inspection and both comb and honey were irremovable with- with British bee-keepers, nevertheless the “improved: Langstroth” out the destruction of the hive. The gradual development of the is practically the universal standard in the United States, Canada, movable-comb hive of to-day may be said to have first appeared New Zealand and Australia. In the colder parts of America beein 1789, when the distinguished Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper, keepers find it necessary to provide underground cellars, into Francois Huber, was led to conwhich the bees are carried in the fall of each year, remaining (2 eeaeee struct the leaf-hive bearing his there till work begins in the following spring. One of the bestname after experimenting with a known hives in England is the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by the single comb glass sided observalate W. Broughton Carr. Figs. 6 and 7 explain its construction tory hive recommended by Réauand, as will be seen, it is equally suitable when working for comb mur. Huber decided to have a or for extracted honey. ‘The outer cases of some modern hives series of wooden frames made, rbk" et are made tapering, wider at the bottom than at the top, so there measuring 12 in. square, each of is no need for the outside plinth to cover the joint. The outOF rather more than the ordinary FIG. 4.—THE STANDARD FRAME side plinth is a source of trouble, as wet penetrates between it width allowed for brood-combs. CREAT BRITAIN, 14 X B72 INCHES causing the wood to rot. A narrow plinth inside These frames were numbered consecutively 1 to 12, and hinged and the case, the tapering covers prevents the upper one dropping too far together as shown in fig. 3. In this way the twelve frames of the one immediately undercomb could be opened for inspection like a book, while when down and becoming wedged fast on neath it. closed the bees clustered together as in an ordinary hive. When

closed, the ten frames together with the two outside ones (fitted

Honey

Extractors—Regarding

the method

of extracting

with squares of glass for inspection), which represent the covers of the book, were tied together with a couple of stout strings.

honey it cannot be said that up to 1923 the honey extractor differed very much from the original machine (fig. 8) invented

In a subsequent form of the same hive Huber was enabled (with the help of very long thumb-screws at each side to raise up any frame between two sheets of glass which confined the bees and

principle of centrifugal force for throwing the liquid honey out

by Major Hruschka, an officer in the Italian army. Hruschka’s extractor, first brought to public notice in 1865, made use of the

BEE-KEEPING of the comb cells, thus increasing the output without damaging the combs, and ina fraction of the time previously occupied in the draining, heating and squeezing ‘process. At the same time the combs were preserved for refilling by the bees, in lieu of melting them down for wax. Since that time changes of more or less value have been introduced to meet present-day require-

ments. A simple form of machine for extracting honey by cen-

trifugal force was brought to notice in England in 187s, and was soon improved upon. FT. W. Cowan, who was experimenting ' in the same direction in England, a year same the in invented machine called the “Rapid,” in which the combs were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. _ The frame-cases (wired on

both sides) are hung at the angles of a revolving ring of iron, and the reversing process is so simple and effective that the

“Cowan” reversible frame has been adopted in most of the best machines both in Great Britain and inAmerica. The latest form

system.

being cut out and trimmed were ready for use. Owing to the enormous demand for comb foundation at that time various devices were tried with the view of securing (1) more rapid production, and (2) a foundation thin enough to be used in surplus chambers when working for comb-honey intended for table use. Foremost among the able men who experimented in this latter direction was E. B. Weed, a skilful American machinist, who succeeded in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the use of which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to compare favourably with natural comb built by the bees, and in the end Weed, acting in concert with A. I. Root, devised and perfected machinery for manufacturing foundation by what is known as the “Weed” process. By this process “dipping” is abolished, and in its latest form sheets of wax of any length are produced, passed between engraved rollers 6 in. in diameter

FIG. 6.—THE

of honey extractor works on a ABLE

diferent

309

sheets. The first roller press was imported into Great Britain by William Raitt, a Scottish bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller machines used at that time the plain sheets of wax were first made by repeated dippings of damped boards in molten wax until the sheet was of suitable thickness for the purpose. The prepared sheets were then passed through the rollers and after

W.B.C.

FOR COMB

HIVE, sUIT-

OR EXTRACTED

Centrifugal HONEY

force is still employed, but the combs are arranged radially, the

bottom bar of the frames being near the centre, and the top bar at the circumference of the cylinder, so that when in position they are at right angles to that in the “Cowan” type. By this arrangement the honey is extracted from both sides of the comb at one operation. The combs do not need reversing, and a greater number can be extracted at one time without increasing the size of the cylinder. For large apiaries where power is available, these extractors may be made to carry up to 45 combs. Comb Foundation.—Next in importance for bee-keepers is the enormous advance made in late years in manufacturing the impressed wax sheets known as “comb foundation,” aptly so named, because upon it the bees build the cells wherein they store their food. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the evolution from the crude idea, which first took form in the endeavour to compel bees to build straight combs in a given direction by offering them a guiding line of wax along the under side of each topbar of the frame in which the - combs were to be built. In 1857, Mehring, a German, made use of

to given lengths, trimmed, packing, at a rate of speed Practical Management eminent among insects as

cut

counted and paper-tissued ready for previously undreamt of. of Bees.—The honey-bee stands prethe most serviceable to mankind. In

gathering pollen and honey for the hive it is also fertilizing the flowers, by means of the pollen which it carries from one flower to another. Nothing seems to be lost, the very wax from which the insect builds its combs is valuable to mankind in many ways, and is regarded to-day no less than in the past ages as an important commercial product. In dealing with the practical side of apiculture, however, it will not be necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be considered by those desirous of acquiring more complete knowledge of the subject. Authoritative text-books specially written for the guidance of bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on FROM “THE A.B.C. OF BEE CULTURE" no account should anyone enFIG. 8.—HRUSCHKA HONEY EX. gage in an attempt to manage TRACTOR Invented in 1865 by Major Hruschka, bees on modern lines without a careful perusal of one or more of this machine worked on the centrifugal principle rapidly superseded these. So much of the natural the old heating and squeezing process

history of the honey-bee as is necessary for elucidating the practical aspects of bee-keeping is comprised in the sections on life of the insect, its mission, and the means whereby to utilize to the utmost the brief period Afterwards plates cast from during which it labours before being worn out with toil. metal were employed. Fig. ro The Bee Colony.—A prosperous bee colony managed on modshows a portion of one of these ern lines will in the height of summer consist of three kinds of metal plates with worker-cells of bees: a queen or mother-bee, up to 200 drones, and from 80,000 natural size, i.e. five cells to the to 100,000 workers (fig. 12). With regard to sex, the queen is inch. Thus Mehring is justly a fully-developed female, the drones are males and the workers FIG. 7.—~INTERIOR OF A W.B.C. claimed as the originator of comb may be termed partially developed females. The relative imporHIVE, SHOWING AIR SPACE BEthough not until tance of the three kinds of bees differs greatly in degree and in TWEEN OUTER CASE AND THE HIVE ‘foundation, PROPER, ALSO POSITION OF QUEEN nearly 20 years later was any somewhat curious fashion. For instance, the queen (or “‘king,” as EXCLUDER, SHALLOW COMB BOX prominence given to it, when it was termed by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at ANDl SECTION RACK i Samuel Wagner, founder and certain seasons, her death or disablement during the period when editor of the American Bee Journal, warmly advocated it in his the male element is absent meaning extinction of the whole colony. . Paper. Mr. Wagner first conceived the idea of adding slightly Fecundation would under such conditions be impossible, and withraised side walls to the hexagonal outlines of the cells, by means of out this: the eggs of a resultant queen will produce nothing but which the bees are supplied with the material for building out one- drones. During the summer season, however (from May to July), half or more of the complete cell walls or sides. A. I. Root, of when drones are abundant, the loss of a queen is of less moment, Medina, O., suggested the substitution of embossed rollers in lieu as the workers can by building a special “queen” cell around offlat plates, in order to increase the output of foundation and any worker egg, or by the special feeding of a worker larva not essen its cost to the bee-keeper, and mainly through the inventive more than three days old, produce a fully developed queen cagenius of a skilled machinist (A. Washburn) the A. I. Root Co. pable of fulfilling all the maternal functions of a mother-bee and constructed a roller press (fig. rr) for producing foundation in laying about 1,200 eggs per day. The highest recorded number of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax impressed with the natural hexagonal form of the bee-cell.

BEE-KEEPING

310

eggs laid by a queen is about 1,800. Under normal conditions the

queen bee will live for three, four or sometimes five years, but queens are usually superseded after their second season has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. The illustration given in fig. 13 shows the various cells (natural size) built for (and occupied by) queens, drones and workers; also the larvae or grubs in the various stages of transformation from egg to perfect insect, with the latter biting their way out of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and pollen in cells, etc. Drones and Workers.—Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives according to the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore, allows only so much drone comb in the hive as will produce a sufficient number of drones to en= sure queen-mating. The action of EieHe Bee EnA pate Bares ; the bees themselves makes this A E point clear, for so long as honey : Bealeet pa r hE ob is being gathered in plenty drones BS | cont te o m e f 3 are tolerated, but no sooner does the honey harvest show signs of Cooma bee| preted fgets being over than they are meriE iE cilessly killed and cast out of the ie = J hive by the workers. It is on the aptly named worker-bee that the entire labour of the colony devolves. The worker-bees are incapable of egg-production and

himself beforehand by carefully reading the directions in his text, book. To the modern bee-keeper the issue of a swarm from a hive

means a great reduction in the amount of honey obtained fro,

that colony owing to the loss in number for a swarm from a mod. erm hive will usually contain 20,000 or more bees. His aim jg

therefore, to prevent natural swarming as much as possible, gene

erally by affording additional room beforehand in the hive and by

special manipulations of the colony. Bee-forage.—The main consideration in establishing an apiary is to secure a favourable location, where honey of good market. able quality may be gathered from the bee-forage growing around

es ks

et

ese

k

ea

;

f

H

est

y

teni

a.

y K As a

an eal ar ap ia ane ene a

Pa ot AP ie ee a

BEE TE I

e I|| | 2 U

can therefore take no part in

the perpetuation of their species.

Their

mission

is work.

Collec-

be see

Part’ 2a outer

;

[J

“RAPID

casing

Is

EX-

removed

to show the frame-cases hung at the

tively they are the rulers on angles of a revolving iron frame whom the colony depends for the wonderful condition of law and order which has made the bee-community a model of good government. The period of a worker-bee’s existence is not measured by numbering its days but simply by wear and tear; after six or seven

weeks of strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in summer time, the little creature’s labour is ended by a natural death. On the: other hand, worker-bees reared in the autumn will be able to take their share in the labour of the hive in the early spring, when the young bees are being bred to take their places as they die off, this being the most critical period in the colony’s existence; hence the value to the aplarist of bees in the autumn. Swarming.—The increasing warmth of each recurring spring finds the bee active. The earliest nectar and pollen are sought out

from far and near and have an immediate effect upon the mother bee of the colony. She begins egg-laying at once and brood-rearing proceeds at an ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is brimming over with bees in time for the first honey flow. If there is no cell-room either for storing the food constantly being brought in, or for the thousands of eggs which a prolific queen will produce daily unless help comes from without, an exodus is now prepared for, FROM CHESHIRE, “BEES AND and what is known as “swarming” takes BEE-KEEPING” place. It would be difficult to imagine any- FIG. 10.——COMB FOUNDAthing more exciting to a beginner in bee- TION, SHOWING PORTION keeping than the sight of his first swarm. OF TYPE-METAL PLATE The bees run in frantic haste from the hive like a living stream, filling the air. Among them the queen of the colony will in due course have taken her place, bound like her children for a new home. In a short time they begin to form a solid cluster usually on the branch of a tree or bush, with the queen in the centre. When this stage of swarming is reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving box, hold it under the swarm, and shake (or where the conditions do not allow, quickly but gently and firmly brush) the bees into it, preparatory to transferring them into a movable comb hive prepared for their reception. The process of hiving a swarm is very simple, but the apiarist would do well to prepare

BY

PERMISSION

OF

BAZAAR

EXCHANGE

& MART,

FROM

CHESHIRE,

“BEES

AND

BEE-KEEPING"

FIG. 11.—A HAND FOUNDATION MACHINE FOR THE PRODUCING OF WAX COMB FOUNDATION ON WHICH THE BEES CONSTRUCT THEIR COMB

without any planting on the part of the bee-keeper himself. The bee-keeper’s object is to utilize to the utmost the brief space of a worker-bee’s life in summer by adopting the best methods for building up stocks to full strength before the honey-gathering time begins. In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks in the honey season between north and south. The weather is naturally more precarious in autumn than earlier in the year, and chances of success proportionately smaller for northern beemen, but this disadvantage is to a great extent compensated for by the heather season in the north, which extends well into September. With regard to the British bee-keeper located in the south, the early fruit crop is what concerns him most, and he may secure surplus honey from the fruit bloom; in fact in the fruit growing districts the flowers of the fruit trees may be the only source from which the bees are able to store surplus honey. But the main honey crop of both north and south is gathered from the various trifoliums, among which the white Dutch or common clover (Trifolium repens) is acknowledged to be the most important honey-producing plant wherever it grows.

Bee Handling.—Before undertaking the management of a

modern apiary, the bee-keeper should possess a certain amount of

aptitude for the pursuit, and must acquire the ability to handle bees judiciously and well under all imaginable conditions. When alarmed, bees instinctively begin to fill their honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells and when so provided they are more

amenable to interference.

The bee-keeper, making use of this

fact, blows a little smoke from smouldering fuel into the hive by means of an appliance known as a bee-smoker, alarms the bees

and is thus able to manipulate the frames of comb with ease. The “Bingham” type of smoker (fig. 14) is the one most generally

used. No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black

net, slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat to protect the face

311

BEE-KEEPING from stings when working among bees. As the great majority of

apiaries owned by British bee-keepers are situated in close proximity to neighbours, quietness and the exercise of care when

manipulating are essential. The bee-keeper should carefully select the particular type of hive most suited to his means and requirements. This point settled, uniformity is secured, and all loose

parts of the hives being interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season. Beginning with not too many stocks, and adopting the wise adage “make haste slowly” the knowledge gained will enable him to select such appliances as are suited to his needs.

Bee-keeping for Profit.—As a rule, it

may be said that the man content to start

with an apiary of moderate size may realize

a fair profit. At the same time it is but fair to say that bee-culture In the United Kingdom, if limited to honey-production alone, is not always safe for entire reliance

to be placed on it for obtaining a liveli-

hood, but combined with fruit growing, poultry keeping, etc., it will usually give a fair profit. The main honey-gathering time lasts only about six or seven weeks. As the season advances and the flowers yield nectar more freely, the combs in the brood chamber become crowded with bees, and the cells that should be available for brood rearing are filled with honey unless adequate room is provided. In a short time the congestion may become so acute that sy Permission oF BAZAAR EX-

in the evening, when all the foraging bees far oeresAND BEE REEPING have returned, the hive will not accommo- Fig. 12.—THE HONEY BEE date them, and there is no choice under such poor management, but for a large proportion, including a number of drones and the old queen, to emigrate or “swarm.” Preparations for this will have

been made by the bees beforehand, a young queen having been

reared in readiness to take the place of the old one, and she will leave her cradle soon after the swarm has gone. When the beekeeper notices the hive showing signs of overcrowding, and before the bees have commenced preparations for swarming, he gives them room for expansion by super adding what are termed “supers,” that is additional layers or working compartments above fitted with either sections or frames of comb with comb foundation or drawn combs. Some bee-keepers place a queen excluder over the brood chamber, which is said to lessen the chances of undesired swarms, but this actually tends to increase swarming. A queen excluder is a piece of apparatus in which are oblong perforations of such a width that the worker-bees can just pass through but the queen is unable to do so; therefore no brood can be reared in those combs to which she has not access and from which the surplus honey is taken. Diseases of Bees.—It is quite natural that bees living in colonies should be subject to diseases, and only since the introduction of movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn something about these ailments. One of the most serious troubles with which the bee-keeper has to contend are the two diseases commonly

known as foul brood, so called because of the young brood dying and rotting in the cells. This abnormal condition has been known

from the earliest ages.

Schirach mentioned and described one

disease in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of “foul

brood.” Still later, in 1874, Dr. Cohn, after the most exhaustive

experiments and bacteriological research, realized that the disease was caused by a bacillus, and later the name Bacillus pluton was

producing organism. Another distinct disease is that known as the American foul brood which is caused by Bacillus larvae, described by White. The illustration (fig. 15) shows a portion of comb affected with one of these diseases. The sealed cells are dark-coloured and sunken, pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae are found in all stages from the crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in which the dead larvae are seen lying at the bottom of the cells, flaccid and shapeless. The remains begin to

decompose, change to buff colour, afterwards turning brown; in American foul brood the mass becomes sticky and ropy in char-

acter, making its removal impossible by the bees. In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown scale adhering to the bottom side of the cell. In the case of American foul brood the larvae die after the cells are sealed over; a strong characteristic and offensive odour is developed in some phases of the disease, noticeable at times some distance away from the hive. These two forms of foul brood, European and American, have long been known. When healthy the brood of bees lies in the combs in compact masses, the larvae being plump, of a pearly whiteness, and when quite young curled up on their sides at the base of the cells. When first attacked by European foul brood the larva moves uneasily, assumes an irregular position in the cell, and finally becomes loose and flabby, an appearance which plainly indicates death. When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed over

B. pluton is present. Various other microbes also present in large numbers are not believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character. It is therefore seen that a number of microorganisms play an important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion lies in the wonderful vitality of the spores of B. larvae and their great resistance to heat and cold. Dr. Maassen records a case where he had no difficulty in obtaining cultures from spores removed from combs after being kept dry for 20 years. The adult bee is also liable to several minor diseases, including Acarine disease, Nosema disease and dysentery. In all these diseases the symptoms that may be seen by the bee-keeper are similar in many respects, though dissection of the bee and an examination under a microscope usually afford the only certain means of determining from which disease it is suffering, and also of detecting disease in its early stages. The principal outward symptoms are the habit of crawling in place of flying, dislocated

wings and distended abdomens. Diseased bees on leaving the hive are unable to fly, and an attempt to take flight from the hive entrance results in the bee falling to the ground where it crawls about, making its way when posSHiOmocotr tL sible to the top of stems of grass, emacoemn oe POOR ICT OW etc., in an endeavour to obtain an LIC OG GAG OK YS SACK IOC) OPO elevated position from which it Ry Te ER may make another attempt to fly. In bad cases, especially of Acarine disease, the ground may be so covered with crawling bees that it is impossible to put the foot down without crushing a number of them. Towards eveFROM CHESHIRE, “BEES AND BEE-KEEPING” ning they tend to collect in clusFIG. 13.—PORTION OF HONEYters, and perish from exposure COMB This comb contains cells for queens, during the night. When crawling occurs the disease is in an addrones and workers. Larvae are shown y

in different

k

z%

iR

stages

wy

i

of metamorphosis

from grub to perfect insect

vanced

stage.

Dysentery

man-

and Cheshire, could not have caused any disease, for in its usual

ifests itself also by the soiling of the combs, and the inside of the hive, a thing which never occurs when the bees are in good health. Dysentery is most likely to break out when the bees have been confined to the hive for prolonged periods during the winter, especially if the food stored in the combs is unsuitable, or has fermented. It may be guarded against by making certain that the food stored for winter use is all sealed over in the early autumn, the hives are well ventilated, the bees warmly covered, and kept dry.

no disease whatever. In the typical alvei form it is strictly a decay-

Cheshire, Bees and Bee-Keeping;

given to it. Cheyne and Cheshire declared that the European

foul brood was caused by the Bacillus alvei, but this is now known tobe the result of the B. pluton. The best available information in-

dicates that B. alvei is a non-pathogenic organism. Lochhead asserts that B. pluton may be a morphological form of B. alvei.

Even though this is proved to be true, B. alvei, known tò Cheyne

form it has repeatedly been fed to healthy colonies and produces

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Root,

The A. B. C. and X. Y. Z. of Bee-Keeping;

Cowan,

The British Bee-Keeper’s

212

BEE-KEEPING

Guide Book; Huber, translated by Dadant, Observations on Bees; Flower, Bee-Keeping up-to-date; Herrod-Hempsall, Bee-Keeping Simplified; Herrod-Hempsall, Bee-Keeping Old and New; Phillips, Beekeeping; Snodgrass, Anatomy and Physiology of the Honeybee; Sturges, Practical Bee-keeping; Langstroth, The Hive and Honeybee, revised by Dadant; Zander, Handbuch der Bienenkunde.

(J. H. He.)

BEE

CULTURE

IN AMERICA

The movable-frame hive was invented by the Rev. L. L. Langstroth at Philadelphia in 1852 and immediately introduced by him to bee-keepers of the United States. The hive which he devised after his long experience with bees contained ten frames each 17% X g}in. in size, but the frame which now carries the name Langstroth and which is standard in America is 17in. long. Other hives of similar design but of different dimensions are used throughout the world and all have essential features of the Langstroth hive. Bee-keeping has within recent years been greatly developed in the United States

and Canada. Previous to 1906, the adulteration of extracted honey by dishonest FIG. 14.—THE BINGHAM dealers was prevalent in the United States, BEE-SMOKER This is used generally by there being no adequate law to prevent it. bee-keepers in England and On June 30 of that year the Food and the United States when manipulating the frames of Drugs Act was passed by Congress, and comb in the hive since that time very few cases of adulteration have been detected. Before this protection was available to the bee-keeper, it was virtually necessary for him to produce his crop in sections or comb-honey which cannot be adulterated, in order thus to ensure the purity of his product to the consumer. Since the passage of the law, many bee-keepers have changed their methods to those which enable them to produce extracted honey. As a result, the individual bee-keeper can now manage several aplaries. Swarm control, which is so vitally necessary to modern bee-keeping, is much more easily accomplished with extracted honey production in out-apiaries. This change within the past 20 years has resulted in the placing of much emphasis on equipment suitable for extensive bee-keeping operations. Extractors are now made which remove the honey from 45 frames at once, honey pumps and other equipment for the rapid handling of honey have also been perfected, and it is safe to say that the chief advances along practical lines of the past few years have been those pertaining to apparatus rather than to bee-keeping methods. Formerly most of the bee-keepers manufactured their own hives and other equipment; now large manufacturing concerns make and deliver hives to the bee-keeper more cheaply than he can make them for himself. The three large American companies carrying on work of this kind are more extensive than those found in any other country at present. Some bee-keepers spend their winter months in preparing hives for their own use but buy other equipment from the factories. Commercial bee-keeping is not practised in all parts of the United States, since many parts of the country are unsuited to extensive operations. The chief commercial regions are those parts of the north-eastern States where the lime content of the soil is adequate to cause the clovers to secrete nectar freely, the irrigated regions of the inter-mountain States where alfalfa (lucerne) is the chief nectar source, and the sage region of southern California. In limited areas in other parts of the country there are bee-keepers operating considerable numbers of out-apiaries, but in most of the sections other than those specified the bee-keepers operate single apiaries. The features which make certain regions suitable for out-apiary management are, first, that the main honeyflow (time of heavy secretion of nectar) shall come just when the colony population reaches its maximum in early summer and, secondly, that relatively simple methods of swarm control shall be applicable to the swarming tendencies of the bees of the region.

The production of honey for the United States cannot be stated

definitely, but it is conservatively estimated that there are between

800,000 and 1,000,000 persons owning bees in the country, The average number of colonies per bee-keeper is perhaps not over

ten, which means that in the non-commercial sections of the country there are large numbers of small holders. The aggregate honey-crop is considerable and is valued at about $75,000,000 per annum.

The bees-wax

methods

of bee-keeping practised.

crop is relatively small because of the

Since the country does not

produce enough even for the manufacture of comb-foundation for use of bee-keepers themselves, it is necessary to import consid-

erable quantities of wax from other countries. During the period of the World War, the wholesale markets

for honey were greatly developed, since considerable quantities of American honey then went to the Allied countries. Since that time, however, some wholesale dealers have ceased to handle

honey and there has been increasing difficulty in selling honey in large quantities. The ensuing increase in local marketing has resulted in the sale of 65% of the honey-crop through markets other than those of the large cities—in an unbalanced distribution of the honey-crop, since over 50% of the population is urban.

Extensive

advertising

of honey

has been

found

unprofitable

wherever tried, but the future development will probably be in

bringing honey to the attention of the city consumer by some

means.

There are several extensive co-operative marketing organ-

izations in the chief commercial centres, but the honey of the

non-commercial areas will probably continue to be sold locally,

Methods for handling honey in large quantities after extracting have also been developed. Storage after extracting is usually in

large tanks until the honey is placed in 6olb. cans for wholesale shipments.

Barrels are rarely used.

When honey from various

plant sources is to be blended, as is commonly done by extensive bottlers, the various honeys are first liquefied by heating and

then placed together in a large tank and stirred slowly. The temperature is maintained at about 135—140° F for some hours

until every crystal is dissolved, after which the honey is brought quickly to 160° but no higher, and bottled at once. Tanks lined

with enamel are in common use for blending. Bottles are filled as full as possible and sealed hermetically while hot to retard crystallization of the honey. In blending it is a common practice to add some sage or tupelo honey as these rarely granulate and serve to retard granulation of the blends. The use of colonies of bees for the cross-pollination of fruits has greatly increased within recent years and many extensive orchardists arrange with commercial bee-keepers to move truckloads of bees to the orchards for the period of bloom, after which they are removed. The incorrect spraying of fruit trees for the control of insect pests has resulted in some losses to bee-keepers, but the worst situation is brought about by the application of dusts as insecticides or fungicides, which float for some distance

from the orchard and fall other flowers in full bloom. correct spraying is prohibited law in some States but there

on Inby

are so far no laws regarding application of dusts. The outstanding improvements in bee-keeping management

re-

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me. AND

Te

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BEE-KEEPING*

FIG. 15.—FOUL BROOD LARVAE AND BACILLUS

(BACILLUS PLUTON).

cently made in the United States LARVAE ARE SHOWN IN DIFFERENT are those dealing with methods STAGES OF THE DISEASE’ — of wintering, disease control, swarm control and the, proper placing

of storage space in the colonies. Queen-rearing methods are also well developed. The greatest source of loss to American beekeeping is that which comes from improper methods of, wintering, which loss now averages about 12% of all colonies annually.

These losses are no higher in the extreme northern States than m those of the middle latitudes, indicating that severe cold alone is not put that ease

the cause of the loss. Methods have been devised which if into operation would reduce this loss to a small fraction of

which now occurs and these methods are spreading. In discontrol the greatest advance has been in the control of Euro-

PLATE

BEE-KEEPING

358

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pean foul brood by methods which pertain only to strengthening of the colonies at the time when this disease makes its attack. The losses from poor wintering and uncontrolled swarming would have wrecked bee-keeping in many parts of the country but for the spread of knowledge of better methods making it possible to

keep bees with profit in all the habitable regions.

Beginning in 1916, extension work in bee-keeping was inaugurated by the F ederal bureau of entomology and has since been

taken over by the several States, the Federal Government now taking no part in this work. This brings better methods of bee-

keeping directly to those actually engaged in the industry. Beginning a few years earlier, the teaching of bee-keeping has been de-

veloped until now this subject is taught in over half of the agricultural colleges. The bureau of entomology maintains a research laboratory for bee-keeping near Washington with a branch laboratory in the West. Several of the State universities are also supporting research work in this field. Clubs for boys and girls in bee-keeping are maintained in several States.

323

The form Beelzebub, found in the English New Testament (Matt. x. 25, xii. 24, 27; Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15:18 seg.) is due to the influence of the Vulgate: the Greek form is BeefeBovr

or

BeedfeBotr. If the latter is accepted it has been explained as equivalent to the Rabbinic bay bya (bél zčbül)=Lord of the Dwelling, ż.e., of the region in which demons dwell. But the Rabbinic a; (zébal) is used only of the heavenly or earthly temple of God, which makes such an interpretation very unlikely. More probably, though not certainly, the name is really to be identified with the Old Testament Baalzebub, the final b having been corrupted to /, as Bab-el-Mandeb in popular speech becomes ‘Bab-el-Mandel. As a god of healing Baalzebub may well have been supposed to have power over demons, since in Semitic thought diseases were regarded as inflicted by demons (see Strack

and Billerbeck, Das Evangelium nach Matthdus, pp. 631 sqq.)(W. L. W.)

BEER, a beverage made by the alcoholic fermentation of

crushed cereal, is of great antiquity throughout the greater part The investigations conducted in the United States in recent of the world. According to Dr. E. Huber (Bier und Bierbereitung years which have had the greatest influence in the development of bet den Völkern der Urzeit, 1926) the scanty records of ancient bee-keeping are those pertaining to the causes of the bee diseases, Babylon going back to 5000—6000 B.C. show that beer made from especially those of the brood of bees, the behaviour of bees during barley, and from barley and spelt, was extensively drunk there, the winter when they rear no brood, the flight activities of bees, even by labourers and by women in the harem. Important as it the behaviour of bees in gathering and storing nectar and in ripen- was in Babylonian times, beer played an even greater rôle in daily ing it to honey, the rate of brood-rearing, the causes of swarming, life in Egypt until the fall of Egyptian civilization and the rise the control of European foul brood by preventive measures, the of Mohammedanism. It was used in medicine in Babylon and disinfection of combs infected with the causal organism of Ameri- Egypt, and had spices and bittering substances added to it—a can foul brood, the structure and development of the honey-bee, hint of hops to come. With regard to its manufacture, from the the utilization of various carbohydrates by adult and larval bees, examinations of the reliefs from ten graves Dr. Huber has pieced the distribution of European foul brood in relation to the environ- together 23 scenes giving a fairly complete idea of the brewing ment, and the colour composition and colour grading of extracted processes employed. It is particularly noticeable how the initial honey. Details of all these lines of investigation are contained in part of the process is like bread-making, the crushing of the cereal, publications of the Federal department of agriculture, where most the making of dough and the baking of this before cutting it up of the work has been done. Research problems of the State and making an infusion. Bread and beer have in fact always been experiment stations in this field have been chiefly elaborations of closely connected, and in mediaeval times the brewery and bakproblems handled by the Federal laboratory. (E. F. PH.) ery were always side by side in the big monasteries. The knowlBEE LINE HIGHWAY, a thoroughfare connecting Kansas edge gained from these inscriptions has been confirmed by City, Mo., with Canon City, Colo. Herodotus, Pliny and others in many references to the brewing It is the shortest route between a of “wine” from barley. aan BLACK these two points. Graded and im| In Abyssinia and Nubia, Herodotus and Strabo both wrote that proved throughout most of its the people lived on millet and barley “whereof they also made a 675m., it crosses the flat, rolling beverage.” There is a beer made from germinated millet by plains of Kansas to the San the Langonassis in the Congo (Eporsoz, Au Soudan Francais). Isabel National Forest at the In the south, the Kaffirs have made beer, according to their own acfoot of the Rocky mountains, passing through Ottawa, Council count, from time immemorial just as they do at present. Dr. Loir Grove, Lindsborg, La Crosse, Eads and Pueblo. has given a long account of it; it appears that the maize or millet BEELZEBUB, BEELZEBUL, BAALZEBUB. Baalzebub was is steeped in water for 24 hours; it is then packed in bags or the name of the god of the Philistine city Ekron, to whom blankets, hot stones being used in winter time to keep these warm; Ahaziah of Israel when sick sent to inquire whether he should re- the grain germinates in 48 hours and is then dried by the sun; cover (II Ki. i. 1~18). The meaning of the name is obscure. Baal this is a crude but very definite form of malting. This malt is (g.v.) the common title for a Semitic deity, especially a local mashed with raw grain; slowly brought to the boil; allowed to deity, is often found compounded with the name of the city where cool in the open, when fermentation starts, due to access of airthe deity was worshipped: cf. place-names such as Baal Hazor (II borne and insect-borne yeast. In China, also, there are records of Sam. xii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii. 3), probably contracted intoxicating beverages made from millet several centuries 3.c.; from a fuller form Beth Baal X=Temple of the deity of X, as but in that country and Japan there has from ancient times been in Beth Baal Meon (Josh. xiii. 17). But as no place Zebub is a preference for the use of rice for making fermented beverages known, and the Baal of Zebub would in any case hardly be god (see SAKE). of Ekron, such an explanation of Baalzebub is improbable. Zebub Records of fermented cereal beverages among classical writers is found as a noun=flies (Isa. vii. 18, Eccles. x. 1), and the most include many countries, e.g., Thracia, Illyria, Pannonia, besides probable explanation of Baalzebub is that it means “God of flies,” northern Europe and the British Isles. The Greeks learnt the art t.e., the god who can bring or send away flies. Pliny records in of brewing from the Egyptians, but beer was generally held in his Natural History that the inhabitants of Elis in time of pes- contempt in wine-drinking countries. With regard to our knowltilence cried to “the Disperser of Flies,” and that as soon as sacri- edge of the less civilized districts of northern Europe, we are fice was offered to the deity the flies perished and the pestilence mainly dependent on classical writers; Tacitus said that beer was ceased. The epithet “Disperser of Flies” is attached in Greek the usual drink of the Germans and Pliny mentions the use of it literature to the names of Zeus and Hercules. Flies, like mice, in Gaul and Spain; he also writes “They employ the foam which were In ancient times recognized as bringers of disease, and it thickens upon the surface as a leaven”—probably the first referseems quite likely that a god who was able to drive away flies ence to beer yeast for baking purposes. should be regarded as one who had power over disease: the fame “Strong” and “Small.”—The strength of beer must always of such a god in Ekron would doubtless be known to Ahaziah. have -varied a good deal, for the first strainings from the mash Barton says that flies are still specially prevalent about Ekron (A would be strong and the later washings weak and when these were not mixed there would be at least two kinds of beer, “strong” Year's Wanderings in Bible Lands, pp. 216 seq.).

314

BEER

and “small” beer. Later on, in the 14th century, the terms used were “better” beer and “penny” ale, the former costing 4d. a gallon and the latter rd. a gallon. According to Bateson (Mediaeval England), when Dover was provisioned against siege, 260 quarters of malt were sent in as being sufficient to brew 520 gallons a day for 40 days. This works out at a very strong beer of about 1100 specific gravity, assuming the quarter was the same as the Imperial quarter of to-day. But in another case in AD. 1458 when the Hansa towns were sending beer to their troops the specific gravity worked out at about 1056, practically the same as the gravity of a standard barrel in England to-day. The ale of the middle ages must have been of fair quality as we read that. Gluttony in the “Vision of Piers Plowman” when lured into an ale-house going to confession got drunk on a gallon and a gill. Brewing at Monasteries.—All monasteries, even strict Dominicans, had their brewhouse and Netley could count as many as four brewers among its servants. In 1349, we read of the duke of Lancaster endowing two recluses and their two waiting women with eight gallons of “better” beer per week. Brewing owes a good deal to the cleanliness of the monks and the large scale of their brewing. The Use of Hops.—As from ancient times it was the custom to add spices and herbs to beer, the use of hops at the start was merely the introduction of a new kind of herb. The original objection to the use of hops in Germany in the 14th century was that they interfered with a monopoly exercised by certain authorities in the sale of gruit for making beer. This was a mixture of herbs which included sweet gale or bog-myrtle, marsh or wild rosemary, and milfoil or yarrow; it was also said to contain other ingredients about which there is dispute. In April 1381 Archbishop Frederick of Cologne, on behalf of the gruit monopoly, issued a decree according to which not only brewers, but the clergy, the military and civilians were commanded to buy their gruit in the episcopal gruit-houses and the importation of “hopped” beer from Westphalia was prohibited. Ling or heather has also been recorded as used in beer from early times. Ale and Beer.—There appears to have been a distinction between ale brewers and beer brewers in the 15th century. In 1464, the London brewers petitioned the Lord Mayor and Aldermen to establish regulations for their craft as they had no rules “‘to the detriment of the citizens as regards correct measure of barell kilderkyns and firkyns, and in hoppes and other greynes the

ment was passed compelling the brewer to brew table beer } itself, “that the officer may not be puzzled in applying his only means of discrimination, consisting in dipping his fingers into the

wort, tasting it, etc.” What the “etc.” was we do not know, ]j

was about this time that Richardson constructed the first brewer's saccharometer and suggested that its use in determining specific

gravity would prevent these altercations.

Specific Gravity.—In the United Kingdom specific grayity is the weight of a volume of liquid referred to water as tooo. In France and Belgium water is taken as unity and the degrees of gravity reckoned

specific by the Balling gravity

from the second place of decimals.

Thug a

gravity of 1040 is called 40 degrees by us and 4 degrees French and Belgians. In Germany, Italy and elsewhere degrees are used, one Balling degree equally 4-04 specific degrees, so that the 1040 above would be ro degrees

Balling. The advantage of Balling degrees is that they roughly

represent the percentage of extractives in solution. Taxation.—Since beer was used for rent and as tribute to the overlord before the introduction of money it was a simple transi-

tion to tax its production when money came into general use and it has been the subject of taxation in one form or another in many

countries for numbers of years. The first duty on beer in the United Kingdom was imposed in the reign of Charles II., a distinction being made between strong

beer and weak beer. This continued with occasional increases until the repeal of beer duty in 1830. A duty on malt was first

imposed in 1697 and from that date until 1830 both beer duty and malt duty were charged. After the repeal of the beer duty the malt duty was greatly increased. A hop duty was in existence

between 1711 and 1862, when it was abolished owing to the very

wide fluctuation in return. Sugar was permitted in brewing in 1847 and in 1850 the first sugar tax was imposed. It varied from trs.4d. to 6s.6d. until 1874 when the general duty on sugar was repealed but that on sugar used for brewing was raised to 11s.6d. at which it remained

until 1880 when the Free Mash Tun Act was introduced. By

this Act the duty was taken off the materials and placed on the wort; 7.e., the beer before fermentation according to its specific gravity. At first the rate was 6s.3d. a barrel at a specific gravity of 1057; the bulk at “standard” gravity on which the charge was made was calculated from the bulk and gravity of worts as ascertained at collection with an allowance of 6% for “waste.” In which to the said mistere apperteynen.” This is evidence of the 1889 the standard gravity was reduced to 1055 at which it recustomary use of hops in beer then. But later in 1483 the ale mains to-day. In 1894 a further 6d. per barrel was added and in brewers petitioned the Lord Mayor to forbid the putting into 1900 Is. making 7s.9d. per standard barrel, at which it remained ale of any “hops, herbs or any other like thing but only licour, till war broke out in 1914. During the war it was rapidly inmalte and yeste.” From that time on water, malt and ale yeast creased to Ioos. a barrel. The rate of duty in 1928 is roos. a were the prescribed standards for this product and only the beer barrel of 1055 specific gravity, the amount altering in proporbrewer was allowed to use hops. There was no prohibition as to tion to the gravity, with a rebate of 20s. a barrel of whatever the use of hops except for the brewing of ale. As hops were al- strength down to 1024. If the brewer does not get four standard most universally employed too years later, either they were per- barrels per quarter he is charged duty on the materials instead mitted in ale, or beer only was drunk, in which case ale is a mis- of on the wort. COMPOSITION nomer for beer. In certain districts there are at present some curious distinctions between the two terms; in some parts of Beer is composed of extractive matters (consisting of carboLondon if beer is asked for, porter is served; on the other hand, hydrates, proteids, and flavouring substances derived from hops), in the West country, strong vatted ale used to be called beer. alcohol and water, and typical analyses in respect of these inThere appears to have been a distinction between ale and beer gredients are as follows:— in the matter of price; for in 1418, when Henry V. was lying with his army before Rouen, the government of the City of London

i

ordered “that the brewers of the ale that was presented to our

Original

Class.

lord the King at the siege of the city of Roan should have for

pee

every tun of 200 tuns 30s. . . . and that brewers of beer should || Strong ale

have 13s.4d. for every tun of 300 tuns” (H. T. Riley, Memorials

of London Life, 1868). The actual size of the tun of that time is not known, but it must have been bigger than that of the Hansa

K,

ae

or oes paleale

Light bitker Oma i

from.

towns which ran from 38 to 45 gallons only. Mild ales to. .| Even at the end of the 18th century strong beer was sold at || Strong stout . .| gos. a barrel and small beer at 8s., a ratio similar to the old 4d. ||Fort < -| and id. a gallon. At this time separate duties were charged upon strong and weak beer and disputes were common between Excise officers and brewers as to which worts were chargeable with “strong” and which with “small” beer duty, so an Act of Parlia-

Beer

Alcohol

gravity. | gravity. |BS ae ea

1080-

1028

ee

aes

a

1046

1OII

BAG

7033

1032 1060 1%

IOIO

1006 1019 eae

5°15

4°44

2°58 4°08 3°?

Stronger ale and stout of even higher gravity than 1080 is still

brewed but in small quantities only. The proportion of alcohol and.extractives depends on the ¢tent to which the beer has been fermented; the lower the degree

BEERBOHM—BEERSHEBA of gravity, the lower the extractives and the higher the alcohol. Both extractives and alcohol have a food value, the protein of the former which averages about 0.3% being especially valuable. But the mineral matters in the beer derived from the malt are

not negligible; they containa large percentage of potassium phosphate which is of service in the human economy. It has been found for instance that with operatives working at furnaces, water is unsuitable and weak beer is necessary for supplying the salts etc. which the perspiration has removed. In addition the hop resin has been found to favour the flow of bile and thus make for increased digestive energy.

Statistics: United Kingdom.—In 1914 when the duty was -s.gd. per barrel, the total came to £13,622,971 for 37,558,767

bulk barrels of an average gravity of 1052-8; these figures include

over 2,000,000 barrels from what is now the Irish Free State.

During the last three years ending March 31, 1927, the figures,

excluding the Irish Free State, were as follows:— Duty

Bulk Barrels

Average Specific Gravity

1043-12

1926

£76,320,021

£75,825,827

26,724,825

26,765,610

1043-23

1937

£78,763 ,480

25,100,461

1043-28

1925

In 1927, the increase in the amount of duty on a decreased trade was due credit allowed The import war times, the

to the Government reducing the three month’s for payment of duty. and export of beer varied very slightly in preformer being about 50,000 barrels, the latter about

soo,coo. With the inauguration of the Irish Free State the im-

ports have naturally greatly increased and in 1927 they amounted to 1,349,515 barrels. The export for the three years 1925-27 was 286,230; 302,892; and 294,874 barrels respectively. Continental Beers.—The great majority of beers brewed on the Continent of Europe are of what is commonly called the Lager type. In their production a decoction mash is usually employed instead of the infusion mash process used for English beers. In the decoction mash, the malt is mashed with cold or warm

water (90° to 120°) and afterwards raised in temperature by two or three stages to 165° or 175°, at each stage by boiling a portion of the mash in a separate mash kettle and returning the boiled mash to the mash-tun. There is an essential difference in the fermentation processes in these two brewing systems. In English beer (top fermentation) a variety of yeast is employed which comes to the top of the beer after fermentation. In lager beer (bottom fermentation) the yeast settles to the bottom of the fermenting vessels. Lager beer is also fermented at a much lower temperature (40° to 55°) and rather more slowly. Lager beer is findlly stored for periods varying from two or three weeks to three to six months in large

“lager casks” or tanks, in cellars cooled to little above the freezing point of water. During this period of maturation, it spontaneously brightens and becomes highly charged with carbon dioxide. From the lager cellar it is racked through a filter to casks

or to tanks for bottling.

It is sold direct from the cask or in

bottle, and served at a low temperature (45°) on ice. There are several well-known varieties of lager beer, generally distinguished by the names of the towns in which the types became famous. The names have come to designate types rather than places of origin. Of these the Pilsener or Bohemian beer is pale, with a pronounced hop aroma and flavour. The Munich or Bavarian type is dark brown, with a full sweet malt flavour and no very pronounced taste of the hop. The Vienna beer has

a less decided character than either of these, and lies between

them in both colour and taste. The Dortmund beer is pale, with

a not very marked hop or malt flavour. In addition to the lager beers, top fermentation and mixed fermentation beers are brewed on the Continent of Europe to a certain extent, especially in Northern France and Belgium where since the war the proportion

of lager beer has, however, greatly increased. There are also several special kinds of beer peculiar to definite localities, such as the top fermentation Weiss Bier of Berlin. In this, wheat malt is used as well as barley mialt, and the beer is characterized by

315

acidity. In Belgium, Lambic and Faro beers are still brewed to some extent, the Lambic being stronger than the Faro; both are characterized by their acidity and are produced by spontaneous fermentation. Lager beer is brewed at various gravities, and these correspond

very closely to those of English mild and bitter beers. The strength (corresponding to the amount of material used per barrel or hectolitre) is expressed in Germany and most other countries in degrees Balling, 1 degree Balling being approximately equivalent to 4 degrees specific gravity (1,004). In France and Belgium, a degree equivalent to 10 British degrees of gravity is employed. 11 to 12-5 degrees Balling (1044 to 1050 Sp. grav.) represents a high class lager beer. The percentage of alcohol in lager beer is usually slightly less than in a top fermentation beer of equal gravity and the hop content is also smaller.

Owing to

the fermentation and storage at low temperatures, lager beers usually carry a better head than ales. On the Continent of Europe, as in England, there has been a greatly increased production of bottled beer since 31918, especially of bottled beer of a lighter gravity than of old. Motor transport has made bottled beer obtainable in many places where previously the local wine was the only beverage. The increase in bottled beer is particularly noticeable in the large breweries of Copenhagen, where it now amounts to 98% of the total output. For export, bottled beer is usually pasteurized, as it is In many places for local consumption also. See also BREWING; ALE. (H. L. Hr; C. A. W.)

BEERBOHM, MAX

(1:872-

), British caricaturist and

writer, was born in London Aug. 24, 1872, a half-brother of Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, the actor. He was educated at Charterhouse and Merton college, Oxford. Before he had left Oxford, Beerbohm had made a reputation as an essayist of wit and polish, The Yellow Book offering him a congenial hospitality. This reputation was maintained, when he succeeded G. B. Shaw as dramatic critic to The Saturday Review, by the judiciously small amount of work which he published and its almost uniformly high accomplishment, in essays, fiction and parody alike. This includes The Works of Max Beerbohm (1896); The Happy Hypocrite (1897); More (1899); Zuletka Dobson (1911); Seven Men (1919); And Even Now (1920).

As a caricaturist, Beerbohm’s fame followed a parallel line, and his skill as a draughtsman increased with the years. Among his published drawings are Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896); The Poet’s Corner (1904); Fifty Caricatures (1913); Seven Men (1919); A Survey (1921); Rossetit and His Circle (1922), and Observations (1925). As a sophisticated commentary on the social and literary life of his time, Beerbohm’s economical and often caustic drawings stand alone; his residence in Italy, at Rapallo, after 1910, gave him many advantages for the detached observation of personalities and tendencies, although once or twice it may have endangered his perspective; and he is certainly free from a certain fear of acid comment which has dimmed the art of caricature in England since the early Victorian age. (See CARICATURE.) (J. H. M.)

BEERSHEBA (Mod. Bīr £s-SEBA“), Simeonite town on the border line between the waste and the cultivated land and referred to frequently in the Bible as the southern limit of Palestine. A famous sanctuary, it was the scene of several theophanies. The digging of its well is attributed im Genesis to both Abraham and Isaac, and into the wilderness of Beersheba Hagar wandered forth with Ishmael. Here the two sons of Samuel exercised judgeship and Elijah sought refuge in its neighbourhood from the vengeance of Jezebel. In Roman times it was the metropolis of a flourishing district and the ruined sites of many a town can still be seen in the waste land to the south. An important inscription of the time of the Constantines found at Beersheba, gives a list of towns and the military dues from each. Later the city became an episcopal see. The name probably means “seven wells” in spite of efforts to prove otherwise. Three wells with evident marks of antiquity can be seen and four others are said to have been located. The outlines of the ancient town are still discernible

and amongst them can be traced the foundations of a church.

BEESLY—BEEL

316

The modern town has an installation of water pumped from the largest well, the “well of Abraham,” by an oil engine. During the attack on Egypt in the World War it was the headquarters of the Turkish army and the amenities of the town were greatly improved. The present population is about 2,000. Beersheba was captured by British troops on Oct. 31, 1917, a brilliant charge into the town by the Australian mounted division saving the wells from

destruction by the Turks. The town is connected by rail with Rafa and has a British military cemetery. Battle of Beersheba, Oct. 31, 1917.—The capture of Beersheba, which opened the way for the penetration of the Turkish front in Palestine, and ultimately to the capture of Jerusalem, is described under PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN.

BEESLY,

EDWARD

SPENCER

(1831-1915), English

historian and positivist, son of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Feckenham, Worcestershire, England, on Jan. 23, 1831, and died at St. Leonards on July 7, 1915. He was educated at Wadham college, Oxford, which may be regarded as the original centre of the English positivist movement. Richard Congreve was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854, and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (g.v.), Beesly and John Henry Bridges (1832-1906) became the leaders of Comtism in England. Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-master at Marlborough college. In 1859 he was appointed professor of history at University college, London, and of Latin at Bedford college, London, in 1860. He resigned these appointments in 1889 and 1893 respectively, and in 1893 became the editor of the newly established Positivist Review. He collaborated in the translation of Comte’s system of Positive Polity (4 vols., 1875-79), translated his Discourse on the Positive Spirit (1903), and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two chapters of his Cours de philosophie positive, entitled Fundamental Principles of Positive Philosophy (1905).

(myricyl palmitate), with small quantities of other higher fatty

acids and alcohols, and about 10% of hydrocarbons. East Indian (Ghedda) wax, like most waxes from the Far East, exhibits marked analytical differences from that of European origin, Beeswax, besides being used for church ceremonial candles, jg also employed in the manufacture of wax polishes, ointments encaustic paints, lithographic inks, modelling wax, etc. (E. L.; G. H. W.) BEET, a biennial vegetable, producing, like the carrot, a thick fleshy tap-root during the first year and a leafy flowering stem in the following season. It is a cultivated form of the plant Beta vulgaris (family Chenopodiaceae, g.v.), which grows wild on the coasts of Europe, North Africa and Asia as far as India. The small, green flowers are borne in clusters. A considerable number of varieties are cultivated for use on account of their large fleshy roots, under the names of mangel-wurzel or mangold, fieldbeet and garden-beet. The cultivation of beet in relation to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain varieties of beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt with under Sucar. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very remote times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table vegetable. It has swollen carrot-shaped or turnip-like roots, the “flesh” of which

is deep red but with light coloured zones. It is boiled, then cut into slices and eaten hot or cold; and it is also prepared as a pickle, as well as in various other forms. Beet is in much more common use

on the continent of Europe as a culinary vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, Beta vulgaris var. Ctcla, is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach. The midribs and stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as sea-kale, under the name of Swiss chard (see CHARD). The beet prospers in a deep, rich, well prepared soil. If manure

is required, it should be deposited at the bottom of the trench in preparing the ground. The seeds should be sown in drills rsin. bee for constructing the cell-walls of the honeycomb; it is esti- apart, in April or early in May, and the plants are afterwards to mated that about ro lb. of honey are consumed for one pound of be thinned to about 8in. apart in the lines, but not more, as wax secreted. Beeswax is a yellowish solid of agreeable, somewhat moderate-sized roots are preferable; in the United States they are

BEESWAX,

a product of digestion secreted by the worker-

sown 3 to 4in. apart. The plants should grow on till the end of October or later, but must be taken up before the frost can injure them. The roots must not be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off—not closely cut, as they are then liable to bleed. In to its texture. In early times it was preferred to tallow for candles the north the crop may be wholly taken up in autumn, and stored on account of its higher-melting point and freedom from smell. in a pit or cellar, beyond reach of frost. If it is desired to have The modern use of beeswax for church candles is in accordance fresh roots early, the seeds should be sown at the end of February with religious ordinance, based on mystical considerations. Euro- or beginning of March; and if a succession is required, a few X. pean and some Japanese waxes are derived from the common bee, more may be sown by the end of March. Production of the Sugar-beet.—Beetroot, as it is commonly Apis mellifica, whereas the bulk of the African and Indian waxes are from other varieties, especially Apis dorsata. Large quantities called, is largely grown as a vegetable, but commercially the sugarare exported from East Africa, South America and the West beet is much the most important variety. This has been specialized Indies, and considerable quantities are produced in the United by developing its sugar-content and is extensively cultivated for sugar production. Except in the United States, it is little cultiStates. After removal of the honey by draining or by means of a vated elsewhere than in Europe. Before the War the production centrifuge, the combs are melted in hot water and the wax strained of beet sugar was almost as great as that of cane sugar, but it has from gross impurities (dead bees, cocoons, etc.); the residue is been much reduced while that of the sugar-cane has increased and pressed to obtain more wax. In large-scale operation the melted is now about twice as great. The production of beet sugar in the honeycombs are expressed in a hydraulic press. The press-residues leading beet growing countries of the world is shown below:— are boiled up with water and re-pressed. The cake still contains 1927—28 1926-27 Country about 10% of wax, which is recovered by extraction with a volatile solvent; such “extracted wax” is darker and of lower quality Tons Tons than that obtained by expression. Germany . . . . . =. -| I,8I0,000 1,832,064 Beeswax varies in colour from golden yellow to almost black, Russia. ©. . . . «. «. «| 13,369,123 883,635 depending on the care used in its preparation and also on the age Czecho-Slovakia . . . . «| 1,364,000 | 1,149,984 United States . . . . . . 1,174,000 964,000 and food of the bees. To preserve the quality and colour, beesFrance. 2 4 « 6 & & Js 915,398 769,074 wax must always be melted in water and never by direct heat. Poland. . . . ... 672,403 633,540 For some purposes the wax must be bleached; the most satisOther countries. . . . . | 2,389,161 2,146,582 factory method is to expose the wax in the form of thin films to World production 9,703,085 | 8,379,485 the action of moist air and sunlight. The addition of a little oil of turpentine accelerates the process. Ozone may be used, In the United States the chief growing sugar-beet States were but bleaching by chemical oxidizers, such as chlorine, etc., is less satisfactory, as the product is unsuitable for many purposes (e.g., Colorado, Nebraska, Utah, Montana, Wyoming and Michigan 1m the order named. In 1926 7,223,000 short tons of beets valued candles). ` , Beeswax consists chiefly of free cerotic acid and myricin at $54,964,000 were produced on 745,000 ac. planted to the

honey-like odour and of a faint balsamic taste. It is insoluble in

water, but soluble in carbon tetrachloride (warm ether dissolves beeswax, but it is not soluble in this solvent in the cold) and chloroform. The commercial value of beeswax for polishes is due

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crop. In 1927 the production was 7,734,000 short tons on 754,000 | convinced him, because he knew that he had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in infancy. cres. i : a e i For many years the introduction of sugar-beet cultivation in In the year of these first compositions, 1783, Beethoven was British agriculture has been advocated, and exhaustive experiments given the post of cembalist in the Bonn theatre, and in 1784 his have proved that there is no natural difficulty In growing crops position of assistant to Neefe became official. In a catalogue equal in every respect to those grown on the continent of Europe. raisonné of the archbishop-elector’s court musicians we find “No. The obstacles were the reluctance of farmers to grow the crop 14, Ludwig Beethoven” described as “of good capacity, still unless they were sure of a market, and the equal reluctance of young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor,” while his father (No. capitalists to establish sugar factories unless they could be assured 8) “has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in service, is of a constant and sufficient supply of the raw material. In these very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married.” First Visit to Vienna.—In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid circumstances the Government was appealed to for assistance, The British Sugar (Subsidy) Act was passed in 1925. This pro- a short visit to Vienna, where he astonished Mozart by his extemvided for the payment from the exchequer of a subsidy of rg. 6d. porizations and had a few lessons from him. How he was enabled per cwt. of home-grown sugar, continuing on this basis for four to afford this visit is not clear. After three months the illness of years, being then reduced to 13s. for three years, and to 6s. 6d. for his mother, to whom he was devoted, brought him back. She died another three, after which it would cease. In 1925 a preference in July, leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in November. was also given to home-produced sugar in the excise duties. For five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his Under this stimulus sugat factories were rapidly erected in family, of which he had been since the age of 15 practically the various districts and the acreage of sugar-beet increased. The head, as his father’s bad habits steadily increased until in 1789 folowing statement shows the development in each season: Ludwig was officially entrusted with his father’s salary. He had already made several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom the 1924—25 | 1925~26 | 1926-27 | 1927-28 chief were Count Waldstein and Stephan Breuning: and his prospects brightened as the archbishop-elector, in imitation of his 229,200 22,637 56,243 | 129,463| Acres of sugar-beet . 19 9 I4 No. of factories brother the Emperor Joseph II., enlarged the scale of his artistic Tons of sugar-beet demunificence. livered . 183,713 431,185 1,117,072 | 2,000,000 By 1792 the archbishop-elector’s attention was thoroughly 51,783 153,487 | 260,000 Tons of sugar produced . 23,015 aroused to Beethoven’s power, and he provided for Beethoven’s Tons of molasses produced 5,70 13,545 37,500 65,000

It was hoped that the introduction of sugar-beet into British agriculture would not only be profitable to the growers but would also increase, or at least maintain, the area of arable land and provide more employment on the land. The results so far have been somewhat disappointing in view of the expenditure of public

money involved. The decline of the arable area has not been checked, though there has been some increase in employment. (R. H. R.) BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN (1770-1827), German musical composer, was baptized (probably, as was usual, the day after birth) on Dec. 17, 1770, at Bonn. | Parentage and Childhood.—His family is traceable to a village near Louvain, in Belgium, in the 17th century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer settled in Antwerp. Beethoven’s grandfather, who came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court musicians of the archbishop-elector of Cologne, was an amiable man whom Ludwig van Beethoven, though only four

years old when his grandfather died, remembered with affection

to the end of his life. Beethoven’s father, a tenor singer at the archbishop-elector’s court, was a bad-tempered man whose wageearning capacity declined with his ability to keep sober. His wife, Magdalena Leym, or Laym—née Keverich, for this was her second matriage—was, like the court musicians, a domestic in electoral palaces. The example of Mozart suggested to Beethoven’s father that his son might be profitable as a Wunderkind. He accordingly began to give him a severe musical training, especially on the violin, when he was only five years old, at about which time they left the house in which he was born (srs Bonngasse, now pre-

served as a Beethoven museum). At nine years of age Beethoven entered upon a course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer, and obtained a little gen-

eral education from a certain Zambona. Van den Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his grandfather, taught him the organ and the pianoforte, with the result that in 1781 Van Eeden’s successor, C. G. Neefe, was able to allow the boy to act occasionally as his deputy. With his permission Beethoven published in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of variations

on a march by Dressler.

The title-page states that they were

Written in 1780 “par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven âgé de dix ans.’ Beethoven’s father could not make up his mind whether thus to antedate the compositions of his infant prodigy, or, as In the case of the three sonatas also written in 1783, to

Postdate his birth. Accordingly Beethoven for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the certificate of his baptism hardly

second visit to Vienna. The introductions which he and Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix “van” in Beethoven’s name (which looked well though it was not really a title of nobility), and, above all, his astonishing playing and extemporization, quickly secured his footing with the exceptionally intelligent and musical aristocracy of Vienna, who to the end of his life treated him with genuine affection and respect, bearing with his rudeness and irascibility, not as with the eccentricities of a fashionable genius, but as with the agonies of a passionate and noble nature. Biographical

Sources.—Beethoven’s

life, though outwardly

uneventful, was one of the most pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same fascination for his biographers as it had for his friends, and there is probably hardly any great man in

history of whom more is known and of whom so much of what is known is interesting. The interest which it arouses has led to voluminous controversy on various points; and on the identity

of Beethoven’s Unsterbliche Geliebte, Dr. Kalischer abuses Thayer in terms that rival the breeding of Bentley as his musical scholarship recalls the erudition of Boyle. On such dangerous ground encyclopaedists may excusably fear to tread. The general lines of Beethoven’s life are graphically traced, for English readers, in Grove’s article thereon in the Dictionary of

Music and Musicians ; while the monumental biography of Thayer, who devoted his whole life to collecting materials, furnishes fuller information and deserves, it may be added, more mannerly treatment than it has received from those who find occasion to correct it. Thayer, rescuing Beethoven’s character from the sentimental legends which had substituted melodrama for life, dealt unflinchingly with the facts, until the mass of grotesque and sometimes sordid detail only threw into clearer light the noble character and passionate ‘zeal for the highest moral ideals throughout every

distress and temptation to which a hasty and unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a terrible misfortune could expose a man. Relations with Haydn.—The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had that mastery which was denied to him in what he himself calls his attempt to “grapple with fàte.” Dur ing his studies with Haydn some of the special difficulties that lay in his own character already showed themselves. ‘Haydn, who seems to have heard of Beethoven on the latter’s first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn

in July 17092,. and was

greatly impressed by his powers. It was probably at his instigation indeed that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna to study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him, and

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found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn appreciated neither his manners nor the audacity of his compositions, and abandoned whatever intentions he may have had of taking Beethoven with him to England in 1794. Beethoven could do without sympathy, but a grounding in strict counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity; so he continued his studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had the poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended on to attend to his work. The key to the situation is that Mozart had died at the age of 36, just at the time that Beethoven came to Vienna, and that Haydn was profoundly shocked by the untimely loss of the greatest musician he had ever known. At such a time Beethoven’s tactlessness doubtless combined with his clumsy efforts at academic exercises to confirm Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for ever in the musical world, and prejudiced him against those bold features of style and form which the whole of his own artistic development had gone far to justify. It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in which Mozart’s influence is most evident, such as the septet, aroused Haydn’s open admiration, whereas he hardly approved of compositions like the sonatas, op. 2 (dedicated to him), in which his own influence is stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven was articulate except in music, and it is impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what Beethoven thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and finest of the three trios, op. 1. But whatever Haydn meant, he cannot have failed to contrast the achievements of Mozart, who after a miraculous boyhood had produced at the age of 25 some of the greatest music Haydn had ever seen, with the slow and painful development of his uncouth pupil, who at the same age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his credit. There is no evidence that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven; and many years passed before Beethoven

realized the greatness of the master whose teaching had so disappointed him. Rising Fame and Popularity—From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna, which he was soon induced to do by the kindness of his aristocratic friends, the only noteworthy external features of his career are the productions of his compositions. In spite of the usual hostile criticisms of his music in respect of its obscurity, exaggeration and so forth, his reputation became world-wide and by degrees actually popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later works became notorious for their supposed extravagance and unintelligibility his earlier works became better understood. He was no man of business, but he was incalculably suspicious and exacting in money matters, which in his later years frequently turned up in his conversation as a grievance, and at times, especially during the depreciation of the Austrian currency between 1808 and 1815, were a real anxiety to him. Nevertheless, under good management his external prosperity would have been great. He was always a personage of importance, as is testified by every anecdote, including the poorly attested tale of his cramming his hat tighter on his head to show Goethe how to put royalty in its place. In 1814 it seemed as if the summit of his fame was reached when his 7th symphony was performed, together with a hastily written cantata, Der glorreiche Augenblick and the absurd firework entitled Wellingtons Steg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria,

was overwhelming, and the composer, who was on the platform

in order to give the time to the conductor, had to be turneg round by one of the singers in order to see it. Deafness.—Signs of deafness had given Beethoven grave angi. ety as early as 1798. For a long time it is known, he had success. fully concealed it from all but his most intimate friends, while he consulted physicians and quacks with eagerness; but neither

quackery nor the best skill of his time availed him, and it has been pointed out that the root of the evil lay deeper than could have

been supposed during his lifetime. Although his constitution was magnificently strong and his health was preserved by his passion for outdoor life, a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated state of disorder, evidently dating from youth (if not inherited) and aggravated by bad food and neglect.

The touching document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as his “will,” should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer (iv. 4). No verbal quotation short of the whole will do it justice. It runs almost as one long unbroken sentence through the whole tragedy of Beethoven’s life as he knew it then and fore-

saw its future. It dwells upon his natural love of society and his dread of it in his present and future condition.

It reproaches

men for judging him to be pugnacious and obstinate without suspecting that he may be incurably ill, and terrified lest the cause should appear. Beethoven declared that when those near him had heard a flute or a singing shepherd while he heard nothing,

he was only prevented from taking his life by the thought of his art, for it seemed impossible for him to leave the world until he had brought out all that of which he felt himself to be capable.

He requests that after his death his doctor shall be asked to describe his illness and to append it to this document in order that at least then the world may be as far as possible reconciled with him. He leaves his brothers his property, such as it is, and declares that only force of character has preserved his life and his courage through all-his misery. And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level _attainable by those artists who are slaves to the “personal note,” for his chief occupation at the time of this document was his and symphony, the most brilliant and triumphant piece that had ever been written up to that time. On a smaller scale, in which mastery was the more easily attainable as experiment was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner able to strike a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his style is more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the larger compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be Beethoven’s normal means of expression. Accordingly, the sonatas may conveniently be given a more prominent place than the greater works in our discussion of Beethoven’s art. They are a key to all the rest. Anxieties.—Deafness is a cause of much inconvenience in conversation long before it is noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct his opera Fidelio and be much annoyed

by inattention to his nuances; and his last appearance as a player was not until 1814, when he made a great impression with his B flat trio, op. 97. At the end of Nov. 1822 an attempt to conduct proved disastrous. The touching incident in 1824 has been described; but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or imagined that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at Bonn) were of use to him in playing to himself, though friends were often pained when the pianoforte was badly out his once popular in England as the “Battle Symphony.” The occasion for this performance was the Congress of Vienna; and the of tune, and were overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did Government placed’ the two halls of the Redouten-Saal at his not make the notes sound at all. The instrument sent to him by disposal for two nights, while he himself was allowed to invite all Broadwood in 1817-18 gave him great pleasure and he answered the sovereigns of Europe. In the samé year he received the free- it with a characteristically cordial and quaint letter in the best of dom of the city, an honour much valued by him. After that time bad French. His fame in England was often a source of great his immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned, comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London became less pronounced, as that of his easy-going contemporaries Philharmonic Society, for which the 9th symphony was written began to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional power and a roth symphony projected, sent him £100 in advance of of his earlier works, but also in the known cause of his increasing the proceeds of a benefit concert which he had begged them to inability to appear in public, something that awakened the best give—being in very straitened circumstances, as he would make popular sensibilities; and when his two greatest and most difficult no use of the money which he had deposited in the bank for his works, the ninth symphony and parts of the Missa Solennis, were nephew. This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress produced at a memorable concert in 1824, the storm of applause

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319

in the last 12 years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl, had

in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he started was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly organized

ing juvenilia, such as the trio-variations, op. 44, the sonatas, op. 49, and other trifles, of which the late opus number is thus explained. In 1815, after Beethoven had quarrelled with his oldest

thing. And he is also extraordinary in this, that his power of constructing perfect works of art never deserted him while he revolutionized his means of expression. This may be true, though

often given him trouble; for example, by obtaining and publish-

friend, Stephan Breuning, for warning him against trusting his

brother in money matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom

Beethoven strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the guardianship of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law courts.

The boy turned out unworthy of his uncle’s persistent devotion,

and gave him every cause for anxiety.

He failed in all his ex-

aminations, including an attempt to learn some trade in the polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the hands of the police for attempting suicide, and, after being expelled from Vienna,

joined the army.

Beethoven’s passionately affectionate nature

could neither educate nor understand a human being whose impulses were not strenuous.

The boy had really a not much better

chance in his uncle’s hands than in his mother’s. A judicial decision most unfortunately stopped his being sent to a good school in Russia. But Thayer, a faithful judge in matters of humanity, points out that long after the sentimental biographers

of Bee-

thoven had done their worst for the nephew, that person pulled himself together and married respectably. He did nothing so mean

in requital of Beethoven’s inexhaustible affection as the spirit

shown by writers who omit to record this. Character.—Beethoven suffered throughout his whole life for lack of outlet for his affections. He was often deeply in love and made no secret of it; but, after some vaguely rumoured sowings of wild oats he became as fierce as Browning in his resentment of

the “artistic temperament” in morals; and his attachments, though mostly to persons unattainably above him in rank, never gave rise to scandal or ridicule. Penitence is not a fashionable virtue in this 2oth century; but Joachim has finely described Beethoven as a penitent; and this characteristic does not narrow, but enhances, the unorthodoxy, the humour and tragedy which in his art are blended as inextricably as in Shakespeare and in life. Beethoven’s orthodoxy in morals amuses the Philistine when it shows itself in his objections to Mozart’s Don Giovanni, and in his reasons for selecting the subject of Fidelio for his own opera. But genius is far too independent of convention to abuse it; and Beethoven’s character, with its masterfulness, its saeva indignatio and its penitence, is as far beyond the shafts of Philistine wit as his art. At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a roth symphony, music to Goethe’s Faust, and (under the stimulus of his newly acquired collection of Handel’s works) any amount of choral music, compared to which all his previous compositions would have seemed but a prelude. But he was in bad health; the hospitality of his brother Johann, did not include bedroom fires and closed carriages; and it resulted in a chill which ended in a fatal illness. A week before his death Beethoven was still full of his projects. Three days before the end he added a codicil to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music had aroused his keen interest. But Beethoven was not able to speak to him, though he afterwards spoke of the Philharmonic Society and the English; almost his last words being “God bless them.” On March 26, 1827, during a fierce thunderstorm, he died. BEETHOVEN’S

WORKS

The Three Styles—The division of Beethoven’s work into three styles has been universally accepted, and is based on obvious facts. The styles, however, are not rigidly separated, either in themselves or in chronology. Nor can the popular description of Beethoven’s first manner as ‘“Mozartian” be accepted as doing Justice to a style which differs more radically from Mozart’s than Mozart’s differs from Haydn’s. The style of Beethoven’s

third period is no longer regarded as “showing an obscurity trace-

able to his deafness”; but we have, perhaps, only recently outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is revolutionary. The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing Beethoven’s artistic development are that the changes in the materials and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so that he appears

less obviously, of other great artists.

But in mature art vital

differences in works of similar form are generally more likely to be overlooked than to force themselves on the critic’s attention. And when they become so great as to make a new epoch, it is generally at the cost of a period of experiment with perishable results. Nevertheless Beethoven’s art moves farther from Mozart’s than Mozart’s moves from Handel’s; and this in a process of development so smooth that its true “periods” should be marked as special stages for each particular work. Evidence of the Sketch-books.—No artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood he seems to have acquired the habit of noting down all his musical ideas exactly as they first struck him. It is easy to see why in later years he referred to this as a “bad habit,” for it must often take longer to jot down a crude idea than to reject it. But Beethoven had acquired that habit; and thereby he has, perhaps, misled some critics into over-emphasizing the contrast between his ‘“‘tentative” self-critical methods and the quasi-extempore outpourings of Mozart. But it is probable that in every thoughtful mind every apparently sudden inspiration is preceded by some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought and its first faint indications tested and rejected so instantaneously as to leave no impression on the memory. The number and triviality of Beethoven’s preliminary sketches should not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating spirit. But if we regard his sketches as his diary their significance becomes inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven’s career, and represent every stage of nearly all his important works, as well as of innumerable trifles, including ideas that did not survive to be worked out. And the type of self-criticism is the same from beginning to end. The sketches of the first period show no lack of attention to elements that seem more prominent in the third. The difference between Beethoven’s three styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize this complete continuity of his method and art, First Period Works.—While he was handling a range of ideas not, to modern ears, glaringly different from Mozart’s, he had no reason to use a glaringly different language. His contemporaries, however, found it more difficult to see the resemblance; and,

though their criticism was often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a daring originality which we may as well learn to appreciate with study. Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt a lack of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other

things to do than to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his excuse, and the neglect of Beethoven’s early works is no less than the neglect of the key to the understanding of his later. It is also the neglect of a mass of mature art that already places Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and contains perhaps the only traces in all his work of a real struggle between the forces of progress and those of construction. The truth is that, there are several styles in Beethoven’s first period, in the centre of which, “proving all things,” is the true and mature Beethoven,

whose scope is destined to expand beyond recognition, The promise appears in the very earliest works. The pianoforte quartets which he wrote at the age of 15 are, no doubt, clumsy and childish in execution to a degree that contrasts remarkably with the works of Mozart’s, Mendelssohn’s or Schubert’s boyhood; yet they contain material actually used in the sonatas, op. 2, Nos, r and 3. And the passage in op. 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the transition (bar 27 e¢ seg.) where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing a long series of apparently free modulations by means of a systematic progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the principle is only dimly felt, but it is indisputably

present; and it afterwards gives inevitable dramatic truth to such passages as the climax of the development in the sonata, op. 57

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(commonly called Appassionata), and, throughout the chaos of the mysterious introduction to the C major string-quartet, op. 59, No. 3, prepares us for the world of loveliness that arises from it. The First Sonatas.—The first three pianoforte sonatas, op. 2, show the different elements in Beethoven’s early style as clearly as possible. Sir Hubert Parry has aptly compared the opening of the sonata, op. 2, No. 1, with that of the finale of Mozart’s G minor symphony, to show how much closer Beethoven’s texture is. The slow movement (also adapted from a juvenile quartet) well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven imitates Mozart to the

detriment of his own proper richness of tone and thought, while the finale in its central episode brings a misapplied and somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart’s style into direct conflict with themes as Beethovenish in their terseness as in their sombre passion. The second sonata is flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the range of Haydn and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in the finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious Mozartian rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven shows his true independence. He adopts the form, not because it is Mozart’s but because it is right and because he can master it. The opening of the second subject in the first movement (bar 58 et seq.) is a wonderful application of the harmonic principle already mentioned in connection with the early piano quartets. In all music nothing equally dramatic can be found before the D minor sonata, op. 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking the beginning of Beethoven’s second period. The slow movement, like those of op. 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling

solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of Haydn with the creator of the 9th symphony. The little scherzo no less clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact that in so small and light a movement a modulation from A to G sharp minor can occur too naturally to excite surprise. If the later work of Beethoven were unknown there would be very little evidence that this sonata was by a young man, except, perhaps, in the abruptness of style in the first movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of immaturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved for the first time.

This abruptness is, however, in a few of Beethoven’s early works carried appreciably too far. In the sonata in C minor, op. 10, No. 1, for example, the more vigorous parts of the first movement lose in breadth from it, while the finale is almost stunted. Boldness and Breadth.—But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality only in an abrupt or epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth was also his aim, and while he occasionally attempted to attain a greater breadth than his resources would properly allow (as in the first movement of the sonata, op. 2, No. 3, and that of the violoncello sonata, op. 5, No. 1, in both of which cases a kind of extempore outburst in the coda conceals the collapse of his peroration), there are many early works in which he shows neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, op. 1, No. 3, is not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made Haydn doubtful as to the advisability of publishing it, than for the perfect smoothness and spaciousness of its style. These qualities Beethoven at first naturally found easier to retain with less dramatic material, as in the other trios in the same opus, but the C minor trio does not stand alone. It represents, perhaps, the most numerous, as certainly the noblest, class of Beethoven’s early works. Certainly the smallest class is that in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is significant that almost all the examples of this class are works for wind instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly determine the style and discourage the composer from taking things seriously. Such works are the beautiful and popular septet, the quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments (modelled superficially, yet closely and with a kind of modest ambition, on Mozart’s wonderful work for the same combination) and, in a more free, but not more weighty style, the trio for pianoforte, clarinet and violoncello, op. xr, and the horn sonata, op. 17. The Second Period.—It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven’s second manner may be said to begin, but he has himself given us excellent evidence as to when and how his first man-

ner (as far as that is a single thing) became impossible to him Through quite a large number of works, beginning perhaps with the great string quintet, op. 29, new types of harmonic and emo. tional expression had been assimilated into a style at least intel. ligible from Mozart’s point of view. Indeed, Beethoven’s fayoy,. ite way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the forma]

beauty of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world

grander and lovelier than either.

Sometimes,

as in the C major

quintet, the new elements are too perfectly assimilated for the contrast to appear. The range of key and depth of thought are beyond those of Beethoven’s first manner, but the smoothness is

that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte sonatas, op. 31, the struggle of the tran.

sition is as manifest as its accomplishment is triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in G major) deals with Widely separated keys on new principles. These are embodied inastyle which for abruptness and jocular paradox is hardly surpassed by Beethoven’s most nervous early works. The exceptionally ornate and dilatory slow movement reads almost like a protest; while the

finale begins as if to show that humour should be beautiful, and ends by making fun of the beauty. The second of these sonatas (in D minor) is the greatest work which Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited above in connection with the dramatic rising bass in op. 2, No. 2, is like that of the Sonata Appassionata, a locus classicus for such powerful devices. And it is worth noting that the only sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing but its sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata Beethoven enjoys on a higher plane an experience which he had often indulged in before, the attainment of smoothness and breadth by means of a delicately humorous calm which gives scope to the finer subtleties of his new thoughts.

Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three sonatas represented a new phase in his style; but when we realize

his artistic conscientiousness it is not surprising that they should be contemporary with larger works like the 2nd symphony, which are characteristic rather of his first manner. His whole development is ruled by his determination to let nothing pass until it has been completely mastered; and, long before this, his sketch-books show that he had many ambitious ideas for a rst symphony, and that it was a deliberate process that made his ambitions dwindle into something that could be safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he began his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd symphony represent an amply sufficient advance, and leave his forces free to develop in less expansive forms those vast energies for which afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet were to become the natural field. Beethoven’s Rubicon.—In the Waldstein sonata, op. 53, we see Beethoven’s second manner forcibly displacing his first; that is to say, we reach a state of things in which the two can no longer form an artistic contrast. The work, as we know it, is not only perfect, but has all the qualities of art in which the newest elements have long been familiar. The opening is on the same har-

monic train of thought as that of the sonata, op. 31, No. 1, but there is no longer the slightest need for a paradoxical or jocular manner. On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an orderly sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm diurnal energy of nature. ‘The short introduction to the finale is harmonically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata, while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in the most spacious

of Mozart’s rondos. Yet it is well known that Beethoven originally

intended the beautiful Andante in F, afterwards published separately, to be the slow movement of this sonata.

That Andante 1s,

like the finale, a spacious and gorgeous rondo, which probably

Beethoven himself: could not have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D flat in its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its chief harmoni¢ effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its limits. After the first movement of the

Waldstein sonata they would be as out of place as the line, “But hist! I must dissemble ” in a play by Ibsen.

BEETHOVEN The sketch-books show that Beethoven when he first planned the sonata, was by no means inattentive to the balance of harmonic

colour in the whole scheme, but that at first he did not realize how

far that scheme was going to carry him. He originally thought of the slow movement as in E major, a remote key to which, however,

he soon assigned the more intimate position of complementary key

‘a the first movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata

was finished that he had raised the first and last movements to an

of thought, though the redundancy of the altogether higher plane

two rondos in juxtaposition and the unusual length of the sonata

were so obvious that his friends ventured to point them out. Beethoven’s revision of his earliest works is now known to have

been extensive and drastic; but this is the first instance—and Fidelio and the quartet in B flat, op. 131, are the only other in-

321

mysterious and intangible rather than astonishing. The boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in broad statement and counter-statement with the allegro, is directly impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its dark harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity before its vast mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true lucidity. Such works are

“dark with excessive bright.” When we enter into them they are transparent as far as our vision extends, and their darkness is that of a depth that shines as we penetrate it. In all probability only a veil of familiarity prevents our finding the same kind of difficulty in Beethoven’s earlier works. Increasing Polyphony.—What

is undoubtedly newest in the

last works is their ubiquitous polyphony, an element always essential to the life of a composition, but never so prominent before, except in regular fugues. Polyphony inevitably draws attention

stances—of any later work needing important alteration after it to detail, and thus Beethoven in his middle period found its more obvious forms but little conducive to the breadth of designs which Central Masterpieces.—From this point up to op. ror we were not as yet sufficiently familiar to take any but the foremost may study Beethoven’s second manner entirely free from any place. Hence, among other interesting features of that second was completely executed.

survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it is as

impossible to fix a point before which his third manner cannot be

traced as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second manner in

his early works. The distinguishing features in Beethoven’s second style are the result of a condition of art in which enormous new

possibilities have become so well known that the need for paradoxical emphasis has vanished, but the remoter issues have not yet come into view. Hence these works have become for most people the best-known and best-loved type of classical music.

In their

perfect fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every beauty of musical design and tone they have never been equalled, nor is it probable that any other art can show a wider range of thought embodied in a more perfect form. In music itself there is nothing else of so wide a range without grave artistic defects from which Beethoven is entirely free. Wagnerian opera aims at an ideal as truly artistic, but in range so far wider than Bee-

thoven’s that it passes beyond the bounds of pure music altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and even the apparent exceptions (such as Fidelio and his two great examples of “programme music,” the Pastoral symphony and the sonata, Les Adieux) only show how universal his conception of pure music is. Extraneous ideas had here struck him as magnificent material for instrumental music, and he never troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the better or worse for expressing extraneous ideas.

To describe the works of Beethoven’s second period here would be to describe a library of well-known classics. Further illustrations will be found in the articles on SONATA FoRMS, CONTRAPUNTAL Forms, Harmony and INSTRUMENTATION. It remains here to indicate the essential features of his third style, and to conclude with a survey of his influence on the history of music. The Third Period.—Beethoven’s third style arose imperceptibly from his second. His deafness had very little to do with it; indeed, all his epoch-making discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was already far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which would satisfy anyone who depended more upon his ear than upon his imagination. The general features of Beethoven’s latest style may be paralleled by the tendencies of all great artists who have handled their material until it contains

nothing that has not been long familiar with them.. Such tendencles lead to an extreme simplicity of form, underlying an elaboration of detail which may at first seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely the working out to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and natural as the form itself. The form, however, will be not merely simple, but individual. Different works will

show such striking external differences of form that a criticism which applies merely a priori or historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is less form in a number of such markedly different works than in a number of works that have one Scheme in common.

The extreme simplicity of Beethoven’s themes in the first two

movements of the quartet in B flat, op. 131, and the tremendous complexity of the texture into which they are woven, at first seem

period, his marked preference for themes founded on rhythmic

figures of one note, e.g., the famous “four taps” in the C minor symphony; an identical rhythm in a melodious theme of very different character in the G major concerto; a similar figure in the Sonata Appassionata; the first theme of the scherzo of the F major quartet, op. 59, No. r, and the five drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give thematic life to an inner part without distracting attention from the surface. But in proportion as polyphony loses its danger, so does the prominence of such rhythmic figures decrease, until in Beethoven’s last works they are no more noticeable than other kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded detail is naturally more prominent the smaller the means with which Beethoven works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus those most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony, and the Mass in D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the choral writing, as directly impressive as the works of the second period; and the enormous pianoforte sonata, op. 106, is in its first three movements easier to follow than the extremely terse and subtle works on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A major, op. 101, and the two sonatas for violoncello, op. 102). New Fugue Forms.—Beethoven’s increasing need for polyphony soon led him to write in fugue, not only, as previously, by way of episodic contrast to passages and designs in which the form and not the texture is the main object of interest, but as the consummation of a unity of form and texture that allows the mind to concentrate itself on the texture alone. This union was not effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a parallel to the abrupt sententiousness of some of Beethoven’s early works. In his fugue-writing the impulse is so dramatic that it demands all Beethoven’s firmness and resource in relation to the form of the whole piece. Vet the listener must attend not to the whole form, but must listen to the texture only, and let the form remain in the background of his mind. This notion is, in relation to the style, a paradox; and accordingly the texture is forced upon the listener’s attention by a continual series of ruthlessly logical bold strokes of harmony. From this and from the notorious violence of Beethoven’s choral writing, and also from his well-known technical struggles in his years of pupilage, the easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a great master of counterpoint. Beethoven himself might afford to think so; but his art is on the plane where an imperfect style becomes no worse than an imperfect instrument of which the defects can all be turned into qualities. And the fact is that Beethoven’s counterpoint becomes rough only under dramatic and emotional stress. No doctor of music could do better triple counterpoint than that in the andante of the string quartet in C minor, op. 18, No. 4, and there is no trace of crudeness in Beethoven’s handling of harmonies, basses, or Inner parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have mastered some things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing incompletely; and where he is not orthodox it is safest to conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had he lived for another ten years he would certainly have produced many choral works and many other great instrumental works in which this last

222

BEETHOVEN

remaining element of conflict between texture and form would

also of his whole sense of dramatic contrast and fitness. When he had shaken off the habits of second-rate operatic styles there

works being easier to follow, it would yet be no sound criterion by which to stigmatize as an immaturity the roughness of the polyphonic works that we know. That roughness is a necessary condition, without which Beethoven’s extant material could have

remained to him, pre-eminently in his music and more imperfectly realized in his drama, a power of combining contrasted emotions

have dwindled away. But while this would doubtless result in such

found only in the greatest dramatists. Bach and Beethoven are the sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which he attains this achievement. Beethoven alone is the extraneous source . by And language, dead a of handling academic the only received that it was possible. it was created that permanent reconciliation of polyphony and of his knowledge It is as certain as anything in the history of art that there wij] form from which has arisen almost all that is true in “Romantic” music, all that is peculiar to the thematic technique of Wagnerian never be a time when Beethoven’s work does not occupy the cen. tral place in a sound musical mind. When Beethoven is out of opera, and all the perfect smoothness of Brahms’s polyphony. Supreme Artistic Concentration—The depth of thought fashion, that is because people are afraid of drama and of sublime amounts merely to a fear of life. and closeness of texture in Beethoven’s later works are, of course, emotions, And that CLASSIFIED SUMMARY OF BEETHOVEN’S WORKS the embodiment of a no less profound emotional power. If we at A. WORKS IN SONATA FORMS times feel that the last quartets are more introspective than dramatic, that is only because Beethoven’s dramatic sense is higher Thirty-two pianoforte sonatas: 1 4-hand sonata; ro violin than ours. The subject is too large and too subtle for dogmatism sonatas; 5 violoncello sonatas; 1 horn sonata; 7 pianoforte trios to be profitable; and we cannot in Beethoven’s case, as we can in Bach’s, cite a complete series of illustrations of his musical ideas from his treatment in choral music of words which themselves interpret the intention of the composer. There is so little but the rousic itself by which one can express Beethoven’s thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader, as before, to the articles on SonaTA Forms, Harmony, INSTRUMENTATION, OPERA and Music, where he will find further attempts to indicate in what

sense pure music can be described as dramatic and expressive of

emotion. As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of analysis and study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves an ever-deepening conviction that Beethoven, whether in range,

depth and truth of thought, perfect sense of beauty, or absolute conscientiousness of execution, is the greatest musician, perhaps

the greatest artist, that ever lived. There is no means of measuring Beethoven’s influence upon subsequent music. Every composer of

every school claims it. The immense changes which he brought about in the range of music have their most obvious effect in the possibilities of emotional expression; and so every outbreak of vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim descent from Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher than Meyerbeer. Consider, again, that confusion of thought which regards a series of works markedly different in form as containing less form than any number of works all cast in the same mould. Hence the works of Beethoven’s third period have been cited in defence of more than one “revolution,” attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for the purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet succeeded in inventing. Immeasurable Influence.—To measure Beethoven’s influence is like measuring Shakespeare’s. It is an influence either too vague or too profound to define. Perhaps the truest account of it would be that which ignored its presence in the works of ill-balanced artists, or even in the works of those who profited merely by

an increase of technical and harmonic resource which, though effected by Beethoven, would, after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, almost certainly have to some extent arisen, from sheer necessity of finding expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere domination, and of a permanently established new world of musical thought, and omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries, the one attracted and the other partly repelled, we may, perhaps, take three later composers, Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as the leading examples of the way in which Bee-

(x with clarinet); 5 string trios; 1 trio for flute, violin and viola;

t trio for 2 oboes and cor anglais; 16 string quartets and a fugue

originally intended for the finale of the quartet, op. 130; 1 quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments

(also freely arranged as a

quartet for pianoforte and strings) ; 2 string quintets and a quintet arrangement of the trio, op. 1, No. 3; 2 sextets, one for strings and 2 horns, the other for wind instruments;

I septet; 1 octet

for wind, arranged from the string quintet, op. 4 (not vice versa,

as is usually believed); 9 symphonies (the oth with a choral finale); 5 pianoforte concertos, I violin concerto, and x triple concerto for pianoforte, violin and violoncello. B. CHORAL, DRAMATIC

AND

VOCAL

WORKS

Two masses (C major, op. 89; Missa Solemnis in D, op. 123); oratorio, Christus am Olberge; opera, Fidelzo (first version entitled Leonora); overture and incidental music to Goethe’s Egmont; ballet, Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus; 2 festival dramatic pièces d’occasion, Die Ruinen von Athen and König Stephan; y

fantasia for pianoforte, chorus and orchestra; songs of which the Liederkreis, op, 98 (a continuous song-cycle), is important, while

the 6 religious songs, op. 39, and the long aria Adelaide are the best known of the remaining works in this medium, which was not

Beethoven’s forte, C. SMALLER

l

WORKS

AND WORKS NUMBERS

WITHOUT

OPUS

The pianoforte sets of variations inçlude those on a Diabelli waltz, the greatest variation work since Bach’s Goldberg variations; the Prometheus variations, op, 35 (foreshadowing the finale of the Eroica symphony); the 32 variations in C minor (a great chaconne, without opus number); and a wonderful early set of

24 on an air of Rhigini. Several smaller sets are worth study. The Andante in F originally belonged to the Waldstein sonata,

and the fantasia, op. 77, foreshadows the choral fantasia and the finale to the ọth Symphony. Three sets of Bagatelles range from work revised from Juvenilia to Beethoven’s last pieces for the pianoforte. D. POSTHUMOUS WORKS Two early cantatas are interesting as containing material afterwards used in Fidelio. An early symphony was published in 1912. (D. F. T.) —A. W. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Thayer,

Ludwig

van

Beethovens

Leben

(1891-1919, Eng. trans. ed., revised and amended by H. E. Krehbiel, 1921); Schindler, Biographie (1840, Eng. trans. 1841); L. Nohl, Beethavens Leben (1876, Eng. trans. 1884); W. Von Lenz, Beethoven, eine Kunst-Studie and Beethoven et ses trois styles (1852) ; G. Notte-

bohm, Beethoveniana (1872) and Zweite Beethoveniana (1887); T

von Frimmel, Neue Beethoveniana (1888 and 1890) and Ludwig van thoven’s influence is definitely traceable as a creative force. Briefe Bees The depth and solemnity of Beethoven’s melody and later poly- Beethoven; Wasielewski, Ludwig van Beethoven (1898);(ed. L. Nohl, Neue Briefe Beethovens phonic richness are a leading source of Schumann’s inspiration, thovens (ed. L. Nohl, 1865); second ed. 1902; Kalischer, Ç. A. (ed. iefe Beethovenbr Neue 1867); though Schumann’s artistic schemes exclude any high degree of revd. by T. von Frimmel, rọr1r; Eng. trans, abridged by J. S. Shedorganization on a large scale. Bethoven’s late polyphony is carried lock; further abridged by A. Eaglefield Hull, 1926); Sir G. Grove, on by Brahms to the point at which perfect smoothness of style Beethoven and his nine symphonies (1898) ; Ernest Walker, Beethoven is once more possible, and there is no aspect of his form which (1905) ; Paul J. Bekker, Beethoven; W. J. Turner, Beethoven (1921); The Unconscious Beethoven (1927); Harvey Grac: Brahms neglects or fails to realize with that complete originality Ernest Newman, van Beethoven (1927); R, Rolland, Beethoven: sa ve (1903); which has nothing to fear from its ancestry. Wagner does not Ludwig J. Chantavoine, Beethoven (1907) ; Vincent d'Indy, Beethoven (1913); handle the same art-forms; his task is different; but Beethoven Eng. trans. pub. by Schirmer, New York) ; Romain Rolland, Beethoven was the inspiring source, not only of his purely musical sense, but the Creator (English trans. by Ernest Newman, 1929).

BEETLE—BEGUINES BEETLE, 2 name commonly applied to those insects which

323

in Berlin, he was for a few months in 1861, professor at the art

school at Weimar. The statue of Schiller for the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was his work. From 1870 onwards Begas domi(g.v.). From another word (O.E. betel, connected with “beat”) nated the plastic art in Prussia, especially in Berlin. Among his chief works during this period were the colossal statue of Borussia comes “beetle” in the sense of a mallet, and the “beetling- for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain in bronze on the process. ng machine,” which subjects fabrics to a hammeri Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Humboldt, all in Berlin; BEET-LIFTER: see HARVESTING MACHINERY. the sarcophagus of the Emperor Frederick III. in the mausoleum born was poet, Dutch 903), (1814-1 BEETS, NIKOLAAS at Haarlem, and constant references in his poems and sketches of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and the national monument chow how deeply the beauty of that town and its neighbourhood to the Emperor William (see BERLIN), the statue of Bismarck impressed his imagination. In his youth Beets was carried away before the Reichstag building, and several of the statues in the Siegesallee. Begas was a most versatile artist. If his preference on the tide of Byronism, which was then sweeping over Europe, was for mythological and decorative subjects, of which his Merde Guy and (1835) Kuser (1834), and his early works Jose llaming (1837) are of the most impassioned type. But he was cury and Psyche (1874) is a good example, he was the most famous beginning in prose the composite work of humour and observation German sculptor of his time in portraiture, and executed portrait which has made him famous, and which certainly had nothing in busts of many of his great contemporaries. See A. G. Meyer, “Reinhold Begas” in Kiinstler-Monographien, ed. the least Byronic about it. This was the celebrated Camera H BEOGAT xx. (Bielefeld, 1901). any which work imaginative successful Obscura (1839), the most GGAR, one who begs, particularly one who gains his livDutchman of the 19th century produced. This work, published ing by asking the charitable contributions of others. The word, under the pseudonym of “Hildebrand,” goes back in its earliest with the verbal form “to beg,” in M.E. beggen, is of obscure inception to the year 1835 and ‘consists of complete short stories, history. The words appear first in English in the 13th century, descriptive sketches and studies of peasant life—filled with hu- and were early connected with “bag,” with reference to the recepmour and pathos. In middle life he published collections of verse tacle for alms carried by the beggars. The most probable deriva—Cornflowers (1853) and New Poems (1857)—in which the tion of the word, and that now generally accepted, is that it isa romantic melancholy was found to have disappeared, and to have corruption of the name of the lay communities known as Beguines left in its place a gentle sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. and Beghards, which, shortly after their establishment, followed In 1873-75 Beets collected his works in three volumes. the friars in the practice of mendicancy. It has been suggested, BEET SUGAR: see Sucar and BEET. however, that the origin of “beg” and “beggars” is to be found BEFANA (Ital., corrupted from Epifania, Epiphany), the in a rare O.E. word, bedecian, of the same meaning, which is Italian female counterpart of Santa Claus (St. Nicholas). On apparently connected with the Gothic bidjan, cf. German betteln; Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she fills children’s stockings with but between the occurrence of bedecian at the end of the 9th cenpresents. Tradition relates that she was too busy to see the tury and the appearance of “beggar” and “beg” in the 13th, there Three Wise Men of the East pass on their journey to pay ador- is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great change in ation to the Saviour, saying that she could see them on their re- form. For the English law relating to begging and its history, see turn. They went back another way, and Befana was punished by Crarity, Poor LAw and VAGRANCY. ossess horny wing-cases;

it is used to denote the cockroaches

(g.v) (black beetles), as well as the true beetles or Coleoptera

having to look for them forever. In spite of her Santa Claus character, her name is used by Italian mothers to frighten the babies. BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL (1757-1811),

BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR, a simple card-game. An or-

dinary pack is divided equally between two players, and the cards are held with the backs upward. The first player lays down his top card face up, and the opponent plays his top card on it and French dramatist and man of letters, was born at Laon on Nov. 6, this goes on alternately as long as no court-card appears, but if 1757. Under the name of “Cousin Jacques” he founded a periodi- either player turns up a court-card, his opponent has to play four cal called Les Lunes (1785-1787). The Courrier des planètes ou ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king, two to a queen, one to Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le firmament (1788— a knave, and when he has done so the other player takes all the 1792) followed. Nicodème dans la lune, ou la révolution pacifique cards on the table and places them under his pack; if, however, (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more than four hun- in the course of this playing to a court-card, another court-card dred representations. In spite of his protests against the Revolu- turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and as long tion he escaped interference through the influence of his brother, as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to any courtLouis Étienne Beffroy, who was a member of the Convention. Of card the trick continues. The player who gets all the cards into La Petite Nanette (1795) and several other operas he wrote both his hand is the winner. the words and the music. His Dictionnaire néologique (3 vols., BEGONIA, a large genus (family Begoniaceae) of succulent 1795-1800) of the chief actors and events in the Revolution was herbs or undershrubs, with about 750 species in tropical moist interdicted by the police and remained incomplete. Beffroy died climates, especially South America and India. Innumerable garin Paris on Dec. 17, 1811. den hybrids and varieties are known which come mainly from BEGAS, KARL (1794-1854), German historical painter, was species introduced between 1864 and 1867; many are tuberous. born in Heinsberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, on Sept. 30, 1794, and The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet or died on Nov. 23, 1854, at Berlin. He studied in Paris under Gros. yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing numerIn 1814 his copy of the “Madonna della Sedia” was bought by

the king of Prussia. He was engaged to paint several large biblical pictures, and in 1825, after his return from Italy, continued to

produce paintings which were placed in the churches of Berlin and Potsdam. Begas was also celebrated as a portrait-painter. His son Oskar (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of painting at Berlin.

the Berlin Rathaus.

BEGAS,

He executed the pictures in the lunettes of

REINHOLD

(1831-1911),

German

sculptor,

younger son of Karl Begas, the painter, was born at Berlin on

ous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and two to four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged capsule with numerous seeds. The leaves, often large and variegated, are unequal-sided. The plant can be raised from seeds or from cuttings.

BEGUINES, at the present time the name of the members

of certain lay sisterhoods

established

in the Netherlands

and

Germany, the enclosed district within which they live being known as a beguinage (Lat. beginagium). The equivalent male communities, more usually called Beghards (Lat. baghardi), have long

ceased to exist. The origin of the names Beguine and Beghard has

July 15 1831, and died there on Aug. 3 1911. He received his

been the subject of much controversy; but it is now universally admitted that both the institution and the name of the Beguines

Wichmann. During a period of study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858,

are derived from Lambert le Bégue, a priest of Liége, who died about the year 1187. About the year 1170 Lambert, who had devoted his fortune to founding the hospital and church of St. Christopher for the

early education (1846-51) in the ateliers of C. D. Rauch and L. hewas strongly influenced by the study of Michelangelo and by ls admiration for the art of the baroque period. After the execution of the group “Borussia,” for the facade of the exchange

324

BEHAIM—BEHAR

widows and children of crusaders, conceived the idea of establishing an association of women, who, without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a movement which was attended with all the manifestations of what is now called a “revival.” About the year 1180 Lambert gathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled ““Beguines” by his opponents, into a semi-conventual community, which he established in a quarter of the city belonging to him around his church of St. Christopher. The district was surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the community. After Lambert’s death the movement rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France—where it was encouraged by the saintly Louis Ix.—Germany, Switzerland and the countries beyond. Women of all classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause. The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like. The very looseness of their organization made it inevitable that the Beguine associations should follow very diverse developments. Some of them retained their original character; others fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or Augustinian tertiaries: others again fell under the influence of the mystic movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing numbers from work to mendicancy, practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes and councils. All this tended to lower the reputation of the Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed, numerous new Beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more mere almhouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many cases they had utterly sunk in reputation and at the Reformation the communities were suppressed in Protestant countries. In some Catholic countries they still survive in a

AND

ORISSA

munities of the Netherlands, there was little discrimination be. tween the orthodox and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion, the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine communities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict with the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and 1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. (1431-47). The male communities did not survive the 14th century, even in the Netherlands, where they had main.

reformed condition, but mainly as centres of benevolent work among the poor. It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men originated also with Lambert le Bégue. The first records are of communities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel with the female, but they were never so numerous and their degeneration

was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in intimate connection with the craft-gilds; but under the influence of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended to break up, and, though certain of the male beguinages survived or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendicants who made religion a cloak for living on charity; beguigner becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with “to beg,” and beghard with “beggar,” a word which, according to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England in the 13th cen-

tury from this source (see Beccar). More serious still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were associated. Matters came to a climax at the council of Vienne in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the “sect of Beguines and Beghards” were accused of being the main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were passed suppressing their organization and demanding their severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the pope expressly protected the female Beguine com-

tained their original character least impaired.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., 1897) s. “Beginen,” by Herman Haupt, where numerous further authorities are cited:

Gieseler, Ecclesiastical History (Eng. tr. vol. iii., Edinburgh, 1853): Theologischer Jahresbericht, 1902, page 495.

BEHAIM

or BEHEM, MARTIN

(1436?-1507), German

navigator and geographer, was born at Nuremberg, according to one tradition, about 1436; according to Ghillany, as late as 1459, He was drawn to Portugal by participation in Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific reputation at the court of Jobn II. He be-

came (c. 1480) a member of a council appointed by King John

for the furtherance of navigation and is said to have introduced into Portugal various improvements in nautical instruments. In 1484-85 he claimed to have accompanied Diogo Cao in his second expedition to West Africa, really undertaken in 1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15°40’ S. and Cabo Ledo still farther on. His pretensions have been disputed, and it is suggested that instead of sharing in this great voyage of discovery, the Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of Guinea, perhaps as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with José Visinho the astronomer and with Joab Affonso d’Aveiro, in 1484-86. Martin’s later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On his return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was knighted by King John, who afterwards employed him in various capacities; but, from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually resided at Fayal in the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst van Hluerter, was governor of a Flemish colony. On a visit to his native city in 1492, he constructed his terrestrial globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often reproduced, in which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but wherein some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the later middle ages (Marco Polo, etc.). As a scientific work it is unimportant, ranking far be low the portolani charts of the 14th century. Its West Africa is marvellously incorrect; the Cape Verde archipelago lies hundreds of miles out of its proper place; and the Atlantic is filled with fabulous islands. Blunders of 16° are found in the localization of places the author claims to have visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to continental features, seldom went wrong beyond 1°. It is generally agreed that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and though Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the same time, no connection between the two has been established. See A. Ghillany, Gelcich in XXXVi. pp.

He died at Lisbon on Aug. 8, 1507.

von Humboldt, Kritische Untersuchungen (1836); E. W. Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim (1853); Eugen the Mittheilungen of the Vienna Geographical Society, vol. 100, etc.; E. G. Ravenstein, Martin de Bohemia (Lisbon,

1900), Martin Behaim, His Life and His Globe (1909), and “Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias, 1482-88,” in Geographica Journal, Dec. 1900. See also Geog. Journal, Aug. 1893, P- 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees in Bull. Soc. Geog. Antwerp, 1902, PP 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa in Bull. Soc. Geog., Lisbon, 1904, PP:

297-307.

BEHAR AND ORISSA or BIHAR, a province of British India created in 1912 by separation from western Bengal, bounded on the north by Nepal and the Bengal district of Darjeeling, on the east by Bengal, on the south by the sea and the Madras presi-

dency, and on the west by the Central Provinces and the United Provinces. Area (including Feudatory States) 111,809 squalt miles. Pop. (1921) 37,961,858. Capital, Patna. Geology

and Physical Aspects.—This heterogeneous prov-

ince comprises the north-east coign of the Deccan plateau with

a lowland alluvial fringe round about it. The plateau has a basis of gneissic, schistose and granitic rocks which received a covering of lower Gondwana rocks, including coal-bearing strata, at the en

BEHAR

AND

of the Palaeozoic period. The plateau was subjected to heavy

faulting and denudation before the upper Gondwana series was laid down, and in consequence the lower Gondwana layers, including coal measures, are found chiefly along east to west bands towards the northern edge of the plateau, where they have been

faulted in and thus preserved. The Karharbari coalfield and the Rajmahal hills have lavas traversing the beds in dykes in the

former, but interbedded in the latter, though both are said to be of the same age. The coign of the plateau is deeply dissected by streams fed

by monsoon rains, mostly relatively short and running low in the dry season, but the Son, a tributary of the Ganges, has a catchment area of 21,000 square miles. The Rajmahal hills in the east and their outliers cover about 2,000 square miles. The northern part of the plateau includes parts of South Behar and Chota Nagpur with the peak of Parasnath (4,479ft.) and numerous flattopped hills, ¢.g., Neturhat Pat (3,356ft.), with a summit of 4 by

24 miles. In Orissa are the peaks of Malayagiri (3,895ft.) and Meghasani (3,824ft.), the latter rich in iron ore. The whole coign stands out into alluvial lowland, of the Ganges on the north, the Ganges delta on the east, and the coastal plain with the far spreading Mahanadi delta on the south-east. The province spreads in a long tongue south-westwards in the valley of the Tel, a feeder of the Mahanadi, separated from the coast by a continuation of the eastern Ghats, mainly in the Madras Presidency but including Bankasamo (4,182ft.), which is in Orissa.

The province thus includes (a) the alluvial plain between Nepal and the Ganges (North Behar); (b) the Son valley and the northward slopes of the plateau (South Behar); (c) the plateau and forested valleys of Chota Nagpur;

(d) and the inland forested

bills of the feudatory states of Orissa as well as (e) the coastal alluvium of Orissa, with a teeming population but serious flood

dangers due to the fact that deposit of silt has lifted the rivers above the general level of the land. Climate.—The climate depends on the province’s position on the western side of the head of the Bay of Bengal with the summer monsoon blowing in and turning up the Ganges valley. Sea breezes become important on the Orissa coast by May and the average temperature, though high, is less so than farther west in central India, altitude for altitude. The plateau and hills accumulate cloud in the day time and dissipate it at night, and this limits rises of temperature to some extent. Nine-tenths of the total rainfall comes from the summer monsoon between June and October, the cool dry season is delightful in Bebar but much less marked in Orissa where, at Puri, the temperature ranges only from 77°

to 86,° while in Behar, though in the hot season the temperature may rise to 118°, the average night temperature is 57° and the lowest recorded 34°. Total rainfall in Orissa is about 59in., in Chota Nagpur 53in., in South Behar (somewhat in a rain-shadow)

44in., and at Purnea, north-east Behar, 68 inches. Chilka lake, in Orissa, the only one in the province, has an area of 344sq.m. in the dry, and 450sq.m. in the rainy season.

People.—The contrasts in peoples and civilizations are, as

marked as those in physical geography. The Khonds ofthe Khondmals (in Angul) offered human sacrifices till 1847 and‘since that time buffaloes have been substituted for human victims, and

the Khonds have found the earth-goddess easily propitiated. In 1899-1900 the Mundas and Oraons rose under Birsa,,believed

to be an incarnation of the deity, whose followers alone would escape universal destruction by flood and in the meantime be proof

against rifle fire. Since then Christianity has spread owing to misslonary efforts and there are now nearly 200,000 converts in this district. Again, in 1917 an act was passed establishing a university at Patna, and three years later another act prohibited a species of serfdom found in some areas. Behar contains a-race of sturdy

agriculturists with the same social organization as the people of

the United Provinces. Their language is Bihari, which the Hindus call Hindi and the Mohammedans

Urdu.

In Orissa the distinct

race of Oriyas is found, speaking the Oriya language, which is of an archaic type, both in form and vocabulary, and was written till

ittie over a century ago on strips of palm leaves with an iron

stylus. They are mainly Hindus and long isolation from the rest

ORISSA

325

of India—railway communication was not established till 1899— has helped te preserve their cult and caste-system, and they are

devout Vaishnavas, whose reverence is concentrated on Jagannath. The Chota Nagpur plateau, on the other hand, is the home of various groups of descendants of the earliest known inhabitants of India, many of whom

still use bows and arrows.

Physically

they are distinguished by short stature, black skins, long heads and broad, almost negritic, noses. The chief peoples are the Santals, Oraons, Mundas, Hos, Khonds, Kharia, Bhumij and Maler or Sauria Paharids. They have retained very numerous tribal dialects, and the animistic beliefs and practices of their primitive ancestors are still prevalent among them. Of the total population 83% are Hindus; 9% are Mohammedans, of whom one-fourth are resident in Purnia; 6% are Animists, nearly all in the Chota Nagpur plateau, which also contains 284,000 of the 303,000 Christians found in the province. Nearly half (147,000) are Roman Catholics, 96,000 are Lutherans and 35,000 are converts to Angli- . can missions. Chota Nagpur is sparsely populated, but every available acre of land is under cultivation in Behar, while the deltaic portion of Orissa is also thickly populated. The density of the rural population rises in parts of Behar and in the central parts of Orissa to 1,000 to the square mile. As a result of pressure on the soil emigration is active. Excluding contiguous parts of other provinces, it was found at the census of 1921 that nearly 2 million inhabitants of Behar and Orissa had left the province since the last census. The great majority, however, are only temporary migrants, who go to earn the wages of labour in industrial and other centres when their crops are off the ground and return to their homes when active cultivation recommences. Agriculture——No less than four-fifths of the population is supported by agriculture. The staple crop is rice, which occupies nearly half the cultivated area. The alluvial plains of both Behar and Orissa are the chief centres of cultivation, but rice is also grown in the Chota Nagpur plateau, both on terraces laboriously cut out of the slopes and in depressions between the ridges. The chief harvest is that of winter rice; about one-quarter consists of autumn rice. The next most important food-crops are wheat, barley, maize and grain, all spring crops occupying one-fifth of the area under cultivation. Another one-fifth is devoted to other food grains, such as pulses, and to fodder crops. The balance is under oil-seeds, sugar cane, tobacco and minor crops. Jute is of importance only in Purnea where it is grown on 250,000 acres. Tobacco is cultivated chiefly in North Behar. The cultivation of indigo, once extensive in the latter area, has declined owing to the competition of the synthetic dye; the area under its cultivation fell from 270,000 acres in 1900-01 to 110,000 acres ten years later, and.was reduced to 13,000 acres in 1925—26. The rainfall is normally ample for the crops, but it is sometimes capricious and unevenly distributed. The Orissa canal system affords an insurance vagainst consequent crop failures in the seaboard districts of Orissa, the Sonal canal system in Shahabad and part of Gaya and the Tribini and Dhaka canals in Champaran. Mines and Manufactures.—The two sub-provinces of Behar and Orissa are almost entirely agricultural, but the Chota Nagpur plateau is extremely rich in natural resources. There are no fewer than 8 coalfields, viz., the Jharia field and part of the Raniganj field in Manbhum, the Bokaro field near the west end of Jharia, the Giridih, Karanpura and Ramgarh fields in Hazaribagh, the Daltonganj field in Palamau and the Talcher field, called after the State of that name. Coal mining is by far the most important of the large organized industries of the province. There were 441 mines in 1925 with an output of 13,800,000 tons of coal. Over ro} million tons were raised in the Jharia field, 14 million tons in the Bokaro field and 750,000 tons in the Giridih field, where the mines are owned and worked by the East Indian railway. The Karanpura and Talcher fields are expected to develop

rapidly with the extension of railway communications.

A belt of

mica, 6om. long by 12 to 14m. broad, runs through the districts of Gaya, Hazaribagh and Monghyr and produces about half the world’s supply of mica. A belt of copper deposits extends for a distance of about 80m. in the Singhbhum district; a mine opened in 1913 has reached a depth of 1,100 feet. The most im-

326

BEHAR

AND

ORISSA

portant deposits of iron ore in India are situated in the same dis- Patna, Tirhut, Bhagalpur, Chota Nagpur and Orissa. The provitrict and in the Feudatory States: the output in 1925 was 1.434,- sions of the act empowering the legislative council to make laws ooo tons out of a total output of 1,545,000 tons for the whole of do not apply to the district of Angul and apply only in a modifieg India. Nearly a million tons were produced in Mayurbhanj, where form to the Chota Nagpur division and the districts of Sambalpur the Tata Iron and Steel Co. have workings at Gurumaishini hill and the Santal Parganas, which in this connection are known as and the remainder in Singhbhum. Gold, chromite and apatite oc- “backward tracts.” The want of uniformity which has beep cur in the same district, manganese ore both there and in Gangpur, remarked elsewhere characterizes the revenue administration and bauxite in Ranchi and Palamau. Slate is quarried in the hills Land revenue in Behar and Chota Nagpur is permanently settled of the Monghyr district and limestone (with an output of nearly a million tons in 1925) in the Kaimur hills of Shahabad. Next to coal mining, metallurgical industries are the most important owing to the establishment at Jamshedpur of the Tata Iron and Steel Co., which employs directly over 25,000 persons and in 1925-26 produced 470,000 tons of steel, 573,000 tons of pig iron and 139,000 tons of rails and beams. Subsidiary industries have been established in Jamshedpur and its neighbourhood, e.g., the manufacture of tin-plates, cables, wire, etc. The workshops of the East Indian railway at Jamalpur, near Monghyr, employ over 11,000 hands, and at Monghyr itself there is a large factory with about 3,000 hands for the manufacture of cigarettes. In spite of a temporary revival during the World War the manufacture of indigo has been nearly destroyed by the competition of the artificial dye, but sugar has largely taken its place and large factories, with up-to-date machinery for making white sugar, have Gi Yi B PO been established in North Behar; nearly 23,000 tons of white Ai Vi elif a sugar were produced in 1925-26. VW Shellac is now produced in Chota Nagpur. Saltpetre was form7A a za rbag fa erly produced on a large scale in Behar, but the industry has sufSEpalamau Sveapars fered from the artificial product of the nitrates of South America YD Puruliac’ and the development of German potash deposits. Of the cottage industries, handloom weaving, which supports nearly half a million pg persons, is still facile princeps in spite of the imports of cheap piece-goods. Railways.—South Behar is served by the East Indian railway, which also traverses Chota Nagpur, and North Behar by the Bengal and North-Western railway, which at Katihar establishes connection with the Eastern Bengal State railway. The BengalNagpur railway runs through Orissa, which is thus linked with Calcutta and Madras, and has also branches to Ranchi and the coalfields. These railways have Calcutta as the centre of their system and direct railway communication between Behar and Orissa BAY has hitherto been lacking. Large schemes of railway extensions OF which centre on the coalfields have been undertaken of late years and will do much to open up Chota Nagpur. The Talcher line, SENGA completed at the end of 1926, connects the Talcher field, and some of the Feudatory States, hitherto difficult of access, with the Bengal-Nagpur line from Calcutta to Madras. The BarkakhanaMAP OF Chandil Chord line gives the Karanpura field an outlet to JamBEHARanp ORISSA shedpur and the south. The Central India coalfields railway will SCALE. I-4,000,000. open up that field and the Bokharo field, providing an outlet on ADED FEET the west, where it will connect with Daltonganj and by the East Indian Railway line with the whole railway system to Bombay. Commerce.—Calcutta is the centre of both the import and RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF INDIA. GAUTAMA, THE FOUNDER OF BUDDHISM, export sea-borne trade. The province has no ports worthy of the PREACHED IN MAGADHA IN THE REIGN OF BIMBISARA ABOUT 528 BC. name: Chandbali in Orissa is a place of call for small coasting AND BUDDHIST MISSIONARIES SET OUT FROM BEHAR FOR THE CONsteamers, but the trade is small and the imports all come from BEHAR CAME INTO VERSION OF CHINA, CEYLON, TIBET, AND TARTARY. Calcutta. A chamber of commerce for the province was created THE POSSESSION OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY IN 1765 WHEN IT WAS in 1925—26, but there are no commercial centres of first-rate imUNITED WITH BENGAL portance. Patna was formerly an entrepôt, but trade now passes but in Orissa temporary settlements are made; and there are six through it on its way to and from Calcutta and it is no longer a Tenancy Acts regulating the relations of landlord and tenant. large collecting and distributing centre. Similarly other towns See Bikar and Orissa: First Decennial Review, 1912-22 (Patna, supply their rural surroundings with such articles as cloth, salt and 1923); B. A. Collins, Bikar and Orissa in 1925-26 (Patna, 1927). kerosene oil and receive their surplus crops for transport by the HISTORY railway. Administration .—The province is administered by a goverThe province of Behar corresponds to the ancient kingdom of nor acting with an executive council of two members and with Magadha, which comprised the country now included in the distwo ministers. The chiefs administer in the Feudatory States, with tricts of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the Ganges. The the guidance of a political officer and under the general supervision origin of this kingdom, famous alike in the political and religious of the governor acting as the agent of the governor-general. The history of India, is lost in antiquity. The first authentic dynasty legislative council consists of 103 members, of whom 76 are is that of the Saisunaga, founded by Sisunaga (c. 600 B.C.), whose elected. For general administrative purposes the Province is capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir) in the hills near Gaya; and the divided into 21 districts which are grouped in 5 divisions, viz., first king of this dynasty of whom anything is known was Bim-

&

A

BEHAR—BEHAVIOURISM pisara (c. 528 B.C.). It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vard-

347

Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded

Chota Nagpur, corresponds to the three administrative divisions of Patna, Tirhut, and Bhagalpur (excluding the Santal Parganas) with a total area of 36,898sq.m.; and pop. (1921) of 21,581,649. The general aspect of the country is flat, except in the north of Champaran, where the Sumeswar and Dun hills abut upon the plain, in Shahabad, where the Kaimur hills rise in a rocky plateau, and in the districts of Gaya, Monghyr and Bhagalpur, where out-

him, and whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country

liers of the Chota Nagpur plateau are found. A densely populated

Magadha. The remaining history of the dynasty is obscure. A

tected by railways and in some parts by canals. Behar derives its name from the town of Behar, now a subdivisional headquarters in the Patna district, and the latter took its name from a great Buddhist Vikara or monastery established there in the 9th century a.p. Behar was the capital of Magadha

hamana Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and Gautama, the

founder of Buddhism, preached in Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries issued thence to the conversion of China, Ceylon, Tibet and Tartary. To this day Behar remains a sacred spot in the eyes of Buddhist nations. between the Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of son of Mahapaoma Nanda, a usurper, was reigning at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great (326 B.c.), who was in-

formed that the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force

of 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots, and 3,000 or 4,000 elephants. In 321 B.c. Chandragupta Maurya seized the throne, which his dynasty occupied for 137 years (see Innra: His-

tory). After the death of the great Buddhist king, Asoka (¢. 231), the Maurya empire began to break up, and it was finally destroyed about so years later by Pushyamitra Sunga. Descendants of Asoka

continued, however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for many centuries. The reign of Pushyamitra, who held his own

against Menander and succeeded in establishing his claim to be lord paramount of northern India, is chiefly notable as marking the beginning of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism. The Sunga dynasty, which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty, which after 45 years was overthrown (c. 27

sc.) by the Andhras or Satavahanas.

In A.D. 236 the Andhras

were overthrown, and, a century later (a.D. 320), Chandragupta I. established his power at Pataliputra and founded the famous Gupta empire (see GUPTA), which survived till it was overthrown by the Ephthalites (g.v.), or White Huns, at the close of the sth century. In Magadha itself the Guptas continued to rule as tributary princes for some centuries longer. About the middle of the 8th century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who founded the imperial dynasty known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists, and under their rule Magadha became once more an active centre of Buddhist influence. Gopala built a great monastery at Udandapura, or Otantapuri, which has been identified by Sir Alexander Cunningham with the city of Behar, where

the later Pala kings established their capital. Under Mahipala (c. 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor Nayapala, missionaries from Magadha succeeded in re-establishing Buddhism in Tibet.

In the r1th century the Pala empire was partly dismembered by the rise of the “Sena” dynasty in Bengal; and at the close of the 12th century both Palas and Senas were swept away by the Mohammedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself being captured in 1193 in a surprise attack by the Turki free-lance Mohammedi-Bakhtyar Khilji, with a party of 200 horsemen. “It was discovered,” says a contemporary Arab historian, “that the whole of the fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindi tongue they call a college Bihar.” Most of the monks were massacred, and

those who survived were scattered. Buddhism in Magadha never -~ it lingered awhile in obscurity and then vanished completely.

Behar now came under the rule of the Mohammedan governors of Bengal. About 1330 the southern part was annexed to Delhi, while north Behar remained for some time longer subject to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of Behar became part of the kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later it was annexed by the Delhi emperors, by whom—save for a short period—it continued to be

held. Behar came into the possession of the East India Company

In 1765, when the province was united with Bengal. In 1857 two

zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled against the British Government, and for some months held the ruinous fort of Rohtds against the-British. See Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908), s.v. “Bihar” and “Bengal”; Aryangar, Ancient India (1911); V. A. Smith, Early History of India a by S. M. Edwardes, 1924), and Oxford History of India

BEHAR or BIHAR, a tract in British India, forming part of the province of Behar and Orissa. Behar, extending across the Valley of the Ganges from the frontier of Nepal to the hills of

tract, it was formerly liable to famine; but it is now well pro-

(South Behar) under the Pala kings and continued to be the capital under Mohammedan governors until the 16th century, when the seat of government was transferred to Patna. BEHA UD-DIN (Ast-1-ManAsin Yosur IBN RAF T* IBN SHappaép BewA up Din) (1145-1234), Arabian writer and statesman. He was at first a teacher in the Nizadmiyya at Baghdad and then professor at Mosul. In 1187, after making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus.

Saladin, who was at the time besieg-

ing Kaukab (a few miles south of Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Beha ud-Din observed that the monarch was engrossed by the war which he was then waging against the enemies of the faith, and sought his favour by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. With this view he composed a treatise on The Laws and Discipline of Sacred War, which he presented to Saladin. From this time he remained constantly attached to the person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies and in departments of the civil government. He was appointed judge of the army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin’s death Beha ud-Din remained the friend of his son Malik uz-Zahir, who appointed him judge of Aleppo. Here he employed some of his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When Malik uz-Zahir died, his son Malik ul-tAziz was a minor, and Beha ud-Din had the chief power in the regency, using it for the patronage of learning. He lived in retirement after the abdication of Malik ul-‘Aziz. His chief work is his Life of Saladin (English trans. the Palestine Pilgrims’

Text Society, London, 1897). For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 316 f.

BEHA UD-DIN ZUHAIR

(Asð-L FApL ZUHAIR IBN Mo-

HAMMED AL-MUHALLABI) (1186-1258), Arabian poet, became celebrated as the best writer of prose and verse and the best calligraphist of his time. His poetry consists mostly of panegyric and brilliant occasional verse distinguished for its elegance. It has been published with English metrical translation by E. H. Palmer (1877). His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikān (see M‘G. de Slane’s trans. of his Biographical Dictionary, vol. 1. pp.

542-545).

BEHAVIOURISM

is a direct outgrowth of studies in ani-

mal behaviour during the first decade of the 2oth century. C. Lloyd Morgan, the British psychologist, must be looked upon as the founder, virtually, of the American school of animal psychology. His books, Introduction to Comparative Psychology (1894) and Animal Behaviour (1900), broke away from the traditional anthropomorphic interpretations of animal acts. He first emphasized the necessity of tracing all the steps in any act we see the animal performing before the interpretation of that act becomes possible. His actual experiments upon the learning of animals were few in number but rich in interpretative value. His studies

emphasized the trial and error nature of all animal learning. Morgan’s work undoubtedly inspired the American animal psycholo- , gist, E. L. Thorndike, who first instigated systematic experimenta-

tion upon chicks, dogs, cats and monkeys in the United States. There soon followed in that country a host of experimentation

upon mammalian learning.

We mention in passing the work of

Small, Yerkes, Kinnaman, Davis, Allen, Porter, Carr, Franz, Johnson, Ulrich, Richardson, Yoakum, Haggerty and Watson. The rich results coming from the study of infra-human mam-

BEHAVIOURISM

328

mals led to similar studies on man. During this same general reaction and the like. In every human reaction there is thus q period we find man studied for the first time as a member of the behaviourist’s problem; a neuro-physiological problem and 4 animal kingdom. We mention the work of E. J. Swift, W. F. physico-chemical problem. When the phenomena of behaviour Book, H. A. Ruger and K. S. Lashley. Acquisitions of skilful acts are once accurately formulated in terms of stimulus and response such as keeping three balls in the air, typewriting, solving mechan- the behaviourist achieves predictability with reference to his pheical puzzles, learning to shoot the English long bow, serve to il- nomena and control over them—the two essentials every science lustrate the types of problems studied. The results of these hu- demands. One might put it in another way. Suppose the behayman studies empbasized the essential similarity between human iourist were given the problem of how to cause a human being to and infra-human learning. blink, he solves it by touching the cornea with a hair (control), Emergence of Behaviourism.—Up to the appearance of In more complicated reactions, especially those labelled “social” Watson’s two papers, “Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It” the S—R relationships are not so easy to solve. For example, (1913) and “Image and Affection in Behaviour” (1913), and his present the stimulus prohibition (S) to any given nation, what book Behaviourism—An Introduction to Comparative Psychol- will the response (R) be? It may take years to determine R ogy (1914), there was no crystallization of the behaviouristic completely. Many behaviouristic problems have to wait for their trend. None of the workers in the field of animal behaviour solution upon the slow experimentation of science as a whole. made any attempt to escape the implications of consciousness Regardless of how complicated the stimulus-response relationin their interpretation of human or animal acts. In these three ships may be, the behaviourist does not admit for a moment that publications the terms “behaviourism,” ‘‘behaviouristic” and any human reactions cannot be so described. The general goal of behaviourism, then, is to so amass observa“behaviourist” were first used. Prof. Washburn’s book, The Ammal Mind (1907), represents very well the tendency of the tions upon human behaviour that in any given case, given the time. She felt the need of interpreting all animal behaviour in stimulus (or better situation), the behaviourist can predict in adterms of consciousness as defined in the introspective systems vance what the response will be; or, given the response, he will be able to state what situation is calling out the reaction. Looked of W. Wundt and E. B. Titchener. ‘“‘Behaviourism when first conceived was based largely upon at in this broad way, it is easy to see that behaviourism is far the rather loose concept of habit formation. The work of Pawlow away from its goal. But while its problems may be difficult, they and his students on the conditioned reflex, while known to the are not insuperable. The one thing that makes the approach of behaviourists, played at first a relatively minor réle in their the behaviourist difficult is the fact that stimuli not at first callformulations. This was due to the fact that his experiments were ing out any given response can come later to call out a specified chiefly concerned with conditioned glandular reflexes, which at type of response. We call this a process of conditioning (earlier that time was a subject hardly touched upon by psychologists. called habit formation). THE GENETIC METHOD Bechterew’s work on the conditioned motor reflex, where human

subjects were used, had from the first a very much greater influence upon behaviourism. The work of Lashley in conditioning the human salivary reflex and of Watson and Rayner on conditioning human emotional reaction (fear) showed the great range of application of the conditioned reflex methods to human behaviour. This work has led to an attempt to formulate all habit (organization) in terms of conditioned glandular and motor reaction. In spite of the fact that behaviourism did not at first utilize to any extent the conditioned reflex methods, Pawlow and Bechterew must be looked upon as furnishing the keystone to its arch. During the period of the general formulation of behaviourism as a system rather than as an approach to psychology, or as a specialised method in psychology, the writings of E. B. Holt, A. P. Weiss and K. S. Lashley are noteworthy.” THE

FUNDAMENTAL

VIEWPOINT

The behaviourist takes the position at the outset that the total behaviour of man from infancy to death is the subject-matter of (human) psychology. Behaviour can be observed like the phenomena of all other natural sciences; e.g., chemistry, physics, physiology or biology. The same general types of methods used in the natural sciences can be used in behaviour psychology. So far in his objective study of man no behaviourist has observed anything that he can call consciousness, sensation, perception, imagery or will. Not finding these so-called mental processes in

This difficulty forces the behaviourist to resort to the genetic method.

He takes the infant at birth and surveys his so-called

physiological system of reflexes or, better, embryological responses. Having taken this inventory of unconditioned, unlearned responses, he next begins to try to condition them. When this has been done, two striking facts seem to appear. First, the number of complicated unlearned responses appearing at birth or at intervals thereafter is relatively small. This leads to the rejection of the whole concept of instinct. Most of the complex responses that the older psychologists called instinctive, such as crawling, climbing, cleanliness, fighting (a long list), are now believed to be built in or conditioned. In other words, the behaviourist no longer finds support for hereditary patterns of behaviour nor for special abilities (musical, art, etc.) which are supposed to run in families. He believes that given the relatively simple list of embryological responses which are fairly uniform in infants, he can build (granting that both internal and external environment can be controlled) any infant along any specified line—into rich man, poor man, beggar man, thief. How the Building Takes Place.—Suppose one assumes that there are present at birth only roo unconditioned embryological responses—there are many more of course. These appear in the form of breathing, crying, movements of arms, legs, fingers, toes, trunk, defaecation, urination and the like. If we assume that all

his observations, he has reached the conclusion that all such terms

of these can be conditioned and integrated according to the law

can be dropped out of the description of man’s activity. All behaviouristic observations apparently can be presented in the form of stimulus and response. The simple schema used is S->R. A behaviouristic problem is solved when both the stimulus and the response are known. For a very simple example, substitute in the above formula for S, contact on the cornea, and for R, blinking. The behaviourist’s problem is solved when this has been done as a result of verified controlled experimentation. The neurologist has a problem to solve in this same phenomenon, namely, in determining the neural connections involved, their

us call all such stimuli unconditioned stimuli, (U)S. Let us call all such responses unconditioned responses (U)R. The formuls could be expressed thus:— (U)S Bo (U)R

course, their numbers, the timing and spread of the neural im-

pulse, etc. The behaviourist does not encroach upon it. The physical chemist has a problem to solve here also. His problem is not

encroached upon either by the behaviourist or by the neurologist. His problem is the determination of the physical and chemical nature of the neural impulses, the amount of work done in the

of permutation and combination, the total possible number of built-in responses would be factorial roo—many millions more than any adult, even the most versatile one, is ever called upon to make even in the most complex social environment. These embryological responses do not appear haphazard—they are not “random.” Some definite stimulus calls them out. Let

A

I

After conditioning

B C D>!

E Etc.

BEHAVIOURISM In the schema A is such an unconditioned stimulus and 1 is such

an unconditioned response. Now if the experimenter takes B— and B so far as is known may be any object in the universe—and

lets it stimulate the organism simultaneously with A for a certain number of times (sometimes even once is enough) it thereafter will also arouse I. In the same way one can make C, D, E call out 1; in other words, one can make any object at will call out 1 (stimulus substitution). This shows how the stimulus side of our

life gets more and more complicated as life goes on. In a similar

way reactions become complicated as soon as a simple stimulus

through the process of conditioning comes to call out a chain of reflexes (integration). In this way the behaviourist tries to take the vague concept of habit formation and to give it a new and exact scientific formulation in terms of conditioned responses. On this basis the most complicated of our adult habits are explicable

in terms of chains of simple conditioned responses. The simplification in psychological theory which comes through the application of behaviouristic principles is best seen in the realm of the emotions. Take fear. The works of Watson and Rayner, Moss, Lecky, Jones and others have shown that the fundamental unconditioned stimulus (U)S calling out a fear reaction is a loud sound or loss of support.

Every child with only one exception, of

approximately 1,000 infants examined, was found to catch his breath, pucker his lips, cry or, if older, crawl away, when a loud sound was given behind his head or when the blanket on which

he was lying was suddenly jerked.

Nothing else so far observed

will produce the fear response in early infancy. Now it is very

easy to make the child fear any other object in the universe. All the experimenter has to do is to show the object and strike the steel bar behind his head and repeat the procedure for a few times. The schema of this situation follows:— (U)S Loud sound Loss of support After eee

S Rabbit, dog, furry objects

(U)R “Start,” crying, etc. (fear) (COR Fear

Conditioning of the emotions (fear, rage, love, etc.) takes place very much earlier in the life of the infant than has hitherto been supposed; it is a process that brings complexity in response at a rapid rate. This means that an infant two or three years of age is already shot through with thousands of responses built up by the environment in which it lives.

329

turbance occurs, extend your table and put the bowl still farther away, so far away that no disturbance occurs. Eating takes place normally, nor is digestion interfered with. The next day repeat the procedure but move the bowl a little nearer.

In four or five

such sessions the bow] can be brought close to the food tray without causing the slightest bit of disturbance.” The behaviourist concludes that by his experiments upon the conditioning and unconditioning of the responses of infants and

children he has obtained a clear view of the way human beings are built up by the environment in which they find themselves. Man is a biological unit that can be studied like any other animal. Does Thinking Offer Any Problem?—Many introspective psychologists agree up to this point with the behaviourist (Bertrand Russell, for example), but the subjectivist claims that there is something new in thinking (and let us include “imagination” under this term). What has the behaviourist to offer on thinking? The behaviourist’s formulation runs somewhat as follows:— The increasing dominance of language habits in the behaviour of the developing child leads naturally over into the behaviour-

ist’s conception of thinking. The behaviourist makes no mystery of thinking. He holds that thinking is behaviour, is motor organization, just like tennis playing or golf or any other form of muscular activity. But what kind of muscular activity? The muscular activity that he uses in talking. Thinking is merely talking, but talking with concealed musculature. “Take any child when he first begins to talk. Peep through the keyhole and watch him in the early morning. He will sit up in bed with his toys, talk aloud to his toys, talk about them. When a little older, he will plan out his day aloud, say aloud that his nurse is going to take him for a walk, that his daddy is going to bring him a car. In other words, he talks overtly when alone just as naturally as he works overtly with his hands. A social factor comes in. The father gets to the point where his own morning

nap is disturbed. He yells out: ‘Keep quiet.” The child begins then to mumble to himself—a great many individuals never pass this stage, and they mumble to themselves all through life whenever they try to think. The father does not like the child’s mumbling any better than his talking aloud, and so he may slap him on the lips. Finally, the parents get the child to the point where he talks silently to himself. When his lips are closed, it is nobody’s

business what is going on below. Thus we come to behave as we please if we do not give any external motor sign of it—in other words, our thoughts are our own.” A further question comes up for serious consideration: Do we The Process of Unconditioning.—The experiments of the think only in terms of words? “The behaviourist takes the position to-day that whenever the behaviourists have shown that there is not only a process of conditioning or building taking place constantly from birth to death, individual is thinking, the whole of his bodily organization is at but that there is also a process of unconditioning taking place as work (implicitly)—even though the final solution shall be a well. A simple experiment of the type described below best illus- spoken, written or subvocally expressed verbal formulation. In trates it. A conditioned negative response was set up in a If other words, from the moment the thinking problem is set for the year-old child—that of drawing back from or running away from individual (by the situation he is in) activity is aroused that may a bowl containing gold fish. We quote from a recent experiment: lead finally to adjustment. Sometimes the activity goes on (a) “The child, the moment he sees the fish bowl, says ‘bite.’ No in terms of implicit manual organization; (b) more frequently matter how rapid his walk, he checks his step the moment he in terms of implicit verbal organization; (c) sometimes in terms comes within seven or eight feet of the fish bowl. If I lift him of implicit (or even overt) visceral organization. If (a) or (c) by force and place him in front of the bowl, he cries and tries to dominates, thinking takes place without words.” Words are thus the conditioned (C)S substitutes for the world break away and run. No psychoanalyst, no matter how skilful, can remove this fear by analysis. No advocate of reasoning can of objects and acts. Thinking is a device for manipulating the remove it by telling the child all about beautiful fishes, how they world of objects when those objects are not present to the move and live and have their being. As long as the fish is not senses. Thinking more than doubles human efficiency. It enables present, you can by this verbal organization get the child to say the individual to carry his day world to bed with him and manip‘Nice fish, fish won’t bite’; but show him the fish and the old ulate it at night or when it is a thousand miles away. Strict behaviourism is making rapid progress in America. It, reaction returns. Try another method. Let his brother, aged four, who has no fear of fish, come up to the bowl and put his hands however, has not yet been universally accepted even here. The in the bowl and catch the fish. No amount of watching a fearless older subjective psychology is being profoundly modified by it. child play with these harmless animals will remove the fear from One sees very little of introspection and still less of imagery in the toddler. Try shaming him, making a scapegoat of him. Your the writings of the subjectivists.

methods are equally. futile. Let us try, however, this simple method. Get a table 10 or r2ft. long. At one end of the table

See J. B. Watson, “Psychology as the Rev. xx. (1913) ; Behaviourism (1925) in the Psych. Rev. in 1925; A. P. Weiss, Behaviour (1925); George A. Dorsey,

Behaviourist Views It,” Psych. ; the articles by K. S. Lashley A Theoretical Basis of Human Why We Behave Like Human

place the child at meal time, move the fish bowl to the extreme other end of the table and cover it. Just as soon as the meal is Beings (1925); Bertrand Russell, Analysis of Mind; C. D. Broad, (J. B. W.) Placed in front of him, remove the cover from the bowl. If dis- Mind and its Place in Nature (1926).

BEHBEHAN—BEHISTUN

339

BEHBEHAN, a town of Persia, 30° 35’ N., 50° 19’ E., in the

western part of the province of Fars, pleasantly situated in the midst of a cultivated plain, some 1som. west-north-west of Shiraz and about 5m. south of the Marun or Kurdistan river. Formerly a very flourishing and important city, it is now greatly shrunken and decayed. The present population is about 15,00020,000. It is on the route from Bandar Dilam to Isfahan, which is shorter, and in summer, easier than any other route. A motor road connects Behbehan with Ahwaz and the mule track from Behbehan to Shiraz could be made fit for wheels with little difficulty. Close to Behbehan lie the ruins of the ancient and famous city of Arrajan, and of two magnificent bridges, one of which consisted of a single arch 80 paces in span and of almost equal

height.

It is referred to in a contemporary

but with a sword, and by a French headsman specially brought over from Calais. In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be beheaded was refused and he was hanged. Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower hil London, where the scaffold stood permanently during the 1 sth and 16th centuries. In the case of certain State prisoners, e.g, Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey, the sentence was carried out within the Tower, on the green by St. Peter’s chapel. Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of punishing male traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme, According to Walcot’s case (1696), I. Eng. Rep. 89, the proper sentence was “quod... per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram

interiora sua intra ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur

chronicle of Ibn

Batuta as the finest in the world. Several of the piers of the other bridge are still standing. Not far off are the ruins of an even older town, near which was one of the principle fire temples of the Persians.

a mode of executing capital punishment.

BEHEADING,

prosternatur et quod se-

creta membra eius amputentur, et et ipso vivente comburantur, et

quod

caput

eius

ampuitetur,

quodque corpus eius in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi dominus rex eas assignare voluit? (that he be hanged by the neck and dropped to the ground alive and that his private parts be cut off and that his bowels within his belly be taken and put upon a fire and burned while he lives and that his head be cut

It

was in use among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as Xenophon says at the end of the second book of the Anabasis, regarded it as a most honourable form of death. So did the Romans, by whom it was known as decollatio or capitis amputatio. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug for the purpose— in the case of a military offender, outside the entrenchments; in civil cases, outside the city walls, near the porta decumana. Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped off and that his body be divided with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword, which was considered a more honourable instrument of death| BY COURTESY OF THE CONTROLLER OF HIS into four parts to be placed where it may please his majesty and was used in the case of citizens (Dig. 48, 19, 28). It was’ MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE the king to assign them). There BLOCK AND AXE AT THE TOWER OF with a sword that Cicero’s head was struck off by a common ce Seiler ci tease is a tradition that Harrison, soldier. Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from , bier, It waa lest used for the execu the regicide, after being disemNormandy by William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer | tion of Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, in bowelled, rose and boxed the ears of the executioner. In was Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient ms. ' 1746. The axe dates from 1688 relating to the earls of Chester states that the serjeants or bailiffs ' 1814 the king was empowered by royal warrant to substitute of the earls had power to behead any malefactor or thief, and hanging as the ordinary mode of executing criminals; but as late as 1820 in the case of the Cato Street conspiracy (33 Howell, State Trials, 1,566), after the traitors had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814, their heads were cut off by a man in a mask, whose dexterity led to the belief that he was a surgeon. Drawing and quartering were not abolished till 1870. The block usually employed is believed to have been a low one, such as would be used for beheading a corpse. C. H. Firth and S. R. Gardiner incline to the view that such a block was the one used at Charles I.’s execution. The more general custom, however, seems to have been to have a high block over which the victim knelt. Such is the form of that preserved in the b ain armoury of the Tower of London, which is undoubtedly the ce aN os eo = Eee = block upon which Lord Lovat suffered. The axe which stands SS = uy ——— TE : = beside it was used to behead him and the other Jacobite lords. NA RR AA Seem SR PRRD NARS On the ground floor of the King’s House, at the Tower, is preeo LNT a KA AASR oe es pea APIA rea LURET hinARANE served the processional axe which figured in the journeys of Aw4 cee Ty | h et esos OST IA ERTS PLY HOP EYOtt Ki Saya A AREETA T WeeRAD LERNAN to and from their trials, the edge turned from SH IIS t i T RE TE TNT DSS PSUR SY \ State asprisoners but almost invariably turned towards them One EN Ros ANARA SSE nha Paes ae went, they them H 4 Bats Al DeAAAA Li ta ik FEAA as they returned to the Tower. The axe’s head is rft. 8in. high eee War Y

the

RT

AAU

hei! TR tay a RA

Le

L

AFTER A CONTEMPORARY THE

EXECUTION

OF

| by xoin. wide, and is fastened into a wooden handle sft. 4in. long.

PRINT THE

EARL

OF STRAFFORD

AT

LONDON,

MAY

12, 1641

Large crowds assembled on Tower Hill to see the execution of Strafford, who behaved with great composure and refused even to have his eyes bandaged. Qn

the

scaffold

with

him

were

Dr.

magistrates, and many of his friends

Ussher,

Primate

of

Ireland,

the city

The handle is ornamented by four rows of burnished brass nails. In Scotland they did not behead with the axe or with the sword, as under the Roman law and formerly in Holland and France,

but with the maiden (q.v.).

Beheading is now very rare in European countries, most of gives an account of the presenting of several heads of felons at ' the castle of Chester by the earl’s serjeant. It appears that the which have abolished or abrogated by disuse capital punishment custom also attached to the barony of Malpas. The liberty of (q:v.), but it was practised very extensively by the Chinese warHardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege of beheading lords, especially by Sun Chuan-fang in Shanghai. thieves. (See GUILLOTINE.) BEHEMOTH (the intensive plural of the Hebrew b’hemah, But beheading was usually reserved for offenders of high rank. : a beast), the animal mentioned in Job xl., probably the hippoFrom the 1sth century onward the victims of the axe include| potamus. The modern use expresses the idea of a very large and some of the highest personages in the kingdom. Simon, Lord| strong animal. ovat was the last person beheaded in England (April 9, 1747). BEHISTUN or BISITUN, a village at the foot of a precipi-

The execution of Anne Boleyn was carried out not with the axe, | tous peak some 1,700ft. high, in the Zangers range in Persia, on the

BEHN—BEILBY right bank of the Samas-Ab,a tributary of the Kerkha. The original form of the name (Bagistana, “place of the gods,” or, “of God”)

has been preserved by the Greek authors Stephanus of Byzantium, and Diodorus (i. 13). At the foot of this scarp passes the old road which led from Babylon to Ecbatana, and here it was that Darius I., king of Persia, engraved his great inscription in three kinds of cuneiform writing, in which he recounts the way in which,

after the death of Cambyses, he killed the usurper Gaumata (in

Justin, Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated the numerous

rebels, and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. This inscription he carved some 5o0o0ft. above the level of the spring

So

accomplished the objects of her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in conjunction with the De Witts, of sailing up the Thames and burning the English ships in their harbours. This she communicated to the English court, but although the event proved her intelligence to have been well founded, it was at the time disregarded and she received no reward. A period of the utmost poverty followed—she was imprisoned for debt for a short time—and this led to her writing as a means of supporting herself. In 1670 her first play, The Force’d Marriage, was produced, and was followed by a succession of dramas which con-

which bubbles out at the foot of the mountain, and, although it is tinued till her death. She was most successful as a writer of witty and vivacious comedies, of which The Rover (1677 and 1681)

by no means inaccessible, to reach it demands a difficult climb up the precipitous rock-face. The lower part of the inscribed surface consists of three columns of Susian, and five of Persian, each about i1ft. high, while above these is the sloping overhang

of the Babylonian (over the Susian), and the magnificent sculp-

ture (over the Persian) of the king putting his foot on the pros-

trate body of Gaumata, followed by his two ministers. In front of him are nine rebel chiefs with their hands bound behind them and a rope round their necks, and above them is the winged figure of the god Auramazda. In 1835 Henry Rawlinson, then a young officer, turned his attention to deciphering the Persian cuneiform characters of the inscriptions at Elwend, near Ecbatana, and, unconsciously following the method employed by the German Grotefend at the beginning of the century, he assigned correct values to about a third of the alphabet. With the knowledge thus obtained he attacked the great inscription of Behistun, and by 1846 he had not only overcome the difficulty of scaling the rock, but had also succeeded in the extraordinary exploit of translating the whole of the ancient Persian inscription by applying his knowledge of other dialects to the words of the inscription on which his decipherment of the characters had allowed him to transliterate correctly, thus laying the foundation of the science of Assyriology. It was now only a matter of time to elucidate the Susian and Babylonian, the former yielding to the investigations of Hincks, Westergaard, De Saulcy and Norris, the latter to Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert and Fox Talbot. At the foot of the rock is a bas-relief of Gotarzes, the Parthian king (A.D. 46-50), with a Greek inscription (C.I.G. III., No. 4674: cf. Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss d. Iranischen Philologie, ii. 504) which has been partly destroyed by an Arabic inscription, and about a quarter of a mile away is a rude monolith sculptured with figures in low relief, perhaps of Sassanian workmanship (Mann, Globus, lxxxili., No. 21, 1903, 328; Williams Jackson, Persia, Past and Present, 210; King and Thompson, Juscr. of Dartus the Great, XXV.). For the decipherment

and

description

Darius, see Sir Henry Rawlinson,

of these

inscriptions

of

Journ. R. Geog. Soc. ix. (1839);

J. R. Asiatic Soc. x. (1846), xiv. (1853), xv. (1855); Archaeologia, xxxiv. (1852); Weissbach and Bang, Die altpersischen Keilinschriften (1893); Weissbach, Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art (1890) ; Bezold, Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften (1882); A. J. Booth, The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Inscriptions (1902); A. V. Williams Jackson, J. Am. Or. Soc. xxiv. (1903), and Persia, Past and Present (1906); L. W. King and R. C. Thompson, The Inscription of Darius the Great at Behistun (1907); and for an illustrated popular account, R. C. Thompson in Hammerton’s Wonders of the Past, 555.

BEHN, APHRA

(otherwise Arra, ApHARA or AVFARA)

(1640-1689), British dramatist and novelist and the first Englishwoman to earn her living as a writer, was baptized at Wye, Kent, m 1640. Her father, John Johnson, was a barber. While still a child she was taken out to Surinam, then an English possession,

from which she returned to England in 1658, when it was handed Over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned the history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has related in her

novel, Oroonoko. She married a London merchant of Dutch extraction, named Behn. The wit and abilities of Mrs. Behn brought her into high estimation at court, and after her husband’s death in 1666, Charles II. employed her on secret service in the Netherlands during the Dutch War. At Antwerp she successfully

is an excellent example; but her versatility, like her output, was immense. She was well read, and often adapted the works of the older dramatists, The City Heiress, based upon Middleton’s A Mad World, My Masters, being a case in point; but although she frequently borrowed, some of her most notable triumphs were

absolutely original. The City Heiress is of further interest as displaying another of her many interests: together with The Roundheads (1682), which is an attack on the Puritans, it represents the part she played in the political battle of the time. Although the dramas comprise the bulk of her work, her prose works of fiction are of equal interest from the point of view of literary history. Oroonoko exerted unquestionable influence on the development of the novel, and Macaulay, admitted that, in spite of the coarseness which disfigures her work, the best of Defoe was not beyond her reach. Besides plays and tales, she published translations and poems. She attained great popularity, and had become the centre of much scandal before her death in 1689. The Widow Ranter, based on the story of the rebellion of Stanley Bacon in Virginia was produced posthumously in 1690. Among others of

her plays may be mentioned Sir Patient Fancy (1678) which shows the influence of her French reading, and the Feigned Courtezans of 1679. See The Works of Aphra Behn, edited by Montague Summers (1915). Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs. Behn (1702; reprinted, 1871); also “Aphra Behn’s Gedichte und Prosawerke,” by P. Siegel in Angka (Halle, vol. xxv., pp. 86-128, 329-385, 1902) ; and A. C. Swinburne’s essay on “Social Verse” in Studies in Prose and Poetry (1894) ; V. Sackville West, Apkra Behn (1927).

BEHRING, EMIL VON (1854-1917), German bacteriologist and founder of immunology as a science. Behring began life as an army surgeon and became professor successively at Halle (1894) and Marburg (1895). In 1890, while working with the Japanese investigator Kitasato (qg.v.) in the laboratory of Robert Koch at Berlin, he showed that it was possible to produce in an animal immunity against the disease known as tetanus, or lockjaw, by injecting into it the blood serum of another animal infected with tetanus. The immunity was efficient against 300 times the fatal dose of tetanus.

The paper of Behring and Kitasato

contains for the first time the word antitoxic. Soon after, Behring showed that immunity could also be obtained against diphtheria by injecting serum from an animal that had previously been injected with living cultures of the diphtheria bacillus. This epoch making discovery was soon given practical application. It was found possible to induce a degree of immunity even after the onset of the disease. The first human case was a child in a clinic at Berlin in 1891. Diphtheria antitoxin was placed on the market in 1892. In a few years’ time its administration had become a routine part of the treatment of the disease. Behring died at Marburg on March 31, 1917. He wrote, among other works, Die Blutserumtherapie (1892); Atiologie des Tetanus (1904); Einführung in die Lehre von der Bekämpfung der Infekttonskrankheiten (1912). BrsLrocrRarsY.—M ünchener medizinische Wochenschrift, lxiv., Ppp 1,235-1,239 (1917); Zeitschrift für Tuberculose, xxviii., pp. 196-199 (Leipzig, 1917); Diphtheria, Its Bacteriology, Pathology and Immunology, issued by the Medical Research Council (1923).

BEHRING, VITUS: see BERING. BEILBY, SIR GEORGE THOMAS

i (1850-1924), British

chemist, was born in Edinburgh Nov. 17 1850 and educated at the university there. He joined the Oakbank Oil Company in 1869,

334

BEIRA— BEIRUT

and later became a director of the Cassel Cyanide Company, the Castner-Kellner Alkali Co., and many other important undertakings. He invented a new process for retorting oil shale, a new synthetic method of manufacturing alkaline cyanides, and also carried out much important work on the economical use of fuel, establishing the Fuel Research station at East Greenwich shortly before his death. Having served on several commissions and assisted the Government in an advisory capacity on many occasions, he was elected F.R.S. in 1906, and was knighted in 1916. He held office in many scientific societies, and was the author of a book on The Aggregation and Flow of Solids (1921) and of numerous papers on chemical and metallurgical subjects. He died at Hampstead, London, on Aug. 1 1924.

BEIRA, an ancient principality and province of northern and central Portugal; bounded on the north by Entre Minho e Douro and by Traz os Montes, east by the Spanish provinces of Leon and Estremadura, south by Alentejo and Portuguese Estremadura,

just outside the town. There is a lighthouse at the river mouth with a 16 m. radius, and the channel leading to the port is well

buoyed and lighted. Vessels drawing 28 ft. of water can enter the port at high tide. There is good anchorage (the bottom is of soft mud, but safe in fine weather) in 5 fathoms (18-27 ft, a lowest tides), 135 yd. from the shore. The maximum depth in the harbour is 32 ft., minimum 12 ft. The depth at the customs

wharf varies from 20 ft. to nil. On the bar, and in Ramble Channel, there is 12 ft. at lowest spring tides and 18 ft. at low

tide (neap). The sea front is protected by a masonry wall. Ships are loaded and unloaded from anchorage by lighters towed by small steam-boats; and there is adequate wharf accommodation for large lighters. There are 1o-ton cranes on the customs wharf, and 20-ton cranes on the railway wharf. It is possible to handle 450 tons daily per steamer. There is an excellent stone and cement

passenger pier. Between the customs house and the railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve, crossed by

and west by the Atlantic ocean. Pop. (1920) 1,597,573; area a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving two passages 9,208sq.m. Beira is administratively divided into the districts of each of 40 ft. The Chiveve embankment scheme reclaimed 80,000 Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello Branco, while it is square metres of land. The Mozambique Company administers the Beira district under popularly regarded as consisting of the three sections—Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra da Estrella; a charter granted in 1891 for a term of 50 years, renewable on its Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello Branco), south expiration in 1941. There is a considerable business community, and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Maritime Beira (Aveiro largely British. Of the three banks, two are British. The town and Coimbra). The coast, about 72m. long, is uniformly flat, with has a wireless station, and is in telegraphic communication with long stretches of sandy pine forest, heath, or marsh land bordered

by a wide and fertile plain. Its most conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (g.v.) and the bold headland of Cape Mondego. Except along the coast, the surface is for the most part mountainous, the highest point in the Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to south-west through the centre of the province, being 6,532ft. The northern and south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked by the two great rivers Douro and Tagus, which rise in

Spain and flow to the Atlantic. The Agueda and Côa, tributaries of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaux of Beira; the Vouga rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of Aveiro at its mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella, passes through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and the Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east of Covilha and flows south-west and south. Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains, where the snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in. the valleys, is dry and rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath. The principal agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden vegetables and fruit. The olive is largely cultivated and the oil exported; good wine is also produced. In the flat country between Coimbra and Aveiro the marshy land is laid out in rice-felds or in pastures for cattle and horses. Sheep farming is important in the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine furnish the well-known Lisbon hams. Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked to a small extent, and millstones are quarried in some places. Lagoons along the coast yield salt.

BEIRA, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of

the Pungwe and Busi rivers, 19° 50’ S., 34° 50’ E., 528 m. N. of Lourenço Marques, in communication by railway with Cape Town (2037 m.) via Umtali, Salisbury (374 m.) and Buluwayo (675 m.). On Dec. 31, 1926, the population included 2,167 whites. Beira is the chief port for Rhodesia and Katanga, communication being made by the Beira and Mashonaland and Rhodesian Rail-

way (212 m.) under concession from the Mozambique Company. In 1922 the completion of a railway to the Zambezi made Beira the port for Nyasaland. The port is being increasingly used for transhipment of cargo for the smaller coast ports. In addition to the very important transit trade to Rhodesia, Katanga and Nyasaland, Beira also handles an increasing volume of traffic for the

Mozambique Company’s territories (see article on PORTUGUESE East Arrica), of which it is the capital. The town is built on a tongue of sand extending into the river, and is comparatively healthy. The average annual rainfall is 37 in., and the average annual temperature 75-58°. It is increasingly popular as a holiday resort for Rhodesians. The town is connected with the port by light railway lines. There are good golf links

Salisbury in Mashonaland.

Beira occupies the site of a forgotten

Arab settlement. The present port owes its being to a clause in the Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 1891 providing for the construction of a railway between Rhodesia and the navigable waters of the Pungwe. (The Pungwe is navigable for small steamers for 40 m., and the Busi for 25 m. Both rivers are subject to serious floods which cause damage to the railway lines to Rhodesia and Nyasaland.) The railway at first began at Fontesvilla, about 50 m. by river above Beira, but was subsequently brought down to that port. The completion in 1902 of the line connecting Salisbury with Cape Town adversely affected the port, the long railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed by travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights on goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete successfully for Rhodesian trade. In Oct. 1905 a considerable reduction was made in railway rates and in port dues and customs, with the object of re-attracting to the port the transit trade of the interior; and in 1907 a branch, of the Rhodesian customs was opened in the town, following the precedent of Lourenço Marques. These steps were successful. The principal exports are maize, rubber, cotton, sugar, ground-nuts and oil-seeds, beeswax, chromite (from Rhodesia),

and gold (from Manica).

The imports are chiefly rice (from

India), cotton goods for local use, and food stuffs, machinery, hardware and manufactured goods for Rhodesia. Direct steamship communication with Europe is maintained by British, Portuguese and German ships, the former constituting by far the greater part of the tonnage using the port. Shipping returns for the last two years are:— 1926

1927

Ships entered ss 527 594 Passengers disembarked „881I 7,348 Cargo unloaded 192,325 tons 298,865 tons Ships left Sty < 509 595 Passengers embarked . 4,804 4,910 Cargo loaded 275,931 tons 383,736 tons See PorTUGUESE East AFRICA; also the reports issued yearly by the British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.

BEIRUT, the chief seaport of Syria and the most beautiful,

is situated on a triangular promontory roughly 6m. by 5m., backed by the Lebanon range. The bay thus formed to the north is known as St. George’s bay for it was here, according to legend, that he slew the dragon. Pop. 95,000; 37,500 Mohammedans, 35,000 Christians, mostly Maronites.

History.—Beirut appears first in history in a list of Thotmes

III. (early rsth century »B.c.). In the epoch of the Amarna letters (1400 B.C.) its ruler was Ammunira, who contributed to the correspondence and was apparently a loyal vassal of the Pharaohs.

BEISA—BEISAN At any rate, the pro-Egyptian Rib-Addu of Byblos, a notable figure in the despatches, repaired to Beirut when forced to vacate

Byblos. Beirut is mentioned, but no more, in the satiric Papyrus Anastasi I. of the time of Ramses II. (early 13th century s.c.). ‘9 mention is made apparently of Beirut in the Old Testament.

333

said to have used a large number of columns to block the harbour and Mahmud Bey, governor in 1839-40, built a breakwater entirely of columns, only to have it swept away by a violent storm the

following year. In 1852 Robinson speaks of the city wall (Jezzar’s) then almost

entire, columns

of a temple, an aqueduct

The context does not admit of its identification either with Bero-

leading under the city, ancient walls and foundations on the rocks

cording to Strabo (xvi. 735) Beirut was taken and destroyed by

probably of the period of Herod the Great, which led water from the Lebanon to the city across the plain on an immense wall, was still fairly complete about 1840. Later it became a quarry for building stones. Recently French savants have decided to proceed with investigations and excavations on promising sites in the city. At the corner of the streets Allenby and Weygand there have been discovered two bases for statues with Latin inscriptions com-

thai (2 Sam. viii. 8) or with Berothah

(Ezek. xlvii. 16). Ac-

Tryphon in his struggle with Demetrius II. (Antiochus VII.) for

the Seleucid throne (140 B.C.). Marcus Agrippa, a lieutenant of Augustus, captured the city in 15 B.C. and made it a military col-

ony with the title Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus (Corp.

Inscr. Lat. ii. 161, etc.), with the added privilege of the jus Italicum. Herod the Great showed it favour by erecting many fine buildings and in Beirut was held the dramatic assembly before which Herod in person arraigned his two sons, Alexander and of death (Josephus, Aristobulus, and secured a majority sentence Antig. xvi. 11.2). Agrippa I. (A.D. 37-44) and his son Agrippa II. added to its attractions a theatre and an amphitheatre. It was here Titus celebrated the fall of Jerusalem and his father’s birth-

day with gladiatorial contests. In Roman times the city of Beirut was famous as a home

of learning.

It was sought by many

desirous of Greek learning, amongst them Appian the martyr. Its school of Roman law was recognized as one of the official law

schools of the empire, until a disastrous earthquake (551) compelled its removal to Sidon. Gregory Thaumaturgus (A.D. 185— 254), the wonder-working pupil of Origen, was a student here, and two of the professors of the law school, Anatolius and Dorotheus,

drew up at Justinian’s behest the third part of Justinian law, known

as the Second Code (529-531). After the earthquakes Beirut was never restored to its former splendour and in a.p. 600 the great public buildings lay strewn where they had fallen. In 635 it passed

under the blighting influence of the Arab occupation of Syria. The period of Frank domination was one of great military activity. The crusaders in their first progress along the coast from Antioch to Jerusalem (1099) passed within hail of the walls, but made no

effort to attack. Baldwin I. captured the city in 1110 and in rr5r it was pillaged by the Egyptian fleet. From 1177 until its capture by Saladin (1187) it was the scene of incessant fighting. Saladin dismantled its defences (1190), dreading its reoccupation by the

Franks. John of Beirut (d. 1236) restored castle and ramparts and the new defences in size and magnificence excelled any that had been before. Frederick II., having quarrelled with John, took the city by a night surprise, but the castle resisted till the siege was raised by the arrival of help from Cyprus (1232). The surrender of the city to the Mohammedans in 1291 marked the end of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Thereafter it was dominated in turn by Mameluke sultans of Egypt, Druse emirs of the Lebanon, and the Turks (from 1517). The most famous of the Druse emirs

was Fakhr-ed-Din (1584-1635) who made himself independent of the Turks, chose Beirut as his residence, fortified it, and by an alliance with Venice did much to foster and develop its trade. The Turks forced their way into the city in 1763 and in 1789 the city was finally freed from Druse interference.

Ahmad

el-

Jeazar of Acre (1775-1804) re-established the defences, built a new castle on the site of the old and completed the circle of the walls, but his building was not substantial. Beirut was occupied by the forces of Mohammed Ali of Egypt in 1830-31. He made the city his quarantine station for the Syrian coast and all ships were obliged to come to its port to the benefit of its trade. In 1840 the Egyptians were dislodged—Beirut in the process being bombarded by the allied fleets (Britain, Austria, Turkey )—and the city restored to Turkish possession. During the massacres in the Lebanons (1860) large numbers of Christian refugees took shelter in Beirut and settled there. In the course of the war between Turkey and Italy a Turkish gunboat was sunk in the harbour by the Italian fleet (1912). On Oct. 8, 1918, Indian troops

(7th Meerut Division) of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force en-

tered Beirut, but France, whose war vessels had arrived in the harbour shortly before, installed a military governor. Antiquities.—The buildings shattered by the earthquakes of

the 6th century were never apparently rebuilt. Fakhr-ed-Din is

on the seashore where was a small harbour.

The great aqueduct,

memorating a certain Sentius Proculus who held important military and civil posts under the Romans in first century A.D. Modern.—Under French mandatory control Beirut, possessing itself municipal autonomy, is also the capital of the autonomous State of Great Lebanon (Grand Liban), and the residence of the French high commissioner for Syria. It is the see for archbishops or bishops of several communions, and a famous centre of learning. Higher education is provided by the American and Jesuit colleges and the list of Christian mission schools and seminaries, both Protestant and Catholic, is long and imposing. The city has been equipped with a good water supply (1875) and gas installation

(1888), now amalgamated (1925) with the Electric Tramway Company to provide an electric supply. Beirut has some fine squares but the bazaars are poor. Some of the meaner parts were demolished by Jemial Pasha in 1916 to widen the main streets. Beirut is connected by rail with Damascus (1895) and with Aleppo via Rayak (1907). Railways coastwise to Tripoli (there is a steam tramway as far as Ma‘amaltein) and Acre are contemplated. A harbour was constructed in 1889, but only vessels of light draught can range alongside the quays and most of the unloading is by lighters. Port charges are heavy. During 1924 there entered the port 656 steamers, total tonnage 1,357,930 and 2,174 sailing vessels, total tonnage 42,524. Beirut has long been famous for its export trade. As early as the first century A.D. its sweet wine, linen and silk stuffs penetrated to all parts of the known world. Under Turkish rule Beirut was a distributing centre for a large block of territory stretching from Hama to Jaffa and extending to Damascus and the Hauran. The erection of a frontier between Syria and Palestine has tended to restrict its sphere of economic influence in spite of the relief afforded by the customs agreement between Syria and Palestine in

192I. Yet trade has continued to make steady recovery since 1918. Comparisons of annual values of trade expressed in francs are apt to be misleading because Syrian currency is now based on French and has fluctuated correspondingly in value. The chief imports through Beirut in 1925 were building materials (cement, wood, iron) cotton manufactures, flour, rice, motor spirit, salt; and the chief exports, fruits and seeds, native foodstuffs, hides, manufactured goods, textiles, metal work, woodwork, cocoons, wool, live animals. An international exhibition was held at Beirut in 1921. Twice weekly a fleet of motor cars carrying passengers and mails leaves Beirut for Baghdad via Damascus (inaugurated

1923). The time occupied is about two days. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E.

Robinson,

Biblical Researches

(1852); W. M.

Thomson, The Land and the Book (1858); Pauly-Wissowa Realencyklopddie, s.v. “Berytos.” Le Comte du Mesnil de Buisson, Les Anciennes Défenses de Beyrout; Syria (1921, bibl); P. Collinet, Histoire de Ecole de Droit de Beyrout (1925).

BEISA

(Oryx beisa), an Abyssinian antelope.

See Oryx;

ANTELOPE.

BEISAN, a town situated on a low tableland where the vale of

Esdraelon stoops down to the Jordan valley; pop. 1,500, almost entirely Muslim (Hebrew Beth-Shéan [Shan], “house of Tranquillity”; in classical times bore the name of Scythopolis and on coins Nys[s]a). The area of the ancient town enclosed within walls was extensive and at some time was subdivided into walled quarters. The modern town occupies the southern quarter only. A mound, mainly artificial, rising 25o0ft. above the bed of the river Jalud and now known as Tell Husn formed the acropolis of the

BEIT—BEJA

334

early city. Under British mandate (1922) Beisan is in the Nazareth area of the northern district of Palestine.

History.—Thutmose III. crushed a confederacy of tribes in the

plain of Esdraelon in 1479 B.c. and the name of Beth-shan appears in a list of his conquests. From the time of Seti I. (1314 B.c.) to that of Ramses III. (1198) Egypt controlled its destinies. Reference, too, is made to the city in the Papyrus Anastasi of the period of Ramses II. It sustained a Canaanite enclave in Israelite

territory long after the occupation (Judg. i. 27, Josh. xvii., 11), and it was possibly not till the time of David (c. 1,000 B.C.) that this stronghold fell into the hands of the Israelites. After the battle of Gilboa (c. 1020 B.C.) the bodies of Saul and his sons were exhibited on its walls (I. Sam. xxxi., 12). Sheshonk of Egypt returned to plunder it in 926 B.c. and from then till the last quarter of the th century it was in the hands of Assyria. The name Scythopolis suggests that the Scythian invasion (626 B.c.) in its ebb had left here a settlement, although other derivations have been suggested. From 301-198 B.C. Beisan was tributary to the Ptolemies, thereafter coming under Seleucid rule as a result of the conquests of Antiochus III. It fell into the hands of John Hyrcanus (107 B.c.). Pompey dispossessed the Jews in 65 B.c. and Scythopolis became eventually autonomous and the chief city of Decapolis. Greatly extended at this time it was equipped with temples, theatre, hippodrome, aqueducts, colonnaded streets, etc., and surpassed Jerusalem in population and commerce. The seat of a bishop it became also a centre of monasticism in the 4th century. When the Muslims overran Syria (A.D. 636) one of the decisive battles of the campaign was fought in its neighbourhood. The crusaders found in it a city far advanced in decay. They made no effort to refortify it, and it was taken at the second attempt by Saladin, who consigned it to the flames (1187). With the rest of the land it came under the power of the Ottoman Turks (A.D. 1517). Beisan was occupied by the 4th Cavalry Division of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force on Sept. 20, 1918, with little resistance offered. Excavations.—In the year 1921t the University Museum of

Philadelphia began excavations on an extensive scale on the Tell, and have obtained results of great interest and value. The initial cutting to test stratifications showed that the levels descended beyond the r6th century B.c. without reaching virgin soil. Eight levels have been distinguished ranging from the rgth century A.D. back to the 16th century B.c. and beyond. Two churches and four brick temples have been discovered. Two of the latter are referred to in the Old Testament, viz., the House of Ashtaroth (I. Sam. xxxi., 10) and the Temple of Dagon (I. Chron. x., ro). Both were in use until at least to00 B.c. Amongst the discoveries are stelae of Seti I. and Ramses IT. (the stele of Ramses contains a reference to the town of Ramses in Egypt) (Ex. i, rr), a magnificent Hittite battle-axe, Syro-Hittite cylinder seals, the model of a throne of Minoan type, pots of gold and silver ingots and jewellery, and a wide variety of cult objects. The cemeteries to the north of the mound have also been investigated and have yielded a number of large anthropoid sarcophagi of the 12th century B.c. and also the sarcophagus of Antiochus, cousin of Herod the Great. From tombs of the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods have come alabaster, glass, pottery and bronze objects in astonishing wealth and variety. A find of special interest has been a cubical pottery die marked like our modern dice with points from one to siz. See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography

of the Holy Land

(1897,

etc.) ; G. J. H. Ovenden, “Notes on Excavations at Beisan,” Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Stat., 147 sqq., 1923; A. Rowe, “The New Discoveries at Beth-Shan,” Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly

Stat. 67 sqq., 1927.

BEIT, ALFRED

(1853-1906), British South African finan-

cier, was the son of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany, and in 1875 was sent out to Kimberley, South Africa. In conjunction with Mr. (afterwards Sir) Julius Wernher (b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the diamond fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil Rhodes (¢.v.). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Limited. By his exceptional gifts Beit amassed enormous wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes’s South African policy. He was

one of the original directors of the British South Africa cop, pany, and was included with Rhodes in the censure passe by the House of Commons Commission of Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was one of Rhodes’s trustees. He endowed the professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1005), gave £100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg and £200,000 for a university in Johannesburg.

ried, on July 16, 1906.

He died, unmar.

BEITH, town and parish, Ayrshire, Scotland, 183m. S.W. of Glasgow, by the L.MLS. railway. Pop. of parish (1931), 5,99, The town stands high, overlooking Kilbirnie loch, but in a district disfigured by manufacturing

and mining industries.

Coal, irop

and limestone are worked and there are manufactures of linen

thread, netting and furniture, leather works and silk printing works. The ruins of a castle of the Montgomeries are at Giffen, near Beith. BEJA. The truly Hamitic, z.e., Beja, area of the Anglo-Egyp. tian Sudan extends from the Red Sea to the Nile, and from the Egyptian boundary in the north to the neighbourhood of the junc.

tion of the Atbara with the Nile.

South of this there are no

easily defined natural boundaries, but the tribes do not come west of the Atbara in any strength, so that roughly speaking this

river may be considered their western limit until it reaches the Abyssinian boundary between 15° and 14° N. The tribes inhabiting this area may be divided into three great groups. From north to south these are:— (1) The Bisharin, extending for some 80m. south of the Egyptian boundary, and occupying a strip of territory stretching along the right bank of the Atbara.

(2) The Hadendoa, with a number of closely allied tribes of

which the Hadendoa is the strongest and best known. Including the Amarar, the Nurab, the Ashraf and the Artega, the country

of the Hadendoa extends south and east of the Bisharin territory as far as Tokar and the Khor Baraka, and thence southwards to

the neighbourhood of Kassala. West of the Khor Baraka and its main tributary, the Khor Langeb, the country belongs to the Beni Amer. The Halenga near Kassala, who have adopted many Abyssinian ideas and habits, should probably be included in the Hadendoa group; they are certainly Beja, as are the so-called Hamran Arabs. (3) The Beni Amer, extending into Eritrea, where they form one of the most important elements in the population. Language.—The Bisharin and Hadendoa (and allied tribes) speak a Hamitic language called To Bedawi; the Beni Amer speak a Semitic language known as Tigre. But in spite of the difference in language the habits of the Beni Amer and Hadendoa are largely identical, although the latter are fiercer and wilder. During the Mahdia, the Beni Amer took practically no part in the fighting which was so courageously sustained by the Hadendoa, the “Fuzzy-Wuzzy” of the British soldier. Physical Characteristics—As Seligman has pointed out

(“Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,” Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xliii., 1913) the Beni Amer, their purest representatives, reproduce with astounding fidelity the physical characteristics of those early Hamites the predynastic Egyptians, the earliest known inhabitants of the

Nile Valley. In stature (about 64in.) the two people are identical,

as are the measurements and character of their skulls. Northwards the skull becomes progressively broader, its length remaining approximately unaltered, so that the Hadendoa skull is rounder than that of the Beni Amer and the Bisharin skull 1s almost bracycephalic. This applies to the riverain Bisharin. Recently G. W. Murray (“The Northern Beja,” Journ. Roy. An throp. Inst., vol. lvii. 1927) has shown that the Bisharin of the Red Sea coast are dolichocephalic, with a cephalic index of 74:73There is little difference in height between Beni Amer and Bisharin, but the Hadendoa are distinctly taller and often darker. The

fact that the Hadendoa unlike the Beni Amer often have typically

Armenoid (so-called “Jewish”) noses is no doubt to be explained by an infusion of foreign blood from beyond the Red Sea. Apart

from minor differences, the Beja are moderately short, slightly

built men, with reddish-brown or brown skins. The face is usually

BEJA—BEKE long and oval, or approaching the oval in shape, the jaw is often

lightly built, which, with the presence of a rather pointed chin,

may tend to make the upper part of the face appear broader than

335

in 1653. In 1662 Molière married her, he being then 40 and she 17. Neither was happy; the wife was a flirt, the husband jealous. They separated after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met

+ really is. The nose is well shaped and thoroughly Caucasian in type and form, except where Negro blood may be suspected. The hair is usually curly, in some cases it might be described as wavy,

only at the theatre until 1671.

But Moliére could not resist her

charm and they were reconciled. Her portrait is given in Act. Mme Moliére’s first ii., sc. ọ of Le Bourgeois gentilhomme.

appearance on the stage was in 1663, as Élise in the Critique de hut the method of hair dressing adopted tends to make difficult Pécole des femmes. She was out of the cast for a short time in is face the on hair The an exact description of its condition. 1664, when she bore Moliére a son—Louis XIV. and Henrietta are sparse; slight side-whiskers, moustache and chin-tuft beard England standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with of bare, chin the and lip lower the the rule, leaving the area between fates given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and the whiskers the while there is also some considerable space between Theresa, she started her long list of important réles. She Maria younger the in especially ly, uncommon Not . moustache the and her best as Celiméne—really her own highly finished at was shaved. is men, the whole face Le Misanthrope and hardly léss admirable as Anportrait—in Mode of Life.—Essentially nomad pastoralists, the relative acMalade imaginaire. She was the Elmire at the first Le in gélique south the in rate any at country, Beja the cessibility of water in Tartuffe, and the Lucile of Le Bourgeois gentilof performance perKordofan), of Arabs (as compared with that of the nomad Moliére’s death Armande leased the Théâtre After homme. mits the free wanderings of units as small as the family group royal ordinance the residue of her company by and Guénégaud, Beja, the of m Molammedanis even in the dry season. The the players from the Théâtre du Marais, the with combined were though fervid in some tribes such as the Hadendoa, is relatively at low ébb. The combination, known as were which of fortunes most the for as them of wrote recent, for Makrizi (1346-1442) was unfortunate, but in 1679 they first at roi, du troupe the the at them part heathen, and even the little that is known of and absorbed the company of the Champmeslé du Mlle present day indicates the persistence of a great number of non- secured Mme Molière in 1677 had married Eustache Bourgogne. de S.) G. Hôtel (C. Islamic beliefs. an actor, and by him she had one See references in text and H. A. Mae Michael, Tribes of Northern François Guérin (1636-1728), ~= Kordofan (x912) and History of the Arabs in the Sudan son (1678-1708). She retired in 1694, and died on Nov. 30, 1700. and

BEK, ANTONY, bishop of Durham from 1283 to 1311. it I. employed him on diplomatic errands to Scotland in railway; Edward by BEJA, town in Portugal, 95m. S.S.E. of Lisbon in Edward’s

(1922).

1285, and to the German king in 1294. He took part campaigns in Scotland, received the surrender of Jobn de Baliol at Brechin in 1296, and led one division of the English army at in a quarrel its beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King the battle of Falkirk in 1298. He became involved excommunihe whom Durham, of prior Hoton, de Richard pigs with Dinis (1279-1325). Grain and fruit are grown and cattle and his are bred on the Campo de Beja, plains around the city; copper, cated. In 1302 he visited Rome on this matter, and during howwhich, lands, his ed administer and seized king the absence the is Beja and iron and manganesé are mined to a small extent, He died at central market for all these products. Cloth, pottery and olive ever, he recovered when he submitted to Edward. Eltham on March 3 1311. A man of great courage and energy, oil are manufactured in the city. s The administrative district of Beja coincides with the southern chaste and generous, Bek was remarkable for his haughtines a than part of Alentejo (g.v.); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3,958 square and ostentation. He was a soldier and a hunter rather bishop, and built castles at Eltham and elsewhere. miles. Bek’s elder brother, Tmomas Bex (d. 1293), was treasurer BEJAN, a term for freshmen, or undergraduates of the frst England in 1279, and became bishop of St. David’s In 1280. of jaune, bec from béjaune, (Fr. year, in the Scottish universities “yellow beak,” in allusion to unfledged birds). The phrase was Another THomas Bex (1282-1347) was bishop of Lincoln from introduced from the French universities, where the levying of 1341 until 1347. Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and namebejaunium, “footing-money,” had been prohibited by the statutes of the University of Orleans in 1365 and by those of Toulouse sake, ANTONY BEK (1279-1343), Who was chancellor and dean of Lincoln cathedral, and became bishop of Norwich after a in 140%. disputed election in 1337. He was a quarrelsome man and

is probably the ancient Pax Julia. Pop. (1911) 10,113. Beja is an

episcopal city on an isolated hill, and partly enclosed by walls of Roman origin with fine Roman south gateway. The citadel, with

BEJART, the name of several French actors, children of

Marie Hervé and Joseph Béjart (d. 1643), the holder of a small government post. One of the sons, Joserg BÉJART (c. 1617-59), was a strolling player and later a member of Moliére’s first company (PIllustre Théâtre), accompanied him in his theatrical wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently to

Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of Lélie in L’Etourdig, and Eraste in Le Dépit amoureux. His brother Lours BEJART

(c. 1630-78) was also in Moliére’s company during the last years

Lad a turbulent episcopate. BreriocraPpHy.—See 1785-94) ; Robert of mensis, edited by J. (1839); J. L. Low,

W. Hutchinson, History of Durham (Newcastle, Graystanes, Historia de statu ecclesiae DunelRaine in his Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores

Diocesan History

of Durkam

(1881);

and M.

Creighton in the Dictionary of National Biography.

BEK-BUDI KENIMEKH

(formerly Karshi), a town in the

Uzbek S.S.R., at the junction of the two main tributaries of the Kashka-Darya. Lat. 38° 52’ N., long. 65° 56° E. Pop. (1926) 14,180. It is the centre of a fertile oasis growing grain, poppies, tobacco and fruit: mulberry, poplar and apricot trees are features of its gardens. It was the favourite residence of Timur and its fine Biki mosque, inlaid with blue and white tiles, is famous. A

of its travels. He created many parts in his brother-in-law’s plays—Valére in Le Dépit amoureux, Dubois in Le Misanthrope, Alcantor in Le Mariage forcé, and Don Luis in Le Festin de Pierre. He was lamed in a brawl, and retired with a pensionh— branch railway links it to Shehri-Sebz (the Green City), the birththe first ever granted by the company to a comedian—in 1670. The more famous members of the family were two sisters; place of Timur (Tamerlane). Roads from Samarkand, Bukhara, lines MADELEINE BÉJART (1618-72) was at the head of the travelling Hissar, Balkh and Maimana meet here, and there are railway city is an exchange mart for carpets, company to which her sister Geneviève (1631—75)—who played to Bukhara and Termez. The is as Mlle Hervé—and her brothers belonged, before they joined knives, firearms and the noted work of its coppersmiths; it is supply water Its colleges. three with centre educational an Moliére in forming l’Illustre Théatre (1643). With Moliére she also remained until her death on Feb. 17 1672. She was an excellent stagriant and water-borne diseases are prevalent. TILSTONE (1800-1874), English actress, particularly in soubrette parts, a number of which Moliéte | BEKE, CHARLES

he was wrote for her. Among her creations were Marotte in Les geographer and Biblical critic. From 1838 till his death Précieuses ridicules, Lisette in L’Ecole des maris, Dorine in principally engaged on geographical studies of the Nile valley. Tartuffe.

Her sister, ARMANDE GRESINDE CLAIRE ELIZABETH BEJART (1645-1700), seems first to have joined the company at Lyons

He visited Abyssinia in connection with the mission to Shoa, and was the first scientifically to determine the course of the Blue Nile (see Journal of the Royal Geographical Society). In 1848

BEKESCSABA—BELA

336

he planned an expedition to discover the sources of the Nile, but nothing of importance was accomplished. In 1861-62 he travelled in Syria and Palestine, then going to Egypt in an attempt to promote trade with Central Africa, and to urge the growing of cotton in the Sudan. In 1865 he went again to Abyssinia to obtain from King Theodore the release of the British captives. In the year of his death he made a journey to Egypt to determine the real position of Mount Sinai. He wrote An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries (1847), The Sources of the Nile (1860), and The British Captives in Abyssinia (1865). See Summary of the late Dr. Beke’s published works and public services, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).

BEKESCSABA, 123m. south-east with which it is junction with an Hungarian plain,

..

.

a busy regional market town in Hungary,

of Budapest. Situated near the White Körös, connected by canal, it is an important railway active trade in the characteristic products of the viz., cereals and cattle. There are milling and

hemp industries. The population (42,599) is largely Slovak and the town contains the largest Lutheran community in Hungary. BEKHTEREV, VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH (18571927), Russian neuropathologist, was born in the province of Viatka. He studied medicine in the medico-surgical academy at St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). In 1884 he went abroad to do research work under Du Bois-Reymond, Wundt and Charcot, and was appointed professor at the University of Kazan, where he started clinical research of mental diseases and promoted the first psycho-physiological laboratory. In 1893 he became professor of the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg and was elected director in 1905-6. To foster psycho-physiological research, he founded in 1907 in St. Petersburg a psycho-neurological institute, which existed on private donations up to 1917, when an additional

III.

copy); in which he attacked the belief in sorcery and “possession” by the devil. The book led to Bekker’s deposition from the ministry. He died at Amsterdam on July 11, 16098. BEKKER (or Wotrr), ELIZABETH (1738-1804), Dutch novelist, was married to Adrian Wolf, a Reformed clergyman. After the death of her husband in 1777, she resided for some time in France with her close friend, Agatha Deken. In 1795 she te. turned to Holland, and resided at The Hague till her death. He,

novels were written in conjunction with Agatha Deken, and it js somewhat difficult to determine the exact qualities contributed by each. The Historie van William Levend (1785), Historie van Sarg Burgerhart (1790), Abraham Blankaart (1787), Cornelie Wild. Schut (1793—96), were extremely popular. BÊL, the Accadian word for “lord,” the counterpart of the Phoenician Baal (g.v.), Sumerian em. It is, therefore, a title given to a deity at the head of a pantheon. It may have been firs

applied as a divine name to En-lil, of which the first element again has the force of “lord” and the second “wind.” En-lil is asso. ciated with the ancient city of Nippur. The designation of Enlil as “Bêl” or the “lord” reverts to a very early period—prior to 3000 B.C. when Nippur had become the centre of a political district of considerable extent. Inscriptions found at Nippur, during 1888-1900 show that En-lil of Nippur was in fact regarded as

the head of an extensive pantheon. Among the titles accorded to him are “king of lands,” “king of heaven and earth” and “father

of the gods.” His chief temple at Nippur was known as E-Kur,

signifying “mountain house,” and such was the sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, to the latest

days, embellished and restored Bél’s name itself became the designation Grouped around the main sanctuary chapels to the gods and goddesses who

seat of worship, and the of a temple in general. there arose temples and formed his court, so that

brain institute was formed and both were taken over by the government. He published more than 500 scientific papers on pa- E-Kur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city thology and anatomy of the nervous system and founded a society of Nippur. The tower, however, also had its special designation of neuropathologists and the periodical Nevrologitcheski Vestnik. of “E-Im-Khur-sag,” meaning “House of the wind of the mounBekhterev died on Dec. 24, 1927, at Moscow. On the celebration tain,” z.¢., wind of the earth mountain, the Sumerians believing of his 7oth birthday he received the title of “Scientist Emeritus.” that the winds emerge from caverns of the lower world, hence the His work on The Nerve Currents in Brain and Spinal Cord ap- titles of the earth god En-lil, Imkhursag. peared first in Russia in 1882; the second edition in 1896 has With the rise of Babylon as the centre of a great empire, Nipbeen translated into French and German (1894). The Functions pur yielded its prerogatives to the city over which Marduk of the Nervous Centres appeared in Russia in 1909; his Psychology presided; the attributes and the titles of En-lil were transferred Objectively Demonstrated was published in 1910 (Fr. trans. by to Marduk, who becomes the “lord” or Bél of later days. The -N. Kotyleff, 1913); and his General Diagnosis of the Nervous older Bél did not, however, entirely lose his standing. Nippur System Diseases in 1911; General Basis of the Reflex Action of continued to be a sacred city after it ceased to have any conMan; a Treatise of Objective Biological Study of Personality siderable political importance. When the Greek writers refer to (3rd ed. 1926). the Babylonian deity Bélos, they invariably mean Marduk of BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL (1785-1871), German Babylon, especially in his rôle as Tammuz the dying god. It is philologist and critic. He studied classics at Halle under F. A. most uncertain that the Babylonians ever referred to En-lil and Wolf. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Berlin. Nin-lil of Nippur as the deities Bél and Bélit. For several years, between 1810 and 1821, he travelled in France, See also BÊLIT and Baar. For the apocryphal book of the Bible, Bél and the Dragon, see DANIEL: Additions to Daniel. Italy, England and parts of Germany, examining classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his editorial labours. He died BELA III. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son at Berlin on June 7, 1871. Some detached fruits of his researches of King Geza II. Educated at the Byzantine court, he married were given in the Anecdota Graeca, 1814-21; but the full result is Agnes of Chatillon, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 was placed by to be found in the enormous array of classical authors edited by the emperor Manuel by force of arms on the Hungarian throne. him. His industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature, Bela began by adopting Catholicism and seeking the assistance of except tragedy and lyric. His best-known editions are: Plato Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective a hered(1816-23), Oratores Attica (1823—24), Aristotle (1831—36), Aris- itary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his successor. tophanes (1829), and 25 volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum The attempt to recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two Histortae Byzantinae. The only Latin authors edited by him were bloody wars with Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only parLivy (1829—30) and Tacitus (1831). Bekker confined himself to tially successful. But he assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see textual recension and criticism, in which he relied solely upon the Huneary: History) to throw off the Greek yoke and establish mss., and contributed little to the extension of general scholarship. a native dynasty, and attempted to make Galicia an appanage of his younger son Andrew. It was in Bela’s reign that the emperor See Sauppe, Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker (1872) ; Haupt, “Gedachtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker,” in his Opuscula, iii.; E. I. Bekker, “Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater,” in the Preussisches Jahrbuch, xxix; Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship, iii. p. 85 ff. (1908).

BEKKER, BALTHASAR

(1634-1698), Dutch divine, was

born at Metslauier, in Friesland, March 30, 1634. He was pastor at Franeker, and from 1679 at Amsterdam. His best known work was Die Betooverde Wereld (1691), or The World Be-

witched

(1695)

(one vol. of an English trans. from a French

Frederick I., in the spring of 1180, traversed Hungary with 100,000

crusaders.

In his last years

Bela assisted the Greek

emperor Isaac IT. Angelus against the Bulgarians.

His first wife

bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her death he married

Margaret of France, sister of King Philip Augustus. Bela was in every sense of the word a great statesman, and his court was ac-

counted one of the most brilliant in Europe.

The Hungarian

dramatist, Ede Szigliger (¢.v.), immortalized his memory ina play.

BELA

IV.—BELAWAN

337

BELA IV. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of Andrew II., whom he succeeded in 1235. During his father’s life-

ascendency in Sind, and it is to this route that Bela owes a place in history. Bela is itself rather prettily situated and about four miles to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the salient The Transylvania. christianized and time he colonized The population of the town eyent of Bela’s reign was the terrible Tatar invasion which re- tomb of Sir Robert Sandeman. duced three-quarters of Hungary to ashes. The terror of their numbers about 5,000. The Jam’s retinue consists of about 300 name had long preceded them, and Bela, in 1235 or 1236, sent the infantry, 50 cavalry and 4 guns. Liability to assist on active Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople, to Russia, to service is the only acknowledgment of the suzerainty which is collect information about them from the “ancient Magyars” set- paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. There are traces of ancient Arab (possibly Himyaritic) occutled in the country east of the Volga. He returned to Hungary with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the immediate pation to be found in certain stone ruins at Gondakeha on the conquest of Europe. Bela appealed to the pope, the duke of Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of Bela, whilst the Greek name Austria and the emperor for assistance; but in February and “Arabis” for the Purāli is itself indicative of prehistoric connecMarch 1241 the Tatars burst through the Carpathian passes; in tion with races of Asiatic Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. April Bela himself, after a gallant stand, was routed on the banks On the coast, near the village of Sonmiani may be traced the of the Sajó and fled to the islands of Dalmatia; and for the next indentation which once formed the bay of Morontobara, noted twelve months the kingdom of Hungary was merely a geographical in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the borders of Makrān expression. The last 28 years of Bela’s reign were mainly devoted that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was situated, which was to the reconstruction of his realm, which he accomplished with a once the centre of the trade in “bdellium.” In the 7th century A.D. single-minded thoroughness which has covered his name with Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist priest, at which time all the

glory. (See Huncary: History.) Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of the western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least) from the hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as

the price of assistance which had been promised but never given. Bela crossed the Leitha on June 15, 1246, and routed Frederick,

who was killed in the battle. With him was extinguished the male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south Bela was obliged, in 1243, to cede to Venice, Zara, a perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he kept his hold upon Spalato and his

other Dalmatian possessions, and his wise policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled Hungary to rule that province peaceably for many years. The new Serb kingdom of the Nemanides, on the other hand, gave him much trouble and was the occasion of many bloody wars. In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary for the second time, but were defeated by Bela. For a time Bela was equally fortunate in the north-west, where the ambitious and enterprising Premyslidae had erected a new Bohemian empire which absorbed the territories of the old Babenbergers and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar IT. in particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession of Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. In his later years his son Stephen compelled him to divide the kingdom with

province of Gandava was Buddhist, and Sind was ruled by the Brahman, Chach. With the influx of Arabs into Makran, Bela,

under the name of Armel (or Armabel), rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading towns between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta important towns each with its citadel, its caravanserai and bazaar, which are not only recorded but actually mapped by one of the mediaeval Arab geographers, Ibn Haukal, and many old sites can be traced. The Lumris, or Lasis, who originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the dominant tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent arrivals who displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants. It is probable that this influx of Rajput population was coincident with the displacement of the Arab dynasties in Sind by the Mohammedan Rajputs in the 11th century A.D. Some authorities connect the Lumris with the Sumras.

BELASCO, DAVID

(1859-

_), American playwright and

theatrical manager, was born at San Francisco (Cal.), on July 25, 1859, the son of adventurous Hebrew parents lured there by the gold rush. He spent part of his boyhood in Victoria, Texas, and gained much of his education in various schools and a monastery there. By heritage he was drawn to the stage and early played juvenile parts. When he was a mere child, too, he did

his first dramatic writing. After a boyhood of varied experiences

and hard work, he became a theatrical vagabond, serving as callboy, actor, stage manager, adapter and writer of plays. When at 29 he definitely left San Francisco after having been established there for a number of years, he had acted more than 170 parts, had altered or written more than roo plays and had been the responsible director in the production of more than three times that number. After similar work in the Madison Square theatre invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, Epistolae super destructione and with Daniel Frohman he became a successful independent Regni Hungariae per Tartaros facta (1885). A vivid but somewhat dramatist and producer with The Heart of Maryland (1895). chauvinistic history of Bela’s reign will be found in Acsády’s History Among his later outstanding successes were the oriental romances of the Hungarian Realm (Hung.), i. 2 (1903). (R. N. B.) BELA, LAS BELA or LUS BEYLA, a town situated in Madame Butterfly (with J. L. Long, 1900) and The Darling of 26° 27” 30” N. lat. and 60° 45’ o” E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, the Gods (with J. L. Long, 1902); The Girl of the Golden West the capital of Las Bela, south of Kalat (Baluchistan), ruled by (1905) and The Rose of the Rancho (with R. W. Tully, 1906), the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the position of a protected which reflected his western experience; and The Return of Peter chief under the British Raj. From time immemorial the trade Grimm (1911). In addition to his work as an extremely successroute between Sind and Persia has passed through Las Bela and ful adapter and composer of plays, Belasco has been for many Makran. The area is 6,357 sq.m., and population (190r) 56,109, years one of the foremost American managers and producers. 54,040 being Muslim. Two rivers from the north, the Purali and Under his direction have appeared such distinguished actors as Belasco’s the Kud, unite to provide water to irrigate the fertile, alluvial, Blanche Bates, Lenore Ulric and David Warfield. hot and malarial plains of Las Bela on the north-east corner of productions are noted for the sumptuousness of their stage effects. the Arabian Sea. The hill-ranges.to the east, parting the plains Belasco wrote The Theatre through the Stage Door (ed. by L. V. from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the Kirthar), Defoe, 1919).

him, the younger prince setting up a capital of his own at Sarospatak. Bela died on May 3, 1270, in his sixty-fourth year. He married, while still crown prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore Lascaris. She bore him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela, seven daughters, of whom St. Margaret was the most famous. _ No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar

between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab valley, strike

nearly north and south, diminishing in height as they approach the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast between Karachi and Bela. To the west they are broken into an infinity of minor ridges massing

themselves

in parallel formation with ‘a

strike which curves from south to west till they form the coast barrier of Makran.

The Persian route from India, curving some-

What to the north, was important in the mediaeval days of Arab

See also Belasco’s reminiscences, which appeared in Hearst’s Magagine (1914-15) and the authoritative Life of David Belasco (1918) by William Winter.

BELAWAN

(DELD), N. Sumatra, Dutch East Indies, on

Pulau Belawan, an island of mud and mangroves, at the estuary of the Deli and Belawan rivers. It is the port for Medan, serves the rapidly-expanding trade of the east coast of Sumatra, and is the most important port in N. Sumatra. The hinterland grows tobacco

BELCHER—BELFAST

338

in Deli, Langkat, and Serdang, and Belawan is the port of shipment for the tobacco, and other produce, rubber, tea, palm-oil, and sisal fibre. When present improvements are completed, it will have about 6,000 ft. of wharfage space, with the necessary warehouse accommodation. The harbour is greatly handicapped by the bar of the deep Belawan river, and powerful dredgers are kept at work continually to keep open the deep channel, and make it deeper. At present there is a minimum depth of 25 ft. at low tide over a width of 60 metres in the channel, so that ships drawing 23 ft. can enter at all times, whilst vessels drawing 26 ft. can enter at high tide. The tonnage of the port (1922) was 1,265,018. It is unhealthy and Europeans usually reside at Labuan Deli, a few miles up the river. Belawan has constant communication with Singapore and Penang, and Sumatran and Javanese ports. It is 12 miles distant from Medan with which it is connected by a good motor road, and it is also the terminus of the Deli railway, which crosses the channel south of the island by a bridge; it has cable connections which link it with Java and with Singapore.

BELCHER,

SIR EDWARD

(1799-1877), British naval

officer, entered the navy in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick William Beechey’s expedition to the Pacific and Bering strait, as a surveyor. He subsequently commanded a surveying ship on the north and west coasts of Africa and in the British seas, and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left unfinished on the Pacific coast of South America. In 1852 he was given command of the Government Arctic expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. This, which proved an unsuitable appointment, was his last commission; he became K.C.B. in 1867 and an admiral in 1872. He published, Narrative of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S. “Sulphur,” 1836-1842 (1843), Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S “Samarang” during 1843-1846 (1848; the Zoology of the Voyage was separately dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and The Last of the Arctic Voyages (1855), besides minor works. He died in London on March 18, 1877.

BELCHER,

JOHN

(1841-1913), English architect, son of

an architect of the same name, was born in London on July to, 1841. His first important commission—the Royal Insurance offices in Lombard street—was a French Renaissance building (since pulled down), in which he introduced much sculptured work from the hand of Thomas Thornycroft. He designed the block at the corner of Poultry and Queen Victoria street, a building showing how strongly he was influenced at that period by the Gothic movement of which Street and Burges were the prominent exponents. After his father’s retirement in 1875, Belcher was in partnership at various times with J. W. James, Beresford Pite and J. J. Joass. His admiration for Norman Shaw was a great factor in his artistic evolution, but even a more powerful one was due to the preparation and study involved in his production, with Mervyn Macartney of the Later Renaissance in England. His Electra house, Finsbury, and Whiteley’s vast store, Bayswater, are admirable examples of business premises practically conceived, and possessing a fine and dignified architectural treatment. Belcher’s ecclesiastical work included Holy Trinity church, Kingsway (1909), an interesting essay in the classic manner, and the Catholic Apostolic church in Maida Vale. He was elected royal academician in 1909, and was president of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1908. He died in London on Nov. 8, 1913.

Maine and the other England from the Welsh; consequently their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert was the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic, persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and an able military engineer; in person, tall and strong. greedy for land, an oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel ang traitor, and savagely cruel. He first appeared as a supporter of Robert’s rebellion against the Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice in the English conspiracy of 1088 against Rufus, Later he served Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed to succeed

his brother Hugh in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at

the height of his power he revolted against Henry I. (1102). He was banished and deprived of his English estate; for some time after he remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert and Henry alike. He betrayed Robert’s cause at Tinchebrai; but in 1112 was imprisoned for life by Henry I. Brerrocrapuy.—See E. A. Freeman’s William Rufus, and his Norman Conquest, vol. iv.

BELFAST, county borough, capital of Northern Ireland Pop. (1926) 415,151. It is a seaport of the first rank, at the en-

trance of the river Lagan into Belfast Lough, 112m. north of Dublin by rail. The early history of the site is scanty and vague. In the Annals of the Four Masters there is mentioned a battle in A.D. 66o between the Ulidians and Cruithni, fought probably on this site. River fords along the coastal route into North Ireland became of great strategic importance in Norman times. In 1177 a castle was built by John de Courcy commanding a ford over the Lagan near its mouth, and from this date begins the real history of Belfast as a settlement. The next outstanding date is 1316 when the town and castle were destroyed by Edward Bruce. In the early 16th century, Belfast is described as a town and a fortress but was in reality a fishing village in the hands of the house of O'Neill. Edward Fitzgerald, earl of Kildare, twice attacked it during his rising, first in 1503 and later in 1512. The town and fortress were obtained in 1571 by Sir Thomas Smith, a favourite of Queen Elizabeth. It was later forfeited by him to the lord deputy, Sir Arthur Chichester, who in 1612 was created Baron Chichester of Belfast. At this time it was only a town of about 120 houses anda castle in poor condition. In 1611 Chichester built another castle, which was burnt in 1708. A charter was granted to the town by James I. in 1613, constituting it a corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and commonalty, with right of sending two members to parliament. In 1632 Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, was appointed first lord deputy of Ireland, and Belfast received certain fiscal rights which he had purchased from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years after the rebellion of 1641, a rampart was raised round the town, pierced by four gates on the land side.

It will thus be seen that Belfast still retained many of the characteristics of a fortress during the period of its early commercial

development, and this dualism in its history is of great significance

and importance. The old charter was annulled by James II. anda new one issued in 1688, but the old one was restored in 1690 by William III. Letterpress printing was introduced by James Blow

and company in 1696 and about this time strategic considerations

sank into the background and commercial factors became of outstanding importance. | Shipbuilding at Belfast really began with the enterprises of | William Ritchie of Ayrshire, dating from 1791. The earliest recBELDAM, a grandmother or remote ancestress, and so an ords of shipbuilding, however, date back to 1636, when the “Eagle old woman. Generally used contemptuously as meaning an old Wing” (150 tons register), was built on the shore of Belfast hag. Lough by a number of Presbyterians of Belfast who wished to BELEMNITES, the name of a group of extinct cephalopod seek refuge in the New World. Continuous progress has been molluscs allied to the squids and cuttlefish (g¢qg.v.). The shell made since the early 19th century, and Belfast now is one of the comprised a straight cone divided internally into chambers and world’s chief shipbuilding centres. A new channel, the Victoria channel, several miles long and known as the phragmocone, the whole enclosed in a horny or calcareous plate. It was probably internal as in most modern 300ft. wide, affording 20ft. of water at low tide and 28ft. at high tide, was cut about 1840. The Alexandra dock, 852ft. long and Decapoda. See MOLLUSCA; CEPHALOPODA. BELESME, ROBERT OF (c. 1:00), earl of Shrewsbury. 31ft. deep, was opened in 1889 and numerous extensions have been From his mother Mabel Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme, made since, a graving dock, one of the largest in the world, being and from his father, the Conqueror’s companion, that of Shrews- opened in I9grt. The linen industry was much encouraged by the Huguenots, bury. Both were march-fiefs, the one guarding Normandy from

BELFAST—-BELFORT ho came to Ulster after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

339

d’Alsace, to 3,773 ft. in the Planche des Belles-Filles, to 3,579 ft.

Modern Belfast profited by proximity to Scottish coal and iron,

in the Signal des Plaines and to 3,534 ft. in the Bärenkopf. South of the Trouée de Belfort, there are near Delle limestone hills,

nected with the manufacture of linen range from the making of

partly wooded, attaining 1,680 ft. in the Forêt de Florimont. The line of lowest altitude follows the river St. Nicolas and the RhoneRhine canal. To the north of the town of Belfort the rainfall is retained by an impervious subsoil; farther south it is quickly absorbed by the soil or evaporated by the sun. About one-third of the total area is arable land; wheat, oats, rye and potatoes are the chief crops. Forest covers another third of the surface; the

and has become the centre of the industry.

The activities con-

sewing thread to the production of handkerchiefs, tea-cloths and

other finished goods. Before the war, large quantities of linen goods were sent from the Continent to be bleached on Ulster greens and then returned for sale. Rope-making, whiskey-distil-

ling, manufacture of aerated waters and of tobacco are other activities. It was not until 1789 that the town obtained regular communication with Dublin by stage coach, owing to the badness of the roads and the steepness of the hills between Newry and Belfast. Now, however, the Lagan valley has been utilized as an im-

portant railway route.

The residential areas on Belfast Lough

are also connected with the city by rail. There is regular sea communication with Liverpool, Heysham, Glasgow and other orts.

s Architecturally, the city inevitably retains signs of its rapid growth. There are, however, some buildings worthy of notice, of which may be mentioned Queen’s university, City Hall and the cathedral. The first named is finely situated in its own grounds. The City Hall occupies the site of the old Linen Hall and is in direct touch with many of the principal thoroughfares.

Tradition

has given way to necessity in the case of the cathedral, the edifice being built on Basilican lines calculated to meet the demands of a large congregation more economically than a Gothic structure.

The city has a few statues and monuments one of the best known

chief trees are firs, pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely

grown for the distillation of Kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the remaining third of the territory; only horned cattle are raised to any extent. There are copper, silver and lead at Giromagny, and there are also quarries of stone.

The chief industries

are the spinning and weaving of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and iron-goods and machinery. Belfort has important locomotive and engineering works. Hosiery is made at Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery, petrol (gasolene) motors, ironware and electrical apparatus are manufactured at Beaucoutt, and there are numerous saw-mills, tile and brick works and breweries.

Belfort is the capital of the territory, which comprises one arrondissement, 5 cantons and 106 communes, and is in the archbishopric, the court of appeal and the académie (educational division) of Besancon. It forms the 7th subdivision of the VII. Army Corps.

BELFORT,

town of France, capital of the territory of Bel-

head Lake railroad, which connects with the Maine Central at Burnham Junction, 33m. north-west. The population in 1920 was 5,083, 92% of native parentage; 1930, 4,993. The city lies on an undulating hillside, commanding extensive views of islands, headlands and mountains. It has a considerable domestic commerce, is a summer resort, and manufactures a variety of commodities. The first settlers (1769) were Scotch-Irish; hence the name. It was incorporated in 1773. Almost destroyed by the

fort, 275m. E.S.E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern railway. Pop. (1926) 36,356. The town commands an important structural gap known as the Trou de Belfort between the Vosges and the Jura and is one of the main ways from the Rhine country into France. Gallo-Roman remains are found in the vicinity though the place is first heard of in the 13th century as the possession of the counts of Montbéliard. It passed by marriage to the counts of Ferrette and afterwards to the archdukes of Austria. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town was ceded to Louis XIV. who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin. In the Thirty Years War Belfort was twice besieged. The fortifications of Vauban were begun in 1686. Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops of the Allies and in 1815 by the Austrians, The most famous episode of the town’s history is its successful defence in the war of 1870-1871. The town is divided by the river Savoureuse into a new quarter on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter, with the castle and public buildings, on the left bank. The church of St. Denis, in the classical style (1727-1750) and the Aétel de ville (1721-24) stand opposite the castle. “The Lion of Belfort,” a colossal figure 78ft. long and 52it. high, the work of Bartholdi, is carved on the rock in front of the castle. The construction of locomotives and machinery, carried on by the Société Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the spinning and weaving of cotton are included among its industries. Its trade is in the

British in 1779, it was again in British hands for five days in

wines of Alsace, brandy and cereals. Belfort is the seat of a pre-

1814, It was chartered as a city in 1850.

fect. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a chamber of commerce.

being the Albert Memorial Clock Tower.

Belfast is divided into four parliamentary constituencies, each returning four members to the parliament of Northern Ireland and one member to the parliament of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Queen’s university dates from 1909; previously it was Queen’s college, a constituent college of the Royal University of Ireland. The municipal college of technology is connected with it. The university gives degrees in arts, science, including civil engineering, law, medicine, commerce, agriculture and applied science and technology. In the year 1923-24 the trustees of the Rt. Hon. J. C. White gave £60,000 to the university for the

endowment of departments of bio-chemistry and bacteriology. BELFAST, a city of Maine, U.S.A., on the north-west shore

of Penobscot bay, 30m. from the sea and ‘85m. north-east of Portland; a port of entry and the county seat of Waldo county. It is served by coasting steamers, and by the Belfast and Moose-

BELFORT, TERRITORY OF, an administrative division

of eastern France, formed from the southern portion of the department of Haut-Rhin, the rest of which was ceded to Germany by the treaty of Frankfort (1871), but recovered by France in 1919. It is bounded on the north-east and east by Haut-Rhin, on the south by Switzerland, on the south-west by the department of Doubs, on the west by that of Haut-Saéne, on the north by that of Vosges. Pop. (1926) 96,594. With an area of 235 sq.m., it is one of the smallest departments of France. The northern part is occupied by the southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern part by the northern outposts of the Jura, Between these two highlands stretches the Trouée (depression ) de Belfort, 15-20 m. broad, joining the basins

of the Rhine and the Rhone, traversed by the canal between

these rivers, by the Eastern and the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée

ilways and from earliest times an important route from north

to south. The northern part rises to 4,126 ft. in the Ballon

Siege

of Belfort——The

events

before

the

siege are

de-

scribed under FRanco-GERMAN War. Even before the investment Belfort was cut off from the interior of France, and the German corps of Werder was, throughout the siege, between the fortress and the forces which might attempt its relief. The siege corps was commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first 10,000 men with 24 field guns—a force which appeared adequate for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vauban. Colonel Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer

of advanced ideas as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and Algeria, and he had been stationed at Belfort for six years. He had as a nucleus but few regular troops, but the energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his force to be augmented by national guards, etc., to 17,600 men. The artillery was numerous, but skilled gunners were not available in any great strength and ammunition was scarce. Perhaps the most

340

BELFRY—BELGAUM

favourable circumstance from a technical point of view was the bomb-proof accommodation of the enceinte. The old fortress consisted of the town enceinte, the castle and the entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by continuous lines, the salients of which were the castle, Fort La Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were planned in the days of short-range guns, but Denfert-Rochereau understood better than other engineers of the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan was to utilize the old works as a keep and an artillery position. The Perches ridge,

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a Brussels has a preparatory school for officers, and an “Ecole de |Flemish Nationalists hold six and the Communists two seats in chamber with three principal parties (1928): Catholics (78), are guerre,” which trains the general staff of the army. There Socialists (78), Liberals (23). (E. Mr.) of navigation at Antwerp, Nieuport and Ostend, and a schools stationary training ship is placed at Ostend, in addition to the training ship which goes to sea. Industrial schools are increasing in number every year, and there are special schools of architecture,

FINANCE Post-War Situation.—War expenditure was incurred without

legislature control, and no account had been drawn up by the end of 1927. During the occupation the Germans levied war contributions on Belgium amounting to 2,620,000,000 gold fr.; arts, the for Louvain. are the chief of numerous institutions The Royal Academy of Belgium was founded in 1769 and re- in addition they exacted 68.000,000fr. from the communes. Belgian indebtedness to the Allies amounted to 5,600,000,000 gold vived in 1818 and the prizes awarded through it for literature and marks. This was placed to German account by the Treaty of science are keenly contested. Administration and Justice.—Executive authority vested in Versaille, but the United States were not signatories of the treaty. The Treaty of Versaille further allotted to Belgium a the king is delegated to his ministers whom he appoints and dis- priority of two milliard gold marks on Repatriation account. misses, the practice being that he follows the parliamentary maUpon the German evacuation the Belgian Government decided jority in making, and changing, the executive. The kingdom has to redeem the marks in circulation on the basis of 1.25fr., as nine provinces each with arrondissements subdivided into communes. Only the province and the commune are recognized of- German currency had been imposed upon the people. A sum of fcially; they have maintained some measure of autonomy and 7,892.000,c00fr. was required to effect this redemption and this have their own budgets, under royal control. Each province has was the beginning of Belgian inflation. The government never a governor appointed by the king and a provincial council popu- printed notes, save in the crisis of 1926, to cover the Budget larly elected. The commune has its popularly elected council deficit; it even repaid 600,000,000fr. of the advances received under a Dourgemestre, appointed by the king usually from the from the National bank for the exchange of marks. The Allies did not agree to place to German account the cost incurred for majority party on the council. The Cour de Cassation at Brussels has a first president, sec- the redemption of German marks circulated during the occupational president and 15 councillors divided into two sections for tion, but Belgium did not lose all hope of, at any rate, a partial civil and for criminal cases respectively. This court is not called indemnification for her losses. In 1919 the fiscal system, which had been in force for a cenupon to judge facts save in a case involving a minister of State, such cases being reserved to it. Its duty is to annul judgments tury, was recast. The previous direct taxes were replaced by of other courts and tribunals if procedure has not been proper an income-tax modelled on the English income-tax. It comprises or if they contain a contravention of the text of the law. It con- three direct taxes—the tax on land, the tax on investments and firms judgments that are found correct on these grounds and the tax on salaries and earnings—together with a supertax. After the war Belgian finance passed through a period of may act on appeal by a party to.the judgment or on its own initiative. There are appeal courts at Brussels, Ghent and Liége, exceptional gravity, lasting throughout 1919 and 1920. Then a vigorous effort towards improvement was made, ending in 1925 with civil and criminal sections in each. o Civil tribunals of first instance and correctional tribunäls in with what might be described as complete recovery. In 1926 a the capitals of arrondissements judge cases of a certain impor- new crisis occurred. The situation in 1919 was due to the German invasion and to tance. Criminal, political and press cases are judged by the assize courts partly composed of. professional judges and .partly of necessary expenditure on making good the destruction caused citizens without legal training.. The tribunals in the capitals of by the War. The material restoration of the country was pracjudicial arrondissements hear appeals from the civil and police tically completed by 1924; up to, June 30 of that year the State had spent about 21,000,000,000fr. on damage done by Germany, tribunals of the communes. The two sections in the communes, save at Brussels and Antwerp, have the same personnel. There not counting the cost of buying in the marks. In view of the incompleteness of the public accounts, the best are 230 judicial communes, including those of Eupen, Malmedy and St. Vith recently added. The number of magistrates has means of judging Belgian finance since the Armistice is to follow recently been reduced on grounds of economy and some com- the progress of the public debt, external debt being. calculated munal tribunals have been found unnecessary. Capital punish- at the same rate of exchange. The figures for the financial years, ment is legal but is never carried out. The number of prisons beginning in September of each year are as follow:— Increase (Milliard frs.) needed is diminishing. | ;

painting and music. The Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp,

the royal conservatories at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Liége and

Since 1921 the senate includes (1) members elected by universal suffrage of all adult citizens over 21 with six months’ resi-

dence in the commune in which they vote; (2) members elected by provincial councils; (3) members elected by the senate itself, To be a member of either chamber one must be a citizen with political and civil rights, resident in Belgium. The age limit for membership of the chamber, of. representatives is 25, for member-

ship of the senate 40. Senators-directly elected must have some diploma or must practise one or other of a number of intellectual functions named-in the constitution. The senate is renewed completely every four years and ‘senators receive no honorarium; ‘but

they travel free on State railways and have an allowance of approxmately £46 (8,000 francs) for expenses.

The king’s sons, or, if

there are none, the heir presumptive and the princes of his branch, become senators at, the age of 18. The members of the chamber of representatives are elected for four years and have an allowance ofabout £143 (25,000 francs) and free trave} on State railways.

IQIQ~20 . 1920-21. 1921-22. 1922-23. 1923—24 .

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1924-25

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These figures exclude the American debt, reinstated in the Belgian National Debt in accordance with the agreement of 1925. The increase of 1,200,000,000fr. -between -1923 and 1925 is balanced by the increase ‘in State assets. Important new works were constructed on the railways and in the Port of Antwerp. — The budgetary situation was good in 1925. -The corrected Budget (excluding State monopolies) was as follows :— i Ordinary Budget’.

_ Extraordinary Budget , Reparations Budget

.

. .

.

: .

.

n ;

. deficit

70,000,000 fr.

. deficit 273,000,000 fr. . surplus 512,000,000 fr. . _

The general Budget after paying off 350,000,000fr. of the public debt, closed with a surplus of 168,000,000fr. = 6. 0. + oat Voting is obligatory’ and secret; The electors have to choose On Aug: 18, 1925, Belgium concluded with the United States between lists put forward by political parties and may not vote an agreement on the American debt. This is to be repaid- bythe for persons from two lists. Seats-are ‘divided among the .candi- year 1987, by means of annuities reaching the sumn of $12,700,000 dates on the various lists according to’ the votes cast for these from 1936 onwards. The War debt is not stibject to ‘interest,

different lists. Complications in the system allow a small group

to add together votes received in various districts. In this way the

while the debt incurred ‘since the War bears a rate of interest

calculated at 1-35% up to 1934, and at 34% in subsequent years.

384

BELGIUM

By an agreement made with Great Britain, Dec. 31, 1925, the ¿otal debt of Belgium and of the Belgian Congo to that country (£12,600,000) is to be paid within 30 years, the interest being 5%. The weak point of the financial situation in 1925 was the floating debt, which was composed of 5,500,000,000 francs of Treasury bonds at six months, to which might be added 1,800,000,000 bonds at five years, falling due Dec. 1, 1926. The elections of April 5, 1925, which were a victory for the Socialists, shook public confidence; immediately capital began to flow out, Treasury bonds were withdrawn, and the franc fell. In view of this situation, M. Janssen, the Minister of Finance in Poullet’s “Democrat” cabinet, attempted to stabilize the Belgian franc. He drew up a plan, and from Oct. 1925 to March 1926 kept the rate of the pound sterling on Brussels provisionally at 107fr., by means of temporary foreign credits, pending 4 loan of 150,000,000 dollars. Unfortunately confidence was not restored and capital continued to withdraw. M. Janssen was obliged to utilize £25,000,000 in keeping the franc at the level determined on; at the same time, the floating debt was being gradually called in. The foreign bankers, dissatisfied with the state of opinion in Belgium, and loth to float a loan on the New York market, withdrew their offers. On March 15, 1926, the franc was left to its own devices. A panic followed; in April it became necessary to print further notes to meet the demands for repayment of Treasury bonds. The franc fell steadily. M. Janssen resigned, and on May 20, 1926, the Jaspar-Franqui ministry was formed, which immediately imposed new taxation, the yield of which was earmarked for a sinking fund. When the pound

sterling reached a rate of 2gofr. (July 12), the Government brought forward an Act granting the King “emergency powers” for six months to grapple with the crisis. On July 3r the compulsory consolidation of the floating debt and the exchange of Treasury bonds against railway shares was decreed. On Oct. 25, 1926, the Government ordered the second stabilization at a rate of 175 to the pound sterling, or one-seventh of par. The operation was perfectly successful; there was a steady influx of gold into Belgium. . Situation in 1927.—The Budget for 1927, although it had to meet expenditure higher than was originally estimated, closed with a considerable surplus, which will be applied to the sinking fund for the public debt. On Sept. 30, 1927, the total Belgian public debt amounted to 56,190,000,000fr. (£320,000,000). The consolidated debt amounted to 51,000,000,coofr., or 90% of the total. The internal debt amounted in round figures to 27,500,000,c00fr., the foreign debt to 28,700,000,000fr. The Budget for 1928 (in millions of francs) was as follows :— Budget.

fr. 7,531

. . Ordinary . Extraordinary eee

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The budget of. the railways is absolutely independent; they have to meet the cost of the initial outlay. Their financial charges have been estimated at 540,000,000fr., 405,000,000fr. of which go to the State and 135,000,000fr. to the shareholders. The national wealth of Belgium amounted in 1927 to 280,000,000,000fr. (£1,600,000,000), and the income to 42,000,-

o00,00ofr. (£240,000,000).

State and local taxation absorbs 20%

of the national income, or 15% if that part which is set aside for redemption of the public debt be deducted. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-League of Nations, Mémorandum sur les Finances publigues (1927); L. Franck La stabilisation monetaire en Belgique (1927); H. Fournier, La réforme financière et monetaire en Belgique (1927); E. Mahaim, La Belgique restaurée (1926); F. Baudhuin, La Structure Economique de la Belgique (Louvain, 1926), and La Stabilisation et ses conséquences (Louvain and Paris, 1928). (F. BA.)

ETANO DEFENCE

Historical.—The history of defence forces in what is now Belgium can be traced back to the feudal states of the 13th and 14th centuries; through the period of unification of the Nether. lands (1363—1477), the Habsburg rule (1477-1555), the Spanish tule and the revolt (1555-1609), the Spanish Netherlands (16091714), the Austrian rule (1714—90), the French rule (1792-18; 4) the junction with Holland (1814-30), and through an independent

period (1830-39) until it was formally, in 1839, created the Kingdom of Belgium. Under the provisions of treaties signed jp

London on Nov. 15, 1831, and April 19, 1830, the frontiers of Belgium were established, and Great Britain, France, Prussia and Russia prescribed that Belgium should “form an independent and

perpetually neutral state. It shall be bound to observe such ney. trality towards all other States.” The Powers mentioned guaran. teed to the king of the Belgians the execution of this and of other articles of the Treaty. In 1868 the active army was divided from the reserve. In 18% a Militia Act was substituted for all previous legislation affect. ing military service. From 1896 voluntary military service was established, and in 1902 certain privileges were granted to add to the attractions:of the army. In 1909 the principle of compulsory service for one son in each family was adopted, service with the active army being reduced to 15 to 24 months, according to the arm of the service. The peace strength of the army was 42,800,

In 1912 an Army Act was passed to increase the military strength of Belgium, and in 1913 compulsory service was made universal, with certain exemptions, the object being to produce afield army

of 150,000, 130,000 garrison troops and a reserve of 60,000. The

World War broke out before these reforms could take effect, and found the Belgian army unprepared. Nevertheless Belgium did her best, with the reserves available, to maintain the neutrality enforced upon her by treaty obligations, placing one division facing Germany, one facing France, one facing England, one holding Antwerp, and one, with a cavalry

division, in reserve. The heroic but inadequate defence of Belgium and the portion of Belgian territory that remained against the German invasion of 1914 belongs to the story of the World War (g.v.). (See also ANTWERP, SIEGE OF; BELGIUM, INVASION OF; Yser, BATTLE OF THE.) At its conclusion, certain territories were ceded by Germany, and the independence of Belgium was again recognized in the Versailles Treaty of rgr9. Present-day

Army;

Recruitment

and

Service.—Every

Belgian is now liable to military service, exemptions only being granted for physical disability. The ranks of the army are filled by an annual contingent of conscripts, supplemented by voluntary enlistments and by re-enlistments. Obligation for military service begins in the year of the 2oth birthday. This may be anticipated by a year, and certain arrangements are made for suspension of service. Service is for 15 years in the regular army and its reserve, followed by to years in the territorial army—z25 years in all. The regular army is divided into a first-line, comprising the

regular units on a peace footing, and a second-line, including reserve units. There is a second reserve, common to both armies, and also auxiliary troops. In the event of war or of threatened invasion, the territorial army can be embodied in the regular

army, but married men with four children are exempt from this obligation. Service with the colours for training lasts for 10 months et-

cepting in anti-aircraft artillery and engineers (12 months) and in cavalry, artillery and horse transport (13 months). Militiamen,

fit only for auxiliary service, serve for 12 months. After serving with the colours, the men proceed on permanent furlough, but the Government has the power to recall one or more contingents to the colours. Parliament must be notified of such action. The men on furlough can be called out annually for inspection, and,

under normal conditions, conscripts of both armies are recalled twice for periods of six weeks on each occasion. Voluntary enlistment is permitted from the age of 16 years, for periods varyiné from two to four years, followed by voluntary re-engagement for a period of six months after service with the colours, or, alternatively, for longer periods up to a total of four years.

BELGIUM

COMMERCE]

strength and Organization.—The budget effective strength of the army in 1927 numbered 66,411, including 4,411 officers.

The gendarmerie In 1927 numbered 148 officers and 5,900 other ranks, total 6,048. The military organization provides for army

troops, including a light division, an army artillery division, mili-

tary air force, a tank regiment, signals, torpedo-boat and naval

corps, and the usual transport and auxiliary services. There are four army COrps, each comprising corps troops and four infantry divisions. There are nine regiments of cavalry, of which five are

embodied in the light division. Colonial Troops.—In addition to the army in Belgium, Colonial native troops are maintained in the Congo Territory. These, in 1927, numbered 16,810, including 426 officers and non-commis-

sioned officers. The officers and senior non-commissioned officers are Europeans.

Six battalions of infantry, five batteries of artil-

lery, five companies of engineers, and two cyclist companies are kept in cantonments for defence; companies varying in strength

are distributed about the districts to maintain order. A colonel, under the direction of the governor-general, commands the Congo forces. Higher Command.—The king commands the Belgian army in time of war, the minister of defence in peace. There is a general staff for the army, inspectors general for each arm of the service, a Council of National Defence, presided over by the chief of the general staff, an army committee, under the defence minis-

ter, and various technical commissions and committees.

Distribution of Troops.—Belgium is divided into four terri-

torial military areas: No. I. West and East Flanders and Hainaut;

No. II. Antwerp and Limburg; No. III. Liége, Namur and Luxembourg; No. IV. Brabant. Territorial groups are arranged for each group to provide proportionate numbers of Flemings and Walloons and of townsmen and countrymen, for specified infantry divisions and other formations. To these the men are distributed without regard to race or to place of origin.

Education and

Training—The

military educational

and

training establishments in Belgium include (1) the staff college; (2) a military school for training regimental officers; both at Brussels; (3) a cadet school with (4) a central school of -science attached thereto; both at Namur; (5) Ecoles de Pupilles, which bear their share in preparing non-commissioned officer candidates for the army. Of these there are two of primary grade at Bouillon (French) and at St. Trond (Flemish), and two of intermediate grade at Marnette (French) and Alost (Flemish). For the various arms, schools of instruction are provided at Beverloo (infantry), at Brasschaet (cavalry and artillery) and at Antwerp (engineers). There is a physical training institute at Brussels, one special non-commissioned officers school for infantry in each army corps area, schools for artillery non-commissioned officers at Malines and Borsbeek with cavalry and engineer schools at-

tached thereto.

There are also special schools for medical and

administrative service, for motor, aviation and railway work, signals and torpedo and naval work. Special Armament and Training Doctrine.—The Ministry of Defence contains a department to deal with gas warfare service. Military training is dealt with by Section A. of the second deputy chief of the general staff. No special doctrine has recently been disclosed. Each infantry division contains a machine-gun battalion. The light division (army troops) contains two light brigades, one cyclist regiment, one group of machine-gun armoured cars, one regiment of horse artillery, one battalion of cyclist en-

gineers and a light division depot. The-army troops artillery divi-

sion contains a heavy battery on railway mountings, and artillery groups carried in motor lorries. The special railway, telegraph and telephone corps is independent; it is commanded in time of war by a military delegate to the minister for railways.

Permanent Fortifications.—The permanent defences of Antwerp, Liége and Namur proved inadequate in 1914 in face of

355

defence. The service includes a headquarters staff, three air regiments and a depot. One regiment contains four groups of three or four flights, the other three groups of three flights, with a “park flight” in each group. There are 22 aeroplane flights and four balloon flights in all. There is also a Department of Civil Aviation, which since Feb. 1925 has been attached to the Ministry of Railways. The arrangements for the military air-service are still provisional and experimental. See also Leagué of Nations, Armaments Yearbook (1928) ; Annuaire official de Varmée belge; Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge (official) ; Manual of Belgium and adjoining Territories.

Admiralty (H. M. Stationery Office) .

(G. G. A.)

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Belgium is more highly industrialized than any country on the

continent of Europe with the exception of Saxony. In the second half of the roth century, i.e., between the two great censuses of 1846 and 1900, the industry of the country underwent a fundamental change through the immense increases which took place in the numbers of the working class, and, more especially in the amount of motive power employed. Leaving the transport industries out of account, the total steam power increased more than tenfold in this period, namely from 40,000 to 430,000 horsepower. In the period r911~26, Belgian industry continued to progress in the same direction in spite of the World War and the military occupation. Since the war, the amount of available energy has been increased by means of various improvements, so that comparison is difficult; but it is probably not an over-statement to put the increase in the aggregate motive power of industry at not less than 65%, the most noteworthy additions being in the coal-min-

ing, metallurgical, glass-making and textile industries, and in the power-producing industries themselves. The increase in the power used in, and produced for certain industries is as follows :— Power in kilowatts.

Industry.

IQIO.

1926.

415,726

208,200

Coal-mining . . . Metallurgical industries . Glass, glassware . Textile. . . . . Special electricity works .

187,858 41,535 124,830

146,941

18,225 107,196 QI,815

448,867

572,377

1,218,816

The commerce of Belgium is very large in proportion to her population. The statistics for 1913 and 1926 are as follows:— GPECIAL IMPORTS INTO BELGIUM. IN MILLION FRANCS Year. 1913 5,050 1926 23,000 SPECIAL EXPORTS FROM Year.

BELGIUM

IN MILLION

FRANCS

1913

3,716

19,501

1926

The special commerce takes into account only the produce and the consumption of Belgium itself. Mining.—In the southern coal-fields, which have been worked for a long time, production tends to decrease. The exploitation of the northern coal-field, the Campine district, is, on the contrary, of comparatively recent date, and this area has a great future before it. In all the Belgian mines machinery is being increasingly employed, and the result may be judged from the following table :— OUTPUT

OF CoAL In BELGIUM

Tons.

Index (1913---100%)

modern appliances for transporting heavy howitzers. As far as is

Year.

known, no permanent fortifications of more recent type exist in Belgium. Army Air Forces.—The military air service is commanded by

1913 IQI9Q 1920

22,841,590 12,482,880 22,388,770

100-0 80-8 98-0

1925 1926

23,097,040 25,319,570

101-3 110-8

an officer of divisional rank, reporting direct to the minister of

BELGIUM

356

Iron and Steel—Iron and steel were greatly injured by the

[COMMERCE

Electricity Supply.—The following table shows the advance

destruction due to the war, but like many other industries, it is made in the supply of electricity by private undertakings in Bg. actually in a better position than before, owing to the replacing gium (communal undertakings are not included) as shown by the of the equipment destroyed by new and improved kinds, as the generating capacity of the central station, the capital employed the number of units sold, and the development of main and ser. following statistics show :— BELGIAN PRODUCTION

Year.

Tons.

1913 1925

2,484,690 2,542,507

1926

Year.

ondary systems.

OF PIG-IRON

Index (1913—100%) *

3,399,260

100-0 102-3

136-8

BELGIAN PRODUCTION OF CRUDE STEEL Tons. Index (1913—100%)

IQI3

2,404,780

100-0

1925 1926

2,480,000 3,289,410

103° 136-7

Similarly, in the metal although precise statistics have been considerably electro-technical industry

construction and machinery industries— are lacking—it is evident that resources developed. The development of the is especially remarkable. Zine and Lead.—New mineral industries have arisen, tin, cobalt, electrolytic copper and radium production. The raw materials come from the Belgian Congo. The supply of uranium discovered in the province of Katanga has given Belgium a decisive preponderance in radium production. The drop in prices

which followed the opening of the Oolen works (Campine district), which deal with the Katanga minerals, has led to the closing of a number of foreign undertakings of a similar kind.

Glass-making.—Use of mechanical methods is being rapidly

developed, the processes employed being those invented respectively by the Americans Libby and“Owens and the Belgian Four-

T

cault :-—

IQII.

—

PRODUCTION OF GLASS IN BELGIUM'

Year.

Square Metres.

Index (1913—100%)

1913 1923

41,709,000 36,325,000

100-0 87-1

1924 1925 1926

41,000,000 41,893,000 52,251,000

98:3 100-4 | 125-0

1

Population served . . . Generating capacity (kilowatts) Capital invested (thousands of fr.) K.R. hr. sold (thousands) ; Secondary systems (kilometres)

1926

1,476,000 79,325 7LII?7

systems (kilometres)

Main be ep ce Sa a

| a,

5,134,000" | 780,000 | 1,023,000

85,170 925.000 1,938 13,600 | Bors 500 HETP

*More than 6,500,000, if the large public undertakings are included

Internal Communications.—The internal communications of Belgium of every kind are excellent. Roads outside the provinces of Luxembourg and Namur are generally paved. In the prov. inces named, or in other words, in the region south of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The total length of roads is aboy

6,000 miles. There are about 6,800 miles of railways, in which the State has an interest of 20,000 million francs. There are also electric and steam‘tramways in all the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways is given as 1,360 miles. Various schemes are in existence for the electrification of Bdgian railways, but the immense amount of capital required and political considerations have deferred them.Labour.—Before the World War, Belgium was essentially the

land of low wages.

After the war the standard of living of the

working classes changed very greatly. The eight-hour day became the general rule,'in spite of various legalized exceptions and modifications. 'Wages rose, owing to’ the power now possessed

by the trade unions. Albert Thomas, ‘director of the international labour office, stated in 1925 that Belgium was probably the coun-

try where working-class status had been most conspicuously raised

since the war. The result of this is that the owners of industrial undertakings can no longer make up for inferior equipment by Textile Industries.—In this group the number of working- low wages; and this is one of: the most important factors of the class factories grew greatly after 1910. The “Filatures et Tis- technical’ progress indicated by the facts and figures set out in sages” of the celebrated co-operative organization “Vooruit” is this article. See the monthly Bulletin of the Belgian Chamber ` the largest business of the kind in Belgium. of Commerce, in London, continued as The Anglo-Belge Trade The cotton industry possessed 1,492,000 spindles in 1914 and Journal. : a (E. Va.) HISTORY! 1,891,854 at the beginning of 1927. The linen industry, which drew its supplies very largely from Separation of the Northern and Southern Netherlands. the Baltic provinces of Russia, suffered in an especial degree from the scarcity of raw material. These difficulties have become less acute; the industry has been able to establish relations with Latvia and Esthonia and has made a rapid recovery. Belgium’s artificial silk industry was the most important in the world before the war. It has been outdistanced by those of the United States, England, Italy and Germany, but still occupies an important place. Diamond Cutting.—The specifically Belgian industry of diamond-cutting is carried on in Antwerp, which in 1926 was the leading city of the world in this respect, having outstripped Amsterdam and the German, French and American centres of the industry. Antwerp handles a very large part of the output of the

diamond mines of the Congo and of Portuguese Angola. Summary.—To sum up, the chief features in the development of Belgian industry, regarded as a whole, are as follows: (1) Concentration and integration, especially in the iron and steel, machine construction, quarrying, cement, ceramic (tile-making), chemical, sugar and cotton industries; (2) development of mechanical processes in the coal, iron and steel, ceramic and glass

industries; (3) the Belgianization of certain undertakings—iron and steel, zinc, metallurgy and chemical products—through the liquidation of the foreign, and especially the German, interests; (4) the introduction of new kinds of manufacture, machinery,

chemical products, artificial silk (acetate process), radium, etc.;

—The ‘conclusion of. the Union of Arras (Jan. 6, 1579) by the Catholic provinces of Artois and Hainaut enabled Alexander Farnese (g.v.) to resume the war against the Protestants of the Netherlands. William of Orange was supported by the Union of Utrecht (Jan. 29, 1579), which combined the northern provinces in their opposition to the king of Spain. William of Orange at

first tried to set up the duke of Anjou, the brother of the king of France, in opposition to the king of Spain; but the assistance of the ambitious duke proved to be useless. He arrived in Antwerp

early in 1582, and in the following year he attempted to gain possession of the city by force (Jan. 17, 1583). This act al treachery put an end to his pretensions, and promoted the suc

cess of Farnese: On Nov. 30, 1581, the latter had captured Tour-

nai. After a series of sieges ‘he made himself master of Ypres,

Dunkirk, Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and finally Antwerp, which capitulated on Aug. 17, 1585, after a heroic resistance. BELGIUM

UNDER

SPANISH

RULE

From this time onwards the whole of the southern part of the Netherlands once more recognized Philip II. as its sovereign. The system set up by the peace of Arras (May 19, 1579) in al the reconquered provinces was not one of Spanish domination,

but simply of dynastic union with Spain. The ‘country recognized Philip II: as its legitimate sovereign, but retained its autonomy.

(5) a considerable increase in the interest of the Banque Belge in the national industries, and, as a result’ of its influence, a tendency towards concentration and combination, both vertical and hori-

The king was represented by a governor-general at Brussels. The council of State, the privy council and the council of financt

zontal; (6) an extended use of electrical motive power.

etc.

lFor earlier history see NETHERLANDS; FLANDERS; ‘BRABANT; LIEGE a

od

a

ae

HISTORY]

BELGIUM

which acted with him were, however, composed entirely of natives of the country. All the provinces were confirmed in their con-

stitutions and privileges. The only departments in which the king had sole control were the command of the army and foreign policy. Taxes could not be levied without the consent of the provinces. This was the principal safeguard of national autonomy;

357

double attack of the French and the Dutch.

however, Frederick Henry to the king of France on successor, Don Francisco Condé at Rocroi on May

On Oct. 10, 1637,

entered Breda, and Arras surrendered Aug. 9, 1640. The Cardinal Infante’s de Melo, was beaten by the prince de 19, 1643. In 1644 the Dutch obtained

possession of Dalhem, Rolduc and Fauquemont, and in 1645 the

capture of Hulst put them in complete possession of the left bank of the estuary of the Scheldt. The Peace of Munster.—It was now clear that Spain could Although the peace of Arras represented the capitulation of the king of Spain in the political sphere, it gave him complete not continue to fight on two fronts. In order to have his hands victory on the religious question. In all the provinces which free for the war with France, Philip IV. resigned himself to conFarnese reconquered the Protestants were obliged either to be- cluding peace finally with the United Provinces at Munster on come reconciled to the Catholic Church or to emigrate, and Jan. 30, 1648. The independence of the United Provinces was at Belgium, or the Spanish Netherlands, as it was then called to last recognized, and all the districts which they had conquered distinguish it from the United Provinces, henceforth became an in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg were ceded to them. Philip IV. also granted their request for the perpetual closing of the Scheldt, exclusively Catholic country. The reconquest of Belgium by Farnese was intended to be thus sacrificing Antwerp to Amsterdam and the prosperity of Belgium to that of Holland. merely the prelude to that of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands. Louis XIV.—Even this surrender to the rebel republic did not The United Provinces were supported, however, by France and England, and under Maurice and Frederick Henry, the sons of enable the king of Spain to wage war successfully on France. William of Orange, they successfully repelled all the efforts of He suffered a series of defeats, alternating with treaties, each Philip II.’s generals. The destruction of the Spanish Armada one of which represented a further cession of territory to the in Aug. 1588 and the fact that Farnese was obliged to go to enemy. The Spanish governors who succeeded the Archduke France to make war on Henry IV. gave them opportunities of Leopold (1647~1656): Don Juan, the son of Philip IV., the marquis of Caracena, the marquis of Castel Rodrigo, the grand which they were not slow to take advantage. Albert and Isabella.—The able Farnese died, worn out, on commander of Castille, the count of Monterey, the duke of Villa Dec. 3, 1592, and was succeeded as governor by the Archduke Hermosa, Alexander Farnese, the marquis of Grana and the Ernest, after whose death (Feb. 1595) Philip II. decided to try marquis of Gastanaga, did not receive from the exhausted anew method: The government was entrusted to the Archduke Spanish monarchy sufficient money or troops to enable them to Albert (Feb. 1596), and he was instructed to conclude peace with fight successfully against the king of France with his unexhausted France (peace of Vervins, May 2, 1598) so as to have his hands resources. After the defeats of Lens (1648), and the Dunes free for the reconquest of the United Provinces. Hoping that the (1658) the peace of the Pyrenees was concluded on Nov. 7, 1659. Provinces would be less recalcitrant to an independent sovereign This treaty gave Louis XIV. the greater part of Artois and a than to the Spanish crown, the king married Albert to his daughter number of fortresses along the southern frontier of Belgium. Isabella, and on May 6, 1598, handed over the whole of the Under the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (May 2, 1668) he also reNetherlands to the newly married couple as a sovereign State. ceived Charleroi, Binche, Ath, Douai, Tournai, Lille and Courtrai. Its independence was, however, more apparent than real, and the Spain recovered Courtrai, Binche and Charleroi by the peace of stipulation that Catholicism was to be the only religion tolerated Nijmwegen (Aug. ro, 1678), but lost in exchange Valenciennes, destroyed any prospect of winning over the United Provinces, Maubeuge, Cambrai, Saint-Omer, Poperinghe, Cassel, Bailleul and Ypres. The “chambres de réunion” created by Louis XIV. made which clung more passionately than ever to their Calvinism. The war therefore continued. Albert was an unskilful general, further annexations even though the two countries were at peace. and was defeated at Nieuport by Maurice of Nassau. Ambrose Some of the annexed districts were restored under the Peace of Spinola then took charge of military operations, and this enabled Ryswick (Sept. 20, 1697), when Louis XIV. was for the first Albert to obtain possession of Ostend in 1604; but no decisive time compelled to give way before the general European coalition success was achieved in the north. In 1609 Albert had to con- against him. Less than three years later, on Nov. 1r, 1700, Charles II., the clude a twelve years’ truce with the United Provinces, The archdukes made use of the twelve years’ truce to con- last remaining descendant of Philip II., died at Madrid without solidate their position in the Spanish Netherlands and to re- issue. In his will he left the whole of the Spanish monarchy, inorganize Catholicism in the country on a firm basis with the aid cluding the Catholic Netherlands, to Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV.’s of the Jesuits, who from that time onwards exercised a pre- grandson, who took the title of Philip V. War of the Spanish Succession.—It was obvious that Louis dominant influence over the religious and intellectual life of the country. They impressed themselves upon it so strongly that the XIV. would not fail to take the opportunity offered by Charles results may be traced even down to the present day. The reign TI.’s will to make himself master of Belgium. From the beginning of Albert and Isabella was the last period of brilliance which of his reign he had been constantly endeavouring to make that Belgian civilization enjoyed until the roth century. It was at country an outpost of France. England and the republic of the this time that the school of Rubens (1577-1640) flourished at United Provinces were equally determined to prevent him from Antwerp, Justus Lipsius enhanced the reputation of the University acquiring a position so likely to be dangerous to them. In Feb. of Louvain, and the Jesuits, who produced a brilliant group of 1701, Louis XIV. caused his grandson to hand over to him the scholars in Belgium, began the monumental work of the Acta government of the Netherlands, with the complicity of the governor, Maximilian Emmanuel of Bavaria. Thenceforward war Sanctorum (q.v.; see also BOLLANDISTS). As Albert and Isabella had no children, it was clear that after was inevitable. William III., ia his dual capacity as stadtholder their death Belgium would revert to the king of Spain. Albert of Holland and king of England, had a double reason to fear French expansion, and he was at once the initiator of the war died in 1621, and Isabella henceforth acted merely as governor for Philip IV. On the expiry of the twelve years’ truce, war was and the one who carried it on most actively. Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies (May 23, 1706) compelled resumed, with unfortunate results for Spain. Frederick Henry of Nassau captured Bois-le-Duc (1629) and Maestricht on Aug. the French to evacuate Belgium, and all their efforts to return 22, 1632. A conspiracy formed by the nobility in the same year were unsuccessful. The country was provisionally administered bore significant witness to the discontented state of the country. by a “Conference” composed of English and Dutch until such The situation became still more critical when, a few months time as Europe should have decided on its-future. This was done alter the death of Isabella (Dec. 1, 1633), France concluded an by the Peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713), when Belgium received alliance with the United Provinces. The new governor, Cardinal as its sovereign the emperor Charles VI., the head of the Austrian nfante Don Ferdinand, was at first successful in resisting the branch of the House of Habsburg.

Philip IJ. and his successors dared not withdraw it for fear of

causing a fresh revolution.

BELGIUM

358

BELGIUM UNDER AUSTRIAN RULE The change of dynasty did not involve any change in the political system established in 1579 by the Peace of Arras. Just as there had been no Spanish domination, there was now no Austrian domination. National autonomy was maintained; the traditional institutions were preserved; the provinces continued to vote their own taxes. The only connection between Belgium and Austria was that they had the same sovereign. The Austrian emperors were represented by a governor at Brussels, just as the kings of Spain had been. The emperor also appointed a “minister plenipotentiary” at Brussels, with whom his chancellery corresponded directly, to keep watch over the conduct of the

governor. The Barrier Treaty.—In order to prevent any further attempt at annexation on the part of France, England and the United Provinces required the emperor to sign the Barrier Treaty (Nov. 15, 1715). This treaty gave the United Provinces the right to maintain garrisons at Namur, Tournai, Menin, Furnes, Warneton,

Ypres and Termonde. Belgium was thus for a second time sacrificed to its northern neighbour, for whose safety it was made a bulwark. The frontier between Belgium and France, now that Louis XIV. had made restitution of the last towns he had taken (Tournai, Ypres, Dixmude, etc.), was drawn almost exactly as it stood in 1929. The country, which had been the cockpit of Europe since the middle of the 17th century, was now exhausted. The population was profoundly discontented. Disturbances broke out at Brussels in 1717, under the administration of the marquis de Prié, min-

ister plenipotentiary of the Governor Eugene of Savoy, who never established himself in Brussels and was governor only in name. The marquis de Prié earned the detestation of the people by ordering the execution of Francois Anneessens, who had tried to oppose the vote of the taxes by the Brussels municipality (1719). He was equally disliked by the nobility. The emperor recalled him in 1724, and the Archduchess Marie Elizabeth became governor. The Ostend Company.—Peace having been restored, an attempt was made to improve the economic situation of the country. There was no hope of reviving the prosperity of the port of Antwerp, since the closing of the Scheldt had been ratified by the Treaty of Utrecht. Certain schemes which had been considered

first in the time of Maximilian Emmanuel of Bavaria were, however, taken up once more.

The proposal was to develop the

maritime trade of Ostend and to connect it by means of canals with the Scheldt, the Meuse and the Rhine. On Dec. 19, 1722, the emperor Charles VI. founded an India company in Ostend with

a capital of six million florins. England and the United Provinces were, however, alarmed at the prospect of a rival of this kind. It would have been necessary to go to war to make them agree to it, and as the emperor could not undertake this, he had to resign himself. On May 31, 1727, the Ostend company (g.v.) was zacrificed to “the welfare of Europe.” The Jansenist controversy, which during the past fifty years had raged with great bitterness, was a source of uneasiness to the Government.

It was concluded under the governorship of Marie

Elizabeth, who imposed the Bull Unigenitus as a rule for religion and for the State. This was a fresh victory for the Jesuits, who now ceased to have any opponents in the country. Maria Theresa.—On the death of Charles VI., on Oct. 20, ł740, the Belgian provinces recognized Maria Theresa without opposition. The War of the Austrian Succession, however, soon spread to Belgium which, in 1744, was invaded by the French under Mauricé de Saxe. The Dutch garrisons of the Barrier capitulated at once without attempting any resistance. The defeat of the English at Fontenoy on May 11, 1745 gave Louis XV. the possession of Belgium, for which Louis XIV. had striven in vain. He only occupied it as a pledge, however, and it was restored to Maria Theresa by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct. 18, 1748). Maria Theresa is the only foreign ruler of Belgium whose memory has remained in the affections of the nation. Her reign was a period of recovery for the country, and the population attributed the credit of this to her.

As a matter of fact, Maria

[HISTORY

Theresa cared nothing for the retention of the Netherlands, which she was constantly trying to exchange for Bavaria. She only

kept her Belgian provinces because she could not do otherwise. At the same time, she tried to make the best possible use of them and in her own interest she administered them in such a way as i

be able to beneft by their resources.

The alliance which she concluded with France in 1757 secured a period of peace for Belgium which lasted 35 years. The time of rest thus provided after a century of almost incessant war was utilized to the best advantage.

Private individuals and the

authorities of the provinces worked together in restoring the

prosperity of the country and developing industry and agriculture. Roads and canals were constructed; Flemish agriculture reached such a degree of prosperity that it was regarded as 4 model. The old linen and lace industries were revived. In Hainaut, coal-mining and the glass industry were actively developed. The population increased with the national wealth. The Government assisted the efforts of the people judiciously, Maria

Theresa

entrusted

the

administration

in 1744

to her

brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine, who became extremely popu-

lar in the country. She provided him with able ministers plenipotentiary, who adjusted customs tariffs in such a way as to protect national industries, established depots to facilitate transport, and introduced new industries. Other reforms were introduced in order to rouse the population from the intellectual apathy into which it had fallen since the middle of the 17th century as an inevitable consequence of the misfortunes of the country. An Academy, which still exists, was founded at Brussels in 1772. When the Society of Jesus was suppressed in 1773, the Government was able to set up “Royal Colleges” in several of the towns. These were the first lay educational establishments to be created in Belgium. Maria Theresa’s innovations were inspired by the doctrine of “enlightened despotism” which the majority of European states, following the example of Prussia, were adopting as a feature of their policy. She obtained acceptance for them because of the benefits conferred by her government, and because of the skill with which she managed to avoid offending the conservatism of

her Belgian subjects. Her successor Joseph II. (1780~90) acted in an entirely different manner. Joseph Il.—Joseph II. was sincerely anxious to promote the public welfare, but he was full of self-conceit, and firmly believed that progress must be imposed from above. He made up his mind to recast the institutions of Belgium according to the principles of rational and centralized absolutism. Before he succeeded his mother he had made a hurried tour through the country and had come back full of contempt for the antiquated state of affairs which he found there. His first object was to obtain the abolition of the stipulations imposed on Belgium by the Munster and the

Barrier treaties, which he regarded as equally incompatible with the principles of equity and with his sovereign rights. Maria Theresa had already refused to pay the sums due for the upkeep

of the Dutch garrisons.

In 1781 Joseph informed the States-

General of the United Provinces that he had decided to dismantle the Belgian fortresses, and that they should therefore recall their troops. They accepted the situation so readily that he thought he would also be able to reopen the Scheldt. Much to his surprise, the Dutch fired on the vessels which he had ordered to sail up and down the river. The outbreak of war was prevented by French intervention, and the Treaty of Fontainebleau (Nov. 8, 1785) confirmed the status quo. Joseph II. might have won popularity by the above actions, but the internal reforms which he introduced aroused both religious and political opposition. His first measures were aimed at the

Church.

The Edict of Tolerance (Oct. 1781), which recognized

religious freedom in Belgium for the first time sirice the peace of Arras, deeply offended the clergy and the Catholic sentiments of the population. The suppression of the “unnecessary” convents (1783), of the religious confraternities, and of pilgrimages, the closing of the episcopal seminaries and their replacement by two seminaries founded by the State at Louvain and Luxembourg (2786) aroused intensely bitter feeling. i

BELGIUM

HISTORY]

Still greater hostility was aroused by Joseph II.’s attempt to modify the traditional institutions of the country.

He refused

to listen to the counsels of prudence given him by his sister

Marie Christine, the governor, and by the ministers plenipoten-

tiary; and insisted on introducing innovations which, although in accordance with the spirit of the age, were most objectionable to Belgian conservatism; abolition of the gilds, abolition of torture, reorganization of the administration of the finances and of public

works, and free trade in corn. Finally, in 1787, the whole administration was remodelled. The country was divided into nine districts (cercles) with “intendants” at their head, attached to a council of Government meeting at Brussels. Justice was to be administered by two supreme councils at Brussels and Luxem-

pourg, and by 63 courts of first instance.

Thus, by nothing less than a coup d’état, the traditional auton-

omy of the Belgian provinces, which had been respected by all their rulers from Philip II. onwards, was destroyed and replaced by a centralized system working by the emperor’s orders. Even men of advanced opinions, who realized that the constitution

stood in need of improvement, were as angry as those of conservative views at seeing the emperor dispose of their country without consulting them. A formidable movement of opposition broke out

in all the provinces. Marie Christine, the Governor, dared not enforce the edicts. —The emperor however persisted. He sent a new minister plenipotentiary, the count of Trauttmannsdorff, to Brussels, and entrusted the command of the troops to Gen, d'Alton, who had orders to enforce the reforms and repress disturbances. The Brabancon Revolt.—If the emperor was obstinate, the country was equally so. The States of Hainault and Brabant refused to pay taxes. The infraction of the privilege of the Joyeuse

Enirée (q.v.) brought popular exasperation to a head. The events then taking place in France, and especially the news of the taking of the Bastille, encouraged the inhabitants of Belgium in their resistance, The conservatives, whose leader was the lawyer van der Noot, combined with the partisans of national reform, the chief of whom was another lawyer, Vonck. They fled to Holland, where they formed a corps of volunteers. On Oct. 24, 1780, under the leadership of Col. van der Mersch, they invaded Campine, and contrary to all expectation defeated the Austrian troops at Turnhout. This was the signal for a general rising. The garrison of Ghent capitulated on Nov. 16, and that of Mons on Nov. 21, Brussels rose in revolt on Dec. 10. Two days later the Government and the troops hurriedly evacuated the city. All Belgium, with the exception of Luxembourg, where the army was concentrated, was in a state of revolt. The various parties were, however, very far from unanimity in their political views. The various provinces constituted themselves into the Belgian United States on Jan. 11, 1790, and entrusted executive power to a sovereign congress. Two opposing parties at once appeared in the congress. The democrats or Vonckists wished to adopt a constitution based on the principles

laid down by the French National Assembly; the aristocrats or van der Nootists simply desired to restore the position which had previously existed.

The latter were supported by the clergy

and by the majority of the public. Riots broke out; Vonck’s parusans were terrorized, and left the field clear for their opponents.

Van der Noot, who hoped to obtain the support of the United Provinces and of Prussia, was quite unable to control events. The Belgian republic, torn by internal disputes, soon fell into a state of anarchy and was unable to prepare its resistance. Joseph II. died on Feb. 20, 1790, and was succeeded by Leopold

IL Leopold first attempted to win over the Belgians by con-

ciliatory means, but his proposals were rejected. After his reconciliation with the king of Prussia at the Convention of Reichen-

bach (July 27, 1790) he had recourse to arms. The Belgian army was driven back without difficulty, and on Dec. 2 the Austrian troops under Gen. Bender entered

Brussels.

A few’ days later

the subjection of the country was complete. The revolution inoo known in history as the Brabancon Revolt was at an Leopold, who did not wish to provoke further disturbances,

359

made no attempt to reintroduce Joseph’s reforms. Government was restored in the form in which it had existed under Maria Theresa. In spite of this, the restoration continued to be exceedingly unpopular. The course which the French revolution was taking revived the hope of Belgian independence. Thus, when war broke out between France and Austria, and Dumouriez won the battle of Jemappes (Nov. 6, 1792) and occupied Belgium, his victory was at first welcomed by the population. Dumouriez would have liked to make Belgium into a republic and to make use of it to further his plans for a restoration of the monarchy in France. He relied on the Vonckists for support, and by doing so at once excited the hostility of the conservatives. The French convention, however, thwarted his plans, and was obviously preparing the way for the annexation of the country. The enthusiasm with which he had at first been greeted soon gave place to unconcealed dislike. When the Austrians resumed the offensive, and defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (March 18, 1783) and once more took possession of Belgium, the Belgians resigned themselves without difficulty. ANNEXATION OF BELGIUM BY FRANCE The restored regime was of short duration. Jourdan’s victory at Fleurus (June 26, 1794) resulted in a fresh conquest of the Netherlands by France. The rule of the Austrian sovereigns was abolished in fact, and the position received legal sanction by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801), under which Francis II. recognized the annexation of Belgium by the French republic. The battle of Fleurus enabled France to accomplish what Louis XIV. had planned. After a period of occupation and military rule, the Convention on Oct. 1, 1795, voted the annexation of Belgium and the principality of Liége (¢.v.) which was thenceforth amalgamated with it. France accomplished, but in a far more radical manner, what had been attempted by Joseph II. A modern State was built up on the ruins of the past. All branches of the administration were centralized and systematized. All privileges were abolished. The Church, which had formerly been so powerful and so deeply respected, was persecuted. It is not surprising that the Belgians detested the new regime. Their hostility was the greater for the terrible economic crisis which accompanied the change of rule. The introduction of military conscription led in Oct. 1798 to a revolt of the peasants

in the Flemish

districts of the country

which was repressed without mercy. Napoleon’s coup d'état in Nov. 1799 was the starting point of a new era, Under the consulate and the empire Belgium became accustomed to the new system which was introduced, and which still constitutes the basis of its administration, The country was divided into nine departments, each under a prefect. Courts of first instance and courts of appeal were created, and had to administer the French code of laws. A metric system of weights and measures and currency was introduced. The clergy were reconciled with the Government by the Concordat. With the vast markets of the empire now open to Belgian industry a period of unprecedented activity succeeded. The manufacture of cotton and beet sugar was introduced and made rapid progress. The Napoleonic regime nevertheless remained unpopular. The complete lack of political liberty, the exigencies of conscription and the abuses of the Continental System (q.v.) led to a spirit of disaffection which, by the time of the fall of the empire, had become general. The occupation of Belgium by the allies in 1814 was hailed with relief. THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS The Powers were determined not to leave France in possession of Belgium. It could not be given back to the Austrian emperor, who in any case did not desire it. Under the influence of England

it was decided to unite it in a single State with the old Republic of the United Provinces, and thus to constitute a new barrier better capable of resisting future French expansion than that of 1715. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, the existence of which was confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna (June 1815), was thus established for the convenience of Europe, regardless of the

360

BELGIUM

wishes of the Belgians and the Dutch who would have to live side by side in one country. Prince William of Orange ascended the throne on March 16, 1815, under the title of William I.

William I.—The new ruler was faced with the task of assimilating two peoples which for the last 200 years had had strikingly contrasted customs, economic interests, ideas and above all religions, the one being Catholic and the other Protestant. The Fundamental Law (Grondwet) of the new kingdom gave the Belgians and Dutch an equal number of representatives in the States-General, although the population of Belgium was three and a half millions and that of Holland only two millions. It also recognized religious liberty, and this was obnoxious to the Catholic Church. Finally, it gave extremely wide powers to the king, who was Dutch and Protestant. All these provisions were offensive to the Belgians. The king laid the Constitution before the “notables” for adoption; they rejected it, but it was nevertheless promulgated. During the first few years, however, the situation appeared to be not unsatisfactory. Belgium began to assume the industrial character which has distinguished it ever since. Antwerp once more became an important port. The cotton spinning industry at Ghent, the manufacture of linen at Verviers, and the coal-mining industry in the Liége and Hainault districts attained even greater prosperity than during the French occupation. The Dutch colonies provided new markets for export. The king also endeavoured to promote education, which, with the support of the opponents of the old régime, who were apprehensive of the influence of the Church, he organized under the auspices of the State. Universities were founded at Ghent, Liége and Louvain; “Athénées” were created; the independent, że., ‘ecclesiastical, schools were subjected to inspection. On June 14,

1825, a “Philosophical College” was set up at Louvain, and

seminarists were required to attend it. These measures revived

the hostility of the clergy. The substitution of Dutch for French as the official language irritated the middle classes, which had been affected by French influence. Finally, there grew up a liberal party which attacked the king’s prerogatives in the name of parliamentarianism. William, who was naturally obstinate, persisted in his plans. The opposition journals were prosecuted, but this only increased the strength of the movement. It became irresistible when, in 1828, the Liberals and the Catholics, who up till then had opposed one another, concluded the “union of parties.” A general petition

for the redress of grievances was organized, and by Nov. 1829

had obtained over 300,000 signatures. The king’s refusal to yield was bound to lead to a revolution. All foreign observers were united in expecting such a development as early as 1829. The Paris revolution of July 1830 was thus not the cause of that which broke out in Brussels a few weeks later; but it fired the train. The Belgian Revolution.—The disturbances broke out on Aug. 25, after a performance of La Muette, an opera abounding in appeals to liberty. The authorities: were taken by surprise and lost their heads; the troops retired, without resistance, on the royal palace. On the following day a citizens’ guard was organized

under the command of Emmanuel d’Hoogvorst, and took over the

duties of the lawful authorities. Disturbances at once broke out in the provinces in sympathy with those.in the capital, and the red, yellow and black flag which had been the sign of the Brabancon Revolt began to be shown. No one, however, yet contemplated the overthrow of the dynasty. All that was demanded was the administrative separation of Belgium and Holland. The king failed to realize the importance of the movement, and still thought that it could be suppressed. He hurriedly sent his sons to Brussels at the head of a small body of troops. They found the town prepared for resistance, and as they did not dare to risk a fight, the prince of Orange, the heir to the throne, consented to parley with the rebels. He was unsuccessful, and on ~~ Sept. 3 he left Brussels, taking the garrison with him. While the king was summoning the States-General at The Hague, volunteers were flocking into Brussels. Charles Rogier (g.v.) arrived at the head of'a troop of Liégeois. French republicans came tọ foment the revolt. Al regularly constituted author-

ity was abolished.

[HISTORY William, who hoped to obtain the support of

the moderates, sent his second son, Prince Frederick, to occupy

the town. His troops entered Brussels on Sept. 23, but were received by the population with a fusillade which checked thei advance. After three days’ fighting they retreated, and the volum.

teers and the citizens’ guard, whose numbers were swollen by

contingents from all parts of the country, victoriously pursued them to Antwerp. The Provisional Government.—On the evening of Sept. 23 there had been constituted an “administrative committee” which

took the title of provisional Government. It included Rogier d’Hoogvorst, Joly, F. de Mérode, Gendebien, Van de Weyer, and after the 28th, L. de Potter. This revolutionary Government took no further notice of the States-General, which on the aot voted in favour of the separation of the two parts of the king. dom. It also refused to negotiate with the prince of Orange,

whom the king had sent to Antwerp, and who, exceeding his in. structions, went so far as to recognize the Belgians as an “inde. pendent nation.” On Oct. 4, the provisional Government had itself proclaimed national independence, paying no attention either to

the king or to the Powers which had set up the kingdom of the Netherlands. The revolt was thus not merely against William, but also against Europe. On the same day as it proclaimed national independence, the provisional Government summoned a

congress to draw up the constitution of the country. The congress

met on Nov. to. In the meantime, the Belgians had captured Antwerp. Gen. Chassé maintained his position in the citadel, and bombarded the town from there. The only result was to exacerbate the hatred felt for the king and the dynasty. On Nov. 24 the congress voted

the perpetual exclusion of the house of Orange from the throne of Belgium. The London Conference.—William had already appealed to the Powers to intervene, and in November, at the proposal of Great Britain, a conference of ambassadors was called in London. The main object was to avert a European war, which would have been the inevitable consequence if France had intervened in Belgium. Under the influence of France and Great Britain, Russia (which was paralysed by the Polish rising), Prussia and Austria consented to give up ‘the principle of legitimacy. On Dec. 20, the conference imposed an armistice on William and the Belgians, invited the provisional Government to send a deputation, and declared the dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. A month later, on Jan. 20, 1831, it decided that Belgium

should be an independent and perpetually neutral State, not guaranteed by the Powers. BELGIUM INDEPENDENT The Powers wished the congress to give the crown to the prince of Orange, but instead of doing so it elected the duke of Nemours, the son of Louis Philippe (Feb. 3, 1831). For the sake of preserving peace, the king of France refused his consent. The congress then set up a regency. The office of regent was entrusted to the president of the congress, Surlet de Chokier. There ensued a period of anarchy, and France tried to take advantage of it to bring about the partition of Belgium between itself and Holland. Lord Palmerston took a firm stand in favour of the decisions which’ had been adopted. The election of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king put an end to the crisis. The conference drew up a treaty of Eighteen Articles (June 26, 1831) regulating

the separation between Belgium and Holland.

It was accepted

by the congress, and on July 21 Leopold, who had made his consent conditional on the acceptance of the treaty, arrived in Brussels and took the oath of allegiance to the constitution. The Treaty of Twenty-four Articles—Some days later.

William invaded Belgium (Aug. 2, 1831). His troops easily defeated the Belgians, who had not been able to organize an army. Leopold appealed to France, and with the consent of the conference, Louis Philippe sent Marshal Gérard to restore the posttion. The Dutch retreated before him without an action. The conference then replaced the treaty of Eighteen Articles by a much less favourable treaty of Twenty-four Articles (Oct.

HISTORY]

BELGIUM

261

14. 1831). Leopold accepted it, but William protested against the forcible measures used against him, and refused to sign the

French, placed Belgium in a difficult position. The freedom of the press which prevailed in Belgium made it possible for French refugees in that country to carry on republican propaganda against

the and Great Britain blockaded the Dutch ports and when captured who French, the by bombarded was Antwerp citadel of

Napoleon III., and this gave rise to unpleasant incidents which gave some show of justification for the annexation schemes which the emperor was thought fo cherish. As early as 1853 the king made efforts to induce parliament to grant funds by means of which Antwerp was surrounded with a ring of forts to serve as a stronghold for the army in case of war. „Admirable measures were taken to assist the economic development of the country. After 1849 a policy of free trade was gradually substituted for protectionism. A national bank was founded in 1850; the local očtrois (dues on foodstuffs brought into towns) were abolished in 1860; in 1863 the dues payable by ships sailing up the Scheldt to Antwerp were redeemed. Between 1861 and 1863, commercial treaties were concluded with a large number of

France treaty. His resistance was not broken down even when

it on Dec. 23. On May 21, 1833, however, William agreed to conclude a provisional convention with Palmerston and Talleyrand of for the maintenance of the status quo. This was all in favour the Belgians, who not only continued to occupy Limburg and Luxemburg, which they would have had to hand back under the Twenty-four Articles, but contributed nothing to the debt of

the kingdom of the Netherlands, for which Holland remained exclusively responsible. William was thus obliged to accept the Twenty-four Articles on March 14, 1838. Belgium attempted to obtain their revision, but only received certain financial concessions.

Parliament

de-

cided to accept the provisions’ which constitute the treaties of

April 19, 1839. Peace was thus restored between Holland and

Belgium, and Holland recognized the new kingdom. Part of Iuxemburg was allotted to Belgium, and the rest became a Grand Duchy which was a member of the German confederation mder the sovereignty of William. Limburg and Maestricht remained in the possession of Holland. In return, Belgium was recognized as an “independent and perpetually neutral State” under the guarantee of the Powers.

The Belgian Constitution.—The Belgian constitution adopted

by the congress on Feb. 7, 1831, to which Leopold had taken the oath of allegiance on his accession, was the most liberal in Europe. It established a strictly parliamentary monarchy based on the principle of national sovereignty. The rights of the subject were

more far-reaching than in any other country except England. Under the influence of the reaction against William’s absolutism, the executive powers allotted to the king were reduced to the minimum. Leopold I—During the first years of Leopold I.’s reign, the general impression was that the new kingdom could not last. The revolution had resulted in a terrible economic crisis, and the discontented manufacturers formed a small but exceedingly energetic Orangist party which was encouraged by the king of Holland. It was thought that the constitution would make it impossible for the king to govern. Thanks, however, to Leopold’s wisdom and devotion, and thanks also to the energy of the nation, all the difficulties were overcome. In order to give the country fresh markets, an act was passed in 1834 for the construction of railways. These were some of the first railways to be built on the

Continent. Laws regulating the administration of the provinces and the municipalities were passed in 1836. The army was established on a sound basis. After 1839 the Orangist agitation declined and soon died away altogether. Up to this point the Catholic and Liberal Parties, whose joint action had made the success of the revolution possible, had worked together in parliament. They began to diverge soon after the existence of the State had been guaranteed by the treaties of 1839. The system.of coalition ministries was gradually replaced by that of ministries representing the party which had'a majority in the chambers. After the disturbances of 1856 which led to the resignation of the Catholic ministry of de Decker and brought Rogier’s Liberal ministry into power, the new system was regularly applied. The Crisis of 1848.—The king guided the foreign policy of the

countries. Leopold Il.—tThe grief displayed by the nation at the death of Leopold I. (Dec. ro 1865), and the loyalty with which the accession of Leopold II. was: welcomed, proved that the new régime was firmly established. The international situation was critical. Napoleon III. was anxious to seek compensation for the triumph of Prussia at Sadowa. The tone of the Paris press towards Belgium was threatening. The attempts which the emperor made in 1867 to acquire the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg were a disquieting symptom, in spite of their failure. In the following year the French railway company of the Est negotiated for the purchase of the railways of the province of Luxembourg. The Chambers on Feb. 23, 1869, adopted emergency legislation prohibiting the sale of the railways, and a rupture was only averted by the energy and skill with which negotiations were conducted by the minister Frére-Orban, who was supported by the British cabinet. The war of 1870 provided fresh proof of the Government’s determination to preserve neutrality. The army was mobilized and sent to the frontier with orders to repulse any troops which attempted to cross it. The victory of Prussia completely altered the position of Belgium. The increased strength of Germany on the one hand and the possibility of a French revanche on the other greatly complicated its duties as a neutral State. In order to provide for future eventualities, the king induced parliament in 1887 to grant credits for the fortification of the positions of Liége and Namur on the Meuse. Revision of the Constitution.—In the meantime the conflict of parties was growing more acute. The Education Act adopted in 1879 under the Frére-Orban cabinet met with strong resistance from the Catholics.: The Government broke off diplomatic relations with the pope. The Liberal Party, however, was weakened by the dissension in its ranks between the moderate or “doctrinaire” elements and the “progressives”; and it was defeated at the 1884 elections. From that time onwards there was always a

Catholic ministry in power until 1914.

At this time the working classes did not have the right to vote, and the long-standing discontent to which this gave rise facilitated the spread of socialist opinions amongst them. In March 1886 there was a riot at Liége which was followed by very serious outbreaks in all the industrial districts. They were repressed with much bloodshed. The Beernaert ministry ordered an enquiry into the position of the workers, and it was found that social reforms were long overdue and must be undertaken without delay. From country firmly in the spirit of neutrality required by the inter- 1889 onwards a-series of laws were adopted on workers’ housing, national undertakings which it had: assumed. He gave proof of the employment of women and children, factory inspection, workthis in the crisis of 1848. Thanks to the liberal character of its men’s compensation for accidents, and so on. The constitution restricted the suffrage to a minority of the institutions and to the electoral reform measure unanimously adopted by the chambers, Belgium, alone among the countries of nation, and its extension was demanded with increasing vigour the Continent, escaped the disturbances which then prevailed by-the progressives and socialists. In 1890 the chambers voted throughout Europe. From that time onwards its political system in favour of the principle of the revision of the constitution. The was regarded as a model. The Belgian constitution was imitated delays which occurred in carrying out the revision gave rise to more or less exactly by, all the Continental countries which dangerous agitation, but the revised constitution at last received the royal assent in Sept. 1893. Universal suffrage was established, adopted the Parliamentary régime in the roth century. The fall of Louis Philippe, whose daughter, Louise Marie, Leo- but the system was tempered by plural voting, which gave more pold had married on Aug. 9, 1832, and subsequently the coup than one vote to electors fulfilling certain conditions as regards d'état of 1852 by which. Napoleon III. became emperor of the income, age, education and family. The reform of the electoral

362

BELGIUM

system was completed by the adoption of proportional representation In 1899. The Flemish Question.—The progress of democracy gave Increasing scope to the Flemish movement. Although freedom to use either language is one of the principles of the Belgian constitution, French alone was used for legislative and administrative purposes in the years which followed the revolution. French was as a matter of fact the language of the enfranchised middle classes both in the Flemish and the Walloon provinces. Between 1840 and 1850, however, there began to be protests against a state of affairs which placed the Flemish language in a position of inferiority and was injurious to the rights of those who used it. In

1856 the Government set up a commission to study the question

[HISTORY

Albert I.—As Leopold II. had nò son, the crown passed tohis nephew Albert, who had married princess Elizabeth of Bavaria on Oct. 2, 1900. He took the oath of allegiance to the constity.

tion on Dec. 23, 1909. The early days of his reign were marked by a violent agitation by the Socialist Party in favour of uy.

versal suffrage without qualification.

There was a general strike

in 1913, but no disturbances took place.

In the same year the anxiety to which the international sity. tion gave rise led the Broqueville ministry to pass a measure for the general reorganization of the army on the basis of universa]

military service, the reform to be completed in five years, THE WAR PERIOD, 1914-18

The international crisis which came to a head in July 1914

of linguistic grievances, It was, however, some time before parliament began to adopt a series of laws intended to redress those found Belgium unprepared for war, in spite of her recent military grievances. The Government set up a Flemish Academy in 1886. laws. The neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg had been gurIn 1898 an act was adopted establishing the equality of the two anteed by the five Great Powers (Great Britain, France, Prussia, national languages; laws were thenceforward adopted both in Russia and Austria) in the treaties of 1839, which bound the French and in Flemish. In 1912 a private bill proposing to trans- guaranteeing Powers to intervene if either party to a war violated form the University of Ghent into a Flemish university was laid that neutrality. On July 30, following the precedent in 1870, Sir before parliament. In 1914 it was laid down that in the Flemish- Edward (Viscount) Grey addressed a message to the French and speaking districts of the country, elementary education must be German Governments, drawing their attention to this point and given in Flemish. The flaminganis did not form themselves asking for ah assurance that Belgian neutrality would be respected, into a separate party, and it should be noted that their demands The German Government declared itself unable to answer this were not directed against their Walloon compatriots, towards question; and on Aug. 2 invaded Luxemburg and sent Belgium whom they felt no national hostility. They simply desired that an ultimatum calling on her to allow the German troops free the State should give the Flemish-speaking Belgian the same passage across Belgian territory. If the request was refused, treatment as the French-speaking Belgian, and that not merely Germany would treat Belgium as an enemy. To this note Belgium, in law but in fact. The French language nevertheless continued to which had mobilized 15 classes of militia on July 31, replied by a spread. In 19ro there were in Belgium 2,833,334 persons speaking formal refusal on Aug. 3. Parliament accepted war unanimously, French only, 3,220,662 Flemish only, and 871,288 bilingual. and the Socialist Party assured the Government of its unreserved The system of military service based on selection by lot, with support. The leaders of the Liberal and Socialist Parties, MM. the possibility of providing a substitute, meant that in practice Goblet d’Aviella and Hymans and M. Vandervelde, joined the the well-to-do classes were exempt. This constituted a social Government as ministers without portfolio. The German Invasion and Occupation.—In the night of Injustice and a danger to which the king for a long time drew attention without success. The revision of the constitution Aug. 3-4 the German army invaded the country. Liége fell on strengthened the position of the partisans of personal service, Aug. 7 and Namur on Aug. 23. It is estimated that in the provand that system was adopted in Dec. 1909. A few days later, on ince of Namur 1,949 civilians were killed and 3,000 houses deDec. 17, Leopold IT. died at Laeken after a reign of 43 years. stroyed. After their entry into Louvain the Germans set fire to The Congo.—From the beginning of his reign, Leopold endeav- the centre of the city, when the cathedral of St. Pierre, the famous oured to develop the colonial policy of Belgium. His personal library and 1,120 houses were destroyed. Seventy-nine of the interest in the exploration and commercial development of the inhabitants were shot. The town of Aerschot was almost deequatorial regions of Africa led, in the creation of the Congo Free stroyed. The Germans entered Brussels on Aug. 20. In the course State, to results which had originally not been anticipated. The of the occupation of Brabant 594 inhabitants were shot and in the Comité des Etudes du Haut Congo, formed in 1878 at the instance Antwerp and Hainault provinces 665 persons. Antwerp was of the king and mainly financed by him, had developed into the evacuated by the Belgians on Oct. 6, and with the withdrawal of International Association of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer, the Belgian army to the Yser under the direction of King Albert, Col. M. Strauch, was president. Through the efforts in Africa of the whole country, with the exception of the south-western disH. M. Stanley a rudimentary State was created, and through the tricts of Flanders, was under German occupation. (See Wortp efforts of King Leopold in Europe the International Association War.) was recognized during 1884-85 by the Powers as an independent Germany sent Gen. von der Goltz, Baron von Bissing, and Gen. State. Declarations to this effect were exchanged between the von Falkenhausen as successive governors-general. The govemorBelgian Government and the association on Feb. 23, 1885. In general, assisted by a central staff, exercised executive power. He April of the same year the Belgian chambers authorized the king legislated by promulgation of orders, except in the two Flanders, to be the chief of the State founded by the association, which Hainaut and South Luxembourg, where all power rested with the had already taken the name of Etat Indépendant du Congo. The highest local military authorities. Provinces and districts were union between Belgium and the new State was declared to be administered by German officials, with military commandants of purely personal, but its European headquarters were in Brussels, arrondissements. The powers of the Belgian provincial councils its officials, in the course of time, became almost exclusively Bel- were finally suppressed on July 6, 1918. Many Belgian burgogian, and financially and commercially the connection between masters were deported. The occupied territories paid a tribute, the two countries became increasingly close. In 1889, King Leo- amounting finally to 60,000,0oofr. per month, for the maintenance

pold announced that he had by his will bequeathed the Congo State to Belgium, and in 1890 the Belgian Government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of annexing the country under certain conditions. It was not until terrible reports of misgovernment created a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain,

America and other countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the State, that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with the subject. The bill for annexation was fmally passed in Sept. 1908. The full story af the Congo enterprise will be found under Arkīca, Cowco FREE STATE and Brrcran Conco.

of the German army in Belgium. The legislative measures instituted by the German military tribunals were numerous and repres-

sive. Von Bissing also instituted, Feb. 5, 1915, a new judicial system, with two courts of instance, that of the provincial governors and of the heads of arrondissements and of commandants. The executive and judicial powers were not separated. On April 3, 1917, the governors were empowered to pronounce total or partial confiscation of property. The Belgian jtdicial powers were sup

pressed by a decree of April 7, 1918. German Kaiserliche Bearks-

gerichte replaced the Belgian tribunaux répressifs. The family was pronounced responsible for faults committed by a single

BELGIUM

HISTORY]

e could be member of it. A sentence pronounced on an absente served bY a third person; general confiscation of all property, forhidden by the Hague Convention and the Belgian constitution,

was introduced, as was deportation for refusal to work for the rability.” On April German authorities, or even for simple “undesi appeal (in Brussels

1918, German tribunals of first instance and Belgian and Namur) replaced all civil Belgian jurisdiction. The frequent made appeal of court and judges magistrates, bench of

d in protests. Three presidents of the last-named were deporte arrest of 1918 in consequence of a conflict arising out of the

certain “activist” leaders.

In order to disorganize the country, Germany sought to exploit

the linguistic differences between Belgium’s northern and southern vists” consisted of a small minority of persons who expected

provinces with the help of the so-called parti activiste. The “acti-

Germany to be victorious.

The Flemish party energetically dis-

avowed them; and to the last the nation maintained its anti-

German attitude, encouraged by exhortations of Cardinal Merd cier (d. Jan. 1926). From 1916 on, various decrees abolishe ration administ l bilingua previous the in the French language of Flanders. On March 21, 1917, a decree was issued dividing Belgium into two distinct linguistic regions, with administrative

centres at Brussels and Namur, All ministries were doubled, the Flemish remaining in Brussels, the Walloon moving to Namur. French became the only official language in the Walloon district, Flemish in the west. The use of German and Flemish was, however, authorized in Walloon organize a new independent tion. On Feb. 11, 1918, an Brussels against separation.

territory. The activistes attempted to Flemish State under German protecenormous demonstration was held in German troops dispersed the crawds,

but, in face of the unanimous protests of the Belgian authorities,

Germany did not dare recognize a legislative authority for the

Raad van Vlaanderen. With ceaseless energy, however, she continued her efforts to foster linguistic differences, notably by flemicizing the University of Ghent (1916). Industrial Distress.—Industry suffered severely from the

occupation. Raw materials were requisitioned, foreign enterprises

on occupation, the German Government had repealed all measures taken by the Belgian Government to ensure rationing. Public authority had now no further power to intervene, and private initiative stepped in. Committees sprang up everywhere. A central committee was founded at Brussels under the title, Comité Central de Secours et d’Alimentation, under Ernest Solvay. The committee desired to import foodstuffs from England, but the British Government refused. Finally, von der Goltz having promised to exempt all imported foodstuffs from requisitioning, the British Government consented to allow their import under supervision of the embassies of Spain and the United States. The “Commission for Relief in Belgium” was set up to organize the supervision, The activity of the Comité Central acquired enormous importance, and extended throughout the country. It then changed its name to Comité National de Secours et d’Alimentation. By Dec. 31, 1918, it had distributed foodstuffs to provincial committees to the value of over 34 milliard francs (23 milliards for Belgium, 1 milliard for France). The profit made on the sale of foodstuffs was used to organize charitable works at an expenditure of 1,300,000 francs. After America’s entry into the war H. C. Hoover resigned his post as president of the commission for relief, and a Spanish-Dutch committee took over the work. The Belgian Government.—The German occupation forced the Government to retire, first to Antwerp, then to Ostend, then to Havre. At the same time, over 1,000,000 Belgians left the country, 200,000 fleeing to France, 100,Q00 to England and 709,000 to Holland. The Government in Havre immediately set about reorganizing the army, which had never left the front. On March I, 1915, the Government called to the colours all Belgians from 18 to 25; numerous volunteers joined the forces; and the Government was able to maintain an army in the feld with a mean effective strength of 150,000. PEACE AND RECONSTRUCTION Belgium was represented by Hymans, Vandervelde and Van den Heuvel at the Peace Conference, but was not admitted to the deliberations of the Council of Ten. At the second plenary session of the Peace Conference the Belgian, Canadian and certain other delegates protested against the control assumed by the “Big Five’; and from that time more scope was given to the representatives of nations other than the principal allied and associated Powers, Hymans played an important part in drafting the Covenant and Vandervelde in framing the constitution of the International Labour Office. By the Treaty of Versailles Belgian neutrality was abolished. Germany renounced in her favour her rights over

put under sequester on Feb. 17, 1915, together with all industrial concerns which might be useful or dangerous to Germany, especially great metallurgical businesses, quarries, mines, electricity works, etc. In 1915 central offices were set up for the coal, oil and grease, water, gas and electrical industries. The stoppage of overseas exports ruined Belgian industry. Unemployment increased enormously, reaching 650,000 in 1916. Germany desired to recruit these workmen for her own use, but met with obstinate refusals. On Aug. 14 and 15, 1915, the first decrees appeared ordering severe penalties for persons who refused to work for Germany. At the same time, commissions were sent from Germany to take out of the Belgian workshops everything which could be used beyond the Rhine, and to destroy systematically all machinery which could not be transported to Germany. By June 30, 1918, 167 factories had been completely destroyed, and 161 were on a list of the governor-general’s for immediate destruction. Of the 57 blast furnaces, 26 had been razed to the ground, 20 put completely out of action. Only the mines necessary for Germany were spared. On Feb. 18 and July 21, 1917, work was forbidden in all factories and workshops except by special permission. At this moment Germany ordered the stoppage of all public works undertaken by the provinces and communes for the relief of unemployment. These steps were preliminary to the plan of deporting the Belgian working population. In November the military authorities

requisitioned able-bodied men throughout the whole country. munication were mostly sent to to construct railways, prepare

363

between the ages of 17 and 60 Inhabitants on the lines of comthe Yser or North French fronts, routes and dig trenches, often

within the range of artillery. The other workmen were concentrated in great camps in Germany, whence they were dispatched

Moresnet and the Walloon cantons of Eupen and Malmédy (g.v.).

Belgium was confirmed in the possession of these two cantons by the League of Nations. The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, on

July 25, 1921, entered into a customs, railway and consular union with Belgium. In Africa, Belgium received the mandate for the Urundi and the Ruanda, representing part of the territories conquered by the Belgian army, which was operating with the forces of the British empire during the war. (See RUANDA-URUNDI.) After the war the problem of Belgium’s international status

took on a new form. Belgium was anxious to free herself of the restrictions on her right as a sovereign state to form defensive alliances, especially as the guarantee of neutrality which had been substituted for this right had proved ineffectual. The Treaties of Versailles, Saint-Germain and Neuilly accordingly contained the provision that Germany, Austria and Hungary recognized that the treaties of 1839 no longer conformed to the requirements of the situation, consented to their abrogation and accepted in advance whatever arrangements might be made to replace these treaties by

the principal allied and associated Powers, or by any of them in concert with the Governments of Belgium and of the Netherlands. The logical consequence of the new position was a, military convention concluded in Aug. 1920 between Belgium and France, after full consultation between the respective general staffs. In Nov.

to German factories or labour battalions; 57,718 were transparted

to Germany, 57,541 to the front; 2,531 died in consequence of

1920 the two Governments informed the League of Nations that the military alliance had been concluded, and that it was of purely

ill-treatment.

defensive character.

Foodstuffs hegan to grow short in Nov. 1914. Immediately

ment with Great Britain; indeed, her ardent hope was to see a

Belgium offered to conclude a similar agree-

304

BELGIUM

LHISTORY

Belgo-Franco-British entente established. This could not be achieved; but Belgian foreign policy has endeavoured to maintain the traditions of the entente and to reconcile the British and

The fall of the exchange impoverished the middle Classes, holders of state papers and mortgages and small house owners,

French points of view. In the Locarno Pact (g.v.) Oct. 16, 1925, Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Italy took note of the abrogation of the treaties for the neutralization of Belgium. A

tenants to continue to occupy their dwellings, limiting the rent to a sum not exceeding 125% of the pre-war rents, while building costs had increased by 700%. On the other hand, the quick re.

treaty signed in Paris May 22, 1926, by Great Britain, France and Belgium confirmed the abrogation of these treaties. Belgium’s policy has naturally been mainly influenced by the two problems of security and reparations (see the articles under those headings). Under the influence of the latter problem she joined the French in their occupation of the Rubr (q.v.). In order to arrive at a practicable settlement of the reparations question, Belgium repeatedly sacrificed her rights of priority for the benefit of her Allies (e.g., July 1920, Aug. 1921, July 1922). Belgium became a non-permanent member of the Council of the League of Nations on its formation, and remained so until 1927. Paul Hymans was elected thefirst president of the League. The Treaty of Versailles guaranteed Belgium priority for the sum of 2,000,000 gold marks on reparations account. In addition her allies declared themselves ready to transfer Belgium’s war debt (5,600,000,c00fr.) to the German reparations account.

In

1925 the United States required from Belgium recognition of her war debt, although the remission of this debt had been foreseen by the treaty. An arrangement was concluded with America regarding this debt on Aug. 18, 1925. The question of the Schelde was not solved by the Treaty of Versailles. Belgium attempted to reach a modus vivendi on this subject with Holland; but no arrangement could be reached, as Holland laid claim not only to the sovereignty of the waters of the Schelde, but also to the sovereignty of the Wielingen channel which would have made possible the complete isolation of Belgiura from the sea. On April 3, 1925, a new treaty was signed settling the relationship between the two countries. In 1927 a general treaty was drafted by the Belgian and Dutch Governments, which was accepted by the Belgian parliament but rejected by the parliament of the Netherlands. Reconstruction.—After the conclusion of peace the Government was chiefly occupied with the problem of feeding the country, which necessitated various measures prohibiting export and authorizing the requisitioning of home-grown foodstuffs. In consequence of the destruction of industry, there were 800,000 unemployed in the country, and 2,400,000 persons, or one-third of the population, were dependent on public assistance. The State was obliged to create relief works immediately. The number of persons organized in trade unions rose from 200,000 in 1914 to 600,000 in rọrọ. By the end of 1919 the 2,oookm. of railway which had been destroyed were reconstructed. Thanks to the recovery of the 24,000 Belgian machines brought back from Germany and to the huge orders for material placed in England and America (which were made possible by the credits granted to industry by the banks, these having enlarged their capital considerably for this purpose), industry recovered rapidly. The reconstruction of the devastated regions, valued at over 35 milliard francs, called for very great sums; military pensions, indemnities for damage caused by war, unemployment doles swelled the budget disproportionately. In 1919 the public debt had risen from four milliard francs before the war to 13 milliards, and passed 30 milliards in 1921. At the same time the fall of the exchange continually increased the cost of living, necessitating a great increase of salaries and readjustment of wages. The demand for social legislation increased greatly. On Dec. 1, 1919, the working day was reduced to eight hours. To prevent or diminish conflicts, national councils, formed by delegates of the masters and the workmen in equal numbers, with an official as president, were set up after the Armistice. The action, although devoid of any legislative backing, was often successful. Similarly in the mining industry, especially in the basins of the Centre and Borinage, a whole system of arbitration was set up, freely organized by the masters and workmen. The financial measures of the Government were also democratic in tendency, including income tax, super-tax and an Increase in succession duties.

This was further accentuated by the housing law, permitting

covery of industry contributed to enrich the industrial and commercial classes.

The high price of living also improved the con.

ditions of the peasants, who spent enormous sums on acquiring land. Thus the middle classes were in a difficult situation between the rich capitalists on one side and the workmen and peasants on the other. The activity of the banks drained out all the free money in the country, and gave real power to the great financial

establishments. The considerable improvement in the condition of the working classes increased the power of the trades unions. The Socialis party formed the Banque Belge du Travail, while the increased wealth of the peasants gave the Banque des Boerenbonden very

great financial and political power.

The political result was the

weakening of the Liberal Party, which was recruited from the middle classes, an access of strength for the Socialist and Catholic

Parties, and an increase of the democratic element. The passing of a law which re-established the legal personality of associations not aiming at profits (June 27, 1921) also deserves mention. This

law met a real demand, and the country is now covered every. where with charitable, scientific or social associations. The relig. ious establishments are all under this form. The intellectual life of Belgium revived. The Association Inter-

nationale des Académies chose Brussels for its centre. On Aug, 19, 1920, an Académie de Langue et de Littérature Française was formed at Brussels. The status of legal personality benefited the free universities of Louvain and Brussels and the universities of Ghent and Liége. The profits realized by the Commission for Relief in Belgium went to constitute a university fund, with a capital of 80,000,c00fr., for the development of the sciences in Belgium. Each university was further endowed with a capital of 20,000,000 francs. A war archives department was established to collect all documents bearing on the history of the war between 1914 and 1918. The period of restoration was blessed with a truce in the political struggle; unlimited universal suffrage from the age of 21 was Introduced at the demand of the Socialist Party; female suffrage, which was claimed by the Catholic Party, was granted for communal elections. The elections of Nov. 16, 1919, under the new franchise, resulted in the Catholic Party’s losing the majority which it had held since 1884. At first the country was ruled by a “concentration’? Government, under Delacroix and later by Carton de Wiart; afterwards by a coalition between Catholics and Liberals under Theunis; then after the elections of April 1925, in which the Socialists obtained 818,852 votes, Catholics 751,011, and Liberals 305,032, by a democratic Catholic-Socialist coalition under Goullet and Vandervelde. This ministry made an attempt to stabilize the franc. It failed, and the franc fell from o7 to 237 to the pound sterling. Restoration of the Currency.—In May 1926 Henri Jaspar formed a coalition ministry consisting of representatives of the three great parties of Belgium. He made a vigorous effort towards finanical stabilization, with the help of E. Francqui, who was principally responsible for the currency reform. He obtained from parliament legislation giving him full powers to carry out the neces-

sary measures. Belgium was faced with a very serious situation; the internal floating debt amounted to $6,346,000,000 francs, and the foreign debt to 54,000,000 dollars or two milliard francs. On June 7 parliament agreed to impose fresh taxation yielding one and

a half milliards. On the same day there was set up an amortization fund intended to give the creditors of the State an assurance that the taxes voted for the amortization of the debt would actually be used for that purpose. On July 23 the State handed over the management of its railways to a national railway company. A royal decree was issued on July 3r converting the internal debt; the creditors of the State were given bonds, the rate of which was

guaranteed, entitling them to a share in the profits derived from

365

BELGIUM the industrial exploitation of the railways. Under the influence of these measures, the franc rose to an exchange rate of 175, and it

was stabilized at this rate by law. It was guaranteed by the constitution of a reserve of gold-value securities at the National Bank

amounting to 40% of the value of the currency issued. In order to make the Belgian franc completely independent, a new currency

was created, the Belga, which is equivalent to five Belgian francs. The Belga is a theoretical currency unit (one pound sterling is

!

equivalent to about 35 Belgas).

The Jaspar ministry resigned in Nov. 1927, as the Socialist

ministers refused to accept the military reform scheme drawn up by the Ministry of War.: A new Jaspar ministry was formed

consisting of a coalition between the Catholic and Liberal Parties. During the years which followed the conclusion of peace, the

popularity which the king and queen had. acquired during the war

did much to help in the maintenance of internal peace and order. In 1927 the king proposed the formation of a Fond National de

lo Récherche Scientifique to foster the intellectual development of ‘he country. Opened in November, subscriptions speedily amounted to fr. 125,000,000. In June 1928 the king and queen visited the Belgium colony of the Congo. Prince Leopold, the heir to the throne, was married to Princess Astrid of Sweden in Nov, 1926. Activist agitation is still carried on by the “frontist” party (frontpartij), but is of no importance. The communists, who are opposed by the powerful socialist organization, do not

appear likely to gain much ground. On the other hand, the Flemish question has become more acute since the introduction of universal suffrage.

The

demand

however is still for

nothing more than linguistic reforms within the Belgian State. An

act adopted in 1921 made Flemish the administrative language of the Flemish-speaking districts of the country.. French may, however, be used as well as Flemish in all communications to the public wherever a request to this effect is made by one-fifth

of the municipal electors. Flemish is also being introduced in higher education. The University of Ghent was partially flemicized in 1923; the Catholic University of Louvain has become a bilingual university. The language position in 1920 nevertheless shows that French is still spreading. At that date there were in Belgium 2,855,835 persons speaking French only, 3,187,073 speaking Flemish only, and 960,960 speaking both languages. 1928.—During the.summer of ‘1928 the chambers passed an important law on the recruitment and composition of the army, and the use of the French and Flemish tomgues among the troops. The duration of service with the colours was fixed, as a general rule, at eight months. In Nov. 1928 a law was under discussion to amnesty a certain number of those condemned for war-time offences. The stabilization of the currency resulted in measures for the increase of official salaries. A transformation was effected in the railway system following the transfer of its management from the State to the Société nationale des chemins de fer. Great undertakings were decided upon for enlarging the port of Antwerp and improving its communications with the industrial basin of

seated astride the direct road from

Berlin to Paris and Calais,

had become the cockpit of Europe, and her international political situation as defined by the guarantee of perpetual neutrality. THE STRATEGICAL SITUATION In Article 7 of the treaty with Holland of 1839 it is laid down

that “Belgium, within its territorial limits, shall form an independent and permanently neutral state, and is required to observe

this same neutrality with regard to all other states.”

Of this

treaty “all articles are drawn up under the guarantee of Austria,

France, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia.” This neutrality clearly implied that Belgium was under an obligation to use her military forces, not to repulse an aggressor at all costs—a task beyond her means and one for which there could be no justification—but in such a manner as to prevent that aggressor from obtaining any anticipated advantage in his operations against a third party, i.e., to suspend for an adequate period free passage along the great international strategic highway of which the axis is defined

by the Meuse, the Sambre and the Oise. The mission of the Belgian army was to gain time and delay the enemy. To this end the foremost and best position to occupy, supposing the enemy to come from the east, was the Meuse, with its steep scarped slopes and its two road and railway junctions, Namur

and Liége.

These two towns had been encircled by a ring of

detached forts by Brialmont in Leopold II.’s reign so that they might act both as bridgeheads and as “points d’appui” from which, with the support of their guns, the field army could easily hold up enemy forces of equal strength. If the enemy brought up very superior forces facing the Meuse the Belgian army would avoid being engaged in a battle which it was foredoomed to lose. It would retire fighting, step -by step on Antwerp—its base of operations’ and the national citadel—holding itself in readiness

to move out again for the counter-offensive in co-operation with any relief force the Powers

guaranteeing

Belgium’s

neutrality

should serid’to its assistance. Such was the plan of campaign drawn up by King Albert; but unfortunately Belgium was in the throes of military reorganization when the World War broke out. The country had been slow in realizing that the rivalry between its powerful neighbours constituted a menace to itself. In 1913 parliament had voted a compulsory military service system which was to produce 340,000 men in ten years’ time. Actually, on mobilization, only 117,000 men were available for the field army and 60,000 for the

fortress troops. The. field. army, grouped in six army divisions

and one cavalry division, was without any reserve drafts whatever; the fortress troops, composed of men aged 28—35 years were weak' in cadres and poor in quality. The plan of concentration had been revised, but there had not been time to make out the time-table for rail transport.

Belgian Preparations.—On the evening of July 31 mobilization was ordered. On Aug. 2 it became known that the Germans had invaded the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, and at 7 p.m. the ultimatum was presented tó the Belgian minister of foreign affairs Liége. The negotiations undertaken with Holland after the World by the German ambassador in Brussels. “If Belgium behaves e , War were re-opened but up till the end of 1928 without conclusiv in a hostile manner to German troops, and particularly if she 7 e È ; result. | impedes their march forward by resistance on the part of the BrprioGraPHy.—J. J. Thonissen, La Belgique sous le règne de Meuse fortifications, or by the destruction of roads, railways, Leopold I. 3 vols. (Louvain, 2nd ed., 1861) ; L. Hymans, etc., Histoire parlementaire de la Belgique de 1830 & 1890, 8 vols. (Brussels, 1877- tunnels or other works, then Germany will be compelled to regard Belgium as an enemy.” Belgium’s reply to this injunction was the 1901); H. Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique, 6 vols. (Brussels; 1900-26) and Bibliographie de l'histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 3rd ed., 1928) ; categorical refusal which her sense of honour and of her duties P. Errera, Traité de droit public belge (2nd ed., 1918); G. Rency, J. Cuvelier, Tasnier, R. van Overstraeten and A. de Ridder, La Belgique et la guerre, 4 vols. (Brussels, 1920-23) ; A. de Ridder, Histozre

toward Europe demanded.

belge revisée (Brussels, 1921) ; G. W. T. Omond, Belgium and Luxem-

tegrity of Belgian soil, the place of concentration indicated for the army was on the Meuse between Maastricht and Namur. But, as has been ‘said, transport arrangements were still incomplete and a modification had to be adopted. The king ordered that the 3rd and 4th ‘Divisions -mobilized at Liége and Namur should

diplomatique du traité

de 1839 (Brussels, 1920); La Constitution

bourg, “Nations of To-day” Ser. (1924); T. H. Reed, Government

and politics of Belgium

(New York, 1924); Economic and ‘social

history of World War, Belgian section, edit. J. T. Shotwell, 7, vols.

(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1924-28) ;E. Vandervelde, Le parti ouvrier belge (Brussels, 1925); E. Mahaim, La Belgique restaurée (Brussels, 1926); L. de Lichtervelde, Leopold II.

(Brussels, 1927).

F

(H. Pr.; J. Pr.)

_ BELGIUM, INVASION OF. The military rôle of Belgium of fundamental in 1914 was determined by two considerations mportance: the geographical situation of' the country, which,

E

As it was definitely from the east that danger threatened, and as France had officially declared that she would respect the in-

remain in those fortresses with instructions to defend them to the

last man. The remaining four divisions and the cavalry division were concentrated—the former by rail; the latter by road—in the zone-Tirlemont-Perwez-Louvain, whencé they were to proceed

toward the Meuse with all possible speed.

:

o

BELGIUM

366 THE ATTACK ON LIEGE

As already stated, Liége and Namur were not designed to withstand a regular siege, but consisted of a ring of forts (12 at Liége,

nine at Namur) which controlled the free use of the Meuse bridges and marked a favourable line of battle. Constructed about 1890, these forts, casemates of 2m. date; they were 12-cm. guns and

of triangular or rectangular design, had vaulted so-cm, concrete and were completely out of armed with two 15-cm. guns in cupolas, two two 21-cm, howitzers, besides some pompons

in “éclipse” cupolas, all fring black powder. Strength of Liége.—With the help of the 3rd Division the Liége garrison was brought up to about 30,000 men; Gen. Leman THE ATTACK ON

LIEGE

way rapidly along the Dutch frontiers to Visé. The roads had been barricaded with felled trees, and it was noon before the cavalry reached the Meuse, only to fnd the bridge submerged and the opposite bank lined with riflemen. On Aug. 5 a coup de main aimed at Ft. Barchon was severely punished by the short-range

fire from the fortress guns. At to p.m. the various brigades having completed their reconnaissances and the installation of their hy.

teries, moved concentrically to the attack. . The battle opened to the fitting natural accompaniment of heavy thunder showers. Of the five brigades which attacked on the right bank, four were completely repulsed. In the south the 38th and 43rd in particular suffered severe losses round abou Boncelles; they retreated over five miles the next day. The 34th Brigade, which attacked alone on the left bank after crossing the

i

(1914)

German Advance.—On the morning of Aug. 4 the 4th Divisi followed by cyclists and chasseurs conveyed by motors, made its

Meuse near to the Dutch frontier, was held up for several hours near the northern outskirts of Liége by street fighting, and left

English Miles

ee oo Kilometres

400 prisoners in the hands of the Belgians at the end of the encounter.

By a strange chance a half-company of Jagers, detached as a flank guard, made their way quite unopposed into the town, reach.

o

Loncin, Lantin x

enri Chapelle

Hollogne IE GE

Flemalle 2

F ME

N

A

i

a09 Eupen N

ALS: Boncelles A AR

>, 9

Main Railways tH Advance of German Col™S at> Belgion Counter Attack mam> THE FORTRESS OF LIÉGE SHOWING THE RING OF 12 FORTS, 9 MILES IN DIAMETER, AROUND THE CITY AND THE LINES OF THE GERMAN ADVANGE TO THE MEUSE. THE CITY WAS TAKEN ON AUG. 6, 1914 BUT THE FORTS HELD OUT UNTIL AUG. 16, AND WERE ỌNLY SILENCED AFTER THE GERMANS HAD BROUGHT UP LARGE HOWITZERS. THE DELAY CAUSED BY THE UNEXPECTED STUBBORNESS OF THE BELGIAN RESISTANCE WAS OF GREAT VALUE TO THE ALLIES

was in command. While he hastened to have trenches dug between the forts, his main concern after Aug. 3 was to blow up the railway tunnels and barricade the roads leading from Germany. It was well that he did so, for on the 4th, at 8 a.m., six German columns crossed the frontier on the line Aix-la-Chapelle-St. Vith, and at noon gun and rifle fire were heard at Visé. The importance of the fortress lay in the fact that it controlled

the lines of march of the German 1st and 2nd Armies. Now the success of the plan of campaign conceived by the general staff in Berlin depended upon the rapid crossing of the Belgian plains by these armies, and Gen. von Moltke, to avoid being held up in any way by Liége, had planned to carry the position during the concentration period (while troops were being carried up by rail) with a special army composed of six brigades at peace strength and the three divisions of Gen. von der Marwitz’s cavalry corps. Accordingly, Gen. von Emmich, with his “Army of the Meuse” (consisting of 25,000 riflemen, 10,000 cavalrymen and 124 guns) was ordered to carry the place by a coup de main. The forts were to be masked by a few companies and their artillery neutral-

ized by his batteries while six brigade columns would penetrate the intervals. This assault was to take place by night, and the columns were to make their way independently toward the town and storm this at daybreak. The aim of the whole enterprise was to secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. As regards the temerity of this scheme, it is only fair to say that von Moltke expected to find merely the normal garrison of 6,000 men in Liége.

ing the Rue Sainte Foi about 7 A.M., where the garrison head. quarters were situated. An aide-de-camp of Leman and the captain of the company killed each other on the spot, and the escort, snatching up their rifles, put the Jägers to flight. This extraordinary incident led the commander of the defence to þelieve that the enemy had brought over considerable forces to the left bank. Fearing that the troops defending the right bank might

be cut off, he at once sent them an order to recross the river, a decision by which the last of the German brigades was to benefit considerably. This brigade, the 14th, marching from east to west, was entrusted with the attack between Forts Fléron and Evegnée, but -had been stopped short by rifle and gun fire in the intervening village, its advanced guard being decimated, its general and one colonel killed. It would probably have come to a definite standstill but for the arrival at this critical moment, by another stroke of fortune, of Gen. Ludendorff, who as von Emmich’s

deputy chief of the staf was watching the operations on behalf of the German 2nd Army and, as head of the operations section of the German general staff, had been the author of the plan of attack. Attack Under Ludendorff.—Taking over the command he ordered a renewal of the attack and, as Leman had sent all his reserves to Boncelles, succeeded in pushing back the three weak battalions opposed to him in an all-night street battle. Toward 10 A.M. he arrived on the heights over Liége with his brigade reduced by half and almost without ammunition, uneasy rather than proud of his success, for there was no sign of the other attacking troops. A few small columns were visible in the distance turning westward; these were the victorious Belgian troops, recalled to the other bank by the order to retreat. They were, however, so exhausted that once they had left the trenches they were incapable of engaging in a fresh battle. Leman, acting on the belief that the whole of the German 7th and roth Corps were against him, gave orders to the 3rd Division to rejoin the field

army. He himself would continue to hold off the enemy with forts alone, _ Thus Ludendorff was able to enter the town of Liége without further opposition on the morning of Aug. 8. Most of the bridges had been destroyed. The forts, all of which were still intact, kept watching roads and railways, their guns making the use of either impossible. Urged by Ludendorff’s energetic representations, the German general staff now formed a new siege army, under Gen. von Eimen, which comprised, in addition to von Emmich’s group,

all the troops of the 7th, gth and roth Corps—taken as they de

trained—and some powerful heavy artillery, including several battalions ef 21-cm. mortars and four 42-cm. howitzers. A new mode of attack was tried. One by one the forts were isolated, closely invested and bombarded with concentrated fire, which

destroyed their gun emplacements and magazines and at the samt time threatened to asphyxiate the garrisons,

~

~

BELGIUM

Fall of the Forts.—The defenders came through their ordeal

367

French 3rd and 4th Armies should advance into the Ardennes and

While these events were taking place at Liége, the 1st and 2nd,

the French 5th Army and the British Expeditionary Corps take the offensive west of the Meuse in the direction of GemblouxNivelles. Meanwhile, the Germans having discovered—through the reconnaissances of their airmen—the French columns marching northwards between Maubeuge and Dinant, gave von Bilow— already in command of the rst and 2nd Armies—authority over the 3rd Army, which was to strike the Meuse between Namur and Givet, and made up their minds to overwhelm the Allied left by a converging attack delivered by 15 corps. It was essential to the scheme that the fortress of Namur should be carried with the least possible delay. The task was entrusted to a special army detachment under von

ard and 6th Divisions, and the Cavalry Division were assembling in the region Tirlemont-Perwez-Louvain. The plan of marching

Gallwitz. It included the Guards Reserve Corps, the r1th Corps, three pioneer regiments, five battalions of 21-cm. howitzers, two

with honour, and would certainly have held out longer but for the irresistible effect of the 42-cm. shells. Pontisse, Fléron and Chaudfontaine only gave in when they had reached the limit of human endurance. On. Aug. 15 at 5 P.M., the fort of Loncin blew

up through the explosion of a powder magazine hit by a 42-cm.

shell, 350 men being buried under the débris. By a stroke of luck Leman was picked up, unconscious, on the rim of this enormous crater by the Germans, who were themselves horrified by the spectacle. The last of the forts surrendered on the 16th, leaving the way clear, at last, for the Germans to whom the passage meant So much.

towards the Meuse was perforce abandoned on the information that the Liége position was broken and the 3rd Division in retreat.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL OF LIEGE Belgian Position Outlined.—On the morning of Aug. 4, when the crossing of the frontier by German troops had become an established fact, King Albert had sent a note to the British, French and Russian Governments announcing the violation of Belgian neutrality, and proposing “a concerted and common action by the guaranteeing powers in order to resist Germany.” In reply Gen. Joffre sent one of his staff officers to say that the French troops, amounting to four army corps, could not reach

the region of Namur before about the 15th. Help from England would necessarily take still longer to come. Under these conditions the king decided that the army should remain in its positions, which were: (xr) the forts of Liége, acting as isolated works, under Leman; (2) the fortress of .Namur, reinforced by the 4th Division; (3) the entrenched camp of Antwerp, guarded

by about 40,000 fortress troops; and (4) the field army, 90,000

strong, entrenched behind the river Gette, forming a link between Antwerp and Namur, covering Brussels and excellent railway lines which could be used by any French or British troops that came to the rescue. Unfortunately, the Allies were not to profit by these arrangements. The French would not think of anything except their attack in Lorraine and the Ardennes; the British did not arrive at Mons before Aug. 22. As fast as the Liége forts fell to the superguns the Germans commenced to push their troops across the Meuse without intermittence. As early as Aug. ro Marwitz’s cavalry corps had thrown itself on the Belgium front at Tirlemont. On the r2th he tried to turn that front through Haelen,

near Diest. Here he met the small Belgian cavalry division, supported by four battalions, and was completely routed, leaving 500 killed and wounded and 1,000 horses on the field. On the evening of Aug. 17, the German 1st and 2nd Armies having reached the

front Hasselt-St. Trond-Huy, the kaiser ordered the genéral advance. The next day, at 9 o’clock, Gen. von Kluck attacked the Belgians on the Gette between Tirlemont and Diest with seven divisions of the oth, qth, 3rd and end Corps, while one division of the 2nd Corps and the 2nd Cav. Div. turned the left flank on the north to cut off the retreat on Antwerp. Retreat to Antwerp.—This attack was no surprise to the

king. For several days reports had been coming through that greatly superior forces of at least 200,000 men were approaching.

Gen. Lanrezac’s French troops had got only as far as Philippe-

Ville and the British Expeditionary Force as far as Le Cateau.

To avoid useless and complete destruction, the Belgian army be-

gan to retire slowly on Antwerp, fighting rearguard actions at

Tirlemont on the 18th and at Aerschot on the roth, and taking up its position on the line of the Antwerp forts on the 2oth.

On

this day the Germans entered Brussels. THE SIEGE OF NAMUR , The Belgium 4th Division remained at Namur. The moment t lost touch with the bulk of the Belgian army, it became part

of the fighting system of the Franco-British forces.

, German Plan of Attack.—On the morning of Aug. 18 Joffre

issued a succession of orders in which it was laid down that the

battalions of heavy guns, one battery of 42-cm. howitzers and four of 30-5 Austrian howitzers. These troops came into position north-east of the fortress. To complete the investment the 3rd Army detached the 24th Reserve Division north of Dinant and the and Army the rath Reserve Division south of Gembloux. Thus during the two days of the battle of Charleroi the 30,000 men of the Namur garrison drew upon themselves six enemy divisions and 500 guns. Bombardment of Namur.—tThe attack on Namur was quite different from that on Liége. There was no longer any question of a surprise. Von Gallwitz, who in peace time was inspectorgeneral of artillery, aimed at an artillery preparation so devastat-

ing as to render the defence incapable of resistance to the assault. All his batteries concentrated their fire upon three forts, Maizeret, Marchovelette and Cognelée, and on the interval between the two last named, where he intended to make a breach. The bombardment commenced at ro a.m. on Aug. 21, continued throughout the night and the whole of the following day, and reached its height on the morning of the 23rd. The trenches and the wire—at that time very slight—had disappeared. The forts were reduced to shapeless ruins; all their cupolas were put out of action. Surrender of Namur.—Three French battalions had arrived in the fortress. A counter-attack, half Belgian, half French, attempted to repulse the enemy artillery, but failed. The defending troops suffered steady extermination without being able to fire a shot. Finally at rz a.m. the German infantry masses made a sudden onrush—three divisions of them to a front of 44kilo.—held by what remained of nine battalions of 700 men. The defenders were swept off their feet. At many points, although enveloped, they put up a desperate resistance; and, as a result, it was not until evening that the assailant reached the outskirts of the town. Gen. Michel, commanding the fortress, had disposed a brigade facing north-west to co-operate in the French offensive which he was impatiently expecting. At about 1-30 p.m. he heard, however, on the one hand that the French on his left had been driven back southward instead of advancing to the north; on the other that the Germans, far behind his right, had crossed the Meuse be-

tween Namur and Dinant. With their front broken the garrison ran the risk of being enveloped and surrounded. Michel therefore expedited the order for an immediate retreat toward the south-east. By dint of 48 hours of forced marches—coming after three days’ battle—the greater part of the garrison succeeded in rejoining the French troops and a fortnight later in reinforcing the Belgian army at Antwerp. Five or six thousand men of the rearguard were trapped between the flank corps of the German znd and 3rd Armies, and after several skirmishes, were forced to surrender. The six forts which were still active at Namur were able to hold up von Gallwitz’s forces two days longer. Suarlée and Andoy only surrendered on the evening of Aug. 25 after having offered a memorable resistance to the enemy’s mortars, which bom-

barded them simultaneously from all sides. SIEGE OF; FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE.)

(See also ANTWERP,

BrsriocrapHy.—Marschall von Bieberstein Liittich-Namur

(1918) ;

E. von Ludendorff, Meine Kriegserinnerungen (1919; Eng. trans., My War Memories, 1919); H. R. A. von Kluck, Der Marsch auf Paris

(1920; Eng, trans, The March on Paris, 1920); C. J. Dupont, Le Haut

368

BELGRADE—BELIEF

Commandement Allemand en 1914 (1922); Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918 (Deutsches Reichsarchiv, 1924, deals with the opening stages) ; H. van Staabs, Aujmarsch nach zwei Fronten (1925) ; H. Camon, L’Effondremenit du Plan allemand (1928); H. Zwehl, Erich von Falkenhayn, eine biographische Studie (1926). See also WortD War Bibliography. (R. van O.)

used to call it Darol-i-Jehad, the home of wars of the faith. Dur. ing the 14th century it was in the hands of the Serbian kings, and was made the capital of Serbia in 1403 by Stephen, grandson g Prince Lazar. His successor, George Brankovich, ceded it to the Hungarians in 1427. From 1521 to 1688 it was in Turkish hang

(Serbian Beograd, i.e., “White Castle”), the and again from 1739 to 1789 when the Austrians carried it }; Pop. (192r) 111,740. Belgrade occupies assault, and lost it again in 1792. In 1807 the Serbians havin, Yugoslavia. capital of a triangular foreland at the confluence of Sava and Danube; at risen for their independence, took the town and held it until the the base stands Avala hill, the last outpost of the Rudnik end of Sept. 1813. Up to 1862 the fortress and the Danubian slope of the town were mountains, and at the apex a cliff 200ft. high, crowned by the citadel, once white, but now maroon with age, used as prison and inhabited by Turks, living under a special Turkish administration barracks. Behind the citadel are the beautiful gardens of Kal- while the modern part of the town (the plateau of the ridge and megdan, with a famous river view, and behind them the city of the western slope) was inhabited by Serbians living under they white houses. It was formerly divided into the old. town, the own authorities. This dual government was a constant cause of Russian town (Sava Makhala or Sava district), and the Turkish friction between the Serbians and the Turks, and on the occasion town (Doréol or cross-road). Changes in the roth century made of one conflict between the two parties the Turkish commander the old divisions less clear and there grew the Tirazia, a suburb of the fortress bombarded the Serbian part of the town (June along the aqueduct or Tirazi. A few old plaster Turkish houses, 1862), which indirectly led, in 1866, to the withdrawal of the with red-tiled roofs, are left among the insanitary riverside dis- Turkish garrison from the citadel and its delivery to the Serbians tricts, but after 1869 Belgrade was rapidly transformed into a In 1878, by the treaty of Berlin, Belgrade became the capital of modern European town, with wide streets, electric tramways, a Serbia freed at last from the Turkish suzerainty. The World electric lighting, telegraphs and telephones; while in the beginning War began with'the bombardment of Belgrade by the Austrians of the 20th century, wireless was installed. Belgrade is the seat on July 29, 1914. In’ November it was taken by the Austro. of the metropolitan of Serbia, with a cathedral. In addition to Germans, but the Serbs made a brilliant return, and in December the university (with four faculties), educational facilities are King Peter made a triumphant’entry into his capital. Large numafforded by a military academy, a theological seminary, a com- bers of prisoners were taken, but they and their captors fell mercial academy and several secondary schools. The court of victims to a ‘terrible plague of typhus. In Sept. 1915 a general cassation sits at Belgrade, and also a court of. appeal and a com- attack was made by Austrians and Germans on the river frontier, and on Oct. 9 the town fell. It remained in the enemy’s hands mercial tribunal. There is a fine monument of Prince Michael (1860-68); a royal until the end of the war, when the kingdom of Yugoslavia came into existence. palace, much enlarged in 1925; an interesting national museum; BELHAVEN AND STENTON,; JOHN HAMILTON, a national library with a wealth of old Serbian mss.; a national theatre; a botanical garden, rich in Balkan flora; while a new 2nd Baron (1686-1708), eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord parliament house is being constructed. Commercial institutions Presmennan (d. 1696), was born on July 5 1656. He succeeded include a chamber of commerce and many trade associations, and to the title of Belhaven and Stenton in virtue of his wife in 1679. In 1681 he was imprisoned for opposing the government and for a national bank, privileged to issue notes. f The bulk of the foreign trade of Serbia finds its way through speaking slightingly of James, duke of York, in parliament, and Belgrade, and the town itself is engaged in brewing, iron-founding, in 1689 he was among those who asked William of Orange to and the manufacture of cloth, woollen goods, boots, glue, ‘sugar, undertake the government of Scotland. Belhaven was at the soap, pottery, preserved meat, and confectionery. Belgrade is battle of Killiecrankie; he was a member of the Scottish privy near good coal supplies, and in the neighbourhood are lead mines council, and he was a director of the Scottish Trading Company. and quarries with excellent building stone and beautiful marbles. which was formed in 1695 and was responsible for the Darien The main railway line of Yugoslavia ruhs north to:meet the expedition. He opposed the union of the English and Scottish Hungarian line to Budapest, and south through Nish and Skoplje, parliaments, a ‘speech which he delivered against this propos! to join the Greek line to Salonica., It has many branches and in Nov. 1706 attracting much notice and a certain amount of is connected with the Adriatic ports Split and Sibeniķ. The only ridicule. ‘Later he was imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a prohigh roads are one going north to Smederevo, and one south to jected French invasion, and died in London on June 21 17608. Cattaro, all the others being merely country roads. South of the Two of his speeches, one of them the famous one of Nov. 1706. of the town is the park of Topchider, with an old Turkish kiosk built were printed by D. Defoe in an appendix to his History Union (1786). for Prince Milosh (1818—39). In the adjoining forest of lime BELIEF is acquiescence in the reality of an object or assent trees, called Koshnutyak or the “deer park,” Prince Michael was the truth of a proposition. The meaning of the term varies to assassinated in 1868. Opposite the citadel, across the Danube, lies the town of Lemun (Semlin) which was Hungarian until 1918. somewhat'in different contexts. It is sometimes applied to the For administrative purposes Belgrade forms a separate depart- content of a belief, but more usually to the act or experience of believing. Somewhat more serious are the differences in the meanment of the kingdom. The first fortification was made by Celts in the 3rd century ing of the term belief which arise from different contrasts. The B.C., with the name Singidunum, by which it was known until principal ‘contrasts are those (a) between belief and knowledge, the 7th century A.D. The Romans took it from the Celts and (b) between belief and disbelief, (c) between belief and doubt, replaced their fort by a regular Roman castrum. Between the (d) between belief ahd mere apprehension. An explanation of 4th and 6th centuries a.p. it often changed masters (Huns, these antitheses will help to clear up the nature of belief. (a) Belief and Knowledge.—If. anyone is asked whether he Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then the emperor Justinian made it Roman once more. ‘Towards the end of the 8th century it was knows that man is immortal, he may reply; “I don’t know but I betaken by the Franks of Charlemagne; in the oth century by the lieve that he is.” Or again, if asked’ whether he believes that he Bulgarians, who held it till the beginning of the 11th century, has to pay income tax, he may reply, “I don’t believe it. I know when the Byzantine emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the it?’ In these and similar cases-the term belief is used for the act Greek empire. The Hungarians, under King Stephen, took it of assenting to something, accepting it as real'or true, when the from the Greeks in 1124. From that time it was again constantly grounds of our assent are not strong enough to justify our calling changing hands—Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians replacing each it knowledge. It may be a more or less probable surmise, 1t may of the heart,” ‘but it is not knowledge. other in turn. The city was considered-to be the key of Hungary be prompted by “reasons and of Serbia also, besides giving command of the traffic between It is rather like an act of faith—it is believed merely. To confine the Upper and Lower Danube. It has, in consequence, seen more “belief” to this meaning is unsatisfactory., It may be said with obbattles under its walls than most fortresses in Europe. ‘The Turks vious truth that if one can believe even what he does not know, BELGRADE

BELINSKY— BELISARIUS ne certainly believes what he does know. It is therefore better to use the expression “mere (or bare) belief” for what has just been

called “belief” when contrasted with knowledge. Strictly speaking all knowledge is belief, though not all belief is knowledge.

(b) Belief and Disbelief.—It clearly makes a difference whether the reality of something or the truth of a proposition is believed or disbelieved. The difference, however, is essentially a difference in the content or object of the belief, not a difference in the attitude or experience of believing. He who disbelieves that

369

died on June 9, 1848, at St. Petersburg; the son of an army doctor. At the University of Moscow he became friendly with Stankevich and other young writers, but he took no degree. On leaving the university, he wrote first of all for Nadzhdin’s Telescope, and

then after its suppression (1836), edited the Moskousky Nablyudatel, of which Bakunin was at that time the proprietor.

On the failure of this undertaking he became the principal literary critic of the Otechestvennya Zapiski in St. Petersburg. By this time he had come under the influence of the philosophy man is immortal really believes that man is mortal. And so gener- of Hegel, and his early friends were surprised to find that their ally to disbelieve a given proposition is to believe its contradictory. champion, who had always supported what was new and revoluSo that gud experiences or attitudes belief and disbelief are essen- tionary in Russian literature, was supporting the existing social tially similar experiences directed towards contradictory contents and political régime, but after a few years he returned to his or propositions, or simply:to affirmative and negative propositions earlier position, and now supported the advanced school of Russian writers who sought to give pictures of life with a social signifrespectively. (c) Belief and Doubt.—The difference between the assurance, icance. In 1846 he became critic of the Sovremennik, which had conviction, mental rest or equilibrium characteristic of belief, and been purchased by Nekrasov and Panayev. Next year he was the unrest and vacillation characteristic of doubt, is palpable. obliged to leave Russia for reasons of health, and addressed to Doubt in its extreme form becomes doubting mania and ends in Gogol a letter criticizing Gogols Correspondence with Friends, a the asylum. As a matter of mental economy people naturally tend letter which became a kind of profession of faith among young i toward belief. In the early stages of life, the stage of innocence Russians. His collected works were edited by Vengerov (1901—r0) and his life or inexperience, every appearance is accepted ds real and every written by Pypine (1876). See also D. S. Mirsky, History of Russuggestion as true. Doubt is the fruit of disappointment and of was sian Literature (1927), for an estimate of Belinsky’s influence on Rusreasonably practised When suggestions. or conflict of rival beliefs sian literature. o it is an important factor in the make-up of a man of science, as BELISARIUS (c. 505-565), one of the most famous generals Huxley tightly insisted. Such reasonable doubt is what is meant of the later Roman empire, was born about A.D. 505, in “Gerby a critical attitude of mind.: But unreasonable doubt is as fruit- mania,” a district on the borders of Thrace and Macedonia. As less in science as is unreasonable belief, that is, credulity. a youth he served in the bodyguard of Justinian, who appointed (d) Belief and Mere Apprehension.—Psychologically this is him commander of the Eastern army. He won a victory over the the most important distinction. Merely to imagine something, or Persians in 530, but was defeated in the following year. Recalled to understand a suggestion, is one thing; to accept it as real or true to Constantinople, he married Antonina, a favourite of the empress is quite another thing. The former is mere apprehension, the lat- Theodora. During the Nika sedition (532) he did Justinian good ter is belief. One cannot, of course, believe (or disbelieve) what service, crushing the rebels who had proclaimed Hypatius emone does not apprehend (though some people seem. to suppose that peror. In 533 he was put in command of the expedition against they can believe what they do not understand), yet one may ap- the Vandal kingdom in Africa. With 15,000 mercenaries, he took prehend something without believing or disbelieving it. In this re- Carthage, defeated Gelimer the Vandal king, and carried him capspect belief may be compared with desire. It is one thing to think tive to Constantinople (534). As a reward Belisarius received of something or apprehend it, and another to desire it (or even the consulship. At this time Justinian decided to attack Italy to have an aversion for it). Of course, one cannot desire what where the Ostrogothic kingdom was shaken by internal dissenone does not apprehend (though one may experience a restless sions. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded Sicily (535. and, after craving without knowing what he wants), but one can apprehend storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against almost a thing without feeling either a desire or an aversion for it. the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he captured Ravenna, Thoughts that are apprehended without being either believed or and with it the Gothic king Vitiges. The Ostrogoths offered to disbelieved are sometimes described as “floating ideas.” Except acknowledge him emperor of the West, but he rejected the properhaps in day-dreaming, in reading avowed fiction, and in aes- posal and returned to Constantinople in 540. Next year he was thetic enjoyment “floating ideas” are probably uncommon. The sent to check the Persian king Chosroes (Anushirvan); but suspension of judgment is a form of self-control or self-denial that achieved no decisive result. In 544, the Goths having meanwhile most people find irksome—it is so much easier to have a definite reconquered Italy, Belisarius was sent with inadequate forces to helief or disbelief about everything between heaven and earth. oppose them. During five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, This seems borne out partly by the popular identification of “not until he was removed from the command. Belisarius remained at believing” something (which may denote merely a suspension of Constantinople in retirement until 559, when at the head of a judgment) with “disbelieving.” mixed multitude of peasants and soldiers he repelled the BulBelief in the sense just explained is really equivalent to judg- garian savages who had invaded the city. But this, like his former ment—belief corresponding usually to positive judgments, disbe- victories, roused Justinian’s envy. The saviour of his country was lief to negative judgments. It was F. Brentano*who gave vogue to coldly received and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. the distinction between judgment and mere apprehension, on the Shortly afterwards Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conground that judgment involves what Stout has called the “yes-no- spiracy against the emperor (562); his fortune was confiscated and consciousness” over and above. bare apprehension. This moment he was imprisoned in his palace. He was set free and restored to of belief or “yes-no-consciousness” seems to be something ultimate favour in’ 563, and died in 565. and unanalysable. But it is clearly variable in degree or fixity. The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through There are many. different (though hardly measurable) degrees of Constantinople, which has been adopted by Marmontel in his assurance with which a proposition is assented to or rejected. Bélisaire and by various painters and poets, is first heard of in It may just be noted in: conclusion that some psychologists have the roth century. Gibbon justly calls Belisarius the Africanus of identified belief with a certain feeling of vividness inthe ideas or New Rome. He was merciful as a conqueror,'stern as a disthoughts assented to (Hume).; while others’ have treated it as a ciplinarian, enterprising and wary as a general; while his courage,

matter of will (Descartes, W. James, etc.).

loyalty and forbearance seem to have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a good tactician, but not'a great Principles of Psychology (1899), and Will to Believe (1897); G. F. strategist. | pete Stout, Analytic Psychology (1896); A. J. Balfour, Foundations of BrstiocrapHy—F.

Brentano,

Psychologie

(1874);

Belief (1895) ; H. Newman, Grammar of Assent (1870).

BELINSKY,

VISSARION

W.

James,

(A. Wo.)

GRIGORIEVICH

(1811-

1848), Russian critic, born on June 13, 1811, at Fribourg, and

BreriocRAPHy.—Diehl,

Justinien

(1901); Procopius,.De Bellis and

Historia Arcana (best edition by J. Haury, 19085, 1907) ; see Gibbon,

Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, vol. iv.); T. Hodgkin, Zialy and her Invaders (vol. iv.); J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire (1923), vol. ti.

BELIT—BELL, ANDREW

370

BELIT, signifying the “lady,” par excellence in the Babylonian religion.

Accadian translation of Sumerian dingir-Nin- (lil)

consort of En-(lil) of Nippur. The earth god and his consort are called Bêl and Beliu “Lord and Lady” in the older interlinear texts, but the Accadian translation is not provided with the deter-

minative for goddess, and there is no evidence that the Baby-

lonians recognized any goddess under the name Bélii, Belii-ta “My Lady,” until the Cassite period, where the title stands for Zarbanit, the goddess of Babylon and consort of Marduk, the Bél of that period. There arose, under the transformation of the pantheon by the priests of Marduk, a tendency to identify the great Sumerian deities Enlil and Ninlil with Marduk and Zarbanit, and the “goddess Bélit of Babylon” is consequently identified with the Wagon star, which in astrology is the constellation of Ninlil. The Babylonian goddess Bêlti, “my lady,” or Belit-ni, “our lady,” invariably means Zarbanit, spouse of Marduk, the Bêl of Babylon. It appears to have been given to Zarbanit after she had been identified with the great mother goddess Makh, called bêlit-ilānt, “queen of the gods,” and more especially was “my lady” employed in addressing Ishtar, the mother and sister of Tammuz. In the later period Marduk and Zarbanit were identified with these deities (see Tammuz) and consequently “our lady,” “my lady,” originally addressed to Ishtar, became the title of Zarbanit. In survivals of the Tammuz cult in post-Babylonian times, Ishtar or Zarbanit, mother and sister of the dying god, appears in

Aramaic and Arabic as Beliin, “our lady.” By Beltis the Greeks

refer to Zarbanit of Babylon as well as to Aphrodite, the Semitic Ba‘alat of Byblus. Bélti is the Latin transcription used by Philo, of Biblus.

BELIZE, the capital and principal seaport of British Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17° 29’ N. and 88° 11’ W. (Pop. est. 12,600), occupies both banks of the river Belize, at its mouth. The ground is very little above sea level and the town is divided from the mainland by miles of swamps, the unhealthiness of which is mitigated by tidal inflow and fresh sea breezes. Its houses are generally built of wood on piles, with high roofs and wide verandahs, and shaded by coco-nut or cabbage palms. The town is not unhealthy and the winter climate is pleasant. The swamps adjacent are being cut back and cleared and the level of the land raised by dredgings. Belize is connected by telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of British Honduras, but communication by road is defective. The chief exports are mahogany,

gained distinction, rising to the rank of brigadier-general in 1864 and major-general in 1865. Until 1869 he was collector of interna] revenue for Iowa, leaving that post to become secretary of war, In 1876, because of unproved accusations of corruption, he re. signed. He died at Washington, D.C., on Oct. 13, 1890.

BELL, ACTON, CURRER AND ELLIS: see Bront,

CHARLOTTE, EMILY AND ANNE. BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM

(1847-1922), Ameri-

can inventor and physicist, inventor of the telephone; son of

Alexander Melville Bell, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, op March 3, 1847. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh

and the University of London, and, because of failing health, re.

moved with his father to Canada in 1870. In 1872 he opened in Boston a school for training teachers of the deaf and also gave instruction in the mechanics of speech. The following year he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston university. He exhibited in 1876 an apparatus embodying the results of his studies in the transmission of sound by electricity, and this ip. vention, with improvements and modifications, constitutes the modern telephone (g.v.). He was the inventor also of the photophone, an instrument for transmitting sound by vibrations in a beam of light, and of phonographic apparatus. Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical flight. He gave numerous addresses and published many scientific monographs, including one on the formation of a deaf variety in the human race. Bell was

the founder of the American Association to Promote the Teaching

of Speech to the Deaf, was for a time president of the National Geographic Society, appointed by Congress in 1898 a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and was a member of many learned societies. He died on Aug. 2, 1922, at his summer home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia.

BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819-1905), American educationalist, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 1, 1819. He studied under and became the principal assistant of his

father, Alexander Bell, an authority on phonetics and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he lectured on elocution at the University of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to 1870 at the University of London. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871, he lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he became a lecturer on philology at Queen’s College, Kingston, Ont.; and in 1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where he devoted himself to the education of deaf mutes by the “visible speech” method of or_ cedar, logwood, coco-nuts, sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, thoepy, in which the alphabetical characters of his own invention turtles and fruit, especially bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics were graphic diagrams of positions and motions of the organs of speech. He held high rank as an authority on physiological phonand hardware are imported. Belize probably derives its name from the French balise, “a etics and was author of numerous works on orthoepy, elocution beacon,” some signal for the guidance of the buccaneers who once and education, among which were Steno-Phonography (1852); infested this region. Local tradition, however, connects the name Letters and Sounds (1858); Principles of Speech and Dictionary with that of Wallis or Wallace, a Scottish buccaneer who, in of Sounds (1863); Visible Speech: The Science of Umiversal 1638, settled with a party of logwood cutters on St. George’s Cay, Alphabetics (1867); Sounds and their Relations (1881); A Popua small island off the town. In the 18th century the names Wallis lar Manual of Visible Speech and Vocal Physiology (1889); and Belize were used interchangeably for the town, the river and he Science of Speech (1897); The Fundamentals of Elocution

the whole country. (See BrrrisH Honpvuras.) BELJAME, ALEXANDRE (1842-1906), French writer, was born at Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise. He spent part of his childhood in England and was a frequent visitor in London. His lectures on English literature at the Sorbonne, where a chair was created expressly for him, did much to promote the study of English in France. In 1905-06 he was Clark lecturer on English literature at Trinity college, Cambridge. His best known book, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle (1881), a masterly study of the conditions of literary life in Eng-

1899).

See John Hitz, Alexander Melville Bell (Washington, 1906).

BELL, ANDREW

(1753-1832), British divine and educa-

tionist, was born at St. Andrews, Scotland.

He graduated there,

was a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A., and from 1789 superintendent of an orphan asylum at Madras. There scarcity of teachers

led him to introduce

the system of mutual tuition by the

pupils. In 1797, after his return to London, he published a small pamphlet, An Experiment in Education, explaining his views on the subject. Little public attention was drawn towards the

land in the 18th century illustrated by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope, was crowned by the French Academy on the appearance of the second edition in 1897. He was a good Shakespearian scholar, and his editions of Macbeth, Othello and Julius Caesar also received an academic prize in 1902.

“monitorial”

soldier and politician, was born at Newburgh, N.Y., 1829. Entering the Union army in 1861, he took battles of Shiloh, Corinth and Vicksburg, as major Towa volunteers. In the Atlanta campaign under

was called from his rectory of Swanage, in Dorset, to organze a system of schools in accordance with these views, and in 1811

BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH

(1829-1890), American

on Sept. 22, part in the of the r5th Sherman he

plan till Joseph Lancaster

(g.v.), the Quaker,

opened a school in Southwark, conducting it in accordance with Bell’s principles, and improving on his system. Similar schools

were established in great numbers; and the members of the Church of England resolved to set up similar institutions m

which their own principles should be inculcated. In 1807 Bell he became superintendent of the newly-formed National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the

BELL, SIR CHARLES—BELL, Established Church. He was made a prebend of Westminster and master of Sherburn hospital, Durham, and was buried in West-

minster Abbey. His great fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational purposes. See J. D. Meiklejohn, An Old Educational Reformer.

BELL, SIR CHARLES

(1774-1842), Scottish anatomist,

GERTRUDE

darkest hours, saved it from utter shipwreck.”

377 While in Egypt,

Bell wrote several books, including Khedives and Pashas (1884); Egyptian Finance (1887); From Pharaoh to Fellah (1889). BrsriocRrapHy.—See F. Harcourt Kitchin, Moberly Beli and his Times (1925); E. H. C. Moberly Bell, Life and Letters of C. F.

Moberly Bell (1927).

was born at Edinburgh, Educated at.the high school and the Uni-

BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843), Scots jurist, born versity of Edinburgh, he devoted himself chiefly to the study of at Edinburgh on March 20, 1770, an elder brother of Sir Charles anatomy, under the direction of his brother John. In 1802 he Bell, became advocate in 1791. He was one of the earliest and published a series of engravings showing the anatomy of the brain

and nervous system taken from dissections made for the lectures or demonstrations he gave on the nervous system as part of

the course of anatomical instruction of his brother. In 1804 he migrated to London. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had written his work on the Anatomy of Expression, in which he gave a rational explanation of the muscular movements which usually accompany the various emotions and passions. In 1811 Bell published his New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain, in which he announced the discovery of the different functions of the nerves corresponding with their relations to different

parts of the brain; his latest researches were described in The Nervous System of the Human Body (1830), a collection of

papers read by him before the Royal Society. He discovered

that in the nervous trunks there are special sensory filaments, the

office of which is to transmit impressions from the periphery of the body to the sensorium, and special motor filaments which convey motor impressions from the brain or other nerve centre to the muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist entirely of sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that others

are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves, whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and is therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Lastly, he showed that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are mofor; the posterior are sensory. These discoveries as a whole must be regarded as the greatest in physiology since that by William Harvey of the circulation of the blood. In the year 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex hospital, a post he retained for 24 years. He was also professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to the College of Surgeons of London, and for many years teacher of anatomy in the school which used to exist in Great Windmill street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to treat the wounded of the battle of Waterloo. In 1836 he accepted the chair of surgery in the University of Edinburgh. He died at Hallow Park near Worcester on April 28, 1842. BIsLioGRAPHY.—Bell’s chief works, other than those mentioned, are: System of Comparative Surgery (1807) ; Lectures Concerning the Diseases of the Urethra (1810) ; Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery (1816-18); Observations on Injuries of the Spine and of the Thigh Bone (1824) ; and Practical Essays (1841).) l

BELL, CHARLES

FREDERICK

MOBERLY

(1847-

1911), British journalist, was born in Alexandria, Egypt. Educated privately in England, he returned to Egypt in 1865, and there took up journalistic work, becoming The Times correspond-

ent and founding The Egyptian Gazette. He had been The Times correspondent in Egypt for nearly 20 years when Mr. Walter called him to London in 1890 at a moment when the fortunes of the paper were at their lowest ebb, after the Parnell-Piggott scandals. Although in some ways rather out of touch with technical developments, his strong will, indomitable courage and tremendous industry were instrumental in keeping The Times alive during some very difficult years. He enormously improved

the foreign service; he wrote with his own hand to The Times

correspondents abroad, giving them all the encouragement

and

backing in his power. This was the time when he was associated

with Mr. H. E. Hooper in publishing and selling The Encyclopedia Britannica and founding The’ Times Book Club. His dominating personality again asserted itself in 1908, when, in

spite of much opposition, he brought about the sale of The Times to Lord Northcliffe. He then became managing editor, a post he retained until his death in his office chair on April 5 rq11. In the introduction to his daughter’s Life of him Sir Valentine

Chiral says that if it was not given to Moberly Bell himself to bring The Times into smooth waters, “it was he who; in the

best friends of Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a Treatise on the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland which he enlarged and published in 1826 as Commentaries on the Law of Scotland and on the principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence—an institutional

work of the highest excellence, praised by such jurists as Story and Kent. In 1821, Bell was elected professor of the law of Scotland at Edinburgh, and in 1831 appointed one of the principal clerks in the Supreme Court. He was put at the head of a commission in 1833 to enquire into the Scottish bankruptcy law; through the reports of the Commissioners, chiefly his handiwork, useful alterations were made. He died on Sept. 23, 1843. Bell’s treatise, Principles of the Law of Scotland, became a textbook for students. The Illustrations of the Principles is also a work of high value. He is one of the four institutional authors who are cited as “authorities” in the Scots courts. BELL, GERTRUDE MARGARET LOWTHIAN (1868-1926), English traveller and administrator, daughter of Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., by his first marriage, was one of the most remarkable women of her time. Her childhood was spent in the charming surroundings and liberal atmosphere of the Yorkshire home of her father and step-mother, Florence Bell, with both of whom she maintained affectionate and intellectual sympathy. With them and many others she carried on a correspondence of extraordinary spirit and distinction. A comparatively small part was edited by Lady Bell with cramping respect for the political exigencies of the day, and published in 1927 in two volumes under the title of The Letters of Gertrude Bell. A brilliant academic career at Oxford, where she took a First in History in 1887, was followed by more than a decade of intimate association with the best intellectual society. While she had opportunities of making herself familiar with the political life of several European countries, her life-work began during a visit to her uncle, Sir Frank Lascelles, then British Minister at Tehran. The spell of the East claimed her for good. To this period we owe her translations of Hafidh, already foreshadowing the literary power and sympathy with orientalism manifest in works following at intervals. The fullness of her knowledge and strength were shown in an official report on the administration of Mesopotamia during the difficult period between the Armistice of 1918 and the rebellion of 1920. At the end of 1899 Gertrude Bell entered on the Arabian activities which made her one of the memorable travellers. In that year she visited Jerusalem, travelling widely in Syria and Palestine. The next decade saw her back in those parts on frequent occasions. Her experiences, archaeological exploration playing an important part, were recorded in an admirable series of works: Safar-Nama; Amurath to Amurath; Syria, the Desert and the Sown; and, in conjunction with Sir Wiliam Ramsay, The Thousand and One Churches. By this time she was an acknowledged authority on Asia Minor and the northern borderlands of Arabia, but her heart was set on a journey into the interior of Arabia. In spite of many obstacles she embarked on this venture in 1913, travelling from Damascus and eventually reaching Hail, whither only one European woman (Lady Anne Blunt) had ever penetrated before her. Received coldly by the authorities of Hail and prevented from travelling farther south, she returned to Baghdad and thence across country to Damascus. In ordinary circumstances this remarkable journey might have stood out as the chief feat of her life. But its results she never was to have time to publish. Soon after her return to civilization in rgr4 the World War began and Gertrude Bell, after a short spell

of war work in England and France, returned to the East. A short period in the Arab Bureau and avisit to the viceroy of India were preliminary steps to an appointment in Mesopotamia which in

374

BELL, HENRY—BELL,

ROBERT

various guises she retained to the day of her death. At first she worked with conspicuous success on the collection and collation of intelligence respecting the Arab tribes. In March 1917 she joined Sir Percy Cox at Baghdad in the actual, though not nominal, capacity of political secretary and played a strong part in the moulding of a scheme for the post-war administration of Mesopotamia. She next served Sir-Amold Wilson in a similar capacity, but her lack of sympathy with his policy manifested itself in almost open insubordination and in direct correspondence with the political chiefs in London, The situation had become acute when the rebellion once more threw the whole Mesopotamian problem into the melting pot. Sir Arnold Wilson was replaced by Sir Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell again assumed a dominating influence on affairs. For some months all went well with the provisional Arab Government set up in fulfilment of British promises, but no one played a more vigorous part than Gertrude Bell in upsetting this arrangement in favour of a Sharifian régime. Her notorious antipathy to Saiyid Talib Pasha, principal factor in the provisional Government, ranged her with friends of Feisul, recently ejected by the French from his Syrian throne. She worked powerfully at the Conference of Cairo (1921) to secure that

the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. He also established

Baghdad, she brought about the exile of Saiyid Talib. Feisul became king and for the next two years Gertrude Bell was the life and soul of a régime often shaken but left standing, thanks largely to her. By 1923, when Sir Percy Cox was succeeded by Sir Henry Dobbs, Gertrude Bell’s work was done. Unable, however, to leave the country to which she was passionately devoted, she accepted the post of Honorary Director of Antiquities, and lavished all her zeal on the creation of a museum at Baghdad. There, in July 1926, worn out by years of strenuous work, she died and was buried. See Letters of Gertrude Bell (2 vols., 1927), ed. Lady Bell. | | (H. Sr. J. B. P.)

retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the remainder

Feisul should be offered the throne of ‘Iraq and, on her return to

the Pharmaceutical Journal, superintending its publication fo, eighteen years. In 1845 Bell drew up the draft of a bill to dea) with the practice of pharmacy by unqualified persons, one of the

provisions of which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the governing body in all questions connected with

pharmacy. In 1850 Bell entered parliament for St. Albans, ang in 181 he brought forward a bill which, however, when eventually it became law, only partially represented its sponsor’s inten. tions. Bell wrote an Historical Skeich of the Progress of

Pharmacy in Great Britain. He died on June 12, 1859.

BELL, JOHN (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was bor at

Antermony, in Scotland, in 1691, and studied medicine. In 1714 he set out for St. Petersburg, where, through the introduction of a countryman, he was nominated medical attendant to Valensky, recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with whom he travelled

from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in an embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great Tatar deserts, He had scarcely rested from this last journey when he was summoned to attend Peter the Great in his perilous expedition to

Derbend and the Caspian Gates. In 1738 he was sent by the Russian government on a mission to Constantinople. In 1747 he of his life. His Travels, published at Glasgow in 1763, went

through many editions, and are reprinted in Pinkerton’s Voyages

and Travels (vol. vii, 1811). appeared in 1766.

BELL, JOHN

A complete French translation

(1797-1869), American political leader, was

born near Nashville, Tenn., on Feb. 15, 1797. He graduated at the University of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817 was elected to the State senate, but retiring after one term, he devoted himself for ten years to the study and the practice of the law. From 1827 until 1841 he.was a member of the national House of Representatives, of which from June 1834 to March 1835 he was the BELL, HENRY (1767-1830), the Scottish engineer, who Speaker, and in which, he was conspicuous as a debater and a conplaced the first steamboat on the Clyde, was born in Torphichen, servative leader. Though he entered political life as a Democrat, Linlithgowshire, in 1767. He was apprenticed to his uncle, a millhe became estranged from his party’s leader, President Jackson, wright, and then to a shipmodeller at Bo’ness. He then went to also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of the leaders of the London, where he found employment under John Rennie. ReWhig party. in the South. In March 1841 he became the secreturning to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at tary of war in President Harrison’s Cabinet, but in September, Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth after the death of Harrison and the rupture between the Whig of Clyde, where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also leaders and President Tyler, he resigned this position. From found occasional employment as an engineer. In Jan. 18x2 he placed on the Clyde a steamboat (which he named the “Comet”) 1847 until 1859’ he was a member of the United States Senate, and attracted’ attention by his ability in debate and his political of about 25 tons, propelled by an engine of three horse-power, at independence, being one of two Southern senators to vote against a speed of seven miles an hour. Although the honour of priority and against the admission of is admitted to belong to the American engineer Robert Fulton, the Kansas-Nebraska bill of 1854 constitution in 1858. pro-slavery or Lecompton the with Kansas there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had received very and devoted to the Union, material assistance in the construction of his vessel from Bell and Strongly conservative by temperament others'in Great Britain. A handsome sum was raised for Bell by he ardently desired to-prevent the:threatened secession of the for the presisubscription among the citizens of Glasgow, and he also received Southern states in 1860, and was the candidate, called from the from the trustees of the River Clyde a pension of £100 a year. dency of the Constitutional Union party, often and the vice-presiHe died at Helensburgh on Nov. 14, 1830. A monument to his names of its candidates for the presidency which was memory stands on the banks of the Clyde, at Dunglass, near dency (Edward Everett) the “Bell and Everett party,” made up largely of former Whigs and Southern “Knowa Bowling. Nothings,” opposed sectionalism, and strove to prevent the dis-

BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD

(1803-1874), Scots lawyer

and man of letters, was born at Glasgow, and was-called to the Scottish bar in 1832. He became sheriff substitute (1839), and then sheriff-principal (1867) of the county of Lanark. He was a member of the brilliant circle of Blackwood’s Magazine, and figures in John Wilson’s Noctes Ambrosianae as “Tallboys.” His principal works were Summer and Winter Hours (1831); Life of Mary, Queen of Scots (2 vols., 1828-31), a brilliant defence,

ruption of the Union. The party adopted no platform, and discarding all other issues, resolved that “it is both the part of patriotism and of duty to recognize no political principle other than the constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.” Bell was defeated, but received a popular vote of 587,830 (mostly cast in the Southern states),

and obtained the electoral votes of Virginia, Kentucky and altogether, out of a-total of 303.

Bell tried

though rendered obsolete by later research; Romances and Minor

Tennessee—39

Poems (1366), which show a sentimental, if undogmatic, sympathy for Roman Catholicism.

issue of President Lincoln’s proclamation of April 15, 1861,

BELL, JACOB

(1810-1859), British. pharmaceutical chem-

ist, was born in London on March 5, 1810. On the completion of his education, he joined his father in business as a chemist in Oxford street, and at the same time.attended the chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and those on medicine at King’s

of his own state, but after the earnestly to prevent the secession

calling on the various states for volunteers, his efforts were wi-

availing, and when Tennessee joined the Confederacy Bell “went

with his state.” He took no part in the Civil War, and died Sept. I0, 1869.

.

BELL, ROBERT (1800-67), Irish man of letters, was bom sollege. Always keenly alive to the interests of chemists in gen- at Cork Jan. 16 1800, and died in London on April r2 1867. He eral, Bell originated in 1841 the scheme for the foundation of was educated at Trinity-College, Dublin, where he was one of the

BELL

373

founders of the Dublin Historical Society. His most important

H. Bagley (18th century) are still in high repute.

ed., 1866), the works of each poet being prefaced by a memoir.

Robert Mot in 1570, incorporated the business of the Rudhalls, Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one of

work is his annotated edition of the English Poets (1854-57; new

He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund, and well known for

his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of letters. BELL. The number of different forms assumed by bells is very large, not all of which need be dealt with here. The term does

not strictly include gongs, cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars of

metal or wood, or tinkling ornaments, such as, ¢.g., the “bells” upon the Jewish high priest’s dress (Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is it necessary here to deal with such varieties as sheep or cow bells,

or bells on sledges or harness. For house bells see the end of this article. A “diving-bell” (see Drivers) is only so called from the

analogy of its shape. The main interest of bells and bell-ringing

has reference to church or tower bells, their history, construction and uses. Early Bells.—Of bells before the Christian era there is no trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the Romans to public baths or processions, or that which Lucian (A.D. 180) describes as set in motion by a water-clock (clepsydra) to measure time, were probably cymbals or resonant plates of metal, like the timbrels (corybantia aera, Virg. Aen. iii. rrr). used in the

worship of Cybele, or the Egyptian sistrum (q.v.), which seems to have been a sort of rattle.

The earliest Latin word for a bell

(campana) is late Latin of the 4th or 5th century a.v.; and the first application of bells to churches has been ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in Campania, about A.D. 400. There is, however, no confirmation of this story. It has been maintained with somewhat more reason that ‘Pope Sabinianus (604) first used church bells; but it seems clear that they were introduced into France as early as 550. In the 7th cen-

tury Bede mentions a bell brought from Italy by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and speaks of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby abbey at the time of St. Hilda’s death (680). St. Dunstan hung many in the roth century; and in the

trith they were not uncommon in Switzerland and Germany. Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales; the oldest are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates hammered and riveted together. A well-known specimen is St. Patrick’s bell, preserved at Belfast, called Clog an eadhachita Phatraic, “the bell of St. Patrick’s will.” It is 6in. high, sin. broad, 4in. deep, adorned with gems and gold and silver filigree-work; it is inscribed rog9r and 1105, but it is probably alluded to in Ulster annals in 552. In these early times bells were usually small; even in the 11th century a bell presented to the church at Orleans weighing 2,600lb. was thought large. : To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be added the enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus Magius, in his work De Tintinnabulis: (1) Tintinnabulum, a little bell, otherwise called tinniolum, -for refectory or dormitory, according to Joannes Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names squilla for the refectory; (2) Pefasius, or larger “broad-brimmed hat” bell; (3) Codon, orifice of trumpet; a Greek hand-bell; (4) Nola, a very small bell, used in the choir, according to Durand; (5) Campana, a large bell, first used‘in the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand), in the tower (Belethus); (6) Squdlla, a shrill little bell. We read of cymbalum for the cloister (Durand) or campanella for the cloister (Belethus); nolula or dupla in the clock; signum in the tower (e.g.,-in the Excerptions of St. Egbert, 750); the Portuguese still call a bell sino. Bell-founding.—The earliest bells were probably not cast, but made of plates riveted together. Later, when casting was adopted, the earliest founders were often peripatetic artificers, who travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry to cast bells wherever they were wanted. The chief English centres of the art in mediaeval times were London, York, Gloucester and Nottingham; and bells by “John

of York” (14th century), Miles Graye (1605), Samuel Smith,

The White-

chapel Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank), established by the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Gillett and John-

ston, Croydon, and Taylor and Company, Loughborough, founders of “Great Paul’ for St. Paul’s cathedral (1881).

the

Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion of about four to one. In Henry III.’s reign it was about two to one. In Layard’s Nineveh bronze bells, it was ten to one. Zinc and lead are used in small bells. The thickness of the bell’s sound bow (or edge) ranges from one-twelfth to one-fifteenth of its diameter, and its height is approximately 12 times its thickness. Bells have been made of the most various shapes within certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular, and the mitre-shaped all indicate, in Europe at least, antiquity, while the graceful curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-mouthed bell indicates an age not earlier than the 16th century. The bell is first designed on paper according to the scale of measurement. Then the outer mould is formed in an iron case lined with loam—a mixture of special adhesive kinds of sand, cow-hair and other ingredients. The “strickle board” is fixed to

an arm and central bar, and is swept round the loam until the required shape has been formed in the case. The inner mould, called the core, consists of a structure built up of bricks tier upon tier, coated with the same loam as that used in the case. This mould is formed by the other strickle board in a similar manner. These are the first, or rough, coats, and the moulds are then placed in the ovens to be thoroughly dried. This process may take two or three days in the case of a medium-sized bell, and longer in the case of larger bells.

The moulds are next brought out and coatéd a second time with a finer mixture of loam, and then returned again to the ovens to be dried. After this they are blacked and the surfaces “sleeked” so that the castings may come out clean and smooth. At this stage any inscriptions that may be required are stamped on the outer mould. The moulds are then put together, the case fitting over the core, and the metal, having been brought to the correct temperature, is then poured into each mould. The cooling process takes about 24 hours in the case of moderate sized bells or as much as a week in the case of larger ones. The case is then lifted off, the core is knocked out, and the bell is trimmed and sandblasted to remove the black and grease. American founders use buffing wheels to bring a high polish to the surface of their bells. Bell Tones and Tuning.—A good bell, properly struck, should give out two distinct notes—the strike note or key of the bell, and the hum note. There are other tones present, but these are not annoying to the ear if the bell is correctly made. The hum note should be a major sixth below the strike note. Such a bell possesses a full, round tone, and as it should be cast thick, it ought to last through the ages. The pitch of a bell may be lowered by grinding away some of the metal on its inner surface and thus increasing its diameter; and raised by grinding the edge which decreases its diameter. But any alteration of a good bell, after it is cast, is apt to injure the quality of its tone. | In tuning a “ring” or series of bells, the practice of founders was formerly to take one set of notes (in England usually the nominals, on the Continent the fundamentals) and put these into tune, leaving the other tones to take care of themselves. But during recent years tuning methods have been vastly improved,

with the aid of modern mechanical appliances, and all the five tones of a bell can now, be tuned with perfect accuracy. The great bell (“Great Paul’) cast by Messrs. Taylor for St: Pail’s cathedral, London, has not all its tones in true harmony, but the great bell-cast by the same founders for Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved machinery now in use there is no reason why this should not be the case with all church

father and son, of York (1680-1730), Abraham Rudhall and his bells. A descendants, of Gloucester (1684-1774), Mot (16th century), History and Uses of Bells.—The history of bells. is full.of Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher Hodson of London (who romantic interest. In civilized times they have been intimately cast “Great Tom” of Oxford, 1681), Richard Phelps (1716) and associated, not only with all kinds of religious and social uses,

374

BELL

but with almost every important historical event. Their influence

the world in actual use, weighs 128 tons.

upon architecture has been not less remarkable, for to them indirectly we owe probably most of the famous towers in the world. Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians to church. They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the rights of the burghers in their bells were jealously guarded. Thus

Burma hangs a bell 16ft. in diameter, weighing about 89 tons

the chief bell in the cathedral often belonged to the town, not to the cathedral chapter. The curfew, the Carolus, and St. Mary’s bell in the Antwerp tower all belong to the town; the rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded the bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment’s notice, he could rally and concentrate his adherents. Many a bloody chapter in history has been rung in and out by bells. On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian vespers (which have given their name to the affair), 8,000 French were massacred in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus planned to free Sicily from Charles of Anjou. On Aug. 24, St. Bartholomew’s day, 1571, bells ushered in the massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the number, it is said, of 100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered and ransomed cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson’s triumph and death at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal alternated with one deep toll,

and similar incidents could be multiplied. There are many old customs connected with the use of church bells, some of which have died out, while others remain here and there. The best known and perhaps oldest of these is the “Cur-

few” (couvre-feu), first enforced (though not perhaps introduced) by William the Conqueror in England as a signal for all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8 Pr.m.—probably to prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects. In many towns it survived into the roth century as a signal for closing shops at 8 or 9 P.M.; and it is still kept up in various places as an old

In a pagoda inUpper

The great bell at Peking weighs 53 tons; Nanking, 22 tons: 0}. miitz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711), 17 tons; Notre Dame (1680) 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter, York Minster, recast i 1927, Ir tons; Great Paul, at St. Paul’s cathedral, 163 tons.

Great Tom at Oxford, 74 tons; Great Tom at Lincoln, sh tons

Independence Hall bell, in Philadelphia, cast by Meneely in 18%6, 64 tons. Big Ben of the Westminster clock tower weighs 133 tons. it was cast by George Mears under the direction of the first Lord Grimthorpe (E. Beckett Denison) in 1858, but is noy cracked. Its four quarters were cast by Warner in 1856, The “Kaiserglocke” of Cologne cathedral, recast in 1875, with metal from French cannon captured in 1870-71, weighed 274 tons, byt

was broken up during the World War and has since been replaced by a new bell weighing 25 tons. The 184-ton bourdon bell of the carillon of 64 bells in Riverside church, New York (supplied by Messrs. Gillett and Johnston, of Croydon, England), is the biggest bell in the world that has ever been tuned and the largest bell

which has so far been cast in England.

Bell-ringing.—The science and art of bell-ringing, ag prac.

tised upon church and tower bells, falls under two main heads:

(1) Mechanical ringing, in connection with the machinery of a clock or “carillon”; (2) Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached to the fittings of the bells, whereby the bell itself js either moved as it hangs mouth downwards sufficiently for the

clapper just to touch its side (called, technically, “chiming’): or is swung round nearly full circle with its mouth uppermost (technically “ringing”), in which case the impact of the clapper is much heavier, and the sound produced is consequently louder and more far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common jn America and on the Continent of Europe, especially in Belgiun

and Flanders: ringing by hand is more common in England,

where the development of change-ringing (see below) has brought Among secular uses connected with church bells are the “Mote” it into prominence. or “Common” bell, summoning to municipal or other meetings, as (r) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires cone.g., the yth at St. Mary’s, Stamford, tolled for quarter sessions, nected with small hammers striking the bells, usually on the owtor the bell at St. Mary’s, Oxford, for meetings of Convocation. In side in the case of clocks and inside in the case of chimes and some places one of the bells is known as the “Vestry Bell.” The carillons, and worked either by connection with the machinery of a “Pancake Bell,” still rung here and there on Shrove Tuesday, was clock, so as to play tunes or artificially arranged chimes at definite originally a summons to confession before Lent; the “Harvest intervals; or with a key-board containing handles. The first of Bell” and “Seeding Bell” called labourers to their work; while these methods is familiar in the chimes (Cambridge, Westminster, the “Gleaning Bell” fixed the hours for beginning or leaving off etc.) heard from many towers at the striking of the hours and gleaning, so that everyone might start fair and have an equal quarters; or in hymn tunes played at intervals (e.g., of three hours) chance. The “Oven Bell” gave notice when the lord of the manor’s upon church bells. The second method is peculiar to the “carillon” oven was ready for his tenants to bake their bread; the “Market (g.v.) as found everywhere in Belgium, where with a set of from Bell” was a signal for selling to begin; and in some country dis- 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells a much wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than in English belfries, where the numtricts a church bell is still rung at dinner time. Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesiastical bers of bells usually range from four to twelve in one key only. uses of bells. The “Passing Bell,” rung for the dying, is now There are about 40 rings of 12 bells in England, some hundreds of generally rung after death. “Burial Peals,” once common at or rings of ten, perhaps 2,000 rings of eight, with a total of, say, after funerals, to scare away the evil spirits from the soul of the 10,000 ringing peals. (2) Ringing by Hand—Church bells may be “chimed” ot departed, though discouraged by bishops as early as the 14th century, were kept alive by popular superstition, and only finally “rung” (see above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells, checked in Puritan times; but they have been revived, since the with a rope in each hand and one foot in the loop of another. Some spread of change-ringing, in the “muffled peals” now frequently prefer the quieter sound of chiming as an introduction to divine rung as a mark of respect to deceased persons of public or local service, but where a band of ringers is available and changeimportance, The “Sermon Bell,” rung in pre-Reformation times to ringing is practised, the bells as a rule are rung. The practice of atgive notice that a sermon was to be preached (cf. Shakespeare, “clocking” a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord Henry IV., pt. 2, iv. 2. 4-7), survives in some places in a custom tached to it and pulled from below, is allowed to swing agamst of ringing the tenor bell, before a service with a sermon; and a the bell at rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the a similar custom before a celebration of the Holy Communion is very likely to crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, preserves the memory of the “Sacrament Bell.” the bell is in motion when struck. For ringing, a bell is pulled up and “set” mouth uppermost Large Bells.—There are a few bells of world-wide renown, and several others more or less celebrated. The great bell at She (to ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first a! custom.

Moscow, “Tsar Kolokol,” which was cast in 1733, was in the earth 193 years and was raised by the emperor Nicholas in 1836.

“handstroke” (ie., with the hands on the “sally” or tufted por tion of the rope, a few feet from its lower end) and then @

The present bell seems never to have been actually hung or rung, having been cracked in the furnace; and it now stands on a raised

“back-stroke” in the reverse direction (with the hands neate the lower end, the rope having at the previous pull coiled rou

height toft. 3in., circumference 6oft. gin., thickness 2ft., weight

pull a full circle till she comes back to the upright position,

platform in the middle of a square, It weighs about 180 tons,

three-quarters of the wheel’s circumference), describing at ea

af broken piece 11 tons. The second Moscow bell, the largest in each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the weight of the bel

BELL the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength to bring the bell

back into the upright position; otherwise its swing would become adually shorter till it remained at rest mouth downwards.

(3) Electric Ringing.—A device recently marketed by the Me-

neely Bell Company of Troy, N.Y., enables the ringer to play

tunes and changes on chimes (carillons) of stationary bells from

a console having keys like those of an organ. Wires lead from the console to relays, located near the bells, and wires from the relays are run to solenoids (large magnets) which are connected to the

clappers. Pressure on the keys transmits the electricity to the solenoids which pull the clappers.

Quick playing is thus secured,

repeat blows at the rate of three per second being possible on any one bell. Nearly all American made chimes are now being designed for electric ringing.

Change-ringing.—When a given number of bells are rung over and over again in the same

order, from

the highest note, or

“treble” to the lowest, or ‘“‘tenor’—z, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8—they are said to be rung in “rounds.” “Changes” are variations of this order—e.g,21354768,23145 67 8; and “change-ringing” is the art of ringing bells in “changes” so that a different “change” or rearrangement of order is produced at each pull of the bell-

ropes, until, without any repetition of the same change, the bells come back into “rounds.” The general principle of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after striking in the first place or “lead,” works gradually

“up” to the last place or “behind,” and “down” again to the first, and that no bell ever shifts more than one place in each change. Thus the ringer of any bell knows that whatever his position in one change, his place in the next will be either the same, or the

place before or the place after. He does not have to learn by heart

the different changes or variations of order; nor need he, unless he is the “conductor,” know the exact order of any one change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is working, viz., whether “up” from the first to last place, or “down” from last to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking; thirdly, what bell or bells are striking immediately before or after him—this being ascertained chiefly by “‘rope-sight,” ż.e., the knack, acquired by practice, of seeing which rope is being pulled immediately before and after his own. He must also remember and apply the rules of the particular “method” which is being rung. The following table representing the first 20 changes of a “plain course” of ““Grandsire Triples” (for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of this section: 123458 21354

67 “Rounds.” 7 6 (rst change.)

2314567 3241657 3426175 4362715

4637251

64735212

6745312

7654132

(5th change.)

756142 3 (roth change.) 5716243

5172634 1527364 1253746 2135

7364

2513746

(15th change.)

5232476

may be ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of permutations, by multiplying the number of the bells together. Thus on three bells, only six changes or variations of order

(1X2X3) can be produced; on four bells, 1X2X3X4=24; and so on up to the immense figure of 479,001,600 changes obtainable upon 12 bells. As many as 21,000 changes, occupying over 12 hours, have been rung upon church bells. But the great physical strain upon the ringers—to say nothing of the effect upon those who are within hearing—makes such performances exceptional. The word “peal” is often, though incorrectly, used (1) for a set of church bells (“a peal of six,” “a peal of eight”), for which the correct term is “a ring” of bells; (2) for any shorter per-

formance than a full peal (e.g., “wedding-peal,” ‘‘muffled peal,” etc.), called in ringing language a “touch.” Varying “Methods.”—Change-ringing upon five bells is called “Doubles,” upon seven bells “Triples,” upon nine “Caters” (Fr. quatre), and upon Ir “Cingues,” from the fact that at each change two, three, four or five pairs of bells change places with each other. “Doubles” can be and are rung when there are only five bells; but as a rule these “odd-bell” systems are rung with a “tenor behind,” że., struck at the end of each change; the number of bells in a tower being usually an even number—six, eight, ten or 12. In “even-bell” systems the tenor is “rung in” or “turned in,” i.e., changes with the other bells, and a different terminology is employed; change-ringing on six bells being called “Minor”; on eight bells, “Major”; on ten bells, “Royal”; and on 12, “Maximus.” As regards the application of the term “tenor,” rather than “bass,” to the largest bell in a peal, no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered—unless the suggestion can be so described that in a peal of ten the biggest bell is the “tenth” or “tenor!” The principal “methods” of change-ringing, each of which has its

special rules, are: (1) “‘Grandsire”; (2) “Plain Bob”; (3) “Treble Bob’; (4) “Stedman,” from the name of its inventor, Fabian Stedman, about 1670. In “Grandsire” the treble and one other bell, in “Plain Bob” the treble alone, has a “plain hunt,” z.e., works from the first place, or “lead,” to the last place, or “‘behind,” and back again, without any dodging; in ‘Treble Bob” the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in each place on its way up and down. This is called a “Treble Bob hunt”; and

under these two heads, according to the work of the treble, are classified a variety of “plain methods” and “Treble Bob methods,” among the latter being the so-called “Surprise” methods, the most complicated and dificult of all. “Stedman’s principle,” which is Suz generis, consists in the three front bells ringing their six possible changes, while the remaining pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an “‘odd-bell” method adapted to five, seven, nine or tz bells; as also is “Grandsire,” though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells. “Treble Bob” is always, and “Plain Bob” generally, rung on even numbers—six, eight, ten or 12. Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science of

5324167

3542617 3456241

375

(2oth change.)

It will be observed that at the rst change the third bell and

at the 15th the fifth bell, according to the rule of this “method,” strikes a second blow in the third place (“makes third’s place”). This stops the regular work of the bells which at the previous change were in the 4th, 5th, 6th and yth places ("in 4, 5, 6, 7”), causing them to take a step backwards in their course, “up” or “down,” or as it is technically called, to “dodge.” Were it not for this the bells would come back into “rounds” at the z4th

change. It is by the use of “place-making” and “dodging,” according to the rules of various “methods,” that the required num‘ber of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced. But inorder that this may be done, without the bells coming back into rounds,” further modifications of the “coursing order,” called technically “Bobs” and “Singles,” must be introduced. In ringing, notice of these alterations as they occur is given by one of the nngers, who acts as “conductor,” calling out “Bob” or

Single” at the right moment to warn the ringers of certain bells

to make the requisite alteration in the regular work of their bells.

“nce, In ringing language, to “call” a peal or touch=to conduct it. he number of possible “changes” on any given series of bells

“composing,” że., arranging and uniting by the proper “calls,” subject to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number of groups of changes, so that no one change, or series of changes represented in those groups, shall be repeated. A composition, long or short, is said to be “true” if it is free from, “false” if it involves, such repetition; and the body of ascertained laws and conditions governing true composition in any method constitutes the test or “proof” to be applied to a composition in that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical effect. Certain sequences of contrasts of notes strike the ear as more musical than others; and an arrangement which brings up the more musical changes in quicker succession improves the musical effect of the “peal” or “touch.” On seven bells all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal; but on larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those which are most musical. An Ancient Art—The art of scientific change-ringing, originally peculiar to England and to-day practised outside Eng-

land only in a few places in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States, does not seem to have been evolved before the

376

BELL, BOOK

AND

CANDLE—BELLACOOLA

middle of the 17th century. Societies or guilds of ringers, however, existed much earlier. A patent roll of 39 Henry ITI. (1255) confirms the “Brethren of the Guild of Westminster, who are ap-

pointed to ring the great bells there,” in the enjoyment of the “privileges and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time of Edward the Confessor.” In 1602 (as appears from a ms. in the library of All Souls’ college, Oxford) was founded a society called the “Scholars of Cheapside.” In 1637 began the “Ancient Society of College Youths,” so called from their meeting to practise on the six bells at St. Martin’s, College hill, a church destroyed

in the Great Fire of London, 1666. At first only “rounds” and “call-changes” were rung, till about 1642, when 120 “Bob Doubles” were achieved; but slow progress was made till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his Campanologia, dedicating it to this society, his method being first rung about this time by some of its members. Before the end of the 17th century was founded the “Society of London Scholars,” the name of which was changed in 1746 to “Cumberland Youths” in compliment to the victor of Culloden. These two metropolitan societies still exist, and include in their membership most of the leading change-ringers of England; one of the oldest: provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing festival. In the latter half of the 18th and first half of the 19th century change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an aristocratic pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church bells and their ringers, neglected by church authorities, became associated with the lower and least reputable phases of parochial life; and the belfry was too often an adjunct to the pothouse. In the last half of the 19th century, however, there was a great revival of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries and in ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers. Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of changeringing and of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and aroused church officials to greater interest in and care for their bells. A central council of church bell ringers, consisting of delegates from these various societies, was also formed, and in the result, it is now less likely than ever that the Belgian carillons

will be preferred in England to the peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which, whatever its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully brought out, and their scientific construction best stimulated. pot

Bell Literature.—The early literature of bell-lore (or cam-

bells the wires are replaced by pipes of narrow bore, and the current of air which is caused to flow along these by the pressing of a push-button actuates a small hammer which impinge rapidly against a bell or gong. An electric bell consists of a smal electro-magnet acting on a soft iron armature, which is supported in such a way that, normally, it stands away from the magnet, When the latter is energized by the passage of an electric current the armature is attracted towards it, and a small hammer attached

to it strikes a blow on the bell or gong. This “single stroke” type of bell is largely used in railway signalling instruments. For do. mestic purposes, however, the bells are arranged so that the hammer strikes a series of strokes, continuing so long as the

push-button which closes the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring is provided against which the armature rests when it js not attracted by the electro-magnet, and the current is arranged to pass through this spring and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature is attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring, the current is interrupted and the mag. net being no longer energized allows the armature to fall back

on the spring and thus restore the circuit. In this way a rapid to

and fro motion is imparted to the hammer. The electric current is supplied by a battery and conveyed by a wire. Bells of this kind cease to ring whenever the electrical continuity is inter. rupted, but in some cases, as in connection with burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once set in action, shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut. For this purpose, in “continu.

ous ringing” bells, the current, started by the push or alarm ap. paratus, instead of working the bell, is made to operate a relayswitch and thus to bring into circuit a second battery which continues to ring the bell, no matter what happens to the first circuit,

BELL, BOOK AND CANDLE, an old ceremony of pro-

nouncing the “major excommunication” or “anathema.” Its origins are not clear, hut it goes back certainly to the end of the 9th century, if not to the middle of the 8th. In this formality the bell répresents the public character of the act, for it served not only to call the participants together but to announce it to all; the ceremony was performed in some conspicuous place and, upon its termination, letters were written to bishops of other sees to report the fact. The book represents the authority of the words spoken by the presiding bishop. The candle is believed to symbolize the possibility that the ban may be lifted by the repentance and amendment of its victim, for just as the candles used are extinguished, so the excommunication itself may be. When the assemblage has been convoked'a bishop appears with 12 priests; and all of the 13 hold lighted candles. The bishop, wearing violet vestments, then recites the formula, ending thus: “We separate him, together with his accomplices and abettors, from the precious body and blood of the. Lord and from the society of all Christians; we exclude him from our holy mother the Church in heayen and on earth; we declare him excommunicate and anathema; we judge him damned, with the Devil and his angels and all the reprobate, to eternal fire until he shall recover himself from the toils of the Devil and return to amendment and to penitence.” Those present answer, “‘So be it!” Then the bishop and the 12 priests extinguish their candles by dashing them to the ground and (as a general rule) the ceremony 1 ended. Sometimes the ro8th psalm has been recited as a reference

panology) consists chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the technique of different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of particular counties or districts. Two of the earliest are Campanologia or the Art of Ringing Improved (1677), and a chapter of “Advice to a Ringer” in the School of Recreations, or Gentleman’s Tutor (1684), showing that in its early days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced many manuals, while A Glossary of Technical Terms used in connection with church bells and change-ringing was published in rgor, under the auspices of the Central Council of Church Bell Ringers. On the history of church bells and customs connected with them much curious information is given in North’s English. Bells and Bell Lore (1888). By the same author are monographs on the church bells of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and Hert- to Judas and other enemies of Christ. The present ceremonial. of excommunication is to be found in the fordshire. There are similar works on the church bells of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire, by Dr. Raven; of Huntingdonshire, by the Pontificale Romanum, book iii., under the title Ordo excommunicandi absolvendi. Seg also Catalan, Pontificale romanum prolegoments et Rev. T. M. N. Owen; and on the church bells of Essex, by the et commentariis illustratum, vol. iii., 253 et seq. (2nd ed., Paris, 1852); Rev. C. Deedes. A compilation: and summary of many data of Martène, De antiquae Ecclesiae Ritibus, book iii., ch. iv. (Rouen, bell-lore will be found in A Book about Bells, by the Rev. G. S. 1700); Vacant et Mangenot, Dictionnaire de Théologie catholique, , Tyack; and in a volume by Dr. Raven in the “Antiquary’s Books” vol. i. coll. 1168-71. series (1906), entitled Tke Bells of England, which deals with the BELLABELLA, the common name (popularized from the antiquarian side of bell-lore. Further may be mentioned: An Ac- Indian corruption of Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians al count of Church Bells (Lukis); The Church Bells of England Milbank, British Columbia, including the subtribes Kokaitk, Oet(Walters); Clocks, Watches and Bells (Lord Grimthorpe); and litk and Oealitk. They were converted to Christianity by ProtestBells and Bell Tones, a lecture delivered at the Musical Associa- ant missionaries, and number about 300..

tion by W. W. Starmer.

(See also CARILLON.)

House Bells.—Ordinary house bells of the old type, with a clapper worked by a wire, require no description. In pneumatic

BELLACOOLA, an American Indian ethnic unit, also called

Tallion, constituting the northernmost

group of the Salishan

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BELLADONNA—BELLARMINE pendent villages on Bentinck and Dean inlets and Bellacoola river in British Columbia.

They adhered to the maritime culture

restricted to the Northwest Coast.

By 1902 their numbers had

shrunk to 300. See F. Boas, in various writings on the area; and

a monograph in press, Can. Div. Ethn., by T. F. McIlwraith.

BELLADONNA, a name for the deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna).

(See ATROPINE; NIGHTSHADE;

SOLANACEAE.)

The

belladonna lily is quite a different plant. (See AMARYLLIS.)

BELLAGIO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, province of Como,

rm. N.NE. by steamer from Como. It is a resort with fine gardens on the promontory between the two southern arms of the

lake, It works in silk and olive-wood. BELLAIRE, a city of Belmont county, O., U.S.A., on the

Ohio river, sm. below Wheeling.

It is served by the Baltimore

and Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways.

The population was

9,912 In 1900; I 5,061 in 1920, of whom 2,691 were foreign-born white; and was 13,327 In 1930 Federal census. It is the outlet for

the Belmont county coal-field, and the shipping point for fine Jersey cows raised in the vicinity. Iron, limestone and fire-clay, found near, are utilized in the manufacture of galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural implements, iron and steel, stoves, glass, rivets, and other commodities. The village was settled about 1795, incorporated in 1858, and chartered as a city in 1874.

BELLAMY, EDWARD (1850-1898), American author and social reformer, was born at Chicopee Falls (Mass.), March 25, 1850, and died there May 22, 1898. He studied at Union College,

Schenectady, New York, and in Germany; was admitted to the har in 1871, but soon became associate editor of the Springfield

(Mass) Union and then an editorial writer for the New York

Evening Post. Although his first books were light fiction, such as Dr. Heidenhoff’s Process (1880) and Miss Ludington’s Sister (1884), his historical novel The Duke of Stockbridge (1900), with its sympathy for unfortunate debtors and the. leaders of Shays’ rebellion, showed the direction in which he was tending. By the time it was completed, he refused to allow it to be published by the local newspaper to which it was promised, expending all of his energy instead on social and economic reform. Looking Backward, 2000-1887 (1888), the most popular of the American Utopian romances, was translated into several languages and has preserved his name until a day when many of the inventions he prophesied have become realities. Its sequel Equality (1897) and his attempts as writer, lecturer and politician to promote his communistic theories under the title'of “Nationalism” are, however, almost forgotten.

BELLAMY, GEORGE

ANNE

(1727-1788), English ac-

tress, born at Fingal, Ireland, by her own account, on April 23, 1733, but more probably in 1727; the illegitimate daughter of Lord Tyrawley. On his appointment as ambassador to Russia, she went to live with her mother in London, made the acquaintance of Mrs. Woffington and Garrick, and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first engagement was-at Covent Garden as Monimia in the Orphan in 1744. Her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London, Edinburgh and Dublin, in all'the principal tragic rôles. She played Juliet to Garrick’s Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that Spranger Barry (qg.v.) was giving the rival performances at Covent Garden, and was considered the better of the Juliets. Her last years were passed in poverty and ill-health. She died on Feb. 16,1788. Her Apology (6 vols., 1785) gives:an account of her long career and of her private life, the extravagance and licence

of which were notorious. She was named George Anne by mistake for Georgiana. .

BELLAMY, JOSEPH (1719-1790), American theologian, was born in Cheshire (Conn.) Feb. 20,1719. He graduated from Yale in 1735, was licensed to preach when scarcely 18 years old, and from 1740 until his death, March 6, 1790, was pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem (Conn.). The-~publication of True Religion Delineated (1750), won for him a high reputation, His influence on the religious thought of his time in America Was probably surpassed only by that of his old friend and teacher,

Jonathan Edwards. His published works include The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin (1758), his most characteristic work; Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio (1759); The Nature and

mee

9D /

Glory of the Gospel (1762); A Blow at the Root of Antinomianism (1763); and There is but One Covenant (1769).

His collected Works were published in 3 vol. (1811-12), and were republished with a Memoir by Rev. Tryon Edwards (2 vol., 1850).

(ital. Bezzarmrno), ROBERTO BELLARMINE FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621), Italian cardinal and

theologian, was born in Monte Pulciano, Tuscany, on Oct. 4, 1542. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1560. After three years at Rome he was sent to the Jesuit settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont; in 1567 and 1568 he was at Padua, studying theology under a master who belonged to the school of St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1569 he was sent to Louvain, and in 1570, after being ordained priest, began to lecture on theology there. His seven years’ residence in the Low Countries brought him into relations with modes of thought differing from his own; and, though neither by temperament nor training inclined to the prevailing Augustinian doctrines of grace and free will, the current controversy compelled him to define his theological principles more clearly. On his return to Rome in 1576 he was chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on controversial theology in the new Roman college. The result appeared in the far-famed Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus huius temporis Haereticos (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593), which called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side; the book exhausts the controversy as it was carried on in those days, and contains a lucid and uncompromising statement of Catholic doctrine. Bellarmine took part in the preparation of the Clementine edition (1592) of the Vulgate. He has been accused in this matter of some disingenuousness in regard to the concealment of numerous errors in the earlier edition, that of Sixtus; it appears, however, that, though he wished to spare that pope from censure, he did not conceal the inaccuracies of the edition or suggest that they were merely misprints. He was made cardinal in 1599 by’ Clement VIII., and two years later archbishop of Capua. He resigned his archbishopric in 1605. When health failed he retired to Monte Pulciano, where from 1607 to 16r1 he acted as bishop. In 1610 he published his De Potestate summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus against the posthumous work of William Barclay of Aberdeen, which denied the temporal power of the pope. Bellarmine trod here on difficult ground, for, although maintaining that the pope had the indirect right to depose unworthy rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in not asserting more strongly the direct papal claim, whilst many French theologians, and especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of ultramontanism. As a consultor of the Holy Office, Bellarmine took a prominent part in the first examination of Galileo’s.writings. He had followed with interest Galileo’s scientific discoveries, and a respectful admiration grew up between them. Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system, as has been maintained by Reusch (Der Process Galileo’s und die Jesuiten, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was that it should be presented merely as an hypothesis, until it should receive scientific demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in Dec. 1615 he was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in which he was held is clearly testified in Bellarmine’s letters and in Galileo’s dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on “flying bodies.” He died in Rome on Sept. 17, 1621. - Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue, is one of the greatest of Catholic controversialists; he has suffered the common fate of controversialists in that his methods of controversy and his achievements in it have been, and still are, the subject of acute controversy. His devotional treatises were very popular among English Catholics in the penal days. Bellarmine was beatified by Pius XI. on May 13, 1923, and his feast is kept on May 13 in Jesuit churches. BrsriocrapHy.—Of the older editions of Bellarmine’s complete

works the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-20); modern editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-62, reprinted 1872), and in 12 vols, at Paris (1870-74). For complete bibliography of all works of Bellarmine, of translations- and controversial writings against him, see C. Sommervogel, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus, vol. i. cols. 1151-1254 (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq.) ; id., Addenda, pp. x.—xi. vol, viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main source for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin Autobiography (Rome, 1675; Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and

BELLARY— BELLEAU

378 German des

translation

Cardinals

by Déollinger and Reusch,

Bellarmin

(Bonn,

1887).

The

Die Selbstbiographie Epistolae

Familiares,

a very incomplete collection of letters, was published by J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of Vita del cardinale Bellarmino della Compagnia di Giest (Rome, 1624). The best modern studies are J. B. Couderc’s Le Vénérable Cardinal Bellarmin (2 vols., Paris,

1893) ; X. le Bachelet’s article in A. Vacant’s Dict. de théol. cat., cols. 560-599, with exhaustive bibliography; J. Bzodrick, The Life and Work of Blessed Robert Francis, Cardinal Bellarmine, S.J. (1928).

BELLARY

or BALLARI,

a city and district of British

India, in the Madras presidency. The city is 305m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (over 58,000 in 1901) fell below 35,000 in 1911, owing to plague, and was 39,842 in rg2t. The fort rises from a huge mass of granite rock, which, with a circumference of nearly 2m., juts up abruptly to a height of 4soft. above the plain. To the east and south lies an irregular heap of boulders, but to the west is an unbroken precipice, and the north is walled by bare rugged ridges. It is defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper fort is a quadrangular building on the summit, with only ane approach, and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. It contains several cisterns, excavated in the rock. The lower fort, with barracks, church, etc., and many private houses, lies at the eastern base of the rock and measures about half-amile in diameter. The fort of Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa in the 16th century. It was first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar, afterwards on Bijapur, and subsequently subject to the nizam and Hyder Ali. The latter erected the present fortifications, according to tradition, with the assistance of a French engineer in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not building the fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary

is a temporary military station. There is a considerable trade in cotton, in connection with which there are large steam presses,

one at the base, of the beak. The bell-birds belong to the tropical American family Cotingidae.

BELL BOY, sometimes called bell hop, in the United States

one who attends to the general needs of a hotel guest. Most hotels

prefer to hire bell boys over 18 years old, in order to avoid legal restrictions incumbent

upon the employment

of minors,

Some

managers, however, employ young boys as pages, and train then

for permanent service. City hotels, inasmuch as their summers are usually dull, are often willing to take on the migratory type of

boys who move with the seasons from city to resort and back again. College students often act as bell boys in summer resorts.

BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE or BELL-TURRET, ;

structure, not a tower, in which bells are hung. It accurs in the form of a gable rising from a main wall, a dormer in a sloping

SAN GABRIEL MISSION, CALIFORNIA

and some manufacture of cotton cloth. There are a cotton spin-

ning mill, distilleries and a sugar factory. The district of Bellary has an area of 5,713 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of an extensive plateau between the eastern and western Ghats, of a height varying from 800-1,cooft. above the sea. The highest tracts are on the west, where the surface rises towards the culminating range of hills, and on the south, where it rises to the elevated tableland of Mysore. Towards the centre the almost treeless plain presents a monotonous aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that rise abruptly from the black soil. The district is watered by five rivers: the Tung.bhadra, formed by the junction of two streams, Tunga and Bhadra, the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last considered sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and all are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is extremely dry, and it has a smaller rainfall than any other district in south India. Bellary is subject to disastrous storms and hurricanes, and to

famines.

Pop. (1921) 862,372.

The principal crops are millet,

other food-grains, pulse, ground-nuts and cotton. There are considerable manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, and cotton is largely exported. The district is traversed by the Madras and Southern Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern border at Guntakal junction, where another line branches off to connect

with Bezwada. Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains the ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, and on the overthrow of that State by the Mohammedans in 1564 the tract now forming the district of Bellary was split up into a number of military holdings. Between 1635 and 1800 the Carnatic was held by the Bijapur rulers, by the Mahrattas, by the great Mogul’s viceroy, by Hyder Ali of Mysore and by the nizam of Hyderabad. The latter ceded it to the British in 1800 in return

for protection by a force of British troops to be stationed at his capital. In 1808 the “Ceded Districts,” as they were called, were split into two districts, Cuddapah and Bellary. In 1882 the district of Anantapur was formed into a separate collectorate.

BELL-BIRD,

the name

of a species of the genus Chas-

morhynchus and especially of C. niveus, the male of which carries a long, fleshy, erectile appendage ornamented with short white feathers on the forehead. The name is derived from the note.

C. tricarunculatus carries three wattles, one at each angle, and

MISSION SAN JUAN FROM AREZZO CHURCH AT FROISSY, CAPISTRANO, TEXAS ITALIAN RENAISSANCE COTE D’OR VARIOUS EXAMPLES SHOWING THE TREATMENT AS A SMALL TOWER (ST. BENOIT); BUTTRESS PINNACLE (FROISSY); PIERCED WALL SECTION roof or a miniature tower or turret at the corner of a building. A favourite position is at the top of the main west gable of a church. Occasionally, eyen when a tower is present, a small bell, known as the “sanctus bell,” will be hung in a bell-cot near the eastern end of the church. The bell-cot for this bell is often at the centre of the crossing of nave and transepts and elaborated into a fléche (g.v.). In Renaissance churches, particularly in Spain and the Spanish colonies, the bell-cot is frequently a large section of wall, often separated from any building, and pierced with arches in each of which a bell is hung.

BELLE ALLIANCE, LA, the name of a farm occupied by

the centre of the French army at the battle of Waterloo (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN); and also the name used by the Prussians for the battle itself.

BELLEAU, RÉMY (c. 1527-1577), French poet, and member of the Pléiade (see DAURAT), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou.

He studied with Ronsard and others under Jean Daurat at the Collége de Coqueret. He was attached to René de Lorraine, marquis d’Elboeuf, in the expedition against Naples in 1557, where he did good military service. Belleau was an enthusiast for the

new learning and joined the group of young poets with ardour. In

1556 he published the first translation of Anacreon which had ap-

peared in French. In the next year he published his first collection of poems, the Petites inventions in which he describes stones, m-

sects, and flowers. The Amours et nouveaux échanges des pierres précieuses ...

(1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic

work. Its title is quoted in Ronsard’s epitaph on his tomb: Luy mesme a basti son tombeau Dedans ses Pierres Précieuses.

BELLEAU

WOOD—BELLE-ISLE

He wrote commentaries to Ronsard’s Amours in 1560, notes which evinced delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like Ronsard and

Joachim Du Bellay, he was extremely deaf.

His days passed

acefully in the midst of his books and friends.

His most con-

siderable work is La Bergerie (1565-72), a pastoral in prose and verse Written in imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the Bergerie are well known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the French Herrick, full of picturesqueness, warmth, and colour. Extremely popular in his own age, he shared the fate of

his friends and was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regnier said: “Belleau ne parle pas comme on parle a la ville”; and his lyrical beauty was lost on the trim 17th céritury. Belleaw’s other works include a comedy entitled La Reconnue, in short rhymed lines, which is not without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece, a macaronic poem on the religious wars, Dictamen metri-

fcum de bello huguenotico et reistrorum piglamine ad sodales.

The Oeuvres complètes (1867) of Rémy Belleau were edited by A. Gouverneur; and his Oeuvres poétiques (1879) by M. Ch. MartyLaveaux in his Pléiade française; see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Tableau

historique et critique de la poésie française au XVIe siècle (ed. 1876).

BELLEAU

WOOD, a

tract of forest land, in area less

than a square mile, 5m. N.W. of Château-Thierry, and 42m. E. of Paris, notable for the second clash between U.S.A. and German troops in the World War. When the German offensive of May 27, 1918, was launched on the Aisne, the 2nd Division of the American Expeditionary Force under Gen. Bundy was rushed to the assistance of the French VI. Army and deployed across the Paris-

Château-Thierry road west of the latter town. On its front lay Belleau wood and the villages of Torcy, Bouresches and Vaux,

all occupied by the enemy. The Germans had been halted at Château-Thierry but were consolidating themselves at Vaux and in Belleau wood in preparation for a renewed advance west of Château-Thierry. The task of dislodging them was éntrusted to the marine corps brigade under Gen. Harbord. The attack was made on June 6, and the woods were penetrated but could not be held. The ground was extremely difficult, almost impenetrable underbrush covering a rugged outcrop of rock. Three days later the attack was renéwed. Thé fighting was bitter, but, after a struggle lasting over a fortnight, the woods were finally taken by the 2nd Division; Bouresches and Vaux were also captured, and the German advance—at 4 most dangerous point—was effectively blocked. In this engagement the Germans lost 24 guns and 1,654 prisoners, but the United States losses were severe, amounting to 285 officers and 7,585 men killed, wounded and missing. The battleground was in 1923 dedicated as a permanent memorial to the United States officers and men who lost their lives there, and the French Government ordered the name to be changed to that of Bois de la Brigade de Marine. (See Sorsson-Rurrmms and Wortp War.)

BELLECOUR

(1725-1778), French actor, whose real name

was JEAN CLAUDE GILLES CoLson, was born on Jan. 16 1725, the son of a portrait painter. After playing in the provinces he made his début, on Dec. 21 1750, as Achilles in Jphigénie. He was more successful, however, in comedy parts. He wrote a successful play, Fausses apparences (1761), and was very useful to the Comédie

Central railways. large railway car automobile bodies, settled about 1818

S79

The population in 1930 was 9,543. It has shops, and its manufactures include bridges, sewer pipes and mattresses. The town was ard incorporated in 1835. Several springs of

clear water in the-vicinity suggested its name. BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES, Count von (1756-1845), Austrian soldier and statesman, was born at Dresden on Aug. 29, 1756, and for a short time served in the Saxon army. Transferring his services to Austria in 1771 he earned distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-89 and the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-94, and in the campaign of 1796 in Germany, on the staff of the archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy in the following year. In 1799 he commanded a corps in eastern Switzerland, connecting the armies of the archduke and Suvarov, and finally joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the siege of the citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive battle of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805, when the archduke Charles left to take command in Italy, Bellegarde became president ad interim of the council of war. He was soon employed, however, in the field, and at the sanguinary battle of Caldiero he commanded the Austrian right. In the war of 1809 he commanded the extreme right wing of the main army (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Cut off from Charles as the result of the battle of Eckmiihl, he retreated into Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the great battles near Vienna (Aspern and Wagram). From 1809-13 Bellegarde, now field marshal, was governor-general of Galicia, but was often called to preside over the meetings of the Aulic Council (g.v.), especially in 1810 in connection with the reorganization of the Austrian arty. In 1813-14-15 he led the Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns were diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by crushing the last attempt of

Murat in 1815. From 1816-25 (when he had to retire owing to failing eyesight) he held various distinguished civil and military posts. He died in 1845. See K. von Smola Das Leben des F. M. von Bellegarde (1847).

BELLE-ILE-EN-MER,

an island off the west coast of

France, department of Morbihan, 8m. S. by W. of the peninsula of Quiberon. Pop. (1926) 6,773. Area, 33sq.m. The island has four communes, Le Palais, Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a tréeless plateau with an average height of 130ft. above sea-level, largely covered with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast. The climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. Numerous megalithic monuments suggest its importance (together with the adjoining mainland) as a centre of coastwise intercourse in the early days of metal. It was known to the Romans as

Vindilis, corrupted in the middle ages to Guedel. In 1572 the abbey of Ste. Croix at Quimperlé ceded the island to the Retz family, and it became a marquisate in the following year. Subsequently it passed to the family of Fouquet, and finally to the Crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from 1761 to 1763

when the French got it in exchange for Nova Scotia. A few of

Under the name of Beaumenard she made her first Paris appéarance In 1743 as Gogo in Favart’s Le Cog du village. After a year

the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to Belle-Ile, which is partly peopled by their descendants. The town of Le Palais (pop. [1926] 1,825) has an old citadel and fortifications and possesses a port which is accessible to small vessels. The inhabitants, who have declined in numbers, engage in agriculture and fisheries, and in the preservation of sardines, anchovies, etc. The island breed of draught horses was highly prized.

at the Opéra Comique she played in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe. In 1749 she made her début at the Comédie

QUET, Comtz, and later Duc, pe (1684-1761), French soldier

Francaise in editing and adapting the plays of others. He died on Nov. 19 1778. | His wife, Ross Perrine Le Roy De La Corsrnayve, was born

at Lamballé on Dec. 20 1730, the daughte? of an artillery officer.

Française as Dorine in Tartuffe, and her success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but reappeared in 1761 as Madame Bellecour, and Continued her successes in soubrette parts in the plays of Moliére and de Regnard. She retired at the age of sixty, but thé oe put an end to her pension, and she died in poverty on §- 5 1799.

BELLEFONTAINE, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., on a hill 1,550ft.

above sea-level, asm. N.W. of Columbus; the county seat of Logan county. It is served by the Big Four and the New York

BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOU-

and statesman, grandson of Nicholas Fouquet, was born at Villefranche, Rouergue, on Sept. 22, 1684. He entered thé army at an early age, and distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish Succession and in the Spanish war of 1718-19. In the war of the

Polish Succession he was in command of a corps under Marshal Berwick, and on the conclusion of peace (1736) became gov ernor of the fortresses of Metz, Toul and Verdun and a marshal of France. In 1741 he was employed by the French government in Germany to oppose the pragmatic sanction and to

BELLE

3280

ISLE—BELLEVILLE

secure the election of Charles, Elector of Bavaria, as emperor. During the war of the Austrian Succession he stormed Prague

(Nov. 26, 1741), and then executed that difficult retreat in 1742 to Eger, which was one of the most remarkable achievements of the French army in this campaign. In crossing Hanover on his way to Berlin he was captured by the English, but was exchanged in 1745. In 1746 he was placed in command of the “Army of Piedmont” in Provence, where he repelled the Italo-Spanish invasion and carried the war into Lombardy. He was created duke and peer of France (1748) and was minister of war in 1757-60, carrying out substantial reorganizations in the army. He died at Versailles Jan. 26, 1761. His brother, Lours CHARLES ARMAND FovuQueEt, known as the Chevalier de Belle-Isle, was a distinguished soldier and was killed at the Battle of Exilles on July 10, 1746.

BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF, the more northerly of the two

channels connecting the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the Atlantic between northern Newfoundland and Labrador; its length is 35m. from north-east to south-west, breadth ro to 15m. Belle Isle is a precipitous granite island, ooft. high, at its Atlantic entrance, with lighthouses and wireless station. The strait is in the most direct route from Europe to the St. Lawrence, but is open only from June till the end of November, and even then is often dangerous through floating ice and fogs. Through it Jacques Cartier sailed in 1534. The southern or Cabot strait between Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton, was discovered later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was long known as La Grande Baie. Cabot strait is open all the year, but has occasional drift ice.

BELLENDEN

(BatiantynE or BANNATYNE), JOHN

His third work, De Statu Prisci Orbis (1615), is a good outline of general history. All three works were combined in a large volume, entitled De Statu Libri Tres (1615), which was firs brought into due notice by Dr. Samuel Parr, who published an edition in 1787. The greatest of Bellenden’s works is the treatise

De Tribus Luminibus Romanorum,

passage to England. One is in the Cambridge university library, BELLEROPHON

or BELLEROPHONTES,

a hero, probably

of Oriental origin, although provided with a Greek pedigree as

early as Homer. In the Jliad (vi., 153 foll.), he is son of Glaucus the son of Sisyphus of Ephyre (traditionally identified with Corinth). Anteia, wife of Proetus, king of Argos, loves him, and on her overtures being rejected, falsely accuses him to her huse = x] band (theme of Potiphar’s wife

fairly common in Greek). He sends Bellerophon to his father.

in-law, the king of Lycia (Iobates

as later authors call him), with a

written message that he is to he ‘ | Slain. The king sends him against neo the Chimaera (literally “goat,”

a

fire-breathing

monster

part

goat, part serpent, part lion), then against the Solymi, a warlike

tribe, then against the Amazons, and finally, when he vanquishes

(å.

1533-1587), scottish writer, was educated at the universities of St. Andrews and Paris. He was in the service of James V. from the king’s earliest years, as clerk of accounts. At the request of James he undertook translations of Boece’s Historia Scotorum,

published posthumously a

Paris in 1633. The book is unfinished, and treats only of the first luminary, Cicero; the others intended were apparently Sener, and Pliny. It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the

them all, sets chosen warriors in

oe.

wag to

—

~) ambush to kill him. Bellerophon a \ 4 kills them, and the king, recog` nizing him as more than human,

: anA marries him to his daughter. He a while, then IN THE PALAZZO SPADA, lives in prosperity THE RELIEF which had appeared at Paris in 1527, and the first five books BELLEROPHON LEADING THE falls out of favour with the gods, of Livy. In 1533, he became archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous opponent of the Reformation, and is WINGED HORSE, PEGASUS, WHICH loses two of his children, and HE TAMED WITH DIVINE ASSISTANCE wanders, grief-stricken and shun_ said by some authorities to have died at Rome, in 1550; by others to have been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece, entitled ning mankind, over the “Aleian Plain,” że., the Plain of | | The History and Chronicles of Scotland, is remarkable for its Wandering. Later authors, from Pindar on, add that while still at Corinth, freedom and vigour of expression. The History was published in 1536; and, edited by Maitland, Bellerophon tamed the winged horse Pegasus (q.v.) with a bridle was reprinted in 1821. The translation of Livy, was not printed which Athena gave him; that he visited Proetus because he had till 1822. Two mss. of the latter are extant, one, the older, in slain either the Corinthian hero Bellerus or his own brother, and the Advocates’ library, Edinburgh (which was the basis of the so went into exile; that he used Pegasus to fight the Chimaera, normalized text of 1822), the other (c. 1550) in the possession and afterwards to punish Anteia (or, as they call her Stheneboea), of Mr. Ogilvie Forbes, of Boyndlie. An edition of the work was by inducing her to ride with him and then dropping her from a edited for the Scottish Text Society by Mr. W. A. Craigie (1901, great height; that he earned the wrath of the gods by trying to ir

A

I

ong

angar ARA st

es aS

+

ou

1903). The second volume of this edition contains also a complete reprint of the portions of the holograph first draft which were discovered in the British Museum in 1902. Two poems by Bellenden —The Proheme to the Cosmographe and the Proheme of the History—appeared in the 1536 edition of the History of Scotland. Others, bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne ms. collection made by his namesake George Bannatyne (q.v..), may or may not be his, Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the

fly up to Heaven, being thrown from Pegasus in consequence,

Papyngo, speaks vaguely of:

in Jahrbuch d.k. deutsch

Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,

Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne.

The chief sources of information regarding Bellenden’s life are the Accounts of the. Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, his own

works and the ecclesiastical records. Sok a BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, Scottish classical scholar (died

after 1625). He lived in the reign of James I. (VI. of Scotland), who appointed him “master of requests.” Bellenden lived at Paris, where he became professor at the university, and advocate in the parliament. In 1605 was published anonymously his Ciceronis Princeps, a compilation of all Cicero’s remarks on regal government, digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared a similar work on consular authority’: and the

Roman senate, Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque Romanus.

and lamed. | His adventures were frequently represented in ancient art, and formed the subject of the Jobates of Sophocles, the Bellerophontes and Stheneboea of Euripides. Only fragments of these survive. AUTHORITIES.—To those named in the text, add Pindar, Isthmians, vi. (vii.), with his and Homer’s scholiasts; Apollodoros, ii. 30 foll. BrsrioGraPpHy.—Articles in Roscher’s Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa Realencyklopidie; Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythologie; L. Maltet archaol. Instituts (1925).

BELLES-LETTRES,

.

a term used to designate the mort

artistic and imaginative forms of literature, as poetry or romance

as opposed to more pedestrian and exact studies. .Modern usagt

applies the word more often to the little hills than to the moun tain-peaks of literature, and denotes the essay and the critica study rather than the epics of Homer or the plays of Shakespeare z — appears to have been first used in English by Swif 1710). . BELLEVILLE, port of entry, Ontario, Canada, capital 0 Hastings county, 106m.E.N.E. of Toronto, on Bay of Quinte an the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (193!

13,790. Communication is maintained with Lake Ontario and th St. Lawrence by the Canadian Steamship lines. An agricultur:

centre, it exports cheese and farm produce. The industries a

planing mills and cement -works,. cheese factories and lumberin

381

BELLEVILLE— BELLINGHAM BELLEVILLE, a city of Ilinois, U.S.A., 14m. S.E. of St. Louis, adjoining East St. Louis; the county seat of St. Clair county. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville and

Nashville and the Southern railways, and (through a belt line for

freight) by 22 other railways entering East St. Louis. The popu-

lation was 24,823 in 1920, of which 2,393 were foreign-born white

_the majority from Germany—and was 28,425 in 1930 by the Federal’ census.

The manufacture of gas and coal stoves, ranges, and warm-air furnaces has been the leading industry for 50 years, employing

normally 2,000—2,500 skilled workmen.

Other important products

are castings, shoes, hosiery, shirts, trousers, stencil-cutting ma-

chines, flour and feed, bricks, auto tops, caskets, mine machinery,

threshing-machines and tractors.

The output of the 83 establish-

ments in 1927 was valued at $19,380,712. Notable crops of winter wheat and potatoes

and a fine variety of white asparagus

are

grown in the vicinity. Belleville is in the midst of an important bituminous coal-field. About 3,000 miners live in the city, and the 6o mines within a few miles have a combined productive capacity of 6,000,000 tons a year.

Scott Field (619ac.), an important station of the Army Air Corps, with a total personnel of about 800, lies 8m. E. of the city. It is the central supply-depot for the entire lighter-than-air di-

vision of the air service, and a training-school for airship pilots and observers. The equipment includes searchlights visible for som. and a hangar which covers five acres.

Belleville was settled about 1806; established as the county seat in 1814; and incorporated as a city In 1850. Originally Compton Hill, it was renamed when it became the county seat. Ninian Edwards, the first governor of ‘the Territory of Illinois, and Lyman Trumbull, author of the 13th amendment to the Constitution, were residents of the city. There is an Indian mound seven miles to the north-west.

BELLEVILLE,-a town of Essex county, N.J., U.S.A., on the Passaic river, adjoining Newark, and served by the Erie Railroad, The population was 15,660 in 1920, and was 26,974 in 1930 Federal census. It is a residential suburb of Newark and New York, and also has considerable manufacturing industries (with an output in 1927 valued at $21,734,545), including wire, wire cloth, hats, brushes and chemicals. Belleville township was separated from Bloomfield in 1839. A commission form of govern-

ment was adopted in rgr4.

BELLEVUE, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., 45m. S.E. of Toledo, in Huron and Sandusky counties. It is served by the New York Central, the Nickel Plate, the Wheeling and Lake Erie and the Pennsylvania railways. The population in 1930 was 6,256. It has railroad repair shops, limestone quarries, flour-mills and canning factories; ships grain and fruit; and manufactures stoves, motor trucks and farming machinery.

BELLEVUE,

a residential borough of Allegheny county,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Ohio river and the Pennsylvania

railroad, 5m. N.W. of Pittsburgh. 10,252.

Its population in 1930 was

BELLEY, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement, department of Ain, 52m. S.E. of Bourg by the P.L.M. railway. Pop. (1926) 3,359. It is situated on vine-covered hills at the southern extremity of the Jura, 3m. from the right bank of the Rhone. Belley is of Roman origin. It was the capital of the province of Bugey, a dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to France. In 1385.it-was destroyed by fire and rebuilt by the dukes of Savoy. The.cathedral of St. Jean has a choir dating from 1413. The manufacture of morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the lithographic stone found in the vicinity are carned on, and there is trade in cattle, grain, wine, truffles and

dressed pork. Belley is the seat of a bishop (sth century onwards) and has a prefect, and a tribunal of first instance.

BELL-FLOWER, the name given to various species of Campanula (g.v.) because of the shape of their handsome flowers. BELL HARP, a curious musical instrument invented in the 18th century by an Englishman, John Simcox.

It was neither a

bell nor a harp, but a kind of dulcimer or psaltery (¢.v.), which derived the first half of its name from the fact that it was sus-

pended

and

swung

from

two

ear-like

projections

while

being

played. BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO (1791-1863), Italian poet, was born at Rome, on Sept. 10, 1791. He wrote some 2,000 satirical sonnets which give a vivid picture of the Rome of the last days of the temporal power.

He died on Dec. 21, 1863.

See Morandi’s edition, J sonettz romaneschi (1886-89).

BELLIGERENCY, the state of carrying on war in accord-

ance with the law of nations. Insurgents are not as such excluded from recognition as belligerents, and, even where not recognized as belligerents by the government against which they have rebelled, they may be so recognized by a neutral state, as in the case of the American Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as belligerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the Northern states. The recognition of belligerency by a neutral state does not, however, imply recognition of independent political existence. The Hague Convention iv., 1907, deals with the qualifications of belligerents. To entitle troops to the special privileges attaching to belligerency, it is provided that all regular, militia or volunteer forces shall be commanded by persons responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall be carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with the laws and customs of war. In naval war, privateering having been finally abolished as among the parties to it by the Declaration of Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties, to the rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom is not a party to the Declaration, the right to grant letters of marque would remain intact for both parties, and the privateer, as between them, would be a belligerent; as regards neutrals, the situation would be complicated (see PRIVATEER).

BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD (4d. 1549) was a son ot Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex, his mother being a member of the Shelley family. In May 1548 he was sent to Ireland as lord deputy. Ireland was then in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor crushed a rebellion of the O’Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale from rebels, built forts, and made the English power respected in Munster and Connaught. Bellingham, however, was a headstrong man, and was constantly quarrelling with his council; but one of his opponents admitted that he was “the best man of war that ever he had seen in Ireland.” His short but successful term of office was ended by his recall in 1549. See R. Bagwell, Ireland Under the Tudors, vol. i. (1885).

BELLINGHAM, acity near the north-west comer of Washington, U.S.A., on the east shore of Bellingham bay, 18m. from the Canadian border; a port of entry and the county seat of Whatcom county. It is on the Pacific highway; is served by the Great Northern, the Northern Pacifc and the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railways, and is a port of call for 12 steamship lines. Its area is 21 sq.m. The population was 11,062 in 1900; 25,585 in 1920; and was 30,823 In 1930 by the Federal

census. Bellingham is surrounded by some of the loveliest scenery of America. The Olympic, the Selkirk and the Cascade mountains are visible from the city, with the San Juan islands and Puget sound just outside. Within a few miles are several freshwater lakes. Glacier-crowned Mt. Baker (10,750ft.) and Mt. Shuksan (0,038ft.) are 6om. E., in the Mt. Baker National Recreation Area of 75,o0o0ac., recently established by the Federal Government in the Mt. Baker forest preserve. The city is famous for its tulips and hyacinths, and a tulip festival is held every spring. The bulb experiment station of the U.S. department of agriculture is here. . Bellingham -has a fine deep-water harbour. The total commerce of the port in 1927 amounted to 1,670,670 tons, valued at $32,348,838, seven times as much as in 1905; and included exports (chiefly canned salmon, lumber, lath and shingles, and

floated logs) to the value of $2,129,720.

The city has large

salmon, and fruit canneries, lumber and shingle mills, cement and wood-pulp plants, and paper-mills; a beet-sugar refinery with a seasonal capacity of 100,000 tons; and a coal-mine with

382

BELLINI

an annual output of 300,000 tons. It ships great quantities of dairy products, eggs and poultry, including thousands of chicks from the co-operative hatcheries of the county; and is an outfitting point for the Alaska fishing industry. The largest of the State normal schools is located here. It was opened in 1899, and has an enrolment of more than 2,000. Bellingham was formed in 1903 by the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom and Fairhaven.

unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have bee,

worked

over in pen; of the remainder

many have become dim

from time and rubbing. The album at the Louvre, discovered in 1883 in the loft of a country-house in Guienne, is equally rich and better preserved, the drawings being all highly finished in pen probably over effaced preliminary sketches in chalk or lead. The

range of subjects is much the same in both collections, and in

both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a craftsman of many-sided curiosity and invention. Jacopo’s influence on the development of Venetian art was very great, not only directly

BELLINI, the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three members of which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian through his two sons and his son-in-law Mantegna, but through school of painting in the 15th and early in the 16th century. I. Jacopo BELLINI (c. 1400-c. 1470) was the son of a tin- other and independent contemporary workshops of the city, in l smith or pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina. none of which did it remain unfelt. II. GENTILE BELLINI (c. 1429—1507), the elder son of Jacopo When the accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano came to practise at Venice, where art was backward, several young first appears independently as the painter of a Madonna, much in men of the city took service under him as pupils. Among these his father’s manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin museum. was Jacopo Bellini, who followed his teacher to Florence, where In July 1466 we find him contracting with the officers of the the progress made, alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of Scuola of St. Mark as an independent artist to decorate the doors classic grace and style, by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, of their organ. These paintings still exist in a blackened condi. Masaccio and Paolo Uccello, offered him better instruction than tion. They represent four saints, colossal in size, and designed he could obtain even from his Umbrian teacher. By 1429 Jacopo with much of the harsh and searching austerity which characterwas settled at Venice and married to a wife from Pesaro named ized the Paduan school under Squarcione. Gentile must have risen Anna, who bore her husband two sons, Gentile and Giovanni steadily in the esteem of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find (though some evidences have been thought to point rather to him commissioned by the senate to restore, renew, and when Giovanni having been his son by another mother), and a daughter necessary replace, the series of paintings, the work of an earlier Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at Verona, painting a Crucifixion generation of artists, which were perishing from damp on the walls in fresco for the cathedral (destroyed by order of the archbishop of the Hall of the Great Council in the ducal palace. In continuain 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many figures, has been tion of this work Gentile undertook a series of independent paintpreserved in an old engraving). About 1440 he must have paid a ings on subjects of Venetian history for the same hall, but had visit to the court of Ferrara, where there prevailed a spirit of free apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of the culture and humanism most congenial to his tastes. His relations consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours were with the house of Este, which seem to have begun with a portrait interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan Mohammed IT. of Leonello d’Este, son of the reigning marquis Niccolo IIL., ap- had despatched a friendly embassy to Venice, inviting the doge to pear to have been kept up, and among Jacopo’s extant drawings visit him at Constantinople and at the same time requesting the are several that probably belong to the scheme of a monument despatch of an excellent painter to work at his court. Gentile erected to the memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He Bellini with two assistants was selected for the mission, his was also employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court of brother Giovanni being at the same time appointed to fill his place Rimini. In 1453 he received a grant from the confraternity for on the works for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave the marriage of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a great satisfaction to the sultan, and returned after about a year marriage which had the effect of transferring the gifted young with a knighthood, some fine clothes, a gold chain and a pension. Paduan master definitively from the following of Squarcione to The surviving fruits of his labours at Contantinople consist of a that of Bellini. In 1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani, large painting representing the reception of an ambassador in that first patriarch of Venice, for his monument in San Pietro di Cas- city, now in the Louvre; a highly finished portrait of the sultan tello, and in 1457, with a son for salaried assistant, three figures himself, one of the treasures, despite its damaged condition, of of saints in the great hall of the patriarch. His activity can be the collection of the late Sir Henry Layard, and now in the traced in documents down to Aug. 1470, but in Nov. 1471 his wife National Gallery, London; an exquisitely wrought small portrait Anna describes herself as his relict, so that he must have died some in water-colour of a scribe, found in 1905 by a private collector time In the interval. in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in the collection of Mrs. The materials which have reached posterity for a critical judg- Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink drawings of Turkish ment on his work consist of four or five pictures only, together types, now in the British Museum. Early copies of two or three with two important and invaluable books of drawings. These other similar drawings are in the Städel Institute at Frankfort. prove him to have been a worthy third, following the Umbrian A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working beGentile da Fabriano and the Veronese Pisanello, in that trio of side his brother Giovanni in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480 artists who in the first half of the 15th century carried towards he began to carry out his share in the great series of frescoes, umaturity the art of painting in Venice and the neighbouring cities. fortunately destroyed by fire in 1577, illustrating the part played Of his pictures, an important signed example is a life-size Christ by Venice in the struggles between the papacy and the emperor Crucified in the archbishop’s palace at Verona. The rest are al- Barbarossa. These works were executed not on the wall itself but most all Madonnas; two signed, one in the Tadini gallery at on canvas (the climate of Venice having so many times proved Lovere, another in the Venice academy; a third, unsigned and fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil, a method which all long ascribed in error to Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the artists of Venice, following the example set by Antonello da the portrait of Sigismondo Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest Messina, had by this time learnt or were learning to practise. of all in colour and ornamental detail, in the Uffizi at Florence. They received the highest praise both from contemporary and Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to him are a fifth Ma- from later Venetian critics, but no fragment of them survived the donna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback (San Crisogono) fire of 1577, though a drawing in the British Museum purports to in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Crucifixion in the be the artist’s original sketch for the subject of the pope bestowMuseo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in private possession ing a sword and his blessing on the doge and his army. Theit at Ferrara. But an abundance of drawings and studies are pre- character can to some extent be judged by a certain number of served in two precious albums in the British Museum and the kindred historical and processional works by the artist which have Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in date, belonged to the been preserved. Of such the Academy at Venice has three which painter’s elder son Gentile, and was by him bequeathed to his were painted between 1490 and rso0o for the Scuola of St. John brother Giovanni. It consists of 99 paper pages, each covered on the Evangelist, and represent certain events connected with & both sides with drawings made with a lead point, an instrument famous relic belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed frag-

BELLINI ment of the true cross. All have been much injured and repainted ; nevertheless one at least, showing the procession of the relic through St. Mark’s Place and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to it the miraculous cure of his son, still gives a good idea of the painter’s powers and style. Great accuracy and firmness of individual portraiture, a strong gift, derived no doubt from his father’s example, for grouping and marshalling a crowd of personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the

severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much: mitigated by the dawning splendour of true Venetian colour—these are the

qualities that no injury has been able to deface. They are again manifest in an interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard collection at the National Gallery, London, and reappear still more forcibly in the last work undertaken by the artist, the great

picture, now at the Brera in Milan, of St. Mark preaching at Alex-

andria; this was commissioned

by the Scuola of St. Mark in

March, 1505, and left by the artist in his will, dated Feb. 18, 1507, to be finished by his brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there survive one of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of Catarina Cornaro at Budapest, one of a mathematician at the National Gallery, another of a monk in the same gallery, signed wrongly to all appearance with the name of Giovanni

Bellini, besides one or two others in private hands. The features of Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by Camelio, and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at

Berlin supposed to be by the painter’s own hand, and another, much larger and more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is variously attributed to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini. III. GrovANNI BELLINI (¢. 1430-1516) is generally assumed to have been the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna; though the fact that she does not mention him in her will with her other sons has thrown some slight doubt upon the matter. Until the age of nearly thirty both sons served as their father’s assistants in works at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni’s earliest independent works, we find him more strongly influenced by the harsh and searching manner of the Paduan school, and especially of his own brother-in-law Mantegna, than by the more graceful and facile style of Jacopo. This influence seems to have lasted at full strength until after the departure of Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of Giovanni’s independent works no doubt date from before this period. Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice: a Crucifixion, a Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by Angels. Two Madonnas of the same or even earlier date are in America, one at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, the other in the Johnson Collection, Philadelphia; a third, that of Signor Frizzoni is now in the Museo Correo at Venice; while two beautiful works in the National

Gallery of London seem to bring the period to a close. One of these is of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is the fine picture of Christ’s Agony in the Garden, formerly in the Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently executed in friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of the subject hangs near by; the main idea of the composition in both cases being taken from a drawing by Jacopo Bellini in the British Museum sketch-book. In all these pictures Giovanni combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and complex rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human pathos which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise colour. In a somewhat changed and more personal manner, with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms and draperies, but

not less force of religious feeling, are the two pictures of the Dead Christ supported by Angels, in these days one of the master’s

most frequent themes, at Rimini and at Berlin. Chronologically

to be placed with these are two Madonnas, one at the church of

the Madonna del Orto at Venice and one in the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity of feeling and rich solemnity of colour being, as in the case of all these early Madonnas, combined with a singularly direct rendering of the natural movements and attitudes of children.

383

The above-named works, all executed in tempera, are no doubt earlier than the date of Giovanni’s first appointment to work along with his brother and other artists in the Scuola di San Marco, where among other subjects he was commissioned in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah’s Ark. None of the master’s works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived. To the decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a Transfiguration now in the Naples museum, and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation of the Virgin at Pesaro. After 1479-80 very much of Giovanni’s time and energy must have been taken up by his duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal palace. Besides repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was commissioned to paint a number of new subjects,

six or seven in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the wars of Barbarossa and the Pope. Not a trace of these survived the fire of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and processional compositions come down. Of the other, the religious class of his work, including both altarpieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been preserved. They show him gradually throwing off the last restraints of the r15th—century manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new oil medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about 1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets of the perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity and charm. The enthroned Virgin and Child become tranquil and commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian colour invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at Venice, the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-piece with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among the most conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same period (about 1485-90) are in the Venice academy, in the National Gallery, at Turin and at Bergamo. An interval of some years seems to separate the lastnamed altar-pieces from that of the church of San Zaccaria at Venice, which is perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all, and is dated r505. Another great altar-piece with saints, that of the church of San Francesco de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La Corona at Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513 that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint Jerome, seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent sunset background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing facing each other below him, in front. The examples which remain of Giovanni’s activity in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of Murano and that of San Zaccaria, consist of one allegorical picture in the Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which is an illustration of a French mediaeval allegory, the Pélerinage de Péme by Guillaume de Guilleville, and a set of five other allegories or moral emblems, on a smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy at Venice. To these should probably be added, as painted towards the year 1505, the portrait of the doge Loredano in the National Gallery, the only portrait by the master which has been preserved, and in its own manner one of the most masterly in the whole range of painting. The last ten or twelve years of the master’s life saw him be-

sieged with more commissions than he could well complete. AIbrecht Diirer, visiting’ Venice for a second time in 1506, reports Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards foreign brethren of the brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died, and Giovanni completed the picture of the “Preaching of St. Mark” which he had left unfinished. In 1514 Giovanni undertook to paint a Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died in 1516, leaving it to be finished by his pupils; this picture is now at Alnwick.

384

BELLINI— BELLO

Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of Giovanni Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and unbrokenly prosperous, from youth to extreme old age, which fell to

the lot of any artist of the early Renaissance. He lived to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals; the Vivarini of Murano;

some high ground rising from the level valley floor of ‘the Ticing a little below the junction of the Val Mesocco. It thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great wall was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still possesses three

he embodied, with ever growing and maturing power, all the devo-

picturesque castles (restored in modern times), dating in their present form from the rsth century. They belonged for severa|

tional gravity and much also of the worldly splendour of the centuries to the three Swiss cantons which were masters of the town. The most westerly, Castello Grande (or San Michele), beVenice of his time; and he saw his influence propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione and Titian, surpassed longed to Uri; the central castle, that of Montebello, was the their master. Giorgione he outlived by five years; Titian, as we property of Schwyz; while that of Sasso Corbaro was in the hands of Unterwalden. The church of San Biagio (Blaise) has have seen, challenged an equal place beside his teacher. Among church of the best known of his other pupils were, in his earlier time, Andrea a remarkable r4th-century fresco, while the collegiate 10,232 (1920) Pop. century. 16th the from dates Stefano San , Rondinelli Niccolo Basaiti, Marco o, Previtali, Cima da Coneglian Italian,speaking. and Catholic Roman all practically in Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; Bellinzona is possibly of Roman origin; it is first mentioned later time, Pierfrancesco Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto in soo. It played a considerable part in the early history of Lom. and Sebastian del Piombo. BrerrocraPpuy.—Vasati, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii.; Ridolfi, Le Maravigie, etc., vol. i.; Francesco Sansovino, Venezia Descritia; Morelli, Notizia, etc., di un Anonimo; Zanetti, Pittura Veneziana; F. Aglietti, Elogio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini; G. Bernasconi, C enni intorno la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini; Moschini, Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemporanei; E. Galichon in Gazette des beaux-arts (1866) ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in North Italy, vol. i.; Hubert Janitschek, “Giovanni Bellini” in Dohme’s Kunst und Kiinstler; Julius Meyer in Meyer’s Allgemeines Kuinstler-Lexikon, vol. iii. (1885); Pompeo Molmenti, “I pittori Bellini” in Studi e ricerche di Storia ad’Arte: P. Paoletti, Raccolta di documenti inediti, fasc. i.; Vasari, Vite di Gentile da Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello, ed. Venturi; Corrado Ricci in Rassegna d’Arte (1901, 1903), and Rivista d'Arte (1906); Roger Fry, Giovanni Bellini (1900) in “The Artist’s Library”; Everard Meynell, Giovanni Bellini (1900) in Newnes’s “Art Library” (useful for a nearly complete set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci, Jacopo Bellini e i suoi Libri di Disegni (1908) ; Victor Goloubew, Les Dessins de Jacopo Bellini (1908) (the two last works reproduce in full, that of M. Goloubew by far the most skilfully, the contents of both the Paris and the London sketch-books).

(S. C.; X.)

BELLINI, LORENZO (1643-1704), Italian physician and anatomist, was born at Florence on Sept. 3, 1643. At the age of

20, when he had already begun his researches on the structure of the kidneys and had described the ducts known by his name (Exercitatio anatomica de structura et usu renum, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical medicine at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of anatomy. He died at Florence on Jan. 8, 1704.

,

BELLINI, VINCENZO (1801-1835), operatic composer of the Italian school, was born at Catania in Sicily, on Nov. 3, 1801.

He was descended from a family of musicians, both his father and grandfather having been composers of some reputation. After having received his preparatory musical education at home, he entered the conservatoire of Naples, where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and Zingarelli. His first opera, Adelson e Savina, was performed in 1825 at a small theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work, Bianca e Fernando, was produced next year at the San Carlo theatre of the same city, and made his name known in Italy. His next work, J] Pirata (1827), was writ-

ten for the Scala in Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with

whom Bellini formed a union of friendship to be severed only by his early déath. Of Bellini’s operas the best known are: J Montecchi e Capuleti (1830), in which the part of Romeo, sung in England by Madame Pasta, became a favourite with all the great contraltos; La Sonnambula (1831); Norma, Bellini’s best

and most popular creation (1831); and J Puritani (1835), written

for the Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence of French music. He was seized with a sudden illness, and died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris, on Sept. 24, 1835. Bellini’s operas had an immense vogue in their day, and then

suffered a rather undeserved eclipse. They had little dramatic

force, but a ‘wealth of melody.

See C. Labat, Bellini (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, Bellini, sa vie

bardy, being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th century it belonged to the bishop of Como, while in the r3th and rąth centuries it was tossed to and fro between the cities of Milan and Como. In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was occupied by the French, but in r500 it was taken by Uri. In 1503 the French king ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. It became in 1798 the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the Helvetic re-

public, but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed canton of Ticino. BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL (1740-1 795), Swedish poet,

son of a civil servant, was born at Stockholm. When he was 19 he

became clerk in a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were irregular and he was frequently in great distress,

particularly after the death of his patron, Gustavus III. As early

as 1757 he published Evangeliska Dédstankar, meditations on the

Passion from the German of David von Schweidnitz, and during the next few years wrote, besides other translations, a great quan-

tity of poems, imitative for the most part of Dalin. In 1760 appeared his first characteristic work, Mdnan (The Moon), a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But the great work of his life occupied him from 1765-80, and consists of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as Fredmans Epistlar (1790) and Fredmans Sånger (1791). Fredman and his friends were well-known characters in the Stockholm pot-houses, where Bellman studied them from the life. He was accustomed, when

in the presence of none but confidential friends, to announce that the god was about to visit him. He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin apparently to improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic ode in praise of love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken direct, or with slight adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and still retain their popularity. His torrents of rhymes are not without their method; wild as they seem, they all conform to the rules of style which he accepted. A great Swedish critic has remarked that the jovial humour of Bellman is, after all, only “sorrow clad in rose-colour,” and this underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm. Much of Bellman’s work was only printed after his death, Bikang till Fredmans Epistlar (Nyköping, 1809), Fredmans Handskrifter (Uppsala, 1813), Skaldestycken (““Poems,” 1814) being among the most important of. these posthumous works. A colossal bronze bust of the poet by Byström

(erected by the Şwedish Academy in 1829) adorns the public gardens of Stockholm, and a statue by Alfred Nyström is in the Hasselbacken, Stockholm, Bellman was a favourite: compamon of King Gustavus III.

,

l

The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited

by J. G. Carlén,

with

biographical

notes,

illustrations

and music

(1856-61) ; see also monographs on Bellman by Nils Erdmann (1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905). `

BELL-METAL, the alloy used for bell founding, consists of three to five parts of copper to one of tin. It is a metal harder

than either of its components, and empirical experiment discov-

ered ages ago that it possesses a peculiar degree of sonority. ) BELLINZONA, the political capital of the Swiss canton of (See ALLOYS. ` BELLO, ANDRES (1781-1865), South American poet and Tessin or Ticino, rosm. from Lucerne by the St. Gotthard rail-

et ses oeuvres (1868); Pizzetti, La musica di Vincenzo Bellini (1916).

way, and r4m. from Locarno.

Until 1881 it was joint capital of

the canton, with Lugano and Locarno. The old town is built on

scholar, was born at Caracas, Venezuela, on Nov. 29, 1781. After having been associated with the revolutionary movement against

BELLOC—BELLOWS Spain, in 1810 he was sent on a political mission to London, where ne resided for 19 years, acting as secretary to the legations of Chile, Colombia and Venezuela, spending his free time in study,

teaching and journalism. In 1829 he accepted a post in the Chilean treasury, settled at Santiago and took a prominent part in

the intellectual life of the city, particularly in founding the national university (1843), of which he became rector. He was nominated

senator, and died at Santiago de Chile on Oct. 15, 1865. Bello was mainly responsible for the civil code promulgated in 1855. His prose works deal with such varied subjects as law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology; of these the most important is his

Gramática castellana (1847), the leading authority on the subject. But his position in literature proper is secured by his Silvas Americanas, a poem written during his residence in England, which conveys with extraordinary force the majestic impression

of the South American landscape.

385

The Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from Comana, in Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, during the first Mithridatic war is to be distinguished from this native Italian goddess. A new temple was built for her and a college of priests (Bellonarii) instituted to conduct her fanatical rites, at

which, wearing black dresses, they lacerated their arms and loins, sprinkled the blood from their wounds on the spectators, and even drank that of the sacrificial victims. See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer

BELLOT,

(1912).

JOSEPH

RENE

(1826-1853),

French Arctic

explorer, was born at Rochefort on March 18, 1826, the son of a farrier. With the aid of the authorities of his native town he was

enabled at the age of 15 to enter the naval school.

He took

part in the Anglo-French expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and received the cross of the Legion of Honour for distinguished con-

duct. He afterwards took part in another Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the River La Plata to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic expedition under the 1882). command of Captain Kennedy in search of Sir John Franklin, BELLOC, JOSEPH HILAIRE PIERRE (1870), and discovered the strait between Boothia Felix and Somerset British author, was born at La Celle, St. Cloud, France, July 27 Land which bears his name. Early in 1852 he was promoted 1870, the son of a French barrister, Louis Swanton Belloc. His lieutenant, and in the same year accompanied the Franklin search mother, Bessie Rayner Parkes (1829-1925), was prominent in expedition under Captain Inglefield. He perished by falling into the early days of the woman suffrage movement. Belloc was edu- a crevasse (August 1853). cated at the Oratory school, Edgbaston, then, as a French citizen, BELLOWS, ALBERT F. (1829-1883), American landscape served with the artillery at Toul, afterwards entering Balliol col- painter, was born at Milford (Mass.), Nov. 20, 1829. He first lege, Oxford, in 1893. He was naturalized in 1902. He was M.P. studied architecture, then turned to painting, and worked in Paris for Salford from 1906 to 1910, first as a Liberal then as an and in the Royal Academy at Antwerp. He painted much in Independent. England; was a member of the National Academy of Design, and Verses and Sonnets (1896) launched Belloc on a varied, not to of the American Water Color Society, New York; and an honorary say tempestuous, literary voyage. Historical studies of Danton member of the Royal Belgian Society of Water-Colourists. His (1899) and Robespierre (1901) first proved his lively historical earlier work was genre, in oils; after 1865 he used water-colours sense and compelling prose style. His independence of mind in more and more exclusively and painted landscapes. Among his politics showed itself at Oxford, later as a staunch opponent of the -water-colours are “Afternoon in Surrey” (1868); “Sunday in South African War and again in the circumstances of his retire- Devonshire” (1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; ment from parliamentary politics; it was shown too, in his asso- “New England Village School” (1878); and “The Parsonage” ciation with Cecil Chesterton in conducting The Eye Witness, and (1879). He died in Auburndale (Mass.), on Nov. 24, 1883. in writing The Party System (1911), and The Servile State BELLOWS, GEORGE WESLEY (1882-1925), American (1912). Books of nonsense rhymes, such as The Bad Child’s Book artist, was born in Columbus (O.), on Aug. 12, 1882. Educated of Beasts (1896); The Path to Rome (1902); satires such as Mr. at Ohio State university, he moved in 1904 to New York, where Clutterbuck’s Election (1908) and The Mercy of Allah (1922); he studied art under Robert Henri. In rgro, 1918 and 1919 he numerous volumes of essays and travel sketches; collected poems was an instructor at the Art Students’ League in New York city, (1924); military and topographical studies; and The Cruise of the and in rọrọ taught also at the Chicago Art institute. His work is Nona (1925)—these are samples of a great versatility of talent. distinguished by dignity of composition, vitality and intense As an upholder of nationalism and the Catholic tradition Belloc interest in life. His drawings and lithographs include many nohas summed up his attitude best in The Jews (1922), Europe and table illustrations of sporting subjects, and his painting showed the Faith (1920), and How the Reformation Happened (1928). at frst a preference for sable shades. Later, however, he added His works on French history include Marie Antoinette (1909), to the distinction of his drawing a rich, vibrant use of colour. Richelieu (1929) and Joan of Arc (1929). He is also the author Among his paintings may be mentioned “Jean and Anna,” in the of a History of England. Albright Art gallery, Buffalo (N.Y.); “Emma and Her Children,” BELLO-HORIZONTE, a city of Brazil, capital of the in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; “Portrait of my Mother,” in State of Minas Geraes, about som. N.W. of Ouro Preto, connected the Chicago Art institute; “Polo Game,” in the Columbus Gallery with the Central of Brazil railway by a branch line gm. in length. of Fine Arts; “Stag at Sharkeys,” in the Cleveland museum; Pop. in 1922, 55,563. The city was built by the State on an open “Men of the Docks,” owned by Randolph-Macon Woman’s colplateau about 3,o00ft. above the sea, and provided with all neces- lege, Lynchburg (Va,); “Up the Hudson,” in the Metropolitan sary public buildings, gas, water and tramway services before the Museum, New York city; and “North River,” in the Pennsylvania seat of government was transferred from Ouro Preto. The city Academy of Fine Arts. He died in New York city on Jan. 8, 1925. has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most attractive See Thomas Beer, The Lithographs of George Bellows (New York, State capitals of Brazil. 1927); Mrs. Bellows, Robert Henri and Eugene Speicher, Eds., The Bello’s complete works were issued in 15 volumes by the Chilean

Government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-93); he is the subject of an excellent biography by Miguel Luis Ammunategui (Santiago de Chile,

BELLONA, originally DuEttona, in Roman mythology, the

goddess of war (bellum, duellum), corresponding to the Greek

Enud, Sometimes known as the sister or wife of Mars, she has been identified with the Sabine war goddess Nério. Her temple

at Rome, dedicated by Appius Claudius Caecus (296 B.c.) durmg a battle with the Samnites and Etruscans (Ovid, Fasti, vi. 201), stood in the Campus Martius, near the Flaminian Circus, and outside the gates of the city. It was there that the senate met to discuss a general’s claim to a triumph, and to receive ambassadors from foreign States. In front of it was the columna

ellica, where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis (see

RALD) was performed.

Paintings of George Bellows

BELLOWS,

(1929).

an appliance to produce a current of air by

compressing a collapsible bag or receptacle into which air has

been admitted. The O.E. word for bellows was didsitbaelig ; 1.e., “blow-bag.” By the rith century baelig, bag, is found in early glossaries. Baelig became in M.E. bely, the plural “bellies” being found till the 16th century, when “bellows” appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used. Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the movement of air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt during the Greek occupation. These depended upon the heating of the air, which, being raised in pressure and bulk, was made to

386

BELLOWS

force water out of closed vessels, the water being afterwards employed for moving some kind of mechanism. In the process of iron smelting there is still used in some parts of India an artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows made from the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent one of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air. The bellows now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two flat boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected round their edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an air chamber, which can be increased or diminished in volume by separating the boards or bringing them nearer together. The leather is kept from collapsing, on the separation of the boards, by wire rings which act like the ribs of animals. The lower board has a hole in the centre, covered inside by a leather flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is also an open outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, the aperture of which is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board is raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up the partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper board the valve is closed sv courtesy or THE METRO.

by the air seeking an outlet, and this air is "CAN MUSEUM OF MN

eee through the open nozzle with a AMERICAN BELLOWS discharged : velocity depending on the pressure exerted. Double Bellows.—It is evident that the current of air produced is not continuous but intermittent or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill the cavity after each discharge. In order to remedy this drawback the double bellows are used. To understand their action it is only necessary to conceive an additional board with valve, like the lower board of the single bellows, attached in the same way by leather below this lower board. Thus there are three boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being fitted with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and another weight rests on the top board. In working these double bellows the lowest board is raised, driving the air from the lower cavity into the upper. On lowering the bottom board again a fresh supply of air is drawn in through the bottom valve, to be discharged again when the board is raised. As the air passes from the lower to the upper cavity it is kept from returning by the valve in the middle board, and in this way a quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the lowest board is sy courtesy of messrs. att-

raised. The weight on the top board pro- PAYS AND ON ONS, LID. DOVETE BELLOWS, ETA FOR ee CONTINU-

vides the necessarys pressure for the blast ? and at the same time causes the current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When

ROCK

FALLS—BELL

oys BLAST A. Blast pipe; B. Movable

the air is being forced into the upper cavity ENE oe E enoe the weight is being raised, and, during uppermost board, pressed the interval when the lowest board is des- upon by weight shown; L.

cending, the weight is slowly forcing the Hand lever

top board down and thus keeping up a continuous flow of air. Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a pear, with the hinge at the narrow end.. The same shape was adopted for the older forms of smiths’ bellows, with the difference that two bellows were used superposed, in a manner similar to that just described, so as to provide for a continuous blast. In the later form of smiths’ bellows the same principle is employed, but the boards are made circular in shape and are always maintained roughly parallel to one another. These are shown in the figure. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board, C the fixed middle board, close to which the pipe A is inserted, and D is the movable uppermost board pressed upon by the weight shown. The board B is raised by means of a hand lever L, through either

a chain or a connecting rod, and lowered by a weight. The size of

the weight on D depends on the air pressure required. For instance

if a blast pressure of half a pound per square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in diameter, and therefore have an area of

254 sq. in., on each of the 254 sq. in. there is to be a pressure gj half a pound, so that the weight to balance this must be halt of 254, or 127 pounds.

The diameter of the air-pipe can be varied to

suit the required conditions. Instead of bellows with flexible sides

a sliding arrangement is sometimes used; this consists of wha are really two boxes fitting into one another with the open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid to the othe

By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in the bellows and sliding them alternately apart and together, an intermittent blast is produced. The chief defect of this arrangement is the leakage of air caused by the difficulty in making the joint a sufficiently goog fit to be air-tight.

BELLOWS

FALLS,

an incorporated village of Windham

county, Vermont, U.S.A., beautifully situated on the Connecticut

river, 30m. from the southern boundary of the State; on Federal highway 5, and served by the Boston and Maine and the Rutland railways. The population was 4,860 in 1920, but it fel off to 3,930 in 1930 by the Federal census of that

year.

The

village

is the

trade

centre

for a surrounding

population of 20,000, a summer resort, and the shipping point for

dairy and farm products.

There is a co-operative creamery sup-

plied from goo farms, and many cars of bottled milk go to Boston daily. Hydro-electric power

(60,c0oh.p.) is developed from

the falls of the Connecticut at this point, and the village has numerous manufacturing industries. Bellows Falls was settled

about 1761 and incorporated in 1831. The damage in the village and vicinity from the floods of 1927 was estimated at about $2,000,000.

BELLOY, DORMONT

DE, the name assumed by Perre

LAURENT BUIRETTE (1727-1775), French dramatist. He was bom at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on Nov. 17, 1727, and educated for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked he joined a troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern sovereigns. He returned to Paris with Zelmire (1762), a fantastic drama which met with great success. This was followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, Le Siège de Calais, which had a sensational success, and was followed by Gaston et Bayard (1771), Pedro le cruel (1772) and Gabrielle de Vergy (1777). None of these attained the success of the earlier plays.

De Belloy died on March 5, 1775

His death is said to have been hastened by disappointment.

BELL PITS, small holes or shafts, 3ft. or 4ft. in diameter,

driven through a few feet of overlying strata to the seam of coal, and then widened out to allow for excavation. In Susser there are bell pits which were sunk in prehistoric times to obtain flints for the making of stone implements.

BELL ROCK or INCHCAPE ROCK, a sandstone reef in

the North Sea, r2m. S.E. of Arbroath, Angus Forfarshire, Scotland. It measures 2,o0oft. in length, is under water at high tide, but at low tide is exposed for a few feet, the sea for a distance of rooyds. around being then only three fathoms deep.

Lying in the fairway of vessels making or leaving the Tay and

Forth, besides ports farther north, it was a constant menace. In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail were wrecked off the reef, and next year Robert Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was feasible, but parliamentary powers were only obtained in 1806 and operations began August 1807. Though John

Rennie had meanwhile been associated with Stevenson as consulting engineer, the design and details are wholly Stevensons

work. The tower is Soft. high; its diameter at the base is 42ft, decreasing to rsft. at the top. It is solid for 3oft. at which height

the doorway is placed. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was placed in the tower.

abbot of Aberbrothock

According to tradition

(Arbroath) had ordered a bell—whence

the name of the rock—to be fastened to the reef so as to responi

to movements of the waves. This was destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was afterwards wrecked at this very spot, the rover

and his men being drowned. Southey made the incident the sul

ject of his ballad of “The Inchcape Rock.”

BELLUNO—BELSHAZZAR BELLUNO

(anc. Bellunum),

episcopal see, Venetia, Italy,

capital of province of Belluno, 54m. north of Treviso by rail and 29m. direct, at confluence of Ardo and Piave, 1,285ft. above sea-

level. Pop. (1921) 10,381 (town); 26,753 (commune).

It sur-

rendered voluntarily to Venice in 1420 and remained Venetian until 1797. The fine early Lombard Renaissance Palazzo dei Rettori is the seat of the prefecture. BELLWORT (Uvularia), the name given to a group of handsome woodland plants of the lily family, native to eastern North

America. There are five or six species, all low perennials with slender, creeping root stocks which send up leafy stems from 6 to

goin. high, bearing large pale yellow flowers, usually solitary

and drooping at the ends of the branches, and blooming from

April to June. The most conspicuous is the large-flowered bellwort (U. grandiflora). This bears ovate leaves somewhat hairy below when young and narrowly bell-shaped, lemon-yellow, sixparted flowers about r4in. long. It is found from Quebec westward to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Kansas. The somewhat smaller perfoliate bellwort (U. perfoliata), with more pointed leaves, which are smooth below, occurs from Quebec and Ontario south to Florida and Mississippi.

In the two foregoing

species the leaves appear as if impaled upon the stem (perfoliate).

The other much smaller species, by some authorities regarded as belonging to the genus Oakesia, have sessile leaves. The sessileleayed bellwort (U. sessilifolia) ranges from New Brunswick to Minnesota and south to Georgia and Arkansas. The mountain

bellwort (U. puberula) is restricted to the mountains of Virginia, West Virginia and North Carolina, while the delicate U. floridana is found only in central Florida.

BELMONT, AUGUST (1816-1890), American banker and financier, was born at Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on Dec. 8, 1816.

He entered the banking house of the Rothschilds at Frankfort, acted as their agent for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New York as their American representative. In 1853-55 he was chargé d’affaires for the United States at The Hague, and from 185s to 1858 was the American minister resident there. He energetically supported the Union cause during the Civil War, and exerted a strong influence in favour of the North upon the merchants and financiers of England and France. He died in New

337

various machinery. Beloit college, on a commanding site east of the river, was founded in 1846 through the efforts of the Congregational and Presbyterian churches to meet the educational needs of the new region opened up by the Black Hawk War. It has a campus of 30ac. and a large athletic field, an enrolment of over 500, and an endowment of over $2,000,000.

Beloit was founded chartered in 1856.

BELOMANCY,

by New

Englanders

in 1838, and was

a form of divination (q.v.) by means

of

arrows, practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient peoples (from Bédos, a dart, and uavrela prophecy or divination). Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this practice “when he stood in the parting of the way . . . to use divination: he made his arrows bright.”

BELON, PIERRE (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born near Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and then became a pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus (1515—44) at Wittenberg, with whom he travelled in Germany. Cardinal de Tournon furnished him with means for a scientific journey through Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia cnd Palestine (1346-49). Belon, who was highly favoured both by Henry II. and by Charles IX., was assassinated at Paris in April 1564. His works include: Les observations de plusieurs singularicés et choses mémorables trouvées en Gréce, Asie, etc. (1553, enlarged ed., Antwerp, 1555); Histoire naturelle des estranges poissons (1551), De aquatilibus (1553), and L’Histoire de la nature des oyseaux (1555). Belon was one of the first workers in the science of comparative anatomy.

BELOW, FRITZ VON

(1853-1918), German general, was

born on Sept. 23, 1853 at Danzig. He served in the war of 187071, and in 1912 was appointed to the command of the XXI. Army Corps. He fought with the VI. Army on the western front at the beginning of the World War, but his corps was transferred in 1915 to the eastern front. In 1916 he was chief in command of the I. Army, which was engaged in Nov. 1916 on the Somme. He

died in a field hospital on the western front on Nov. 23, 1918.

BELOW,

OTTO

VON

(1857—

), German general, was

born at Danzig on June 18, 1857. At the beginning of the World War he was in command of the 2nd Infantry Div. at Insterburg in East Prussia. In command of the I. Reserve Corps, he took York on Nov. 24, 1890. His son, Perry BELMONT (1851—), was born in New York part in the battles which resulted in the almost complete destrucon Dec. 28, 1851. He practised law in New York for five years, tion of the Russian army of the Narev. He was then appointed and was a member of Congress from 1881-89, serving in 1885-87 to the chief command of the VIII. Army, which bore an essential as chairman of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was part in the victory over the Russian X. Army at the battles of the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 7-15, 1915). In May 1915 he was United States minister to Spain. Another son, Aucust BeLtmont (1853-1924), was born in placed in chief command of the German Niemen army and New York on Feb. 18, 1853. He was prominent in financing and pressed forward with it in Courland (Kurland) and Lithuania as building the New York subway. He died in New York city on far as the southern reaches of the Dvina. In the autumn of 1916 he received the command of the German army group in MaceDec. 10, 1924. A volume entitled Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August donia and in the autumn of 1917 was placed in chief command Belmont (the elder) was published at New York in 1890. of the XIV. Army, which was fighting against Italy. In 1918 he BELMONT, a residential town of Middlesex county, Massa- led the XVII. Army, which particularly distinguished itself in chusetts, U.S.A., on the Boston and Maine Railroad, 6m. W. by N. the battles around Arras. After the war he was for a short of Boston, adjoining Cambridge. It was formed from parts of period general in command of the XVII. Army Corps at Danzig. Watertown, Waltham and West Cambridge, and was incorporated He resigned in June 1919. in 1859 after a bitter contest through several successive legislaBELPER, urban district, Derbyshire, England, on the river tures. Its area is 4-8sq.m. The population in 1860 was 1,198; in Derwent, seven miles N. of Derby on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. 1920 it was 10,749; and in 1930, according to the Federal census, (1931) 13,023 Until 1846 Belper (Beaurepaire) formed part of 21,748. The principal villages are Belmont and Waverly. The the parish of Duffield, granted by William I. to Henry de Ferres, Massachusetts general hospital in 1876 established its convales- earl of Derby. There is no distinct mention of Belper till 1296 cent home on a tract of 114ac. known as Waverly Highlands; and when the manor was held by Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lanin 1895 the McLean hospital moved to Waverly from Somerville. caster, who had a hunting seat here named Beaurepaire and BELOIT, a city of Rock county, Wis., U.S.A., on Rock river, founded the chapel of St. John. The manor thus became parcel jom. S.W. of Milwaukee, on the southern boundary of the of the duchy of Lancaster and is supposed to have been the resiState. It is served by the Chicago and North Western and the dence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards passed to the Jodrell family. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railways. The population The neighbourhood was severely scourged by the plague of 1609. Was 10,436 in 1900; 21,284 in 1920, of whom 2,819 were foreign- Coal mining is the most important industry, with metal working, especially the manufacture of all forms of wire, coming second. born white; and was 23,611 in 1930. The city has a pleasant situation on high bluffs on both sides of Hosiery and lace making are also of importance. the river, which furnishes

abundant

water-power.

The

factory

products in 1927 were valued at $21,234,924, and included knives, shoes, steam pumps, engines, windmills, automobile trailers and

BELSHAZZAR,

a Babylonian general of the 6th century

p.c. Until the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known only from the book of Daniel (v. 2, rz, 13, 18) and its

338

BELT— BELTING

reproduction in Josephus, where he is represented as the son of Nebuchadrezzar and the last king of Babylon. His identification with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. In 1854 Sir H. C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-uzur—“O Bel,

defend the king’—~in an inscription belonging to the first year of Nabonidos which had been discovered in the ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at Muqayyar or Ur. Here Nabonidos calls him his “first-born son.” In the contracts and similar documents there are frequent references to Belshazzar, who is sometimes entitled simply “the son of the king.” He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar. Indeed his father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the ‘son of Nabubaladsu-ighi, was not related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar and owed his accession to the throne to a palace revolution. Belshazzar took command of the army, living with it in the camp near Sippara, and the measures of defence organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been due to him. Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his less known father, and rightly concluded that his death marked the fall of the Babylonian monarchy. According to the Babylonian Chronicle, from the 7th

year of Nabonidos (548 B.c.) onwards “the son of the king” was with the army in Akkad, that is, in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of his trading transactions, which were carried out through his housesteward or agent. Thus in 545 B.c. he lent 20 manehs of silver to a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of the property of the latter. The legends of Belshazzar’s feast and of the siege and capture of Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book of Daniel and the Cyropaedia of Xenophon have been shown by the contemporaneous inscriptions to have been a “projection backwards” of the re-conquest of the city by Darius Hystaspes. The actual facts were very different (see BAByLontra: History). His death subsequent to the surrender of Babylon and the capture of Nabonidos, and with it the last native effort to resist the invader, would account for the position he assumed in later tradition and the substitution of his name for that of the actual king. See Th. G. Pinches, P.S.B.A., May 1884; H. Winckler, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, ii. 2, 3 (1887) ; Records of the Past, new series, i. p.

22-31 (1888); A. H. Sayce, The Higher Criticism, p. 497-537 (1893).

BELT, THOMAS

(1832—1878), English geologist and nat-

uralist, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and educated in that city. He spent eight years on the Australian gold fields and some time gold-mining in Nova Scotia, returning to England about 1860. In 1861 he issued a separate work entitled Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on a Study of the Auriferous Quartz Veins of Australia. He was searching for gold when he investigated the rocks and fossils of the Lingula Flags at Dolgelly, his observations being published in a now classic memoir in the

Geological Magazine for 1867. He then spent four active and adventurous years in charge of some Nicaraguan mines, the results being given in his Naturalist in Nicaragua (1874), a work of high merit. In his scientific papers he dealt boldly and suggestively with the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain and in various parts of the world. After many further expeditions to Russia, Siberia and Colorado, he died at Denver on Sept. 21, 1378.

BELT, a flat strap of leather or other material, used as a girdle (q¢.v.), especially the cinctura gladii or sword-belt, the chief “ornament of investiture” of an earl or knight (O.Ger. balz);

in machinery, a flexible strap passing round from one drum, pulley or wheel to another, for the purpose of power-transmission (see Bettinc). The word is applied to the belts of the planet Jupiter, to the armour-belt at the waterline of a warship, or to a narrow tract of country with special distinguishing characteristics, such as the earthquake belt across a continent. BELTANE, BELTENE, BELTINE or BEAL-TENE

(Scot.Gael. bealltain), the Celtic name for May-day, on which

of the bonfires known as “beltane fires,” which is believed to repre-

sent the Druidical worship of the sun-god. He who had the misfortune to get the charcoal-blackened bit of the cake cooked at the

fire became cailleach bealtine (the beltane carline)—a term of great reproach. In the north-east of Scotland beltane fires were

still kindled in the latter half of the 18th century.

Cormac, arch.

bishop of Cashel about the year 908, furnishes in his glossary the earliest notice of beltane. (See Trans. Irish Acad. xiv. pp. 10 122, 123.) The Highlanders have a proverb, “He is between two

beltane fires.”

The derivation of the word beltane is obscure. Following Cor. mac, it has been usual to regard it as a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal or Bil with the Celtic teine, fire. Theories thereby connecting the Semitic Baal with Celtic mythology are now repudiated by scientific philologists, and the New English

Dictionary accepts Dr. Whitley Stoke’s view that beltane cap have no connection with feime, fre. Beltane, Hallowmas, Candle.

mas, and Lammas were in ancient Scotland four quarter days, For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands of Scotland during the 18th century, see John Ramsay, Scotland ang Scotsmen in the 18th Century (1888) ; also J. Robertson in Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, xi. 620; Thomas Pennant, Tour ix Scotland (1769-70) ; W. Gregor, “Notes on Beltane Cakes,” Folklore

vi. (1895), p. 2; and “Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of Scotland,” p. 167 (Folklore Soc. vii. 1881); A. Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois

(1897);

Jamieson,

Scottish Dictionary

(1808); A. Mac-

bain, Celtic Mythology and Religion (1917); Cormac’s Glossary has been edited by O’Donovan

and Stokes

(1862).

BELTING FOR POWER TRANSMISSION.

The trans-

mission of power from an engine or motor to a machine by the method of driving shaft and pulley demands the employment of belts or ropes of careful manufacture. These are variously of leather, friction surface rubber balata, solid woven cotton and other materials. Despite the advance of electrical power transmission, belt and rope drive is still largely employed, and the manufacture of power-belting is an industry of considerable dimensions. In addition to the selection of the best type of belt for a given type of power transmission from a manufacturing standpoint, other important considerations are belt fastenings, pulleys to be used, stresses and loading under maximum conditions. When the power to be transmitted is not large, round or V-shaped belts are used. Cases of this are seen in the cooling fan and generator of automobiles and transmission drives on motorcycles. Most of the applications in industry, however, are of the leather, rubber, cotton or steel types of flat belt.

LEATHER BELTING Manufacture of Leather Belting.—The raw material for this article is the product of the heavy-leather tanning industry known as a Strap Butt. The best and most serviceable leather is derived from butts cut from steer hides. The Strap Butt represents approximately 50% of the total weight of leather produced from a hide, and in area is about 44 by 4łft. Rough leather, which is hard, brittle and non-elastic, must be curried to bring it to the

pliable condition essential to procure durability, good adhesion to the pulleys and the elasticity required for good power trans mission. In currying, the rough leather is first soaked in a weak tan

liquor until the fibres become fairly soft and pliable. At this stage the grain (hair side) and flesh (inside) are thoroughly cleansed from all foreign matter deposited on them during the process of tanning. Subsequently, whilst the leather is in a moist

condition, a mixture of best quality cod-liver oil and tallow 3s well rubbed in on one surface, a dressing of cod oil to the other side, and the butts are hung up to dry. During the drying process the lighter constituents of the grease are absorbed by the fibres.

Just before the leather is quite dry the butts are taken down and damped.

Another application of grease is given on the opposite

side to the first one. At a later stage the butts are “set out,” 42, friction and pressure is applied to the hair side by oscillating 0

rotary machinery, which extends the leather, works out the gram, and makes the butt as flat as possible. The butt is generally

was held a festival originally common to all the Celtic peoples. stretched because the elongation of the leather within its elastic The most important ceremony in later centuries was the lighting | limit is of vital importance to its efficient transmission of powél.

BELTING the important It is stretched either as a whole or in three sections,apparatus until hing stretc the in leather the factor being to leave it is dry. After stretching and drying, the “belting butt” is put

out through a finishing process termed “ jacking,” which smoothes ive attract an lends This . surface the leather and gives it a glazed ission

appearance tO the leather but adds nothing to its transm

ability. When the currying 1s completed the butts are brushed

mature. over lightly with warm tallow and laid down in pile to leather, g wearin good ing produc in ance import great of This is ng and maturing the time occupied in the whole process of curryi cut into strips, being Before . months four y imatel being approx grease is scraped

389

ed to When the boxes are emptied each joint is carefully examin the hold, see that the cement is well set and the lips have a good before dry quite are joints the until down whole roll being laid used. they are sewn. In sewing, a white or a horny lace is generally

The holes are pierced with an awl, and the lace is threaded in and also pulled up tight, the whole being a hand operation. Joints are cophemp sewn, both by machine and hand labour. Occasionally essenper-wire sewn joints are specified, but copper rivets are not tial, as waterproof joints can be supplied for use in damp situations. In making “cemented only” belting, a splice about one inch

the curried Strap Butt is finished, 2.e., all surplus

to give them a finish. away and the surfaces are rubbed over have both natural and Butt, Strap uently conseq and Hides,

growth, poor texartificial faults. The natural ones are uneven the “gad” fly. ture, and at certain seasons warble holes caused by on the flesh, galls ’ fleshers cuts, s’ butcher are ones The artificial elimhorn marks and scratches on the grain, all of which must be serviceinated from the leather used in the making up of a good, Butt is very similar able and reliable belt. The growth of the Strap t parts are over to the shape of the steer, that is to say, the thickes

spinal region and along the ribs. That portion which covers the g from taperin ss thickne general the l, is thinner but sound materia best

neck. The the hind quarters to the commencement of the steers and ear-old three-y from taken those are hides for belting are best hides Green hides. steer Packer”

are known as “Green and for belting if they are removed from the animals in the fall shorter is hair the year, the of period this winter months. During and the hide cleaner. Eliminating Weakness.—The tanner cuts the butts 44 to thickness 4zit. long according to growth, but the difference in end is shoulder the and ) quarters (hind end butt the between to be end shoulder the at inches 10 to 8 too great to allow the last spot, used in making a high quality belt. To eliminate this weak width full the away cut is wide inches 10 to 8 therefore, a strip quite of the butt, which represents a loss of 12% in weight and two into cut now is butt ed shorten The value. in loss a big into cut being when g handlin in ease slightly unequal portions for strips, which is done on a circular knife running at a high speed. The cutter carefully examines each portion of the butt for flaws and to ascertain its growth and thickness; the centre portion of the butt, being thinner, produces narrower belting than that portion which covered the centre of the ribs of the steer. From the region two or three inches past the centre line of the ribs to within 14 to 2 inches of the tip of the butt end flank, the growth falls away and narrower belting is cut; ultimately a piece 3 to 4 inches wide on each portion is left, which is too poor in quality for belting requirements. This represents about 7% of the starting weight of the butt. The cut lengths are passed forward to the squarer, who examines each one carefully for flaws and thin ends, and decides just where to cut away the leather which is not up to the standard required; in doing so he cuts the ends square, to facilitate the operation of splicing. `

longer than for sewn work is generally made and a higher grade

of cement is employed. In making double belts, two plies are first prepared as single cebelts with “cemented only” joints, then these two plies are supare required as and side, flesh to side mented together flesh plied “cemented only,” sewn with laces, hemp or copper wire. After the sewing operation the edges of the leather are finished soft. flat or round and the roll which measures generally 300-3 long is ready for use. A high breaking strain does not mean that the leather will wear well; in fact, the opposite is the case. The hardest wearing leather comes from the centre of the butt, and it is well known that, owing tively to its close texture, this region of the butt has a compara low breaking strain, whereas the outer edges of the butt, which are more open in texture and stretch more, always give a high breaking strain. Initial Stretch.—The initial stretch in leather belting can be, and is, eliminated by the up-to-date manufacturer, who only leaves just sufficient stretch to provide the elasticity required for good power transmission. The process is, however, expensive and adds to the prime cost of the belting, but in these days of high-speed production the extra outlay for “stretchless” belting is a paying proposition.

roll of belt_ Matching the Strips——In making up a complete ensure that they

ing the strips are carefully matched and graded to

are of similar texture and as near-as possible similar thickness,

so that the made-up belt will be well-balanced. When satisfactory

in this respect the lengths are spliced, i.e., the ends of each strip are bevelled on alternate surfaces. The bevelled surfaces are roughed up to produce a suitable surface for the cement. The joints are now fitted, ż.e., the bevelled surfaces are carefully measured and marked off to a fixed length which varies according tothe width of the strips. The lips are thinned toa feathered edge, great attention being given to ensure that the spliced ends lie and

fit properly on each other. l cementing, a good adhesive gelatine in a warm liquid state is applied and well rubbed into the prepared splices. The covered areas, one spliced from the grain side, the other from the flesh side, are laid on each other, in a hydraulic box-press and pressed

down every few minutes till the box is full. Pressure is now left

on for several hours to enable the cement to set and also partly dry.

Mineral

Retanning

of Leather—Leather

belting of first

quality at its best is sometimes not highly flexible. A certain stiffness, peculiar to the leather, has been overcome by the introduction of the mineral retanning process. This process results in a leather of extreme flexibility, increased tensile strength and increased frictional qualities; it enables it to stand the action of water and steam and, to a certain extent, the effect of corrosive acids. Leather belts withstand much overloading, but they require some

care and attention during their effective life. An occasional application of curriers’ dubbin furnishes fresh lubricants to the fibres when they become dry. Belt dressings as sold by the dealer are generally more harmful than useful, while giving temporary release from slipping they make the leather harsh and dry in the long run, and thus shorten its life. Leather belts are long lived and are often repaired again and again. Cases are on record of leather belts which have performed their duty efficiently for 25 to 30 and even 40 years. The best makes of leather belting are sold on a measurement basis, the per foot price-list being graded (R. M. O.) according to width and thickness. BALATA BELTING This belting employs balata, a gum obtained from the bullet the tree (Mimusops balata), which is a native of Guiana and West Indies. Balata is related to gutta-percha, the latex contain-

ing a high proportion of that substance. Its advantages for the purpose of belting are non-elasticity, great power of penetration when in solution (so that the fabric used as a base can be rendered

thoroughly waterproof and solid), and tenacity in binding the plies. It offers great resistance to oxidation. The basis of the balata belt is cotton-duck, necessarily of high grade, for its fibres must withstand the strains of transmission, and be of such evenness of quality and texture that the belt through-

out its length and width is of uniform strength and suppleness to the ensure true running. American cotton of long staple gives be best results. For the requirements of belting the duck must the of strength the of relation The woven. and spun both tightly weft to the warp is of considerable importance, for although all the tension in a belt would appear to bear on the warp, yet this

BELTON—BELVIDERE

59°

must be strengthened and supported by the weft, or the belt will lose its shape, pull narrow and stretch. The duck is thoroughly impregnated with a carefully cleaned solution of balata. This operation is most important, for the duck must be thoroughly saturated before being made up into belts. After evaporation of the solvent agent, the treated duck is ready for translation into various widths and plies. It is therefore heated to reduce the balata to a partially melted state, and in this condition the duck is folded in the number of plies required under heavy pressure. The belt is then passed through very heavy rollers, and severe tension applied by way of tests. The result is a belt of great tensile strength and true running. An ingenious manufacturer has designed a belt which combines balata with leather. The upper part of the belt is of balata based on cottonduck as here described; beneath it are transverse strips of oaktanned leather attached to the balata by strong metal rivets so well sunk into the leather that they do not touch the pulleys. The balata takes the pull, and the leather strips which are attached to it give grip. (X.) RUBBER

BELTING

This type, as it is known in the United States, is composed of cotton duck impregnated with a strong, tenacious, slow-ageing rubber compound. The present methods of manufacture produce a belt, homogeneous, strong, flexible and durable. The rubber friction compound is not merely spread on the surface of the cotton duck, but is forced into the pores by massive calender rollers.

Therefore the strength of the finished belt depends upon the strength of its duck, and the strength of the duck is proportioned to its weight and its quality. By weight is meant the actual scale weight of a piece of duck 36 in. by 42 in. when dry. These dimensions are known as “U.S. trade standard.” The breaking

STEEL BELTING

This type of belt has been used with considerable success in Germany

since 1906 but results in the United States have not

been as satisfactory. The steel belt is used in the same manne as the leather belt, except that it is narrow, thin and of very light material. It is put on the pulley with a relatively high initial tension and hence runs without sag. The material used is fre.

quently a charcoal steel, prepared and hardened by processes that are for the most part secret. Steel belts are not adapted to tight and loose pulleys, but crossed belts will work satisfactorily, provided the distance between the shafts is held above a certain pre-

determined ratio to the width of the belt. Sometimes several steel belts are used with one transmission.

(W. Sta)

BELTON, a city of Texas, U.S.A., 55m. N.E. of Austin; the county-seat of Bell county.

It is on Federal highway 81, and js

served by the Santa Fe and the Missouri-Kansas-Texas railways, The population in 1930 was 3,779. Cotton, grain, honey, and hogs are raised in the surrounding country.

The city has cotton gins

and compresses, cottonseed-oil and cotton-yarn factories, and a poultry-dressing plant. It is the seat of Baylor College fo Women, opened at Independence in 1851 as the women’s section of Baylor university (chartered in 1845 by the Republic of Texas)

and removed to Belton in 1886.

BELTRAMI,

EUGENIO

tician, was born at Cremona.

(1835-1900), Italian mathemaHe came of a well-known and cul-

tured family; was educated at Cremona and later at Pavia, where

he studied mathematics under Brioschi. Beltrami held an appointment in the administration of the Italian railways until 1862 when he began his academic career as professor extraordinarius in algebra, and geometry at Bologna. The following year he was

appointed professor of geodesy at Pisa, but he returned to Bologna in 1866 as professor of rational mechanics. In 1873 Beltrami betensile strength of the average 32 oz. duck 1 in. wide is about came professor at Rome and was elected a member of the Reale 500 lb.; of 28 oz. duck, 440 lb. The duck is first inspected, after Accademia dei Lincei. Between 1876 and 1891 he lectured on which tests are made for tensile strength, crimp, etc. The next mathematical physics and higher mechanics at Pavia, then restep is impregnation of the duck with the rubber compound. Be- turned to Rome where he remained until his death, after an fore this can be done the duck must be thoroughly dried as the unsuccessful operation, on Feb. 18, 1900. rubber compound will not adhere to a moist surface. This is Beltrami’s work on non-Euclidean geometry follows on that accomplished by running it over a series of warm plates or of Riemann and Lobatchewsky; his most important contributions, heated rollers. The duck, while warm, is then passed through a dealing with the theory of hyperbolic space, were published in the calendering machine which compresses the rubber compound Giornale Matematico di Napoli (1868). He was also the author of papers on differential parameters in which he used the theory into it. of invariants (1869), on flexures of ruled surfaces and on the TEXTILE BELTING general theory of surfaces. While at Pavia and Rome Beltrami This is made by weaving in a loom or building up a belt with wrote a number of papers on various branches of mathematical layers of canvas stitched together. The success of this type of physics such as hydrodynamics, elasticity, physical optics, theory belting depends upon the weight and grade of cotton duck or other of potential, electricity, magnetism, conduction of heat and thermaterial employed, the method of stitching the duck plies together modynamics. A good deal of this work aims at clearing up some and the character of the impregnating compounds. In the better of the obscurities present in Maxwell’s work. After his death grades, the weight of the duck is usually 36 to 374 oz. to a stand- Beltrami’s papers were collected and published under the title ard 36 in. by 42 in. strip and possesses a tensile strength of from Opere Matematici by the University of Rome (3 vols., 1902-10). 550 to 6oo Ib. per in. per width per ply. There are two general BELUGA or “WHITE WHALE” (Delphinapterus leucas), methods of manufacture in use, one known as the round edge a cetacean of the family Delphinapteridae. A native of the and the other as the folded. After the belt is formed and stitched, it is treated with the impregnating compound which makes it water-proof, and in some cases oil-proof. Generally, belts treated with a cheap filling are very stiff and hence do not conform to the pulley, making it more difficult to transmit the desired power.

Arctic seas, it extends in the western Atlantic as far south as the river St. Lawrence, which it ascends for a considerable distance.

Textile belts are used more for conveyor service than for the transmission of power. Hair power belting is used where special resistance is required to the action of acids, moisture and oils. Frequently this is made of cotton of the highest grade, having long fibre cotton yarn specially selected, and hair from the long-hair two-humped Bactrian camel of northern China, Mongolia and Siberia. It is woven on looms under tension which results in a closely woven, one-piece fabric, uniform throughout. It is then treated with special compounds for preserving its life and pliability. Prior to weaving, the hair is cleaned and the longest fibres are made up into yarn. The yarn is then rolled on spools into a “beam” which forms the warp of the belt; a cotton filler and binder is used to complete the

built in the upper part of a building or in any elevated position so as to command a fine view. The belvedere assumes various forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola, a loggia or open gallery. The name is applied to the whole building, as the Belvedere gallery in the Vatican at Rome, or the Belvedere palace in Vienna.

woven structure.

In colour it is almost pure white; the maximum length is about 18 ft.; and the back-fin is lacking. (See CETACEA.)

BELVEDERE or BELVIDERE, an architectural structure

BELVIDERE,

a city of Illinois, U.S.A., 7om. N.W. of

Chicago, on the Kishwaukee river, at an altitude of 8ooft.; the county seat of Boone county.

It is on Federal highway 20, and Js

served by the Chicago and North Western railroad, which has

here its terminal yards for three divisions. The population m 1930 was 8,123. The fertile river valley produces chiefly gram and hay, and milk for the Chicago market. Manufactures Mclude sewing-machines, washing-machines, industrial alcohol, cas ket hardware, corsets, overalls, artificial flowers, radios, computing

BELZONI—BEMIS scales and milk-bottle caps. The municipal water supply comes

from artesian wells. Belvidere was founded in 1836 and incorporated in 1852 and again in 188r. BELZONI, GIOVANNI

BATTISTA

(1778-1823), Ital-

ian explorer of Egyptian antiquities, was born at Padua. He and his wife in 1803 moved to London, where they lived in extreme

poverty until they found a livelihood by exhibiting feats of

strength at Astley’s circus, to which he was introduced by Henry

Salt, Belzoni had invented a hydraulic machine and went to Egypt to induce Mohammed Ali to adopt it for the regulation of the Nile waters. In Egypt he was again befriended by Henry Salt, then consul-general, who sent him to Thebes, whence he removed with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II., commonly called Young Memnon, which he shipped for England,

where it is in the British Museum.

He investigated the great

temple of Edfu, visited Elephantine and Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand (1817), made excavations at Kar-

nak, and opened up the sepulchre of Seti I. (“Belzoni’s Tomb”). He was the first to penetrate into the second pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern times to visit the oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that of Siwa. He also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. In 1819 he returned

to England, and published, in 1820, his Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, etc.

In 1823 he

set out for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. He reached Benin, but died of dysentery at a village called Gwato on

Dec. 3, 1823. In 1829 his widow published his drawings of the royal tombs at Thebes. BEM, JOSEF (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow in Galicia, and was educated at the military school at Warsaw. Joining a Polish artillery regiment in the French service, he took part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and brilliantly distinguished himself in the defence of Danzig (Jan— Nov. 1813). On returning to Poland he was for a time in the Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some time, for his outspokenness. In the Polish War of Independence his skill as an artillery officer won for the Polish general Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8 1831), and he distinguished himself at the indecisive battle of Ostrolenka (May 26). He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw against Prince Paskievich (Sept. 6-7 1831). Then Bem escaped to Paris, where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1848 he attempted to hold Vienna against the imperial troops, and, after the capitulation, hastened to Pressburg to offer his services to Kossuth. He was entrusted with the defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the general of the Szeklers (q.v.), he performed miracles with his little army, notably at the bridge of Piski (Feb. 9), where, after fighting all day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers. After recovering Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian general Puchner out of the Banat of Temesvár. Bem defeated him at Orsova (May 16), but the Russian invasion recalled him to Transylvania. From

July 12~22 he was fighting continually, but finally, on July 31 his army was annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvar

(Schassburg), Bem only escaping by feigning death. Bem was in command and was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle of the war, fought on Aug. 9 at Temesvar. On the collapse of the rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mohammedanism, and under the name of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo, where, at the risk of his life, he saved the Christian

population from being massacred by the Muslims. Here he died on Sept. 16 1850. The tiny, withered, sickly body of Bem Was animated by heroic temper. Even the rough Szeklers regarded him with superstitious reverence. A statue to his honour has been erected at Maros-Vasarhely, but he lives still more en-

duringly in the verses of the patriot poet Sandor Petof.

See Johann Czetz, Memoiren iiber Bems Feldzug (Hamburg, 1850) ;

aiman Deresényi, General Bem’s Winter Campaign in Transylvania,

1848-49 (Hung.) (1896).

BEMA, in ecclesiastical architecture, the semi-circular recess or apse (¢.v.) in the basilica, where later the altar was placed.

391

It generally is roofed with a half dome. In early Christian churches the seats of the priests were against the wall, looking

into the body of the church, that of the centre. The bema is generally ascended by In Greece the bema was the general name of Thus the word was applied to the tribunal

bishop being in the steps and railed off. any raised platform. from which orators

addressed assemblies of the citizens at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecclesia often met, was a stone platform xo to rrft. high. In the Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a platform; it is not known whether each had a separate

bema or whether there was only one to which each counsel and the witnesses in turn ascended (cf. W. Wyse in his edition of Isaeus, p. 440). Another bema was the platform on which stood the urns for the reception of the bronze discs (Wigdor) by which at the end of the 4th century 3.c. the judges recorded their decisions.

BEMBERG, HERMAN

(1861-

_), French musical com-

poser, was born of French parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the Paris Conservatoire, under Massenet, whose influence, with that of Gounod, is strongly marked in his music. His grand opera Elaine was produced at Covent Garden in 1892 and in New York in 1894. Among his songs the dramatic recitative Ballade du Désespéré is well known.

BEMBO, PIETRO (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar, was born at Venice. While still a boy he accompanied his father to Florence, and there learnt to love the Tuscan dialect which he afterwards cultivated. He accompanied Giulio de’ Medici to Rome, where he was appointed secretary to Leo X. (1513). On the pontiff’s death he retired to Padua, and in 1529 he accepted the office of historiographer to his native city, being shortly afterwards appointed librarian of St. Mark’s. The offer of a cardinal’s hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539 again to Rome, where he renounced the study of classical literature and devoted himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long as reward of his conversion the bishoprics of Gubbio and Bergamo. As a writer, Bembo is the beau ideal of a purist. The exact imitation of the style of the classics was the highest perfection at which he

aimed. His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a History of Venice (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we should now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise on Italian prose and a dialogue entitled Gli Asolani, in which platonic affection is recommended, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of Petrarch’s Italian Poems (1501) and the Terserime (1502), both published by Aldus, were edited by Bembo. See Opere de P. Bembo (Venice, 1729); Casa, Vita di Bembo, in 2nd vol. of his works.

BEMIDJI, a city in the midst of the woods and lakes of northern Minnesota, U.S.A., about 150m. N.W. of Duluth; the county seat of Beltrami county. On Federal highways 2 and 71, and served by the Great Northern, the Soo, the Northern Pacific, and the Minneapolis, Red Lake and Manitoba railways. The population was 2,183 in 1900; 7,086 in 1920; and in 1930 was 7,202 Federal census. The city is built around the lower end of Lake Bemidji and bordered on the south by Lake Irving, through both of which the Mississippi river flows from its source in Lake Itasca (within a State park) 25m. to the south-west. It has an altitude of 1,343 feet. It is a distributing and supply point for the lumbering industry of the region, a base for summer excur~ sions, for fishing, and hunting big game. There are saw-mills, box factories, and wood-working mills; cement works and brickyards; woollen mills; creameries; a turpentine plant, and one making peat products. A State teachers college is situated there. Bemidji is an Indian word meaning “easy crossing,’ applied to the narrows across the Mississippi between the two lakes, and also the name of a Chippewa chief who was a staunch friend of the early settlers, after whom the city was named.

BEMIS, EDWARD

WEBSTER

(1860-

), American

economist, was born at Springfield (Mass.), April 7, 1860, and was educated at Amherst and Johns Hopkins university. He held the professorship of history and political economy in Vanderbilt university (1889-92), was associate professor of political economy in the University of Chicago (1892-95), assistant statistician to

BEMONT—BENARES

394

the Illinois bureau of labour statistics (1896), and professor of economics and history in the Kansas State Agricultural college (1897-99).

Thereafter he devoted himself to practical rather than

theoretical work, ultimately becoming consulting engineer on public utilities, and a member of the advisory board of the valuation bureau of the Interstate Commerce Commission (1913-23). In rg0r he became superintendent of the Cleveland waterworks. He wrote much on municipal government, his more important works being Municipal Ownership of Gas-Works in the United

a magnificent panorama of buildings in many varieties of oriental architecture with the minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb

towering above all. The bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there are many very fine ghats or landing-places built These are generally

by pious devotees, and highly ornamented.

crowded with bathers and worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred river Ganges; and among them constanily os ee

eee:

States (1891) and Municipal Monopolies (1899).

BEMONT, CHARLES (1848-

_), French scholar, and

director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris, was born in Paris, on Nov. 16, 1848. His studies were chiefly in English and European mediaeval history, his most important works being: Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester (1884); Les chartes des libertés anglaises (1892); Recueil d’actes relatifs & l’administration des rois d’ Angleterre en Guyenne au XIII siècle.. .. Transcrits et publiées par C. Bémont (1914). In 1896 Bémont published a supplement to the first volume of the Gascon Rolls, begun by F. Michel, and in 1900 and 1906 he issued the second and third volumes. The University of Oxford conferred the honorary degree of Litt.D. on him in 1909.

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E preoccupations, but he seems to have underestimated stone of which should be laid except in accordance with the deculties and to have overlooked the necessity of diversity ductions of the severest logic. Most of Bentham’s conclusions of institutions adapted to the tradition and civilization of different result from the application of a rigorous common sense to the

(pr. 1787). This, his first essay form of a series of letters from of Adam Smith, but one who application of Smith’s principles.

in economic science, cast in the Russia, shows him as a disciple insisted on the extreme logical He argued that every man was

BENTHAMISM—-BENTIVOGLIO

418

facts of society. J. S. Mill said of his work: “There is hardly anything in Bentham’s philosophy which is not true. The bad part of his writings is his resolute denial of all that he does not see; of all truths but those which he recognizes.”

which he represented for 20 years. Till within three years of his

death he was little known out of the sporting world.

He belonged originally to the moderate Whig party, ang Voted in favour of Catholic emancipation, as also for the Reform bi!

As a jurist he inquires of all institutions whether their utility

though he opposed some of its principal details. Soon afte; how.

justifies their existence. If not, he is prepared to suggest a new form of institution by which the needful service may be rendered. English institutions had never before been so comprehensively and dispassionately surveyed. His writings have been and remain a storehouse of instruction for statesmen, an armoury for legal reformers. ‘“‘Pillé par tout le monde,” as Talleyrand said of him, “il est toujours riche.” To trace the results of his teaching in England alone would be to write a history of the legislation of half a century. Upon the whole administrative machinery of government, upon criminal law and upon procedure, both criminal and civil, his influence has been most salutary; and the great legal revolution which in 1873 purported to accomplish the fusion of law and equity is not obscurely traceable to the same source. Those of Bentham’s suggestions which have hitherto been carried out have affected the matter or contents of the law. The hopes which have been from time to time entertained, that his suggestions for the improvement of its form and expression were about to receive the attention which they deserved, have hitherto been disappointed.

ever, he joined the ranks of the Opposition, with whom he sided

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Bentham’s Works, together with an Introduction by J. Hill Burton, selections from his correspondence and a biography, were published by Dr. Bowring, in eleven closely printed volumes (1838-1843). This edition does not include the Deontology, which, much rewritten, had been published by Bowring in 1834. Translations of the Works or of separate treatises have appeared in most European languages. Large masses of Bentham’s mss., mostly unpublished, are preserved at University college, London (see T. Whittaker’s Report, 1892, on these mss., as newly catalogued and reclassified by him in

155 parcels) ; also in the British Museum (see E. Nys, Etudes de droit international et de droit politique, 1901, pp. 291-333). See farther on the life and writings of Bentham: L. Stephen, The English Utilitarians (1900), vol. i; C. M. Atkinson, Jeremy Bentham (1905); A. C. Doyle, Jeremy Bentham, Selected Bibliography (1899); O. Kraus, Zur theorie des Wertes (Berlin, rgor); C. M. Atkinson, Jeremy Bentham (1905); J. McCunn, Six Radical Thinkers (1910); W. R. Sorley, Bentham and the Early Utilitarians (1914) ; H. G. Lundin, “Influence of J. Bentham on English Democratic Development” (University of Iowa Studies, vol. vii., 1920) ; Graham Wallas, Jeremy Bentham (1922); C. Philipson, Three Criminal Law Reformers (1923).

BENTHAMISM

means

the views, especially the ethical

views, of Jeremy Bentham (g.v.). It is sometimes used as synonymous with Utilitarianism (g.v.). (See also Etutcs, History oF.)

BENTHOS, the name used to denote collectively the seden-

tary bottom-living animal and plant life of the ‘sea, in contradis-

tinction to the drifting plankton (g.v.) and actively-swimming nekton (g.v.). See Marne Brotoey. BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM (1774-1839), governorgeneral of India, second son of the 3rd duke of Portland, was born on Sept. 14,1774. He entered the army, rose to the rank of lieuten-

ant-colonel and was present at Marengo. In 1803 he was nominated governor of Madras, where he quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir Henry Gwillim, and several members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at Vellore in 1807 led to his recall. His name was considered at this time for the post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead: and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord Amherst in that office. His governorgeneralship (1827~35) was notable for many reforms, chief among which were the suppression of the Thugs (g.v.), the abolition of suttee, and the making of the English language the basis of education in India. Lord William’s administration was essentially peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died in Paris on June 17, 1839. See Demetrius C. Boulger, Lord William Bentinck, in the “Rulers of India” series (1892).

BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDER-

ICK CAVENDISH, better known as Lorp Grorce BENTINCK

a

up to 1846. When, in that year, Sir Robert Peel openly declared in favour of free trade, the advocates of the corn-laws, then with.

out a leader, discovered that Lord George Bentinck was the only man of position and family around whom the several sections of the Opposition could be brought to rally. He soon gave convincin evidence of powers so formidable that the Protectionist party

under his leadership was at once stiffened into real importance

Towards

Peel, in particular, his hostility was uncompromisiny

Believing, as he himself expressed it, that that statesman and his colleagues had “hounded to the death his illustrious relative”

Canning, he combined with his political opposition a degree of personal animosity that gave additional force to his invective.

He abandoned his connection with the turf, disposed of his

magnificent stud and devoted his whole energies to the laborious duties of a parliamentary leader. Apart from the question of the corn-laws, however, his politics were decidedly independent, Jn opposition to the rest of his party, he supported the bill for remov. ing the Jewish disabilities, and was favourable to the scheme for the payment of the Roman Catholic clergy in Ireland by the lang. owners. The result was that on Dec. 23 1847 he wrote a letter resigning the Protectionist leadership, though he still remained active in politics. But his positive abilities as a constructive statesman were not to be tested, for he died suddenly at Welbeck Sept. 21 1848. It was to be left to Disraeli to bring ihe Conservative Party into

power, with Protection outside its programme. See B. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), Lord George Bentinck: g

Political Biography (1851).

BENTIVOGLIO,

GIOVANNI

(1443-1508), tyrant of

Bologna, was born after the murder of his father, the chief magistrate of the commune. In 1462 Giovanni made himself master of the city, although it was nominally a fief of the Church under a papal legate. He ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, but the brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and his decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices to some extent compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare Borgia (qg.v.) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1500, when he was crushing the various despots of Romagna, but Bentivoglio was saved by French intervention. In 1502 he took part in the conspiracy against Cesare, but, whea the latter obtained French assistance, he abandoned his fellowconspirators and helped Borgia to overcome them. During the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded Alexander VI. in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope, Julius IL, was determined to reduce all the former papal states to obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side, he led an army against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio and forced him to abandon the city (Nov. 1506). The deposed tyrant took refuge with the French, whom he trusted more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508. BIBLIOCRAPAY.—A, von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (1868), vol. ii., P. Litta, Le Famiglie celebri Italiane (Milan, 1834) vol. iL;

P. Villari, Machiavelli (Eng. tr., 1892) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (1897). (L. Va

BENTIVOGLIO,

GUIDO

(1579-1644), Italian cardin

statesman and historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579.

He wa

private chamberlain to Clement VIII; and Paul V. created

him archbishop of Rhodes (1607), and nuncio first to Flanders and then to France. He was created cardinal in 1621. A close friend of Pope Urban VIII., he was marked out as Urban’s successor,

but on Sept. 7 1644, he died suddenly at the opening of the conclave. Bentivoglio’s principal works are: Della Guerra di Fit-

dria (best edition, Cologne, 1633-39), translated into English by (1802~1848), British politician, was the second surviving son of Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654); Lettere diplomatiche

the fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister of Viscountess Canning, and was born on Feb. 27 1802. He served in the army for some years, and entered parliament in 1828 for King’s Lynn,

di Guido Bentivoglio (Brussels, 1631, frequently reprinted, best edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 vols., Turin, 1852). The complete ed: tion of his works was published at Venice in 1668 in quarto.

419

BENTLEY BENTLEY, JOHN FRANCIS (1839-1902), English architect, was born at Doncaster, Jan. 30, 1839, and died at Clapham, London, March 2, 1902. He began as an engineer, passing after a short time into a builder’s office and then went as pupil to Henry Clutton, an architect whose practice was largely ecclesiastical and influenced by the French Gothic school. Bentley refused the partnership offered by Clutton and went into practice on his own account in 1862. His earliest important undertaking was

the enlargement and decorative treatment of St. Francis church, Notting Hill, London, followed by other ecclesiastical work in London and the country, in which he showed an increasing tend-

ency towards a more English form of Gothic design. The seminary of St. Thomas, at Hammersmith, London (now the Sacred Heart convent), is noteworthy for the beauty of its treatment and carefully conceived plan, and was followed by St. John’s school at

Beaumont, one of the best examples of his work based on English Renaissance of the 17th century. Holy Rood church, at Watford,

built in 1892, is an excellent example of Bentley’s skill in adapting mediaeval ideals to the circumstances of our times.

In his 56th year Bentley was appointed by Cardinal Vaughan as the architect of the proposed Roman Catholic cathedral in Westminster, London. The Byzantine style was chosen, Bentley

equipped himself for dealing with the problem by studying his subject in Italy and Constantinople, and spent several months in Rome and northern Italy in 1894. From aseries of sketch plans,

prepared on his return, was evolved that for the cathedral as now

built. In the beginning it was intended that the whole of the inside surface should be clothed with marble and mosaic. There was, however, much difficulty in arriving at a comprehensive

pictorial scheme for the treatment of the vast building. Bentley

himself prepared a very thoughtful and complete proposal, of which only a small part is embodied in the mosaics already executed. In May, 1898, he visited the United States to prepare plans for the proposed cathedral at Brooklyn; the designs, in which he reverted to Gothic, were left incomplete at his death, which took place on the eve of his being presented with the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Besides his architectural works, Bentley’s talent in designing for the subsidiary arts found scope In numerous commissions for stained glass, furniture, metal work, embroidery and the like. See W. de PHôpital, Westminster Cathedral and its Architect (1920); T. J. Willson, “Memoir” Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects (III Series, vol. ix.).

BENTLEY, RICHARD

(1662-1742), English scholar and

critic, was born at Oulton near Wakefield, Yorkshire, and educated

at St. John’s college, Cambridge. In 1683 he became tutor to the son of Dean Stillingfleet, a position which gave him access to the best private library in England, and brought him into contact with many of the learned men of the day.

In 1689 he accom-

panied his pupil to Oxford where he soon became intimate with many distinguished scholars. Dr. John Mill, who was producing

from a Bodleian ms. the editio princeps of John Malalas, requested Bentley to look through the sheet and make remarks on the text. This gave rise to Bentley’s Epistola ad Millium (1691), a short tractate which at once made it clear to students that there had arisen in England a critic fit to be ranked with the great Grecians of a former age. Unfortunately the work had a tone of presumptuous confidence which tended to rouse enmity. In 1690 Bentley had taken deacon’s orders; in 1692 he was appointed first Boyle lecturer, a nomination which was repeated

m 1094.

In the first series of lectures (“A Confutation of

Atheism”) he tried to frame the Newtonian physics, in opposition to Hobbes, into a proof of the existence of an intelligent Creator.

In 1693 he became keeper of the Royal library, and in 1695 a

fellow of the Royal Society. During these years he had produced casual literary work for other scholars, and in 1697 Wotton, who Was preparing a second edition of his Ancient and Modern Learning, asked Bentley to write a paper exposing the spuriousness of

the Epistles of Phalaris. The Christ Church editor of Phalaris, Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, wrote a witty and superficial reply which was hailed by the public as crushing. Bentley

therefore rejoined (1699) with the Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris (see PHALARIS). In the year 1700 Bentley was chosen master of Trinity college, Cambridge, which had fallen from its high estate, and become the haunt of indolent clerics, who cared not at all for learning but much for good living. Bentley, obnoxious as a St. John’s man and an intruder, unwelcome as a man of learning whose interests lay outside the walls of the college, proceeded to ride roughshod over their little arrangements. He inaugurated many reforms in usages and discipline, executed extensive improvements in the buildings, and promoted learning both in the college and in the university. But his domineering temper, his contempt for their feelings and tights, drove the fellows in 1710, after ineffectual resistance within the college, to appeal to the bishop of Ely. Only the bishop’s death in 1714 prevented Bentley’s ejection from the mastership. In 1733 he was again brought to trial before the bishop of Ely (Dr. Greene) by the fellows of Trinity and was sentenced to deprivation, but the college statutes required the sentence to be exercised by the vice-master, who refused to act. Though the feud was kept up till 1738 or 1740 (about 30 years in all) Bentley remained undisturbed. During these years he published a critical appendix to John Davies’s edition of Cicero’s Tusculan Dispuiations (1709); emendations on the Plutus and Nubes of Aristophanes, and on the fragments of Menander and Philemon (1710); Remarks on a late Discourse of Freethinking (1712). His Horace, written in very great haste at a critical period of the Trinity quarrel, appeared in 171z. Some of its 700 or 800 emendations have been accepted, but the majority of them are now rejected, despite the learning and ingenuity shown in their support. In 1720 appeared his Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament in which he proposed, by comparing the text of the Vulgate with that of the oldest Greek mss., to restore the Greek text as received by the Church at the time of the Council of Nice, but the work was never completed. His Terence (1726) deals chiefly with the bearing of metrical questions upon emendation, and it is upon this, next to the Phalaris, that his reputation mainly rests. To the same year belong the Fables of Phaedrus and the Sententiae of Publius Syrus. The Paradise Lost (1732), is generally regarded as his most unsatisfactory work. It is marred by the same rashness in emendation and lack of poetical feeling as his Horace. He put forward the idea that Milton employed both an amanuensis and an editor, who were to be held responsible for the clerical errors, alterations and interpolations which Bentley professed to detect. Among his minor works may be mentioned the Astronomica of Manilius (1739); a letter on the Sigean inscription on a marble slab found in the Troad, now in the British Museum; notes on the Theriaca of Nicander and on Lucan; emendations of Plautus (in his copies of the editions by Pareus, Camerarius and Gronovius, edited by Schroder, 1880, and Sonnenschein, 1883). Bentleii Critica Sacra (1862), edited by A. A. Ellis, contains the epistle to the Galatians (and excerpts), printed from an interleaved folio copy of the Greek and Latin Vulgate in Trinity college. A collection of his Opuscula Philologica was published at Leipzig in 1781. The edition of his works by Dyce (1836-38) is incomplete. He had married in 1701 Joanna, daughter of Sir John Bernard of Brampton in Huntingdonshire. She died in 1740, leaving a son, Richard, and two daughters; and Bentley himself died of pleurisy two years later. A few Greek mss., brought from Mount Athos, he left to the college library. Bentley was the first, perhaps the only, Englishman who can be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning. Self-taught, he created his own science; and it was his misfortune that there was no contemporary gild of learning in England by which his power could be measured. The English school of Hellenists, by which the 18th century was distinguished, and which contains the names of R. Dawes, J. Markland, J. Taylor, J. Toup, T. Tyrwhitt, Richard Porson, P. P. Dobree, Thomas Kidd and J. H. Monk, was the creation of Bentley. Even the Dutch school of the same

period, though the outcome of a native tradition, was stimulated and directed by the example of Bentley, whose letters to the young

Hemsterhuis on his edition of Julius Pollux made him one of “a

BENTLEY—BENTON

420

Bentley’s most devoted admirers; and the German school of the roth century did ungrudging homage to his genius as “the founder of historical philology.”

days.’ In all that concerned the expansion of the country and the

fortunes of the West, no public man was more consistent o

more influential than Benton, and none so clear of vision. Reareq

Brstiocrapay.—F. A. Wolf Literarische Analekien, i. (1816) ; Monke Life of Bentley (1830); J. Mably Richard Beniley, eine Biographi (1868); R. C. Jebb, Bentley (“English Men of Letters” series, 1882) where a list of authorities bearing on Bentley’s life and work is given. For his letters see Bentlei et doctorum virorum ad eum Epistolae (1807) ; The Correspondence of Richard Bentley, edited by C. Wordsp, worth (1842). See also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarshi ii. 401-410 (1908) ; A. T. Bartholomew and j. W. Clark, Bibliography of Bentley (1908) ; J. W. Mackail, Bentley’s Milton (Warton Lecture on Eng. Poetry, XV., 1924).

BENTLEY,

RICHARD

(1794-1871), British publisher,

was born in London. His father owned the General Evening Post in conjunction with John Nichols. With his brother Samuel

on the border, and representing a State long the farthermoy

outpost across the Mississippi in the Indian country, he held

the ultra-American views of his section as regarding foreign relations generally, and the “manifest destiny” of expansion westward especially. It was quite natural that he should advocate the removal westward of the Indian tribes, should urge the encouragement of trade with Santa Fe, N.M., and should oppose

the abandonment in the Spanish treaty of 1819 of American claims to Texas. He once thought the Rocky mountains the proper western limit of the United States (1824), but this

(1785-1868), an antiquarian of some repute, he set up a printing establishment, but in 1829 he began business as a publisher in partnership with Henry Colburn in New Burlington street. Colburn retired in 1832 and Bentley continued business on his own account. In 1837 he began Bentley’s Miscellany, edited for the first three years of its existence by Charles Dickens, whose Oliver Twist, with Cruikshank’s illustrations, appeared in its pages. Bentley and his son George (1828-95), as Richard Bentley & Son, published works by R. H. Barham, Theodore Hook, Isaac D’Israeli, Judge Haliburton, and others; also the “Library of Standard Novels” and the “Favourite Novel Library.” In 1866 the firm took over the publication of Temple Bar, with which Bentley’s Miscellany was afterwards incorporated. After Richard Bentley’s death his son, George Bentley, and his grandson, Richard Bentley, junior, continued the business until it was absorbed (1898) by Macmillan & Co.

See R. Bentley & Son (Edinburgh, 1886), a history of the firm reprinted from Le Livre (Oct. 1885).

(1782-1858), American HART BENTON, THOMAS county, North CaroOrange rough, statesman, was born at Hillsbo lina, on March 14, 1782. His father, an Englishman of refinement and scholarship, died in 1790, leaving the boy under the influence of a very superior mother, from whom he received lessons in book learning, piety and temperance, quite unusual in the frontier country. His home:studies, facilitated by his father’s fine library, were supplemented by a brief stay at the university of North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1799. The family removed, probably in this year, to a large tract of land which had been acquired by the father on the outskirts of the Indian country (at Benton Town, now Leipers Fork) near Franklin, Tenn. The following years, during which Benton was at various times school teacher, farmer, lawyer and politician, were the distinctively formative period of his life. His intense democracy and many features of his boldly cast personality were perfectly representative of the border people among whom he lived; although his education, social standing and force of character placed him above his fellows. In 1809 he served a term as State senator. Between 181s and 1817 he transferred his interests to St. Louis, Mo., and in 1320 was elected U.S. senator from the new State. His senatorial career of 30 years (1821-51) was one of extreme prominence. A friendship early formed in Tennessee for Andrew Jackson was broken in 1813 by an armed fracas between the principals and their friends, but after the presidential election of 1824 Benton became a Jacksonian Democrat and Jackson’s close friend, and as such was long the Democratic leader in the Senate, his power being greatest during Jackson’s second term. He continued to be the administration’s right-hand man under Van Buren, but gradually lost influence under Polk, with whom he finally broke

both personally and politically. The events of Benton’s political life are associated primarily

with three things: the second U.S. Bank, westward expansion and slavery. In the long struggles over the bank, the deposits and the “expunging resolution” (7.e., the resolution to expunge from the records of the Senate the vote of censure of President Jackson for his removal of the Government deposits from the bank), Benton led the Jackson Democrats. His opposition to a national bank and insistence on the peculiar virtues of “hard money,” whence his sobriquet of “Old Bullion,” went back to his Tennessee

view he soon outgrew. He was the originator of the policy of homestead laws by which the public lands were used to promote the settlement of the West by home-seekers. No other man was so early and so long active for transcontinental railways. But

Benton was not a land-grabber, whether in the interest of slavery or of mere jingoism. In the case of Oregon, for instance, he was firmly against joint occupation with Great Britain, but he was

always for the boundary of 49° and never joined in the jingo campaign cry of “Fifty-four Forty or Fight.” It was he who chiefly

aided Polk in withdrawing from that untenable position. He despised pretexts and intrigues. Both in the case of Oregon and in that of Texas, though one of the earliest and most insistent of those who favoured their acquisition, yet in the face of southern and western sentiment he denounced the sordid and

devious intrigues and politics connected with their acquisition, and kept clear of these. For the same reason he opposed the

Mexican War, though not its prosecution, once begun. In the Texas question slavery was prominent. Toward slavery Benton held a peculiarly creditable attitude. A southerner, he was a

slaveholder; but he seems to have gradually learned that slavery

was a curse to the South, for in 1844 he declared that he would not introduce it into Texas lands “where it was never known,” and in 1849 proclaimed that his personal sentiments were “against the institution of slavery.” In the long struggle over slavery in the territories, following 1845, he was for the extreme demands of neither section; not because he was timorous or a compromiser— no man was less of either—but because he stood unwaveringly for justice to both sections, never adopting exaggerated views that must or even could be compromised. The truth is that he was always a westerner before he was a southerner and a Union man before all things else; he was no whit less national than Webster. Hence his distrust and finally hatred of Calhoun, dating from the nullification episode of 1832-33. As the South under Calhoun’s lead became increasingly sectional and aggre: sive, Benton increasingly lost sympathy with her. Though he despised political-inaction Abolitionists, and hated their propa ganda as inimical to the Union, he would not therefore close the

national mails to Abolition literature, nor abridge the right of

petition. No statesman was more prescient of the disunion tend encies of Calhoun’s policies, and as early as 1844 he prophetically denounced the treason to the Union toward which the South was drifting. He would not drift with her for the sake of slavery. and this was his political undoing. In 1851 Missouri rejected him in hig sixth candidacy for the Senate, after he had been an auto: crat in her politics for 30 years. In 1852:he was elected to the House of Representatives, but his opposition to the repeal of the

Missouri Compromise caused his defeat in 1854. An unsuccessful

campaign for the governorship of Missouri in 1856 ended his political career. He died at Washington on April 10,1858.

Benton’s entire career was eminently creditable, and he'8

besides, one of the most picturesque figures in American political

history. His political principles—whether as regarded lobbying, congressional jobbing, civil service or great issues of legislation

and foreign affairs—were of the highest. He was so independent that he had great dislike for caucuses, and despised party plat forms—although he never voted other than the Democratic ticket

even when his son-in-law, J. C. Frémont, was the Republica

presidential candidate in 1856; nor would he accept instruction

from the Missouri legislature. His career shows no truckling t

BENTON—BENZALDEHYDE self-interest, and on large issues he outgrew partisanship. Although | and Levassor.

421

In England he encountered difficulties owing to the

till 1896); and in 1893 he took pably inferior to each of his great senatorial colleagues, Web- | Locomotives Act (not abolished triple axle and steering rods with gear steering for patent a out | qualities character, if yet gifts, some in ster, Clay and Calhoun, took up his residence In he Later, wheels. the to and career be taken in the whole, his were possibly the most | tangential 1929. 3, April on died He Mannheim. | besides, vain; and aggressive austere, creditable of all. Benton was BENZALDEHYDE (oil of bitter almonds) was first isohe had a fatal deficiency of humour. Nevertheless, he had great} in 1803 and was the subject of an important investigation lated | high and ability his to tribute deserved a was influence, which v. Liebig in 1837. It occurs naturally in the form of the J. by | capcharacter. An indefatigable student, he treated all subjects u) (g.v.) which is present in bitter ably, and especially in questions of his country’s history and the | glucoside amygdalin (CzoH2z7NO the leaves of the cherry laurel; and peaches cherries, almonds, | He none. latter the equals—in exploration of the West had few by hydrolysis with dilute substance this from obtained is acted always with uncalculating boldness, and defended his acts | and It occurs free in bitter NATURAL.) , GLUCOSIDES (See acids. | a wrote Benton persistence. and courage with extraordinary ion of amygdalin. decomposit enzyme an by formed being almonds, | vols., (2 t Thirty Years’ View . . . of the American Governmen alcohol (g.v.) with 1854-56), characteristic of the author’s personality; it is of great | It may also be prepared by oxidizing benzyl of calcium benmixture a distilling by acid; nitric d concentrate | Abridgment an compiled also value for the history of his time. He syntheses

by the two Gattermann of the Debates of Congress, 1789-1850 (16 vols., 1857-61), like- | zoate and calcium formate; action of chromium oxychloride on the by and ), ALDEHYDES (see | the of review bitter a published wise of great usefulness; and (A. Etard, 1884). It is the bisulphide carbon in dissolved toluene | details— Dred Scott decision full of extremely valuable historical the formula CsH;-CHO. having aldehydes, Historical and Legal Examination of ... the Dred Scott Case | simplest of the aromatic Technically it is prepared from toluene, by converting it into (1857). All were written in the last eight years of his life and mostly in the last three. The best biography is that by W. M. Meigs, Life of Thomas Hart

benzyl chloride, which is then heated with lead nitrate: C,H;CHoCl+ Pb(NO3)2= 2NO2-+PbCl-OH-+CsHs+-CHO, or, by convert-

ton’s significance as a western man; and Joseph M. Rogers’s i Thomas Hart Benton (1905) in the “American Crisis” P series.

C:H;CHCl:-+CaO = CaCl-++-C,;H;CHO.

ing it into benzylidene chloride (benzal chloride), which is heated Benton (1904). See also Theodore Roosevelt’s Thomas Hart Benton || with milk of lime under pressure. (1887), in the “American Statesmen” series, which admirably brings

BENTON, a city of Illinois, U.S.A., 80m. S.E. of St. Louis, | The direct oxidation of toluene with various metallic oxides (manthe county seat of Franklin county, the leading coal-producing | ganese dioxide, ceric oxide, peroxides of nickel and cobalt) in county of the State. It is served by the Chicago and Eastern Dli- | presence of acid leads to benzaldehyde free from chlorinated Thomas

nois, the Illinois Central and the Missouri Pacific railways. The | derivatives. Benzaldehyde, a colourless liquid smelling of bitter population was 7,201 In 1920 and was 8,219 in 1930 by the Federal | almonds, boils at 179-1° C., is only slightly soluble in water, but possesses all the characteristic census. Grain, livestock and fruits are the leading agricultural | js readily volatile in steam. It readily oxidized to benzoic acid; properties of an aldehyde; being

products. The manufactures include window display fixtures, har-

reducing solutions of silver salts; forming addition products with o. ness and saddlery and enamelled stoves BENTON HARBOR, a city of Berrien county, Michigan, | hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid and sodium bisulphite; and giving an U S.A., on the St. Joseph river, about rm. from Lake Michigan, | oxime and a hydrazone. On the other hand, it differs from the with which it is connected by a ship-canal, and ım. north-east of | aliphatic aldehydes in many respects; it does not form an addition St. Joseph. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Pere Mar- | product with ammonia but condenses to hydrobenzamide (CeHsquette, and the Big Four railways, and by steamboat lines. The | CH)3No; on shaking with alcoholic potash it undergoes simultanepopulation in 1930 was 15,434. Benton Harbor and St. Joseph | ous oxidation and reduction, giving benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol

are joined by a wide street, parallel to the canal, lined with docks, | (S. Cannizzaro, 1881); and on warming with alcoholic potassium factories, and business houses. Their combined population in 1928 | cyanide it condenses to benzoin (g.v.). During the oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid when was estimated locally at over 30,000, and this is doubled in summer by visitors in search of health and recreation at the mineral springs | exposed to air it has been observed that as much oxygen is rendered “active” as is used up by the substance undergoing oxidaand pleasure resorts. Benton Harbor has a large trade in peaches, grapes, pears, | tion; thus if benzaldehyde is left for some time in contact with cherries, berries and apples. The leading industries are fruit- | air water and indigosulphonic acid, just as much oxygen is used

as in oxidizing the aldehyde. canning and the manufacture of special machinery and all kinds | yp in oxidizing the indigo compound (1900) have shown that a per-acid

of castings. The output of its 50 diversified establishments in | A’ y. Baeyer and V. Villiger 1927 Was valued at $9,414,608. Benton Harbor was called Bron- | (¢.v.) CsHs-CO-0-OH, formed as an intermediate product, oxidizes son Harbor until 1865. It was incorporated as a village in 1869, | the indigo compound, being itself reduced to benzoic acid; they as a city in 1891. have also shown that this peroxide is soluble in benzaldehyde with BENUE, a river of the Cameroons and Northern Province of production of benzoic acid, and it must be assumed that the oxidaNigeria in West Africa and the largest and most important afflu- tion of benzaldehyde proceeds as shown in the equations: C.H;-CHO-LO,=C;Hs-C0.0.0H, ent of the Niger (g.v.), which it joins after a course of over 800m in a general east to west direction from its source in the mounC,;H;-CO-0-OH-+-C,H:- CHO= aCeHs- COOH. tains of Adamawa. Through the Tuburi marshes there is a water of benzaldehyde (CgH;-CH:N-OH), formed by the oxime The Chad) (Lake Shari and (Niger) Benue the between connection t

{f

.

a

systems.

a

.

.

:

,

BEN VENUE, a mountain in south-west Perthshire, Scot-

land. Principal peaks are 2,393 and 2,386ft. (See PERTHSHIRE.)

BENZ, KARL

(1844-1929), German engineer, was born at

Karlsruhe Nov. 26 1844. In 1879 he constructed a two-stroke engine model of his own, and founded an engine factory. As, however, the group financing him would only deal with fixed

engines, he left it. He founded the firm Benz and Co., Rheinische Gasmotorenfabrik,

and began to construct fixed engines;

addition of hydroxylamine to the aldehyde, undergoes isomeric is passed into its ethereal solution, change when hydrogen chloride 1 a second modification being produced. The former (known as the

a- or anti-benzaldoxime) melts at 34-35° C.; the latter (8- or synbenzaldoxime) melts at 130°C. and is slowly transformed into the a-form. The difference between the two forms has been explained by A. Hantzsch and A. Werner (1890) on the assumption (See STEREOCHEMISTRY.) of a different spatial arrangement. On account of the readiness with which it condenses with various

then developed a light high-speed four-stroke engine (300 revo- compounds, benzaldehyde is an important synthetic reagent. With and with lutions, 3 H.P.). He discovered the differential, special electrical | aniline it forms benzylidineaniline CsH;-CH:N-CsHs,Heated with CsH;-CH:CH-CO-CHs. benzylidineacetone acetone, | He carburettor. surface battery ignition with spark induction, it gives cinnamic completed his first car in 1885, speed 10-16km. per hour, and | anhydrous sodium acetate and acetic anbydride took out the patent in 1886 (D.R.P. 37435). He sold the first acid (g.v.); with dimethylaniline and anhydrous zinc chloride it car to the Frenchman, Roger, and then joined the firm of Panhard forms leuco-malachite green CesH;s-CH[CsHiN(CHs)2]2; and with

422

BENZENE—BENZIDINE

dimethylaniline and concentrated hydrochloric acid it gives dimethylaminobenzhydrol, CsHs-CH(OH) CeHiN(CHs)2. (See DvEs,

SYNTHETIC.) Its addition compound with hydrocyanic acid gives mandelic acid CeHs:CH(OH).COOH on hydrolysis; when heated with sodium succinate and acetic anhydride, phenyl-iso-crotonic acid C:H;-CH:CH.CH}COOH is produced, which on boiling is On nitration it yields converted into a-naphthol, CHOH. chiefly meta-nitrobenzaldehyde, crystallizing in needles which melt at 58° C. Ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde may be obtained by oxidizing ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with alkaline potassium permanganate in the presence of benzene; or from ortho-nitrobenzyl chloride by successively condensing it with aniline, oxidizing the product so obtained to ortho-nitrobenzylidine aniline, and then hydrolysing this compound with an acid. It crystallizes in yellowish needles, which melt at 46° C. It is used in the artificial production of indigo. (See Dyes, SYNTHETIC.) Para-nitrobenzaldehyde crystallizes in prisms melting at 107° C. and is prepared by the action of chromium oxychloride on paranitrotoluene, or by oxidizing para-nitrocinnamic acid. By the reduction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with ferrous sulphate and

ammonia, ortho-aminobenzaldehyde is obtained. This compound

condenses in alkaline solution with compounds containing the grouping, CH,—CO, to form quinoline (g.v.) or its derivatives; thus, with acetaldehyde it forms quinoline, and with acetone, a-methylquinoline.

It boils at $0-4°, and the vapour is highly inflammable, the flame being extremely smoky. Its specific gravity is 0-899 at o° C, Itis very slightly soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol and com, pletely miscible with ether, acetic acid and carbon disulphide It is an excellent solvent for gums, resins, fats and many other organic materials; sulphur, phosphorus and iodine also dissolve in it. It sometimes separates with crystals of a solute as “ben. zene of crystallization,” as for example with triphenylmethane

'

thio-p-tolyl urea, tropine, etc. Benzene is of exceptional importance commercially on accowt

of the many compounds derivable from it, which are exceedingly valuable in the arts. Chemically it is one of the most interesting substances known, since it is the parent of the enormous number

of substances belonging to the “aromatic” or “benzenoid” series, The constitution of the benzene ring, the isomerism of its deriva-

tives, and their syntheses from aliphatic or open-chain compounds are treated in the article CHEMISTRY: Organic, Homocveurc. A summary of its chemical transformations may be given here but reference should be made to the articles on the separate compounds for further details. Passed through a red-hot tube, benzene vapour yields hydro. gen, diphenyl, diphenylbenzenes and acetylene; the formation of the last compound is an instance of a reversible reaction, since

Berthelot found that acetylene passed through a red-hot tube gave some benzene. Benzene unites with ozone to form the BENZENE, a hydrocarbon discovered in 1825 by Faraday triozonide, which is decomposed by water with the production of in the liquid produced in the compression of the illuminating gas glyoxal and hydrogen peroxide. When its vapour mixed with air is obtained by distilling certain oils and fats. Its formula is Ces. passed over vanadium pentoxide benzene is oxidized to p-benzoE. Mitscherlich prepared it in 1834 by distilling benzoic acid quinone and maleic anhydride. Hexamethylene (cyclo-hexane or with lime; and in 1845 Hofmann discovered it in coal-tar. It hexahydrobenzene) is produced on passing hydrogen and benzene was named “benzin” or “benzine” by Mitscherlich, but J. v. Lie- vapours over reduced nickel at 180°. The reverse change to big proposed “benzol” (the termination ol being suggested by the benzene and hydrogen occurs when hexamethylene is passed over

Lat. oleum, oil); the form “benzene” was due to A. W. Hofmann. The word “benzine” is sometimes used in commerce for the coaltar product, but also for the light petroleum better known as petroleum-benzine; a similar ambiguity is presented by the word “benzoline,” which is applied to the same substances as the word ‘“benzine.”. “Benzene” is the term used by English chemists, “henzol” is favoured in Germany, and “benzole” in France. There

nickel at 280°. Chlorine and bromine form additional products

with moist benzene in sunlight. Substitution products are formed with the halogens, but only slowly unless a catalyst, such as iodine, molybdenum chloride or ferric chloride for chlorine, and aluminium bromide for bromine, be present. Benzene is readily nitrated to nitro-benzene, two and even three nitro groups being introduced if some dehydrator such as concentrated sulphuric is increasing adoption in England of “benzole” for the name of acid be present. Sulphuric acid gives with benzene mono-, di- and the fraction in which the hydrocarbon benzene is the chief con- even tri-sulphonic acids. BENZIDINE is NH:2-C,;H.z-CsHs-NHo, an important chemical stituent. Benzene is manufactured from the low-boiling fractions of the base of the aromatic or coal-tar group crystallizing in colourless coal-tar distillate (see Coaz-Tar). The first successful fraction- plates that melt at 127°—128° C.; it owes its origin to a noteworthy ations of coal-tar naphtha were devised by C. B. Mansfield (1849), series of chemical changes arising from the reduction of nitrowho separated a benzol distilling below 100° C. from a less vola- benzene in alkaline media. Removal of oxygen from two molecular tile naphtha by using simple dephlegmators. First, the oil was proportions of nitrobenzene leads to red azobenzene (see Azo-CoMmanufactured principally for combustion in the Read Holliday POUNDS), 2CgHs-NO.—>CsH;-N :N-CeHs, and addition of hydrogen lamp and for dissolving rubber, but the development of the coal- to azobenzene gives rise to colourless hydrazobenzene, a product tar colour industry occasioned a demand for benzols of definite which undergoes a singular molecular rearrangement on treatment purity. In the earlier stages 30%, 50% and 90% benzols were re- with mineral acids, and has by analogy the constitution quired, the 30% being mainly used for the manufacture of “aniline NHo-CgHu-CgHu-NHp, being, in fact, di-para-diamino-diphenyl. The Benzidine Conversion or Rearrangement.—In this for red,” and the 90% for “aniline for blue.” (The term “30% benzol” means that 30% by volume distils below 100°.) A purer conversion the nitrogen atoms part company and the phenyl res benzol was subsequently required for the manufacture of aniline dues swing round, to join together again mainly, in dipara-pos black and other dye-stuffs. The process originally suggested by tions with respect to the resulting amino-groups thus giving ber Mansfield is generally followed, the success of the operation being zidine, and, to a less extent, to bring the para-position of one principally conditioned by the efficiency of the dephlegmator, phenyl group into the ortho-position on the other so as to forma in which various improvements have been made. The light oil small proportion of diphenyline. fraction of the coal-tar distillate, which comes over below 140° and consists chiefly of benzene, toluene and the xylenes (g.v.) yields on fractionation (1) various volatile impurities such as (main product) — / NH NH < > carbon disulphide, (2) the benzene fraction boiling at about 80° C., (3) the toluene fraction boiling at 100°, (4) the xylene fraction Hydrazobenzene < > NH: boiling at 140°. The fractions are agitated with strong sulphuric acid to separate bases and thiophenes, and then washed with Diphenyline (by-product) caustic soda solution to remove phenolic substances. The washed Diphenyline is technically unimportant, but benzidine is employed products are then refractionated. Benzene is a colourless, limpid, highly refracting liquid, having on a considerable scale in the manufacture of azo-colours having a pleasing and characteristic odour. It may be solidified to the valuable property of dyeing directly on cotton without the 1m rhombic crystals which melt at 5-4° C. Mansfield obtained per- tervention of a mordant (see Dyes, SYNTHETIC). Benzidine is manufactured by heating together a mixture af fectly pure benzene by freezing a carefully fractionated sample.

NH,< > wi CN CH;

CH;

CH; O

OCH;

Another valuable diamine of this series is dianisidine or 2 :2’-dimethoxybenzidine (2), which gives rise to direct-cotton colours having special tinctorial properties. This technical use of benzidine and its allies is based on their diazotization to bisdiazonium. salts,

CIN,-CsHCeHu-N2Cl (see Dr1azo-Compounps), which are then combined with various naphthylaminesulphonic acids and naphtholsulphonic acids giving rise to bisazo dyes which are substantive on unmordanted cotton. BENZOIC ACID occurs naturally in some resins, especially in gum benzoin (from Styrax benzoin), in dragon’s blood, and as a benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams. It crystallizes from water in glistening leaflets which melt at 121-4° C. and boil at 249:2° C. Its specific heat is 0-1946. It sublimes readily and is volatile in steam. It is readily soluble in hot water and the ordinary organic solvents. Benzoic acid is the simplest representative of the organic acids in the aromatic series (see CHEMISTRY, Organic). It may be regarded as derived from the hydrocarbon benzene, CeHe, through the replacement of one hydrogen atom by the acidic (carboxyl) group, —CO-OH; its formula is thus

at —1° C. When triturated with powdered silver nitrate, benzoyl chloride is concerted into benzoyl nitrate CsH;-CO-ONO, (F.

Francis, 1900). This nitrate explodes on heating, but in nonhydroxylic media it serves as a nitrating agent for aromatic substances: it slowly changes into its isomeride meta-nitrobenzoic acid, NO2-CgsH.-CO2H. Ethyl benzoate, CsHs-CO-OC:Hs, prepared by boiling benzoic acid and alcohol with a small quantity of sulphuric acid for some hours (E. Fischer and A. Speier, 1896), is a colourless liquid of boiling point 213° C. Benzamide, CeHs-CO-NHe, prepared by the action of benzoyl

chloride on ammonia

or ammonium

carbonate, or from ethyl

benzoate and ammonia, crystallizes from water in glistening leaf-

lets which melt at 130° C. and boil at 288° C.

(See Aco-

AMIDES.) Chlor-, brom-, iodo- and fluor-benzoic acids are obtained by oxidizing the corresponding halogenated toluenes, or from the amino acids, or by substitution. Nitration of benzoic acid gives chiefly meta-nitrobenzoic acid. The ortho- and para-nitrobenzoic acids are obtained by oxidizing ortho- and para-nitro-cinnamic

acids. Ortho-amino-benzoic acid (anthranilic acid): NH:-C;H4 COH

is closely related to indigo (g.v.).

Gum benzoin, which contains from 12 to 20% of benzoic acid,

is used in medicine as the essential constituent of benzoated lard,

CHCOOH. When heated with lime, it is decomposed, benzene Adeps benzoatus, which owes its antiseptic properties to benzoic being formed; if its vapours are passed over heated zinc dust, it acid; and in friar’s balsam, Tinctura benzoini composita, which is converted into benzaldehyde (A. Baeyer, 1866). Distillation of is an ancient and valuable medicament, still largely used for

inhalation in cases of laryngitis, bronchitis and other inflammatory or actually septic conditions of the respiratory tract. It owes its value to the benzoic acid which it contains. A fluid drachm of friar’s balsam may be added to a pint of water at a temperature of about 140°, and the resultant vapour may be inhaled from the spout of a kettle or from a special inhaler. mostly soluble in water. They are decomposed by mineral acids Benzoic acid itself, ammonium benzoate and sodium benzoate with the production of benzoic acid, and on addition of ferric are all administered internally in doses of from five to 30 grains. chloride to their neutral solutions give a reddish-brown pre- The ammonium salt is most often employed, owing to the stimcipitate of ferric benzoate. Benzoic acid is usually prepared from ulant character of the ammonium base. The acid itself is a toluene, this hydrocarbon being chlorinated to benzotrichloride, powerful antiseptic. When administered internally, it causes the CsHs-CCly; this is heated with water or aqueous alkali, milk of appearance of hippuric acid in the urine. This is due to its lime being employed commercially, and the resulting calcium ben- combination in the body (kidney) with glycine. The hippuric zoate is then decomposed by mineral acid to yield free benzoic acid in the urine acts as a stimulant and disinfectant to the acid. It is also obtained by oxidizing benzaldehyde (q.v.), benzyl urinary mucous membrane. Benzoic acid is also excreted by alcohol, or cinnamic acid. It also arises in many reactions of aro- the bronchi and tends to disinfect and stimulate the bronchial matic substances, as for instance by hydrolysis of benzonitrile; by mucous membrane. Hence the value of friar’s balsam. The acid the action of carbon dioxide on benzene in the presence of and its salts are antipyretic and were used in Germany instead

its calcium salt gives benzophenone (q.v.) with small quantities of other substances, but if the calcium salt be mixed with calcium formate and the mixture distilled, benzaldehyde is produced. By the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solution of the acid, benzyl alcohol, tetrahydrobenzoic acid and hexahydrobenzoic acid are formed. The salts of benzoic acid, known as benzoates, are

aluminium chloride

(C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, 1888); by

the action of carbon dioxide on monobrombenzene in the presence

of sodium; by passing carbon dioxide into an ethereal solution of

Phenyl magnesium bromide (see GRIGNARD REAGENTS); by condensing benzene and carbonyl chloride in presence of aluminium

of salicylates in rheumatic fever.

But the most important fact

is that ammonium benzoate is largely used—often in combina-

tion with urinary anodynes such as tincture of hyoscyamus—as

a urinary antiseptic in cases of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) and pyelitis (inflammation of the pelvis or the kidney).

424

BENZOIN— BEOWULF

BENZOIN or GUM BENJAMIN, abalsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin, a tree of considerable size, native to Sumatra and Java, and from other species of Styrax. It is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the trees, and appears to be formed as the result of the wound, not to be secreted normally. There are several varieties of benzoin in commerce: (1) Siam benzoin, which apparently comes from S. tonkinese is the finest and most aromatic. The odour of Siam benzoin is partly due to the presence of vanillin, and it contains as much as 38% of benzoic

acid but probably no cinnamic acid. (2) Sumatra benzoin occurs only in masses formed of dull red resin enclosing small white masses. It contains about 20% of cinnamic acid in addition to 18 or even more of benzoic. (3) Palembang benzoin, an inferior variety, said to be obtained from Styrax Benzoin in Sumatra, consists of greyish translucent resinous masses, containing small white opaque masses. It does not appear to contain cinnamic acid. Large quantities of benzoin are used as incense. Its medicinal uses de-

or by the so-called “Cannizzaro” reaction (1881) in which benzaldehyde is shaken up with caustic potash, one half of the aldehyde being oxidized to benzoic acid, and the other half reduced to the alcohol:

2C,H;CHO+KOH

= C,H;COOK+C,.H;CH.OH.

On oxi-

dation with nitric acid it is converted into benzaldehyde whilst chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid. If reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 140° C it gives rise to toluene; toluene and benzoic acid result from its distillation with alcoholic Potash,

BEOTHUK, an American tribe of hunters and collectors, resident chiefly upon the coast of Newfoundland where salmon and shell-fish could be obtained to eke out the supply of deer. Their

skill as canoemen was commented upon by several early writers,

but they were equally at home in the woods. The scanty material

culture was characterized by the use of wood for household uten-

sils; stone implements were well made; snow-shoes were of a peculiar type, and red ochre was extensively employed for paint. ing the body, a habit which probably gave rise to the term “Req” Political organization was relatively slight, though concentrated action, implying recognized authority, was shown ip communal deer drives. The Beothuk were gradually forced into the interior of the island by European fishermen and settlers: reduced in numbers, their doom was sealed when, in the eighteenth century, Micmac hunters, equipped with fire-arms, began to

pend on the contained benzoic acid (qg.v.). Compound tincture of Indian. benzoin is used in treatment of respiratory diseases, etc. Benzoin, in chemistry, is a colourless, crystalline solid, readily soluble in alcohol and ether, melting at 137° C. and boiling at 343344° C. It owes its name to the circumstance that it is a polymeride of benzaldehyde, CsH;-COH, which in turn derives its name from benzoic acid (q¢.v.). This acid was first discovered in Gum benzoin (1608) from which material the acid may be obtained by sublimation (acidum benzoicum ex resina). It partakes of the structure and properties both of a ketone and an alcohol (gq.v.),

having the structural formula CsH;-CH(OH)-CO-.CsHs. It may be prepared by boiling an alcoholic solution of benzaldehyde with potassium cyanide; by reducing benzil (CH;-CO-CO-C,Hs) with zinc and acetic acid; or by the oxidation of hydrobenzoin C.H;-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-C.Hs. Owing to the readiness with which it is oxidized, it acts as a reducing agent, giving a red precipitate of cuprous oxide with Febling’s

solution in the cold. Chlorine and nitric acid oxidize it to benzil;

chromic acid mixture and potassium permanganate, to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. On heating with zinc dust, desoxybenzoin (CsH;-CO-CH-CeHs) is obtained; sodium amalgam converts it into hydrobenzoin; and fuming hydriodic acid at 130° C. gives dibenzyl (CsH;sCH2-CHe-CsHs).

BENZOPHENONE is

the simplest ketone (g.v.) in the

aromatic series (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). It is structurally a diphenyl ketone, having the formula C.H;-CO-C,.Hs. It is a dimorphous substance, existing in two enantiotropic forms, one melt-

ing at 26° C and the other at 48° C (Th. Zincke, 1871). It boils at 306-1° C. It may be prepared by distilling calcium benzoate; by condensing benzene with benzoyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride; by the action of mercury diphenyl on benzoyl chloride, or by oxidizing diphenylmethane with chromic acid. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to benzhydrol or diphenylcarbinol CsH;-CH(OH)-CsHs; a stronger reducing agent, such as hydriodic acid in the presence of amorphous phosphorus converts it into diphenylmethane (CsHs)2-CHs. Potash fusion converts it into benzene and benzoic acid. With phenylhydrazine it forms a hydrazone, and with hydroxylamine an oxime, which exists in one form only; if, however, one of the phenyl groups in the oxime be substituted in any way then two stereoisomeric oximes are produced (cf. STEREOCHEMISTRY). Tetramethyl-diamino-benzofhenone or Michler’s ketone, CO[C:HN.(CH;):]2, melting at 178°, is of technical importance in the manufacture of synthetic dyes. It is prepared by the action of carbonyl chloride on dimethylaniline in the presence of aluminium chloride: COCl.+

2CsH;N (CH;)2 = 2HCI+Co [CEN

(See Dyes, SYNTHETIC.)

BENZYL

ALCOHOL

(Puenvit Carsinoz)

(CH;) 2 |2.

occurs com-

bined with benzoic acid in Peru balsam, with cinnamic acid in Tolu balsam, with acetic acid in essential oil of jasmine, and also in storax, It is a colourless liquid, with a faint aromatic smell,

swarm over from the mainland. A few survivors may have escaped to Labrador, but the last known Beothuk died in 1820. See J. P. Hawley, The Beothucks or Red Indians (1913).

BEOWULF. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of Old English, and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has come down to us in a single ms., written about A.D. 1000, in the Cottonian collection now at the British Museum. The subject of the poem is the exploits of Beowulf, son of Egtheow and

nephew of Hygelac, king of the “Géatas,” 7.¢., the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar, from whom a part of southern

Sweden has received its present name Gotland. The following is a brief outline of the story, which divides itself naturally into five parts. 1. Beowulf, with 14 companions, sails to Denmark, to offer his help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called “Heorot”) has for 12 years been rendered uninhabitable by the ravages of a devouring monster (in human shape) called Grendel, a dweller in the waste, who used nightly to force an entrance and slaughter some of the inmates. Beowulf and his friends are feasted in the long-deserted Heorot. At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the strangers alone. When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters. One of Beowulf’s friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles

with the monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, mortally wounded, escapes from the hall. On the morrow, his bloodstained track is followed until it ends in a distant mere. 2. The Danish king and his followers pass the night in Heorot,

Beowulf and his comrades being lodged elsewhere.

The hall is

invaded by Grendel’s mother, who kills and carries off one of the Danish nobles. Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with sword and corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under the waves, he fights with Grendel’s mother, and kills her. In the vault he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head, and brings it back in triumph. 3. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his native land and relates to Hygelac the story of his adventures. The king bestows on him lands and honours, and during the reigns of Hygelac and his son Heardred he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is killed in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king. 4. After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for so years, his country is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an ancient burial-mound, full of treasure. The royal hall itself is burned to the ground. The aged king, accompanied by 11 chosen warriors, journeys to the barrow. Bidding his companions retire, he takes

up his position near the entrance to the mound. The dragon It rushes forth, breathing flames. Beowulf is all but overpowered, may be synthetically prepared by the reduction of benzoyl chlo- and the sight is so terrible that his men, all but Wiglaf, son of ride; by the action of nitrous acid on benzylamine; by boiling Weohstan, seek safety in flight. With Wiglaf’s aid, Beowulf slays benzyl chloride with an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate, the dragon, but receives his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the boiling at 206° C and having the composition C;H;-CH,OH.

BEOWULF

425

harrow, and returns to show the dying king the treasures that he | of the church of Durham. As the historical character of Hygelac has found there. Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and ordains has been proved, it is not unreasonable to believe that his nephew that his ashes shall be enshrined In a great mound, placed on a lofty cliff, to be a mark for sailors far out at sea. 5. Amid great lamentation, the hero’s body is laid on the funeral

pile. The treasures of the dragon’s hoard are buried with his ashes; and when the great mound is finished, 12 of Beowulf’s most famous warriors ride around it, celebrating the praises of the

bravest, gentlest and most generous of kings. Form of the Poem.—Those portions of the poem that relate

Beowulf succeeded Heardred on the throne of the Gautar, and interfered in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. On the other hand the combats with Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon belong to the domain of pure mythology.

That they have been attributed to Beowulf may not be due solely to the general tendency to connect mythical achievements with the name of any famous hero. The Danish king “Scyld Scëfing,” whose story is told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son

the career of the hero in progressive order contain a lucid and Beowulf, are plainly identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf, and well-constructed story, yet the general impression produced by it his son Beaw, who appear among the ancestors of Woden in the is that of a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the multitude genealogy of the kings of Wessex given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronand the character of the episodes. A very great part of what the icle. It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of victories over poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented in regular Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth of Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already besequence, but by way of retrospective mention. Many episodes that have nothing to do with Beowulf himself come a theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might easily have been inserted with the seeming intention of making the poem suggest the idea of enriching his story by adding to it tbe achieve-

ments of Beaw. As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English houses, not only of the Gautar and the Danes, but also of the kings, the traditions of his exploits may have been brought over Swedes, the continental Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and by the Angles, and there is evidence that the Grendel legend was the Heathobeards, besides references to matters of unlocalized popularly current in this country. In the schedules of boundaries heroic story such as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are appended to two Old English charters there occurs mention of not named, and the Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. pools called “Grendel’s mere,” one in Wiltshire and the other in Of Britain there is no mention; and though there are some dis- Staffordshire. The Wiltshire charter that speaks also of a place tinctly Christian passages, they are so incongruous in tone with called Béowan him (“Beowa’s home”), and another Wiltshire the rest of the poem that they must be regarded as interpolations. charter has a “‘Scyld’s tree” among the landmarks enumerated. There is a curiously irrelevant prologue, telling the story of Scyld, The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited the founder of the “Scylding” dynasty of Denmark, and the vir- by dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is perhaps tues of his son Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf had been the a trace of it in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow, which means hero of the poem, the opening would have been appropriate; but “dragon’s barrow.” The blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw and the hisit seems strangely out of place as an introduction to the story of his namesake. If the mass of traditions which it purports to con- torical Beowulf may have been the work of Scandinavian and not tain be genuine, the poem is of unique importance as a sourcé of of English poets: Prof. G. Sarrazin has pointed out the striking knowledge respecting the early history of the peoples of northern resemblances between the Scandinavian legend of Boédvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the poem. The English epic, which Germany and Scandinavia. The starting-point of all Beowulf criticism is the fact (discov- unquestionably derived its historical elements from Scandinavian ered by N. F. S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes of song, may be indebted to the same source for its general plan, the poem belongs to authentic history. Gregory of Tours, who including the blending of history and myth. But considering the died in 594, relates that in the reign of Theodoric of Metz (511- late date of the -authority for the Scandinavian traditions, the 534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, and carried off many cap- latter may owe some of their material to English minstrels. Date and Origin.—The forms under which Scandinavian tives and much plunder to their ships. Their king, Chlochilaicus, was attacked and killed by the Franks, who then defeated the names appear in the poem show that these names must have Danes in a naval battle, and recovered the booty. The date of entered English ‘tradition not later than the beginning of the 7th these events is ascertained to have been between 512 and 520. century. It does not indeed follow that the extant poem is of so An anonymous history written early in the 8th century (Liber early a date; but its syntax is remarkably archaic in comparison Hist. Francorum, cap. 19) gives the name of the Danish king as with that of the Old English poetry of the 8th century. Although Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the land of the the existing ms. is written in West-Saxon dialect, the phenomena Attoarii. Now it is related in Beowulf that Hygelac met his death of the language indicate transcription from an Anglian (ż.e., in fighting against the Franks and the Hetware (the Old English a Northumbrian or Mercian) original; and this conclusion is supform of Attoarii). The primitive Germanic form of the Danish ported by the fact that while the poem contains one important kings name would be Hugilaikaz, which by regular phonetic episode relating to the Angles, the name of the Saxons does not change became in Old English Hygeldc, and in Old Norse Huglezkr. occur in it at all. The intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia, It is true that the invading king is said in the histories to have which enabled their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends been a Dane, whereas the Hygelac of Beowulf belonged to the of Danes, Gautar and Swedes, may not have ceased until their “Géatas” or Gautar. But a work called Liber Monstrorum, pre- conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. And even after served in two mss. of the roth century, cites as an example of this event it is probable that down to the end of the 7th century, extraordinary stature a certain “Huiglaucus, king of the Getae,” if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and Mercia conwho was killed by the Franks, and whose bones were preserved tinued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many another on an island at the mouth of the Rhine. It is therefore evident that hero of ancient days. Although the heathen Angles had their own runic alphabet, it Hygelac, and his expedition belong to the region of historic fact. This suggests the possibility that the persons mentioned as be- is unlikely that any poetry was written down until a generation longing to the royal houses of the Danes and Swedes had a real had grown up trained in the use of the Latin letters learned from existence. Other points of contact between Beowulf and the Christian missionaries. We cannot determine the date at which Scandinavian records confirm the conclusion that the Old English some book-learned man, interested in poetry, took down from the poem contains much of the historical tradition of the Gautar, the lips of a minstrel one of the stories that he had been accustomed to sing. It may have been before 700; much later it can hardly Danes and the Swedes. Of the hero of the poem no mention has been found elsewhere. have been, for the old heathen poetry was still in vigorous life. But the name (the Icelandic form of which is Bjélfr) is genuinely The epic of Beowulf was not the only one that was reduced to Scandinavian. It was borne by one of the early settlers-in Iceland, writing: a fragment of the song about Finn, king of the Frisians, and a monk named Biuulf is commemorated in the Liber Vitae still survives, and several other heroic poems were possibly writ-

into a sort of cyclopaedia of Germanic tradition.

They include

many particulars of what purports to be the history of the royal

426

BEQUEST—BERANGER

ten down about the same time. As originally dictated, Beowulf probably contained the story outlined at the beginning of this

His son Jean Beran, “the younger” (1678-1726), was his father's pupil, and exercised the same official functions after his death. CLAUDE BERAIN, brother of the elder Jean, was still living

the hero himself—among them the legend of the swimming-match. The other episodes were introduced by some later writer, who had heard old heathen songs, the substance of which he preserved by weaving it in an abridged form into the texture of the one great poem which he was transcribing. The Christian passages, which are poetically of no value, may be of any date down to that of the extant ms. An interesting light on the history of the written text seems to be afforded by the phenomena of the existing ms. The poem 1s

in 1726. He was engraver to the king, and executed a good number

article, with the addition of one or two of the episodes relating to

divided into numbered sections, the length of which was prob-

ably determined by the size of the pieces of parchment ofwhich an earlier exemplar consisted. Now the first 52 lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his son Beowulf, stand outside this

of plates of ornament and arabesque of various kinds.

BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE (1780-1857), French

song-writer, was born in Paris on Aug. 19, 1780. He received very little formal instruction in his childhood in Paris, where as a schoolboy he witnessed the fall of the Bastille. Later he lived

at Péronne with an aunt, who taught him to be a stout republican: and from the doorstep of her inn, on quiet evenings, he would

listen to the thunder of the guns before Valenciennes, and fortify

himself in his passionate love of France and distaste for all things foreign. In 1802, in consequence of a distressing quarrel, he left his father and began life for himself in the garret of his ever

memorable song. For two years he did literary hackwork, when

numbering. It may reasonably be inferred that there once existed he could get it, and wrote pastorals, epics and all manner of a written text of the poem that did not include theselines. Their ambitious failures. At the end of that period (1804) he wrote to substance, however, is clearly ancient. Many difficulties will be Lucien Bonaparte, enclosing some of these attempts. He was then

obviated if we may suppose that this passage is the beginning of a different poem, the hero of which was not Beowulf the son of Egtheow, but his Danish namesake. It is true that Beowulf the Scylding is mentioned at the beginning of the first numbered section; but probably the opening lines of this section have undergone alteration in order to bring them into connection with the prefixed matter.

BrBtiocRAPHY.—The volume containing the Beowulf ms. (Vitellius A. xv.) was first described by Humphrey Wanley in 1705, in his catalogue of mss., published as vol. inti. of G. Hickes’s Thesaurus Veterum Linguarum Septentrionalium, The first edition showing competent knowledge of the language was produced in 1833 by J.M. Kemble. Since then editions have been very numerous. The text of the poem was edited by C. W. M. Grein in his Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie (1857), and again separately in 1867. Autotypes of the ms,, with transliteration by Julius Zupitza, were issued by the Early English Text Society in 1882. The new edition of Grein’s Bibliothek, by R. P. Wiilker, vol. i. (1883), contains a revised text with critical notes. The most serviceable separate editions are those of M. Heyne (7th ed., revised by A. Socin, 1903), A. J, Wyatt (with English notes and glossary, 1898), and F. Holthausen (vol. i, 1905). Many English translations of the poem have been published (see C. B. Tinker, The Translations of Beowulf, 1903). Among these may be mentioned those of J. M. Garnett (6th ed., 1900), a literal rendering in a metre imitating that of the originaly J. Earle (1892) in prose; W. Morris (1895) in imitative metre, and almost unintelligibly archaistic in diction; C. B. Tinker (1902) in prose; -and Sir Archibald Strong (1925) and C. K. Scott-Moncrieff (1926) in

verse.

For the bibliography of the earlier literature on Beowulf, and a

detailed exposition of the theories therein advocated, see R. P. Wiilker, Grundriss der angelsächsischen Litteratur (1882). The views of Karl Müllenhoff may be best studied in his Beavulf, Untersuchungen

in bad health, and in the last state of poverty, mitigated only by the friendship of Judith Frére, with whom he had been already

more or less acquainted since 1796, and who continued to be

his faithful companion until her death, three months before his own, in 1857. She must not be confounded with the Lisette of the songs; the pieces addressed to her (La Bonne Vieille, Maudit printemps, etc.) are in a very different vein. Lucien Bonaparte interested himself in the young poet, and transferred to him his own pension of 1,000 francs from the Institute; five years later, through the same patronage, although indirectly, Béranger became a clerk in the university at a salary of another thousand. Meanwhile he had written many songs for convivial occasions, and “to console himself under all misfortunes” in 1812, while he was watching by the sick-bed of a friend, it occurred to him to write down the best he could remember. Next year he was elected to the Caveau Moderne, and his reputation as a song-writer began to spread. Manuscript copies of Les Gueux, Le Sénateur, above all, of Le Rot d’Yvetot, a satire against Napoleon, whom he was

to magnify so much in the sequel, passed from hand to hand with acclamation; one man sang them to another over all the land of France. He was the only poet of modern times who could altogether have dispensed with printing. His first collection escaped censure. “We must pardon many

things to the author of Le Rot d’¥vetot,” said Louis XVIII. The second (1821) lost him his situation in the university, and subjected him toa trial, a fine of 500 francs and an imprisonment

of three months. At Sainte Pélagie he occupied a room (it had just heen quitted by Paul Louis Courier), warm, well furnished, diber das angelsichsische Epos (1889). Much valuable matter may be and preferable in every way to his own poor lodging where the found in B. ten Brink, Beowulf, Untersuchungen (1888). The work water froze on winter nights. A second imprisonment of nine of G. Sarrazin, Beowulf-studien (1888), contains, amid much that ts months followed on the appearance of his fourth collection. The fanciful, not a little that deserves careful consideration. The many articles by E. Sievers and S. Bugge, in Beiträge zur Geschichte der government proposed through Laffitte that, if he would submit deutschen Sprache und Litteratur and other periodicals, are of the to judgment without appearing or making defences, he should be utmost importance for the textual criticism and interpretation of the condemned only in the smallest penalty. But his public spirit poem. See also R. W. Chambers, Beowulf, an Introduction to the made him refuse the proposal; and he would not even ask permis: Poem (1921). (H. Br.; X.) sion to pass his term of imprisonment in a maison de santé, 2 BEQUEST, the disposition of property by will. Strictly, although his health was more than usually feeble at the time. bequest” is used of personal, and “devise” of real property. (See LEcacy; WILL oR TESTAMENT.) BERAIN, JEAN (1637-1711), known as “the elder,” French draughtsman and designer, painter and engraver of ornament, was born on Oct. 28 1637, at Saint Mihiel (Meuse) and died in Paris on Jan. 24 1711. In 1674 he was appointed dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet du Rot, in succession to Gissey, whose pupil he is believed to have been. After the death of Le Brun he was commissioned to compose and supervise the whole of the exterior decoration of the king’s ships. His numerous designs were for the most part engraved under his own superintendence, and a collection of them was published in Paris in 1711 by his son-in-law, Thuret, clockmaker to the king, in three books, Oeuvre de J. Bérain, Ornements inventés par J. Bérain and Oeuvres de J. Bérain contenant des ornements d’architecture. M. Guilmard in Les Maiires ornemanistes, gives a list of his published works.

In the revolution of July copies of his song, Le Vieux Drapeau, were served out to the insurgent crowd. He had been for long the intimate friend and adviser of the leading men; and during the decisive week his counsels went a good way towards shaping the

ultimate result. Béranger, however, refused to present himself at court, and used his favour only to ask a place for a friend, and a pension for Rouget de l'Isle, author of the famous Marseillaise. In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, but soon obtained leave to resign. This was the last public event of Béranger’s life. He continued to polish his songs in retirement, visited by nearly all the famous men of France.

among

his

Michelet,

friends

Lamennais,

Chateaubriand, Mignet.

His

Thiers,

He numbered

Jacques

correspondence

Laffitte, is full of

wisdom and kindness, with a smack of Montaigne, and now and then a vein of pleasantry that will remind the English reader of Charles Lamb. He occupied some of his leisure in preparing his

BERAR—BERBERS own memoirs, and a treatise, which he never completed, on Social and Political M orality. He died on July 16, 1857. At his funeral the streets of Paris were lined with soldiers and full of townsfolk, silent and uncovered. From time to time cries arose: “H onneur,

honneur à Béranger!” Béranger had little toleration for those erotic poets who are absorbed in singing their own loves and not the common sorrows of mankind, “who forget,” to quote his own words, “forget beside their mistress those who labour before the Lord.” Hence it is that so many of his pieces are political, and so many, in the later times at least, inspired with a socialistic spirit of indignation and revolt. It is by this socialism that he becomes truly modern and (R. L. S.; X.) touches hands with Burns. BLIocRAPHY.—See Oeuvres de Béranger, ed. by Perrotin (1866): Oeuvres inédites, ed. H. Lecomte

(1909); Ma

biographie

(his own

memoirs) (1858) ; Paul Boiteau Vie de Béranger (1861); Correspondence de Béranger ed. by Paul Boiteau (1860); Napoléon Peyrat Béranger et Lamennais (1857); A. Arnould Béranger, ses amis, ses ennemis et ses critiques (1864); J. Janin Béranger et son temps (1866) ; also Sainte-Beuve’s Portraits contemporains Vol. i.; J. Garson Béranger et la légende napoléonienne (1897); A. Boulle Béranger (1908). A bibliography of Béranger’s works was published by Jules

Brivois in 1876.

BERAR, a sub-province of India, formerly the Hyderabad Assigned Districts, and administered by the British under certain agreements with the Nizam of Hyderabad. From Oct. 1, 1903, the Nizam gave a perpetual lease of the tract to the British Government, and Berar has since then been administered as a

division of the Central Provinces (q.v.).

BÉRARD, JOSEPH FRÉDÉRIC

(1789-1828), French

physician and philosopher, was born at Montpellier. His Doctrine médicale de Vécole de Montpellier (1819) is indispensable to a proper understanding of the principles of the Vitalistic school, From 1823 to 1826 he was professor of medicine at Paris; he was then nominated professor of hygiene at Montpellier. His most important book is his Doctrines des rapports du physique et du moral (1823). Bérard held that self-consciousness reveals to us the existence of an immaterial, thinking, feeling and willing subject, the self or soul. Alongside of this there is the vital force, the nutritive power, which uses the physical frame as its organ. To the Esprit des doctrines médicales de Montpellier, published posthumously (1830), the editor, H. Pétiot, prefixed an account of his life and works; see -also Damiron, Phil. en France au XIXe siècle (1834) ; C. J. Tissot, Anthropologie générale (1843).

427

Before its conquest by Egypt in 1820 its ruler owed allegiance to the kings of Sennar. The Mahdists took it on May 26, 1884, and the Anglo-Egyptian army retook it on Sept. 6, 1897. The capital of the mudiria is now Ed Damer, a town near the confluence of the Nile and Atbara. At the northern end of the mudiria is Abu Hamed, important as a railway junction for Dongola. The best-known of the tribes inhabiting the province are the Hassania, Jaalin, Bisharin and Kimilab.: During the rule of the Mahdi most of these tribes suffered severely at the hands of the dervishes. The riverain crops are dhurra, barley, wheat and cotton.

BERBERA, chief town and port of the British Somaliland protectorate, North-East Africa, 155m. S. of Aden, in 10° 26’ N., 45° 4’ E. Berbera is at the head of a deep inlet, the only completely sheltered haven on the south side of the Gulf of Aden. The harbour is rz to 13 fathoms deep at the entrance, decreasing to five fathoms near the shore. Ocean-going steamers find ample accommodation. The town is built in two divisions—the native town, to the east; the new town, laid out by the Egyptians (187577), to the west. The majority of the better-class houses are of rubble, one-storeyed and flat-roofed. The water-supply is brought to the town by an aqueduct from the hills some 8m. distant. The permanent population is under 10,000; but from October to April the population rises to 30,000 or more by the arrival of caravans from Ogaden and Dolbahanta. The traders bring with them tents on the backs of camels and these are pitched near the native town. Their merchandise consists of sheep and goats, gum and resin, skins and ostrich feathers. Imports are mostly cotton goods, dates, rice and sugar. Direct trade is almost entirely with Aden; its yearly value (1914-28) was about £500,000. Berbera is said to have been founded by the Ptolemies among

the Barbari of the adjacent coast lands. It fèll subsequently into the possession of Arabs and was included in the Mohammedan state of Adel. At the time of the visit to the town of R. F. Bur-

ton and J. H. Speke (1854) it was governed by its own sheiks. In 1870 it was claimed by the khedive Ismail, but was not permanently occupied by Egypt until 1875. In 1884 it passed into the possession of Great Britain. (See SOMALILAND, History.)

BERBERINE,

first isolated by Chevalier and Pelletan in

1826, obtained for the most part from either golden-seal (Hydrastis) or barberry (Berberis) roots. In the former it is accompanied by hydrastine and canadine (tetrahydroberberine) and in the latter by oxyacanthine and berbamine. Berberine, BERAT, a town of southern Albania on the Semen (or Osum) CeoHi905N, is soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and sparingly tiver, which is unfordable and crossed by a bridge and seven soluble in ether or chloroform. It crystallizes from water in ferries. The river often overflows its banks, leaving stagnant silky, reddish-yellow needles, or from chloroform in tablets; pools which breed fever-bearing mosquitoes. Pop. (1924) 12,000, solvent is retained, so that the melting point varies from of whom nearly seven-eighths are Mohammedans, and the re- 144° C (from ether) to 179° C (from chloroform). A molemainder Orthodox, with an Orthodox bishop. The town is on cule of water is lost in the formation of salts, which are those of the Valona-Koritsa-Monastir route, and lies in a fertile valley a monoacidic base. The hydrochloride, CxHi;0O.,N,HC1,2H,0, producing maize, tobacco, fruit, vines and olives. The citadel is forms small yellow needles, and on the addition of nitric acid of no military value and is, moreover, waterless. The surrounding to a solution of a berberine salt, the nitrate is precipitated as district is very barbarous. In the 13th century it fell under Sicily greenish-yeliow needles. On reduction berberine is converted into and then Naples, and was ruled in the 14th and zsth centuries by the colourless canadine (tetrahydroberberine). The papers on the the Musaki family. Later it became Turkish. In the 18th cen- constitution of berberine (W. H. Perkin, 1899 to 1925) afford tury Ibrahim of Berat headed the league of Muslims which un- excellent examples of the application of oxidation and “exhaustive successfully revolted against Ali Pasha (1788—1822). Berat was methylation’? methods. The supposed synthesis of berberine (Picoccupied by the Austrians during the World War and by the tet and Gams, 1911) proved on further examination (Perkin, Italians in r918. 1924) to be a synthesis of an isomeride, pseudoberberine and the BERAUN: see BEROuN. alkaloid was synthesized for the first time by Perkin, Ray and BERBER, a town and mudiria (province) of the Anglo- Robinson in 1925. Berberine is of low toxicity; it formerly had Egyptian Sudan. The town is on the right bank of the Nile, some reputation as a remedy for malaria but it is now little used 1,140ft. above sea-level, in 18° 1’ N., 33° 59’ E., and 214m. by in medicine. rail north-west of Khartoum. Berber was the starting-point of the BERBERS, the name of the various branches of the indigeCaravan route, 242m. long, across the Nubian desert to the Red nous “Libyan” race of north Africa. Since the dawn of history the sea at Suakin, a distance covered in seven to twelve days. It Berbers have occupied the tract between the Mediterranean and Was also one of the principal stopping-places between Cairo and the Sahara from Egypt to the Atlantic. The origin of the name artoum. The caravan route to the Red sea was superseded in is doubtful. Some derive it from the word BdapBapor (barbarians), 1906 by a railway, which leaves the Wadi Halfa-Khartoum line employed first by the Greeks and later by the Romans. Others at the mouth of the Atbara. Berber thus lost much of its impor- attribute it to the Arab conquerors. Tribal titles, Barabara and tance, though it remains the centre of a considerable local trade. Beraberata, appear in Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 and 3300 B.C., € town, now much diminished in population, is old, and the Berbers were known to the Egyptians as “Lebu,” “Mashu-

BERBERS

428

asha,” “Tamahu,” “Tehennu” and “Kahaka”’; a long list of names is found in Herodotus;

and the Romans

called them Numidae,

Gaetuli and Mauri, terms derived respectively from the Greek

vouddes (nomads), the name Gued’oula, of a great Berber tribe, and the Hebrew mahur (western). In regard to the ethnic relations of the Berbers, on the monuments of Egypt their ancestors are pictured with the comparatively blond features which many of

them still display.’ Though considerable individual differences of type may be found in every village, the Berbers are distinctively a “white” race. Dark hair and brown or hazel eyes are the rule; blue-eyed blonds are found, but their frequency has been considerably overstated. The invaders who have most affected the Berber race are the Arabs, but the two races, with a common religion, often a common government, and the same tribal groupings, have failed to amalgamate to any great extent. The Berber is straightforward, honest, by no means averse to money-making, but not unscrupulous in the methods which he employs to this end, and trustworthy. Government.—The Berber’s village is his state, and the government is vested in an assembly, the Jemdéa, formed of all males old enough to observe the fast of Ramadan. By them are determined all matters of peace or war, legislation, taxation and justice. The executive officer is the Amin, a kind of mayor, elected from some influential family in which the dignity is often in practice hereditary. He owes his position to the good-will of his fellows, receives no remuneration, and resigns as soon as he loses the confidence of the people. By him are appointed certain Temman (sing. Tamen) who act as overseers, though without executive powers, in the various quarters of the village. The poorest Berber has as great a voice in affairs as the richest. The undue power of the Jemda is checked by vendetta and a sort of lynch law, and by the formation of parties (sofs), within or without the assembly, for trade, political and other purposes. The Berbers are a warlike people who have never been completely subjugated. Every boy on reaching 16 is brought into the Jemda and given weapons which he carries till he is sixty. Though each village is absolutely independent as far as its internal affairs are concerned, two or more are often connected by administrative ties to form an Arsh or tribe. A number of these tribes form a-Thakebilt or loose confederation. The Taureg organization, owing to their peculiar circumstances of life, is monarchical. Wars are declared by special messengers; the exchange of sticks or guns renders an armistice inviolable. In some tribes a tablet, on which is inscribed the name of every man fit to bear arms, is placed in the mosque. The Berbers, though Mahommedans, do not observe the prescribed ablutions; they break their fast at Ramadan; and eat wild boar’s flesh and drink fig brandy. Saints, both male and female, are paid more reverence by Berbers than by Arabs. Around their tombs their descendants settle, and thus sacred villages, often of considerable size, spring up. Almost every village, too; has its saint or prophet, and disputes as to their relative sanctity and powers cause fierce feuds. The hereditary caste known as Marabouts are frequently in open opposition to the absolute authority of the Jemda. They are possessed of certain privileges, such as exemption from the chief taxes and the duty of bearing arms. They often take a foremost part in tribal administration, and are frequently called upon to perform the office of arbitrators in questions of disputed policy, etc. In the Jemda, too, the Marabout at times takes the place of honour and keeps order. The Berbers are very superstitious. Their social tendencies are distinctly communistic; property is often owned by the family in common, and a man can call upon the services of his fellow villagers for certain purposes, as the building of a house. Provision for the poor is often made. by the community. Customs and Industries.—In some districts there are peculiar

mere huts of turf or of clay tiles, with mortar made from lime and clay or cow-dung. The sloping roof is covered with reeds, straw or stones. The living room is on the right, the cattle-stal] on the left. The dwelling is surrounded by a garden or small

field of grain. The second storey is not added till a son marries, In the villages of the western Atlas the greater part of the upper storey consists of a sort of rough verandah. In this district the

natives spend the winter in vaults beneath the houses, and, for the sake of warmth, the tenements

are built very close. Agri.

culture, which is carried on in the mountain districts by means of laboriously constructed terraces, is antiquated in its methods, The plough, often replaced on the steeper slopes by the hoe, is similar to that depicted in ancient Egyptian

drawings, and

hand irrigation is usual. A sickle, toothed like a saw, is used for reaping. Corn is trodden by oxen, and kept in osier baskets narrowing to the top, or clay granaries. The Berbers have many industries. They mine and work iron, lead and copper. They have olive presses and flour mills and their

own millstone quarries, and build mills for the Arabs. They

make lime, tiles, woodwork for the houses, domestic utensils and

agricultural implements.

They weave and dye several kinds of

cloth, tan and dress leather and manufacture oil and soap. Without the wheel the women produce a variety of pottery utensils,

often of very graceful design and decorated with patterns in red

and black. Whole’ tribes, such as the Beni-Sliman, are occupied in the iron trade; the Beni-Abbas made firearms before the French conquest, and even cannon are said to have been made by boring. Before it was proscribed by the French, the manufacture of gunpowder was general. The native jewellers make excellent ornaments in silver, coral and enamel. In some places wood-carving has been brought to considerable perfection; and native artists engrave on metal both by etching and the burin. The Berbers are keen traders and, after the harvest, hawk small goods, travelling great distances. A Berber woman has in many ways a better position than her

Arab sister. True, her birth is regarded as an event of no moment, while that of a boy is celebrated by great rejoicings, and his mother acquires the right to wear on her forehead the tafzint, a mark which only the women who have borne an heir can assume. | Her husband buys and can dismiss her at will. She has most of the hard work to do, and is little better than a servant. When she is old and past work, especially if she has not been the mother of a male child, she is often abandoned. But she has a voice in public affairs; she has laws to protect her, manages the household and goes unveiled; she has a right to the money she earns; she can inherit under wills, and bequeath property, though to avoid the alienation of real property, succession to it is denied her. But most characteristic is the Berber woman’s right to enter into a sacred bond or agreement, represented by the giving of the anaya. This is some symbolic object, stick or what not, which passes between the parties to a contract, the obligations under

which, if not fulfilled by the contracting parties during their lives,

become hereditary.

Female saints, too, are held in high honour;

and the Berber is monogamous. Among many Berber tribes the eldest daughter’s son succeeds. A religious corporation, the Savia Kartas, has been ruled over by a woman, the chief’s wife. The Berbers consult their women in many matters. Only one woman is really held in low esteem, the kuata or “go-between,” though her services are only employed in the respectable task of arranging marriages. Berber women are intelligent and hard-working, and, when young, very pretty and graceful. The Berbers do not admire fat women. Among the Kabyles the adulteress is put to death, as are those women who have illegitimate children, the latter suffering with their mothers.

Language.—The Berber language is still spoken by millions

customs, such as the wearing of small silver nose-rings, seen in of people from Egypt to the Atlantic and from the Mediterranean El-Jofra. The Berbers’ weapons are those of the Arab: the to the Sudan, and place-names in the Canary Islands and other long straight sword, the slightly curved and highly ornamented remains of the aboriginal language there prove it to have been dagger and the long gun. Their villages, however, are often of substantial appearance: with houses of untrimmed stones, oc-

casionally with two storeys, built on hills, and invariably defended by a bank, a stone wall or a hedge. Sometimes their homes are

the native tongue.

The Berber tongue shows some affinity with

Semitic in the construction both of its words and sentences but

is quite distinct from the Semitic languages; and the dialects

show but slight differences from the long-extinct Hamitic speech

4.29

BERBICE—BERCHTOLD from which all are derived. The Berber language is still essentially one. The Berbers have a writing of their own, peculiar and little

used or known, the antiquity of which is proved by monuments and inscriptions ranging over the whole of north Africa. A col-

lection of the various signs of the alphabet has shown thirty-two letters, four more than Arabic. Among the peculiar grammatical

features of Berber may be mentioned two numbers (no dual),

two genders and six cases, and verbs with one, two, three and four

radicals and imperative and aorist tense only. The Berber tongue is most common in Morocco and the western Sahara. BrsciocraPHy.—General:—A.

Hanoteau

and

A. Letourneux,

La

Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles (3 vols., 1872-73); D. RandallMaclver and Antony Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901); Antony Wilkin, Among the Berbers of Algeria (1900); G. Sergi, The Mediterranean

Race (1901), and Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe Comitica (Turin, 1897) ; Henri Duveyrier, Exploration du Sahara (1864), Les Progrés

de la géographie en Algérie (1867-71), Bull. de la Soc. Khédiviale de

Géog. (1876); E. Renan, “La Société Berbère,” Revue des deux mondes, vol. for 1873; M. G. Olivier, “Recherches sur l’origine des Berbères,” Bull. de l’Acad. d’Hippone (1867-68) ; F. G. Rohlis, Reise durch Marokko (1869); Quer durch Afrika (1874-75); General

Faidherbe, Collection complète des inscriptions numidiques (lybiques) (1870), and Les Dolmens d’Afrique (1873); H. M. Flinders Petrie in The Academy, 20th of April 1895; Jules Lionel, Races berbéres (1894); Sir H. H. Johnston, “A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara,” Geog. Journal, vol. xi., 1898; De Slane’s translation of Ibn Khaldun, Hist. des Berbéres (Algiers, 1852); W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe (1900); Dr. Malbot, “Les Chaouias” in L’ Anthropologie, 1897 (p. 14); General Faidherbe and Dr. Paul Topinard, Instructions sur Panthropologie de lV’Algérie (1874); E. T. Hamy, La Nécropole berbere d’Henchir el-’Assel (1896), and Cités et nécropoles berbéres de VEnfida (Tunisie moyenne) (ib. 1904). Berber dictionaries:—Venture de Paradis (Paris, 1844); Brosselard (ib. 1844); Delaporte (2b. 1844, by order of minister of war);

J. B. Creusat, Essai de dictionnaire frangais-kabyle

(Algiers, 1873);

A. Hanoteau, Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek, etc. (Paris, 1860); Minutoli, Siwak Dialect (Berlin, 1827); A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues du Monde (1924). Folklore, etc.:—J. Rivière, Recueil de contes populaires de la Kabylie (1882); R. Basset, Contes populaires berbères (1887); P. le Blanc de Prébois, Essai de contes kabyles, avec traduction en français (Batna, 1897); H. Stumine, Märchen der Berbern von Tamazratt in

Südtunisien (Leipzig, 1900).

BERBICE, one of the three “counties” of British Guiana (g.v.) associated with the river of the same name.

BERCEO, GONZALO

DE (c. 1180-c. 1246), the earliest

Castilian poet whose name is known to us, was born at Verceo, a village in the province of Logrono. In 1221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest, to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the diocese of Calahorra. He wrote upwards of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best work is a life of St. Oria; others treat of the life of St. Millan, of St. Dominic of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass,

and the Miracles of Our Lady. Berceo uses the cuaderna via (single-rhymed quatrains, each verse being of 14 syllables); he lacks imagination and taste, but he combines directness of vision and a power of selection with a passionate devotion that gives him the supremacy over his French contemporary, Gautier de

Coinci, from whom most of his legends of the Virgin are borrowed. See Comte de Paymaigre, Les viewx auteurs castillans (1888), I., pp. 267—300; R. Becker, Gonzalo de Berceos Milagros und ihre Grund-

lagen (Strasbourg, 1910).

BERCEUSE, a cradle-song, the German Wiegenlied, a musical composition with a quiet rocking accompaniment. The word Is i from cradle, BERCHEM a Dutch painter, Amsterdam. He

the French

for a “lullaby,” from berceau, a

or BERGHEM, NICOLAES (1620~1683), born at Haarlem, and died on Feb. 18, 1683, at received instruction from his father (Pieter

Claesz van Haarlem) and from the painters Claes Moyaert, Jan Wils and Pieter de Grebber.

He seems to have worked in Italy,

and most of his numerous landscapes are southern landscapes in bright sunshine. They were in great demand, as were also his etchings and drawings. His finest pictures are at the Amsterdam museum and at the Hermitage, Leningrad. There are examples In the National Gallery and the Wallace and Dulwich collections In London; in Vienna, Berlin and elsewhere.

BERCHTA,

a fairy in South German mythology (English,

Bertha), at first a benevolent spirit, later regarded as a witch. In Pagan times she ranked as a minor deity.

BERCHTESGADEN,

a town in south-eastern

Bavaria,

Germany, beautifully situated at a height of 1,700ft., on the Untersberg, south-east Bavaria. Pop. (1925) 3,772. It is celebrated for its extensive mines of rock-salt, worked as early as 1174. The town contains an early Gothic abbey church with Romanesque cloister. The district was formerly an independent spiritual principality, founded in 1100 and secularized in 1803. Toy-making is an old-established local industry. BERCHTOLD VON UND ZU UNGARSCHITZ,

LEOPOLD, Count (1863—

), Austro-Hungarian statesman,

was born April 18 1863, and entered the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office 1893. In 1903 he went as councillor of legation to

St. Petersburg (now Leningrad) and in Dec. 1906 was appointed ambassador there. With the Russian court and the aristocratic society of St. Petersburg he maintained the best relations, but failed entirely in his efforts to accommodate the obviously increasing differences between Russian and Austro-Hungarian policy. He took a leading part in the negotiations preceding the crisis caused by the annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina, which aimed at securing common action of the two Powers in the Balkan question. It was at his chateau of Buchlov, in Moravia, that the fateful conference took place between Izvolski and

Aehrenthal (Sept. 15 1908).

In March rozz Count Berchtold

was recalled from Russia, and on Feb. 17 1912, he was, against his own will, appointed Aehrenthal’s successor as foreign minister in the Austro-Hungarian Government. His efforts were directed toward securing the position of Austria-Hungary in the Balkan peninsula. At this time he considered possible a peaceful solution of the Balkan question by agreement with Russia and the Western Powers. But the obvious efforts of Russian statesmen to weaken the influence of AustriaHungary in the Balkans, the aggressive activities of the Serbs and the ambiguous behaviour of Bulgaria forced him to change his attitude, especially as he failed to receive from the Western Powers the support which he had sought. During the three Balkan wars, Oct. 1912 to Aug. 1913, Berchtold’s attitude was characterized by weakness and indecision. He repeatedly took steps toward active intervention, but drew back when the Entente Powers used threats, and the other members of the Triple Alliance intervened with counsels of moderation in Vienna. His efforts at the close of the third Balkan War to secure a revision of the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913), which was unfavourable to Bulgaria, were as unsuccessful as his attempt to secure an accommodation between Bulgaria and her rivals by way of direct negotiation. The prestige of AustriaHungary in the Balkans noticeably declined. Serbia’s endeavours to extend her power to the Adriatic and to win recruits for the ideal of Great Serbia among the kindred Slav races of AustriaHungary became more and more evident. For these reasons, at the conferences at the Ballplatz which followed the murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne, on June 28, 1914, Berchtold maintained the view that a definitive settlement with Serbia was essential, even at the risk of war with Russia and France. After the outbreak of the World War he directed his efforts to inducing Italy and Rumania to carry out their obligations and to securing new allies for the Central Powers. ‘These efforts were, for the most part, unsuccessful. Turkey alone joined the Central Powers. Rumania and Italy declared their neutrality; even Bulgaria dragged out the negotiations, though Berchtold offered great concessions in return for her active intervention on the side of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Italy’s demands for compensation were acknowledged in principle by Berchtold, under pressure from Germany, but he embarked on the negotiations with hesitation, and to the day of his resignation (Jan. 13 tors) he refused to listen to any proposal for the cession of Austrian territory. In March 1916 Berchtold was appointed

Obersthofmeister (lord high steward) to the heir to the throne, Charles Francis Joseph, whom he subsequently served as Oberst-

430

BERCK— BERENGARIUS

kammerer (lord high chamberlain). After the fall of the dynasty he took no further part in politics. See AUSTRIA. (A. F. P.)

BERCK, bathing resort, north France, department of Pas-deCalais, 25m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1926) 10,220. It comprises two parts—Berck-Ville, the fishing village, 14m. from the shore, and Berck-Plage, with a fine sandy beach. The latter is a favourite resort for children, and there are several sanatoria. Herrings form the staple of the active fishing trade. Boat-building and fish-curing are carried on.

BERDIANSK, a port on the Sea of Azov in the Mariupol

district of the Ukrainian S.S.R. Lat. 46° 48’ N., Long. 36° 44’ E. Pop. (1926) 26,409. It has a breakwater extending 1,073 yards enclosing water 934-15 ft. deep: a canal has been dredged from the harbour to the roads, and a mole was constructed (1863) as a protection against the heavy surf when the south wind blows. There are salt lagoons in the neighbourhood. Its exports are wheat, barley, linseed, hemp, wool and skins, and its imports hardware, fruit, oil and naphtha. It has manufactures of bricks and tiles, tallow and macaroni.

BERDICHEY,

ascetic life, and a deep insight into the significance of the Augustinian doctrine of grace. Sometime before 1040 Berengarius was made archdeacon of Angers. It was shortly after this that rumours

began to spread of his heretical views regarding the sacrament of the Eucharist. Transubstantiation, he held, was contrary to reason, unwarranted by Scripture, and inconsistent with the teaching of men like Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine. He did not conceal this conviction from his scholars and friends, and through them the report spread widely that he denied the common doctrine

respecting the Eucharist.

His old school companion, Adelmann,

archdeacon of Liége, wrote to him letters of expostulation in 1046 and 1048; and Bishop Hugo of Langres, wrote (about 1049) a refutation of the views which Berengarius had expressed to him in conversation. Berengarius was not affected by their exhortations,

and hearing that Lanfranc, the most celebrated theologian of his day, strongly approved the doctrine of Paschasius and condemned

that of “Scotus Eriugena” (really Ratramnus), he wrote to him a letter expressing his surprise and urging him to reconsider the question. Lanfranc, who was then in Rome (1050), brought the

letter to the notice of Leo IX. with the result that Berengarius

the chief town of the Berdichev district of was excommunicated and ordered to appear before the Council

the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Lat. 49° 52’ N., Long. 28° 30’ E. Pop. (1926) 50,554. It is a railway junction, and centre for the exchange of skins, iron and wooden wares, salt

of Vercelli which was to be held later on in the year. Before it assembled he was cast into prison, and only when it was too late were the bishop of Angers and other powerful friends able to fish, grain, cattle and horses. Small industries—tobacco, soap, procure his release. At the council of Tours (1054) he found a leather and bricks—are carried on, and fairs are held. In the protector in the papal legate, the famous Hildebrand, who, satisfied treaty of demarcation between the Poles and Lithuanians in 1546, with the fact that Berengarius did not deny the real presence of Berdichev was assigned to Lithuania. After the capture of Bar, Christ in the sacramental elements, succeeded in persuading the 1768, Pulaski, the leader of the Polish confederacy of Bar fled assembly to be content with a general confession from him that to Berdichev, which was captured by the Russians after a 25 the bread and wine, after consecration, were truly the body and days’ siege. Later the town belonged to the Radziwill family. A blood of the Lord, without requiring him to define how. At the fortified Carmelite monastery was founded here in 1627, was 1059 council of Rome, Berengarius signed a formula of faith plundered by the Zaporogian Cossacks under Chmielnicki in drawn up by Cardinal Humbert and defining the real presence in 1647, and disestablished 1864. The Cathedral of the Assumption an extremely realistic manner; but on returning to France he was completed in 1832. continued to attack the doctrine of transubstantiation, apparently BEREA, a town of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., in the without objection from either his civil or ecclesiastical superiors. foot-hills of the Cumberland mountains, at the edge of the blue- Finally, Hildebrand, now Pope Gregory VII., summoned him to grass region, 95m. S.E. of Louisville, on the Louisville and Nash- Rome, and, in the council of 1078, tried once more to obtain a ville railroad. The population in 1930 was 1,827. Three miles declaration of his orthodoxy by means of a confession of faith south is the gap through which Daniel Boone passed on his ex- drawn up in general terms; but in the council of the following pedition from North Carolina into the Kentucky wilderness. The year Berengarius was forced to acknowledge a change of the history of the town is bound up with that of Berea college, which bread into the body of Christ which was born of the Virgin Mary, was founded (1855) to promote “the spiritual and material wel- and that the change was non tantum per signum et virtutem fare of the mountain region of the South.” Instruction is provided sacramenti, sed in proprietate naturae et veritate substantiae (not (for students over fifteen years of age) through a full college merely by sign and virtue of the sacrament but in the own nature course. Tuition is free, and expenses are kept at a minimum. The and truth of substance). He was kindly dismissed by the pope annual enrolment is about 2,500. The campus of r4oac. extends not long after, with a letter recommending him to the protection along a picturesque ridge, 1,070ft. above sea-level. The lands of the bishops of Tours and Angers, and another pronouncing used for instruction include soac. of gardens, 494ac. in farms, and anathema on all who should do him any injury or call him a a forest reserve of 5,600 acres. All the work is done by the heretic. Berengarius again recalled his confession, but at the students, and is a part of the educational scheme. The college council of Bordeaux (1080), made a final retraction. He passed supplies water, electric light, ice, fire protection and other services the rest of his life in retirement and prayer on the island of $t. to the village. Berea has been a pioneer in developing unconven- Côme, near Tours, where he died in 1088. He left behind him a tional educational methods to meet the needs of its students, and number of followers. its library serves isolated schools and families, teachers and The position of Berengarius in the Eucharist controversy rested clergymen, over a wide radius. on his theory that dialectic was par excellence the instrument for BEREKHIAH NAQDAN, Jewish fabulist, author of a discovering truth, a theory which concerned the whole question Hebrew collection of Fox Fables. As his title implies (Nagdan, of the relation between faith and reason and which meant that punctuator of the biblical text), Berekhiah was also a grammarian. reason was to be the criterion in matters of faith. His objections Most authorities place him in the 13th century, but J. Jacobs to transubstantiation were chiefly metaphysical. Accidents, he has identified him with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew argued, cannot exist without their substance, even by the power of the rath century. of God, and therefore, if the accidents of bread are present on BERENGARIUS (d. 1088), mediaeval theologian, born at the altar, their substance, and not that of the body of Christ, will Tours, was educated in the famous school of Fulbert of Chartres. be there. Besides, if Christ is present, and bread alone is seen, Later, as director of the cathedral school of his native city, he there is deception, for Christ, who is God, represents Himself taught with such success as to attract pupils from all parts of other than He actually is. Again, if Christ is in heaven, as the France, and powerfully contributed to diffuse an interest in the Scriptures say, He cannot be on earth or on many altars, since study of logic and metaphysics, and to introduce the dialectic nobody can be in different places at the same time. Moreover, we development of theology. The earliest of his writings of which know that the body of Christ after the resurrection became inwe have any record is an Exhortatory Discourse to the hermits corruptible; therefore, it cannot be broken with the teeth or daily of his district, written at their own request and for their spiritual re-created. This reasoning Berengarius supports by the Bible and edification. It shows a clear discernment of the dangers of the the Fathers.

BERENGER—BERESFORD He seems, however, to have admitted the real presence in the

Eucharist, for he allowed that, after the consecration the elements

undergo a conversto, not inasmuch as they lose the esse that they

have, but in the sense of acquiring something else, that something

being the real and invisible body of Christ which constitutes the ves sacraments.

The position of Berengarius was not entirely new, for in the

oth century, Ratramnus, a monk of Corbie, had rejected the sub-

stantial change in the elements and Eriugena had regarded the Eucharist as merely a memorial. As far as the Church was concerned, the debates with Berengarius led to a clearer exposition of the nature of the change in the sacrament, and an enrichment

431

of which only a few lines remain, but there is a fine translation of it by Catullus. Soon after her husband's death (221 B.c.) she was murdered at the instigation of her son Ptolemy IV. 4. BERENICE, also called CLEOPATRA, daughter of Ptolemy X., married as her second husband Alexander II., grandson of Ptolemy VIL. He murdered her three weeks afterwards. 5. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, eldest sister of the great Cleopatra. The Alexandrines placed her on.the throne in

succession to her father (58 B.c.). She married Seleucus Cybio-

sactes, but soon caused him to be slain and married Archelaus, who had been made king of Comana in Pontus (or in Cappadocia) by Pompey. Auletes was restored and put both Berenice and of the terminology applicable to Eucharistic dogma. Archelaus to death in 55 B.C. BrBLIOGRAPHY.—Lhe De sacr. coena adv. Lanfjr. liber of Berengarius (B) 1. Berenice, daughter of Salome, sister of Herod I., and was edited by A. F. and F. T. Vischer (1834). His letter to Adelmann wife of her cousin Aristobulus, who was assassinated in 6 B.c. She (1917). 113 iv. anecd., nov. Thes. is to be found in Martene—Durand: was accused of complicity in his murder. By Aristobulus, she was See also the collection of texts in Sudendorf: Berengarius Turoniensis the mother of Herod Agrippa I. Her second husband, Theudion, (Hamburg, 1850) and the refutations of Berengarius in the works of Adelmann, Lanfranc and Guitmand in Migne’s Patrol. Lat.; J. uncle on the mother’s side of Antipater, son of Herod I., having Schnitzer, Berengar v. Tours, sein Leben und seine Lehre (Munich, been put to death for conspiring against Herod, she married 1800); M. Grabmann, Die Gesch. der Schol. Methode, v. i. (Freiburg, Archelaus. Subsequently she went to Rome and enjoyed the 1909); R. Heurtevent: Durand de Troarn et les Origines de l Hérésie favour of the imperial household. bérengarienne (1912) ; A. Harnack: Hist. of Dogma. 2. BERENICE, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and born BÉRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE (1785-1866), known as Bérenger de la Drôme, French lawyer and politician, was born probably about a.p. 28. She was first married to Marcus, son of at Valence and entered the magistracy. In 1818 he published Alexander, head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria. On his La Justice criminelle en France, attacking the special courts which early death she was married to her father’s brother, Herod of were the main instruments of the Reaction and demanding a Chalcis, after whose death (a.p. 48) she lived for some years with return to the old customary law and the institution of trial by her brother, Agrippa II. Her third husband was Polemon, king of jury. In 1828 he was elected to the chamber. As president of Cilicia, but she soon deserted him and returned to Agrippa, with the parliamentary commission for the trial of the ministers of whom she was living in 60 when Paul appeared before him at Charles X. in 1830 he secured a sentence of imprisonment in place Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). During the devastation of Judaea by the of the death penalty. He helped to frame the new criminal code, Romans she fascinated Titus whom, along with Agrippa, she folbased on humanitarian principles, which was issued in 1835. He lowed to Rome as his promised wife (A.D. 75). When he became secured, in 1832, the right, so important in French procedure, of emperor (A.D. 79) he dismissed her to her own country. Her injuries to find “extenuating circumstances.” Under Louis Philippe, fluence had been exercised vainly on behalf of the Jews in A.D. 66, Bérenger received many honours (including a peerage, of which but the burning of her palace alienated her sympathies. For her he was deprived in 1848). After the Revolution of 1848 his politi- influence see Juvenal, Satires, vi., and Tacitus, Hist., ii. 2. cal career ended, but his legal activity continued, and he became BERENICE, an ancient seaport of Egypt, on the west coast president of one of the chambers of the court of cassation. In of the Red sea, in 23° 56’ N., 35° 34’ E. Built at the head of a the interest of the reform of the criminal law and especially the gulf, the Sinus Immundus, or Foul bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered reclamation of young criminals he visited England; publishing on the north by Ras Benas. The port is now nearly filled up, has the result of his study as La Répression pénale, comparaison du a sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached only by small craft. système pénitentiaire en France et en Angleterre (1855). His son, Remnants of a temple’s sculptures and inscriptions preserve the René Bérenger (1830—1915), vice-president of the Senate from name of Tiberius and figures of deities, including a goddess of the emerald mines. Berenice was founded by Ptolemy II. (285— 1894 to 1897, was also interested in prison reform.

BERENICE or BERNICE, the Macedonian forms of the

Greek Pherenice, the name of (A) five Egyptian and (B) two Jewish princesses. (A) 1. Berenice, daughter of Lagus, wife of an obscure Macedonian soldier and subsequently of Ptolemy Soter, with whose bride, Eurydice, she came to Egypt as a lady-in-waiting. Her son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was recognized as heir over the heads of

Eurydice’s children. So great was her ability and her influence that Pyrrhus of Epirus gave the name Berenicis to a new city. Her son Philadelphus decreed divine honours to her on her death. See Theocritus, Zdylls, xv. and xvii. 2. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wife of Antiochus Theos of Syria, who, according to agreement with Ptolemy

(249), had divorced his wife Laodice and transferred the succession to Berenice’s children. On Ptolemy’s death, Antiochus repudiated Berenice and took back Laodice, who, however, at once poisoned him and murdered Berenice and her son. The prophecy in Daniel xi. 6 seq. refers to these events.

3. BERENICE, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and the wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes.

During her husband’s absence

on an expedition to Syria she dedicated her hair to Venus for his safe return and placed it in the temple of the goddess at Zephyrtium. The hair having by some unknown means disappeared, Conon of Samos, the mathematician and astronomer, explained

the Phenomenon in courtly phrase by saying that it had been carried to the heavens and placed among the stars. The name

Coma Berenices, applied to a constellation, commemorates this

Incident.

Callimachus celebrated the transformation in a poem,

247 B.c.), and named in honour of his mother. It probably replaced an older town, which had long served as the entrepôt of trade between India, Arabia and Upper Egypt. From it a road with watering stations leads north-west across the desert to the Nile at Coptos. In the neighbourhood of Berenice are the emerald mines of Mount Zabara and Saket. BERESFORD, CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER BERESFORD, ist Baron (1846-1919), British admiral, second son of the Rev. John de la Poer Beresford, later 4th marquis of Waterford, was born at Philipstown, King’s County, on Feb. 10, 1846, and died on Sept. 6, 1919. He entered the “Britannia” as a naval cadet in 1859. He rose steadily in the navy and in May 1877 was appointed commander of the “Thunderer.” From 1879-81 he was in command of the royal yacht “Osborne.” He had served under Prince Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, in the “Galatea” in 1868, and in 1875 accompanied the prince of Wales (Edward VII.) on his tour to India. He entered Parliament in 1874 as member for Waterford, and held his seat until 1880; but he was principally known at this period as a sportsman and as a personal friend of the prince of Wales. At the Egyptian crisis of 1882 he was in command of the gunboat “Condor” in the Mediterranean, and became a popular hero in England in connection with his share of the bombardment of Alexandria (July 11), when he took the leading part in engaging and silencing Fort Marabout in that operation. He was then sent ashore by Captain John (afterwards Lord) Fisher to restore order, which he did with complete efficiency. For this service he was promoted captain, and in Aug. 1884 he was sent to Egypt to

432

BERESFORD

act on the staff of Lord Wolseley in the expedition for the relief of Khartum. He commanded the naval brigade at Abu Klea, Abu Kru, and Metemmeh, and with the naval steamer “Safieh”

versation had been imputed to Beresford. Beresford sent a challenge to Fitzwilliam, but the combatants were interrupted on the feld and Fitzwilliam then made an apology.

rescued Sir Charles Wilson and his party, who had been wrecked on returning from Khartum (Feb. 4 1885). On his return home he became M.P. for East Marylebone, and

March 1795 Beresford resumed his former position.

of the rebellion in 1798 his letters to Lord Auckland gave an

was made 4th naval lord of the Admiralty under Lord George

alarming description of the condition of Ireland and he counselleg

Hamilton in the Salisbury ministry of 1886, but resigned in Jan. 1888, on account of disagreement with the government’s naval programme. Lord Charles was an advocate of the big navy programme, and his criticisms of the government had much to do with the passing of the Naval Defence Act, 188ọ. In that year he resumed active service afloat, becoming a rear-admiral in 1897. He sat in Parliament for York (1897-1900), and for Woolwich (1902-03). In 1903 he again returned to active service, commanding first the Mediterranean fleet, and then the Channel fleet, retiring in 1909. He became a full admiral in 1906. During the tenure of the Admiralty by Sir John Fisher (Lord Fisher), he was often in disagreement with the Board, and as soon as he hauled down his flag in March 1909, he attacked the whole policy of the Board of Admiralty in a document addressed to the prime minister. This document was referred to a subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial Defence, which reported, in Aug. 1909 in a sense generally adverse to Lord Charles. He re-entered Parliament as member for Portsmouth in rgro, holding the seat until Jan. 1916, when he went to the House of Lords as Baron Beresford. He was placed on the retired list in rorz, and in 1912 published a book entitled The Betrayal, in which he expressed his views on the naval question. Memories (1914) is an entertaining book, in which very little is said of the long controversy between him and Lord Fisher. As a flag-officer Lord Charles was extremely popular in the fleet, and showed great energy and ability. Indeed, he was one of the most popular figures in public life. On his death on Sept. 16, rọrọ, the peerage conferred on him in 1916 became extinct.

When Lord Camden replaced Fitzwilliam in the viceroyalty in

strong measures of repression.

On the evye

When first consulted by Pitt on

the question of the union Beresford appears to have disliked the idea; but he soon became reconciled to the policy and warmly supported it. After the union Beresford continued to represent Waterford in the imperial parliament, and he remained in office till 1802, faking an active part in settling the financial relations between Ireland and Great Britain. He died near Londonderry on Nov. 5, 1805. His son, John Claudius, kept a riding school in Dublin, which acquired an evil reputation as the chief scene of the floggings by which evidence was extorted of the conspiracy which came to a head in 1798. He took a prominent part in the Irish House of Commons, where he unsuccessfully moved the reduction of the proposed Irish contribution to the imperial exchequer in the debates on the Act of Union, of which, unlike his father, he was to the last an ardent opponent. See Edward

Wakefield,

An Account

of Ireland

(1812); Corre-

spondence of the Right Hon. John Beresford, ed. W. Beresford (1854): Earl Stanhope, Life of William Pitt (1861); W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols. iii., iv., v. (1892).

BERESFORD, WILLIAM. CARR BERESFORD, VisCOUNT (1768-1854), British general and Portuguese marshal, illegitimate son of the first marquis of Waterford, was born on Oct. 2 1768. He entered the British army in 1785, and while in Nova Scotia with his regiment in the following year lost the sight of one eye by a shooting accident. He first distinguished himself at Toulon in 1793, receiving two years later the command of the 88th regiment (Connaught Rangers). He made his reputation under Sir David Baird in Egypt (1799-1803) and South BERESFORD, JOHN (1738-1805), Irish statesman, was Africa (1805). From South Africa he was despatched to South born on March 14, 1738, a younger son of Sir Marcus Beresford America. He had little difficulty in capturing Buenos Aires with who, having married Catherine, sole heiress of James Power, 3rd only a couple of regiments. But this force was wholly insufficient earl of Tyrone, was created earl of Tyrone in 1746. After the to hold the colony. Under the leadership of a French émigré, the death of the earl in 1763, Beresford’s mother successfully asserted chevalier de Tiniers, the colonists attacked Beresford, and at the her claim suo jure to the barony of La Poer. John Beresford was end of three days’ hard fighting he was compelled to capitulate. educated at Trinity college, Dublin, was called to the Irish bar, After six months’ imprisonment he escaped, and reached England and entered the Irish parliament as member for Waterford in in 1807, and at the end of that year he was sent to Madeira, 1760. He was admitted of the privy council in 1768, and became occupying the island in the name of the king of Portugal. After one of the commissioners of revenue in 1770. In 1780 he became six months in Madeira as governor and commander-in-chief, he first commissioner of revenue, a position which gave him powerful was ordered to join Sir Arthur Wellesley’s army in Portugal. He influence in the Irish administration. He introduced some useful was first employed as commandant in Lisbon, but accompanied reforms in the machinery of taxation; and he was the author of Sir John Moore on the advance into Spain, and took a conspicuous many improvements in the architecture of the public buildings and part in the battle of Corunna (see PENINSULAR War). In Feb. streets of Dublin. He was first brought into conflict with Grattan 1809 Beresford was given the task of reorganizing the Portuguese and the popular party, in 1784, by his support of the proposal army. In this task, by systematic weeding-out of inefficient that the Irish parliament in return for the removal of restrictions officers and men, he succeeded beyond expectation. By the sumon Irish trade should be bound to adopt the English navigation mer of 1810 he had so far improved the morale and discipline of laws. In 1786 he was sworn a member of the English privy coun- the force that Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regicil, and the power which he wielded in Ireland through his numer- ments with English ones, and at Busaco Portuguese and English ous dependants and connections grew to be so extensive that a fought side by side. few years later he was spoken of as the “king of Ireland.” He In the spring of 1811 Wellington was compelled to detach was a vehement opponent of the increasing demand for relief of Beresford from the Portuguese service. The latter was next in the Roman Catholics; and opposed the nomination of Lord Fitz- seniority to Gen. (Lord) Hill, who had gone home on sick leave, william as lord lieutenant in 1795 for the purpose of carrying out and on him, therefore, the command of Hill’s corps now devolved. a conciliatory policy. One of Fitzwilliam’s first acts was to dis- Unfortunately Beresford never really gained the confidence of his miss Beresford, who appealed to Pitt, and went in person to Lon- new troops. At Campo Mayor his light cavalry brigade got out don to lay his complaint before the English ministers. There is of hand, and a regiment ef dragoons was practically annihilated. little doubt that the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam (g.v.), which was He invested Badajoz with insufficient forces, and on the advance followed by such momentous consequences in the history of Ire- of Soult he was compelled to raise the siege and offer battle at land, was, as the viceroy himself believed, mainly due to Beres- Albuera. His personal courage was even more than usually conford’s dismissal. There had been a misunderstanding on the point spicuous, but to the initiative of a junior staff officer, Col. (afterbetween Pitt and Fitzwilliam. The latter, whose veracity was un- wards Viscount) Hardinge, rather than to Beresford’s own generalimpeachable, asserted that previous to his coming to Ireland, he ship, was the hardly won victory to be attributed. Beresford then had informed the prime minister of his intention to dismiss Beres- went back to his work of reorganizing the Portuguese army. He ford, and that Pitt had raised no objection. In a letter to Lord was present at the siege of Badajoz and at the battle of SalaCarlisle, justifying his action, Fitzwilliam mentioned that mal- manca, where he was severely wounded (1812). In 1813 he was

BEREZINA—BERGEN present at the battle of Vitoria and at the battles of the Pyrenees,

while at the battle of the Nivelle, the Nive and Orthez he commanded the British centre, and later he led a corps at the battle of Toulouse. At the close of the Peninsular War he was created Baron Beresford of Albuera and Cappoquin, with a pension of £2,000 a year, to be continued to his two successors. In 1819 the revolution in Portugal led to the dismissal of the British officers in the Portuguese service. In 1823 Beresford’s barony was made a viscounty, and when the duke of Wellington formed his first cabinet in 1828 he gave Beresford the office of master-general of the ordnance. In 1830 Beresford retired from politics, and for some time was occupied in a heated controversy with William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular War, who

had severely criticized his tactics at Albuera.

On this subject

Wellington’s opinion of Beresford is to the point. The duke had

no illusions as to his being a great general, but he thought very highly of his powers of organization, and he went so far as to declare, during the Peninsular War, that, in the event of his own death, he would on this ground recommend Beresford to succeed

him. The last years of Beresford’s life were spent at Bedgebury, Kent. He died on Jan. 8 1854. BEREZINA, 2 river in the White Russian S.S.R., a tributary of the Dnieper. south for 350m.

It rises in the marshes of Borizov and flows (250m. navigable), for the most part through

low-lying but well-wooded country. It is linked with the Black sea and the Baltic, and is important for commerce, but is subject to severe floods. It was just above Borizov that Napoleon’s army

forced the passage of the Berezina, with enormous Nov. 26-28, 1812, during the retreat from Moscow.

losses, on

BEREZOV, a town in the Uralsk area of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic on the left bank of the Sosva river, 26m. above its junction with the Ob river. Lat. 63° 52’ N., Long. 64° 54’ E. Pop. (1926) 4,706. Alt. rooft. Average rainfall per annum

18-4in. Av. temp. Jan. 10-7° F., July 61-3° F. As early as 1593 the Cossacks had established a trading post for furs (fox, ermine, squirrel, bear, reindeer, hares and sable) and this trade, except in sable, now goes on, together with dried and salted fish. It was burnt down in 1719 and 1808. It was a place to which political exiles were sent: among them were Prince Menshikov, the favourite of Peter the Great and Catherine I., who died here 17209, his enemy Prince Dolgoruki and his family, exiled 1730, and Mary Menshikov, once betrothed to Peter IT.

BEREZOVSK, a mining centre in the Sverdlovsk district of

the Uralsk area, Russian S.F.S.R., 8m. N.E. of Sverdlovsk (for-

merly Ekaterinburg). Pop. (1926) 8,032. The gold mines have been worked here since 1747. It has koustar (peasant) leather and wooden industries.

BERG (Ducatus Montensis), a former duchy of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, bounded on the north by the duchy

of Cleves, on the east by the countship of La Marck and the duchy of Westphalia, and south and west by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about 1,120sq.m. The district was raised In 1108 to the rank of a countship, but did not become a duchy till 1380, after it had passed into the possession of the Jülich family. In 1423 the duchy of Jülich fell to Adolf of Berg, and In 1437 the countship of Ravensberg was united to the duchies.

The male line of the dukes of Jiilich-Berg-Ravensberg became ex-

uunct in 1511, and the duchy passed by marriage to John III. (d. 1539), duke of Cleves and count of La Marck, whose male line became extinct with the death of John William, bishop of Miinster, in 1609. The question of succession led to a prolonged contest, which was one of the causes of the Thirty Years’ War. It was settled in 1614 by a partition. Berg was bestowed by Napoleon on Joachim Murat, who bore

the title of grand-duke of Berg. The Congress of Vienna awarded It to Prussia. BipLiocraPHy.—R. Gocke, Das Grossherzogtum Berg unter Joachim urat Napoleon I. und Louis Napoleon, 1806-13 (Cologne, 1877);

tokvis, Manuel d'histoire, etc., vol. iii. (Leyden, 1890—93) ; B. Schön-

neschöfer, Geschichte des Bergischen Landes

(Elberfeld, 1895).

BERGAMASK or BERGOMASK (from the town of Bergamo in North Italy), a clumsy rustic dance (cf. Shakespeare,

433

Midsummer Night’s Dream, v. 360) copied from the natives of Bergamo, reputed to be very awkward in their manners. (See DANCE.)

BERGAMO,

an episcopal see in Lombardy, Italy (ancient

Bergomum), capital of the province of Bergamo, at the foot of the Alps, at the junction of the Brembo and the Serio, 333m. N.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1921) town, 58,537; commune, 71,366. The older Citta Alta, on a hill (1,200ft.), strongly fortified by the Venetians, is linked by funicular railway to the newer Citta Bassa below. The fine Romanesque church of S. Maria Maggiore (1137-1355) has a baroque interior and interesting works

of art. The Cappella Colleoni, has a richly sculptured polychrome fagade, and fine tombs of Bartolommeo Colleoni and his daughter Medea, executed (1470-1476) by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, who also worked market-place (now Piazza Vecchio or Broletto; close in 1898. The lower town

at the Certosa di Pavia. The adjacent Garibaldi) contains the Gothic Palazzo by is a small baptistery of 1340, rebuilt contains an important picture-gallery of north Italian masters. The musician Gaetano Donizetti was born here. Bergamo and the surrounding district have numerous cotton, silk, linen, wool, blanket and button factories. Railways radiate

to Lecco,

Ponte

della

Selva, Usmate

(for Monza

or

Seregno), Treviglio (on the main line from Milan to Verona and Venice), and (via Rovato) to Brescia, and steam tramways to Treviglio, Sarnico and Soncino. The ancient Bergomum was the tribal centre of the Orobii; it became a Roman municipality and after destruction by Attila, was the capital of a Lombard duchy. From 1264 to 1428 it was under Milan, but then became Venetian, and remained so until 1797. (See P. Pesenti, Bergamo, 1910.)

BERGAMOT,

OIL OF, an essential oil obtained from

the rind of the fruit of the Citrus bergamia. The bergamot tree is small, with leaves and flowers like those of the bitter orange, and a round fruit nearly 3in. in diameter, having a thin, lemon-yellow, smooth rind. The tree is cultivated in southern Calabria, whence the entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. Machinery is mostly used to express the oil from the fruit, which is gathered in November and December. The oil, which on standing deposits a stearoptene, bergamot camphor or bergaptene, is a limpid greenishyellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0-882 to 0-886, and its powerful but pleasant odour is mainly due to the presence of linalyl

acetate, or bergamiol, which can be prepared artificially by heating linalol with acetic anhydride. The chief use of bergamot oil is in perfumery. The word apparently is derived from the Italian town Bergamo. The name Bergamot, for a variety of pear, is supposed to be a corruption of the Turkish beg-armudi (prince’s pear).

BERGDAMA,

a Negro people inhabiting the northern half

of south-west Africa, calling themselves ¢nukhoin (“black people”). Their original language is unknown, for they all now speak the language of the Nama Hottentots, to whom they have long been subject. Some of them keep sheep and goats, and cultivate various crops, but the majority still lead a hunting and collecting life. They are divided into small patriarchal groups which are politically independent of one another. They worship a supreme

being known as ||gamab, and an important part is played in their domestic cult by the sacred fire. See H. Vedder, Die Bergdama

BERGEDORF,

(1923).

a town of Germany, in the territory of

Hamburg, on the river Bille, rom. S.E. of Hamburg. Pop. (1925) 18,320. It produces vegetables and fruit for the Hamburg markets, and has manufactures of glass, asbestos and enamel. It received civic rights in 1275, belonged to Lübeck and Hamburg conjointly from 1420 to 1868, and in the latter year was purchased by Hamburg.

BERGEN, city and seaport, west Norway, in lat. 60° 23’ N., forming a separate county (amt). Pop. (1920) 91,443. Itis beautifully situated on the broad Byfjord, and partly on a promontory between the excellent harbour (Vaagen) and the Puddefjord. The two Lungegaard lakes isolate the site landwards, and are surrounded by parks which form the pleasure-ground of Bergen. From the fjord the city rises in an amphitheatre, with the houses, of wood or stucco, painted in reds and yellows. The settlement

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM—BERGLER

4.34

(formerly Björgvin), founded by King Olaf in 1070-1075, grew rapidly and figured prominently in the subsequent civil wars. The Hansa merchants increased the prosperity of the town from 1445 to 1558. They maintained a position, indeed, until 1764, inhabiting the German quarter (Tydskenbryggen). Their carefully preserved store-house (gaard) is now occupied by the ‘Hanseatic Museum.” The broad open spaces (Almenninge) so characteristic of Bergen and other Norwegian towns are intended as a safeguard against fire. Disastrous fires occurred in 1702, 1855 and 1916. Since 1916 the central part of the town has been replanned, and a new road built from the old German

embraced Protestantism and suffered severely from religioys wars, and from the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), Wine of fine quality is grown in the district and is sent to

quay, where the ancient warehouses and dark courts are disappearing. A garden suburb has also been laid out at Finbergaasen. The cathedral of Bergen was rebuilt in the 16th century. The Romanesque nave of Mariae Kirke is the most noteworthy example of early architecture; the prevailing poverty in this respect is to be ascribed to the general use of wood for building purposes. The Vestlandske fishery and industrial museum is of interest, while the Bergen museum has archaeological and natural history collections. The Art Gallery contains the Rasmus Meyer collection of Norwegian paintings and furniture. Among distinguished natives Ole Bull and Edvard Grieg should be mentioned. The port has extensive quays and several engineering works, with ship-building yards attached. There are six patent slips and three dry docks. The trade is second only to that of Oslo. Net tonnage (1925) 1,174,754. The staple export is fish and fish products; also butter, copper ore and hides. Principal imports: coal, machinery, grain and provisions. Industries include weaving and distilling, with manufactures of paper, pottery, tobacco and ropes. The fishing-smacks and timber-ships of the harbour give it a picturesque aspect; it is fronted by the Torv or marketplace. The Bergenhus and Fredriksberg forts are placed at the north and south entries of the harbour respectively. The Sverresborg is another old fort. Bergen is an important centre of the extensive tourist trafic of Norway.

graphical school at Potsdam in company with Heinrich Lange, August Petermann, and others, and long held the professorship of

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,

a town in the province of North

Brabant, Holland, on both sides of the small river Zoom, near its confluence with the east Scheldt, 384m. by rail E. by N. of Flushing. It communicates with Antwerp (20m. S.) and with the islands of Tholen and Duiveland to the north-west. Pop. (1927) 20,930. It is an old town. It was taken by the Normans in 880. In the 13th century Count Gerhard of Wesemael surrounded it with walls and built a castle. In the 15th century it prospered greatly through its fisheries and its cloth-trade. In 1576 the town joined the United Netherlands, and was fortified. In 1588 it was successfully defended against the duke of Parma, and in 1605 was suddenly attacked by Du Terail. In 1622 the Spaniards again failed to take the town. In the 17th century the fortifications were strengthened by Coehoorn, and in 1725 further extended. In 1747 the town was taken by the French, under Léwendahl. Restored at the end of the war, it was again taken by the French under Pichegru in 1795. The English failed to take it from the French, who surrendered the place later by the treaty of peace. The lordship of Bergen-op-Zoom after the union of the Low Countries with the Empire in 924, was an hereditary fief of the Empire, and the succession of its lords may be traced from Henry

(1098-1125), who also held Breda.

In 1533 it was raised to a

margraviate by Charles V., and was held by various families until in 1799 it passed to the royal house of Bavaria, by whom it was renounced in favour of the Batavian republic in 1801. Bergen-

op-Zoom has a town hall and an academy of design and architecture.

The remains of the castle of the margraves has been

converted into barracks. A considerable trade is carried on in anchovies and oysters caught in the Scheldt as well as a large sugar-beet industry.

BERGERAC,

town of France, capital of an arrondisse-

ment in the department of Dordogne, on the right bank of the river Dordogne 6om. E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Cahors. Pop. (1926) 11,751. The site commands one of the important valleys opening out from the Plateau Central on to Bordeaux. The river is made navigable to this point by means of a large dam. On the edge of the difficult plateau country, Bergerac early

Libourne and Bordeaux for export.

There is trade in grain

brandy and salmon of the Dordogne; and chestnuts are largely exported to England. Bergerac is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce.

Its fortifications

were destroyed in 1621.

BERGHAUS,

HEINRICH

(1797-1884), German geogra-

pher, was born at Kleve on May 3, 1797, and joined the staff of the Prussian trigonometrical survey in 1816. He carried on a geo-

applied mathematics at the Bauakademie. His greatest achieve. ment was the Physikalischer Atlas (Gotha, 1838-48), in which work, as in others, his nephew HERMANN BERGHAUS (1828-0) was associated with him. He also had a share in the reissue of the great Stieler Handatlas (produced by Adolf Stieler in 1817~

23), and in the production of other atlases. His written works included Allgemeine Länder- und Völkerkunde (Stuttgart, 183740), Grundriss der Geographie in fünf Büchern (1842), Die Völker

des Erdballs (Leipzig, 1845-47), Was man von der Erde weiss (1856-60), and various large works on Germany. In 1863 he published Briefwechsel mit Alexander von Humboldt (Leipzig). He died at Stettin on Feb. 17, 1884.

BERGISCH

GLADBACH,

8m. N.E. of Cologne.

a town in Rhenish Prussia,

Pop. (1925), 18,140.

It is finely situ-

ated and is a resort as well as a business centre. The manufactures include paper, wire-netting, fireclay and lime.

BERGIUS, FRIEDRICH (1884), German chemist, was born Nov. 11, 1884, at Goldschmieden near Breslau. He studied at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, and Berlin and at the technical schools in Karlsruhe and Hanover. Later he founded a private technical research laboratory in Hanover and devoted himself chiefly to the study of the influence of high pressure on

chemical actions. This is described in his book The Use of High Pressure in Chemical Actions (1913). These studies led up to his work in connection with the conversion of coal into liquid products. Through the action of hydrogen under high pressure and at high temperature, he succeeded in converting a high percentage of coal-dust into oil direct, without first obtaining intermediate products. The oil is equivalent in value to crude mineral oil. An experiment plant was erected at Rheinau near Mannheim.

BERGK,

THEODOR

(1812-1881),

German

philologist,

was born at Leipzig. After studying there under G. Hermann, and holding posts at Halle, Neustrelitz, Berlin and Cassel, he succeeded K. F. Hermann as professor of classical literature at Marburg (1842). In 1852 he went to Freiburg, and in 1857 returned to Halle. In 1868 he resigned his professorship, and settled down to study and literary work in Bonn. Bergk’s literary activity was very great, but his reputation mainly rests upon his work in connection with Greek literature and the Greek

lyric poets. His Poetae Lyrict Graect (1843, sth ed. 1900, etc.), and Griechische Literaturgeschichte (1872-87), completed by G. Hinrichs and R. Peppmiiller) are standard works. He also edited Anacreon (1834), the fragments of Aristophanes (1840), Aristophanes (3rd ed., 1872), Sophocles (2nd ed., 1868), a lyric anthology (4th ed. 1890, re-ed. E. Diehl 1923). Among his other works may be mentioned: Augusti Rerum a se gestarum Index (1873); Inschriften rémischer Schleudergeschosse (1876); Zur Geschichte und Topographie der Rheinlande in römischer Zeit (1882); Beiträge zur römischen Chronologie (1884). His Kleine philologische Schriften have been edited by Peppmiiller (1884-86), and contain, in addition to a complete list of his writings, a sketch of his life. See Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. iii. 146 (1908).

BERGLER, STEPHAN (c. 1680—c. 1740), German classical scholar, was born at Kronstadt in Transylvania and died at Bucharest. After studying at Leipzig, he went to Amsterdam, where he edited Homer and produced indices to the Onomasticon of Julius

Pollux for Wetzstein the publisher. Subsequently, at Hamburg, he assisted Fabricius (g.v.) in the production of his Bibliotheca

BERGMAN—BERHAMPORE Graeca and his edition of Sextus Empiricus. He became secretary

to the prince of Wallachia, in whose library he discovered the introduction and the first three chapters of Eusebius’s Demon-

stratio Evangelica. In addition to writing numerous articles for the

Leipzig Acta Eruditorum, Bergler edited the editio princeps of

the Byzantine historiographer Genesius

(1733); the letters of

Alciphron (1715), including 75 hitherto unpublished, and Aris-

tophanes (published by Burman Herodian into Latin (1759).

BERGMAN,

TORBERN

1760).

OLOF

He also translated

(1735-1784),

Swedish

chemist and naturalist, was born at Katrineberg, Vestergötland,

Sweden, on March 20, 1735. He was educated at the University of Uppsala, and, after taking his degree, began to teach mathematics and physics at the university, publishing papers on the rainbow, the aurora, the pyroelectric phenomena of tourmaline,

etc. In 1767 he became professor of chemistry and mineralogy. He died at Medevi on Lake Vetter on July 8, 1784. Bergman’s most important chemical paper is his Essay of Elective Attrac-

tions (1775), a study of chemical affinity. In methods of chemical

analysis, both by the blowpipe and in the wet way, he effected

many improvements

and made

considerable

contributions

to

mineralogical and geological chemistry, and to crystallography. He also made observations of the transit of Venus in 1761, and

published a Physical Description of the Earth in 1766. His works were collected and printed in 6 vols. as Opuscula Physica et T

English.

in 1779—90, and were translated into French, German and

BERGMANN, ERNST VON (1836-1907), a German surgeon of Russian birth, was born at Riga on Dec. 16, 1836, and educated at Dorpat, where he was professor of surgery from

1871 to 1878. In 1878 he removed to the University of Würzburg, and in 1882 succeeded Langenbeck at Berlin. He had seen army service in the Prussian army in 1866 and 1870-71, and in the Russian army in 1877—78, and was one of the greatest surgeons

of his time. In 1886 he introduced steam sterilization and in 1891 began to use aseptic methods. His principal contributions are in cranial surgery, on which his work Die chirurgische Behandlung der Hirnkrankheiten (1888; 3rd ed. 1899) is a classic. See A. Buchholz, Ernst von Bergmann

BERGSCHRUND,

(Leipzig, 1911).

a gaping crack in the upper part of a

snowfield or a glacier. It is near the rock wall and roughly parallel to the rock-face of the upper edge of the glacier basin. It usually extends downwards to the solid rock beneath the glacier, and at the bottom of the huge crevasse thus formed there are

blocks of ice and large pieces of rock from the rock wall and from the floor. It is caused by the snow mass moving bodily away from the rock face either when being compacted by its own weight or when moving down hill as a glacier.

BERGSON, HENRI

(1859-

), French philosopher, was

born Oct. 18 1859, in Paris, of Anglo-Jewish parents. After a brilliant career at the Lycée Condorcet, he hesitated for some time between literature and science. He became naturalized as

a Frenchman, and entered the Ecole Normale Supérieure, where he was the contemporary of Jaurés. He taught philosophy first at the Lycées of Angers and Clermont, and then in Paris at the Lycée Henri IV., the Ecole Normale Supérieure and the Collége de France.

In 1918 he succeeded Émile Ollivier at the Académie

Française. From that time he gave up teaching and devoted

himself to politics and to international affairs, as head of a mission to America, and after the World War as president of the committee of intellectual co-operation. In 1928, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for 1927.

Bergson’s Philosophy.—An

account of the appointments

held by him is, however, of small importance as compared with

the development of his mind, revealed in the books which have gained him a world reputation. He is one of the most highly esteemed of contemporary students of philosophy. Bergson the philosopher is not, like Hegel, Schopenhauer and Spencer, the creator of a great system, conceived as a whole in youth, and gradually expressed in later life. There is, nevertheless, in his

Philosophy one outstanding idea which is said to have come to him during a walk at Clermont-Ferrand, when he was 25 years

435

old. Since Plato, philosophy had consisted in eliminating duration, in regarding time as an illusion and finite being and eternity as one, and Bergson asked himself whether, on the contrary, the being, of which the philosopher took cognizance by reflection,

might not be one which endured, might not be time itself. For the phrase of Descartes, “Je suis une chose qui pense,” he substituted “Je suis une chose qui dure,” and for the sub specie aeternitatis of Spinoza, a sub specie durationis. As he substituted durational for non-temporal values, so for static values he substituted values of motion and change. This was the true Bergsonian revolution, which may be related to the German and English historical and evolutional philosophies characteristic of the roth century. All Bergson’s work is thus concerned with duration and movement. He does not proceed by general speculation. Each of his books is a study of one particular question, and this illustrates his second characteristic, originality of method. In his opinion, philosophy, like science, can only progress by disregarding general theories and universal systems, and devoting attention to par-

ticular problems, each of which demands its own point of view. The solution of any one of these does not necessarily involve an analogous solution of the others. Bergsonism implies continued striving after a precise adaptation to reality. The aim of each of his works is the elucidation of a detailed problem, though each is also part of a general philosophy, the philosophy ~of duration and change. For him, the true nature of things is apprehended by intuition; but those who only recognize the scientific interpretation offered by the intelligence discover in Bergsonism an apotheosis of intuition and of mystical values and a depreciation of intelligence, mistaking the true substance of his theories.

The Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience (1880), which was Bergson’s thesis for the doctorate, is primarily an attempt to establish durational values, where the necessary illusions of the mind situate the appearances of space, and thence to proceed towards an original solution of the problem of free will which was at that time the principal occupation of French

philosophers. Matière et mémoire (1896) contains a detailed consideration of the problem of aphasia leading to a profound

study of the means, namely, the memory, by which existence is made continuous. In L’évolution créatrice (1907) he studies the whole problem of existence. Whilst Spencer merely supported evolution by evidence derived from fragments of the evolved, Bergson takes as his material the essential motion of the being changing, or rather of the being which is itself both change and movement. This is his most famous and influential work, and that which has most fully expressed his ideas as to the secret of the universe. An important part of Bergson’s philosophy is to be found in his minor works, such as the essay Le rire (1900), his lectures at Oxford entitled La perception du changement (1911) and the volume Durée et simultanéité (1922), in which he discusses Einstein’s theories. Except for the articles which have been collected under the title L’énergie spirituelle (1919) he has published nothing of late years, though he has been engaged in the study of moral and religious problems. His lectures at the Collège de France were models of clearness and grace of expression and enjoyed great popularity. It was, however, probably as a master at the Lycée Henri IV. that his influence was most strongly felt. His style is modelled on that of the great philosophers, restrained and concise, like that of

Condillac and at the same time full of colour and imagery, like that of Plato and Bacon. (See Purrosorny.) (A. T. BERGUES, town of France, department of Nord, at the junction of the Colme canal with those of Dunkirk and Furnes

(in Belgium), 5m. S.S.E. of Dunkirk by rail. Pop. (1926) 3,705. The town has a fine 16th century belfry restored in the 19th century. The church of St. Martin is a Gothic brick building of the 17th century with a modern facade. The town hall (roth century), contains a municipal library and an interesting collection of pictures.

BERHAMPORE, a town of British India, the headquarters of Murshidabad district, in Bengal, situated on the left bank of

BERHAMPUR—BERING

4.36

the river Bhagirathi, 6m. below Murshidabad city. Pop. (1921) 26,670. Berhampore was fixed upon after the battle of Plassey as the site of the chief military station for Bengal; and a huge square of barracks was erected in 1767. Here was committed the first overt act of the mutiny of 1857. No troops are now stationed here, and the barracks have been utilized for civil purposes. The town contains a college. In the municipality of Berhampore is included the remnant of the once important, but now decayed, city of Cossimbazar (q.v.).

BERHAMPUR,

a town of British India, in the presidency

of Madras. Pop. (1921) 32,731. It is the headquarters of Ganjam district, and is situated about ọm. from the sea. It is a station on the East Coast railway, which connects Calcutta with Madras. The military cantonment was transferred elsewhere in 1906. There is some weaving of silk cloth, rice mills and a tannery, and export trade in sugar. The town contains Kallikota college, an industrial school and the Jubilee hospital. The col-

lege, originally founded by the Government, is now maintained by the rajah of Kallikota.

BERI-BERI,

so called from the Sinhalese word meaning

weakness, is a disease that for a long time was a heavy handicap to tropic and semi-tropic enterprise. It was endemic in India, Malaya, China, Japan, the Philippines, and South America. Isolated cases occurred on the high seas and were known even in Dublin. Its symptoms are neuritic and polyneuritic: inanition, gastric irritation, emaciation, swelling of legs, chest, and face, burning pains, muscular wastage, paralysis, disturbance of the heart’s action. It was at one time believed to be due to malarial poisoning or infection, but no bacillus could be discovered. In the year 1890, from careful observation of native habits and movements in Sarawak, Dr. Charles Hose became convinced that it had a connection with diet. Though every effort to locate some micro-organism failed, the more closely the problem was studied the more certain it appeared that this hypothesis was right. A new stage in the attempt to unravel the mystery was reached when it was found that men working many months in the forest or on plantations far away from home and eating imported polished rice went down with the disease, whilst their women folk and others at home, living on their own freshly-husked supplies,

were immune.

The idea that weevils or mould might be respon-

sible naturally suggested itself. That, however, was difficult to reconcile with the fact that outbreaks were usually worse at the very season when importations were freshest. But the association was established by the recovery of the sufferers when their diet was changed from the imported to the home-grown newly-husked rice. Experiments on monkeys and fowls with imported polished rice resulted in all the symptoms of beri-beri and recovery when the native article was substituted. During the ’90s, Capt. E. R. Rost of the Indian Medical Service, studying the problem in Burmah, suspected the existence of a germ which he said he found in rice and Jowari grain, and Mr. John Foreman, in his account of the Philippines then just taken over from Spain by the United States, noted that many deaths occurred from “acute indigestion due to eating too plentifully of new rice” and that many who recovered from cholera “became victims of a disease known as beri-beri.” In various directions, therefore, the trouble was more or less directly traced to diet. When home on furlough in 1899 Dr. Hose submitted a paper to Mr. Strangeways, demonstrator of pathology at Cambridge—an abstract of which appeared in the Medical Review,: June 1901—and in 1905 again in the laboratories at Cambridge, with the encouragement of Dr. Duckworth and others, he pursued researches which still seemed to point to the weevil or fermentation as the cause. These researches were laid before the British Medical Association meeting at Leicester in the latter year. Controversy as to the etiology of the disease grew in interest. It occupied the attention of the London and Liverpool schools of tropical medicine. In 1909 and 1911, however, Drs. Henry Fraser and A. T. Stanton in Etiology of Beri-

from the milled and polished article. That particle Dr. Casimir Funk, of the Lister Institute, isolated and called vitamin.

So the

food theory prevailed, and the conclusion was recorded in Man. son’s Tropical Diseases: “We now know that beri-beri is a sequel of a diet into which enters, as the principal element . . . rice from which the entire pericarp and germ have been removed, and that

in this pericarp and germ there is a substance essential to the proper nutrition of the nervous system of man and of many other warm-blooded vertebrates.” But the last word has not yet been said on the subject, as may be gathered from (1) the experience of the Americans in the Philippines (from which in 1911 President Taft said the disease had been almost eliminated by the substitution of unpolished for

polished rice), for a recent American visitor (Katherine Mayo:

The Isles of Fear; the Truth about the Philippines, 1925) reports that it has again become a scourge as the result of the inefficient Filipino medical work, (2) the account of beri-beri outbreaks in Singapore given by Dr. G. E. Brooke so late as 1919 (One Hundred Years of Singapore), when he said that “the remarkable periodicity, with maxima about every four years, pointed more towards a bacterial origin than to a deficiency in vitamins,” though he admitted that experience had proved that “ordinary polished rice has some connection (probably bacterial) with the disease,” and (3) Dr. H. H. Woollard (Journal of Anatomy, April 1927, on The Nature of the Structural Changes in Nerve Endings in Starvation and Beri-beri) says there are several points relating to the pathology of the disease that have not been adequately decided. “Most authors who have considered the relation of beri-beri to inanition record their opinion that inanition alone does not produce beri-beri. In this inability to reproduce the disease by starvation alone those who see a close parallel between beri-beri and the various forms of toxic neuritis find their best ground for believing that beri-beri is a similar disease.” From an examination of the literature of the subject he says: “It is obvious that the findings in the beri-beri animal present a close parallel with the changes that occur in an animal that is deprived of all food. . . . It is true that, save for Eijkmann, observers are accustomed to confirm the idea that the polyneuritis is peculiar to beri-beri. The experimental cases are not comparable to what occurs in the chronic cases in man, as presumably there the time allows of far-reaching degeneration of the nerves.” This seems to show that, the origin of the disease having been settled, early treatment by restoration of the necessary vitamins to the food reduces the possibility of complication to a minimum. Is, then, the vitamin, if administered in time, an antitoxin or is it merely a stimulant? (C. H.) BIBLiocRaPHY.—Charles Hose, Medical Review (June, 1901, p. 327) and British Medical Journal, Oct. 28, 1905, p. 1,099; The Times, Oct. 28, 1905 (leader and letter from a correspondent) ; W. Leonard Braddon, The Cause and Prevention of Beri-beri (1907) ; Chamberlain, Bloembergh, and Kilbourne, Philippine Journ. of Science, vol. vi. p. 177 (r911), Casimir Funk, British Medical Journ., April 19, 1913; . J. C. Eijkmann and Van Hoogenhuyze, K. Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Proceedings, 18.11, 1916, p. 1,467; R. McCartison, Indian Journ. Med. Research, vol. 1., p. 275 (1919); Jbid., vol. vi., p. 550 (1920) ; Proc. Royal Soc. B., vol. xvi. p. 103 (1920); H. H. Woollard, Journal of Anatomy, vol. lxi., part iii. April, 1927; H. Fraser and A. F. Stanton, Collected Papers on Beri-beri, being No. 17 of Studies from the Inst. Med. Research, Fed. Malay States (1924); Annual Med. Report for 1926, Legislative Council, Fiji, Council Paper No. 48 (1927).

BERING, VITUS JONASSEN

(1681-1741) Danish navi-

gator, was born at Horsens, Jutland, in 168r, and died on Bering island, Dec. 1741. Joining the Danish navy early, he went in 1703, ON a voyage to the East Indies; the following year he

beri (studies from the Institute of Medical Research, Federated Malay States) explained how investigations made by De Haan,

entered the Russian navy, and served in the war against Sweden. In 1724 Peter the Great appointed Bering to conduct an expedition to north-eastern Siberia, with the object of discovering whether Asia and America were divided. This expedition set forth from St. Petersburg (Leningrad) on Feb. 5, 1725, after the death of Peter, and proceeding by land across Siberia to Kamchatka, built ships and sailed on July 14, 1728, from the mouth of the Kamchatka river along the north-eastern coast of

minute that there are only ten grains in a ton of rice was absent

Siberia as far as 67°N. Deciding that Asia and America were not connected and that it would be inadvisable to sail further north,

Chamberlain,

and Eijkmann had shown that a substance so

BERING

ISLAND—BERING

Bering turned back, and returning by the way he came, arrived in St. Petersburg again in March 1730. But the result of his journey was considered unsatisfactory, and he persuaded the Empress Catherine to send him on a second expedition in 1733. The members of this party arrived in detachments at Okhotsk, confusion and quarrels of the local authorities until 1740 that the two left Okhotsk, reaching

among the officers and obstructive policy in Siberia delayed matters, and it was not boats, the “St. Peter” and the “St. Paul” Petropavlovsk on Oct. 6. From this har-

hour they sailed on June 4, 1741, Bering in the “St. Peter’ and

his lieutenant, Chirikov in the “St. Paul.”

The two ships soon

separated, and Bering sailed south-east, in search of Gamaland,

which he failed to find, and almost parallel to the Aleutian islands without knowing it. Soon after sighting the volcano of St. Elias

in Alaska, he landed on an island afterwards named St. Elias, thus discovering America from the east. On the return voyage Bering

was taken ill, the ship lost her bearings in a fog, and the expedition was obliged to spend six months on an uninhabited island, afterwards called Bering island, near Kamchatka, where Bering

died in December, a month after they had landed. See P. Lauridsen, Russian Explorations,

1725-1743.

Vitus Bering:

the Discoverer of Bering Strait, trans. by J. E. Olson (Chicago, 1889) ;

F. A. Golder, Bering’s Voyages (bib.) pub. by the Amer. Geog. Assoc. (1922, 1925).

BERING ISLAND, SEA AND STRAIT. These are named after the explorer Vitus Bering. The island (also called Avatcha), which was the scene of his death, lies in the southwestern part of the sea, off the coast of Kamchatka, being one of the Commander or Komandor group, belonging to Siberia. It is 6gm. long and 28m. in extreme breadth, the area is 615 sq. miles. The extreme elevation is about 300 feet. The smaller Copper island lies near. The islands are treeless; the population is about

6so. Bering sea continues the Pacific ocean northwards and is demarcated from it by the Aleutian islands. It is bounded on the east by Alaska, and on the west by the Siberian and Kamchatkan coast. Its area is about 886,000 sq. miles. In the north and east it has numerous islands (St. Lawrence, St. Matthew, Nunivak and the Pribiloff group) and is shallow; in the south-west it reaches depths of 2,150 fathoms at least. The seal-fisheries are important (see BERING SEA ARBITRATION). The sea connects with the Arctic Ocean by Bering strait, at the narrowest part of which East cape (Deshnev) in Asia approaches within about 56m. of Cape Prince of Wales on the American shore, and is here 24 fathoms deep. North and south of these points the coasts on both sides rapidly diverge. The strait contains two small islands known as the Diomede islands. These granite domes, lacking a harbour, lie over a mile apart, and the boundary line between the possessions of Russia and the United States passes between them. They are occupied by about 80 Eskimos, who from early times have been middlemen between Asia and America. They call the western island Nunarbook and the eastern Ignalook. The climate is severe. From November to May the temperature of the air is’ below 32° and in summer it hardly surpasses 46-5°: in winter indeed it is sometimes well below zero. The ice found in this sea is usually of local origin and not derived from the Polar basin; it develops mostly on the coasts and in shallow waters. The ice limit usually runs from the Eastern Aleutian Islands past St. Paul northward to latitude 60° N., thence following the coast of Kamchatka southward. As a result of this the areas of the greatest depths remain ice-free. In July, August and September the ice limit usually retreats north of the Bering

Strait, because south winds drive a strong current with rather warmer water from the Pacific northwards. This current was much used by the whale fishers of the roth century and is also

taken advantage of by Polar expeditions, in order to reach the north coast of North America. Asai Ignatiev went east from the Kolyma river in 1646, and Simon Dezhnev in 1648

followed

his route

and prolonged

it,

rounding the East or Dezhnev cape, and entering the strait. The post of Anadyrsk was founded on the river Anadyr, and an overland way gradually opened up. A Russian named Popov first learnt a rumour of the existence of islands east of Cape Dezhnev,

SEA ARBITRATION

437

and of the proximity of America, and presently there followed the explorations of Vitus Bering. In 1731 the navigator Michael Gvosdev was driven by storm and followed the Alaskan coast for two days. Under Bering on his last voyage (1741) was Commander Chirikov of the “St. Paul” who explored the Alaskan coast. Lieutenant Waxel and William Steller, a naturalist, left at the head of Bering’s party after his death, founded the important fur trade of these waters. Michael Novidiskov (1745) and his successors continued it. Captain James Cook, working from the south, explored the sea and strait in 1778. Brstiocrapay.—W.

K.

Dall,

“Hydrology

of

the

Bering

Sea,”

United States Coast Survey (Washington, 1882); F. Hegemann, “Eis in Strömungen im Bering Meer,” Annal Hydrogr. (1890); B. Schulz,

“Strömungen und Temperaturen

im Bering Meer,” Annal. Hydrogr.

BERING SEA ARBITRATION.

The important seal fish-

ery dispute between Great Britain and the United States, which was closed by this arbitration, arose in the following circumstances.

In 1867 the U.S. Government had purchased from Russia all her territorial rights in Alaska and the adjacent islands. The boundary between the two powers, as laid down by the treaty for purchase, was a line drawn from the middle of Bering strait southwest to a point midway between the Aleutian and Komandorski islands dividing Bering sea into two parts, of which the larger was on the American side of this line. This portion included the Pribiloff islands, which are the principal breeding-grounds of the seals frequenting those seas. By certain acts of Congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the killing of seals was prohibited upon the islands of the Pribiloff group and in “the waters adjacent thereto” except upon certain specified conditions. No definition of the meaning of the words “adjacent waters” was given in the act. As early as 1872 the operations of foreign sealers attracted the attention of the U.S. Government, but any precautions then taken seem to have been directed against the capture of seals on their way through the passages between the Aleutian islands, and no claim to jurisdiction beyond the three-mile limit appears to have been put forward. On March 12, 1881, however, the acting secretary of the United States treasury, in answer to a letter asking for an interpretation of the words “waters adjacent thereto” in the acts of 1868 and 1873, stated that all the waters east of the boundary line were considered to be within the waters of Alaska territory. In March 1886 this letter was communicated to the San Francisco customs by the secretary of the treasury, for publication. In the same summer three British sealers, the “Carolena,”’ “Onward” and “Thornton,” were captured, by an American revenue cutter 6o m. from land. They were condemned by the district judge on the express ground that they had been sealing within the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations followed, and an order for release was issued, but in 1887 further captures were made and were judicially supported upon the same grounds. The Conflicting Claims.—The respective positions taken up by the two Governments in the controversy which ensued may be thus indicated. The United States claimed as a matter of right an exclusive jurisdiction over the sealing industry in Bering sea; they also contended that the protection of the fur seal was, upon grounds both of morality and interest, an international duty, and should be secured by international arrangement. The British Government repudiated the claim of right, but were willing to negotiate upon the question of international regulation. Between 1887 and 1890 negotiations were carried on between Russia, Great Britain and the United States with a view to a joint convention. Unfortunately the parties were unable to agree as to the principles upon which regulation should be based. The negotiations were wrecked upon the question of pelagic sealing. Inasmuch as the seal nurseries were upon islands belonging either to the United States or Russia, the prohibition of pelagic sealing would have excluded Canada from the industry. The United States, nevertheless, insisted that such prohibition was indispensable on the grounds—(1) that pelagic sealing involved the destruction of females necessary for breeding stock; (2) that it was unnecessarily wasteful, inasmuch as a large proportion of the seals so killed were lost. On the other hand, it was contended by Great Britain

438

BERIOT—BERKELEY

that in all known cases the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon land, and had never been caused by sealing exclusively pelagic. The negotiations came to nothing, and

upon land was legitimaie sealing; the United States being the owners of the land, the industry was a trust vested in them for the benefit of mankind. On the other hand, pelagic sealing, being

the United States fell back upon their claim of right. In June 1890 it was reported that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to proceed to Bering sea. Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British ambassador at Washington, having failed to obtain an as-

a method of promiscuous slaughter, was illegitimate; it was contra bonos mores and analogous to piracy. Consequently the United States claimed a right to restrain such practices, both as proprietors of the seals and as proprietors and trustees of the legitimate industry. It is obvious that such a right was a novelty hitherto unrecognized by any system of law. The American counsel argued that the determination of the tribunal must be grounded upon “the principles of right,” that “by the rule or principle of right was meant a moral rule dictated by the general standard of justice

surance that British vessels would not be interfered with, laid a formal protest before the U.S. Government. Thereupon followed a diplomatic controversy, in the course of which the United States developed the contentions which were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The claim that Bering sea was mare clausum was abandoned, but it was asserted upon which civilized nations are agreed, that this international] that Russia had formerly exercised therein rights of exclusive standard of justice is but another name for international law, that jurisdiction which had passed to the United States, and they relied the particular recognized rules were but cases of the application inter alia upon the ukase of 1821, by which foreign vessels had of a more general rule, and that where the particular rules were been forbidden to approach within roo Italian miles of the coasts silent the general rule applied.” The practical result of giving of Russian America. It was pointed out by Great Britain that effect to this contention would be that an international tribunal this ukase had been the subject of protest both by Great Britain could make new law and apply it retrospectively. The American and the United States, and that by treaties similar in their terms, contention was successfully combated by Sir Charles Russell, the made between Russia and each of the protesting powers, Russia leading counsel for Great Britain. Decision of the Tribunal—The award, which was signed and had agreed that their subjects should not be troubled or molested in navigating or fishing in any part of the Pacific ocean. The published on Aug. 15, 1893, was in favour of Great Britain on all American answer was that the Pacific ocean did not include points. The question of damages, which had been reserved, was Bering sea. ultimately settled by a mixed commission appointed by the two Treaty of Arbitration—In Aug. 1890 Lord Salisbury pro- powers in Feb. 1896, the total amount awarded to the British posed that the question at issue should be submitted to arbitra- sealers being $473,151.26. Pelagic sealing continued until 1911, tion. This was ultimately assented to by the secretary of State, when the practice was abolished by a treaty signed by the United James G. Blaine, on the understanding that certain specific points, States, Great Britain, Russia and Japan. which he indicated, should be laid before the arbitrators. On Feb. BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE (1802-1870), 29, 1892, a definitive treaty was signed at Washington. Each Belgian violinist and composer, was born at Louvain, Feb. 20, power was to name two arbitrators, and the president of the 1802, and died at Brussels, April 8, 1870. Although not definitely French Republic, the king of Italy, the king of Norway and a pupil of Viotti or Baillot he was much influenced by both. He Sweden were each to name one. The points submitted were as played in the principal musical centres of Europe, and held follows:—(1) What exclusive jurisdiction in the sea now known appointments at the courts of Belgium and France. From 1843 as Bering sea, and what exclusive rights in the seal fisheries to 1852 he was violin professor at the Brussels conservatoire. therein, did Russia assert and exercise prior to and up to the time BERJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Alof the cession of Alaska to the United States? (2) How far were meria. Pop. (1920), 10,699. Despite the lack of a railway Berja her claims of jurisdiction as to the seal fisheries recognized and has a considerable trade. The lead of the Sierra de Gádor mines, conceded by Great Britain? (3) Was the body of water now which seem to be now exhausted, was until recently sent from known as Bering sea included in the phrase “Pacific Ocean,” as here by road to Adra (1om.) for export, and the town is also a used in the treaty of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia, and collecting centre for ore produce of the sheltered valleys of the what rights, if any, in Bering sea were held exclusively exercised Sierras. by Russia after the said treaty? (4) Did not all the rights of RusBERKELEIANISM denotes the philosophical views of sia as to jurisdiction and as to the seal fisheries in Bering sea east Bishop Berkeley (g.v.), and is commonly used as synonymous of the water boundary, in the treaty between the United States with subjective Idealism. (See also IDEALISM, and KNOWLEDGE, and Russia of March 30, 1867, pass unimpaired to the United THEORY OF.) States under that treaty? (5) Had the United States any and what BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685-1753), Irish bishop and right of protection over, or property in, the fur seals frequenting philosopher, the eldest son of William Berkeley (an officer of the islands of Bering sea when such seals are found outside the customs), was born on March 12, 1685, in a cottage near Dysert three-mile limit? In the event of a determination in favour of Castle, Thomastown, Ireland. He passed from the school at KilGreat Britain the arbitrators were to determine what concurrent kenny to Trinity college, Dublin (1700). During his career at regulations were necessary for the preservation of the seals, and Dublin the works of Descartes and Newton were superseding the a joint commission was to be appointed by the two powers to older textbooks, and the doctrines of Locke’s Essay were eagerly assist them in the investigation of the facts of seal life. The ques- discussed. Thus he “entered on an atmosphere which was begintion of damages was reserved for further discussion, but either ning to be charged with the elements of reaction against tradiparty was to be at liberty to-submit any question of fact to the tional scholasticism in physics and in metaphysics” (A. C. arbitrators, and to ask for a finding thereon. The tribunal was to Fraser). He became a fellow in 1707. His interest in philosophy sit at Paris. The treaty was approved by the Senate on March led him to take a prominent share in the foundation of a society 29, 1892, and ratified by the President on April 22. for discussing the new doctrines, and is further shown by his The Arbitration Tribunal.—The sittings of the tribunal be- Common Place Book (first discovered and published in 1871), gan in February and ended in August 1893. The interest of which throws much light on the growth of his ideas and enables the proceedings lies in the second of the two claims put forward us to understand the significance of his early writings. We find on behalf of the United States. This claim cannot easily be stated here the consciousness of creative thought focused in a new in language of precision; it is indicated rather than formulated in principle which is to revolutionize speculative science. The new the last of the five points specially submitted by the treaty. But principle (nowhere in the Common Place Book explicitly stated) its general character may be gathered from the arguments ad- may be expressed in the proposition that no existence is condressed to the tribunal. It was suggested that the seals had some ceivable (and therefore possible) which is not either conscious of the characteristics of the domestic animals, and could there- spirit or the ideas (i.e. objects) of which such spirit is conscious. fore be the subject of something in the nature of a right of prop- In the language of a later period this principle may be expressed erty. They were so far amenable to human control that it was as the absolute synthesis of subject and object; no object exists possible to take their increase without destroying the stock. Sealing apart from mind. Mind is, therefore, prior both in thought and

BERKELEY in existence, if for the moment we assume the popular distinction. Berkeley thus diverted philosophy from its beaten track of discussion as to the meaning

of matter,

substance,

cause, and

preferred to ask first whether these have any significance apart from the conscious spirit. In the pursuit of this enquiry he rashly invaded other departments of science, and much of the Common Place Book is occupied with a polemic, as vigorous as it is ignorant, against the fundamental conceptions of the infinitesimal calculus.

In 1707 Berkeley published two short mathematical tracts; in 1709, in his Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, he applied his new principle for the first time, and in the following year

stated it fully in A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Part x. In these works he attacked the existing theories of externality which to the unphilosophical mind is proved by visual evidence maintaining that, on ultimate analysis, nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol of

a divine, universal intelligence and will.

In 1711 Berkeley delivered his Discourse on Passive Obedience in which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to promote the general happiness, thus working out a theological

utilitarianism, which may be compared with the later expositions of Austin and J. S. Mill. From 1707 he had been engaged as college tutor; in 1712 he paid a short visit to England, and in

April 1773 he was presented by Swift at court. His abilities, his courtesy and his upright character made him a universal favourite. While in London he published his Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713), a more popular exposition of his new

theory; for exquisite facility of style these are among the finest philosophical writings in the English language. In November he

became chaplain to Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied on the continent, returning in Aug. 1714.

He travelled again in

1715-20 as tutor to the only son of Dr. St. George Ashe (?16581718, bishop successively of Cloyne, Clogher and Derry). In 1721, during the disturbed state of social relations consequent on the bursting of the South Sea bubble, he published anonymously an Essay towards preventing the Ruin of Great Britain, which shews the intense interest he took in practical affairs. In the same year he returned to Ireland as chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and was made divinity lecturer and university preacher.

In 1722 he was appointed to the deanery of Dromore,

a post which seems to have entailed no duties, as we find him holding the offices of Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The following year Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift’s Vanessa, left him half her property. It would appear that he had only met her once at dinner. In 1724 he was nominated to the rich deanery of Derry, and immediately began to devote himself to

his scheme of founding a college in the Bermudas, and extending its benefits to the Americans. He obtained from government a promise of £20,000, and after four years of preparation sailed in Sept. 1728, accompanied by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom he had married in August. Three years of quiet retirement and study were spent in Rhode Island, but the promised grant was not forthcoming, and Berkeley was compelled to give up his cherished plan. Soon after his return he published the fruits of his studies in Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (1733), a finely written work in the form of

dialogue, critically examining the various forms of freethinking In the age, and bringing forward in antithesis to them his own

theory, which shews all nature to be the language of God. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric of Cloyne. The same year, in his Analyst, he attacked the higher mathematics as leading to freethinking ; this involved him in a hot controversy. The Querist, a work concerned with practical social reform, appeared in three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737. In 1744 was published the Siris, partly occasioned by the controversy as to the efficacy of tar-

water in cases of small-pox, but rising far above the circumstances

of its origin, to an exposition of the principles of Berkeleian metaphysics. In 1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family to Oxford for the sake of his son George, who Was studying there. He died suddenly on Jan. 14, 1753, and was

buried in Christ Church, Oxford.

439

Berkeley’s theory, briefly stated, is this: External things are produced by the will of the divine intelligence; they are caused, and caused in a regular order; there exist in the divine mind archetypes, of which sense experience may be said to be the realization in our finite minds. Our belief in the permanence of something which corresponds to the association in our minds of actual and possible sensations means belief in the orderliness of nature; and that is merely assurance that the universe is pervaded and regulated by mind. Physical science is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the divine ideas which find realization in our limited experience, in trying to interpret the divine language of which natural things are the words and letters, and in striving to bring human conceptions into harmony with the divine thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fate or necessity, or matter, or the unknown, a living, active mind is looked upon as the centre and spring of the universe, and this is the essence of the Berkeleian metaphysics. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The standard edition of Berkeley’s works is that of A. Campbell Fraser in 4 vols. (i-iii. Works; iv. Life, Letters and Dissertation) published by the Clarendon Press (1871); this edition, revised throughout and largely re-written, was re-published by the same author (r9or). Another complete edition edited by G. Sampson, with a biographical sketch by A. J. Balfour, and a useful bibliographical summary, appeared in 1897—98. Prof. Fraser also published an excellent volume of selections (sth ed., 1899), and a short general account in a volume on Berkeley in the Blackwood Philos. Class. For Berkeley’s theory of vision see manuals of psychology (e.g. G. F. Stout, Wm. James); for his ethical views, A. Bain, Mental and Moral Science (1872); H. Sidgwick, Hist. of Ethics (sth ed., 1902). See also J. McCosh, Locke’s Theory of Knowledge (1884) ; John Watson, Outline of Philos. (New York, 1898); T. Lorenz, Ein Beitrag zur LebensgeSchichte G. Berkeleys (1900) and Weitere Beiträge z. Leb. G. B.’s (xr901); Sir L. Stephen, English Thought in the r8th Century (3rd. ed,, 1902}; J. S. Mill’s Dissertations, vols. ii. and iv.; T. Huxley,

Critiques and Addresses, pp. 320 seq.; G. S. Fullerton, System of Metaphysics (New York, 1904); histories of modern philosophy generally. R. A.; X.)

BERKELEY, the name of an ancient English family remark-

able for its long tenure of the feudal castle built by the water of Severn upon the lands from which the family takes its name, and for the fact that a Berkeley fought the last private battle on English soil. It traces an undoubted descent from Robert (d. 1170) son of Harding. In the age of chivalry the lords of Berkeley were notable warriors. Thomas, the first hereditary baron, who succeeded to the Berkeley lands in the last quarter of the 13th century, had ridden on the barons’ side at Evesham, followed the king’s wars for half a century of his long life, flying his banner at Falkirk and at Bannockburn, in which fight he was taken by the Scots. His seal of arms is among those attached to the famous letter of remonstrance addressed by the barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII. Maurice, his son, joined the confederation against the two Despensers, and lay in prison at Wallingford until his death in 1326, the queen’s party gaining the upper hand too late to release him. But as the queen passed by Berkeley on her way to seize Bristol she gave back the castle, which had been kept by the younger Despenser, to Thomas, the prisoner’s heir, who, with Sir John Mautravers, soon received in his hold the deposed king, Edward II., brought thither secretly. The chroniclers agree that Thomas of Berkeley had no part in the murder of the king, whom he treated kindly. It was when Thomas was away from the castle that Mautravers and Gournay made an end of their charge. Thomas of Berkeley fought at Crécy and Calais, bringing six knights and 32 squires to the siege in his train, with 30 mounted archers and 200 men on foot. Being by his mother a nephew of Roger Mortimer, earl of March, the paramour of Queen Isabel, Maurice Berkeley, who had been taken prisoner at Poitiers, married Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Despenser, the younger of Edward IT.’s favourites and the intruder in Berkeley Castle. With his son and heir Thomas of Berkeley, one of the commissioners of parliament for the

deposing of Richard II. and a warden of the Welsh marches who harried Owen of Glendower, the direct male line of Robert fitz

Harding failed. On this Thomas’s death in 1417 Elizabeth, his daughter and heir, and her husband, Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, the famous traveller, statesman and jouster, seized Berkeley Castle. Earl and countess only withdrew after James

440

BERKELEY—BERKHAMPSTEAD

Berkeley, the nephew and male heir, had livery of his lands by the

purchased aid of Humphrey of Gloucester. But the Beauchamps returned more than once to vain attacks on the stout walls of Berkeley, and a quarrel of two generations ended with the pitched battle of Nibley Green. Fought between the retainers of William, Lord Berkeley, son of James, and those who followed Thomas Talbot, Viscount Lisle, grandson of the illustrious Talbot and great-grandson of the countess of Warwick, this was the last private battle on English ground between two feudal lords. Young Lisle was shot under the beaver by an arrow, and the feud ended with his death, all claims of his widow being settled with an annuity of £100. See John Smyth, Lives of the Berkeleys, compiled c. 1618, edited by Sir John Maclean (1883-85); J. H. Round, Introduction to the Somerset Domesday, V.C.H. series; G. E. CLokayne], Complete Peerage; Jeayes’s Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters and Muniments at Berkeley Castle (1892) ; Dictionary of National Biography; The Red Book of the Exchequer; Chronicles of Roger of Wendover, Matthew Paris, Adam of Murimuth, Robert of Gloucester, Henry of Huntingdon, etc. (Rolls Series) ; British Museum Charters, etc.

BERKELEY,

MILES

JOSEPH

(1803-1889),

English

botanist; born at Biggin Hall, Northamptonshire; educated at Rugby and Christ’s college, Cambridge. He became incumbent of Apethorpe in 1837 and vicar of Sibbertoft, near Market Harborough, in 1868. He soon was recognized as the leading British authority on fungi and plant pathology. Some 6,000 species of fungi were credited to him, but his Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, published in 1857, and his papers on “Vegetable Pathology” in the Gardener’s Chronicle, in 1854 and onwards, show that he had a very broad grasp of the whole domain of physiology and morphology as understood in those days. His pioneer investigations on the potato murrain, caused by Phytophthora infestans, on the grape mildew, to which he gave the name Oidzum Tuckeri, and on the pathogenic fungi of wheat rust, hop mildew, and various diseases of cabbage, pears, coffee, onions, tomatoes, etc., were important in results bearing on the life-history of these pests. Berkeley was the founder of British mycology, and his most important work on that subject is contained in the account of native British fungi in Sir W. Hooker’s British Flora (1836), in his Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany (1857), and in his Outlines of British Fungology (1860). His magnificent herbarium at Kew, which contains over 9,000 specimens, and is enriched by numerous notes and sketches, forms one of the most important type series in the world. A list of his publications will be found in the Catalogue of Scientific

Papers of the Royal Society, and sketches of his life in Proc. Roy.

Soc., 1890, 47, 9, by Sir Joseph Hooker, and Annals of Botany, 1897,

11, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer.

BERKELEY,

SIR

WILLIAM

(c. 1608-1677),

British

colonial governor in America, was born in or near London, England, about 1608, the youngest son of Sir Maurice Berkeley, and brother of John, first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, one of the proprietors of the Carolinas. He graduated at Oxford in 1629, and in 1632 was appointed one of the royal commissioners for Canada, and on his return was appointed a gentleman of the privy chamber by Charles I. In 1638 he produced a tragi-comedy entitled The Lost Lady, In Aug. 1641 he was appointed governor of Virginia and took up his duties the following year. His first term as governor, during which he seems to have been extremely popular, was notable principally for his religious intolerance and his expulsion of the Puritans, who were in a great minority. During the Civil War in England he remained loyal to the king, and offered an asylum in Virginia to Charles II. and the loyalists. On the arrival of a parliamentary fleet in 1652, however, he retired from office and spent the following years quietly on his plantation. On the death, in 1660, of Samuel Matthews, the last parliamentary governor, he was chosen governor by the Virginia assembly, and was soon recommissioned by Charles II. The second period of his governorship was a stormy one. Serious frontier warfare with the

Indians was followed (1676) by Bacon’s Rebellion (see Vircrnta), brought on by Berkeley’s misrule. His cruelty and barbarity in punishing the rebels did not meet with the approval of Charles IT. Berkeley was called to England in 1677 ostensibly to report on the

condition of affairs in the colony, and a lieutenant-governor (Her.

bert Jeffreys) was put in his place. Berkeley sailed in May, by

died soon after his arrival, at Twickenham, and was buried there

on July 13, 1677. In addition to the play mentioned he wrote A Discourse and view of Virginia (1662); reprinted, Norwalk Conn. (1914).

BERKELEY, market town, Gloucestershire, England, near the river Severn at the commencement of its estuary, on the G.W. and L.M.S. Railways. Pop. (1921) 790. It lies on a slight rise in the rich pastoral vale to which it gives name, celebrated for its dairies and “double Gloucester” cheese. The manor of Berkeley, whence the family of Berkeley (q.v.) takes its name, is said to have been owned by a nunnery before the Conquest. Charters and fairs were granted to the Berkeley family in the 13th and 14th centuries, and there are references to the settle. ment as a borough. The corporation was dissolved in 188s. The town has an Early English and Decorated church and a grammar school. It was the birthplace of Dr. Edward Jenner

(1749), who is buried in the church. To the south-east is Berkeley castle, baronial fortress and seat. There is some trade in coal, timber, malt and cheese. The manufacture of cloth, for which Berkeley was formerly noted, had already declined by the 16th century. The Berkeley and Gloucester canal, navigable for vessels of 500 tons, connects Gloucester with the docks at Sharpness, avoiding the difficult navigation of the upper part of the Severn

estuary.

BERKELEY, a city of California, U.S.A., on the east shore of San Francisco bay, in the northern part of Alameda county,

directly opposite the Golden Gate and adjoining Oakland. 1. is served by the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe railways, and a direct ferry service to San Francisco (7m.) was opened in 1927. The area is 8-6 square miles. The population was 56,036 in 1920, of which about a fifth were foreign born, and was 82,109 in 1930 by the Federal census. The city is built on the Berkeley hills, surrounding on three sides the 530-ac. campus of the State university (see CALIFORNIA, University oF). A major city plan, especially important be-

cause territorial expansion is limited, is in process of develop-

ment. The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $88,449, 225. While primarily a residential suburb and a cultural centre, the industrial zone along the water-front has about 170 factories, producing a variety of commodities, with a total value in 1927 of $47,087,234. Berkeley is the seat of the State institute for the deaf and blind, and of three theological seminaries: the Berkeley Baptist divinity school; the Pacific Unitarian school for the ministry; and the Pacific School of Religion (undenominational). Many artists, musicians and writers make Berkeley their home. There is a community playhouse and an amateur symphony orchestra. Berkeley was named after George Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne (1685-1753), author of the poem “Destiny of America,” which contains the line, “Westward the course of empire takes its way.” Its site was part of the Spanish grant to the Peralta family, and later was held by American pioneers. Settlement as a town began when the university moved there in 1873. In 1890 it was still a quiet. village with a population of 5,101, but this grew to 13,214 in 1900 and 40,434 in rg10. In r1g09 a city charter was secured, providing for initiative, referendum and recall, and establishing a commission form of government, which was superseded in 1923 by the council-manager form.

BERKHAMPSTEAD

(Great BERKHAMPSTEAD), urban dis-

trict, Hertfordshire, England, on the main line of the L.MS.R., 28m. N.W. of London. Pop. (1931) 8,053. It lies in the narrow

valley of the Bulbourne and is close to the Grand Junction canal. The name “Great Berkhampstead” is given to distinguish it from Little Berkhampstead near Hatfield in the same county.

Berkhampstead (Beorhhamstede, Berchehamstede) was undoubtedly of some importance in Saxon times since there were 52 burgesses there at the time of the Conquest. The town rose to importance with its castle, which is said to have been built by Robert, count of Mortain, and when the castle fell into ruin after 1496 the town also began to decay. In 1618, however, the bur-

BERKSHIRE cesses received an incorporation charter which was retained until the 18th century.

Before the 13th century the burgesses held a

weekly market on Sunday and a yearly fair on St. James’s day,

hut in 1218 Henry III. altered the market day to Monday. Roofing tiles were manufactured as early as the 13th century, and in Elizabeth’s reign the making of malt was the chief industry.

The

church of St. Peter is an early foundation built in mixed styles. The poet William Cowper was born in the rectory in 1731. The grammar school dates from 1541. Of the castle some earthworks and wall-fragments remain. Straw-plaiting is the chief and oldest

industry, and there are chemical works and some manufacture of small wooden wares. It is to some extent a residential outpost of London.

BERKSHIRE

(abbreviated

Berks), a southern county of

England, bounded on the north by Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, east by Surrey, south by Hampshire and west by Wiltshire. Its entire northern boundary is formed by the River Thames, in

the basin of which practically the whole county is included. The key to the structure of the county is to be found in a consideration of the chalk which dominates south-east England. The chalk is folded along east-west lines, here represented by an anticline running through Kingsclere and Ham and along the Vale of Pewsey, where the anticline is orographically weak. The centre of the county is occupied by the broad-backed Berkshire or White Horse downs, which are related to the Marlborough downs on the

441

and Wytham hills. These hills fll a deep northward bend of the Thames and overlook the city of Oxford. Between this line of hills and the Berkshire downs is the famous Vale of White Horse (g.v.) traversed by the small River Ock. Between Reading and Windsor the Thames makes a large bend to the north, and is bordered by low hills. The only tributary of any size in this flat part of the county is the Loddon, south of Reading. In the extreme south-east, however, there is a sandy plateau forming part of Bagshot heath, over 4ooft. in elevation and extending into Surrey. The distribution of prehistoric remains in the area emphasizes the importance of the unit from which Berkshire was to evolve.

The gravel beaches of the Thames have yielded palaeolithic flint tools of various types, but there is not much occupational evidence. From Neolithic times on, however, the Berkshire downs assume great importance. They lie on the north-east outskirts of Salisbury plain, an early focus, and have easy connections with the whole of the open chalk lands of the south. A distribution map of the remains of the Beaker folk and of the men of the full

bronze age shows the outstanding position of the chalk and of the old Ridgeway running east from White Horse hill. The hill-top camps are also concentrated on the Berkshire downs (e.g., Uffington castle, Membury and Alfred’s castle) with Grimsbury (e.g.) farther south and Walbury near Inkpen Beacon. The slopes of the downs are dotted besides with short dykes and barrows of west, and to the Chilterns beyond the Goring gap. These represent various kinds. The almost complete absence of prehistoric earththe worn edge of the chalk rising from the London basin and from works in the east and north of the county illustrates the avoidance its western extension, the Vale of Kennet. The Eocene clays of of the damp forested lowlands. Belgic tribes occupied the region this structural basin occur in patches on the downs and once between the Thames and the south coast during the two centuries covered most of the chalk. Below Sooft. they help to form inter- preceding the Christian era, and the Atrebates settled in Berkfluvial plateaux, and become definitively continuous below the shire with their capital at Silchester. The choice of this site in the junction of the Lambourn and the Kennet east of Newbury. The iron age and by the Romans (Calleva Atrebatum) indicates the Reading beds are exposed in and take their name from the brick- valley-ward spread of some elements of the upland population. fields about Reading. The London clay is found throughout the The chief Roman roads within the county are portions of those south of the county, while the Bagshot beds occur in the Kennet from Caerleon via Cirencester and Bath to Silchester, crossing valley and in the extreme south-east. Among the more super- the Kennet at Newbury, and from Chichester via Silchester to ficial deposits we note the clay-with-flints, typically developed London. Besides these, for which we have evidence in the Anon the summits and slopes of the Berkshire downs and making tonine Itinerary, there are several other roads claimed to be of arable cultivation and settlement possible. Plateau and valley Roman date. The Icknield Way followed the ancient Ridgeway gravels are widely distributed, and a good deal of alluvium, in- from Goring to White Horse hill. The miscellaneous evidences cluding fairly thick beds of peat, occurs at intervals near the River of the Roman period are fairly evenly distributed over the county. Kennet between Hungerford and Reading. The scarped slopes to Several villas have been found near the Thames from Abingdon the south, the Sydmonton range, send few tributaries to the to Maidenhead. Of the Saxon invasion we know little, but there are graveyards Kennet. These hills are mainly outside the county, but their highest point, Inkpen Beacon (nearly 1,oooft.), which is one of at (e.g.) Reading, Frilford and Shefford. The earliest known the highest portions of the chalk in England, falls in Berkshire. settlements, “Hams,” were near the rivers, but the essential base The River Enborne, rising there, and flowing east parallel to the of operations in the “colonizing” of the area, which is supposed Kennet until turning north to join it, is for a considerable distance to have taken place from the central upland of Hants and Wilts, the county boundary. The Kennet naturally receives more con- was the open land of the Berkshire downs, emergent from the tributions from the dip-slope of the Berkshire downs, and of these forested lowlands. This chalk-land had been the centre of hfe tributaries the Lambourn is the chief, probably because it follows for centuries, and formed the nucleus for the county of Berka slight syncline of the chalk. From Newbury to Lambourn the shire. The origin of the county, thus explained, is comparable valley furnishes a line of approach into the heart of the downs. with that of most of the southern English counties, and contrasts Towards the west the Kennet valley almost meets the Vale of with the origin of the Midland counties (e.g., Bedfordshire, Pewsey beyond the confines of the county near Savernake, and g.v.) round castles on the waterways. That the Thames forms the forms an east-west lowland route of great historic importance, county boundary along the entire northern side is explicable when we realize this. Eastward the boundaries were pushed as far as composed of two entirely different structural portions. Another important route is provided by the Goring gap, where Windsor forest, while in the south the Kennet valley was naturally ‘the Thames breaks from the Oxford valley between the IIsley occupied together with some of the downs bordering Hampshire downs and the Chilterns to join the Kennet, probably the main on the north. Berkshire remained a part of Wessex, in spite of headwater of the original Thames, at Reading. The north and east the encroachment of its northern neighbour, until 779, when Offa, of the county are entirely in the Thames valley. In the north ruler of Mercia, seems to have annexed the whole county to his face of the escarpment of the Berkshire downs we find the lower kingdom. In 853, however, after the defeat of the Mercians by chalk with a hard bed, Totternhoe stone. At the foot of the the Northmen on the lower Thames, it once more became part chalk escarpment is the upper greensand with a narrow crop of Wessex. At the time of the Norman invasion Berkshire formed part of towards the west which is broken up into patches eastwards. Looking northward from the chalk hills, the low-lying ground the earldom of Harold, and supported him staunchly at the battle Is occupied successively by the gault clay, the Kimmeridge clay, of Hastings. This loyalty was punished by very sweeping confiscaand finally by the Oxford clay, which extends beyond the Thames tions, and at the time of the Domesday survey no estates of any into Oxfordshire. This low-lying tract is relieved by an elevated importance were in the hands of Englishmen. When Alfred divided ndge of Corallian beds, between the Kimmeridge clay and the the country into shires, this county received the name of Bergault. It extends from near Faringdon past Abingdon to Cumnor rocscir, as Asser says, “from the wood of Berroc, where the box-

4.4.2

BERKSHIRE

tree grows most plentifully.” At the time of the survey it comprised 22 hundreds; at the present day there are only 20, of which tr retain their ancient names. Many parishes have been transferred from one hundred to another, but the actual boundary of the county is practically unchanged. Parts of the parishes of Shilton and Langford formed detached portions of the shire, until included in Oxfordshire in the reign of William IV. Portions of Combe and Shalbourne parishes have also been restored to Hamp-

HILLS

War has led to an improvement of main roads, and Berkshire occupying the two main valley routes west from the metropolis, deals with a vast amount of road traffic. The metropolitan char.

acter of the county is further illustrated by the numerous public

schools, é.g., Radley, Wellington, and Bradfield colleges, and the Sandhurst Royal Military college. Besides the royal castle of Windsor there are many large country residences. Reading has a university, chartered in 1926. shire and Wiltshire respectively, while the Wiltshire portion of The county is mainly agricultural. About seven-ninths of the Hungerford has been transferred to Berkshire. The county was total area is under cultivation; a large proportion of this being originally included in the see of Winchester, but in A.D. gog it was in permanent pasture, as much attention is paid to dairy-farming, removed to the newly-formed see of “Wiltshire,” afterwards Butter and cheese are largely produced, and the making of conunited with Sherborne. In 1075 the seat of the bishopric was re- densed milk is a branch of the industry. Many sheep are pas. moved to Salisbury, and in 1836, by an order in council, Berk- tured on the downs, important sheep-markets being held at the shire was transferred to the diocese of Oxford. The archdeaconry small town of East or Market Dsley; and an excellent breed of is of very early origin, and is co-extensive with the county. Form- pigs is named after the county. The parts about Faringdon are erly it comprised four rural deaneries, but the number has lately specially noted for them. Oats are the principal grain crop; been increased to nine. Much of the early history of the county although a considerable acreage is under wheat. Turnips and is recorded in the Chronicles of the abbey of Abingdon, which at swedes are largely cultivated, and apples and cherries are grown, the time of the survey was second only to the Crown in the extent The Vale of White Horse is especially productive, and Camden and number of its possessions. It was perhaps largely due to the speaks of the great crops of barley grown in the district. A modem great influence of the abbey and the large amount of land it tendency is towards the planting of conifers in place of the slower possessed, that few other religious foundations succeeded in growing oak in the woodland and upon the heathland. The primestablishing themselves in the neighbourhood. Another great itive oak woodland is developed equally well on clays, sands and Benedictine abbey, of which there are scanty remains, was that plateau gravels, but there is surprisingly little primitive beech of Reading. About 1160 a priory for Austin Canons was founded woodland on the chalk, though there are numerous plantations on at Ploughley. the downs and occasional “hangers” on the scarp slopes. The more settled conditions which followed Norman rule saw The only manufacturing centre of first importance is Reading, an increase of settlement and population throughout the county, which is principally famous for its biscuit factories. The manuthough there were frequent interruptions, as during the disorders facture of clothing and carpets is carried on at Abingdon; but the of Stephen’s reign, when Wallingford was the scene of the final ancient woollen industry of the county is long extinct. Engineertreaty in 1153. A serious blow to the agricultural life of the ing works and paper mills are established at various places; and county, as to the rest of England, was inflicted by the Black Death boat-building is carried on at Reading and other riverside stations. in 1348. The rearing of sheep must always have been the chief There are extensive seed warehouses and testing grounds near occupation of the open down and heath lands, and even after the Reading; and the Kennet and Windsor ales are in high repute. valley-ward movement of the population considerable numbers of Whiting is manufactured from chalk at Kintbury on the Kennet. people must have continued to lead a pastoral life on the high The area of the county, including the county borough of Readdowns. An interesting point is that the population of the royal ing, is 463,834 ac., with a population, in 1931, of 311,334. The manor of Lambourn, only one of several of that name, was, in population of the administrative county is 214,181. 1086, nearly double that of Newbury. The woollen industry, There are 20 hundreds, and 202 ecclesiastical parishes or disdeveloping especially after the emancipation of labour consequent tricts wholly or in part within the county. There are three county upon the Black Death and the Peasants’ Revolt, had already been divisions, Abingdon, Newbury and Windsor, each returning one established at Reading in the time of Henry I., and at Newbury member, while the parliamentary borough of Reading returns one from the early 13th century. At first this trade was confined to member. Berkshire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at the export of raw material, but the reign of Edward III. saw the Reading. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into introduction of the clothing industry, for which the county after- 12 petty sessional divisions. wards became famous. This began to decline in the 17th century, The municipal boroughs, with 1931 populations, are :—Abingdon and in 1641 the Berkshire clothiers complained of the state of (7,240), Maidenhead (17,520), Newbury (13,336), New Windsor their trade. The use of the Kennet-Pewsey valley-way goes back at least to the later middle ages, and there are many bits of evidence, especially referring to Hungerford, to show how important the route was In the 15th century and later. The road probably then ran south on the river from Hungerford to Newbury. This route, during the Civil War, was naturally a thoroughfare from the parliamentary centres to the west, battles being fought near Newbury in 1643 and 1644. The famous Bath road was not made until

1746. The road trafic between London and Bristol was then at its height, and it was later suggested that water transit, then so popular throughout the country, should be used. The Kennet and Avon canal, projected in 1794, was completed in 1810. For some time it served to carry goods along this east-west route, but in 1847 it was superseded by the railway from Reading to Hungerford, which was extended to Devizes the following year. About 1900 this line was developed as a’main route between Westbury and Newbury. A main G.W. railway line crosses the county from eastwest by Maidenhead, Reading, the Goring gap and Didcot to

Swindon. North-south lines run from Oxford via Didcot to Newbury and Hampshire, and south from Reading; while the Lambourn Valley light railway runs north-west to Lambourn from Newbury. Wide water-communications are afforded by the ‘Thames. The immense increase of motor traffic since the World

(20,284), Reading, the county town and a county borough (97,-

183), Wallingford (2,840), and Wokingham urban district is Wantage

(3,424).

(7,294).

The only

Other towns are Faringdon,

Hungerford, Lambourn and Sandhurst. The villages of Bray, Cookham and Tilehurst, like others on the banks of the Thames, have grown into residential towns. BrstiocrapHy.—Chief

Antiquities of Berkshire

of the

older

works

are:

(1719, 2nd ed., London,

Elias Ashmole,

1723; 3rd ed.

Reading, 1736); D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. I. Other works are: Marshall, Topographical and Statistical Details of the County of Berkshire (1830) ; earl of Carnarvon, Archaeology of Berkshire (1859) ; C. King, History of Berkshire (1887) ; Lowsley, Glossary

of Berkshire Words (1888); and Index to Wills in the Court of the Archdeacon of Berkshire, 1508-1652 (1893) ; Victoria County History, Berkshire. See also the Berks Archaeological Society’s Quarterly Journal, Berkshire Notes and Queries, and, for the Newbury region,

report of Regional Survey Conference held at Newbury, 1917.

BERKSHIRE HILLS, the name applied to the highlands of

western Massachusetts, are a part of the Appalachian system, and

a continuation of the Green mountains of Vermont.

The Berk-

shire country is among the most beautiful regions in the United

States. It is a rolling highland dominated by long, wooded ridges, remarkably even-topped in general elevation (about 1,500 ft.), and intersected and broken by deep valleys. The chief streams

are the Deerfield and Westfield in the east and the Hoosac and Housatonic in the west. About a score of the summits are over

BERLAD—BERLIN 2.000 ft. above sea-level, and of these the highest are Greylock,

or Saddleback (3,505 ft.) and Mt. Williams (3,040 ft.), in the extreme north-west corner of the State. Because of its numerous

charming lakes, the district is often called the Lake Region of America, partly from the comparableness of its scenic beauties

with the English lake country. The Berkshires have been, for many years, a favourite holiday resort. BERLAD, the capital of the department of Tutova, Rumania, on the River Bérlad, which waters the high plains of eastern Moldavia, and on the Galatz-Jassy railway. Pop. (1924) 30,000, of whom

about one-fourth were Jews.

Bérlad possesses

a few good modern buildings, including a fine hospital adminis-

tered by the St. Spiridion foundation of Jassy. There are manufactures of soap and candles and some trade in timber and farm

produce; also a large annual horse-fair. Near by are traces of a Roman camp.

BERLAGE,

HENDRIK

PETRUS

(1856-

), Dutch

architect, received his technical training at Amsterdam and Zürich

and eventually settled at The Hague. As his career progressed broke away from the Renaissance and Gothic styles which had originally followed and finally succeeded in expressing conception of beauty prevailing in his own time. Under influence of these new ideas architecture in Holland reached important stage of development. The chief characteristics

he he the the an of

Berlage’s style are simplicity of form, severity of line and a preference for brick as a material. In later years he was actively concerned with urban extension, and in this connection became architectural adviser to the cities of Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam. BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ or GOTTFRIED, VON

4-43

von Berlichingen und seiner Familie (Leipzig, 1861). Goetz’s Autobiography, valuable as a record of his times, was first published by

Pistorius at Nuremberg (1731), and again at Halle (1886).

BERLIN,

IRVING

(1888-

), adopted name of Israel

Baline, American song writer, was born in Russia, May 11, 1888, and was brought to the United States in 1892. He left home at 14 to earn his living, finding employment as a singing waiter in

various Chinatown and Bowery cabarets in New York. There he began to write song lyrics and compose melodies. The increasing popularity of his songs enabled him in 1919 to open a music publishing business. In 1920, in partnership with Sam Harris, he built the Music Box theatre in New York city, for which he wrote a number of highly successful revues. ‘“‘Alexander’s Ragtime Band” (1911), “Everybody’s Doin’ It” (1911) and several other compositions gave him international renown as the pioneer of rag-

time music. Its subsequent evolution into jazz owes much to his later work, such as “Pack Up Your Sins” (1922) and “Everybody Step” (1921), characterized by complex work, rhythms and intricate melody. His songs “Always,” “All Alone,” “Remember,” “What’Il I Do?” (all 1925) and “Russian Lullaby,” “What Does It Matter?’ (both 1926) were universally popular. See Alexander Woollcott’s

The Story of Irving Berlin

(1925).

A

discussion of his work will be found in Gilbert Seldes’ The Seven

Lively Arts (1924).

BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725-99), an eminent rabbi of Breslau; sure of notes on the Talmud stimulating critical study of that work. BERLIN, capital and largest city of the German Reich, and also of the republic of Prussia.

It is the seat of the parliament

(Reichstag) and the Prussian diet (Landtag), and of the state

offices of the German realm, except the supreme court of Justice (Reichsgericht), which is fixed at Leipzig. The city lies 1497 he entered the service of Frederick IV., margrave of Bran- in a flat sandy plain, rroft. above sea-level, on both banks denburg-Ansbach, and in 1498 fought for the emperor Maximilian of the navigable Spree, which intersects it from south-east to L, in Burgundy, Lorraine and Brabant, and next year in Switzer- north-west. The highest point in the immediate neighbourhood is land. About 1500 he raised a company of freelances, and at their the Kreuzberg (20o0ft.), a hill in the southern suburb of Schönehead took part in various private wars. In 150s, while assisting berg, which commands a fine view of the city. In the middle Albert IV., duke of Bavaria, at the siege of Landshut, his right ages, while Brandenburg was the capital of the Mark, Berlin was hand was shot away, and an iron one was substituted which is still of very moderate importance at the junction of the Havel and Spree farther east, and by each river it was possible to approach shown at Jagsthausen. In spite of this, “Goetz of the Iron Hand” the Oder and by the united one Brandenburg and the Elbe. continued his feuds, their motive being mainly booty and ransom. Growth of the City.—In 1646 the Great Elector (Frederick ln 1512 an attack near Forchheim on merchants returning from Leipzig fair, caused him to be put under the ban of the empire William) married a Dutch princess, and during his reign Branby Maximilian, and he was only released from this in 1514 upon denburg became a Protestant refuge and a field for Dutch energy. a promise to pay 14,000 gulden. In 1516 he raided Hesse and Important canal construction was undertaken and the name of held to ransom Philip IV., count of Waldeck, and in 1518 was the Friedrich Wilhelm canal from the Oder to the Spree comagain placed under the ban. He fought for Ulrich I., duke of memorates an achievement of the Great Elector. These canal Württemberg, when he was attacked by the Swabian League in tracks were marked out by nature in the surface features of the 1519. In violation of the terms of capitulation of Möckmühl, he country. The passing away of the great ice sheets has left on the was held prisoner and handed over to the citizens of Heilbronn, northern plain of Europe long east to west lines of low hills but owing to the efforts of Sickingen and Georg von Frundsberg, formed of terminal moraines. The rivers follow the east to west was released in 1522. When the Peasants’ War broke out in 1525 troughs between moraines until they break through to the north Goetz was compelled by the rebels of the Odenwald district to at weak spots in the successive lines. (See Map.) These east act as their leader. For his part in the rebellion he was acquitted and west courses were organized into the great canal communicaby the imperial chamber (Oct. 17 1526). But the Swabian tion system which emphasized the focal position of Berlin. League seized the opportunity of paying off old scores against Thenceforward Berlin gathered traffic to itself by an elaborate him. Lured to Augsburg under promise of safe conduct, he was system of roads, canals and, later, railways, and thus became a treacherously seized (Nov. 28 1528) and kept a close prisoner new power, which, through the German empire, was to dominate for two years. In 1530 he was liberated. He appears to have the northern plain. In considering the focal position of Berlin it temained quietly at his castle of Hornberg on the Neckar until is important to emphasize also that it was situated not only on 1540. In 1542 he fought against the Turks in Hungary and in the east to west route but at the focus of the morainic lines of 1544 accompanied Charles V. when he invaded France. He re- hills as well. (See Map.) turned to Hornberg where he died on July 23 1562. He was With the consolidation of the German empire, after the Francotwice married and left three daughters and seven sons. The Prussian War of 1870-71, Berlin grew enormously. Housing, counts von Berlichingen-Rossach, of Helmstadt near Heidelberg, drainage and water supplies, which had previously been notorione of the two surviving branches of the family, are his descen- ously bad, were now greatly improved. Streets became well paved dants. The other branch, that of the Freiherrn von Berlichingen- and lighting improved, while the Congress of Berlin in 1878 gave Jagsthausen, is descended from Goetz’s brother Hans. Goethe’s added status to the city. The great international railway lines, play “Goetz von Berlichingen” marked an epoch in the history which developed after 1870, tended to focus here as well. By of German drama. the beginning of the 20th century Berlin was a first rate modern city. Almost equidistant from the remotest frontiers of Prussia, go R. Pallmann, Der historische Goetz von Berlichingen (1894);

(1480-1562), called “Goetz of the Iron Hand,” German knight,

was born at the castle of Jagsthausen now in Wiirttemberg.

In

. W. G. Graf von Berlichingen-Rossach, Geschichte des Ritters Goetz

| from north to south and from east to west, its situation has been

444

BERLIN

the principal determining factor in its rapid rise to the position of the greatest industrial and commercial city on the Continent, and now the third largest city in the world. The oldest part of Berlin, the city and Alt-K6lln, built along the arms of the Spree,

is, together with that portion of the town lying immediately west, the centre of business activity. The west end and the south-west are the residential quarters; the north-west is largely occupied by

Linden are crossed at right angles by the Friedrichstrasse, 2m long, and form the chief shopping centres. In the city proper, the Konigstrasse and the Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse, the latter a continuation of Unter den Linden, are the chief streets; while in the fashionable south-west quarter are Viktoriastrasse, Bellevyestrasse, Potsdamerstrasse, Kurfiirstenstrasse and the Kurfiirstendamm. Among the most important squares are the Opernplatz, the Gendarmenmarkt, the Schlossplatz, the Lustgarten, the Pariserplatz, at the Brandenburg Gate, the Königsplatz, the

Wilhelmplatz, the circular Belle-Allianceplatz and, in the west-

100 MILES

ern district, the spacious Lützowplatz.

The establishment of the

imperial government in Berlin naturally brought with it the erection of a large number of public buildings, and the great prosperity of the country (1870-1914), as well as the enhanced national feeling, enabled them to be built on a fine scale. First in importance is the Reichstagsgebiude (see ARCHITECTURE), in which the federal council (Bundesrat) and the imperial parliament

fewse] TERMINAL MORAINES Site OF BERLIN ewe CANALS (ELBeE-Oper System) MAP SHOWING HOW CONFIGURATION OF

BERLIN IS SITUATED AS REGARDS THE SURROUNDING TERRAIN

It lies at the focal point of low hills which

THE

were once the terminal

NATURAL

moraines

of glaciers. The rivers Oder, Weser and Elbe run from east to west in the troughs between the hills, while troughs in other directions made the construction of a canal system a simple matter. To this work, begun in 1616, and to the facilities offered by the same natural features for road, and

later, railway construction, Berlin largely owes most important city In Northern Central Europe

its position

to-day

as the

academic, scientific and military institutions; the north is the seat of machinery works; the north-east of the woollen manufactures; the east and south-east of the dyeing, furniture and metal industries, and the south of railway works. In 1870 Berlin was practically bounded on the south by the Landwehr canal, but it has since extended far beyond, and the Tempelhofer Feld, where military reviews were held, then practically in the country, is now surrounded by houses. The Landwehr canal, leaving the Spree near the Schlesische Tor (gate), and rejoining it at Charlottenburg, is flanked by fine boulevards

and crossed by many bridges. The object of this canal was to relieve the congestion of the water traffic in the heart of Berlin. It was superseded in 1906 by the Teltow canal to the south, which leaves the Spree above Berlin at Köpenick, and, running south of Rixdorf, Siidende and Gross-Lichterfelde, enters the Havel at Teltow. In 1914 a ship canal to Stettin was begun, and in Sept. 1923 a new harbour, called the “West Harbour,” was opened; here 68 large ships from the Elbe could be loaded simultaneously. The boundaries of the city remained the same from 1860 to 1920, although in 1912 an association of the city and its suburbs was formed and the whole was called “Greater Berlin.” A law passed in 1920, however, made this whole area one municipality. Area 332 sq. miles. An idea of the rapid growth of the city may be gathered from the population statistics. It has been estimated that the figure in 1688 was only 8,000. In 1816 it was 197,717; IN 1871, 826,341; In 1905, 2,033,900 and in 1925 it was 4,013,588; part of this phenomenal rise is due to extension of boundaries. Streets and Public Buildings.—The social and official life of the capital centres round Unter den Linden, which runs from the former royal palace to the Brandenburger Tor. This street, one of the finest and most spacious in Europe, nearly a mile in length, its double avenue divided by a favourite promenade, planted with lime trees, presents Berlin life in all its aspects.

South of Unter den Linden lies the Friedrichstadt, with its parallel lines of straight streets—the official quarter of the capital ——which extends to the busy Leipzigerstrasse, running from the Potsdamer Platz to the Dénhoffplatz. ‘This street and Unter den

(Reichstag) hold their sittings. A special feature is the library, which is exceedingly rich in works on constitutional law. A house was also built for the Prussian parliament (Landtag) in the Albrechtstrasse. Other buildings included the patent office on the site of the old ministry of the interior, the ministry of posts (with post museum) at the corner of the Mauerstrasse and Leipzigerstrasse, the central criminal court in Moabit, the courts of first instance on the Alexanderplatz, the ministry of police and the Reichsversicherungsamt, the centre for the great system of state insurance. In addition to these, many buildings were restored and enlarged, chief among them being the armoury (Zeughaus), the war office and the ministry of public works, while the royal mews (Marstall) was entirely rebuilt. The new Berlin, the creation of 1870-1910, is dominated by the Unter den Linden, about which stand evidences of the great central administrative power wielded by the city. Against this array of administrative buildings those giving expression to artistic, intellectual and religious life seem somewhat subordinate. At the Schloss end of Unter den Linden are the cathedral, a sumptuous, though somewhat clumsy, Renaissance building erected in 1893, and the museums, university, library, opera and the former palace of the Crown Prince, now a gallery of modern pictures. A new museum

is being built for the Pergamon antiquities. The Kaiser Friedrich museum, standing between two arms of the Spree, is a building of the Italian baroque style, built in 1904. Here is the national gallery of pictures the statuary of the Christian epoch and the numismatic collection. The Kunstgewerbe museum, at the corner of the K6niggratzerstrasse and Albrechtstrasse, contains valuable specimens of applied art. The former royal palace is a huge quadrangular building with four courts. The Weisse-Saal within was used for court pageants. In 1921 the Schloss museum of pottery, silver and furniture was opened in this palace. The Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus are state supported theatres of old standing. There are many private play-houses. University and Schools.—The Friedrich Wilhelm university was founded in 1810, when Prussia had lost her celebrated University of Halle, which Napoleon had included in his newly created kingdom of Westphalia. It was as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that Frederick William III. and those associated with its origin called it into existence. Wilhelm

von Humboldt, Fichte, Neander, Savigny, Hegel, Niebuhr and others began to make its fame, and they were followed by many world-renowned successors, including Bopp, Schelling, Richter, the brothers Grimm. The great names of still later days are innumerable, but one may instance Virchow, du Bois Reymond, von

Ranke, Curtius, Lipsius, Kiepert, Helmholtz, van’t Hoff, Koch,

E. Fischer, Waldeyer, Mommsen, Harnack, Penck, de Vries. The university has long been housed in a palace of Prince Henry of Prussia and not until 1913-19 were any important additions made to the overcrowded buildings, when two north wings were added. There are 29 Gymnasien (classical schools), 46 RealgymmnasieD (modern), 23 Oberrealschulen, 1 Progymnasium, Berlin Mariendorf, 2 Real progymnasien and 41 Realschulen (commercial) in Berlin; institutions of university rank include the technical high

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BERLIN school at Charlottenburg, highly equipped for all scientific work, the school of mines, the agricultural college, the veterinary col-

lege, the seminary for oriental languages and the high school for music. Leibnitz founded in 1700 the Royal Academy of Sciences, one of the most important of learned societies. Among the public

monuments Rauch’s statue of Frederick the Great, in Unter den

Linden, is one of the most celebrated, while Begas’ statue of William I. is enormous. A second group of monuments on the Wilhelmplatz commemorates the generals of the Seven Years’

War; and a third in the neighbourhood of the opera-house the

generals who fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg a Gothic monument in bronze was erected by Frederick William Ill. to commemorate the victories of 1813~15; and in the centre of the Königsplatz stands a lofty column in honour of the triumphs of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71. Literature, science and art are represented in different parts of the city by statues and busts of Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer, Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel and Jahn. On the Königsplatz, between the column of Victory and the Reichstagsgebaude, is the bronze statue of Bis-

marck, unveiled in 1901. From the south side of the Königsplatz, crossing the Tiergarten and intersecting the avenue from the Brandenburg gate to Charlottenburg, runs the broad Siegesallee, adorned by thirty-two groups of marble statuary representing Hohenzollern rulers, the gift of the emperor William II. to the

city. The Tiergarten park has statues of Queen Louisa, Goethe

and Lessing.

Environs.—On the east, north and west the city was surrounded at a distance of some sm. from its centre by a thick belt of pine woods, the Jungfernheide, the Spandauer Forest and the Grunewald, the last-named stretching away in a south-westerly direction as far as Potsdam and fringing the beautiful chain of Havel lakes. After the opening of the circular railway in 1871

these districts were developed and a “villa colony” was built at the edge of the Grunewald between the station West-end and the Spandauer Bock. From these beginnings, owing mainly to the expansion of the important suburb of Charlottenburg, has resulted a complete transformation of the eastern part of the Grunewald into a picturesque villa suburb, which is connected by the Kurfiirstendamm with the city. The former fishing villages on the shores of the lakes, notably the Wannsee, are now an important residential area. Administration.—The rapid growth of the suburbs, which were independent communities, necessitated the adoption of certain main lines of procedure, applicable both to them and to Berlin, in order to prevent conflicting action on the part of the authorities on one side and the other. This led, in r9r1z, to the creation of Greater Berlin, as, in the first instance, an association of the city with the more important outlying districts for special objects. It embraced the City of Berlin and the towns of Charlottenburg, Schöneberg, Neukölln, Wilmersdorf, Lichtenberg and the administrative circles of Teltow and Niederbarnim. Its objects were to institute a common control of streets, roadways and the elevated railway, also of building and street alignment plans, the uniform co-ordination of police regulations and the acquisition of large tracts of forest and of land for building. This special union came into force on April r, r912. It soon became manifest, however, that, beyond co-operation for special purposes, a further co-ordination of the administrations of these places was requisite. It was not until the year 1920 that it was possible, after long negotiations, to form a new municipality of

445

The city is very richly endowed with charitable institutions for the relief of pauperism and distress. In addition to the municipal support of the poor-houses there are large funds derived from bequests for the relief of the poor. The hospital organization is also well appointed. State, municipal and private charity join hands in the relief of sickness.

Of the municipal

hospitals the largest is the Virchow hospital, situate in Moabit and opened in 1906; then comes that of Friedrichshain, while the state controls six (not including the prison infirmaries), of which the renowned Charité in the Luisenstrasse is the principal. Industry, Trade and Commerce.—The old wool industry has become much extended and now embraces products such as shawls, carpets, hosiery, etc. Its silk manufactures, formerly so important, have, however, gradually gone back. It is particularly in the working of iron, steel and cloth and in the by-products of these that Berlin excels.

The manufacture

of machinery shows

an enormous development. Among the chief articles of manufacture and production are railway plant, sewing machines, bicycles, steel pens,

chronometers,

electric and electric-telegraph

plant, bronze, chemicals, soap, lamps, linoleum, china, pianofortes, furniture, gloves, buttons ahd artificial flowers. It has extensive breweries. Berlin is also the great centre and the chief market for speculation in corn and other cereals which reach it by water from Poland, Austria and Russia, while in commerce in spirits it rivals Hamburg. It is also a large publishing centre and has become a serious rival to Leipzig. Berlin has markets conveniently situated at various accessible places within the city, of which the central market near the Alexanderplatz is the most important. The central cattle market and slaughter-houses for the inspection and supply of the fresh meat consumed in the metropolis is in the north-east on the Ringbahn, upon which a station has been erected for the accommodation of meat trains and passengers attending the market. Communications.—Berlin is the centre of the German network of railways. No fewer than twelve main lines concentrate upon it. Internal communication is provided for by the Ringbahn, or outer circle, which was opened in 1871, and by a welldevised system which connects the termini of the main lines. The through traffic coming from east and west is carried by the Stadtbahn, or city railway, which also connects with and forms an integral part of the outer circle. This line runs through the heart of the city. Originally a private enterprise, it has been owned by the State since 1878. Lying apart from the system are the Lehrter Bahnhof for Hamburg and Bremen, the Stettiner for Baltic ports, and the Gorlitzer, Anhalter and Potsdamer termini for traffic to the south. The North and South Tube, begun before 1914, was opened in 1923. (X.) HISTORY

Berlin is a comparatively young town. When the Saxon North Mark was founded in the 12th century by Albert the Bear, after successful wars against the indigenous Slavs, it comprised at first only a little land on the east bank of the Elbe. It was only gradually that Albert’s successors penetrated farther into the districts of the upper Havel and the Spree, and only at the beginning of the 13th century that the first towns were founded in these districts. It can hardly be doubted that the choice of this particular site for the foundation of the two towns directly contiguous to one another was due to the wish to safeguard the important crossing of the Spree. Berlin grew up south Berlin, embracing all the suburbs under a single united ad- of the Spree, K6lln north of it, on the island formed by the two ministration. A law to this effect was carried through the Prussian arms of the river. The two towns must have been founded at Constituent Assembly on April 27, 1920, and was put into force about the same date. The first mention of Berlin in the records on October 1 of the same year. This law effected the centralization which have been preserved occurs in 1230; Kélln appears to be a of Berlin and all its suburbs into one uniform municipal region little older. The charter and administration of the two towns was (Stadtbezirk), but, nevertheless, left large powers of local self- at first totally separate, even though they had a common civil administration to the individual communes (Gemeinden). The government and common courts of justice from 1307 onwards. water-supply is mainly derived from works on the Müggel and Only in 1709 were they completely amalgamated. It was soon found that the situation of the two new towns Tegeler lakes, the river water being carefully filtered. The city 1s divided into twelve radial systems, each with a pumping station, was advantageous for commerce to the east and north-east, and and the drainage is forced through mains to sewage farms. In they quickly became prosperous. Their military importance as bases for the German dominion became secondary when the fron1915 the city purchased the Berlin electrical works.

446

BERLIN

tiers of the Mark were extended farther to the north and east. Their rapid commercial growth brought an increasing need to enter into closer and permanent relations with the commercial cities of northern Germany, which at this period were growing up rapidly. They joined the great Hanseatic League, which was formed in the latter half of the 13th century, and embraced all important towns in northern Germany. They were soon among the leading cities of the Mark of Brandenburg and were thus

three more small towns, Friedrichwerder, Dorotheenstadt ang Friedrichstadt, which soon amalgamated with the two older towns introducing good paving and lighting in the main streets. By settling here some of the Huguenots who had left France on account of the religious persecutions of Louis XIV. he brought

into the population of the city important new elements, whose influence on commerce and industry was considerable.

At the

end of the 17th century there were over 5,000 French Huguenots in the area of the present Berlin, the total population being about 25,000. By completing the construction of the canal between the

Spree and the Oder he opened up greater facilities for shipping

and commerce. His successor, Frederick I., the first king of Prussia, amalgamated the four towns into a single municipality, the city of Berlin, and, in the new palace built by Andreas Schlüter, gave it the first non-ecclesiastical building of any architectural importance. Almost adjoining this he built the Arsenal, laid out the plans on which this quarter of the modern town developed, and erected the beautiful monument to his father (by Schlüter) which is still one of the ornaments of Berlin. He encouraged education by founding the Academy of Science (Akademie der Wissenschaften). Under the two kings who succeeded him the city expanded in all directions. Frederick William I. had the old fortifications razed, thus making further expansion possible, Frederick the Great adorned the city with a number of new GRAPH OF THE WEATHER OF BERLIN. THE THERMOMETER SHOWS THE MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE, AND THE CURVE THE NORMAL MONTHLY TEMPERATURE. THE COLUMNS INDICATE THE NORMAL PRECIPITATION. FOR EACH MONTH

involved in the many internal struggles resultant on the change of dynasties and the antagonisms which arose between princes, nobles, and cities after the extinction of the Ascanian line in the 14th century. Neither the Wittelsbachs, to whom the Emperor Louis the Bavarian granted the province, nor the house of Luxemburg, their successors, were able to establish their authority securely in this district, and the cities of Berlin and Kölin thus long remained almost wholly independent, especially as their connection with the Hanseatic League (q.v.) put them in a strong position, even towards their own sovereign prince. In r39r they received complete judicial authority within their walls. Conditions changed only after 1415, when the Hohenzollerns had permanently established their rule in the Mark and set about subjecting to their own sway all independent powers still surviving. The Elector Frederick I. was still engaged principally with the recalcitrant local nobility, but his successor Frederick II. (1440—70) aimed at incorporating the large cities also more closely into his territory. He subdued Berlin and Kölln, although not without a sharp struggle, partly by exploiting the antagonisms existing within the cities themselves between the dominant families, the patricians, and the guilds of artisans. After his victory he deprived the cities of part of their old privileges, in particular of the right of concluding independent alliances with other towns. He built a fortress in Kölln on the site later occupied by the royal palace, and his successor made this spot his principal seat. From the end of the r5th century Berlin-Kölln was the permanent residence of the Hohenzollerns and the capital of the Electorate of Brandenburg. In the 15th and 16th centuries the two towns were comparatively small In area and population. In 1654 their united population was only about 10,000. At that time also they played a comparatively subordinate part in the history of the Electorate and could not challenge any comparison with the wealth and repute of the great old commercial cities of Germany, such as Nuremberg, Augsburg, Strasburg, Frankfort or Cologne. They suffered severely, moreover, from sacks and forced levies during the Thirty Years’ War. It was only with the growing power of the Electors of Brandenburg from the 17th century onwards that the extent and importance of their place of residence began to grow likewise. The Great Elector, Frederick William (1640-88), laid out extensive fortifications, founded in the immediate neighbourhood

buildings, among which the Opera deserves chief mention. He also turned the Tiergarten into a large park. It was only under him that the transformation of Berlin into a modern great city began. The population, which had numbered about 70,000 at his accession, had risen by the end of the 18th century to 172,000. Even the temporary occupation of the town by the Austrians and the Russians during the Seven Years’ War was unable to check its development. Berlin passed through a difficult period at the beginning of the roth century, when it was occupied by the French after the Battle of Jena and the King was obliged to transfer his seat temporarily to Königsberg, in Prussia. This was, however, only a short break, which was followed by a period of renewed and rapid prosperity after the fall of Napoleon and the restoration and enlargement of the state of Prussia. Berlin was now the capital of the second largest German state, the centre of a European world power, and as Prussia’s influence over the development of Germany grew in

the following decades, so did Berlin rise higher and higher above the other German towns.

The foundation

of the University in

1809 and the erection of the old Museum by Schinkel (1824-28) gave the town new centres for its intellectual life. By the middle of the r9th century the position of Berlin in Prussia was already such that, after the outbreak of the revolution of 1848, the course of the subsequent struggles were mainly determined by the sequence of events in Berlin. Of decisive importance for the further development of Berlin was the construction of the German railway system, which began about the middle of the roth century. As Berlin was the capital

of Prussia, and after 1871 also of the German Reich, it was made the terminus or meeting point of the most important railway lines.

The Borsig machinery factories which were established in the first half of the rgth century were the starting point of great industrial prosperity. The city expanded with incredible rapidity devouring

one suburb after another.

Including those suburbs which were

either entirely incorporated or at least organically united with

Berlin, topographically and economically, the population of the town was 198,000 in 1815, 330,000 in 1840, 548,000 in 1861 at William I.’s accession, 826,000 in 1871 at the foundation of the German Empire, 1,764,000 in 1890, 2,529,000 in 1900, 3,730,000 in 1910, 4,024, 165 in 1926. In 1881 the local railway (Stadtbahn) was built, affording rapid connections from west to east. Splendid new buildings grew up, and gradually the centre of Berlin life was attracted more and more away from the old town, Unter den Linden, the Friedrichstrasse and the Leipzigerstrasse to the new western quarter, the streets round the Tauentzienstrasse and the Kufiirstendamm. At present Berlin ranks as the third city of the world.

447

BERLIN—BERLIOZ BreLiocraPHy.—There is no really good history of Berlin. O. Schwebel, Geschichte der Stadt Berlin (1888) is popular. See also F.

Holtze, Geschichte der Stadt Berlin (1906) and Geschichte der Stadt Berlin, compiled by the “Verein fiir Geschichte Berlins” for the International Historical Congress, 1908 (bibl.).

(E. Bra.)

BERLIN, 2 city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., the

to have a Christian governor-general.

It is to be noted that the

sultan retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes (Art. XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways (Art. XXL). Art. XXV., which the events of 1908 brought into special prom-

metropolis of the northern part of the State, on the Androscoggin

inence, runs as follows:

river, about 75m. N.W. of Portland. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Boston and Maine railways. Its area is 57-8sq.

govina shall be occupied and administered The government of Austria-Hungary, not the administration of the sanjak of Ottoman administration will continue to

miles. The population was 8,886 in 1900; 16,104 in 1920, of whom over a third were foreign-born; and was 20,018 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is in the heart of the White mountains, 16m. from the

hase of Mt. Washington. Immense water-power from the falls of the river and vast supplies of raw material in the forests of Quebec and northern New England have combined to favour the develop-

ment of saw, pulp and paper-mills. The paper-mills, which make news-print, bond, and other varieties, are among the largest in the country. The output of the 19 manufacturing establishments

in 1927 was valued at $34,630,520.

Berlin was settled in 1821,

incorporated as a township in 1829, and chartered as a city in 1897.

BERLIN, a city of Green Lake county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.; on the Fox river, 84m. N.W. of Milwaukee; served by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railroad. The population in

1930 was 4,106. It is in an excellent dairy country and ships large quantities of milk.

There are granite quarries near by. The city

has a variety of manufactures, including gloves, shoes, leather products and fur coats. BERLIN, a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat behind, detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from having been first used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670,

by a Piedmontese Brandenburg.

architect in the service of the elector of

It was used as a travelling carriage, and Swift

refers to it in his advice to authors “who scribble in a berlin.” As an adjective, the word is used to indicate a special kind of goods, originally made in Berlin, of which the best known is Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale of wools and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling “berlin”

is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the “birlinn,” a large Gaelic rowing-boat.

BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF. The events that led up to the assembling of the Congress of Berlin, the outcome of which was the treaty of July 13, 1878, are described

elsewhere (see Europe, History; Turxry, History; RussoTurxisH WAR). Here it must suffice to say that the object of the Congress was to revise the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) by which the Russo-Turkish War had been ended and which seemed to make Russia permanently arbiter of the fate of the Balkan peninsula. The Congress met, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, at Berlin on June 13. The principal plenipotentiaries of the other Powers represented were Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Salisbury for Great Britain, Count Andrássy for Austria-Hungary, Prince Gorchakov for Russia, and Alexander Catheodory Pasha for

“The provinces of Bosnia and Herzeby Austria-Hungary. desiring to undertake Novi-Bazar,... the exercise its functions

here. Nevertheless . .. Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in

the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia.” By Art. XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was definitively recognized and by Art. XVIII. she received certain accessions of territory; including a strip of coast on the Adriatic, but under conditions which tended to place her under the tutelage of Austria-Hungary. By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Serbia was recognized, subject to conditions (as to religious liberty, etc.) set forth in Art. XXXV. Art. XXXVI. defined the new boundaries. By Art. XLIII. the independence of Rumania was recognized. Subsequent articles define the conditions and the boundaries. Arts. LII. to LVII. deal with the question of the free navigation of the Danube. The Danube commission, on which Rumania was to be represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. LIII.) and provision made for the further prolongation of its powers (Art. LIV.). Art. LVIII. ceded to Russia the territories of Ardahan, Kars and Batoum, in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. “H.M. the emperor of Russia declares that it is his intention to constitute Batoum a free port, essentially commercial.” By Art. LXI. “the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds.” It was to keep the powers informed periodically of “the steps taken to this effect.” Art. LXII. made provision for securing religious liberty in the Ottoman dominions. Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that “the Treaty of Paris of March 30, 1856, as well as the Treaty of London of March 13, I187I1, are maintained in all such of their provisions as are not abrogated or modified by the preceding stipulations.” For the full text of the.treaty in the English translation see E. Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530); for the French original see State Papers, vol. Ixix. p. 749. (W.A. P.)

BERLIN DECREE, an order issued by Napoleon on Nov. 21, 1806, forbidding the importation of British goods, and even excluding from the harbours under his control any neutral vessel

which had touched at a British port.

(See CONTINENTAL

Sys-

TEM.)

BERLIOZ,

HECTOR

(1803-1869), French musical com-

poser, was born at Céte-Saint-André, near Grenoble, on Dec. 11, Turkey. The basis of the conferences had, of course, been set- 1803. His father, a doctor in good practice, wished his son to foltled beforehand, and the final act of the congress was signed low the same profession, and Hector studied medicine for a time, on July 13. though he disliked it intensely. He had no early formal musical The Treaty of Berlin consists in all of 65 articles, of which it education, though he studied harmony and counterpoint surreptiwill be sufficient to note those which have had a special bearing on tiously, but without much real profit until the hearing of a Haydn subsequent international developments. So far as they affect the quartet gave him inspiration and understanding. He was sent to territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of Paris and San Paris in 1822 to complete his medical studies, and from there he Stefano it will be sufficient to refer to the sketch map in the announced his revolt to his father, who cut off supplies and left article Europe: History. By Art. I. Bulgaria was “constituted the young man to fend for himself. Meanwhile he had had some an autonomous and tributary principality under the suzerainty of lessons in composition from Lesueur, then a professor at the Paris HIM. the Sultan”; it was to have “a Christian government and Conservatoire. He entered himself as a student in 1823, but a national militia.” Art. II. fixed the boundaries of the new state. found the teaching and the atmosphere alien to his rebellious Arts, Ill. to XII. provide for the election of a prince for Bul- genius. Lesueur seems to have been the only teacher for whom he garia, the machinery for settling the new constitution, the adjust- felt genuine respect. ment of the relations of the new Bulgarian Government to the His life at this period was hard, and he had to support himself Ottoman empire and its subjects (including the question of trib- by singing in the chorus of the Théâtre Gymnase. He had com ute). By Art. XIII. a province was formed south of the Balkans posed a mass performed at the church of St. Roch, and now wrote

Which was to take the name of “Eastern Rumelia,” and was to temain “under the direct military and political control of H.I.M.

the Sultan, under conditions of administrative autonomy.”

It was

other works including a cantata named La Mort d’Orphée, the ms.

of which was only discovered in 1923; but none of them had any success. He left the Conservatoire in 1825, to devote himself to

448

BERM

a systematic study of the works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other masters.

Success came at last with his cantata, La Mort de

Sardanapale (1830), for which he was awarded the prix de Rome. The terms of the prize provided for three years study abroad, the first two to be spent in Italy. There he wrote an overture to King Lear; Le Retour à la vie, a continuation of an earlier symphonic work, Episode de la vie d'un artiste, the lovely song, La Captive and other works. Before the two years were up he begged leave to return to Paris. The reason was partly nostalgia for a city which he always dearly loved, though he found little appreciation there, and partly his passion for the famous Irish actress, Henrietta Smithson, who was then playing Shakespearian parts in Paris. The Episode de la vie d’un artiste, had been inspired by her, and the performance of this work, with its continuation, at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832 caused her to regard Berlioz more favourably than before. It also won the praise of Paganini, who said to the composer: “Vous commencez par ot les autres ont fini.” Berlioz married Henrietta in 1833. The union was by no means a happy one, and difficulties were aggravated by poverty. She was compelled by an accident to leave the stage, and no place as professor or conductor was available for Berlioz, in rebellion against the correctness of the French school and a pioneer of the romantic movement. He was obliged to support himself and his family by acting as musical critic, which left him little time for composition. Yet the period between his marriage with Henrietta and their stormy separation in 1840 was rich in production. To these seven years belong the dramatic symphonies, Harold en Italie, Symphonie funèbre et triomphale, and Roméo et Juliette; the opera Benvenuto Cellini (1837); and the Requiem, commissioned by the French Government for performance in memory of those who fell at Constantine, Algeria. Berlioz was given the Legion of Honour, and began to write (1838) for the Journal des Débats, to which he contributed at intervals until 1863. There he conducted his polemic against the conservative critics of the day. But official musical Paris remained obdurate. He was invited to visit Germany, where Robert Schumann, who had analysed the Episode in the Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musik, had prepared the way for him. Henrietta declined to accompany him, and the miserable breach followed. Berlioz supported her until her death in 1854, but there was no renewal of affection. The visit to Germany was delayed until 1842, but was a triumphal success. In all the great musical centres Berlioz was received with enthusiasm. But in Paris he conducted the works of other composers. In 1846 his cantata, La Damnation de Faust, was played in Paris, but was coldly received. He paid visits to Austria (1845), Russia (1847), and England (four times between 1847-55), but recognition abroad did not compensate him for apathy at home. Benvenuto Cellini was played, at the invitation of Liszt, at Weimar in 1852, and in London in 1853; and the oratorio-trilogy, L’Enfance du Christ in Weimar in 1855. The Hymne à la France was written for an industrial exhibition in 1844; the Damnation de Faust in 1845; the Te Deum for the Paris Exhibition of 1855; the short opera, Béatrice et Bénédict was produced at Baden in 1862; and Les Troyens & Carthage had a short run at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris in 1863. After the death of his first wife in 1854, Berlioz married a mediocre singer, Martin Recio, who rather hindered than helped him, since she demanded leading parts in his productions. But he was inconsolable at her death in 1862. The failure of Les Troyens in 1863 was a further blow. He had a great reception in Vienna

(1866) and St. Petersburg (1867), but his health was failing and he died in Paris in 186ọ. He had been admitted to the Académie Française in 1856, and in 1852 had received the one official post of his lifetime—the librarianship of the Conservatoire. The human story of Berlioz places him among the great Romantics, and is interesting apart from his achievement of bringing

romanticism into the domain of music. His Mémoires (begun in London in 1848 and finished in 1865) show him as a boy in despair over the despair of Dido, and his breath is taken away at Virgil’s “Quaesivit coelo lucem ingemuitque reperta.” At the age of 12 he is in love with “Estelle,” whom he meets so years

afterwards. The scene is described by himself (1865) with minute fidelity—a scene which Flaubert must have known by heart whey he wrote its parallel in the novel L’Education sentimentale. The man—old, isolated, unspeakably sad, with the halo of public fame burning round him—meets the woman—old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had worshipped when she was 18. In 4 frame of chastened melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle

Berlioz goes to dine with Patti and her family.

Patti, on the

threshold of her career, shows him unmistakable affection. What

would he not have given for such a demonstration from Estelle!

“I was enchanted,” he writes, “but not moved. The fact is that the young, beautiful, dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of 22 has already seen musical Europe and America at her feet,

does not win the power of love in me; and the aged woman, sad,

obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my soul as she did in the days gone by, as she will do until my last day.” The music of Berlioz disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of Schumann—something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner. The power of Beethoven’s symphonies had made a deep impression on Berlioz in his youth, and the “poetical idea” in Beethoven's creations ran riot in his mind.

He thus became one of the most

ardent and enlightened pioneers of what is now known as “programme music.” Technically he was a brilliant musical colour.

ist, often extravagant, but with the extravagant emotionalism of genius. He was a master of the orchestra; indeed, his treatment of the orchestra and his invention of unprecedented effects of timbre

give him a unique position in musical history; he had an extraordinary gift for the use of the various instruments, and himself propounded a new ideal for the force to be employed, on an enormous scale. The ideal orchestra sketched out in his Traité d'Instrumentation (1844) was of proportions which can only be described as gigantic. This work, hardly appreciated during his lifetime, has had great influence on the later composers of all schools; and sufficient testimony to its value is afforded by the fact that within recent years it has been translated into German and brought up to date by none other than Richard Strauss (Peters ed., 1906). Among Berlioz’s purely literary works may be mentioned especially the essays on Weber, Gluck and Beethoven in the Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie (1845), while others are Soirées @orchestre (1853), Les Grotesques de la musique (1859) and A travers chants (1862). The critical edition of the complete compositions of Berlioz (published by Breitkopf and Hartel) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: Fantastique, op. 14; Funébre et triomphale, op. 15, for military band and chorus; Harold en Italie, op. 16, with viola solo; Roméo et Juliette, with chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belonging to larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works of which only the Funeral March for Hamlet is important. IV. Sacred music: the Grande Messe des Morts, op. 5; the Te Deum, op. 22; L’Enfance du Christ, op. 25, and four smaller pieces. V. Secular cantatas, including Huit scènes de Faust, op. 1; Lélio, ou le retour à la vie, op. 146 (sequel to Symphonie fantastique), and La Damnation de Faust, op. 24. VL Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, 2 vols. VII. Songs and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols., including arrangements of the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas: Benvenuto Cellini; Les

Troyens (five acts in two parts, La Prise de Troie and Les Troyens à Carthage); Recitatives for the dialogue in Weber’s Freischütz. IX. Arrangements, including the well-known orchestral version of Weber’s Invitation a la danse. X. Fragments and new discoveries. BrsriocrarHy.—Adolphe Jullien’s books on Berlioz, Hector Berlioz, la vie et le combat (1882) and Hector Berlioz, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1888) first gave a careful account of the details of his life. See

also J. Tiersot, Hector Berlioz et la société de son temps (1904);

A. Boschat, Histoire Le Faust de Berlioz

d’un romantique: Berlioz (3 vols., 1906-13); (1910), and Une Vie Romantique (1920); R Rolland, Musiciens célébres (1909) ; W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music (1st series, 1908) ; E. Newman, Musical Studies (1903); A. W. Locke, Music and the Romantic Period in France (1920).

BERM, edge, border of river, a narrow ledge of ground. In parts of Egypt the whole area reached by the Nile is included in the berm. In military phraseology the berm is the space between

44.9

BERMONDSEY—BERMUDAS the base of a rampart and the ditch, and was useful to prevent earth rolling into the ditch. As it formed a passage-way military engineers decided to discontinue its construction. A Berm-bank is the bank of a canal opposite the towing path. BERMONDSEY, a metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded north and east by the Thames; south-east by Deptford, south-west by Camberwell, and west by Southwark. Pop. (1931) 121,526. The name appears in Domesday, the suffix desig-

Geology.—The Bermudas are composed of aeolian limestones

(see Bawamas)

forming irregular hills of some

larly stratified, as is usually the case with such deposits. When freshly cut the rock is soft, but the action of the sea covers it with a hard crust and often destroys stratification. The surface is often irregularly honeycombed. The reefs are ridges of aeolian limestone plastered over with

nating the former insular, marshy character of the district, while

thin layers of corals and other calcareous organisms. The very remarkable “serpuline atolls” are

the prefix is generally taken to indicate the name of a Saxon overlord, Beormund.

Bermondsey

was

in favour with the Norman

kings as a place of residence, and there was a palace here, perhaps from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was founded in 1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of pilgrim-

age. The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and Abbey Road recalls its site. It is a district of poor streets, inhabited by a labouring population employed in leather, textile, metal,

chemical, electrical and other works, and in the docks and the wharves bordering the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting it with the opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908. The neighbouring Thames tunnel was opened in

1843, but, as the tolls were insufficient to maintain it, was sold to the East London Railway company in 1865. The Herold institute, a branch of the Borough polytechnic, Southwark, gives instruction in the leather trade. Southwark park, in the centre of the borough, is 63ac. in extent. The borough council consists of a mayor, nine aldermen and 54 councillors. Since 1918 Bermondsey sends two members to parliament, one for the Rotherhithe and the other for the West Bermondsey division. Area 1,500AC.

BERMUDA

RIG, the lofty, triangular, or leg-of-mutton

mainsail of modern

racing yachts.

The

rig was

used

origi-

nally on the small craft of the Bermuda islands, where it had been brought to a high state of efficiency before it came into general use on yachts. In its original form it consisted of a tall mast, raking well aft, and a loose-footed sail with a sprit to hold it out instead of a boom. As developed for yacht use the mast was lengthened considerably, being well stayed, often with two sets of spreaders on the mast to obtain the desired strength, and the foot of the sail shortened. This was to give a long “leading edge” to the sail, the ratio of height (or hoist) to foot being sometimes as high as 2-5 to r on small yachts. On larger yachts the difficulty of properly staying extremely long masts has kept this ratio down, so that from 2 to I or 1-5 to r is more common in yachts over 50 ft. long. The sail is very efficient on the wind, it being possible to get a more uniform surface than in a gaff sail, where the gaff and boom are at different angles due to the former swinging off more than the latter. Whether or not the rig is indigenous to Bermuda is not certain. It probably originated in Holland, whence England derived much of her sea lore. However, it has been used in Bermuda from the early days of that colony, and was also seen on Chesapeake bay, in the early days of the American Colonies. The sail, in its modified form, did not come into general use on yachts outside of Bermuda until after 1918. It is also sometimes called the marconi (g.v.) or the jib-headed rig.

(H. L. St.)

BERMUDAS, a group of islands in the Atlantic ocean, forming a British colony, in 32°15 N. and 64°50 W., about 580m. E. by S. from Cape Hatteras on the American coast. The group, consisting of small islands and reefs (which mark the extreme

northern range of the coral-building polyps), is of oval form, measuring 22m. from N.E. to S.W.; the area about 20 square miles. The largest is Great Bermuda, or Main Island, 14m. long and about a mile in average width, enclosing on the east Harrington sound, and on the west the Great and Little sounds, thickly studded with islets, and protected on the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset. The rest of the group, St. George, Paget, Smith, St. David, Cooper, Nonsuch, etc., lie north-

east of Main Island and form a semicircle round Castle Harbour. The fringing cays which encircle the islands, especially on the north and west, leave a few fairly wide, deep passages.

200-250 feet.

These limestones consist chiefly of blown shell-dust, very irregu-

FROM STARK, GUIDE”

HOG ISLAND,

MONEY

“ILLUSTRATED

USED

BERMUDAS,

BERMUDA

IN c.

SOMERS

1616-24

The coinage consisted of silvered copper pieces, value 2d., 3d., 6d., and

encrusted with convoluted tubes of serpulae and Vermetus, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines and some true encrusting corals. They probably rest upon foundations of aeolian rock. The Bermudas

were formerly much more extensive than now and they may in North America possibly be upon the summit of a submerged volcano. There are evidences of small oscillations of levels, but none of great elevation or depression. Soil, Climate, etc.—The surface soil is a friable red earth, which is also found in ochreous strata throughout the limestone. It is generally mixed with vegetable matter and coral sand. There are no streams or wells of fresh water, which is supplied only by rain collected and stored in tanks. The climate is mild and healthy. The maximum temperature is about 87°, the minimum 49°, the mean annual 70°. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a mantle of almost perpetual verdure. The commonest tree is the so-called ““Bermuda-cedar,” really a species of juniper, which furnished timber for small vessels. The wood is strongly scented. Some inlets are fringed with mangrove; the prickly pear grows luxuriantly in the most barren districts; and sage bush springs up profusely. Citron, sour orange, lemon and lime grew wild; but apple and peach do not thrive. The loquat, introduced from China, grows well. The mild climate assists the growth of esculent plants and roots; and a considerable trade is carried on with New York and Canada, in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes and beetroot, together with lily bulbs and cut flowers. A fine quality of arrowroot was produced. The castor-oil plant and aloe, tobacco, coffee, indigo and cotton are also grown. Few sheep or oxen are reared in the colony; meat, as well as bread and most vegetables, comes from America. Indigenous mammals are very few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green turtle. Birds, of about ten species, abound. Insects are comparatively few, but ants swarm destructively in the heat. Fish are plentiful and the whalefishery was once an important industry, but fisheries as a whole FROM STARK, “ILLUSTRATED BERMUDA are not developed. GUIDE” Towns and AdministraWARWICK FORT IN THE BERMUDAS, CONSTRUCTED IN 1614 BY RICHARD tion.— St. George on St. George MORE, GOVERNOR OF THE ISLES Island, founded 1794, incorpoAND COLONY IN 1612 rated 1797, was the capital till the senate and courts of justice were removed by Sir James Cockburn to the centrally-situated Hamilton. Hamilton, on the inner part of the Great sound, founded 1790, incorporated 1793, had a ls., and was probably the first struck

population of 3,000 in 1925.

Ireland Island has the British

Admiralty dockyard and naval establishment. The harbour of St. George can accommodate a vast fleet; but, till deepened by blasting, the entrance was too narrow, The Bermudas became an important naval and coaling station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock was towed across the Atlantic and placed in a secure

position in St. George, while, owing to their important strategic

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PRESS

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BIBLICAL

1. Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2, Greek, 3rd cent.: Matt. i 1-8. 2. Cod. Vaticanns (B), Ge. Ath cent.: Mark xiii 5-8. 3. Cod. Sinaiticus (N), Greek, 4th cent.: Matt. xv 21-22. 4. Cod. Alexandrinus (A), Greek, 5th cent.: Acts xxiii 23-27. 5. Cod. Bezae (D), a Greek page, "4th—5th cent.: Luke vi 1-10. 6. Cod. Turpurens Petropoli-

John xv 17-18. 7. Cod.

Washington-

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upper

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BIBLE

BIBLE

PLATE VI

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Slo

Ont raltels verdugt mS reene o? |fechen teinp million (Cambridge, Mass., 1663—the earliest Bible printed in America), Of the 9,936,714 volumes issued in 1927—28, 3,790,275 were sent which John Eliot, one of the Pilgrim Fathers, translated into “the out from the London Bible House; 2,178,726 were in English. language of the Massachusetts Indians” whom he evangelized. about 1,598,000 were circulated in Continental Europe; 442,000in Again, The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded Africa; 1,075,000 in India and Ceylon; 3,640,300 in China; 986,1698) has done much to chéapen and multiply copies of the Scrip- ‘ooo in Japan and Korea; 473,000 in South America. The society tures, not only in English and Welsh, but in many foreign lan- owns 53 Bible houses and residences in the principal cities of the guages. In the present century, however, apart from its general world, and rents depots in many others. It employs about yoo literary activities, it has concentrated on the provision of Prayer colporteurs. Its total income in 1927-28 was £417,295 and its Books and helps to Bible study in Asiatic and African languages. expenditure £411,817. In Scotland the Edinburgh Bible Society (1809), the Glasgow The earliest noteworthy organization, formed for the specific purpose of circulating the Scriptures, was the Canstein Bible Insti- Bible Society (1812), and other Scottish auxiliaries, many of tute, founded in 1710 at Halle, in Saxony, by Karl Hildebrand, which had dissociated themselves from the British and Foreign Baron von Canstein (1667-1719), who was associated with some Bible Society at the time of the Apocrypha controversy of 1826, of the leaders of Pietism in Germany. He invented a method of were finally incorporated (1861) into the National Bible Society printing whereby the institute could produce Bibles and Testa- of Scotland, which since then has carried on vigorous work, espements in Luther’s version at low cost and sell them cheaply. In cially in Europe, China, Central Africa and South America, Its 1722 editions of the Scriptures were also issued in Bohemian and total issues from 1861 to 1927 were 88,070,068 volumes. During Polish. In England various Christian organizations, which arose the five years 1923-27 the average issues were 3,552,354 and the out of the evangelical movement in the 18th century, took part in average income £39,299. In Ireland the Hibernian Bible Society (originally known as the work. One such was founded in 1780 under the name of the Bible Society, but as its sphere was restricted to soldiers and sea- the Dublin Bible Society) was founded in 1806, and with it were men the title was afterwards changed to the Naval and Military federated kindred Irish associations formed at Cork, Belfast, and Bible Society. The French Bible Society was instituted in 1792, other places. In 1927-28 the society had an income of £7,000, and but its designs were wrecked by the outbreak of the Revolution, issued 73,570 books, making a total, since its foundation, of 6,978,961. It sends an annual subsidy to aid the foreign work of and it was finally dissolved in 1803. British and Foreign Bible Society. the The British and Foreign Bible Society.—In 1804 was In France the Société bibligue de Paris was founded in 1818 founded in London the British and Foreign Bible Society, the most important association of its kind. It originated in a proposal made with generous aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society. In philanthropic labours in Wales were sorely hindered by the dearth

of Welsh Bibles. His colleagues in the society united with other earnest evangelical leaders to establish a new body whose sole object would be “to encourage the wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures without note or comment.”

Supported by representative Christian leaders such as William Wilberforce and Henry Thornton, and with Lord Teignmouth as its first president, the new society made rapid progress. It spread

throughout Great Britain, mainly by means of auxiliaries, że., local

societies

affliated

but

self-controlled,

with

subsidiary

branches and associations. This system continues to flourish. In 1927-28 the society had 5,142 auxiliaries, branches and associations in England and Wales. There were also about 5,000 auxil-

iaries and branches outside the United Kingdom, mainly in the

British dominions, and many of these carry on vigorous Bible dis-

tribution in their own localities, besides sending generous contribu-

tions to London. In 1904 the Canadian Bible Society was formed to act as an auxiliary to the parent society, with special responsibility for Bible work in Canada. Similarly, an Australian commonwealth council was established in 1924 and a New Zealand dominion council in the same year. By one of its original laws the society could circulate no copies of the Scriptures in English except in King James’ Version, but in rgor this law was widened to include the Revised Version. In

other languages the society has from the first successfully laboured to promote new and improved versions. By March 31, 1928, it had circulated versions in 608 languages, the complete Bible in 145, the New Testament in 146 more, and at least one complete book of the Bible in the remaining 317. In all but about 4o cases it was the

and ministers of State, with the chief ecclesiastics of the Russian and other Churches, served on its committees. The society made rapid progress until 1823; in 1826 its operations were suspended by Nicholas I., who in 1828 sanctioned the establishment of a Protestant Bible society. From 1839 until the Revolution an

agency of the British and Foreign Bible Society enjoyed special facilities in Russia, and at the beginning of ‘the present century was circulating about 600,000 copies of the Scriptures annually in the empire.

Some of these societies are still at work. The circulation effected by the German Bible societies in 1927 was as follows: Wiirttemberg Bible Institute (Stuttgart), 521,848; Prussian Bible Society (Berlin), 162,517; Berg Bible Society (Elberfeld), 191,474; Canstein Bible Institute (Halle), and smaller societies, 139,000.

The Netherlands Bible Society in 1927 circulated 173,897 vols., the Danish Bible Society 75,577, the Norwegian Bible Society 62,563, the Swedish Bible Society $7,056.

BIBLIOGRAPHY In Italy three Societies are circulating Scriptures with the

approval of the Roman Church, the Pious Society of St. Jerome,

the Society of Cardinal Ferrari and the Alba. It has been stated

that about half-a-million copies of the St. Jerome Society’s edition of the Gospels and Acts have been issued.

In America, the earliest Bible Society was founded at Philadelphia in Dec, 1808. It was followed in 1809 by the Connecticut

(May), Massachusetts (July), Maine (August), New York (No-

539

who writes or copies books,”

The transition from the meaning

“a writing of books” to that of “a writing about books” had been

made in France by 1763 when De Bure published his Bibliographie instructive. In England the new meaning was popularized by the Rev, T. F. Dibdin early in the roth century, while Southey preferred the rival form bibliology, now disused. According to the

objects pursued bibliography has two aspects. Of these the first looks to the author by whom a book was written, the time and

vember) and New Jersey (December). Others quickly followed in succeeding years. Twenty-nine State and local Bible Societies

place at which it was produced, the methods of its production, whether in ms. (see PALAEOGRAPHY) or in print (see TYPOGRA-

The Massachusetts Bible Society

binding (see Boox-Binp1NG), its distribution by means of the book-trade and the price at which it was sold (see Boox and Book-TraDE) and the obstacles imposed on its circulation (see CrensorsHiP). The second is concerned solely with its subject and value to those who read it. The two aspects overlap, but each

organized in this early period have completed their century of

service and are still at work.

(State) with a circulation of 433,197 volumes, and the New York

Bible Society (city) with a circulation of 892,706 volumes, ac-

complished the largest work in 1927. The American Bible Society.—In 1816, a convention of delegates representing 31 State and local Societies met at New

York and established the American Bible Society, with Elias Boudinot as president. Almost all kindred organizations in the States have gradually become connected with it as auxiliaries. At one time, they numbered

over

2,000.

Changed

conditions and

methods, by which contributions now come largely through denominational channels, have resulted in the disappearance of many of these auxiliaries. The original constitution of the society

specified that its work should be “to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures, without note or comment.” This is still its sole object. In English, it circulates only the Authorized or King James and the Revised Versions. It is non-denominational with a lay board of managers. In 1927, 29 denominations

PHY), its decoration

and illustration

(see ILLUSTRATION),

its

has its own literature, for the publication of which separate socie-

ties are at work, and the use of some distinguishing terms, such as bibliography of the form of books and bibliography of their

subjects, would save confusion, Bibliography of the Form of Books.—The foundation of this is the careful examination and description of individual copies. Starting from the facts stated under the heading Boox (q.v.) we may say that a standard description of any book which has both literary and typographical interest should comprise the following sections: (a) a literal transcript of the title-page (if it have one), also of the colophon (if it have one), and of any headings

or other portions of the book serving to distinguish it from other editions or issues; (b) statements as to the size or form of the

appointed representatives on this Council. Noteworthy versions of the Bible, such as those in Arabic,

book, the gatherings or quires of which it is made up, with the

Armenian, Zulu, several dialects of Chinese, a number of Ameri-

of the type-page, a note of the types in which different parts of

total number of leaves, the measurement of the copy described and

the book are printed and a reference to any trustworthy informaappeared under the auspices of the American Bible Society. It tion already in print; (c) a statement of the literary contents of has shared jointly with the British and Foreign and the Scottish the book and of the points at which they respectively begin; (d) Bible Societies in Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Turkish Ver- a note giving any additional information which may be needed. sions. Up to Dec. 1927, it had participated in the translation, (a) In transcribing the title-page and other parts of the book can Indian, Philippine, Micronesian and African languages, have

printing or distribution of the Scriptures in 295 languages includ-

ing various systems for the blind.

The purpose and work of the society is entirely missionary. It supplies the Scriptures without purpose of profit and largely through whole or part donations. It has 12 foreign agencies through which it works in Central and South America, the West Indies, the Levant, the Philippines, Siam, China and Japan. It

has ten home agencies covering the United States, with head-

quarters at New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Richmond, Cincinnati, Chicago, Dallas, Denver and San Francisco; the agency among the coloured people also centring in New York. The appropriations for 1928 were $1,345,426. During 1927, it issued 10,034,797 Bibles, Testaments and Portions, about half of which

were for use in the United States and half for other countries. The total issues of the society since 1816 to the end of 1927 were 194,063,757 volumes.

The Gideon Society, organized in 1899 at Janesville, Wis., to carry the gospel message to commercial travellers and transients and to place Bibles in hotel guest rooms, had distributed by 1928 about 965,000 copies in the United States and Canada, as well as a number in China, Japan and Korea. BrBtiocRaPHY.—Besides the published reports of the societies in question the following works may be mentioned: J. Owen, History of the First Ten Years of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 3 vols. (1816-20); G. Browne, History of the Bible Society, 2 vols. (1859); Bertram, Geschichte der Cansteinschen Bibelanstalt (Halle, 1863); E. Pétavel, La Bible en France (Paris, 1864); O. Douen, Histoire de la société biblique protestante de Paris (Paris, 1868) ; G. Borrow, The Bible in Spain (London, 1849); W. Canton, The History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 5 vols. (1904, foll.); J, Ballinger, The Bible in Wales (1906); H, O. Dwight, Centennial History of American Bible Society, 2 vols. (New York, 1916) ; T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy

Scripture, 4 vols. (1903, foll.); R. Kilgour, Gospel in Many Years

(1925), BIBLIOGRAPHY.

the opening words should be given in full, any subsequent omissions being indicated by three dots placed close together, The end of a line should be indicated by an upright stroke, or in early books with the old long commas by double strokes to avoid confusion with these. It is a considerable gain to indicate to the eye the types in which the words are printed, z.e., whether in roman, gothic letter or italic, and in each case whether in majuscules or minuscules. This, however, increases both the cost of printing and risk of error. In books before 1641, if upper-case letters are transliterated into lower the printer’s own practice as to initial and medial 7 and j, u and v should be followed. Misprints in the original title should be reproduced either with a following [sic] or preferably with a footnote to the description. (b) The “size” of a book was originally a technical expression for the relation of the individual leaves to the sheet of paper of which they formed a part. A book in-folio meant one in which the paper had been folded once, so that each sheet had made two leaves. In a book in-quarto each sheet had been folded twice so as to make four leaves. In an octavo another fold had produced eight leaves, and so on for books in r6ma, 32mo and 64mo. For books in twelves, twenty-fours, etc., the paper had at some stage to be folded in three instead of two, and their form differed according to the way in which this had been done. The size of old books can mastly be ascertained by nating whether the thicker white lines visible in the paper when held up to the light run perpendicularly or horizontally, These wire-lines (sa called from being made by

the wires of the trays in which paper was made) run perpendicularly in folios and octavos, horizontally in quartos and sextodecimos. In tall duodecimos they are perpendicular, in “dumpy” ones horizontal. In small quartos and the lesser sizes only one sheet was usually sewn at a time, so that the number of leaves corresponds with the name of the size; in folios and large quartos,

(C. H. K, B.) The word f:8\oypadla was used in to reduce the amount of sewing, one or more additional sheets host-classical Greek for the writing of books, and as late as 1761, were placed inside the first, so that the earliest folios often have in Fenning’s English Dictionary, a bibliographer is defined as “one ten leaves in the quire, and the earliest large quartos eight.

540

BIBLIOGRAPHY

When a ms. or early printed book was being prepared for binding it was usual for the order in which the quires or gatherings were to be arranged to be indicated by signing them with the letters of the alphabet in their order, the alphabet generally used being the Latin, in which I stands for both I and J; V for both U and V, and there is no W. If more than 23 letters were needed the contractions for ez, con, rum and (less often) that for us, were used as additional signs, and for large books minuscules were used as well as majuscules, and the letters were doubled. In 1472 printed signatures are found and they are still in use. If the quires or gatherings in the book to be described are signed in

print, the signatures used should be quoted without brackets.

If

they are not signed, the order of the gatherings should be noted by the letters of the alphabet in square brackets. In each case the number of leaves in each gathering should be shown by indexfigures. Thus, six gatherings of eight leaves followed by one of four should be represented by the symbols A-F® G*. The “‘makeup” of an old book in original binding is usually sufficiently shown by the strings in the middle of each quire. In re-bound copies of old folios and quartos the best guide to it is to note the sequence of the watermarks, z.e., the devices with which the papermaker as a rule marked each sheet (see Paper): In a folio book one of every pair of leaves should have a watermark in the middle of the paper. In a quarto some pairs of leaves will have no watermark; in others it will be found divided by the fold of the paper. '

After the size and sequence of the gatherings has been stated the total number of leaves should be noted, with a mention of any

numeration of them given in the book. Errors in the printed numeration of the leaves of old books are common, and it is seldom necessary to point them out in detail. Printed leaf numeration is found as early'as 1470, and became common about ten years later. Printed pagination did not become common till

nearly the middle ‘of the 16th century. The foregoing details are all directed to showing which leaves of a book would be printed by the same pull of the press, how it was made up for binding, and how imperfections in any copy may be detected. They give little or no indication of the dimensions of the book, and it is therefore necessary to add the measurements in inches or millimetres of a page of an uncut copy. In old books uncut copies are not easily found, and it is useful instead of this to give the measurement in millimetres of the printed portion of the page (technically called the “type-page”), from which, if the habits of the printer are known, the size of an uncut copy can usually be deduced. To this is added a statement of the

number of lines in the page measured: ‘The character of the type (roman, gothic or italic) is next mentioned, and in the case of r5th-century books the measurement of 20 lines of type. Finally, a reference to any authoritative description already printed completes this portion of the entry. Thus the description of the collation of the first-dated book printed at Augsburg, the Meditationes of S. Bonaventura, printed by Giinther Zainer in 1468, should read: Folio, La”, b-d’, e-g!, h®] 72 leaves. Type-page 205122 mm.; 35 lines. Type 1 (gothic letter, 1r7 mm.). Hain *3557. (c) While many books, especially early ones, contain little or nothing beyond the bare text of a well-known work, others are well provided, not only with commentaries which are almost sure to be mentioned on the title-page, or in the colophon (which the editor himself often wrote), but also with dedicatory letters; prefaces, complimentary verses, indexes and other accessories, the presence of which it is desirable to indicate. In these cases it is often convenient to show the entire contents of the book in the order in which they occur, noting the leaves or pages on: which each begins. Thus in the first edition (1590) of the first three books of Spenser’s Faerie Queene, the literary contents, their ord r and the space they occupy can be concisely noted by taking the successive gatherings according to their signatures and showing what comes on each page. Thus: Ay, recto, title; verso, dedication, “To the Most Mightie and Magnificent Empresse Elizabeth”; As-Oos, text of books i-iii.; Pp,, letter dated Jan. 23, 1 589 [1590] to Sir Walter Raleigh expounding the intention of the work; Pp, verso, commendatory verses signed W. R[{aleigh],

Hob-ynoll (Gabriel Harvey), R.S., H.B., W.L. and Ignoto: Pp, complimentary sonnets severally inscribed to Sir C. Hatton, the earls of Essex, Oxford, Northumberland and Ormond, Lord Ch Howard, Lord Grey of Wilton and Sir W. Raleigh, and to Lady

Carew and to the Ladies in the Court; and “Faults escaped in the

print”; Qqis, 15 other sonnets. The Results of Collation.—When books have been examined with the care needed to produce descriptions of this kind they fall into their places in the general history of printing or the output of an individual press, and if their characteristics are inconsistent with the place or date claimed for them their pretensions can he

exposed, as in the case of the Lyonnese counterfeits of the octavo

editions of the classics printed by Aldus at Venice, the numerous unauthorized editions of works by Luther, professing to be printed at Wittenberg, or again the numerous controversial books printed in England in the 16th century purporting to have been produced in German towns or, with pleasant humour, “at Rome before the Castle of S. Angel at the Sign of S. Peter.” In the same way the not very numerous

cases

of incorrect dating in early

books when placed side by side with other books of the period can gradually be transferred to the earlier or later groups into which they fit, and the wrong dates are mostly found to be due either

(i.) to simple misprints, as in the omission of an x in the date Mcccclxviij in the first book printed at Oxford; (ii.) to the use in reprints (mostly in legal books, 1560-80) of the date of the

first edition to indicate that the text was unaltered; (iii.) toa

desire to help surreptitious new editions to escape notice, as in

the Geneva Bibles printed in Holland for, importation into Eng-

land after 1617, which were dated 1599, or the later reprints of Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis dated 1602. Collation helps also to determine the order of undated editions, since in reprints a printer had opportunities, which he seldom failed to use, of saving space here and there and so reducing his bills for paper and presswork, and could also set up the successive sheets of preliminaries and text consecutively in their order instead of printing text first and preliminaries after as was usual in first editions. It may even discover. evidence of authorship, as when Skeat found that the initial letters of successive chapters of the Testament of Love made up a sentence, and Henry Bradley by correcting a wrong arrangement of the

sheets showed that the sentence implied the authorship of the

book by Thomas Usk, and thus relieved Chaucer, to whom it had most injuriously been attributed, of the burden of it. Collation

also brings to light irregularities in the sequence of the sheets of

which a book is composed, which can be traced to after-thoughts

of the publisher or author, necessitating the insertion of additional leaves and sometimes also the excision of others already printed. Thus, as originally printed, the first sheet of the 1609 quarto of Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cresseida consisted of a title-page, be-

ginning “The Historie of Troylus and Cresseida. As it was acted by the Kings Maiesties seruants at the Globe,” and three leaves of text. The title-leaf was subsequently cut out and two leaves (a half-sheet) substituted, the first bearing a new title, the sec-

ond (with signature Œ+) a preface stating that this was ‘a new

play, never stal’d with the Stage.” Literary students had long disputed as to which of these variants was the earlier, but the bibliographical evidence is decisive. So again, variations between different copies of the first edition of Herrick’s Hesperides (1648), which had puzzled his editors, are easily explained as due to the presence

of three such cancels.

In the 18th century resort to

cancels was extraordinarily frequent, and it still occurs. Owing to the extreme slowness of the presswork of the early printers there were more opportunities in their days for making corrections and alterations while a book was still passing through the press than there are now. Thus the first printer at Mainz can be shown to have increased the size of the edition of the first great

Latin Bible after a start had been made, so that a few of the leaves are found in two states owing to additional copies having

been printed after the type of the first setting had been dispersed, and of the extant copies of the first quartos of Shakespeare

Richard II. (1597) and King Lear (1608) some have corrected

readings on certain leaves which in others are left uncorrected.

BIBLIOMANCY

541

sometimes caught up one or more pieces of type from the forme

and if these were replaced wrongly the sheets subsequently printed

knowledge of chemistry and of its history quite extrinsic to bibliography itself, which can only at most suggest certain general principles of arrangement, and point out to some extent how they

would have incorrect readings instead of correct ones, and some

may be applied. The essential requisite is a clear idea of the use

On the other hand the leather inking-balls used by the pressmen

of the small variations noticed in different copies of the First

Folio Shakespeare

and again

in the first edition

of Milton’s

Paradise Lost have been ascribed to this cause. All the sheets, correct or incorrect, would be used indiscriminately when the hook came to be bound, and thus it has been said with some approach to truth that no two copies of an Elizabethan book are

absolutely identical. These minor variations thus only constitute different “states” of the leaves or sheets ‘on which they occur, while the substitution of a different title-page, as in the 1609 Troilus mentioned above, constitutes a different “issue,” both “states” and “issues” being parts of one and the same “edition.”

Enumeration and Atrangement.—If every book bore the true name of its author, the correct date and place of its publication, and the names of its printer and publisher, and no

mishaps occurred in the course of printing and publication, it would still remain the task of what is here called formal bibliography to collect information as to all the books written by a certain author, or printed by a certain printer, or published in a certain city or country, and arrange them in chronological order under the names of the author, or the printer, or the city or country, according to the plan undertaken. The ideal to which bibliography of this kind is directed is the compilation for each country of a national register of its literature in the form of

annals of publication with indexes of authors and (in so far as they are of interest) of printers and publishers, illustrators and

any other persons connected with the book, so that under the name of each all their contributions would be shown. ,The old ideal was directed to a universal register of books, and for those

published in the 15th century the zeal of students of early printing has provided the material for an almost exhaustive list, the Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (see INCUNABULA). Of those printed in the years 1501-36 there is a tentative enumeration in the continuation of Panzer’s Annales Typographici (1803), and materials are gradually being collected for improving and extending this. But the projects once formed for a universal bibliography have dwindled in proportion as the output of the press has increased, and the nearest approaches to such a work are the printed catalogue of the library of the British Museum, and that of the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, now in progress. When a universal bibliography was recognized as an impossibility patriotism suggested the compilation of national bibliographies, and the Bibliotheca Britannica of Robert Watt (Edinburgh, 1824) remains an extraordinary example of what the zeal of a single man could accomplish in this direction. Quérard’s La France littéraire (1827-39), while it gives fuller titles, is much less comprehensive, embracing mainly books of the 18th and early roth centuries, and only a selection of these. In the works of Heinsius

(Allgemeines Biicherlexikon, 1700-1815, Leipzig, 1812-17) and Kayser (Bicherlexikon, 1750, etc., Leipzig, 1834, etc.) Germany possesses a fine record of her output of books during the last two centuries, and since the organization of the book-trade contemporary lists of books, with résumés and indexes issued at intervals, exist for most European countries.

For English books up to. the

close of the year 1640, with the aid.of catalogues previously published by the British Museum, the Cambridge university, library, and other institutions, a Short-title Catalogue was compiled by

members of the Bibliographical Society and issued in 1926. This comprises over 26,000 entries and gives references to libraries in which copies are preserved. . oo | Subject-Bibliography.—In the 18th and early roth centuries there was a tendency, especially among Frencli-writers, to impose upon bibliography the task of: indicating the exact place which

to which the bibliography is to be put. If its chief object be to give detailed information about individual books, a strictly alphabetical arrangement “‘by authors and titles” (7.e., by the names of authors in their alphabetical order and the titles of their books in alphabetical sequence under the names) will be the most useful. If it is desired to illustrate the history and development of a subject, or the literary biography of an author, the books should be entered chronologically. If direction in reading is to be given, this can best be offered by a subject-index, in which the subjects are arranged alphabetically for speedy reference and the books chronologically under the subject, so that the newest are always at the end. Lastly, if the object is to show how far the whole field has been covered and what gaps remain to be filled, a class catalogue arranged according to what are considered’ the logical subdivisions of the subject has its advantages. It is important, however, to remember that, if the bulk of the bibliography is very large, a principle of arrangement which would be clear and useful on a small scale may be lost in the quantity of pages over which it extends. In 1886 a great impetus was given to subject-bibliography by the publication by the British Museum of a SubjectIndex of the Modern Works added to its library since 1880, compiled by Mr. G. K. Fortescue, under whose editorship an enlarged index covering the 20 years 1881 to 1900 was subsequently published, while supplementary indexes have since been issued quinquennially, bringing the total number of books registered under subjects to nearly half a million. In 1895 the Institut internationale de Bibliographie at Brussels issued its first bulletin, and the international character of modern science has gradually led to the revival of old ideals in less ambitious forms. Nearly 20 years earlier (in 1876) Mr. Melvil Dewey, while helping to found the American Library Association and American Metric Bureau, outlined his decimal system for the classification of books, and this, as he gradually worked it out, was widely adopted by librarians not only in the United States, but in England-and elsewhere despite much criticism and the competition of rival systems. With Dewey’s permission the Institut internationale de Bibliographie, in a Manuel de la Classification, amplified his scheme so as to make it available.for indexing literature on the widest scale, and in 1927 a British Society for International Bibliography was founded as a branch of the Institut, in order “to promote the study of bibliographical methods and of the classification of information, to secure international unity of bibliographical procedure and classification and to foster the formation of comprehensive and specialist bibliographies of recorded information.” In this way the ambitious ideals of subject-bibliography are in process of being realized, not by bibliographers parcelling out knowledge into pigeon-holes but by the. workers in each subject helping to form a classification which will answer to their own peculiar needs. . The only competent treatise on the bibliography of the form of books .is An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, by R. B. McKerrow (1927), based on a paper entitled Notes on Bibliographical Evidence for Literary Students and Editors of English Works of the 16th and r7th Centuries, read before the Bibliographical Society in 1913. See also F: Madan’s paper On Method in Bibliography, in vol. i. of the Society's Transactions (1893), and Some Points in Bibliographical Descriptions, by A. W. Pollard and W. W. Greg, and a memorandum on Degressive Bibliography, by F. Madan in vol. ix. (1909). Subject-bibliographies will be found listed at the beginning of the entries of books on the subjects with which’ they are concerned in the successive volumes of'the British Museum’s Subject-Index of the Modern Works added io the Library. For books published before its issue W. P. Courtney’s A Register of National Bibliography, with a selection of the chief bibliographical works and articles printed in other countries (1905) is still useful. (A. W. P.) `

BIBLIOMANCY,

a form of divination (g.v.) by means‘ of

every book published:should occupy ina logical classification of all the Bible cr other books. The method employed is to open the literature based on a previous classification of all knowledge.

It

1s a task for philosophers and men of science, and that, for ex-

Bible haphazard and be guided.by the first verse which catches the eye. Among the Greeks and Romans the practice was known under the name of sortes Homericae and sortes Virgilianae, the

ample, to make a good bibliography of chemistry requires a

books consulted being respectively those of Homer and Virgil.

came to be recognized that the classification of human knowledge

BIBRACTE—BICKERSTAFFE

542

BIBRACTE, an ancient Gaulish hill-top town, 2,500ft. above sea-level, the modern Mt. Beuvray, near Autun, in France. Excavation has revealed an area of 330 acres, girt with a stone and wood rampart 3m. long, and containing the remains of dwellinghauses, a temple of Bibractis, and workshops of iron and bronze

workers and enamellers. It was the capital of the Aedui in the time of Julius Caesar. Later on Augustus removed the inhabitants to his new town Augustodtnum native traditions.

(Autun), to destroy the free

Another far more obscure town in Gaul, near

Reims, also bore the name. See J. G. Bulliot, Fouilles de Beuvray (Autun, 1899) ; J. Déchelette, L’Oppidum de Bibracte (1903) ; also references, s.v. AEDUI.

Battle of Bibracte.—This battle was the climax of Julius Caesar’s first campaign in Gaul 58 B.c. Before he could contemplate the expansion of Rome’s dominion he found that he had to deal with an imminent threat to the security of the existing province. For the Helvetii, assembling around Lake Geneva were about to begin q tribal migration into the fertile plains of Gaul. By negotiations, more diplomatic than sincere, Caesar gained time to block their path across the Rhône. The delay enabled him to return to Cisalpine Gaul and raise two new legions, concentrate three others, and then march back across the Alps to reinforce the solitary Tenth Legion on the Rhône. The Helvetii meanwhile had pursued their leisurely course along the north bank of the Rhône. Caesar caught them in the act of crossing the Arar (modern Saône) just north of its junction with the Rhône near modern Lyon, and inflicted a sharp check. The Helvetii now turned northwards, followed cautiously by Caesar until, embarrassed by shortage of supplies, he decided to press on ahead of them tọ Bibracte (near modern Autun). His difficulty encouraged the Helvetii to move against him, and their harassing of his march became so unpleasant that he turned at bay on a hill before reaching Bibracte. Posting the two untried legions and the auxiliaries with the baggage on the crest, he formed the remainder

in three lines.

The Roman

javelin (pilum) throwing was so

effective that it did much to break up the solidity of the assault, and enabled the legionaries to press the enemy steadily back in the close quarter combat. But as the legions followed up the retirement of the Helvetii they laid bare their own rear. The opportunity to fall upon this was seized by a large body of the allied Boii and Tulungi who had been guarding the wagon-park of the Helvetii. To meet the danger Caesar turned his third line about and after a stern struggle repulsed the double attack now launched. The success was eventually completed by the capture of the wagon-park.

BIBULUS, a surname of the Roman gens Calpurnia. The best known of those who bore it was Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus the persistent enemy of Caesar, with whom he was consul, 59 B.c. He was the candidate of the aristocratic party and his election was secured by bribery (Suetonius, Caesar, 9). He made an attempt to oppose the agrarian law introduced by Caesar but was overpowered. He then shut himself up in his own house during the remaining eight months of his consulship, taking no part in public business beyond issuing edicts against Caesar’s proceedings. When the relations of Caesar and Pompey became strained,

Bibulus supported Pompey (Plutarch, Cato Minor, 41) and joined

in proposing his election as sole consul (52 B.c.), Next year he went to Syria as proconsul. In 49 Pompey gave him command of his fleet in the Ionian Sea, but he proved unsuccessful and died

soon afterwards (48) of fatigue and mortification (Caesar, Bell. Civ., ii, 5-18; Dio. Cassius, xli. 48). His youngest son, Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus, surrendered to Antony soon after the battle of Philippi and was by him appointed to the command of his

BICE, a term erroneously applied to particular shades of green or blue pigments from the French terms vert bis and azur bis, dark green or blue. These colours are generally prepared from basi copper carbonates, but sometimes from ultramarine and othe

pigments. BICEPS, the name given to one of the muscles of the upper

arm, from which the latter derives its rounded appearance in front. It has two heads or origins, the shorter attached to the cor, acoid process of the scapula, the longer to the edge of the glenoiq cavity. The two heads unite to form a central portion or belly which ends in a tendon, the distal end of which is inserted on the radius. The muscle on contraction has the effect of flexing the forearm and assisting in the supination of the hand. See Musctzs and MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

BICESTER (bïs'tųr), urban district of Oxfordshire, England, tam. N.N.E. of Oxford by the L.M-S.R.; pop. (1931) 3,109, It lies in a pastoral country on the northern edge of the open plain of Ot Moor. The termination cester, commonly indicating Roman origin, does not appear to do so here, and is perhaps eopied from Alchester and Chesterton, a village two miles west of Bicester, where a Roman site has been recognized at the junction of roads from the south (Dorchester) and from the west, northeast and east. There are records of the settlement (Berncestre, Burencestre, Bissiter) from the time of Domesday. In 1182 Gilbert Basset founded an Augustinian priory which was the centre of

industrial life until its dissolution in 1538,

Richard IT. granted

a fair and a Monday market, and in 1440 an additional market was granted, to be held in that part of the town called Bury-End,

from this date known as Market-End.

In the 16th century the

cattle market was specially famous. The church of St. Eadburg contains examples of Norman and each succeeding style. There are scanty remains of the Augustinian priory. Bicester never possessed any manufactures of importance. It has considerable agricultural trade and is famous as

a hunting centre. Birmingham.

It lies on the G.W.R. line from London to

BICHAT, MARIE FRANCOIS

XAVIER

(1771-1802),

French anatomist and physiologist, was born at Thoirette (Jura) on Nov. 14, 1771, the son of a physician. He studied anatomy and surgery under M. A. Petit (1766-1811), chief surgeon to the Ho6tel-Dieu at Lyons. The revolutionary disturbances drove him to Paris in 1793. He there became a pupil and then assistant of P. J. Desault, who died in 1795. He completed the fourth volume of Desault's Journal de Chirurgie, to which he added a biographical memoir of its author. He then wrote the Oeuvres chirurgicales de Desault, ou tableau de sa doctrine, et de sa pratique dans le

traitement des maladies externes (1798—99), in which, although

he professes only to set forth the ideas of another, he develops them with the clearness of one who is a master of the subject. In 1797 he began a course of anatomical demonstrations, and then began to lecture on operative surgery and physiology. His Anatomie générale (1801), contains the fruits of his most profound

and original researches. His Anatomie descriptive (1801-03), in which the organs were arranged according to his peculiar classification of their functions, was completed by his pupils, M. F. R. Buisson (1776—1805) and P. J. Roux (1780-1854). Before Bichat had attained the age of 28 he was appointed physician to the Hétel-Dieu, a situation which opened an immense field to his ardent spirit of enquiry. He engaged in a series of examinations, with a view to ascertain the changes induced mn the various organs by disease, and in less than six months he had

opened about 6oo bodies. A fall from a staircase at the Hôtel-

Dieu resulted in a fever, and he died on July 22, 1802. His bust,

fleet. He died (about 32) while governor of Syria. He wrote a together with that of Desault, was placed in the Hétel-Dieu by short memoir of his step-father Brutus, which was used by Plu- order of Napoleon. tarch (Appian, B.C., iv. 136; Plutarch, Brutus, 13, 23). BICHROMATES: see Crromates and DicHROMATES. BICARBONATE, in chemistry, an acid carbonate, a salt in BICKERSTAFFE, ISAAC (c. 1735-c. 1812), British dramwhich one only of the two hydrogen atoms in the molecule of atist. He was the author of many plays and burlesque farces carbonic acid has been replaced by metal. NaeCOs is the formula interspersed with songs, produced between 1760 and 1771. The of normal sodium carbonate, washing soda; NaHCOs, is that of best-known are Maid of the Mill (founded on Richardson's sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda. and Sonrum.)

(See ANTACID;

CARBON;

Pamela), The Padlock, He Would if he Could, Love in a Village, The Hypocrite, and The Captive, In 1772 Bickerstaffe, suspected

BICKERSTETH—BICYCLE of a capital offence, fled to the Continent. The exact date of his death is unknown, but it is recorded that he was living in abject misery in 1812. A full account of his dramatic productions is given in Biographia Dramatica, ed. Stephen Jones (1812).

BICKERSTETH, EDWARD (1786-1850), English hymn writer, was one of the secretaries of the Church Missionary Society, from 1816 to 1830, and rector of Watton, Herts., from 1830 to his death. His Christian Psalmody (London, 1833), a collection of over 700 hymns, went through 59 editions in seven years, and formed the basis of the Hymnal Companion (London 1870), compiled by his son, E. H. Bickersteth, bishop of Exeter (188 5-90).

EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1814~1892), dean of Lichfield, was his nephew, and EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1850-1897), bishop of South Tokyo, his grandson. BICKNELL, a city of Knox county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Pennsylvania railroad, 15m. N.E. of Vincennes, in a coal-mining and agricultural region. The population was 2,794 in 1910;

543

within the reach of ordinary folk; thus it became known as the dandy-horse, and was used by the prince regent, among others The craze—for such it undoubtedly was—spread to America and lasted for a year or two in the Old and the New World, until the natural crudities of the device killed it, and nothing more is recorded until 1840, when the first real bicycle was made in Scotland by Kirkpatrick MacMillan, of Dumfries. This pioneer took a dandy-horse, added cranks, pedals and driving rods to it, built a comfortable seat, elaborate armrests, handlebars, etc., and rode the machine for many years, once being prosecuted and fined for “furious driving” on the roads. In 1846 Gavin Dalzell improved MacMillan’s machine, and the Dalzell became widely known, many specimens being made. These two men are the real pioneers of the bicycle.

After them no important event in bicycle history took place for nearly 20 years. It was during this period that isolated examples of velocipedes were built in remote parts of England and other. countries, and most of the apparently baseless claims to

7,635 in 1920; 5,212 In 1930.

BICYCLE, a light vehicle formed of two wheels mounted in single line in a simple frame of steel tubes, which is equipped with handles, pedals attached to cranks and a saddle. The rider sits on the saddle, grasps the handlebars, and turns the cranks with his feet by means of the pedals, thus imparting motion to the

have

rear wheel through a chain driven over toothed rings or sprockets. After several decades of intensive research, development: and

FIG.

improvment, bicycles have become vehicle on the roads of England,

This was the first crank driven bicycle, and large numbers were sold in

the most numerous class of France, Germany, Holland,

Italy, Belgium and Denmark, while they are very widely used in North America and elsewhere. The bicycle is easily mastered, and can be ridden with very little effort at ten to twelve miles per hour by any normal person. Being easy to house and carry,

inexpensive to purchase and maintain, and simple in construction, it is a valuable instrument of self-transport, and it provides pleasant recreation and exercise even while being used for purposes of utility. Cycle-touring is most widely practised in England, but has a large and increasing number of followers in Germany, France and other European countries.

Bicycles are also widely used for

racing in France, Germany, Belgium, and to a lesser extent in England and the United States (see CycLrInc). The oldest existing trace of the cult of self-propulsion occurs in a stained-glass picture in a church window at Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, England. This depicts a figure seated upon a wheeled instrument and apparently using the feet against the ground to propel itself. That, at any rate, is the interpretation placed upon the picture by all authorities. The next development was a ponderous four-wheeled. carriage propelled by a footman, whose unenviable task it was to depress two heavy timber levers

alternately, thus turning the rear wheels by a crude rack-andpinion device, This is referred to in contemporary English literature from 1769 onwards, and an improved form was exhibited m Paris and actually paraded before the court of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette at Versailles in 1779. The Hobby-horse, 1816.— Nothing Was gained by such contrivances, for the best speed, even with two drivers, was barely equal to walking pace, and there is no further tracé of a veloci-

FROM

“THE

DAILY

MIRROR”

FIG. 1.—THE FIRST BICYCLE, MADE IN SCOTLAND c. 1839

pede in history until 1816, when an important devélopment occurred in Paris. This was the introduction of the hobby-horse, a simple device consisting of two wheels and a cross-bar, upon which the rider sat while he propelled himself with his feet against the ground.

Invented

by

M. Niepice, a pioneer of photography, the celeripede, as it was called, quickly gained favour.

In 1818 it was further improved

by Baron de Saverbrun, who is said to have performed some remarkable feats of speed upon it; and in the same year it came

to London, where many models were made by Dennis Johnson

of Long Acre, The price was high and the machine was not

2-—THE **BONESHAKER,’’

France,

VELOCIPEDE, c. 1865

England and America

OR

“built

the first

bicycle”

relate to this era. But hitherto there had been no bicycle with rotary cranks.

That came in 1865, and was the

invention of Pierre Lallement, a workman employed by M. Michaux, of 29, Avenue Montaigne, Paris, an address which is given here in full because it was the first shop at which bicycles were made and sold in an ordinary commercial way. Lallement sold the patent to Michaux and then emigrated to the U.S.A., where he propagated the same idea. Meanwhile Michaux did good business with the velocipede at 200 francs each. At about the same time an extraordinary wave of interest in velocipedes swept over England, and inventions and freak constructions were numerous. The industry in England was begun on regular lines by the Coventry Sewing Machine Company, who, in order to fulfil an order placed by their Paris agent for 500 machines of the Michaux type, reconstructed their business in 1868 under the name of the Coventry Machinists’ Co. Ltd. Afterwards it became the Swift Cycle Co. Ltd. However, when only a few of the bicycles had been despatched to Paris, the Franco-Prussian war broke out, and this

mischance actually established the trade in England, for it com-

pelled the Coventry Machinists’ Co. to find a home market for the remainder of the 500 machines ordered for Paris. These Michaux-pattérn bicycles belong to the class which came

to be known as “boneshakers.”” They had two wheels of nearly equal size (the front being larger), and the driving-cranks and pedals were fitted to the axle of the front wheel. With heavy wooden wheels, thick iron tyres and a massive iron backbone,

these machines were extremely heavy, and they vibrated in a

terrifying manner over the rough roads. This vibration and weight caused intense fatigue to the rider, but despite this the new vehicle gained in popularity, for it opened up new possibilities. The Tall “Ordinary.”—Then some important improvements came, as more firms began to manufacture boneshakers, and new ideas were brought into the industry. The heavy wooden wheels gave place to lighter ones of metal, with thin wire spokes set at a

tangent to the centre. Solid rubber tyres were cemented to the rims, and the increased speed potentialities were utilized by enlarging the front or driven wheel, so that a higher ratio of gearing

was employed or, in other words, a greater distance was travelled

with each revolution of the cranks. This tendency continued, and the front whéels grew from goin. to 40, 48, 52, 60 and even 64in. in diameter, while the rear wheel shrank to r2in. or less. This was the type known as the “ordinary,” and it remained in vogue for 20 years, during which time bicycling became a firmlyestablished pastime in England, America, Francé and other countries. Ball-bearings were introduced in 1877.

544

BICYCLE

The “ordinary” bicycle naturally gave a great advantage to tall men, who could sit a higher wheel, and thus command a larger gear and travel at a faster speed for the same pedalling rate. If lacking in inches, however, the shorter men were not without brains, and several schemes were devised to place them on an equality with their taller brethren. One of these was the “geared ordinary,” in which the cranks and pedals were mounted considerably below the front axle, to which power was transmitted by a chain running over sprockets. Short riders began to turn in increasing numbers, however, to the tricycle, or three-wheeled cycle, which, while the “ordinary” bicycle remained current, gained a popularity out of all proportion to its vogue in more modern times. The “Safety.”—The “safety,” or low bicycle familiar to moderns, was made possible by FIG. 3.-—-THE “ORDINARY” BICYCLE, POPULAR FROM c, 1872-1885 geared-up transmission; that is, With front wheels sometimes built the pedals and cranks drove a over 5ft. in height, the racing models of this bicycle could attain a speed of large sprocket, from which mo20 miles an hour tion was imparted by a chain to a smaller sprocket on the hub of the rear or driven wheel. Thus, although the rear wheel was much smaller than the driven wheel of an “ordinary,” the drive could be geared up so that the bicycle’s speed in relation to the pedalling strokes was as fast or faster than that of an “ordinary.” Curiously enough, the custom has survived of describing a bicycle’s “gear” by comparing it with an “ordinary”; for example, a bicycle geared to 65 travels as far, with one revolution of the cranks, as would an “ordinary” bicycle with a 65-in. front wheel. First invented by H. J. Lawson in 1876, the “safety” reardriven bicycle was first marketed in a practicable form by Messrs. Starley and Sutton, of the Rover Company, in 1885, and from that time the “ordinary” was doomed, although it lingered until the early “nineties, and was brought to a really excellent state of precision and lightness (the best racing “ordinaries” weighing only 19 lb.). The following figures tell their own story, however. They represent the percentage of the different types at, the two great cycle exhibitions in England during the critical years:—

TYPE.

“1889.

1891.

1893.

Ordinary . . . Rear-driven safety Single tricycle

II-5 53°6 22-1

3°3 86-7 ae

: 84:6 5-3

| nary, the Geared Ordinary, a lever propelled machine called the “Star” with a large driving wheel at the rear and a smal] steer-

ing wheel in front, solid and cushion tyre safety, and in 1890 finally the pneumatic tyre safety. The industry had a periog of great prosperity in 1892-94, when it established a sound export business. This was assisted by the fact that when, just after. wards, a similar boom began in England, the demand exceeded the supply, and American machines were eagerly snapped up. The English boom was a very important epoch in cycle history Bicycling became fashionable among the wealthy classes, prices soared and many companies were floated and refloated.

Late

came the inevitable slump, after which the English factories were reorganized and learnt to produce a reliable bicycle at a very moderate price. The Modern Bicycle.—In its modern form the bicycle is a remarkable piece of engineering, for it carries a load up to ten times its own weight, and is propelled over all kinds of surfaces FIG. 4.—AN EARLY "SAFETY" BI. CYCLE, c. 1885. SUCCESSOR TO with very few mishaps. The two THE “ORDINARY” wheels run in perfect alignment, as also do the two transmission sprockets, while all bearings are

truly parallel to’each other and to the direction of travel. Bicy-

cles weigh from 15 to 35 lb., the lightest being suitable-only for racing on specially-prepared tracks. The constructional details are as follows :— Frame.—This gains its great strength from its triangulated design, by which there is no unsupported beam except the front forks. If the latter were braced or supported, they would impart all road shocks direct to the rider, unless a satisfactory spring-

ing arrangement was evolved—a difficult problem. As it is, the forks are curved so that they spring slightly, while the section of weldless steel tubing used is round, oval or D-shaped (with

the flat side facing inwards). It is usual to draw the tubing ina thickness which tapers from 21 gauge at the hub end to 18 gauge at the top. This prevents the concentration of strain at the top

end. The fork crown (at the top of the forks) is fixed to the steering column, which turns freely in two ball bearings in the head tube, and in which is set the handlebar. The slope or steering angle is the cause of a bicycle running naturally in a straight line, because any movement of the wheel out of the straight tends

_to raise the bicycle slightly; therefore the weight of bicycle and

rider discourages any such deflection of the front wheel except when directed by the rider, and a truly-made bicycle will rm ` in a straight line so long as it is upright, except when the front The greatest revolution in bicycle history was the introduction wheel is forced aside by stones, etc. From this point of view even of the pneumatic rubber tyre in 1889 by John Boyd Dunlop, of more steering angle, or “rake,” would be permissible, but the deBelfast. Although received with scepticism at first, it was quickly sirability of curving the front forks, and also the need for avoidappreciated at its true worth, riders finding.that it gave an ing breakage, keeps the angle within moderate limits. The steering column is a very important part, and ought to be enormous increase of comfort and speed. In an attempt to stem its advance, makers introduced a cushion-tyre which enjoyed a of 13-gauge thickness at the bottom end, and it is usual to make brief vogue, but soon the’ air-tyre carried all before it. The fol- the gauge to taper to 16 at the top end, where threads are cut to accommodate the head ball bearing cup, the locking-rings, etc. lowing percentages at the English exhibitions are significant :— Breakages usually result from the negligence of makers who,

finding the column too long for the particular bicycle they are making, shorten it by cutting away the valuable thickened part at the bottom, to avoid the trouble of making new threads which would be necessitated were they to shorten the column at the top. For steering columns and forks a steel with a minimum The combination of “safety” bicycle and pneumatic tyre placed carbon content of -32% is recommended. the bicycle on an unassailable foundation, and since that date its Main Frame Tubes.—In the better quality bicycles these are use has rapidly spread. The “safety” bicycle of 1893 was the butted or thickened at each end, where the gauge is usually 19, modern bicycle in general outline, although there have been many as against 22 in the centre. Mild steel, i.e., steel with a carbon important alterations in detail, as will be shown. Free wheels, content of -35%, is generally used, and it has been found that which enabled the bicycle to coast or overrun the driving mechan- the double-butted tubing is much stronger than a plain tubing of ism, were introduced in 1894; and variable gears in 1890. 20 gauge. -This.is because “fatigue” is better distributed in 4 The bicycle-making industry in the United States-was started tapering gauge tube, and also because the ends of the tubes have in 1877 when Col. Albert A. Pope of Boston, Mass., organized to be filled in order to “clean-up” after brazing, so that the extra the Pope Mig. Company. The new industry went through about thickness of the: butted tubes is an insurance against undue weakthe same changes in models and types, as in England—the Ordi- ening by over-filing. The frame tubes are joined by “lugs” or TYRE. Solid . Cushion Pneumatic

' Tor ~~ 1890. 891. (later). 1892. - 986 29I 166 (40 06 542 325 149 12° IpO 39-7 655

i 1893. 31 I4] 693

1894. O4 33 895

BICYCLE

545 HANDLEBAR

SADDLE

BRAKE LEVER

Top TUBE —

SADDLE-PIN

HEAD TUBE

FRONT BRAKE ROD

BACK STAYS

FRONT EXTENSION

BoTTOM TUBE

SEAT TUBE

BRAKE SHOE AND PAD FRONT FORKS

PUMP SPOKE

REAR BRAKE

ROD

FREE WHEEL CHAIN STAYS CHAIN RIM MUDGUARD

SY COURTESY OF MESSRS. SWIFT OF COVENTRY, FIG. 5.~—-A

MODERN

LTD.

IN ITS PRESENT DAY FORM, WITH BALL-BEARINGS, PNEUMATIC TYRES, LIGHT FRAME SAFETY BICYCLE. IT EASILY BRAKES, AND COMFORTABLE SADDLE, THE BICYCLE IS A REMARKABLE PIECE OF ENGINEERING. TIMES ITS OWN WEIGHT, OVER ALL SORTS OF ROAD SURFACES

ROADSTER

AND WHEELS, POWERFUL CARRIES A LOAD OF TEN

sockets, which are made in various angles as necessary. Lugs were originally made of malleable iron castings, but light steel

they are bent at right angles to be hooked into holed flanges in

the hubs. In England it is customary to fit 32 spokes to front wheels and 40 to rear wheels, but elsewhere the usual arrangement is 36 spokes in all wheels. Spokes may be plain (usually about work must be done very carefully to ensure, first, that sufficient 15 gauge) or double butted, 7.e., 15 or 16 gauge at each end and brass is run into the joints, and secondly, that the tubes are not 17 or 18 gauge for the remainder. For tandem bicycles, carriers, etc., spokes of 14 gauge are used. burned and weakened through over-heating. In hubs there is one row of ball bearings on each side, these Instead of brazing, acetylene welding can be employed, and lugs dispensed with. Welding leaves a smooth surface and is bearings being adjustable by screwing either the outside ballstronger, but in the event of breakage the whole frame must be race (called the cup) in the hub-shell, or the inside ball-race renewed, whereas any single tube may be replaced in a brazed (called the cone) on the spindle. The driving sprockets are frame. Welding is rare in England, but commonly employed in screwed upon the shell, many modern European bicycles, particularly of the racing class, possessing a sprocket at each side of the France and Belgium. Many improvements have been made in the method of housing hub. These sprockets are of different sizes, so that upon reversing the rear wheel in the frame, and on all racing bicycles, and many the wheel in the frame, a different gear is obtained, or, in other non-racing (called “roadster”) bicycles, it is possible to remove words, the amount of travel obtained in one revolution of the crank is raised. Another common arrangement is a fixed sprocket or replace the rear wheel in a few seconds. Wheels.—These consist of rims, spokes and hub. Rims may on one side, and-a free-wheel or floating sprocket on the other, be of steel, aluminium alloy, wood or wood steel armoured. The which is very helpful to tourists. In the free-wheel the sprocket first named is the most commonly used in England; whereas, in runs upon separate ball-bearings and has a ratcheted edge inside, France and Germany wood and steel are both in wide use, while so that the outer sprocket can drive the hub, but cannot itself l America, Belgium and Holland favour wood or wood steel be driven. Another form of hub, called the coaster, is widely used in armoured more than steel. In the United States the wood steel armoured rim is used in America, less popular in England and on the continent of Europe. a large majority of the bicycles manufactured. This rim has all This is a back-pedalling or coaster brake. When pedalling action the resiliency of a wood rim and having a thin covering or is reversed, a member is moved sideways on a quick thread in the armour of sheet steel, is thereby protected against the action of hub, and is made to expand a phosphor-bronze ring and bring it into contact with the inner surface of the hub-shell. the weather, splitting or warping. Variable Gears.—One of the most ingenious inventions in Steel rims are made in 18 or 20 gauge and are rolled over at the edges to provide shoulders for the stiff wired edges of the connection with bicycles is the device of varying the gear. It was tyres. Wood rims have similar shoulders where they are intended first installed in the bottom bracket of the frame, forming part for this class of tyre, but in England these rims are more com- of the chain wheel. Soon afterwards a hub gear giving two monly used for the tubular racing tyre. Sizes of rims, throughout different ratios—only one of them on a free-wheel—was invented, most bicycle-using countries, are expressed by the overall size then a number of others, of which only the three-speed gear has ofthe tyre which fits the rim in question; thus, a rim described survived in hub form. It is widely used in the British Isles and in in England as 26 by r4in. is actually only about 23in. in diame- parts of the British empire, and weighs about 2 lb. 2 oz. The drive ter, because the size of 26in. refers to the diameter of the tyre runs solidly on the middle gear, but is taken through a train of when it is properly in position upon that rim. Aluminium alloy small toothed wheels for the high gear (334% increase) or the nms are non-rusting, and lighter than steel, but -bulk must be low gear (25% reduction). A small lever on the handlebar or the top frame tube effects the change through a stranded wire cable. added to provide the necessary strength. All gear-changing mechanism in bicycles is on the epicyclic Spokes are of steel wire, threaded and adjustable at the point Where they pass through holes in the rims, while at the other end principle, by which the toothed wheels or pinions are always in

pressings have been found to save weight and to serve the same purpose. In brazing, the parts are heated to a dull red, and this

BICYCLE

546

right circumference, it is easy to see that if they are forced a one place, down into the bed or centre of the rim, the wire on is revolved round, and in engagement with a toothed wheel B, the opposite side of the wheel-circle will project sufficiently to

mesh. The principle need not be described in detail here, but the following simple example will explain it: If a toothed wheel A

both being allowed to spin freely on their axis, they will spin at the same speeds. If, however, B is then held and prevented from spinning, A will spin much more slowly. Conversely, if A is held in the same way, B will spin more quickly. The drawback of ~ LUBRICATING

SPROCKETS

HOLE

OF DIFFERENT SIZES

NUT SECURING THE ADJUSTMENT OF THE BEARINGS

NUT FOR HAND-TIGHTENING

FIG. 6.~-THE GEAR RATIOS

REVERSIBLE

BICYCLE

HUB

WHICH

GIVES TWO

DIFFERENT

epicyclic gearing in a bicycle is the difficulty of obtaining closer ratios than those mentioned. Three-speed hubs are also made in England which incorporate a coaster or back-pedalling brake. Many variable-gearing devices of particular value are used in the Alps and Pyrenees, where the gradients are so long that the cyclist who could not gear sufficiently low to surmount them on his bicycle would be compelled to spend many hours walking. The principle of most of these devices is a loose driving-chain which can be transferred from one sprocket to another mounted by its side. In some cases there are no fewer than three sprockets on the bracket axle, and three others on the hub. A wide range of gears is thus obtainable. This form of gearing is not favoured in England.

Bicycle Tytes.—These are nearly all of the pneumatic indiarubber type. There are two parts, the inner tube and the outer cover—terms which explain themselves. The inner tube contains a larger percentage of pure rubber. It is drawn from a tubing machine under high pressure, and emerges in circular form. Some cheaper tubes, however, are still manufactured from flat sheet rubber. Outer covers are built up on a cotton or flax fabric, the process being more or less elaborate according to the quality. The tread, or rubber surface that touches the road, is vulcanized on by a moulding press. Although this process destroys a small percentage of the resilience of the rubber, it also compresses it, with the result that if a piece of flint or glass cuts the tread afterwards, RUBBER TREAD

FABRIC OR CORD FOUNDATION

enable it to be lifted over the edge of the rim. Tubular tyres, used almost solely for racing purposes, are light and flexible. The outer cover completely encloses the inne;

tube, and it must be ture to be repaired. loose threads at the enable a section of

unstitched or unstuck when there is a pune. In the Constrictor tyre there are layers of base of the cover, which can be parted to the inner tube to be extracted for repair

Tubular tyres are cemented to the rim. Bicycle Brakes.—The rider brings his bicycle to a standstill by moving levers on the handlebar, which, through thin rods or stranded wire cables, cause small pads of leather, rubber oy fibre to press against the wheel rims. These may act on the flat part of the rim, or, with what are known as calliper brakes, on the edges. The advantage of the latter type is that the wheel may be removed or replaced without disturbing the brake, whereas in the other type, the brake rods, with the shoes which hold them and the stirrup-shaped piece which carries the shoes, must be moved out of the way, to make room for the wheels to pass through. Rim brakes are used on front or rear wheels, or both. In America the coaster brake in the rear wheel hub takes the place of the European rim-type brake. Bracket.—This is the junction of the bottom, seat and chain stay tubes, and carries the toothed wheel driving the chain, and the cranks and pedals by which the rider turns the toothed wheel (known as the chain-wheel). The bracket consists of a cylindrical

shell, in which a steel axle is mounted on ball bearings. A toughened steel crank is secured to each end of the axle, the length of this crank varying from 64 to 7 inches. At the other end of each crank is the pedal, consisting of a framework mounted by ball

bearings on a spindle, which screws into the crank. No locking

device is necessary, as the right-hand pedal has a right-hand thread, and the left-hand pedal:a left-hand thread, so that the pedalling action tends to tighten up each pedal more securely in the crank. The right-hand crank carries the chain wheel, being fastened by bolts and nuts, or welded to it, or forced into it by means of a male or female taper with a serrated surface. This cannot be taken apart after fixing. In the United States the “one-piece” type of crank is in almost

universal use—that is, both cranks and axles are made from a one-piece forging, heat-treated to give spring temper, and the ball cups, cones, etc., so designed as to be easily assembled in the bracket. The driving sprocket is attached to the crank by being pressed on a shoulder of special design or the sprocket is driven through a lug on the crank, and is easily detachable. The chain is very light, and accurately made, consisting of mild steel links, fastened by hand steel rivets. Each rivet is covered by a sleeve called the bush, and on most chains, but not all, this bush is covered by a roller which turns freely when the tooth of the chain-wheel or the hub-sprocket bears against it. Chains of half-inch links are almost universal, but one inch is frequently used for racing purposes. The width of the driving surface of a

bush or roller is almost invariably one-eighth of an inch.

WIRED EDGE

FIG.

7.—THE

PNEUMATIC

TYRE,

INTRODUCED

IN

1889

On the left is a wired-on tyre cover for road use, and on the right, a tubular, or racing, tyre complete with inner tube

i

Bicycle seats are of leather or of a rubber and fibre composition, mounted upon springs. Many shapes, sizes and degrees of springiness are available, including special shapes for persons suffering from perineal maladies. Handlebars are bent of mild steel, usually one inch in diameter, and carry the brake-levers, in addition to the warning bell. Handle-

the cut tends to close itself, instead of opening wider. With hand- bars are frequently covered with some material giving a commade tyres there is no vulcanization, the parts being joined by a fortable hold to the rider, such as celluloid, rubber-sponge, ete. solution of rubber in naphtha. As bicycles fitted with these tyres They are used in a great variety of shapes. Generally they bend are considered easier to propel, they are sought for racing pur- upwards on “roadster” bicycles and downwards on racing bicycles poses, where the slightly greater vulnerability and cost are of less or when faster speed or more power is desired. Flat handlebars importance to the rider than speed. are a useful compromise. Stiff wires are sewn into each edge of the outer cover, so that The tandem is designed to carry two persons, both of whom when the tyre is in place on the wheel-rim, the pressure from the

air tube within forces the wires against the raised edges of the

rim, which hold them securely, As the wires are of exactly the

pedal in unison. The pedalling gear, saddle, handlebar, etc., arè

therefore duplicated. The frame tubes, wheel spokes, rims, tyres, etc., on a tandem are heavier and stronger than on single bicycles.

BIDA—BIDDLE

547

Statistics.—It is estimated that over 30 million bicycles are

e huge shade-trees, so that as Bida is approached it looks like

force, and, accepting this as a basis, the following figures are

between the forces of the emir of Nupe and those of the Royal Niger Company, ending in the defeat of the Fula army (mostly cavalry). It was not, however, until rogor that Bida, and with it

én use throughout the world, but there are no means of obtaining a forest. In 1897 there was a two-days’ fight outside the walls of Bida exact figures. In a few countries a system of registration is in approximately correct for 1926:— Country. Austr 1a

Bicycles in use.

oe

°

a

s

e

e

°

.

»

Czechoslovakia Denmark

. ©

o o

e e

e o

e ©

e o

e a

o oœ

600,000 1,000,000

*

.

«

.

.

e

.

7 102,000

Ge

we *

sa’ ©

a «

ee «© «©

«

2,400,000 2,000,000

©

«©

«©

«©

#

.

441,000

France

Holland Italy >. è

Japan.

Se. >. >œ

«©

«©

South Africa

©

©

.

-

©

à

«

«©

«©

e

«©

$

e

Nupe, came under Nrcerra: History).

800 ;000

effective

British

control

(see

Nure

and

BIDDEFORD, a city of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the

Saco river, 6m. from its mouth, opposite Saco and 15m. southwest of Portland. It is on Federal Highway 1 and the Boston and Maine railroad. The population was 16,145 in 1900; 18,008 in 1920, of whom 6,338 were foreign-born white, and was 17,633 in 1930 by the Federal census. The city has abundant water-power, and manufactures cotton goods, shoes, lumber, cotton-mill machinery and other articles. The output of its 20 establishments

41,000

Though the estimates vary widely, it may be accepted that

there are, at the fewest, as many bicycles in use in Great Britain as in France—probably more in summer.

in 1927 was valued at $13,420,851.

There are large granite quar-

ries in the vicinity. Biddeford Pool and Fortune Rocks, two summer resorts on the coast, are within the city limits. The Saco river was discovered in 1603, and the first settlement was made (on the Biddeford side, at the mouth of the river) in 1616 by Richard Vines. In 1630 he took possession of a grant including the present site of the city. “Biddeford” was adopted as the name in 1751, and in 1855 the city was incorporated.

BIDDER,

FROM “CYCLING” FIG. 8.—THE TANDEM BICYCLE, IN WHICH STEERING AND CONTROL ARE BY THE FRONT HANDLEBARS. THE BACK PART OF THE FRAME IS CONSTRUCTED FOR A WOMAN RIDER

The following may be accepted as approximately the annual production of bicycles in the countries named :— Country. Germany . Great Britain Italy . . Netherlands . Sweden. . USA ce. 4s

. .

et.

e . a ae

> . a we

Bicycles. 450,000 680,000 80,000 135,800 126,092 325,000

à

«©

«©

«© e

«

As the largest producer of bicycles, Great Britain naturally has the greatest export trade. The following are the export figures for 1926:— Country. Great Britain

U.S.A.

Belgium. Germany Holland Sweden .

. .

.

.

.«

©

. .

2. .

«© .

© «

Se

ae

a

«

ae

Bicycles. « 280,051

Se

œ

Italy

Ae

8,026 64,507 22,570 4,130

13,067

Average value. £ s 4 6

5

16

4

18

3 5 3 6

7 I O 2

The imports of bicycles into Great Britain are very small compared with the exports; in 1926 only 1,251 were imported, valued at £5,921. A brisker import trade exists in cycle parts, of which

£386,034 worth were imported into Great Britain in 1926. It should be noted, however, that during the same year £1,804,006 worth of parts were exported from Great Britain. Experiments in adding engines to bicycles to render them inde-

pendent of human propulsion began in 1885 (see Motor CycLzs). (B. W. BE.)

BIDA, a town of West Africa in the Niger (formerly Nupe)

province of Northern Nigeria, on the Baro-Minna branch of the Lagos-Kano railway. It lies 25m. E. of the Niger in 9° 5’ N., 6° East. It was founded in 1859 when Fula rule was established in Nupe; it is a walled town of considerable size. The inhabitants, mostly Hausa, carry on an extensive trade and are especially

noted for their embossed brass and copper work. The Bida goblets, in which brass and copper are beautifully blended, are of

extremely elegant design.

The manufacture

dyeing of cloths are other industries.

of glass and the

The streets are planted

GEORGE

PARKER

(1806-1878),

English

engineer, was born at Moreton Hampstead, Devon, on June 14, | 1806, and died at Dartmouth on Sept. 28, 1878. Asa child he had an extraordinary capacity for computation, and his father, a stone-mason, exhibited him as a “calculating boy.” From this career he was rescued by Sir John Herschel and Sir Henry Jardine, and sent to school and to Edinburgh university. He was employed by George Stephenson in parliamentary work in connection with railway development in the ’forties, and then by R. Stephenson

in the designs for the Great Eastern Ry. (L.N.E.R.) and railways in Belgium and Scandinavia. He was one of the founders of the Electric Telegraph Company, and the designer of the Victoria docks (London).

BIDDERY or BIDRI (an Indian word, from Bedar or Bidar,

a town in the Nizam’s dominions), an alloy of copper, lead, tin and zinc used in making various articles and ornaments which are inlaid with gold and silver.

BIDDING-PRAYER, the formula of exhortation to prayer said in England before the sermon in cathedrals, at university sermons, in the Inns of Court, and elsewhere on special occasions. Such formulae are of great antiquity in both eastern and western

Churches. The characteristic feature is that the minister tells the people what to pray for. Thus in England in the 16th century they were told what to remember in “bidding their beads” (O. E. biddan, to pray, cf. Ger. beten). In course of time the word “bid” in the sense of “pray” became obsolete, and the biddingprayer has come to mean the exhortation itself.

BIDDLE, JOHN

(1615-1662), frequently called the father

of English Unitarianism, was born at Wotton-under-Edge, in Gloucestershire. He was educated at the grammar school of his native town and at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, being subsequently appointed to the mastership of the free school in the city of Gtoucester, where “he was much esteemed for his diligence in his profession, serenity of manners, and sanctity of life.” A treacherous friend obtained the ms. of his Twelve Arguments drawn out of Scripture, wherein the commonly received opinton touching the detty of the Holy Spirit ts clearly and fully refuted; and in Dec. 1645 he was summoned before the parliamentary committee then sitting at Gloucester, by which he was committed

to prison.

He was released on bail after a short imprisonment,

but in July 1647 was called before parliament, which desired to enquire into his views. After tedious proceedings, during which

Sir Henry Vane befriended him, Biddle was committed to custody, and his Twelve Arguments, which he had now published, was ordered by parliament to be seized and burned by the hangman. Notwithstanding this and the ordinance of May 2 1648, visiting denial of the doctrine of the Trinity with death, Biddle issued two tracts, one a Confession of Faith touching the Holy

548

BIDDLE—BIDPAI

Trinity, and the other The Testimonies of Irenaeus, etc., concerning the one God and the Persons of the Trinity (1648). These were suppressed, and the Westminster assembly of divines eagerly pressed for the death penalty for heretics like Biddle. This, however, was resisted by the army, and by many of the Independent parliamentarians; and after the death of the king, Biddle was allowed to reside in Staffordshire under surveillance. He engaged in preaching and in literary work, particularly an edition of the Septuagint, published by Roger Daniel. In Feb. 1652 the general act of oblivion gave him complete freedom, and his adherents soon began to meet regularly for worship on Sundays. They were called Biddellians, or Socinians, or Unitarians, the name which has now become associated with their opinions. Biddle was not left long in peace. He translated some Socinian books, among others the Life of Socinus, and published two catechisms which excited a fury of indignation. He was summoned before the parliament in Dec. 1654 and imprisoned. The dissolution of that body again set him at liberty for a short time, but he was presently re-arrested and was only rescued by

Cromwell, who sent him (Oct. 1655) out of the way to one of the Scilly islands, allowed him roo crowns a year, and in 1658, on the solicitation of many friends, released him. For a few years he lived and taught quietly in the country, but, returning to London, he was, in June 1662, again arrested, and fined £100.

As he was unable to pay this sum, he was at once committed to prison, where he died of fever. k BIDDLE, NICHOLAS (1786-1844), American financier, was born in Philadelphia on Jan. 8, 1786. During 1804-07 he was the secretary, first of John Armstrong, minister to France, and then of James Monroe, minister to Great Britain. He was an associate editor of Dennie’s Portfolio, and prepared a History of the

Expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark (1814). In 1819 he became a director of the Bank of the United States. The bank’s national charter lapsed in 1836, but it was immediately chartered by Pennsylvania as the “Bank of the United States of Pennsylvania”; and Biddle remained president until 1839. He took a prominent part in the establishment of Girard college in accordance with the will of Stephen Girard (q.v.). He died in Philadelphia on Feb. 27, 1844. His son, CHARLES JOHN BIDDLE (1819-73) served in the Mexican War as a captain of infantry. He practised law in Philadelphia; was a representative in Congress in 1861-63; was long editor-in-chief of the Philadelphia Age; and published “The Case of Major André, with a Review of the Statement of it in Lord Mahon’s History of England” in the Memoirs of the Historical

Society of Pennsylvania (1858). The best account of Nicholas Biddle’s administration of the bank may be found in an excellent work by Ralph C. H. Catterall The

Second Bank of the United States (Chicago, 1903).

Elizabethan style, and the two parts of the town are united by

a bridge of 24 arches, originally erected in the 14th century, when the revenue of certain lands was set apart for its upkeep. The

church of St. Mary is modern save an old tower. A stone chance] screen and a Norman font are also preserved. Industries include the manufacture of earthenware, leather goods, sails, ropes and linen, and iron-founding.

The small harbour has about 17 ft

of water at high tide, but is dry at low tide. Anthracite and;

coarse potter’s clay are found near the town.

Bideford is a subport of Barnstaple (¢.v.) with some coastal shipping. It has a station on the Southern railway and a ca service by the Bideford, Westward Ho! and Appledore railway, The borough is governed by a mayor, four aldermen and 1, councillors. Area, 3,416ac. It forms part of the Barnstaple parli.

mentary county division.

BIDJUGO, an island fishing population of the Ilhas dos Bissagos of Portuguese Guinea living in 17 villages, and ruled at present by an elected queen. See de Coutouly, “La population de l’Archipel des Bissagos,” Revue a’Ethn. et Trad. pop. (1921).

BIDPAI, FABLES

OF, the name under which a famous

collection of fables of Indian origin became known in Europe in the middle ages. The original Sanskrit work, composed by a Brahman in the 3rd century a.v., still very popular in India as

the Pancatantra and:its shorter recension the Hitopadesa (“book

of good counsel”), was a mirror for princes, conveying practical wisdom in the form of beast-fables under five heads (paticatantra). It was translated with additions from the Sanskrit into Pehlevi for the Sassanian king Khusraw I Anūsharwān (A.D. 531597) by his physician Burzoe. This Pehlevi version is no longer known, but a Syriac translation from it made in the 6th century still survives. About 200 years later ‘Abd Allah b. alMukaffa‘ (born c. A.D. 725) translated Burzoe’s book into Arabic, with certain additions as an exercise in style. This version, known as Kalilah wa Dimna from the names of the two jackals in the first book, although intended only for amateurs of belles-lettres, attained wide popularity on account of its subject matter. It is in a preface to an edition of it by an otherwise unknown Bahniid b. Sahwan that its composition is ascribed to an Indian sage named Bidpa. Ibn al-Mukaffa‘’s version was soon translated into Persian, Eastern and Ottoman Turkish, Mongol, Malay and Ethiopic. A Hebrew version made at the beginning of the 12th century by a certain Rabbi Jo’él was translated into Latin by a converted Jew named John of Capua for Cardinal Ursinus in the third quarter of the 13th century with the title Directorium Vitae Humanae; on this Latin text are based all the translations into the languages of western Europe (except an independent Spanish version of Rabbi J6’él and of course those by modern orientalists). About the same time Ibn al-Mukaffa’s book was translated into

BIDEFORD, municipal borough on north coast of Devon-

Greek by Simeon son of Seth and thence into Latin, German and

shire, England, 84 m. south-west of Barnstaple. Population (1931) 8,782. It is situated on two hills rising from the banks of the river Torridge, 3 m. above its junction with the estuary of the Taw. Bideford (Bedeford, Bydyford, Budeford, Bytheford) is not mentioned in pre-Conquest records, but according to Domesday it rendered geld for three hides to the king. From the time of the Conquest down to the 18th century, Bideford remained in the possession of the Grenville family, and it first appears as a borough in an undated charter (probably of the reign of Edward I.) from Richard de Grenville, granting liberties similar to those in use at Breteuil and a market every Monday. A charter (1573) created Bideford a free borough corporate with a common council. This charter also granted the Tuesday market, which is still held. A subsequent charter (1610) continued in force until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1873. In the 16th century Sir Richard Grenville, the famous Virginian settler, did much to stimulate the commercial development of Bideford, which long maintained a very considerable trade with America, Spain and the Mediterranean ports, the import of tobacco from Maryland and Virginia being especially noteworthy. Many of the houses are built with timber framework in

the Slavonic languages. Among the Persian translations of the Kalilah wa Dimna, that by Kashifi (d. 1504), called Anwar-i Suhaili (The Lights of Cano-

pus [Suhail]) in honour of his patron Ahmad Suhaili, attained great popularity as a model of style—(it is absurdly artificial and bombastic to the European taste). Through its use as a Persian text-book by the East India company, this became known in Europe and was translated into most European languages just as its ancestor, Kalileh wa Dimna, had been five centuries before. Through one or other of these versions, the Pafcatanira has been translated into all the languages of Europe and India and all the languages of the Muslim world from Berber to Mongol and Madurese. The shorter recension of the Pancatanira, the Hitopad-

e§a became known to Europeans at the end of the 18th century and has since been translated into most European languages. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sylvestre de Sacy, Calila et Dimna, ou Fables de

Bidpai (Paris, 1816); T. Benfey, Pantschatantra (Leipzig, 1859); J. G. N. Keith-Falconer, Kalilah and Dinnah

(Cambridge, 1885);

Johannes de Capua, Directorium Vitae Humanae, edit. J. Derenbourg

(Paris, 1887); V. Chauvin, Bibliographie des Ouvrages Arabes (Liége, 1897) ; s.v. Kalilah. J. Hertel, Das Pañcatantra, seine Geschichte un seine Verbreitung (Leipzig, 1914); A. W. Ryder, Translation of ths

Panchatanira (Cambridge, 1925).

BIE—BIERCE BIE: see ANGOLA.

BIELITZ, a town of Poland in Cracow (Czech. Bilsko, Polish

BIEBRICH, a town of Germany, in Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 3m. S. of, and river-port for, Wieshaden. Pop. (1925) 21,260. The palace of the former dukes of Nassau occupies a fine position on the river bank. Biebrich is an important steamboat station for both passenger and cargo traffic; trade is in cement and aniline dyes, and in the wines of the district. BIEDERMANN, FRIEDRICH KARL (1812-1901), German publicist and historian, was born at Leipzig Sept. 25 1812, and after studying at Leipzig and Heidelberg became professor of philology in the university of his native town in 1838. His early writings show him as an ardent advocate of German unity, and he was a member of the national parliament which met at Frankfurt in 1848. Becoming a member of the upper house of the parliament of Saxony, he advocated union under the leadership of Prussia. He was imprisoned in 1854 for editing Deutschen Annalen, and subsequently retired to Weimar, where he edited the Weimarische Zeitung. Returning to Leipzig in 1863 he edited the

Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, and regained his professorship in 1865. He was again a member of the Saxon upper house, and from 1871 to 1874 a member of the German Reichstag. He died at

Leipzig on March 5, rgor. Biedermann’s chief works

are:

Erinnerungen

aus der Paulskirche

(1849); Deutschland im 18. Jahrhundert (1854-80); Friedrich der grosse und sein Verhdltnis zur Entwickelung des deutschen Geisteslebens (1859); Geschichte Deutschlands 1815-71 (1891); Deutsche Volksund Kulturgeschichte (1901). He also wrote the dramas, Kaiser Heinrich IV. (1861), Kaiser Otto III. (1862) and Der letzte Birgermeister von Strassburg (1870).

BIEKKICH: see Brepricy. BIEL, GABRIEL (d. 1495), scholastic philosopher, born at Spires (Speier). He was the first professor of theology at the newly founded (1477) University of Tiibingen, of which he was twice rector, and at some uncertain date entered the Order of the Brothers of the Common Life. His work consists in the systematic development of the nominalistic theories of his master, William of Occam, these theories being expounded in his Epitome et Collectorium ex Occamo super libros quatuor Sententiarum (1508, 1512, and various dates). The empirical individualism of the work, together with scattered utterances on special points, which gained for Biel the title of Papista Antipapista, had considerable influence in giving form to the doctrines of Luther and Melanchthon. It is the best specimen of the final aspect of scholasticism. His other works also have been frequently reprinted. Besides thedlogical works, Biel has a treatise De Potestate et Utilitate Monetarum, which gives him a place in the history of economic theory. The title Ultimus Scholasticorum is often wrongly bestowed on Biel: scholasticism did not cease with him even in Germany and continued to flourish long after his time in the universities of Spain. See Linsenmann in Theol. Quartalschrift (Tiibingen, 1865) ; H. Plitt, Gabriel Biel als Prediger (Erlangen, 1879); W. Roscher, Geschichte der National-okonomik (Munich, 1874), pp. 21-28. `

BIELEFELD, chief town of a subdivision of the district of Minden, north-eastern Westphalia, Prussia, c. 4om. E. by N. of Minster. Pop. (1925) 86,052. It is situated at the foot of the Teutoburger Wald, and consists of two portions, separated by the river Lutter, which

549

were

first united into one town

in 1520.

Bielefeld is mentioned as early as the oth century, as Belanvelde. Itjoined the Hanseatic league in 1270. In 1347 the town passed with the countship of Ravensberg to the duchy of Jiilich, and in

1666 to that of Brandenburg. Among its public buildings and institutions are the old town church, with a curious carved altar-

piece, and the town hall.

Above the town lies the old castle of

Sparenburg, built in the rath century by Bernhard, count of Lippe. It was restored after its destruction by fire in 1877 and now con-

tains a historical museum.

Bielefeld is the centre of the West-

Phalian linen industry, which dates from the 13th century, and was

extended by Dutch settlers in the 16th and 17th centuries. It has

also Important plush, silk and hosiery manufactures and extensive bleaching works, and does an extensive export trade. Engines, automobiles, glass, furniture and paper are also made.

Bielsko), 40 m. S.E. of Ratibor.

It is one of a series of towns in

the border zone between the Carpathian mountains and the plain of Eastern Europe. It is situated on the river Biala a small tributary of the upper Wista (Vistula), just opposite the town of Biala. Bielitz, founded in the 13th century, was an important fortified town in the rsth and 16th centuries. It has a castle associated with the Sulkowsky family in favour of whom the lordship of Bielitz was raised to a duchy in 1752. It is an important weaving centre with much trade in woollens and linen. It also manufactures jute and machinery. After the war of 1914-18

Bielitz was in disputed territory and passed from Austrian to Polish hands as a result of the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye,

Sept. ro, gro. BIELLA, episcopal see, Piedmont, Italy, province of Novara, 55m. N.E. of Turin by rail, and 38m. direct, on the southern edge of the lower Alps. Pop. (1921) town 22,146; commune 25,221. The old upper town (1,558ft.) and new lower town are linked by cable tram. Fine palaces with terra-cotta decorations and a modern bath establishment are in the old town. The new town contains the cathedral and the fine Renaissance church of S. Sebastiano;

near the former is a baptistery of the oth century. It is (and has long been, for the statutes of the wool industry go back to 1312) a considerable manufacturing centre for woollens, silks and cottons.

BIENNE or BIEL, an important industrial town in the Swiss

canton of Berne, at the north-eastern end of the Bielersee, where the river Suze or Scheuss issues from a deep cleft (the Taubenloch) in the Jura range, 19m. N.E. of Neuchatel, and 21m. N.W. of Berne. Its chief industries are watch-making, chain-making, the manufacture of machines and other objects for use on railways, etc. The West Cantonal Technical institute gives instruction in these subjects. The population, which in 1850 was but 3,589 and rose in 1928 to 37,150, was mainly Protestant, and two-thirds German-speaking. The parish church of St. Benedict dates from 1451, but was restored in 1775—it has some fine rsthcentury painted glass. In the town is the Schwab museum, chiefly notable for its fine collection of objects from the piledwellings. To the north-west, two funicular railways lead up to

Evilard (or Leubringen) and Macolin situated on the slope of the Jura.

(or Magglingen),

both

First mentioned in the 12th century, Bienne was for centuries under the jurisdiction of the prince-bishop of Basle. In 1279 (permanently in 1352) it made an alliance with Berne, in 1334 and 1344 with Soleure, and in 1311 and 1382 with Fribourg. It failed to gain admission into the Swiss confederation, though after it adopted the Reformation in 1528 it was closely associated with the Protestant cantons. In 1798 it was seized by the French, but in 1815, with the greater part of the bishopric of Basle, it became part of the canton of Berne. See C. A. Bloesch, Geschichte der Stadt Biel (to 1854) (Biel, 1855-56); also Bieler Neujahrsbléiter (1908-10); Bieler Jahrbuch (1927, 1928).

Lake of Bienne, or BIELERSEE, a Swiss lake, is situated at the foot of the Jura range. It is 74m. long, 25m. wide, its greatest depth 24o0ft., its surface 1,424ft. above the sea, and its area

16sq.m. In it is the Isle of St. Pierre with many traces of lake dwellings. It receives the R. Suze or Scheuss and the R..Thiéle or Zihl (from Lake Neuchatel). The Hagneck canal leads the waters of the Aar into the lake and the Nidau conducts them out again.

BIENNIALS,

the name applied to plants which normally

complete their life-cycle in two years, usually devoting the first to laying up a store of food, the second to flowering. This period is not, however, fixed, as if food is scarce the plant may delay flowering for more than one year, or may flower in the first year as in the bolting of such a plant as the beet. i

BIERCE, AMBROSE (1842—-

), American satirist, story-

writer and poet, was born on a farm in Meiggs county (Ohio), on June 24, 1842, the son of Marcus Aurelius and Laura Sherwood Bierce. His father had little money, but a good library, and instead of a formal education the boy read widely. In 1861 Bierce entered the Union army as a volunteer, served throughout the

550

BIERSTADT—BIG

Civil War, was twice severely wounded, and was breveted a major for bravery. At the end of the war he went to San Francisco; tossed a coin, it is said, to decide his vocation, and entered journalism as editor of the News Letter. He went to London in 1872, where, because of his caustic humour revealed in the periodical, Fun, and in three thin volumes, Nuggets and Dust, 1872, The Fiend’s Delight, 1873 and Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1874, he became famous as “Bitter Bierce,” and was engaged by friends of the exiled empress Eugénie to edit The Lantern, a periodical inaugurated to defend her against rumoured newspaper attacks on a visit to England. But her enemies were prematurely frustrated by the arrangement, and Bierce returned to San Francisco (1876). Except for a short period of mining near Deadwood (S.D.), he remained in San Francisco for 25 years writing for The Wasp and the Argonaut and conducting on the Examiner a weekly column, “Prattle,” which has been described as the most eagerly devoured column of causerie ever printed in America, and in which it is said he made and devastated reputations, literary and political. Throughout the early ’80s he wrote short stories without once finding an editor who would publish any of them. In 1891 the publication of a collection of them, Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (published as In the Midst of Life, 1899, 1909 and 1927), was financed by a San Francisco merchant. The next year The Monk and the Hangman’s Daughter, a masterly rewriting and. elaboration of a translation by G. Adolphe Danziger from the German, was published in Chicago, and Can Such Things Be? a collection of stories of the supernatural, was published in 1893. His book of verse, Black Beetles in Amber, appeared in 1892; Fantastic Fables (1899); Shapes of Clay (1903); The Cynic’s Word Book, 1909 (published as The Devils Dictionary 1925); Write It Right, a black list of literary faults (1909); and The Shadow on the Dial (1909), a book of essays covering among other things “government, dreams, writers of dialect and dogs.” In 1909-12 his collected works were published in Chicago. In 1896 Bierce was sent

BUSINESS

penal servitude not exceeding seven years or by imprisonment with or without hard labour for not more than two years. By the

same act of parliament the offence may be dealt with in an county or place where the defendant shall be apprehended or be

in custody. The following clause embodies the necessary excep-

tions to the very general language used in the definition of the offence: “Provided that nothing in this section contained shall

extend to any second marriage contracted elsewhere than in England and Ireland by any other than a British subject, or to any person marrying a second time whose husband or wife shall

have been continuously absent from such person for the space

of seven years then last past, and shall not have been known by such person to be living within that time, or shall extend to any person who at the time of such second marriage shall have been divorced from the bond of the first marriage, or to any person whose former marriage shall have been declared void by any court of competent jurisdiction.” By the Criminal Justice Ad. ministration Act 1914 the wife or husband of a person charged

with bigamy is a competent but not a compellable witness (R. y, Leach, 22 Cox C.C. 721). A valid marriage must be proved in the first instance in order to support a charge of bigamy. A voidable marriage, such as one voidable for impotence, will be sufficient, but a marriage which is absolutely void will not. For example, if a woman marry B during the lifetime of her husband A, and after A’s death marry C during the lifetime of B, her marriage with C is not bigamous,

because her marriage with B was a nullity.

In regard to the

second marriage (which constitutes the offence) the English courts have held that it is immaterial whether, but for the bigamy,

it would have been a valid marriage or not. An uncle, for example, cannot marry his niece; but if being already married he goes through the ceremony of marriage with her he is guilty of bigamy. In an Irish case, however, it has been held that to constitute the offence the second marriage must be one which, but to Washington to fight through the Hearst papers the Funding for the existence of the former marriage, would have been valid, Bill of the Central Pacific railroad, and a year later he returned but this was disapproved by the Court for Crown cases reserved to Washington to live, corresponding for the New York American in R. v. Allen, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 367. It is a good defence to a and conducting a department in the Cosmopolitan. In 1913, at charge of bigamy that the accused after proper inquiries in good 71 he left for Mexico “with a pretty definite purpose, which, how- faith and on reasonable grounds believed the first spouse was ever, is not at present disclosable.” He never returned, and, dead, even although seven years have not elapsed (R. v. Tolson, though persistent rumours have appeared in the press as to his 16 Cox C.C. 629). Further, if a person charged with bigamy in death at the hands of Mexican revolutionists, none of them has England can prove that he has been legally divorced by the law of the country where the divorced parties were domiciled at the been substantiated. See Tke Letters of Ambrose Bierce, with an introduction by Bertha time (even though the ground on which the divorce was granted Clark Pope (1922); Van Wyck Brooks, Emerson and Others (1927); was not one that would justify a divorce in England) it will be V. Starrett, Ambrose Bierce (Chicago, 1920); P. H. Boynton, More good defence to the charge. But a bona fide belief on reasonable Contemporary Americans (Chicago, 1927); C. McWilliams, Ambrose grounds that a divorce is valid affords no defence (R. v. Wheat Bierce (1929); W. Neale, Ambrose Bierce (1929). (W. Tv. BIERSTADT, ALBERT (1830-1902), American landscape & Stocks, 26 Cox C.C. 717). Criminal jurisdiction is always repainter, was born in Solingen, Westphalia, Germany, on Jan. 7, garded as purely territorial, but bigamy (together with homicide 1830, and was taken to the United States when about a year old. and treason) is an exception to this rule. A British subject comIn 1853-1856 he studied painting at Diisseldorf. His pictures of mitting bigamy in any country may be tried for the same in the the western part of the United States, and particularly the Rocky United Kingdom (Earl Russell’s case, rg901, 20 Cox C.C. 51, Mountains, made him widely popular. His “Estes Park, Colorado,” where the words “or elsewhere” were held to mean “in any other is in the collection of the earl of Dunraven; his “Sierra Nevada” part of the world”). American law as regards bigamy is similar (W. oe B. H.) (1878) is in the Corcoran gallery in Washington, and “The Valley to English law. BIG BERTHA, the nickname of the German long-range gun of Yosemite” in the James Lenox collection in New York. He rendered panoramic views with a certain ability, though his work (from Frau Bertha von Bohlen, principal proprietor of Krupp’s was rather topographically correct and impressive than artistic. factory, where it was made), which in 1918 shelled Paris from He was a member of the National Academy of Design of New the forest of Coucy at a range of 76 miles. The bombardment York, and is represented by two historical paintings, “The Discov- commenced on March 23 and extended over 140 days, firing taking ery of the Hudson River,” and “The Settlement of California,” in place about every third day; 256 people were killed, but the moral the Capitol in Washington (D.C.). He died in New York city on effect, after the first day, was slight. The most serious losses were caused on Good Friday, March 29, when 156 were killed or Feb. 18, 1902.

BIFROST, in Old Norse mythology, the rainbow, which was

wounded in the church of St. Gervais. The piece was a high

velocity gun made by boring out a 15 in. naval gun and inserting a projecting tube of 21cm. calibre which was re-bored to a larger BIGAMY, in law, is defined in the English statute now in width as it became worn, and by lengthening the muzzle increased force (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 57), is the the range. The weight of the shell fired was 264 Ib, and that of offence committed by a person who “being married shall marry the piece, 142 tons. See Col. H. W. Miller, The Paris Gun (1929). any other person during the life of the former husband or wife, BIG BUSINESS, a,term which first came into use in the whether the second marriage shall have taken place in England United States at the beginning of the 2oth century, to denote the or Ireland or elsewhere.” It is a felony and is punishable by huge aggregations of capital and enterprise which are growité

supposed to form the bridge guarded by Heimdal, god of light, by which the gods passed between heaven and earth.

BIGELOW—BIG

GAME

up in many industrial countries. The first impulse to form these large aggregations was due to the great area, abundant raw materials and immense markets of the United States, and was in the nature of things probably inevitable. A good example of “big

HUNTING

551

tion of Tilden’s letters and literary memorials (1908).

He also

wrote a biography of William Cullen Bryant (1890). In 1897 he published a volume entitled The Mystery of Sleep (2nd ed.,

1903).

In 1909 he published Retrospections of an Active Life,

business” is the United States Steel Corporation, which was a fusion, in 1901, of ten extensive plants, many smaller plants and other valuable properties, with a capitalization of $1,370,000,000

covering his career to 1866. He died in New York on Dec. 19, IQII; and two additional volumes of the Retrospections, ending with 1879, were issued by his son in 1973.

industrial organizations and the leading iron and steel producer in

ably shares with the lust for gold the credit for drawing

in stocks and bonds. This corporation is one of the very largest

the world, with steel ingot production In 1927 of 18,500,000 tons,

or 58% of the steel production of the United States. An early

example of “big business” was the Standard Oil Company, origi-

nally incorporated at Cleveland, O., in 1870, with a capital of $r,000,000. By 1879 it produced 95% of the refined oil of the United States. Its extraordinary

success, and methods

like the receipt

of rebates from railroads aroused keen opposition.

In July 1890 the Sherman Anti-Trust law declared illegal all

combinations in restraint of trade. In 1892 the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the Standard Oil Company dissolved into its 20 con-

stituent companies, but the pro rata distribution of stock among subscribers left the combined strength of the companies practi-

cally intact. The consolidated income account of the Standard Oil

Company of New Jersey, one of the constituent companies, re-

ported gross operating income for 1927 as $1,256,500,000. In Dec. 1902 the International Mercantile Marine consolidated the White

Star and four other steamship lines with combined tonnage of over 1,000,000 tons, and with bonds and stock valued at $170,000,000. Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court and the more liberal

provisions of the Clayton Anti-Trust law of October 1914 marked

the growing acceptance of the principle of aggregation. Wide distribution of ownership is a feature of “big business.” Thus the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, comparable in size with the United States Steel Corporation, at the beginning of 1928 had more than 525,000 stockholders, the average holding being 26 shares. The encouragement of employees to purchase stock is another feature of “big business,” as represented

by the United States Steel Corporation, the Pennsylvania railroad, the Standard Oil Company and other great corporations. This brings stability through a sense of common interest. American labour may possibly also be said to have entered “big business,” one trade union (the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers) at one time owning banks, large office buildings and coal mines.

BIGELOW, JOHN

(1817-1911), American journalist and

diplomat, was born at Malden (N.Y.), on Nov. 25, 1817. He graduated at Union college in 1835, practised law in New York,

BIG GAME HUNTING.

The pursuit of large game prob-

the

majority of explorers into the unknown, and there can be no doubt that such pursuit has always exercised the greatest fascination for mankind. In the past fifty years conditions have changed greatly and at the present time there would be comparatively few easily accessible big game fields left in the world had it not been for timely protection. The actual methods of hunting depend on the type of country in which the game is found, and on the size and habits of the creatures themselves. In open country which is free from any trees or bush it is obvious that game can be viewed from afar, the actual distance depending on the contour of the ground. In these conditions a slow and stealthy approach is necessary before a shot can be obtained, use being made of every tuft of grass, rock, or hollow as a means of concealment and attention being paid to the direction of the wind. This is known as “stalking.” In dense bush or scrub it is, however, impossible to see beyond a few yards. Any animal which is sighted will be well within shot when it is seen, so there is no need of a long approach to get within range. Game in these conditions is come upon suddenly, and the best chance of getting a shot is to walk slowly and cautiously through the forest, ever on the alert. This form of hunting has been described by different names but none is so graphic or realistic as the American “still hunting.” . There are some animals which cannot be followed in this manner. Such are mostly big beasts which herd together, as do elephants. They leave well defined tracks, or spoor, in soft ground and even on hard ground a skilful hunter can follow their trail and eventually track them down. “Tracking” describes this work. There are other animals which inhabit or else retire to patches of dense jungle so thick that it is impossible for any man to make a sufficiently silent advance to within shooting distance or view his quarry without first giving the alarm and frightening it away. Tracking and still hunting are out of the question and here the best chance of success is to drive the animal out into the open where a shot can be obtained, or at any rate along some path where the sportsman is waiting. This can only be done with the help

of a number of men or else with a line of elephants as used in

was joint owner (with William Cullen Bryant) and managing editor of the New York Evening Post (1849-61); was United States consul at Paris in 1861-64, and minister to France in 1864-67. While consul, Bigelow wrote Les États-Unis d’ Amérique en 1863 to counteract the apparent desire of the French for a dissolution of the American Union, by showing them the relative importance of the commerce of the northern and southern states.

certain parts of India, and this method is universally known as “driving” or “beating.” If, however, men or elephants are not available in circumstances such as these, the only course for the sportsman to adopt is to wait in hiding over some spot where the animal will-probably pass or return. Such a place may be either a water hole, or a salt lick, or, in the case of beasts of prey,

On discovering, in 1863, that a French shipbuilder, with the connivance of Napoleon III., was constructing two ironclads and two corvettes for the Confederacy, he succeeded in preventing the delivery of three of these vessels to Confederate agents. In his

It should, however, be stated that sitting up over water or a salt lick is not generally considered a sportsmanlike procedure and is prohibited by law in some countries.

work, France and the Confederate Navy (New York, 1888), he

monly practised in pursuit of moose, but can be used with almost

gives an account of this episode. In 1865-66, it devolved upon him as minister to France, to represent his Government in its delicate negotiations concerning the French occupation of Mexico, and he discharged this task with credit. From 1875 to 1877 he served as secretary of state of New York. He wrote books of

all species of deer; this is known as “calling.” Calling consists in waiting in hiding and making a noise in imitation of the call of a cow or hind during the rutting season or else of the challenge of a bull or stag. In either case a male will answer and will gradually come right up to the sportsman believing him to be a possible mate or a probable antagonist. Every form of big game hunting is a modification of one of these principal methods; the next consideration is that of the distribution of the game fields of the world, which can be dealt with best by continents.

travel, of popular biography, and of historical or political discussion, etc., but his principal literary achievements were editions (1868 and 1888) of Franklin’s autobiographical writings, coplously annotated; and of the complete works of Franklin (New York, 1887-89), based in part upon the editor’s personal investigations of manuscript sources in France and elsewhere. Bigelow, a close friend of Samuel J. Tilden, became the latter’s literary

executor, editing his speeches and other political writings (1885), publishing a biography in 1895, and editing a two-volume collec-

a half-eaten kill. This waiting method is known as “sitting up.”

In America there is yet another form of hunting which is com-

EUROPE

Before 1914 there were two principal hunting fields for big game in Europe proper, Russia and Scandinavia. The conditions in the latter area which comprises the countries of Norway and Sweden

554

BIG GAME

do not differ materially from those prevailing before the war. The game to be found includes reindeer, red deer, European elk and brown bear (Ursus Arcturus). Of these the elk is probably the most important and in Norway is more widely distributed than

HUNTING and Spanish ibex. Bear are very scarce and are confined almost entirely to the mountains of the north, the Pyrenees and Canta.

brian mountains.

Red deer are somewhat local but they exiy

in the forests of the Sierra Morena and Andalusia. Although no any other species of big game, its habitat including all the larger plentiful, chamois or “Izard” exist in the Pyrenees and Canta. continuous areas of coniferous forest. But it is a great wanderer brian mountains. They are somewhat smaller than the chamois and will on occasions invade districts where it has been previously of Tirol, both in size of bodies and heads. The Spanish ibex, howunknown. This is especially the case with the elk which have in ever, is a magnificent creature but is very strictly preserved, For. recent years been seen in parts of Finmark, where they have merly it used to be found in almost all the mountains of Spain probably penetrated from the neighbouring districts of Finland. from the Pyrenees to the Mediterranean, but it was so heavily The best localities for elk have lately been the districts north of hunted and shot that it became nearly extinct. The most rigid Trondhjem, and further south in Hedemarken, Kristians Amt, preservation was then introduced with the pleasing result that Storelvedan, Ytre Rendalen and Gausdal in Gudbrandsdalen. The best heads usually come from the more northern districts. The close season for elk varies, but at present they can be killed from Sept. ro to Sept. 20. Elk are hunted either by still hunting or with special hounds which run them to bay. The European reindeer is of the barren-ground type, being smaller in the body than the woodland types of Canada and Alaska and carrying long, slender horns which show less palmation than those of the American caribou. In former times reindeer were very widely distributed throughout the whole of Scandinavia, but now its range has become much more restricted and it only exists on the mountain plateaux above the timberline, and in. summer prefers those mountains where there are plenty of “braes” or snowfields. Red deer are not very widely distributed, existing only along the western coast of Norway from Buknfiord in the south to Namdalen in the north, and in a few other scattered areas. The only localities where red deer are found in any numbers are the two islands of Tusteren and Hitteren. Bears still exist, but in such small numbers as almost to be negligible from a sporting point of view, although a certain number are killed by peasants annually. Russia is at present an entirely unknown quantity. Without question much of the big game of central and southern Russia has been exterminated during and after the World War. In northern Russia, however, circumstances have been different. The rolling tundras and dense forests, mostly devoid of human habitation, have been little affected by the great upheaval, and it is more than possible that some of the best European hunting grounds of the future may lie in northern Russia and Siberia. From .Scandinavia to the eastern coast of Siberia, elk and reindeer are to be found. Further north in the tundras reindeer only are to be found. These tundras consist of open, undulating country covered with heather and lichens, interspersed with bogs, while here and there are to be seen scattered clumps of silver birch: a country, in fact, which is very like some of the northern deer forests of Scotland. Reindeer exist everywhere on these tundras and they are particularly common in the Kola and Yalmal peninsulas and the island of Novaya Zemlya. Other species of game to be found are lynx and bear, both of which are very plentiful, while wolves are ubiquitous and follow the elk. These wolves, it should be noted, are the big grey timber wolves. Polar bears are fairly common in the northern parts of Novaya Zemlya and walrus may sometimes be encountered on the ice floes. The White Straits are frozen from Christmas to May, while the whole of the Arctic Ocean and Kara Sea are closed with ice from November to May, and are liable to further blocks from ice during periods of northerly winds even later on in the spring. Central Europe suffered a similar fate to that of central and southern Russia, and the reserved forests which formerly held magnificent red deer, brown bear and roe buck have been sadly depleted of game. In the Carpathians game still exists in considerable numbers. Chamois and red deer both run large in these mountains and it is probable that better heads are to be found here than anywhere else in Europe. Similarly Tirol has been less affected than the lower levels. Chamois are to be found in the Alps in fair numbers, but it must be remembered that all the best districts are preserved. In Spain proper: the conditions are the same, and the travelling sportsman would stand no chance of sport without influential friends or exceptional letters of introduction. The big game of Spain are brown bear, red deer, chamois

this grand animal has increased considerably.

In the Pyrenees i

is found only in one valley, the Val d’Arazas, which is the pri

vate property of H.M. the King of Spain and is regarded as a sort of national park. The horns of the Spanish ibex are quite unlike those of any other of the goat tribe, more resembling those of the East Caucasian Tur, than any other. The chamois of the Pyrenees is one of the only two specimens of European big game which can give the sportsman who is un able to afford the rent of a special shoot, or forest, much chance: the quarry is one which will exercise all his stalking skill and as much hard work as the veriest glutton for exercise can desire, With the exception of the Val d’Arazas, to which reference has already been made, the shooting of the Pyrenees is open to the public for all practical purposes, but a passport both for France

and Spain must be obtained. Chamois are by no means common although they are to be found in certain localities. The other European animal which offers a chance of big game hunting to the sportsman of moderate means is the Sardinian Moufflon. This handsome wild sheep also exists in Corsica, where it had become almost extinct in 1914, but happily it increased during the war and at present it is strictly preserved by the French Government. In Sardinia moufflon shooting is legally open only for one month of the year, normally September, but the game laws are disregarded by the local inhabitants and it would appear to be but a matter of time before the Sardinian mouffon is extinct. These wild sheep at present inhabit the higher mountains, especially the Gennargentu mountains, and good heads may still be obtained although they are becoming more scarce every year. Useful books dealing with big game hunting in Europe are: Abel Chapman, Wild Spain and Wild Norway; E. N. Buxton, Short Stalks; and H. P. Highton, Shooting Trips in Europe and Algeria.

ASIA Asia offers greater variations both in climate and physical fea-

tures than any other continent and although its big game may not be quite so numerous either in species or actual numbers as those of Africa it undoubtedly offers attractions to the big game hunter with an exploring turn of mind which can be equalled in no other part of the world. Beginning in the west mouffion, similar to the Sardinian species but larger, are to be found in the mountains of Asia Minor, while the Caucasus still provides some of the most difficult yet splendid sport in the world. In the higher ranges there is that fine wild goat, the West Caucasian tur, which in the east gives way to the East Caucasian tur, an animal which carries horns very similar to the Himalayan burthel, but which has a short beard and is a true goat with all the characteristic smell of that species. In the wooded valleys may be found the maral, a magnificent specimen of the red deer species almost as large as the American wapiti, while it is just

possible that the aurochs is not yet extinct. Then the pasang, or Persian wild goat (Capra aegagrus), extends right through the

Caucasus from the mountains

of Asia Minor, and onwards

throughout the ranges of northern Persia down to Baluchistan and

the hills on the Indian frontier in Sind, where it is known as the Sind ibex. Persia itself is full of opportunities and is as yet little known from the big game hunter’s point of view. Tiger exist in the low lying forests to the south of the Caspian sea and probably further east as well, while the maral of the Caucasus extends well into

Persia. The mountain ranges hold at least one variety of wild

BIG GAME

HUNTING

553

animal seems to be almost ubiquitous throughout Tibet, and that is the burrhel, or blue wild sheep of the Himalayas, but whose real home is undoubtedly Tibet; it is regarded by some naturalparts. Mesopotamia and Palestine offer few attractions, although ists as the connecting link between the sheep and goats. Vast gazelle are found in the deserts of the former, but Arabia is a herds of Tibetan antelope roam over the Chang Tang, the desert irra incognita. A species of ibex inhabits the mountains of the of northern Tibet which has a mean altitude of nearly 17,000 feet, Sinaitic peninsula, and possibly extends further inland, while speci- and here, too, are to be found herds of wild yak. Further south the mens of the Arabian oryx can be obtained from Aden. The Ara- Ovis ammon hodgsoni and Tibetan gazelle may be obtained, bian thar inhabits the mountains of Oman and the desert holds while in the lower districts to the east of Lhasa there are forests which hold Thorold’s deer, a large deer very few specimens of azelle. : Returning to Persia it will be seen that the mountain ranges which have ever been obtained by European sportsmen. There is of this country run eastwards through Afghanistan to India where also a small bluish bear of Tibet, but very little is known of its they increase in height and form the range known as the Hindu habitat. Wolves are numerous, and in the west, bordering on the Kush. This system extends again to the north and east where it Himalayas, the snow leopard and Tibetan lynx exist but are rarely merges into the Karakorum, the range in which is K2, the second encountered. The Himalayas, the greatest mountain system in the world, highest mountain in the world, and which continues eastward until it unites with the Kuen Lun Range, that ‘great northern but- form a natural barrier between the lofty desolation of Tibet and tress of the Tibetan plateau. North of the Hindu Kush lie the the low lying fertile plains of India. The Himalayas themselves Pamirs, and north of these and parallel to the vast chain of provide magnificent stalking, the quarry being, in addition to those Tibetan animals already mentioned, ibex, thar, markhor mountain systems already mentioned are the Tian Shan mountains. Yet further north and still parallel are the Altai mountains, and shapoo (a wild sheep identical with the oorial), while other and north of these are the Siberian steppes. It will accordingly game animals are goral, serow and two species of bear, one black be seen that there are three huge principal mountain systems of and one brown, which latter exists only in the higher ranges near Central Asia, all running approximately east and west, with lower the snow line and is a variety of the brown bear of Europe. In lying levels in between them, although in the centre the wide the western Himalayas, in Kashmir territory, may be obtained extent of the Pamir plateau forms a mighty backbone from which specimens of the Kashmir stag, a deer very similar to, but larger sheep which is very similar to the Indian oorial, but slightly larger in body and with very much finer heads, and the plains carry several varieties of gazelle. Leopard are common in many

the other systems extend.

than, the red deer of Scotland, while in the east there is an isolated

The whole of this vast area is a wonderful hunting ground. Wild sheep are to be found in the higher ranges which carry heads

“pocket” of territory in the Chumbi valley which is the home of a still larger stag, the Shou. India proper contains the oldest and best known hunting

with wide sweeping horns. Of these the Ovis polz of the Pamirs is probably the best known, and this species certainly carries the

longest horns, but they are not so massive as those of the Ovis korelint of the Tian Shan, or of the Ovis ammon of the Altai, which has the most massive horns of all. The range of these central Asiatic wild sheep is large, extending right through Manchuria to Kamchatka, and throughout the mountains and hills of Manchuria and northern China different species and sub-species exist. Southwards, on the plateau of Tibet, they are represented by the Ovis ammon hodgsoni, the ‘‘ammon” of the Indian sportsman and the “nyan” of the Tibetans. Ibex range from the northern bank of the river Sutlej through the Himalayas, Karakorum and Pamirs, to the Tian Shan, the heads getting bigger

as one travels north, the biggest heads of all being found in the Tian Shan.

China itself is little known. In the mountains of the north wild sheep are found, and it is certain that tiger extend throughout the forests of eastern China from Manchuria to the extreme south. There are, in fact, strong grounds for belief that Manchuria is the real home of the tiger which has extended its range southwards in comparatively recent times. At birth tiger cubs are woolly, indicating a natural protection against cold, and although tigers are found in the hottest jungles of India they dislike heat and their pads will blister when they are forced across open ground in the hot weather. The tiger is common throughout

China,and extends throughout Cochin China and Siam to Burma, India, the Malay States and Sumatra.

In south-east China the

forests and cultivation give way to higher altitudes which culminate finally in a mountain range which forms the eastern border of the Tibetan massif. Here are to be found typical game of southern Tibet, the burrhel and the uncouth takin. Apart from

tiger Cochin China holds leopard and is probably the eastern outpost of the Asiatic elephant, gaur and rhinoceros. These animals all exist in Siam and here, too, may be found the curious Schomberg’s deer with its widely spreading and many pointed antlers, and a small representative of the Indian sambhur. This grand deer

seems to have India as its real home, for it is in this country that t attains to the biggest size both of body and horn, but it has avery wide habitat, being found throughout the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Borneo as well as in Ceylon. Between the Kuen Lun Mountains

on the north and Burma,

Siam and Cochin China on the south lies the Tibetan plateau, the highest and most extensive plateau in the world.

Only one

grounds of all. Sportsmen had been accustomed to shooting tigers long before any big game hunter had set foot in Africa. And on

the whole conditions have changed little during the past hundred years. The game fields of old are game fields yet: they have shrunk in size and the numbers of animals they hold: that is all. There are no vast areas where game formally teemed and which are now denuded of animal life, and in this respect India is different from other countries. The explanation lies in the fact that the climate renders it an impossible country for the white man to colonise and so the denizens of the Indian jungles have had the chance of existing without the menace of the advance of settlers as has been the case in America and many parts of Africa. The principal game fields are the Terai, a huge belt of tropical jungle which runs along the foot of the Himalayas from the river Jumna to Assam and which holds tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, sloth and black Himalayan bear, sambhur, cheetah, swamp deer and other smaller varieties; the jungles of Central India and the Central Provinces in which tiger, gaur (commonly called the “bison’’), sambhur and sloth bear are the most important big game; the damp and intensely thick jungles of southern India, including the Mysore plateau, where elephant, gaur and tiger are abundant, and in the Nilgiri Hills there is a species of wild goat locally known as the “ibex” which is really a variety of tahr. Assam and the Sunderbands, the semi-flooded delta of the Ganges, are the home of the buffalo, which was also common at one time in the Central Provinces, but which is now almost extinct in that district, and Burma is the best ground for elephant, gaur and tsine, an animal akin to the gaur. Leopard abound in all the areas mentioned while the Indian antelope, or black buck, and gazelle exist in large numbers all over the plains, especially in the deserts of Bikanir and the Punjab. Probably the best sport is to be obtained in the dependent Indian States, but permission to shoot in these is only gained by special invitation and the visiting sportsman would stand no chance of getting such without exceptional influence. All the jungles of British India proper are controlled by the Imperial Forest Service of India and are divided up into blocks, which are let out to sportsmen for a limited period. The total number of animals which can be killed in each block per annum is strictly limited and the blocks are allotted to applicants according to priority of asking. In India there are no firms or individuals who

make a business of conducting visiting sportsmen on an extended

554

BIG GAME

HUNTING

hunting tour as is the case in America or East Africa, and big game hunters who visit India must be prepared to make their own arrangements and take their chance with those British offcers of the army and different civilian services who spend the greater part of their lives in administering the land. The big game of Ceylon is very similar to that of India except that tiger do not exist in the island and all the horned or antlered game carry very much smaller heads, while the elephants are almost invariably tuskless. Sumatra probably offers the wealthy hunter better opportunities for obtaining specimens of Asiatic elephant, gaur, rhinoceros and possibly tiger, than does India proper. A large launch is essential and such can be hired locally.

great variety of hunting grounds. On the east the Red Sea Hil,

AFRICA Although the game fields of the African continent were the last to be discovered they have suffered more than those of any other part of the world, except some parts of North America, from the attacks of the white man. Such attacks, however, have not been delivered by the man who shot for sport, and if sport alone had been the object of pursuit it is doubtful whether the numbers of game would have decreased very materially. In South Africa the Dutch settlers must take the responsibility for the complete extinction of such species as the quagga and the general extermination of game from the greater part of the country which lies to the south of the Limpopo. These settlers shot for the sake of meat and hides, and wherever commercialism enters into the question the fate of wild game is sealed. Similarly the early elephant hunters had much for which to answer. But shooting alone has not been responsible for the elimination of big game from huge areas of Africa. Colonization by different nationalities of European settlers drove the wild animals into unsuitable country, just as it did in America, and it is this advance of civilisation which is really the most serious menace to the fauna of Africa. There are, however, gigantic tracts of country quite unsuitable for colonization by white settlers and in such the game should flourish for many years to come, protected as it now is by efficient game laws in most parts of the continent. In the first place it must be realized that the real wealth of Africa as far as big game is concerned lies in its wonderful variety of antelopes and gazelles. There are over 60 different species. The next interesting point is that no specimen of the deer tribe seems to be indigenous in the whole of Africd. It is true that a few red deer do exist in northern Africa in the neighbourhood of Tunis, but it is probable that these were either imported or else are the descendants of some which migrated from Spain before the formation of the Straits of Gibraltar. Africa shares with Asia the boast of rhinoceros and elephant, but both the African varieties of rhinoceros (black and white) are as different from any variety of Asiatic rhinoceros as is the African elephant from the Indian. The giraffe and okapi are quite distinctive and peculiar to Africa, while the African buffalo, with all its varieties, is as distinctive as is the African elephant. The leopard is distributed throughout the continent and is similar to the Asiatic species although an experienced sportsman can usually detect the difference in the skits. The lion, extinct in Mesopotamia, Palestine and Arabia, and driven into one small corner of India, reigns supreme among the wild creatures throughout the whole of Africa from Morocco in the north to Zululand in the south, and from Somaliland in the east to the Gold Coast in the West.

plains interspersed with patches of bush and situated at an eleva-

hold ibex, while the deserts of Kordofan and Dongola provide

gazelles, oryx and the elusive addax, as well as Barbary shee in the barren hills. But the chief hunting grounds of the Sudan

lie in the south up the Blue and White Niles. There is a big game reserve in the valley of the Blue Nile, but plenty of excellent

ground exists, although the upper courses of the White Nile

notably the Bahr-el-Ghazal, will probably attract the collector of rare varieties as here may be obtained specimens of the giant eland (Lord Derby’s) and the white rhinoceros, an animal which was once common in South Africa but is now unknown except in

the southern Sudan, Northern Congo and Uganda. Elephants ang

Many books have been published dealing with big game hunting buffalo are both common but the tusks of the former and hors of the latter are not big in the Sudan. in Asia but the following should provide the information necessary: Just as the Sudan is the nearest of the African big game fields, R. L. Kennion, By Mountain Lake and Stream (Persia); T. and K. Roosevelt, East of the Sun and West of the Moon (Central Asia); so Kenya is the most popular. Game may be seen in numbers G. Burrard, Big Game Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet; R. L. to be encountered nowhere else in Africa in spite of the fact that Kennion, Sport and Life in the Further Himalayas; A. A. DunbarBrander, The Wild Animals of Central Indic; A. E. Stewart, Tiger the herds are not nearly so large or numerous as they were. Every and other Game; J. W. Best, Shikar Notes (Central Provinces of kind of country and climate is met with in Kenya and each has India) ; G. P. Sanderson, Thirteen Years among the Wid Beasts of its own fauna. Starting from the Indian Ocean the first district India (Southern India); Fletcher, Sport in the Nilgiris and Wynaad, is the coast belt, where game Is plentiful but not so easily obtained vol. ii. of Big Game Hunting of the Badminton Library; The Indian Field Shikar Book; G. P. Evans, Big Game Hunting in Upper as in other parts. Porters are the best form of transport and the Burma; Forsyth, Highlands of Central India; H. G. C. Swayne, bag should include elephant, buffalo, rhino, eland, lion, bushbuck Through the Highlands of Siberia; E. Demidoff, A shooting Trip to and some of the smaller antelopes. The next and by far the most Kamchatka. popular district is the highlands which consist of great rolling

The most accessible district of all is the Sudan which offers a

tion of from 4,500 to 7,00oft., in places reaching 9,oo00ft. A great

part of this area has been settled by Europeans but nearly 11,000, ooo acres are permanently reserved for the Masai tribe. The eastern half of this area is a game reserve but the western half is the most popular hunting ground, and here may be obtained specimens of almost every variety of East African game. But a very large portion of Kenya is taken up by desert which lies to the north of the Highlands. The game of this desert is confined to oryx, Grévy’s zebra, dikdik and Grant’s gazelle, which gives place to S6mmerring’s gazelle in Jubaland. The real tropical African country is not found much in Kenya but covers an extensive part of Tanganyika, where there is nearly as much possibility of varied sport as in Kenya. Here one comes to the land of the sable antelope, which extends right down through Nyasaland, Northern and Southern Rhodesia to the frontiers of the Kalahari, but for really big sable antelope Angola is the best district. Rhodesia, both north and south, is a fine hunting ground and offers a chance of big kudu and roan antelope. Portuguese East Africa is heavily poached, but in the big swamps round the mouth of the Zambesi buffalo roam in great herds. South Africa has now little to show in the way of big game, although Zululand is probably still the best chance for nyala and the Kalahari Desert is the only place where gemsbuck exists. The West Coast holds plenty of game but not nearly in such profusion as the East, and this fact combined with the doubtful climate prevent its attracting sportsmen in numbers. Further the heads of animals run smaller as a rule than they do in the east, while elephants carry lighter tusks. The West African buffalo, or bush cow, is, however, a distinctive type which is found nowhere else. The immense tracts of the French and Belgian Congo are seldom visited by sportsmen other than professional elephant hunters, but bordering on the eastern boundary of the Belgian Congo lies Uganda which is the district, par excellence for elephant and buffalo, as well as that shy and retiring water antelope, the situtanga. To the north of the Congo extends the great Sahara Desert, the home of gazelles, but in the hills of Morocco and Algiers, the sportsman who has not time for a long joumey has a chance of Barbary sheep. Useful books of reference dealing with African big game hunting

include H. C. Maydon, Simen, its Heights and Abysses (Abyssinia);

H. G. C. Swayne, Seventeen Trips through Somaliland; W. D. M. Be, Wanderings of an Elephant Hunter; Abel Chapman, Savage Sudan; W. B. Cotton, Sport in the Eastern Sudan; Sir Samuel Baker, Nile

Tributaries of Abyssinia (Blue Nile) ; A. B. Percival, A Game Rangers

„Notebook; F. C. Selous, A Hunters Wanderings in Ajrica, Sunshine

and Storm in Rhodesia; H. A. Bryden, Kloof and Karroo; P. H. G

Powell Cotton, Travel and Adventure in the Congo; J.C. B. Statham,

Through Angola, The South and East African Year Book and GWG.

BIGGLESWADE—BIGNON NORTH AMERICA Just as Africa is the home of the antelopes so North America may be described as the home of the deer. The moose, wapiti (known as “elk”?), caribou (both woodland and barren ground

555

obtained locally; (2) what means of transport is generally used

between. the proposed base and the actual shooting grounds; (3) whether this transport is easily obtained, and how; (4) whether any trackers or native hunters are available. Good maps of the varieties), mule deer, white tail and black tail being among the country are another essential item. The question of the most suitable battery is largely a matter of varieties to be found. Other game animals are the grizzly and black bears, several varieties of big horn sheep, Rocky Mountain personal preference built up on experience, but generally speaking goat and in the extreme north polar bear. The pronghorn ante- the best weapon for stalking is a rifle of the modern “magnum” lope which is a peculiarly interesting animal in that it forms the small bore type which develops a very high muzzle velocity and so connecting link between the deer and antelope (having regular gives a flat trajectory, thus eliminating the difficulties of judging horns, as opposed to antlers, which it sheds annually) was at distance. It is always a mistake, however, to select a rifle which one time extraordinarily common and roamed the prairies in does not fire a fairly heavy bullet, as very light bullets are too great herds, but it is now confined to a few districts in the far- liable merely to wound, and 150 grains is a fairly safe minimum ther west and to that great national game reserve, the Yellow- weight. For dangerous game which is shot at close quarters the stone park. Here also may be seen the remnants of the stupendous tyro will be well advised to use a heavy double cordite rifle of a herds of bison, or American “buffalo”, which formerly darkened calibre of about -470. There are many experienced hunters who use nothing but small bores, but the beginner can adopt such the prairie and which suffered almost complete extinction. At the beginning of the 2oth century Newfoundland provided methods when he has gained experience for himself. Useful books dealing with big game hunting generally are: G. the finest caribou shooting to be obtained, the heads of the woodland variety being remarkable for their size and number of Burrard, Notes on Sporting Rifles; Rowland Ward, Records of Big

points. But they were slaughtered during their annual migrations

to such an extent that they were threatened with extinction and at present killing of caribou in Newfoundland is prohibited. The

chief game fields of North America now consist of New Bruns-

Game; Sir S. Baker, Wild Beasts and their Ways; Badminton Library

Big Game (Two Volumes) ; Rowland Ward, The Sportsman’s Handbook. (G. Bv.)

BIGGLESWADE,

urban district, Bedfordshire, England,

41 m. N. by W. of London by the L.N.E. railway. Pop. (1931) wick, where moose are fairly plentiful but little else, and the 5,844. It lies on the east bank of the Ivel, a tributary of the Ouse, country from the east of the Rocky mountains to the Pacific on a plain in which vegetables are largely grown for London marcoast right up into Alaska. Here all the varieties of North Ameri- kets. Biggleswade (Bichelswade, Beckeleswade, Bickleswade) is an can big game may be obtained. Wapiti do not range much to the ancient borough by prescription. The borough court was held by north of British Columbia, but moose are especially plentiful, the lord of the manor. At the time of Edward the Confessor, the biggest heads coming from Alaska, while there is an excep- Archbishop Stigand owned the manor. Henry I. granted it to the tionally large variety of grizzly bear which inhabits Kodiak bishop of Lincoln, under whose protection the borough evidently Island off Alaska. The wild sheep are akin to the various Asiatic grew up. In 1547 the bishop surrendered his rights to the king, varieties found in Mongolia and Kamchatka. and in the 17th century Biggleswade formed part of the jointure Useful books in North American big game hunting are: C. R. E. of the queens of England. Annual fairs were held here from early Radclyffe, Big Game Shooting in Alaska; and Bryan Williams, Game times. Biggleswade was formerly engaged in straw-plaiting and Trails in British Columbia.

OTHER

lace manufacture.

GAME

FIELDS

‘BIG HOLE BATTLE FIELD, atract five acres in extent

in southwestern Montana, U.S.A., set apart in 1910 as a National South America has little in the way of. attractions to the big monument. It is the scene of a battle which was won on Aug. 9, game hunter, the jaguar being the only animal worthy of pursuit, 1877, by a small force of United States troops over a large numand this leaves Australia as the only continent which has not ber of Nez Perce Indians. The reservation is administered by the been considered. The only indigenous big game of Australia is the kangaroo which is scarcely an animal for the sportsman’s War department. BIGHORN, the common name of the Rocky Mountain sheep rife, but in the Northern Territories there are herds of buffalo, the descendants of domesticated animals which escaped into the (Ovis cervina), so called from the size ‘of the horns in the male. bush and have been completely wild for many generations. Some The female bears shorter, ribbed horns. The bighorn is the only wild sheep indigenous to the New World, where it was formerly of these bulls carry quite good heads. New Zealand, however, is on a very different footing and is a found from Mexico to Alaska in the mountainous districts; it is country of peculiar interest in that all its game has been imported. now extremely rare south of Montana, except in game preserves. These experiments in importation have been most successful with The bighorn is gregarious and displays great activity and warithe result that for many years magnificent red deer heads have ness. The horns of the ram may measure 42in. round the been obtained, and at the present time the following animals curve. There are several varieties, sometimes separated as dis-

seem to have become acclimatised: red deer; American moose and wapiti; chamois; Indian sambhur, cheetah, thar and burrhel; mule deer. It is highly probable, therefore, that in a few years’ time New Zealand will be able to offer as fine a variety of good heads as any other country of the same size in the world. See T. E. Donne, Red Deer Stalking in New Zealand; and The Game Animals of New Zealand.

General Information—One of the most important steps in the planning of an expedition after big game is to ascertain the best time of year for hunting. Quite apart from the question of

tinct species. (See SHEEP.)

BIGHT, a nautical term for the loop or Bent part of a rope,

as distinguished from the ends; it is used as a geographical term for a slightly receding bay between two distant headlands, e.g., the Bight of Benin, the Great Bight of Australia. The name is occasionally used for any slight bend or curve as a geographical feature, e.g., the corner or recess of a bay, the bend of a river.

BIGNON, JEROME

(1589-1656), French lawyer, made his

health, should the sportsman visit the country at an unfavourable

reputation by his Chorographie ou description de la Terre Sainte, (1600). Henry IV. made him tutor to the dauphin (Louis XITI.), under whose reign he held important legal ofñces. His other prin-

season he may stand but a small chance of sport because some peculiar local conditions, such as high grass, may prevent him

and an edition of the Formulae of the jurist Marculfe.

from seeing anything. Another factor is water: as a rule this is fairly plentiful in any district where game exists in abundance,

butat some seasons of the year it may be very scarce, and only exist In certain localities. Information on these points will always

begiven gladly by the Game Department of the country in which

it is proposed to hunt, and the following further information should also be obtained:

(1) what stores and equipment can be

cipal works were Traité sommaire de Vélection du pape (1605),

BIGNON, LOUIS PIERRE EDOUARD, Baron (1771-

1841), French diplomatist and historian, was born on Jan. 3 1771, and died at Paris, Jan. 5 1841. As minister-plenipotentiary at Cassel, between the years 1804 and 1806, he took a prominent share in the formation of the confederation of the Rhine; and after the battle of Jena he returned to Prussia as administrator of the public domains and finances. He filled a similar function

556

BIGOD,

HUGH—BIHARI

in Austria in 1809 after the battle of Wagram. At the end of 1810 he became French resident at Warsaw. After Waterloo, as minister of foreign affairs under the executive commission, it was he who signed the convention of July 3 1815, by which Paris was handed over to the allies. Bignon did not re-enter public life until 1817, when he was elected to the chamber of deputies, in which he sat until 1830, consistent in his opposition to the reactionary policy of successive governments. He published attacks on the policy of the continental allies, two of his works attracting special attention, Du Congrés de Troppau ou Examen des prétentions des monarchies absolues 4 Végard de la monarchte constitutionelle de Naples (1821), and Les Cabinets et les peuples depuis 1815 jusqu’a la fin de 1822 (1822). He was for a few weeks minister of foreign affairs in the first government of Louis Philippe, and again for a few weeks minister of public instruction. Elected deputy in 1831 and member of the chamber of peers in 1839, he devoted himself to his great work, the Histoire de France sous Napoleon (10 vols. 1829-38, then 4 vols., 1847-50). . See Mignet, Notice Bignon (1848).

BIGOD, HUGH

historique sur la vie et les ouvrages

de M.

(d. 1177), earl of Norfolk, was the second

son of Roger Bigod (d. 1107), the founder of the English family of this name. Hugh inherited large estates in East Anglia on the death of his brother William in r120, and enjoyed the favour of Henry I. At first a supporter of Stephen during this king’s struggle with the empress Matilda, Hugh was rewarded with the earldom of Norfolk before 1141. After having fought for the king at the battle of Lincoln the earl deserted him, assumed a position of armed neutrality during the general anarchy, and then assisted Henry II. in his efforts to obtain the throne. This king confirmed him in the possession of his earldom; but becoming restless under the rule of law initiated by Henry, he participated in the revolt of 1173, which so far as England was concerned centred round his possession. Though defeated and compelled to surrender his castle, Bigod kept his lands and his earldom, and lived at peace with Henry IT. until his death, which probably took place in Palestine.

His son Rocer (d. 1221), who succeeded to the earldom of Norfolk, was confirmed in his earldom and other honours by Richard I., after he had fallen under the displeasure of Henry II. He took part in the negotiations for the release of Richard from prison, and after the king’s return to England became justiciar. The earl was one of the leaders of the baronial party which obtained John’s assent to Magna Carta, and his name appears among the signatories to this document. Roger was succeeded as 3rd earl by his son, Hugh, who died in 1225, leaving a son, Rocer (d. 1270), who became 4th earl of Norfolk. Through his mother, Matilda, a daughter of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Roger obtained the office of marshal of England in 1246. He was prominent among the barons who wrested the control of the government from the hands of Henry

III., and assisted Simon de Montfort.

The earl married Isabella,

daughter of William the Lion, king of Scotland, but left no sons. Hugh, the 3rd earl, left a younger son, HucH (d. 1266), who was chief justiciar of England from 1258 to 1260, and who fought for Henry ITI. at the battle of Lewes. The latter’s son, ROGER, succeeded his uncle Roger as 5th earl of Norfolk in 1270. This earl was the hero of a famous altercation with Edward I. in 1297, which arose out of the king’s command that Bigod should serve against the king of France in Gascony, while he went to Flanders. The earl asserted that by the tenure of his lands he was only compelled to serve across the seas in the company of the king himself, whereupon Edward said, “By God, earl, you shall either go or hang,” to which Bigod replied, “By the same oath, O king, I will neither go nor hang.” The earl gained his point, and after Edward had left for France he and Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, prevented the collection of an aid for the war and forced Edward to confirm the charters in this year and again in 1301. The earl died without issue in December 1306, when his title became extinct and his estates reverted to the crown. The

Bigods held the hereditary office of steward (dapifer) of the royal

LANGUAGE

household, and their chief castle was at Framlingham in Suffolk. BreLtiocGRaPHY.— See J. R. Planche, “The Earls of East Anglia” (Brit. Arch. Ass., vol. xxi., 1865) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage vol. vi. (1895) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vols. i. and i

(1896-97). BIGOT, one obstinately and intolerantly holding particula

opinions, generally religious. The early meaning of the word in English, at the end of the 16th century, was that of a religious

hypocrite. It was applied in French, in the 12th century, to cer. tain tribes of Southern Gaul, and, in an abusive sense, to the Normans.

The

meaning

changed

in French

to that of “religious

hypocrite” through the application, in the feminine bigote, to the members of the religious sisterhoods called Beguines (¢.v.).

BIG RAPIDS, a city of Michigan, U.S.A., on the Muskegon river, 56m. north by east of Grand Rapids; the county seat of Mecosta county, which contains go lakes. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pere Marquette railways. The population in 1930 was 4,671. The principal manufactures are veneer, lumber, furniture, automatic machinery and tools.

Fox-farming is a

growing industry in the surrounding country. A State trout hatchery is situated at Paris, 6m. away. Big Rapids was settled in 1854, laid out in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1869. It‘owes its name to the falls of the Muskegon, which drop 16ft. within

the city limits, furnishing a source of abundant hydro-electric power. BIGSBY, JOHN JEREMIAH (1792-1881), English geologist and physician, the son of Dr. John Bigsby, was born at Nottingham on Aug. 14, 1792. Educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.D., he joined the army medical service, and then, in 1817, was stationed at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1822 he was appointed British secretary and medical officer to the Boundary Commission, and carried out extensive and important geological researches, contributing papers to the American Journal of Science and other scientific journals. He returned to England in 1827. During the last 20 years of his long life he was continually at work preparing tabulated lists of the fossils of the Palaeozoic rocks, His Thesaurus Siluricus was published with the aid of the Royal Society in 1868; and the Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus in 1878. In 1877 he founded the Bigsby medal to be awarded by the Geological Society of London. He died in London on Feb. 10, 1881.

BIG SPRING, a city of western Texas, U.S.A., on Federal

highways 80 and 385, Girauds Creek, and the Texas and Pacific railway; the county seat of Howard county. The population was 4,273 in 1920; 1930 it was 13,735.

It is a division headquarters

of the railroad, which has offices, round-houses and shops employing 500 men. Stock farming is fhe principal occupation of the region, and large shipments of cattle are made. An experiment station of the department of agriculture is situated there. There are large springs and oil wells in the vicinity. BIHARI LANGUAGE (properly Bihārī), the most western speech of the eastern group of modern Indo-Aryan languages. “Bihari” means the language spoken in the province of “Bihar.” To the west it extends over the province of Agra so far as the longitude of Benares, and to the south it covers nearly the whole of the province of Chota Nagpur. It is also the language of the inhabitants of the neighbouring Tarai districts of Nepal (see Inpo-ArvAN Lancuaces). While an outer language, it shows points of contact with the intermediate ones.

As regards s, the

Magadhi Prakrit pronounced it as $, like the sh in “shin.” The Prakrits of the West preserved its dental sound, like that of the s in “sin.” Here Bengali and Eastern Hindi exactly represent

the ancient state of affairs. The former has the -sound and the

latter the s-sound.

At the present day Bihari pronounces its

s’s as clearly as in the West. The pronunciation of s is a literal

shibboleth between Bengal and Upper India. For centuries Bihar

has been connected politically with the West, and has rid itself

of the typical pronunciation of the East. On the other hand, in

the Kaithi character, s is always written $. In the declension of nouns, Bihari follows Bengali more closely than Eastern Hindi, and its conjugation is based on the principles which obtain in the former language.

BIHARI-LAL Bihari has three main dialects, which fall into two divisions, an eastern and a western. The eastern division includes Maithili or Tirhutiaé and Magaht. Magahi is the modern representative of the purest Magadhi Prakrit. It is nearly related to Maithili, but it is quite uncultivated and has no literature. Maithili is the dialect of the old country of Mithila or Tirhut, famous from

ancient times for its learning.

It has retained numerous anti-

quated forms, and parts of its grammar are extraordinarily complex. It has a small literature. The Bhojpuri dialect has extended south-east into the southern half of Chota Nagpur.

It might al-

most be classed as a separate language, had it any literature worthy of the name. ° (Abbreviations : Mth.= Maithili, Mg.=Magahi, Bh.=Bhoj-

puri, B.=Bihari, Bg.=Bengali, Mg.Pr.=Magadhi Prakrit.) Vocabulary.—Tatsamas,

Skr.=Sanskrit,

Pr.—Prakrit,

or words borrowed in modern

times

from Sanskrit (see Inpo-ARYAN LANGUAGES), are few in number, while all the dialects are replete with honest home-born tadbhavas,

used both in the literary and in -the colloquial language. few words are borrowed from Persian, Arabic, Phonetics——-The stress-accent of Bihari rules of modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars. As we may say that Bihari spelling is not fixed, often many ways of writing, and sometimes

Very

or other languages. follows the usual a general statement and that there are two or three ways

of pronouncing the same word. The genius of the Bihari language is adverse to the existence of a long vowel in a tadbhava word, when it would occupy a

position more than two syllables from the end.

This is subject

to various subsidiary rules which will be found in the grammars. The principle is a most important one, and, indeed, pervades all Indo-Aryan vernaculars of the present day, but it is carried out with the greatest thoroughness and consistency in Bihari. The whole system of declension and conjugation is subject to it. Declension.—Bihari has a stronger sense of gender than the other languages of the eastern group. In the modern language the distinction is in the main confined to animate beings, but in the older poetry the system of grammatical, as distinct from sexual, gender is in full swing. Except in the case of the interrogative pronoun, there is no neuter gender—words which in Skr. and Pr. were neuter being generally, but not always, treated as masculine. The plural can everywhere be formed by the addition of some noun of multitude to the singular. Cases are usually formed, as elsewhere, by suffixing postpositions to a general oblique case, usually the same as the nominative. There is no case of the agent, as in Hindustani; the subject of all tenses of all verbs being always in the nominative. Every noun can have three forms, a short, a long, and a redundant. The short form is sometimes weak and sometimes strong. Occasionally both weak and strong forms occur for the same word, The long and redundant forms are mainly used in conversation. They are familiar and often contemptuous. Sometimes they give a definite force to the word as ghorawd, the horse. In the feminine they are much used to form diminutives. The singulars of the personal pronouns have fallen into disuse. The plurals are used politely for the singulars, and new forms are made from these old plurals to make new plurals. The old singulars survive in poetry and in the speech of villagers, but even here the nominative has disappeared and new nominatives have been formed from the oblique bases. All the pronouns have humerous optional forms.

_ Conjugation in Maithili and Magahi—It is in the conJugation of the verb that the amazing complexity of the Mth. and Mg. grammars appears. In all three dialects the verb makes

little or no distinction of number, but instead there is a distinclion between non-honorific

and honorific forms.

In Mth. and

Mg. this distinction applies not only to the subject but also to

the object, so that for each person there are, in the first place, four groups of forms, viz.:— I. Subject non-honorific, object. non-honorific. II. Subject honorific, object non-honorific. IIT. Subject non-honorific, object honorific.

IV. Subject honorific, object honorific.

557

Forms in which the object is non-honorific may be, as in the case of nouns, short, long or redundant. There are numerous optional forms.

Moreover,

the feminine gender of the subject

introduces new complications. These minutiae must be learnt from the regular grammars. There are numerous irregular verbs. There is a long series of transitive verbs formed from intransitives and of causal verbs formed from transitives. Compound verbs are numerous. The Bh. conjugation is simple. In the first and second persons the plural is generally employed for the singular, but there is no change in the verb corresponding to the person or honour of the object. The termination of the present changes in sympathy with the old present to which it is attached. Irregular verbs, the formation of transitive and causal verbs, and the treatment of compound verbs, are on the same lines as in Mth. Literature.—In all three dialects there are numerous folkepics transmitted by word of mouth. The only dialect which has any real literature is Maithili. The earliest writer is Vidyāpati Thakkura (Bidyāpati Thākur), who lived at the court of Rājā

Siva Sirnha of Sugaona in Tirhut in the rsth century. His fame rests chiefly on his dainty lyrics in Maithili dealing with the loves of Radha and Krishna. These have exercised an important influence on the religious history of eastern India. They were adopted and enthusiastically recited by the reformer Caitanya (16th century), and through him became the home-poetry of the Bengali-speaking Lower Provinces. Their language was transformed (we can hardly say translated) into Bengali, and in that shape they have had numerous imitators. A collection of poems by the old Master-singer in their Maithili dress has been published by Grierson in his Chrestomathy of that language. The most admired of Vidyapati’s successors is Manbddh Jha, who died in 1788. He composed a Haribans, or poetical life of Krishna, which has great popularity. Many dramas have been composed in Mithila. The fashion is to write the body of the work in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but the songs in Maithili) Among modern writers in the dialect, we may mention Harsanatha, an elegant lyric poet and author of a drama, entitled Usa-harana, and Candra Jha, whose version of the Ra@mdyana and translation of Vidyapati’s Sanskrit Purusa-pariksa@ are deservedly popular. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. v. part ii. (1903), gives a complete conspectus of Bihari in all its dialects and sub-dialects. See also G. A. Grierson, Seven Grammars of the Dialects and Sub-dialects of the Bihari Language, parts i. to viii. (1883-87— these deal with every form of Bihari except standard Maithili) ; and S. H. Kellogg, A Grammar of the Hindi Language, in which are treated High Hindi ... also the Colloquial Dialects of ... Bhojpur, Magadha, Maithila, etc. (2nd ed., London, 1893). For Maithili, see G. A. Grierson, An Introduction to the Maithili Language of North Bihdr, containing a Grammar, Chrestomaihy and Vocabulary; part i. Grammar (1881; 2nd ed., 1909); part ii. Chrestomathy and Vocabulary (1882). For Vidyapati Thakkura, see J. Beames, “The Early Vaishnava Poets of Bengal,” in Indian Antiguary, ii. (1873), pp. 37 ff.; the same, “On the Age and Country of Vidyapati,” ibid., iv. (1875), pp. 299 ff.; anon. article in the Banga Darśana, vol. iv., (1282 B.S.), pp. 75 ff.; Saradacarana Maitra, Introduction to Vidydpatir Padāvali (1285 B.S.); G. A. Grierson, Chrestomathy, as above; “Vidyāpati and his Contemporaries,” Indian Antiquary, vol. xiv. (1885), pp. 182 ff.; “On some Mediaeval Kings of Mithila,” ibid., vol. xxviii. (1899), pp. 57 ff. A later and more complete collection of Vidyapati’s poems (but containing many that are of doubtful origin) is Vidydpatt Thadkurer Paddvali by Nagéndranath Gupta (Calcutta, 1316 B.c.=AD. 1909). For Bhojpuri, see J. Beames, “Notes on the Bhojpuri Dialect of Hindi spoken in Western Bihar,” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol, iii. n.s. 1868, pp. 483 ff.; A. F. R. Hoernle, A Grammar of the Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gaudian Languages (here “Eastern Hindi” means “Western Bhojpuri”), (London, 1880) ; J. R. Reid, Report on the Settlement Operations in the District of Azamgarh (Allahabad, 1881), contains, in appendices, full grammar and vocabulary of Western Bhojpuri. No special works have been written about Magahi.

BIHARI-LAL,

the author of the Szé-sai, a collection of

approximately 700 distichs, perhaps the most celebrated of Hindi poetry. The language is the form of Hindi called Braj-bhasha, the idiom of Mathura, the poet’s home. Most of the verses are amorous utterances of Radha and her lover, Krishna. A couplet in the Saé-sai states that it was completed in a. 1662, although

558

BIISK—BIJNOR

couplet 705 seems to refer to an event of the year 1665. It is said that Mirza Jai Singh, for whom the verses were composed, rewarded the poet with a gold piece (16 rupees) for every couplet. Little is known of the author beyond what he himself tells us. He was born in Gwalior, and later settled in Mathura. The collection very soon became celebrated, and its high position may be judged from the fact that 17 commentators have devoted their efforts to its full interpretation. Many different recensions exist, but the standard is that settled by an assembly of poets under the direction of Prince Atzam Shah, the third son of the emperor, Aurangzéb (1653-1707), and hence called the A‘zamshahi; it comprises 726 couplets. The collection has also twice been translated into Sanskrit. The best-known commentary is that of Lalli-ji-Lal, entitled the A critical edition of it has been published by Dr. Léla-chandrika. G. A. Grierson (Calcutta, 1896).

BITSK (Biysx), a town in the Siberian area of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, situated at the point where the Ob river is formed by the junction of the Biya and the Katun. Lat. 52° 40’ N., long. 85° 40’ E. Pop. (1926) 45,574. It has storage plant for butter and eggs and is the terminus of a caravan route from Kobdo in Mongolia. The Ob river is navigable to Biisk, and Siberian merchants dispatch their wool and skins by steamer as soon as the ice melts and in spring form caravans to go to Mongolia, taking with them manufactured goods and lump silver. Chinese brick tea is sometimes used as currency. The rate of exchange of silver and brick tea at Biisk is an interesting index of the relative prosperity of the Siberian area and Mongolia.

BIJAPUR,

an ancient city and modern district of British

India in the southern division of Bombay. It is a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, 60m. 8. of Sholapur. The ancient city was supplied with water by an elaborate underground system of reservoirs and aqueducts, which has been restored in part. The population in 1921 was 32,485. The city used to be the extensive and splendid capital of an independent sovereignty of the same name, but now retains only the vestiges of its former grandeur, though it is now increasing in population, and includes one of the

most picturesque collection of ruins in India. The city owed its greatness to Yusuf Adil Shah, the founder of the independent State of Bijapur. It consists of three distinct portions—the citadel, the fort and the remains of the city. The citadel, a mile in circuit, is of great strength and encompassed by a ditch rooyd. wide, formerly supplied with water, but now nearly filled up with rubbish. Within the citadel are the remains of Hindu temples, which prove that Bijapur was an important town in pre-Mohammedan times. The fort, which was completed by Ali Adil Shah in 1566, is surrounded by a wall 6m. in circumference and from 30 to soft. high, with massive bastions and a deep moat. Outside the walls are the remains of a vast city, now for the most part in ruins, but affording abundant evidence of the ancient splendour of the place. The Gol Gunbaz, or tomb of Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah, which was built 1626~56 is a square building, surmounted by a great circular dome r98ft. high. The inside area is greater than the Pantheon at Rome. It has been thoroughly restored, and one portion is used as a museum. The Ibrahim Roza, or tomb and mosque of Ibrahim Adil Shah, which took 36 years to build, is exquisitely beautiful. It was completed about 1620. The Gagan Mahal, or ancient audience hall, is in ruins but the archway, about goft. high, remains. Through it the last king of Bijapur was brought bound with silver chains, while on a raised platform sat Aurangzeb, the Mogul emperor, who had left Delhi three years previously to conquer the Deccan. History.—The founder of the Bijapur dynasty, Yusuf Adil

Shah, is said to have been a son of the Ottoman sultan Murad IL,

who went to India, took service under the Bahmani king of the Deccan, and ultimately became a person of great importance at the court of Mahmud II. In 1489 he took advantage of the break-up of the Bahmani power to establish himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur, his dominions including Goa on the west coast. His descendants maintained the prosperity of the State, until the rise of the Mahratta power under Sivaji began to make inroads upon it, and it was exposed to the yet more for-

midable ambition of Shah Jahan. In 1686 the Mogul emperor Aurangzeb, who as Shah Jahan’s general had unsuccessfully be. sieged the city under Mohammed Adil Shah, took Bijapur and annexed the kingdom to the Delhi empire. The celebrated gun Malik-i-Maidan, now in the capital, and said to be the largest

piece of cast bronze ordnance in the world, was captured from

the king of Ahmadnagar by the king of Bijapur about the middle of the z7th century.

An inscription on the gun recording that

fact was erased by Aurangzeb, who substituted the present in. scription stating that he conquered Bijapur in 1686. The city and territory of Bijapur remained annexed to Delhi till 1724, when the nizam established his independence in the Deccan, and included Bijapur within his dominions; but, being defeated by the Peshwa in 1760, he was compelled to purchase peace by its cession to the Mahrattas. Upon the fall of the Peshwa in 1818 Bijapur passed into the hands of the British, and was by them included in the

territory assigned to the rajah of Satara. In 1848 the territory of Satara was escheated through the failure of heirs. The city was

made the administrative headquarters of the district in 1885.

The district of Bijapur occupies a barren plain, sloping eastward from a string of feudatory Mahratta States to the nizam’s dominions. It contains an area of 5,707sq.m., and its population in 1921 was 796,876. The fluctuating numbers of the population reveal the effects of famine. There is very little irrigation in the district. The principal crops are millet, wheat and cotton. There are considerable manufactures of cotton and silk goods and blankets, several factories for ginning and pressing cotton, anda grain and cattle trade. The East Deccan line of the Southern Mahraitta railway traverses the district from north to south.

BIJTAWAR, a state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand

agency.

Area, 973 sq.m.; pop. (1921)

r11,723.

Forests cover

nearly half the State, which is believed to be rich in minerals, but

lacks transport facilities The State takes its name from the chief town, Bijawar (pop. in 1921, 6,133), founded by Bijai Singh, one of the Gond chiefs of Garha Mandla, in the 17th century. It was conquered in the 18th century by Chhatarsal, the founder of Panna, a Rajput of the Bundela clan, whose descendants still hold it. It was confirmed to Ratan Singh in 1811 by the British Government under the usual sanad. In 1857 Bhan Pratap Singh helped the British during the Mutiny, being rewarded with certain privileges and a hereditary salute of rr guns. In 1866 he received the title of maharajah, and

the prefix sawaz in 1877.

BIJNOR, a town and district of British India in the Bareilly

division of the United Provinces. The town is about 3m. from the left bank of the Ganges. The population in 1921 was 18,095. There is a large trade in sugar. The district of Bijnor has an area of 1,874 square miles. The country is mainly a level plain, but the northern part rises towards the Himalayas, the greatest elevation being 1,342ft. above the sea-level. The Koh and Ramganga are the principal rivers, and

the Ganges forms its western boundary.

In 1921 the population

was 740,182. The country is watered in most parts by streams, but a series of small canals has been constructed. Sugar is largely exported. Of the early history of Bijnor, even after it passed under Mohammedan rule, little is known with any certainty. About 1748 the Rohilla chief, Ali Mohammed, made his first annexations in Bijnor, the rest of which soon fell under the Rohilla domination. The northern districts were granted by Ali Mohammed to Najib Khan, who gradually extended his influence west of the

Ganges and at Delhi, receiving the title of Najib-ud-daula and becoming paymaster of the royal forces. For the part played by him in the victory of Panipat he was made wazir of the empire. After his death in 1770 his son, Zabita Khan, was defeated by

the Mahrattas, who overran all Rohilkhand.

In 1772 the nawab

of Oudh made a treaty with the Rohillas, covenanting to expel the

Mabrattas in return for a money payment. He carried out his bargain; but the Rohilla chiefs refused to pay. In 1774 the nawab concluded with the Government

of Calcutta a treaty of

alliance, and he now called upon the British, in accordance with

its terms, to supply a brigade to assist him in enforcing his claims

BIKANER—BILASPUR against the Rohillas.

559

This was done; the Rohillas were driven

of Shah Jahan for the throne threw in his lot with Aurangzeb,

beyond the Ganges, and _Bijnor was incorporated in the territories of the nawab, who in 1801 ceded it to the East India company. During the Mutiny of 185 7 it was occupied by the nawab of Najibabad, a grandson of Zabita Khan; he held it until April 1858, when he was defeated by the British at Nagina; whereupon British authority was restored.

and his eldest son, Anup Singh (1669-1698), who fought with distinction in the Deccan, was conspicuous in the capture of

BIKANER, SIR GAN GA SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1880Indian soldier and statesman, succeeded by adoption his elder brother, Dungar Singh, in 1887, as 21st ruler of the State, being invested with full powers in 1898. The first of his many visits to England was made in 1902, when he attended

King Edward’s coronation, and became A.D.C. to the prince of Wales, an appointment continued by King George. In the World War the Maharaja served in France as a staff officer, and in 1915

in Egypt. In 1917 he was made a member of the Imperial War

Conference, and assisted the secretary for India at the Imperial War Cabinet. He represented the Indian States at the Peace Conference, 1919, and the Indian princes at the League of Nations Assembly, Geneva, 1924. It was largely due to his

personal influence that the constitution of the Chamber of Princes, as a deliberative, consultative and advisory body, was secured under royal proclamation in 1921.

BIKANER, an Indian state in the Rajputana agency, with

Golconda, and earned the title of maharaja. Wars of Bikaner with Jodhpur raged intermittently through the 18th century. On May 9, 1818 a treaty was concluded, and order was restored in the country by British troops. Ratan Singh, who succeeded his father in 1828, applied in vain in 1830 to the British government for aid against his thakurs; but during the next five years dacoity became so rife on the borders that the government raised a special force to deal with it (the Shakhawati brigade), and of this for seven years Bikaner contributed part of the cost.

In 1842 Ratan

Singh supplied camels for the Afghan expedition; in 1844 he reduced the dues on goods passing through his country, and he gave assistance in both Sikh campaigns. His son, Sardar Singh (1851-1872), was rewarded for help given during the Mutiny by an increase of territory, Sardar Singh had no son, and on his death in 1872 his widow and principal ministers selected Dungar. Singh as his successor, with British approval. The rebellion of the thakurs in 1883, owing to an attempt to increase the dues payable in lieu of military service, led to the permanent location at Bikaner of a British political agent. Dungar Singh died in 1887 without a son; but he had adopted his brother, Ganga Singh (b.

an area of 23,315 sqm., a desolate tract, without a single per-

1880), who succeeded as 21st chief of Bikaner with the approval of the government, and under whose enlightened rule the State

manently running stream.

has made striking progress.

It is overspread with undulating sand-

hills, 20 to 100 ft. above the average level, and so loose that men

and quadrupeds stepping off the beaten track sink as if in snow.

Two streams, the Katli and Ghaggar, attempt to flow through this dismal region, but are lost in its sands. Water is very scarce, and is raised from wells of from 150 to 340 ft. in depth. A few shallow

salt lakes are filled by rain water, but they dry up on the setting in of hot weather, leaving a thick crust of salt on their beds, which is used for commercial and domestic purposes. The Ghaggar canal from the Punjab irrigates 5,o00 acres on the northern border; and a magnificent new canal, connected with the Sutlej Valley scheme, has just been opened, which is intended to protect about 1,100 sq.m. of the state. The inhabitants live chiefly by pasturage, rearing camels, horses and sheep. The other industries are leather work, sugar-refining, goldsmith’s work, ivory carving, iron, brass, copper, stone masonry, tanning, weaving, dyeing and carpentry. The principal towns are Bikaner, the capital, Churu, Rajgarh, Ratangarh and Reni. In 1921 the population was 659,685. The military force includes a famous Camel Corps, which distinguished itself in China in 1900, and in Egypt during 1914-18. The educational institutions embrace the Dungar Memorial college, a school for the sons of nobles, and a girls’ school called after Lady Elgin. The city of Bikaner is surrounded by a stone wall, 6 ft. thick, 15 to 30 ft. high and 3% m. in circuit, with five gates and three sally-ports. The citadel half a mile north-east of the city, is surrounded by a rampart with bastions. The population in 1921 was 69,410. The Bikaner carpets are famous, and there are also manufactures of fine blankets and sugar-candy. The wealth of the towns in this state is due to their being the ancestral homes of Marwari merchants, who trade all over India and amass es riches, with which they retire to the abodes of their fore-

BILASPUR, a town and district of British India in the Chhat-

tisgarh division of the Central Provinces, situated on the right bank of the river Arpa. From a small village said to have been founded by a fisherwoman named “‘Bilasa,” it became a Mahratta post and, after the lapse of the Nagpur State to the British, it was made the headquarters of the district in 1862. Its population was then under 5,000. When the Bengal-Nagpur railway was constructed in 1889 it became an important junction on the direct route between Bombay and Calcutta, a branch line connecting it through the Pendra Ghat and the Rewa State with the East Indian Railway at Katni. Its trade and importance have continued to increase and its population (1921) is 24,295. The American Mission has important educational institutions here, and there are the Government high school and its subsidiaries. There are also railway schools. The District of Bilaspur, as now constituted, has an area of 7,618 square miles. It forms the upper half of the basin of the river Mahanadi. It is almost enclosed on the north, west and east by ranges of hills, while its southern boundary is well cultivated and closely dotted with villages embedded in mango groves. This area constituted the northern portion of the great Chhat-

tisgarh plain (Chhattisgarh division). The Mahanadi is the prin-

cipal river of the district, and governs the whole drainage and river system of the surrounding country. Flowing north from Raipur it crosses the Bilaspur boundary near Seorinarain, then turning south and east, after a course of 25 m., enters the Sambalpur district on its way to Bengal. The most important affluents of the -Mahanadi are the Seonath and Hasdeo. The district is poorly protected from drought and suffers intensely in famines. In 1897 there was a heavy death-rate, and relief in 1899-1900 was athers. carried out on a most lavish scale; there has been good recovery In the r5th century the territory which now forms the state of since. Bikaner was occupied by Rajput clans, partly Jats, partly MoUpon the formation of the Drug district, transfers of territory hammedans. About 465 Bika, a Rathor Rajput, sixth son of Rao were made; the population of the areas now included in the disJodha, chief of Marwar, started out to conquer the country. By trict is (1921) 1,231,765. Formerly migration was very limited, taking advantage of the rivalries of the clans he succeeded; in but since the famines there has been much emigration to the 1485 he built the small fort at the capital which still bears his Assam tea districts and there is an annual movement of surplus name, and in 1488 began the building of the city itself. He died labour to Khargpur and Calcutta. The chief wealth of the disMM 1504, and his successors gradually extended their possessions. trict consists in its agricultural produce. Rice, the principal In the reign of Akbar the chiefs of Bikaner were most loyal ad- crop, is exported to Bombay, Berar and northern India. The herents of the Delhi empire, and in 1570 Akbar married a daughter tussur silk industry is of some importance, Sal, and other timber, of Kalyan Singh. Kalyan’s son, Rai Singh, who succeeded him in is exported, and Lac is sent in quantities to Calcutta and Mirzapur. 1571, was one of Akbar’s most distinguished generals and the There is coal in the Korba Zamindari. Among local industries first raja of Bikaner; his daughter married Selim, afterwards the hand-weaving is important, and there is a match factory at Kotah. The district includes Several large Zamindari estates held on emperor Jahangir. Two other distinguished chiefs of the house Were Karan Singh (1631-1669), who in the struggle of the sons a special privileged tenure. Many of these are in wild and hilly

560

BILBAO—BILDERDIJK

country with forests of considerable value. The Pandaria Zamindari in the west is more level and fertile. Bilaspur has not been so fortunate as its neighbours in regard to the construction of large government irrigation works, but the deficiencies are being made up. Two large works are under construction (1928) and other projects under preparation. (R. H. C.)

BILBAO, formerly sometimes written Bilboa, the capital of the province of Biscay, in northern Spain.

Pop. (1920), 112,819.

Bilbao is one of the principal seaports of Spain, and the greatest of Basque towns. It is situated picturesquely among hills on both sides of the river Nervión and about 8m. from the mouth of the river ‘in the Bay of Biscay. The old town on the right bank includes the 14th century Siete Calles (Seven Streets), and its extensions to the north, which date from the 16th century onwards. The Siete Calles is one of the most remarkable examples of a mediaeval site laid out entirely to plan, remarkable both for its regularity and for the care taken by careful levelling to secure drainage and ventilation; its paved streets were long closed to horsemen and to wheeled traffic, and their cleanliness was the wonder of all visitors. With its high houses and narrow streets, the old town is to-day the principal business and shopping centre. The prosperity which followed the World War has led to farreaching proposals for its alteration, in particular for the improvement of through communications by cutting two broad streets from the Puente de San Antón in the south, leading respectively to the Puente de la Merced and to the Puente de Isabel Segunda, the most important bridge carrying traffic to the new town. The

new town (Ensanche) stands a little lower down the river on the left bank; it is built on modern and spacious lines, in rectangular blocks with main arteries of traffic radiating from central plazas. The plan for the new town was approved in 1876, and was conceived on a scale adequate to the subsequent needs of the town. At Olaveaga, about a mile off, is the Jesuit university, attended by 850 students. During the second half of the x9th century the population of Bilbao increased nearly fivefold, principally because of the development of the mining and metallurgical industries. The mining industry, producing chiefly iron ore, has declined in the present decade in sympathy with the depressed state of the British foundries which consume three-fourths of the ore produced, and in face of increased cost of production and of the growing competition from North Africa; the high-class ores are also becoming worked out. More satisfactory is the condition of the metallurgical industry, which has applied to modernization of plant a large portion of the enormous profits made during the World War. The exports are chiefly iron; the imports coal; large quantities of wine from Navarre and the Ebro valley are also sent abroad, and the importation of timber of all kinds from Scandinavia and Finland, and coastwise from Asturias, is of great importance. In the coasting trade the exports are mostly pig-iron, codfish and some products of local industries and agriculture. The port of Bilbao includes an outer harbour (with free port), protected by a breakwater and counter-mole constructed outside the bar of the river Nervión, between Santurce and the opposite headland at Algorta; the depth at low water alongside the quay of the free port is 33ft. At Bilbao itself there are quays, 6,56o0ft. in length, chiefly on the left bank; the depth alongside at low water varies from 13 to r5ft. Five dry docks are now available, varying in length from 325ft. to 614ft. and in depth from 2ift. to 25ft. In 1925, 1,304 ships engaged in foreign trade, of a total registered tonnage of 1,905,766, entered the port; of these 477 were Spanish and 278 British, the respective tonnages being 625,755 and 319,535. Both the shipping and ship-building industry of the port are beginning to revive, after a period of decline, under the influence of the government bounties accorded by Decree-law of 1925. Besides the mining and metallurgic industries, Bilbao has breweries, tanneries, flour mills, glass works, brandy distilleries, and paper, soap, cotton and mosaic factories, Bilbao was founded by Don Diego Lopez de Haro about 1300, and was ‘given special privileges which, enabled it soon to outstrip Portugalete, the port at the river mouth. Its importance was greatly increased by the establishment in 1511 of a Consulado

modelled

on that of Burgos.

The code of commercial regula.

tions, drawn up first in 1459 by the merchant guild and revise from time to time by the Consulado, became in its final form the Ordenanzas de Bilbao of 1737—the basis of the mercantile

law of Spain and of many of the South American republics. This code had the advantage over its rival the Libro del Consulado del Mar of Barcelona—that it embraced both land and sea trade.

Bilbao suffered notable sièges by the Carlists in 1835-36 and 1874. Seo O. Jürgens, Spanische Städte (Hamburg, 1921 bibl.).

BILBERRY,

BLAEBERRY

or WHORTLEBERRY,

known botanically as Vaccinium Myrtillus (family Ericaceae), a low-growing shrub, found in woods, copses and on heaths, chiefly in hilly districts. The stiff stems, from 6in. to 2ft. long, bear small

ovate leaves with a serrate margin, and small, globose, rosy

flowers tinged with green. The berries bloom, and about one-third of an inch for tarts, preserves, etc. The plant is out the north temperate and extends

are dark blue, with a waxy in diameter; they are used widely distributed through. into the arctic zone. Cow-

berry or whimberry is an allied species, V. Vitis-Idaea, growing in similar situations, but not found in south-eastern England, dis-

tinguished by its evergreen leaves and red acid edible berry. The

plant, native also to northern continental Europe and Asia, is widely distributed in North America, ranging from Massachusetts and Maine to Labrador, especially in the mountains, and north.

westward to Alaska. In the eastern United States it is commonly called mountain cranberry. (See BLUEBERRY; CRANBERRY; VACCINIUM.) BILBES, a town of lower Egypt, on the eastern arm of the

Nile, 36m. N.N.E. of Cairo by rail. The Coptic name, Phelbés, seems derived from Egyptian, but nothing is known of the place

before mediaeval times. Considered the bulwark of the kingdom on that side, Bilbes was strongly fortified by the Mohammedans. In 1163-64 it was besieged for three months by the crusaders under Amalric, and in 1168 was captured and pillaged by another army of crusaders. Napoleon in 1798 ordered the restoration of the fortifications, but they have again fallen into decay. BILBO (from the Spanish town Bilbao, formerly called in England “Bilboa,” and famous, like Toledo, for its sword-blades), in-the earliest English use, a sword, especially one of superior temper. In the plural form (as in Shakespeare’s phrase “methought I lay worse than the mutines in the bilboes’”) it meant the irons into which offenders were put on board ship. BILDERDIJK, WILLEM (1756-1831), Dutch poet, was the son of an Amsterdam physician. His parents were ardent partisans of the house of Orange, and Bilderdijk grew up with

strong monarchial and Calvinistic convictions. After studying law at Leyden university, he practised as an advocate at the Hague. He refused in 1795 to take the oath to the new administration, and was consequently obliged to leave Holland. He went to Hamburg, and then to London, where his great learning procured him consideration. There he had as a pupil Katherina Wilhelmina Schweickhardt (1776—1830), the daughter of a Dutch painter and herself a poet. He married this lady in 1802. In 1806 he re-

turned to Holland. He was kindly received by Louis Napoleon,

who made him his librarian, and a member and eventually president (1809—11) of the Royal Institute. A picture of the Bilderdijk household is given in the letters

(vol. v., 1850) of Robert Southey, who stayed some time with

Bilderdijk in 1825. Madame Bilderdijk had translated Roderick

into Dutch .(1823-24). For his work as a poet see DUTCH LITERATURE. His many-sided activity showed itself also in his-

torical criticism—Geschiedenis des Vaderlands (1832—51),& Conservative commentary

on Wagenaar’s

Vaderlandsche Historie;

in translations from the Greek and Latin classics, in philology,

and in drama.

tic poem,

His most important poetical works are the didac-

De Ziekte

der geleerden

(“The Disease of the

Learned”), 1807; a descriptive poem in the manner of Delille in

Het Buitenleven (1803); and his fragmentary epic, De Onder-

gang der eerste wereld (1820). His poetical works were collected by I. da Costa (Haarlem, 1856-59)

with a biography of the poet. See also “Mijne Levensbeschrij ing’ Y)

Mengelingen en Fragmenten . . . (1834); his Brieven (ed. 1836-37

561

BILEJIK—-BILHARZIASIS py I. da Costa and W. Messchert; Dr. R. A. Kollewijn, Bilderdijk, , Zijn Leven en werken . . . (1891).

BILEJIK, chief town of the Ertoghrul vilayet in Asia Minor,

altitude 1,900ft., situated on a hill 24m. from its station on the Ismid-Angora railway. Pop. (1927), 21,427. It is an important

centre of the silk industry, and has several silk-spinning factories.

BILFINGER or BULFFINGER, GEORG BERNHARD (1693-17 50), German philosopher, mathematician and statesman, was born on Jan. 23, 1693, at Kanstatt, Wiirttemberg. He studied philosophy under Wolff, became professor of phil-

If during its short active life it approaches an appropriate water-snail, it penetrates and bores its way to the pancreaticohepatic gland and encysts. Bifid larvae (cercariae) develop within

the daughter cysts and escape when

the snail ruptures.

The

parasite again becomes free swimming. Cercariae survive not longer than 36 hours. They are attracted by and penetrate human skin and mucous membranes immersed in the water. They dis-

card the tail and are carried by the blood and lymph to the lungs and from thence to the liver where they mature.

Definite symp-

toms of schistosomiasis may be expected two months or later osophy (1721) and then of mathematics (1724) at Halle. His from the time of contact with infected water. Treatment-—In 1917 Christopherson in Khartum found that Dilucidationes philosophicae de deo, anima humana, mundo (Tiibingen, 1725) is a Clear presentation of Wolff’s philosophy. On antimony tartrate administered intravenously was an infallible Wolff’s recommendation he was invited by Peter the Great to parasiticide for both species of Egyptian schistosomiasis, and lecture at St. Petersburg, and he remained there from 1725 to worked out the method of treatment by antimony which has 1731. In the latter year he returned to Germany, became pro- since been adopted. Later it was found that antimony tartrate fessor of theology at Tubingen, and a member of Duke Charles was an equally trustworthy parasiticide for Asiatic schistosomiasis. Alexander’s council. On the duke’s death he became a member Recovery is the rule provided reinfection is obviated. Death of the Regency Council, and helped to reorganize education and takes place from toxaemia due to a heavy infection, from interagriculture in the State. He died at Stuttgart on Feb. 18, 1750. current disease, from impairment of liver function, from compliBeside the Dilucidationes, he wrote:—De Harmonia animi et cations caused by the damaged organs and secondarily from stone corporis humani commentatio (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1725;) De in the bladder or cancer. Preventive Measures.—Theoretically schistosomiasis can be origine et permissione malt (1724), an account of the Leibnitzian stamped out of a locality by (1) curing all the cases, (2) killing theodicy. See Tafinger, Leichenrede (Stuttgart, 1750); Abel, in Moser’s PaINTERMEDIATE HOSTS OF BILHARZIA

triot, Archiv., ix. p. 369 (1788) ; Spittler, Verm. Schriften, xiii. p. 421;

R. Wahl, “Bilfinger’s Monadologie” Zeitschrift fiir Philos. E. Zeler, Geschichte d. deutsch. Philos. seit Leibnitz.

(1884);

BILGE, the widest part or “belly” of a cask; the broad horizontal part of a ship’s bottom above the keel; also the lowest interior part of the hull; hence, “‘bilge-water,” the foul water which collects in the bilge. ‘Bilge-keels” are pieces of timber fastened to the bottom of a ship to reduce rolling. The word is a corruption of bulge, from Fr. bouge, Lat. bulga, a bag, probably deriving from an original Celtic word.

BILGRAMI, SAYYID HUSAIN (1843-1926), Indian

statesman, a member of a well-known Mohammedan family, was educated at the Presidency college, Calcutta, and became professor of Arabic at Lucknow. In 1884 he was attached to the service of the Nizam of Berar, where he was director of education for 20 years. He helped to build up the Mohammedan Oriental college at Aligarh, which is now a university; in other ways he promoted Mohammedan interests in India, and from 1907 to 1909 Was a prominent member of the India Council in London. He died on June 9, 1926.

BILHARZIASIS or SCHISTOSOMIASIS, a disease char-

|A

PLANORBIS GENUS ISIDORA (BULLINUS) GENUS

ONCOMELANIA GENUS OVA

AND DEVELOPMENT OF BILHARZIA

(A) TERMINAL SPINE (VESICAL)

(B) LATERAL SPINE (INTESTINAL)

SMALLER THAN A OR B

BLUNT LATERAL Nos (AsIATIC)

acterized by haematuria or by discharge of blood and mucus by

the rectum caused by the fluke parasite schistosoma and endemic throughout Africa, South America and the West Indies, China, Japan, the Philippines, Formosa, Burma, India and Western

Australia. One European country only, south Portugal, is known to be infected by schistosomiasis (1925). Causation.—Schistosomiasis is caused by certain metazoal parasites of the family Schistosomidae Looss-1899 (type genus Schistosoma Weinland 1858) belonging to the trematode class of the phylum Platy-helminthes.

In the schistosomidae

the sexes are

separate, and the alimentary canal is united posteriorly into a single tube. In the known human species the egg is furnished with

a characteristic spine (point) or knob. A ventral (gynaecological) canal for carrying the cylindrical female worm is formed by the infolding lateral margins of the leaf-shaped male. There are three known human species; Schist. haematobium, the chief African species infects principally the bladder; Schist. mansoni, also found in Africa, the only species infecting America,

affects the large intestine; Schist. japonicum, the Asiatic species, affects the large intestine and liver and spleen.

The adult worms inhabit the portal venous system, reach ma-

turity in the liver and pass in the portal tributaries to the pelvic

veins in the bladder and large intestine to lay their eggs, which reach the exterior world in the urine and faeces. In fresh water under favourable conditions the ovum hatches the ciliated em-

bryo (miracidium).

MATURE MALE AND FEMALE WORM OF SCHIST. JAPONICA

(Aster Faust

ANDO MELENEY)

CERCARIA FROM SNAIL: FREESWIMMING CILIATED LARVA, WHICH, PIERCING THE SKIN, PASSES TO THE LIVER AND BECOMES THE ADULT WORM.

se FREE-SWIMMING MIRACIDIUM HATCHED FROM THE OVUM.

(AFTER LOOSS)

THE SCHISTOSOMA PARASITE, RESPONSIBLE FOR BILHARZIASIS, A DISEASE TO WHICH MAN IS SUBJECT IN AFRICA AND OTHER COUNTRIES

Above are shown the main water snails that serve as Intermediate the parasites; below, the stages from the ovum to the adult worm

hosts of

the intermediary hosts (water snails), (3) preventing the mollusc

infecting man, and man the mollusc. This is effected by the intravenous-injection of antimony tartrate (Pot. or Sod.) daily for five days, afterwards three times a week until the necessary total

(adult) amount (25-30 grains) is reached.

Antimony is contra-

indicated in cardiac and renal disease and when the liver is ex-

tensively disorganized. Emetin is given when antimony tartrate is not tolerated. Extermination of the snails is accomplished by

562

BILIN— BILL

chemicals which kill the mollusc but are beneficial to or do not interfere with the fertility of the soil, chiefly calcium and ammo-

nium compounds. In Egypt where irrigation is under government control, Leiper recommended the periodical drying up in rotation of irrigation canals for 15 days. The natural enemies of the snail:

(ducks) are to be encouraged. Water contaminated by bilharzia, if kept for two days, is innocuous for domestic purposes. BrsiiocRapHy.—R. T. Leiper, Jour. R.A.M.C., Vol. 25, parts 1, 2 and 3 with a Bibliography (1915); J. B. Christopherson, Lancet, Vol. 2 (1918) ; Jour. of Trop. Med. and Hygiene, Vol. 22 (1919) ; P. Manson-Bahr, Manson’s Tropical Diseases, 8th edition (1925).

BILIN: see BILINA. BILINA, a small town of Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, situated on the Biele within the Germanized belt of the country. Like many towns in this region it is famous for its mineral springs, the Biliner Sauerbrunnen, which have a temperature of 45-6° F and contain bicarbonate of soda. The water is bottled and exported in large quantities and is also evaporated for its salt. South of the town rise the volcanic heights of the Mittelgebirge, a region of wide panoramas notably from the Rudelstein (2,460ft.), while northward it has easy access to the lignites of the Most-Teplice basin.

BILINGUALISM.

In many parts of the world people use

one language inside the family circle and speak another, sometimes of a different type, freely and naturally, outside the family circle. Or two languages may exist side by side in the same country and be used freely by the inhabitants both at home and outside the home. One may develop into a lingua franca (g.v.) and the other remain a local dialect. The conflict between localization and unification goes on everywhere and affects language as a social instrument and institution. Inside a society, if education is the privilege of the few, there will be found such differences between _ the speech of the educated and the uneducated classes as to produce a kind of bilingualism. A man may write like an angel and talk like poor Poll. The purists in Athens and Bengal go to classical models while the speech of the people—living—subject to the life of the people—develops independently. Then there are cases of politically advanced communities where two distinct languages are spoken in the same area, are taught in the schools and are recognized for official purposes. There are cases, too, unhappily not infrequent in history where a ruling people has thrust its language on a conquered country. But so closely is language bound up with national and religious life that the former language will be kept alive by patriotism. The study of bilingualism in the strict sense involves, therefore, scrutiny of its distribution, of the conditions in which it occurs, of the nature and extent of the effects which it produces on the phonetic and structural systems of both languages, the familial and the external. Regard must be had to the conditions in which the second or external language is acquired and used, to the linguistic affinities of the two languages and to the psychological, economic and political conditions of contact. Educational and psychological problems are involved. Distribution.—The languages of the world are divided into families and groups regardless of political boundaries. The identification of the boundaries of a language is not always an easy matter. Since natural bilingualism occurs when two languages come into contact, the occasion for bilingualism is almost world wide. In Europe for instance, Magyar, a Finno-Ugrian language, is surrounded by languages which belong to the Slavonic, Romance and Teutonic groups. Finnish speech is in touch with Russian and Swedish, and Russian in turn farther East is in contact with Mongol and Chinese. In India, Brahui, a Dravidian language is ringed round with Iranian tongues, and in the south the Dravidian languages encounter Indo-Aryan languages along a great frontier. There are

Dravidian areas surrounded or in touch with Austric (Munda)

speech. Assam and Burma, too, have linguistic frontiers. Austric speech meets Papuan in New Guinea. In American conditions there are people such as the Mayas who are even trilingual for they speak Maya in their homes, learn Spanish in the mission schools and use English in trade.

Social 6Conditions .—The . family is the most important group yie . in all societies as the first instrument of cultural transmission The conditions in which the first or familial language is lear are not repeated exactly when a second language has to be learnt

The form of the family, the modes of marriage observed, polygamy, matrilocal and patrilocal marriage, induce variations in linguistics as in other social matters. Marriage with strangers may be allowed, encouraged or, more

usually, forbidden and disliked. Some societies are exclusive jealous of strangers, resistant to new ideas. Others, those in which bilingualism flourishes, are willing, even eayer to seek inter. course with others.

Here and there occur special cases Where

only historical knowledge can explain a difficult linguistic phe-

nomenon as among the Caribs who killed off the Arawak men and took the women as captives. The women spoke Arawak; their own language, and taught it to their daughters, but the boys were

taken by their fathers often at an early age for long voyages and

expeditions and so learnt Carib. In Burma mixed Marriages of Burmese women with Chinese men are known and the girls are

brought up as Burmese while the boys follow the father. Phonetics.—Every language has a distinctive phonetic system

and a distinctive pattern of structure. Neither is absolutely rigid, incapable of modification. Changes occur, from internal causes and by reasons of external contacts. These changes are however directed by the pre-existing system and structure. But while a

single sound change such as may be introduced in association with bilingualism may upset the old phonetic pattern by bringing in disharmony, there can be seen in all languages a general drift in a definite direction, compensated and controlled by a readjusting tendency and a conservative tendency. Structure.—Something like an ideal linguistic entity dominates the speech habits of the members of each group and modifications and variations of all linguistic phenomena have to be correlated with this ideal entity. Slight phonetic readjustment or unsettlement may in the course

of millennia bring about the most profound structural changes. Thus a growing tendency to throw the stress automatically on the first syllable of a word may eventually change the fundamental type of a language, reducing its final syllables to zero. One of the most potent causes of unsettling a language is any widespread bilingualism, whether open or, as is often the case, secret and unsuspected. Certain languages have structural features due to the suggestive influence of neighbouring languages. How great the influence of one language on another may be, even when the two belong to different language families, is shown by the present condition of Finnish, Estonian and Magyar and Finno-Ugrian languages. It is said that a reader familiar with other European speech will find nothing fundamentally original in the syntax of the sentences of a journal in these languages, apart from a few idiomatic expressions. Vocabulary.—Borrowed words are made to conform to the phonetic pattern of the borrowing language and are often sorely changed in the process. Then a psychological principle seems to be at work by which certain types of words are selected or are pre-

ferred for assimilation as conforming to the inner type of the

borrowing language. Some languages find it easier to create new words out of their own resources.

Words have an association with other words in their pristine

vocabulary and lose this value at least in part when adopted into

a new home where they acquire association with another and gen-

erally very different set of ideas and thus gain a new meaning. BrpriocraPHy.—E. Sapir, Language (1923); J. Vendryes, Le Langage (1921); A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues du monde

(1924);

W. Schmidt,

Sprachfamilien

und

Sprachkreise der Erde

(1927); Linguistic Survey of India (1904); Census of India (vol. iv,

1911) ; ditto (vol, iv., 1921) ; O. Jespersen, Language (1922).

BILL.

There are three words in English with distinct mean-

ings and derivations. (x) A written, originally sealed, document.

The word is derived from the Early English bille, Anglo-Latin

billa, from Latin bulla, in the mediaeval sense of “seal.” It 3s

a doublet, therefore, of “bull.”

(2) A common Teutonic word

BILL for a long-handled cutting weapon of which the name and shape is preserved in the bills or bill-hooks used for pruning hedges

and lopping the branches of trees. For an account of the weapon

see (2) in the next column. (3) The beak of a bird. (1) In the sense of a document the word is used in various connections in law and commerce. In the English parliament, and similar legislative bodies, a pill is the draft of a proposed statute (q.v.) submitted to either house, Which when finally passed becomes an act. The modern system of legislating by means of bill and statute appears to have been introduced in the reign of Henry VI., superseding the older

mode of proceeding by petitions from the Commons, assented to by the king, and afterwards enrolled by the judges. (For procedure see PARLIAMENT.) A Bill in Chancery, in former days, in English law, was a written

statement of the plaintiff’s case whereby he complained of the wrong upon which the suit was based and prayed for relief. By the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 its place was taken by a writ

and statement of claim (see Practice and ProceDuRE). A Bill of Indictment is a presentment against a prisoner, charg-

ing him with an offence, and presented at quarter sessions or

assizes to the grand jury (see INDICTMENT).

A Bill of Costs is an account setting forth the charges and disbursements incurred by a solicitor in the conduct of his client’s

business (see Costs). A Bill of Exceptions was formerly a statement in writing of objections to the ruling of a judge, who, at a civil trial, had mistaken the law, either in directing the jury, or in refusing or admitting evidence or otherwise. It was abolished by the Judicature Act

1875, and a “motion for a new trial” substituted. A Bill of Health is a document given to the master of a ship by

the consul or other proper authority of the port from which he clears, describing the sanitary state of the place. A bill of health may be either “clean,” “suspected” or “touched,” or “foul.” A “clean” bill imports that at the time the ship sails no disease of an infectious or contagious kind is known to exist; a “suspected” or “touched” bill, that no such disease has as yet appeared, but that there is reason to fear it; a “foul” bill, that such a disease actually exists at the time of the ship’s departure. Bills of health are necessary where the destination of the ship is a country whose laws require the production of such a bill before the ship is allowed into port, and where, in default of such production, the ship is subjected to quarantine. A Bill of Mortality in England was a weekly return issued under the supervision of the company of parish clerks showing the number of deaths in a parish. During the Tudor period England suffered much from plague, and various precautionary measures became necessary. Quarantine or isolation was the most important, but to carry it out successfully it was necessary to have early warning of the existence of plague in each parish or house. For this purpose searchers—usually women—were appointed, who reported to the clerk the cause of each death in the parish. He, in turn, sent a report to the parish clerks’ hall, whence was issued weekly a return of all the deaths from plague and other causes in the various parishes, as well as a list of those parishes which were free from plague. Bills of mortality are usually said to date from 1538, when parish registers were established by Cromwell (Lord Essex), but there is extant a bill which dates from Aug. 1535, and one which is possibly even earlier than this. It is certain that they frst began to be compiled in a recognized manner in Dec. 1603,

and they were continued regularly from that date down to 1842, when under the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1836 they

Were superseded by the registrar-general’s returns.

It was not

till 1728, when the ages of the dead were first introduced, that bills of mortality acquired any considerable statistical value. It was on the data thus furnished that the science of life insurance was founded. ABill of Particulars was, in law, a supplementary statement in

Writing, informing each party to a suit of the precise nature of the case he had to meet.

A Bill of Peace is, in equity, a suit brought by a person to establish and perpetuate a right which he claims, and which from

563

its nature may be controverted by different persons at different times and by different actions; or where several attempts have already been unsuccessfully made to overthrow the same right, and justice requires that the party should be quieted in the right if it is already sufficiently established. Bills of this nature were usually filed where there was one general right to be established against a great number of persons, or where one person claimed or defended a right against many, or where many claimed or defended a right against one. Thus, a bill might be filed by a parson for tithes against his parishioners; by parishioners against a parson to establish a modus; by a lord against tenants for an encroachment under colour of a common right; or by tenants against a lord for disturbance of a common right. Bills were also filed in cases where the plaintiff had, after repeated and satisfactory trials, established his right at law, and yet was in danger of further litigation and obstruction to his right from new attempts to controvert it. Actions in the nature of bills of peace are still maintainable. A Bill of Sight is a document furnished to a collector of customs or other proper officer by an importer of goods in England, who, being unable for want of full information to make a perfect entry of goods consigned to him, describes the same to the best of his knowledge and information. The goods may then be provisionally landed, but perfect entry must be made within three days by indorsing on the bill of sight the necessary particulars. In default of perfect entry within three days the goods are taken to the king’s warehouse, and if perfect entry is not made within one month and all duties and charges paid, they are sold for payment thereof. See the Customs Consolidation Act 1876. A Bill of Store is a licence granted by the custom-house to reimport British goods into the United Kingdom. All British goods re-imported into the United Kingdom are entered as foreign, unless re-imported within ten years after their exportation and unless the property in the goods continues and remains in the person by whom they were exported. But in such case they may be entered as British goods, by bill of store, with certain exceptions. A Bill of Victualling or Victualling Bill, in its original meaning, is a list of all stores for shipment, but now an order from an export officer of the customs for the shipment from a bonded warehouse or for drawback of such stores as may be required and allowed with reference to the number of the crew and passengers on board a ship proceeding on an oversea voyage. It is made out by the master and countersigned by the collector of customs. Its object is to prevent frauds on the revenue. No such stores are supplied for the use of any ship nor are any articles taken on board deemed to be stores unless they are borne upon the victualling bill, and any such stores relanded at any place in the United Kingdom without the

sanction of the proper officers of the customs will be forfeited and TYPES OF OLD ENGLISH BILL the master and owner will each On the left is a bill of the time of be liable to a penalty of treble Edward IV.: the centre bill is Elizabethan, and that on the right, a the value of the stores or £100.

Watchman’s bill of the 17th century

A victualling bill serves

as a cer-

tificate of clearance when there is nothing but stores on board the ship. See also ArrarnpEerR, INDEMNITY, LETTER OF CrEDIT, BEL OF EXcHANGE, Brit or Ricuts and Buz or Sare; for a bill of lading see AFFREIGHTMENT,

(2) Meaning a weapon, a common Teutonic name for a long-

handled weapon with a cutting edge (O.E. Bil, billes, sword or falchion, O. Sax. dill, M-H.G. Bil, Mod. Ger. Bille, a pickaxe; no connection with Ger. Beil, an axe), of which the name and shape is preserved in the hedging-bills used for pruning hedges and lopping the branches of trees. The primitive forms of a bill suggest short scythe-blades or

564

BILLAUD-VARENNE—BILL-BROKER

hedgers’ bill-hooks mounted on tall staves. In such shape it is found in the hands of the English before the Conquest. English mediaeval documents make much confusion between the bill and the halbert and other forms of staved weapons with cutting heads. Before the 15th century the bill had been reinforced with a pike head above the curved blade and another jutting at a right angle

from the blade’s back. In this form it became a popular English weapon, the “brown bill” of many ballads. Billmen are not found in the king’s host at Crecy and Calais, the bowmen carrying malls or short swords, and Henry VII.’s contracts for troops do not name the bill, which may be regarded rather as the private man’s weapon. But when, in the middle of the rsth century, Walter Strickland, a Westmorland squire, contracts to raise armed men, it is noticeable that more than half his horsemen carry the bill as their chief arm, while 71 bowmen are to march on foot with 76 billmen. In the 16th century the bill, with the halbert, fell out of use among regular troops, the pike taking their place on account of the longer staff, which made it a better defence against cavalry. It remained during the 17th century as a watchman or constable’s weapon, although rudelyfashioned bills were seen in the Sedgemoor fight. (O. B.) BILLAUD-VARENNE, JACQUES NICOLAS (17561819), French revolutionary, was the son of an avocat at the parlement of Paris. In 1785 he left the Oratorian College where he was prefect of studies, married and bought a position as avocat in the parlement. Early in 1789 he published at Amsterdam a three-volume work on the Despotisme des ministres de la France, and he adopted with enthusiasm the principles of the Revolution. At the Jacobin club he became from 1790 one of the most violent of the anti-royalist orators. After the flight of Louis XVI. to Varennes, he published a pamphlet, L’Acéphocratie, in which he demanded the establishment of a federal republic. In the night of Aug. 10, 1792, he was elected one of the “deputy-commissioners” of the sections who shortly afterwards became the general council of the commune. Elected a deputy of Paris to the National Convention, he at once spoke in favour of the immediate abolition of the monarchy, and the next day demanded that all acts be dated from the year 1 of the republic. At the trial of Louis XVI. he added new charges to the accusation, proposed to refuse counsel to the king, and voted for death “within 24 hours.” On June 2, 1793, he proposed a decree of accusation against the Girondists; on June ọ, at the Jacobin club, he outlined a programme which the Convention was destined gradually to realize; the expulsion of all foreigners not naturalized, the establishment of an impost on the rich, the deprivation of the rights of citizenship of all “anti-social? men, the creation of a revolutionary army, the licensing of all officers ci-devant nobles, the death penalty for unsuccessful generals. Sent in August as “representative on mission” to the departments of the Nord and of Pas-de-Calais, he showed himself inexorable to all suspects. On his return he was added to the Committee of Public Safety

essed bulletins and posters. In Great Britain the term “hoardings” is used rather than billboards. This name was derived from the hoardings upon which posters were so frequently placed. From the indiscriminate pasting up of advertising sheets which were

left unattended and soon became ragged and unsightly, bill-post. ing has been developed into an extensive and highly organized bys.

ness. Painted bulletins usually consist of steel or wooden panels framed and held in position by specially constructed forms. The

usual practice is to repaint these every four months and contracts with the larger posting companies are uniform as to this clause. They are not of uniform size but are constructed to fit the space available. Rates are governed by the size and the number of people likely to see the notice. Posters are paper sheets printed or lithographed. In the United States and Canada they are uniform in size. There are two different units: the more popular one is the “24-sheet” poster which js about ọ by 25ft. including the frame around the panel; the smaller unit, called the “3-sheet” poster is approximately 3 by 7 feet. Although there are many concerns that are engaged in bill-posting they are so organized that practically the whole of North America can be covered through the association of bill-posters so that the advertiser will have but one contract to make and one bill to pay, The charge for bill-posting is also highly standardized. Each city is divided up into a number of equally prominent showings and these are designated in the business as “standard set showings.” The “regulars” are charged from $7 to $7.50 a month, the advertiser supplying the lithographed sheets. “Specials” are stands located where traffic is heavy and these are often illuminated at night. The rental for the specials is from $20 to $30 a month. In New York city 200 regulars and 124 specials are

required for an “intensive showing” in Manhattan and the Brong. It would be possible for 14 advertisers each to employ an intensive showing at the same time in this district. They would reach approximately the same number of people and would be charged the same price. If it were desired to make a smaller investment, a “representative” or “half”? showing could be taken, which would be of course 100 regulars and 62 specials. A few boards are sold as miscellaneous, primarily to local advertisers. Few branches of advertising have made such improvement in their methods of doing business in the last few years as bilposters. Formerly, the obtrusive sheets were pasted on buildings, fences, hoardings and even on freight cars, water tanks, etc. The public rebelled against this unsightly display which caused the bill-posters to unite and reorganize the whole business. Now posters are not placed on residence streets; they are not allowed to become ragged or soiled. The bill-posters agree to keep the poster in presentable condition for the term of the contract and will replace the paper without cost if it becomes unattractive for any reason. Copy is carefully censored and no objectionable pictures or messages are permitted. With the reorganization of the business, the volume has been greatly increased. The two leading and published a book, Les Éléments du républicanisme, in which bill-posting companies of the United States and Canada now do he demanded a division of property, if not equally, at least pro- an annual business in excess of $50,000,000. Bill-posting is a form of advertising popular with advertisers portionally among the citizens. But he became uneasy for his own safety and turned against Robespierre, whom he attacked on who wish to appeal to the masses. Particularly is this true if the the 8th Thermidor as a “moderate” and a Dantonist. Surprised product can be attractively presented by a picture and a few and menaced by the Thermidorian reaction, he denounced its words. With the more rapid forms of transportation, the copy partisans to the Jacobin club. He was then attacked himself has been condensed until 10 to 20 words is now regarded as the in the Convention for his cruelty, and a commission was appointed maximum length of a profitable message. One American adverto examine his conduct and that of some other members of the tiser spent $3,000,000 on billboards in 1927. This provided a full former Committee of Public Safety. He was arrested, and as a showing for the whole country. (See Posters.) (H. E. A.) result of the insurrection of the 12th Germinal of the year 3 BILL-BROKER, a broker who deals in bills of exchange. (April 1, 1795), the Convention decreed his immediate deporta- Bill-brokers specialize in bill-discounting, and their operations are tion to French Guiana. After the 18th Brumaire he refused the very varied in character. They may deal for themselves as princi pardon offered by the First Consul. In 1816 he left Guiana and pals or for others as agents. When they sell bills of exchange on took refuge in Port-au-Prince (Haiti), where he died of dysentery. commission, they are purely brokers; this function has become alIn 1821 were published the Mémoires de Billaud-Varenne écrits a most obsolete. When they buy bills of exchange to sell again at 4 Port-au-Prince (Paris), but they are probably forgeries. An interesting autobiographical sketch of his youth, “Tableau du premier age,” profit they become, in effect, bill-merchants. When, enlarging composed in 1786, was published in 1888 in the review, La Révolution francaise. (See also France: History.)

BILLBOARDS, the general term which in the United States and Canada designates advertising by means of painted or proc-

their functions, they deal in bills on the grand scale, employing

much

capital derived

from

depositors,

they become what are

called “discount houses.” (See BILL or EXCHANGE; Monzy Mar KET; DiscouNT AND Discount Hovsss,)

565

BILLET—BILLIARDS BILLET. (1) A small paper or “note,” commonly used in the rth and early roth centuries as a “billet of invitation” (Fr.

billet, diminutive of bille, a writing). A particular use of the word is to denote an order issued to a soldier entitling him to quarters with a certain person (see BILLETING). From meaning the official order, the word billet came to be used of the quarters thus obtained, giving rise to such expressions as “a good billet.” Another

sense of the word is that of a voting-paper occurring in the 17th century with reference to the Act of Billets passed by the Scot-

In Cotton’s Compleat Gemester, published in 1674, we are told that this “most gentile, cleanly and ingenious game” was first played in Italy, though in another page he mentions Spain as its birthplace. At that date billiards must have been well enough known, for we are told that “for the excellency of the recreation,

it is much approved of and played by most nations of Europe, especially in England, there being few towns of note therein which hath not a public billiard table, neither are they wanting in many noble and private families in the country.”

tish parliament in 1662.

ENGLISH

(2) A piece of wood roughly cylindrical, cut for use as fuel

BILLIARDS

The English table consists of a framework of mahogany or (Fr. billette or billot, diminutive of bille, the trunk of a tree). In other hard wood, with eight legs, strong enough to bear the weight mediaeval England it was used of the club or bludgeon which was of five slabs of slate, each 22ft. wide by 6ft. 14in., and about 2in. the weapon proper to the serf. The name has been transferred to thick. These having been fitted together to form a level surface, various objects of a similar shape, e.g. ingots of gold, or bars of and a green cloth of the finest texture having been tightly strained ‘ron or steel; and in heraldry (g.v.) to a bearing of rectangular over it, the cushions are screwed on, and the pockets, for which shape. The term is applied in architecture to a form of ornamental provision has been made in the slates, are adjusted. As the inside moulding used in Norman and sometimes in Early English work. edge of the cushion is not perpendicular to the bed of the table, It resembles small billets of wood arranged at regular intervals in but is bevelled away so that the top overhangs the base by about a sunk moulding. In early French architecture it sometimes 3 of an inch, the actual playing area of the table is 6ft. wide but forms the decoration of a string course. is r4in. short of 12ft. long. The height of the table from the BILLETING, a method of providing temporary accommo- floor to the top of the cushion rail must be from 2ft. g$in. to dation for military forces by lodging them in parties on the 2ft. 104 inches. inhabitants of a district. (See CANTONMENT: MILITARY TERMS.) The three spots are on the centre line of the table, and are BILLET-MOULDING, in architecture, a type of moulding usually marked by small circular pieces of black tissue paper or much used in the Norman, Anglo-Norman and early Gothic court plaster; sometimes they are specially marked for the oc-

styles; it consists of a series of small sections of torus (g.v.) or

head-moulding (g.v.) with spaces between them. Frequently, two or three rows of billet-moulding are combined, the projecting portions of one row directly above or below the flat portions of the

next; occasionally the torus or bead will be bent at right angles

to connect two such rows. The French term, which is much used in architectural books in English, is bêton rompu. BILLIARDS, an indoor game of skill, played on a rectangular table, and consisting in the driving of small balls with a stick called a cue either against one another or into pockets according to the methods described below. The revised rules of all the recognized games (as authorized by the Billiards Association and Control Council) can be obtained from all billiard table manufacturers or the offices of billiard journals. The name probably originated in the Fr. bille (connected with Eng. “billet”) signifying a stick. Of the origin of the game comparatively little is known. In an American text-book, Modern Billiards, it is stated that Catkire More (Conn Cetchathach), king of Ireland in the and century, left behind him “fifty-five billiard balls, of brass, with the pools and cues of the same materials.” The same book refers to the travels of Anacharsis through Greece, 400 B.C., during which he saw a game analogous to billiards. French writers differ as to whether their country can claim its origin, though the name suggests this. While it is generally asserted that Henrique Devigne, an artist, who lived in the reign of Charles IX., gave

form and rule to the pastime, the Dictionnaire universel and the

Académie des jeux ascribe its invention to the English. Bouillet in the first work says: “Billiards appear to be derived from the game of bowls. It was anciently known in England, where, per-

casion in chalk. The baulk line and the D are marked either with

chalk, tailors’ pipeclay, or an ordinary lead pencil; no other marks appear on the table. Smaller tables and dinner tables convertible into billiard tables provide plenty of practice and amusement, provided that the relation of the length to the breadth be observed. On these tables full-sized balls may be used, the pockets

being made slightly smaller than in the full-size table. In the early part of the roth century the bed of the table was made of wood, occasionally of marble or stone; green baize was used to cover both the bed and the cushions, the latter made of layers of list. Then, as now, the cushions were glued to a wooden framework which is screwed on to the bed of the table. The old sod T STURA URNE Maza NE

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game of Paillemaille (Pall Mall) on a table instead of on the ground or floor—an improvement, he says, “which answered two

good purposes: it precluded the necessity of the player to kneel or stoop exceedingly when he struck the bowl, and accommodated the game to the limits of a chamber.” Whatever its origin, and whatever the manner in which it was originally played, it is certain that it was known in the time of Shakespeare, who makes

Cleopatra, in the absence of Anthony, invite her attendant to

jon in the pastime— “Let us to billiards: come, Charmian.”

—Ant. and Cleo. Act. ii. se. 5.

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haps, it was invented. It was brought into France by Louis XIV.,

whose physician recommended this exercise.” In the other work mentioned we read: “It would seem that the game was invented in England.” It was certainly known and played in France in the time of Louis XI. (1423-83). Strutt (Sports and Pastimes of the People of England) considers it probable that it was the ancient

t=

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“LES SPORTS JUSSERAND, FROM LISHED BY LIBRAIRIE PLON

ET

JEUX

D°EXERCISE

DANS

L°ANCIENNE

FRANCE,”

Louis XIV. OF FRANCE ENGAGED IN PLAYING BILLIARDS, 1694

The game of billiards was popular in Europe during the middle ages. XIV.

is reputed

to

have

introduced

it into

France.

It was

played

PUB-

Louis with

peculiar shaped cues and without pockets

list cushions possessed so little resilience that about 1835 indiarubber was substituted, the value of the improvement being somewhat modified by the fact that in cold weather the rubber became hard and never recovered its elasticity. Vulcanite resisted the cold, but was not “fast” enough, i.¢., did not permit the ball to rebound quickly; but eventually a substance was invented, practically proof against cold and sufficiently elastic for all purposes. Late in the roth century pneumatic cushions were tried, tubes into which air could be pumped, but they did not become popular, though the so-called “vacuum” cushions give good re-

566

BILLIARDS

sults. The shape of the face of the cushion has gone through many modifications, owing to the difficulty experienced in the actual striking of the ball when resting against the cushion with only a small fraction of its surface offered to the cue; but low cushions are made which expose nearly half of the upper part of the ball. From 1870-85 matches for the championship were played on “championship tables,” the pockets measuring only 3in. at the “fall.” The tables in ordinary use have 38in. pockets, but in the “standard tables,” introduced by the Billiard Association at the end of the 19th century, the pockets are slightly smaller, the Association providing templets which a table must pass before being recognized as a “standard.” The principal games are three in number—billiards, pyramids and pool, and from these spring a variety of others. The object of the player in each game, however, is either to drive one or other of the balls into one or other of the pockets, or to cause the striker’s ball to come into successive contact with two other balls. The former stroke is known as a hazard (a term derived

from the fact that the pockets used to be called hazards in old days), the latter as a cannon. When the ball is forced into a pocket the stroke is called a winning hazard; when the striker’s ball falls into a pocket after contact with another ball, the stroke is a losing hazard; “red hazards” means that the red ball is the object ball, “white hazards” the white. The spot-stroke is a series of winning hazards made by pocketing the red ball into one of the top pockets off the spot. The object is, first, to make sure of the hazard, and next, to leave the striking ball in such a position as to enable the player to repeat the stroke. It was known as long ago as 1825 when a run of 22 spots caused quite a sensation. John Roberts, sen., who succeeded Kentfield as champion in 1849, worked hard at the stroke, but never made, in public, a longer run than 104 in succession. But W. Cook, John Roberts, jun., and others, assisted by the improvements made in the implements of the game, soon outdid Roberts, sen., only to be themselves outdone by W. J. Peall and W. Mitchell. In 1888 W. J. Peall made 663 “spots” in succession, and in 1890 in a break of 3,304—the longest spot break—no less than 3,183 of the points were scored by spot strokes. C. Memmott made 423 winning hazards into one pocket by the aid of the “screw-back.” The result was that the Association altered the rules in such manner as to make the stroke practically impossible. Top-of-the-Table Play.—When the spot-stroke was dying, many leading players, headed by John Roberts, jun., assiduously cultivated another form of rapid scoring, known as “top-of-thetable play,” the first principle of which is to collect the three balls at the top of the table near the spot. The balls are then manipulated by means of alternate red winning hazards and cannons. The Push-Stroke.—Long series of cannons were also made along the edge: of the cushion, mainly by means of the “pushstroke,” and with great rapidity, but eventually the push-stroke too was barred as unfair. Balls Jammed in Pockets.—If the two object-balls get jammed, either by accident or design, in the jaws of a corner pocket, an almost interminable series of cannons may be made by a skilful player. T. Taylor made 729 cannons in 1891, but the American champion, Frank C. Ives, in a match with John Roberts, jun., easily beat this in 1893, by making 1,267 cannons before he deliberately broke up the position. In Ives’s case, however, the balls were just outside the jaws, which were skilfully used to keep the balls close together; but in this game, which was a compromise between English and American billiards, 24-in. balls and 34-in. pockets were used. Under the aegis of the Billiard Association a tacit understanding was arrived at that the position must be broken up, should it occur. A similar position came into discredit in 1907 in the case of the “cradle” or “anchor” cannon, where the balls were not actually jammed, but so close on each side of a pocket that a long series of cannons could be made without disturbing the position—a stroke, discovered by an amateur,

introduced by Lovejoy in 1907, and carried to extremes by W. Cook and T. Reece. The former, a son of the old champion, was given a certificate by the Association for a break of 42,746, while the latter, in a game of half a million, made a break of 499,135.

Rules were then framed to make such affairs impossible. But in 1927, owing to a flaw in the wording of the rules, Reece discovered

a method of evading them, known as the “pendulum” cannon and fresh rules had to be drafted to overcome his ingenuity, `

A long jenny is a losing hazard made into one of the top pockets when the object ball is close to the cushion along which the strik-

er’s ball must travel.

middle pockets.

Short jennies are similar strokes into the

Massé and Piqué are dificult strokes made by striking down.

wards on the upper surface of the cue-ball, the cue being held nearly at right angles to the table. When the cue-ball is so played that its centre is aimed at the extreme edge of the object-ball, the cue-ball’s course is diverted at what is called the “natural” or “half-ball” angle. This half-ball

angle is regarded as the standard angle for billiards, Providing, as

it does, a definite spot, the edge of the object-ball, at which to aim. Development in Billiard Play.—The modem development

of English billiards is due mainly to the skill of such leading players as John Roberts, sen., and his son of the same name. Tn deed, their careers form the history of modern billiards from

1849 when the elder Roberts challenged Kentfield (who declined to play), to the end of the roth century. No useful comparison

can be made between the last-named men, and the change of cushions from list to india-rubber further complicates the question. Kentfield represented the best of the old style of play, and

was a most skilful performer; but Roberts had a genius for the game, combined with great nerve and physical power. This capacity for endurance enabled him to practise single strokes till they became almost certainties, when weaker men would have failed from sheer fatigue; and that process applied to the acquisition of the spot-stroke was what placed him decisively in front of the players of his day until a younger generation taught by him came forward. It is curious to realize that John Roberts, sen., developed the game chiefly by means of spot-play, whereas his son continued the process by abandoning it. The public, however, liked quick scoring and long breaks, and therefore a substitute had to be devised. This was provided by the younger Roberts, whose fertility of resource and manual dexterity eventually placed him by a very long way at the head of his profession. In exhibition matches he barred the spot-stroke and gave his attention chiefly to top-of-the-table play. The next development was borrowed from the French game, which consists entirely of cannon strokes. Both French and

STANDARD

SIZE

ENGLISH

BILLIARD

TABLE,

WITH

MEASUREMENTS

SHOWN

The length and breadth of the English Billiard table are as shown: the height may vary between 2ft. 9!in. and 2ft. lOYein. A shows the “billiard spot,” on the centre line, 1234in. from the top cushion; C, the “centre spot,” in the centre of the table, and B the “pyramid spot,” midway between A and C: XY is the “‘baulk line,” and D the “D”

American professors, giving undivided attention to cannons and not being permitted to use the push-stroke, arrived at a perfection

in controlling or “nursing” the balls to which English players could not pretend; yet the principles involved in making a long series of cannons were applied, and leading professionals soon acquired the necessary delicacy of touch. The plan is to get the

three balls close to each other, say within a space which a hand

can cover, and not more than from 4 to 8in. from a cushion. The striker’s ball should be behind the other two, one of which 3s

BILLIARDS nearer the cushion, the other a little farther off, and farther for-

ward. The striker’s ball is tapped quietly on the one next the cushion, and hits the third ball so as to drive it an inch or two in a line parallel to the cushion. The ball first struck rebounds from

the cushion, and at the close of the stroke all three balls are at rest in a position exactly similar to that at starting, which is called

by the French position mére. ‘Thus each stroke is a repetition of

the previous one, the position of the balls being relatively the same, but actually forming a series of short advances along the cushion. With the push-stroke a great number of these cannons could be quickly made, say 50 in 34 minutes; and, as that means roo points, scoring was rapid. Most of the great spot-barred breaks contained long series of these cannons, and their value as records is correspondingly diminished, for in such hair-breadth distances very often no one but the player, and sometimes not even he, could tell whether a stroke was made or missed or was

foul. Push-barred, the cannons are played nearly as fast; but with most men the series is shorter, massé strokes being used when the cannon cannot be directly played.

The Championship.—When Kentfield declined to play in 18409, John Roberts, sen., assumed the title, and held the position till

1870, when he was defeated by his pupil W. Cook. From 1870-85 the championship was shared by W. Cook, J. Roberts, jun., and

J. Benne

tt.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

567

forget. And though for the sake of the game Mr. Dixon ignored him, no one in reality admired him more. Years alone could overcome him, and as his beard grew grey he dropped slowly out

of the game at which he was still supreme. The idea of his taking

a start from anyone was simply not to be contemplated. He had long searched for a possible successor, and pitched first on Stevenson and later on Tom Newman, taking the latter of on world tours until the boy came nearly to Roberts’ standard by the time death removed the supreme billiard genius of more than'a quarter of a century. Dawson stood out as his successor. Had not Roberts consented to play a level match with the sturdy Yorkshireman? But Stevenson was close alongside. In style the two were widely opposed,

the latter dainty and dapper in play as in person, the former, more square-fronted with less intricate methods. But at the very moment Dawson had gained his objective, fate struck him down with an affection of the eyes which completely put an end to his billiards. This left Stevenson champion under Billiard Association rules. He was satisfied in his own mind that he could now beat Roberts and that a victory over him would set his reputation on a pedestal. Very naturally Roberts considered that he had everything to lose and nothing to gain by a level match, and consented to play only if the younger man took a start of 2,000 points in 18,000. Rather than not have a match at all Stevenson agreed,

and one of the most famous games in the history of billiards fol-

From 1885 to 1899 John Roberts occupied a position in billiards which no other man has occupied in any game before or

since, a position higher even than that of W. G. Grace in the

cricket field. There was nobody to approach him. He made his own circle and remained impregnable in the centre of it. Men like

W. J. Peall, Mitchell, North, Diggle, Richards, Shorter, all fine

performers, stood no chance with him, even with a start of a quar-

ter of the game. Moreover, it was not alone the superiority of his

execution. He created his own atmosphere wherever he played, but especially in his headquarters at the Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly. Men spoke of “going to see Roberts,” not of going to see

lowed. Moreover, before the end of the first week all Stevenson’s

start had gone and the apparently still invincible veteran had the

game won. But just when all men cried that he was beaten, the younger player took the bit between his teeth, caught up and passed his formidable rival and in the end won a great victory. So tremendously had Stevenson been oppressed by the sense of the meeting, by the atmosphere of Roberts’ following, and their air of certainty of his superiority, that until the game was practically lost he could not find his touch: Stevenson 18,000; Roberts 16,480. This victory left Stevenson, a very young man, apparently

champion for a decade. At this point an unexpected figure billiards. He used to play games of 24,000 up, necessitating his emerged from the crowd, Melbourne Inman. Son of a professional making 1,000 at each session, against all comers, giving starts player he had played with success most of the third class, and ranging from eight to ten thousand. At length he issued a even these successes were gained to everyone’s astonishment. His challenge to give any man in the world half the game start. W. J. position at the table, cue delivery, and clumsy method of waving Peall was, according to the rules in force, quite as incontestably his cue about in an amateurish style to the danger of the lights champion as Roberts himself was at the spot-barred game, which and the markers’ eyes, as though trying to assist his ball to go the latter had invented, rightly foreseeing that the spot-stroke where he had designed to send it, gave no sort of impression that was killing the game from a spectacular point of view. Peall took he was a future champion. None the less, he worked his way up the challenge and won by a considerable margin, though in through the second class as surely as he had done through the the course of the game there had been times when it seemed as third, principally by means of intense pains and regard for safety though Roberts might pull through after all. tactics, together with the British attribute of not knowing when About this time another reformer appeared in the world of bil- he was beaten, and a certain number of close watchers of the liards, though this time an amateur. Mr. Sydenham Dixon took game, among them the president of the Billiard Association, were great interest in performers, and performances, rules and regula- not surprised when he challenged for the championship and in tions, and seeing clearly that the game was in need of a governing 1908 won it. Inman literally wore his opponents down. They bebody, he founded the Billiard Association of which he finally be- came depressed and unable to produce their best. Time after time, came president, remaining so until its amalgamation with the after waiting while Inman had made 50 or 60 most laboriously, Billiards Control Council in 1919. It may safely be said that no they went to the table to find themselves confronted with hopeless man has done more for the game. Broad-minded, with a sense of situations, when the stroke, itself intensely difficult, implied, in justice and fair play for all, he possessed a strength of character case of failure, another easy leave for another heavy-handed efwhich led to many a clash with anyone attempting to control the fort. Of course Inman soon rid himself of his poor style, till he game to his own advantage from the professional point of view, became the master of technique and smooth action that he was from John Roberts to Melbourne Inman and Smith. Roberts at his zenith; but compared with his other great rivals, Stevenson would have nothing to do with any championship other than one and Reece, it still appeared long odds on either of them, although of his own arrangement. The other professionals regarded it as Reece was nearly always beaten. Reece once won a game in Aushopeless to contend against him. Not so Mr. Dixon, who actually tralia, and in 1927 won another by means of the pendulum canignored him and started the Billiard Association championship in non. Style is by no means a criterion of scoring ability, delight1889. He soon found many professionals eager to play for it, car- ful as it is to watch.

tying as it did amongst other prizes, an income of £100 a year to the holder. Roberts, however, remained aloof, an unfortunate state of affairs, for he could certainly, at that time, have given

The trio remained for some time in a class by themselves until the composition-ball, losing-hazard artist, George Gray, appeared

in 1910.

Until his defeat at the hands of Smith, then almost

substantial starts to many of the holders, and the Egyptian Hall remained the principal attraction.

unknown, and in receipt of a considerable start, Gray was regarded as unconquerable; with composition balls indeed he was. However, in the 1914 championship, played with ivory balls, he was

looks and his bow to his audience as he led the way into his hall

beaten by Reece. This was a memorable championship, for the game which had been all Roberts till it became Dawson-Steven-

Roberts was the very Beau Brummel of the game.

His good

combined to make a picture which those who saw it will never

568

BILLIARDS

son, and turned later into Inman-Stevenson-Reece, now became Newman-Smith, with Davis threatening their heels (1921). Breaks, owing to changes in rules, freak cannons, etc., are difficult to compare, but with composition balls in Australia Walter Lindrum made a run of 1,879, second only to Gray’s unfinished 2,000 effort. In 1927 the ivory ball record was held by Newman with a break of 1,370. Davis, Newman and Smith were at this time the only other players who had made runs of four figures with ivory balls. In other respects the game has undergone little change in the last 50 years so far as the implements are concerned. None the less, billiards began to lose its hold on the public after the World War. With the exception of The Times, and such papers as are confined to sport, it was very poorly reported, many journals ignoring it altogether, though there was a monthly paper entirely devoted to it, The Billiard Player. There was very little money in the game in 1927 for any but those absolutely at the head of the profession. Except the halls provided by the billiardtable makers there was no place where it could be seen except during the championship. This development is the more strange in view of the fact that the popularity of the game as a pastime for amateurs Increased during the same period. Great numbers of halls sprang up throughout the country, holding 20 or 30 tables, every one of which found users at certain times of the day, whilst snooker, as a rival game, could be seen even oftener than billiards. Long matches, sometimes of a fortnight’s duration, are perhaps an explanation of the decline. New methods are certainly called for. But if things from a professional point of view were not particularly cheerful in this period, the case was quite the contrary among the amateurs, who, being much more amenable to discipline, were easier to manage than the professionals. Their championship never caused any trouble to the governing body. The first was held in 1888 and was won by Mr. H. A. O. Lonsdale, a player with a beautiful style who came out and won it again in rg10, after an interval of 20 years or more. For a little while there were two amateur championships. One, the original, under the rules of the Billiard Association: the other under those of the Billiards Control Council. Happily for the game these ultimately became one body with a strong, hard-working committee whose whole concern was the

betterment of the game. The difference in play between the best amateurs and the best professionals is marked; it is natural that those whose living de-

pends on their ability should excel those not so dependent. The latter devote only an hour or two daily to play and less to practice; the former make the game their business, especially devoting many hours a day to practice. Another good reason for the superiority of the professional is that he continually plays for a week or a fortnight on the same table, with his own cues, and the same set of balls. Contrast this with the ordinary amateur’s play. He goes from table to table, each one differing in strength, in cushions and in cloth, sometimes finding himself faced with composition, sometimes with ivory balls, and with indifferent cues except in his club or when playing on his own table at home. How can he be expected to give any idea of his merit when asked to play after such mixed experiences? The professional, of course, takes up a position that is easily intelligible, for it is naturally based upon financial considerations. In every professional question that is only to be expected and may be sympathized with, but what cannot be so treated is the professional’s claim for exemption from the control of governing bodies, and his desire to rely solely on the power of the press. An exception must be made in the case of Newman, the 1927 champion. He competed for the title without a grumble and became a strong favourite with the public in consequence. In 1928 Davis beat him in the championship and succeeded him as title-holder. The outstanding figure amongst amateurs in the beginning was Mr. A. P. Gaskell, who, however, relied for his predominance on his ability at the spot-stroke. He won the championship five times. In those days more than one championship was played for annually, a match taking place whenever a challenger appeared. Mr. Christy was another great exponent of the spot-stroke, by means of which rumour credits him with at least one four-figure break, and there were a good many professionals then who could not claim that.

The changed rules applied equally to amateurs as to professionals with the result that new names sprang into prominence. Messrs, Fry (8), Virr (6) and Graham Symes (3) between them won 17 championships. Mr. Fry’s eight victories were won during an jp. terval of 32 years—1893~-1925. Mr. G. Symes only gave up competing when the composition balls came into use. Many winners of

the amateur

championship

subsequently became professionals,

amongst them Courtenay, Lovejoy, Breed and Earlam. It is often said that there are plenty of ama.

teurs about the West End clubs who could easily beat those who

compete in the championships, but Mr. Fry’s excellent book states that in his lengthy experience he has only known two ama.

teurs who would have held much

chance of winning the open tro.

phy—Messrs. H. R. RimingtonWilson, and Douglas Lane. The

former is said to have played a

FRENCH BILLIARD TABLE Both French and American billiards are played on a pocketless table. Only cannons are played, each scoring one point

level match against Mitchell at his best and beaten him, and the latter was endowed with power of cue and eye which enabled him to make strokes equal to those

of the very best professionals. In a previous generation there was a similarly gifted amateur of the name of Rogers. There is one game on the billiard table at which a few amateurs can hold their own against the professionals—snooker. No pro-

fessional had made a break of 100 up to 1927, but this was done by

an amateur, whilst some of the latter have gone far in the Open Snooker championship. The game has become exceedingly popular, more so than billiards itself, especially in the north of England and Scotland. In 1928 Davis made a hundred break. An Empire amateur billiard championship was started in 1925, representatives from England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia and South Africa taking part. This was won by Earlam who then turned professional. It is questionable whether those who intend taking up the game professionally should be allowed to play in amateur events. They might easily be excluded without giving any offence by all the players having to sign a statement that they had no intention of turning professional for at least five years. In 1927 the Empire amateur championship was won by South

Africa, represented by Mr. Allan Prior. Winners of championships, professional and amateur, from the year 1900, were:— Professional. 1901—C,. Dawson. r9g01—H. W. Stevenson. 1901—C. Dawson. 1901—H. W. Stevenson. 1903—-C.' Dawson. 1904.

1905. No matches for the

1906

championship

1907

r1908—M. 1909—M. 1910—H. r911—H. 1912—M. r913—-M. 1914—M. 1915—No

Inman. Inman. W. Stevenson. W. Stevenson. Inman. Inman. Inman. contest,

1916—ditto 1917—ditto

1918—ditto

r919—M. Inman.

1920—W. r921—-I.. 1922—-T. 1923—-W. 1924—T. 1925—T. 1926—T. 1927—-T. 1928—J.

Smith. Newman. Newman. Smith. Newman. Newman. Newman. Newman. Davis.

Amateur. 1900—S. H. Fry. 1g01—S. S. Christy. 1902—A. 1902—-A. 1903—A. 1903—S. 2a

eae

W. T. Good. W. T. Good. R. Wisdom. S. Christy. joy.

T me aed

1906—E. C. Breed. 1907—H. C. Virr.

1908-—H. C. Virr.

i

1909—Maj. H. L. Fleming. 1910-—H. A. O. Lonsdale. tori—H. C. Virr. r912—H. C. Virr. 1913—H. C. Virr. 1914—H.

C. Virr.

191s—A. W. T. Good.

r1916—S. H. Fry. 1917—J. Graham Symes.

1918—J. Graham Symes. 1919—n. H. Fry. 1920—S. H. Fry. 1921—S. H. Fry.

r922—J. Graham Symes.

1923—-W. P. McLeod.

1924—W. P. McLeod.

1925-——S. 1926—J. ‘1927——L. 1928-——A.

H. Fry. Earlam. Steeples. Wardle.

BILLIARDS BrLiocRaPHyY.—W. Cook, Billiards (1884) ; H. Vignaux, Le Billard (1889); J- A. Thatcher, Championship Billiards (1898) ; C. V. Locock, Side and Screw (190%); G. W. Hemming, Billiards Mathematically Treated (1904); B. Garno, Modern Billiards (1909). Among the latest works are:—J. P. Mannock and S. A. Mussabini, Billiards Expounded, the standard work on the game; T. Aiken,

Plain Talks to Billiard Players (1924); T. Newman, J.Advanced Roberts, Billiards (1924) and Billiard “do’s” and “don’ts” (1924);

Billiards Guide (1924); W. Smith, First Steps to Billiards (1924) and

30 How to Play Snooker and other Pool Games (1924); W. Hoffe, Years of Billiards (1925); A. F. Peall, All about Billiards

AMERICAN

(1925);

(A. E. Ma.)

T. Reece, Dainty Billiards (1925).

BILLIARDS

569

18.2 Balk Line Game.—The game of 18.2 balk line is played on a 5X Io table and the balk lines are drawn 18 in. from the edges of the cushions with eight anchor spaces on each table. These anchor spaces measure seven inches square. Two each are located on the head rail and on the foot rail and two each on the side rails with the 18 in. balk line across the ends of the table as a centre. The general rules of 18.2 balk line are somewhat similar to those of the 14.2 balk line game. The object balls are considered to be in anchor when the centres of both balls lie in one of the anchor spaces. When the balls are anchored the striker

may have two consecutive shots, but if he fails on the second shot to force one or both of the object balls outside the anchor

The game of American billiards is played on a table without

space, the second shot is void and the opponent plays the balls

pockets. It is called a carom table and is of two sizes, one 44 by 9

as he finds them. There is also an 18.1 balk line game in which but one shot is allowed in balk and one in anchor. It is claimed for the 18.1 balk line game that it is the medium by which the highest skill of both professional and amateur can be measured. After Frank Ives had won the 14.2 balk line championship in 1892 it was agreed the game had become too easy. Experiment began and the new game of 18.2 was invented. In 1896 Maurice Daly held the first 18.2 championship in New York City, Ives, Schaefer and Garnier competing. The game was for 500 points, five shots allowed in anchor. The anchor spaces were 34 by 7 inches. In 1903 the first world tournament at 18-2 was played in Paris. Vignaux was awarded the championship by a decision based upon grand averages. Sutton and Slosson, representing the United States, played against him. Sutton challenged Vignaux and lost to him, 1904, by 496 to 500. Since then all 18.2 tournaments have been played in the United States. George F. Slosson won in New York in 1906, losing to Sutton only. Sutton challenged and won from Slosson the same year. Sutton was challenged but held the title to 1908, when he lost to Hoppe on the latter’s second challenge. Hoppe resigned the title. Successive winners were Morningstar, 1909; Demarest, the same year; Hoppe, 1912; at 500 points. In 1919 the anchor spaces were enlarged to seven inches square and the total of points reduced to 400. Hoppe won the tournament and also that of 1920. In the eighth tournament in 1921 Jacob Schaefer, Jr., not only won the championship played for in Chicago, but established a single average of 200, grand average of 51-23, and tied Hoppe in games, winning the play off, 400 to 26. Schaefer defeated Cochran 400 to nothing in their game. Hoppe won in 1922 and 1923 in New York City. In 1925 the most remarkable billiard tournament in history was played in Chicago. Schaefer, Jr., won the title again, being undefeated in five games. Schaefer won the seventh of the series from Hagenlacher by winning the bank and making 400 points and game without miss. In the closing game between Hoppe and Schaefer, the latter entered the eighth inning 296 points behind and ran the game out. His grand average was 57-14, a world’s record to add to the single average records. Cochran won in 1927 and in his challenge match with Erich Hagenlacher established a high record run of 407 points in one inning. Development of Game.—Tom Foley, an American authority on billiards, dates the real start of the game in the United States from the year 1859. The first national match was played at Detroit, Mich., April 12,1859. John Seereiter of Detroit and Michael Phelan of New York City were matched for a stake of $15,000 and the championship of America. The game was for 2,000 points caroms, with four balls and 6X12, six-pocket table, pushing and crotching allowed. Phelan won 2,000 to 1,904 for Seereiter. The winner’s best run was 129 and his average 12-32—164. Phelan was declared the first billiard champion of America and returned to New York in triumph where he reigned as champion through 1860, 1861 and 1862. Dudley Kavanaugh was champion in 1863, 1864 and 1865, to be succeeded the latter year by Louis Fox and John Deery. In 1866 Deery and Joe Dion were champions. In 1867 the champions were Joe Dion and John McDevitt, the latter again in 1868. Beginning in 1869 the championship was played for at four ball caroms on a 54X11 pocket table, pushing and crotching barred, single caroms counting 3 and double caroms 6, for 1,200 points. Jobn Deery was champion that year and in 1870, until

ft, and the other, 5 by 10 feet. For the carom game three balls are used, one red, one plain white and one white with a black dot. In the four ball game, played by the less expert, there are two red balls and two white balls.

Three Ball Game.—tThe

red ball in the three ball game is

placed on the foot section of the table on a spot at the middle of a line drawn across the table at a right angle from the second

diamond on each long rail, and one white ball is placed on a corresponding spot at the head of the table. An imaginary line drawn across the head of the table at right angles to the second diamond on each long rail is termed the “string.” In what would be the centre of this line a spot is placed, known as the head spot. The game is begun by “stringing” for the lead, banking from the head to the foot rail and back. The player whose ball settles nearest to the head rail wins the choice of white balls and the

right to elect whether to lead or to make his opponent lead.

Should the two white balls come in contact when stringing for

lead, the player whose ball is clearly out of its true course or whose ball strikes the red ball when that ball is on its proper spot, forfeits the lead. When the contact of the balls is equally the fault of both players or when the balls come to rest at an equal distance from the head cushion, the players string again. Contestants play in rotation until a specified number of points constituting a game is completed. The player leading must place his ball inside the string and within six inches to the right or left of the other white ball and must make the cue ball strike the red ball in order to effect a count. On any other than the opening shot, excepting when the balls are for any reason spotted, the striker may play upon either ball. Each carom counts one point. A ball forced off the table is spotted on its proper spot. If the spot is occupied by another ball the ball forced from the table is placed on one of the other spots. A foul ends an inning. No points are counted on foul strokes.

In the three ball straight rail carom game the crotch is barred. The object balls are considered crotched wherever the centres of

both lie within a 44 in. square at either corner of the table, and when so crotched but three counts are allowed unless one or both object balls be forced out of the crotch. In case of failure the player’s hand is out and his opponent plays with the balls

as he finds them. In the four ball game a carom counts one, but in case of a carom on both object balls the player counts two.

14.2 Balk Line Game.—To mark the table properly for 14 in. balk line the lines are drawn on a 5X10 table from each of the

rst diamond sights on the end and side rails to the correspond-

Ing diamond sight on the opposite end or side rail. The large centre space on the table is not a balk space. The object balls are in balk whenever both have stopped within any one of the balk spaces. The marker then calls “in” and when one or both object balls are driven out of balk space, the marker calls “out.” A ball on the line is in balk. A ball is on the line only when its centre or point of contact with the table touches this line. When

two object balls are on the same line the striker shall have the option to determine in which balk they are to be called, and must

govern his play accordingly.

But two shots are allowed when

two object balls aré within the same balk space, hence the name

14.2 balk line. If at least one of the object balls is not driven out of balk on the second shot the shot is void and the player’s hand out,

BILLING

579

MACHINE—BILLINGS-CODY

he lost to A. P. Rudolphe. In 1871 the championship was held by Frank Parker and Cyrille Dion. The latter was undisputed champion in 1872 but in 1873 was succeeded by Maurice Daly and Albert Garnier. In 1874 the champions were Maurice Vignaux and Joe Dion. In 1876 the rules were changed to what were called Straight rail play, three balls, on a 5X10 carom table. William Sexton was champion in 1876-77—78. Following him began the long reign of Jacob Schaefer, Sr., known as the “Wizard,” who was champion in 1879~80-81-82. In 1883 the 5X10 table was in use with an eight inch balk line to prevent nursing. Schaefer won in 1883~84. In 1885 the balk line was widened from 8 to 14 inches. Slosson won from Schaefer and then lost. The

WAY

game is one that calls for power of stroke, as well as delic acy and is more intricate than other games because of the dema nd upon

the player for accurate knowledge of cushion angles.

Pocket Billiards.—Fifteen ball pool is known in the United

States as pocket-billiards. Championships have been won by Gott. lieb Wahlstrom, Albert Frey, J. L. Malone, Peter Rodgers, Alfredo De Oro, Frank Sherman, William Clearwater, K. Stofft, Thomas Hueston, John Horgan, Charles Weston, Jerome Keogh, Ben Allen, W. E. Blankenship, Frank Taberski, Ralph Greenleaf The game is played on a six pocket table with 15 object balls, cop. tinuous pocketings being the rule. The cue ball is white and the

15 balls are red in colour. The object balls are numbered, The player calls the number of the ball and the pocket into which he will drive it. When 14 object balls are pocketed, they are set up

in triangular form with the apex vacant and the striker is allowed

to proceed as long as he can legally pocket a ball. If other balls than those called are pocketed he is entitled to them. BrBLioGRAPHY.—Rules Governing the Royal Game of Billiards (1925); Billiard Records from 1859 to 1925 (1925); History of the 18.2 Balk Line Game of Billiards (1925). (J. B. Fo.)

ew.

BILLING MACHINE: see OFFICE APPLIANCES. BILLINGS, JOHN SHAW (1839-1913), American sur-

ZN

`

a

30%” FROM FLOOR

L

BY COURTESY FULL

OF THE BRUNSWICK-BALKE-COLLENDER

SIZE

AMERICAN

POCKET

BILLIARD

PrN ELR

geon and librarian, was born in Switzerland county, Ind., on April 12, 1839. He graduated at Miami university in 1857 and at the Medical College of Ohio in 1860. During the Civil War he served as a surgeon in the field and in hospitals from 1861 to 1864 when

CO. TABLE

WITH

DIMENSIONS

The pocket billiard table differs from the standard billiard table in that it is equipped with six pockets into which the fifteen balls of the game are played

latter was champion in 1886-87—88-89 and 1890. From then until 1897 no championship was played for. Champions at 18.1 have been George Slosson in 1897, Jacob Schaefer and Frank Ives, 1898; W. F. Hoppe, 1906; Geo. B. Sutton, W. F. Hoppe and Jacob Schaefer, Sr., 1907; George Slosson and George B. Sutton, 1908 and W. F. Hoppe, rgzo, since which year no championship has been contested. Champions at 18.2 balk line have been Jacob Schaefer from rgor—o5; Slosson and Sutton, 1906; Sutton, Hoppe and Schaefer, Sr., 1907; Slosson and Sutton, 1908; Morningstar and Demarest, 1909; Hoppe from 1910-20; Schaefer, Jr., 1921; Hoppe from 1922-25; Schaefer, Jr., 1925; Cochran, 1927. The amateur champions at 14.2 were Martin Mullen in 1899, Wilson P. Foss, 1900; C. Fred Conklin, 190r; Arthur R. Townsend, 1901; Chas. Norris, Wilson P. Foss, Edward W. Gardner, 1902; Wilson P. Foss, 1903; J. Ferdinand Poggenburg, 1904; C. Fred Conklin, 1905; Edward W. Gardner, 1906; Calvin Demarest, 1907—08. The invention of the balk line game is attributed by Tom Foley to M. Bensinger, early head of The Brunswick-BalkeCollender company. He undertook to devise a system, of lines to be drawn upon the surface of the table that might handicap Schaefer, at that time the leading billiard player of the world and thus make other players his possible equal. In consultation with Charles E. Mussey, T. Z. Cowles and Foley he evolved the eight inch balk line game in 1883. A tournament was held under the new rules in Chicago in that year. Following the eight inch lines, which were quickly discovered not to be severe enough, came the 14in. and then the r8in. balk lines. Three Cushion Carom.—About xoro the three cushion carom game began to attract attention in the United States and in 1912 the first three cushion carom championship tournament was held and John Horgan won. Subsequent champions have been Alfredo De Oro, George Moore, A. Kieckhefer, John Layton, Tiff Denton and R. L. Cannefax. A valid three cushion carom is effected by making the cue ball touch three cushions before striking the second object ball. Three cushions mean three impacts. The number of cushions does not mean three different cushions as a count may be executed on one cushion. Each carom counts one. When the cue ball rests on a cushion the striker can play directly at that cushion but that shall not count as an impact. In case the balls are frozen (7.e., in contact) the striker has the option of playing away from the ball with which the cue ball is in contact

or having the balls spotted as at the opening of the game. This

he entered the surgeon-general’s

office in Washington.

In this

position he had charge of the Army medical museum and library, and developed the latter into one of the largest medical libraries in the world, for which he prepared an unusually valuable indexcatalogue. In 1896 upon the consolidation of the Astor and Lenox

libraries and the Tilden Trust into the New York Public library, he became its first director and displayed marked: constructive capacity in this position until his death which occurred in New York city on March 11, 1913. Among his published works are Mortality and Vitality Statistics of the United States (1885); National Medical Dictionary (1889); Some Library Problems of Tomorrow (1902); and Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem (1903).

BILLINGS, a city in southern Montana, U.S.A., on the Yellowstone river, 3,000ft. above sea-level; the county seat of Yellowstone county. It is on the Yellowstone trail, the Custer battlefield, and the National parks highways, and is served by the Burlington, the Great Northern, and the Northern Pacific railways. The population was 3,221 in 1900; 15,100 in 1920; and was 16,380 in 1930. It is the metropolis of the “midland empire,” a productive region of Montana and Wyoming, which already contains 2,000,000 acres of irrigated land. Sugar beets, wheat, wool and live stock are the leading products in the immediate vicinity, and there is a factory which makes 90,000,000lb. of beet sugar a year. The city has 70 manufacturing and wholesale establishments, and is the trading centre of an area as large as the State of Minnesota. Shipments of live stock, flour, sugar, grain, hay, wool, beans, potatoes, butter, and eggs amount to over $10,000,000 annually. Natural gas is used. The Eastern Montana Normal school, Polytechnic institute and the first orthopaedic hospital in the North-west are situated here. Billings is the gateway to the Beartooth national forest, one of

the wildest and most picturesque regions in the North-west, m which is Grasshopper glacier, with millions of grasshoppers em-

bedded in its ice. On the outskirts is the State fish hatchery. There are many vacation resorts in and near the forest, including

numerous “dude ranches,” which

offer tenderfoot visitors the pleasures of western life without its 49

60 MILES

hardships. BILLINGS-CODY

WAY,

a thoroughfare extending from Billings, Mont., to Cody, Wyoming. It is about r3om. in length Touching upon Laurel, Bridger and Powell, it passes by the Pryor

BILLINGTON—BILL mountains and furnishes interesting scenery along its entire course.

BILLINGTON,

ELIZABETH

(c. 1768-1818), British

opera-singer, was born in London, her father being a German musician named Weichsel, and her mother a popular singer. She was a precocious child, and received a solid musical training from

her father. Before she was twelve she had published two volumes of pianoforte sonatas. In 1783 she contracted an unfortunate

secret marriage with James Billington, a double-bass player in the

Drury lane orchestra. With him she went to Dublin where she

made her first stage appearance as Eurydice. In London she made , sensation (Feb. 13, 1786) in the part of Rosetta in Arne’s Love in a Village. She then went to Paris to study under Sacchini, and throughout her career was a serious student. In 1794 she and her husband went to Italy, and Mrs. Billington appeared at Naples in a new opera, Inez di Castro, written for her by F. Bianchi, and then at Florence, at Venice and at Milan. Her husband died suddenly during the tour, and in 1799 she married a Frenchman named Félissent. The second marriage was even more unfortunate than her first. , Félissent ill-treated her, and she left him in r8or.

In 1817, however, she returned to him, and died the next year,

on Aug. 25, at St. Artien, near Venice. According to some accounts her death was caused by a blow received from her husband. Mrs. Billington sang regularly at Covent garden and Drury lane from 1801 to 1810. Accounts vary of the quality of her voice and of her acting, but there is unanimous testimony to the finished character of her art. There are many portraits and engravings of her, including Sir Joshua Reynolds’s picture of her as St. Cecilia.

BILLITON (Dutch, Brrroenc), island, Dutch East Indies, between Banka and Borneo and separated respectively by the Gaspar and Karimata straits. It forms an assistant-residency, under Sumatra. Roughly square in shape, it is 55m. long by 43 wide, and its area is 1,860sq.m. Included with it are 135 small adjacent islands with an area of 95sq.m., which are separated by narrow and mostly unnavigable channels. In physical structure and products it resembles Banka. Its coasts are sandy and very marshy, and though in the centre of the island a height of 1,670ft. is reached (Mt. Tanjem), most of the land lies less than r30ft. above sea-level, with groups of hills of granite or sedimentary formation rising from the flat or slightly undulating country; in the central parts there are treeless plains, covered with alang-alang grass. The geological formation is Devonian and granitic, with laterites. The average mean annual rainfall is I14-5in., with an average of 192 rainy days; the average mean temperature is 77°. Billiton, like Banka, has extensive tin deposits and forms the southern limit of the occurrence of this metal. The mines are worked largely by electrical power, with Chinese coolie labour, and by a private company, Government taking $ths of the profits. In 1925-26, 162,700 piculs of tin were produced (1 picul=136-23lb.). Trepang, tortoises, and edible birds’ nests are found along the coast, and the woods yield timber for boat-building, and gum. Other products are coconuts and sago. Imports (1925), 4,420,389; exports, 34,228,054 gulden. The population of Billiton is 62,979, 23,299 being foreign Asiatics, largely Chinese. The aborigines (Mohammedans, with some pagan beliefs) are akin to those of Banka, resembling the Bataks of Sumatra; on the coast there are Orang laut, or seagypsies. The coast is a difficult one, beset with rocks and coral banks, but one river, the Cheruchup, is 1,300 to 1,600ft. wide at

iis mouth (barred by a sandbank), and is tidal for seven miles and navigable as far as Cheruchup village. The best harbour is that of Tanjong Pandan, the capital of Billiton (4,800), on the west coast. Billiton was formerly under the Sultan of Palembang,

Sumatra, by whom it was ceded to the British in 1812. In the treaty of 1814, between the British and the Dutch, no mention was made of it, and the British at first refused to cede the island,

only recognizing the Dutch claim in 1824.

BILLITONITE: see TEKTITE.

BILL OF EXCHAN GE, a form of negotiable instrument, defined below, the history of which, though somewhat obscure, was ably summed up by Lord Chief Justice Cockburn in his Judgment in Goodwin v. Robarts (1875), L.R. 10 Ex. pp. 346-

358. Bills of exchange were probably invented by Florentine

OF EXCHANGE

574

Jews. They were well known in England in the middle ages, though there is no reported decision on a bill of exchange before the year 1603. At first their use seems to have been confined to foreign bills between English and foreign merchants. It was afterwards extended to domestic bills between traders and finally to bills of all perspns, whether traders or not. But for some time after they had come into general employment, bills were always alleged in legal proceedings to be drawn secundum usum et consuetudinem mercatorum. The foundations of modern English law were laid by Lord Mansfield with the aid of juries of London merchants. No better tribunal of commerce could have been devised. Subsequent judicial decisions have developed and systematized the principles thus laid down. Promissory notes are of more modern origin than bills of exchange, and their validity as negotiable instruments was doubtful until it was confirmed by a statute of Anne (1704). Cheques are the creation of the modern system of banking. From 2,600 cases scattered over some 300 volumes of Reports and 17 Statutes dealing with isolated points the English law relating to Bills of Exchange, promissory notes, and cheques was codified by the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 which laid down, with one exception applicable only to Scotland, uniform rules for Great Britain and Ireland. Two salient characteristics distinguish negotiable instruments from other engagements to pay money. In the first place, the assignee of a negotiable instrument, to whom it is transferred by indorsement or delivery according to its tenor, can sue thereon in his own name; and, secondly, he holds it by an independent title. If he takes it in good faith and for value, he takes it free from “all equities,” that is to say, all defects of title or grounds of defence which may have attached to it in the hands of any previous party. These characteristic privileges were conferred by the law merchant, which is part of the common law, and are now confirmed by statute. Definition.—By s. 3 of the Act a bill of exchange is defined to be an unconditional order in writing “addressed by one person to another, signed by the person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand or at a fixed or determinable future time a sum certain in money to or to the order of a specified person, or to bearer.” ! The person who gives the order is called the drawer. The person thereby required to pay is called the drawee. If he assents to the order, he is then called the acceptor. An acceptance must be in writing and must be signed by the drawee. The mere signature of the drawee is sufficient (s. 17). The person to whom the money is payable

is called the payee. The person to whom a bill is transferred by

indorsement is called the indorsee. The term “holder” includes any person in possession of a bill who holds it either as payee, indorsee or bearer. A bill which in its origin is payable to order becomes payable to bearer if it is indorsed in blank. Ii the payee is a fictitious or non-existing person the bill may be treated as payable to bearer (s. 7). A payee is a fictitious person if his name is inserted by way of pretence merely, ż.e., with no intention that payment should be made to him (Bank of England v. Vagliano [1891] A. C. r07). The following is a specimen of an ordinary form of a bill of exchange :— £100. LONDON, rst January, 1901. Three months after date pay to the order of Mr. J. Jones the sum of one hundred pounds for value received. Brown & Co, To Messrs. Smith & Sons, Liverpool.

A bill in its origin was a device to avoid the transmission of cash from place to place to settle trade debts. Now a bill of exchange is a substitute for money. It is immaterial whether it is payable in the place where it is drawn or not. It is immaterial whether it is stated to be given for value received or not, for the law itself raises a presumption that it was given for value. But though bills are a substitute for cash payment, and though they 1This is also the definition given in the United States, by s. 126 of the general Act relating to negotiable instruments, prepared by the conference of State commissioners on uniform legislation, which has been universally adopted.

BILL OF EXCHANGE

574 constitute

the commercial

currency

of the country,

they must

not be confounded with money. No man is bound to take a bill in payment of debt unless he has agreed to do so. If he does take a bill, the instrument ordinarily operates as conditional, and not as absolute payment. If the bill is dishonoured the debt revives. Under the laws of some Continental countries, a creditor, as such, is entitled to draw on his debtor for the amount of his debt, but in England the obligation to accept or pay a bill rests solely on actual agreement. A bill of exchange must be an unconditional order to pay. If an instrument is made payable on a contingency, or out of a particular fund, so that its payment is dependent on the continued existence of that fund, it is invalid as a bill, though it may of course avail as an agreement or equitable assignment. In Scotland it has long been the law that a bill may operate as an assignment of funds in the hands of the drawee, and s. 53 of the Act preserves this rule. Bills of exchange must be stamped, but the Act of 1882 does not regulate the stamp. It merely saves the operation of the stamp laws, which necessarily vary from time to time according to the fluctuating needs and policy of the exchequer. Under the Finance Act 1918, bills payable on demand and three-day bills are subject to a fixed stamp duty of twopence. The stamp may be impressed or adhesive. All other bills are liable to an ad valorem duty. All other inland bills must be drawn on impressed stamp paper, but foreign bills, of course, can be stamped with adhesive stamps, if the stamp is affixed before the bill is negotiated in England. English law does not concern itself with foreign revenue laws. It is immaterial whether a bill drawn abroad is stamped in accordance with the law of its place of origin or not. On arrival in England it has to conform to the English stamp laws. A bill of exchange is payable on demand when it is expressed

to be payable on demand, or at sight, or on presentation, or when notice for payment is expressed. In calculating the maturity of bills payable at a future time, three days, called days of grace, must be added to the nominal due date of the bill. For instance, if a bill payable one month after sight is accepted on Jan. x, it is really payable on Feb. 4, but when the last day of grace falls on Sunday, Christmas day, Good Friday, or a day appointed by Royal Proclamation as a public fast or thanksgiving day, the bill is due and payable on the preceding business day. On the other hand on Bank holidays (other than Christmas day or Good Friday), or when the last day of grace is a Sunday and the second day of grace a bank holiday, the bill is due and payable on the succeeding business day (s. 14). Acceptance.—By the acceptance of a bill the drawee becomes the principal debtor on the instrument and the party primarily liable to pay it. The acceptor of a bill “by accepting it engages that he will pay it according to the tenor of his acceptance,” and is precluded from denying the drawer’s right to draw or the genuineness of his signature (s. 54). The acceptance may be either general or qualified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the drawer’s order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent parties, acting at his own risk if they dissent (ss. 19 and 44). The drawer and indorsers of a bill are in the nature of sureties. They engage that the bill shall be duly accepted and paid according to its tenor, and that if it is dishonoured by nonacceptance or non-payment, as the case may be, they will compensate the holder provided that the requisite proceedings on dishonour are duly taken. Any indorser who is compelled to pay the bill has the like remedy as the holder against any antecedent party (s. 55). A person who is not the holder of a bill, but who backs it with his signature, thereby incurs the liability of an indorser to a holder in due course (s. 56). An indorser may by express term either restrict or change his ordinary liability as stated above. Prima facie every signature to a bill is presumed

to have been given for valuable consideration.

But sometimes

this is not the case. For friendship, or other reasons, a man may be willing to lend his name and credit to another ina bill transaction. Hence arise what are called accommodation bills. Ordinarily the acceptor gives his acceptance to accommodate the

drawer.

But occasionally both drawer and acceptor sign to ii:

commodate the payee, or even a person who is not a party to the bill at all. The criterion of an accommodation bill is the fact that

the principal debtor according to the instrument has lent his name and is in substance a surety for someone else. The holder for value of an accommodation bill may enforce it exactly ag if

it was an ordinary bill, for that is the presumable intention of the parties. But if the bill is dishonoured the law takes cogni-

zance of the true relations of the parties, and many of the rules

relating to principal and surety come into play. Suppose a bill is accepted for the accommodation of the drawer. It is the

drawer’s duty to provide the acceptor with funds to meet the

bill at maturity. If he fails to do so he cannot rely on the defence that the bill was not duly presented for payment or that he did not receive due notice of dishonour. If the holder, with notice of the real state of the facts, agrees to give time to the drawer to pay, he may thereby discharge the acceptor. Holder in Due Course.—The holder of a bill has special rights and special duties. He is the mercantile owner of the bill, but in order to establish his ownership he must show a mer. cantile title. The bill must be negotiated to him, that is to say, it must be transferred to him according to the forms prescribed by mercantile law. If the bill is payable to order, he must not only get possession of the bill, but he must also obtain the ip. dorsement of the previous holder. If the bill is payable to bearer it is transferable by mere delivery. A bill is payable to bearer which is expressed to be so payable, or on which the only or last indorsement is an indorsement in blank. If a man lawfully ob-

tains possession of a bill payable to order without the necessary

indorsement, he may obtain some common law rights in respect of it, but he is not the mercantile owner, and he is not technically the holder or bearer. But to get the full advantages of mercantile ownership the holder must be a “holder in due course”— that is to say, he must satisfy three business conditions. First, he must have given value, or claim through some holder who has given value. Secondly, when he takes the bill, it must be regular on the face of it. In particular, the bill must not be overdue or known to be dishonoured. An overdue bill, ora bill which has been dishonoured, is still negotiable, but in a restricted sense. The transferee cannot acquire a better title than the party

from whom he took it had (s. 36). Thirdly, he must take the bill honestly and without notice of any defect in the title of the transferor—as, for instance, that the bill or acceptance had been obtained by fraud or threats, or for an illegal consideration. If he satisfies these conditions he obtains an indefeasible title, and

can enforce the bill against all parties thereto. The Act substitutes the expression “holder in due course” for the somewhat cumbrous older expression “bona fide holder for value without notice.” The statutory term has the advantage of being positive

instead of negative. The French equivalent “tiers porteur de bonne foi” is expressive. Forgery, of course, stands on a different footing from a mere defect of title. A forged signature, as a general rule, is a nullity. A person who claims through a forged signature has no title himself, and cannot give a title to any one

else (s. 24). Two exceptions to this general rule require to be

noted. First, a banker, who in the ordinary course of business pays a demand draft held under a forged indorsement is protected (s. 60). Secondly, if a bill be issued with material blanks in it, any person in possession of it has prima facie authority to fill them up, and if the instrument when complete gets into the

hands of a holder in due course the presumption becomes absolute. As between the immediate parties the transaction may amount to forgery, but the holder in due course is protected (s. 20).

Dishonour.—The holder of a bill has special duties which he

must fulfil in order to preserve his rights against the drawers and indorsers. They are not absolute duties; they are duties to use reasonable diligence. When a bill is payable after sight, presentment for acceptance is necessary in order to fix the

maturity of the bill. Accordingly the bill must be presented for acceptance within a reasonable time.

When a bill is payable on

demand it must be presented for payment within a reasonable time.

When it is payable at a future time it must be presented

BILL OF EXCHANGE on the day that it is due. If the bill is dishonoured the holder must notify promptly the fact of dishonour to any drawer and indorser he wishes

to charge.

If, for example, the holder only

gives notice of dishonour to the last indorser, he could not sue

the drawer unless the last indorser or some other party liable has duly sent notice to the drawer. When a foreign bill is dishonoured the holder must cause it to be protested by a notary

public. The bill must be noted for protest on the day of its dis-

honour. If this be duly done, the protest, z.e., the formal notarial certificate attesting the dishonour, can be drawn up at any time

as of the date of the noting. A dishonoured inland bill may be noted, and the holder can recover the expenses of noting, but no legal consequences attach thereto.

In practice, however, noting

is usually accepted as showing that a bill has been duly presented and has been dishonoured. Sometimes the drawer or indorser has reason to expect that the bill may be dishonoured by the drawee. In that case he may insert the name of a “referee in case of

need.” But whether he does so or not, when a bill has been duly noted for protest, any person may, with the consent of the holder, intervene, for the honour of any party liable on „the bill. If the bill has been dishonoured by non-acceptance it may be “accepted for honour supra protest.” If it has been dishonoured by nonpayment it may be paid supra protest. When a bill is thus paid

and the proper formalities are complied with, the person who

pays becomes invested with the rights and duties of the holder so far as regards the party for whose honour he has paid the bill,

and all parties antecedent to him (ss. 65 to 68).

Discharge.—Normally a bill is discharged by payment in due course, that is to say, by payment by the drawee or acceptor to the holder at or after maturity. But it may also be discharged in other ways, as for example by coincidence of right and liability (s. 6x), voluntary renunciation (s. 62), cancellation (s. 63), or

material alteration (s. 64). A bill of exchange is the most cosmopolitan of all contracts. It may be drawn in one country, payable in another, and indorsed on its journey to its destination in two or three more. The laws of all these countries may differ. Provision for this conflict of

laws is made by s. 72, which lays down rules for determining by what law the rights and duties of the various parties are to be measured and regulated. Speaking broadly, these rules follow the maxim Locus regit actum. A man must be expected to know and follow the law of the place where he conducts his business, but no man can be expected to know the laws of every country through which a bill may travel. For safety of transmission from country to country bills are often made out in sets. The set usually consists of three counterparts, each part being numbered and containing a reference to the other parts. The whole set then constitutes one bill, and the drawee must be careful only to accept one part, otherwise if different accepted parts get into the hands of different holders, he may be liable to pay the bill twice (s. 71). Foreign bills circulating through different countries have given rise to many intricate questions of law. But the subject is perhaps one of diminishing importance, as in many trades the oo “cable transfers” is superseding the use of bills of exchange.

Cheques.—A cheque “is a bill of exchange drawn on a banker

payable on demand” (s. 73). For the most part the rules of law applicable to bills payable on demand apply in their entirety to cheques. But there are certain peculiar rules relating to the latter which arise from the fact that the relationship of banker and customer subsists between the drawer and drawee of a cheque. For example, when a person has an account at a bank he is, as

an inference of law, entitled to draw on it by means of cheques.

A right to overdraw can, of course, only arise from agreement.

The drawer of a cheque is not absolutely discharged by the holder’s omission to present it for payment within a reasonable time. He is only discharged to the extent of any actual damage

he may have suffered through the delay (s. 74). Apart from any question of delay, a banker’s authority to pay his customer’s cheques is determined by countermand of payment or by notice

of the customer’s death (s. 75). Of recent years the use of cheques has enormously increased, and they have now become the

573

normal machinery by which all but the smallest debts are discharged. To guard against fraud, and to facilitate the safe transmission of cheques by post, a system of crossing has been devised which makes crossed cheques payable only through certain channels. The first Act which gave legislative recognition to the practice of crossing was the r9 and 20 Vict. c. 95. That Act was amended in 1858, and a consolidating and amending Act was passed in 1876. The Act of 1876 is now repealed, and its provisions are re-enacted with slight modifications by'ss. 76 to 82 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882. A cheque may be crossed either “generally” or “specially.” A cheque is crossed generally by drawing across it two parallel lines and writing between them the words “& Co.” When a cheque is crossed generally it cannot be paid over the counter. It must be presented for payment by a banker. A cheque is crossed specially by adding the name of the banker, and then it can only be presented through that particular banker. A cheque, whether crossed generally or specially, may further be crossed with the words “‘not negotiable.” A cheque crossed “not negotiable” is still transferable, but its negotiable quality is restricted. It is put on pretty much the same footing as an overdue bill. The person who takes it does not get, and cannot give a better title to it, than that which the person from whom he took it had. These provisions are supplemented by provisions for the protection of paying and collecting bankers who act in good faith and without negligence. Suppose that a cheque payable to bearer which is crossed generally and with the words “not negotiable” is stolen. The thief then gets a tradesman to cash it for him, and the tradesman gets the cheque paid on presentment through his banker. The banker who pays and the banker who receives the money for the tradesman are protected, but the tradesman would be liable to refund the money to the true owner. Again, assuming payment of the cheque to have been stopped, the tradesman could not maintain an action against the drawer. Promissory Notes.—A promissory note is defined by s. 83 of the Act to be an “unconditional promise in writing made by one person to another, signed by the maker, engaging to pay on demand, or at a fixed or determinable future time, a sum certain in money to or to the order of a specified person or to bearer.” A promissory note may be made by two or more makers, and they may be liable either jointly, or jointly and severally, according to its tenor (s. 85). For the most part, rules of law applicable to a bill of exchange apply also to a promissory note, but they require adaptation. A note differs from a bill in this; it is a direct promise to pay, not an order to pay. When it issues it bears on it the engagement of the principal debtor who is primarily liable thereon. The formula for applying to notes the rules as to bills is that “the maker of a note shall be deemed to correspond with the acceptor of a bill, and the first indorser of a note shall be deemed to correspond with the drawer of a bill payable to drawer’s order” (s. 89). Rules relating to presentment for acceptance, acceptance, acceptance supra protest, and bills in a set, have no application to a note. Moreover, when a foreign note is dishonoured it is not necessary, for English purposes, to protest it. All promissory notes are subject to an ad valorem stamp duty. Inland notes must be on impressed stamp paper. Foreign notes are stamped with adhesive stamps. For ordinary legal purposes a bank-note may be regarded as a promissory note made by a banker payable to bearer on demand. It is, however, subject to

special stamp regulations. It is not discharged by payment, but may be re-issued again and again. In the interests of the currency the issue of bank-notes is subject to various statutory restrictions. A bank, other than the Bank of England, may not issue notes in England unless it had a lawful note issue in 1844. On the other hand, Bank of England notes are legal tender except by the bank itself.

French

Law.—In

fundamental

principles there is general

agreement between the laws of all commercial nations regarding negotiable instruments. As Mr. Justice Story, the great American lawyer, says: “The law respecting negotiable instruments may be truly declared, in the language of Cicero, to be in a great measure not the law of a single country only, but of the whole commercial

574

BILL OF EXCHANGE

world. Non erit lex alia Romae, alia Athenis, alia nunc alia posthac, sed et apud omnes gentes et omni tempore, una eademque lex obtinebit” (Swift v. Tyson, 16 Peters 1). But in matter of

is final. Modern parliaments legislate very freely, and it iş much simpler task to alter statute law than to alter common lay Moreover, legislation is cheaper than litigation. One consequence

detail each nation has impressed its individuality on its own sys- of the codification of the English law relating to bills is clear tem. The English law has been summarized above. Perhaps its again. Nearly all the British colonies have adopted the Act, and

special characteristics may be best brought out by comparing it where countries are so closely connected as England and her with the French code and noting some salient divergences. Eng- colonies, it is an obvious advantage that their mercantile trans. lish law has been developed gradually by judicial decision founded actions should be governed by one and the same law expressed on trade custom. French law was codified in the 17th century by in the same words. The following court decisions relating to bills of exchange and the “ordonnance de 1673.” The existing “Code de Commerce” amplifies but substantially adopts the provisions of the “Ordon- cheques may be singled out for special mention here. In Jonesy, nance.” The growth of French law was thus arrested at an early Waring and Gillows (1926) A. C. 670, the House of Lords def. period of its development. The result is instructive. A reference nitely settled that the original payee of a bill or note is nota to Marius’ treatise on bills of exchange, published about 1670, holder in due course as there has been no negotiation of the pil or Beawes’ Lex Mercatoria, published about 1740, shows that the within the meaning (ss. 29-31). For example, if X is induced by law, or rather the practice, as to bills of exchange was even then the fraud of Y to draw a cheque in favour of Z, X is not in any fairly well defined. Comparing the practice at that time with the way liable to Z. A draft drawn by one branch bank on another is not a bill of law as it now stands, it will be seen that it has been modified in some important respects. For the most part, where English law exchange within the meaning of s. 60 of the Bills of Exchange differs from French law, the latter is in strict accordance with the Act 1882, but it is a draft or order within the meaning of s, 19 rules laid down by Beawes. The fact is that, when Beawes wrote, of the Stamp Act 1853, which protects bankers paying such drafts the law or practice of both nations on this subject was nearly uni- under a forged indorsement (Capital & Counties Bank v. Gordon form. But English law has gone on growing while French law has [z903], A.C. 240). It is still uncertain whether this section stood still. A bill of exchange in its origin was an instrument by protects a banker so paying in the case of a draft drawn abroad, which a trade debt due in one place was transferred to another A draft on a banker with a receipt annexed as a condition of payplace. This theory French law rigidly keeps in view. In England ment is not a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable on bills have developed into a paper currency of perfect flexibility. demand because it is fot “an unconditional order to the banker In France a bill represents a trade transaction; in England it is to pay.” But a cheque written on a blank sheet of paper, on the merely an instrument of credit. English law affords full play to face of which the drawer wrote “to be retained” and promised to the system of accommodation paper; French law endeavours to send one of his bankers’ printed cheques in substitution, is an ustamp it out. A comparison of some of the main points of differ- conditional order to pay as regards the drawer’s bankers, and the ence between English and French law will show how the two payee can sue thereon if it is dishonoured on presentation for

theories work. In England it is no longer necessary to express on a bill that value has been given for it, for the law raises a presumption to that effect. In France the nature of the consideration must be stated, and a false statement of value avoids the bill in

the hands of all parties with notice. In England a bill may be drawn and payable in the same place, In France the place where a bill is drawn should be so far distant from the place where it is payable that there may be a possible rate of exchange between the two. This so-called rule of distantia loct is said to be disregarded now in practice, but the code is unaltered. As French lawyers put it, a bill of exchange necessarily presupposes a contract of exchange. In England since 1765 a bill may be drawn payable to bearer, though formerly it was otherwise. In France it must be payable to order; if it were not so it ïs clear that the rule requiring the consideration to be truly stated would be a nullity. In England a bill originally payable to order becomes payable to bearer when indorsed in blank. In France an indorsement in

payment (Roberts v. Marsh [rors] K.B. 42). A foreign bill of exchange indorsed in France by an agent of the payee in the agent’s own name without the words “per pro” or their equivalent but so indorsed by the payee’s authority is a valid and sufficient indorsement and does entitle the payee

under s. 72 of the Bills of Exchange Act to recover the amount thereof from the acceptors (Koechlin & Cie v. Kestenbaum Bros, [1927] K.B. 889). Finally bankers’ anxiety as to their liability where the amount of a cheque has been altered in fraud of a careless drawer has now been set at rest by the decision in London Joint Stock Bank

Ltd., v. Macmillan and Arthur (1918). A.C. 777, where the House of Lords held, that the plaintiff firm had been guilty of a breach of the special duty arising from the relation of banker and customer to take care in the mode of drawing a cheque; that the alteration in the amount of the cheque was the direct result of that breach of duty; and that the bank were therefore entitled to blank merely operates as a procuration. An indorsement, to debit the firm’s account with the full amount of the cheque. As Lord Shaw said in his judgment: In the case of a cus operate as a negotiation, must be to order, and must state the consideration; in short, it must conform to the conditions of an tomer’s cheque, admittedly genuine, no responsibility rests updo original draft. In England, if a bill is dishonoured by non-ac- the banker for what has happened to the cheque before its preceptance, a right of action at once accrues to the holder. In sentation to the bank, but the responsibility for what has hapFrance no cause of action arises unless the bill is again dis- pened to it between the dates of signature and presentation rests honoured at maturity; the holder in the meantime is only entitled to demand security from the drawer and indorsers. In England a sharp distinction is drawn between current and overdue bills. In France no such distinction is drawn. In England no protest is required in the case of the dishonour of an inland bill, notice of dishonour being sufficient. In France every dishonoured bill must be protested. Opinions may differ whether the English or the French system is better calculated to serve sound commerce and promote a healthy commercial morality. But an argument in favour of the English system may be derived from the fact that as the various Continental codes are from time to time revised and re-enacted, they tend to depart from the French model and to approximate to the English rule. The effect upon English law of its codification has yet to be proved. A common objection to codification in England is that it deprives the law of its elastic character. But when principles are once settled common law has very little elasticity. On the other hand no code

upon the customer.

The ordinary text-books on the law of bills of exchange ae constantly re-edited. See especially Byles, Bills of Exchange; Chalmers, Bills of Exchange; Nouguier, Lettres de change et des effets wt

Conner

ean)

Thorburn, Bills of Ea kange a 1882 (Scot-

and) ;; Hodgins, Bills of Exchange Act ano BS anada). o = MLC. D)

United States Practice—The American law as laid down ® the Uniform Negotiable Instruments Law, prepared in 1897 and by 1927 adopted without substantial change in all the States, 15

i largely modelled on and harmonious with the British. Some differences require noting: American national banks sti

can and do issue bank notes, though Federal Reserve notes z

government notes representing actual deposited coin, called an

and silver certificates, have become much the more typical note currency of the country. There is no longer a stamp tax on notes

or acceptances. Days of grace on bills of exchange have been abolished, except in a very few States, as to sight drafts. é

BILL OF EXCHANGE American cases are divided on whether a purchaser of overdue aper can secure better rights than his transferor had. They are

divided also on whether the original payee of a bill, note or check

can become a holder in due course, and on whether a drawer

who negligently leaves spaces which facilitate raising the amount

can hold his bank liable for the difference after the bank has paid in good faith, The other points on which specific cases are cited above are not of moment in American law. An Inland bill which does not require protest means a bill payable in the same State in which it is drawn. And the Negotiable Instruments Law contains no codified provisions as to what law governs transactions

involving bills and notes which cross state boundaries, although

the courts have ruled on most of the relevant points. The system

of crossing checks is unknown in the United States; and a banker

paying over a forged instrument is not protected in charging the

drawer’s account. He is, however, entitled to recover the payment from the person who thus received it on an invalid, though

apparent, title. It may well be that the two systems are not par-

575

be noted, however, that, if it is the drawer himself who has the check certified in order to procure an instrument which he can use as the full equivalent of cash, he retains some power to stop payment until the check passes into the hands of a holder in due course. Investment Instruments: The American Negotiable Instruments Law undertakes, as the English act does not, to lay down the requirements to which “an instrument to be negotiable must

conform” (s. 1). Chief among these requirements is that the instrument contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a sum certain in money. This language may be and often has been con-

strued to deny negotiability to any document of any kind which fails to meet the requirements laid down, a situation which has given rise to some perplexities and conflicting decisions in regard to long-term investment instruments. Especially concerned are bonds—which have their promise to pay conditioned on various clauses of the underlying mortgage—and such more modern instruments as interim certificates, by which the maker engages, not

to “pay a sum certain in money,” but to deliver a described bond when issued. This ill-advised extension of a code drawn primarily ultimate from safe be to banker, Under the English the collecting liability, must and does collect only for a customer, z.e., one whom with notes, bills of exchange and checks in mind has made curhe regularly deals with, and knows. Under the American the rent dealings in investment paper somewhat uncertain, despite practical result of the collecting banker’s absolute liability is the established practice on the exchanges of relying on a purchase somewhat the same: it is equally unsafe to collect for a stranger. bona fide and for value just as if the paper carried the full proSo far, however, as the English check is crossed specially, or car- tection of negotiability. All that can yet be said with certainty ries the notation “non-negotiable,” or “account payee,” it would is that in the absence of a specific statute such as is found in New York, or of amendment in the code, a purchaser of such seem to carry additional safeguards. Divergences in Practice: But the bulk of the divergences in the paper cannot be sure of acquiring rights any better than those of two countries lie rather in men’s practices than in the law. The his seller. The American authorities are best collected in Brannan, Negotiable form of banker’s advance in America is not by prearranged overdraft, but by some such device as the banker taking the custo- Instruments Law (4th ed. by Chafee, 1926); Paton, Digest of Legal Opinions and Banking Law (1926). (K.N. L.) mers note and crediting his account. And especially, it is the BILL OF EXCHANGE, IN PRACTICE. Stripped of its note, not the acceptance, which is in America the common instrument of credit. Nor can it be overlooked that credit instru- legal technicalities, a bill is an unconditional order in writing, ments are much less used in America than in England in mer- signed by the person giving it (the drawer), requiring the person cantile transactions——as contrasted with banking, or real estate to whom it is addressed (the drawee) to pay on demand or at mortgage, or open market borrowing transactions. The common some fixed time a given sum of money to, or to the order of, a American mercantile practice for a seller is to evidence credit named person (the payee), or to bearer. A cheque is a particular, though very common, form of bill. by mere book entries, and to wait for his money, whereas in England it is common for the seller to take the buyer’s acceptance The bank is, and must be, the drawee, and it must be payable on at once on delivery of the goods, and to proceed to realize funds demand, and without needing the acceptance of the bank. by discounting the acceptance with a banker or investor. This Otherwise, it has all the functions of a bill. The Simplest Form of Bill.—Unlike a cheque, a bill can be, English practice prevails in American export trade; furthermore, under the Federal Reserve Act a very considerable volume of and usually is, drawn on a private person, and not a bank, and transactions has grown up in which the buyer’s banker gives ac- is also not usually payable “on sight” or “on demand,” but at a ceptances in the buyer’s behalf, against commission and security. definite date, such as three months “after sight.” Take first a But the attempt at general introduction of the acceptance into very simple British example: Take the bill, bit by bit. It is for £100, no less and no more, domestic trade—the “trade acceptance” movement, seems to be and therefore has to have a shilling revenue stamp. It is drawn making very slow headway. Checks: On the other hand the check bulks even larger in the by W. Robinson, of Birmingham, on Henry Smith, London, and United States than in England. This involves no real disharmony made payable to drawer. It is payable three months after date, . with the foregoing. For whereas the true bill of exchange, pay- and has on it the mystic words “value received,” which suggest able thirty to ninety days after acceptance, is primarily a credit that Mr. Smith has, in Mr. Robinson’s opinion, received due Instrument, which can hardly flourish where men are content to value for tbe money which this bill is intended to extract from leave debts in open account, the check—drawn on a bank, and him. The first step in the bill’s life is for Mr. Robinson to get Mr. payable on demand—is an instrument of payment, and useful in payment regardless of the credit system. The reliability of the Smith to accept it. This is done by presenting it to Mr. Smith, check as an assurance of payment can be greatly increased by who writes across it the words shown in the example, not only certification, że., by the banker on whom the check is drawn accepting it, but also “domiciling” it, that is, saying where the stamping or writing across the check a form of words—such as bill must be presented for payment—in this case at Mr. Smith’s “certified” or “good”—which by law makes the banker directly bankers. The date of the draft is important, for it is from this responsible for payment. Certification, which is very common in that the three months run. In this instance, the bill would become America, is therefore closely similar to acceptance of a time bill payable on April 23, 1928, as allowance must be made for the of exchange. But since the drawer’s order on a check is to pay three traditional and customary “days of grace.” Henceforward : on demand, the banker who certifies has not in strictness honoured Mr. Smith is called “the acceptor.” Mr. Robinson now gets the bill back, and he can do one of three the order, and when the payee acquiesces in, or induces, the banker’s act the drawer is discharged as in the case of a qualified things. He can keep it until “maturity,” ie., April 23, and acceptance. (N.I.L. s. 187, 188, 142.) After a check has been then endorse it, take it round to Mr. Smith’s bank, present it, certified for the holder payment can no longer be stopped by the and get his cash. Or he can endorse it in blank (ż.e., sign his name drawer, nor refused for insufficient funds; it is therefore neces- across the back, thereby making it payable to bearer) and hand sary and proper for the banker, on certifying, to immediately it to his own bank, say Lloyds Bank, “for collection.” Then his charge the drawer’s account to cover his own obligation. It must bank does the rest, and credits him with the £100, so soon as it

ticularly different in their practical effects in hindering forgery.

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(2) A DRAFT IN RESPECT OF A SHIPMENT OF GOODS, THE EXACT NATURE OF WHICH 1S SPECIFIED, PAYABLE 90 DAYS AFTER “SIGHT” BY THE DRAWEES IN Bombay, THE DRAFT IS IN TRIPLICATE, ONE Copy BEING DESPATCHED WITH THE SHIPPING DOCUMENTS AND THE TWO REMAINING BEING SENT BY SEPARATE MAILS, THUS ENSURING THE SAFE ARRIVAL OF aT LEAST ONE Copy

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USUAL

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DRAFTS.

(1) WITHOUT

receives it. In both these cases, Mr. Smith has to wait for his money until April 13, so he may adopt the third alternative, and

discount the bill, z.e., sell it at his bank. In this case he endorses it “to the order of Lloyds Bank,” and sells it to Lloyds Bank for what he can get. Naturally he will not get £100, for the bank will charge him a sum corresponding: (a) to the time they are out of their money, and (b) to the risk they are running of the bill not being met. Say first-class bills at that time are subject to a discount rate of 4%. The bank might add another 2%, to allow for the fact that Messrs. Smith and Robinson are not so sound or so wealthy as Messrs. Rothschild or Baring, making 6% in all. £6 os. od. per cent. per annum equals £1 ros. 7d. per cent. for the 93 days from Jan. rz to April 13. So, for his bill for £100, the bank will only pay him £98 gs. 5d. The bill is now the property of Lloyds Bank, and before presenting it, they must endorse it in their turn. Theoretically, they too could sell it before maturity, but British banks make a practice of never selling their own bills. Foreign banks, however, do sell bills out of their portfolio, and it is not uncommon for a bill, on maturity, to be found to have half-a-dozen endorsements on it, showing the people who have bought and sold it in the meantime. Now to see the uses ofa bill. (1) From the drawer’s standpoint, it enables him to get a definite dated promise to pay out of the drawee, and also to give the drawee the credit he needs and at the same time be able to get spot cash himself, if he wants it. (2) From the drawee’s or acceptor’s standpoint, it enables him to get credit, even though the drawer wants spot cash. (3) From the banker’s standpoint, it provides him with an ideal means of employing his liquid funds. We have seen a bill can be transferred by endorsement, and so is as good as currency. In many ways, it is better than currency. It earns interest; it matures at a definite and early date; and the more endorsements it acquires, the safer it becomes. The reason for this is that if the acceptor cannot pay, the “holder,” z.e., the man actually presenting it, can come down on each endorser in turn and finally on the drawer. Everyone whose name is on the bill may find himself liable, and so the more names there are on it, the better the security,

AND

(2)

WITH

CONSIDERATION

SPECIFIED

This is the simple case of the inland bill, which, by 1928, was nearly as dead as the dodo. Bills and Foreign Trade.—Foreign trade is naturally more complex. The currency question comes in; different countries have different laws, and the drawer and drawee may not be known to each other. To overcome these difficulties, commercial prac-

tice has evolved several devices. The obvious problem arises from the fact that the exporter wants to be paid on shipping the goods, while the importer does not want to pay until he receives the goods. To bridge the interval, the 60 or go days’ bill is the obvious medium, while, in the days of sailing ships and slow voyages, a six months’ bill was often required.

Now, when a cargo arrives, the importer has to establish his title to it. He does that by presenting the set of documents, such as the invoice, the bill of lading, insurance policy, certificate of origin, etc., etc., which together authorize the ship’s captain to hand over the goods. This the exporter knows, so that, if he is not sure of his man, he does not send him the documents direct, but stamps his bill (D A.) and forwards the documents with the bill to his collecting agent, probably his bank. His bank sends all these papers to its correspondent in the importer’s town, and he, knowing that (D.A.) means “documents against acceptance,” makes

the importer accept

documents.

the bill, before

handing over the

So the importer must accept the bill before he can

get the goods.

The bill can be stamped D.P. Then the importer must pay the

bill before the documents are handed over.

Of course, he can

pay all or part of the bill before maturity, and if so, he is allowed a rebate, as he has paid before the due date.

Above is an example of a bill.

The drawer has arranged

with his bank to discount it for him, and so, to save an endorsement, has drawn it to the order of his bank. The bank credits the drawee at once, endorses the bill, sends it with the documents to its correspondent for acceptance, and instructs its correspondent either to hold it until maturity, or to discount it. To avoid the risk of loss in transmission, bills and documents are often prepared in triplicate, each set of papers being sent separately. This explains the term “First of Exchange.”

BILL

OF HEALTH—BILL

OF MORTALITY

577

the currency issue, as the issuing bank can have the bill paid in its own notes, which it can then retire. The chief operator in the transaction, and that, if things go wrong, the holder may be landed London money market is the bill-broker. He buys bills from the foreign banks and other sources, sorts them into maturities, and with a cargo of steel sheets to dispose of. Bills to which documents are attached are called “documentary sells to the British banks bills maturing at such dates as they bills.” When the documents are detached and handed to the require. He finances his stock of bills by short loans from the London banks (see Monty Market) and the London market deals importer, they become “clean bills.” Accepting Houses.—The next device described was evolved in clean bills only. So far, trade bills have been considered. Other important bills to meet the case of an importer who was not known to the exporter. Here he can arrange with some bank or “accepting house,” are: (1) Finance bills, drawn by one banker on another to effect of world-wide repute, to accept the bill for him. Thus Smith, a temporary transfer of funds. Finance bills are a means of Jones & Co., may be quite a sound concern, but not known in anticipating and making provision for a coming demand for money London, or to Mr. W. Robinson. Their own bank, the Indian in a particular quarter, such as the demand for money to pay Chartered Bank, with offices in Bombay and London, or perhaps for crops. (2) Treasury bills, drawn on H.M. Treasury and usually a big London accepting house, such as Lazards or Barings, may maturing in three months. These are sold each week by tender, know all about Smith, Jones & Co., and be perfectly satisfied and enable the Treasury to borrow money for a period of three with them, So Smith, Jones pay their bank a small commission, months. Every week, so many bills mature, and so many fresh say 4%, to accept or endorse the bill on their behalf. The bank ones are sold. (3) Corporation bills, drawn on the big British may insist upon having the documents or allow them to go direct provincial cities, to enable them to borrow money for the term to Smith, Jones, but in any case, Mr. Robinson is now able to of the bill. draw a first-class bill, which he can discount at the finest or lowest Some confusion often arises from the rate of discount of a bill. rate. The price of the bill is the difference between the face value of Every bank carries in its balance sheet an item “acceptances, the bill and the discount thereon. Hence the important rule that and endorsements on behalf of customers,” which represents its dear money means high discount rates and cheap bills. ‘Market engagements in this respect. rate” is the discount rate on three months’ bank bills, that is, Banker’s Credits.—This introduces the next device, namely bills accepted or endorsed by a London bank or accepting house. that of banker’s credits. This is a very technical question and can It is the finest (or lowest) rate current in London, and so three be dealt with only briefly. If an importer arranges for his bank months’ bank bills command the best price. A six months’ bill to open a credit on his behalf, it means that the bank will accept will be cheaper, because bankers are loth to tie up their money the bills drawn on the importer up to the limit and in accordance so long. A bill without a bank name will be cheaper, because the with the terms of the credit. Credits take many forms, some security is less. At the bottom of the scale come bills drawn by of which are sketched below. one impecunious person upon another, with the object of discountConfirmed Banker’s Credit.—This is the form of credit ing the bill somewhere, and the drawer and acceptor sharing the described above. Once granted, it cannot be revoked either by the proceeds. Often each will draw simultaneously upon the other, importer or the bank. and discount the two bills in different places. This is the theory Unconfirmed Banker’s Credit.—This is less binding. The of the game. In practice, bankers and the market term such bills banker says only that he may accept the bills, and while, in “pig upon pork,” and refuse to look at them. (N. E. C.) The actual cargo to which the transaction relates is stated on

the bill. This shows everyone concerned that it is a genuine

general, he does so, he is not absolutely bound. Documentary Credit.—Here the bank engages to advance the

money on the bills, and the importer is left to accept them himself. The documents are retained by the bank as security, and the bill, though accepted by the importer, is paid direct by the bank. Clean Credit.—Here there are no documents or other evidence of genuine business, so that bankers grant these only to people they are sure of. In brief, the banker promises the drawee to buy the bills from the drawer, while the drawee promises to accept them and pay them on maturity. A credit may be opened in respect of a definite shipment, and expires when the transaction is completed. On the other hand, many credits are continuous. When the first bill is duly paid, the bank will agree to accept a second, and so on, provided that the total of bills outstanding at any one time does not exceed the limit of the credit. Such credits are called Revolving Credits. For further information, see W. F. Spalding, Bankers’ Credits - oe Exchange and Foreign Bills (Sir Isaac Pitman and ons), The London Money Market.—Next it is necessary to con-

sider bills drawn on London, and the London money market. A bill is not necessarily drawn on the importer, or even on a bank in the importer’s or exporter’s country. The two may agree that the importer have a credit opened by a London bank, against which the exporter can draw. The importer either does this direct,

or through his own bank.

This is a common

practice, because

London is the chief bill market of the world, and so there is a teady demand for bills. Hence the exporter can be sure of selling his bill at the best rate. Demand for bills in London comes from many sources. All the London banks, and many foreign banks, are seeking for bills maturing at various specified dates, while, in 1927, foreign Central

banks were buying up bills as backing for their note-issues and deposits. In many ways, bills are ideal backing for currency. They ve only a definite life, and their decease automatically contracts

BILL OF HEALTH, a document given to the master of a

ship by the consul or other proper authority of the port from which he clears, describing the sanitary state of the place. A bill of health may be either ‘‘clean,” “suspected,” “touched” or “foul.” A “clean” bill imports that at the time the ship sailed no disease of an infectious or contagious kind is known to exist, a “‘suspected”’ or “touched” bill, that no such disease has as yet appeared, but that there is reason to fear it; a “‘foul” bill, that such a disease actually exists at the time of the ship’s departure. Bills of health are necessary where the destination of the ship is a country whose laws require the production of such a bill before the ship is allowed into port, and where, in default of such production, the ship is subjected to quarantine.

BILL OF MORTALITY.

In England this was a weekly

return issued under the supervision of the company of parish clerks showing the number of deaths in a parish. During the Tudor period England suffered much from plague, and various precautionary measures became necessary. Quarantine or isolation was the most important, but to carry it out successfully it was necessary to have early warning of the existence of plague in each parish or house. For this purpose searchers—usually women —were appointed, who reported to the clerk the cause of each death in the parish. He, in turn, sent a report to the parish clerks’ hall, from whence was issued weekly a return of all the deaths from plague and other causes in the various parishes, as well as a list of those parishes which were free from plague. Bills of mortality are usually said to date from 1538, when parish registers were established by Cromwell (Lord Essex), but there is extant a bill which dates from Aug. 1535, and one which is possibly even earlier than this. It is certain that they first began to be compiled in a recognized manner in Dec: 1603, and they were continued regularly from that date down to 1842, when under the Births and Deaths Registration act, 1836, they were superseded by the registrar-general’s returns. It was not till 1728, when the ages of the dead were first introduced, that bills of mortality s

578

BILL OF RIGHTS—BILL

acquired any considerable statistical value. It was on the data thus furnished that the science of life insurance was founded. BILL OF RIGHTS, an important statute in English constitutional history enacted in Dec. 1689. Its provisions were based upon the Declaration lords and commons to the

of Right and delivered by the Prince and Princess of Orange,

afterwards William III and Mary.

The act (the full name of

which is “An Act declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject, and settling the Succession of the Crown”), after reciting the unconstitutional proceedings of James II., the abdication of that King, the consequent vacancy of the Crown, and the summons of the convention parliament, declared, on the part of the lords

and commons, “for the vindicating and asserting their ancient rights and liberties” :—~ “(r) That the pretended power of suspending of laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal. (2) That the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority, as it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal. (3) That the commission for erecting the late court of commissioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all other commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and pernicious. (4) That levying money for or to the use of the Crown, by pretence of prerogative, without grant of Parliament, for longer time or in other manner than the same is or shall be granted, is illegal. (5) That it is the right of the subjects to petition the King, and all commitments and prosecutions for

such petitioning are illegal.

(6) That the raising or keeping a

standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parliament, is against law. (7) That the subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions, and as allowed by law. (8) That elections of members of Parliament ought to be free. (9) That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceedings in Parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament. (10) That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in-

OF SALE

of sale. In 1882 the Bills of Sale Act (1878) Amendment Act

was passed to protect persons borrowing on bills of gale (cf

Manchester, etc. Ry. Co. v. N.C. Wagon Co., 1888, 13 An

Cas. 554). This point is worth remembering, because the 188,

Act is the beginning of the tendency to protect impecunious bor-

rowers who have no security to give for a loan save a charge on their household goods, or no security at all, which has culminated in the Money Lenders Acts of 1900 and 1926. The Act of 188,

has since been amended by the Bills of Sale Acts of 1899 and

1891 which

effected further small amendments

by excluding

from the operation of the principal acts instruments hypotherat.

ing, charging or declaring trusts on imported goods, during the interval between their unloading from a ship and their deposit jp a warehouse, or re-shipping. Under the Acts of 1878 and 1882 bills of sale are of two kinds

i.e., absolute bills of sale (where chattels are sold absolutely to a purchaser), and conditional bills of sale (where the bill is given by way of security for the payment of money). The Bills of Sale Act 1878 applies to both kinds and is the only act applying to absolute bills. Bills of sale given in security for the payment of money on or after Nov. 1, 1882, are chiefly governed by the Act of 1882, which, however, does not apply to absolute bills. Section 4 of the Act of 1878 defines a bill of sale as (x) including bills of sale, assignments, transfers, declarations of trust without transfer, inventories of goods with receipt thereto attached, or receipts for purchase moneys of goods and other assurances of personal chattels; the term assurance has been best explained as a docu-

ment “on which the title of the transferee of the goods depends,

either as the actual transfer of the property, or an agreement to transfer,” Marsden v. Meadows, 1881, 7 Q.B.D. 80; (2) powers of attorney, authorities or licences to take possession of personal chattels as security for any debt; these words would not include a power of distress for rent in an ordinary lease or bona fide hiring or hire purchase agreements; (3) any agreement, whether intended or not to be followed by the execution of any other instrument, by which a right in equity to any personal chattels, or flicted. (11) That jurors ought to be duly empanelled and re- to any charge or security thereon, shall be conferred; (4) any turned, and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high treason mode of disposition of trade machinery and attornments and ought to be free-holders. (12) That all grants and promises of other instruments giving powers of distress to secure a debt or fines and forfeitures of particular persons before conviction are advance. On the other hand, certain assurances and instruments illegal and void. (13) And that for redress of all grievances, and are expressly exempt by statute from the definition: marriage for the amending, strengthening, and preserving of the laws, Parlia- settlements, assignments of ships, assignments for the benefit of ment ought to be held frequently. And they do claim, demand, creditors, bills of lading and dock warrants, and by the Act of and insist upon all and singular the premises, as their undoubted 1882, debentures and debenture stock of a company. The expression “personal chattels” is defined as goods, furniture and other rights and liberties.” The further provisions of the act were concerned with the articles capable of complete transfer by delivery, and (when sepsettlement of the Crown upon the Prince and Princess of Orange, arately assigned or charged) fixtures and growing crops. The law as to absolute bills being for the protection of the with the exception of Section 12, which negatived the right of lender is concerned with conditions to secure that the borrowers dispensation by non obstante! to or of any statute or any part thereof, unless a dispensation be allowed in the statute itself or shall not be able to repudiate them. Accordingly provisions are by bill or bills to be passed during the.then session of Parliament. made that the bill containing all the essentials of the transaction The Bill of Rights introduced no new principle into the English verified by affidavit shall be attested by a solicitor who must constitution; it was merely a declaration of the law as it stood. In testify that he, before its execution, explained to the grantor its the:United States, the main provisions of the Bill of Rights, so far effect; and shall be filed with the registrar within seven clear as they are applicable, have been adopted both in the constitution days of its execution. Failure to observe these requirements invalidates the bill only as against the execution creditors and of the United States and in the state constitutions. BILL OF SALE, a legal document assigning personal chat- trustee in bankruptcy of the grantor, it remains good as between tels, and also used in connection with the transference of property the grantor himself and the grantee. Bills of sale given by way of a security for a loan or a money in ships. The term has come to be applied to mortgages as well as to sales, and the expression “bill of sale” may now be under- debt (conditional bills) must be drafted in accordance with4 form annexed to the act. The contents of this form are practlstood to signify generally a document evidencing a sale or mortgage of personal chattels, unaccompanied by an actual transfer cally the same as those to be set out in an absolute bill of sale with the addition of a provision setting out that the chattels of possession to the purchaser or mortgagee. The first English legislation on the subject was the Bills of assigned by it shall not be liable to seizure or to be taken posses Sale Act 1854. This provided that all bills of sale, as defined sion of by the grantee for any cause other than those specified mn in the act, should be void against execution creditors unless regis- s..7 of the Bills of Sale Act (1878) Amendment Act 1882. If this tered. It was amended by the Bills of Sale Act 1866. These acts form is substantially departed from, a conditional bill, unlike as against the grantor’s crediwere repealed and a new act passed, the Bills of Sale Act 1878; an absolute bill, is void not merely and which in the main followed the lines of the Act of 1854. The tors and trustee in bankruptcy but also as between grantor grantee. object of this legislation was to protect persons lending on bills 1Non obstante (notwithstanding) means a licence from the crown to do that which could not be lawfully done without it.

The bill of sale must have annexed to it an inventory of the

chattels comprised in it, and is void, except as against the grantor,

BILL OF SIGHT—BILNEY in respect of any personal chattels not specifically described.

It

must be duly attested by one or more credible witnesses (not necessarily by a solicitor, as in the case of absolute bills). Every witness must sign his name and add his address and description. It must be duly registered within seven clear days after the execution thereof, or if it is executed in any place out of England then

within seven clear days after the time at which it would in the ordinary course of post arrive in England if posted immediately after the execution. It must truly set forth the consideration.

The

grantor must be the true owner of the goods described in the schedule; as to any personal chattels of which he is not the true

579

master and countersigned by the collector of customs. is to prevent frauds on the revenue.

Its object

No such stores are supplied

for the use of any ship nor any articles taken on board deemed to be stores unless they are borne upon the victualling bill, and any such stores relanded at any place in the United Kingdom without the sanction of the proper officers of the customs will be forfeited and the master and owner will each be liable to a penalty

of treble the value of the stores or £100. A victualling bill serves as a certificate of clearance when there is nothing but stores on board the ship.

BILL POSTING: see ADVERTISING.

owner, the bill is void, except as against the grantor. Every bill of sale made or given in consideration of any sum under £30 is void. The causes which will render the chattels assigned by the bill liable to be seized or taken possession of are as follows: (x) If the grantor makes default in payment of the debt or in the performance of any covenant or agreement contained in the bill

BILLROTH, ALBERT CHRISTIAN THEODOR (1829-1894), Viennese surgeon, was born on April 26, 1829, at Bergen, on the island of Riigen, his family being of Swedish origin. He studied at the universities of Greifswald, Göttingen and Berlin, and, after taking his doctor’s degree at the last in 1852, started on a tour of the principal medical schools of Europe. On his return to Berlin he acted as assistant to B. R. K. Langenbeck (1853-60),

and necessary for maintaining the security;

and then accepted the professorship of surgery at Zürich. In 1867 he was invited to fill the same position at Vienna, and in that city the remainder of his professional life was spent. In 1887 he received a distinction which has seldom been bestowed on members of his profession—a seat in the Austrian Herrnkaus. He died at Abbazia, on the Adriatic, on Feb. 6, 1894. Billroth was one of the most distinguished surgeons of his day. His boldness as an operator gained for him the appellation of “surgeon of great initiatives.” He was especially interested in military surgery, and during the Franco-German War volunteered to serve in the hospitals of Mannheim and Weissenburg. He improved the arrangements for the transport and treatment of the wounded in war, and in a famous speech on the war budget in 1891 he urged the necessity for an improved ambulance system in modern warfare. His Allgemeine chirurgische Pathologie und Therapie (1863) ran through many editions, and was translated into many languages. He was a good musician, and an intimate friend and admirer of Brahms, many of whose compositions were privately performed at his house before they were published. His work on the physiology of music (Wer ist musikalisch?) was published after his death. His Briefe, first published in 1896, reached their oth ed. in 1922.

becomes a bankrupt

(2) if the grantor

or suffers the goods to be distrained for

rent, rates or taxes; (3) if the grantor fraudulently removes the goods from the premises;

(4) if the grantor does not, without

reasonable excuse, upon demand in writing by the grantee, produce to him his last receipts for rent, rates or taxes; (5) if execution is levied against the goods of the grantor under any judgment. By s. 13 personal chattels seized or taken possession of under a bill must not be removed or sold until after the expiration of five clear days from the date of seizure, and if the goods have been wrongly seized, the grantor may within the five days apply to the high court or a Judge in chambers for an order to restrain the grantee from removing or selling the goods. The Bills of Sale Acts 1878 and 1882 do not apply to Scotland or Ireland. Accord-

ing to Scots law no security or charge can be created over movable property without delivery of possession. The Irish statutes corresponding to the English Acts are the Bills of Sale (Ireland) Act 1879 and the Amendment Act 1883. The stamp duties payable on an absolute bill of sale are 2s. 6d. on every £25 secured up to £300; over £300, 5s. on every £50. On bills of sale by way of security, 1s. 3d. for every £50 up to £300 secured; over £300, 2s. 6d. for every £100. The fees payable on filing a bill of sale are 5s. where the consideration (including further advances) does not exceed £100; above £100 and not exceeding £200, 108.; above £200, £1. The various trade protection papers always publish the registration of a bill of sale, and the usual effect is, therefore, to destroy

the credit of any person giving one.

(T.A.1.; J. A. St.)

_ BILL OF SIGHT, a document furnished to the customs by an

importer of goods in Great Britain who, being unable for want offull information to make a perfect entry of goods consigned to him, describes them to the best of his knowledge and information. The goods may then be provisionally landed, but perfect entry must be made within three days by endorsing on the bill of sight the necessary particulars. In default of perfect entry within three days, the goods are taken to the king’s warehouse, and if perfect entry is not made within one month and all duties and charges paid, they are sold for payment thereof. A bill of sight should be carefully distinguished from a “sight bill,” which is a bill of exchange payable at sight (see BILL OF EXCHANGE).

BILL OF STORE, a licence granted by the custom house

permitting the re-importation of British goods into Great Britain.

All British goods re-imported into Great Britain are entered as

foreign, unless re-imported within ten years after their exportation and unless the property in the goods continues and remains in the person by whom they were exported.

But in such case they may

be entered as British goods, by bill of store, with the exception of corn, grain, meal, flour and hops.

BILMA or KAWAR, a Saharan oasis, 60 m. by 10. The in-

habitants are Tibbu and Kanuri. The name Bilma belongs strictly to the south part near the chief settlement, Bilma or Garu. This place is 800 m. S. of the town of Tripoli and about 350 N. of the north-west corner of Lake Chad. The water of a number of lakes on evaporation yields large quantities of fine salt, the object of an extensive trade with Central Africa. North of Bilma is the town of Dirki, said to date from the 11th century. Near Bilma is a small oasis, kept green by spring water, but to the south marked desert conditions prevail. By the Anglo-French Declaration of 1899 Bilma was included in the French sphere of influence in West Africa. Turkey claimed the oasis and garrisoned Bilma in 1902. In 1906, however, a French force occupied the town without opposition. In 1907 the district was created a

circle of the French Territory of the Niger (see SAHARA). BILNEY, THOMAS (c. 1495-1531), English martyr, was born at or near Norwich. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, graduating LL.B. and taking holy orders in 1519. Among his friends were Matthew Parker, the future archbishop of Canterbury, and Hugh Latimer. Latimer, previously a strenuous conservative, was completely won over, and a warm friendship sprang up between him and Bilney. “By his confession,” said Latimer, “I learned more than in 20 years before.” In 1525 Bilney obtained a licence to preach throughout the diocese of Ely. He denounced saint and relic worship, together with pilgrimages to Walsingham and Canterbury, and refused to accept the mediation of the saints.

The diocesan authorities raised no objection,

BILL OF VICTUALLING, in its original meaning a list for, despite his reforming views in these directions, he was to the

of all stores for shipment, but now an order from an export officer

A the customs for the shipment from a bonded warehouse or

= drawback of such stores as may be required and allowed with terence to the number of the crew and passengers on board a Sap proceeding on an oversea voyage. It is made out by the

last perfectly orthodox on the power of the pope, the sacrifice of the mass, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the authority of the church. But Wolsey summoned Bilney before him in 1526. On his taking an oath that he did not hold and would not disseminate the doctrines of Luther, Bilney was dismissed. But in the

580

BILOXI—BIMETALLISM

following year he was arrested and convicted of heresy, sentence being deferred while efforts were made to induce him to recant, which eventually he did. After a year in the Tower, he was released in 1529, and went back to Cambridge. Here he was overcome with remorse for his apostasy, and preached openly in the fields, finally arriving in Norwich, where the bishop, Richard Nix, caused him to be arrested. He was burned as a relapsed heretic in London on Aug. 9 1531. A parliamentary enquiry into this case was threatened because it was alleged that Bilney’s execution had been obtained by the ecclesiastics without the proper authorization by the State. In 1534 Bishop Nix was condemned on this charge to the confiscation of his property. The significance of Bilney’s execution lies in the fact that on essential points he was an orthodox Roman Catholic. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vols. iv.-v.; Foxe’s Acts and Monuments; Gairdner’s History of the Church; Pollard’s Henry VIII.

BILOXI, a city of Harrison county, Mississippi, U.S.A., about half-way between Mobile and New Orleans, on a narrow peninsula extending into Mississippi sound, a part of the Gulf of Mexico. It is on the old Spanish trail and the Louisville and Nashville railway, and is connected by a bus line with the Illinois Central system at Gulfport. The population in 1920 was 10,937, of which 1,615 were negroes, and was 14,850 In 1930. : Biloxi is both a summer and winter resort with more than the usual sea-side and country sports. Its vegetation, growing down to the water’s edge, includes gigantic old live-oaks, dripping with Spanish moss, long leaf pines, magnolias, oleanders, camphor trees, and palms. The dominating industry is the catching, packing, and shipping of sea-food. The fleet of fishing smacks and other small craft numbers about 800. In a normal year, the shipments include more than 175,000 gal. of raw oysters packed in ice, 10,000,000 cans of oysters, and 8,000,000 cans of shrimps, besides fish, crabs, and turtles in large quantities.

Biloxi has been under five national flags (France, Spain, Eng-

tinction to the “unrated bimetallism” which exists wherever tw,

metals circulate together, but have their relative values deter.

mined, not by law, but by “the higgling of the market.” Further

the inventor of the term—H. Cernuschi in 1869—regarded it ac properly applicable to an international arrangement by which i number of states agree to adopt the same ratio, rather than to the use of the two metals by a single country, which may be described as national bimetallism. International bimetallism is at all events

the form which has attracted attention in recent times, and it is certainly the most important.

Regarded from the historical point of view it appears that the failure of separate countries to maintain the two metals in circy. lation was the cause which produced the idea of bimetallism as an international system. We find first the upholders of a national double standard, as in France and the United States, and these are followed by the advocates of bimetallism set up by a com.

bination of countries. The theoretical considerations which under. lie the controversy between the supporters and the opponents of bimetallism find their appropriate place in the article Money,

(g.v.) as does also the earlier history of the double standard. The circumstances that have led to the prominence of the bimetallic

question and the principal events that have marked the course of the movement form the subject of this article. Double and Single Standards.—In the earlier years of the roth century, when the monetary disturbances that resulted from

the Revolutionary wars had ceased, we find France (1803) and the United States (1792) with the double standard legally estab.

lished. England, on the other hand, had in 1816 accepted by law

the gold standard, which had come into use in the 18th century. Silver formed the currency of the other European countries. The

great discoveries of gold in California (1848) and Australia (1851) brought about the displacement of silver by gold in France, and the continuance of gold as the principal currency metal in the United States, where by the law of 1834 it had been somewhat overrated (1:16), as compared with the ratio adopted in France (1:154), and had therefore expelled most of the silver

land, the Confederacy, and the United States) and two state flags. In 1699, Pierre le Moyne d’Iberville (1661~1706) built Fort previously in circulation. Between 1848 and 1860 over £100,000, Maurepas across the bay from the present city, and the settlement ooo of gold was coined in France, while an equivalent amount there was the first capital of the French territory. It took its name, of silver was exported, principally to the East. At this time the weight of economic and official opinion was meaning “the first people” from the tribe of Sioux found there. In 1712 a settlement was made on the present site, and this became very decidedly in favour of the single gold standard as the best the French capital from 1719 to 1722. An old house with walls of system. In 1865 the Latin Union was established, in which the moss and clay is believed to date from this period and to be the French currency system was adopted and was followed by the oldest building in the Mississippi valley. In the war of 1812 the international conference of 1867 in Paris (see Monetary ConBritish fleet anchored off Ship island, preparatory to its attack FERENCES), when gold was unanimously accepted as the standard on New Orleans, and during the Civil War Fort Massachusetts for the proposed international system to be produced by co(now abandoned) on this island was an important base of Federal ordinating the various currencies with that of the Latin Union. A series of political and economic events speedily changed this operations. On West Beach is Beauvoir, the home of Jefferson Davis, now appropriately occupied by the Mississippi Confederate situation. The Franco-German War (1870-71) deposed France soldiers’ home. Biloxi was incorporated as a village in 1872, as a from her leading position, and led to the establishment of a city in 1896. German gold currency with a different unit from the franc, BILSTON, urban district, Staffordshire, England, 24m. S.E. of accompanied by the demonetization of the silver currencies pre Wolverhampton, in the Black Country. Pop. (1931) 31,248. It viously in use in the German states. The United States, where is served by the G.W. and L.M.S. railways. In the vicinity are an inconvertible paper currency had been introduced during the very productive mines of coal and ironstone, sand of fine quality Civil War, formally established the gold dollar as the standard for casting, and grinding-stones for cutlers. Bilston contains coin (1873) and arranged for a return to specie payments (1878). numerous furnaces, forges, rolling and slitting mills for the prep- At this time, too, the great production of gold which had marked aration of iron, and a great variety of factories for japanned the period 1850-70 diminished, while very productive silver mines and heavy iron goods. The town is ancient, appearing in were discovered in the Pacific states of America. As a result of Domesday. these combined influences the gold price of silver, which had BIMETALLISM. The very general employment of both risen a little during the height of the gold discoveries, began to gold and silver for currency purposes (see Money) has given fall rapidly, and the reverse process to that by which France rise to serious practical difficulties which have in turn led to keen had in the ’sos acquired a gold currency came into operation. theoretical discussion as to the proper remedies to be employed. Silver, in accordance with Gresham’s Law, was imported and os Though every arrangement under which two metals form the offered for coinage. money of a region may be described as “bimetallism,” the term— The Limping Standard.—To obviate this the policy of limtas often happens in economics—has received a specialized mean- ing the coinage of silver (the Limping Standard) was adopted by ing. It denotes a system under which the two metals are freely re- the Latin Union. A further fall in the gold price of silver naturally ceived by the mint and are equally available as legal tender. The resulted, and this made the position of Eastern trade and the last clause implies the establishment of a definite ratio in value be- finances of the Indian government insecure. American silver tween the two metals (e.g., 1 oz. of gold = 154 oz. of silver) so producers, and the German government, as holders of a large that the title “rated bimetallism” may be given to it, in contradis- mass of demonetized silver, were alsu sufferers by the depreci

BIMLIPATAM—BINET tion. The effect on public and official opinion was shown by the

English parliamentary committee on the depreciation of silver

(1876), the American silver commission of the same year, and the

appearance of many works on the subject, most of them advocating the double standard. On the initiative of the United States an international monetary conference met in Paris in 1878, but though the necessity of keeping a place for silver in the money of the world was recognized, the proposal to adopt the double standard for general use was rejected by the European states.

By the Bland-Allison Act (Feb. 1878) the United States had provided for the coinage of a certain amount of silver per month as a mode of keeping up the price of the metal, which notwithstanding fell to 48 pence per oz. in 1879. The prolonged depression

of trade in America and Germany was attributed to the scarcity of money, due to what was described as “the outlawry of silver.” By the joint action of France and the United States a fresh

monetary conference was held in Paris in 1881, where the advocates of bimetallism were very strongly represented. After pro-

longed discussion no conclusion was reached, in consequence of the refusal of England and Germany to abandon the gold standard.

Though an adjournment to the following year was resolved on, the conference did not reassemble, and the bimetallic movement

took the form of agitation, carried on in each country. The English inquiry into the depression of trade (1885-86) drew from the commission a recommendation for a fresh commission to investigate the relation of gold and silver. This latter body, appointed in 1886, obtained a large amount of important evidence, and in 1888 closed its work by a report in which the views of the two sections of the commission were separately presented. Six members supported the existing gold standard and six were in favour of the bimetallic system.

Sherman Act, 1890.—This inconclusive result was soon fol-

lowed in the United States by the Sherman Act (1890), providing for a larger monthly coinage of silver. A temporary rise in the price of the metal was followed by a further fall, making the situation still more critical A new monetary conference was summoned by the United States and met in Brussels in Nov. 1892. To modify opposition the “desirability of increasing the use of silver” was the resolution proposed; the actual method being left open. This conference also proved abortive and adjourned to 1893, but like that of 1881 did not meet again. International action having failed to secure any system of bimetallism, the United States and India sought to relieve their position by local legislation. The former repealed the Sherman Act, and the latter closed its mints to the free coinage of silver (1893). As these measures were opposed to bimetallism in that they restricted the use of silver, and were followed by a lower price for that metal than had ever been known, the agitation in the United States and Europe continued. In. America it took the form of advocating the free coinage of silver by the United States without waiting for other countries; and in this shape made the principal issue at the presidential elections of 1896 and 1900, in each of which it was emphatically rejected. The Last Attempt.—A further attempt at securing international bimetallism was made by Senator Wolcott’s commission m 1897. The American envoys, in concert with the French government, proposed to England (1) the reopening of the Indian mints, and (2) the annual purchase by England of £10,000,000 of silver. The French minister claimed further concessions which Were regarded as inadmissible by the English government; but the fate of the mission was settled by the refusal of the Indian government to reopen its mints. After the American election of 1900, bimetallism as a popular cause disappeared from view. The silver issue was withdrawn

from the democratic platform in 1904, and the bimetallic move-

ment died out in England. T Amongst the causes of this collapse the most important were: (1) the adoption of the gold standard by so many countries, (2) the great increase in the output of gold which removed all that read of a “gold famine” which served as a popular argument with bimetallists, (3) the knowledge that experience had brought of the difficulties surrounding any attempt to establish a common

581

ratio where the interests of different countries are so opposed; and (4) the great expansion of trade and industry, concomitantly with the wider adoption of the gold standard. Therefore, to quote the words of perhaps the ablest advocate of bimetallism, “The outcome of the prolonged controversy . . . appears to be that the commercial world will carry on its business principally and more and more on a gold basis, and that particular countries will endeavour in different ways to adjust their actual medium .. . to the gold standard” (Nicholson, Money and Monetary Problems, 6th ed.). Perhaps the principal service rendered by the many able minds engaged in the movement will prove to be the fuller development

of the more difficult parts of monetary theory and the additional light thrown on the course of monetary history. A proposal, sometimes confounded with bimetallism, is that

for a standard composed of both gold and silver, which is better described as the Joint-standard or as Symmetallism. BrsriocrapHy-—On the bimetallic side, Nicholson, Money and Monetary Problems (6th ed., 1903); F. A. Walker, International Bimetallism (1896); Barbour, The Theory of Bimetallism (1885); Lord Aldenham (H. H. Gibbs), A Colloquy on Currency (1900) ; and the numerous pamphlets and leaflets of the Bimetallic League. Opposed to bimetallism, Giffen, The Case against Bimetallism (1892) ; Laughlin, History of Bimetallism in the United States (4th ed., 1897); Lord Farrer, Studies in Currency (1898), The Gold Standard (1898)— papers issued by the Gold Standard Defence Assoc. Leonard Darwin’s Bimetallism aims at a judicial summary. See also MoNrEy, MONETARY CONFERENCES. (C. F. B.)

BIMLIPATAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district of Madras, on the sea-coast 18m. north-east of Vizagapatam, and 16m. from a station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1921) 7,495. It was formerly a Dutch factory and is now the principal port of the district. The anchorage is an open roadstead protected to some extent by headlands with a lighthouse at Santapalli. Trade is coastal, the foreign trade having declined since the World War. There is regular coolie traffic with Rangoon. The principal exports are oil-seeds and jute. Ships lie a mile offshore.

BINAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 16 barrios or districts), of the province of Laguna, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the west shore of Laguna de Bay, about 20m. S.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1918), 10,692, of whom 5,183 were males and none white. The fertile region roundabout produces corn, abaca, tobacco, rice and many tropical fruits, some of which find a ready market in Manila. It had 69 manufacturing establishments in 1918 with output valued at 291,000 pesos besides 164 household industry establishments with output valued at 79,900 pesos; and ten schools, of which six were public. The language is Tagalog. BINARY SYSTEM, in astronomy, a system composed of two stars revolving around each other under the influence of their mutual attraction. It is probable that at least one-third of the stars are binary systems. In some cases (visual binaries) a telescope will show the two components separated. In others (spectroscopic binaries) the duplicity is detected by observing the changing motion in the line of sight of one or both components.

(See Star.) BINCHOIS,

GILLES, an early rsth-century Flemish mu-

sical composer, evidently named after his birthplace, Binche, near Mons. He was esteemed by contemporary and later theorists as second only to Dunstable and Dufay. A selection of his works is printed in Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Oesterreich (vols. vii. and xi.). Binchois died at Lille in 1460.

BINDWEED: see CONVOLVULACEAE. BINET, ALFRED (1857-1911), French experimental psychologist, was born in Nice, on July 8, 1857. At an early age he went to Paris and entered the Lycée Saint-Louis from which he graduated in 1878. In 1890 he took a degree in natural science at the Sorbonne and received his D. Sc. in 1894. The laboratory of psychology and physiology was created at the Sorbonne in 1889 and three years later Binet was invited to join its staff as assistant to M. Beaunis. Upon the retirement of Beaunis in 1894, Binet became director. With Beaunis and Ribot he began in 1895 to publish the Journal L'Année psychologique. This journal, under Binet’s leadership, expressed the French movement in psychol-

BINGEN—BINNEY, T.

582

ogy. His inclination for varied psychological problems soon drew him towards the study of hypnotism and while working in this field he published with Fere, Le magnétisme animal and Les altérations de la personalité. His name, however, is most generally connected with his researches on human intelligence and more specifically with his scales and tests to measure intelligence.

The site of Binghamton was in Indian territory until 1779

when a decisive victory was won by General Clinton and General

Sullivan at Newtown (now Elmira). An Iroquois village known as Ochenang had been situated here, and the white settlemen

dating from 1787, was first called Chenango Point. The greater part of the city stands on land originally included in the “Bingham

These tests, first published in connection with his Étude Experi-

Patent,” a large tract on both sides of the Susquehanna, owned by

mentale de Vintelligence (1905-08), have had wide usage. He made extensive investigations in other psychological fields and the list of his publications is large. Among his works are: Introduction à la psychologie expérimentale, with Philippe, Courtier and V. Henri (1894); La fatigue intellectuelle, with V. Henri (1898); La suggestibilité (1900); L'âme et le corps (1905);

William Bingham (1751-1804), a merchant of Philadelphia, 4 village was laid out by his agent in 1800. It was incorporated in

1834, and received a city charter in 1867. Weekly stage service to Newburgh and Owego was established in 1816; the first boat

Les enfants anormaux, with Simon

26, 1848.

on Oct. 18, rorr.

(1907).

He died in Paris,

(For Binet Scale see EDUCATION.)

See R. Martin, Alfred Binet (Paris, 1925).

BINGEN

on the Chenango canal reached Binghamton in 1837; and the first

passenger train from New York arrived over the Erie, Der,

BINGLEY, urban district, West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng-

land, on the Aire, 54m. N.W. of Bradford, on the L.M.S. railway,

(ancient Vincum or Brncrum), town, Germany, in Pop. (1931) 20,553. The area is in the midst of the Yorkshire

the province of Rhein-Hessen, in the Folk-State of Hesse HesseDarmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 15m. N.W. of Mainz. Pop. (1925) 9,146. The Romans erected a castellum here, and there remains a bridge of Roman origin over the Nahe. Bingen was a free town of the empire. A short way down the Rhine is the Bingerloch, a whirlpool whose fame helped the growth of the town. Many legends have gathered about this portion of the Rhine valley, and its romantic associations and beautiful scenery have made Bingen a famous tourist centre. There is also an important pilgrimage in August. The parish church dates from the 15th century, but has an r1th century crypt. Commerce is in wine and spirits, and considerable transit trade is done by river.

industrial region, but in spite of the many factories it still retains

much open land in the Aire Valley, and agriculture is an important occupation. Textile working, especially spinning and weaving and worsted manufacture, is important, as well as metal working.

BINIOU or BIGNOU, a primitive kind of bagpipe consisting of a leather bag inflated by means of a short valved insuffla. tion tube or blow-pipe. The biniou is still the traditional and popular instrument of the Breton peasants of Cornouailles and Morbihan, Brittany. (See BAG-PIPE.) BINMALEY, a municipality (with administration centre and 18 barrios or districts), of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon,

Philippine Islands, on the delta of the Agno river, about sm. W. BINGHAM, JOSEPH (1668-1723), English scholar and of Dagupan which has railway connections with Manila. Pop. divine, was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire in Sept. 1668. Educated (1918), 18,243, of whom 9,140 were males and none white. It at University college, Oxford, he was made fellow in 1689 and has important fisheries, and manufactures salt, pottery, thatch tutor in 1691. A sermon preached by him from the university (made of nipa palm leaves) and nipa wine. Rice and coconuts pulpit (St. Mary’s), on the terms “Person” and “Substance” in are the principal agricultural products. In r918 it had 546 household industry establishments with outthe Fathers, brought upon him an unjust accusation of heresy. He was compelled to give up his fellowship; but he was immedi- put valued at 102,200 pesos, and 25 schools, of which nine were ately presented by Dr. John Radcliffe to the rectory of Head- public. The language is Pangasinan. bournworthy (1695). There he began his great work entitled BINNEY, EDWARD WILLIAM (1812-1881), English Origines Ecclesiasticae: the first volume appeared in 1708 and the tenth and last in 1722. Bingham was collated in 1712 to the geologist, was born at Morton, Nottinghamshire. He was articled to a solicitor in Chesterfield, and in 1836 settled at Manchester. On rectory of Havant. He died on Aug. 17, 1723. BINGHAMTON, a city of New York, U.S.A., picturesquely the Coal Measures he became an acknowledged authority, and situated on the Susquehanna river, at the mouth of the Chenango, wrote Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants found in the 125m. S.W. of Albany, near the Pennsylvania border; the county- Carboniferous Strata (1868-75). His large collection of fossils seat of Broome county. It is on the Appalachian scenic highway, was placed in Owen’s College. He died at Manchester on Dec. 19, and is served by the Erie, the Delaware and Hudson, and the 1881. BINNEY, HORACE (1780~1875), American lawyer, was Lackawanna railways. A commercial air-port is projected. The area is 9-4sq.m. The population was 17,317 in 1880; 39,647 in born in Philadelphia, Pa., on Jan. 4, 1780. He graduated at 1900; 66,800 in 1920, of which 10,368 were foreign-born white; Harvard college in 1797 and then studied law in the office of Jared Ingersoll (1749-1822), who was attorney general of Pennand was 76,662 in 1930. Dairy farming is the agricultural specialty of the fertile river sylvania. Binney was admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in 1800. valleys, which contain some of the finest farms in the State. The He served in the Pennsylvania legislature from 1806-07. His farm bureau of Broome county, organized in Binghamton in most famous case, Bidal v. Girard’s Executors, in which he was IQI, is the oldest in the country. Easy access to large markets, unsuccessfully opposed by Daniel Webster, greatly influenced the sea and lake-ports, coal, steel and raw materials has favoured in- interpretation of the law of charities. During the Civil War he dustrial development. Incoming and outgoing freight amounts to issued three pamphlets (1861, 1862 and 1865), justifying Abraham about 1,000,000 tons a year. The output in 1927 of the indus- Lincoln in his suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. See the Life of Horace Binney (Philadelphia, 1903), by his grandson, tries of Broome county, chiefly in Binghamton and its suburbs Johnson City and Endicott (24 and 9 m. distant respectively) C. C. Binney. was valued at $153,395,733. The leading product is shoes, and the Endicott-Johnson Shoe Corporation is one of the largest in the world, employing 15,000 men and women. Among the other

important manufactures are patent medicine, washing-machines, pipe-organs, pianos, cameras, furniture, valves, cigars, kitchen hardware, silk, motion-picture films, computing and tabulating machinery and various articles of iron and steel. The city has about 60 wholesale houses and its retail trading radius of 4om. covers a population of 200,000. Bank deposits amounted to $270,010,000 in 1926 and the assessed valuation of property was $114,789,185. A beautiful bridge of reinforced concrete has been built as a memorial to the men who served in the World War.

East of the city is a State hospital for the insane.

BINNEY, THOMAS

(17098-1874), English Congregation-

alist divine, was born of Presbyterian parents at Newcastle-onTyne. He entered the theological school at Wymondley, Herts, now incorporated in New College, Hampstead. In 1829, after short pastorates at Bedford (New Meeting) and Newport, Isle of Wight, he accepted a call to the historic Weigh House chapel,

London. Here he became very popular, and it was found necessary

to build a much larger chapel on Fish street Hill, to which the congregation removed in 1834. An address delivered on theocca-

sion of the laying of the foundation stone was published, with an

appendix containing a strong attack on the influence of the Church of England, which gave rise to a long and bitter controversy. In 1845 he visited Canada and the United States, and in 1857 the

BINOCULAR

INSTRUMENT

583

Australian colonies. He was twice chairman of the Congregational | the eye-centres. Both telescopes had independent focussing adUnion of England and Wales, and only resigned his pastorate in | justments for both eyes. A year and a half later another Viennese optician B. Weidholt obtained a patent for an arrangement of 1369 at the age of 72. He died on Feb. 24, 1874. two Dutch telescopes with their

Binney gave a special impulse to congregational psalmody by

the publication of a book entitled The Service of Song in the

axes parallel but adjustable for

House of the Lord. He wrote much devotional verse, including

interocular

distance,

but

the

credit of having placed these in-

the well-known hymn “Eternal Light! Eternal Light!”

struments on the market probably

BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT, an optical apparatus or

belongs to J. P. Lemiére, in Paris, who in 1825 took out a French

instrument through which objects are viewed with both eyes. Such instruments can be conveniently dealt with as belonging to

two classes: (1) Instruments for viewing

patent for an improvement

solid objects or objects in space.

the

(2) In-

struments for the presentation of plane views to both eyes for the purpose of ob-

; DISTANCE BETWEEN

taining a stereoscopic view of the subject,

Dutch

double

of

telescope.

Lemiére’s instruments were furnished with a common central

RRES

focussing

adjustment

and

the

i.e., an impression. of depth. adaptation to the interocular disFROM GLEICHEN, “DIE THEORIE DER MODERNEN The natural vision is such that different | oprıiscuen msvrumente” (ENKE) tance was effected by turning the central projections of the objects are | FIG. 3.—MODERN PRISM BINOC- two parallel bodies round their communicated to both eyes, the differ- | ULAR common axis. During the next row GLEICHEN, “DIE vHeoriE ENCE Of the two perspective representa- | few decades very few improvements in this type of instrument

pR MoN Fig. 1—PORRO'S

tions arises from the fact that the pro-| are recorded. The last improvement was apparently made by RE- jection centres are laterally displaced | P. G. Bardout, who combined two terrestrial tubes using Lemiére’s method of mounting them parallel to a common axis with interocular adjustment and central focussing arrangement for both eyes. It was possible for him to achieve greater magnifications with his instruments.

to an interval about equal to the disVERSING PRISM tance between the eyes (the interpupillary distance). Binocu-

lar instruments should aid the natural vision with both eyes. If objects be so far distant that the two perspectives formed by the naked eye are no more distinguishable from each other, recourse may be had to binocular field glasses or telescopes, and if the objects be so small that in order to observe details on them the eyes must be brought so close to the objects that they cannot accommodate to the images recourse may be had to binocular microscopes and magnifiers. The construction of binocular instruments dates back over

The Porro

Prism

Combination.—TIgnazio

(1795-1875)

invented

in 1851 a

BER moorhen Orrische® sm, Prism combination which was to play an im-

STRUMENTE" (ENKR)

portant part in the future development of

FIG. 4.—AMICI'S VERSING olay

RE- binocular instruments. The prism combination consists of two right-angle prisms

placed with their hypotenuse faces adjacent, having the planes of total reflection at right-angles to one another (fig. 1). An image viewed through such a prism willappear completely reversed. A.A. Boulanger was the first to utilize the Porro prism combination in ments. TELESCOPE his binocular telescope (fig. 2) for which he obtained a patent in Early History.—The first binocular telescope, consisting of France in the year 1859. The two telescopes placed side by side, was constructed in 1608 by prism combination was mounted Johann Lepperhey, the inventor above the objective of the teleof the ordinary Dutch telescope, scope in such a manner that, by i.e., the combination of a collecmeans of a right- and left-hand == tive lens as an objective and a screw, the interocular distance dispersive lens as an eyepiece. could be adjusted to suit the obThe subject was next taken up servers. He overlooked, however, i by the monks. The Capuchin Anthe possibility of mounting the = oe tonius Maria Schyrlaeus de Porro prisms in such a manner oor Rheita (A. M. Schyrl) (1597as to increase the distance bef 1660) described in 1645 the contween the objectives relatively to i struction of double terrestrial the eyepieces, thereby gaining entelescopes. Greater success athanced stereoscopic effect. C. tended the efforts of the CaI = nese TANIN Nachet introduced this improvepuchin Cherubin d’Orleans who ment in 1875, but he also does flourished a little later. He cona tT AY rae ey NIZA not seem to have realized that structed large double telescopes any gain in stereoscopic effect of the Dutch type for use in war would result therefrom as no yar eee Peed ay and small instruments of lower . bat y ! mention of this is made in his He introduced FiG, 2.—BOULANGER'S BINOCULAR magnification.

several centuries and has now been brought to great perfection. The subject of their theory and history has been exhaustively treated by M. Von Rohr Die binocularen Instrumente (1907) the first publication to present a complete account of these instru-

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err DER aa SLICKER Into these great improvements telescopes by providing them | opriscen iNsTRUMENTE” (ENKE) e

$

F

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u

MODERNEN

With adjustments to enable the | Fres. 5 anp 7.—assé ann pauinterocular

distance

to

be | BRESSE PRISM BINOCULARS

adapted to suit individual observers, and the object glass dis-

tance to suit far and near objects. i After these discoveries the subject received no more attention until the roth century. The re-invention of the Dutch binocular telescope apparently dates from 1823, and is to be assigned to the

skilful Viennese optician Johann Voigtlaender. He received a kind of patent for an instrument having two Dutch telescopes So arranged that the axes of both were parallel and in line with

Fig.

5.—Prism

direct vision

binocular with

reversing

prism

Abbé’s

Fig. 7.—Prism binocular with a type

>»

.

instruments meet with much popularity.did not

patent. *His

s

E. Abbé took the matter up

de novo in 1893 when he designed prism

binoculars

and

telescopes.

His constructions were the fore-

of reversing prism designed by Dau- runners of the modern type of bresse prism binocular. If the Porro prism combination (fig. 1) is examined closely it will be seen that it contains two great advantages. Abbé made use of both by mounting them so that he obtained a greater distance between the objectives than between the eyepieces, and by separating the

BINOCULAR

584

INSTRUMENT

hypotenuse faces one from the other he shortened the telescope

considerably in overall length. Abbé’s binoculars had an objectglass distance of 132 times to twice that of the eyepieces concurrently with great tube shortening, making the binocular very compact (fig. 3). The type has undergone many and varied improvements. Beginning with small objectives and eyepieces giving an angle of 36° at the eye, it has now been developed by many constructors into a high precision optical instrument with considerably larger objectives and eyepieces of double the original field of view, without destroying the compactness and handiness of the instrument. A great number of other reversing prism combinations have been utilized, being derived mostly from the form

originally designed by Amici (fig. 4). It is unknown when this prism was designed by

FROM

GLEICHEN,

OPTISCHEN

FIG.

“DIE THEORIE

INSTRUMENTE”

6.—OPTICAL

DER

MODERNEN

(ENKE)

ARRANGEMENT

Amici, but it is known that he OF PRISM BINOCULAR WITH himself used it in such a way SPRENGER PRISMS that the incoming and outgoing ray traversed the entrance and exit faces at right-angles to their planes, and became totally reflected on the roof, thereby causing a reversal of the image from right to left and by letting the incoming ray make an angle of 90° with the outgoing ray, the reversal in the vertical direction was accomplished. This type of reversing prism has become known as the “roof prism.” It has to be made with great accuracy, the two faces forming the roof have to be at right-angles to one another within 2 seconds of arc and the line where the roof joins has to be free from imperfections. A number of roof prism combinations have been designed to obtain direct vision or at any rate parallelism of the entrance and exit beams, notably by Abbé,

Sprenger, Daubresse and others (figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8). All these constructions have been used with more or less success in prism binoculars. Fig. 5 shows a complete binocular with Abbé’s direct-vision reversing prism. This type does not increase the stereoscopic power beyond that due to the magnification, since eyepieces and object-glasses are equal distance apart. Fig. 6 embodies two Sprenger prisms, the peculiar construction of which enables the object-glasses to be separated widely, giving correspondingly increased stereoscopic effect. Fig. 7 shows a prism binocular with two modified Daubresse prisms, with very slightly increased object glass separations. Fig. 8 shows a binocular with two roof prisms, having 6 internal reflections, which for the sake of compactness have been so arranged that the distance between the objectives is less than that of the eyepieces, the stereoscopic effect in this case being less than that due to the magnification alone. The Porro reversing prism,

of depth, z.e., enables him to distinguish objects in different planes at distances of many miles. For this reason it is used largely for artillery purposes at sea and on land. By making both telescopes

move round an axis placed centrally to the eyepieces, the two objectives can be brought from a horizontal to a vertical position

to enable the user to remain under cover and use the instrument in the manner of a periscope. For measuring purposes instruments of the type shown in fig, ro with a horizontal axis have been largely used. The measurement is effected by using in conjunction with the space or interval to be measured some means of measurement; eg., a movable pointer or a fixed scale. This inFROM GLEICHEN, “DIE THEORIE DER MODERNEN strument shows a transition to the OPTISCHEN INSTRUMENTE” (ENKE)

stereoscope inasmuch as the scale FIG. 9.—MODIFIED PORRO PRISM or means of measurement is not directly observed, but to each eye a plane representation is offered just as in the stereoscope; the space to be measured on the other hand is portrayed in exactly the same way as in a double telescope. The method of superposing the two spaces on one

another was deduced by Sir David Brewster in 1856, but he does not appear to have dealt with the problem of measurements. Hector de Grousillier in conjunction with E. Abbé and C. Pulfrich designed the first stereoscopic rangefinder suitable for prac-

FIG, 10.—-STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR TELESCOPE COMBINING TWO TELE. SCOPES WITH PORRO REVERSING PRISMS WITH SEPARATED ELEMENTS

tical use. The power of perception of depth by the human eye is most accurate. This has been ascertained by the approximately equal keenness of vision of all normal-sighted people and by the interpupillary distance. The angle which serves as a measure for the keenness of vision is that subtended by two neighbouring points of an object space which are just seen by the single eye as a double point; for smaller angles they merge into one. According to the older experiments of Helmholtz this angle is about one minute. When measured on the retina the keenness of vision

shown in fig. 1 is capable of

further modification in use if its compound parts are separated FIG. 8.-—-OPTICAL ARRANGEMENT (fig. 9). If the object glass is OF PRISM BINOCULAR WITH REDUCED STEREOSCOPIC EFFECT placed in the entrance beam either in front or below the isolated upper prism, the distance between the eyepiece and objective can be increased at will. By combining two such instruments as a binocular (fig. ro) the stereoscopic

FROM MULLER-POUILLET, FIG.

11.——PLAN

“LEHRBUCH

DER PHYSIK” (VIEWIG AND SON)

OF A TELESTEREOSCOPE

BY

HELMHOLTZ,

1857

Two reflections under 45° to the line of sight enable great stereoscopic effect to be obtained, as the eyes, which are at AA’, appear to be at 00’

effect will be increased in accordance with the ratio of interocular

is determined by the diameter of the nerve filaments situated in

distance to object glass distance. Furthermore these instruments are suitable for much higher magnifications than those previously described. The Stereoscopic Effect—A great many uses have been found for the type of telescope shown in fig. ro. On account of the greatly increased objective separation, up to 18 and more

straight rows close to one another in the fovea. The diameter of these filaments is roughly 0-oo5 mm., or, in angular measure, one

‘times the Interocular distance, the stereoscopic effect of such ‘instruments is very considerable, and gives the user a perception

with normal eyes have a power of separation of ro seconds and sometimes eveh less,

minute.

More recent experiments for keenness of vision an

power of perception of depth have given considerably higher values; thus Pulfrich in 1899, when frst introducing stereoscopic

instruments for measuring distance, proved that as a rule persons

BINOCULAR

INSTRUMENT

There are two methods of extending the limits of stereoscopic

vision and of increasing the accuracy of the perception, of depth, (1) by augmenting the keenness of sight by the aid of telescope ot microscope, and (2) by increasing the interpupillary by several

reflections after the plan shown by Helmholtz in 1857 (fig. It)

which shows his telestereoscope but without telescopic magnifying

power. By combining telescopic magnification with Increased interpupillary distance the type of instrument shown in fig. ro is

to be used as a monocular microscope, and Wenham published in Dec. 1860 a description of his reflecting prism (fig. 15). When placed close behind the objective it directs the rays coming from

the right half of the objective after two reflections into the left eyepiece of the microscope; those coming from the left half of the objective go straight into the right eye-

piece (fig. 16). This form of binocular microscope construction was eminently

evolved. If there is a telescopic magnification of m times or a

suited to the English tube length of ro in., but for continental microscopes with their shorter tube length (64 in.) the required deviation in the reflecting prism became considerable and other constructions have been adopted in this case. Of other workers in this field mention may be made of Alfred Nachet, who in 1853 and subsequently in 1863 brought forward two forms of binocular microscopes.

hase magnification of n times, że., the distance between the objectives is n times the inter-

t

f

pupillary distance, then the radius

of stereoscopic vision is increased m or n times with respect to

T

that of the naked eye; and, if

= both are active, mXn times. The Fig. 12. OPTICAL SYSTEM OF RID- action of telescopic magnification DELL'S BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE m and base magnification n are from one another. In the first different however fundamentally case the areal dimensions are diminished in the same proportion as the distances are lessened, whilst in the other case the real dimensions remain unchanged, with the result that three dimensional images in the binocular vision space of an observer using such an instrument appear as a model proportionately diminished

in all its dimensions and brought nearer to the observer, but

pushed together to the front like the wings on the stage of a theatre. This effect is present in all stereoscopic binoculars and

telescopes.

The earlier stages of the development of the binocular microscope had always been confined to those instruments with one objective in the immediate neighbourhood

of which the systems for dividing the penFROM ROHR, “DIE BinoxuLanen Cils were placed. At a later date, and parINSTRUMENTE” (SPRINGER) ticularly on the continent and in America,

a alee

ee

The first binocular microscope was invented by the previously mentioned Father Cherubin, whose instrument consisted of two inverting systems and consequently gave a totally wrong impression of depth, i.¢., the depressions appeared as elevations and vice versa or, according to Charles Wheatstone’s phrase, it presented a pseudoscopic impression. This quality was not recognized by the microscopists of the time. The instrument subsequently fell into complete neglect for nearly two centuries, to be revived in 1852 by Charles Wheatstone. The publication of his views in his second great paper on “Binocular Vision” (Phil. Trans. 1852) undoubtedly stimulated the investigation of this instrument, which was carried on with zeal and success more especially in England and the United States of America. In 1853 the American J. L. Riddell published a description of his binocular microscope which contained the essentials of Wheatstone’s pseudoscope. Wheatstone tried without success to interest Andrew Ross and Hugh Powell, the two most important microscope makers in London,

and Abbé. The eyepiece designed by E. Abbé is of special importance, although, as he has stated, his methods accidentally led him to a construction given by F. H. Wenham in 1866. Wenham was then endeavouring to construct binocular microscopes for binocular vision as distinct from stereoscopic vision. He was of opinion that with objectives of a focal length of 5 mm. ca a ee, less the image quality suffered considerINSTRUMENTE” (SPRINGER) ably through the introduction of the stereoFIG. 15.—WENHAM'S RE- SCopic arrangements, but that for such short FLECTING PRISM FOR BIN- foci the binocular vision was still of advan-

OCULAR MICROSCOPES

surface bounded by a thin air-space, and then totally reflected on the further side | of the prism to be directed into the other tube. E. Abbé’s eyepiece construction fol-

lowed these lines closely (fig. 18). The eyepiece without special arrangements did not present a stereoscopic image of the object but afforded simply binocular vision; by adapting special diaphragms over the eyepieces the image could be made to appear either orthoscopic or pseudoscopic, according to whether the outer or the inner halves of the exit beams of the two eyepieces were allowed to enter the observer’s eye. A fundamentally different type of binocular microscope (fig. 19) with orthoscopic representation of the image has been designed by H. S. Greenough by em-

his theoretical insight in the subject was remarkable. His endeavours however bore fruit only crown | in the next decade, but in a way which was decisive for the adoption of the binocular microscope

WENTE® (SPRINGER)

EN INSTEDACHROMATIC

in England at any rate. His first construction was almost identical with that of J. L. Riddell (fig.

72), þut this type he only con-

sidered useful for binocular mag-

PRISM FOR BINOCULAR

nifying glasses. He tried to use

cae

the objectives and eyepieces but

MICROSCOPE. IT GAVE PSEUDOSCOPIC

Riddell’s

arrangement

between

he could not avoid the pseudoscopic effect. The same defect adhered to his first achromatic refracting prism (fig. 13) inter-

posed between the eyepieces and objectives of the microscope. In the spring of 1860 he brought out his first binocular microscope (fig. 14) with orthoscopic representation.

He arranged the

tage although it offered no appreciation of

depth. Wenham’s prism form is shown in fig. 17. He split each beam from the objective into two portions, one going straight through the prism block, and the other being reflected on a prism

was not only a gifted amateur but also a technician having a particular interest in the advancement of the.microscopes, and

FIG. 13.—WENHAM'S

attempts were made to separate the image

COPE produced by the objective by modifying the eyepiece; this led to the construction

> in the binocular microscope. Some time later, however, F. H. Wenham became interested. He

aoe

ee

of stereoscopic eyepieces introduced by H. B. Tolles, A. Prawsmosi

MICROSCOPE

Funr{

585

F1G. 16.—UNSYMMETRI- ploying two separate tubes, each complete CAL BINOCULAR MICRO- with objective and eyepiece, together with

SCOPE TUBES

a Porro prism system to erect the images,

By making these Porro prisms rotate round the tube axis the interocular distance could be adjusted to suit the observer.

achromatic refracting prism so that the emergent rays crossed over on their way to the eyepieces so that the rays from the left

THE STEREOSCOPE

side of the objective entered the right eyepiece and vice versa. This binocular microscope had the’ disadvantage of not. being able

The fundamental property of stereoscopic vision, or simultaneous vision with both. eyes; is the direct perception of relative

BINOCULAR

586

INSTRUMENT

distances of near objects. Even by the use of one eye it is possible to obtain an impression of depth or relative distance, but this is the result of experiences and other considerations. When using both eyes each eye is fixed and accommodated to one particular spot of the object. The angle made by the two lines connecting the right and left eye respectively with the spot chosen on the object varies with the distance of the object. For an object at the distance of ro in.

(normal vision) the angle would

SCOPIC

EFFECT

The greater the distance of the object the less will be the dissimilarity between the two images. If we take 4 minute as the usual angle which two lines must subtend at the eye to be seen separately, rather than as one line formed by a blending together, it has been shown that stereoscopic vision for a normal sighted person ceases between 400 and 550 yd., according to the interpupillary distance. It is possible to convey the impression of depth by offering to both eyes plane representations of three dimensional objects, by, for instance, taking two photographs from the points of rotation of the eyes and by so arranging them in an instrument that each eye sees its respective pic- | ture without being able to see the other one. Such an instrument is called a stereo- FIG. 18.—ABBE’S BINOCULAR EYEPIECE, A DER-

SCODE:

.

Construction

.

of Various

(landscapes, machines, etc.) could be observed in rapid succession

Brewster’s stereoscope made an observation of stereoscopic

pictures possible when the distance between identical points on

both pictures was considerably greater than that between the observer’s eyes. If the lenses shown in fig. 22 on the focal plane of which the image is formed are large enough, and the distance

be about 15°, and it decreases as the object moves away from the observer, until it reaches zero when the object is at an infinite distance. The two images of a near object formed on the retina are dissimilar as is quite evident, INSTRUROHR, “DIE BINOKULAREN' and, as each eye transmits its FROM MENTE” (SPRINGER) respective picture to the brain, FIG. 17.—-WENHAM’'S REFLECTING their dissimilarity creates the PRISM FOR MICROSCOPES WITH BINperception of depth or dis- OCULAR VISION WITHOUT STEREOtance.

had taken up the regular manufacture that the instrument became very largely used. The causes of its success were its convenient form and the fact that a series of adjusted stereoscopic pictures

Types—

IVATION FROM WENHAM’S

REFLECTING PRISM (FIG.

C. Wheatstone first observed the stereo- 17) scopic effect, in 1833, and was the first scientist to construct such an instrument, which he described in his paper in 1838. A principle of the instrument is shown in fig. 20. A later type of his stereoscope, evolved in 1852, differs from

the original model in that the pictures can | be placed at different inclinations to the mirrors and at different distances from them, in order that the pictures may be observed under exactly the same inclination | of the image and the same angle of convergence as when the picture was taken. Other mirror stereoscopes were made by H. W. Dove, Sir David Brewster, and others. These mirror stereoscopes had no practical result worth mentioning on ac-

count of their awkward shape and the dif-

ficulty in obtaining equal illumination of both pictures. It was also inconvenient that the pictures had to be placed separate- F 4 ly and reversed in the apparatus. The disa et acc advantage that the picture to be observed MADE ON THE LINES OF A in the mirror must be reversed can be ob- BINOCULAR TELESCOPE viated by rotating the correct picture through 180° in its own plane and placing it in the position of the picture L (fig. 21) and by using a so-called “roof-prism” in the place of the mirror se, as suggested by Pulfrich. Sir David Brewster took up the stereoscope in

1849, and In a paper read in that year proposed his prism lens stereoscope in which he used eccentric portions of double convex lenses for viewing the half pictures. The first instrument of this type was made by A. Ross in the same year, but created no interest whatever amongst the public. It was only after J. Dubosq of Paris

between the image points 4; and / is not greater than the distance between the centres of the two lenses (avoiding the divergence of the axes of the eyes), then the distance between the eyes is secondary and the observer sees the distant points with the axes of the eyes parallel. These apparent advantages however are counterbalanced by the fact that the picture seen through the lenses is eccentric and consequently an incorrect impression is obtained and an aber- FROM MULLER-POUILLET, “LEHR. BUCH DER PHYSIK” (VIEWIG AND ration in the three dimensional images SON) occurs. Wheatstone showed later in Fic. 20.—WHEATSTONE's his controversy with Brewster that this STEREOSCOPE

disadvantage in the lens stereoscope could be avoided by adjusting the lenses and distant points to the distance between the observer’s

eyes.

This same

condition was fulfilled in the

“double verant,” constructed by V. Rohr and Koehler (190s), in which the lenses in accordance with A. Gullstrand’s rule are

so arranged that the centre of rotation of the eye always coincides with the nodal point of the lens. If everyone had the same interpupillary distance there would be nothing more perfect than this stereoscope.

Helmholtz showed in 1866 that stereoscopes should be so designed that the image of, for instance, a landscape should be shown in the stereoscope to appear to be at infinite distance; he designed his lens stereoscope accordingly. The instrument is shown in fig. 23, and consists of a box similar to Brewster's stereoscope, but it contains complete convex lenses for the eyepieces, the upper lens of about 5 in. focus, the lower of 7 in. focus. Combined these lenses gave a focal length of 23 in. to the eyepieces. The complete combination was used for viewing pictures on glass which had been photographed with a pair of lenses having a focal length of 24 inches. ‘Two adjustments were provided for the eyepieces—one in the direction of the optical axis for focusing, and another at right-angles thereto for the interpupillary distance. If the stereoscope was to be used for viewing pictures which had been taken with 5 in. focus lenses, the upper lenses of the eyepieces alone were used, after the lower element in each eyepiece had been removed. A reversed stereoscopic effect can be obtained by the use of Wheatstone’s pseudoscope (fig. 24). If two rightangle prisms are placed in front of the eyes with their hypothenuse surfaces parallel, or nearly so, and in line with

the direction of sight, and the apparatus Fig. 21.—DOVE'’S STERE-

be directed on an object in the middle oscore, A SIMPLER FORM distance, then objects farther away will OF WHEATSTONE'S IN-

appear small and near, while objects near STRUMENT

will appear

larger

and

farther

away.

These

pseudo-stereo-

scopic phenomena are of great importance for the study of the principles of stereoscopy, for they demonstrate that the peT-

ception of depth can be aided by direct presentation and hindered

by reverse presentation. E The problem of making one stereoscopic picture visible to several people simultaneously can be met in various ways, most simply by portraying the two stereoscopic pictures in different colours one close to the other and giving each observer spectacles of different coloured glass or other transparent material with which it is only possible to see one picture with each eye. The latest development of this method has been the presentation of

BINOCULAR stereoscopic cinematograph films to large audiences.

INSTRUMENT

The film

is printed in two colours and spectators are provided with suitably coloured spectacles.

Stereoscopic Measurements.—The

later developments

three-dimensional

objects.

photographing a battle from a ship, geodesy, the study of the

The earlier

suggestions for making the stereoscope a measuring instrument were not realized, though decisive improvements were made. Brewster was unconsciously near the solution of the problem when he prepared ghosts of vistas by placing one transparent picture Over another. More important than these trivial pictures are the superposed pictures (of cone sections, machines, anatomical FIG. 22.--HALF

LENSES

OF

BREW-

tions of the same solid object are successively photographed on one

PICTURES WHICH ARE LARGER THAN

plate,

so

that in a stereoscope

THE INTEROCULAR DISTANCE Ay Az one could see as it were through the opaque surface of the solid into the interior. To A. Rollett (1861) is due the merit of constructing the first stereoscopic measuring scale. It was a form of ladder, apparently extending into space, whose rungs gave the distances of the objects. J. Harmer (1881) used a scale of depth, consisting of a series of squares arranged one behind the other, in order to measure in the stereoscope a picture of the clouds taken with a large base line of about 15 FROM MULLER-PoUILLET, „ LEHRBUCH PHYSIK” (VIEWIG AND SON)

DER

the two half pictures of a mirror FIG. 23.—HELMHOLTZ'S STEREOstereoscope, one of which could SCOPE be moved by a micrometer. He The pictures placed at A are examined By and B, through eyepleces of thus discovered the device called at different focal lengths, which must be the “travelling mark.” adjusted in accordance with the focal Of the practical application of length of the lens with which the stereoscopy

may

we

note

the

in railway building or on voyages of discovery, etc. A further advance has been made in the stereophotogrammetric method by providing the stereocomparator with a drawing apparatus (F. C. Thomson, E. Orel, Carl Zeiss and others) with which contours

preparations, etc.) in which sec-

STER'S STEREOSCOPE, ILLUSTRATING THEIR ACTION WHEN VIEWING

metres. N. F. Stolze (1884 and 1892) placed gratings in front of

Applications.—The stereocomparator has a large number of applications; e.g., in mountain photography, coastal measurements,

of waves, investigating the trajectory of a shot, and it is also utilized

stereoscopy have been largely due to the work of E. Abbé and C. Pulfrich who succeeded in constructing apparatus which made

jt possible to measure

587

FIG. 25.—PULFRICH’S ‘“‘BLINK'’ MICROSCOPE The two pictures placed on P, and P, are seen at A either simultaneously or individually by alternately opening the shutters B, and the two pictures can be easily distinguished thereby

By.

Differences

in

can be automatically drawn from the stereophotogrammetric photographs. As a further application of stereoscopy we may note the utilization of optical effects and disturbance of stereoscopic vision (agitation and lustrous appearances) in the discovery of

differences and alterations in pictures. The method was first used by Brewster to recognize irregularities in carpet patterns, and later by Dove and others for distinguishing the original from a copy for testing coins, cheques, etc. Moreover, with the development of celestial photography, the stereoscope came to be applied to the discovery of planets, comets, variable stars, errors in plates, the proper motions and parallaxes of the fixed stars. Indeed a planetoid discovered by its aid was named Stereoscopia in recognition of this application. Since 1904 binocular observation of stellar plates to determine differences in the images of the objects reproduced has been gradually discarded for the method, derived by Pulfrich, which consists in the monocular observation of the two plates in the

pictures were taken

stereoscopic rangefinder already dealt with under the paragraph for telescopes, the stereocomparator devised in 1901 by C. Pulfrich, and the stereoscopic measuring machine, invented by H. G. Fourcade of Capetown 1902, which is similar to the stereocomparator in many points. These instruments inaugurated the successful measurement of the distances of objects in space. Measurement is not made on the objects themselves but on photographic plates which are taken with special instruments, field and stand phototheodolites, at the extremities of a base-line which is always selected according to the distance of the object and the exactitude of measurement needed. For measuring the pictures a binocular micro-

scope adjusted to the dimensions and the distance between the two plates is used, FIG, 24.—WHEATSTONE’S and a fixed mark is placed in each image PSEUDOSCOPE, WHICH plane; these marks combine in binocular PRODUCES A WRONG PERview to a virtual mark in the three CEPTION OF DEPTH dimensional images. If the plates are correctly adjusted the so-called travelling mark can be placed on any point of the landscape, and then used for the measurement of solidity of the objects or the production of plans and models, A,

As

Just as formerly, for example, the measuring staff was used for geodetic observations, with the difference that in the stereocom-

parator the mark is regulated by the observer only, and is not hindered in its movements by any undulations, etc., of the land.

FROM

“ZEITSCHRIFT

FIG,

FUR

INSTRUMENTEN

KUNDE”

26.—PULFRICH'’S

(SPRINGER)

REFLECTING

STEREOSCOPE

The two pictures placed at P, and P, are viewed through eyepieces at A, and A,

By

means

of two total

reflections

in prisms

ABCD

posed at P,’ and P,’ giving correct impression of depth

they appear

super-

stereocomparator with the assistance of the so-called “blink” microscope (fig. 25). In this microscope the two pictures are seen simultaneously or individually by alternately opening the screens Bı and Be. All differences of the images are immediately distinguished by a sudden oscillation of the image point, or by a sudden appearance and disappearance of single points, as in the

case of flashlights at sea or the modern illuminated sky lights

588

BINOCULAR

VISION—BINOMIAL

in towns, and there is now no difficulty in discovering new planets, comets and variable stars by this method. C. Pulfrich (1912) describes a new form of reflecting stereoscope (fig. 26) in which the main object of the design was to provide stereoscopic apparatus for the examination of large pictures, notably those produced for stereophotogrammetric work and photographs taken by aircraft for the purposes of survey, etc. The instrument resembles the Wheatstone stereoscope (fig. 20), but with the simple reflecting mirror replaced by two mirrors, set at an angle in front of the observer’s eyes, whereby the rays are reflected twice and deflected through an angle of 120°. The two mirrors in each half of the instrument have with advantage been replaced by a prism made from a solid block of glass. The instrument can be used for paper pictures or for plates, and is arranged with revolving plate holders for the orientation of photographs taken from aircraft. BrsriocraPHy.—J. Miiller and C. S. M. Pouillet, “Die lehre von der Strahlenden Energie von Otto Lummer,” Miiller-Pouillet’s Lehrbuch der Physik und Meteorologie, vol. iii. (1907), illustrations of optical instruments and stereoscopes; M. von Rohr, Die Binocularen Instrumente (1907, bibl.) ; C. Pulfrich, ‘Ueber ein neues Spiegelstereoscop,” Zeitschrift für Instrumenten Kunde (1912); A. Gleichen, The Theory of Modern Optical Instruments, trans. H. H. Amsley and W. Swain (1918); A. Steinheil and E. Voit, Applied Optics, trans. J. W. French (1918); M. von Rohr, Geometrical Investigation of the Formation of Images in Optical Instruments, embodying the results of scientific researches conducted in German optical workshops, trans. R. Kanthack (1920). (J. Has.)

BINOCULAR VISION: see Visron. BINOMIAL FORMULA. Binomial theorem is the name attached to an algebraic formula widely used for transforming and simplifying algebraic expressions and also in processes of approxi-

mation. Positive integral exponents. If a and 6 stand for any real numbers, and # is a positive integer, then the binomial (¢+-d), raised to the mth power, can be “expanded” by the formula,

(a+b)" =a"-+-na-h

Ae

gimp

a

Ulama) a”-3b3-4-

wet nab t+ br,

(x)

By actual multiplication the expressions are easily obtained :—

(a+b) = a+2ab4-b?, (a+b)? = at 3a?b+3ab? +b, (a+b) = at+4a3b+6ab?+4ab3 40t. The same results are obtained by substituting for n in Formula 1 successively the values 2, 3, and 4. In’ other words, Formula I is a generalization of the three special cases obtained by multiplication. By the aid of Formula 1 it is possible to dispense with the process of multiplication, which becomes tedious when y is large; the expansion can be written down provided the changes in the exponents and coefficients of the successive terms are observed. These changes are seen to be in accordance with the following laws: (1) the exponents of a are for the successive terms m, m-I, m-2, ...1, and finally o (not written, because

a°=1); that is, the exponent of a is n for the first term, and diminishes by unity in each successive term; (2) the exponent of b is o in the first term (not written, because 6°=1), and is I, 2, 3, ..m-I, # for the terms following; (3) the coefficients are formed according to a slightly more complicated rule. The coefficient of the first term is 1, and that of the second term is x.

The coefficient of the third term is obtained by multiplying the

coefficient of the second term () by the exponent of ain that term

(m-1), and dividing the product by 2, the number of that term in the series; thus one obtains A tcael x) . The coefficient of the fourth

FORMULA

4th term, we substitute 4 for r and obtain that term as given in Formula 1. Observing these three rules, it is possible to Write down the expansion of a binomial for any power. Fractional and negative exponents. When the exponent n is a

positive fraction, a negative fraction, or a negative integer, the binomial formula retains the same form as above, except that there is no last term b”. In other words, the series now has an un-

limited number of terms and is an “infinite series.” That there is no end to the series becomes evident from the fact that

the coefficient for the rth term, weet)

» does not

become zero when the exponent n is not a positive integer, For example, if n=4, none of the factors, (w-1), (-2)...,, (n—r2) vanishes, and hence the rth term does not become zero, no matter how large a positive integral value r may represent. For the simpler case which we considered first, when z is a positive integer, say 5, it is easy to see that a term beyond the sth, say the ath term in the expansion, has in the numerator a factor (5—72) which is zero; hence there really is no 7th term. The same factor zero occurs when vr is taken to represent the 8th, oth, or a term still higher. Thus, for n=s, there is a last term in the expansion,

namely 6°. Thus far we have considered only rational values of

the numbers a, b, and n, but the binomial formula is applicable

to irrational values. Sometimes it is convenient to change the form of the binomial formula by letting a=1, and b=xv, a variable. Since all the powers of r are 1, the expression becomes, if we also insert the rth term, (1+2)

=

r+2«+

reza

24H... -F

When the expansion is an infinite series, the theory of the binomial formula becomes much more difficult. In fact, the expanded form on the right side of the equality sign can be said to be equal in arithmetical value to (a+0)” or to (1-+x)*, on the left side, only when the series is “convergent”; that is, when the sum obtained by adding more and more successive terms of the series approaches a definite finite value as a limit. When that sum does not approach a limit, the infinite series is not convergent, but “divergent,” and the series is no longer equal in

arithmetical value to (a-+-b)= or (1-+%)».

In other words, the

sign of equality in the formula holds true only when the infinite series II. is convergent. The series II. is convergent when x is numerically less than 1; it is divergent when x is numerically greater than 1. The intermediate case when x is numerically equal to 1 is less important. Exponents complex numbers. A still further generalization of the binomial formula is obtained by letting one or all of the letters a, b, x, m represent imaginary or complex numbers, of

the type c--id, where c and d are real, and where m=\/—1. The

expansion is an infinite series when 2 is a complex number. Tests of convergence have been found, similar to the ones given above.

' History.—The

history of the binomial

theorem

possesses

points of interest. For values of a, b, and n, which may be integral or fractional, the formula was first given by Sir Isaac Newton in a letter of June 13, 1676, and explained further in a letter of Oct. 24, 1676, both addressed to H. Oldenburg, then secretary of the Royal Society of London. Newton’s notation was somewhat different from that of to-day. The statement 1s frequently made that the binomial theorem is engraved on Newton’s tomb in Westminster Abbey, but there is no such inscrip-

term is similarly obtained from the third term. Or, generally, the tion. Newton gave no proof of the theorem, but verified it by coefficient of the rth term is obtained by multiplying the co- actual multiplication and root extraction. The beginnings of the efficient of the (r-1)th term by the exponent of a in the (r-1)th binomial theorem are found long before the time of Newton. term, and dividing the product thus obtained by r—z. In this The Indians and Arabs used the expansion of (a+5)? and manner there follows the general expression for the rth term (a+b)? for root extractions. Vieta knew the expansion of (a+b)*. B. Pascal derived the binomial coefficients from the of the expansion, namely n(n—1)... (n—r-+2) qgr—rtpr-1 by the method of what is called the “arithmetical triangle,” published (r—r)' posthumously in 1665, but the arithmetical triangle is found be-

aid of which any term may be written.

Thus, if-we desire the ‘fore Pascal as early as 1303 in a -Chinese tract by Chu Shih-Chieb.

BINTURONG—BIOCHEMISTRY The first proof of the binomial formula for the case of positive

integral exponents was given by Jakob (James) Bernoulli (16541705) in his posthumous work, the Ars conjectandi, 1713, p. 89. When the formula is an infinite series, rigorous proofs are much more difficult, because they necessarily involve considerations

of convergence. The general proof given by Leonhard Euler (Novi comment. Petrop., vol. xix. for 1774, p. 103) and other writers of the 18th century dealt mainly with the form of the expansion and did not adequately consider the question of the equality of the arithmetical values on the two sides of the equation, The earliest one to give a rigorous proof of the general case was the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrick Abel, in Crelle’s

Journal, vol. i, 1826, p. 311.

It is a remarkable article of 28

large quarto pages, and it establishes the theorem not only when the exponent n is integral, or fractional, or negative, but also

when the exponent is a complex number, and when a and b may

likewise be complex numbers. (F. CA.) BINTURONG (Arctictis binturong), the single species of the genus, ranging from Nepal through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and Java. This animal is allied to the palm-civets, but differs from that family by its tufted ears and long, bushy, prehensile tail, which is thick at the root and almost equals in length the head and body together (from 28 to 33 in.). The fur is long and coarse, of a dull black with a grey wash on the head and fore-

limbs. In habits the binturong is nocturnal, inhabiting forests, and living on small vertebrates, worms, insects and fruits.

BINYON,

LAURENCE

(1869—

), English poet, art

historian and civil servant, born at Lancaster on Aug. 10 1860,

was educated at St. Paul’s school, London, and Trinity college, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize in 1890 for his Per-

sephone. He entered the department of printed books at the British Museum in 1893, and was transferred to the department of prints and drawings in 1895. He was eventually placed in charge of the oriental prints and drawings, and became one of the greatest living authorities on the subject. His principal contributions to the history of art, outside the great official catalogue of English drawings (4 vols. 1898 seg.), and that of Japanese woodcuts (1917) in the British Museum, are his various books on Chinese, Japanese and Indian art, and on the drawings and engravings of William Blake, dating from 1906 onwards. But before he became known as an art historian, Laurence Binyon was already famous as the author of a series of volumes of verse, and as a pioneer in an effort, in which he has found few followers, to restore blank verse drama to the modern English stage. The first of these to be staged was Paris and Oenone (1906); Boadicea was produced in 1925. In 1927 a selection from his earlier books of poems, made by himself, was published with the title of A Laurence Binyon Anthology.

BINZ, KARL

(1832-1912), German physician, was born at

Bernkastel, and after studying under Virchow became, in 1868, professor at Bonn, where he founded the Pharmacological institute. He investigated the physiological action of quinine, alcohol, arsenic and other drugs. His works include a text book on materia medica (1866) and lectures on pharmacology (Eng. trans. A. C.

Latham, 1895). BIO-BIO, an inland province of southern Chile, bounded

north and west by the province of Concepción, south by Malleco and Cautin, and east by Argentina. It has an area of about 7,100 sq.m. of well-wooded and mountainous country, including, since 1928, most of the former province of Malleco, and exports timber to a large extent. Its population in 1920 was about 190,900, including incorporated parts of Malleco. The great trunk railway from Santiago south to Puerto Montt crosses the western part of the province and also connects it with the port of Concepción.

The capital, Los Angeles (pop. [1920] 13,274) is situated about

153m. E. of this railway and is connected with it by a branch e.

BIO-BIO, a river of southern

Chile, rising in the Pino

Hachado pass across the Andes, 38° 45’ S. lat., and flowing in a general north-westerly direction to the Pacific at Concepción, Where it is 2 m. wide and forms an excellent harbour. It has a total length of about 22 5 m., nearly one-half of which is navigable.

BIOCHEMISTRY.

589

Biochemistry may be defined as the

study of the chemical or physico-chemical processes which play a part in the life phenomena of plants and animals. The subdivision of the science of chemistry into a number of special

branches, physical, inorganic, organic, biological, etc., has been the natural consequence of the rapid advances in knowledge which have been made

since about

1870.

Although

the study

of the chemical aspect of the physiology of living organisms has only been generally termed biochemistry for some 20 years, it is actually one of the oldest branches of chemical science.

Lavoisier.—Disregarding events which occurred before the birth of modern chemistry at the end of the 18th century, we find that Lavoisier, the creator of the new science, himself spent no small portion of his time in prosecuting biochemical research. He showed clearly for the first time that the life-processes of the animal body can be investigated by chemical means, for he proved by quantitative methods that the body temperature is maintained by the combustion of foodstuffs just as the heat generated in the burning of wood or a candle is produced by the oxidation of organic matter. The first half of the next century produced three outstanding figures, whose united labour extended widely the foundations on which the modern study of biochemistry is based. In the first place Liebig, carrying back with him from Paris to Germany the inspiration gained by contact with those who had been students or colleagues of the great Lavoisier, not only established the study of organic chemistry, on which biochemistry is dependent, but himself opened up wide avenues of research on problems of plant and animal chemistry. Liebig.—In 1837, at the request of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, he undertook to prepare a report on the state of knowledge in organic chemistry. This led to the publication in 1840 of his memorable work Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikultur und Physiologie, followed in 1842 by Die Thierchemie, oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Phystologie und Pathologie. These two classics mark clearly the point at which the study of plant and agricultural chemistry on the one hand, and that of animal chemistry on

the other, first attracted wide interest amongst scientists in general and chemists in particular. Hofmann, speaking of this great chemist said, “In the study of biology, vegetal and animal, Liebig was the first to disentangle intricacies that had before seemed problems beyond the grasp of human intellect to solve; and it was one of the grandest results of his philosophical and experimental investigations that he traced amidst the multitudinous and apparently ever-varying manifestations of life, in its countless modifications of kind and degree, the operation of a few simple laws, physical and chemical, affording, by their determinate combination, the precise and proved conditions of vital development, nutrition, growth, and perpetuation from generation to generation, in unaltered individuality.” Claude Bernard and Pasteur.—At this time progress in this field of thought was still hampered by the persistence of ideas favouring the existence of a vital force. The first blow to shatter these theories was dealt by Wohler in 1828 when he announced the synthesis from inorganic materials of urea, a typical animal product for the formation of which some influence exerted by the vitality of the organism had, until then, been considered essential. The belief in a vital force or vital principle would have died slowly had it not been for the brilliant series of researches in experimental physiology that have made the work of Claude Bernard

immortal.

The third figure is the illustrious Pasteur, whose re-

searches on fermentation, putrefaction and disease revealed not only the organisms that gave rise to these conditions, but also, in many cases, the chemical or physico-chemical changes that occurred. During the second half of the roth century researches in plant and animal chemistry were prosecuted with increasing vigour. Unfortunately, however, there was a tendency for the.'studies in each field to be kept apart from the other, and there were comparatively few investigators of that period who were sufficiently broad in their outlook to attempt to view the problems from-the standpoint of the cell rather than from that of the animal or plant.

590

BIOCHEMISTRY

Much progress was made in both animal chemistry or, as it was usually termed, physiological chemistry, and in plant and agricultural chemistry, but there were few attempts at correlation. The 20th Century.—The more general appreciation of the need of a wider outlook seems to have become apparent at the opening of the 20th century, when the term biological chemistry or biochemistry began to displace the older terms. In Great Britain the Biochemical Club, now the Biochemical Society, was founded in 1912, six years after the appearance of the first volume of The Biochemical Journal. The corresponding scientific journals in the United States and Germany, The Journal of Biological Chemistry and Biochemische Zeitschrift, also appeared for the first time in that year. The rapid advance of the new branch of chemistry can be illustrated by the growth of The Biochemical Journal, of which the first volume (1906) contained 32 papers, amounting in all to 495 pages of printed matter, whereas the volume for 1926 contained 171 papers and a total of 1,376 pages.

is particularly by reason of the extraordinary complexity ang variety of the energy exchanges that occur in even the simplest cell that living matter is best differentiated from non-living,

Definition of Life——From the earliest time philosophers haye attempted to define life, without one wholly satisfactory definition having been advanced. To-day the difficulties of their task can be appreciated because it becomes increasingly evident that there jg no clear line of demarcation between the living and the non-living,

Nevertheless, as Claude Bernard indicated in his striking essay on

the “Phenomena of Life,” there are a number of properties of living matter which, taken collectively, serve as a rough and ready means of differentiating it from systems relatively inert. These

are: (1) Assimilation and respiration; (2) reproduction; (3) growth and development; (4) movement; (5) secretion and excretion. Considered singly, it is obvious that no one of these is in itself characteristic of living matter alone, but as yet no system that

Chemical Processes in the Cell.—The study of the chemical processes occurring in living cells or brought about in the ex-

could be considered in the light of present opinion a non-living one has been found to exhibit all together. It may serve to show

ternal medium by their action has all along been dependent to a very large extent on the rate of advance in our knowledge of organic and physical chemistry. The contents of the cell, known generally as protoplasm, represent to the chemist a mixture of such complexity that despair of ever gaining any clear conception of its actual composition might well be pardoned. Not only is the task one of great difficulty by reason of the wide variety of substances which are to be found present in cells, but also because a large proportion of those compounds exist in the cell in the condition known as the colloidal state. (See CoLtoms.) Conditions of Progress.—Progress in biochemistry has, therefore, been dependent to a large extent on the rate of advance of knowledge in the neighbouring fields of organic and physical chemistry. One example may make this clear. A large proportion of the

the scope of modern biochemistry if examples be given of the application of the new branch of science to the study of the chemical aspect of these phenomena of life. Assimilation Processes.—The biochemical study of assimila-

solid material of cellular contents is composed of complex nitrogenous substances termed collectively the proteins. No satisfactory theory regarding their significance in living cells could be advanced until information concerning both the molecular structure of the proteins and their physical properties as colloids had been obtained. The former was provided by the classic researches of the great German chemist Emil Fischer, who revealed, by his analytical studies, that the proteins are large, complex molecules formed by the intercombination of a number of amino-acids by virtue of the basic and acidic groupings. Although it is still uncertain whether the only form of linkage between the constituent amino-acids in the protein molecule is that described by Fischer, it is apparent that it is by far the most common and a very important one. His work has given us a general picture of the internal structure of the protein molecule that is in agreement with the vast majority of known facts concerning its chemical properties. Parallel with these researches in the field of organic chemistry

of energy is the sun, but only recently has the knowledge of the nature of the pigments in the leaf, of the absorption of energy in the form of light by these pigments, of the mechanism of absorption of carbon dioxide by the leaf and of the nature of the substances formed during assimilation, enabled biochemists to construct reasonable theories as to the process of photosynthesis in green plants. In this field much remains to be done. In spite of many strong indications that the first step in carbon assimilation is the photochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formaldehyde, precise confirmation is lacking. The efficiency of the process is also undetermined. Early investigators believed it to be of the order of 3~5%, but Warburg has recently recorded that the value may be much higher under optimum conditions. Chlorophyll—There is also the question of the origin of the chlorophyll pigments in relation to their rôle as energy absorbers and transformers. Obviously so complex a molecule as Willstatter’s researches revealed chlorophyll to be must have an exceedingly long evolutionary history. From what type of substance is it descended? At a very early period in the history of living organisms it is probable that supplies of energy for assimilation of carbon dioxide and formation of organic substances were derived not from the absorption of solar radiation by suitable pigments, but from simple exothermic chemical reactions of the type exhibited by the existing species of autotrophic bacteria. (See BACTERIOLOGY.) These remarkable organisms, amongst which are grouped certain of the sulphur bacteria, the nitrite bacteria and the hydrogen bacteria, possess the power to carry out simple reactions, such as the oxidation of sulphur to sulphates, ammoma to nitrites, and hydrogen to water, and to use the energy liberated by these reactions to effect the conversion of carbon dioxide mto

on the constitution of the proteins, extensive investigations were being made in many quarters on the colloidal properties of these remarkable substances. As a result of this work it has at last been possible to attack with reasonable chances of success the major question concerning the rôle of the proteins in the living cell. In general, it can be seen that advance in biochemistry has followed much the same path that has been traced by the growth of other branches of experimental science. Broadly speaking, the development can be divided into two phases, the descriptive phase and the quantitative phase. In the former period the efforts of investigators were devoted mainly to the isolation of the substances present in living tissues and to the investigation of their nature and properties, whilst in the later phase attention has been more and more given to elucidating their significance in the organism and to the quantitative examination of the dynamics of the reactions in which they are concerned. The study of biochemistry may be regarded as having very definitely entered the second phase about 1910, for in almost any journal devoted to this branch of science the great proportion of the papers published at the present time are devoted to the study of the dynamics of cellular reactions. The importance of pursuing this line of study must be apparent when it is borne in mind that it

tion has somewhat naturally fallen into two sections, depending

upon whether plants or animals are being considered. The power possessed by green plants to synthesize complex organic substances from carbon dioxide, water and simple inorganic salts, such as nitrates, sulphates and phosphates, places them ina class apart from other beings and calls for particular study. (See PxoroSYNTHESIS.) The essential difference is, of course, that for the synthesis of organic matter from carbon dioxide a supply of energy is necessary-—the reaction being an endothermic one. Com-

paratively long ago it was recognized that the source of this supply

organic matter. It is also interesting to note that certain of the

sulphur bacteria contain a pigment, bacterio-purpurin, which

appears to function somewhat in the manner of chlorophyll m higher plants, when the bacteria are exposed to the light, whereas in the dark these organisms satisfy their energy requirements by the oxidations referred to above.

Possibly these species represent

the transitional forms that ultimately led to the evolution of the assimilatory system of the green plant. Little as is our knowledge of the synthesis of carbon compounds in green plants, it 18 pre

BIOCHEMISTRY found when compared with that concerning the formation of sub-

stances containing other elements, in particular nitrogen. We are,

to all intents and purposes,

entirely ignorant

of the mode

of

formation in the plant of the great groups of the proteins, alkaloids

and plant bases.

—

Animal Assimilation.—The outstanding fact that the animal organism is essentially analytic and not synthetic as is the green plant, has, of course, been recognized for many years. The study of assimilation by the animal becomes, therefore, to a large extent,

the study of the breakdown, or metabolism, as it is termed, of the foodstuffs that are ingested by the organism to supply, on the one

hand, the energy for heat production or work and, on the other, the molecular units required to construct or maintain its tissues. Biochemical investigations of assimilation in the animal world

have made rather more rapid progress than corresponding efforts in the field of plant chemistry. To a large degree this is due to the

og

life draw their supplies of oxygen direct from solution in the surrounding fluid, but for more complex organisms this would not suffice, and methods of distributing the oxygen to tissues more remote from the external medium have evolved. Thus arose the circulatory system of animals. Simple air-breathing species dependent on the diffusion into the tissue spaces of oxygen from a more or less complicated system of tracheal tubes, gave rise to more complex organisms requiring the evolution of the lung with its enormous diffusion surface. Even this would have been insufficient to supply the oxygen requirements of the majority of animals if oxygen carriers of the type of haemoglobin had not been evolved to enable the circulating fluid to carry round to the tissues ample oxygen for their needs. Haemoglobin and Respiratory Pigments.—A field of biochemical research that attracts wide attention at the present

time concerns the respiratory pigments, of which the haemoglobins are the best known examples. These substances may serve a dual rôle by acting as oxygen carriers and as catalysts of oxidation reactions. The latter seems particularly true of a reFood Metabolism and Enzymes.—The study of the metab- markable pigment that has been found present in every form of olism of foodstuffs in the animal body represents a large and im- life yet examined. Discovered in 1884 by MacMunn and exportant branch of biological chemistry. It entails in the first place haustively studied by him, its significance, as a substance related an examination of the mode of action of the remarkable catalytic to haemoglobin and as an important factor in the oxidation reagents possessed by the living cell and termed enzymes (see actions in the cell, which he emphasized, escaped notice until Enzymes), by means of which the complex molecules of the pro- attention was again drawn to it by the recent studies of Keilin. teins, polysaccharides, and fats are broken down so that the simpler The occurrence of cytochrome, as Keilin has renamed this pigmolecules of amino-acids and sugars can pass through the absorb- ment, in plant as well as animal cells indicates that its significance ing membranes of the alimentary canal. is probably fundamental; it seems likely that it occupies an imMechanism of Absorption.—The actual mechanism of ab- portant position in the evolutionary history of the haemoglobins. sorption of substances into the tissue fluids must then be studied, But the interest of the biochemist cannot stop with the study of after which we must enquire into the fate of the molecules that the mechanisms by which oxygen is brought to the cells or held have been assimilated. Some of these go to form tissues that are be- there; he must enquire how the oxygen is made available in the ing constructed, especially during the period of growth; of the cell for oxidations. others, the great majority are in due course oxidized so that the enAction of Oxygen.—Atmospheric oxygen, whether obtained ergy liberated by their oxidative degradation may be available for direct from solution in the surrounding medium, or by the dismaintaining body temperature, or for the performance of work. sociation of such a pigment as oxyhaemoglobin, is relatively inert A whole field of biochemistry is concerned with the mechanisms as an oxidizing agent. Of the foodstuffs oxidized in living cells by which organic molecules are oxidized in the living cell to car- only very few are appreciably attacked by oxygen in the molecbon dioxide and water, for a large proportion of the substances ular form Oz; the unsaturated fatty acids present in such oils as that are rapidly and fully oxidized in the tissues at temperatures cod liver oil and linseed oil are examples of compounds that take below 40° C are oxidized only by drastic treatment with chemical up molecular oxygen, but the extent to which they are oxidized reagents and by the employment of high temperatures when sub- is very small when compared with the complete degradation to jected to experiment in the test tube. carbon dioxide and water that occurs with ease in the animal Respiration Processes.—It was discovered by the researches body. Early in the roth century Schénbein, in his studies of of Mayow, Priestley and Lavoisier that living creatures support ozone, pointed out that oxygen must in some manner be activated life by the process of respiration, in which oxygen is taken into before it is able to effect the majority of oxidations, and this the system, and the product of oxidation of organic matter, car- view, in one form or another, has formed the basis of the many bon dioxide, is given off. To-day it is recognized that respiration theories of oxidation that have been advanced since his time. is in no way peculiar to living tissues, for many non-living sys- We are still without clear ideas regarding the mechanism of tems can be constructed that will absorb oxygen and eliminate activation of molecular oxygen which the living cell possesses, carbon dioxide under conditions more or less comparable with but the studies of Warburg on tissues and on the charcoal model those under which the living cells respire. The very striking ex- to which reference has been made suggest that minute traces of periment described in recent years by the distinguished German iron and possibly of other heavy metals such as copper play an chemist Otto Warburg may be taken as an illustration. The oxi- important part in the process. dation of certain substances which are oxidized in the body, e.g., Oxidative Mechanisms.—This brings us in a natural secertain amino-acids, will take place along apparently similar quence to refer to the oxidative mechanisms which the living paths, at any rate leading to the formation of carbon dioxide and organism possesses. In the first place, there are the oxidizing ammonia, when their aqueous solutions are shaken with carefully enzymes, the oxidases, a group of catalysts, many of them of prepared charcoal in a fine state of division. A measure of the a highly specific character, capable of oxidizing with great rapidity oxygen absorbed and of the carbon dioxide evolved in such cases under suitable conditions a wide variety of substances. The is as truly a measure of the respiration of the charcoal as a de- biochemical examination of the oxidases has been extensive, and termination of the respiratory quotient is an indication of the has, particularly in recent years, given us considerable information oxidative activity of a living tissue. The parallel becomes even how molecules such as those of tyrosine, xanthine and uric acid more remarkable when it is learned that the respiration of the are oxidized. According to the recent work of Thunberg, Battelli charcoal particles can be depressed by the addition of narcotics and Stern the cell possesses, in addition to the recognized type of or poisons in a manner entirely comparable with the influence of oxidase, other types of oxidative catalysts of a thermolabile nathese substances on the respiration of living cells. ture. It would appear, however, from the results of the researches Origin of Circulatory System.—The biochemical study of of Sir Gowland Hopkins and of Meyerhof that there are also respiration is, however, a problem presenting many aspects. present in the cells of plants and animals oxidative reductive Primarily it is necessary to investigate the means by which the systems which are thermostable. The remarkable substance oxygen is brought to the cells, a task that widens on every hand glutathione, discovered by Hopkins, probably plays an important and takes us into many fields. The cells of the simpler forms of part in these last-mentioned systems. fact that, in the higher animals at least, it is to some extent possible to follow the fate of substances by examining the body fluids, the individual organs, or, more particularly, the excretions.

BIOCHEMISTRY

592

Reptroduction.—Turning now to the second characteristic of life in our list, namely, reproduction, we find we are considering a phenomenon which might well, at first sight, appear to be outside the scope of experimental attack by biochemists. Surely in the processes underlying reproduction, if anywhere in the realm of biology, might be traced the “‘vital force” or “entelechy” that would at almost every turn frustrate experimental attack. The clear demonstration that such is not the case, and that the problems of fertilization and reproduction are no less open to experimental biochemical investigation than those of digestion or respiration, we owe to the remarkable work of the great experimental biologist Jacques Loeb. His investigations on the influence of the composition of the surrounding medium on the reproductive cells of certain marine animals dispel any doubt that many of the problems of fertilization, of specificity and of inheritance will in time be solved, and to a large extent by biochemical methods. (See CYTOLOGY; EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY.) Can this be doubted when we recall that the migration of the sperm to the egg has been shown to be directed by the physicochemical action of certain substances derived from the latter; that the penetration of the ovum by the sperm can be controlled by altering the composition of the surrounding fluid, even to the extent of permitting the admission of a sperm cell foreign to the egg; that the mechanical act of penetration performed by the sperm, and resulting in the almost explosive outburst of oxidative activity that marks the initiation of fertilization, can be reproduced by perforation with needles so successfully that numbers of male frogs have been reared to adult size from eggs so fertilized? Considering these striking facts, and at the same time bearing in mind the mass of evidence that is accumulating on every side to show how the development of the reproductive cells is under chemical control in the body and how these tissues themselves exert by chemical means a far-reaching control on the development and functions of other tissues, no reasonable doubt can be entertained that the phenomena associated with reproduction are open to biochemical investigation. Genetic Problems.—Many of the closely associated problems of genetics are also well within the biochemist’s purview, as can readily be judged by giving one or two examples. The inheritance of colours, whether we are thinking of the blue, red or purple colours of flowers or the black and brown markings of animals, has been shown to depend on the inheritance of a physico-chemical system capable, under ordinary conditions, of producing the colour. Some of these systems and the mechanism of their action are fairly well understood. The systems may be more or less complex in character, but unless they are complete the mechanism for the production of the colour cannot function normally. Thus, for example, two white flowers from different plants of the same species may lack colour because one component of the colour-producing system is absent. If the missing factor is the same in both cases, crossing will not result in the production of coloured flowers, but if their deficiencies are complementary, the seeds produced on cross fertilization will yield plants with coloured flowers. The mechanisms concerned in the production of both animal and plant colours have been extensively studied 1 vitro, and are to some extent understood. Growth

and

Development.—The

biochemical

study

of

growth and development has been followed along many paths. The influence of the composition of the soil on plant growth has attracted wide attention ever since the classic researches of Liebig were published. To-day the agricultural biochemist not only studies the significance of the more obviously essential constituents of the soil, such as nitrates, phosphates, etc., but is concerned to no little extent with the influence which apparently insignificant amounts of other substances may have. The curious fact that the broad-bean plant will not grow to full maturity without a minute amount of the element boron being present in the soil is an example of what has already resulted. Chemical Control.—The biochemical study of the growth and development of animals provides many examples of both these aspects of the chemical control of growth.

On the one hand

the energy requirements of animals during the period of growth

have been investigated in great detail, whilst on the other. + has

been ascertained that a normal development is dependent n the satisfaction of a number of clearly defined requirements.

Growth Factors.—A small but definite amount of the amino.

acid tryptophane, a constituent of some, but not all, proteins is necessary for growth of young animals, and the provision ofany amount of a protein deficient in that particular building stone

will fail to induce growth unless the missing unit is provided

from some other source. Many biochemists at the present time are engaged in investigating the remarkable influence which the substances known as the vitamins have on the growth and nutrition of animals. The number of these substances that are generally accepted as being clearly differentiated is already five ang

probably more exist as yet undiscovered. Their chemical nature remains unknown, and we are also ignorant as to the actual part

they play in the economy of the organism. (See VITAMINS.) Lastly, there is a chemical aspect of growth in the investigation of the influence of inorganic elements on animal development. Problems such as the rôle of traces of iodine in inducing normal

development of the thyroid gland, and the manner in which lime

salts are deposited in growing bone illustrate the type of question in this field.that calls for an answer from biochemists. Movements.—Study of the chemical or physico-chemical fac. tors inducing the movements of plants and animals covers a wide field of experimental research, ranging from control of the moyements of free-swimming unicellular organisms to the unravelling of the complex series of events that occur during a muscle twitch in higher animals. Little is known, at the present time, of the factors determin-

ing the growth movements of plants beyond Loeb’s having shown by his researches on regeneration in Bryophyllum that chemical factors probably play a part in the directional growth of shoots and roots. The movements of many forms of simple animals can be to a certain extent controlled by making alterations in the composition of the medium in which they exist, as, for example,

when the water flea, Daphnia, which normally swims away from the light moves in the reverse direction when carbon dioxide is bubbled through the water. Another remarkable example also described by Loeb is that of the larvae of Porthesia, which in the starving condition are attracted toward light and climb high up the stems of the plant on which they customarily feed, but which, having fed on the leaves, become negatively heliotropic and at once descend again to the darker regions. By starving them or by feeding on the leaves of the plant they can in the laboratory be made at will to move toward or away from a source of light. Mechanism. of Muscular Movement.—Turning to. what we may regard as the other corner of this field, namely, the biochemical investigation of the mechanism of muscular movement in animals we find one of the most complete chapters of modem biochemistry. The long series of researches of outstanding merit by Hopkins and Fletcher, Meyerhof and A. V. Hill have taught us how the glycogen of muscle is broken down to'sugar; how the sugar, passing through the intermediate stage of being combined with phosphoric acid, gives rise to the lactic acid that initiates the contraction, and how these anaerobic changes are followed by an oxidative phase of recovery during which part of the lactic acid passes back into its precursor, whilst the remainder is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. These changes have been followed

with such precision by chemical and physical methods that the heat production of the muscle during the whole cycle has bee accounted for with considerable exactitude by a knowledge of the heat exchanges of the chemical reactions which are believed to occur. In spite of these carefully compiled results, we are a yet ignorant of the actual processes involved when the muscle fibre shortens in contraction. Hormones.—The processes of secretion and excretion have been the subject of extensive biochemical research, although

mainly on animal tissues. The discovery by Starling and Bayliss of the agents known as hormones (g.v.) showed for the first time how important a part such chemical messengers play in the co-

ordinating mechanisms of the higher animals. Their discovery0 secretin, the substance of, as yet, undetermined nature which 3

BIOGENESIS—BIOGRAPHY oduced ín the mucosa of the upper part of the small intestine under the stimulus of the entry of acid food-material from the stomach, and which, passing into the blood stream, invokes, in a very short space of time, the secretion of the digestive juice of the pancreas, has paved the way for the discovery by Banting and Best of the internal secretion of the pancreas itself, and more

recently of that of the internal secretion of the parathyroid gland by Collip. Few more striking examples of the service of chemistry to the study of biological problems concerning human welfare could be given than the discovery of the nature of adrenalin and its synthesis by Takamine, and the isolation of a specific substance of the thyroid gland (thyroxin) by Kendall and the more

recent demonstration of the chemical constitution of this remarkable substance

and its synthesis by Harington.

whole, the regulatory action (see ENpocRINOLOGY)

Viewed

as a

exerted by

the secretions of the various glands and tissues of the higher

animals is seen to be one of the most delicately balanced nature, but it is one that is quite definitely open to chemical investigation. Excretory Processes.—The processes of excretion by which living organisms rid their tissues of waste products have, as yet, been scarcely investigated at all in plants. In animals, more particularly in the mammals, they have been extensively examined from the biochemical standpoint. The secretion of urine, the work done by the kidney in this process, the chemical and physico-chemical principles underlying the concentrations of waste products that appear in the excreted fluid, all these have been

the subject of prolonged and fruitful investigation. Secretory Processes.—Of no less interest are problems concerning the secretion by living cells, such as the gastric mucosa of animals, of fluids containing appreciable concentrations of free mineral acids. These questions are intimately bound up with the

very general one concerning the mechanisms by which the reaction of the body fluids is maintained within narrow limits. The

study of the system of amphoteric colloids and simple electrolytes that constitute the tissue fluids of animal or plant tissues has, from the standpoint of physical chemistry, been almost exhaustive, and the analysis, step by step, of the influence of the many factors playing a rôle in the cycle of changes that occurs in blood during its circulation in the bodies of animals stands as one of the most impressive tributes to the application of the rigid, quantitative methods of modern physical chemistry to problems of outstanding biological importance. Many other spheres of extensive biochemical work might be mentioned, but it will be sufficient if brief reference be made to the chemical investigations of fermentation and bacterial changes.

Fermentation

Processes.—To-day,

as a result of the re-

searches of Harden and Young in Great Britain, of Fernbach in Paris, and of C. Neuberg in Germany, we are in possession of a reasonably clear idea of the stages by which the sugar molecule is broken down to yield alcohol and carbon dioxide when fermented by yeast. Most of the intermediate products have actually been isolated and their part in the process proven. Of particular interest is the fact that the most recent work on the fermentation of sugar by yeast and on its degradation in the cells of the animal body points to the essential steps in the breakdown of the carbohydrate molecule being the same in both cases. Probably in no other field of research in biochemistry have so many striking examples been found as in that of fermentation chemistry, of the course of a reaction being changed by alterations in the conditions of the experiment. Certain of these

diversions of the normal course of events have proved of con-

siderable economic value, as, for example, when, during the World War, German scientists were able to prepare considerable quantities of glycerol from sugar by causing inhibition of the fermentation at a certain stage by the addition of sulphites. Apart from the alcoholic fermentations there are numerous other processes, many of them of considerable technical importance, in which the action of the bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY) or other micro-organisms is the subject of biochemical research. Brptiocrapay.—C. Oppenheimer, Handbuch der Biochemie (1909—

B. Moore, Biochemistry

593 (1921); F. Czapek, Biochemie der Pflanzen

(1922); T. R. Parsons, Fundamentals of Biochemistry (1923); J. Pryde, Recent Advances in Biochemistry (1926); A. Krogh, Respiratory Exchange of Animals and Man (1916); R. H. A. Plimmer, The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, Pt. 1, Analysis (1917); H. Maclean, Lecithin and Allied Substances (1927); E. F. Armstrong, The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides (1919); Sir ve M.

Bayliss, The Nature of Enzyme Action (1919); W. Jones, Nucleic Acids (1920); E. P. Cathcart, The Physiology of Protein Metabolism

(1921); H. D. Dakin, Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body

(1922); A. Harden, Alcoholic Fermentation (1923); E. A. Werner, Chemistry of Urea (1923); T. B. Osborne, The Vegetable Proteins (1924) ; P. A. Levene, Hexosamines and Mucoproteins (197P i D

BIOGENESIS,

a biological term for the theory according

to which each living organism, however simple, arises by a process of budding, fission, spore-formation or sexual reproduction from a parent organism. Under the heading of ABIOGENESIS (g.v.) is discussed the series of steps by which the modern acceptance of biogenesis and rejection of abiogenesis has been brought about. No biological generalization rests on a wider series of observations, or has been subjected to a more critical scrutiny than that every living organism has come into existence from a living portion or portions of a pre-existing organism. In the articles Repropuction and Hereprty the details of the relations between parent and offspring are discussed. There remains for treatment here a curious collateral issue of the theory. It is within common observation that parent and offspring are alike: that the new organism resembles that from which it has come into existence: in fine, biogenesis is homogenesis. Every organism takes origin from a parent organism of the same kind. The conception of homogenesis, however, does not imply an absolute similarity between parent and organism. In the first place, the normal life-cycle of plants and animals exhibits what is known as alternation of generations, so that any individual in the chain may resemble its grand-parent and its grand-child, and differ markedly from its parent and child. Next, any organism may pass through a series of free-living larval stages, so that the new organism at first resembles its parent only very remotely, corresponding to an early stage in the lifehistory of that parent. (See EMBRYOLOGY, LARVAL Forms and REPRODUCTION.) Finally, the conception of homogenesis does not exclude the differences between parent and offspring that continually occur, forming the material for the slow alteration of stocks in the course of evolution (see VARIATION AND SELECTION). Homogenesis means simply that such organism comes into existence directly from a parent organism of the same race, and hence of the same species, sub-species, genus and so forth. From time to time there have been observers who have maintained a belief in the opposite theory, to which the name heterogenesis has been given. According to the latter theory, the offspring of a given organism may be utterly different from itself, so that a known animal may give rise to another known animal of a different race, species, genus, or even family, or to a plant, or vice versa. The most extreme cases of this belief is the wellknown fable of the “barnacle-geese,’’ an illustrated account of which was printed in an early volume of the Royal Society of London. Buds of a particular tree growing near the sea were described as producing barnacles, and these, falling into the water, were supposed to develop into geese. The whole story was an imaginary embroidery of the facts that barnacles attach themselves to submerged timber and that a species of goose is known as the barnacle goose. In modern times the exponents of heterogenesis have limited themselves to cases of microscopic animals and plants, and in most cases the observations that they have brought forward have been explained by minuter observation as cases of parasitism. No serious observer, acquainted with modern microscopic technical methods, has been able to confirm the explanation of their observations given by the few modern

believers in heterogenesis. (P.C. M.) BIOGRAPHY, that form of history which is applied, not to

races or masses of men, but to an individual. The idea of the distinction between biography and history is a modern thing; we 9 ; O. Hammarsten, Textbook of Physiological Chemistry, Eng. trans. speak of “antique biography,” but it is doubtful whether any .A. Mandel (1911) ; A. P. Mathews, Physiological Chemistry (1926) ; writer of antiquity, even Plutarch, clearly perceived its possible

BIOGRAPHY

594

existence as an independent branch of literature. All of them, and Plutarch certainly, considered the writing of a man’s life as an opportunity for celebrating, in his person, certain definite moral qualities. It was in these, and not in the individual characteristics of the man, that his interest as a subject of biography resided. The true conception of biography, therefore, as the faithful portrait of a soul in its adventures through life, is very modern. We may question whether it existed, save in rare and accidental instances, until the 17th century. The personage described was, in earlier times, treated either from the philosophical or from the historical point of view.

In the former case, rhetoric inevitably

clouded the definiteness of the picture; the object was to produce a grandiose moral effect, to clothe the subject with all the virtues or with all the vices; to make his career a splendid example or else a solemn warning. The consequence is that we have to piece together unconsidered incidents and the accidental record of features in order to obtain an approximate estimate. We may believe, for instance, that a faithful and unprejudiced study of the emperor Julian, from the life, would be a very different thing from the impression left upon us by the passions of Cyril or of Theodoret. In considering what biography, in its pure sense, ought to be, we must insist on what it is not. It is not a philosophical treatise nor a polemical pamphlet. It is not, even, a portion of the human contemporary chronicle. Broad views are entirely out of place in biography, and there is perhaps no greater literary mistake than to attempt what is called the “Life and Times” of a man. In an adequate record of the “times,” the man is bound to sink into insignificance; even a “Life and Times” of Napoleon I. would be an impossible task. It fills its canvas with one figure, and other personages, however great in themselves, must always be subsidiary to the central hero. The only remnant of the old rhetorical purpose of “lives” which clearer modern purpose can afford to retain is the relative light thrown on military or intellectual or social genius by the achievements

pilations, of which the Lives of the Twelve Caesars is the beg

known; this was produced in the year 120. Marius Maximus, in the 4th century, continued the series of emperors down to Heliogabalus, but his work has not been preserved. The Augustan

History, finished under Constantine, takes its place, and was cop. cluded and edited by Flavius Vopiscus. English Biographies.—Biography hardly begins to exist in

English literature until the close of the reign of Henry Vit. William Roper (1496-1578) wrote a touching life of his father.

in-law, Sir Thomas More, and George Cavendish (x 500-61?) 4 memoir of Cardinal Wolsey which is a masterpiece of liveliness and grace. It is with these two works, both of which remained in manuscript until the 17th century, that biography in England

begins. The lives of English writers compiled by John Bale (1495-1563) are much more primitive and slight. John Leland

(d. 1552) and John Pits (1560-1616)

affected a species of biography.

were antiquaries who

In the early part of the 17th cen.

tury, the absence of the habit of memoir writing extremely impoverishes our knowledge of the illustrious authors of the age, of none of whom are there preserved such records as our curiosity would delight in. The absence of any such chronicle was felt, and

two writers, Thomas Heywood and Sir Aston Cokayne, proposed to write lives of the poets of their time. Unfortunately they never carried their plans into execution. The pioneer of deliberate English biography was Izaak Walton, who in 1640, published a Life of Donne, followed in 1651 by that of Sir Henry Wotton, in 1665 by that of Richard Hooker, in 1670 by that of George Herbert, and in 1678 by that of Dr. Robert Saunderson. These five

reprinted, under the title of Walton’s Lives, were not only charming in themselves, but the forerunners of a whole class of English literature. Meanwhile, Fuller was preparing his History of the W orthies of England, which appeared after his death, in 1662, and John Aubrey (1626-97) was compiling his Minutes of Lives, which show such a perfect comprehension of the personal element of the selected subject. Even this must be watched with great that should underlie biography; these have only in our own days care, lest the desire to illuminate that genius, and make it con- been completely given to the public. Edward, Lord Herbert of sistent, should lead the biographer to gloss over frailties or ob- Cherbury (1583-1648), wrote a brilliant autobiography, first scure irregularities. In the old “lives” of great men, this is printed in 1764; that of Anne Harrison, Lady Fanshawe (1625precisely what was done. If the facts did not lend themselves to 1680), remained unknown until 1829. A very curious essay in biothe great initial thesis, so much the worse for them. They must be graphy is the memoir of Colonel John Hutchinson, written by his ignored or falsified, since the whole object of the work was to “teach a lesson,” to magnify a certain tendency of conduct. It was very difficult to persuade the literary world that, whatever biography is, it is not an opportunity for panegyric or invective, and the lack of this perception destroys our faith in most of the records of personal life in ancient and mediaeval times. It is impossible to avoid suspecting that Suetonius loaded his canvas

with black in order to excite hatred against the Roman emperors; it is still more difficult to accept more than one page in three of the stories of the professional hagiographers. As long as it was a pious merit to deform the truth, biography could not hope to flourish. Among the ancients, biography was not specifically cultivated until comparatively later times. The lost “Lives” of Critias were probably political pamphlets. We meet first with deliberate biography in Xenophon’s memoirs of Socrates, a work of epochmaking value. Towards the close of the 1st century, Plutarch wrote one of the most fascinating books in the world’s literature, his Parailel Lives of 46 Greeks and Romans. In later Greek, the Life of Apollonius of Tyana was written by Philostratus, who also produced Lives of the Sophists. In the 3rd century, Diogenes Laertius compiled a Lives of the Philosophers, which is of greater interest than a Lives of the Sophists composed 100 years later by Eunapius. Finally in the roth century, Suidas added a biographical section to his celebrated Lexicon. In Latin literature, the earliest biography we meet with is the fragment of the Jilustrious Men of Cornelius Nepos. Memoirs began to be largely written at the close of the Augustan age, but these, like the Life of Alexander the Great, by Q. Curtius Rufus, were rather historical than biographical. Tacitus composed alife of his father-inlaw, Agricola; this is a work of the most elegant and stately

beauty.

Suetonius was the author of several biographical com-

widow, Lucy, between 1664 and 1671.

Margaret Lucas, duchess

of Newcastle (1624?—74), wrote her own life (1656) and that of her duke (1667). The Athenae Oxonienses of Anthony 4 Wood (1632-95) was a complicated celebration of the wit, wisdom and learning of Oxford notabilities since the Reformation. In 1668 Thomas Sprat (1635-1713) wrote a Life of Cowley, which was very much admired and which exercised for many years a baneful influence on British biography. Sprat considered that all familiar anecdote and picturesque detail should be omitted in the composition of a memoir, and that moral effect and a solemn vagueness should be aimed at. The celebrated funeral orations of Jeremy Taylor were of the same order of eloquence, and the wind of those grandiose compositions destroyed the young shoot of genuine and simple biography which had budded in Walton and Aubrey. From this time forth, for more than half a century, English biography became a highly artificial and rhetorical thing, lacking

all the salient features of honest portraiture.

William Oldys

(1696~1761) was the first to speak out boldly; in 1747, in the

preface to the Biographia Britannica, he pointed out “the cruelty, we might even say the impiety, of sacrificing the glory of great characters to trivial circumstances and mere conveniency,” and

attacked the timid and scrupulous superficiality of those who undertook to write lives of eminent men, while omitting every-

thing which gave definition to the portrait. In 1753 the Lives of

the Poets, which bore the name of Theophilus Cibber (1703-58); but was mainly written by Robert Shiels (d. 1753), gave a great

deal of valuable information with regard to the personal adventures of our writers. Dr. Johnson’s Life of Savage (1744), though

containing some passages of extreme interest, was a work of 1mperfect form, but Mason’s Life and Letters of Gray (1774) marks a great advance in the art of biography. This was the earliest

BIOGRAPHY memoir in which correspondence of a familiar kind was used to illustrate and to expand the narrative, and Mason’s Gray is really the pioneer of almost all modern English biography. For the first

595

raphy, nor has it produced a single work of this class which is

universally read. In Germany there is little to record before the

close of the 18th century. In the course of the roth century a new thing in biography was invented, in the shape of dictionaries of national biography. Of these, the first which was carried to a successful conclusion was the Swedish (1835-57), which occupied 23 volumes. This dictionary was followed by the Dutch (1852-78), in 24 volumes; the Austrian (1856—91), in 35 volumes; the Belgian (which was begun in 1866); the German (1875-1900), in 45 volumes; and or perhaps in any language. As soon as the model of Boswell became familiar to biographers others, representing nearly all the countries of Europe. England it could no longer be said that any secret in the art was left un- was behind the competitors named above, but when she joined the known to them, and the biographies of the roth century are all ranks a work was produced the value of which can hardly be more or less founded upon the magnificent type of the Life of exaggerated. The project was started in 1882 by the publisher Johnson. But few have even approached it in courage, pictur- George Smith (1824—1901), who consulted Leslie Stephen. The esqueness or mastery of portraiture. In the next generation first volume of the English Dictionary of National Biography was Southey’s lives of Nelson (1813) and John Wesley (1820) at once published on Jan. 1, 1885, under Stephen’s editorship. A volume became classics; but the pre-eminent specimen of early roth cen- was published quarterly, with complete punctuality until midsumtury biography is Lockhart’s superb Life of Sir Walter Scott mer 1900, when vol. 63 closed the work, which was presently ex(1837-38). The biographies of the roth century are far too numer- tended by the issue of supplementary volumes. In May 18gr ous to be mentioned here in detail; in the various articles dedicated Leslie Stephen resigned the editorship and was succeeded by Sidto particular men and women in this Encyclopedia, the date and ney Lee, who edited the work with its supplementary volumes authorship of the authoritative life of each person will in most till 1916, when it was transferred to the Oxford University Press. cases to be found appended. : A further supplementary volume containing the biographies of Other Countries—To Switzerland appears due the honour those who had died between 1912 and 1921 was published in 1927 of having given birth to the earliest biographical dictionary ever under the editorship of H. W. C. Davis and J. R. H. Weaver. compiled, the Bibliotheca Universalis of Konrad Gesner (1516- The Dictionary of National Biography contains the lives of be-

time it was now admitted that letters to intimate friends, not written with a view to publication, might be used with advantage to illustrate the real character of the writer. Boswell, it is certain, availed himself of Mason’s example, while improving upon it, and in 1791 he published his Life of Dr. Samuel Johnson, which is the most interesting example of biography existing in English

6s), published at Ziirich in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, from 1545 to 1549. A very rare work, by a writer of the greatest obscurity,

the Prosopographia of Verdier de Vauprivas, published at Lyons

in 1573, professed to deal with the lives of all illustrious persons who had flourished since the beginning of the world. In mediaeval and Renaissance France there existed numerous memoirs and histories, such as those of Brantôme, into which the lives of great men were inserted, and in which a biographical character was given to studies of virtue and valour, or of the reverse. But the honour of being the earliest deliberate contribution to biography is generally given to the Acta Sanctorum, compiled by the Bollandists, the first volume of which appeared in 1653. It was confined to the lives of saints and martyrs, but in 1674 Louis Moréri, in his Grand Dictionnaire, included a biographical section of a general character. But the earliest biographical dictionary which had anything of a modern form was the celebrated Dictionnaire historique et critique of Pierre Bayle, in 1696; the lives in this great work, however, are too often used as mere excuses for developing the philosophical and controversial views of the author; they are nevertheless the result of genuine research and have a true biographical view. In Italian literature, biography does not take a prominent place until the 15th century. The Lives of Illustrious Florentines, in which a valuable memoir of Dante occurs, was written in Latin by Filippo Villani. Vespasiano da Bisticci (1421-98) compiled a set of biographies of his contemporaries, which are excellent of their kind. The so-called Life of Castruccio Castracani, by Machiavelli, is hardly a biography, but a brilliant essay on the ideals of statecraft. Paolo Giovio (1483~1552) wrote the lives of poets and soldiers whom he had known. All these attempts, however, seem insignificant by the side of the autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini (1501—71), confessedly one of the most entertaining works of the world’s literature. A great deal of biography is scattered throughout the historical compilations of the Italian Renaissance, and the Lives of the Artists, by Giorgio Vasari (1512-74),

is a storehouse of anecdotes admirably told. We find nothing else that requires special mention till we reach the memoir-writers of

the 18th century, with the autobiographies of Count Carlo Gozzi and Alfieri; and on the whole, Italy, although adopting in the

19th century the habit of biography, has rarely excelled in it. tn Spanish literature Fernán Pérez de Guzman (1378-1460), with great originality, enshrined, in his Generations and Likenesses, a series of admirable literary portraits; he has been called the Plutarch of Spain. But, in spite of numerous lives of saints, poets and soldiers, Spanish literature has not excelled in biog-

tween 30,000 and 40,000 persons.

(E. G.)

MODERN DEVELOPMENTS Biography is a branch of literature; that is to say, it is an art, not a science. The biographies that succeed are those that people are always ready to read for the kind of pleasure given by literary art. The biographies that fail are those that do not give that pleasure. It is necessary to affirm these elementary truths, because the present age, weak in creative energy, tends to exalt the merely explanatory or sceptical activities, and shows a desire to claim that biography is a branch of science or a department of morbid psychology. That an art is promoted by being called a science is a superstition of persons, often very learned, who possess apparatus, but lack creative vigour. We must beware, therefore, of those who confuse a plain case by the introduction of misleading qualifications. No biographer can claim merit by urging that his work is in some special sense “new” or “modern.” A “new” or “modern” biography can only mean a “recent” biography. If a youthful iconoclast writes a hostile life of Scott as a counterblast to Lockhart, the differentia of his book will be hostility, not novity or modernity. Nor will the hostility be necessarily a merit or a defect. A hostile biography, like any other, must justify itself by success, that is, by giving pleasure to generations of readers. Actually, a perverse biography that tries to belittle some large figure (e.g., Dickens) is as unlikely to succeed as the inverse biography that tries to magnify a minor figure (e.g., George IV.). The Descent from Johnson.—The publication in 1918 of Eminent Victorians by Giles Lytton Strachey gave some encouragement to those who fail to distinguish between malice and veracity. Though generally labelled “new” and “modern,” it descends in a direct line from the work of the greatest of English biographers, himself, by singular coincidence, the subject of the greatest of English biographies (see Jomnson; BosweLL). The opening lines of Johnson’s Life of Cowley are so cogent that no excuse need be made for quoting them: The Life of Cowley, notwithstanding the penury of English biography, has been written by Dr. Sprat; . . . but his zeal of friendship, or ambition of eloquence, has produced a funeral oration rather than a history: he has given the character, not the life of Cowley; for he writes with so little detail, that scarcely anything is distinctly known, but all is shown confused and enlarged through the mist of panegyrick.

The first sentences of the actual Life read thus: Abraham Cowley was born in the year one thousand six hundred and eighteen. His father was a grocer, whose condition Dr. Sprat conceals under the general appellation of a citizen.

596

BIOGRAPHY

By “character” Johnson means something like the Theophrastian “character” (see THEOPHRASTUS) which was vastly popular in England during the 17th century—the description of supposed types, such as the abstract “just man,” “avaricious man,” and so forth, instead of real individuals. The “character” always tends to become a model or vehicle of insincerity or hypocrisy, that is, of suppression and pretence. The father of a “character” is never a grocer, but a citizen. Hypocrisy was the moral and intellectual habit of so many vigorously respectable people during the Victorian and Albertine age that the “character” biography became a natural expectation. The admission of human weakness or natural frailty was resented as if it were a malicious perversion of the truth. Thus, the Memoirs (1851) of his famous uncle, by Bishop Christopher Wordsworth (q.v.), suppressed certain vital incidents of the poet’s early life as being out of the “character.” Thus, too, the terribly competent and imperious Florence Nightingale, the rightly unscrupulous organizer of victory in a sacrificed region of warfare, had to be presented to sentimental complacency as the exquisite “Lady with the Lamp,” the scarcely earthly ministering angel. Now any representation of Florence Nightingale as a delicate, docile lady in the dove-like raiment of “the Nurse,” is not only a misrepresentation of the facts, but a positive insult to her remarkable achievement. It is the Theophrastian “character” run mad. Lytton Strachey’s Method.—When Strachey rejected the type and regarded the person, he invented nothing new in method; he went back to Johnson, who biographically allowed a person to have a human grocer, instead of a Theophrastian “citizen,” as father. Strachey took four Victorian figures, whom the methods of the funeral oration or its later substitute, journalistic panegyric, had turned into images of impeccable eminence and he described them, not as “characters,” but as human beings. His types were Dr. Arnold (Public School Tradition), General Gor-

don (the Christian Soldier), Florence Nightingale (the Angel of Mercy) and Cardinal Manning (the Saintly Prelate). These em-

inent Victorians he treated as frankly as Johnson had treated his eminent Carolines and Jacobeans. The images came alive under the process. In Queen Victoria (1921) Strachey applied the same methods to an august figure so grossly magnified into inhuman dimensions that William Nicholson’s excellent woodcut of her as a little but firmly posed old lady in a bonnet had, a few years before, been hotly resented as an insult to majesty. The ideal of royal portraiture—the Winterhalter tradition brought down to date—was Stuart-Wortley’s representation of Edward VII. as an immensely tall and magnificently overpowering figure in Court dress. It bore no resemblance whatever to that popular and public monarch. It was a Theophrastian “king”; and any footman from Buckingham Palace might have been the model. Biographers were expected to conform to this tradition of distortion. It is the special merit of Strachey that he did not conform, but went back to the nobler example of Johnson. There are other famous Victorians, George Eliot for instance, who would clearly gain by frankly human treatment. Those who think that by turning ‘‘characters’ into human beings Strachey has diminished his subjects understand neither life nor letters. For them the practice of successful “modern” biography consists in finding eminent persons to belittle or little persons to magnify. It is now possible to find studies in biography, specifically described as “new” or “modern,” which contain nothing but the impertinence of youth to maturity or the obtuseness of stupidity to achievement. Partial Portraits.—There is no formula for the biographer. Like the poet and the novelist, like the painter and the sculptor, he must be true to his medium, but he is as free as they to seek individual form and expression. It would be intolerable if all biographies were written to the model of Boswell’s Johnson or Lockhart’s Scott. A chapter of a life may be better than the . whole! A special episode, treated artistically, may reveal more than a protracted narrative. Two excellent examples of such “partial portraits” are Father and Son (1907), by Sir Edmund Gosse (g.v.), and Byron, the Last Journey (1924), by Harold Nicolson. The first, originally published anonymously, is the story not merely of the clash between two temperaments, but of the strife

between two generations. A long story could tell no more and

might even tell less. Nicolson’s unexcited account of one year

and that the last in Byron’s life, presents a figure which is not

only more real and intelligible, but actually more romantic than the romances. It views Byron from the latter end and is 4 fully

successful essay in retrospective biography. The frank casting of biographical material into the form of a novel may be felicitous when the subject is Shelley and the writer André Maurois (Ariel, 1923). On the other hand, the sedu.

lous denigration of Dickens in a novel This Side Idolatry by ©

Bechhofer Roberts (1928) is offensive, not for moral reasons, but because the representation, however supported by evidence ig

irrelevant.

There is no law in the matter.

Biographical fiction

can hardly be forbidden when historical fiction is allowed. A novelist has at least as much right as a dramatist to the life of

Abraham Lincoln. In Venetia Disraeli succeeded in transmitting much of Byron, but failed to transmit anything of Shelley, a;

Peacock had failed before him, in the caricature of Nightmare Abbey. Some of Disraeli’s other “real” characters in fiction are admirable, e.g., the sketch of Palmerston as Lord Roehamp.ton in Endymion. The life of Disraeli himself by André Maurois (1927) tells a story as fascinating as a novel, without departing from the normal frame-work of a biography. Other suc. cessful examples of what may be called essential biography are the Parnell of St. John Ervine (1925) and the Palmerston of Philip Guedalla (1926). Brilliant and personal as the latter is, it rests upon a solid foundation of research. To say that the Kaiser Wilhelm II., the Napoleon and the Bismarck of Emil Lud-

wig are “film-biographies” is not in the least to disparage them,

for there are excellent as well as execrable films. Of these three the Bismarck’ is the most satisfying, but not the most attractive; for though the author triumphs over his material, the subject itself lacks spectacular appeal. The qualities that made Emil Ludwig successful as the biographer of Napoleon or the Kaiser disable him utterly when he attempts a life of Jesus. The Chronicle-biography.—In the realm of biography there is always place for the work that is not so much a creation as a chronicle; that is to say, for the work that is a careful assembly of material by someone in possession of the facts. Many recent political and official biographies belong to the category of chronicle and do not need discussion as works of biographical art. A rather special case of the chronicle-biography is the Life of Samuel

Butler (1919), by Henry Festing Jones, who had already proved his biographical skill in the compilation of a short, vivid sketch of the strange person with whom he had been closely associated.

It is idle to say that no one wants such a long biography of such a minor literary figure; for the answer is first, that people who like Butler like him enough to want to know as much as possible about him, and next, that the sole possessor of information is fulfilling a very proper duty in recording it. An even more remarkable instance of the devotion which is expended upon the collection and recording of personal detail is the Life of Beethoven, by William Alexander Thayer, for here the biographer pursues the man so earnestly that he overlooks the musician, who, after all, is what matters most. There is, as we have, said, no formula for biography; there 1s only the pragmatic test of success. Even the standard “life” in two

volumes need not be, though it often has been, an expanded epitaph in the lapidary style of the monumental mason. What the best biographical writing of recent times can truthfully claim is that it has turned wholesomely away from the falsified ‘“character” and the exaggerated “funeral oration,” and has tried to depict human beings instead of frigid types “shown confused and enlarged through the mist of panegyrick.” As examples of modern biographical activity we may mention that the Dictionary of National Biography continues its career of plain usefulness and that the classic series called English Men of Letters has entered upon a third and less classic phase of its welcome ma e ) ON.

The United

States—In

the United States biography apart

from history was comparatively late in developing. Historical

chroniclers such as John Smith founded certain long-lived indi-

BIOGRAPHY vidual legends, for example the Pocahontas story, or gave vivid thumb-nail sketches of their more prominent contemporaries as did Capt. Edward Johnson (1599-1672) in his Wonder-Working Providence of Zion’s Saviour in New England (1654). We do find extended biographical work, however, in that curious

jumble of fact, tradition and personal prejudice—Cotton Mather’s

Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), in which are sections devoted to the lives of the governors and names of the magistrates “that have been shields to the churches of New England,” to famous ministers and to the history of Harvard college and of “some

eminent persons therein educated.” Nevertheless in spite of such spirited bits of narrative as Sir William Phips’ finding of long

buried Spanish treasure under the sea, the pompous style and moralizing treatment have on the whole won deserved oblivion.

Almost complete oblivion has also overtaken the single biographies produced in the colonial epoch—Parentator (1724), the quaint tribute to Increase Mather by his more famous son; The Life and

Character of the Reverend Benjamin Colman, D.D. (1749) by

his son-in-law, Ebenezer

Turell, one of the most unassuming

and appealing of the group; and Jonathan Edwards’ life of David Brainerd (1749), 2 young missionary who died of consumption.

During the Revolution writers and thinkers were too occupied with waging war on live questions to extol the virtues and accom-

plishments of dead dignitaries. What few semi-biographical notes were struck were satirical—thinly veiled allusions to prominent members of the opposite party such as are found in Mercy Otis Warren’s farce The Group (1775)—or incidental—the acrid

sketches in her History of the American Revolution

(1805).

After the Revolution, however, emphasis shifted from the divines

who had absorbed the attention of writers to the great patriotic figures who were already assuming heroic proportions. The Life of Washington (1800) by Parson Weems, a versatile and somewhat unscrupulous man, although it was regarded askance even by contemporary scholars, proved one of the best-selling biographies ever written in America and imbedded in the popular mind fictions like the hatchet story which have not yet been wholly uprooted. Also inaccurate was the Life of Patrick Henry (1817) by William Wirt (1772-1834), lawyer and essayist, whose polished style makes the book more readable, however, than the Life of James Otis (1823) by William Tudor (1779-1830) or the ponderous Life of Washington (1804-07) by Chief Justice John Marshall. One of the first tributes to American writers was the somewhat stilted and inaccurate Life of Charles Brockden Brown (1815) by William Dunlap (1766-1839), playwright, manager, so-called “Father of the American Theatre.” Edgar Allan Poe indulged in literary chit-chat in his Literati of New

York City

(1846), and his own literary executor, Rufus Griswold (1815-57) by his distorted memoir of the poet (1849) gave one of the most prominent examples of the. satisfaction of personal grudges which for a period blackened American biography. The best biographical

work which came out of New York at that time (and probably

597

American Biography, which appeared in two series (25 vol., 183438 and 1844-47) and which still has value. The literary contacts of Boston, Cambridge and Concord through the latter part of the roth century brought forth numerous biographies on a comparatively high level. Emerson’s tribute to Thoreau (1862), Charles Eliot Norton’s biographies and editions of the literary remains of his various friends, the work of Thomas Wentworth Higginson, O. W. Holmes’ biographies of Emerson (1885) and Motley (1879), the memoirs of the Transcendentalists, although they have their blemishes, are generally satisfactory. About the same time in the South John Pendleton Kennedy (1795—1870), lawyer, politician, essayist and novelist in his Memoirs of the Life of William Wirt (1849) carried on the biographical tradition; and the prolific Simms turned off lives of Francis Marion (1844), John Smith (1846) and Nathanael Greene (1849). In the West Timothy Flint by his biography of Boone (1833) and Benjamin Drake by that of Black Hawk (1838) established the biographical tradition of the Frontier.

By the third quarter of the roth century, then, biography had become well established as a popular form in the United States, and works of this nature issued from the publishers in everincreasing volume. It is possible only to indicate the chief of the lines of development, many of the outstanding biographies being named in the bibliographies of the individuals whom they concern.

One rather common type was the so-called “family biog-

raphy” having present Harriet

in which the children or near relatives of an individual, free access to his or her papers and intimate knowledge, their impressions. Of such a nature were biographies of Beecher Stowe, of Hawthorne, of Julia Ward Howe, of Emily Dickinson and many others. Horace Traubel’s devotion to Whitman resulting in With Walt Whitman in Camden (1906 et seq.) furnishes perhaps the best example of the Boswell type of biography. The secretaries of Lincoln, John Hay (1838-1905) and John G. Nicolay (1832-1901) produced in their life of the president (1890) what is not only one of the most comprehensive of American biographies but a book which serves as a history of an epoch. This same use of history on a smaller scale to serve as the background of a central figure is found in W. P. Trent’s biography of William Gilmore Simms (1892). A specialized type of biography, the campaign biography written to Serve an immediate end—exalting a candidate—has numbered in its ranks no lesser figures than Nathaniel Hawthorne and William Dean Howells. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, with the exception of accounts based on personal association,| biography fell largely to the lot of the professional editor, the studious minister, the college professor and the aspirants for doctoral honours. Their work had the merit of being almost without exception more accurate than that of the earlier annalists, and while at its worst it was dry and over-pedantic, it was as a rule well written and thorough. Among the best examples of this type

of work is the American Men of Letters series edited by Charles

the best biographical work in America to date) was the Spanish Dudley Warner, the biographies of Horace E. Scudder (1838— series of Irving and his last work The Life of Washington (1855- 1902), of M. A. De Wolfe Howe (1864— ) and of William 59). The opportunities he had to examine Spanish source mate- Roscoe Thayer (1859-1923). rials and to imbibe the atmosphere of the places about which he In the 20th century the broad and even path that the American wrote as well as the suavity of his style and the general pictur- biographer was complacently treading, however, suddenly branched esqueness of his theme and treatment caused his History of off at strange tangents. The scholar, the dignified editor of the old the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), according school, was jostled by novelists, poets, short-story writers, psychoto Southey, to place him “in the front rank of modern biographers” analysts, bent on probing the dark recesses of the soul. Lucky and to secure him, according to Edward Everett, the position “of are the buried notables who escape without being proved victims founder of the American school of polite learning.” of one complex or phobia, and lucky are the descendants who need Although Cooper took time off from his fiction to write Lives fear the revelation of no family skeletons. For the so-called “new of Distinguished American Naval Officers (1842-45) and Ned biography” like the realism of the Zola school does not believe in Myers (1843), the life of a common sailor who had been with reticences; sometimes it seems almost to glory in pillorying the him on the “Sterling,” and although his Leatherstocking series past. The chatty, personal, vivid note popularized in biography Wielded an extraordinary influence on most of the later scout by Strachey in England, Ludwig in Germany, André Maurois in ) in America, combiographies, for work of a sort, to compare with Irving we must France, and Gamaliel Bradford (1863-— turn to the New England school. There Jared Sparks, for a time mendable in itself, has given rise in some cases to serious abuses. editor of the North American Review, professor of history and Spice has been sought to the neglect of truth; a biographer, intent later president of Harvard, not only wrote numerous biographies on dragging from his pedestal an over-idealized hero or on playing himself but edited the most extensive work of its nature to date, up a side of his subject that has been neglected or glossed over is

598

BIOLOGICAL

ARTICLES— BIOLOGICAL

SURVEY

apt to forget his sense of proportion, to stress that side to the exclusion of all others, and sometimes, unconsciously perhaps, to twist the evidence. In spite of these abuses, however, the advantages of the new

articles, e.g., DINOSAURIA, TRILOBITA, IcHTHYosauRus, Grap. TOLITES, ARCHAEOPTERYX, TITANOTHERIA, PERISSODACTYLA, The various methods of protecting animals and preserving wild life are

biography are many. Written usually with a sense of climax and an admirable dramatic quality, these books have made vastly more vital and interesting the people they portray; they have increased the reading public devoted to this genre; they have done good service in insisting upon the truth without fear or favour. No one now need come to the reading of biography as to a task; Carl Sandburg’s Abraham Lincoln, the Prairie Years (1926) is the work of a poet and mystic profoundly in sympathy with his subject; Cameron Rogers’ The Magnificent Idler (1926) makes Walt Whitman almost a hero of romance; Emerson (1927) by Van Wyck Brooks (1886— ), re-creates in vivid, staccato fashion the Concord sage’s life and environment. At the present time the outlook for American biography seems bright. Under the pioneer leadership of Ambrose W. Vernon (1870) courses in biography are being given in some American colleges. The interest in social history has drawn atten-

SERVES, BIRD SANCTUARIES and GAME RESERVES; on this aspect

tion to many representative figures hitherto neglected; the State historical societies are preserving records of the more significant local personages; and The Dictionary of American Biography, financed by Adolph Ochs of the New York Times, promises to be the most complete and correct collection of American biography

yet published.

(D. A. D.)

BIOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL ARTICLES.

The

main branches of biological science are dealt with in special articles such as ZooLocYy, EmBRYOLOGY and PALAEONTOLOGY. Brorocy itself is treated in an article outlining the scope and applications and history of the science. In addition to the article on EvoLution, there are separate articles on such branches as SELECTION, NATURAL, ARTIFICIAL, and Sexuat, EvoLUTION AND Minp and Acciimatization; further, the evolutionary aspect has been stressed in many of the articles dealing with the various

groups of animals, e.g., MAMMALIA and AMPHIBIA, and in other

general articles such as ZooLocicaL REGIONS, DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, Mrmicry and so on. Herepity is the central article of another group which includes such subjects as LAMARCKISM, CYTOLOGY, SEX, REPRODUCTION and VARIATION. Each of the large groups of animals has an article devoted to it, e.g., CRUS-

TACEA, Protozoa, Mottusca, Insects and REPTILES; in mammals, besides a comprehensive account of the class as a whole in the

article MaAmmMatta, each order has an article devoted to it, among

which PRIMATES, CETACEA, CARNIVORA and PROBOSCIDEA may be * mentioned as examples, and the principal animals are fully covered by a series of shorter articles devoted more especially to their natural history—DEER, ANTELOPE, Doc, Fox, Lion, CHrmpan-

ZEE, ELEPHANT, Horse, Kancaroo, etc. Birds are treated in the general articles Brrp and OrnitHotocy, the latter article including a section on the economic status of birds; there are, in addition, numerous shorter articles on individual birds, e.g., Dopo, Cuckoo, Eace, Fatcon, Heron, Humminc Biro, BIRD or PARADISE, THRUSH, SPARROW, etc. Insects are covered by comprehensive articles on Insects and Entomotocy, in the latter of Which is an account of the economic bearings of this important class; the better known and economically important insects are dealt with in greater detail in separate articles, such as Gypsy Motu, Apxipes, Mantis, GRASSHOPPER, Mavy-FLy and PHyLLOXERA, as well as in articles on the more important orders:— LEPIDOPTERA, DIPTERA, ORTHOPTERA, etc. Ants, bees and wasps, in addition to treatment under these headings and in the article HYMENOPTERA, are considered at length, with the termites, in their social aspects in the article Soctan Insects. The other groups of animals are similarly covered: thus there is a general article REPTILES, with shorter articles such as SNAKE, Crocopire, DrNOSAURIA, LizarD, GECKO, etc.; a general article Frsues, with subsidiaries such as FIsHERIES, HERRING, CoD, SALMON, EEL, SHARK, etc.; a general article CRUSTACEA, with supplementary articles on the important subdivisions, COPEPODA, MALACOSTRACA, etc., and on such important forms as CRAB, LOBSTER, SuRIMP, Woop-Louss and others. The better known fossil animals are also given separate

covered by such articles as BIRDS, PROTECTION OF, NATURE Rp.

too, the article BroLoGICAL

SuRVEY

has an important section

while ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, AQUARIUM

and Aviary deal with

animals in captivity. The great advance in the more detailed knowledge of the cells and tissues of the animal body of recent years is summarized in CYTOLOGY, REGENERATION IN Ant-

MALS, TISSUE CULTURE, EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY and Puyg,. OLOGY, COMPARATIVE, and kindred articles. Animal psychology and behaviour, which has also received much attention recently, is covered by the general articles Comparative Psycwotocy

and ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, while COURTSHIP OF ANIMALS, Pray IN ANIMALS, EDUCATION IN ANIMALS and other articles deal with special points. Such important groups as Protozoa and TAPEWORMS are treated at length and their relations to man

clearly brought out, while much of the information is summarized

and its main bearings pointed out in the articles PARASITOLOGY

and Parasıtısm.

Finally the application of biological knowledge

to man’s problems is considered in such articles as MARINE BiOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY and EUGENICS.

. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The Biological Survey is one of

the eleven bureaus among which are distributed the various lines of research and most of the allied activities of the United States Department of Agriculture. Its functions are investigations for the classification, conservation, utilization, and control of the wild life of the country, the administration of Federal laws for

the protection of migratory birds and the prevention of illegal interstate commerce in game and furs, and foreign importations

of harmful wild birds and mammals.

Federal bird and large-game

reservations distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific and in

Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Hawaiian islands are under its administration. The term “wild life” as used here comprises all the vertebrates, except the fishes. The research work of the bureau includes the technical study of the thousands of species making up the wild life of the United States and adjacent regions, with investigations of their habits, distribution, and economic relations. The responsibilities of the bureau require also its active participation in the conservation and increase of the useful and harmless species and the control or de-

struction of those economically injurious. These present many dificult problems, which involve the interest of the people of the entire country to an extent not commonly realized. On July 1, 1886, wild-life research was first established as a distinct unit in the Department of Agriculture, with three employees and an annual appropriation from Congress of $5,000. At that time the work undertaken was the study of the migration of American birds and the distribution and food habits of the birds and mammals. On July 1, 1927, the number of employees in the Biological Survey exceeded 1,300, and the appropriation made available by Congress for its operations during the year

amounted to $1,346,955. In addition, co-operative funds, mainly

to be expended in field work for the control of injurious mammals under the direction of the bureau, amounting to more than $1,000,000, were contributed by the various States. Owing to the numbers of birds—estimated to exceed 4,000,000, ooo in the United States—their importance to man as game and as destroyers of noxious insects on a gigantic scale, and because of their attractiveness in form, colour and notes, they may be listed as of first importance in our wild life resources. The mam-

mals, however, including both game and fur-bearers, make a close second. What has been accomplished in building up wild-life resources in certain States proves that with a nation-wide exercise of wise conservation, these resources might be increased. As against the benefits derived from the useful species, man suffers heavy annual losses from various destructive forms of

wild life. The pests fall into two groups: firstly, the predatory animals, such as the wolf, coyote, puma, lynx, and a few others,

which kill domestic animals; and secondly, the rodents, of which the house rat, prairie dog, various species of ground squirrel,

BIOLOGICAL pocket gopher, hare, and rabbit, which destroy the farmers’ prod-

acts in field and granary, are the most harmful. Both the predatory animals, and the rodents are most numerous in the more thinly populated parts of the country west of the Mississippi. The house rat, however, the most destructive of all, is practically everywhere.

The losses through predatory animals in the

United States have been estimated to be more than $20,000,000 annually.

Investigations

by the Biological

Survey indicate

an

approximated annual loss by house rats of $200,000,000. The annual losses from all other rodent pests have been estimated as

about $300,000,000. Nearly half the total appropriations for the þureau and all the co-operative funds made available by the States for its operations are for the purpose of controlling these losses.

Control Methods.—Until the survey began the work, sporadic,

costly, ineffective efforts were made to subdue the wild bird and mammal pests. The usual method was through the payment of a fixed bounty for the scalp or other part of the offender. Many millions of dollars were thus wasted, and no general relief was obtained. The depredations of animal pests continued and had become so serious by 1916 that, coupled with a great outbreak of rabies carried into five States by coyotes and other predatory animals, the Biological Survey was given the task of controlling the situation, especially in the States west of the Mississippi

river, where much of the land still belongs to the Federal Government.

The methods of control of the pests developed by the Biological Survey were soon found to be effective. As a result, States throughout the country have joined forces and are making the

campaigns of control joint efforts by the Federal and State governments. Under unified direction by the Biological Survey, these losses have been practically eliminated over considerable areas. Since 1916, when the control of wild animal pests became the major single activity of the bureau, the kill among the larger predatory animals has been as follows: Wolves, 6,233; coyotes (prairie wolves), more than 500,000; pumas, 1,877. To accomplish this requires the directed efforts of from 250 to nearly 600 hunters each year, the number varying with the season. They use poison, traps, and the rifle. In the control of the rodent pests, which exist in great numbers over a vast territory, the usual method is to poison them. With the co-operation of farmers and other landowners, poison has been placed over many millions of acres of farming and grazing land and a great reduction made in the abundance of these pests. In considerable areas the prairie dog has been exterminated. Since 1920 the Biological Survey has been charged with the investigation of the reindeer industry in Alaska, and the develop-

ment of scientific methods for its improvement and up-building. Between 1892 and 1902 a total of 1,280 reindeer were brought to Alaska by the Bureau of Education from eastern Siberia, and in 1927 they had increased to more than 500,000 in addition to over 150,000 that had been killed for their meat and hides.

Enforcement of Federal game laws has also become part of the work of the bureau. Most far-reaching of these is the Act to enforce the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty with

Great Britain for the protection of the migratory birds that live part of their lives in the United

States and part in Canada.

Another law is the Lacey Act to prevent the illegal interstate traffic in game and furs, and controlling the importation of living

wild birds and mammals, to prevent the introduction of injurious

species. The Survey co-operates with the Alaska Game Commission in the enforcement of the Alaska game and fur laws, and

ts chief representative in Alaska serves as executive officer of the commission.

All the varied activities of the Biological Survey are based on the scientific research of its staff of naturalists and other trained men. Their field investigations during many years have accumu-

lated a great store of information concerning the distribution and habits of the wild mammals

and birds of North America, and

have amassed a study collection containing about 60,000 birds and 137,000 mammals.

SURVEY

599

A continual effort is made through the press and by popular articles to inform the public in regard to thé value of useful wild life, the conditions affecting it, and the needs of conservation, in order that it may be maintained. The contributions by the bureau to these subjects are published in the departmental series of bulletins and circulars and in a technical series known as “North American Fauna,” the latest of which is numbered 50. These technical reports consist of monographic revisions of groups of mammals, reports on the results of life-zone surveys of State and other major areas, and other technical matter relating to the wild life of the continent.

These publications, the data in the files, and the reference

collections constitute the largest store of information available on the wild life of any continent, and make the Biological Survey, with its staff of scientific naturalists, the main centre of information concerning the conservation, utilization, and control of the wild life of North America. The information amassed is being increasingly consulted by wild-life administrators and naturalists

in the U.S.A. and abroad, and is of especial use to State game commissions and other organizations in problems constantly arising locally, but requiring for their solution the nation-wide experience of the Biological Survey. To conduct its work effectively the bureau is directed by a chief directly responsible to the secretary of agriculture. Under his immediate supervision are the general administrative officers, and the heads of six technical divisions, as follows: 1. Division of Biological Investigations.—Under this head are grouped most of the fundamental scientific investigations of the bureau. The scientific staff is made up of experienced mammalogists, ornithologists, herpetologists, and botanists. They make taxonomic studies especially of groups of mammals and birds and identify specimens sent in by field parties as well as great numbers sent by individuals and institutions throughout the country. Some of the results of these studies have appeared as monographic revisions of genera of birds and mammals and the descriptions of hundreds of species and geographic subspecies of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and plants new to science.

The members of this scientific staff also are leaders of the field

expeditions sent out to determine the distribution and habits of wild-life species. During the entire history of the bureau, biological field explorations have been among its major undertakings. Parties of trained field naturalists have done intensive work over a large part of the United States, and in Alaska, Canada, Mexico, Guatemala, and Panama. Many of these expeditions have gained a definite knowledge of the faunas and to a minor extent the native floras, of great areas, which up to that time had been almost unknown. Among the most notable of these have been expeditions to the Hudson’s bay region and the Mackenzie river in Canada, to remote parts of Panama, and explorations covering every part of Mexico during a period of 14 years. Early in the history of the Biological Survey the then chief, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, developed the idea defining transcontinental life zones dependent on the distribution of life as determined basically by temperatures, mainly during the breeding, growing, and fruiting seasons, modified by humidity and other factors. One of the principal objects of the field work of the bureau has been to determine the characteristic species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and plants of the different zones. The information so obtained with that available from other sources has supplied the data from which a life zone map of North America has been produced. A systematic series of life-zone surveys of several States is in progress and for some it has been completed and the results published with zone maps. To complete a life zone survey of a State requires intensive field work in every part of its territory to cover all the varying contours and elevations, since the distribution of life is often dependent on special local

conditions.

f

The study of the migration of North American birds throughout the United States is another project that has been carried on from the beginning. Several hundred co-operating volunteer observers have for years kept track of and reported upon the movements of birds during the spring and fall migrations at stations

600

BIOLOGICAL

in many parts of U.S.A. and Canada. The information gathered from these and other sources has supplied valuable data. With the enforcement of the terms of the Migratory Bird Treaty with Great Britain was developed the need of having more exact knowledge of the migratory travels of individual birds. To obtain this the bureau took over in 1920, from the private organization that had it in hand, the banding (or ringing) of birds and developed this method of research into an international programme through the co-operation of Canada. By the end of 1927 the voluntary co-operators banding birds numbered more than 1,200, and had become organized into four regional associations

SURVEY owners of water areas who obtain the co-operation of the bureay

in studying conditions in their waters and in recommending the

planting of additional food plants suitable to such localities Other investigations of a practical nature in relation to the main. tenance and production of upland game birds have been ip prog-

ress for years. During the past five years, in co-operation with

sportsmen having large estates in Georgia and Florida, a detailed and comprehensive study has been made of the “bobwhite” quail

covering all parts of the United States and Canada; more than 384,000 birds, mainly migratory species, had been banded; and about 16,000 had been retaken, thus supplying invaluable information concerning their travels. The information thus obtained in regard to ducks, geese, and other migratory wild fowl is of very practical value in connection with the administration of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

To gain a more definite knowledge of the bird population of the country, a system of censuses or counts of breeding birds is being made on definite areas during successive breeding seasons. More = on than roo censuses of this character have been made by volunteer enumerators through a term of years, with such closely corresponding results at widely separated localities as to indicate their approximate accuracy. These counts show averages of about 2-5 breeding birds to each acre of farming land, of one breeding bird to from 1-5 to three acres of open prairie land, and one breeding bird to from one to two acres of forest. By 1920, the amazing increase of the reindeer herds in Alaska demanded attention as a new form of animal husbandry. To meet the situation an accomplished veterinarian and parasitologist and two grazing experts were placed in the field to try to overcome some of the troubles that had arisen in handling the herds. The results of this work, which is still continuing, have been of the greatest practical value. Many of the troubles with parasites have been much lessened and the methods of herd management have been greatly improved. Experiments are being made to breed up the reindeer by crossing them with the larger wild caribou bulls from the interior of ARCTIC ZONE Alaska. The first crosses as yearlings are much larger than the HUCSONIAN CANADIAN pure-blooded reindeer in the same herd. TRANSITION AUSTRAL {UPPER AUSTRAL Through co-operation of the Biological Survey with the DeLOWER AUSTRAL PASAS REGION” {TROPICAL partment of Interior of Canada, two young Canadians familiar with the northern flora spent the greater part of a year in the field with the experts of this bureau among the reindeer herds |. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, SHOWING THE TRANSCONTINENTAL LIFE ZONES INTO WHICH NORTH AMERICA MAY BE DIVIDED. THESE ZONES ARE in Alaska for the purpose of learning the methods of herd manDETERMINED BY THE CHARACTERISTIC BREEDING SPECIES OF MAMMALS, agement, with a view to establishing the reindeer industry in BIRDS, REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND INVERTEBRATES, ALSO PLANTS, northern Canada. This is now being undertaken. WHICH ARE INDIGENOUS TO THEM. THE DISTRIBUTION IS DEPENDENT, A reindeer experiment station has been established by the surBASICALLY, ON TEMPERATURE. THE IRREGULARITY OF THE ZONES IS CAUSED BY VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE DUE TO DIFFERENCES IN vey at Fairbanks in co-operation with the Alaska Agricultural ALTITUDE AND HUMIDITY college. Breeding experiments will be continued there with a view to improving the reindeer by developing larger and more with a view to the control of its enemies and the better maintehardy stock and also experiments to develop beyond its present nance of its numbers. One startling result of this work was the abilities the reindeer as a winter draught animal in the north. determination of the fact that over a large area of typical “bob2. Division of Food Habits Research.—The major work of white” country more than 80% of the nests were destroyed each this division is the study of the food habits of birds through field season by enemies. observation and by the detailed laboratory examination of the bird Investigations on a considerable scale have continued through stomach contents, usually under the microscope. This requires many years to learn the effective methods of attracting useful skilled entomologists, who must also have a thorough knowledge birds and increasing their numbers about towns, on farms, and of plants and their seeds. The stomach contents of more than in forests. From the examination of their stomachs, the favour95,000 birds have thus been investigated. The contents of many ite food plants of many species have been learned and bulletins other stomachs also have been examined to determine accurately have been issued giving information concerning the more dethe food of big game, carnivores, rodents, reptiles and amphibians. sirable kinds of plants to introduce or to encourage in different The analyses of stomach contents have supplied much of the sections of the country. os information on which are based the laws protecting insectivorous The breeding of ducks, geese, and other wild fowl in captivity birds throughout the country. At the same time current prob- is being thoroughly studied, in order that this utilization of wild lems are constantly arising as to the destructiveness of vast flocks life may be developed and thus provide game for the market of blackbirds, hordes of crows, and fruit-eating birds, and methods now that the supply of wild birds has diminished until their sale are being developed for the control or destruction of offenders. is no longer permitted. A. study of the wild-fowl food resources of large sections of the All the studies named are essential to the building up of Amenicountry is being made by a survey of the vegetation of water can wild life resources, and supply economic information needed m and marsh areas. The knowledge thus gained is being used by ' connection with the control of the harmful species.

BIOLOGICAL 3, Division of Fur Resources.—The

decrease of certain fur

hearers and the increasing numbers of furs being brought to market to meet the growing demands of increasing population are

danger signals of a possible world shortage of furs. From the beginning of fur farming (g.v.) the Biological Survey became active in helping build up the industry along conservative lines as one means of possibly easing the situation for the wild fur bearers. Lhe bureau established an experiment station in northern

New York State. There in June, 1927, were held 75 foxes, 6 martens, and 128 rabbits. This station has been the source of much practical service to fur farmers. The use of rabbit skins for fur has developed rapidly within a few years, and the Biological Survey in co-operation with the rabbit growers of southern

California in 1927 established a rabbit experiment station in that region.

4, Division of Economic Investigations.—This

section of

SURVEY

601

forces of hunters, who have cleaned up the wild and domestic predatory animals serving as carriers. The second great problem was concerned with the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease among the deer on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in Stanislaus County, California. This disease had been imported into the State and before all the infected livestock had been killed the infection had been spread on the range along a part of the mountain slope among the mule deer, which were abundant all along these and neighbouring mountains for hundreds of miles. The general spread of the disease among the deer along the ranges would have infected many thousands of cattle and sheep and would have meant a quarantine against California by all the other States. The result would have been losses running into vast sums and the temporary wrecking of the States’ agriculture and commerce. A large corps of the best hunters, numbering more than 200 at one time, was

the bureau deals with the problems arising from the depredations

employed

of injurious mammals, both the predatory species and rodents,

lower border of the territory towards which approaching winter would force the deer as snow came higher up. By the use of rifles and other methods more than 23,000 mule deer were killed in this infected area. About 10% showed signs of the disease. In the spring, men were stationed in the mountain passes and no deer were permitted to make their accustomed way across for fear of infecting the far slope. This campaign proved to be an absolute success and not an infected deer was taken outside the “iron ring’ of hunters. No trace of the disease has since appeared in this area. It is now being restocked with deer, and grazing there by livestock has been resumed. In the various phases of this economic work the bureau has had hearty co-operation from several Federal bureaus, State offcials, farmers, sportsmen and others interested. 5. Division of Game and Bird Reservations.—Five biggame reservations under game-proof fence in the western United States and 73 bird reservations located in all parts of the United States and its outlying territory, including Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Hawaiian islands, form a series of sanctuaries where wild life is maintained under special guardianship. The National Bison Range, the largest of the fenced big-game areas, has more than 18,000ac. in western Montana. It contains about 652 bison, 69 mountain sheep, 328 wapiti (“elk”) and more than 180 whitetailed and mule deer. It has been demonstrated there, as well as on other reservations, that all these kinds of big game thrive and increase in captivity under proper conditions. In connection with the maintenance of the big game on the reservations and also on the national forests, studies are now being made of the forage plants utilized by game. The occupation of the game country by man and his flocks and herds throughout the West has given rise to difficult problems related to the up-keep of the game supply. These the Biological Survey is helping to solve. The largest wild life refuge in the United States is on the upper Mississippi, and includes much of the river bottoms for about 300m. on both sides of the river. The Aleutian reservation includes all of the Aleutian chain of islands, extending in a line from the mainland of Alaska westward between Bering sea and the Pacific ocean for a distance of about 1,000 miles. On some of these islands blue fox farming and sheep grazing are now being conducted without detriment to the reservation.

and their control. The predatory-animal problems lie mainly in the grazing States west of the Mississippi, where millions of sheep and cattle occupy the open ranges on the national forests and neighbouring open plains. The habits of the stock-killing animals

are studied and extensive experiments made in methods of trapping and in the use of various deadly poisons. Of recent years poisoning methods have been developed that are proving very effective. The destruction of noxious rodents is carried on mainly by the use of poisoned grain or pieces of vegetables coated with strychnine or other poison. To deal effectively with rodents re-

quires an intimate knowledge of their food habits.

Hundreds

of millions of acres, including the best farming lands in their territory, are infested with one or more species of injurious rodents, which, uncontrolled, in some districts render agriculture unprofitable. In each of the Rocky Mountain and other Western States, where the injury is greatest, the bureau has headquarters at the capital or other central point. There the leaders of the predatory animal and rodent work have offices and guide the work of their forces and of the co-operating farmers or stockmen in the

districts in which operations are being conducted. The field work

is planned to cover certain areas under the direction of experienced men, and great numbers of traps, poisoned grain and other supplies are furnished from headquarters. The capture of certain cunning wolves or other notorious stock-killers at times requires a long persistent hunt, sometimes extending over weeks or even months. The house rat has to be combated mainly in towns and about other habitations of men. While millions of the pests have been poisoned, the most effective and far-reaching work against them has been in bringing about the cleaning up of trash piles and other shelter, the rat-proofing of new and old buildings, and the isolation of food in rat-proof storage and other containers. In order to continue the production of the best poison combinations for rodents and baits for predatory animals, a well-equipped laboratory is maintained in Denver (Colo.). There during the year 1927, 127,000 ounces of strychnine were used for the purposes mentioned. The Biological Survey has had two striking problems of national significance to solve in relation to wild animals. First, the control of rabies among coyotes and other wild animals, which had spread from California over four neighbouring States and was threatening to extend with appalling results over all the remaining Western States. In 1916, when the task of stopping this was given the bureau, the disease spread from Nevada into

Utah before the organization to control it had been completed. The loss in all kinds of livestock for the preceding year in Nevada was estimated by the stock-owners to exceed $500,000. During the st year of operations the spread of the malady was stopped by a campaign to destroy predatory animals in great numbers over six States, and within the next two seasons it was completely under control. Since then outbreaks of rabies have occurred repeatedly in widely distributed areas in the Western States, but all have ‘en promptly suppressed by concentrating about them strong

and a series of camps

established

encompassing

the

6. Division of Protection of Migratory Birds.—In 1916 a treaty was negotiated with Great Britain to protect the hosts of wild fowl and insectivorous birds that migrate through the United States and Canada each spring and fall. The protective laws and regulations are administered through a division of the bureau organized for the purpose. Federal game wardens widely distributed throughout the country patrol the main hunting areas in co-operation with the game wardens of the States. Owing to the growing scarcity of game and the enormous increase in the number of hunters, the hunting of migratory wild fowl after Jan. 3x each winter and the sale of this game at any time is

forbidden. Since this law and'its regulations have been in force many of the States have changed their laws affecting migratory birds to conform with the Federal provisions, and this greatly increases the effectiveness of the protection given the birds.

602

BIOLOGY

Federal reservations covering a great area in the aggregate have been established, and efforts are being made to increase their number to offset the effects of the drainage of the great water areas required by the birds. The need of vigorous protection of migratory wild fowl is shown by the fact that for the hunting seasons of 1925 and 1926 approximately 5,500,000 hunters went afield in the United States, a large percentage of whom hunted migratory wild fowl. The collection of migratory birds ‘for scientific or propagating purposes in the United States may be done only under special permits issued through this bureau. This division also ‘enforces the Lacey Act, which in regulating interstate commerce in game and furs prohibits traffic in them contrary to State laws. Thousands of violations of State and Federal laws are detected each year and valuable assistance is thus given the States in conserving their game and fur resources. The importation of wild mammals and birds is required by law to be under permit. Agents of the bureau at the principal ports of entry inspect each shipment on arrival. Permits for the harmless kinds are recommended and promptly issued. Harmful species, such as the mongoose and the fruit bat, are denied entry. (E. W. N.)

BIOLOGY, the science of organisms, an inquiry into the nature, continuance and evolution of life. The term may also be used comprehensively to include botany, zoology, bacteriology (qqg.v.), protistology and the other special sciences that have to do with particular kinds of living creatures. Thus in Herbert Spencer’s classification of the general concrete sciences, biology occupies a central place, with its foundations in chemistry and physics, and leading on to psychology and sociology. This is a convenient classification, particularly useful in emphasizing the central position of biology; but there is something to be said in favour of a classification simpler still. It is practically impossible to separate chemistry and physics, and it is inviting fallacy to separate biology and psychology. Thus it may be simpler to

recognize three great orders of facts:—(1) the domain of things, entirely describable (in their present occurrence) in terms of matter and energy, z.e., in terms of protons, electrons and radiations or ether-waves; (2) the realm of organisms, from microbes to mammals, whose activities require for their description certain concepts or categories, which transcend those of mechanism; and (3) the kingdom of man, in which the units are not individuals,

to these form the sub-sciences of biology. (1). The question may have to do with form and structure, with organic architecture and internal arrangements; with the statical aspects of the living crea.

ture. When the instruments are scalpel and forceps, the answer is anatomy. When the microscope is used, and an analytical

method such as section-cutting, the answer is histology. The general principles of organic architecture, as contrasted with the

anatomical and histological details, constitute morphology: and

the history of this inquiry has been a gradually deepening analysis, of the intact organism, with its shape and symmetry, of the component organs with their homologies, and thence of the tissues, the cells and the stereochemistry of the living material itself. For it is a morphological problem to find out what kind of

spicule is characteristic of a particular kind of sponge or what crystalline form is taken by the haemoglobin of this or that mammal when the blood is artificially dried. The first question

is: What is this, in itself and in all its parts; what is its structure macroscopically and microscopically? The answer is: M or phology.

(2). But the study of structure leads to the grouping together of organisms that resemble one another in their fundamental archi-

tecture. Morphology points the way to Taxonomy or classification, and that in different grades—species, genus, family, order, class and phylum. This is not merely for the sake of convenience, it is based on the discovery of deep-seated resemblances in structure and development,—homologies. Classification aims at being an expression of actual relationships or affiliations between the different types. In most cases, this end is still remote. (3). The obverse of morphology is Physiology (g.v.), the study of activity or function. The morphologist is concerned with statical relations, the physiologist with dynamical, but the two aspects are obviously complementary.

Symmetry, e.g. radial or

bilateral symmetry, has to be correlated with the animal’s manner of living; the structure of the heart must be studied in the light of its function; and, on the other side, physiology has to analyse a resultant into the components that are contributed by the individual parts. And as the history of morphology has been a persistently deepening analysis, so physiology has passed from the study of the intact organism’s activities, to inquire into the working of the organs, the tissues, the cells and even of the particles in the living matter itself. (4). Conventional physiology restricts itself in the main to

but societary forms with a continued tradition. For these three the activities of the individual, especially the everyday animal orders of facts, the terms cosmosphere, biosphere and sociosphere functions of contractility, irritability, nutrition, respiration and have been suggested, with the corresponding sciences—chemo- excretion, and the corresponding functions in plants. But in the physics, biology (or bio-psychology) and sociology. In any case, ` study of the reproductive function it is necessary to pass beyond there is value in the elementary, yet fundamental, idea, that the the individual, and thus there arises what has been called “the domain of things encloses and interpenetrates the realm of organ- higher physiology,” the study of habits and inter-relations. This isms, and that the kingdom of man is within the larger rubric corresponds to a large extent to the old Natural History, now of organism. Within the immense ellipse of the cosmosphere is the called Ecology (q.v.). What are the dynamic relations between minute ellipse of the .known biosphere, and within that again parents and offspring, between the members of a family, a herd, the still more minute sociosphere. When man domesticates ani- a community or an association? What linkages bind one kind of mals he is taking part of the biosphere into his kingdom; and organism to another, it may be in the quest for food, or in the similarly he acts on the cosmosphere in gigantic operations such avoidance of enemies, or in the continuance of the race, as in the as a Panama Canal. When earthworms make soil, or green plants part insects play in pollinating flowers, or the part birds play in

make oxygen, the biosphere cuts into the cosmosphere; and into distributing seeds? In ordinary respiration there is a give and the sociosphere when bacilli cause plagues or the forest closes in take between the individual organism and the immediate environon the village. So the cosmosphere irradiates both the realm of ment; and this is obviously a question of ordinary physiology. organisms and the kingdom of man, it may be killing in the light- But the swaying balance between the insects and the flowers of ning flash or invigorating in the sunshine. It is impossible to read a given district, or between the rodents and the vegetation, or either human history or the ascent of life without the assistance between the vegetarian and the carnivorous animals, is a problem of the climatologist. of ecology. Biology may be used, then, in a comprehensive way to include So far then four sub-sciences have been recognized,—morall the special sciences that deal with different parts of the phology and taxonomy, physiology and ecology; and these may be biosphere; but the stricter usage, which began with Treviranus arranged (after Patrick Geddes) as tables on the following and Lamarck, is in reference to the study of the larger or deeper paget. questions that apply to all sorts of living creatures. In this sense (5). A fifth clear-cut question inquiries into the individual the biologist inquires into the nature of the particular kind of ac- development, and the answer is Embryology (q.v.). In so far as tivity that we call “life” (g.v.). A third usage, common in Ger- this consists in describing the structure of successive stages in the many, is as an equivalent for bionomics or ecology or ethology. individual Becoming, it is a morphological study, and might well This is indefensible and should be discontinued. be called embryography. But of recent years the inquiry has Subdivisions of Biology.—In regard to organisms there are 1This scheme applies to multicellular organisms and needs modificaeight main biological questions that may be asked, and the answers tion for others.

603

BIOLOGY

GENERAL] TAXONOMY

closure of the individual development.

EcoLocy

Class

Fauna and Flora

Order

Association

Genus

Community

Species

Species

Variety

Family

Organism

Organism

Organs

Organs

Tissues

Tissues

Cells

Cells

Protoplasm

Protoplasm

MORPHOLOGY

Palaeontology should be

more than palaeontography,—an anatomy of fossils; it fails of its ambition unless it also does something to reveal the great events in the historical advancement of life. Palaeontology describes as far as possible the gradations from one species to another, the connecting links between distinct types, the presumed affiliation of a class, and even the origin of a particular association of organisms. Thus there may be distinguished a palaeontology of species, of types, of classes, of phyla and of associations. With the last may be included an inquiry into geographical distribution, z.¢e., as to how different regions have come to possess similar or dissimilar faunas and floras. In essence palaeontology is a description of the stages by which organisms have come to be as they are. If embryology and palaeontology are linked under the rubric historical, since both describe processes of Becoming or Genesis, individual and racial, the following schema may be useful. Fauna and Flora

PHYSIOLOGY

become more and more physiological, seeking to analyse the conditions of growth, the play of stimuli, the influence of one part on another, and so forth. This study is often called Developmental Mechanics (Entwicklungsmechanik) or Developmental Physiology; and some would separate it off from embryography, just as physiology is separated from anatomy or morphology. The term embryology, which would unite the morphological with the physiological analysis of development, must not be taken too

Phylum

Class

PALAEONTOLOGY

Type Species Fully-formed Organism.

literally; for the word “embryo” refers strictly to the stages

before the developing organism gets free from the egg-shell or

Organogenesis

ege-envelope, whereas the science has also to do with the later

stages such as larva and young creature. Indeed it may be suggested that the science of development should logically include the biological study of adolescence and maturity, of the reproductive period and of senescence. It is a study of the organism in its time-relations. It is an analysis of the course or trajectory of the individual life, though for practical purposes it is restricted to the period before the “finished form” is attained. Embryology may be subdivided like anatomy and physiology. Thus organogenesis is concerned with the development of organs, and histo-

EMBRYOLOGY

Histogenesis Cytogenesis Differentiation

in general (7 and 8). Huxley applied the useful term Aetiology to the study of the factors that have operated in the process of organic

evolution. It is one thing to state that birds evolved from an extinct stock of reptiles; it is another thing to be able to indicate, by analogy from the present day, what factors were at work in types of cells—nervous, contractile, glandular, skeletal and so this notable emergence. Here is included much of the study, in forth. The central problem is how the inherited organization of part experimental, of variation and heredity (q¢q.v.), selection and isolation. Aetiology is the study of the causes of phylogeny; it living matter comes to be differentiated yet integrated. (6). When the biologist asks how the tadpole becomes a frog, might be pardonable to call it a scientific philosophy of the history he is an embryologist; but to the question whence came the race of organisms. P. Geddes has suggested that it may be useful to of amphibians, the answer is Palaeontology (q.v.). In other make a separate division for the study of the causes of ontogeny, words, embryology has to do with individual development an inquiry into the factors operative in individual development, (ontogeny), palaeontology, with racial evolution (phylogeny). not racial evolution. This would include the general part of The main material of the palaeontologist is of course to be found physiological embryology, the whole question of the plastic influin the fossils in the rocks, but in his task of reconstructing the ence of the environment on the individual, and much of what is past and disclosing the advance of life through the geological now called genetics, a term suggested by W. Bateson for the ages, he may be able to utilize hints afforded by the comparative science of heredity and variation. The whole diagram may now anatomist’s study of the extant, and by the embryologist’s dis- be put together.

genesis with the development of tissues. Even deeper is the diffcult problem of the division of labour which gives rise to different

PALAEONTOLOGY

PALAEONTOLOGY

ECoLoGy

Fauna and Flora

Class

Fauna and Flora

Phylum

Order

Association

Class

Genus

Community

Type

; Species

3 Species

: Fully-formed Organism

Variety : Organism

The Family ; Organism

Organogenesis

Organs

Organs

Histogenesis

Tissues

Tissues

Cytogenesis

Cells

Cells

Species

EMBRYOLOGY

TAXONOMY

Differentiation in general | Protoplasm EMBRYOLOGY

MORPHOLOGY

:

AETIOLOGY

Racial Evolution

PHYLOGENY

———

AETIOLOGY eects

Individual Development

Protoplasm PHYSIOLOGY

THEORY OF

AETIOLOGY

OF ONTOGENY

BIOLOGY

604 Illustrations

of Modern

Biology.

Morphological—New

types continue to be discovered, both extant and extinct, which have to be anatomically described. One thinks of the giraffe-like okapi from west African forests and the tiny antenna-less Acerentomon, an elusive precursor of winged insects. The “Challenger” Expedition brought home such prizes as Cephalodiscus, a distant relative of Balanoglossus (q.v.), amongst the pioneer Chordate

animals, and this kind of connecting link continues to be discovered. The sea continues to be a well of surprises like the Indian Ocean Alcyonarian Studeriotes, whose polyparium of hundreds of individuals can be retracted into a densely spiculose cup, sometimes the size of an orange. Not only are new types still forthcoming, but the old ones are analysed more intimately than before. The modern knowledge of Amphioxus, which lends itself so readily to exhaustive sectioning, is far more thorough than the best anatomy of Cuvier’s days. Yet many keen eyes had examined it before Boveri discovered its 90 pairs of kidneytubes. The same might be said of the not less interesting Pertpatus, which seems to unite the Annelid and the Tracheate lines of evolution. Improvements in microscopic and microtomic technique have made morphological analysis more searching and thorough than it used to be. This is particularly true in regard to the cell, which is disclosed as a microcosm with unexpected complications—centrosomes and chromidia, Golgi’s apparatus and mitochondria, and within the cytoplasm the nucleus which is another little world in itself (see Cytotocy, Cell Inclusions). Taxonomic.—The ambition of many a post-Darwinian taxonomist was to make a genealogical tree, showing the relationships of the phyla, classes and orders—an entirely legitimate ambition when there are sufficient data. But most genealogical trees have crumbled in parts; and it must be admitted that we know very little that is certain in regard to the origins of the chief phyla, such as Vertebrata, Mollusca, Arthropoda or Annelida. More is known in regard to classes, but while all zoologists are agreed, since Huxley’s day, that birds are affiliated to some extinct reptilian stock, there is no certainty in regard to the precise pedigree. Yet in regard to more detailed questions, such as the classification of birds and fishes, insects and spiders, Echinoderma and Coelenterata, much progress has been made. It seems, at first sight, strange that the taxonomists should be puzzling still over the old question: What is a species? But the inquiry has deepened (see SPECIES). Thus there has been a disclosure of specificity—.e., of the cytological, biochemical, even habitudinal individuality or idtosyncrasy of any species worthy of the name. Probably every “good species” has its own protein. Then there is the discovery, for plants in particular, that a series of species believed to be nearly related on account of macroscopic resemblances, may show a regular progression in the number of their chromosomes, e.g., in a series of four species of rose, the chromosomes are 14, 28, 42 and 56 respectively. Thirdly there is the experimental attack on the species-problem, which is throwing some light on the puzzling inter-specific discontinuity and frequent sterility. It is becoming clear, however, that in many cases at least, the term species is only a convenient label, and that species are usually not sharply marked off in time and often not in space. Physiological—The aspect of the science has been profoundly changed by a series of modern discoveries. Thus, as has been pointed out already, to the integration effected by the nervous system and by the common medium of the blood, there has to be added the specific biochemical integration due to the regulatory hormones. Similarly the modern account of the movement of the sap in a tree has become, on the one hand, simpler, because of a clearer understanding of the réle of the water-columns in the woodcells and wood-vessels, and, on the other hand, subtler, through a recognition of the probable influence of hormones in the vessels of the bast. Modern biology has been profoundly affected by some understanding of the significance of the colloidal state, of semipermeable membranes, of substances in the form of films. Some progress has been made towards a better understanding of ferments or enzymes, which play an important part in vital processes. In short, biochemistry is exerting a transforming influence in biology, as is illustrated in the article COLOURS or ANIMALS.

[GENERAL

Since the contraction of muscle fibres enables most animal

to move about, and also secures in the majority the circulation of

the blood and the passage of the food down the alimentary canal it is one of the most important processes in the animal body. It is not yet more than partially understood, but it has become much more intelligible within recent years. The researches of Fletcher

and Hopkins have shown that the stimulation of the muscle fibre is associated with the liberation of lactic acid which in some way or other induces a physical change in the fibre, namely contrac.

tion. Thus we can understand better why there must be arein.

statement of the lactic acid or its chemical precursor into the fibre if it is to continue effective; and there are interesting theories

which suggest how the restitution of lactic acid may be effected. Part of it seems to be burnt up to supply the energy to reinstate

the remainder. We cannot do more than touch the subject, but it is a good illustration of the way in which chemistry and physics are being applied to the elucidation of an everyday func. tion. One cannot expect an understanding of the whole process

to be easy; for, as Sir Charles Sherrington has put it, “The engineer would find it difficult to make a motive machine out of white of egg, some dissolved salts and a thin membrane, which is practically what nature has done in the exquisite artifice of the muscle fibre!”

The physiology of reproduction (g.v.) in animals has been much influenced by the modern study of hormones (g.v.). From glandular

tissue

entangled within the reproductive organs or

gonads, essentially germ-cell-producing, hormones pass into the blood and are distributed throughout the body, activating adoles-

cent changes in their manifold expression. The male frog’s swollen first finger, the courting

adornment

of many

cock-birds, and

the antlers of stags are familiar instances of masculine peculiarities, instigated by the reproductive hormones. In many cases the female includes in her inheritance the factors of masculine characters, but these lie latent, because the liberating stimulus is absent, or because they are inhibited by an antagonistic female hormone with an opposite influence. This explains how a duck from which the ovary has been removed may at the next moult put on the brighter livery of the drake, and assume some of his ways as well. Crowing hens and egg-laying cocks are no longer hopeless puzzles. Not less important are the hormones associated with the female reproductive organs in mammals, for they prepare the mother for the development of the offspring in the uterus and for its demands for milk after it is born. Very interesting lights are being shed on the intimacy of the ante-natal partnership between the mother and the unborn offspring. For it has been discovered that there is a passage of regulatory hormones from the mother to the developing offspring, and also a passage of hormones from the offspring to the mother, which contribute to her health. Thus there is a literal symbiosis, correcting the old ugly idea of “the foetal parasite.”

The male organism is essentially a sperm-producer, the female an egg-producer; and there are some animals, such as sea-urchins in which the sexes are so closely alike that they cannot be distinguished without a microscopic or a very experienced inspection of the reproductive organs. What lies behind this essential difference

between males and females remains obscure (see Sex); it finds expression in two microscopically indistinguishable threads of a mould, as well as in the staring contrast between peacock and pea-

hen. There are, as we have mentioned, differences in the sexhormones, but may there not be some deep constitutional dichotomy leading to this difference?

Again, there may be a differ-

ence in the chromosomes, as when the female has in every cell of the body one more chromosome than the male (woman having 48 and man 47), but what is there in the presence of an extra

chromosome to account for all the contrasts between the sezes?

Thus some biologists have sought to discover physiological differences between the sexes, and we take this as an instance of a modern inquiry. It has long been known that males and females may differ in constitutional details, as in the number of red blood-corpuscles and the proportionate amount of haemoglobin. Here, for instance, man is numerically superior to woman. The developing grub of a worker hive-bee has, as regards fat and glyco-

BIOLOGY

GENERAL]

605

gen, a chemical composition markedly different from that of a grub that is developing into a drone. In many cases the blood

all members of the species, and that they are often quite independent of the brain for their performance. It should be noted, of a caterpillar that is developing into a female butterfly is however, that even in the case of a very simple unconditioned reenish, while that of its neighbour that is developing into a male reflex like the knee-jerk, a message goes to the brain to report is light yellow or colourless. This points to a difference in the the occurrence. Moreover, the brain is sometimes able to sup-

chemical routine or metabolism of the body.

In 1889 P. Geddes and J. A. Thomson suggested in The Evolu-

tion of Sex that the minor contrasts was in cal processes, A/K in in the male; and of

fundamental sex-difference behind all the the ratio of anabolic to katabolic biochemi-

the female being always greater than a/k

this theory there has been some experimental and much observational confirmation. A germ-cell whose rate and rhythm

of metabolism

(measured,

for instance,

in

pigeon’s eggs by Oscar Riddle) inclines to a large A/K ratio,

will tend to develop into an egg-producing female, with the expression of feminine characters. Conversely, a germ-cell whose a/k ratio tends to be much smaller, will tend to develop into a

press the normal reaction, as in the case of criminals tried by Oriental ordeals, such as the swallowing of dry rice, which is almost impossible if fear inhibits the flow of saliva. But the modern development of this line of inquiry which we wish to take as an illustration of physiological progress is I. Pavlov’s study of “conditioned reflexes.” If a dog is shown a piece of flesh its mouth waters. If a whistle is always sounded

when the flesh is shown to the dog, an association is gradually formed between the sound and the prospect of a meal. This association or enregistration may become so strong that the dog’s mouth will water when

the animal hears the whistle, al-

though there is no flesh in sight. The flow of saliva in the dog’s sperm-producing male, with the expression of masculine characters. mouth illustrates a “conditioned reflex,” and the strength of the And if it should be asked why there should be these alternatives reaction can be measured by the amount of saliva secreted. It in the A/K ratio, the answer is that this is a universal variational seems likely that in the everyday early life of animals many of dichotomy, comparable to low gear and high gear. It finds ex- these conditioned reflexes are established, and this is to the napression in the contrast between ovum and spermatozoon as cell- turalist the particular interest of Pavlov’s experiments. The types; between plants and animals as sub-kingdoms; between established associations work rapidly and are probably life-saving Sporozoa and Infusorians as sub-phyla; between reptiles and as well as time-saving. A wild animal, such as a lion, will react birds, as classes; between hydroid and medusoid as phases in one rapidly to a sound or sight in connection with which a reflex has life-history, and so with thousands of bifurcations on the path of been established, whereas it may not be in the least perturbed by life. It is often illustrated by variations, of lizards for instance, a much more obvious, but unfamiliar, source of danger, such as the within a species. It may also be recalled that one and the same arrival of a motor-car against the wind. The conditioned reflex, organism may in the course of its life change normally from one though usually based on some much older unconditioned reflex, sex to another, as is illustrated by the hagfish, Myxine glutinosa. is always built up in the experience of the individual; and, as in In 1923 Manoiloff described a chemical test that enabled him mankind, so among the higher animals, there may be some apprewith notable success to tell whether a sample of blood had been ciation of the meaning of the connection. taken from a male or from a female animal. To a diluted halfEcological.—Ecology (g.v.) is the study of life as it is lived in transparent emulsion of blood in salt solution he added, drop by nature, where the circle of each individual’s interests is interdrop, a succession of reagents. After the treatment the emulsion sected by many other circles—such as kindred, members of the of blood from a male was colourless; that from a female was same species, competitors, deadly enemies, parasites, symbions, coloured. Out of 530 tests Manoiloff had about 96% right answers, and so forth. Ecology is concerned with inter-relations and and two of his students had 97 and 92% of successes. Many linkages, with ways of living, with adjustments to space and others, however, have been much less fortunate, and the dis- time. Thus it includes the study of numbers and dispersal, of crepancies are puzzling. As the chlorophyll-green of plants and migration and other seasonal reactions. Ordinary physiology is the haemoglobin of animals are regarded by many biochemists concerned with the internal economy of the individual body, but as nearly allied pigments, Manoiloff turned his attention to some ecology has to do with external relations. The transition from inof the dioecious plants, such as willow, poplar and dog’s mercury. dividual physiology to ecology is in the study of reproduction, In Manoiloff’s hands the sex-test worked almost as well for the for that leads from organism to organisms. A few illustrations plants as for the animals, but some other investigators have not may be given of the lines of modern ecological investigation. had this experience. The leaf-cutter ants cut off segments of leaf from certain trees Distinctive of this generation has been the study of reflex and carry them to their underground nest, where they are chewed actions (see PsycHoLocy, COMPARATIVE). In the familiar knee- into a green paste, used as the culture-medium for a particular jerk, when a sharp tap below the joint of a crossed leg sends the kind of mould not found anywhere else. This mould forms the foot up into the air, the mechanical stimulus leads to a thrill exclusive food of the leaf-cutters in their subterranean life. When along sensory nerve-fibres to the spinal cord; the nervous im- the queen leaves the nest on her nuptial flight, thereafter to start pulse—still so much of a puzzle—passes to connecting or associa- a new community, she takes with her in a little depression betive cells and thence to motor nerve-cells, both in the spinal cord. neath her mouth a sample of the mould, which she plants out as Thence, along motor nerve-fibres, orders come to the muscles, soon as her brood of workers have collected leaves and made a commanding them, as we say, to contract. The brain is not soil of green paste. Naturalists have been long admiringly farequired at all. A pre-arranged linkage of sensory, associative, miliar with the parental care exhibited by many insects, but did and motor spinal neurons is sufficient in itself, with, of course, anyone suspect the extraordinary nutritive exchange common the muscle-cells to give effect to the motor orders. What occurs among social wasps between the nurses and the grubs, and also is called by the physiologists an “unconditioned reflex,” and it is illustrated amiong ants and termites? Sometimes the motherone of the commonest occurrences, both in man and beast. When wasps, but oftener the step-mothers or workers, feed the grubs We shut our eyes at the approach of a missile, or when we swal- in their cells with the chewed flesh of insects, the Jaw-apparatus low what touches the back of our mouth, we are illustrating of the larvae being poorly developed. But when the meal is various forms of the unconditioned reflex, some more complicated supplied, and sometimes in defect of it, the larva exudes from its than others. So is it when a sea-anemone closes its tentacles on mouth a drop of sweet elixir which is greedily licked off. The a piece of food, when a crab amputates a badly damaged leg, when demand for this luxury may be somewhat coercive, and the an earthworm jerks itself into its hole if the ground vibrates under elixir is appreciated and may be obtained by the drones, as well a blackbird’s footsteps, when a plaice puts on the colour of sand on as by the queen and the workers (see Socrat Insects). As the which it has come to rest, when. a nestling opens its mouth at sweet juice is secreted only by the young larval wasps, the exthe touch of food in its mother’s bill—these are illustrations of change or “trophallaxis” tends towards the establishment of a unconditioned reflexes; and the animal world is full of them. It ménage in which throughout the season there are continual relays is characteristic of unconditioned reflexes that they are inborn, of young ones. The luxury seems to have become almost a that they do not require to be learned, that they are shared by necessity.

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Instances of symbiosis have multiplied greatly within recent years, plant within plant, plant within animal, animal within animal. The last is best illustrated by the highly specialized Infusorians whose sole habitat is the intestine of wood-eating termites, where they do something that is indispensable to the food. By

raising the temperature it is possible to kill off the Infusorians without harming the termites, whereupon the insects die, being unable to make anything of the wood. But they can be rescued by introducing a fresh supply of Infusorians. Another remarkable

symbiosis is illustrated by some luminous cuttlefishes that shine with a light produced by nests of harmless luminous bacteria, like those familiar on drying fish. The disclosures of the ecologists are warnings against taking simple views of things. Some beetles that bore in growing wood have no symbionts in their food-canal, but on the walls of their tunnels they grow a mould that yields what is called “ambrosia.” The fungus collects, concentrates and prepares the sap, and in some cases it has been proved that the beetles do not eat the

wood or sap as such, but depend entirely on the ambrosia. The fungus does not seem to form spores or other elements specialized for propagation, so it is probable that the beetles infect a new tree with surplus vegetative ambrosia cells which have passed out undigested from the food-canal. Ecology makes life more complex. Thus the much-studied life of the hive-bee has been complicated by the disclosure of the nectar-dance and pollen-dance on the honeycomb, in which a worker-bee gives her sisters a clue to treasure-trove. Similarly there is the discovery of the graduated quasi-apprenticeship of the worker through a succession of in-

stinctively discharged duties, and there is the punctilious study of homing. To take the last, Wolf has shown that the homing depends partly on visible landmarks that have been learned, partly on the odour of the hive, and partly on a “sense of direction,” which has its seat on the antennae, and is remotely comparable to the sense associated with man’s semicircular canals. By the antennae the bee is able to record movements until it begins to “lose count.” When bees are fed for the nonce at a point 150 yards due north of the hive, a captured one released from its box flies at once southwards. But if the captive is carried in the box 150 yards due east of the hive and then released, it flies again due south. When it has covered 150 yards (judging the distance to ten yards!) it begins to hesitate, apparently made aware that it is quite wrong. It then proceeds to circle around until it finds the hive by sight and scent. Our illustrations have perhaps been within too narrow a range, for ecology has to do with associations and communities, families and pairs, thrust and parry with the environment and with the seasons, trading with time and trafficking with circumstance, migrations and trekkings, outgoings and incomings, and, of course, with plants as much as with animals. Embryological—The old-fashioned morphological embryography has largely given place to experimental and physiological studies of development; but the description of the stages in a life-history can never cease to be an integral part of biology. Johann Schmidt’s masterly elucidation of the larval development of the common eel has much interest even for the general biologist, and Leiper’s discovery of the story of Bilharzia is notable in itself as well as in its practical applications. Of recent years there has been no more striking achievement than Isabella Gordon’s description of the building up of the sea-urchin’s test, from a few sclerites in the early free-swimming larva to the elaborate edifice of the adult. Notable advances have rewarded the applications of physiological methods and ideas to embryology (g.v.). There has been a fruitful study of the regulative and “organizing” influence of one part on another during development, of the rôle of hormones in controlling the rate and rhythm of developmental changes, of the significance of certain environmental factors and of chemical substances in the food. The studies of Julian Huxley and others on dedifferentiation and regeneration (gq.v.) well illustrate the modern movement, and the experiments of Spemann are outstanding. A few particular discoveries may be mentioned to give more concreteness to the picture. (a) In many cases (even in frogs), it is possible to induce the normal development of eggs

without there being any fertilization (see Fertimization).

(6)

[GENERAL

Many experiments show that a part of an egg may be as good

as the whole. A larva may be reared from a fertilized fragment of an Echinoid egg, or from, one of the first four cells into which

the ovum

of Amphioxus divides.

(c) In certain cases, as in

Ctenophores and Tunicates, it is possible to prove that there are specific organ-forming substances in an egg, whose removal is

followed by some particular defect in the developing organism (d) A portion of the optic vesicle of a tadpole grafted under the skin of the larva in an, entirely irrelevant place, such as the side

will induce in the cells of the epidermis the formation of a lens

which is the normal function of the optic vesicle in its proper

place.

(e) If the newly fertilized eggs of the American minnow

(Fundulus) are exposed for a few hours to a temperature a little above freezing point, a percentage will develop into blind larvae. This experiment shows that the blindness of certain cave fishes

need not necessarily be ascribed to the darkness. (f) If the developing eggs of the same fish are subjected to various reagents,

such as butyric acid, there result numerous strange monstrosities in eyes and ears, nostrils and mouth, even in heart and fins. The

chemical intrusion seems to dislocate and partially dissolve the

germinal material, especially towards the head end. This may throw some light even on mammalian monstrosities, for butyric acid sometimes appears in higher animals as the result of some disturbance in the carbohydrate metabolism. A consequent poisoning of the mammalian mother’s constitution might result, through

the placenta, in monstrosities in the early embryo. (g) If the larva of the blind newt Proteus be reared in the laboratory under red light, the developing eye, which is normally arrested in the darkness of the caves, increases in size, reaches the surface of the head, and may continue its development even to the extent of becoming functional. The reason for the red light is that in white

light the skin of the larva becomes darkly pigmented, and shuts off the stimulus

from

the developing

eye.

(4) According to

Baltzer’s account of the development of the green worm Bonelliz, notable for its extraordinary sexual dimorphism, those freeswimming larvae that settle down on the floor of the sea develop

into large females with a body an inch or two in length and a flexible food-capturing proboscis which may be a foot long. But those that settle down on the proboscis of a full-grown female, and proceed to absorb the skin-secretion, have their development

inhibited, and become pigmy males!

Those larvae that Baltzer

helped to attach themselves to the proboscis of a full-grown female, but left attached for a very short time, subsequently developed into almost perfect females. Those that he left attached for a long time became the ordinary pygmy males with much simplified structure, which live parasitically in the female. But those left for intermediate intervals of time showed various stages

of inter-sex. There is more than verbal progress in the recognition that embryology cannot be limited to the study of the very young animal. It is plain that the larval, as well as the embryonic, stages must be included, and all the difficult phenomena of metamorphosis. But one cannot logically exclude such strange dis-organizations and re-differentiations as are involved, for instance, in the “brown body” of many Polyzoa. The changes of adolescence cannot be separated off from their antecedents, and thus the broader view of embryology will include the study of the whole organism in its time-relations, even those of senescence. The work of Child on Senescence and Rejuvenescence is significant of the broadened modern outlook. It is biologically interesting to compare the lifehistories of different types, for they sometimes differ from one another in the relative length of the various arcs on the life-curve. Thus some, like Peripatus and the elephant, have a prolonged

embryonic period; others, like the lamprey, show a lengthened out larval phase; others have a long adolescence, like the elephant again; and so on. Some, like eels, die abruptly after reproduction,

while others continue parental for many years, like Golden Eagles. some, like Mound Birds, practically telescope the whole youthful

period; others, e.g., many fishes, continue steadily growing throughout life. These elongations and telescopings of arcs 00 the life-curve are undoubtedly adaptive in many cases to palticular conditions of environment and seasons. They suggest the

occurrence of what may be called “temporal variations”; and

these in higher animals may be correlated with endocrinal peculiarities.

Palacontological—The modern advance in palaeontology may be dated from the work of Waldemar Kowalevsky (1874) who devoted himself to a reconstruction of the life of fossil ungulates. He sought to relate his fossils not only to their extinct ancestors and extant descendants, but to their own habits and to their particular environments, both climatic and animate.

The distinctive

note in the outstanding palaeontological studies of recent years is the reconstruction of the life of the past. The palaeobotanist joins

with his zoological colleague, and both take counsel with the

geologist and with the climatologist. A further aspect of modern palaeontology is the way in which it has filled in gaps and given us continuous series of fossils.

Aetiological —The origin of the new remains one of the central problems of biology, but some steps of essential importance have heen made since Darwin’s day. (1). There is evidence of the

frequency of discontinuous illustrate Mendelian

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BIOLOGY

GENERAL]

variations or mutations, and these

inheritance.

(2). There is no doubt that

many—some would say all—visible and somatic variations are due to germinal permutations, combinations and changes. (3). In some cases it is certain that the germinal “factors” or “‘genes,” corresponding to particular mutations, and to all or many of the discrete non-blending “unit characters” of the organism, lie in longitudinal order in the chromosomes of the nuclei of the germcell. In the fruit-fly Drosophila there are known to be about 7,500 of these “factors”; and their topography has been provisionally

mapped out. In the history of the germ-cells there are ample opportunities for their shuffling, which might, and no doubt does result in new patterns. (4). Some experiments show that deeply saturating environmental, nutritional and functional peculiarities

—including X-ray radiations—may incite germinal changes.

(5).

Just as a periodic scrapping and re-organization (endomixis) occurs normally in some species of slipper animalcule, so there may be re-arrangements and re-organizations in the complex nucleus of a germ-cell, which, after all, must be intensely alive. (6). There is strong palaeontological and a little experimental evidence that variations are sometimes definite or orthogenic, 2.e., occurring consistently in a particular direction. In other words, a variation may be congruent with what has been already enregistered in the organization of the creature. As a particular illustration we may refer to Erwin Baur’s study of mutations in snapdragons, Antirrhinum majus and its relatives. The garden races are continually exhibiting mutations, small in amount, but crisp and brusque in character, and transmissible in their entirety in Mendelian fashion. There seems no doubt that they are ex-

pressions of slight germinal changes in the hereditary factors. Various evolutionists who admit the reality of mutations have been inclined to depreciate their importance on the ground that they tend towards monstrosities and represent a weakening of germinal vigour. This may be true in some cases, e.g. in fancy goldfishes or waltzing mice, but it, is certainly not true of Baur’s small mutations in snapdragons, for these are generally well within the limits of healthy normality. They find expression not only in the flower and its colour, but in many parts and characters of the plants. Sometimes the new departures suggest an enhancement of vigour, as in a deeper green in the leaves.

In any case, there is

rarely any hint of the pathological. In most cases the mutants seem to have taken a small step further along the direction which marks the parental race. After 20 years of investigation of the

garden races and wild species of snapdragon, Baur has come to the conclusion that in many cases their distinguishing characteristics are due to the summation of small mutations such as are of everyday occurrence in the garden. In natural conditions the summation may be put to the credit of natural selection, which

sifted the new tentatives in reference to the diverse and changeful

conditions of locality and climate. This is a characteristically Darwinian conclusion, for Darwin thought much more of the

Creeping than of the leaping of the eternal Proteus of life. But whereas Darwin was vague in regard to his raw material of “small vatiations,” Baur is very precise in regard to his “small muta-

tions,” except as regards their cause. While Baur confirms Darwin’s belief in the cumulative importance of small changes, which might be called evolution-jerks or quanta, he is far from saying that these furnish the whole of the raw material of progress. On the contrary, while he lays chief emphasis on minute changes in the heréditary factors or genes,—changes which occur abundanily even in “pure lines’ (all descended from one parent),—he admits that new departures may arise from the crossing of different strains with different sets of factors. But the existence of these different strains depends in snapdragons‘on the previous summing up of small mutations.

The large transilient variations or freaks,

which attract the gardener’s eye, can be continued by careful cultivation, but they tend to be eliminated by natural selection as too extreme. The small mutations count for most. It may be noted that, in contrast to roses and some other organisms, the number of chromosomes does not change, being eight in all the species studied. As regards heredity, the modern position has been profoundly altered (1) by the re-discovery (1900) of Mendelian inheritance, (2) by Weismann’s concept of germinal continuity, and (3) by the use of statistical methods.

While there are some

puzzling

phenomena, there is at present no conclusiveness in the evidence

adduced in support of the transmission of individually acquired somatic modifications, even to a slight degree. But there is a clearer recognition of the fact that the expression of a character in the course of development is always the resultant of two components—the hereditary “nature” and the environmental, nutritional, and functional “nurture.” There have been several violent reactions from the characteristically Darwinian theory of natural selection, but they do not appear to be well-informed. Darwin anticipated the criticism that natural selection does not account for the material to be sifted; he was careful to distinguish other forms of selection besides the immediate lethal elimination of the relatively less fit; he laid stress on the survival value of such non-competitive endeavours as parental care and mutual aid; he laid emphasis on the correlation of variations, as explaining how an incipient new departure, too minute to be of appreciable value, might be carried in the wake of a large and important variation with which it is correlated. Since Darwin’s day it has become clearer that natural selection operates in relation to a system of inter-relations—the web of life—already established, a fact which explains how the difference between Shibboleth and Sibboleth may have survival value. It has also become clearer that organisms sometimes take part in their own evolution by playing the hand of hereditary cards with which they have been endowed. It is true that the environment often selects organisms, but it is also true that the organism sometimes selects its environment. Since Darwin’s day there have been a few actual proofs of natural selection at work, as in the case of Weldon’s crabs and Cesnola’s mantises. Increased attention has been paid to the effect of isolation in its varied forms—geographical, habitudinal, temporal and temperamental—for isolation tends to inbreeding or endogamy, which stabilizes a stock or species, whereas outbreeding or exogamy promotes variability, sometimes almost like an epidemic. There can be little doubt that alternations of inbreeding and outbreeding have meant much in evolution. Careful experiments have shown that inbreeding may be long continued in a vigorous stock without any deterioration, the prejudice against it being due to the mistake of supposing that the not infrequent disclosure of recessive defects in the course of inbreeding is due to the consanguinity as such. Reconsideration of Sub-divisions.—After this illustration of the scope of biology it may be useful to return to the sub-divisions of the science :—Palaeontology: Taxonomy: Ecology: Aetiological phylogeny. Embryology: Morphology: Physiology: Aetiological Ontogeny. Is there no alternative grouping, for it has been objected (1) that aetiology is not a separate sub-science, but rather the raising of a question that is relevant all through; (2) that the causal investigation of development (ontogeny) is very different from the study of racial evolution (phylogeny), and should

not be separated from embryology;

(3) that the relation of

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embryology to palaeontology is not comparable to that between physiology and ecology, or morphology and classification. As an alternative grouping it may be suggested that the biologist has to do with Organisms, Functionings and Environments, using each term in the plural, and “functionings” rather than “functions” on the ground that the everyday functions that secure the continuance of the living creature cannot be separated from the organism without leaving a false abstraction.

[APPLICATION

made of its unsolved problems! Yet there are many vital phe. nomena which are well on the way towards being described in terms of relatively simple or generalized concepts, such as the metabolism or the irritability of protoplasm, while others remain defiantly beyond our present analysis. Some qualitative advance such as the discovery of hormones, must be made before they be. come relatively clear; no mere quantitative addition of data wi supply the required illumination. Thus biology is still far from understanding the factors operative in cell-division, or what is the most essential event when an egg is fertilized, or how enzymes

continue unwearyingly to exert their extraordinary transforming power. There are some very puzzling phenomena, e.g., the case in

which a living organ, such as the growing root of a plant, infu. ences a similar organ of another kind of individual, without there

being any contact between them. While the biologist has come to understand how certain kinds of variations or new departures may arise, e.g., by a shuffling of the hereditary cards contained in the chromosomes, or by the interpenetration of some potent environmental influence, it is not possible at present to give any clear account of the origin of a large mutation of a distinctly novel character, though H. G. Muller and others have succeeded in producing large mutations by X-ray irradiation. Yet the origin of the new is the central and inevitable problem of biology. Similarly, while the secure data of Men-

Organisms may be studied statically (anatomy, etc.) or dynamically (physiology, etc.), and in their time-relations (from embryonic development to senescence). Functionings include all the ongoings and operations of the organisms (ecology). The study of environments includes the whole staging of life, animate as delian inheritance have grown in volume with remarkable rapidity, well as inanimate, and that is also to be studied in its time- it does not appear to be possible at present to give any reason why relations, both seasonal and secular. At every point the evolution- one of two contrasted characters should be dominant and the other ary question may. be raised, in regard to each of the three sides: recessive. On another line, it may be said that some biologists who By what steps and by what factors did these organisms, func- regard the evidence in favour of Lamarckism as altogether wtionings and environments come to be as they areP This removes convincing, are willing to admit the reality of certain puzzling the awkwardness of having aetiology as a separate sub-section, and phenomena which demand further inquiry and some fresh disof separating the anatomy and physiology of the embryo or larva covery. But the whole subject of organic evolution bristles with from the anatomy and physiology of the adult. If the sides of unsolved problems! Returning to the concrete, we may illustrate the kind of wnthe triangle, a cross-section of “the biological prism,” be pictured as convex, the inner surface may represent the psychical, mental solved problem to which we specially refer by mentioning the or subjective aspect (clearly present in many organisms and way-finding capacities exhibited by migratory birds. Prolonged functionings and in at least the higher reaches of the animal experiments with ants and bees seem to have proved that in the part of the environment), while the outer surface may represent majority of cases at this level there is an individual learning of the protoplasmic, bodily or objective aspect. The correspondence the topography around the hill or hive. But this does not apply of the biological co-ordinates, Organisms, Functionings and En- to cases like the sooty and noddy terns of the Tortugas which are vironments, with the sociological analogues, Folk, Work and able in some cases to return to their nests after being transported in closed baskets for a thousand miles and liberated in seas prePlace, is obvious. viously unknown. APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGY Major Problems of Biology.—The biologist begins with It is useful, theoretically at least, to distinguish applied biology simple forms of life, like some of the simplest Protista of to-day, from applied zoology and applied botany. When means are taken and supposes that from these, by a continuous sequence of natural to check the spread of injurious insects, or the dissemination of processes, all other organisms have been evolved, in the course of malaria by mosquitoes and of sleeping sickness by tse-tse flies, or some hundreds of millions of years. But the first question is: the damage done by parasites such as the hook-worm in man or how the postulated simplest organisms began to be upon the the Isle-of-Wight mite (Acarapis) in hive-bees, there is an appli- earth. To suppose, with Kelvin and others, that germs of life cation of zoology to a practical problem. The success of the check reached the earth from elsewhere, in the crevices of a meteorite often depends on a knowledge of the life-history and inter-rela- or in cosmic dust, is not an easy hypothesis; and in any case it tions of the animals involved. Similarly, there is an application only shifts the problem. It must be kept in mind that the exisof botany in the effort to check the diffusion of plant-diseases and tence of protoplasmic organisms is not possible except in a relaplant-enemies. As regards man himself, as well as his domesti- tively cool corner of the cosmos, where water is available in a cated animals and cultivated plants, great results have rewarded liquid phase. The only other scientific suggestion is that simple applied botany and applied zoology. But applied biology is some- living creatures may have arisen from non-living materials by prowhat different; it implies the application of general biological cesses of natural synthesis. This synthesis may have been due to ideas, not the specialist’s knowledge of this or that animal. Thus the prolonged action of light on water containing carbon-dioxide Mendelism (g.v.) applied to plants and animals is applied biology, and nitrite of ammonia, or the like, brought down by rain after and so is the general policy of hygiene and eugenics. An apprecia- a thunderstorm. It is interesting to recall the achievements of the tion of the general biological idea of the web of life might have synthetic chemist in building up such complex substances as saved man from some of his short-sighted introductions and elim- amino-acids, but the difficulty is to suggest the natural conditions inations, and may assist him in his policy of more economically that would play the chemist’s part. In this connection the expertexploiting the life of land and sea. In coping with the bilharzia ments of Baly and his collaborators are of much interest. For he parasite in detail there is co-operation between medicine and was able to produce first formaldehyde and then sugar by prozoology, but the idea of acting on a knowledge of the linkage longed illumination of water containing carbon dioxide. Furtherbetween the man and his worm, on the one hand, and between more it was found possible to induce the formaldehyde to umte water-lilies and aquatic birds on the other, comes as a suggestion with nitrites, thus forming nitrogenous carbon-compounds, by the from biology. use of ordinary sunlight in the presence of a “metallic photoUnsolved Problems.—It is not to be supposed for a moment catalyst,” że., a metallic substance which makes the energy of that the science of biology is so far advanced that a list can be light more available. This is probably the function of chlorophyll.

Life is a particular kind of activity exhibited by living creatures. It includes many

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HISTORY]

chemical and physical processes which

become more clearly known every year. But these processes of oxidation and fermentation, of surface tension and osmosis, of

heat-production and electric discharge, and so forth, are correlated, regulated, controlled and integrated; and it is this unifica-

tion, leading to effective behaviour, which seems at present to be indescribable in terms of chemical and physical concepts. These have been for the most part developed in reference to changes of

matter and energy in circumstances not including life, and it is not to be expected that they should apply to the totality of reac-

tions exhibited in another order of facts, namely those of organisms. It is not behaviour alone that stands by itself, but the

capacity for growth, multiplication, development and enregistration. As W. K. Clifford said: “It is the peculiarity of living things not merely that they change under the influence of sur-

rounding circumstances, but that any change in them is not lost, but retained, and, as it were, built into the organism to serve as a

foundation for future actions.” Since the living organism appears to be a new synthesis, as compared with a stone or a star or a

drop of colloidal matter, since it exhibits qualities that cannot be

adequately described in terms of matter and energy, it seems good sense to claim some autonomy for biology. The organism is a new synthesis in which certain aspects of reality, previously unexpressed, find expression, and these cannot be adequately described without the use of special biological concepts, such as irritability and enregistration, growth and development, and effective behaviour. Among birds and mammals there is abundant evidence of the intelligent control of behaviour in reference to a perceived purpose. There is often more than a hint of judgment; endeavour is undeniable; feeling is often strong. The biologist must recognize that he is dealing with psycho-biosis. A Robot theory of the higher animal does not work, and recent well-criticized observations and experiments on the highest apes show that the level of intelligence is higher than the most generous had supposed. On the other hand, there is not less abundant evidence that no small part of animal activity depends on automatic reactions, tropisms. enregistrations and reflexes, both unconditioned and conditioned. It may be said, indeed, that animal behaviour has evolved along two main lines. On the one hand, there is the evolution of the power of fresh adjustment, of making little experiments or tentatives. This is the line of individual initiative and it has its climax in sheer intelligence. On the other hand, there is the evolution of the capacity for the neural enregistration of profitable modes of behaviour, so that they become parts of the inheritance, requiring no more than a liberating stimulus for their activation. In both cases there is inherited capacity, but among “big-brained types,” as Sir Ray Lankester has called them, the inheritance is mainly a nimble, plastic, educable intelligence, while among “‘littlebrained types” the inheritance is mainly a stereotyped series of reactions. Now it is one of the major problems of biology to do justice to these two lines, a problem which is the more difficult

Inter-relations with Other Sciences.—In Spencer’s scheme biology is the central science based on chemistry and physics, leading on to psychology and sociology. Saying the same thing somewhat differently, we have ranked the study of the realm of organisms

(the biosphere) as intermediate between the study of

the domain of things (the cosmosphere) and the study of the kingdom of man (the sociosphere). In the living body there are diverse processes of oxidation and reduction, hydration and dehydration, solution and fermentation and so forth, which can be taken separately and studied by the bio-chemist. Similarly there are phenomena of surface tension, capillarity, osmosis, leverage, hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, electricity and so forth, which can be taken seriatim and studied by the bio-physicist. Biophysical and biochemical methods have helped greatly towards a better understanding of the life of the body. They illustrate what Comte called a legitimate and necessary materialism. Biology cannot dispense with the assistance of the more exact sciences. But, even if we had a complete ledger of all the biochemical and biophysical processes that occur when a swallow returns from the Gold Coast to the place of its birth in a Scotch farm-stead, we should not understand the bird’s remarkable homing. For that requires distinctively biological concepts. The concepts of chemistry and physics are indispensable in biology, but biology transcends them and requires concepts of its own. The organism transcends mechanism and is a “historic being.” The inter-relation of “body” and “‘mind” is such as to justify the saying: nemo psychologus nisi physiologus; but we sometimes forget to transpose this. An emotional storm stimulates the production and distribution of adrenalin; dyspepsia warps the judgment and dulls good feeling. A blot in the brain may mean a darkening of the eyes of the mind; and the clinical biographies tell us how an eye-trouble may ruin a man’s temper. Yet a merry heart is the life of the flesh and good news promotes digestion. Mental and bodily, psychical and neural, subjective and objective are so closely intertwined that it seems to many biologists that their science is really psycho-biology. Similarly, but more distantly, in regard to sociology, the biological foundations cannot be ignored without loss. The units in sociology are societary groups of some sort, but these consist of individuals with all the appetencies and limitations of organisms. There is a social aspect of heredity, of sex, of multiplication and of nutrition. Just as there can be no sound biology that does not keep continually in view the three sides of the prism, Organism, Functioning and Environment, so there can be no sound sociology that does not keep continually in

view the social analogues of these: Leplay’s “Famille, Travail, Lieu.” Here the biologist and the sociologist join hands. (See ZooLtocy, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, PALAEONTOLOGY, PALAEOBOTANY, EVOLUTION, SPECIES, etc.)

the psychological, the subjective. How are these two aspects of reality to be thought of in relation to one another? When are we warranted in stressing the one, and when the other? It re-

BrsriocrapHy.—J. A. Thomson, The Science of Life (Glasgow, 1899), The System of Animal Nature (1920) and Everyday Biology (1923); Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Biology (1908); J. G. Needham, General Biology (Ithaca, 1910) ; K. Pearson, The Grammar of Science (1911); G. N. Calkins, Biology (1914); J. Loeb, The Organism as a Whole (1916); E. S. Russell, Form and Function (1916) and The Study of Living Things (1924) ; D'A W. Thompson, On Growth and Form (Cambridge, 1917); J. S. Haldane, The New Physiology (1919); L. L. Woodruff, Foundations of Biology (1922); F. Bower, Botany of the Living Plant (1923); A. Dendy, Evolutionary Biology (1923); C. Lloyd Morgan, Emergent Evolution (1923) ; A. Shipley, Life (Cambridge, 1923); MacGregor Skene, The Biology of the Flowering Plant (1924); P. Geddes and J. A. Thomson, Biology (1925); C. Elton, Animal Ecology (1927); J. B.S. Haldane and Huxley, Animal Biology (Oxford, 1927); C. G. Rogers, Comparative Physiology (1927); J. von Uexkiill, Theoretical Biology

of mentality backwards to their slender beginnings, both in the

HISTORY

since they sometimes intersect.

But the attempt to do this is likely to bring the biologist face to face with the still more difficult problem of the relation between body and mind. On the one hand, there is the bodily, the nervous, the physiological, the objective. On the other hand, cortelated yet incommensurable, there is the mental, the psychical,

mains a difficult problem for the biologist to trace the expressions

individual higher form and in the animal kingdom as a whole;

and to probe further back still to what may have corresponded to mind in the non-living materials out of which organisms may have evolved. It seems necessary to assume that a certain degree of organismal intricacy is necessary, both in ontogeny and in phylog-

eny, before emergence is possible for that aspect of reality which we call “mind,” an aspect which is of such predominant impor-

tance in the development of The Sociosphere.

a. Boa

T A. TE) :

Biology, in the widest acceptance of the word, is used to cover all those studies which deal with the structure, nature and behaviour of living beings. It is thus in contrast to the word physics which is similarly used to cover the study of the structure, nature and properties of such matter as is neither living nor a necessary product of the activity of living things. It happens that certain of the studies classed as “biological” are intimately bound

up with the study of medicine.

Such are, for example, human

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anatomy, the physiology of the warm-blooded animals, bacteriology and the like. The linking of these departments with medical study has had certain historical and practical results and they are sometimes tacitly excluded from what is called biology in certain narrowed academic uses of that term. As a matter of prac-

tical convenience these departments have been considered in the article MEDICINE, History or. Here we shall only consider them incidentally. The word biology was introduced by S. T. Treviranus (17761837) in his Biologie oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur (Göttingen, 1802—22). It was adopted and popularized by J. B. de Lamarck (1744—1829, g.v.) in his Hydrogéologie (Paris, 1802). It is probable that the first English use of the word in its modern

sense was by Sir William Lawrence (1783-1867) in his work On the Physiology, Zoology and Natural History of Man (London, 1819). There are, indeed, earlier uses of the word in English but they are in relation to biography. Biology, like other sciences, can be traced to the Greeks. At a very early date, and particularly at the hands of Alcmaeon of Croton (c. 500 B.C. g.v.), we hear of independent investigations of the structure and habits of animals. Thus Alcmaeon described the optic nerves and tubes that lead from the nose to the ear (Eustachian tubes), and he made a beginning of the study of the development of the embryo. Moreover, the Hippocratic collection (see Meprcrine, History or and Hippocrates) provides evidence, imbedded in a work on diet, of the existence of attempts to make a classification of animals as early as the 5th century B.C. All the early records of biological science before the 4th century B.C. are, however, either completely lost or too fragmentary to permit of adequate reconstruction. Not until we get to Aristotle (384-322 B.c.) do we encounter any complete biological works. Moreover, as our knowledge of Greek biological science begins with Aristotle, so it may almost be said to end with him.

The only surviving ancient works on living things, besides those of Aristotle, that were prepared without consideration of the application of the knowledge they set forth, are by his pupil, Theophrastus. A full account of the biological achievements of Aristotle and of Theophrastus would thus contain an almost complete account of our knowledge of pure biological science as it existed in antiquity. Aristotle as a Biologist.—Of the biological works of Aristotle a considerable number have survived. Among them, four stand out pre-eminent. They are: (a) On Psyche, że., on the soul or living principle, usually known as De Anima. (b) Histories about animals, usually known as the Historia animalium. (c) On the generation of animals, usually known as De generatione animaljum. (d) On the parts of animals, usually known as De partibus animalium. There are matters in these works which come rather in the department of philosophy than in that of biology (see ARISTOTLE) but which must nevertheless of necessity be considered in any „account of the history of biological thought which they have infiuenced throughout its course. Among these matters is Aristotle’s conception of the nature of the living principle or psyche. The oldest use of the word “psyche” is in the sense of breath, and breathing is the most obvious sign of life. It was, therefore, natural that from breath the word psyche came to mean life, then the soul and again the mind. Aristotle used this term for the principle that differentiates living from not-living substance When he began to examine different living things he reached the conclusion that there were different kinds or orders of psyche or soul. In the course of this investigation he came to distinguish between (a) the vegetative soul, (b) the animal soul, (c) the rational soul. The first or lowest of these was the vegetative soul. Aristotle regarded plants as the lowest living forms and the qualities of life that he distinguished in plants he regarded as the only qualities essential for this lowest form of soul. These qualities seemed to him to be nutrition, growth and the power of reproduction. Aristotle considered that while animals had these qualities of the vegetative soul, they also had, of their nature, the power of movement, and the movements that they made seemed to him to

[HISTORY

correspond to what they felt. The animal soul thus possessed, as he thought, not only the qualities of the vegetative soul butales

a second order of qualities which were responsible for the sensitive and motive powers of animals. Lastly, man had all these qualities exhibited in the lowes creation, both plants and animals, but he had also certain others He could reason and his movements and actions were dictated by his thoughts. His soul was, therefore, equipped, in Aristotle’;

view, not only with the qualities of the vegetative and animal souls, but also with rational or intellectual powers.

It will thus be seen that Aristotle was, in the fullest and most definite sense, a “‘vitalist.” Apart from the classification of kinds

of soul Aristotle held certain definite views as to the relationship

of this soul or psyche to the living body. This relationship was determined by the existence of an Entelechy, a term which may

perhaps be translated for biological purposes as “an indwelling purposiveness.” The nature of this Entelechy is perhaps best brought out by quotation from his work De Anima, from which it will be gathered that he held that the soul is neither independent of, nor is it identical with, the body. “They are right,” says Aristotle, “who hold the soul as not

independent of the body and yet as not in itself anything of the nature of the body. It is not body, but something belonging to body. It, therefore, resides in body, and moreover, a particular soul to a particular body. They were wrong who sought to fit the soul into the body without regard to the nature and qualities of that body. For the Entelechy of each thing comes naturally to be developed in the potentiality of each thing, and it is manifest that soul is a certain Entelechy and notional form of that which has the capacity to be endowed with soul.” This, then, is the basic thought in Aristotle’s biological work, and in this sense Aristotle is a modern biologist, for it is the basic thought in much biological work at the present day. But besides Aristotle’s finely wrought out biological theories, of which this is one, there is much in his biological writing that does not involve these high topics, but is restricted to the ordinary investigations of the working biologist as we know him in our own time. Foremost among these investigations on the phenomenological level we may note Aristotle’s magnificent observations on the habits of fishes, some of which, doubted for centuries, have been verified in our own time. No less remarkable are his observations on the breeding and development of the octopuses and their allies. His discourses on whales, porpoises and dolphins, on the development of dog-fish, and on the habits of bees are also very noteworthy. There is much in his writings to justify us in classing Aristotle as one of the best observing naturalists of all time. The whole course of biology may be represented as the history of ideas on the classification of living things. Something must be said on this subject in relationship to Aristotle. At first, Aristotle entirely separated man from the lower creatures, distinguishing him among living things by the possession of a rational soul. As Aristotle’s knowledge increased, he seems

to have become less inclined to make this absolute distinction and he came to admit that animals in their degree share rationality with man. His final position seems to have been that the distinction between the animal and the rational soul cannot be consistently maintained and that there is no fundamental distinction

between life or soul and mind. This is precisely the attitude of an important school of modern biologists. In ascribing reason to animals Aristotle seems to have been influenced by his advance towards something that we should

nowadays call a belief in “Evolution.” It cannot justly be said

that he ever attained theless, it is evident he was not far from more it might well

to a clear view of organic evolution. Neverthat he was moving in that direction, that reaching it and that had he lived a few years have been that he would have reached it

But whether we call him an evolutionist or whether we withhold

that title from him, it is certainly easy to read an evolutionary meaning into much of his biological writings. Moreover, we see him groping at some natural manner of arranging the orders of animals. He is, in fact, striving towards what we should call a

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HISTORY]

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Even lower in quality than the De materia medica of Dioscorides is the Natural History of his contemporary, Pliny the elder (died A.D. 79). It is immensely interesting as a storehouse of respect. He describes a particular part of this as follows: folk-lore and as a mirror of the follies and superstitions of his “Nature proceeds little by little from things lifeless to animal age. It cannot be passed over in silence since it was perhaps more life in such a way that it is impossible to determine the exact read during the middle ages than any work of antiquity except line of demarcation, nor on which side thereof an intermediate the Bible. From the point of view of a rational development of form should lie. Thus next after lifeless things in the upward biological thought, however, Pliny’s work is beneath contempt. The only other important later figure in the biological thought scale comes the plant. . . . Of plants one differs from another as toits amount of apparent vitality. In fact, the whole of plant kind, of antiquity is Galen. The magnificent apparatus and achievewhile devoid of life as compared with animals, is endowed with ments of this man have been considered elsewhere (see GALEN and life as compared with other forms of matter. Therefore, there is MEDICINE, History or). Though his interests were mainly mediin plants a continuous scale of ascent towards the animal, and of cal, the vigour and independence with which he pursued his resome, one is at a loss to say whether they be animal or plant. searches give him a very important place in the history of biology. After Galen, the history of biological thought is a dismal record _.. Thus nature passes from lifeless objects to animals in unbroken sequence, so that scarcely any difference seems to exist of steady deterioration for many centuries. Even with the great between two neighbouring groups by reason of their close prox- scholastic and artistic revival of the 13th century, there is little evidence of any systematic firsthand observation. Still less is imity.” As a working naturalist Aristotle excelled chiefly in his obser- there any trace of independent biological thought. We do no vations on the habits and lives of animals. He was less fortunate grave injustice to any writer in passing direct to the revival of in his investigations of their structure, and less fortunate still in learning. Biology at the Revival of Learning.—Although the schohis consideration of the functions of parts. He was, in fact, far less an experimenter than an observer. This is not surprising since lastic period was barren in biological achievement, there were yet he had no exact body of knowledge of experimental physics and certain elements in its more characteristic developments which chemistry on which to build. Some of his successors among the became ultimately factors in the revival of biological science. Greeks, e.g., Galen, far excelled him in their experimental skill Among these we must give a leading place to the passage towards naturalism in art. This movement first made itself felt in the 13th and ingenuity. Ancient Biology After Aristotle.—Aristotle’s botanical re- century, though it did not develop fully until the r5th. Moreover, searches are, unfortunately, lost. We have, however, very full from the end of the 13th century a certain amount of natural botanical works of Theophrastus of Eresus (380-287 B.c.), his curiosity was satisfied by the process of dissection which, however, was not practised with any frequency until the very end of heir, his favourite pupil and his successor as head of the Lyceum. Theophrastus, like other ancient men of science, seems to have the mediaeval period. These movements, naturalistic and anafelt acutely the need for a technical terminology. He made some tomic, were fertilized, so far as biology was concerned, by the attempts to establish one, and at least one technical botanical artistic discovery of antiquity. Thus the renaissance of art became also a renaissance of science. term, pericarp, comes to us from him. The great artists of the Renaissance period, Botticelli, Leonardo Theophrastus understood the value of developmental study, a conception derived from his master. “A plant,” he says, “has da Vinci, Diirer, Michelangelo and others, exhibited an interest the power of germination in all its parts for it has life in them all, in the exact portrayal of animal and plant forms as well as curioswherefore we should regard them, not for what they are, but for ity as to the structure of the human body. As well as being artists what they are becoming.” He lays much stress on the different these great Renaissance figures were all of them curious as to the modes of reproduction of plants. He distinguishes between the ways of nature, and it is not misusing words to speak of these monocotyledons and the dicotyledons, and he has some interesting artists as men of science, botanists, anatomists, physiologists and passages in which sex is discerned in plants, notably in the palms. the like. The group of movements which came to flower with the The works of Theophrastus are extremely valuable as perhaps beginning of the 16th century placed the student of nature in a the most complete biological treatises that have come down to peculiarly favourable position. He had the works of science of us from antiquity. They contain many excellent observations, but antiquity on which to start. The craft of printing was at his are on the whole distinctly inferior in depth, range and insight to disposal. He had the scientific studies of the great artists before him. He had learnt to represent details of nature effectively. At the biological works of Aristotle. Pure biological investigation virtually came to an end with the last, also, the art of the wood-cutter was perfected, so that the. death of Theophrastus. Biology was studied at the Alexandrian figures of the artist could be transferred to the printed page. It was in this happy collocation of circumstances that the first school, but chiefly in connection with medicine and has been considered elsewhere (see MEDICINE, History or). There was one effective biological textbooks of modern times were produced. Important development, however, in Alexandrian times to which The movement began in Germany and it began with the botanists. we may refer. This was the practice of portraying the forms of It is the distinction of Otto Brunfels (1464-1534) that he proplants exactly and artistically. It seems probable that science duced the first printed work on plants which relied solely on owes this most important accessory art to one Crateuas, a herb- observation. The drawings are firm and faithful and it is very alist who practised in the rst century B.c. There are reasons for interesting to compare them with those of a good modern textbelieving that we have accurate copies of some of the drawings of book. As Brunfels was the first, so Leonard Fuchs (1501-66) was this artist, and these copies are therefore of the utmost interest the greatest, of the German “fathers of botany.” His work “classification.” The mechanism that he actually adopted was to

arrange living things in a sort of scale. This Scala Naturae of Aristotle is a subject of great interest and is worthy of all possible

to biologists.

:

_ The Hellenistic investigator, whose writings have had most influence on the course of botany, and in particular on botanical

terminology, is the physician Dioscorides of Anazarba in Asia mor.

Dioscorides served in the army of the emperor Nero,

and a work by him on plants useful in medicine has come down to US In great completeness and in a very large number of manuscripts. Nevertheless, this work is ill arranged, almost devoid of general ideas and steeped in the errors that must always pursue those who follow purely practical ends without regard to theoreti-

cal considerations. The work of Dioscorides is essentially a drug Collector’s manual, and represents a very great deterioration from

the Aristotelian standard.

appeared in 1542 and is the landmark in the history of natural

knowledge. A part of the same movement illustrated by the “fathers of botany” is the new scientific interest in anatomy. Protagonists

of that movement

(see Merpicinr, History or) are Andreas

Vesalius and Bartolomeo Eustachio. More in the class of pure “naturalists” in the modern acceptance of that word were the two French observers, Belon and Rondelet. Pierre Belon (1517-64) of Le Mans spent some years wandering in the Near East. He kept careful notes of the natural history of the countries that he traversed, basing his observations on his reading of Aristotle. Later he produced two books on fishes and another on birds, which, though borrowing much from Aristotle,

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BIOLOGY

show also much original observation. It is interesting to note the clearness with which Belon grasps the general principles of comparative anatomy, especially as applied to the skeleton. These principles had already been elucidated by Vesalius. More accurate as an observer, though less imbued with comparative principles

was Guillaume Rondelet (1507-66) of Montpellier, a friend of Rabelais. Rondelet’s great work is a painstaking investigation of the fishes of the Mediterranean. The learning of the time was liable to express itself in the form of encyclopaedias. These were mostly little but compilation. An exception must be made, however, for that of Conrad Gesner (1516-65), the great Swiss naturalist. His history of animals in five folio volumes covers the topics of quadrupeds, birds, fishes and snakes. Most of the matter is borrowed, but much also is original, notably the section on fishes which contains also figures of a large number of invertebrates. The work of Gesner is regarded by many as the starting point of modern zoology. To his contemporaries, Gesner was best known as a botanist, but his most important botanical works were not published until 200 years after his death. Towards the end of the 16th century, following on the stimulus of the revival of art, of the new interest in natural history and of the re-institution of scientific anatomical studies, all the important departments of biology—anatomy, physiology, botany, zoology— were becoming differentiated and making considerable progress. These subjects were being taught especially in the universities of northern Italy. Nowhere were they prosecuted with greater energy and ability than at Padua, the old school of Vesalius. Of all the teachers of that school, Jerome Fabricius (1537-1619) of Aquapendente exercised most influence. Fabricius made extensive embryological investigations, and his works on the subject are the first to be illustrated with figures drawn from the object. He made many physiological researches. Thus he described the valves of the veins and was one of the first to give an accurate account of the structure of the eye. Other important Paduan teachers of the time were Realdo, Colombo, Sanctorio, Cesalpino and Casserio. The Rebirth of the Physiological Study of Animals and Plants.—A remarkable pupil of Fabricius was the Englishman, William Harvey (1578-1657), the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. His work on that subject, published in 1628, gave the first rational explanation of the workings of the animal body. (See Mepicine, History oF, and Harvey, Wi11L1AM.) While Harvey was at work on the special researches which are associated with his name, optical instruments were being constructed which made it possible to examine the structure of animals more minutely. In 1610 the compound microscope was described by Galileo and through him passed into modern use. The first systematic investigation of living things with the new instrument was made by a group of young men who formed themselves into the first scientific society, under the name of the Academy of the Lynx, which usually met at Rome. The small company was accustomed to assemble at the house of its president, Prince Federigo Cesi, duke of Aquasparta. His early death in 1628 brought the academy to an end, and many of its works perished. We have, however, records of a few of its observations which are peculiarly interesting as the earliest for which the microscope was systematically employed. Prince Cesi himself worked on botanical topics and described and portrayed the spores of the fern. Other members of the academy applied themselves to animal forms and fine enlarged representations of the parts of the bee have come down to us from them. With the collapse of the “Academy of the Lynx” systematic microscopical observation ceased for a generation. The microscopic work between 1628 and 1660 was desultory and of no great consequence. After that date, however, there arose a series of great microscopical observers who between them revolutionized the conception of the nature of living things. Of these “classical microscopists” two, Hooke and Grew, were English, two, Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, were Dutch, and one, Malpighi, was Italian. It is interesting to observe that the more important work of all of them, except Swammerdam, was published in England.

[HISTORY

Marcello Malpighi (1628-94) supplemented Harvey’s work by describing the capillary circulation which Harvey had not seen, Malpighi demonstrated it in the lung of the frog. He extended greatly the work of Fabricius and he especially investigated the early stages of the development of the embryo of the chick. He gave very accurate representations of the early stages, and not-

ably he showed that in the embryo there are paired branches of the aorta which reunite. These correspond, as we now know, to the vessels in the gills of a fish. Malpighi, who had no evolutionary leanings, had no conception of the nature of these vessels, but his description of them is very good. The bulkiest of Malpighi's contributions are his writings on the anatomy of plants. He gave

excellent representations of the cell walls of plants, and he estab. lished the broad outlines of the microscopic anatomy of the roots and stems of the higher plants. In botanical anatomy even more accurate and systematic obser-

vations were made by Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712, g.v.). Grew placed the study of the anatomy of plants on a firm foundation, He is also remarkable for his statement as to the sexual character of flowers—an observation which he himself ascribes to Sir

Thomas Milligan, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. Jan Jacob Swammerdam (1637-80, g.v.) was perhaps, the most accurate and remarkable as he was the most mentally unstable and shortlived of the “classical microscopists.” His first work, A General History of Insects, deals chiefly with the modes of transformation of insects and brings out well the different modes of development of the major groups of insects. The text and figures are equally good, and the book itself obtained popular recognition. The early onset of a state of mind not far from insanity prevented much further publication. His magnificent Bible of Nature, which is probably the finest collection of microscopical observations ever published, did not appear till long after his death. It is still in current use by naturalists. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723, q.v.) made the most impression on his contemporaries of all the “classical microscopists.” He published an immense number of observations of a desultory kind, nearly all of them in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. These observations contain many shrewd judgments. Leeuwenhoek’s portrayal of Bacteria in 1683 and of spermatozoa in 1677 are triumphs of observation with the optical means at his disposal. On several occasions he drew and described the structure of striated muscle. He investigated in his own peculiar fashion almost every department of animal and plant life. No one was more influential than Leeuwenhoek in drawing the attention of observers to the minute complexity and beauty of the structure of the animal body. Of all the “classical microscopists” the most gifted was Robert Hooke (1635-1703). He was, however, only to a very limited extent a biologist. His important work, Micrographia, appeared in London in 1665. Init he has a figure of the microscopic structure of cork showing the boundaries of the cell walls. He refers to these as cellulae, and the word “cell” in our modern biological nomenclature is probably derived from him. He shows also the

cells on the surface of the stinging nettle, and he has a good account of its stinging apparatus. An important botanical observation by him is on leaf fungus, the development of which is well

shown. He also gives accounts of the development of a mould and of the structure of moss, and of experiments on the sensitive

plant. He gives the first figures of a polyzoan, and remarkable delineations of the compound eye of an insect, and of the larvae of a gnat, besides two gigantic figures of a flea and of a louse.

The work of the “classical microscopists” stands somewhat

apart from that of other investigators and forms a peculiarly isolated chapter in the history of biology.

Early Attempts to Classify Living Things.—In the work of the early naturalists, whether they were botanists or zoologists, or microscopists

or anatomists

or encyclopaedists,

there was

seldom any sustained attempt at systematic arrangement. The

encyclopaedic naturalists, such as Gesner, arranged their materia

according to the obvious divisions of the animal kingdom, fishes,

birds, reptiles and the like. Botany and zoology were still in 4 state of great disorder.

HISTORY]

BIOLOGY

The first trace of any systematic arrangement of descriptions of plants in accordance with their structure is in the work of

Matthias de l’Obel (1538-1616), a Dutchman who came to England in his youth and dedicated his first book (1570) to Queen

Elizabeth. He was keeper of a botanic garden of an English peer and, later, botanist to James I. L’Obel attempted to group plants according to the form of their leaves. He succeeded fairly well with the grasses, less well with the monocotyledons

and

613

Linnaeus held that species are constant and invariable, a view in which he differed from John Ray. He assumed that all the members of a species were descended from a single pair that had been originally created. He afterwards modified this view and came to hold that it was the genera, not the species, which had issued from the Godhead. The Beginning of the Study of Comparative

Anatomy

and Physiology.—The first animal whose naked eye structure

failed with the dicotyledons, with which he confused the ferns.

was adequately explored was man himself.

More promising was the suggestion of the botanist Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1 603) of Padua and Pisa, who attempted to class

was placed upon a sound basis by Vesalius in his wonderful monograph of 1543. For certain organs of the body Vesalius had not any adequate access to human material. Thus his account of the eye and of the organ of voice are taken from the dog. He was aware of differences in structure between man and animals and he chose several opportunities in his work to adopt a comparative method. A similar device is invoked by Pierre Belon. During the 16th century several other observers made dissections of animals and compared them to man. None was more exact than Ruini, a lawyer of Bologna, who published his monograph on the horse in 1598. i As the 17th century advanced there were a number of workers who further extended comparative studies. Of these the classical microscopists were by far the most important; for the most part they worked upon invertebrates. Monographs on various vertebrates were also prepared, as for instance that on the chameleon by the Italian Francesco Redi, and that on the chimpanzee or “pygmy” by the Englishman Edward Tyson. Monographs on invertebrates were prepared by Malpighi on the silkworm, by Swammerdam on the may-fly, the bee and the snail, and by Leeuwenhoek on the development of the flea.

plants according to their flowers and fruits. The scheme formed

on this basis was by far the best of the kind that had yet appeared.

A small part of it was absorbed into the influential work of Caspar Bauhin of Basle (1550-1624 g.v.). For the most part, however, it fell on sterile ground and was little noticed till the time of Linnaeus. So far as general arrangement is concerned Bauhin was distinctly inferior to Cesalpino. He gives, however, descriptions of about 6,000 plants. The great merit of his book is that in it for the first time the species of plants are placed together in small

definite groups or genera. The modern conception of genus and species is in fact Bauhin’s more than that of anybody else, and he and not Linnaeus is the true introducer of the binomial nomenclature which since Linnaeus has been in universal use.

Important steps in the direction of a systematic arrangement of living things were made by the two friends John Ray (1627—

1705) and Francis Willughby (1635-72). They formed a scheme for a systematic description of the whole organic world. Willughby was to undertake the animals, Ray the plants. Willughby died early and in the event Ray became the chief founder of the science of systematic biology. His early attempts on the flora of Cambridge and his treatise on birds were followed in 1682 by his important New System of Plants. In this he demonstrated the true nature of buds and used the divisions of flowering plants into dicotyledons and monocotyledons. He based his system largely upon the fruit, but also upon the leaf and other characteristics and especially, following Cesalpino, upon the flowers. In doing this he succeeded in disentangling a number of the larger groupings of plants now known as families. His work in botany was completed by his Synopsis of British Plants and followed up by a Synopsis of Quadrupeds and Serpents (1693). This contains the first truly systematic arrangement of animals. Itis based upon the fingers and toes and teeth of the animals concerned. The systematic study of living things begun by Bauhin and Ray was continued by the Swede, Linnaeus (1707-78), the greatest of the systematists. Linnaeus brought to bear upon bis lifework an enormous acquaintance with living things, especially plants, gained in the field. His prodigious industry and power of

systematic arrangement would alone have given him a high place among naturalists. He profited from all the best teachers of the day, visiting many parts of Europe, including Holland, France and England. He was a most inspiring teacher and had numerous pupils, one of whom accompanied the English explorer, Captain Cook, and was for many years resident in London. Linnaeus became a sort of biological dictator, and for a century after his time s ae of the biological work that was done in every country was in IS spirit.

_ Linnaeus had a perfect passion for classification and succeeded in assigning to every known animal and plant a position in his

system. This involved placing arly specimen first in a class, then in an order, then in a genus, then in a species. The broad outline of his system of classification has remained, though its rigid

framework has long ago been abandoned. The chief service of Linnaeus to biology is his method—derived

ftom Bauhin, and impressed upon his contemporaries—of arrangIng living things into genera and species, with his development

of the “binomial” system. His system extended even to man, and he distinguished Homo sapiens from Homo troglodytes. His Sys-

tema Naturae went into many editions, the most highly prized being the tenth, to which naturalists still refer when they speak of Imnaean genera and species.

The anatomy of man

With the great movement initiated by the work of Harvey, something in the nature of comparative physiology became possible. Harvey’s masterpiece is in fact in large part a comparative study of the circulation. Of comparative physiology there has never been a greater exponent than the English country parson, the Rev. Stephen Hales (1677-1761). Hales practically began the study of the functional activity of plants and his work was the most important in that department until the roth century. He measured the amount of water taken in by the roots and given off by the leaves, comparing this with the amount of moisture in the earth and showing the relationship of the one to the other. He made calculations of the rate at which water rises in the stems, and he showed that this has a relation with the rate at which it enters by the roots and transpires through the leaves. He measured also the force of suction in wood and roots, that is to say, “root pressure.” He sought to show that these actions of living plants might be explained as the result of their structure. His most important contribution for botanical physiology was perhaps his demonstration that the air contributes something to the building up of the substance of plants, and in this respect he may be said to have been the discoverer of carbon dioxide. Following this up, he showed that air enters the plant not only through leaves but also through the rind. His experiments and conclusions in the physiology of animals were as important as in that of plants. Here he showed that there is a pressure of the blood within the vessels which can be measured, and that it varies in different circumstances and differs in the arteries and the veins. He even estimated the rate of flow in the capillaries. It is specially characteristic of his work that in all his experiments he sought to give a quantitative expression to his results. In this sense Hales was among the first to adopt exact methods in biology. The comparative attitude in combination with exact experiment in biology was peculiarly characteristic of the investigators of the 18th century and separates them from those of the previous period. None pursued the method with greater enthusiasm than that great surgeon, John Hunter (1728-1793, g.v.; see also MEDIcine, History or). At the time of his death Hunter had anatomized over 500 species of animals, many of them a great many times, as well as a great number of species of plants. The general object of his work might be described as a systematic attempt to trace the different phases of life as exhibited in the structure of animals and plants. Both in precept and examplé Hunter was the

BIOLOGY

614

greatest influence in connection with the establishment of natural history museums, the subsequent development of which has followed lines very similar to those which he suggested. Hitherto comparative studies had been the preoccupation of individual workers. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), by means of his immensely powerful position, was able to establish a complete and organized school of comparative investigators which may be said to have continued to our own time. His influence was very

stimulating to research, but it cannot be said that he invariably exerted his power with the greatest wisdom. He believed strongly in the fixity of species and thus opposed the views of Lamarck (1744-1829, g.v.) and of Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (17721844). Nevertheless by the palaeontological school which he founded and which extended into every country, he did perhaps more than any other man to collect, material on which the doctrine of the impermanence of species became formally founded in later times. Cuvier’s great work, Le Régne Animale, has formed one of the main foundations for comparative studies even to our own time. Among the specific achievements of Cuvier was firstly the creation of the science of palaeontology, secondly the exploration of the anatomy of the group Mollusca, and thirdly his systematic treatment of the vast class of fishes. The tradition of Cuvier was carried to England by Richard Owen (1804-92), who afterwards became director of the British Museum of Natural History. While Cuvier and his school led in the comparative study of structure, the comparative study of function which had been expounded by Hales was established on a firmer basis by the great German physiologist, Johannes Müller (1801-58). (See MÜLLER, JoHmanneEs, and MeEpicine, Hiısrory or.) The latter part of Müller’s life was given mainly to zoological research, and there is hardly a group in the animal kingdom on the knowledge of which he has not left his mark. As a microscopist he worked out the anatomy of the glandular and cartilaginous tissues, and grouped the connective tissues. He thus prepared the way for the work of his pupil Schwann. Müller was a convinced vitalist and

his “Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energy” remains one of the corner-stones of vitalistic theory. The study of the palaeontology of plants came later than that of animals. A few fossil plants had been described by earlier naturalists. Toward the end of Cuvier’s time several figures of plants from the coal measures had been published with the generic and specific names that they still bear. Not until 183: was the technique of their examination sufficiently advanced for microscopic study. The study of fossil botany began to be systematic in 1858 with the work of W. C. Williamson (1816-95) who demonstrated that in coal are to be found gigantic forms similar to the higher flowerless plants such as horse-tails, ferns and club moss. His results were long treated with neglect, but have at last earned more recognition. During the last 50 years the palaeontology of plants has come near to be on the same footing as that of animals. Effects of Geographical

Exploration

in the Course of

Biological Development.—From the end of the 15th century the western nations of Europe were sending forth expeditions east and west, and these brought home knowledge of the natural products of lands newly explored. Thus the idea that each region has its characteristic living things, implicit in ancient biology but forgotten during the middle ages, became gradually explicit. In the 18th century exploratory expeditions began the practice of carrying specially-trained naturalists and thus they enter the

history of biology. The three voyages of Captain Cook (g¢.v.) form an era, not only in the history of geographic discovery, but also in the study of living things. Among the naturalists that Cook took with him were Joseph Banks (1743-1800, g.v.), D. C. Solander (1736-82) and the pupil of Linnaeus, Robert Brown

(1773-1858, g.v.). These three were instrumental in exploring

the flora and fauna in the Pacific. An important voyage which covered the western as well as the eastern hemisphere was that of the “Beagle,” which sailed in 1831 and carried the naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-82, q.v.) with it. Quite apart from the investigations and theories with which Dar-

[HISTORY

win’s name is especially associated, the voyage was important as

making accessible a whole multitude of new forms and as estab. lishing the doctrine of zoo-geographical and phyto-geographical regions. By the middle of the 19th century exploration and survey had

become recognized as an important duty of the British Admiralty,

Many scientific expeditions were sent out by that body. Of these the most important was that of the “Challenger” which sailed in 1872. The features of this expedition were, firstly, the very care.

ful examination of the depth and character of the seas and sea water whereby oceanography was established as a separate science; secondly, the large number of very inaccessible places visited, and thirdly, the magnificent scale on which the scientific results of the journey were published. The reports of the

“Challenger” expedition are still in current use by naturalists, The influence of this expedition, coming as a culmination of a series of previous voyages of exploration, was to modify considerably the general view of the range and variety of living things, and to enable naturalists to form a picture of life in the ocean where the geographical regions are distributed vertically rather than horizontally, Reproduction of Plants and Its Comparison to That of Animals.—One of the main gaps in biological thought was the great difference between the nature of animals and that of plants, Especially the mode of reproduction of plants seemed to separate them very widely from animal forms. Theophrastus, for instance, gives a list of the modes of plant reproduction without hinting at the essential nature of fertilization. It is on this account, perhaps, that there have arisen so many legends concerning the “loves of the plants” and vague ideas ascribing sex to these beings.

We have already seen how the idea was adumbrated in antiquity,

by Theophrastus, among others, and how in the 17th century Millington, through the mouth of Grew, actually suggested sexual characters in the parts of the flowers. The conception of sex in plants was, however, lucidly, consistently and accurately set forth, though in elementary fashion, towards the end of the 17th century by R. J. Camerarius (1665—1721). This remarkable ob-

server pointed out that the sex theory could not be made to apply to flowerless plants. The doctrine of the sex of flowers was

accepted by Linnaeus and incorporated in a mechanical way into his system. Linnaeus found the sexual parts of plants convenient for establishing his classification. During the course of the r8th century several botanists succeeded in using the pollen of one species to fertilize the flowers of another species of plant. The existence of hybridization was recognized, and one writer, J. G. Koelreuter (1733-1806) of Carlsruhe, held that the main agent in the fertilization of flowers was the wind, but that some flowers fertilized themselves, and

that in others insects played a part. With great acumen, moreover, he pointed out that in some plants, e.g., the mistletoe, which did not lend themselves to pollination by the wind, and in which the flowers were of different sexes, the only way of pollination was by insects. Moreover, for this same plant he called attention to a matter that was later very successfully investigated by Charles Darwin, namely, the question of the distribution of seeds by birds. Thus, as he pointed out, the mistletoe depends upon two groups of animals, birds and insects, for its existence. The subject was taken up by several German workers, notably, by C. C. Sprengel (1750-1816) who, in his work The Newly Revealed

Mystery of Nature in the Structure and Fertilization of Flowers,

paid special attention to cases in which the sexual parts occurring on a single blossom matured at different periods (dichogamy).

Sprengel reached the conclusion that some flowers can only

be fertilized by insects, that some are so constructed as to injure and even kill insects that serve them, and that yet other flowers are fertilized by wind. He observed that flowers belonging to the last class always produced large quantities of light pollen, whereas m

the flowers of the other types pollen is relatively heavy. He demonstrated the relation of the nectary to the process of fertil-

ization, and in general he sought to show that his principles €xplained all the course of flowers—position, form, date of flowering and the like.

size, smell, colour,

BIOLOGY

HISTORY]

615

The actual process of fertilization was first observed by the

microscopic drawings of plant tissues made in the 17th century

(1784-1860). In 1823 this remarkable naturalist, whose work

by the great classical microscopists. In the careful analysis made by these men there is distinction between the various tissues of

extremely acute and versatile Italian microscopist, G. B. Amici has not been adequately noticed, working with the microscope

which he had himself improved, saw the tube given off by the pollen grain and its contents perform streaming movements. In

1830 he actually followed the pollen tubes into the ovary and observed one find its way to the micropyle of each ovule. These observations were confirmed by Robert Brown and Schleiden, and finally in 1846 the process of fertilization in flowering plants was placed upon a firm and recognized basis by Amici himself. Thus the general character of the vital processes of plants was brought into relation with that of animals. Metamorphoses and Alternation of Generations in Animals and Plants.—An obstacle to the conception of living things

obeying general laws has always been the observation of the extreme

changes

that

some

forms

undergo.

Such

“meta-

morphoses” were observed by the ancients and were the subject of exact study during the 17th century by Swammerdam

and other naturalists. These observations were extended by many observers during the 18th century and notably by John Turberville Needham (1713-81). In the early 40s Johannes Steenstrup (1813-97) of Copenhagen, described how certain animals, notably jellyfish and parasitic worms, produce offspring which at no time resemble their

parents, but which, on the other hand, bring forth progeny similar to the grandparents. Instances of the alternation of generations, as this process was called, were rapidly accumulated by naturalists from a number of organisms belonging to different groups in the animal kingdom. The well-known and easily observed instance of such a curious cycle is in the common aphis of roses in which there is an alternation of parthenogenetic and sexual generations.

In 1851, a short time after the appearance of Steenstrup’s volume, Charles Darwin published his first important monograph on a living group. In this work on the barnacle and allied organisms, he demonstrated that these creatures go through a very remarkable metamorphosis, being born as free-swimming forms similar to other Crustacea and subsequently settling down to fixed life in which they sometimes resemble the Mollusca, with which Cuvier had classed them. Darwin, moreover, demonstrated the curious feature that while individuals of this group were normally hermaphrodite, yet from time to time forms appeared that were male only, and there was at such times true sexual generation. The interpretation of these phenomena was, however, unsatisfactory and vague. The botanist, Karl Nageli (1817-91) in the 40s made some advance in examining the prothallia of ferns,

and observed their free-swimming spermatozoa. At last in 1850 Wilhelm Hofmeister (1824-77, q.v.) gave a consecutive account of the actual process ọf generation in the fern, having observed the whole process of development from a single cell into the prothallus. He saw how the prothallus matured specialized cells, which, after conjugation, gave rise to the more conspicuous and well known asexual form. In other words, he had demonstrated the process of alternation of generations in the fern. He went

the higher plants, although in making this distinction they knew nothing of the cell substance dwelling within the cell wall. Not until the roth century was the actual living substance of the cell first observed, a feat achieved by Amici. In some of the accounts of the microscopic appearance of the tissues of animals by the classical microscopists, cells had been vaguely distinguished, though much less definitely than in plants. During the 18th century little important microscopic work was done. At the beginning of the roth century a brilliant French investigator, M. F. X. Bichat (1771-1802), perceiving that the different parts of the body such as bones, muscle, nerves, bloodvessels, cartilages, etc., had a different microscopic appearance, succeeded in analysing the microscopical appearance into 21 “tissues.” Out of this discovery arose the study of histology, a word introduced by Richard Owen, and still in current use. Between the 17th and early 19th centuries advances were made in the knowledge of uni-cellular organisms. Vorticella had been described in 1667, Bacteria in 1683, Paramecium in 1702 and Amoeba in 1755. Several monographs dealing with uni-cellular plants and animals had appeared, but no advance had been made in the proper appreciation of the real nature of these organisms. In 1833 Robert Brown in his investigations on plant fertilization had discussed the nucleus and found it a normal accompaniment of the cell, but had no clear idea of the nature either of cell or of nucleus. The modern doctrine of the cell theory was placed upon a secure footing in the work of M. J. Schleiden of Jena (1804-81) in 1838, and of Theodore Schwann (1810-82) in the years 1838-39. Schleiden observed the process of protoplasmic streaming in many cells, and he recognized the nucleus as an essential element. He made a curious blunder in holding that cells originated by budding from the surges of the nucleus. The work of Schwann, who was a pupil of Johannes Müller, has a more modern appearance than that of Schleiden. He gives admirable figures of animal cells, and especially of those of cartilage. He traces the cells of these and of other tissues from their undifferentiated origins, and he shows how the ovum is itself a cell. Finally, he passes to a general statement as to the cellular origin of animals and plants. We may note that he introduced the word “metabolic.” He did not, however, shake himself free from Schleiden’s theory of the cell originating from the nucleus. The investigator who was instrumental in destroying this theory was Karl Nageli (1817-91). The word “protoplasm” was introduced

by Hugo von Mohl (1805—72)

of Tübingen, in 1846, and the

conception of this substance as the physical basis of life was the

work of Max Schultze (1822—74). With the final establishment of the cell theory, histology became a special science and was admirably developed by the Swiss Albrecht von Kölliker (1817—1905), a pupil of Johannes Müller. The subject of histology was

extended into the department of

disease by yet another pupil of Johannes Müller, Rudolf Virchow (1821—1902, q.v.).

were used by the founders of the evolutionary school.

Organic Evolution. The Origin of Species.—-By most older writers, species are treated as fixed and definite—as though their characteristics had been made once and for all, and have never altered. Thus in the opinion of Linnaeus there are “as many species as issued in pairs from the hands of the Creator.” Even Linnaeus, despite his systematic obsession, began to see that it is often very difficult to separate species one from another. He did not like to move from his original position of the fixity of species, and therefore he simply substituted the genus for the species as the original creation. He thus reached the conclusion that “‘all the species of one genus constituted at first one species.” There are a great many early naturalists who adumbrated more or less clearly the doctrine of the evolution of organic forms. Many antiquarian writers have applied themselves to excavating this conception from writings of antiquity, of the middle ages and of modern times. The first naturalist, however, who clearly set

and Plants, —The appearance of cell walls is to be seen In many

Buffon (1707-78),

on to show that the mode of production of the embryo in the

Pines and their allies was in certain cases intermediate between that of flowering plants and that of the higher flowerless plants such as ferns, Thus, by the sixth decade of the roth century, it was established that fertilization in flowerless plants consists in the blending together of the spermatozoid and the egg-cell, and that in certain flowerless plants, e.g., the ferns, there is a definite alternation of generations.

Observations on the sexual character of plants, on the alterna-

tion of generations and on metamorphoses gave absorbing inter-

est to the investigation of generation in general, and stimulated

the study of embryology both of animals and plants. Indirectly, these studies led to the firmer establishment and wider applica-

tion of the cell theory, and to the accumulation of data which The Establishment of the Cellular Nature of Animals

forth the idea of evolution as applied to existing living things was

616

BIOLOGY

Buffon’s great scientific work, Natural History, General and Particular, appeared in 45 volumes, and its publication occupied 55 years, 1749 to 1804, being completed after his death by one of

his assistants. It aimed at containing all scientific knowledge and was the first modern attempt of the kind. In various parts of his great work and in other works Buffon expressed himself differently

LHISTORY

species, which had been voiced by many before Darwin, as the fact that Darwin displayed to his readers the details of a process which could be seen in daily operation. Moreover, in setting forth his hypothesis of the action of natural selection he placed before

his public a mechanism which he believed, and they believed, was

sufficient to account for the process in question.

His theory

on the subject of organic evolution; nevertheless, we can see that

appealed specially to the practical minds of the English natural-

he was moving farther and farther from the position occupied by

ists, who required an explanation of the process before they would

Linnaeus. He finally accepted definitely the conception that species alter in type from time to time, but that at each alteration they retain some marks of their previous type, as the pig, for instance, retains fingers now in disuse but formerly used. He thus came to the conclusion that many species are degenerate forms of others; that the ape, for instance, is a degraded man, and that the ass is a degraded horse. Similar views were set forth even more clearly by Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the grandfather of Charles Darwin. Erasmus Darwin held that species change in course of time, and that these changes are due to influences that bear upon the individual from without. These changes he held to be passed on to the offspring, so that he was a believer in the inheritance of acquired characteristics, a conception which was further developed by his younger contemporary J. B. de M. Lamarck (1744-1829, g.v.), whose Zoological Philosophy appeared in 1809. Lamarck held that for living organisms there existed a “natural order.” He thought that if all the species that exist were known, they would be found to form a long ladder or scale in which each would differ but little from the next. This linear view of the arrangement of species Lamarck inherited ultimately from Aristotle. The gaps that he could discern in the existing series he ascribed to the destruction of the intermediate links. These gaps he hoped would be filled in by palaeontological discovery. Over and above such value as Lamarck gave to the conception of the evolution of species we owe to him one important step of permanent value. It was part of his scheme that the animal and the plant world must be continuous with each other at some stage or stages. He set in sharp contrast the study of living things against that of non-living things. For the scientific study of the former, he adopted from Treviranus the word biology (1802). We thus owe this word biology largely to Lamarck, but still more we owe to Lamarck the conception of biology as a comprehensive study. Since according to Lamarck species shade into each other, it seemed to him improbable that they were permanently fixed. In reaching this conclusion, he laid much stress, as did Charles Darwin after him, on the peculiar development of domesticated animals. There must, he thought, be some agent acting to produce variations from the original type. This agent Lamarck believed to be environment. He thus reached the conclusions, firstly, that species vary under changing external influences; secondly, that there is a fundamental unity underlying the diversity of many things and thirdly, that the diversity of living things is subject to a progressive development. The mechanism of that development Lamarck held to be use and disuse of acquired characters. Discussion of the conception of the progressive development of living things with its corollary, the inconstancy of species, was raised by many writers in the first half of the roth century, among them the French naturalist Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (17721844), and the German poet Goethe (1749-1832). In England the writer who attracted the most attention was the Rev. T. R. Malthus (1766-1834), whose important Essay on Population was first published anonymously in 1798. That work appeared during the French Revolution, and its tone and argument are not unrelated to the social views of the time—views which had their influence upon Darwin. Indeed, it is not too much to say that the Origin of Species is one of the secondary products of the utilitarian philosophy of which the chief exponent was Jeremy Bentham. The treatise on the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin appeared early in 1859. For the detailed nature of the views there expressed, the reader is referred elsewhere (see DARWIN, Cartes). It created a revolution in thought in England, and to a less extent in France and Germany. The cause of that change in opinion was not so much the doctrine of the impermanence of

altogether accept it. The theory naturally had less effect upon certain more philosophic thinkers, whom the actual evidence for the existence of evolution had already convinced.

In 1852, seven years before the publication of the Origin of Species, the philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820—1902) had set forth doctrines of evolution in which that word was probably used for the first time in literature to describe the idea of a general process

of production

of higher

from

lower

forms.

Sir

Charles Lyell, of whom Darwin professed himself a disciple, and who deeply influenced his whole thought and work, used the word some 20 years earlier in a similar, though less general, sense. The word evolution was seldom used by Darwin himself, but the par-

ticular application that had been given to it by Spencer rapidly caught on, and Darwinism and Evolution were often treated as synonymous terms. The doctrines of Darwin, however, only applied and were only meant to apply to the world of life, nor even there can we regard the words Darwinism and Evolution as truly synonymous, for it is quite possible to conceive of organic evolution that is independent of such “Darwinian” factors as natural selection or sexual selection. The phrase “survival of

the fittest” was also coined by Spencer, and caught on in the same way as did evolution. Evolutionary doctrines were diffused by a host of expert biologists who were rapidly converted to the Darwinian point of view. Among them T. H. Huxley (1825-95, q.v.) in England and Ernst Haeckel (1834—1919, g.v.) in Germany are worthy of special commemoration. Since Darwin’s time, and especially in the 2oth century, a great deal of doubt has been cast on the evolutionary efficacy of those factors on which Darwin himself laid most stress. The conclusion that species do in fact give rise to other species has earned almost universal acceptance, and on the general relation of living things within the larger groups there is no wide divergence of opinion. Here Darwin may be regarded as victorious all along the line, It cannot be said, however, that any general agreement has been reached as to the process by which the great variation in living things has been produced, nor can it be claimed that there is any consensus of opinion as to the relationship of the main groups of living things with each other. Despite these reservations it cannot be gainsaid that the history of biology since the days of Darwin may be treated as in large part a commentary on his work. The stimulus which he gave

to comparative morphology has given rise to an almost incredible mass of literature dealing with plant and animal forms. His work has acted as a less stimulating influence on those depart-

ments which deal with function, and comparative physiology remains in a rudimentary state. The study of inheritance and of genetic characters, however, may be traced back directly to his example. A large part of the work of the last half century in this direction has been done in confirmation or refutation of the views which he expressed. Biogenesis Versus Abiogenesis. The Origin of Life—All the older naturalists, following Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus, were willing to accept spontaneous generation at least of the lower forms of life. According to them, spontaneous generation

was the normal mode of production of certain organisms. These views were universally accepted until the middle of the 17th century, and the advent of microscopic research.

The exploration of microscopic life soon revealed that many

cases of apparent spontaneous generation had been falsely m-

terpreted.

Thus, for instance, Malpighi showed that galls were

not spontaneously generated, but were associated with the larvae

of the insect, the egg of which was placed within the plant by the

parent insect.

On the other hand, the increasing power of the

microscope revealed the existence of more and‘more miinute organ

BIOLOGY

HISTORY]

isms which seemed to appear out of nothing. Thus Leeuwenhoek

saw such organisms in infusions of broth and other substances. Such infusions, at first perfectly clear, became in a few days turbid with these minute actively moving bodies, which were

for this reason called Infusoria,

The first scientific treatment of the question of spontaneous generation was made by the Italian Francesco Redi (1626-97). This remarkable naturalist’s experiments were most admirably designed, and his conclusions were lucidly set forth. He exposed fresh meat in jars covered with fine gauze,. using as controls meat in other jars not so covered. Soon in the open jars larvae of flies developed, while eggs corresponding to such larvae were deposited on the surface of the gauze above the closed jars, but no larvae ever developed within the closed jar itself. Redi traced the larvae to their parents and showed conclusively that the generation of

these insects could only be through parent forms. With the extension of microscopic

observation, however, the

problem was thrown farther and farther back, and during the 18th century the battle on the subject of spontaneous generation raged

back and forth. On the one hand it was shown that by boiling or chemically treating a medium, organisms appeared in it slowly or not at all.

On

the other

hand,

cases

were

always

being

adduced in which microscopic organisms did so appear, despite all precautions. About the middle of the 18th century the controversy reached an important stage in a discussion between John Turberville Needham

lanzani (1729-99).

(1713-81)

and the versatile Abbé

Spal-

This discussion is interesting since it was

practically repeated about roo years later between Pasteur and his opponents.

In 1748 Needham published what was in effect a

repetition—made in conjunction with Buffon—of the experiments of Redi of the previous century. His experiments were, however, more refined than those of Redi, since he aimed at excluding even the most microscopic organisms. He came to the opposite conclusions to those of Redi, and inferred that microscopic organisms are generated spontaneously in organic substances. His apparatus consisted in effect of a phial filled with broth, the mouth of which was closed with mastic after the broth had been boiled. Needham’s observations were good, but his deductions obscure, often verging on the mystical. He was effectively answered by Spallanzani, an investigator and writer of very great ability, who made important contributions to several branches of biological science. Some of Spallanzani’s experiments . to test the truth of spontaneous generation were so exactly like those of Pasteur in the last century that the figures of Pasteur might be used to illustrate the memoirs of his predecessor.

The controversy concerning spontaneous generation continued in much the same state until 1859. During the previous years Pasteur had shown that putrefactive and fermentative changes in organic substances and especially in fluids were due to organisms.

The question was as to the origin of the organisms. He was well aware of the controversy between Needham and Spallanzani, but took the side of Spallanzani. By 1859, the year of the publication of The Origin of Species, Pasteur was engaged in acute controversy as to the origin of life. The matter was brought finally to a head by a very fine series of studies on the subject of spontaneous generation, the results of which Pasteur published in 1861. Spallanzani, in his experiments, had heated phials, and he

showed them containing putrescible substances. He was able to show that the contents of such phials remained indefinitely without any sign of putrefaction or fermentation. These processes did

not take place unless or until the phial was opened. The only effective criticism made on the experiments of Spallanzani was

that by the process of heating he had altered not only the infusions themselves but also the air contained within the phial. To this Pasteur had his answer, and it was the most triumphant of his experiments. He introduced into a flask an infusion of fermentable fluid. The neck was then drawn out into a long S shape, nar-

towed, but left open. The flask and its contents were then raised

to boiling point repeatedly, and finally left at rest. The flask was

left for days, weeks, months, undisturbed, and no fermentation took place. Finally, the neck was severed, thus exposing the fluid to the fall of atmospheric dust. In a few hours the liquid began

617

to ferment, and organisms could be demonstrated under the microscope. This is the critical experiment in a demonstration that there is no such thing, under present terrestrial conditions, as biogenesis. The issue has been raised in various forms at various times and by various observers, but experiments comparable to those of Pasteur have always been devised in rebuttal. So far as any biological doctrine can be said to be firmly established, it is the doctrine that all living things are the product of living things. It is manifest that this doctrine does not prejudge the question as to the first origin of life, nor does it prejudge the question as to whether life may have arisen at more than one date and in more than one place. It does, however, give to the biologist a conception of the nature of life comparable in its value as a standard of scientific research to the doctrine of the conservation of matter and of energy in the hands of the physicist. By a chance, the movements which led to this demonstration on the origin of life were almost exactly contemporaneous with the movement which led to the establishment of the doctrine of organic evolution. Thus the modern period of biology may be said to open in our era about the year 1860. Change in the Biological Outlook to the Modern Stage.— The whole outlook on the nature of living things underwent a complete and profound change in the period of about 20 years following 1860. This change may be ascribed to a variety of causes, some of which we have been able to discuss. These we

may now review categorically. (a) The discovery of the essential identity in the mode of reproduction of animals and of plants. (b) The discovery of the essential identity in the living substance of animals and of plants, and the emergence of the conception of protoplasm. (c) The examination of methods of nutrition and of respiration, and the realization that these too are fundamentally the same

for all living things. (d) At first the differences of the food supply of animals and of plants seemed an insuperable barrier to this last step. Gradually, however, there emerged the conception of the chlorophyll apparatus concerned with the manufacture of organic substance for nutrition of both animal and plant. The elaboration within the plant body, from atmospheric gases, of material for absorption into tissue came to be recognized as part of the mechanism of living nature as a whole. The view of the “balance of life” and of organic nature as one huge mechanism came to the fore. (e) The reduction of all living processes to terms of the cell.

(f) An evolutionary view of life gave a new conception of what

may perhaps be called the “economics of nature.” Thus there arose the tendency to examine the manner of life and habits of living things involving also their relations to other forms of living things. (g) The conviction that, so far as scientific experience extends, all living things are derived from living things and are not generated from not-living things. The combination of these conclusions and tendencies has introduced so much alteration in the approach of biologists to the material with which they deal that we may speak of entering an entirely new era. During this new era much attention has been concentrated on genetics and the process of heredity. For long, under evolutionary influence, the subject of variation in animals and plants was intensively studied. It is, however, apparent that the real problem to be solved is why the offspring resembles, not why it differs from its parent. This is perhaps the main modern biological problem. It may be observed that Aristotle, the first biologist, most clearly visualized this very problem. In this connection we may ascribe to Aristotle a most remarkable insight in his contention that the male contributes form only to the off-

spring and that nothing material need pass from male to female. The study of Aristotle’s expression of his views on this and allied topics will convince the investigator that throughout his writings he is in the presence of something far different from one of those cases of lucky prevision that are of frequent occurrence in the course of scientific development. A careful study of the

BIOLOGY—BIOMETRY

618

texts of Aristotle and of the history of biology reveals him as

[HISTORY

The sixth group is composed of animals which injure man jp.

one of the very greatest and most profound of all biologists. From

directly by attacking organisms that are useful to him, notably

his writings and from the thoughts enshrined therein, biologists

his animal stock and his crops.- The list includes voles, wood. pigeons, worm-parasites, locusts, cockchafers and cotton-weevils, wheat-midges and warble-flies. It is part of the task of the economic zoologist to combat these injurious animals, both directly and by encouraging natural checks. He has also to advise

will ever return with refreshment and stimulus. Biological science in its most modern dress has indeed begun to tread again the Aristotelian path. The different fragments into which biology

has been rent, morphology, physiology, genetics, embryology, ecology,

cannot

concern

themselves

with living things as they

are but only with abstractions and ideas of what parts of them are or might be. The great master of those who know sought in antiquity to set forth a sciénce of life as a whole. The greatest

of his modern disciples had still the same objective when he

wrote The Origin of Species 2,200 years later. It may be that this aspiration toward a unified biology, a true science of life, is the real legacy of Aristotle and Darwin.

against operations that upset the balance of Nature and agains careless importations and transportations. Seventh, there are animal enemies which injure man neither directly, nor through his stock and crops, but by getting at his stores or permanent pro. ducts. Termites are very destructive in warm countries; rats and mice spoil much more than they eat; weevils and their relatives destroy stored corn; boring beetles eat away the rafters: shipworms and boring crustaceans do much harm to wooden piers,

BIBLIOCRAPHY.—Aristotle, Historia animalium, translated by D'Arcy An eighth group consists of animals that are man’s indirect Wentworth Thompson (1910), De partibus animalium, translated by friends, by keeping a check on the fifth, sixth and seventh groups, William Ogle (1912), De generatione animalium, translated by Arthur Platt (1910); L. C. Miall, The Early Naturalists. Their Lives and and must therefore be conserved and encouraged. The birds of prey keep down the voles; the hedgehogs devour slugs; lapwings Work (1912); W. A. Locy, Biology and its Makers (1908); Julius von Sachs, History of Botany, 1530-1860, translated by H. E. F. feed on wireworms and leather-jackets; ichneumon-flies lay their Garnsey, revised by I. B. Balfour (1906); J. Reynolds Green, A eggs in caterpillars; spiders catch scale-insects; lady-birds levy History of Botany from 1830 (1914) ; Sir Michael Foster, Lectures on toll on the green-flies; water-wagtails are fond of the small water. the History of Physiology (1901); Henri Daudin, Méthodes de la Classification et Idée de Série en Botanique et en Zoologie (1926), snails that harbour the larval stages of the liver-fluke; and so on, Similarly for plants, there are wild species directly used for Les Classes Zoologiques (1926) ; Charles Darwin, Works and Life and Letters, also The Darwin-Wallace Celebration ... by the Linnean food and drink; those that furnish valuable products like textiles Society of London (1908) also The Foundation of the Origin of and drugs; those that have been cultivated; those that help man, Species, two Essays written in 1842 and 1844 edited by his son as forests do in improving the climate. On the other hand, there Francis Darwin (1909); Thomas Henry Huxley, Life and Letters (1900); J. B. Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy translated, edited and are inimical plants like the “poison-ivy” and many bacteria; the expounded by Hugh Elliot (1914); Major General Sir Frederick weeds that become pests and the moulds that attack crops; the Smith, The Early History of Veterinary Literature (1919-25); E.. fungi that destroy stores and dry-rot wood. Radl, The History of Biological Theory, translated by M. Hatfield (1928) ; C. Singer, Greek Biology and Greek Medicine (1921), Studies ` The central idea of economic biology is that the circle of in the History and Method of Science, vol. ii. (1920). The Discovery : human life intersects many other circles; and these intersections, of the Circulation of the Blood (1922), The Evolution of Anatomy: which are often changing, have to be controlled in man’s interests (1925), Short History of Medicine (1928); Louis Pasteur, Oeuvres —generously and far-sightedly interpreted. Man is part of a réunies (1922-27); William Bateson, Mendel’s Principles of Hered- | web of life in the weaving of which he increasingly shares, and ity (1909); Franz Carl Miiller, Geschichte der Organischen Natur-; the success of his weaving depends on his understanding, which in wissenschafien im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1902).

For full bibliography see the journals Mitteilungen zur Geschichte : this particular case is expressed in economic biology. (See from 1902 and Isis from FISHERIES; AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ORNITHOLOGY: Economic

der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften IQ13.

BIOLOGY,

ECONOMIC,

the application

(C. Sr.)

| Ornithology; ENTOMOLOGY: Economic Entomology; INSECTS AND

of biological: Pests; ENTOMOLOGY: Medical; PARASITOLOGY; BOTANY.)

BrpliocraPpHy.—Ritzema Bos, Agricultural Zoology (London, science to the control and improvement of man’s practical inter1894); F. W. Theobald, First British Museum Report on Economic relations with plants and animals. Man’s circle of practical inter- | Zoology (1903), with an introduction by E. Ray Lankester; M. I. ests intersects the life-circles of many other creatures. There are, Newbigin, Man and his Conquest of Nature (London, 1912); A. first, those wild animals that are captured for food, and it is the Dendy and others, Animal Life and Human Progress (London, 1919); business of economic zoology to make the most of such creatures F. W. Oliver and others, Life and its Maintenance (London, 1919); L. Walton and W. Rees Wright, Agricultural Parasitology (London, as deer and antelopes, rabbits and hares, pigeons and partridges, C. 1927); Wilkins, Science and the Farmer (London, 1927); J. C. Fryer frogs and food-fishes, squids and snails, cockles and mussels, and F. T. Brooks, Insect and Fungus Pests of the Farm (London, oysters and clams, crabs and lobsters, shrimps and prawns, palolo- 1928); Leaflets 1-200, published by the Ministry of Agriculture and (J. A. Tx.) ‘worms and sea-cucumbers. Second, there are those animals cap- Fisheries, Whitehall, London. BIOMETRY, a word to which three somewhat different tured, not for the food furnished directly by their flesh, but for ‘other products, which are sometimes edible. Here are included meanings may be given. (a) Just as the word geometry, origi‘baleen whales, elephants, beavers, birds of fine plumage, crocodiles nally denoting land-measurement, has come to refer strictly to for leather and turtles for combs, inedible fishes for glue and the mathematical study of the properties of space, so biometry manure, oysters for pearls and beetles for blisters. Third, there may be taken to mean the mathematical study of the properties are the animals that man has domesticated because of their direct of populations, a subject otherwise designated as mathematical, ‘or indirect utility—such as dog and horse, sheep and cattle, goats or theoretical, statistics. This meaning, though too limited, gains and reindeer, pigeons and poultry, ostriches and pheasants, silk- in appropriateness from the fact that many of the great modem ‘moths and honey-bees. Here the modern biologist has to advise advances in statistical theory have in fact been developed in the

about the improvement of breeds.

Fourth, there are the animals that favour man’s operations, like the earthworms that have made the fertile soil, and the flower-' visiting insects that secure cross-pollination. Here the main service of the economic biologist is to disclose and appreciate vital linkages that bind living creatures into an intricate system. Fifth, there are man’s animal enemies, reduced in modern times both in. “numbers and size. Most of the beasts of prey have ceased to be important, but the poisonous serpent still bites man’s heel. Of ‘greater moment are man’s parasites, such as hookworm and bilharzia, and the vehicles of parasites such as the malaria-carrying ‘mosquito and the sleeping-sickness-carrying tsetse fly. The biolo-'

‘gist has to unravel life-histories and discover checks and how best they may be put into practice.

study of biological material. (bì) A more comprehensive meaning would include not only the mathematical theory but the experimental technique of, and the results obtained by, the application of quantitative methods in biology. This meaning will be

adopted with the reservation that, since biological researches of all kinds, as they become more exact and detailed, must also become quantitative in character, we may ignore the large class

of researches into living or organic materials, by quantitative physical or chemical methods, which do not involve the peculiar characteristics of populations, as opposed to individuals, or require statistical methods in their interpretation. (c) The third

meaning is of historical interest only. In the early years of the

2oth century the term was applied to the work of a group of investigators who held that heredity could better be studied by mass

BIOMETRY wae

30 0

619

ee >

a

g 5 +200 Š

i

=

z =

z -100 a

2

XK

>

N

| “Ee

Z

30

29

28

3i

32

TABLE

INDICATING

GiRTH BIOMETRICAL

IN

VARIATIONS

38

37

34

33

39

INCHES IN CHEST

GIRTH

AMONG

1126

ARMY

RECRUITS

shown, in which both the variation and frequency of certain common The observations of biometry are expressed in histograms, such as here be constructed to Illustrate the frequency of mental and moral qualities may tables These glance. a at compared be may measurements, or data, inches, were found the frequency with which chest measurements, of 33 to 35 shows histogram above The ts, measuremen physical as well as d s, whether very large or very small. A normal curve is superimpose among recruits of 18 years, and the rarity of the extreme measurement

in each such class may be observed, and the frequency disobservations and correlation coefficients than by Mendelian analy- | rence so obtained affords an adequate description of the partribution | tal experimen by sis, by means of the frequency ratios obtained in question. For example, the table below gives variate ticular breeding. The progress of research has cleared away the causes | of chest girth for 1,126 recruits aged 18, obent measurem the | pioneer a as recognized now is Mendel of this controversy, and Liverpool:—

tained by No. 1 medical board at

in the introduction of statistical methods in biology. Chest girth (inches). Frequency

.

«©

+»

‘

+ .

28

I

29

2

30

9

31

47

In treating so large a subject in a limited space it will be necessary to omit on the one hand the advanced mathematical development of statistical theory, and on the other the description of the innumerable practical applications of the systematic measurement of living things, ranging as these do from the mass production of clothing to the practical improvement of livestock. Attention will therefore be concentrated upon illustrating the fundamental arguments and methods of procedure by which progress has actually been achieved.

The primary purpose of biometrical methods is to overcome the obstacles to exact reasoning which arise from the variability of biological material. This is invariably accomplished by studying the frequency of occurrence of the different possible forms, or of the different possible types of response to treatment, etc. This method is at its simplest when there are only a few or even two possibilities to be enumerated, as when live births are classified as those of male or female children. The statement that 51%

of such births are of males is thus of the biometrical type at its simplest, in that it expresses the frequency ratio of one possibility of a variable event. Mendel’s discovery of the laws of inheritance was due to the fact that in matings from which the offspring could be of two or more distinct kinds, he took the revolutionary step

of ascertaining from a sufficiently large count just what the frequency ratios actually were. In this way he found the simple ratios 1: and 3:1 characteristic of differences dependent upon

only a single factor, in addition to the more complex ratios ap-

propriate to two or more independent factors, The Mendelian method of studying heredity lay in the experimental determination and interpretation of frequency ratios, and it is noticeable that each

great

advance

from

Mendel’s

position

has

been

achieved by the same method. More often the biological variation observed cannot be described in terms of a few distinct classes. A quantity (technically a variate’) such as human stature can take any exact quantitative

value in a considerable range of variation. Such measurements may be grouped in artificial classes; e.g., all statures from 6 st to 664in. may be considered as one class. The frequency of occur-

32

159

33

207

34

280

35

219

36

127

37

49

38 22

39 4

1,126

Total

The recognition of the value of such frequency distributions was principally due to Francis Galton. They are now invariably employed as a first step in the study of any biological phenomenon showing so-called continuous variation. The kind of information they provide may be seen at once by constructing a frequency histogram, in which the different measurements in the range of variation are indicated on a horizontal scale, and the classes are represented by rectangles, the areas of which are proportional to the number of individuals in each class. The histogram illustrates graphically the high frequency with which measurements are recorded in the central classes of 33 to 38 in., and the increasing rarity with which the more extreme measurements occur, whether of very large or of very narrow chests. It is easy to see that the most frequently occurring chest girth (the mode) will be nearly the average or mean girth, and that these will both be near a third value, the median, which divides the population into two equal portions, half being larger than the median and half smaller. Further, the form of the histogram evidently gives a good idea of how variable the population is, for the same area might have been more concentrated than it is in the central values, and spaced over a smaller number of classes, representing a less variable population. Or, on the contrary, it might have had a lower central hump, and be spaced over a wider range, if the population had been more variable. The statistical treatment of frequency distributions is much facilitated by the fact that, in a large number of cases, the observed distributions conform, at least, to a good approximation to

a definite mathematical form known as the normal distribution.

This is specified by the law that the logarithm of the frequency in an infinitesimal range of the variate is a quadratic function of the variate itself. The variable part of this function may be

(x—m)? in which m designates the central point, or written as — 20%

mean, of the symmetrical distribution, and o? designates the variance of the distribution, and provides a quantitative measure of the amount of variation present; its square root, ¢, is called ! the standard deviation of the distribution.

620

BIOMETRY

From any sample of observations it is important, therefore, to obtain estimates of the two parameters m and o which specify the population sampled; such an estimate has been termed a statistic. It has been demonstrated that the best obtainable esti-

mate of the quantity m is found by calculating the arithmetic

height; and how frequently an individual of given height wil have an assigned weight.

Definite mathematical

relations (re

gression equations) will be found to express the average weight

of persons of a given height in terms of that height, or the average height of persons of a given weight in terms of that Weight,

Finally, it is sometimes useful to evaluate an abstract number, the

mean of the observations, written t= SE x) where n is the numn ber of observations in the sample and S denotes summation over all the observations. The best estimate of the variance may then

correlation coefficient, which measures on an arbitrary quantitative scale the closeness of the interrelation between the two varieties

Ls (x—x)?. n—I When these two statistics have been calculated, the corresponding curve of frequency distribution may be constructed, as is shown in the figure by the dotted curve superimposed on the histogram. It will be seen that this process has removed the two

sion equation, which expresses the average height of the child in

be written s? =

arbitrary and fortuitous elements in the original representations;

(a) the discontinuities, introduced by our arbitrary choice of units of measurement and grouping, are replaced by a curve showing continuous variation of frequency; (b) variations, due to the chances of random sampling, of the numbers in the different classes, are obliterated except in so far as the estimates of m and g have been influenced by these errors of random sampling. The errors to which statistical estimates are liable form the branch of the subject to which the greatest amount of attention has been given in recent years. For samples from the normal distribution it is known that the error distribution of the mean,

Again, the two variates may be similar measurements of related persons, such as are the heights of parent and child. The regres.

terms of the height of the chosen parent, is then of great impor.

tance, for it provides a direct measure of the efficacy of selection, natural or artificial, in modifying the average character of the population. For human physical measurements the simple rule js found to hold that, if one parent only is selected to be one unit

above the average, then the next generation will have advanced by half a unit; but if both parents are selected the advance is ap. proximately ¢ of a unit. Similar biometrical studies are in. creasingly important in the improvement of livestock. In cases of inheritance the correlation coefficient may be used as a measure of the heritability of the character in question, as when it is found that certain mental and moral qualities are associated in near rela. tives to just the same extent as are physical measurements,

Alternatively it may be taken to measure the closeness of relation-

ship, as when it is shown that twins of like sex are more closely

alike than are ordinary brothers or sisters.

x, is itself normal, with variance equal to g2; the distribution of n s (the standard deviation estimated from the sample) is not normal, but is known with exactitude, and for large samples it ap-

The study of simultaneous distributions has opened out an immense field of research by providing a precise and objective method of studying vague and ill-understood influences—for example, meteorological and sociological. It is essentially a pioneer

proximates to the normal form with variance equal to Zo, Using 2n our estimate s for the value of o, these variances and the corresponding standard errors may be regarded as known; thus having a mean chest girth of 34”-009, with an estimated standard error 0”-0443, we have reason for some confidence that the mean girth of the population sampled lies between the limits 33-920 and 34.198. The result may be expressed otherwise by saying that the mean chest girth is significantly greater than 33”-92, z.¢., it exceeds this quantity by an amount which cannot readily be ascribed to chance. It will be noted that although the measurements are actually taken only to the nearest inch it is improbable that the estimate of the mean will be in error by as much as 4 of an inch, and its standard error may be diminished without limit by taking larger samples. This important fact depends on the positive and negative errors of measurement neutralizing each other more and more exactly as the number in the sample is increased; it would not be true if the graduations of the tape measure used were in error. Similarly, in estimating the variance of the population, an allowance (Sheppard’s correction) is usually made for the variance introduced by taking the measurements only to the nearest inch; if, however, owing to careless measuring a proportion of cases are not measured truly to the nearest inch, this proportion being greatest when the true measurement is near a class boundary, a part of the variation observed will be really due to these additional errors of measurement. In order to be sure that these errors are sufficiently rare the precaution should be taken of obtaining duplicate measurements, on different occasions, of a number of individuals. The methods outlined above find a very wide application in the study of the correlation or covariation of two or more variates. For this purpose a two-way frequency distribution is used which expresses, aS the result of direct enumeration, how frequently both of the variates shall simultaneously have values between assigned limits. The utility of this method lies in the great choice which exists in the pair of variates chosen. Thus, if we have the height and weight of each of a number of individuals, a two-way distribution will show how frequently an individual chosen at random will have any given combination of height and weight; how frequently an individual of given weight will have an assigned

method, and is usually replaced as soon as exact knowledge is available of the causes at work. Pairs of values may be associated for innumerable reasons, but the first step, which the two-way table provides, is to find if they are or are not in fact associated. In most cases there is a wide choice in the statistics which might be calculated as estimates of the parameters characteristic of the population. These will differ greatly in the efficiency with which they utilize the information supplied by the data. Methods are, however, available for obtaining in any particular case statis-

tics which shall be efficient in this respect. As further exact solutions are obtained of the error distribution of different statistics, so accurate tests of significance appropriate to the different problems which arise in practice are being developed. For a single normally distributed variate it is possible to test accurately whether the mean and variance do or do not differ significantly from given hypothetical values, as also whether two means or two variances obtained from observations are or are not in agreement. For the simultaneous distributions of two or more variates the theory of the regression coefficients and of the coefficient of correlation, in terms of which the dependence of one variate upon another may be expressed, is now almost equally complete. In addition, tests of goodness of fit are available for comparing the frequency of occurrence of the different classes with the frequencies expected by hypothesis, and for testing the adequacy of regression formulae, linear or non-linear, involving one or more independent variates. These tests may all be developed in the form known as the analysis of variance. Although much further mathematical research is required before the practical needs of biologists in this field will be fully met, the methods already established are adequate for a very large number of purposes, not the least of which is the increased precision and effici-

ency in the design of biological experiments. See T. L. Kelley, Statistical Method

(1923), principally for psy-

chologists; R. A. Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Workers (1925), primarily for biologists, with special attention to exact tests of significance, and the treatment of small samples; Pearl, Introduction

to Medical Biometry and Statistics (1923) ; G. U. Yule, An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics (1927); Recommendations for the

taking and presentation of biological measurements (British Association, 1927), practical recommendations of a joint committee | of

biologists and statisticians; Biometrika, a journal for the statistical study of biological problems, ed. K. Pearson. (R, A. F)

BION—BIPLANE BION, Greek bucolic poet, was born at Phlossa, near Smyrna, and flourished somewhere about 100 B.c. Nothing is known of him, except that he probably lived in Sicily. The story that he died of poison is probably only an invention of the author of the Epita-

phios Bionos (see Moscuus).

Although his poems are called

Bucolics the remains show little of the vigour and truthfulness to

nature characteristic of Theocritus.

They are over-sentimental,

and show the overstrained reflection which characterizes late pastoral poetry. The longest and best of them is the Lament for

Adonis (’Bairadtos ’Addwvidos) which refers to the first day of the festival, when the death of Adonis was lamented. Fragments of his other pieces are preserved in Stobaeus; the epithalamium of

Achilles and Deidameia is not his.

Bion and Moschus have been edited separately by G. Hermann (1849) and C. Ziegler (Tiibingen, 1869), the Epitaphios Adonidos by H. L. Ahrens (1854) and E. Hiller in Bettrige zur Textegeschichte der

griechischen Bukoliker (1888). Bion’s poems are generally included in

the editions of Theocritus. English transl.: J. Banks (1853) in Bohn’s Classical Library; Andrew Lang (1889), with Theocritus and Moschus (prose); A. S. Way (1913) (verse); edition by U. Wilamowitz-

Möllendorff in the Oxford Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca (1905). On the date of Bion see F. Bücheler in Rheinisches Museum, xxx.

pp. 33-42 (1875); W. Stein, De Moschi et Bionis Aetate (Tübingen, 1893); also G. Knaack in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopddie, s.v.; and F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit, i., p. 233 (18901).

BION, of Borysthenes (Olbia), in Sarmatia, Greek moralist and philosopher, flourished in the first half of the 3rd century B.c. He was of low origin and was sold as slave to a rhetorician, who

gave him his freedom and made him his heir. After the death of his patron, Bion went to Athens to study philosophy. He was admitted to the literary circle at the court of Antigonus Gonatas. He subsequently taught philosophy at Rhodes and died at Chalcis in Euboea.

His life was written by Diogenes Laértius.

Bion’s

Diairibae was a satire of a popular character; while praising poverty and philosophy, he attacked the gods, musicians, geometricians, astrologers, and the wealthy. His influence is distinctly traceable in succeeding writers, e.g., in the satires of Menippus. Horace (Epistles, ii. 2, 60) alludes to his satires (sal nigrum). An idea of his writings can be gained from the fragments of Teles, a cynic philosopher of the 3rd century, who made great use of them. Specimens of his apophthegms may be found in Diogenes Laértius and Stobaeus, while there are traces of his influence in Seneca, See Hoogvliet, De Vita, Doctrina, et Scriptis Bionis (1821); Rossignol, Fragmenta Bionis Borysthenitae (1830); Heinze, De Horatio Bionis Imitatore (1889) ; von Arnim’s article in Pauly-Wissowa.

BIONOMICS, the study of an organism in relation to its environment. See ZooLocy; EcoLocy: Animal; Prants: Ecology.

BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE

(1774-1862), French physicist,

was born in Paris on April 21, 1774. In 1800 he became professor of physics at the Collége de France, through the influence of Laplace, from whom he had sought and obtained the favour of reading the proof sheets of the Mécanique céleste. In 1804 he accompanied Gay Lussac on the first balloon ascent undertaken for scientific purposes. In 1806 he was associated with F. J. D. Arago, with whom he had already carried out investigations on

the refractive properties of different gases, in the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Spain, and in subsequent years he was engaged in various other geodetic determinations. He died in Paris on Feb. 3, 1862. He was especially interested in questions relating to the polarization of light, and his observations in this field, which gained him the Rumford medal of the Royal Society i 1840, laid the foundations of the polarimetric analysis of sugar. His very numerous published works include: Analyse de la mécanique céleste de M. Laplace (1801); Traité analytique des courbes et des surfaces du second degré (1802); Recherches sur Vintégration des équations différentielles partielles et sur les vibrations des surfaces (1803) ; Traité de physique (1816) ; Recueil d'observations géodésiques, astronomiques et physiques exécutées en Espagne et Ecosse, with Arago (1821); Mémoire sur la vraie constitution de atmosphère terrestre (1841); Recherches sur plusieurs points de Vastronomie égyptienne (1823); Recherches sur Vancienne astronomie chinoise (1840) ; Etudes

sur Pastronomie indienne et sur l'astronomie chinoise (1862).

His son, Epovarp Constant Biot (1803-1850), after amassing a competence from railway engineering, turned to the study of

621

Chinese subjects, and published Causes de l’abolition de lesclavage ancien en occident (1840); Dictionnaire des noms anciens et modernes des villes et des arrondissements compris dans Pempire chinois (1842); Essai sur Vhistoire de Vinstruction publique en Chine et de la corporation des lettres (1847); Mémoire sur les colonies militaires et agricoles des chinois (1850).

BIOTITE, an important rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of micas (g.v.). The name was given in honour of the French physicist, J. B. Biot, who in 1816 found the magnesiamicas to be optically uniaxial or nearly so. The magnesia-micas are now referred to the species biotite and phlogopite, which differ in that the former contains a considerable but widely varying amount of iron. Biotite is an orthosilicate of aluminium, magnesium, ferrous and ferric iron, potassium and basic hydrogen, containing small amounts of calcium, sodium, lithium, fluorine, titanium, etc., and ranges in composition between

(H,K)e (Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)2(Si0u)4 and (H,K.)2(Mg,Fe)2Ale(SiO«)s. Like the other micas, it is monoclinic with pseudo-hexagonal symmetry, and possesses a perfect cleavage in one direction. Biotite is, however, readily distinguished by its darker colour, strong pleochroism, and small optic axial angle. The colour is usually brown or dark-green; thick crystals are often deepblack and opaque. The absorption of light-rays vibrating parallel to the cleavage is much greater than of rays vibrating in a direction perpendicular thereto, and in dark-coloured crystals the former are almost completely absorbed. The specific gravity of biotite is, as a rule, higher than that of other micas, varying from 2-7 to 3-1 according to the amount of iron present. The hardness is 24 to 3. Several varieties of biotite are distinguished. By G. Tschermak it is divided into two classes, meroxene and anomite; in the former the plane of the optic axes coincides with the plane of symmetry, whilst in the latter it is perpendicular thereto. Haughtonite and siderophyllite are black varieties rich in ferrous iron, and lepidomelane is a variety rich in ferric iron. Rubellane,

hydrobiotite, pseudobiotite and others are altered forms of biotite. Biotite is a common constituent of igneous and crystalline rocks: in granite, gneiss, and mica-schist it is often associated with muscovite (white mica), the two kinds having sometimes grown in parallel position. In volcanic rocks, and in nearly all other kinds of igneous rocks with the exception of granite, biotite occurs to the exclusion of the muscovite. In the dyke-rocks known as mica-traps or mica-lamprophyres biotite is especially abundant. It is also one of the most characteristic products of contact-metamorphism, being developed in sedimentary and other rocks at their contact with granite masses.

Although biotite (black mica) is much more common and widely distributed than white mica, yet it is of far less economic importance. The small size of the sheets, their brittleness and want of transparency render the material of little value. Large, ? cleavable masses yielding fine

Y

N

smoky-black

and green

sheets,

sufficiently elastic for industrial purposes, are, however, found in Renfrew county, Ontario. (L. J. S.)

BIPLANE, a form of aero-

plane (g.v.) in which the supporting surface is arranged in two planes one above the other. This is the most widely adopted arrangement, its only important competitor being the monoplane BY COURTESY OF THE WRIGHT MFG. CO. (q.v.). The chief advantages of THE FORE-RUNNER, 1904, THE MAa biplane are compactness and CHINE IN WHICH THE WRIGHT light weight of structure. Almost BROTHERS MADE THEIR EARLIEST PRACTICAL FLIGHTS. HAVING NO invariably the planes are braced WHEELS, IT HAD TO BE LAUNCHED together by struts and wires. FROM A SLIPWAY The effective depth of the girder thus formed is the vertical distance between. the planes, which is much greater than the depth of the wing itself. This enables the structure to be made light and stiff.

BIPONT

622

EDITIONS—BIRCH

The resistance of the inter-plane bracing is appreciable, but for a given area and span of wing the biplane uses less power than a monoplane in developing a given lift, and on the balance there is little to choose between them on this account. The biplane is inevitably rather more complex and maintenance costs tend to be correspondingly greater, but design is steadily tending

to the elimination

of details requiring

adjustment,

and the

antiquary.

At first employed in the Record Office, he was ap-

pointed to the British Museum staff in 1836, as he knew Chinese He then began to study Egyptian and Assyrian, and on the reorganization of the museum he was in charge of the department of that name. He wrote a grammar of Egyptian hieroglyphs

and compiled a dictionary, as well as making a translation of the

Book of the Dead.

He wrote a standard history of pottery ang

many philological papers. Sy

MEIN

BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766), English historian, son of Joseph Birch, was born at Clerkenwell on Nov. 23, 170s. He

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FIG. 2.—YARROW HIGH-PRESSURE WATER-TUBE TYPE) FOR 575 LB. PER SQ. INCH PRESSURE

9

{OFF

BOILER

(MERCANTILE

This type has a heating surface of 3,420 sq. ft.; a superheating surface of 870 sq. ft., and in addition, 2,200 sq. ft, air heating surface for pre-heating air prior to admission to closed ashpit

valuable suggestions.

The boiler has a total heating surface of

3,4208q.ft., of which the superheating surface is 870sq.ft.; in addition, there are 2,2008q.ft. of air-heating surface for preheating the air prior to its admission to the closed ashpit. The safety

valves are set to 575 Ib. pressure, and the final temperature will be from 700° to 750° Fahrenheit. The test pressure is 913 |b.

The design generally, while not unlike that used in the navy, has

been based on mercantile practice, and more closely follows the

design of the Yarrow land type boiler now in use at a number of electric power stations. The boiler consists of a forged steam

drum connected to the three forged water drums by means of straight tubes expanded and bell-mouthed in accordance with the usual practice. Between the two water drums on the right-hand side is a superheater, consisting of a forged drum with a number of U tubes and placed between the two generating elements. The gases all pass up one side of the boiler and through the air-heater situated above the boiler to the funnel, The reason for adopting a single-flow type of boiler, where all the gases pass through one side, is that this design makes in this particular case a somewhat better arrangement in the ship than the double-flow type, where the gases pass equally through each side. The generating element on the left-hand side of the boiler absorbs a considerable portion

of the heat from the furnace by direct radiation, and it will be

BOILERS noted that the proportion of the total surface of the boiler sub-

ject to direct radiation is considerable—an important feature in modern water-tube boiler design, not only increasing the output and efficiency of the unit, but also providing a large amount of

795

Two vertical rows are fitted to each other and are staggered. The headers are connected with the steam drum by short tubes expanded into a cross box, which in turn is connected to the drum.

comparatively cool surface adjacent to the combustion chamber,

Each tube is accessible through individual handhole openings. These openings are elliptical in shape in the vertical headers be-

for combustion is secured by the cool air in the stokehold enter-

cause of the inclination of the tubes, the shape being necessary to provide for the insertion and removal of the tubes. The elliptical

which lengthens the life of the brickwork. The admission of air

openings are closed by inside fitting forged covers, held in position by steel clamps and bolts. The circular openings—where circular double casing through the air-heater, down the double casing at handholes are used in incline headers—are closed on the outside the back of the boiler into the closed ashpit, and so through the by forged steel caps, milled and ground and held in place by fre-bars. The efficiency of the unit is naturally increased by the clamps and bolts. Jointing rings or gaskets are required with the air-heater, which extracts heat from the flue gases; moreover, the inside elliptical covers, but not with the outside circular plates. air in its passage to the combustion chamber takes up a certain The main tubes are inclined at an angle of 22° with the horizontal. amount of heat which would otherwise be lost owing to radiation, The rear headers are connected at the bottom to a rectangular and incidentally keeps the stokehold cool. Also, the circulation of forged steel mud-drum by means of nipples expanded into air in close proximity to the furnace lining helps to keep the brick- counterbored seats. The boiler is supported by steel girders resting on suitable columns independent of the brick setting. The work at a temperature which ensures low cost of upkeep. For controlling the supply of steam—especially as, unlike an feed water enters the front of the drum. All these water-tube oil-burning boiler, the supply of fuel cannot be quickly cut off— boilers are constructed on the sectional principle, z.e., they may various means of regulation have been provided. A damper is be shipped in sections and erected at the power station. In the fitted in the uptake at the side of the top of the air-heater. When marine boiler, to save weight, it is usual to fit only one (or somethis is in its horizontal position the air passes through the air- times two) rows of gin. tubes, the remainder being 14%in. in heater to the combustion chamber. When, however, the damper diameter. The land type boiler is fitted with revolving mechaniis brought to a vertical position the air from the fan passes cal chain grate stoker automatically fired and with economizer ing an opening between the inner and outer casings at the front of the boiler about 6it. up from the firing-floor, passing up the

straight up to the funnel, thereby short-circuiting the air-heater

feedheater and superheater.

and entirely stopping the supply of air for combustion.

The Babcock and Wilcox boiler is by far the most popular land type boiler of the present day. At sea it has been fitted in battleships and battle cruisers and also in certain mercantile ships, but it is not, owing to its circulation, recognized as a boiler that can be forced greatly. With water-tube boilers it is of the greatest importance to use nothing but distilled water, and great care must be exercised in the selection of material for condenser tubes. It has recently been shown that a cupro-nickel tube is likely to be the tube of the future. Pure nickel would be the most reliable metal, but the difficulty of manufacture has not yet been overcome. A composition, however, of 70 parts of copper to 30

This ar-

rangement would be used when the engines are stopped suddenly. Provision is also made for controlling the speed of the forced draught fan, thereby limiting the amount of air for combustion. A still further control is to by-pass the steam direct from the boiler to the condenser by the silent blow-off.

AIR HEATER

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of nickel gives excellent results.

Beardmore SUPERHEATER

Mup DRUM

FIG. 3.—SECTION OF A BABCOCK AND WILCOX WATER-TUBE BOILER The arrows indicate the direction taken by the gases. The main tubes are at an angle of 22° with the horizontal. The boilers are constructed sectionally to facilitate transport

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.—The original boiler of this type was patented in 1867; since then over 40 water-tube or sectional boilers have been put on the market, the great majority of which have disappeared. The land type boiler, which has attained world-wide popularity, is: of the longitudinal drum stand-

ard type; it is built up in sections and has distinguishing features

as follows: (1) horizontal drum; (2) inclined section headers (staggered) ; (3) inclined straight tubes. The tubes, usually 4in. m diameter and 18 to 2oft. in length, are arranged in vertical and horizontal rows and are expanded into pressed steel headers.

(See fig. 3.)

Cochran Boiler.—The Cochran boiler is remarkably efficient, durable, and adaptable. It is manufactured in 22 standardized sizes up to 8ft. 6in. diameter and 1,000sq.ft. heating surface. It takes up comparatively little space and is economical to install. A special feature is the patent seamless furnace, which has a large ratio of heating surface to grate area, and provides easy facilities for cleaning or inspection purposes. The bricklined combustion chamber has a large thermal storage capacity, and the boiler has the additional recommendation of being readily adaptable to any class of fuel—coal, oil, coke, or wood, town, producer, or water gas.

Blake Boiler.—This

is of the vertical multi-

tubular type, occupies very little ground space, and requires no brick settings. It may be fired either by coal or oil and has been

designed with a view to utilizing waste heat from furnaces. Other features are general compactness and a large wet-back combustion chamber. One of these boilers, 7ft. in diameter with a height of 18ft., and a heating surface of 582sq.ft., using two oil burners, has evaporated 4,197 lb. of water per hour on a consumption of 328-6 Ib. of oil when working at a pressure of 165 Ib. per sq. inch. Its general utility is shown by its suitability for auxiliary purposes on board ship, for steam heating and also for supplying the motive power for steam cranes.

Howden High Pressure Boiler.—This combines the advantages of the cylindrical and water-tube boilers by ensuring that there is a large amount of water in circulation and also an ample steam space. There are no stays or stay nuts in contact with the flames, and although designed for the high pressures of marine service, the thickness of the shell plate is kept within practicable limits. Another feature is that the water-tubes are not subjected

to intense heat, as the flames first operate on the cylindrical portion, of the boiler, the tubes coming into contact only with the combustion chamber gases. The temperature drop from the forward portion of the cylindrical furnace to the water-tubes is

BOILERS

796

approximately 700° to 800° Fahrenheit. All parts of this boiler are readily accessible both from the-front through the furnaces and from the sides through the combustion chamber, and observation can be made of the flame during the whole time the boiler is in operation. Installations of this type do not require the space occupied by a battery of marine boilers, while the weights are 409% less than those of Scotch boilers of the same capacity. Any mud or scale is deposited in the lower water-tube drum, which is not subjected to flame and whence it can be removed easily. An oil-burning boiler of this description with a heating surface of 4208q.ft. in the cylindrical portion and 2,580sq.ft. in the water tubes, with a steam pressure of 305-6 lb. per sq. inch, evaporated 16 lb. of water per hour per Ib. of oil used. The total weight of the boiler with water was 60 tons and the efficiency worked out at 87-78%. Supetrheaters.—In order to increase the working efficiency of the boiler many devices have been invented and much importance attaches to the superheater, which may be defined as an apparatus for increasing the temperature of steam without augmenting the pressure. It consists of a system of tubular units or elements with the steam flowing inside and hot gases outside. One end of each tube or unit is connected to a distributor or saturated steam heater, the other end to a collector or superheated steam heater. In the locomotive and Scotch marine boilers the fire tube type superheater is the usual design. The “‘integral” superheater is installed within the boiler setting and receives heat from the same flue gases and the same furnace as the boiler. They are usually of the convection type, absorbing heat from the gases of combustion which sweep over them. In some cases, in locomotive and Scotch marine types, the superheaters are located in the uptake, but the degree of superheat here is limited to about 50° F, whereas the fire tube superheater gives 200° to 300°. In some instances superheaters have to be provided with their own furnace, e.g., when the design of the boiler does not permit the installation of an integral superheater. The most remarkable improvement in the steam locomotive since its invention has been the introduction and use of superheated steam. Practically no locomotive is built to-day without superheaters. CLAMPING SCREW

through the suction strainer by the oil fuel pump and discharged

to the heater in which its temperature is raised to reduce the

viscosity of the oil sufficiently to enable a very fine Spray to be obtained at the burner. After leaving the heater the oil is passed

through a discharge strainer in which it is very finely strained The fittings and their accessories are generally mounted on an oil-

tight tray to form a complete unit. From the pumping and heating FIREBRICK SLABS TO BE PLACED ON FIREBARS WHEN BURNING OIL ASBESTOS MILLBOARD PLACED ON FIREBARS WHEN BURNING OIL

FIG, 5,~-FURNACE ARRANGEMENT LIQUID FUEL BURNING SYSTEM

OF THE WALLSEND-HOWDEN

PATENT

unit the oil travels through the discharge pipe to the burners, one of which is illustrated. The burner (fig. 4) is extremely simple and strong, and consists of only four parts—viz., the body, cap, nozzle, and diaphragm. Holes are drilled nearly tangentially

through the diaphragm, causing the oil to spin rapidly in the swirling chamber, so that on issuing from the nozzle it opens out in the form of a fine conical mist-like spray, due to the centrifugal effect of the spinning motion. The burner is held in its carrier by a clamp, a mitre joint being formed between the burner and an adapter screwed into the carrier. This makes a perfectly oilCOQLED FLUE GASES TO CHIMNEY

NDUCED DRAUGHT FAN

BURNER CARRIER FORCED DRAUGHT FAN

BURNER BODY

COLD AIR

ROTOR COUNTER BALANCE

To FURNACE DIAPHRAGM HEATING ELEMENTS: OIL INLET

CLEANING

FIG.

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4.~-WALLSEND-HOWDEN

extremely

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and

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PATENT

type

of

LIQUID

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burner,

requires

PLUG

BURNER

only

a

few

seconds to change, replace and light

The “elesco” fire tube superheater consists of loops of tubing

forming units which extend into the boiler flues.

Liquid Fuel—The use of liquid fuel, especially under marine boilers, is a notable feature of modern development in boiler practice. The advantages are reduction in engine room ‘staff, increase in cargo carrying capacity, and more steady steaming. Fuel oils, as used for steam-raising purposes, are the residuals which re-

main after the lighter fractions have been removed from the crude oil. The result is that most fuel oils are heavy viscous liquids which would not be satisfactory if methods of oil firing had not greatly improved. One advantage, however, arises from the use of these residuals, viz., that in bulk they are not inflammable, and therefore can be stored with safety. The oil is drawn

FIG. 6.—-HOWDEN-LJUNGSTROM AIR PREHEATER, WITH PART OF CASING REMOVED TO SHOW THE CONTRA-FLOW PRINCIPLE USED IN THIS TYPE OF - CONTINUOUS AIR-REGENERATOR tight joint and enables a burner to be removed without breaking pipe joints. The time required to change the burner, replace it by another, and light it up is a matter of a few seconds only. In the Wallsend-Howden liquid fuel burning system, the furnace arrangement allows (1) burning coal only (2) burning oil only or (3) burning coal and oil together (fig. 5). ` Preheated Air.—Preheated air gives better combustion, and with high temperatures the intensity of any chemical reaction becomes greater. It also increases the temperature of combustion.

BOILERS

797

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COMPANY

FIG. 7.—LARGE SIZE CENTRAL DRUM TWIN TYPE

The Howden-Ljungstrom

ee

END ELEVATION

SECTIONAL ELEVATION

BY COURTESY

es

ON ARS Dacre RR

STATION

air preheater

BOILER WITH 43.370 FT. OF HEATING

(fig. 6) differs from

others, inasmuch as it is constructed as a continuous regenerator and uses the contra-flow principle. The air enters the preheater through the forced draught fan and passes downwards through the rotor to be delivered through steel ducts to the boiler furnace.

The flue gases pass through the rotor in the opposite direction, being drawn by the induced draught fan and delivered to the chimney. These fans are of the axial type, the upper part of the preheater shell being adapted as the fan casting.

Use of Pulverized Fuel.—Considerable experiment and re-

search has been devoted to discovering the best means of using pulverized coal both for land and marine boilers, and the difficulties of the problem now seem to be overcome. Coal dust, together with the requisite quantity of air, is introduced into the

combustion chamber, and as each particle of fuel is surrounded by

the necessary air, combustion

is instantaneous

and complete.

SURFACE.

IT IS ‘OF THE INCLINED

CURVED-TUBE,

MULTI-

Successful experiments have been carried out by the United States shipping board, which show there is no difficulty not only in burning pulverized coal under boilers, but in performing the requisite pulverizing on board ship. The advantages of the system are: higher temperature of combustion; complete combustion and therefore no carbon loss in ash; ability to use any class of coal; increased flexibility of operation, so that the fuel supply can be immediately cut off or automatically adjusted to the load; reduced costs; and elimination of wastage from smoke. (W. 0.) UNITED STATES Advances in boiler practice in the United States during the ten years ending in 1928 have been made primarily in the size of boiler units used, in the pressures for which they have been built and operated, in the ultimate steam temperatures used, and in the capacities or rates of evaporation developed from a given amount of heating surface.

BOILERS

798

Boiler Sizes—Twenty years ago the average boiler in power plant service contained some 2,500 sq.ft. of heating surface while the maximum sized unit contained approximately 6,000 sq.ft. The average sized boiler in central station work now contains from 12,000 to 14,000 sq.ft. of heating surface, the largest boiler yet built containing 42,370 sq.ft. This unit is of the inclined, curved tube design (fig. 7); the largest boiler of the straight tube type

maximum output per boiler unit may be limited by the Class of coal used, as affecting slag troubles either on the furnace walls

or on the boiler tubes. Much has been done in the development of the so-called slag screens, formed by certain of the boiler tubes

to minimize the latter trouble. This has been accomplished by the use of an arrangement of the boiler tubes which the products of combustion first strike in such manner as to give greater gas flow areas, and lower gas velocities, into the boiler heating surfaces. A sufficient number of tubes are so arranged as to cool the gases below the temperature at which the ash will fuse to the tubes before the gases strike the main portion of the heating surface of the boiler. The development of water-cooled furnaces, discussed hereafter, has tended to minimize any slagging trouble with the furnace walls. In another plant, where refractory furnaces are used, the limiting factor may be the life of the furnace brickwork as affected

by the rate of driving. This factor too is becoming of less importance through the increased use of water walls in high duty

boilers. In a third plant the load factor may have the greatest bearing on the rate of output; ż.e., at peak load periods, rates might be justifiable from the standpoint of slag or brickwork

trouble that would not be allowable in steady operation.

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BY COURTESY OF THE BABCOÇK & WILCOX COMPANY FIG. 8.—HORIZONTAL WATER TUBE

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DRUM

BOILER

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contains 35,449 sq.ft. of heating surface exclusive of furnace wall cooling tubes. This unit is of the horizontal sectional heater water tube type (fig. 8). The increase in size of individual boiler units has followed naturally the increase in size of prime movers, the desire to cut down boiler-room labour and to reduce the unit cost of power. The limitation òn the physical size of boiler units would seem to be set by a combination of boiler design and boiler-shop equip-

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Capacities—While the maximum amount of heating surface possible in a single unit is a question of physical size and the ability to build any particular design of boiler to such maximum, the maximum amount of steam to be generated by any given amount of heating surface is dependent upon a great number of factors. Almost regardless of the design of any particular combination of furnace, boiler, economizer or air heater, or both, because of the great number of these factors involved, it is impossible to state what rate of output per sq.ft. of surface represents the best rate for the best commercial return. The limitation is set not by the maximum thermal efficiency obtainable so much as by the return on the capital invested and by problems of operation. With first cost eliminated, it would always be possible to obtain efficiencies at very high rates of boiler output comparable with those obtainable at normally high rates simply by the addition of economizer or air pre-heater surface. It is the operating factor that has the greater bearing. In one plant the

A BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

BABCOCK

FIG. 9.—HORIZONTAL TYPE BOILER

& WILCOX

WATER

COMPANY

TUBE,

CROSS

DRUM,

STEAM

ECONOMIZER

Twenty years ago rates of evaporation of 5 or 6 lb. per sq.ft. of boiler heating surface were considered high. Such rates were limited not so much by the lack of ability of the boiler to absorb heat as by the limitations of the combustion apparatus available. With the developments in combustion apparatus, improvements in furnace design, and the increase in use of water-cooled furnaces, such rates to-day are considered moderate and continuous rates of g or ro lb. per sq.ft. of boiler heating surface are common in central station practice, while somewhat lower rates are common in industrial plants.

BOILERS

799

The tendency toward the use of higher steam pressures is not to central station practice. Industrial plants within the limited square foot of heating surface have been obtained with a boiler of years have also been adopting higher pressures though few past absorption heat total of proportion large a which in a late design es. Many industrial plants are utilizing 450 in super-pressur the illustrated not ig through direct radiation. A boiler of this type, fg. 9, is divided in heating surface as follows:—Boiler, 5,938 Ib. pressure and one plant has gone to 800 lb. The use of high of advantage where sq.ft.; furnace walls and floor, 2,460 sq.ft.; economizer, 8,365 pressures in industrial plants is particularly bled from the turbine at sq.ft. ; total water surface, 16,763 sq.ft.; air heater, 41,700 sq.ft. process steam is used, the steam being as are used in This boiler has been operated at a capacity of somewhat over one or more stages at such pressure or pressures and related OF, GENERATION Steam, article the See work. process 290,000 lb. output per hour. Such a rate would mean an evaporation per square foot of boiler and furnace wall surface of 34-5 subjects, including MERCURY-VAPOUR BOILER. Superheat.—Twenty years ago when the average central stalb. or of total water surface including economizer of 17-3 Ib. temperatures reWhile the economizer is designed to permit steaming, the amount tion pressures were 200°to 225 lb., the steam of steam made in the economizer, even at the high rates of out- quired and used were rarely over 550° F——approximately 150° of put, is not great, and the actual evaporation per square foot: of superheat. This ultimate temperature has been gradually in700° to 750° are genboiler and furnace wall surface is much closer to the first figure creased until to-day temperatures of from station practice. A central best representing as accepted erally major the which than the second. Another design of boiler in may proportion of the total heat absorption is through direct radia- superheater designed to give 750° ultimate temperature intervals short for give operation of conditions certain under of sq.ft. per Ib. 24-6 of tion, and for which a rate of evaporation United States 750° has as surface per hour is reported, is shown in fig. ro. Of the boilers temperatures of, say, 800°, but in the The highest rates

of evaporation

expressed in pounds

per

absorbing heat largely through convection, the maximum total evaporation is largely a function of the fuel burning equipment,

while the maximum evaporation per square foot of heating sur-

face will decrease as the heating surface per foot of furnace width

increases.

Of the convection absorption boilers of the general

design illustrated in fig. 8 the maximum evaporation per square

foot of heating surface is from 15-1 lb. per hour for a boiler 18

tubes high to 22-5 Ib. per hour for a boiler 11 tubes high. The maximum evaporation reported with multidrum boilers of the design illustrated in fig. 7 is 20-5 lb. per hour. With continued developments in furnace design, combustion apparatus,

and possibly some modification in the arrangement of heating surface relative to furnace, these rates may be exceeded. It is to be understood that these high rates of steam output are only possible with the very best feed water, and it is becoming more and more thoroughly appreciated in the United States that the best of feed water is essential to proper central station operation. Pressures.—T wenty years ago the average boiler pressure used in central station work was 200 or 225 lb., though some few stations were equipped with 350 Ib. boiler units. In 1926, two 6so-lb. pressure plants were placed in operation. In 1928 there

were 18 different stations either in operation or in course of erec-

yet been considered the maximum allowable for steady operating

conditions. It is probable, however, that higher temperatures will be demanded and that the demand will be met by the use of special alloy steels in the hot portion of the superheater. One manufacturer at least is at the present time using such steel in the hot end of the superheater where ultimate temperatures of 725° and over are required. The limiting factor is tube temperature. It is to be remembered that the temperature of the tube metal is appreciably higher than the temperature of the steam within, particularly where the superheater is located in a hot gas temperature zone. This tube temperature may be as much as 150° above steam temperature, which would mean for

an ultimate steam temperature of 750° a tube temperature of goo°. For this reason it is essential in superheater design that steam velocities be used to keep the tube temperatures as near that of the steam as possible and to assure a proper distribution of steam to all superheater tubes. Both convection and radiant heat superheaters are in use in the United States and in some instances a combination of the two. Radiant heat superheaters show a falling superheat curve; i.¢.,; a decrease in superheat with increased rates of steam output. A properly designed combination convection and radiant

curve; tion, utilizing pressures of 650 lb. or over. There are to-day, in heat superheater should give the desirable flat superheat output. of rate of regardless superheat of degree constant a ie., operation or in course of erection, seven different stations utilizing pressures of from 1,200 to 1,400 Ib,, the latter being the high- The principal objection to the combination type as so far derates of output est pressure for which boilers have as yet been built for com- signed has been a total pressure drop that at high mercial service in the United States. Experimental boilers have might be considered excessive. The so-called interdeck superheater such as is shown in fig. 8, been built for pressures higher than 1,400 pounds. the superheater is placed closer to the furnace than was where Riveted drums have been used for pressures up to 730 Ib. per sgin. Boilers built for pressures above this have been equipped formerly standard practice with this type of boiler, is in effect superheater in that with seamless forged steel drums. In the more or less unstable a combination convection and radiant heat state of the art it is useless to attempt to predict what pressure the gases pass over it and it absorbs a certain amount of heat by will ultimately be accepted as representing the best practice. radiation through the lanes between the tubes below it. Reheat.—As steam pressures and turbine sizes increased, turThe efficiency of the steam cycle increases very slowly with increased steam pressures above 600 Ib., and the problems of re- bine operating difficulties were encountered that were not experiheating—it is generally accepted that reheating is necessary at enced with low or moderate pressures. These difficulties resulted pressures of about s50 Ib. and above—feed pumps and the like from a loss in superheat at some stage of the turbine and the must be carefully weighed against the increased first cost and formation of moisture in the lower stages. This condensation, the increased skill necessary in operation resulting from added appearing as a mixture of water and gaseous steam, increased complication. Maintenance costs are apparently no higher with blade surface friction and led to a loss in blade efficiency in these high than with moderate pressures. The number of plants in lower stages. Since with the metals available it was not possible

service and in contemplation perhaps best indicate that under

proper conditions the so-called super-pressures are justifiable. Most engineers have felt that the use of such pressures could

only be justified for a base load plant where fuel-costs were high.

to overcome this difficulty through the use of higher initial steam temperatures, the so-called reheat cycle was adopted. It has not been definitely determined at what pressure reheat becomes necessary but it is generally accepted to-day that such pressure

is approximately 500 lb. Future modifications in turbine design may change this pressure. (See discussion of experimental stations in STEAM GENERATION.) The increase in thermal efficiency due to reheat is not great-— 24 to 3%, depending upon the initial steam temperature some boiler pressure high An attractive field for the use of the very would seem to be in the older and less efficient plants. Here the and pressure. The increase in the mechanical efficiency of the to the elimination of moisture in the high pressure turbine can be made to exhaust at existing line machine, however, due to bring the total saving due to reheat sufficient is stages, Pressure and the overall plant efficiency be raised appreciably. lower

On the other hand at least one plant is being built for 1,400 lb.

that will not be a base load plant and where fuel costs are reasonably low, and the engineers responsible for the design have been able to justify the installation.

800

BOILERS

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FIG. 10.—A LARGE-CAPACITY BOILER DESIGNED TO ALLOW HEAT ABSORPTION THROUGH DIRECT RADIATION IN WHICH A RATE OF EVAPORATION PER SQ.FT. OF BOILER AND FURNACE-WALL SURFACES OF 24-6 LB. HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED. THIS BOILER USES PULVERIZED FUEL AND IS ONE OF THE WATER-TUBE TYPE, COMPLETE WITH SUPERHEATER AND HAS ASH REMOVAL SCREW CONVEYOR. ARROWS SHOW THE DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE GAS, STEAM, AIR AND COAL, EXPLAINING THE COMBUSTION AND ABSORPTION OF THE HEAT

BOILERS to some 6 or 7%, again depending upon initial temperature and pressure and the stage at which the steam to be reheated is taken from the turbine.

Two different systems of the reheat cycle are at present in yse in the United States. In the first installation made, steam was taken from the primary superheaters of all the boilers serv-

ing a single machine, was exhausted at approximately 1rso Ib. and

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INTERSTAGE SUPERHEATER 14,000 SQ. FT.

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7 GRATE. 20,6,LONG TER Fpl 11.054 Sa. FT. 0” WIDE AREENA IN 2”TUBES

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

BABCOCK

FIG. 11.—CROSS DRUM FROM THREE BOILERS

&

WILCOX

REHEATER

that may more than In the convection the present time the been approximately

offset the lower overall thermal efficiency. and radiant heat reheaters installed up to

ultimate reheat temperatures have ordinarily the same as the initial temperature to the turbine—725 or 750° F. Higher reheat temperatures are being considered. With live steam reheaters the ultimate reheat temperature possible without going to very special construction is some 20° lower than the temperature of the high pressure steam used as a heating medium. Furnaces.—Improvements in combustion apparatus and the high duties demanded and required from a given amount of heating surface brought about changes in furnace design much more radical than in boiler design. This has been true with all classes of fuel and methods of firing, but the most radical changes have come with increased size and capacity of stokers and particularly with the development of pulverized fuel burning equipment. With the increased amounts of fuel that had to be burned to give the desired rates of steam output, furnace volumes have been greatly increased. In 1920 the average furnace volume per Io sq.ft. of boiler heating surface in 24 representative stoker fired installations was 1-9 cu.ft. In 1926 a similar average for 24 stoker installations had increased to 3-85 cu.ft., while in 14 large pulverized fuel installations the average had increased to 8-0 cu.ft. In several of the most modern stoker fired installations the furnace volume supplied has been as great as is general with = pulverized fuel. In the earlier pulverized coal furnaces, while the volumes used were large the rate of heat liberation per cubic foot was relatively low—from 10,000 to 12,000 British thermal units. In present practice the large volumes are retained but such volumes are utilized much more effectively. This has been made possible by the develop-

ment in pulverized fuel burners. By the use of the principle of turbulence in mixture of coal and air, combustion takes place with much greater rapidity than in early practice and a B.T.U. liberation of 30,000 to 35,000 per cubic foot of furnace volume is now common practice. It is possible that as further improvements are made in burner design this B.T.U. release per cubic foot may be still further increased. This would result in a greater steam output from a given boiler

COMPANY

UNIT.

THE REHEATER

HANDLES

STEAM

still being slightly superheated, was all returned to a special reheater boiler unit, reheated in this unit to approximately the original ultimate temperature, and then returned to the same turbine at the stage next beyond that from which it was exhausted. Fig. 1x represents a design of reheat boiler of this type. In the second reheat system, which was developed with the superpressure boilers, a high pressure turbine is used simply as a reducing valve. In this system, steam is taken from the primary superheater to a high pressure turbine which exhausts at a pressure of some 350 or 400 lb. per sq.in., or if the installation is made in an existing plant at the existing main steam line pressure. From the high pressure turbine exhaust the steam is returned to a reheater element integral with the high pressure boiler, is reheated and returned to a lower pressure machine, or in the case of existing plants in which this class of installation is made, to the main station steam lines. Reheaters of this design have been of both the convection and radiant heat types. Fig. 12 and

fig. 13 illustrate convection and radiation reheater units as used in the United States.

Live steam reheaters have also been used to a limited extent.

The use of convection or radiant heat reheaters lead to a some-

what better overall plant thermal efficiency due to the fact that any desired reheat temperature may be obtained, whereas with live steam reheating the ultimate temperature is limited by the

steam pressure available.

Sor

On the other hand, the live steam

teheater brings a simplification of piping and a saving in space

and furnace or an equal steam output with a reduction in furnace volume. The same improvements in stoker and pulverized coal burner design that made possible the Lotus Sna#, | higher rates of B.T.U. liberation BY COURTESY

ere:

OF THE

BABCOCK

& wiLcox

per cubic foot of furnace volume

also greatly reduced the amount

neice A noes of excess air necessary to comHee STEAM GENERATED BY A SINGLE Plete combustion. This in turn led to higher furnace temperaUNIT tures and corresponding higher efficiencies. The increased use of

air preheaters also tended toward higher furnace temperatures. With the possibility of developing these higher furnace temperatures, the limiting factor in boiler output became generally accepted as furnace refractory upkeep cost, and because of the desirability of such high furnace temperatures it became necessary to develop some method of reducing furnace upkeep cost. The remedy developed was the use of furnace wall cooling, either by air or by water-cooled surface. The earlier cooled furnaces

BOILERS

802

were air-cooled and to an extent air-cooling is used satisfactorily to-day though generally with the smaller boiler units and where the B.T.U. liberation is appreciably lower than that demanded in central station practice. Water-cooled furnaces developed rapidly. As now used they consist either of bare tubes, so-called fin tubes, and tubes protected by refractory lined metal blocks. In the case of plain bare tubes, these are usually set in recesses in the brickwork of the furnace walls though in some instances the tubes have been set out from the inside face of the walls. In one design of bare tube wall, the tubes are made to enter

the headers

in such manner

that adjacent

tubes

touch,

offering an all metal surface to the furnace. The fin tube furnace is made up of tubes on the sides of which steel fins are welded longitudinally and the tubes are so placed that the fins of one tube touch the fins of adjacent tubes presenting an all metal furnace wall. Another type of all metal furnace wall is made up of tubes on which blocks are cast. Of the refractory lined water walls the Bailey wall has been most highly developed. This consists of vertical tubes to which are clamped metal blocks so ground as to give an absolute contact between block and tube. The inside face of the blocks is lined with refractory material, this refractory being. used as the bottom of the mould in which the block is cast. Experience would seem to indicate that the refractory protected tube would stand a greater amount of punishment than would bare tubes, and higher rates of heat liberation in the furnace are possible with the former than with the latter. In most designs of water-cooled furnaces the combination of tubes and headers are connected directly to the circulation of the boiler thus becoming an integral part of the boiler. In a few instances the furnace water cooling surface has been made a separate boiler with its own feed line and water level. For the insulation of water walls various types of tile or commercial cements are being used with satisfactary results. The earlier water-cooled furnaces were comparativelv small in volume and because of a lowering of flame temperature combustion could not be completed before the products of combustion entered the boiler heating surface proper. The flame temperatures were lowered, owing to the presence of a large amount of comparatively cold surface in the furnace.

less. The amount of economizer surface that could be installed thus became small and the justification for such installation became questionable.

As pressures increased above 350 lb.—to 650-800 and 1,200 ang

above—the steam temperatures due to such pressures correspond. ingly increased. With such pressures the upper limit of feed tem. perature leaving the economizer was raised to a point such that even with the maximum incoming feed temperature to the econ. omizer resulting from three or four stage bleeder heating, the temperature range through which the economizer could function became sufficient in many instances to warrant the installation of an economizer of normal size. More recently a design of econ. omizer has been developed in which steaming is permissible. Such

a design with its boiler is shown in fig. ọ. Economizers as now

in use are in general of the counterflow type and with either plain

tubes or extended surface tubes, this extended surface being in

the nature of fins. In one of the latter designs the surface is lead coated to minimize exterior corrosion. Transfer rates to be

expected in economizers for a given set of temperature conditions and a given amount of surface are largely dependent upon gas velocities over the surface. The gas velocity in turn deter-

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As has been indicated furnace volumes were very generally increased due to the demands for increased total B.T.U. liberation corresponding to increased rates of steam output. With such increase in volume, together with improvements in stoker design and pulverized fuel burning equipment, the effect of furnace cooling surface on temperature was lessened. The development of refractory covered cooling tubes also tended toward increased furnace temperature. Further, a better understanding of the laws of heat absorption through radiation by furnace cooling tubes and boiler tubes exposed to radiation made it possible to properly correlate radiant heat absorbing surface and convection absorption surface, This was particularly true in the case of

pulverized fuel where turbulent burners gave a great rapidity of combustion. Economizers.—Engineers are not in entire agreement as to the advisability of economizer installations. With pressures above 350 lb. it is generally accepted that steel tube economizers are necessary. This brings up the question of interior corrosion due to dissolved oxygen in the feed water and to obviate such corrosion it is generally accepted that deaeration is necessary, At first the degree of deaeration required was not considered great, but to-day it is felt that the oxygen content of the feed to steel tube economizers should not be in excess of o.r cu.cm. per litre and preferably o-o cu.cm.

Until recently it has been common econo-

mizer practice to limit the feed temperature leaving the economizer to 50° below that due to the pressure of the boiler it serves. This was to prevent the possibility of steaming in the economizer under adverse conditions with the danger of water hammer. With the introduction and development of bleeder steam feed

heating in multiple stages, the initial feed temperature to economizers became

higher and higher, and the temperature

range

through which the economizer could function, if the feed temperature leaving the economizer was limited as described, became

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BY COURTESY OF THE BABCOCK & WILCOX COMPANY FIG. 13.—-THREE DRUM CURVE TUBE TYPE SUPER HEATER AND REHEATER

cir

4

$

3

BOILER

mines the draft loss through the economizer.

WITH

RADIANT HEAT

The allowable draft

loss therefore is in most instances the governing factor in the amount and arrangement of economizer surface to be installed for a given set of conditions. Obviously there is some maximum gas velocity with its corresponding maximum heat transfer rate above which the added gross efficiency due to the economizer installation would be more than offset by the power required to overcome the additional frictional resistance of the gases over the surface. No general statement can be made as to where this

point of maximum allowable transfer rate should be set, and 1t is necessary to consider each individual set of conditions as 4 separate engineering problem.

BOILING-POINT—BOISE Air Preheatets.—As higher and higher rates of evaporation per square foot of boiler heating surface were demanded and as pressures were increased, exit gas temperatures became higher than were allowable from the standpoint of boiler room efficiency.

803

BOILING-POINT,

the temperature, for any given liquid,

multiple stages was used, the gas temperatures leaving the econ-

at which the application of heat ceases to raise the temperature of the liquid and instead converts the liquid into its vapour. The boiling-point of water under normal pressure (barometric height, corrected for temperature and latitude, 760mm. mercury) is 100° C or 212° F. The effect of increasing the pressure is to raise

omizers were higher than allowable, due to high inlet feed temperatures. In order to reduce these exit gas temperatures to a point representing proper overall efficiency it became necessary

the boiling-point; the presence of dissolved impurities also raises the boiling-point, but to a much less marked extent. (See VAPORIZATION.)

Fven where

economizers

were

installed, if bleeder heating in

to introduce some additional heat absorption apparatus and the solution was the development of the air preheaters. Air heaters are not new. They were used as early as 1829 in connection with

metallurgical furnaces. While such heaters have been used in Europe and in marine practice for a number of years it is only within the past few years that attention has been given them in the United States. Development in this field has been slower in the United States than abroad primarily because of the relatively low fuel costs. With increasing cost of fuel, however, and with the demands

for high efficiencies, and the maintaining of such

efficiencies at high rates of steam output, it became necessary to develop this class of apparatus. The ideal air heater is one that wil give a maximum heat transfer rate, minimum draft loss, minimum leakage, occupy the least

space and be most readily cleaned. The first two of these factors are intimately related. While the form of gas and air channels have a bearing on the transfer rate, such rate is primarily a function of gas and air velocities, and such velocities in turn govern the draft loss on both the gas and air sides. As in the case of economizers there is some velocity and corresponding transfer rate that cannot be exceeded because of excessive power required to produce the draft. The questions of space occupied, ability to clean and tightness, are features of mechanical design and vary in the preheaters of different manufacturers, Air heaters as now used in the United States may be classed under two types— tubular and plate. The regenerative design is a form of plate heater. The question of maximum temperature of air for combustion advisable or allowable is intimately connected with that which furnace refractories or stoker or other fuel burning apparatus can withstand from the standpoint of upkeep costs—outage and replacements. The development in water-cooled furnaces has largely solved the problem of trouble with refractories resulting from high furnace temperatures, which in part, at least, are the result of the use of preheated air. Just what the limit of preheat that may safely be used with stokers has not as yet been definitely determined. Temperatures as high as 500° have been used with one type of stoker and no particular trouble reported. With another type and a particular grade of coal trouble was encountered with temperatures considerably lower than this, though such trouble was due to the action of the coal on the grates and not stoker maintenance. With pulverized coal the limit of air temperature, assuming a properly cooled furnace, would appear to be the limit of temperature under which the metal of the air heater would stand. This statement applies to the secondary air since the primary air temperature will be limited by the mills and the burners. Theoretically, the increase in overall efficiency due to the use of preheat should be higher than that represented by the gas temperature drop through the air heater. This results from the fact

that the increased furnace temperatures and more rapid combus-

tion resulting from the use of preheat will add to the efficiency represented by the temperature drop. Further, with stokers, the use of preheat has been shown to result in a reduction in the loss

through unconsumed carbon in the ash. The amount of air heater surface installed in terms of boiler heating surface has varied widely. Such amounts where economizers have been used, except in the case of steaming economizers, has ordinarily been from 80 to 120%. In one installation where no economizer was used and the air heater set directly next the” boiler this percentage has been as high as 353%.

In

the case of the steaming economizer unit designs, the percentage of air heater surface to boiler and water-cooled furnace surface

has been as high as 495%.

(A. D. P.)

BOILING TO DEATH, a punishment once common both

in England and on the Continent. The Chronicles of the Grey Friars (Camden Society, 1852) have an account of boiling for poisoning at Smithfield in the year 1522, the man being fastened to a chain and lowered into boiling water several times until he

died. The preamble of the statute of Henry VIII. (which made poisoning treason) in 1531 recites that one Richard Roose (or Coke), a cook, by putting poison in some food intended for the household of the bishop of Rochester and for the poor of the parish of Lambeth, killed a man and woman. He was found guilty of treason and sentenced to be boiled to death without bene-

fit of clergy. He was publicly boiled at Smithfield. act was repealed.

In 1547 the

See W. Andrews, Old Time Punishments (Hull, 1890); Notes and Queries, vol. i. (1862), vol. ix. (1867); Du Cange (s.v. Caldariis decoquere).

BOISE, the capital and largest city of Idaho, United States, and the county seat of Ada county; in the south-west part of the state, 2,700ft. above sea-level and surrounded by peaks of the Boise range; on the Boise river, the Lincoln highway and the Oregon Short Line of the Union Pacific railway system. It has a municipal airport and air-mail service. The population was 5,957 in 19003 21,393 in 1920, after several annexations of territory; and was 21,544 in 1930. Boise is a local headquarters of the Federal Government as well as the administrative centre of the State, and is the trade centre for a large irrigated region, shipping chiefly wool, hides and fruit. There is a United States assay office and a land office,

Federal courts (circuit and district), and a veterans’ hospital, which occupies the former military post of Ft. Boise. The State

i BY

mapat lah Ne COURTESY

VIEW

OF

THE

BOISE

h

g

CHAMBER

OF THE STATE

OF

CAPITOL

diei wore Se anda COMMERCE

BUILDING

AND

GROUNDS

AT BOISE

Boise, established in 1860 when the discovery of gold brought prospectors to the vicinity, steadily grew from a frontier town to State capital. To-day it is the chief trade and manufacturing centre of south-western Idaho

penitentiary are located here. The annual wholesale business of the city is estimated at $16,000,000, and the bank clearings amount to $63,000,000 a'year. There are great quarries of fine sandstone

near by, which have furnished material for the Capitol and other buildings. Hot water (175°) from artesian wells supplies heat for residences and public buildings and water for a swimming pool 6oft. by 25ft. in area and 3ft. to 16ft. deep. A polo tournament is held annually. The Arrowrock dam, 22m. E., is 348-5it.

high (the highest in the world), with a capacity of 340,000,090 tons of water, and has a driveway across the crest. Boise was founded in 1863, when Major Lugenbeel of the United States Army camped on what is now Government Island

and began the construction of Camp Boise. It was incorporated in

BOISGOBEY—BOISSY

804.

1864. Between 1900 and toro it grew rapidly, following the extensive irrigation projects undertaken in southern Idaho.

BOISGOBEY,

FORTUNE

ABRAHAM

DU

(1824-

1891), French writer of fiction, whose real surname was Castille,

was born at Granville (Manche) on Sept. 11, 1824, and died Feb. 26, 1891. He served in the army pay department in Algeria from 1844 to 1848, and extended his travels to the East. Among the many famous police stories written by him are: Les Mystéres du nouveau Paris (1876), Le Demi-Monde sous la Terreur (1877), Les Nuits de Constantinople (1882), Le Cri du sang (1885), La Main froide (1880). BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT, SŒUR be (1676-1714), French economist, was born at Rouen of an ancient noble family of Normandy, allied to that of Corneille. As judge at Montivilliers near Havre, and then as president of the bailliage of Rouen, he made a close study of local economic conditions. He was thus led to consider the misery of the people under the burden of taxation. In 1695 he published his principal

work, Le Détail de la France, la cause de la diminution de ses biens, et la facilité du remède. .. . In it he drew a picture of the general ruin of all classes of Frenchmen caused by the bad economic régime. In opposition to Colbert’s views he held that the wealth of a country consists not in the abundance of money which it possesses but in what it produces and exchanges. The remedy for the evils of the time was not so much the reduction as the equalization of the imposts, which would allow the poor to consume more, raise the production and add to the general wealth. In his Factum de la France, published in 1705 or 1706, he gave a more concise résumé of his ideas. But his proposal to substitute for all aides and customs duties a single capitation tax of a tenth of the revenue of all property was naturally opposed by the farmers of taxes and found little support. Upon the disgrace of Vau-

D’ANGLAS

See Studies on Attius (1857) and Varro (1861); Cicéron et ses ami; (1865) (Eng. trans. by A. D. Jones, 1867); La Religio n Romaine @’ Auguste aux Antonins (1874); L’Opposition sous les Césars (1875): Promenades archéologiques: Rome et Pompéi (1880; second series. 1886) ; L’ Afrique romaine, promenades archéologiques (x901) ; La Fin du paganisme (1891); Le Conjuration de Catilina (190s); Tacite (1903, Eng. trans. by W. G. Hutchinson, 1906) ; Madame de Sévigné

a

1923).

Saint-Simon (1892). See also P. Thoulouze, Gaston Boissier

BOISSONADE

DE

FONTARABIE,

JEAN

FRAN-

COIS (1774-1857), French classical scholar, Aug. 12 1774. He was in the public service restored by Lucien Bonaparte, during whose served as secretary to the prefecture of the

was born at Paris 1792~95, and was time of office he Upper Marne. He

then devoted himself to the study of Greek.

From 1809-28 he

was professor of Greek at the faculty of letters at Paris. In 1828 he succeeded to the chair of Greek at the Collége de France, He was librarian of the Bibliothéque du Roi, and perpetual secretary

of the Académie des Inscriptions. He died Sept. 8 1857. He produced editions of many later Greek authors, of which the chief were: Philostratus, Heroica (1806) and Epistolae

(1842); Marinus, Vita procli (1814); Tiberius Rhetor, De Figuris (1815); Nicetas Eugenianus, Drosilla et Charicles (1819); Herodian, Partitiones

(1819);

Aristaenetus, Epistolae

Poets.

The Anecdota

Graeca

(1829—33)

(1844)

are important

(1822):

Eunapius, Vitae Sophistarum (1822); Babrius, Fables (1844): Tzetzes, Allegoriae Iliados (1851); and a Collection of Greek for Byzantine

and Anecdota Nova

history

and the Greek

grammarians. A selection of his papers was published by F. Colincamp, Critique littéraire sous le premier Empire (1863), vol. i. of which contains a complete list of his works, and a “Notice Historique sur Monsieur B.,”

by Naudet.

BOISSY

D'ANGLAS,

FRANÇOIS

ANTOINE

DE

ban, whose Dime royale had much in common with Boisguilbert’s plan, Boisguilbert violently attacked the controller in a pamphlet, Supplément au détail de la France. The book was seized and condemned, and its author exiled for a time to Auvergne.

(1756-1826),

tiquary and Latin poet, was born at Besancon. He studied at Louvain and, on leaving, went to Italy, where he remained for many years. He became interested in antiquities, and formed a large collection. He returned to France, but, not being allowed to profess publicly the Protestant religion, which he had embraced some time before, he withdrew to Metz, where he died on Oct.

it impassively. He was reporter of the committee which drew up the constitution of the year IIL., and his report shows keen apprehension of a return of the Reign of Terror. His proposal (Aug. 27, 1795) to lessen the severity of the revolutionary laws, and the eulogies he received from several Paris sections suspected of disloyalty to the republic, resulted in his being obliged to justify

30 1602. His most important works are: Poemata (1574) ; Emblemata (1584) ; Icones Virorum Illustrium (1597); Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum, etc. (1597) ; Theatrum Vitae Humanae (1596) ; Romanae Urbis Topographia (1597-1602), now very rare; De Divinatione et Magicis Praestigiis (1605); Habitus Variarum Orbis Gentium (1581), ornamented with 70 illuminated figures.

himself (Oct. 15, 1795). As a member of the Council of the Five

French

statesman,

was

born

at Saint Jean la

Chambre (Ardèche), Dec. 8, 1756, and died in Paris, Oct. 20, 1826. He was elected in 1789 by the third estate of the sénéchaussée of Annonay as deputy to the states-general. During In 1712 appeared a Testament politique de M. de Vauban, which is the Legislative Assembly he was procureur général syndic for the simply Boisguilbert’s Détail de la France. Vauban’s Dime royale was directory of the department of Ardéche. Elected to the Conformerly wrongly attributed to him. Boisguilbert’s works were collected by Daire in the first volume of the Collection des grands vention in 1792 he sat in the centre, “le Marais,” voting in the économistes. His letters are in the Correspondance des contrôleurs trial of Louis XVI. for his detention until deportation should be généraux, vol. i., published by M. de Boislisle. judged expedient for the state. During the Terror he supported BOISROBERT, FRANCOIS LE METEL DE (1592- Robespierre; but he was gained over by the members of the 1662), French poet, was born at Caen and died in Paris. He was Mountain hostile to Robespierre, and his support, along with that introduced to Richelieu in 1623, and by his humour and his talent of some other leaders of the Marais, made possible the ninth as a raconteur soon made himself indispensable to the cardinal. Thermidor. He was then elected a member of the Committee of Boisrobert became one of the five poets who carried out Riche- Public Safety. He presented the report supporting the decree of liew’s dramatic ideas. It was Boisrobert who formally suggested the 3rd Ventose of the year III. which established liberty of the first plan of the Academy, and he was one of its earliest and worship. In the critical days of Germinal and Prairial of the most active members. He wrote a number of comedies, to one year III. he showed great courage. On the first Prairial he preof which, La Belle Plaideuse, Moliére’s L’Avare is said to owe sided over the Convention and remained unmoved by the insults something. and menaces of the insurgents. When the head of the deputy, BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES (1528-1602), French an- Jean Féraud, was presented to him on the end of a pike, he saluted

BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS ANTOINE GASTON (1823—1908), French classical scholar, was born at Nîmes on Aug. 15, 1823. After ro years at Angoulême, Boissier was appointed professor at the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris, and in 1861 became professor of Latin oratory at the Collége de France. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1875, and appointed perpetual secretary in 1895. He died in June 1908. His great theme was the reconstruction of Roman seciety.

Hundred he became more and more suspected of royalism. He

was proscribed on the 18th Fructidor, and lived in England until

the Consulate. In 1801 he was made a member of the Tribunate, and in 1805 a senator. In 1814 he voted for Napoleon’s abdication, which won for him a seat in the chamber of peers; but during the Hundred Days he served Napoleon, and in consequence on the second Restoration, was for a short while excluded. In the chamber he still sought to obtain liberty for the press—a theme upon which he published a volume of his speeches (Paris, 1817).

He was a member of the institute from its foundation, and m 1816, at the reorganization, became a member

des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

of the Academe

He published in 1819-2! 4

two-volume Essai sur la vie et les opinions de M. de Malesherbes.

BOITO—BOLBEC See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Révolution (x906): L. Sciout Le Directoire (1895) ; and the “Notice sur la vie et = see de M.

Boissy d'Anglas” in the Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, ix.

BOITO, ARRIGO, Italian poet and composer, was born at Padua on Feb. 24, 1842, and died at Milan on June 10, 1918.

While still very young he went to Milan and entered the Conservatoire, where he studied under Muzzaccato. Here he made friends also with Franco Faccio, who collaborated with him in writing a cantata, The Fourth of June, and a mystery, The Sisters of Italy, performed at the Conservatoire in 1861 and 1862. Im-

bued with the “advanced” tendencies of Wagner, Liszt and others, he fell much under the influence at Milan of Emilio Praga, a leading modernist of the day, alike in poetry and music. And here he projected and in due course achieved one of the most

important and characteristic of his own productions in the shape of his Mejistofele, whose reception however by the public on its first production

in 1868 was

anything but favourable.

Seven

years later it was revived successfully at Bologna. Boito treated the Faust legend in a spirit far more nearly akin to the con-

ception of Goethe than is found in Gounod’s “Faust,” but, in spite of some attractive pages, his opera lacks cohesion and dramatic interest and suggests little real inspiration. Nor can much more be said for his only other opera, Nero, which having been withheld from the public by the fastidious composer for years and years was finally produced at Milan (six years after his death), in 1924. For here again the high aim and ambition of the composer are more apparent in his work than any really genuine and noteworthy creative power. Much happier were Boito’s achievements as a librettist in which capacity he takes rank second to none. Of unsurpassable excellence are the “books” of Otello and Falstaff with which he provided his friend Verdi, while those of Ponchielli’s La Gioconda and Faccio’s Hamlet were also from his pen. His fine translations of Rienzi and Tristan and his admirable original verse and other writings testify to the exceptional powers of his mind. Both Oxford and Cambridge universities gave Boito the honorary degree of Doctor of Music.

BOK,

EDWARD

WILLIAM

(1863-1930),

American

editor and author, was born at Helder, Holland, Oct. 9, 1863, and brought to the United States when six years old. Educated in the Brooklyn public schools, he became an office boy with the Western Union Telegraph Company. Continuing his education at a night school, he entered the employ of Henry Holt & Co., publishers, In 1882, and two years later became associated with Charles Scribner’s Sons, publishers, eventually becoming advertising manager. He acted as editor of the Brooklyn Magazine from 1882 to 1884. In 1886 he founded the Bok Syndicate Press, the success of which led to the offer of the editorship of the Ladies’ Home Journal in 1889; under his management this magazine became one of the most successful publications in America.

After 30

years as editor he retired in 1919. A year later he published The Americanization of Edward Bok, which won the year’s award of the Joseph Pulitzer prize for the best biography, and the gold medal of the Academy of Political and Social Science. In 1923 he created the American Peace award, providing $100,000 for the best practicable plan by which the United States might co-operate with other nations to achieve and preserve the peace of the world, one-half to be paid upon the acceptance of the plan by a selected jury, and the balance upon its acceptance by the Senate. The plan of Dr. C. A. Livermore, of New York, won the award. Bok died at Lake Wales, Fla., on Jan. 9, 1930. In addition to his autobiography Mr. Bok published, among other works: Successward (1895), The Young Man in Business (1900), Two Persons (1922), A Man from Maine (1923), Twice Thirty (1925); You, a Personal M essage (1926), and Perhaps I Am (1928).

BOKANOWSKI,

MAURICE

(1879-1928), French poli-

tician. After practising as an advocate in Paris he was elected a

member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1919 for the department

BOKENAM,

805 OSBERN

(1393?-1447?),

English

author,

was born, by his own account on Oct. 6, 1393. Dr. Horstmann suggests that he may have been a native of Bokeham, now Bookham, in Surrey, and derived his name from the place. In a concluding note to his Lives of the Saints he is described as “a Suffolke man, frere Austyn of Stoke Clare.’ He travelled in Italy on at least two occasions, and in 1445 was a pilgrim to Santiago de Compostela. He wrote a series of legends of holy maidens and women. These are written chiefly in seven- and eight-lined stanzas, and nine of them are preceded by prologues. Bokenam was a follower of Chaucer and Lydgate, and doubtless had in mind Chaucer’s Legend of Good Women. His chief, but by no means his only, source was the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, whom he cites as “Januence.” The first of the legends, Vita Scae Margaretae, virginis et martiris,

was written for his friend, Thomas Burgh, a Cambridge monk; others are dedicated to pious ladies who desired the history of their name-saints. The Arundel ms. 327 (British Museum) is a unique copy of Bokenam’s work; it was finished, according to the concluding note, in 1447, and presented by the scribe, Thomas Burgh, to a convent unnamed “that the nuns may remember him and his sister, Dame Betrice Burgh.” The poems were edited (1835) for the Roxburghe Club with the title Lyvys of Seyntys . . and by Dr. Carl Horstmann as Osbern Bokenams Legenden (Heilbronn, 1883), in E. Kélbing’s Altengl. Bibliothek, vol. i.

BOKSBURG, a town in South Africa 15m. east of Johannesburg. Pop. (1922) 12,416 whites, 25,563 coloured. It is the chief centre of the East Rand gold and coal mining. The collieries extend rrm. eastward from the town. The Boksburg park and Jake, where boating and bathing facilities are provided, form one of the chief pleasure resorts of the eastern Witwatersrand.

BOLA, 2 Portuguese Guinea people related to the Bagnun, Balante, Mandjak and Papel, between rivers and on the island of Bolama.

the Cacheu

and Geba

See Dr. Maclaud, “Distribution des races sur la côte occidentale de Afrique.” Bulletin Géogr. Hist. descript. (1906).

BOLAN PASS, an important pass on the Baluch frontier, connecting Jacobabad and Sibi with Quetta, important in the recent

history of Afghanistan.

By the treaty

of Gandamak

(1879), the Bolan route was brought directly under British control, and it was selected for the first alignment of the Sind-Pishin railway from the plains to the plateau. From Sibi the line runs west skirting the hills to Rindli, and originally followed the course of the Bolan stream. Destructive floods, however, led to its abandonment, and the railway now follows the Mashkaf valley (which debouches into the plains close to Sibi), to a junction with the Bolan at Mach. The Harnai valley to the north-east of Sibi provides another route to Quetta which, although longer, is used for ordinary traffic, the Bolan loop being reserved for emergencies. The passage between the limestone rocks is in places extremely narrow, and the pass is subject to extremes of temperature, the ice-cold wind rushing down in winter often being destructive to life.

BOLAS

(plural of Span. bola, ball), a South American Indian

weapon of war and the chase, consisting of balls of stone attached to the ends of a rope of twisted or braided hide or hemp. Charles

Darwin thus describes them in his Voyage of the Beagle: ‘The bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is used chiefly for catching ostriches [rheas], consists of two round stones, covered with leather, and united by a thin, plaited thong, about 8ft long. The other kind differs only in having three balls united by

thongs to a common centre. The Gaucho (native of Spanish descent) holds the smallest of the three in his hand, and whirls the other two around his head; then, taking aim, sends them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each other and become firmly hitched.” "

of the Seine. He quickly became recognized as'an expert on eco-

BOLBEC, town, France, department of Seine-Inférieure, on

hance commission of the Chamber. In 1928 he became Minister for Commerce in the Poincaré cabinet, but was killed in an aeroplane accident in September of that year..

the Bolbec, 19m. E.N.E. of Havre by rail, at the junction of four small valleys. Pop. (1926) 9,794. The town was enthusiastically Protestant in the 16th century and still has a number of Protestants. It was burned almost to the ground in 1765. Bolbec is

nomic and financial questions and was appointed president of the

806

BOLCKOW— BOLESLAV

important for its cotton spinning, weaving, dyeing and printing, and for the manufacture of sugar. BOLCKOW, VAUGHAN & CO. LTD. This British steel company is associated with one of the most important in-

ventions in the iron and steel industry, the “Thomas-Gilchrist” process, which was invented as recently as 1879. This process enables steel to be made from the phosphoric ores which form by far the greater part of the world’s supplies of iron ore. The phosphoric slag from this process gave to agriculture the valuable fertilizer known as basic slag. The firm was founded in 1841 by H. W. F. Bolckow, who was born in Sulten, Mecklenburg, in 1806 and came to Great Britain in 1827, and John Vaughan, who had had experience in the iron works at Dowlais. They chose the site for their engineering works at Middlesbrough under the advice of John Harris, engineer to the Stockton and Darlington Railway, and became builders and ultimately owners of blast furnaces. In 1843 the first steamboat built at Stockton, “The English Rose,” was engined by Bolckow and Vaughan. In 1846 the firm erected four blast furnaces at Witton Park, and by 1864 the firm owned ironstone mines in Cleveland, four collieries in Durham (and it is interesting to record that coal was then being raised from one of the collieries at a cost of only 3s. 4d. per ton), 17 blast furnaces at Cleveland, Middlesbrough and elsewhere, plate mills and bar iron works at Witton Park and Middlesbrough, and foundries at Cleveland and Middlesbrough. It was in 1864 that a public issue of shares was made and the company formed. The first Directors were H. W. F. Bolckow, John Vaughan, Benjamin Whitworth and H. D. Pochin; the only connecting link in 1928 on the Board was the Hon. H. D. McLaren, a grandson of the last named. The circular of the solicitors to the promoters stated that “the production of iron during the year 1863 from 16 blast furnaces amounted to 180,000 tons of pigs. From the rolling mills about 40 tons of bar, plate, sheet iron and hoops and 38,000 tons of rails, and from the foundries about 20,000 tons of castings.” In the following years various other properties were acquired, and in 1872 the company obtained a licence from Henry Bes-

semer and Robert Longsden to work under the Bessemer patents. The growing demand for steel was the reason for this purchase. It had already been decided to move the works at Witton Park to the south bank of the Tees, where the new blast furnaces were smelting the Ironstone from the Cleveland hills. Steelworks were

to be erected at Eston (where the works still stood in 1928), and the works at Gorton, near Manchester, were acquired to fulfil orders for steel pending the completion of the new works, where steel was produced by the acid Bessemer process, for which a pigiron free from phosphorus was required. Iron ore properties in Spain were acquired in 1872. By 1877 the market for iron rails had disappeared and the company was making a thousand tons of steel rails a week. In 1876 the Gorton Works were sold to the Standard Iron and Steel Company, in which John Bright and other eminent men were interested, and were later acquired by Beyer Peacock and Co., Limited. In 1878 Windsor Richards, then general manager, met Sydney Gilchrist Thomas on a visit of the Iron and Steel Institute to the Creusot Works, and experimental work was undertaken at Eston on the famous Thomas-Gilchrist process. These experiments were successful, and by 1880 four 15-ton Bessemer converters were making steel from the phosphoric Cleveland pig-iron, with an output of 3,500 tons per week. In 1884 the company began to make steel plates and adopted the Siemens open hearth acid process in 1886. In 1899 the basic open hearth furnace began

to supersede the basic Bessemer converter. In 1900 the blast furnace gases were used to fire boilers, the steam going partly to mixed pressure turbines and partly to the large mill engines, whose exhaust was also utilized to drive the turbines. By this method power was generated to blow the furnaces and drive lighting and auxiliary plant and a surplus was left for pumping and traction purposes. In 1922, to find further outlets for steel, the constructional firm of Redpath Brown & Co., Ltd., was acquired.

II.

In 1887 the number of men employed was 13,000 with a wages bill of £820,000, and in 1927 II,500 men were employed, excluding employees of subsidiary companies, and were paid £1,618,000 in wages. In 1928 the properties and plant of the company con-

sisted of 15 open hearth furnaces, 16 blast furnaces, rail, plate and section mills, sleeper and soleplate plants, collieries, coke ovey

and by-product plants, ironstone mines, limestone quarries, and mines in Spain. (L. C. M.) BOLE, an aluminous or ferruginous clay, allied to bauxite ang laterite (gg.v.). It occurs as partings between successive ancient lava flows, as for example in Antrim, Ireland, the west of Scotland and in the Deccan, India, probably representing the soils formed by weathering during intervals between eruptions.

In the sense of stem or trunk of a tree “bole” is from the 0.

Norwegian bolr, cf. German Bohle, a plank.

It is probably con.

nected with a large number of words, such as “boll,” “ball,” “bowl” denoting a round object.

BOLERO, a lively Spanish dance, in 3—4 time with a strongly

marked rhythm of which, however, the precise nature is often varied; also the music to which it is danced and other compositions cast in the same form. As danced in Spain the bolero is usually accompanied by the castanets and sometimes also by singing. In classical music the best known example is that of Chopin for pianoforte solo (op. 19). The term is also applied by ladies’ dressmakers to a short sleeveless coat similar to those worn by the Spanish peasantry.

BOLESLAV

L., called “Chrobry” (the Mighty), king of Poland

(reigned 992-1025), was the son of Mieszko, first Christian prince of Poland, and the Bohemian princess Dobrawa, or Bona, whose chaplain, Jordan, converted the court from paganism to Catholicism. He succeeded his father in 992. A born warrior, he raised the little struggling Polish principality on the Vistula to the rank of a great power. In 996 he gained a seaboard by seizing Pomerania, and then took advantage of the troubles in Bohemia to occupy Cracow, previously a Czech city. At Gnesen Boleslav in the year 1000 entertained Otto III. so magnificently that the emperor is said to have given him the title of king, though 25 years later, in the last year of his life, Boleslav thought it necessary to crown himself king a second time. He still remained a vassal of the empire, but ecclesiastically Poland was independent when Gnesen became a metropolitan see by the favour of Pope Sylvester II. On the death of Otto, Boleslav invaded Germany, penetrated to the Elbe, occupying Stralsund and Meissen on his way, and extended his dominions to the Elster and the Saale. Henry II., however, at the diet of Merseburg, declined the money offered by Boleslav for the retention of Meissen, and from that time Boleslav was the enemy of the German king. He seized the opportunity of a revolt in Bohemia to intervene there to re-establish his cousin Boleslav the Red as duke, then enticed him to Poland, caused him to be blinded, and got the Bohemians to accept himself as duke. He found allies against Henry in Germany itself, and then, in 1004, attacked Bavaria, but without much success. His German allies sought Henry’s pardon. On Henry’s return from his Italian expedition he marched against Boleslav, who was expelled from Prague and made peace in roos. A third Polish war ended in 1018 by the peace of Bautzen, greatly to the advantage of Boleslav, who retained Lusatia. He then turned his arms against Jaroslav, grand duke of Kiev, whom he routed on the banks of the Bug, then the boundary between Russia and Poland. At his death in 1025 he left Poland one of the mightiest states of Europe, extending from the Bug to the Elbe, and from the Baltic to the Danube, and possessing besides the overlordship of Russia. See J. N. Pawlovski, St. Adalbert (Danzig, 1860) ; Chronica Nestoris (Vienna, 1860) ; Heinrich R. von Zeissberg, Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs

II. mit Herzog Boleslaw I. (1868).

BOLESLAYV II., called “Smialty” (The Bold), king of Poland (1039-1081), eldest son of Casimir I., succeeded his father

in 1058. Poland had shrunk territorially since the age of his grandfather Boleslav I., and Boleslav II. sought to restore her dignity and importance. Boleslav’s first Bohemian war proved unsuccessful,

and was terminated by the marriage of his sister

BOLESLAV

III—BOLEYN

Cwatawa with the Czech king Wratyslav IT. On the other hand Boleslav’s ally, the fugitive Magyar prince Bela, succeeded with Polish assistance in winning the crown of Hungary. In the east

BOLEYN (or BULLEN), ANNE

807 (c. 1507-1536), queen of

Henry VIII. of England, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, afterwards earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde, and of Elizabeth, daughter

Boleslav was more successful. In 1069 he succeeded in placing of Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, afterwards duke of Norfolk, Izaslav on the throne of Kiev, obtaining, in return, Ruthenia, was born, according to Camden, in 1507, but an earlier date or “Red Russia.” He proceeded then to attack his other enemies, - (1502 or 1501) is given by some later writers. She visited France including Bohemia, but its ruler, Wratyslav, speedily appealed with her father about 1519, and was attached to the service of to the emperor for help, and a war between Poland and the Em- Queen Claude for a short time. She returned in 1521 or 1522 to pire was prevented only by the sudden rupture of Henry IV. England. Among her admirers was the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt, with the Holy See and the momentous events which led to the and among her definite suitors was Henry Percy, heir of the earl humiliating surrender of the emperor at Canossa. There is of Northumberland. A series of grants and favours bestowed by nothing to show that Boleslav took any part in this struggle, Henry on her father between 1522 and 1525 have been regarded,

though at this time he was on the best of terms with Gregory VII. On Dec. 26, 1076 Boleslav was

crowned

by the papal legates,

a striking proof that the Polish kings did not even yet consider their title quite secure.

A second successful expedition to Kiev

to reinstate his protégé Izaslav, is Boleslav’s last recorded exploit. The nobles formed a conspiracy against him, which was joined by Stanislav, bishop of Cracow, and leader of the clerical party

which was strong in Poland. Boleslav, in revenge, had the bishop murdered while he was saying mass in his cathedral. Pope Gregory VII. excommunicated Boleslav, and in 1079 he and his sons were forced to flee to Hungary, where the king died in obscurity, probably in 1o8t. See Maksymilian Gumplowicz, Zur Geschichte Polens im Mittelalter (Innsbruck, 1898); W. P. Augerstein, Der Konflikt des polnischen Konigs Boleslaw II. mit dem Bischof Stanislav (Thorn, 1895).

BOLESLAV III., called “the Wry-mouthed,” king of Poland (1086-1139), the son of Wladislav I. and Judith of Bohemia, succeeded his father in 1102. His earlier years were troubled continually by the intrigues of his natural half-brother Zbigniev, who, till he was imprisoned and blinded, involved Boleslav in frequent contests with Bohemia and the emperor Henry V. The first of the German wars began in 1109, when Henry, materially assisted by the Bohemians, invaded Silesia. The Poles avoided an encounter in the open field, but harried the Germans so successfully around Breslau that the plain was covered with corpses. The chief political result of this great disaster was the complete independence of Poland for the next quarter of a century. It was during this respite that Boleslav devoted himself to the main business of his life—the subjugation of Pomerania (i.e. the maritime province) with the view of gaining access to the sea. The struggle began in 1109, when Boleslav inflicted a tertible defeat on the Pomeranians at Nackel which compelled their temporary submission. In 1120-24 the rebellion of his vassal Prince Warceslav of Stettin again brought Boleslav into the country, but the resistance was as stout as ever, and only after 18,000 of his followers had fallen and 8,000 more had been expatriated did Warceslav submit to his conqueror. The obstinacy of the resistance convinced Boleslav that Pomerania must be Christianized before it could be completely subdued; and this important work was partially accomplished by St. Otto, bishop of Bamberg, an old friend of Boleslav’s father, who knew the Slavonic languages. In his later years Boleslav waged an unsuccessful war with Hungary and Bohemia.

He died in 1139, leaving

four sons, between whom the kingdom was to be divided, the eldest son having overlordship of the whole. See Gallus, Chronicon, ed. Finkal (Cracow, 1899); Maksymilian Gumplowicz, Zur Geschichte Polens im Mittelalter (Innsbruck, 1898).

BOLETUS, a well-marked genus of fungi (order Polyporeae, family Basidiomycetes); characterized by the central stem, the cap or pileus, the soft, fleshy tissue, and the vertical, closelypacked tubes or pores which cover the under surface of the pileus and are easily detachable. The species all grow on the ground, in woods or under trees in the early autumn. They are brown, ted or yellow in colour; the pores also vary in colour from pure

White to brown, red, yellow or green, and are from one or two lines to nearly an inch long. A few are poisonous; several are good for eating. One of the greatest favourites for the table is Boletus edulis, recognized by its brown cap and white pores which become green when old. The numerous species are widely distributed, especially in forested regions.

with little justification, as a symptom of the king’s affections. Anne, however, had no intention of being the king’s mistress; she meant to be his queen. There is no absolute proof that Henry’s passion was anterior to the proceedings taken for the divorce in May 1527, the celebrated love letters being undated. After the king’s final separation from his wife in July 1531, Anne accompanied Henry on the visit to Francis I. in 1532, while Catherine was left at home neglected and practically a prisoner. Henry married her about Jan. 25, 1533 (the exact date is unknown), their union not being made public till the following Easter. Subsequently, on May 28, their marriage was declared valid and that with Catherine null, and in June Anne was crowned at Westminster Hall. A weak, giddy woman of no stability of character, her success turned her head and caused her to behave with insolence and impropriety, In strong contrast with Catherine’s quiet dignity under her misfortunes. She, and not the king, probably was the author of the petty persecutions inflicted upon Catherine and upon the princess Mary, and her jealousy of the latter showed itself in spiteful malice. She incurred the remonstrances of the

privy council and alienated her own there were soon signs that Henry’s been a genuine passion, had cooled arrogance, and a few months after

friends and relations. But affection, which had before or ceased. He resented her the marriage he gave her cause for jealousy, and disputes arose. Fate had prepared for Anne the same domestic griefs that had ruined Catherine. In Sept. 1533 the birth of a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth, instead of the long-hoped-for son, was a heavy disappointment; next year there was a miscarriage, and on Jan. 29, 1536, the day of Catherine’s funeral, she gave birth to a dead male child. On May 1 it became known that several of Anne’s reputed lovers had been arrested. On the 2nd Anne herself was committed to the Tower on a charge of adultery with various persons, including her own brother, Lord Rochford. On the r2th Sir Francis Weston, Henry Norris, William Brereton, and Mark Smeaton were declared guilty of high treason, while Anne herself and Lord Rochford were condemned unanimously by an assembly of 26 peers on the r5th. Her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided as lord steward, and gave sentence, weeping, that his niece was to be burned or beheaded as pleased the king. Her former lover, the earl of Northumberland, left the court, seized with sudden illness. Her father had declared his conviction of his daughter’s guilt at the trial of her reputed lovers. On the 16th Anne informed Cranmer of a certain supposed impediment to her marriage with | the king—according to some accounts a previous marriage with Northumberland, though the latter solemnly and positively denied it—which was never disclosed, but was pronounced, on the 17th, sufficient to invalidate her marriage. The same day all her reputed lovers were executed; and on the roth she herself suffered death on Tower Green, her head being struck off with a sword by the executioner of Calais brought to England for the purpose. She had regarded the prospect of death with courage and almost with levity, laughing heartily as she put her hands about her “little neck” and recalled the skill of the executioner. “T have seen many men” (wrote Sir William Kingston, governor ‘of the Tower) “and also women executed, and all they have been in great sorrow, and to my knowledge this lady has much joy and pleasure in death.” On the following day Henry was betrothed to Jane Seymour. Anne Boleyn’s guilt remains unproved. To Sir William King-

BOLGARI—BOLINGBROKE

808

“ston she protested her entire innocence, and on the scaffold, while expressing her submission, she made no confession. A principal witness for the charge of incest was Rochford’s own wife, a woman of infamous character, afterwards executed for complicity in the intrigues of Catherine Howard. The discovery of Anne’s misdeeds coincided in an extraordinary manner with. Henry’s disappointment in not obtaining by her a male heir, while the king’s despotic power and the universal unpopularity of Anne both tended to hinder the administration of pure justice. But it is almost incredible that two grand juries, a petty jury, and a tribunal consisting of nearly all the lay peers of England, with the evidence before them which we do not now possess, should have all unanimously passed a sentence of guilt contrary to the facts and their convictions, and that such a sentence should have been supported by Anne’s own father and uncle. Anne is described as “not one of the handsomest

women

in the world;

she is of a middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact has nothing but the English king’s great appetite, and her eyes which are black and beautiful, and take great effect.” BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Original Authorities: Cotton mss., Brit. Mus. Otho,

c. 10; State Trials, vol. i. p. 410 (1809); J. S. Brewer, J. Gairdner, and R. H. Brodie, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII., 2nd ed. (1920). See also E. Goldsmid, ed. The Maner of the Tryumphe of Caleys and Bulleyn and the Noble Tryumphant Coronacyon of Quene Anne (1532—33. rep. 1884) ; Le Successe

in la morte della Regina de Inghilterra (1536); Harleian Miscellany, vol. iii. pp. 47—60, (Love Letters of Henry VIII. to Anne Boleyn) (1809); Hall’s Chronicle (1809) and Original Letters (1824) both ed. by H. Elis; Archaeologia, vol. xxiii. p. 64, “Memorial of G. Constantyne” (1831); N. H. Nicolas, Excerpta Historica, p. 260 (1831)3 Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Life and Reigne of Henry VIII. (1649); G. Wyat, Extracts from the Life of Queen Anne Boleigne (1817); A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England,’ ol. ii. (1851-52); N. Pocock, Records of the Reformation (1870); C. Wriothesley, A Chronicle of England during the Reign of the Tudors (Camden Soc., 1875—77); D. C. Bell, Notices of Historic Persons Buried in the Tower of London (1877); P. Friedmann, Anne Boleyn (1884) ; J. H. Round, The Early Life of Anne Boleyn (1886) ; W. Busch, “Der Ursprung der Ehescheidung Konig Heinrichs VIII.” and “Der Sturz des Cardinals Wolsey” in Historiches Taschenbuch vi. folge viii. 273 and ix. 4I (1889-90) ; J. A. Froude, The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon (1891) ; E. Bapst, Deux Gentilshommes—poétes de la cour de Henry VIII. (1891); Notes and Queries. ser 8., vol. viii. pp. 141, 189, 313, 350 (Jul-Dec. 1895) ; M. A. S. Hume, The Wives of Henry VIII. (1905) ; A. F. Pollard, Henry VIIT. (1908); English Historical Review, vol. V. P. 544, Vili. 53, 209, x. 104. See also CATHERINE OF ARAGON and Henry VIII.

BOLGARI

or BOLGARY,

an area in the Autonomous

Tatar S.S.R. south of Kazan, 4m. from the left bank of the Volga, 55° 3’ N., 48° 5’ E. It consists of the ruins of the supposed ancient capital of the Bulgarians from the sth to the r5th centuries, with walls, towers and numerous kurgans or burial mounds which have Arabic (1222-1341), Armenian (557, 984 and 986) and also Turki inscriptions. The tombs contained weapons, implements, utensils and silver and copper coins, bearing inscriptions,

some in Arabic and others in Kufic (a kind of epigraph Arabic). Antiquities from Bolgari are preserved in museums in Kazan, Moscow and Leningrad. The city was destroyed by the Mongols in 1238 and again by Tamerlane in the r4th century; afterwards ‘it became the capital of the Khans of the Mongol Golden Horde. In the 15th century it became part of the Kazan principality. The ruins were discovered in the time of Peter the Great and described by Pallas and Humboldt. Ibn Haukal (the Arab geographer) states that it had 10,000 inhabitants in his time (end of the roth century). See Ibn Fadhlan, Nachrichten über die Wolga Bulgaren (Ger. trans. by Frahn, St. Petersburg, 1832).

BOLT, the chief town of a vilayet of the same name in Asia Minor, altitude 2,5ooft., situated in a rich plain watered by the Boli Su, a tributary of the Filiyas Chai (Billaeus). Pop. (1927) 56,133. Cotton and leather are manufactured; the country around is fertile, and in the neighbourhood are large forests of oak, beech, elm, chestnut and pine, the timber of which is partly used locally and partly exported to Constantinople. Three miles east of Boli, at Eskihissar, are the ruins of Bithynium; the birthplace of Antinous, also called Antinoopolis, and in Byzantine times Claudio-

polis.

In and around Boli are numerous marbles with Greg,

inscriptions, chiefly sepulchral, and architectural fragments. At Ilija, south of the town, are warm springs much prized for their medicinal properties. BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST. JOHN (1678-1751) English statesman and writer, son of Sir Henry St. John, Bart.

(afterwards rst Viscount St. John) and of Mary Rich, daughter

of the 2nd earl of Warwick, was educated at Eton, and travelled abroad in 1698 and 1699. In 1700 he married Frances Winchcombe. Notorious in youth for his dissipation and extravagance, he desired, according to his friend Swift, to be thought the Alcibiades

or Petronius of his age.

When he entered Parliament in 170,

he declared himself a Tory, wards Lord Oxford), then traordinary ascendancy over he had charge of the bill for

attached himself to Harley (afterspeaker, and soon gained an ex. the House of Commons. In May securing the Protestant succession;

he took part in the impeachment

of the Whig lords for their

conduct concerning the Partition treaties, and opposed the oath

abjuring the Pretender.

In March 1702 he was chosen commis-

sioner for taking the public accounts. After Anne’s accession he supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 against occasional conform-

ity, and took a leading part in the disputes which arose between the two houses. In 1704 St. John took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought into intimate relations with Marlborough, by whom he was treated with paternal partiality. In 1708 he quitted office with Harley on the failure of the latter’s intrigue, and retired to the country till 1710, when he became a

privy councillor and secretary of state in Harley’s new ministry. The first business of the new Tory ministry was to make peace with France.

In 1711 St. John began negotiating with Torcy, the

French foreign minister, in secret, for a separate peace, and military pressure was slackened in the Netherlands. Marlborough

Aa a ei EP SL AG ae RG in OT TA EEEE

was dismissed in Dec. 1711, and in June 1712 the duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded him in command, was ordered to withdraw the English troops from the field, leaving the Dutch and Austrians to be defeated at Denain. In August St. John, who had been created Viscount Bolingbroke, went to France, to conduct negotiations, and on March 31, 1713, the treaty of Utrecht was signed by all the allies except the emperor. From the moment he came into office, realizing that the only hope of the survival of the Tory party after Anne’s death lay in its putting the old Pretender, James ITI., on the English throne, St. John had set to work to bring about the repeal of the Act of Settlement by which the succession passed to Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her descendants. In 1710 Anne was persuaded to create 12 new Tory peers; the Whig influence of the dissenters in Parliament was undermined by the Act of Occasional Conformity; and Bolingbroke made an unsuccessful attempt to propitiate the Whig merchant interest by negotiating, at the Treaty of Utrecht, for commercial concessions from France and Spain. By 1712 he was corresponding with James, though he was never able to persuade him to become Protestant—a necessary step before the Tories would turn Jacobite. Meanwhile the friendship

between Bolingbroke and Harley had been gradually dissolved; the former had been disappointed, in July 1711, at receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately extinct in his family, whereas Harley had been made earl of Oxford and lord treasurer, in May; Lady Masham quarrelled with Oxford, and identified herself with Bolingbroke’s interests in 1714, and the latter grad-

ually superseded Oxford in the leadership of the party. Finally

there was a split in the cabinet on July 27, and Oxford was forced to resign. Bolingbroke now thought his triumph had come, and that it was time to press for the repeal of the Act of Settlement. All important military and civil posts were placed in the hands of Tories, and a new ministry was projected. But on July 28 Anne was taken ill, and on Aug. 1 she died. The Act of Settlement had not been repealed, the Tory plans were confused, and the privy council, in which Bolingbroke had never troubled to procure a Tory majority, met and proclaimed George king.

On the accession of George I. the illuminations and bonfire at Lord Bolingbroke’s house in Golden square were “particularly

fine and remarkable,” but he was immediately dismissed from

BOLIVAR office. He retired to Bucklebury, and is said to have now written

the answer to the Secret History of the White Staff accusing him of Jacobitism. In March 1715 he in vain attempted to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and on the announcement of Walpole’s intended attack upon the authors of the Treaty of Utrecht he fled in disguise (March 28, 1715) to Paris, where he was well received, after having addressed a letter to Lord Lansdowne from Dover protesting his innocence and challenging “the most inveterate of his enemies to produce any instance of his criminal correspondence.” Bolingbroke in July entirely iden-

tified himself with the interest of the Pretender, whose secretary he became, and on Sept. ro he was attainted.

But his counsel

was neglected for that of ignorant refugees and Irish priests. The expedition of 1715 was resolved upon against his advice. He drew up James’s declaration, but the assurances he had inserted concerning the security of the Church of England were cancelled

by the priests. He remained at Paris, and endeavoured to establish

relations with the regent. On the return of James, as the result of petty intrigues and jealousies, Bolingbroke was dismissed from his office. In March 1716 he declared his final abandonment of the Pre-

tender and promised to use his influence to secure the withdrawal of his friends; but he refused to betray individuals. In 1717 Bolingbroke formed a liaison with Marie Claire Deschamps de Marcilly, widow of the marquis de Villette, whom he married in 1720 after the death in 1718, of Lady Bolingbroke, whom he had treated with cruel neglect. He bought and resided at the estate of La Source, near Orleans, studied philosophy, criticized the chronology of the Bible, and was visited amongst others by Voltaire, who expressed unbounded admiration for his learning and politeness. In 1723, through the medium of the king’s mistress, the duchess of Kendal, he at last received his pardon, returned to London in June or July, and placed his services at the disposal of Walpole, by whom, however, his offers to procure the accession of several Tories to the administration were received very coldly. During the following winter he made himself useful in France in gaining information for the Government. In 1725 an act was passed enabling him to hold real estate, but without power of alienating it. But Walpole succeeded in maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He now bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope’s literary squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for the Essay on Man. On the first occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney’s rupture with Walpole in 1726, he tried to organize an opposition in conjunction with Pulteney and Windham; and in 1727 began his celebrated series of letters to the Craftsman, attacking the Walpoles, signed an “Occasional Writer.” He won over the duchess of Kendal with a bribe of £11,000 from his wife’s estates, and with Walpole’s approval obtained an audience with George. His success seemed imminent, and Walpole prepared for dismissal. But by the king’s death in June Bolingbroke’s projects and hopes were ruined once more. Further papers from his pen signed “John Trot” appeared in the Craftsman in 1728, and in 1730 followed Remarks on the History

of England by Humphrey Oldcastle, attacking the Walpoles’ policy. The assault on the Government prompted by Bolingbroke was continued in the House of Commons by Windham, and great efforts were made to establish the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs. But the whole movement collapsed after the new elections, which returned Walpole to power In 1735 with a large majority.

Baffled and disappointed, Bolingbroke retired to France in

June, residing principally at the chAteau of Argeville, near Fon-

tamebleau. He now wrote his Letters on the Study of History (printed privately before his death and published in 1752) and the True Use of Retirement. In 1738 he visited England, became one

of the leading friends and advisers of Frederick, prince of Wales, who now headed the opposition, and although he was excluded

from Parliament, was the real chief of the party of Patriots. He exercised great influence over the education of Prince George, afterwards George III., who was brought up on his Patriot King.

This work, together with a previous essay, The Spirit of Patriot-

809

ism, and The State of Parties at the Accession of George I., was entrusted to Pope and not published. Bolingbroke returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold Dawley. In 1742 and 1743 he again visited England and quarrelled with Warburton. In 1744 he settled finally at Battersea with his friend, Hugh Hume, 3rd earl of Marchmont, and was present at Pope’s death in May. The discovery that the poet had printed secretly 1,500 copies of The Patriot King caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up a further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend against Bolingbroke’s bitter aspersions, the latter, whose conduct was generally reprehended, publishing a Familiar Epistle to the most Impudent Man Living. In 1744 he had been very busy assisting in the negotiations for the establishment of the new “broad bottom” administration, and showed no sympathy for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. About 1749 he wrote the Present State of the Nation, an unfinished pamphlet. He died on Dec. 12, 1751. The writings and career of Bolingbroke make a far weaker impression upon posterity than they made on contemporaries. His genius and character were superficial. Burke wrote his Vindication of Natural Society in imitation of Bolingbroke’s style, but in refutation of his principles; and in the Reflections on the French Revolution he exclaims, “Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him through?” His most brilliant gift was his eloquence, which, according to Swift, was acknowledged by men of all factions to be unrivalled. None of his great orations has survived, a loss regretted by Pitt more than that of the missing

books of Livy and Tacitus. His political works, in which the expression is often splendidly eloquent, spirited and dignified, are for the most part exceedingly rhetorical in style. BIBLioGRAPHY.—Bolingbroke’s collected works, including his chief political writings already mentioned and his philosophical essays Concerning the Nature, Extent and Reality of Human Knowledge, On the Folly and Presumption of Philosophers, On the Rise and Progress of Monotheism and On Authority in Matters of Religion, were first published in Mallet’s faulty edition in 1754 (according to Johnson’s well-known denunciation, “the blunderbuss charged against religion and morality”), and subsequently in 1778, 1809 and 1841. A Collection of Political Tracts by Bolingbroke was published in 1748. His Letters were published by G. Parke in 1798, and by Grimoard, Letires historiques, politiques, philosophiques, etc., in 1808; for others

seé Pope’s and Swiit’s Correspondence;

W. Coxe’s Walpole;, Philli-

more’s Life of Lyttelton; Hardwicke -Papers, vol. ii.; Marchmont Papers, ed. by Sir G. H. Rose (1831); “Letters to Lord Chancellor Hardwicke” in Add mss. Brit. Museum (see Index, 1894-99), mostly transcribed by W. Sichel; Hist. mss. Comm., mss. of Marquis of Bath, Duke of Portland at Welbeck; while a further collection of his letters relating to the Treaty of Utrecht is in the British Museum. For his attempts at verse see Walpole’s Royal and Noble Authors (1806), iv. 209 et seg. See also bibliography of his works in Sichel, ii. 456, 249. A life of Bolingbroke appeared in his lifetime, 1740, entitled Authentic Memoirs (in the Grenville Library, Brit. Mus.), which recounted his escapades; other contemporary accounts were published in 1752 and 1754, and a life by Goldsmith in 1770. The standard biography of Bolingbroke is that by Walter Sichel (1901-02).

BOLIVAR,

SIMON

(1783-1830), soldier and statesman,

leader of the revolutions which resulted in the independence from Spain of what are now Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Bolivia, was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on July 24, 1783, and died, at the age of 47, near Santa Marta, in the republic of Colombia. Officially invested with the title of Libertador by the congresses of all of the above countries, founder of Greater

Colombia, which he created out of the revolted colonies, hero of over 200 bloody battles, dictator president of the nation whose name (Bolivia) was adopted during his lifetime, Bolivar’s life

presents one of history’s most colossal personal canvases of adventure and tragedy, glory and defeat. His activities covered an immense area of untracked wilderness, whose mere crossing with his armies entailed problems that would give pause to the ablest modern general with every facility at his command. Bolivar’s written records, in his various addresses, proclamations and letters present the clearest picture of the conditions of the Spanish colonies at the time of the revolution that are to be found in any historical record; his analyses of the conditions of the colonials and of their political needs and destiny mark him as the wisest of the observers of his time, and a prophet who foresaw with rare precision the trend of the struggle for democracy in every political

SIO

BOLIVAR

unit of the old Spanish empire in America. His plans of government were far in advance of his time and to this day offer some of the clearest solutions of the needs and difficulties of government in the countries he freed. While violently criticized both during his life and since his death, Bolivar is recognized as one of the world geniuses of the revolutionary era of the late 18th and early 19th centuries; although perhaps not a military commander of the

first order, his political acumen decided the time and manner of the

months, and the name of Colombia was chosen for the federation of freed colonies that was yet to be.

The Liberator.—Bolivar, in 1811, became a refugee on the island of Curacao, meeting many of his helpers of later years, From Curacao he went to- Cartagena, in Nueva Granada

(now Colombia), where he joined the revolutionary group of that viceroyalty, and published (Dec. 15, 1812), the first of the remark. able documents which are now the classics of the revolutionary literature of Spanish America. He urged upon the revolutionary

bodies of Nueva Granada the necessity of destroying the power

of Spain in Venezuela in order to guarantee their own success. In the field he aided in opening the Magdalena river (by the capture of Tenerife) and followed with the capture of Cucuta and

Pamplona, close to the Venezuelan border.

FOUNTAIN IN THE PATIO OF THE HOME AT CARACAS WHERE BOLIVAR, SOUTH AMERICAN LIBERATOR, WAS BORN, 1783

SIMON

attacks which other military leaders of the revolutions in northern South America carried through to ultimate success. His use of the limited facilities in officers, men and materials which were available to him in the thinly populated wilderness of northern South America make his achievements, both in war and statecraft, the marvel of those who read his history. Bolivar was born to aristocracy and wealth, on July 24, 1783,

The revolutionary

Government authorized him, then, to proceed against Venezuela and he started with 800 men on May 15, 1813. Opposing him were 15,000 royalists, scattered through the country, but he took both Merida and Trujillo in the face of severe odds, and at Trujillo, on June 15, 1813, proclaimed the “War to the Death to the Spaniards,” for which he is bitterly criticized, although Bolivar justified the move as a military measure of the highest value. On Aug. 6, 1813, Bolivar marched into Caracas, after covering 1,200km., fighting six pitched battles, destroying five royalist military units, and capturing 50 cannon and three ammunition depots in a period of 90 days. In Caracas he announced for the first time the personal position which he repeated many times afterward—that he sought no office and would accept none except-

ing “the post of danger at the head of the soldiers.” Bolivar was given the official title of “Liberator” and himself established the “Military Order of the Liberators of Venezuela,” in honour of his fellow revolutionaries. The months following the successful campaign into Venezuela were filled with bloody and heroic battles. Ghastly reprisals, on both sides, took place, the bitterest opponents of the revolutionaries being the Waneros or plainsmen from the Orinoco led by a former pirate who called himself Boves. The battle of Araure, on Dec. 5, 1813, closed a year of notable successes for Bolivar with the virtual destruction of the royalist army of 3,500 men. The dispersed royalist units faded away, but the army of the plains, led by Boves, was an element which brought on the disasters of the year 1814. Boves was defeated in his first attack against an entrenched force of revolutionaries, at La Victoria, Feb. 12, 1814, but the discovery, after the repulse, of the horrors which his men

in Caracas, Venezuela, his father being Juan Vicente Bolivar y Ponte, and his mother Maria de la Concepcion Palacios y Blanco. His father, who was of the nobility of Spain and owner of large tracts of land and many slaves in Venezuela, died when Simon Bolivar was very young; his mother died when he was 15. His uncle and guardian, Carlos Palacios, then sent him to study in Madrid, Spain, where, in 1801, he was married to Maria Teresa Toro, niece of the marquis of Toro, a resident of Caracas and a had committed in defenceless villages apparently caused the order friend of the Bolivar family. Ten months after their return to issued by Bolivar for the execution of 886 Spanish prisoners at Venezuela his wife died of yellow fever, in Jan. 1803. La Guaira, an act which has been the subject of severest criticism, After her death Bolivar returned again to Europe, where, in although defended by Bolivar’s admirers as a justified reprisal. 1805, on Mount Aventin at Rome, he pledged himself to his The two battles of San Mateo came in March of 1814, and reold friend and tutor, Simon Rodriguez, to devote his life to the sulted in victories for Bolivar. Bolivar returned to the coast, freeing of Venezuela from Spain. He returned to Venezuela by where he met the Spaniards and royalists in the first battle of way of the United States, visiting the eastern cities and meeting Carabobo, fought on May 28, 1814. It was a notable, but not a many Americans. He arrived in Caracas at the end of 1806. The decisive, victory for Bolivar for the victory was followed quickly Venezuelan revolution against Spain, like many of the revolutions by a defeat at the first battle of La Puerta, on June 15, 1814, when in the Spanish colonies, had its genesis in the bitter quarrel be- Boves obtained his revenge for San Mateo in a victory which tween King Charles IV. and his son, Ferdinand VII., out of which scattered the revolutionaries and led finally to Boves entering Napoleon profited so largely. Bolivar and friends of his social Caracas. He followed his atrocities there with the massacre of group were the members of the Caracas junta favouring the res- 3,500 of the refugees from the capital at Aragua after defeating toration of Ferdinand after the crowning of Joseph Bonaparte Rolivar and his army of 3,000 with a force estimated to have numas King of Spain. This junta, on April 19, 1810, forced the captain bered 8,000 to 10,000. Bolivar, in disgrace and amidst the insults general, Vicente Emparan, to abdicate and thereupon formed the of his officers, left Venezuela for Cartagena, leaving, however, a first locally chosen government in Spanish America. proclamation analyzing the basis of the failure, that is, the opposiBolivar was sent to England as the diplomatic representative of tion of the very native-born to whom he sought to give independthe new Government. On his return he brought with him Fran- ence. Meanwhile, Venezuela was again completely in the hands of cisco Miranda, the Venezuelan soldier of fortune who had fought the Spaniards. under Washington and in the campaigns of Napoleon, and who Bolivar arrived in Cartagena on Sept. 25, 1814. He proceeded to

held the rank of general in the emperor’s armies. Miranda took an

Tunja, the seat of the revolutionary Government of Nueva

active part in the early campaigns of the Venezuelan revolution, while Bolivar entered at once into the political arena, and in one of his earliest recorded addresses advocated the change in objective which resulted in the declaration of Venezuelan independence

in Venezuela. He was received with honours everywhere. Congress entrusted Bolivar with the task of liberating Santa Fé de Bogota, which he carried by assault and turned over to the

of republic, although opposed by Bolivar, took place within a few

still the capital of modern Colombia. Bolivar was then ordered

(July 5, 1811). The adoption of a federal (or decentralized) type

Granada, to report the success, and later failure, of his campaign

congress, which moved from Tunja to the beautiful city that 1s

BOLIVAR to proceed again to the coast and to capture Santa Marta, the last stronghold of the Spaniards in Nueva Granada.

Delays and in-

trigues interfered, and the attack was not made until Spanish remforcements had arrived, and Bolivar was defeated with the loss of 1,000 men and roo guns. Disgusted and disappointed, Bolivar resigned his command and sailed for Jamaica, again issuing a proclamation in which he warned against the disunion of the revolutionaries, pointing out that “No tyrant has been destroyed by your arms; they have been stained with the blood of brothers in two struggles that have produced in us an equal sorrow.” While in exile in Jamaica, Bolivar wrote, on Sept. 6, 1815, the famous “Jamaica letter,” which ana-

8X1

In Bogota, Bolivar was received with tumultuous acclaim, money and men were put at his disposal for the relief of Venezuela, and he was officially invested with the title of Liberator of Nueva Granada. The whole of the former viceroyalty was cleared of royalist control in a relatively rapid succession of victories and surrenders. Francisco de Paula Santander, the great Colombian

hero, was appointed vice-president of Nueva Granada under Bolivar. Meanwhile, Bolivar, learning of dissensions and disloyalties in Angostura, returned over the same difficult road to the Venezuelan revolutionary capital, appeared before the Venezuelan congress on Dec. 14, to report formally the results of the expedition to Nueva Granada and to urge the proclamation of the new lyzes the causes of failure, and sets down the reasons for his hope republic of Colombia, including Nueva Granada and Venezuela. for final success. On Dec. 17, 1819, the republic was proclaimed, with Venezuela, Negro President’s Help.—In Jamaica a former slave of the Nueva Granada and Quito (now Ecuador) as its constituent parts, Liberator by error stabbed to death another man sleeping in and Bolivar as its president. The Armistice——In Jan. 1820 Bolivar at Bogota’ proclaimed the hammock where Bolivar was accustomed to lie. From Kingston, whose authorities frowned on revolutionary activities, be- the union of Greater Colombia. Meanwhile, the Spanish Govcause of the relations of Great Britain with the Holy Alliance, ernment had authorized Morillo to open negotiations for peace. Bolivar sailed to Haiti, where President Alexandre Petion gave Bolivar declined to consider any peace except that based on a him asylum and aid and support in his plans to return to Vene- recognition of the independence of the colonies, but the negotiazuela. In Nov. 1815 he set sail with 250 men for the island of tions led to a six months’ armistice and the drawing up of a Margarita, landed on the mainland and at Ocumare de la treaty for the prosecution of any war that might follow on the Costa, on July 6, 1816, proclaimed the cessation of the War to the lines of civilized warfare and on the principle of the inviolability Death and the freedom of all the slaves, thus fulfilling the promise of the lives and property of non-combatants. At this juncture Maracaibo, long the stronghold of the royalists, he had made to the negro president of Haiti. He was forced to return to Haiti for help, but on Jan. xr, 1817, landed in Venezuela. openly declared its adherence to the revolution, and Manuel de The following months were crowded with intrigue in the revolu- Latorre, the Spanish commander who had succeeded Morillo on tionary ranks. Bolivar retired to Venezuelan Guiana, where a few the latter’s voluntary retirement, believed that Bolivar had broken loyal followers (including Antonio José Sucre, one day to be his the armistice by working to bring about the defection of Maraablest officer and most loyal friend and hero of the great decisive caibo. This was denied by Bolivar, and arbitration was offered, battle of Ayacucho) surrounded him. The fall of Angostura, on but refused by the Spanish commander. Events then led rapidly the Orinoco, placed Bolivar in a favourable position, and, more to the decisive battle of the Venezuelan revolution. Bolivar sumimportant, he found the tables turned, with the Waneros (Boves moned his forces and moved. against Caracas. The two armies was now dead) following José Antonio Paez to the support of the met on the plains of Carabobo for the second time, Bolivar attackrevolutionary cause. Angostura now became the capital of the ing at Ir A.M. on June 24, 1821. In one hour’s battle the Spanrevolutionary Government, and Bolivar, as its head, organized a iards were defeated, the foreign legion and the Waneros playing skeleton of civil administration. Small engagements and heroic decisive rôles in the final result. The second battle of Carabobo and colourful skirmishes took place, with Bolivar living the life of was recognized, even then, as the turning point of the struggle the Waneros and finally penetrating into La Victoria, between for Venezuelan independence, as Boyaca was in the war in Nueva Valencia and Caracas, where he called all able-bodied men to his Granada. ‘Meanwhile, a new Colombian congress had convened at Cucuta colours. The Spanish commander, Pablo Morillo (whose arrival in Nueva Granada over three years before had brought about and again Bolivar offered his resignation as president and again Bolivar’s defeat and his exile to Jamaica) forced Bolivar to battle was refused, although he declared at that time he feared peace at La Puerta, on March 15, 1818, and in this second battle there more than war (owing to looming discords and the necessity of defeated the revolutionary army and routed it, Bolivar himself be- finding employment for the active leaders of war). He also proing wounded. This was the darkest hour of the revolution in Ven- posed treaties to the other Latin-American republics, recognizing ezuela, but Bolivar took the occasion to write to the revolution- the former lines of the colonial divisions as the national boundaries of Argentina his hope and expectation that Venezuela would aries, maintaining the sovereignty of the new States but uniting yet invite them to join her in the “Unity of South America,” and them in “perpetual confederation” and establishing an assembly to send a message to Nueva Granada, promising the revolution- of plenipotentiaries which should serve as a council, a point of aries there the aid of the Venezuelans in expelling the Spaniards, contact, and as an “arbitral judge and conciliator of their disputes and differences.” who were again in control in the viceroyalty. During this time the tide of battle turned southward. Bolivar On May 25, 1819, Bolivar set out on another of the exploits which mark his career. With the newly formed but well-disciplined had sent Sucre by sea to Guayaquil, which was not included in “foreign legion” composed largely of British and Irish veterans the armistice, and now he himself planned to march overland to of the European wars, and with a reduced army of Venezuelans Quito, to complete the liberation of what is now Ecuador. En (in all about 2,500 men) Bolivar started across the Andes towards route south for this purpose he received word of the liberation of Nueva Granada, to fulfil his promise of aid and rescue. Leaving Panama, the last province of Nueva Granada to overthrow the the tropic plains along a route now covered by an automobile Spanish rule. Bolivar began his march southward from Cali on road but then passable on foot and hardly at all with animals, March 8, 1822, with 2,000 men. The Spaniards, from the fortified the “Army of Liberation” climbed to the freezing Andean passes town of Pasto, met the revolutionary army with a force slightly where the icy “paramo” blows beneath the burning sun. The sol- superior, at Bombona, on April 7, 1822. The revolutionaries were _ diers, their clothing worn or torn from them in crossing the flooded victorious in a battle which lasted into the night, and Pasto was plains of the rainy season of the Orinoco basin, passed through occupied on June 8. On May 24, 1822, Sucre had fought the dethe tortures of this march and arrived, worn and wasted, in the cisive battle of Pichincha and had entered Quito the following day. sunny savannas of Nueva Granada, only to learn that a royalist Bolivar joined Sucre in Quito, but on July rı departed for Guayaarmy of 5,000 men was on its way to meet them. With three quil, where some unrest was manifest in the revolutionary groups, days to prepare, Bolivar found arms and horses, met and routed as the issue was already joined as to whether Quito and Guaya~the advance guards of the enemy and finally, at Boyaca, on Aug. quil should join Colombia, remain independent or join Peru. José de San Martin (q.v.), the hero of the independence of 7, 1819, defeated decisively the main Spanish force. Boyaca proved the blow that broke the hold of Spain on Nueva Granada. Argentine and Chile and “Protector” of Peru, on July 26, arrived

812

BOLIVAR

at Guayaquil to meet and confer with Bolivar. What transpired at that conference was never known, but when San Martin returned to Peru, he resigned his post as “Protector” of Peru, withdrew from Lima, sailed for Chile and thence proceeded to Argentina, never again to appear in revolutionary annals. San Martin’s withdrawal from Peru as well as Guayaquil was apparently a surprise to Bolivar, and on the repeated invitations of the local revolutionaries Bolivar finally sailed southward, arriving at Callao on Sept. r, 1823. There he was again invested with the title of “Liberator,” and called upon to lead the struggle against the Spanish viceroy, who was said to have 36,000 European troops at his command. Bolivar waited for his Colombians to cross the Andes and took time to train, partially, an army of some 4,000 Peruvians, giving him a total of between 8,000 and 10,000 men. The Spaniards were about 9,000 in number, 2,000 being cavalry. The battle of Junin was joined at 4 o’clock in the afternoon of Aug. 6, 1824, and was fought entirely by cavalry with sabres, not a shot being fired. The result was a bloody victory for the revolutionaries, Junin being regarded as the turning point of the struggle for the control of Peru. Bolivar and the Supreme Power.—The decisive victory

which ended forever the domination of Spain in the New World, was won on Dec. 9, 1824, at Ayacucho, Peru, under the command of Sucre, Bolivar having departed for Lima, to organize the civil Government of the republic. Following Ayacucho, Bolivar called a constitutional convention for Feb. 8, 1825. He resigned once more his supreme power in Colombia and in Peru, refused a gift from Peru of 1,000,000 pesos (then about £200,000), and later made a triumphal visit to Upper Peru, the liberation of which he had proclaimed on May 16, 1825, at Arequipa, and which had taken the name of Republica Bolivar (later to become Bolivia) in honour of the Liberator. The military victories had

been won by Sucre, to whom Bolivar gave unstinted praise and honour, but Bolivar spent the time he remained in Bolivia in giving the new republic its first political organization, establishing schools, ordering a study of irrigation possibilities, removing the duty on mining machinery and distributing land to the Indians. In Jan. 1826 Bolivar returned to Peru, reported to the congress on his work in the south, and after a short stay, started on his re-

turn to Colombia.

There, in the defection of the commanders

he had left in Venezuela, had already begun the long series of

civil wars which were to mar the first half century of Latin American independence. He arrived in Bogota in the middle of November. He remained only two days, and continued on his way to Venezuela. En route he called a Venezuelan constitutional congress to meet in Valencia on Jan. 15, 1827. Paez, the leader of the revolt against the union and Bolivar, accepted the offer of amnesty and friendship from Bolivar, the clouds passed, and the Liberator again entered Caracas in triumph. His leniency toward Paez irritated Nueva Granada, and the movement to break up Colombia into its original parts gained headway in Nueva Granada as well as in Venezuela. Finally, in 1828, after 14 years as supreme chief and president of Nueva Granada, Bolivar’s resignation was accepted by congress, at his request and in the face of criticism and

intrigue by his enemies and others ambitious for power. Bolivar’s resignation did not quiet the opposition, and threats from many quarters, including Santander himself, caused Bolivar to return to Bogota at the head of an army and again assume the supreme power, a step which has given weight to the assertions of his enemies that he clung to his power for personal reasons. He arrived in Bogota on Sept. 10, 1828, and called a general convention to meet in Ocaña. This assembled on April 9, and despite Bolivar’s appeals and efforts for unity, his own followers withdrew leaving the convention without a quorum. Bogota remained loyal to the Liberator and various cities of Nueva Granada,

Guayaquil and Venezuela sent memorials asking that he retain his office in order to maintain the union. On Sept. 25, 1828, a plot against Bolivar’s life was hatched in Bogota, the Liberator escaping but some of his guards falling in his defence. Santander and others were arrested and sentenced to death as leaders of the conspiracy, but were banished instead, through the mediation of Bolivar.

The year 1829 opened with plans for an expedition into Pery which had turned on Colombia, after ousting Sucre from Bolivia, Marching southward once more, Bolivar met Sucre at Quito, ang at Guayaquil recovered the territory taken by Peru without fight-

ing, owing to changes in the attitude of the revolutionaries ip Lima, and the recall of La Mar, the leader of the expedition

against Colombia.

Meanwhile,

however,

trouble was brewing

again in Nueva Granada and Venezuela, and Bolivar, who had been critically ill in Guayaquil, turned back northward for the last time. He reached Bogota on Jan. 1830, and there turned over the presidency to Sucre. Paez, in Venezuela, had in the meantime begun a new agitation for separation from Colombia, and war was urged against Bolivar as the proposer and creator of the Colombian union. A peace commission, headed by Sucre, was not allowed to pass the Venezuelan border and Paez prepared for a

campaign to “free” Nueva Granada from the grasp of the “tyrant” Bolivar.

On April 27, 1830, Bolivar resigned, again, the supreme

power which he had temporarily assumed in the hope of pacifying the Venezuelans.

His resignation was

accepted and on May 8,

1830, he left Bogota for Cartagena, intending to take ship there for Jamaica or Europe. He passed from town to town, honoured and féted, but was forced to wait in Cartagena, because of lack of funds to pay his passage on shipboard, his great personal fortune having been

finally dissipated in the cause of the revolution.

At Cartagena

he heard of the murder of Sucre on June 4, this information being probably the last blow to the rapidly failing chieftain. Tuberculosis, which had long been developing, was given new impetus by

a severe cold. Still, calls came for him to assume leadership once more against the elements that were breaking up the union for which he had fought and planned. Finally, seeking a change of climate, he went to a country place, San Pedro Alejandrino, three

miles outside Santa Marta, where he died—after issuing one more proclamation from his deathbed—on Dec. 17, 1830. Twelve years after his death, Bolivar’s remains were carried to Caracas, where they lie in the national pantheon, on one side the empty tomb commemorating Francisco Miranda, and on the other

that in which the remains of Sucre are to rest when they are returned by Ecuador to Venezuela. BIBLioGRAPHY.—In English, Simon Bolivar, by Guillermo Sherwell, published by the author for the Venezuelan Government in Washington, 1921 (also issued in Spanish) gives an excellent if highly appreciative presentation of the subject in brief form. The bibliography in Spanish is almost endless, excellent “‘lives’’ being those by Larrazabal, Aristide Rojas and, particularly, a compendium of studies issued in Madrid and Buenos Aires in 1914 under the title Bolivar— por los mas grandes escritores Americanos, procedido de un estudio por Miguel de Unamuno. F. Lorrain Petre is a severe critic of Bolivar, and presents the entire controversy over Bolivar’s patriotism or selfagerandizement in a judicious if not unprejudiced manner. The Venezuelan Government has published 22 volumes of the historical records bearing on Bolivar’s life. Simon B. O’Leary, a commander of Bolivar’s foreign legion, wrote his memoirs in English. See also T. R. Ybarra, Bolivar, the Passionate Warrior (1929); H. Angell, Simon Bolivar (1929); H. R. Lemley, Bolivar (1930). (W. THO.)

BOLIVAR, a department of Colombia, on the Caribbean sea.

It has an area of 22,320 sq.m., composed in great part of low, alluvial plains, densely wooded, slightly cultivated and unsuited for north European labour. The population, estimated in 1918 at 457,111, is composed largely of mixed races (white and negro); in some localities the inhabitants of mixed race are estimated to constitute four-fifths of the population. The capital, Cartagena on the Caribbean coast, was once the principal commercial entre-

pot of Colombia. Other important towns are Magangué, pop. (1918) 14,076 and Mompox, pop. (1918) 15,435, on the Magdalena river, and Corozal, pop. (1918) 11,907; Sincelejo, pop. (about 14,000), and Lorica, pop. (1918) 19,955, near the western coast. The department has only one railway, the line from Cartagena to Calamar, 65m. in length, serving to connect the port of Cartagena with the Magdalena river. BOLIVAR, an inland State of Venezuela, lying south of the Orinoco, with the Delta-Amacuro territory and British Guiana on the east, the Coroni river forming the boundary, and the Amazonas territory and Brazil on the south. Frequent political changes Im Venezuela have led to various modifications in the size and out-

BOLIVAR—BOLIVIA lines of this State, which comprises large areas of uninhabited territory. It is a country of extensive plains (llanos) covered in the rainy season with nutritious grass which disappears completely in the dry season, and of great forests and numerous rivers. Its area is 91,89 sq.m. and its population in 1920 was 65,852, and in 1924

was estimated at 68,323. The capital is Ciudad Bolivar, formerly called Angostura, which is situated on the right bank of the Orinoco about 240m. above its mouth; pop. 19,712. Vessels of light draught easily ascend the Orinoco to this point, and a considerable trade is carried on, the exports being gold (from the

813

slopes of the Andes, are heavy forests.

sparsely inhabited and difficult of access, it could sustain a large

population.

Hydrography.—The rivers fall into three distinct systems:

Amazon (g.v.), Plata (g.v.) and Lake Titicaca. The eastern lowlands of Bolivia have many lakes, most of them little known. The great swampy plains along the Beni and the Mamoré con-

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famous El Callao mines), hides, balaté and other forest products.

A.

BOLIVAR, the monetary unit of Venezuela. It is equiva-

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lent at par to a franc, so that one bolivar equals 19-295 cents, and 25.22 bolivars equal one pound.

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lowlands, this region, the Yungas, is more salubrious and constitutes one of the most attractive districts of Bolivia. Though still

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called the Venezolano is equal to five bolivars. The bolivar, from the geographical situation of Venezuela, has

its main link with the dollar, but it is also quoted regularly in London. Immediately after the World War, it stood below par, falling to 16 cents in early 1921. Since 1923, it has been back at par with the dollar. Notes are issued by the Bank of Venezuela

and by certain other banks, but the former possesses the bulk of the issue and practically all the country’s stock of gold and gold assets. This last rose from 11-5 million bolivars in 1913 to 69-2 millions in 1926, but it is impossible to say how much was actual

gold, and how much was “‘gold exchange,” etc. See also CURRENCY. BOLIVIA, an inland republic of South America, once a part of the Inca empire and later of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru and knéwn as the province of Charcas or Upper Peru. It is the fourth largest political division of the continent, and extends, approximately, from 9° 44’ to 23° S., and from 58° to 70° W. It is bounded north and east by Brazil, east by Paraguay, south

by Argentina and west by Chile and Peru. The boundaries are not clearly defined, large districts being in dispute, particularly with Paraguay. The area is estimated at 514,464 square miles. Physiography.—Although three-fifths of Bolivia’s area consists of vast low plains, the remainder, the western part, is one of the highest inhabited districts in the world and constitutes the teal Bolivia. The Andes here attain their greatest breadth and are divided into two great parallel chains enclosing a plateau whose surface lies but a few thousand feet below the summits of the mountains themselves (see ANDES). Between these chains lies the Altiplanicie, or Altiplano, of Bolivia, a relatively flat-floored depression 500 m. long by 80 broad, with an elevation of about 12,ooo ft., constituting the Lake Titicaca basin. The floor of this great depression, mostly composed of water-laid deposits from the bordering mountains, and appearing quite level, slopes gently southward, the southern end being about 400o ft. lower than the surface (Lake Titicaca) in the north. Its evenness is also broken by occasional hills and ridges. The margins of the basin, particularly on the east, are marked by numerous interlocking alluvial fans which have built up an almost continuous piedmont plain of fairly gentle grade. The northern and eastern sections, or fully three-fifths of Bolivia, are composed of low alluvial plains, great swamps and flooded bottom-lands, and gently undulating forest regions. In the extreme south are the Bolivian Chaco and the Llanos (open grassy plains) of Manzo, while above these in eastern Chuquisaca and southern Santa Cruz are extensive swamps and low-lying plains, subject to periodic inundations and of little value for agriculture or grazing. Considerable areas, however, which lie above the floods are rich grazing lands. Between the Sierra de Chiquitos and the Andes are the Llanos de Chiquitos,

which have a higher general elevation and a more diversified surface. North of this elevation, are the Llanos of Guarayos and Mojos, occupying an extensive region traversed, but poorly drained, by the Guaporé, San Miguel, Guapay, Mamoré, Yacuma, Beni and Madre de Dios rivers and containing large undrained areas, like that of Lake Rojoagua (or Roguaguado). It includes districts rich in agricultural possibilities and extensive open plains

Where cattle have been successfully raised since colonial times.

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BOLIVIA

La Paz, a city of some 100,000 inhabitants, founded in 1548 by the Spaniards, has many narrow, ill-paved streets. The climate is healthy and, because of its great height above sea-level, it is often Intensely cold at night

tain several lakes and lagoons, some of them large. Lake Rojoagua, whose waters probably find their way into the Beni, covers a large area, as do other little known lagoons and marshes near the Mamoré. Lake Concepción, in the Chiquitos mountains, belongs to the same hydrographic system. In the south-east there are several large shallow lakes whose character and size change with the seasons. Along the Paraguay there are several such lakes, partly produced by obstructed outlets, such as Bahia Negra, Caceres, Mandioré, Gaiba and Uberaba, some of them navigable by small craft. Above these are the great Zarayes swamps. This region, like that of the north, is subject to inundations during the summer (November to May) when traffic is possible only by the use of boats. The third draining system is that of the great central plateau. This is one of the most elevated of all inland basins lying at over 12,000 feet. It comprises Lake Titicaca near the north end; the Desaguadero, its outlet; Lake Pampa Aullagas or Poopdé into which the Desaguadero flows; the Lake or Salt Marsh of Coipasa {connected with Poopó by the Lacahahuira, the small outlet of the latter); and the great Salar de Uyuni, independent of the rest of the system but receiving the waters of an extensive, though very arid region, at the south end. Into this system enter many short streams from the neighbouring heights, chiefly the Cordillera Real, with its immense snow fields. Having no outlet to

the sea the water of this extensive basin is wholly absorbed by the dry soil and by excessive evaporation. Lake Titicaca, the most important feature of the plateau system, at an elevation of

12,507 ft., is one of the highest large lakes in the world. It is about 125 m. long and has a maximum width of 69 (total area about 3,200 sq.m.). The indented shore offers much topographic variety, sometimes rising abruptly, sometimes running back in low gentle slopes. It is divided into two main parts by the peninsulas of Copacabana and Huata, the narrow strait of Tiquina, between these peninsulas, connecting the two almost separated bodies of water. The southern arm, covering approximately one-fifth of the total area, is known as the Laguna de Uinamarca, the name Titicaca being applied sometimes only to the larger body. Over much of its extent, particularly in Uinamarca, the lake is so shallow that: small steamers often run aground, but toward its eastern side there is a long trough 892 ft. deep at its deepest point. The level fluctuates seasonally, summer rains and melting snows accounting for a rise of 5 to 6 feet. Many islands dot the sur-

814

BOLIVIA

face of the lake. The largest of these, the Isla del Sol, also sometimes called Titicaca, contains highly interesting archaeological monuments, principally the ruins of well-constructed stone build-

from 9,500 to 11,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, though subject to an occasional frost in winter, and is favourable to the produc.

ings and paved roads, remnants

de valle there is likely to be a scarcity of rain but there js in most cases an abundant supply of water for irrigation. The puna which lies between 11,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the great

of the skilled workmanship

of

Inca or pre-Inca peoples. This island is generally considered to have been the cradle of Inca civilization, or better, perhaps, the refuge of survivors from the earlier civilization that apparently centred about the very ancient metropolis of Tiahuanaco, just east of the lake, where are extensive ruins of admirable stone constructions. From this island the founders of Cuzco and of the Inca empire are thought to have migrated. On the smaller Island of the Moon (or Coati) impressive ruins also exist. Having an outlet and a fairly constant inflow, largely of melted snow, the water of Lake Titicaca is fresh, except in the shallower parts where rapid evaporation leaves it slightly brackish. The temperature of the water is very low, being little above freezing during much of the year, but never low enough to form ice. Strong winds are often encountered and squalls are frequent during the summer thunder-storms. Where the margins of the lake are shallow the shore is fringed with a border of bull-rush (¢otora) that is excellent forage for cattle and supplies material for building reed boats, making mats and thatching. There are several excellent kinds of fish, while ducks and other water fowl abound in the shallower portions. Lake Titicaca belongs partly to Bolivia and partly to Peru, the boundary crossing near the middle from the north-east to south-west. Transportation is carried by many small native totora craft, by boats of imported lumber and by several small steamers. On the north-west side a railway reaches the Peruvian port of Puno, and on the south-east side a line from La Paz extends to the Bolivian port of Huaqui (or Guaqui), steamers connecting these rail heads. Only one bridge has been built across the river, at the point where it emerges from the lake, but mule

tion of cereals and vegetables. Both in the valle and the cabecery

central plateau.

It is always cool and shows little difference be.

tween summer and winter, except in the matter of rainfall, the former season bringing only rain, while occasional snow falls in

winter. The air is too cold for crops except potatoes, barley and a few others. Mean temperature is estimated at 504° F (La Paz). The puna brava extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow limit (about 18,000 ft.) and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory, inhabited only by shepherds and miners. Above this is an Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the tropical and temperate regions are healthful and agreeable, and have varied and abundant products. It is in these two zones that most of the white people live, as well as many of the Indians. On the puna, however, particularly about the borders of Lake Titicaca, there are districts of dense Indian population, some with over 100 people per square mile. Most of the distinctly Indian settlements are now found above 11,000 feet. It was here that the great cities of the Inca and pre-Inca period were situated, such as Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. Since the peoples who built them were predominantly pastoral

and largely dependent upon the Ilama and the alpaca, they lived in the high cold zone of grass-lands inhabited by these animals. The high rate of mortality among the natives of this region is due in large part to unsanitary habits and diet rather than to climate. In the tropical yungas the ground is covered with decaying vegetation, and there are many good breeding places for mosquitoes; hence malaria and fevers are common. Precipitation

is as varied as the temperature, East of the Cordillera Oriental, rains fall throughout the year. On the west side of this Cordilportant old roads along which the silver, gold and other products lera, which extracts the moisture from the prevailing easterly of this region reached the Pacific coast for four centuries cross the winds, the elevated plateaux have a limited rainfall in the north Desaguadero in this fashion. (21 in. at La Paz), which comes only during the summer months Lake Pampa Aullagas (Poopó) is quite different in character and diminishes toward the south until the surface becomes absofrom Lake Titicaca. It occupies a very shallow depression in the lutely barren. Brief and furious thunder-storms, resulting from plateau only a few feet below the general level of the surround- intense convection, sometimes sweep the northern plateau and ing land and is nowhere more than 15 ft. deep at normal stage. Lake Titicaca in summer. However, it covers about 1,000 sq.m. at low stage, and the surFauna.—The indigenous fauna corresponds closely to that rounding land is so flat that the lake reaches sometimes almost of the neighbouring districts of Argentina, Brazil and Peru. to Oruro, fully 30 m. from the low-water shore. During low stage Numerous species of monkeys inhabit the forests of the tropical Poopó receives daily (chiefly from the Desaguadero) about 775 region, together with the puma, jaguar, wildcat, coati, tapir or cu.ft. per second, while it discharges through its outlet but a anza, sloth, ant-bear, paca (Coelogenys paca) and capybara. The little over 210 cu.ft. per second, the difference representing its rare Ursus ornatus (spectacled bear) is found among the wooded apparent loss by evaporation. The Lacahahuira, the only visible Andean foot-hills. The chinchilla (C. laniger) inhabits the colder outlet of Lake Poopó, moves underneath the sand and empties plateau regions and is prized for its fur. The plateau species into the Salar de Coipasa which, at high water, covers about the of the viscacha (Lagidium cuvieri) and the widely distributed same area as Lake Poopó at low water, but usually consists only South American otter (Lutra paranensis} are also hunted for of wide, marshy, salt-encrusted wastes, with a small permanent their skins. The peccary, which prefers a partially open country, body of water in the lowest part. There is no outlet. The Salar ranges from the Chaco to the densely wooded districts of the de Uyuni is of a similar character but much larger than Coipasa. north. There are two or three species of deer, the most common, It covers not far from 3.500 sq.m., and consists wholly of salt- though not numerous, being the large marsh deer of the Chaco, encrusted swamp, except as pools of water form at times in the The armadillo, opossum, ferret and skunk are widely distributed. lower places. Like Coipasa, it has no outlet. The Rfo Grande de Alligators are found in the tributaries of the Paraguay, lizards and Lipez is its most important affluent; the district is almost rain- turtles are numerous, and the batrachians are represented by less. several species. Snakes are also numerous, including rattle-snakes Climate.—Though Bolivia lies wholly within the tropics it and the great boa-constrictors of the Amazon region. On the - possesses every gradation of temperature from that of equatorial plateau and in the high mountains there are few reptiles. lowlands to the arctic cold which prevails on the summits of the The most important of all the Bolivian animals, however, are

trains and caravans of llamas ford it at many points. Several im-

; snow capped Andes. The yungas climatic zone comprises all the lowlands and the mountain valleys up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. The atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean temperature is about 77° F, with no great departures from this, and the rainfall, occurring

throughout the year, is heavy (30-50 in. at least). The valle zone includes the deep valleys from 5,000 to 9,500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature and no cold weather and is semi-tropical in character and productions. The cabecera de valle, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the deep valleys above the valle zone, with elevations ranging

the guanaco

(g.v.) and its congeners, the Ilama

(g.v.), alpaca

(g.v.), and vicufia inhabiting the mountainous regions. So de-

pendent is the Indian upon the llama and the alpaca that the habitat of these animals very largely determined the bounds of

the Inca and pre-Inca civilization. The rearing of llamas and

alpacas is a recognized industry in the highlands and is wholly in the hands of the Indians, who alone seem to understand the habits and peculiarities of these interesting animals. A small domesticated variety of the cavy (“guinea pig’’) is very numerous

and has long been raised by the natives, who are particularly fond of its flesh.

BOLIVIA Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous

815

Population.—Two-fifths

of the territory

(the highlands)

species of large stork (the bata or jabiri, Mycteria americana :

contain three-fourths of the inhabitants. All of the large cities, and all of the large settled areas lie above 8,000 ft., many of them above 12,000. Below 6,000 ft. Santa Cruz is the only city with Over 10,000 people, while the plains, as a whole, probably contain

maximum height, 8 ft.; spread of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabits the tropical plains and valleys. Water-fowl are numerous both in the lowlands and on the plateau. Among the highland lakes are geese,

less than two people per square mile. The population in 1900 was roughly 1,816,000, including the Littoral department, now belonging to Chile (49,820) and the wild Indians of the forests (91,-

and interesting.

The high sierras are frequented by condors and

eagles of the largest size, and the whole country by the common

yulture, while the American ostrich (Rhea

americana)

and a

ducks, grebes, and coots, divers, cormorants and gulls and rosy

famingoes. Some of the forests of the warm valleys and plains are filled with birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of hum-

ooo). Of this total, 50.7% were classed as Indians, 12-8% as

whites, 26-38% as mestizos, 0-3% as negroes, and 9-4% as unknown. In 1927 an official estimate made the population 3,464,945, ming-birds are found even far up in the mountains, and great but all census estimates are uncertain. The Indian population numbers of parrots, macaws and toucans, brilliant of feather but is largely composed of the so-called civilized tribes of the Andean harsh of voice, enliven the forests of the lowlands. Insect life is highlands, and those of the lowland Indians in the eastern forests abundant and varied at the lower levels, but from 10,000 ft. up and grass-lands. The former are chiefly Aymaras (see AYMARAN) is largely lacking. Silkworms have been bred with success in some and Quichuas (g.v.). departments. The Mojos and the Chiquitos who live on the border between Like other South American States, Bolivia benefited greatly the forests and the grass-lands of far eastern Bolivia, were from the introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle, organized into industrial communities by the Jesuit missions In donkeys, sheep, goats, swine and poultry were introduced, and are the ryth century, and have retained something of the culture now sources of food and wealth to a large part of the population. then imparted to them. Inhabiting the southern plain are the The horses and mules are largely imported from the Argentine Chiriguanos, a detached tribe of the Guaranis (g.v.). The repampas, since the plateau where most of them are used is too maining native tribes have made little progress. Those who live high for their successful breeding. in the deep forests of the Amazon valley have little contact with Flora.—Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia the whites, except as boatmen along the rivers or as forced represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation gatherers of rubber. The Tobas and Lenguas of the Gran Chaco of the lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the have successfully repelled every attempt at exploration in the Amazon basin. Between these extremes the diversity in vegetable interior of that district. The white population is descended in life is as great as that of climate and soil. The flora has been great part from the early Spanish adventurers and there are little studied because of the inaccessibility of the inland regions. some Spanish and Portuguese Americans from neighbouring reThe plateau is primarily a grass-land. Above 10,000 ft. few publics. This group, numbering only 250,000, completely domitrees are found, but where there is even a light rainfall the hill- nates the country. There has been no large recent immigration sides and the high plains support a scant growth of coarse bunch from Europe and the percentage of whites therefore does not ingrass (Stipa Ychu) which is the principal pasture of domestic crease. The mestizos as a rule are ignorant, unprogressive and

stock. This grows up to the snow line. Jchu grass is widely used formats and thatching. Two other economically important plants are the tola and the yareia; the former a low shrub, the latter a highly resinous moss-like plant which grows in a compact fibrous mass. Both of these are used extensively for fuel. Among the more Important cultivated plants of the puna region are the

potato, oca (Oxalis tuberosa), and quinua (Chenopodium Quinoa) is widely grown for fodder but does not mature on the puna, while wheat can seldom be grown above 10,000 feet. It is now generally agreed that the highland district about Lake Titicaca was the native home of the potato, which constitutes the staple food, particularly above 11,000 ft., the usual limit of grains. Indian corn was cultivated in the temperate regions long before the advent of Europeans, and in such districts still is grown extensively. Wheat, barley, rye, oats, beans, peas and many vegetables, introduced from the Old World, have found suitable habitats, each at its own level. Among the indigenous plants in the semi-tropical and tropical zones are the sweet-potato, cassava

(Manihot utilissima and M. Aipi), peanuts, pineapple, guava, chirimoya, pawpaw (Carica papaya), ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, vanilla, false jalap (Mirabilis jalapa), copaiba, tolu (Myroxylon toluiferum), rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and a great number of beautiful hardwoods,

such as jacarandá, mahogany,

rosewood, quebracho, colo, cedar and walnut. Among the fruits many of the most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date and grape, while others as the banana, caju or cashew and the avocado or alligator pear, have a disputed origin, Coca,

one of the most important plants native to the country, is cul-

tivated on the eastern slopes at 5,000 ft. to, 6,000 ft. altitude, where the temperature is uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina

(Cinchona calisaya), from which quinine is extracted, is found at 3,000 ft. to 9,000 feet. Cinchona bark forms an item of export. The most important indigenous forest product is rubber, derived ptincipally from the Hevea guayanensis, which grows along river courses in the lowland regions of the north. The competition of plantation products has seriously affected the native rubber in-

dustry in these forests. Sugar-cane and rice are cultivated in the warm districts.

apathetic. Most of the small scale commerce is carried on by this class; they do most of the skilled labour, and serve as foremen and minor civil servants. Divisions and Towns.—There are eigbt departments and three territories, and these are subdivided into provinces. They are as follows:— Area: square es

Departments and territories La Paz (La Paz)

,

e

y

Potosí (Potosi) . . . Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz)

č}

Cochabamba (Cochabamba)

Chuquisaca (Sucre) Tarija (Tarija) . Oruro (Oruro)

25,288 45,031

144,941

36,132 31,567

.

.

El Beni (Trinidad) . . El Chaco (Villa Montes). . Colonial Territories (Riberalta)

Total,

40,686

.

‘

20,657 955354 46,501

726,357 534,901 530,748 341,640 333,226

164,704 140,891

52,450

13,085

- | 27,938

51,968

514,155

2,889,970

The following are the principal cities with their population as estimated in 1924: La Paz, 118,250; Cochabamba 34,281; Oruro, 32,908; Potosi, 30,122; Santa Cruz, 18,315; Sucre, 16,194; Tarija, 10,843; Trinidad, 6,269. Although Sucre is the legal capital, La Paz, the commercial metropolis, has been the seat of government since the revolution of 1898. Prominent smaller towns are

the Huanchaca silver mining centre of Pulacayo (4,000) and Uyuni (5,000), an important railway and highway junction; Viacha (3,000), an important railway town, being the junction of the lines from La Paz to Mollendo, to Arica, and to Oruro and Anto-

fagasta; Quillacollo (10,000), Punata (8,000) and Tarata (4,681), trading centres in the department of Cochabamba, and Huari, a small village east of Lake Poopó, the seat of an annual fair at which traders gather from all parts of the highlands, from the low hot lands to the east and even from the pampas of the Argentine, making it for a week or so after Easter a city of 10,000 or over.

816

BOLIVIA

Communications.—In 1892 the first railway, that from Antofagasta to Oruro, was completed. A line 54 m. long was laid to connect the Alto de La Paz with Huaqui, on Lake Titicaca. Communications were thus established, through steamers (1902), with the Peruvian railway from Puno to Mollendo on the coast. In 1909 the Antofagasta-Bolivia railway was extended to Viacha, connecting there with the line to the Alto de La Paz. In 1912 a line was opened from Rio Mulato to the Cordillera Oriental, reaching the height of 15,823 ft. at Crucero Alto, and then descending to Potosi. A railway from Arica to La Paz (308 m.) was provided for by the treaty between Chile and Bolivia (1904) and was completed in 1913. A railway 131 m. long was also completed (1917) from Oruro over the Banderani Pass (13,543 ft.) to Cocha-

also sustain large herds ot cattle on the more elevated districts

and on the well-watered plains of the Chaco. The fur-bearing chinchilla, a native of the higher plateaux, is also bred. Agricultural products are chiefly for domestic Supply. Cereals fruits and many vegetables are limited to the temperate interme. diate valleys of the eastern Andes, where there is not sufficient tillable land to supply even local demands. Food resources therefore consist largely of indigenous plants suited to the unusual conditions of the region where most of the people live. Of these native crops, the potato, still found growing wild on the hillsides about Lake Titicaca, has probably always been the staple food for the Indians of the plateau and highlands. It is grown between heights of 11,000 and 14,500 feet. At nearly the same elevation is

An additional international connection was built in 1925, another indigenous plant, quinua (Chenopodium quinua), apparwhen the Bolivian section, extended to meet the Argentine railway ently not grown elsewhere, which furnishes a nutritious seed used at La Quiaca, was opened. A line was also laid from La Paz over by the Indians. Maize is seldom found above 11,000 ft., but is the heavily travelled high Huacuyo Pass (15,223 ft.) into the important in the high valleys below that level. Coca (Erythroxyupper Yungas valleys. There are a few other short railways. The lon coca) is extensively cultivated in the Yungas valleys of Cochatotal length of the Bolivia railways in 1922 was 1,401 m., with 256 bamba and La Paz. Wheat and barley, as well as many fruits and additional miles under construction. There are 6,843 m. of cart vegetables, were introduced by the Spaniards, and are grown in roads between the larger plateau cities and to some frontier points, the temperate and warm valleys, but only for domestic needs, and subsidized stage coaches run on some of them. Most of these Sugar-cane also was introduced at an early date, but as the demand roads are rough and at times almost impassable. There are few for sugar was limited, it was, and is, used chiefly to manufact ure good bridges. Motor roads are being built between some of the rum. Rice is another exotic grown on a small scale in the eastern more important points, such as Potosi and Sucre. There is a tropical districts. Tobacco of a fair quality is raised in the warmer weekly aeroplane service between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, regions, while excellent coffee is produced around La Paz and carrying mail and passengers and making the trip in a few hours, Cochabamba. whereas by mule it requires ten days or over. The most prominent of the forest industries is rubber-collecting, There are thousands of miles of navigable waters in the forested begun between 1880 and 1890, and reaching a registered annual lowlands, furnishing almost the only means of transportation. output of nearly 3,500 metric tons just before the best rubber Many of these streams are obstructed by rapids and fallen trees forests became Brazilian territory in 1903. There still remain and light-draught snag-boats patrol some of them. The Madeira- extensive rubber areas on the Beni and Madre de Dios. Rubber Mamoré railway was built to avoid the most dangerous of the exports in 1926 were valued at Bs. 5,484,010. The collection of rapids, but because of the decline of rubber production the road cinchona bark is one of the oldest forest industries, and the proved unprofitable. As no maritime port can be reached without product is of the best. The industry is destructive in method, transhipment in foreign territory, Bolivia is excluded from direct but there are probably large areas of virgin forest to draw upon. commercial intercourse with other nations. Traffic rights over There is a modern match factory in La Paz, a shoe factory and these routes have, however, been secured by treaties. Bolivia’s breweries in Oruro and flour mills in Cochabamba. Small plants outlet to the Amazon is restricted to the Madeira river, the navi- make woollen goods, leather, soap, candles, earthenware, cigars, gation of which is interrupted by the series of falls. The Bolivian cigarettes, hats, gloves, starch and cheese. Spinning and weaving port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is just above the falls of are Indian household occupations, and exceptionally substantial the Madeira and is reached from the lower river by the Madeira- fabrics are made from llama fleece, cotton and wool. Finer fabrics Mamoré railway. Connected with the upper Paraguay are Puerto are woven from alpaca and vicuña wool, sometimes mixed with Pacheco on Bahia Negra and Puerto Suarez (about 1,600 m. from silk or lamb’s wool. The Indians are skilled dyers, tanners and Buenos Aires by river) on Lake Caceres, through which passes saddlers. There is much water-power, and there are electric light the bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction. Puerto Suárez is con- and power plants at La Paz, Cochabamba and elsewhere. nected by steam launch with the Brazilian port of Corumbá, at Commerce.—The course of trade in recent years is shown as the end of the railway leading across Matto Grosso to São Paolo. follows :— Telegraph service dates from 1880, and in 1926 there were 4,090 m. in operation, of which the greater part belonged to the Imports Bs. Exports Bs. State. The Government also maintains several wireless stations. 1910 48,802,394 Industries.—Mining is the most important industry of Bolivia. 75,622,146 1913 54,762,833 93,721,513 Most attention is given to copper and tin, Bolivia producing about IQI 34,999,886 182,612,850 1923 one-fourth of the world’s tin. Silver, gold, tungsten, bismuth, lead. 62,914,000 107,693,000 * 1924 62,570,000 antimony and zinc are less important products. Around Santa I15,IQ1,500 1925 68,065,125 119,286,371 Cruz some petroleum is produced by crude methods for local con1926 70,831,469 122,681,287 sumption, and extensive exploration work has been carried on along the eastern base of the Andes, but difficulty of access has Of the exports in 1926, metals were the largest item (Bs. 113,delayed development here. There are strong British, Chilean, 041,100). Of this sùm tin represented approximately 75%, with French and American-as well as Bolivian mining companies. The silver, lead and copper following in this order. Rubber, hides and development of mining is having a marked effect upon the ecococa were other exports, while live animals, alpaca wool, quinine, nomic status of the Aymara and Quichua Indians, drawing them llama wool and coffee were shipped in smaller quantities. These away from the farms and promising to ameliorate their condition exports went largely to Great Britain (78% in values): and the of peonage. United States (9%). The Antofagasta route carried 59% of the The Indians of the plateau grass-lands have been herdsmen total exports by tonnage and 75% by value, Arica ranking second. from time bamba.

immemorial and are skilful in small-scale sheep raising.

Horses, formerly raised in the north, have not flourished there since the introduction of a peste from Brazil. The Jesuit founders of the Mojos missions stocked the Mojos and Chiquitos llanos with cattle, thus giving an unfailing supply of beef for the neigh-

bouring inland markets; but their inaccessibility has prevented development. Farther south the Nanos of Chuquisaca and Tarija

Rubber was the one item that was shipped eastward in quantities (most of the 3,105 metric tons exported

in 1926, valued at

Bs. 5,484,010, going out via the Amazon route). In the same year the new Argentine route (via La Quiaca) handled a larger amount of exports (15,858 metric tons, valued at Bs. 5,848,133)

than did the Peruvian route via Mollendo (5,075 metric tons, of Bs. 2,200,075 value).

Wheat flour was the largest single item of

.

BOLIVIA import, with cotton and woollen fabrics, mining machinery, refned sugar, rice, automobiles, live animals, electrical machinery, hats and confections following. Imports (1926) came chiefly from the United States (29% in values), Great Britain (22%), Germany (11%), and Chile (t1%).

The Arica-La Paz route carried

the largest amount of imports (41% in value), while 25% were brought in via Mollendo and Lake Titicaca and 23% via Antofagasta.

Finances.—Revenue comes mainly from mineral export duties, from import tariffs, the Government monopolies of alcohol and tobacco, and the Government’s share in the income of the railways. Export duties (1926) were Bs. 8,920,947 and import duties were estimated at Bs. 12,000,000. In 1926 the principal expenditures were: public debt, Bs. 19,375,880; defence, Bs. 3,492,950; public instruction, Bs. 3,892,246; department of interior, Bs. 3,466,082; communications, Bs. 2,171,844; Justice, Bs. 2,006,361. The revenue rose from Bs. 12,583,232 In 1910 to Bs. 49,135,126 in 1927. Surpluses of Bs. 816,667 and Bs. 1,368,540 were realized in 1918 and 1924 respectively, but in the ten years 1915-1924, the net deficits amounted to Bs. 39,512,416. In 1927 there was a surplus of Bs. 171,999. On Jan. 1, 1925, the national debt was Bs. 127,834,844; it consisted of an external debt of Bs. 92,970,000, internal debt of Bs. 20,647,355, and a floating debt of Bs. 14,217,489. On June 30, 1927, the public debt was estimated as being Bs. 172,544,762. Money and Banking.—In 1908 Bolivia virtually adopted the gold standard. The monetary unit is the silver boliviano, given a value of Bs. 12.50 to English and Peruvian pounds, both of which are legal tender. In 1920 United States gold coins were also declared legal tender, the boliviano having a par value to the dollar of $0-3893. After 1914 practically all the silver coins were

exported, and in 1925 the currency was nickel and paper. In 1911 a semi-State bank, the Banco de la Nacién Boliviano, was estab-

lished. Its original capital was Bs. 15,937,500, of which half was subscribed by the Government. This bank absorbed the Banco de

Bolivia y Londres, the Banco Agricola and the Banco Industrial.

All national banks operating in Bolivia must subscribe 20% of their capital to the Banco de la Nación, though foreign banks may place this quota in national bonds. The paid-up capital of the Banco de la Nación on Dec. 31, 1924, was Bs. 22,000,000, and the republic then held 114,738 of the total of 176,000 shares. A German bank, the Banco Alemán Transatlántico, is the only foreign institution in Bolivia, though banking operations are also conducted through several large foreign mercantile concerns. There are two nationally cọnstituted mortgage banks, the Crédito Hipotecario de Bolivia and the

Banco Hipotecario Nacional. In 1914 a law was passed confining the right to issue paper currency to the Banco de la Nación.

Department revenues are from excise and

land

taxes,

mining

grants, tithes, inheritance taxes,

aha

a S COX

Se

817

The schools are largely under the control of the municipalities, although nearly half of them are maintained by the nation, church and private agencies. The universities at La Paz and Sucre are the only ones teaching any subject but law. The University of La Paz furnishes instruction in law, medicine, theology, obstetrics, pharmacy and dentistry. There are national schools of mines, agriculture and animal husbandry, commerce, bacteriology, agronomy and veterinary science, music, and several normal schools, with a superior normal institute at La Paz, schools of arts and crafts being founded in the principal cities and an institute of applied arts being maintained at La Paz.

Religion.—The State religion is Roman Catholicism, but there

is freedom of worship.

Roman

Catholics numbered

1900. There are six bishoprics and an archbishopric.

1,609,365 in

Indian mis-

sions are entrusted to the Propaganda Fide. An annual appropriation of about Bs. 121,000 goes to the church, Bs. 23,800 being de-

voted to the Indian missions, which have charge of fully 20,000 Indians. The religious orders, which have never been suppressed, maintain several convents.

Defence.—All males between 19 and 50 are liable to military service. Actually only a limited number are taken into the army, lots being drawn to fill the annual quota for training. A law of Dec. 15, 1915, provided for a permanent force of 3,577 men. There was an immediate reserve of 15,000, though in 1925 there were also available about 200,000 with some training. There are four regiments of infantry and one each, of cavalry, field artillery and mountain artillery and a machine gun corps of 150 men; Bs. 8,492,950 were spent on defence in 1926. Government is of a unitary or centralized republican type, representative in form, but autocratic in some important particulars. The Constitution in force (1928) was adopted in 1880. The executive branch is presided over by a president and two vicepresidents elected by direct popular vote for four years, and not eligible to re-election for the succeeding term. The president is assisted by ministers of foreign relations and worship; finance and industry; interior and justice; agriculture and public instruction; war and colonization; public works and communication. Every executive act must be countersigned by a minister of State, who is held responsible for its character and enforcement, and may be prosecuted before the supreme court for its illegality and effects. The legislative branch is a congress of two houses—a senate and chamber of deputies. The senate has 16 members, two from each department, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of six years, one-third retiring every two years. The chamber of deputies has 70 members, elected for four years, one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment trials the chamber prosecutes and the senate sits as a court. One of the duties of the chamber is to elect the justices of the supreme court. Congress meets annually for 60 days, which may be extended to 90. The chambers have separate and concurrent powers. Male citizens 21 years of age or over, if single, and 18 years or over, if married, who can read and write and own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year not for services as a servant may vote. The electoral body is therefore small, and is under the control of a political oligarchy

tolls, stamp taxes, subsidies from i in power. the national treasury and other NATIVE CANOE, WOVEN OF REEDS, which practically rules the country, whichever party is The supreme administrator of a department is a prefect apsmall taxes. Expenditures are ON LAKE TITICAÇA IN BOLIVIA pointed by and responsible solely to the president. As the prefect chiefly for justice, police, public appoints subordinate officials, the authority of the national executaxes trade works, public instruction and the church. The many autocratic. There are recall the old colonial alcabala tax, and augment prices in much tive is wide-spread and may easily become and their governdepartments, the in assemblies legislative no the same way, if in lesser degree. and congress. Subordinate Education.—Although there is free and compulsory education, ment rests with the national executive in the provinces, the corregilittle progress has been made save in larger cities. Spanish is the to the prefects are the sub-prefects in the rural districts—all alcaldes the and cantons the in dores are language of the dominant minority, but Quichua and Aymara to Brazil, Paraguay adjacent territories The officials. appointed understand not do Indians spoken by the natives and many appointees nacionales, delegados three by governed are Peru and was which Spanish and refuse to learn it. Illiteracy, however, department capitals have municipal counThe president. the of amount The 1925. by 60% 84% in 1900, was lowered to about certain local affairs, and over the conspent on education rose from Bs. 1,497,643 in 1910 to Bs. 3,892, cils with jurisdiction over some of the highways, which will be of 246 in 1926. In 1926 there were 1,598 primary schools with 2,765 struction and maintenance further developed. teachers 938 schools, 733 against as pupils, teachers and 79,973 The judiciary consists of a national supreme court, eight supeand 41,587 pupils in 1911. There were in the same year 37 instidistrict courts, lower district courts, and juzgados de instrucrior nacionales), colegios 17 (including instruction secondary tutions of for the investigation and preparation of cases. The corre gi-~ ción with 403 instructors and 4,213 students.

818

BOLIVIA

dores and alcaldes also exercise the functions of justice of the peace. The supreme court is composed of seven justices chosen by the chamber of deputies from lists of three names for each seat sent in by the senate. A justice can be removed only by impeachment by the senate. History.—After the defeat of the Incas by the Spaniards in the r6th century the natives were reduced to virtual serfdom and their territory was reorganized as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of Peru and known as Alto Peru or, politically, the Audiencia of Charcas. The seat of government was Sucre. In 1776 this whole area was detached from the Viceroyalty of Peru and made a part of the newly created Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. In 1780-82 occurred the uprising of the Indians, led by Tupac Amaru, in an attempt (one of many) to drive out or exterminate the Europeans. The movement was conducted with great cruelty on both sides and resulted in the complete defeat of the Indians and the execution of their leader. The Indians remained entirely neutral in the colonial revolt against Spain. The inhabitants of Alto Peru joined with the other Spanish

to take into consideration the Constitution prepared by Bolivar for the new republic. A favourable committee report was made upon it and it was approved by the congress as the Constitution

American colonies in the effort to secure political independence

marched into that country, and after defeating Gen. Gamarra, the

from Spain and to break the dominance of the European-born group. When the patriots of Buenos Aires had succeeded in liberating the interior provinces of the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms against their enemies in Upper Peru. From July 1809 till Aug. 1825 almost uninterrupted warfare was waged in the Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy and around Titicaca. Upper Peru was invaded by the army of Buenos Aires, which, after twice defeating the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first anniversary of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 1811. Soon, however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and negligence of its leaders, was defeated, in July 1811, by the Spanish and driven back into Jujuy. Four years of warfare were ended in 1815 by the total rout of the patriots in a battle which took place between Potosi and Oruro. Then came a revolt of the Indians of the southern provinces of Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole country, it was joined by numerous creoles. This insurrection was speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the Spanish general La Serna, having been appointed commander-in-chief of Upper Peru, attempted to invade the Argentine provinces in a march on Buenos Aires, but he was forced to retire by the irregular gaucho troops of Salta and Jujuy. For six years there was guerrilla warfare between the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge in the mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and the royalist troops. In June 1823 the expedition of Gen. Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and activity at Lima, marched in two divisions upon Upper Peru, and in the following months of July and August the whole country between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his forces; but later he permitted a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army, and a severe storm converted this movement into a precipitate flight, only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima. In 1824, after the victory of Ayacucho, Gen. Sucre, whose valour had contributed so much to it, marched with a part of the army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory a universal rising of the patriots took place, and before Sucre had reached Oruro and Puno, in Feb. 1825, La Paz was already in their possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone over to their side. The Spanish general Olafieta, with a diminished army of 2,000 men, was confined to the province of Potosi, where he held out till March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in an action with some of his own revolted troops. Gen. Sucre was now invested with the supreme command in Upper Peru, until the requisite measures could be taken to establish in that country a regular and constitutional government. Fifty-four provincial deputies assembled at Chuquisaca, the capital, to decide, upon the invitation of the Government of the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not remain separate from that country. In Aug. 1825 they decided that Upper Peru should in future

constitute a distinct nation, for which they chose the name Bolivia and issued at the same time a formal declaration of inde-

pendence. The first general assembly of deputies dissolved on Oct. 6, 1825; and a new congress was installed at Chuquisaca on May 25, 1826,

of the republic. Gen. Sucre was chosen president for life, accord.

ing to the Constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space of two years, and on the express condition that 2,000 Colombian troops should be permitted to remain with him. The independence did not secure a peaceful future. Repeated risings occurred, till in the end of 1827 Gen. Sucre and his Colombian troops were driven from La Paz. A new congress was formed at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which modified the Constitution given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz for president; but only a year later a revolution, led by Gen. Blanco, for a time overturned the Government. Quiet being again restored in 1831 Santa Cruz promulgated the code of laws which bore his name, and

brought financial affairs mto some order; he also concluded a treaty of commerce with Peru.

In 1835, when a struggle for the

chief power had made two factions in the neighbouring republic of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in the contest: he

leader of one of the opposing parties, completed the pacification

of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself its protector, and had in view a confederation of the two countries.

At this junc-

ture the Government of Chile interfered actively, and espousing the cause of Gamarra, sent troops into Peru. Three years of fight-

ing ensued till in a battle at Yungay in June 1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled, Gamarra became president of Peru, and Gen.

Velasco provisional chief in Bolivia. The Santa Cruz party, however, remained strong in Bolivia, and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the Government, ultimately installing Gen. Ballivian in the chief power. Taking advantage of the disturbed condition of Bolivia, Gamarra attempted to annex the rich province of La Paz, invading it in Aug. 1841 and besieging the capital; but in a battle with Ballivian his army was totally routed, and Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was now in turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him. Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired to Valparaiso, and in the end of that year Gen. Belzi, after leading a successful military revolution, took the chief power, and during his presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture, industry and trade. Gen. Jorge Cordova succeeded him, but had not been long in office when a new revolt in Sept. 1857, originating with the garrison of Oruro, compelled him to quit the country. His place was taken by Dr. José Maria Linares, the originator of the revolution, who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government, and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be proclaimed dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led to the deposition of Linares in 1861, when Dr. Maria de Acha was chosen president. New causes of disagreement with Chile had arisen in the discovery of rich beds of nitrate and guano on the coast-land of the desert of Atacama, which threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the treaty of Aug. 1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude was adopted as the boundary between the two republics. A new military revolution, led by José Maria Melgarejo, broke out in 1865, and in February of that year the troops of President Acha were defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo took the dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in 1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty, and in 1869, after imposing a revised Constitution on the country, he became its dictator.

Recent History.—In Jan, 1871 President Melgarejo was in his

turn expelled by a revolution headed by Col. Augustin Morales. The latter, becoming president, was himself murdered in Nov. 1872 and was succeeded by Col. Adolfo Ballivian, who died in 1874. Under this president Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru which was destined to have grave consequences for both countries. By the treaty of 1866 between Bolivia and Chile, Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a half share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the coast that lay be-

tween the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that time being largely

interested in the trade of that region. It was also agreed that Chile

BOLIVIA should be allowed to mine and export the products of this district without tax or hindrance on the part of Bolivia. In 1870, in further consideration of the sum of $10,000, Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean company the right of working certain nitrate deposits north of the 24th parallel. The great wealth which was

government, the war still lingered, and in Sept. 1882 a conference took place between the latter and President Campero, at which it

passing into Chilean hands owing to these compacts created no

little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital was establishing in the rich district

of Tarapacá. On Feb. 6, 1873 Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru, the ostensible object of which was the preservation of their territorial integrity and their mutual defence against exterior aggression. There can be no doubt that the aggression contemplated as possible by both countries was a further encroachment on the part of Chile.

Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the con-

clusion of this treaty with Peru, Dr. Tomas Frias became presi-

dent. He signed yet another treaty with Chile, by which the latter

agreed to withdraw her claim to half the duties levied in Bolivian ports on condition that all Chilean industries established in Bolivian territory should be free from duty for 25 years.

This

treaty was never ratified, and four years later Gen. Hilarion Daza,

who had succeeded Dr. Frias as president in 1876, demanded as

the price of Bolivia’s consent that a tax of ten cents per quintal should be paid on all nitrates exported from the country, further

declaring that, unless this levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be seized by the Bolivian Government. As an

answer to these demands, and in order to protect the property of Chilean subjects, the Chilean fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocopilla. On Feb. 14, 1879 the Chilean colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on March

1, a fortnight later, the Bolivian Government declared war. An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no favour from Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well known to the Chilean Government, rendered the intervention of Peru more than questionable, and the law passed by the latter in 1875, which practically created a monopoly of the Tarapaca nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of Chilean enterprise, offered no guarantee of her good faith. Chile replied by curtly demanding the annulment of the secret treaty and an assurance of Peruvian neutrality. Both demands being refused, she declared war upon Peru. The superiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for some time by the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled them to land a sufficient number of troops to meet the allied forces which had concentrated at Arica and other points in the south. The Bolivian ports were already in Chilean hands, and a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised and routed the troops under the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the way into the southern territory of Peru. Gen. Daza, who should have co-operated with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the Peruvian defeat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty and some-

what disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco followed, and Iquique, which was evacuated by the allies without a struggle, was occupied. Severe fighting took place before Tarapacá surren-

dered, but the end of 1879 saw the Chileans in complete possession of the province.

Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia. In the former country Gen. Prado was deposed and Col. Piérola proclaimed dictator. The Bolivians followed the example of their allies. The troops at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious part they had been condemned to play by the incompetence or cowardice of their president, deprived him of their command and elected Col.

Camacho to lead them. At the same time a revolution in La Paz proclaimed Gen. Narciso Campero president, and he was elected to that post in the following June by the ordinary procedure of the Constitution. During 1880 the war was chiefly maintained at sea between Chile and Peru, Bolivia taking little or no part in the struggle.. In Jan. 1881 were fought the battles of Chorillos and Miraflores, attended by heavy slaughter and savage excesses on

the part of the Chilean troops. They were followed almost immediately by the surrender of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans practically masters of Peru. In the interior, however, Where the Peruvian admiral Montero had formed a provisional

819

was decided that they should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians soon wearied of the useless struggle. On Oct. 20, 1883 they concluded a treaty of peace with Chile (the treaty of Ancón); the troops at Arequipa, under Admiral Montero, surrendered that town, and Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia, whither he had fled for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On Nov. ọ, the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated at Arequipa, while what remained of the Bolivian army lay at Oruro. Negotiations were opened, and on Dec. 11, a truce was signed between Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty Bolivia agreed to the occupation by Chile of the whole of its sea-coast, including the port of Cobija. On May 18, 1895, a treaty was signed at Santiago between Chile and Bolivia, “with a view to strengthening the bonds of friendship which unite the two countries,” and, “in accord with the higher necessity that the future development and commercial prosperity of Bolivia require her free access to the sea.” By this treaty Chile declared that if, in consequence of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancón with Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should “acquire dominion and permanent sovereignty over the territories of Tacna and Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia in the same form and to the same extent as she may acquire them”; the republic of Bolivia paying as an indemnity for that transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this cession should be effected, Chile should advance her own frontier north of Camerones to Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually separates that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use her utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound

herself to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (caleta) of Vitor, or

another analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary protocols to this treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must “fully satisfy the present and future requirements” of the commerce of Bolivia. On May 23, 1895, further treaties of peace and commerce were signed with Chile. During those ten years of Bolivia’s recovery from the war, the presidency was held by Dr. Pacheco, who succeeded Campero, and held office for the full term; by Dr. Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892, and by Dr. Mariano Bautista, his successor. In 1896 Dr. Severo Alonso became president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations were resumed with Great Britain, Sefior Aramayo being sent to London as minister plenipotentiary in July 1897. As an outcome of his mission an extradition treaty was concluded with Great Britain in March 1898. In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating Sucre the perpetual capital. Until this time Sucre had taken its turn with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La Paz rose in open revolt. On Jan. 17 of the following year a battle was fought some 40 m. from La Paz between the insurgents and the Government forces, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men. Col. Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following, marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on April 11, 1899, after completely defeating the Government troops. Dr. Severo Alonso took refuge in Chilean territory; and Col. Pando formed a provisional government. He had no difficulty in obtaining his election to the presidency without opposition. He entered upon office on Oct. 26, and proved himself strong and capable. He had to deal with two difficult settlements as to boundaries with Chile and Brazil, and to improve communication in

order to revive mining and other industries. The dispute with Brazil over the rich Acre rubber-producing territory was accentu-

ated because the majority of those engaged in the rubber industry were Brazilians who resented the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in the district. This led to a declaration of inde-

pendence on the part of the State of Acre, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian troops in 1900 to restore order. There was no desire, however, on the part of President Pando to involve himself in hostilities with Brazil, and in a spirit of concession the dispute was settled amicably by diplomatic means, and a treaty signed in Nov. 1903. A new boundary line was drawn, and a portion of the

BOLIVIA

820

won

Acre province ceded to Brazil in consideration of a cash indemnity The successful candidate for the presidency should i : have take n office on Aug. 6, but Congress refused to ratify his election on of $10,000,000. The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupa- the ground that it was invalid because he had not resigned public tion of the former Bolivian province of Antofagasta under the office, as required by the Constitution, at least six months before Pacto de Tregua (Pact of Truce) of April 4, 1884 was more diffi- election. Meanwhile Saavedra continued in office. On Sept, ; cult to arrange satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some Congress formally declared the election of May 2 null and void. prospect of Chile’s conceding an outlet on the sea in exchange for President Saavedra transferred his office to Dr. Felipe Guzmin a recognition of the Chilean ownership of Tacna and Arica. The president of the Senate, to administer the Government provision. discovery, however, of secret negotiations between Bolivia and ally, pending a new election. In December the new election was Argentina caused Chile to change its conciliatory attitude. Bolivia held and Dr. Hernando Siles, a Republican, was elected. He was was in no position to venture upon hostilities or to compel the installed in office in Jan. 1926. In 1927 Bolivia and Paraguay re-opened negotiations in an atChileans to make concessions, and the final settlement of the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived the tempt to settle their boundary dispute in the Gran Chaco. By a Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines. protocol adopted April 22 of that year, the two nations agreed President Pando and his successor, Ismael Montes, who became to arbitrate the question. The commission which was set up bepresident in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to gan its sessions in an atmosphere of optimism, but by December it make the best terms they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified had reached a state of impasse over questions of interpretation, in 1905, which was in many ways advantageous to Bolivia, though Intermittent meetings in 1928 likewise failed, and an open clash the republic was compelled definitely to cede to Chile the maritime on Dec. 6 between armed forces of Bolivia and Paraguay brought provinces occupied by the latter power since the war, and to do the question to an acute stage. Both nations mobilized for war without a seaport. The Government of Chile undertook to con- and further clashes followed. However, on Dec. 17th Paraguay, struct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the Bolivian capital, and on Dec. 18th Bolivia, agreed to accept the mediation offer of La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through Chilean ter- the International Conference of American States on Conciliation ritory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further agreed to and Arbitration then in session in Washington. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Anuario Nacional Estadistico y Geográfico de pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary assistance Bolivia (La Paz, 1919); A. Arguedas, Historia de Bolivia (La Paz, to the construction of other necessary railways. 1922) ; A. Agassiz, and S. W. Garman, “Exploration of Lake Titicaca,” On Aug. 6, 1909 President Montes was succeeded by Señor Bull. Museum of Comp. Zool. at Harvard College, vol. iii., pp. 273~ Eliodoro Villazón. During their administrations the progress of 286 (1871-76); A. Agassiz, “Hydrographic sketch of Lake Titicaca,” Bolivia was marked and to the end of 1927 conditions in the re- Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sci., vol. ii., pp. 283—292 (1875—76); V, public were much more stable, both economically and politically, de Ballivián y Rizas, Archivo Boliviano, Colección de Documentos a la Historia de Bolivia (Paris, 1872); M. V. Ballivián, than ever before. Gen. Montes assumed office for a second term on Relativos Monumentos prehistóricos de Tiahuanacu, Homenaje al XVII? ConAug. 6, 1913, and remained President until 1917. The World War greso de los Americanistas (La Paz, 1910); M. V. Ballividn and E. had a considerable influence upon the trade of Bolivia: imports Idiaquez, Diccionario Geográfico de la Republica de Bolivia (La Paz, decreased, while her exports, mainly minerals, increased very con- 1890); M. V. Ballivián and J. Zarco, Monografías de la Industria siderably in value. The country proclaimed its neutrality in 1914, Minera, I. “Oro,” II. “Plata,” III. “Estaño” (La Paz, 1899-1900); M. V. Ballivián and C. F. Pinilla, División Política de la República but departed from this attitude in consequence of Germany’s sub- (La Paz, 1914); A. Ballivián, Bolivia, her Resources and her Future marine policy. Diplomatic relations with Germany were severed (London, 1920); J. M. Baldivia, Tacna, Arica y Cobija; Páginas on April 13, 1917, the reason for this action being that a German Históricas (La Paz, 1919) ; H. Bancroft, “Bolivian Tin and its Relation submarine had torpedoed in neutral waters a ship with the Bolivian to the United States,” Proc. Sec. Pan Am. Sci. Cong., vol. viii., pp.

minister to Berlin on board. The republic took no direct part in the War on the side of the Allies, but all her resources in metals were at their disposal. Montes relinquished office on Aug. 6, 1917, and was succeeded by his former Minister of Finance, Señor José Gutiérrez Guerra. Shortly after this the agitation for an outlet to the Pacific reached an acute stage. The policy of President Guerra was apparently aimed at a rapprochement with Chile over the long-standing griev-

ance resulting from the loss of Bolivia’s coastal territories. Popular indignation against this attitude led to demonstrations: Guerra was forced to resign, and was escorted out of the country to Arica. Meanwhile the World War had ended. Bolivia was represented at the Versailles Conference, and signed the Peace Treaty of 1919 and became an original member of tbe League of Nations. Following the deposition in July 1920 of President Guerra, the provisional Government of Bolivia prosecuted the popular demand for a revision of the situation in regard to her lost territory (see TACNA-ARICA). The presidency of Dr. Bautista Saavedra (elected 1920) was productive

of marked

economic

progress.

Nevertheless

some

‘measure of political unrest was experienced both in 1924 and 1925. A revolutionary movement took place in July 1924 but was promptly suppressed by the Government. Ostensibly the object was to promote the secession of the province of Santa Cruz to the neighbouring republic of Brazil, but active opposition to the policy of the Saavedra Government was really the purpose of the disturbance. In Jan. 1925 Dr. José C. Villanueva, a physician who had been serving as minister of public instruction and agriculture, and Abdón Saavedra, a brother of the President, were nominated as Republican candidates for President and Vicepresident. The Liberal party nominated Dr. Salamanca for the presidency. After a vigorous electoral campaign the Republican candidates were elected on May 2 by an overwhelming majority.

294-309 (Washington, 1915-17) ; A. F. Bandelier, The Islands of Titi-

caca and Koati (New York, 1910) ; W. O. Blanchard, “Foreign-trade Routes of Bolivia,” Jour. of Geog., vol. xxii., pp. 341-345 (1923); F. Blanco, Diccionario Geográfico de la República de Bolivia (La Paz, 1901); P. A. Blanco, Diccionario Geográfico del Departamento de Oruro (La Paz, 1904) ; E. von Boeck, “Klimatologie von Cochabamba

in Bolivien,” Mitt. K. K. Geogr. Gesell. in Wien, vol. xxix. (vol. xix., N.S.), pp. 455-465 (1886) ; Bolivia, 1825-1925 (1925) ; Isaiah Bowman, “Results of an Expedition to the Central Andes,” Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. xlvi.. pp. 161-183 (1914), “The Physiography of the Central Andes,” Am. Jour. of Sci., vol. xxviii. pp. 197-217 (Sept. 1909), and pp. 273-402 (Oct. 1909), “The Distribution of Population in Bolivia,” Bull. Geog. Soc. Phila. vol. vii, pp. 74-93 (1909), “The Highland Dwellers of Bolivia: An Anthropogeographic Interpretation,” Bull. Geog. Soc. Phila., vol. vii., pp. 159-184 (1909), “Trade Routes in the Economic Geography of Bolivia,’ Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. xlii., pp. 22-37, 90-104, 180-192 (x910) and The Andes of Southern Peru (New York, 1916); C. Bravo, La patria boliviana, estudio geográfico (La Paz, 1894) ; L. B. Borgoño, The Problem of the

Pacific and the New Policies of Bolivia (Baltimore, 1924); British Foreign Ofice Diplomatic and Consular Reports, London; British Department of Overseas Trade; Economic Conditions in Bolivia, London Annual; Boletin de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigración, Estadistica y Propaganda Geográfica (La Paz); Censo general de la población de la República de Bolivia según el empadronamiento de 1° de Septiembre de 1900 (Oficina Nacional de Immigración, Estadística y Propaganda Geográfica (La Paz, 1904); G. E. Church, “Bolivia by

the Rio de la Plata Route,” Geogr. Jour., vol. xix., pp. 64-73 (London, 1902); C. B. Cisneros and R. E. García, Geografia Comercial de la

América del Sur (Lima, 1898); Sir W. M. Conway, Climbing and Exploration in the Bolivian Andes (London, 1903); G. de CréquiMontfort, “Exploration en Bolivie,” La Géographie, vol. ix., pp. 79-86 (Paris, 1904) and “Linguistique bolivienne; La langue Uru ou Pukina, Internatl, Archiv. fiir Ethnogr., vol. xxv., pp. 87-113 (Leiden, 1921); M. le Dr. Chervin, “Conférence sur Anthropologie Bolivienne, Con-

grés de Reims, 1907,” Extrait des Comptes rendus de TAssociaiion Française pour Avancement des Sciences. (Paris); L. S. Crespo, Geografta de la República de Bolivia (La Paz, 1910) and Guia del viajero

en Bolivia,

vol. i. (La Paz,

1908);

A. Dereims,

Geologia

nacional, excursiones cientificas en roor y 1904 (La Paz, 1906). Dirección General de Aduanas.

Comercio especial de Bolivia, Importación-

BOLKHOV—BOLLANDISTS Exportación, Anos 1925 y 1926 (La Paz, 1927); A. d’Orbigny, Voyage dans L'Amérique méridionale, vol, iii., Pt. ili. (Paris, 1842); J. A. Douglas, “Geological sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: J—From the coast at Arica . . . to La Paz and the Bolivian Yungas,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixx., pp. 1-53 (1914) and “Geological sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: Il—From the Port of Mollendo to the Inambari River,” Jbid., vol. Ixxvi., pp. 1-58 (1920) ; Comte C. d'Ursel, Sud Amérique; Séjours et voyages au Brésil, en Bolivie, etc. (Paris, 1879); D. Forbes, “On the Geology of Bolivia and Peru,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii. (London, 1861); “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,’ Journ. Ethnolog. Soc.

No. 5, pp. 85-210

(Berkeley, Calif., 1926).

821 W. L. Schurz, Bolivia,

A Commercial and Industrial Handbook, Department of Commerce, Special Agents Series, No. 208 (Washington, 1921); J. Sever, “Le Desaguadero (Bolivie) ,” La Géographie, vol. xxxvi., pp. 35-44 (1922) 3 W. Lee Sisson, Informe del reconocimiento sobre el proyectado sistema de ferrocarriles bolivianos (Trans. by J. E. Zalles) (La Paz, 1905); Synópsis estadistica y geográfica de la República de Bolivia (La Paz, 1902—04); M. F. Soldán, Narración de la Guerra de Chile contra Perú y Bolivia (La Paz, 1884); R. Sotomayor Valdés, Estudio Histórico de Bolivia (Santiago de Chile, 1874) ; G. Steinmann, “Geologie des südostlichen Boliviens,? Centralb. f. Min. pp. 1-4 (Jahrg. vol. ii, pp. 1-113 (London, 1870); Herbert E. Gregory, “A Geo- 1904) ; A. Ulrich, “Palaeozoische Versteinerungen aus Bolivien,” Neues graphical Sketch of Titicaca, The Island of the Sun,” Bull. Amer. Geog. Jahrb. f. Min., Band viii., pp. 5-116, Pl. i-v. (1893); José MaceSoc., vol. xlv., pp. 561-575 (Aug. 1913), and “Geologic Sketch of donio Urquidi, Nuevo compendio de la historia de Bolivia (La Paz, 1921); J. Uzarski, Bolivia: Natur und wirtschaftliche Verhältnisse, Titicaca Island and Adjoining Areas,” Am. Jour. of Science, vol. xxxvi. Inaugural-Dissertation (Bonn, 1911); W. Van Brabant, La Bolivie (Sept. 1913) ; Henry M. Grey, The Land of Tomorrow. A Mule-back (Paris and Brussels, n.d.) ; P. Walle, Bolivia (New York, 1914); C. Trek, through the Swamps and Forests of Eastern Bolivia (London, 1927) ; Guta Nacional de Mineria (La Paz, 1925); A. V. L. Guise, Six Wiener, Bolivie et Pérou (Paris, 1880); M. Robinson Wright, Bolivia (Philadelphia, 1907); G. M. Wrigley, “Fairs of the Central Andes,” Years in Bolivia (1922); Edwin R. Heath, “Exploration of the River Beni in 1880-1881,” Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. v., pp. 327-347 (1883) ; Geog. Rev. vol. vii., No. 2 (Feb. 1919), “The Travelling doctors of the Andes,” “The Callahuayas of Bolivia,’ Geogr. Rev., vol. iv., pp. 183A. Hettner, ‘“Regenverteilung, Pflanzendecke und Besiedlung der trop(G. M. McB.) ischen Anden,” Festschrift Ferdinand Freiherrn von Richthofen zum 196 (1917). sechzigsten Geburtstag, pp. 199-233 (Berlin, 1893); V. Huot, Géo-

graphie des hauts-plateaux des Andes; Publication de la Mission G. de

Créqui-Montfort et E. Sénéchal de la Grange (Paris, 1908); Intern. Bur. of the American Republics, Bolivia, Geographical Sketch, Natural Resources, etc. (Washington, 1904); Rosendo y Gregorio Heredia, Guia general de Bolivia. Comercial, industrial, geográfica y adminisirativa (La Paz, 1918); A. Jauregui Rosquellas, Geografia General de Bolivia (La Paz, 1918) ; I. La Puente, “Estudio monografico del Lago Titicaca, bajo su aspecto físico é histórico,” Bol. Soc. Geogr. de Lima, vol. i, pp. 363-391 (1891-92) ; Republica de Chile, Oficina de Mensura de Tierras, La linea frontera con la República de Bolivia (Santiago de Chile, 1910); La República (Centennial special number, 1925); P. López, Bolivia y el Petróleo (La Paz, 1922); G. M. McBride, “The Agrarian Indian Communities of Highland Bolivia,” Am. Geog. Soc. Research Series No. 5 (New York, 1921) ; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru (New York, 1912) and The war between Peru and Chile, 18791882 (London, 1883); K. F. Mather, “Along the Andean Front in Southeastern Bolivia,” Geog. Rev., vol. xii., pp. 358-374 (1922); E. D. Mathews, Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, through Bolivia and Peru (London, 1879); C. Matzenauer, Bolivia in historischer, geographisher, und cultureller Hinsicht (Vienna, 1897); B. L. Miller and J. T. Singewald, “Patifio Tin Mines,” Bull. Pan-Am. Union, vol. xliii., pp. 490-496 (1916) and Mineral Deposits of South America, bibliography of 121 titles on the mineral resources of Bolivia, pp. 136-147 (New York, 1919); Memoria Presentada al Congreso por el Ministro de Comercio y Fomento (1924); Memoria Presentada al Congreso por el Ministerio de Hacienda e Industria (1925) ; Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Official Handbook to Bolivia (1924) ; J. B. Minchin, “Notes of a Journey through Parts of the Andean Table-land of Bolivia in 1882,” Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. iv., pp. 671—676 (1882); Mem-

orandum regarding

Tacna

and Arica presented

to the League

of

Nations (London, 1920); J. Molins, Bolivia (Buenos Aires, 1917), El Despertar de una Nación (ibid. 1925); J. L. Moreno, Nociones de geografia de Bolivia (Sucre, 1889); E. Mossbach, Bolivia (Leipzig, 1875); G. C. Musters, “Notes on Bolivia to accompany Original Maps,” Journ. Roy. Geog.’ Soc., vol. xlvii., pp. 201-216 (1887); M. Neveau-Lemaire, “Le Titicaca et le Poopó,” etc. La Géographie, vol. ix, pp. 409-430 (Paris, 1904), Les lacs des hauts plateaux de PAmérique du Sud, Publication de la Mission de Créqui Montfort et Sénéchal de la Grange (Paris, 1906) ; Fr. B. de Nino, Guia del Chaco Boliviano (La Paz, 1913); Alan G. Ogilvie, “Geography of the Central Andes,” Am. Geog. Soc., Map of His. Am. Pub. No. 1 (New York, 1922); M. Rigoberto Paredes, “Altiplanicie Pacefia,” Bol. Oficina Nacl. de Estadística, Afio 1912, Nos. 81-84, pp. 375-393 (La Paz, 1913), “Provincia de Inquisivi,” Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, vol: vi., Nos. 24, 25 and 26, pp. 75-137; Peru-Bolivia Boundary Commission Report

(1916); A. Petrocokino, Along the Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecua-

dor (London, 1903) ; E. Pfannenschmidt, Boliviens Land- und Volks-

wirtschaft (Berlin, 1916) ; S. Pinilla, La Creación de Bolivia (Madrid, 1919); L. Portman, Three Asses in Bolivia (London, 1922); A. Pos-

nansky, “Los Chipayas de Carangas,” Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, vol. xvi. No. 47, pp. 137-145 (1918); C. H. Prodgers, Adventures m Bolivia (London, 1922); H. Reck, “Geographie und Statistik der Republik Bolivia.” Pet. Mitt., vol. ii., pp. 257—261 and 281—295 (1865), vol. xii., pp. 299-305, and 373-381 (1866), vol. xiii., pp. 243—251 and 317-329 (1867); W. A. Reid, “La Paz, the World’s Highland Capital,” Bull, Pan-Am. Union, vol. xlvi., pp. 574-597 (1918); G. René-Moreno, Bolivia y Perú: Noticias históricas y bibliográficas (Santiago de Chile,

1905); G. Rouma, Les Indiens Quitchouas et Aymaras des hauts pla-

teaux de la Bolivie (Brussels and La Paz, 1913); Royal Geographical Society, The Boundary between Bolivia and Peru (London, 1918); H. H. Rusby, “Report of Work on the Mulford Biological Exploration of 1921~22,” Journ. New York Bot. Garden, vol. xxii., pp. 101-112; B. Saavedra, El litigio Peru-Boliviano (La Paz, 1903) ; Oscar Schmieder,

The East Bolivian

Andes,”

Univ.

Calif. Pub. in Geog., Vol. 2,

BOLKHOV,

a town in the Orlov province of the Russian

Socialist Federal Soviet Republic. Lat. 53° 25’ N., Long. 36° E. Pop. (1926) 17,532. It is a trading centre for hemp products and cattle, situated in an orchard district. It has a cathedral and near it are the ruins of the Optina Pustyn monastery.

BOLL, a botariical term for a fruit-pod, particularly of the

cotton plant. The word is in O.E. dolla, which is also represented in “bowl,” a round vessel for liquids, a variant due to “bowl,” ball, which is from the Fr. boule. “Boll” is also used, chiefly in Scotland and the north of England, as a measure of weight for flour=140 Ib., and of capacity for grain, 16 pecks=1 boll. In the United States the word has become familiar through the

depredations of the boll weevil (g.v.).

BOLLANDISTS, the Belgian Jesuits who publish the Acta

Sanctorum, the great collection of biographies and legends of the saints, arranged by days, in the order of the calendar. The original idea was conceived by a Jesuit father, Heribert Rosweyde (see Hacrotocy). His intention was to publish in 18 volumes the lives of the saints compiled from the mss., at the same time adding sober notes. At the time of his death (1629) he had collected a large amount of material, but had not been able actually to begin the work. A Jesuit father, John Bolland, was appointed to carry on the project. In 1635 Henschenius (Godfried Henschen) was associated with Bolland, and publication began in 1643. From 1659 Papebroch (Daniel van Papenbroeck) collaborated. This was the most brilliant period in the history of the Acta Sanctorum. The freedom of Papebroch’s criticism made him many enemies, and he had often to defend himself against their attacks. The work was continued—with some inequalities, but always in the same spirit—until the suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773. The last volume published was vol. iii. of October which appeared in 1770. On the' dispersion of the Jesuits the Bollandists were authorized to continue their work, and remained at Antwerp until 1778, when they were transferred to Brussels, to the monastery of canons regular of Coudenberg. Here they published vol. iv. of October in 1780, and vol. v. of October in 1786, when the monastery of Coudenberg was suppressed. In 1788 the work of the Bollandists ceased. The remains of their library were acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerloo, who endeavoured to continue the work, and in their abbey vol. vi. of October appeared in 1794. After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium the work was again taken up in 1837, at the suggestion of the Académie Royale of Belgium and with the support of the Belgian Government, and the Bollandists were installed at the college of St. Michael in Brussels. In 1845 appeared vol. vii. of October, the first of the new series, which reached vol. xiii. of October in 1883. In 1882 the activities of the Bollandists were exerted in a new direction with a view to bringing the work more into line with the progress of historical methods. A quarterly review was established under the title of Analecta Bollandiana by the Jesuit fathers C. de Smedt, G. van Hooff and J. de Backer. This reached its 25th volume in 1906, and was edited by the Bollandists de Smedt, F.

822

BOLLEY—BOLL

van Ontroy, H. Delehaye, A. Porcelet and P. Peeters.

This review

contains studies in preparation for the continuation and remoulding of the Acta Sanctorum, inedited texts, dissertations, and, since 1892, a Bulletin des publications hagiographiques, containing criticisms of recent works on hagiographic questions. In addition to this review, the Bollandists undertook the analysis of the hagiographic mss. in the principal libraries. Besides numerous library catalogues published in the Analecta (e.g. those of Chartres, Namur, Ghent, Messina, Venice, etc.), separate volumes were

at Brussels the BiblioGreek mss. libraries of Rome (1905 seg.). They also prepared inventories of the hagiographic texts hitherto published, and of these there have appeared the Bibliotheca hagiographica graeca (1895), the Bibliotheca hagiographica latina (1899) and the Bibliotheca hkagiographica Orientalis. These indispensable works delayed the publication of the principal collection, but tended to give it a more solid basis and a strictly scientifc stamp. In 1887 appeared vol. i. for November; in 1894, vol. ii., preceded by the Martyrologium Hieronymianum by J. B. de Rossi and the abbé Louis Duchesne; in 1902, the Propylaeum ad Acta Sanctorum Novembris; and in 1910 vol. iii. of November was published. There are three editions of the Acta Sanctorum: the original edition (Antwerp, Tongerloo and Brussels, 65 vols., 1643-1910; the Venice edition, stopping at vol. v. of September (1734—70) and the Paris edition, stopping at vol. xiii. of October (6r vols., 1863-83).

than those from squares (fruit buds). Recently emerged individ. uals are light yellowish in colour, but this changes to a grey or nearly black shade in a few weeks’ time. In the field, the Most conspicuous indication of the presence of the boll weevil js the flaring and falling of numbers of squares or buds. Unfavourable climatic conditions and careless cultivation, however, frequently cause great shedding of the fruit, which is often mistaken for `

BOLLEY, HENRY LUKE (1865), American botanist, was born in Dearborn county, Ind., on Feb. 1, 1865. He graduated at Purdue university in 1888 and was assistant botanist at the Indiana State experiment station from 1889-90, when he was named botanist and zoologist in the North Dakota agricultural college and experiment station. From 1909 he was dean of biology in the college, botanist and plant pathologist in the experiment station and State seed commissioner. He devoted himself chiefly to plant pathology, and originated various methods of disinfection for grains and also several new varieties of flax. In 1908 he published The North Dakota Pure Seed Law in explanation of legislation which he had originated. He also proposed a system of crop rotation based upon “the planting in series of genetically non-related crops, so distantly non-related that they do not bear each other’s disease factors.” He published a List of Seed-bearing Plants of North Dakota (1900), Seed Disinfection and Crop Production (1910) and numerous bulletins on potato scab, wheat rust, grain smuts, flax wilt, weed control and similar subjects.

¢

`

rn,

`

w

t

S,

Mo. -k` iLL. DEPT / ND “T NWwVAs >

devoted to the Latin mss. in the Bibliothéque Royale (2 vols., 1886-89), to the Latin and Greek mss. in théque Nationale at Paris (5 vols., 1889-96), to the in the Vatican (1899), and to the Latin mss. in the

See H. Delehaye, The work of the Bollandists (Princeton, U.S.A., and London, 1922), an excellent compendium of information; de Smedt, Art., “Bollandists,” Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. ii.; J. B. Pétra, Etudes sur la collection des Actes des Saintes (1880).

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MAP SHOWING THE BIENNIAL SPREAD OF BOLL WEEVIL IN THE SOUTH Beginning in Texas in 1901, the boll weevil scourge expanded until in 20 years it had infested practically all of the cotton producing area

weevil damage. If excessive shedding be noted and the squares upon being cut open show a white, curved grub that has fed upon the contents, there is little doubt that the boll weevil is the insect causing the damage. The boll weevil passes the winter as an adult or beetle. With

the advent of autumn weather the adult boll weevils in cottonfields begin to seek protection against the winter. They fly in every direction, although their movements are governed partially by the prevailing winds. They may fly into hedges, woods, cornfields, haystacks, farm buildings or other places. A number of weevils also obtain hibernating quarters without leaving the cotton-fields. These may crawl into cracks in the ground, under grass, weeds or other trash, and into the burs from which the cotton has been picked. During the winter the weevils take no food, and remain practically dormant; on warm days they may move about to a certain extent. Emergence from hibernation depends primarily upon temperature and rainfall in the spring,

although some minor factors are concerned. In the southem portions of the cotton belt emergence usually begins from the first to the middle of March, but farther north it is somewhat later. Emergence has been prolonged from the middle of March to June 28, and in more extreme cases from the middle of February to about the first of July. In the spring and throughout the fruiting season of cotton, the eggs are deposited by the female weevils in cavities formed by eating into the buds and fruit of the plant. An egg hatches under normal conditions in about three days, and the grub immediately BOLL WEEVIL, COTTON. The first home of the cotton begins to feed. In from 7 to 12 days the larva or grub passes boll weevil was undoubtedly in the plateau region of Mexico or into its pupal stage, corresponding to the cocoon of butterflies Central America. Before 1892 it had spread throughout the larger and moths. This stage lasts from three to five days. Then the portion of Mexico. It occurs southward to Guatemala and Costa adult issues, and in about five days begins to breed. Climatic Rica, and in the east half of Cuba. About 1892 it crossed the conditions cause considerable variation in the duration of the Rio Grande near Brownsville, Texas, and entered U.S. territory. stages, but on an average it requires from two to three weeks for By 1894 it had spread to half a dozen counties in southern Texas, the weevil to develop from the egg to the adult. The males feed and since has extended its range annually until in 1928, almost upon the squares and bolls without moving until the food begins all of the most important cotton-producing sections had become to deteriorate. The females refrain, throughout most of the infested. Practically the only territory remaining uninfested was season, from depositing eggs in squares visited by other females, the semi-arid zone along the western margin of the cotton belt.. but late in the autumn, when all of the fruit has become infested, The 1921 estimate of the U.S. department of agriculture of the several eggs may be placed in a single square or boll. As many as potential production of cotton prevented by weevils was 6,277,000 15 larvae have been found in a boll. The squares are greatly bales. preferred as food and as places for depositing eggs. As long as a The adult boll weevil is about 4 in. long, varying from 4 to 4 in., large supply of squares is present the bolls are not generally with a breadth about one-third of its length. This measurement damaged to any serious extent. The bolls, therefore, have a fair includes the snout, which is approximately half the length of the chance to develop as long as squares are being formed. The body. Variation in size is due to the amount of food the insect weevil, so far as at present known, breeds in no plants other than has obtained in the larval stage. Individuals from bolls (unripe cotton and a wild plant related to cotton found in the mountains pods containing lint and seed) are therefore nearly always larger of Arizona. ;

BOLOGNA—BOLOMETER

823

In spite of the many complexities involved in the problem of

1838. Its courtyard contains the arms of students elected as representatives of their respective nations or faculties. The univeroped for reducing its damage, which are of practical use to sity, since 1803, is housed in part in the (16th century) Palazzo growers. These are described in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1329, pro- Poggi. It now has four faculties. Among its professors women curable on request from the U.S. department of agriculture, have more than once been numbered. Washington, D.C. (B. R. C.) The Museo Civico contains especially fine collections of antiquiBOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524-1608) (Ital. for his ties from the neighbourhood. The important picture gallery surreal name, JEAN BOLOGNE or BOULLONGNE), Flemish sculptor, was veys both the earlier Bolognese paintings and the works of the born at Douai in 1524. He settled, in 1553, in Florence, where his Bolognese eclectics (16th and 17th centuries) the Caracci, Guido best works still remain. The most celebrated are the single bronze Reni, Domenichino, Guercino, etc. The works of Francesco figure of Mercury, poised on one foot, resting on the head of a Francia (1450-1517) and Lorenzo Costa of Ferrara (1460-1535), zephyr, as if in the act of springing into the air (in the Bargello are also of considerable merit. The great treasure is Raphael’s gallery), and the marble group known as the “Rape of the Sa- S. Cecilia, painted for the church of S. Giovanni in Monte about bines,” which was executed for Francesco de’ Medici. It is now in L§15. the Loggia de Lanzi'of the ducal piazza. Giovanni was also emThe Torre Asinelli (1109) and the Torre Garisenda (1110) are ployed at Genoa, where he executed various excellent works, chiefly square brick towers, the former 32o0ft. in height and 4ft. out of in bronze. His great fountain at Bologna (1563-66) is remarkable the perpendicular, the latter (unfinished) 163ft. high and roft. for beauty of proportion. Noteworthy also are his two fountains out of the perpendicular. The town contains many fine private in the Boboli gardens, one completed in 1576 and the other in palaces (13th century onwards), mostly in brick. The streets are 1585. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of Cosimo as a rule arcaded, and this feature has been preserved in modern de’ Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated west door additions. of Pisa cathedral. Bologna prepares sausages (mortadella), macaroni (tortellini), See La Vie et Poeuvre de Jean Bologne, par Abel Desjardins, and liqueurs, refines sugar, hulls rice, and makes railway material. d'après les manuscrits recueillis par Foucques de Vagnonville (1883, It is an important raiiway centre, just as the ancient Bononia numerous illustrations; list of works). was a meeting-point of important roads. Here the main line from BOLOGNA (ancient Bononia, q.v.), archiepiscopal see of Milan divides, one portion going on parallel to the ancient Via Emilia, Italy, capital of province of Bologna, headquarters of the Aemilia (which it has followed from Piacenza downwards) to VI. army corps. It is at the edge of the plain of Emilia, r8oft. Rimini, thence to Ancona and Brindisi, and the other through the above sea-level at the base of the Apennines, 82m. N. of Florence Apennines to Pistoia and Florence and thence to Rome. A shorter by rail, 63m. by road and som. direct, and 134m. S.E. of Milan by line to Florence via Prato is under construction. Another line rail, Pop. (1901), town, 102,122; (1921) 162,111; (1901), com- runs to Ferrara and Padua, another to Verona and a third to mune, 153,501; (1921) 211,157. The Roman city, orientated on Budrio and Portomaggiore (a station on the line from Ferrara to the points of the compass, with streets at right angles, can be Ravenna). Steam tramways run to Vignola, Pieve di Cento and distinguished from the outer city, fortified in 1206. The streets Malalbergo. Bologna, briefly held by the Lombards, remained generally leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the outskirts, and not from the centre, of the former. S. Stefano, S. Giovanni in under the exarchate of Ravenna, until this was given by Pippin Monte and SS. Vitale ed Agricola, among the oldest churches, lie (756) to the papacy. It was sacked by Hungarians in 902, but in the outer city. S. Stefano is a group of seven buildings, of dif- its early history is little known, and it is uncertain when it acferent dates; the earliest, the former cathedral of SS. Pietro e quired its freedom and its motto Libertas. The first “constituPaolo, built in the middle of the 4th century with debris of tion” of the commune of Bologna (1123) shows it to be free and Roman buildings; while S. Sepolcro (6th—7th centuries) is a independent. It strongly supported the Guelph cause against circular church with ornamentation in brick and an imitation of Frederick II. and against the neighbouring cities of Romagna and opus reticulatum. The present cathedral (S. Pietro), first erected Emilia; indeed, the Bolognese kept Enzo, the emperor’s son, prisin 910, is now baroque. The largest church (Gothic) of Bologna oner, from 1249 till his death. But Guelph and Ghibelline strugis that of S. Petronio, the city’s patron saint, begun 1390; only gles in Bologna itself so weakened the commune that for the next nave and aisles as far as the transepts were completed, measuring two centuries it fell under various masters, until Pope Julius II. 384ft. long and 157ft. wide, whereas the projected length of the in 1506 brought it under the papacy, where it remained (except whole (a cruciform basilica) was over 7ooft., with a breadth in the Napoleonic period between 1796 and 181s and during the across the transepts of 46oft., and a dome sooft. high over the revolutions of 1821 and 1831) until in 1860 it became part of i crossing. S. Domenico contains the body of the saint, who died the kingdom of Italy. Among the most illustrious natives of Bologna may be noted there in 1221. The beautiful S. Francesco (1246-60), has a fine brick campanile (end of r4th century). It was restored to sacred Luigi Galvani and Prospero Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.). uses in 1887, and has been carefully liberated from later altera- Giosuè Carducci, the poet, lived here for many years, and died tions. Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (formerly Piazza Maggiore), and here in 1907. BOLOMETER, an instrument for measuring radiation by Piazza del Nettuno lie at the centre at right angles to one another. Here are the church of S. Petronio, the massive Palazzo means of the rise in temperature of a blackened metal strip in one Comunale (1245), the Palazzo del Podesta (1245), Palazzo del of the arms of a resistance bridge. In the first bolometer, invented Re Enzo, recently restored, and the fine bronze statue of Neptune by Langley, a Wheatstone bridge (qg.v.) was used in conjunction with a galvanometer which showed a deflection proportional ta by Giovanni da Bologna (Jean Bologne of Douai). The famous university of Bologna was founded in the ruth the intensity of radiation (when the deflection was not great}. century (see UNIVERSITIES). The students numbered between Lummer and Kurlbaum’s bolometer consists of four platinum three and five thousand in the r2th to the rsth century, and in gratings (each of which is made of a series of strips) inserted 1262, it is said, nearly ten thousand (among them were both in the arms of a Callendar-Griffiths bridge (g¢.v.)}; two of these Dante and Petrarch). Though autonomous, the university had no gratings, in opposite arms of the bridge, are placed one behind fixed residence; professors lectured in their own houses, or later another, so that the openings of one are opposite the strips of the in rooms hired or lent by the civic authorities. Only in 1520 were other, and are exposed to the radiation, the other opposite pair professors of law given apartments in a building belonging to S. being shielded; this arrangement doubles the effect on the galvaweevil control, efficient methods

(see Cotton) have been devel-

Petronio; and in 1562, by order of Pius IV., the university itself was built by Carlo Borromeo, then cardinal legate. In 1564, Tasso was a student there, and was tried for writing a satirical

poem. One of the most famous professors was Marcello MalPighi. The building has served as the communal library since

nometer,

and

also

compensates

any

extraneous

temperature

changes. The spectrum bolometer consists of a single strip set on edge, in an arm of a bridge; it is used for exploring the distribution of intensity of radiation in a spectrum. (See RADIATION,

THEORY oF, and SPECTROSCOPY.)

‘

.

824BOLSENA

BOLSENA—BOLSHEVISM (anc. Volsinii)!, province of Viterbo, Italy, 12m.

W.S.W. of Orvieto by road, on north-east bank of Lake Bolsena. Pop. 2,821 (town) 3,635 (commune). The town is dominated by a picturesque mediaeval castle. The 11th century church of S. Christina (martyred in 278 by drowning in the lake according to the legend) has a fine Renaissance facade, constructed about 1490 by Cardinal Giovanni de’Medici (afterwards Pope Leo X.), and some good terra cottas by the Della Robbia; in catacombs beneath is the tomb of the saint. A Bohemian priest, sceptical of the doctrine of transubstantiation, was convinced by the appearance of drops of blood on the host he was consecrating on an

altar of the crypt (1263). In commemoration of this Pope Urban IV. instituted the festival of Corpus Christi, and ordered the erection of the cathedral of Orvieto. Lake Bolsena (anc. Lacus Volsiniensis), 1,000ft. above sealevel, 71Sq.m. in area, and 48oft. deep, is almost circular, and was the centre of a large volcanic district, though probably not itself an extinct crater. Its sides show fine basaltic formation. It contains two islands, Bisentina and Martana, the latter containing remains of the castle where Amalasuntha, daughter of Theodoric, was strangled.

BOLSHEVISM,

the doctrine

professed

by the extreme

left wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party. The name is derived from the fact that at a conference of the party held in Brussels and London in 1902-3, a majority (“Bolsheviki”) secured the acceptance of views urged by their leader Nikolai Lenin, the minority (“Mensheviki’) largely withdrawing from control of the party’s operations. I. The Origins of Bolshevism.—tThe -effective origins of Bolshevism may be traced back to the foundation, in 1883, of the Group for the Emancipation of Labour by Plekhanov and Axelrod. The latter, deeply influenced by the doctrines of Marz, which were now beginning to exercise a wide influence on Russian Socialism, broke with the older Narodniki who had counted upon a peasant revolution as the source of Russian emancipation. The group preached the doctrine that the main pivot of revolutionary success must be the organized working-class; and its consequent emphasis upon the class-structure of society makes it legitimate to regard it as the first Marxian organization in Russia. The history of the party from 1883 until 1903 may conveniently be divided, as by Lenin, into three periods. The first, which extends until 1894, is the period of gestation; the second, which goes down to 1898, is the period of adolescence; the third, which ends with the Brussels-London conference of 1903, is the period in which the party assumed definiteness of form and outlook. In the first period, the party was mainly occupied with self-discovery and exercised comparatively insignificant influence on the working-class. Discussion circles were formed, books and pamphlets were published, the men who were subsequently to reveal themselves as leaders appeared. But the party consisted of

leaders without a following.

Industrial organization was too

backward in Russia for a working-class movement to be possible. The leaders were convincing one another; and the discussion circles like that formed by the Bulgarian Blagoiev at St. Petersburg in 1887, had considerable influence. But the party cannot be said to have awakened any general knowledge of its significance. The second period, however, saw a large development. Having attained some clarity of doctrine, and having finally separated

itself from the influence of the Narodniki, the party began to

Two other events contributed to its development. Ip 189) was founded the Bund, the union of Jewish workers in Polang

and Lithuania. This body was given coherency and strength b the fact that its members suffered not merely economic, but also religious oppression. They engaged in revolutionary activity

upon a large scale, and their energy made them the Spear-head

of the party. To it was due the organization in 1898 of the first party conference at Minsk. Nine members met there. They

formed a definite organization, elected a central committee, and published an historic manifesto actually drawn up by P., Struve

who, later, deserted the party and became a reactionary. It was not yet, however, clearly known what method the party was to follow.

There were

different strands of thought visible.

Some members of the party believed that the first essential work

was to win working-class adherents by pushing their economic claims to better industrial conditions; the vaster task of capturing the state was, in their judgment, not yet ripe. Others, of whom Lenin was the most outstanding, insisted that economic discontent must be from the outset merely the base from which

the capture of the bourgeois state by the working-class is organ-

ized.

The first group (Struve, Prokopovitch, Kouskova) insisted

that the overthrow of tsarism was not a working-class duty; the

latter should occupy itself with matters like the hours of labour and the rate of wages. From this, they were called economists.

Their opponents (Lenin, Martov, Plekhanov), were known later as Iskrists from the title of their journal Jskra (founded in 1900).

The period from 1898 until 1903 was the most critical in the history of the party. Its numbers grew by leaps and bounds. Students poured into it from every university and technical school. Groups of every shade of socialist opinion came into existence. The growth in numbers naturally multiplied the winds of doctrine in the party. The development, moreover, of liberal bodies like the Union for Liberation of which Miliukov was leader, raised in an acute form the question of the relationship of the Social Democrats to the radical bourgeoisie. There were problems, further, as to how far it was desirable to encourage those isolated acts of terrorism of which Russian history at this period was so full. The party, in short, at this period was a loosely confederated system of semi-autonomous groups, doctrinally ‘united upon the ultimate goal, but with no clear view either of method, or of order of priority in objectives. When Jskra was founded in 1900 the meaning of these varieties of opinion became clear. II. The Separation

whom

of Doctrine.—The

Lenin, Plekhanov,

Martov

editors of Iskra, of

and Axelrod were the best

Above all, they known, set themselves certain definite tasks. aimed at combating economism. Secondly, they set themselves clearly to distinguish between Socialists willing to use all the currents of opposition to tsarism, and those who sought to act solely through a proletarian party. In 1902, Lenin published his

What must we do? in which, with great power, he argued for the concentration of all revolutionary energy into a centralized party of which each member should have his definitely allotted function and act as a soldier in an army. He sought to organize a revolutionary élite from which all spontaneous and individual action should Have been cut away, to be replaced by a corps of professionals

whose

function

committee of strategy.

should

be directed

by a central

Events precipitated the full discussion

of this view. A growing resort to the strike weapon (sometimes, as at Kiev in rgor successfully) and increased activity against the

organize definite relations with the working-class. The growth of industry led to strikes on an increasing scale. District and regional committees were founded; and men of the standing of Lenin, Krassin, Martov, joined the party. Workers’ Social Democratic Circles were founded in most considerable towns. By 1898 it was clear, both from the degree of organization, and the immense literary output, that the party was making its way as a national institution and had an assured future.

provisional programme was drawn up, not without difficulty, and in 1902 the second congress of the party assembled in Brussels. The police interfered with its proceedings; and it was transferred after a few days to London. The second Congress was a representative body of some 60 delegates. Most of the leading figures in the movement were

TAccording to the theory now generally adopted, the Etruscan Volsinii occupied the site of Orvieto, which was hence called Urbs vetus in late classical and mediaeval times, while the Roman Volsinii was transferred to Bolsena (see Vors).

confronting it. From the outset, it was clear that there were two decisively opposed strands of opinion. The demand of the Bund for the maintenance of a separate Jewish national organization within the party, raised squarely the issue whether its

Socialists led to the need for a new

orientation of policy.

A

there; and the discussions went to the very heart of the problems

825

BOLSHEVISM basis should be purely that of class. For the Bund, a federal structure in the party was fundamental; to Lenin and his supporters federalism simply spelt strategic weakness and a proletarian victory was impossible if organization was to take account of national differences. Upon this issue Lenin, and the future leader of the Mensheviks, Martov, were united in opposition. But grave differences appeared. On party procedure, Lenin on the one side and Martov and Axelrod on the other took widely

diferent views. For the former, party membership was to be reserved only for those who participated fully in its organization and fulfilled the orders it issued. For Martov, sympathetic adherence was sufficient.

To Lenin, a party was meaningless un-

less it was a firmly coherent organization built up of authentic and similarly-minded partisans who moved along a single front to their goal.

Martov took the view that this would deprive the

thus rent in twain that there came, with dramatic suddenness, the Revolution of October 1905. In that effort the two parties had different plans, and they

Lenin insisted that a prodrew from it different conclusions. visional revolutionary government must be set up to achieve the

proletarian revolution.

The Menshevists

denied that the pro-

letarian hour had struck. For them, at the moment, the replacement of autocracy by constitutionalism was the maximum possible achievement; and they were therefore prepared to supFor port the Liberal bourgeoisie under Miliukov’s leadership. Lenin, the event meant that a general strike and armed insurrection were the basis of revolutionary tactics; for the Mensheviks both were premature as weapons unsuited to a class not

The Mensheviks were yet conscious. of its ultimate mission. prepared to sit in the Duma; the Bolsheviks proposed not only

to boycott it but to call upon the masses to mobilize against its convocation. And from the actual events, each insisted that its view had been vindicated. The Mensheviks believed that © own significance the moment, to enforce. It cannot be said that, at the (councils of workers) born spontaneously in the Soviets the of the conflict was understood. Plekhanov, for instance, at that St. Petersburg proved the value of the adminisof workshops as it treat not did theorists, party’s the of first time perhaps the on which they relied as a principle of organiautonomy trative liberal more a serious issue; and in the actual voting Martov’s on the contrary, drew the inference Bolshevists, The But the next difference went zation. formuta of adhesion prevailed. (1) the class-consciousness of the shewed spontaneity the that period a for prepared were deeper still, Martov and his allies of giving it point by rigid necessity the (2) also but workers, latter of co-operation with the Liberals, on the condition that the Lenin, too, the soviets of 1905 were inadequate For direction. Plekhanov and Lenin suffrage. universal for should pronounce confined to the industrial workers, and did protested against this view. What is vital, they urged, is the because they were soldiers and the peasants. To the Menshethe with combine not proletarian revolution. The Liberals would use the Socialists to of 1905 was the exaggerated claims failure the of root the viks, revothe in interest further no take overthrow the tsar and then ascribed to Bolshevist demagogy; they which proletariat, the of a was lution. The Socialist must stand alone; only in that way the failure lay, not in the claims made, but in however, Lenin, to undewas conference the Again possible. Socialist revolution way in which force was applied to their exploitacided. It was yet significant that Martov and Lenin, thus far the inadequate moreover, would only succeed as the outcome Revolution, tion. allies, were now on opposite sides upon fundamental questions of It would be necessary, l situation. internationa suitable a of of questions when, revealed again was tactics. Their divergence and rigorously to peasants the of sympathy the have to further, nationalism apart, Lenin demanded a centralized, and Martov, by the bourgeoisie. Already, that victory of betrayal the prevent questhe on again opposed were They structure. party a federal laid down the fundamental basis tion of editorial control of Jskra where Lenin sought a decisive is to say, 1905 had, for Lenin, 1917. of November, the of Revolution voice. He was successful by 25 votes to 23, and the two sides chief result of 1905 was to 1905.—The of Effects The IV. . Menshevists and Bolshevists of now took the names and Menshevists. Bolshevists between abyss impassable an the create When These differences were not merely upon tactics. loose collaboration between them. programme of the party was discussed, it was clear that the Yet, for a time, there was a the Russian autocracy a new lease of Mensheviks laid great store by such matters as universal suffrage The Triple Entente gave the Duma created a platform which, of existence the and and life; and the Constituent Assembly and its character. To Lenin driven by opinion to use in common. were they feeble, ishowever secondary were these Bolshevist) a time that Plekhanov (at disagreement. A party grew up intensified only action joint and Yet revolution, sues. What was important was the Bolshevik who believed in ending illegal action; Menshevists The the . within subordinate be must ons considerati other all success its to there were those who drew from hegomony of the.proletariat, said Plekhanov, is fundamental. To and, among the Bolshevists, inference that the revolutionary the Duma the of of futility the its maintenance it may be necessary to sacrifice the freedom from participation therein. For a withdraw should aselements elected lly democratica a of existence the and the bourgeoisie dominated by the Menshevists. They took sembly. A successful revolution, in other words, must confront time, the scene was of the time, that Russia had arrived at phrase the the necessity of dictatorship. For that reason the Bolshevists re- the view, in now lay direct to constitutional monway The 1847. not death 1849, the of abolition the for demand fused to accept Martov’s Europe—and the Russian social Western of rest the in archy—as sentence. Their view was put by Plekhanov inasingle, prophetic the path of its European neighbours. They tread must democracy Nicholas leave can one “that asked, he think,” you “Do phrase, awakening of the peasant was Il. alive? If for him alone, the death penalty must be main- were agreed in insisting that the imagined; but they were hitherto had they than important more tained.” believed that Russia had Menshevists The else. little in agreed differthese of result necessary he III. The First Schism.—T change towards parliamentary democences was schism. The conference elected a central committee settled down to a gradual argued that new conflict was immifollowers his and Lenin of racy; control the and supporters; Lenin’s of entirely composed the first elections to the dominated Cadets the When to nent. returned Martov hands. Iskra remained exclusively in their they demanded a enthusiastic; were Menshevists the Russia where he founded a special bureau for his own faction Duma, the European model; and they on ministry Cadet responsible a while Committee, Bolshevist the and proceeded to boycott The Bolshevists campaign in its favour. bitter pamphlet warfare between the two sections commenced. conducted a strong and in the London Conference of 1907 hostile; or indifferent were RussoThe antagonism. complete for ready thus was Everything it became clear that effective co-operation was impossible. Lenin Japanese War and then the abortive revolution of 1905 completed in parliamentary systems; and he atthe separation of the two groups. But, before its outbreak, Lenin was prepared to take part the ground that it was essential to on opponents their tacked and Plekhanov of conversion The machine. lost control of his value by experience of them. But their of workers the of disabuse arrest others of the Central Committee to the Mensheviks, the more surely to destroy. After the the only other members, and the co-option of Mensheviks in their place, he urged participation sections no longer made even the two the 1910, of meeting Paris suphis and Martov to, transferred the domination of the party 1917 came, the divergent paths When collaboration. of porters. The schism then became complete. Lenin founded a pretence by the differences of 15 inevitable: made been had followed they sysa and (Forward) own its of separate bureau, with a journal years. party tem of regional committees. It was to a revolutionary

party of the services of many, professors and students, for example, who could not fulfil the rigid demands Lenin was prepared

BOLSHEVISM

826 V. The

Consolidation

of Doctrine.—The

history

of the

Bolshevist party after the first Revolution of 1917 is the history

of Russia itself. Here it is necessary to explain how the evolution thus far summarized has issued in a corpus of doctrine. Broadly, it may be said that they start from the Marxist assumptions which they inherited from the pioneers of 1883 and give to them the connotation suggested by their special Russian experience. They start from the belief in the inevitable triumph of the working-class. The battle between the workers and the bourgeoisie is inevitable because these classes have nothing in common. War between them is thus the logic of the facts; and its inevitability arises from the fact that no class is ever persuaded peacefully to abdicate. Nor can the fight be waged constituSuch a struggle only leaves intact the heart of the tionally. capitalist citadel. The concessions won by peaceful conflict never go to the root of the matter. A democratic community is unreal so long as the machinery of the state and the means of production are in the hands of the bourgeoisie. The business, therefore, of the workers is to separate from the latter and to fight it. That is their essential historic mission. By doing so, they realize themselves and make possible the destruction of the capitalist state. Bolshevism must, however, be carefully distinguished from Blanquism and terrorism. The former pinned its faith to sudden mass-action without regard to time and place; the latter had confidence in the exemplary value of isolated acts such as assassination. The Bolshevist is more realistic. A successful revolution, in his view, was the outcome of careful preparation applied to a suitable conjuncture of circumstances. Insurrection, as Marx said, is an art; and Lenin laid down five rules as its guiding principles. Insurrection, first, must never be played with; once it has begun, it must be carried on to the bitter end. When, secondly, the time has been chosen, the revolutionists must mass at the proper place forces superior to those of the enemy; otherwise they will be overwhelmed. Once begun, thirdly, the offensive is fundamental, because, as Marx pointed out, “the defensive is death to the insurrection.” Surprise, fourthly, is fundamental; and the moment to choose is when the forces of government are scattered. Moral superiority, finally, is vital; and the announcement of daily, even hourly, successes has great importance in depressing the enemy, in consolidating the offensive, and in keeping the masses on your side. Surrounding all must be the ultimate perspective of audacity without which supreme success is impossible. Revolution, therefore, may be said, from the angle of Socialism, to depend on three conditions. First, it must be not a conspiracy, nor a party-move, but the rise of the revolu-

tionary working-class. Secondly, it must have the masses on its side, and must therefore build its appeal on their most urgent demands. Thirdly, it must break out at the crux of rising activity among the friends of revolutionary change, and at the moment of greatest indecision on the part of the enemy. The working-class is thus brought to power. The Bolshevist insists that the preservation of power involves the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. It is essential to crush out opposition and to shatter the institutions of the defeated regime. Revolution is war, and until there is complete acquiescence in the victor’s terms, the methods of war alone are suitable to it. “The enemy,” says Trotsky, “must be made harmless, and this means he must, in wartime, be destroyed.” For, willing the end, the Bolshevist cannot wipe his hands of the means. Hesitation, weakness, pity, a false worship of democracy, only stimulate the forces of

counter-revolution and prevent the consolidation of the new regime. The dictatorship is exercised by the Communist party because (1) its members have been tried and can be trusted and (2) they represent the real will of the workers which has been suppressed and obscured by capitalism. The dictatorship is a trust for the revolution which, in its turn, is a fulfilment of the mission to which the working-class is historically called. Violence therefore wins the revolution and dictatorship consolidates it. The transition to Socialism is accomplished in two stages. In the first, the oppression of classes disappears, and, with it, the state which is merely the instrument of class-oppres-

sion.

The proletariat seizes power and by using it to destro

the class-structure

of society ceases

to be a proletariat.

The

instruments of production are socialized. But coercive power is still necessary because the minds and hearts of men are not easily accustomed to the new regime. Government therefore cop. tinues, though growing acceptance of the new society means growing democratization of. social processes. This, however, does not mean parliamentarism, which is merely a bourgeois form of government, but the Soviet system (a council of soldiers, work.

ers, and poorer peasants) which combines the advantages of the territorial with the virtues of producers’ representation. Formal democracy is replaced in the first stage by what the Bolshevist calls “the revolutionary dynamic of living forces”; which means that all elements in society except the working-class are delib. erately excluded from power. Great industrial enterprises, the banks, the means of communication, and the large landed estates must be confiscated. Wholesale commerce should be nationalized: foreign trade must become a government monopoly. The means of propaganda, the press and education, must be confined to working-class direction. Small business may be left untouched, because it is futile to think that Communism can be established at a stroke. Measures must be taken to associate intellectual technicians with the new order and to neutralize the peasant classes by organizing the poorer, while repressing sternly the antagonism of the richer peasants. So, mutatis mutandis, with the poorer bourgeoisie of the towns. Bolshevism cannot be said to have any clear view of the ultimate social order it proposes to establish. It has taken over from Marx phrases like the demand “from each according to his pow-

ers, to each according to his needs,” and the “administration of things instead of the administration of persons.” But it is mainly occupied with the immediate revolutionary task, It conceives, moreover, of the revolution thus established as a world-revolution made in each country on similar conditions to those in Russia. For this purpose the formation of a world Communist Party rigorously directed from a single centre and sternly disciplined from above is fundamental. To advance the revolution advantage must be taken of national, racial and economic discontent where these exist; but propaganda in relation to them must seek always to move them to significance in terms of the class-war. Union should be sought with the reformist workingclass parties, but always on the understanding that they are bound to fail, and that if they arrive in power the Communist must separate from them and fight them. Finally, it is to be noted that Bolshevism regards religion as a capitalist instrument used as an anodyne for the workers and seeks wherever possible to destroy its influence. VI. Conclusion.—Upon the wisdom or rightness of these views it is not necessary here to pronounce. They have been put into operation in Russia; they have been attempted elsewhere; and history alone can give a verdict upon them. Here it is only necessary to remark two things. Bolshevism accepted the general outlines of the Marxian philosophy (historic materialism, the theory of class-war, the inevitability of a proletarian revolution as the outcome of capitalist exploitation of surplus value) and developed them in detail in terms of the special Russian experience. At every point, the deductions made by Lenin and his disciples are, clearly enough, less general principles of universal validity than special assumptions built upon a special environment they profoundly knew. They ignore most of the things that Western Europe has sought for as desirable; personal

freedom, government according to law, the subordination of the executive to the judiciary, the national choice of the government. They attribute no special worth to human personality as such; and they conceive of violence as sanctified by the use to which it is put. Its adherents are moved by a profound faith in the

unquestionable rightness of their cause; and its history has been as full as any of self-sacrifice and martyrdom. It proceeds in the conviction that it‘is based on a number of incontrovertible truths; of which the human and eternal passion for equality 3s ultimately the most profound. To give effect to that passion, it seeks to make an entirely new re-assessment of human

BOLSOVER—BOLT motives, in which what is the predominant fact is the relegation of the pecuniary incentive to a comparatively subordinate place.

It assumes that violence sufficiently prolonged can give birth to acceptance of its principles; and that fraternity is the outcome of violence. It argues that there is an inevitable logic in history

which makes the transference of social power to the working-

827

support a candidate nominated by one’s own party. From the sense of “fastening together” is derived the use of the word “bolt” as a definite length (in a roll) of a fabric (4oft. of canvas). From another “bolt” or “boult,” to sift (O.Fr. buleter, from the Med.Lat. bduretare or buletare), come such expressions as in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale, “The fann’d snow, That’s bolted by the northern blasts twice o'er.”

class inescapable. Obviously, the appeal it makes is great to all who, from economic, or racial, or religious reason feel themBolt in Engineering.—In engineering a bolt is a pin or bar selves unjustly oppressed. It is characterized by the optimism which serves to lock or unite parts, at the same time permitting which is the mark of all intensely dogmatic creeds, and that ‘of easy disconnection, as distinct from a rivet. Bolts occur in optimism gives a self-confidence to its adherents to which few locks, safes and strong-room doors, being sometimes movable, competing systems can pretend. How far it is a passing phase, sometimes fixed, and form a portion of the mechanism of a rifle, how far a necessary part, of social change it is too early to certain automatic pistols and other articles. A soldering-iron is pronounce. Quite obviously, as the experience of Russia has called a bolt. Bolts for purposes of union of wood and metal obshown, experiment with it is costly; and it is not clear that a jects are used in many millions per year, and a big industry is nation without the means of self-sufficiency could survive an engaged in the production, with machines for forging, turning, attempt at its application. Its origins, moreover, in a period screwing and finishing, as well as making the nuts. Black bolts when autocracy had to be fought, and its success in a period are those screwed, but otherwise left as forged, bright bolts are of military defeat, have given its theses an inelasticity, on the finished all over, while for extra strength high-tensile steel is emone hand, and a special colour, on the other, which are both ployed, and case-hardening is applied when wear must be defeated, extremely important and too little considered by Bolshevist as against frequent applications of the spanner, or if the bolt acts writers themselves. But it is the historic nature of all particulars as a pivot. The smallest bolts are those for accurate scale models, about „$ in. diameter; the largest hold the heads and bases of to seek to prove that they are universal by nature. armour-plate forging presses together, those on a Davy Brothers BIBLIOGRAPHY.—An adequate history of the Russian Communist Party before 1905 does not exist. The following books, pamphlets 12,000-ton press being 2gin. diameter by 35ft. long and each and journals are of importance in determining the character and weighing 38 tons. An ingenious method is adopted to tighten evolution of its doctrines: G. Plekhanov, Socialism and the Political Struggle (1883); Our Differences (1884); N. Lenin, What the some big bolts which hold the frames of hydraulic rivetters and shearing machines together, instead of relying on mechanical “Friends of the People” are (1894); The Development of Capitalism in Russia 1899; *What must we do? (1905) ; *The State and Revolumeans alone. The bolts are heated before the final assembly and tion (1917); *The Proletarian Revolution (1918); *The Infantile the nuts run down. On cooling, each bolt shrinks in length, giving Malady of Communism (1918) ; *On the Road to Insurrection (1917) ; L. Trotsky; *z905 (1909); N. Lentzner, The Revolution of r905 (1919) ; G. Zinoviev, History of the Russian Communist Party (1925) ; Martov, The Party in a State of Siege (1903) ; History of the Russian Social Democracy (1922); B. Pares, *Russia and Reform (1907); Mavor, *An Economic History of Russia (1914); Struve and others, Signposts (1906); A. Tscherevanin, The Proletariat and the Russian

Revolution (1908); H. J. Laski, *Communism (1927); Nestroev, Pages from the Diary of a Bolshevist (1910). The periodicals Iskra, Pravda, Zviezda, Vpériod are of great importance, but complete files are rare outside the Marx-Lenin Institute in Moscow. A fuller Bibliography will be found in Laski’s Communism above. The books marked with an asterisk are available in English. (H. J.L.)

BOLSOVER,

urban district, Derbyshire, England, 54 m. E.

of Chesterfield, on branch lines of the L.M.S. and L.N.E. railways. Pop. (1931) 11,811. It lies at a considerable height on a sharp slope above a stream tributary to the river Rother. The castle round which the town grew up was founded shortly after the Conquest by William Peveril, but the existing building, a fine castellated residence, was erected on its site in 1613. The town itself was fortified, and traces of early works remain. The church

an immense tightening effect, fit to withstand the enormous pressures, from 12,000 to 14,000 tons.

Most industries have their special bolts, but the diagram shows main types for general purposes in wood-work, engineering structures and machines, building, agricultural machinery, stoves, etc. A has square head and nut, B hexagon, for easier application of the wrench in confined places. Round heads are often used instead of hexagon, as for connecting-rods. C is the cup-head or coach-bolt, also made with conical head, and required in wood or metal. The countersink or tyre, D, leaves a flush surface, a frequent necessity. The cheese or deck bolt, E, has its round head sunk into wood for a similar reason, F, the fang-bolt, has a large nut with spikes to sink into wood, whilst the bolt head is turned round. For thin metal work, shutes, galvanized iron and stoves, G and H are employed, the one being a mushroom

of St. Mary is of Norman and later date; it contains some interesting early stone-carving, and monuments to the family of Cavendish, who acquired the castle in the 16th century. Coalmining and quarrying are carried on in the neighbourhood.

BOLSWARD,

town, province of Friesland, Holland, 63m.

W.N.W. of Sneek. Pop. (1927) 6,978. The town is mentioned in 725, when it was situated on the Middle sea. When this receded, a canal was cut to the Zuider Zee and in 1422 it was made a Hansa town, The mediaeval constitution of Bolsward was in some ways peculiar. The Jongema family had certain hereditary rights in the administration, defined in the charter of 1464; e.g.,

the head of the family sat for two years with the scabini and the third year with the councillors. An influential signed in civic legislation and administration to Great Church of St. Martins (1446-66) contains Ing. The so-called Small church dates from c. remnant of a Franciscan convent. Bolsward

position was asthe clergy. The some good carv1280, and is the also possesses a

Renaissance town hall (r61r4~18). It trades in agricultural produce, especially butter. , BOLT, an O.Eng. word (cf. Ger. Bolz, an arrow), for a

‘quarrel” or cross-bow shaft, or the pin which fastened a door.

From the swift flight of an arrow comes the verb “to bolt,” as applied to a horse, to bolting food, etc., and such expressions as “bolt upright”; also the American use of “bolt” for refusing to

TYPES OF BOLTS A. Square-head

IN

GENERAL

B. Hexagon-head C. Cup-head or coach-bolt

D. Countersink or tyre

E. Cheese-head or deck

USE

FOR

WOOD AND METAL-WORK F. Fang-bolt G. Mushroom-head H. Stove or spout

J. Ball-bolt

K. Hook-bolt

head, the other stove or spout. The second type, when with square head, is a plough bolt. In the conveying industry thin large diameter heads of these shapes are forged with spikes underneath; called then band or elevator bolts. If a swivel movement is necessary a bolt or nut will be finished with a curve, or a ball bolt, J, is applied. The hook-bolt, K, holds parts if a hole cannot be put through one member, or variations in position are wanted from time to time. The eye-bolt, L, screws into heavy parts of machinery to be lifted by the crane. M is also an eyebolt, but fitted to swivel on a pin, and so throw the bolt away through a slot in a cover or other top detail, for rapid disconnection. If the threaded part is longer, a straining-bolt results, for tightening wires or stays. The tee-head bolt N slides in a tee-

BOLTON—BOLTRAFFIO

828

Slot in one member to be united. O is a stud-bolt, permanently screwed in by the tail, while P, the collar-bolt, is a form of stud secured through a plate by the lower nut. The hook-bolt, Q, mainly for suspension purposes, may be double, forming a U-bolt. For attachment to the sides of timber and other work, the strapbolt, R, has two or three holes. The term rag, or lewis-bolt, applies to S, grouting or lead being poured in the hole to secure the head,

the L.M.S. railway, and divided by the Croal, a small y of the Irwell, into Great and Little Bolton; while, as tributar the full

name implies, it is surrounded by high moorland. Althoug h of early origin, its appearance, like that of other great manufac tur. ing towns of the vicinity, is wholly modern. The earliest form of the name is Bodleton or Botheltun.

The manor was granted by

William I. to Roger de Poictou, and passed through the families

of Ferrers and Pilkington to the Hartingtons of Hornby Castle

who lost it with their other estates for their adherence to Richard III. In 1485 Henry VII. granted it to the first earl of Derby. The

manor of Little Bolton seems to have been, at least from Henry IIT.’s reign, distinct from that of Great Bolton, and was held till the 17th century by the Botheltons or Boltons.

The site of the

church of St. Peter has long been occupied by a parish church (there was one there in the 12th century), but the existing build-

L. Eye-bolt M. Swivel eye-bolt straining-bolt) N. Tee-head 0. Stud-bolt P. Collar-bolt

(or,

if longer,

Q. Hook-bolt (for suspension) R. Strap-bolt S. Rag or Lewis-bolt T. Lewis-bolt U. Cotter or anchor-bolt

for attachment of iron work walls or foundations. T is also a lewis-bolt, inserted in a slot cut with dovetail side, and the packing-strip added, so that tightening the nut locks the whole. An expansion bolt (to go in walls) has a springy casing with spikes, that expands by a taper when the head is screwed home. The cotter or anchor-bolt U also serves chiefly for foundations, a large iron plate lying above the slot into which a cotter is inserted. The stay-bolt is really a rivet, screwed into boilers to unite the firebox and shell, and then rivetted over permanently.

BOLTON, DUKES OF.

The title of duke of Bolton was

held in the family of Powlett or Paulet from 1689 to 1794. CHARLES PowLetT, the 1st duke (c. 1625-1699), who became 6th marquis of Winchester on his father’s death in 1675, had been member of parliament for Winchester and then for Hampshire from 1660 to 1675. An ardent Whig in Charles II.’s reign, he supported William of Orange in 1688 and was restored to the office of lord-lieutenant of Hampshire and created duke of Bolton in April 1689. He was an eccentric man, famed for his grotesque extravagances. He died in Feb. 1699, and was succeeded by his elder son, CHARLES, 2nd duke of Bolton (1661-1722), who had also been a supporter of William of Orange. He was lordheutenant of Hampshire and of Dorsetshire, a commissioner to arrange the union of England and Scotland and was lord justice in 1696, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1717-22. His third wife was Henrietta (d. 1730), a natural daughter of James, duke of Monmouth. According to Swift, this duke was “a great booby.” His eldest son, CHARLES, 3rd duke of Bolton (1685-1754), filled many public offices and attained high rank in the British army. His opposition to Sir Robert Walpole deprived him of several of his offices in 1733; but some of them were afterwards restored to him, and he raised a regiment for service against the Jacobites in 1745. He was a famous gallant, and his second wife was the singer, Lavinia Fenton (d. 1760), who had previously been his mistress. BOLTON or BOULTON, EDMUND (1575?-1633?), English historian and poet, brought up a Roman Catholic and educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, afterwards residing in London at the Inner Temple. In 1600 he contributed to England's Helicon. He was a retainer of the duke of Buckingham, and through his influence secured a small place at the court of James I. The most important of his numerous works are Hypercritica (1618?), a short critical treatise valuable for its notices of contemporary authors, reprinted in Joseph Haslewood’s Ancient Critical Essays (vol. ii, 1815); The Roman Histories of Lucius Iulius Florus (translated, 1618); Nero Caesar, or Monarchie Depraved (1624), with special note of British affairs.

BOLTON

(Borton-Le-Moors), municipal, county and par-

liamentary borough, Lancashire, England, 11 m. N.W. of Manchester. Pop. (1891) 146,487; (1931) 177,253. It is served by

ing dates only from 1870. In 1251 William de Ferrers obtained from the crown a charter for a weekly market and a yearly fair, but gradually this annual fair was replaced by four others chiefly for horses and cattle. The New Year and Whitsuntide Show fairs arose only during the r9th century. During the Civil War Bolton sided with the parliament, and in 1643 and 1644 the royalist forces assaulted the town. From early days Bolton was famous for its woollen manufactures. In Richard I.’s reign an aulneger, whose duty it was to

measure and stamp all bundles of woollen goods, was appointed, The industry flourished so greatly that when, in 1566, deputies

were appointed to assist the aulnegers, Bolton is again named. Leland in his Itinerary (1558) recorded the fact that Bolton made cottons, which were in reality woollen goods. Real cotton goods were not made in Lancashire till 1641, when Bolton is named as

the chief seat of the manufacture of fustians, vermilions and dimities. Velvets were first made here about 1756, by Jeremiah Clarke, and muslins and cotton quiltings in 1763. The inventors of spinning machinery, Arkwright and Crompton, were both

born in the parish. Spinning factories were erected, the first in Bolton about 1780. In 1851 there were 66 cotton mills with 860,ooo throstle spindles at work. The cognate industry of bleaching has been carried on since early in the 18th century, and large ironworks grew up in the latter half of the roth century. In 1791 a canal was constructed from Manchester to Bolton, and by an act of parliament (1792) Bolton Moor was enclosed.

BOLTON ABBEY, village West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng-

land, 22m. N.W. of Leeds and 54m. from Ilkley by the L.MS. railway. Pop. of parish (1921) 186. It takes its name, inaccurately, from the great foundation of Bolton Priory, the ruins of which stand near the right bank of the upper Wharfe in a valley beautifully wooded and closely enclosed by hills. Part is transitional Norman; the nave, which is perfect, is Early English and Decorated. Transepts and choir are ruined, and remains of domestic buildings are slight. The manor of Bolton Abbey with the rest of the district of Craven was granted by William the Conqueror to Robert de Romili, who evidently held it in 1086, although

no mention is made in the Domesday survey. William de Meschines and Cicely de Romili, his wife, heiress of Robert, founded and endowed a priory at Embsay or Emmesay, near Skipton, in 1120, but it was moved here in 1151 by their daughter Alice de Romili, wife of William FitzDuncan. The manor was sold in 1542 to Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, whose descendants, the dukes of Devonshire, now hold it. BOLTRAFFIO (BELTRAFFIO), GIOVANNI AN-

TONIO (1467-1516), Italian painter of the Lombard school, influenced by Leonardo da Vinci. He belonged to a distinguished

Milanese family and occupied important civic posts in his native

town, painting as an accomplished amateur, rather than as an

artist by profession. His epitaph, which was removed from S. Paolo in Compito in Milan to the Archaeological museum, states that in his early youth he studied painting, but in his later years was occupied with other work besides art. Leonardo came to Milan in 1485, and Boltraffio became one of his ardent followers,

conforming closely to his master’s designs in his early work. He was a distinguished portraitist. In 1500 he was commissioned to paint an altarpiece (now in the Louvre) for the church of the

BOLTZMANN—BOMBARDMENT Misericordia, near Bologna, by Giacomo Casio, a merchant and poet, whose portrait Boltraffio painted several times (Chatsworth,

England; Brera Gallery, City of Milan). The National Gallery, London, possesses a “Madonna and Child” which, according to

Morelli, is the master’s best work, two pictures from the Salting Bequest and a portrait from the Mond Collection. Other works are in Milan (Brera Gallery and Poldi-Pezzoli Collection), Ber-

all’Isarco, 14m. to the north.

829 Situated at the junction of the

Brenner route from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland

down the Upper Adige valley, Bolzano has always had very considerable transit trade (it has four large fairs annually). ‘There are railways to Mendola, Collalbo and Merano.

The pons Drusi (probably over the Adige just below Bolzano) is mentioned in the 4th century by the Peutinger Table. In the Bavarian counts. In gamo and in the Borromean palace on the Isola Bella. In Rome “th to 8th centuries Bolzano was held by Trent, it was given by of diocese the of rest the with 1027, the g representin Onofrio S. of church the in fresco a he painted of Trent. From 1028 the local “Madonna with the Founder” (1513). In the Nuns’ Choir of San emperor Conrad II. to the bishop but after Tirol fell to the bishops, the of vassals Maurizio, Milan, are 26 medallions of holy women painted in counts were at the expense of that of grew power their (1363) Habsburgs Ambrosithe in studied be fresco by Boltraffio. His drawings can the privilege of a town granted Leopold 1381 In bishops. the ana, Milan. all jurisdiction to the HabsSee G. Vasari, Le Vite de’... pittort (Munich, 1911; Eng. trans. council: in 1462 the bishops resigned 1912); I. Lermolieff (Morelli), Galleria Borghese e Doria Pamfili burgs and it was merged with the Tirol till 1918. (1890); G. Carotti, Le Gallerie Nazionale Italiane IV. (1899); J. P. BOMA (properly Msoma), port on the north bank of the Richter, Mond Collection (1910); F. Malaguzzi Valeri, La Corte di Congo about 6om. from its mouth, the administrative capital of Lodovico il Moro (1923). Belgian Congo up to 1927. Pop. about 400 whites and 2,500 naBOLTZMANN, LUDWIG (1844-1906), Austrian physicist, tives. It was founded as a slave mart and entrepôt for the lower was born on Feb. 14, 1844. He was educated at Linz and then at Congo in the 16th century, chiefly by the Dutch, though British, Vienna, where he obtained his doctorate in 1867 and was appointed French and Portuguese had factories and the last put forward assistant in the Physical Institute of the university. In 1876 claims to sovereignty (see AFRICA). In 1884 the natives of Boma Boltzmann was appointed professor at Graz where he stayed granted a protectorate of their country to the International Assountil 1891, when he went to Munich. He held the appointment ciation of the Congo. of Professor of Physics at Vienna with the exception of a short See H. M. Stanley, The Congo and the Founding of its Free State period in 1904 when he went to Leipzig, from 1895 until Sept. 5, (London, 1885). 1906 when he committed suicide at Duino. BOMB, a term formerly used for an explosive shell (see AmBoltzmann’s most important work was on molecular mathemati- MUNITION) fired by artillery. The word is derived from the Gr. cal physics; he was one of the most important contributors to Bóußos, a hammering, buzzing noise, cf. “bombard” (g.v.). At the development of the kinetic theory of gases (see KINETIC the present day it is most frequently used of a shattering or inTHEORY OF MATTER). His first paper, published in the Wiener cendiary grenade (qg.v.), or an explosive vessel actuated by clockBerichte (1866), was on the second law of thermodynamics work or trip mechanism, employed to destroy life or property. In (g.v.); this was followed by three papers (1868, 1872 and 1892) naval warfare, before the introduction of the shell gun, explosive on the partition of energy. These papers attempted to put on a projectiles were carried principally by special vessels known as more satisfactory basis the work already started by Maxwell; the bomb-vessels, bombards or, colloquially, bombs. second paper contained what is now known as Boltzmann’s In geology, the name “bomb” is given to certain masses of lava H-theorem; and in 1877 he began to apply the theory of probabil- which have been hurled forth from a volcanic vent by explosive ity to the above problem. Boltzmann wrote a number of papers action. In shape they are spheroidal, ellipsoidal or discoidal; in on the integration of the equations of molecular motion, on structure they may be solid, hollow or more or less cavernous; viscosity and diffusion of gases, on Maxwell’s electromagnetic whilst in size they vary from that of a walnut to masses weighing theory (g.v.) and on Hertz’s experiments. He also gave a theo- several tons. It is generally held that the form is partly due to retical proof of Stefan’s law for the energy radiated by a black- rotation of the mass during its aerial flight, and in some cases the body (see RADIATION). These papers were published in the bomb becomes twisted by a gyratory movement. According, howViennese, German and English scientific periodicals. ever, to Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, many of the so-called bombs His Vorlesungen iiber Maxwell’s Theorie der Elektricitat und of Vesuvius are not projectiles, but merely globular masses formed des Lichtes was published at Leipzig (1891-93), and his Vorle- in a stream of lava; and in like manner Prof. J. D. Duna showed sungen über Gastheorie was first published in 1895. that what were regarded as bombs in Hawaii are in many cases lava-balls that have not been hurled through the air. and merely priest BOLZANO, BERNHARD (1781-1848), Austrian BOMBARD, the name in various forms, of a mediaeval philosopher, was born at Prague on Oct. 5, 1781, and died there t,” “pumhart,” “pomon Dec. 18, 1848. He was professor of the philosophy of religion musical instrument (“bombard,” “bumhar or schalmey. A small oboe base the of ner forerun the at Prague from 1805 to 1820, but was compelled to resign in mer”), but no keys, is that year, and was suspended from his priestly functions. The primitive oboe called bombarde, with eight holes . peasants Breton the among used ehre, still Wissenschaftsl most important of his numerous works are the Also a primitive type of cannon used in the middle ages— oder Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Logik, advocating a the verb “‘to bombard” and “bombardment.” 1837); whence Sulzbach, vols. (4. logic of study scientific method in the BOMBARDIER, originally an artilleryman in charge of a the Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft (4. vols. Sulzbach, 1834), missioned officer in a philosophic representation of all the dogmas of Roman Catholic bombard, now the lowest grade of non-com a corporal, below ranking army, British the of artillery t the der theology; and Athanasia, oder Gründe für die Unsterblichkei fire against artillery of ation concentr the BOMBARDMENT, Seele (2nd ed., Mainz, 1838). In philosophy he followed Reinbuildings. In its and towns or position in troops tions, fortifica was he though Leibnitz, of hard in ethics and the monadology strict sense the term was formerly applied only to the bombardalso influenced by Kant. objects, houses, public buildSee Lebensbeschreibung des Dr. Bolzano (an autobiography, 1836) ; ment of defenceless or undefended Wisshaupt, Skizzen aus dem Leben Dr. Bolzanos (1850) ; Palágy, Kant ings, etc., the object of the assailant being to dishearten his opund Bolzano (Halle, 1902). ponent, and specially to force the civil population and authorto’ ities of a besieged place to persuade the military commandant Venezia of capital BOLZANO (formerly Botzen), provincial rebeen have place the of defences actual the before Tridentina, Italy, at the confluence of Talavera and Isarco, above capitulate was loosely employed to describe the junction of the latter with the Adige. It lies at a height of duced to impotence. The term fortified positions in preparation or forts upon attacks N. artillery 86oft., on the Brenner railway, 58m. S. of that pass and 35m. use has now become customary this and of Trento. Pop. (1921) 22,659 (town), 32,812 (commune). Bol- for assaults by infantry, such a bombardment, prelimof object The tive. authorita The and cathedral. zano boasts of a fine Gothic 14th and 15th century defences, to destroy or neuthe destroy to is famous Minnesänger, Walther von der Vogelweide, according inary to the assault, to demoralize the defenders. and defence the of weapons the Ponte tralize above farm a at 1170) (c, accounts, was born

to some

BOMBARDON—BOMBAY

830 BOMBARDON

or Bass Tusa, the name given to the bass

and contrabass of the brass wind in military bands, called in the orchestra bass tuba. The bombardon was the very first bass wind instrument fitted with valves and was the outcome of the application of valves to the bugle family whereby the saxhorns were also produced. The radical difference between the saxhorns and

the tubas (including the bombardon) is that the latter have a sufficiently wide conical bore to allow of the production of fundamental sounds in a rich, full quality of immense power. When the brass wind instruments with conical bore and cup-shaped mouthpiece first came into use, it was a well-understood principle that the tube of each instrument must theoretically be made twice as long as an organ pipe giving the same note; for example, the French horn sounding the 8ft. C of an 8ft. organ pipe, must have a tube 16ft. long. After the introduction of pistons, instrument makers experimenting with the bugle, which has a conical bore of very wide diameter in proportion to the length, found that baritone and bass instruments constructed on the same principle gave out the fundamental full and clear. A new era in the construction of brass wind instruments was thus inaugurated. The bombardons possess a chromatic compass of 34 to 4 octaves but the lowest notes produced by the valves are very difficult to obtain, for the lips seldom have sufficient power to set in vibration a column of air of such immense length, at a rate of vibration slow enough to synchronize with that of notes of such deep pitch.

BOMBAY,

Persian. In z919 a school of sociology and economics was established for research, New buildings costing over eight lakhs of

rupees were completed in 1923. The university is still mainly concerned with examinations and has affiliated to it a number of institutions in Ahmadabad, Baroda, Bombay, Dharwar, Junagarh Karachi, Poona, Sangli and Surat.

According to the 1921 census the population of Bombay was

1,175,914. It includes, besides Europeans, Mahrattas, a relatively

small but highly influential group of Parsees, Arab traders from the

zr

Wi i

University——Modelled upon the plan of London university,

the University of Bombay was originally constituted as only an examining body in 1857. In 1913 lectures were added for postgraduate students in history, economics, philosophy, Sanskrit and

f

a

capital of Bombay Presidency, standing at the

southern end of Bombay island, 18° 55’ N., 72° 54’ E. The island, running roughly north and south is 11m. long by 3m. broad. It is separated at the northern end from Salsette only by a tidal creek crossed by causeways. At the southern end of the island is the well-known Back bay, a shallow basin 2m. across and 3m. deep; and around this lies Bombay. The shape of this end of the island is roughly that of a thumb and long index finger, pointing downwards, and bent slightly inwards. The thumb, on the west side of the bay, is a rocky ridge, some 2ooft. high, named Malabar hill. At the extreme point is Government House, with its luxuriant grounds, the cold weather residence of the governor of the presidency. Along the ridge and on its slopes are the beautiful residences of the wealthier citizens of Bombay, both European and Indian, commanding superb views east and west. The other side of the bay is a long tapering tongue of land terminating in a lighthouse. The upper end is linked to the bazaar, or Indian city proper; then comes the Fort, now merely a memory, naming the area containing the great business houses, banks, shipping offices, etc.; finally comes Colaba, the cantonments, or military quarters of Bombay. Between this side of the island and the mainland is the great waterway constituting Bombay harbour, 7m. wide at the opening and narrowing as it runs north to the creek. There are few more beautiful and impressive sights than the approach to Bombay from the sea up this noble waterway studded with mountainous islands, the stately buildings of the city on the left, and away to the right the palm-fringed shore of the mainland, rising gradually to the peaks of the western Ghats in the distance. No city in the world has a finer waterfront than Bombay. The great public offices looking over Back bay are not individually distinguished for architectural merit, but they have a cumulative effect of great dignity. Bombay’s position, as the gateway of India, its magnificent natural harbour, and the enterprise of its inhabitants, have made Bombay one of the first cities of the world. The Indian city, or bazaar, is well built and unusually handsome, with fine wide thoroughfares, a perfect hive of industry. In the Fort area, the commercial buildings will compare with those in most other cities, while of really outstanding merit are the Victoria railway terminus, the post office, the museum and the Royal Institute of Science.

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Bombay, situated on a small Island off the coast of western India, has long been an important point of contact between the East and West. Railroads - serve as a medium for local trade, while its splendid port facilities, organized

by the East India company in 1668, make it a centre of international commerce. Its bazaars are famous for the richness and variety of their display

Persian gulf, Afghans, Sikhs, Tibetans, Cingalese and many others including Baghdad Jews. There is quite a considerable Japanese colony, chiefly interested in cotton, and large enough to have a club of its own, but Chinese have not yet settled there in any number. The two languages of Bombay are Marathi and Gujarati, but most people understand and speak the lingua franca, generally known as Bombay Bat, a colloquial and ungrammatical form of Hindustani, containing an admixture of local and even of English words. The Parsees number only 100,000 and occupy a position of influence out of all proportion to their numbers, being endowed with great natural ability, combined with a thoroughly Western initiative and progressiveness. The names of Tata, Wadia, Petit, Jijibhoy, etc., are of world wide repute in the spheres of commerce and philanthropy, and many of the greatest business houses of Bombay are owned by them.

The dockyard,

originally built in 1736, has a sea-face of

nearly 7ooyd. and an area of about 200 acres.

graving docks, three of which

together make

There are five

one large dock

648ft. long, while the other two make a single dock 582ft. long.

There are also four building slips opposite the Apollo Bandar (landing place) on the south-east side of the enclosure.

Bombay

is the only Indian port with tides large enough to permit of docks

BOMBAY onthe great scale. Prince’s dock (1875~79), Victoria dock (1884— 88), Alexandra dock (begun 1905), are important features of the port’s accommodation. In recent years a deep-water pier has been built for the discharge of bulk petrol, with a pipe connection

at Sewri, and the sea wall of the Alexandra dock has been

extended for 1,500ft., forming the new Ballard pier, or mole. Steamers now come alongside the mole, whence passengers can reach the centre of the city in a few minutes, or can step into well-equipped trains waiting on the mole, and can proceed, without changing, northwards to Delhi and Peshawar, eastwards to Cal-

bay harbour. The first town built on Bombay island was Mahikavati (Mahim), founded by King Bhima, probably a member of the house of the Vadavas of Deogiri, as a result of Ala-ud-din Khilji’s raid into the Deccan in 1294. It remained under Hindu rule until 1348, when it was captured by a Mohammedan force from Gujarat; and the islands remained part of the province (later kingdom) of Gujarat till 1534, when they

-rra

building of a the Bombay, 6m. from the the docks and

depots as required. The total length with sidings is over 100 miles. Electric Power.—The remarkable electric power works of the Tata hydroelectric scheme were opened in r915. The monsoon rainfall in the western Ghats is impounded in three lakes at Lonavla, and falls to a general station where 40,000 h.p. is generated It is conveyed for 42m. by aerial transmission, cables

h.p. will be absorbed locally. Trade and Commertce.—Bombay suffered to a smaller extent than any other Indian port from the World War, though shipping

was seriously affected by mines. It is the centre of the cotton and textile industry; there are 72,266 looms and 3,456,233 spindles in Bombay island, and 153,000 hands are employed in the 82 spinning and weaving mills. The preponderating share of trade is in Indian hands and most of the mills have Indian managers. Bombay is also the chief distributing centre in western India for imported cotton goods. Other industries are dyeing, tanning, and brass and silver work. Bombay’s position on the west coast and her magnificent natural harbour have resulted in the development of a great seaborne trade. The principal exports are raw cotton, grain and

seeds, and

the principal

imports

piece

goods,

metals

and

machinery.

Local Government.—tThe port of Bombay is administered by

the Bombay Port Trust, consisting of a board of trustees, some nominated by Government and the others elected by the Chamber of Commerce, Indian Merchants Chamber, Municipality and Millowners’ Association. Two hundred vessels of a total tonnage of 713,973 used the two dry docks in 1925-26. The Municipal

Corporation consists of 72 members, of whom 16 are nominated by Government, 36 are elected by the wards, and 20 are elected by the Chamber of Commerce, etc. Europeans and Indians are on an equal footing as regards eligibility. Bombay is the seat of a thriving university, established in 1857. It is an examining body and has faculties in arts, law, medicine and engineering. It also confers a degree of commerce. The Improvement Trust deals with town planning and the general improvement of the city. _History.—The name of the island and city of Bombay is derived from Mumba (a form of Parvati), the goddess of the Kolis, a race of husbandmen and fishermen who were the earliest known

inhabitants, having occupied the island probably about the beginning of the Christian era. Bombay originally consisted of seven islands (the Heptanesia of Ptolemy) and formed an out-

lying portion of the dominions of successive dynasties dominant

In western India; Satavahanas, Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. In the Maurya and Chalukya period (450-750) the city of Puri on Elephanta island was the principal place in Bom-

to the

“| resisted the cession, and the British occu=| pied it only in 1665. In 1668 the Crown meee transferred it to the East India company,

by five turbines and more power will be available as the scheme develops.

ceded by Sultan Bahadur

Portuguese. The island did not prosper under the feudal rule of the Portuguese and it had a population of only 10,000 when ceded to the British, who had fought for it in 1614-15 and in 1626, while the directors of the East India company had ‘= urged Cromwell to buy Bombay in 1654 +: ‘| because of its excellent harbour and protection from land attacks. It finally came into British hands as part of the dowry of the infanta Catherine of Portugal, on her | marriage to Charles II. The Bombay Portuguese, especially the religious orders,

the heaviest guns. Docks are to be built on a large area of reclaimed land to the north of the present docks. Other recent

to a receiving station on Bombay island, whence it is distributed to mills and other customers. Further hydroelectric developments are in progress near the present lakes, where the Andhra river has been dammed to form a lake 12m. long. Power is supplied not only to the Bombay mills but also to the Bombay tramways and suburban railways. It is estimated that before many years are past about 150,000

were «4 r=] 4 , {24 “| "|

cutta, and south-east to Madras. The harbour defences have been remodelled and supplied with

activities of the Bombay Port Trust include the line to connect the great Indian Peninsular and Baroda, and Central India railways at a point city, to take over traffic and convey it direct to

831

which placed it under the factory of Surat. Gerald Aungier (or Angier), who sucNATIVE LABOURER IN THE ceeded Sir George Oxenden as president of STREETS OF BOMBAY Surat in 1669 and died in 1677, was the pioneer of modern developments. He succeeded in fortifying town and shore against threatened attacks from the mainland by Mahrattas, and from the sea by Malabar and Dutch seamen, and he also had to cope with Portuguese who still occupied Salsette island and had established a customs barrier in the channel between Bombay and the shore. In 1672 Aungier transferred his headquarters to Bombay and promulgated a liberal scheme of administration, including protection of all castes in the celebration of their religious ceremonies and prohibition of any compulsion of natives to carry burdens against their will. Bombay increased rapidly; Hindu capitalists (banya) soon needed a special quarter and Parsis and Armenians flocked to the place. In eight years the population grew from 10,000 to 60,000 and diseases of crowded areas spread, so Aungier, in 1675, initiated works for draining the foul tidal swamps and, failing the consent of the company to the erection of a regular hospital, he turned the law court into an infirmary. He also established a scheme of BY COURTESY OF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC STEAMSHIP CO.

courts.

Even under Aungier the Siddi admirals of the Moguls had asserted their right to use Bombay harbour as winter quarters for their fleet, though they had failed to secure it as a base against the Mahrattas. Under his weak successor (Rolt, 1677-82), the English waters, the value of which had now been proved, became the battle-ground between the rival navies, and for some years Bombay lay at the mercy of both. The company’s rule, moreover, was exposed to another danger. The niggardly policy of the board of directors, more intent on peaceful dividends than on warlike rule, could not but be galling to soldiers of fortune. A mutiny at Bombay in 1674 had only been suppressed by the execution of the ringleader; and in 1683 a more formidable movement took place under Richard Keigwin, a naval officer who had been appointed goyernor of St. Helena in reward for the part played by him in the capture of the island from the Dutch in 1673. Keigwin, elected governor of Bombay by popular vote, issued a proclamation in the king’s name, citing the “intolerable extortions, oppressions and exactions” of the company, and declaring his Government under the immediate authority of the Crown. He ruled with moderation, reformed the system of taxation, obtained notable concessions from the Mahrattas, and increased the trade of the port by the admission of “interlopers.” But he failed to extend the rebellion beyond Bombay; and, when a letter arrived, under the royal sign manual, ordering him to surrender the fort to Sir John Child, appointed admiral and captaingeneral of the company’s forces, he obeyed.

832

BOMBAY

DUCK— BOMBAY

Meanwhile the company had decided to make Bombay their chief centre in the East Indies, but this was delayed by plague and was accomplished only in 1708. An alliance with the Siddis secured a base of supplies on the mainland (1733), and the Mahratta conquest of Bassein and Salsette (1737-39) removed Portuguese rivalry. French wars in 1744-48 and 1756-63 led to strengthening of fortifications, a city wall having been already built in 1718. Bankot was acquired by alliance with the peshwa (1755) and this ensured supplies, while Watson and Clive (1756) took Vijayadrug and this secured protection from piracy. Dock-

building (1750-62) was followed by the beginning of cotton trade with China (1770); the result of a famine in China being that the Chinese Government forced an increase of the area devoted to grain. Administrative reform and town-planning also contributed to the growth of the city, which had 113,000 inhabitants in 1780. A mainland famine in 1803 drove more people to Bombay, and a great fire led to replanning on extended lines. The British victory over the Mahrattas and the annexation of the Deccan opened a new period of unrestricted development for Bombay. At this time, too (1819) its fortunes were vigorously fostered by Mountstuart Elphinstone, and in 1838 the population had risen to 236,000. But in the next ṣo years it more than doubled itself, the figures for 1891 being 821,000. This great leap was due to the influence of railways, of which the first line was completed in 1853, the opening of the Suez canal, and the foundation of cotton factories. In 1866-67 the tide of prosperity was interrupted by a financial crisis, due to the fall in the price of cotton on the termination of the American war. Bombay, however, soon recovered herself, and in 1891 was more pros-

perous than ever before; but during the ensuing decade plague (g.v.) caused a decline in both her population and her trade. The city has recovered once more. Bombay and environs have undergone considerable development recently owing to the activities of the development directorate appointed in 1920. Large schemes were put in hand destined eventually to house 250,000 of the poorer inhabitants and relieve the existing overcrowding, to open up new areas, and to add 2 sq.m. to the area of the city by reclamation of land in Back bay and East Colaba. The progress of the development scheme came in for strong criticism and was the subject of an official enquiry in 1926, which centred principally round the reclamation in Back bay. Here it was proposed to take advantage of the curve on the eastern side of the bay and to build a sea wall, 4m. long, from Colaba point to Marine Lines, thus enclosing an area of 1,300ac. which would be reclaimed and added to the city. It gradually became evident, however, that the original estimates both as regards time and

cost would be seriously exceeded. As the result of the enquiry it was decided to proceed at present with only the two end sections of the reclamation, that from Colaba point to the Afghan church, and that from the Marine Lines to the Clock Tower. Good progress was made with the section at the Colaba end and a large part was handed over to the military authorities in 1927. The question as to whether the remaining portion of the reclamation shall be proceeded with is left for future decision. Of the other schemes for the improvement of Bombay, South Salsette island is being developed, and the industrial and residential colonies which have been established along the two railways and the arterial roads from Bombay have become very popu-

Jar resorts.

.

.

The Mahim scheme is complete, comprising two main avenues and cross roads, with a road from Worli. The reclamation scheme between Mazagon and Sewri is also finished, and the cotton, grain and oil depots have been moved from Colaba. Previously raw cotton had been carried on carts from the goods yards to the Cotton Green at Colaba, but now the Bombay Port Trust has ‘provided railway communications between the railway station, the docks, and the depot at Sewri, which has sheds to hold 3,000,000 bales of cotton. X.

BOMBAY

DUCK, a small fish (Saurus ophiodon), inhab-

iting the Bombay and Malabar coasts. Dried and salted, it is much esteemed both as food and as a relish.

BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY FURNITURE.

“Bombay blackwood furniture”

is manufactured in the city of Bombay and in the towns of Surat

and Ahmadabad in India. The wood used is Shisham or black. wood (Dalbergia), a hard-grained dark-coloured timber which with proper treatment assumes a beautiful natural polish. Some of the articles, such as small tables and ornamental stands, are of exceedingly graceful contour, and good examples are highly prized by collectors. The carving at its best is lace-like in character, and apart from its inherent beauty is attractive on account of the ingenuity shown by the worker in adapting his design in detail

to the purpose of the article he is fashioning. “Bombay boxes" are inlaid in geometrical patterns on wood. The inlaying materials

consist of wire, sandal wood, sapan wood, ebony, ivory and Stags’ horns, and the effect produced by the combination of minute Dieces of these endlessly varied substances is altogether peculiar and dis. tinctive.

BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY,

a province or presidency of

British India, consisting partly of British districts, and partly of native states under the administration of a governor. This territory extends from 13° 53’ to 28° 45” N., and from 66° 40’ to 76°

30’ E., and is bounded on the north by Baluchistan, the Punjab and Rajputana; on the east by Indore, the Central Provinces and

Hyderabad; on the south by Madras and Mysore, and on the west

by the Arabian sea. Within these limits lie the Portuguese settle-

ments of Diu, Damaun and Goa, and the native state of Baroda

which has direct relations with the government of India: while politically Bombay includes the settlement of Aden. The total area, including Sind and Aden, is 187,074sq.m., of which 123,541 sq.m. are under British rule. The total population (1921) is 26,757,648, of which 19,291,719 are resident in British territory. The province is divided into four commissionerships and 28 districts. The four divisions are the northern or Gujarat, the central or Deccan, the southern or Carnatic, and Sind. The 28 districts are: Bombay City, Bombay Suburban, Ahmedabad, Broach, Kaira, Panch Mahals, Surat, Thana, Ahmednagar, Khandesh (two districts) Nasik, Poona, Satara, Sholapur, Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwar, Kanara, Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Karachi, Hyderabad, Larkana, Nawabshah, Sukkur, Shikarpur, Thar and Parkar, and Upper Sind Frontier. There are 151 Indian States which are administered either by political agents or by the collectors of the districts in which the smaller states are situated. The chief groups are the Western India States agency (Cutch, Kathiawar and Palampur),

Mahi Kantha agency (51 States), RewaKantha agency (62 States), and Cambay (Kaira) agency. Others (agencies in brackets) are Bansda, Dharampur and Sachin (Surat), Janjira (Kolaba), Jawhar (Thana), Sawantwari (Belgaum), Akalkot (Sholapur), Bhor (Poona), Aundh and ‘Phaltan (Satara), Surgana (Nasik), Jath (Bijapur), Savanur (Dharwar), Khairpur (Sukkur), Kolhapur with nine feudatories, and the Southern Mahratta country States. Daphlapur lapsed to Jath in 1917. The native States under the supervision of the Government of Bombay are divided, historically and geographically, into two main groups. The northern ot Gujarat group includes the territories of the gaekwar of Baroda, with Cutch, Palanpur, Rewa Kantha and Mahi Kantha. These territories, with the exception of Cutch, have an historical connection, as being the allies or tributaries of the Gaekwar in 1805, when final engagements were concluded between that prince and the British Government. The southern or Mahratta group includes Kolhapur, Akalkot, Sawantwari, and the Satara and southern Mahratta Jagirs, and has an historical bond of union in the friendship they showed to the British in their final struggle with the power of the peshwa in 1818. The remaining territories may conveniently be divided into a small cluster of independent zamindaris, situated

in the wild and hilly tracts at the northern extremity of the Sahyadri range, and certain principalities which, from their history or geographical position, are to some extent isolated from the rest of the presidency. Physical Aspects.—The Bombay Presidency consists of a long strip of land along the Indian ocean from the south of the Punjab to the north of Mysore. The coast is rock-bound and difficult of access; and though it contains several bays forming fair-weather ports for vessels engaged in the coasting trade, Bombay, Karachi

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BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY

in Sind, Marmagoa and Karwar alone have harbours sufficiently land-locked to protect shipping during the prevalence of the southwest monsoon. The coast-line is regular and little broken, save by

the gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, between which lies the peninsula

of Kathiawar. A range of hills, known as the Western Ghats, runs down the coast, at places rising in splendid bluffs and precipices from the water’s edge, at others retreating inland, and leaving a flat fertile strip of 5~som. between their base and the sea. Mountains.—In the north of the presidency on the right bank of the Indus, the Hala mountains, a continuation of the great Suleiman range, separate British India from the dominions of the khan of Kalat. Leaving Sind, and passing by the ridges of low sandhills—the leading feature of the desert east of the Indus—and

the isolated hills of Cutch and Kathiawar, which form geologically the western extremity of the Aravalli range, the first extensive mountain range is that separating Gujarat from the States of central India. The rugged and mountainous country south of the

833

and falls into the gulf of Cambay, a few miles west of the town of Surat. Besides these there are many minor streams. The streams which, rising in the Sahyadri range, or Western Ghats, fow westwards into the Arabian sea are of little importance. During the rains they are formidable torrents, but with the return of the fair weather they dwindle away, and during the hot season, with a few exceptions, they almost dry up. Clear and rapid as they descend the hills, on reaching the lowlands of the Konkan they become muddy and brackish creeks.

The Kanarese rivers have a larger

body of water and a more regular flow than the streams of the Konkan. One of them, the Sharawati, forcing its way through the western ridge of the Ghats, plunges from the high to the low country by a succession of falls, the principal of which is 8ọoft. in height. The Sahyadri or Western Ghats also throw off to the eastwards the two principal rivers of the Madras Presidency, the Godavari and the Kistna. Lakes.—The Manchar lake is situated on the right bank of the Indus. During inundations it attains a length of 20m. and a breadth of rom., covering a total area estimated at 180sq.m. The remarkable Runn or lake of Cutch is a salt marsh, an inland lake, or an arm of the sea with an area of 8,o00sq.m. according to the season of the year, and forms the western boundary of the province of Gujarat.’ When flooded during the rains it unites the gulfs of Cutch and Cambay, and converts the territory of Cutch into an island.

Tapti forms the northern extremity of the Sahyadri or Western Ghats. This great range of hills, sometimes overhanging the ocean, and generally running parallel to it at a distance nowhere exceeding 5om., with an average elevation of about 1,800ft., contains individual peaks rising to more than double that height. They stretch southwards for upwards of 500m., with a breadth of 10-20 miles. The western declivity is abrupt, the land at the base of the hills being but slightly raised above the level of the sea. As is Geology.—South of Gujarat nearly the whole of Bombay is usually the case with the trap formation, they descend to the plains covered by the horizontal lava flows of the Deccan Trap series, and in terraces with abrupt fronts. The landward slope is in many these flows spread over the greater part of the Kathiawar peninplaces very gentle, the crest of the range being sometimes but sula and extend into Cutch. In Cutch and Kathiawar they are slightly raised above the level of the plateau of the Deccan. Their underlaid by Jurassic and Neocomian beds. The Jurassic beds are best-known elevation is Mahabaleshwar, 4,sooft. high, a fine pla- marine and contain numerous Ammonites, but the beds which are teau, 37m. from Poona, covered with rich vegetation, and used by referred to the Neocomian include a series of sandstones and the Bombay Government as its summer retreat. In the neighbour- shales with remains of plants. Several of the plants are identical hood of the Sahyadri hills, particularly towards the northern ex- with forms which occur in the upper portion of the Gondwana systremity of the range, the country is rugged and broken, containing tem. Tertiary limestones, sandstones and shales overlie the Decisolated peaks, masses of rock and spurs, which, running east- can Trap in Cutch, but the greatest development of deposits of ward, form watersheds for the great rivers of the Deccan. The this age is to be met with on the western side of the Indus (see Satpura hills separate the valley of the Tapti from the valley of SınD). The plain of Sind and of eastern Gujarat is covered by the Nerbudda, and the district of Khandesh from the territories of alluvium and wind-blown sand. Climate.—Great varieties of climate are met with in the presiIndore. The Satmala or Ajanta hills, which are rather the northern slope of the plateau than a distinct range of hills, separate dency. In its extreme dryness and heat, combined with a sandy soil, Upper Sind resembles the African deserts. The mean maxiKhandesh from the Nizam’s dominions. Plains.—The more level parts of Bombay consist of five well mum temperature at Hyderabad, in Lower Sind, during the six hotdemarcated tracts—Sind, Gujarat, the Konkan, the Deccan and test months of the year is 98° in the shade, and the water of the the Carnatic. Sind, or the lower valley of the Indus, is very flat, Indus reaches blood-heat; in Upper Sind it is even hotter, and the with but scanty vegetation, and depending for productiveness on thermometer has been known to register 130° in the shade. In irrigation. Gujarat, except on its northern parts, consists of rich, Cutch and Gujarat the heat, though less, is still very great. The highly cultivated alluvial plains, watered by the Tapti and Ner- Konkan is hot and moist, the fall of rain during the monsoon budda, but not much subject to inundation. The Konkan lies sometimes approaching 300 inches. The tableland of the Deccan between the Western Ghats and the sea. It is a rugged and diffi- above the Ghats, on the contrary, has an agreeable climate except cult country, intersected by creeks, and abounding in isolated in the hot months, as has also the southern Mahratta country. peaks and detached ranges of hills. The plains of the Deccan and Bombay island itself, though in general cooled by the sea breeze, Khandesh are watered by large rivers, but as the rainfall is uncer- is oppressively hot during May and October. The south-west tain, they are generally, during the greater part of the year, bleak monsoon generally sets in about the first week in June. Forests——Bombay Presidency possesses two great classes of and devoid of vegetation. The Carnatic plain, or the country south of the River Kistna, consists of extensive tracts of black or forests—those of the hills and those of the alluvial plains. The hill forests are scattered over a wide area, extending from 23° to cotton soil in a high state of cultivation. Rivers.—The chief river of western India is the Indus, which 14° N. lat., and 12% of the total area is forested. Most of them lie enters the presidency from the north of Sind and flowing south in among the Sahyadri hills or Western Ghats. The alluvial forests a tortuous course, falls into the Arabian sea by several mouths. lie in Sind, on or close to the banks of the Indus. Besides the timIn the dry season the bed varies at different places from 480~1,600 ber trees (teak, blackwood, etc.) there are others which are valuyards. The flood season begins in March and continues till Sep- able for their fruit and nuts. The jungle tribes collect gum from tember, the average depth of the river rising from 9—24ft., and the several varieties of trees, and in Sind the Forest Department velocity of the current increasing from 3—7m. per hour. Next to derives a small revenue from lac. The palms of the presidency the Indus comes the Nerbudda. Rising in the Central Provinces, consist of cocoa-nut, date, palmyra and areca catechu. Population.—The census of 1921 gave a total of 26,757,648 and traversing the dominions of Holkar, the Nerbudda enters the Presidency at the north-western extremity of the Khandesh dis- out of which the chief religions furnished the following numbers :— trict, flows eastwards, and after a course of 700m. from its source,

falls into the gulf of Cambay, forming near its mouth plain of Broach, one of the richest districts of Bombay. enters the presidency a few miles south of the town of flows eastwards through the Khandesh, Rewa Kantha

the alluvial The Tapti Burhanpur, and Surat,

Hindu . . Mohammedan Jain

:

Zoroastrian

Christian Animist

é

» 21,027,478 4,015,773 481,342

85,149

276,765 .

189,879

834

BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY

In Sind Islam has been the predominant religion from the earliest Arab conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the predominant religion is Hinduism, though petty Mohammedan kingdoms have left their influence in many parts of the province. The Deccan, the home of the Mahrattas, and the Carnatic are largely Hindu. The Konkan is notable for various Christian castes, owing their origin to Portuguese rule; while in the Carnatic, Lingayatism, a Hindu reformation movement of the r2th century, is embraced by many of the population. The Mahrattas are the dominating race next to the Europeans and number (1921), with Kunbis, 2,529,172. Languages.—Among the many languages of the presidency, the chief are Sindhi in Sind, Cutchi in Cutch, Mahratti in the northern, central and southern division, with Hindi in the northern division and Kanarese in the southern. Agriculture.—Jwar (great millet) and bajra (spiked millet) are the staple food grains in the Deccan and Khandesh. Rice is the chief product of the Konkan. Wheat, grown mostly in Sind, is exported to Europe in large quantities. Gram is the most important of the pulses, a sesamum, mustard, linseed and ground nut of the oil seeds. Of fibres far the most important is cotton, which has been much improved by the introduction of several better varieties. Manufactures.—The chief feature of the modern industrial life of Bombay is the great development in the growth and manufacture of cotton. The industry has received further impetus from the provision of electric power. The tendency to replace native crafts by modern industrial establishments continues, and finer yarn is spun and more bleached fabrics are produced. Seventy-eight per cent of the cloth woven in British India comes from the presidency, the industry being confined mostly to Bombay city, Ahmedabad and Sholapur, with nearly two-thirds of the total number of looms in the first named. Silk goods are manufactured in Ahmedabad and Bombay, but the industry is declining. The custom of investing savings in gold and silver ornaments gives employment to many goldsmiths; the metal is usually supplied by the customer, and the goldsmith charges for his labour. Paper is made in Bombay city, Poona and Surat. Ahmedabad and Surat are famous for their carved wood-work and metal-work. Many of the houses in Ahmedabad are covered with elaborate wood-carving, and excellent examples exist elsewhere. The only minerals produced are building stone, salt and a little manganese. Seaborne trade is concentrated on Bombay and Karachi, though efforts have been made to develop Murmagao as a port for the South Mahratta district. Railways and Irrigation.—All the railways of the presidency, with the exception of the North-Western line, which enters Sind from the Punjab and finds its natural terminus at Karachi, concentrate at Bombay city. The other chief lines are the Great Indian Peninsula, Indian Midland, Bombay, Baroda and Central India, Rajputana-Malwa and Southern Mahratta systems. Schemes are in hand for the electrification of parts of the Great

Indian Peninsula line. Only about tg of the total cultivated area

of the presidency proper was irrigated land in 1925, as compared with over $ in Sind. Large works have been completed on the Godavari and Pravara rivers in recent years, including the huge Bandhaidara dam, and irrigation works fed from the Ghats were in process of construction in 1926. Army.—Under Lord Kitchener’s rearrangement of the Indian army in 1904 the old Bombay command was abolished and its place was taken by the Western Army Corps. As a result of measures taken in 1918 and aiming at decentralization, Bombay now forms part of the southern command, with headquarters at Poona. A brigade is also stationed at Ahmedabad. The Sind brigade, with headquarters at Karachi, is under the western command.

Education.—The University of Bombay, established in 1857, is a body corporate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor and fellows. The governor of Bombay is ex officio chancellor. An elected syndicate with the director of public education as an ex officio member is the executive body, and a senate, divided into faculties, the legislative. In 1925 the total number of educational institutions for boys was 11,599, and for girls 1,520. There are 14

colleges, including medical, veterinary, engineering, agricultural,

science, law and commercial colleges. The Education Act of 192

enabled municipalities to enforce primary education, the contro] ot which has been taken over since 1918 by 34 municipal and 2; district boards. In 1926 only 7% of the male population and 2% of the female were attending schools: 181 men and 30 women in every 1,000 were literate.

Administration.—Bombay

is one of the provinces which

received the new form of government under the Government of

India Act of 1919. The minimum number of elected members js

riz. The political administration of the native States is under the superintendence of British agents placed at the principal native courts; their position varies in different states according to the

relations in which the principalities stand with the paramount

power. Since the acts of 1919 and 1926 municipal self-govern. ment in the province has been considerably developed: the elective element is strengthened and the appointment of non-official presjdents to district and subdistrict boards increased.

There were

29 municipal boroughs in 1926. The administration of justice throughout the presidency is conducted by a high court at Bombay, consisting of a chief justice and seven puisne judges, along with district and assistant judges throughout the districts of the presidency. An act was passed in 1926 for the establishment of a chief court with a judge and three or more puisne judges in Sind,

owing to the growing importance of Sind and Karachi, but was not put in force immediately for financial reasons. The administration of the districts is carried on by collectors, assistant collectors and a varying number of supernumerary assistants.

HISTORY It is believed that about 1000 B.c. an export trade from western India to the Red sea by way of East Africa existed, and that before 750 B.c. a trade had sprung up with Babylon by way of the Persian Gulf. It was by this latter route that the traders brought back to India the Brahmi alphabet, the art of brick-making and the legend of the Flood. Later still the settlement of Brahmans along the west coast had already Aryanized the country in religion, and to some extent in language, before the Persian conquest of the Indus valley at the close of the 6th century B.C. The Persian dominion did not long survive; and the march of Alexander the Great down the Indus paved the way for Chandragupta and the Maurya empire. On the death of Asoka in 231 B.C. the empire of the Mauryas broke up, and their heritage in the west fell to the Andhra dynasty of the Satavahanas of Paithan on the Godavari, a Dravidian family whose dominion by 200 B.c. stretched across the peninsula from the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna to Nasik and the Western Ghats, About aD. 210, however, their power in the west seems to have died out, and their place was taken by the foreign dynasty of the Kshaharatas, the Saka satraps of Surashtra (Kathiawar), who in 120 had mastered Ujjain and Gujarat and had built up a rival kingdom to the north. Since about A.D. 40 the coast cities had been greatly enriched by trade with the Roman empire, which both the Satavahanas and the satraps did much to encourage; but after the fall of Palmyra (273) and the extinction of the main Kshaharata dynasty (c. 300) this commerce fell into decay. In the next century and a half, short-lived Saka dynasties succeeded one another until, about 388, the country was conquered by the Guptas of Magadha, who kept a precarious tenure of it till about 470, when their empire was destroyed by the White Huns, or Ephthalites (qg.v.), who, after breaking the power of Persia and assailing the Kushan kingdom of Kabul, poured into India, conquered Sind, and established their dominions as far south as the Nerbudda. Under the Hun tyranny, which lasted till the overthrow of the White Huns on the Oxus by the Turks (c. 565), native dynasties had survived, or new ones had established themselves. A new power, too, appeared from the north; the Gurjaras (ancestors, it is supposed, of the Gujar caste), who had probably entered India with the White Huns, established their power over Gujarat and (c. 600) overran north-eastern Kathiawar, made the rajah of Valabhi their tributary, and established a branch at Broach (585740).

During the short-lived empire of Harsha (d. 647 or 648),

Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar were subject to his sway; but

BOMBAZINE—BOMBERG the southern boundary of his kingdom was of which the Chalukyas in the 7th century, Rashtrakutas and other rivals, had absorbed into their empire. In 710-711 (A.H. 92) the

the Nerbudda, south having overcome the the smaller kingdoms Arabs invaded India,

and in 712 conquered and established themselves in Sind; they did not, however, attempt any serious attack on the Gurjara and Chalukya empires, confining themselves to more or less serious raids. In 770 they destroyed the city of Valabhi and, as already mentioned, brought its dynasty to an end. Meanwhile the

Chalukyas, after successfully struggling with the Pallavas (whose capital was taken by Vikramaditya II., c. 740), had in their turn succumbed to their ancient rivals the Rashtrakutas, who succeeded to the bulk of their dominions, including Gujarat, where they had set up a branch line. For some two centuries (c. 750-

950) there was a balance of power between the Gurjaras and

Rashtrakutas, neither kingdom being strong enough to encroach on the other to any extent. The Rashtrakutas were, moreover, debarred from large schemes of conquest by dissensions with the branch dynasty which they had set up in Gujarat. Under them the Konkan and the coast farther south were governed by

chiefs of the Silahara family, whose rule is mainly notable for the

revival of trade with the Persian gulf and, doubtless as a result of this, the arrival in 775 on the west coast of a number of Parsee refugees, who found, in a country where three religions were already equally honoured, the toleration denied to them in Mussulman Persia. But in the roth century the Rashtrakuta power began to break up, in 961 Mularaja Solanki (Chalukya) conquered the kingdom of Anhilvada (Anhilvara) in Gujarat, where his dynasty reigned till 1242; and twelve years later the Chalukyas once more overthrew the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, establishing their capital at Kalyani, while a branch line was set up in southern Gujarat. Farther south the Silaharas, however, continued to rule the coast, and succeeded in maintaining their independence until after the final fall of the Chalukyas in r192. In 1023 Mahmud of Ghazni had already invaded Gujarat with a large army, destroyed the national Hindu idol of Somnath, and carried away an immense booty. Mohammed Ghori also invaded Gujarat, and left a garrison in its capital. But it was not till after the Mussulman power was firmly established in northern India that the Mohammedan sovereigns of Delhi attempted the conquest of the south. In 1294 the emperor Ala-ud-din first invaded the Deccan, and in 1297 he conquered Gujarat. In 1312 the Mohammedan arms were triumphant through the Mahratta country; and seven years later the whole of Malabar fell a prey to the invaders. In the middle of the r4th century the weakness of the Delhi sovereigns tempted the governors of provinces to revolt against their distant master, and to form independent kingdoms,

In this way the Bahmani kingdom was established in the Deccan, and embraced a part of the Bombay presidency. Ahmednagar and Gujarat also became the seats of a new kingdom.

In 1573 Akbar

conquered Gujarat and reannexed it to the empire; in 1599 he effected the reconquest of Khandesh, and in 1600 that of Ahmednagar. During the latter part of the 17th century the Mahrattas rose to power, and almost every part of the country now comprising the presidency of Bombay fell under their sway. In 1498 the Portuguese came first to Calicut, their earliest pos-

session in the presidency being the island of Anjidiv. After their victory at Diu over the Egyptian fleet their mastery of the Indian ocean was undisputed, and they proceeded to establish themselves on the coast. They captured Goa in 1510, Malacca in 1511, and Ormuz in 1515. They next took advantage of the decay of the kingdom of Gujarat to occupy Chaul (1531), Bassein with its deaa including Bombay (1534), Diu (1535) and Daman

1559).

_ The first English settlement in the Bombay presidency was In 1618, when the East India Company established a factory at Surat, protected by a charter obtained from the emperor Jahangir. In 1626 the Dutch and English made an unsuccessful attempt to gain possession of the island of Bombay, and in 1653 proposals were

suggested

for its purchase ‘from the Portuguese.

(See

Bompay.) In 1803 the Bombay presidency included only Salsette, the

836

islands of the harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot

(since

1756); but between this date and 1827 the framework of the presidency took its present shape. The Gujarat districts were taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 and enlarged in 1818; and the first measures for the settlement of Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha were taken between 1807 and 1820. The dominions of Poona, Ahmednagar, Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum, Kaladgi and Dharwar, were included in the presidency, the settlement of which was completed by Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor from 1819 to 1827. His policy was to rule as far as possible on native lines, avoiding all changes for which the population was not yet ripe. The period that followed is notable mainly for the enlargement of the presidency through the lapse of certain native states, by the addition of Aden (1839) and Sind (1843), and the lease of the Panch Mahals from Sindhia (1853). Outbreaks among the troops at Karachi, Ahmedabad and Kolhapur were quickly put down, two regiments being disbanded, and the rebellions in Gujarat, among the Bhils, and in the southern Mahratta country were local and isolated. Under Sir Bartle Frere (1862-67) agricultural prosperity reached its highest point, as a result of the American Civil War, and the consequent enormous demand for Indian cotton in Europe. The money thus poured into the country produced an epidemic of speculation known as the “share mania” (1864-65), which ended in a commercial crisis and the failure of the bank of Bombay (1866). Sir Bartle Frere encouraged the completion of the great trunk lines of railways, and with the funds obtained by the demolition of the town walls (1862) he began the magnificent series of public buildings that now adorn Bombay. During recent times the entire history of Bombay has been sadly affected by plague and famine. The great cities of Bombay, Karachi and Poona suffered most severely. At Bombay, in March 1898, a riot begun by Mohammedan weavers was not suppressed until several Europeans had been fatally injured. In Nasik district, in January 1898, the native chairman of the plague committee was brutally murdered by a mob. Bombay, like the Central Provinces, suffered from famine twice within three years. The failure of the monsoon of 1896 caused widespread distress throughout the Deccan, over an area of 46,000sq.m. with a population of 7 millions. In 1899 the monsoon again failed in Gujarat, where famine hitherto had been almost unknown; and the winter rains failed in the Deccan, so that distress gradually spread over almost the entire presidency. The worst feature was a virulent outbreak of cholera in Gujarat, especially in the native states. The Bombay government exhausted its balances in 1897, and was subsequently dependent on grants from the government of India. The presidency now consists of 6 administrative divisions: Bombay City, Northern, Central and Southern Bombay, Bombay Suburban and Sind, under which are 27 districts. The financial condition has so far improved that the presidency annually makes grants to the Central Government. See S. M. Edwardes, The Rise of Bombay (1902); James Douglas, Bombay and Western India (1893); Sir William Lee-Warner, The Presidency of Bombay (Society of Arts, 1904); The Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908); V. A. Smith, The Early History of India (revd. S. M. Edwardes, 1924) ; J. Abbott, Sind (1924).

BOMBAZINE

or BOMBASINE,

a stuff originally made

of silk or silk and wool, and now also made of cotton and wool or of wool alone. Good bombazine is made with a silk warp and a worsted weft. It is twilled or corded and used for dress ma-

terial. Black bombazine has been used largely for mourning, but the material has gone out of fashion. The word is derived from the obsolete French 50mbasin, applied originally to silk but afterwards to “tree-silk” or cotton. Bombazine is said to have been made in England in Elizabeth’s reign, and early in the roth century it was largely made at Norwich.

BOMBERG, DANIEL (d. 1549), a famous Dutch Christian printer of Hebrew books. His chief activity was in Venice between 1516 and 1549 (the year of his death). Among other great enterprises, he published the editio princeps (1516—17) of the

rabbinical Bible (Hebrew text with rabbinical commentaries, etc). He also produced the first complete edition of the Talmud (1520-23).

i

BOMBPROOF—BONAPARTE

836

BOMBPROOF, in military language, a shelter proof against penetration by shells.

BOMBYCILLIDAE: see Waxwinc. BONA,

Bone, seaport of Algeria, in 36° 52’ N., 7° 4% E,

on a bay of the Mediterranean, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Constantine, 220 m. by rail west of Tunis, and 136 m. N.E. of Constantine. The town, with modern ramparts outside the Arab wall, is in the coastal plain of Bona at the foot of the wooded gneissose Edugh. Its general character now is that of a flourishing French city, but some streets are very steep. At the northern end is the quasi-Byzantine cathedral of St. Augustine. The Grand Mosque is built out of ruins of the ancient Hippo. The Kasbah (citadel) stands on a hill northeast of the town. The inner harbour, covering 25 acres, has quays at which vessels drawing 22 ft. can moor. Beyond is a spacious outer harbour, built 1857-1868 and enlarged 1905-1907. Bona communicates with Marseilles direct and ranks after Algiers and Oran in Algeria. The port’s shipping in 1925 reached 2,924,115 tons. It imports general merchandise and manufactures, and exports especially phosphates, iron and zinc, but also barley, sheep, wool, cork and esparto.

There are manufactories

of native garments, tapestry and leather. The draining of marshes at the mouths of the Seybuse and Bujema rivers, which enter the sea to the south of Bona has improved the sanitary condition of the town, which has the advantage of abundant water from the Edugh hills. There are cork woods and marble quarries, and the valley of the Seybuse and neighbouring plains are rich in cotton and other agricultural produce. The population of the town of Bona in 1926 was 51,895. Bona is identified with the ancient Aphrodisium, the seaport of Hippo Regius or Ubbo, but it derives its name from the latter city, the ruins of which, consisting of large cisterns, now restored, and fragments of walls, are about a mile to the south of the town, In the first three centuries of the Christian era Hippo was one of the richest cities in Roman Africa. St. Augustine lived here as priest and bishop for 35 years. Hippo was captured by the Vandals under Genseric in 431, after a siege of 14 months, during which Augustine died. Only the cathedral, together with Augustine’s library and mss., escaped the general destruction. The town was partly restored by Belisarius, but sacked by the Arabs in the 7th century. The place was named Hippo Regius (Royal) by the Romans because it was a favourite residence of the Numidian kings. Bona (Arabic annaba, “the city of jujube trees”) was built by the Arabs, and the rulers of Tunis built the Kasbah in 1300. From the beginning of the r4th to the middle of the 15th century it was frequented by Italians and Spaniards, and in the 16th it was held for some time by Charles V., who strengthened its citadel. Thereafter it was held in turn by Genoese, Tunisians and Algerines. From the time of Louis XIV. to the Revolution, the French Compagnie d’Afrique maintained a very active trade with the port. The town was occupied by the French for a few months in 1830 and reoccupied in 1832. Since then industrial growth has been rapid and has depended on the iron ores of Ouenza and the discovery (1883) of phosphate beds at Tebessa.

BONACCI, LEONARDO: see Leonarvo oF Pisa. BONA DEA, the “good goddess,” an old Roman deity of fruitfulness, both in the earth and in women. She was identified with Fauna, and by later syncretism also with Ops and Maia—the latter no doubt because the dedication-day of her temple on the Aventine was on May 1 (Ovid, Fast, v. 149 et seg.) This temple was cared for, and the cult attended, by women only, and the same was the case at a second celebration, at the beginning of December, in the house of a’ magistrate with imperium, which became famous owing to the profanation of the mysteries by P. Clodius (g.v.) in 62 B.C., and the political consequences of his act. Wine and myrtle were tabooed in the cult of this deity, and myths grew up to explain these features of the cult. Herbs with healing properties were kept in her temple, and also snakes, the usual symbol of the medicinal art. Her victim was a sow (porca), as in the cults of other deities of fertility, and was called damium, and we are told that the goddess herself was known as Damia and

her priestess as damiairix.

These

names

are almost certainly

Greek; Damia is found worshipped at several places in Greece

and also at Tarentum, where there was a festival called Dameia, It is thus highly probable that on the cult of the original Roman

goddess was engrafted the Greek one of Damia, perhaps after the conquest of Tarentum (272 B.C.). See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer

(1912).

BONA FIDE (Lat. “in good faith”), in law, a term implying the absence of all fraud.

It is usually employed in conjunction

with a noun, e.g., “bona fide purchaser,” connoting the absence of notice of a defect in title; “bona fide holder” of a bill of ex-

change (q.v.); “bona fide traveller” under the licensing acts (see Liquor Laws).

BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, Vicomte ne (1754-1840), French philosopher and politician, was born at Le Monna, near Millau in Aveyron. He emigrated in 1791, joined the

army of the prince of Condé, and soon afterwards settled at Heidelberg.

There he wrote his first important work, the highly

conservative Théorie du pouvoir politique et religieux (1706; new ed., Paris 1854), which was condemned by the Directory. In 1806 he was associated with Chateaubriand and Fiévée in the conduct of the Mercure de France. After the Restoration he was a member of the council of public instruction, and from 1815-22 sat in the chamber as deputy. His speeches were on the extreme

conservative side; he even advocated a literary censorship, and was a champion of ultra-montanism. In 1822 he was made minister of State, and presided over the censorship commission. In 1830 he retired to Le Monna, where he died. Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais, Ballanche and d’Eckstein. His writings are mainly on social and political philosophy, and form a defence of political absolutism. They are based ultimately on the principle of the divine origin of language. In his own words, “L’homme pense sa parole avant de parler sa pensée;” the first language contained the essence of all truth. From this he deduces the existence of God, the divine origin and consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, and the infallibility of the church. His son, Louis Jacques Maurice (1787-1870), cardinal (1841), was condemned by the council of State for a pastoral letter attacking Dupin the elder’s Manuel de droit ecclésiastique. Besides the Théorie above mentioned, the Vicomte de Bonald published Essai analytique sur les lois naturelles de Vordre social (1800); Législation primitive (1802); Du divorce considéré au XIX® siécle (1801); Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets de connaissances morales (1818); Mélanges littéraires et politiques, démonstration philosophique du principe constitutif de la société (1819, 1852). The first collected edition appeared in 1817-19; the latest is that of the Abbé Migne (1859).

BIBLIOGRAPEY.—See Notice sur M. le Vicomte de Bonald (1841, ed.

Avignon, 1853), by his son Victor; Damiron, Phil. en France au XIXe

siècle; Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans. J. H. Tufts, 1893).

BONANZA,

a sudden source of great wealth; term taken

from the Spanish, meaning fair weather or prosperity. The first appearance of this word in the English language was in the southwestern United States, where the direct contact with Spanish vernacular gave rise to its application in mining terms, indicating a rich ore body or lode, especially of silver and gold. It is now applied to anything that yields a large income.

BONAPARTE,

the name

of a family made famous by

Napoleon I. (g.v.), emperor of the French.

The French form

Bonaparte was not commonly used, even by Napoleon, until after the spring of 1796. The original name was Buonaparte, which was borne in the early middle ages by several distinct families in Italy.

One of these, which settled at Florence before the year 1100, divided in the 13th century into the two branches of San Miniato and Sarzana. A member of this latter, Francesco Buonaparte, emigrated in the middle of.the 16th century to Corsica, where his

descendants continued to occupy themselves with the affairs of law and the magistracy.

CARLO BUONAPARTE

[Charles Marie de Bonaparte]

(1746-

1785), the father of Napoleon I., took his degree in law at the University of Pisa, and after the conquest of Corsica by the

BONAPARTE French became assessor to the royal court of Ajaccio and the

neighbouring districts.

In 1764 he married Letizia Ramolino, a

beautiful and high-spirited girl, aged 14, descended from an old

Corsican family. The first two children, born in 1765 and 1767, died in infancy; Joseph (see below), the first son who survived, was born in 1768, and Napoleon in 1769. Simple and frugal in her tastes, and devout in thought and manner of life, Letizia helped to bind her children to the life of Corsica, while her husband, a schemer by nature and a Voltairian by conviction,

pointed the way to careers in France. Though endowed with immense wealth and distinguished by the title of Madame

Mere, Letizia, after her husband’s

death

in 1785, lived, under the Empire, mainly in retirement, and in the

exercise of a strict domestic economy.

After the events of 1814

she joined the emperor in the island of Elba and returned with him to Paris during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo, she took up her residence at Rome, under the protection of Pope Pius

VII., who treated her with great kindness and consideration.

In

1818. she addressed a pathetic letter to the powers assembled at

the congress of Aix, petitioning for Napoleon’s release, on the ground that his mortal illness had removed any possibility of his ever again becoming a menace to the world’s peace. The letter remained unanswered, the powers having reason to believe that

its terms had been previously concerted with Napoleon. Henceforth, saddened by the death of Napoleon, of her daughters Pauline and Elisa, and of several grandchildren, she lived a life i of mournful seclusion. She died in 1836.

837

question of the consolidation of Napoleon’s power as First Consul for life (Aug. 1, 1802) with the chief voice in the selection of his successor, the brothers disagreed. As neither Joseph nor Napoleon had a male heir, the eldest brother claimed to be recognized as heir, while Napoleon wished to recognize the son of Louis Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French empire (May 1804) the friction became acute. Napoleon offered to make Joseph king of Lombardy if he would waive all claim of succession to the French throne, but met with a firm refusal. Meanwhile Joseph had striven in vain to avert a rupture with England, which came about in May 1803. In 1805 he acted as chief of the French Government while Napoleon was campaigning in Germany. Early in 1806 he was sent to Naples to expel the Bourbon dynasty. By the decree of March 30, 1806,

Napoleon proclaimed Joseph king of Naples, but allowed him to keep intact his claims to the throne of France. The memoirs of Count Miot de Melito, whom Joseph appointed minister of war, show how great were the difficulties with which the new monarch had to contend—an almost bankrupt treasury, a fickle and degraded populace, Bourbon intrigues and plots, and frequent attacks by the British from Sicily. During his brief reign at Naples, Joseph abolished the relics of feudalism, reformed the monastic orders, reorganized the judicial, financial and educational systems, and initiated several public works.

|

But he was suddenly called away by Napoleon to take the crown of Spain (May 1808). There his difficulties were far greater. For the fortunes of King Joseph in Spain and in the For the Bonaparte family in general, and Carlo and Letizia, see eventful years of the Peninsular War, see SPAIN and PENINSULAR Storia genealogica della famiglia Bonaparte .. . scritta da un SamWar. His sovereignty was little more than titular. Compelled to miniatese (D. Morali) (Florence, 1846); F. de Stefani, Le antileave Madrid hastily in Aug. 1808, owing to the Spanish success chità dei Bonaparte; precede per una introduzione (L. Beretta) (Venice, 1857); L. Ambrosini and A. Huard, La Famille impériale. at Baylen, he was reinstated by Napoleon at the close of the Hist. de la famille Bonaparte depuis son origine jusqwen r860 (1860) ; year; and he was thereafter kept in a subordinate position which C. Leynadier, Histoire de la famille Bonaparte de lan xro50 & Pan led him on four occasions to offer to abdicate. After his flight 1848 (continuée jusqu’en 1866 par de la Brugére) (1866); A. Kleinschmidt, Die Eltern und Geschwister Napoleons I. (1876); D. A. from Spain in 1813 the emperor wrote to the minister of war (July 11, 1813):—“His [Joseph’s] behaviour has never ceased Bingham, Tke M arriages of the Bonapartes (1881); F. Masson, Napoléon et sa famille (1897-1900); A. Chuquet, La Jeunesse de bringing misfortune upon my army; it is time to make an end Napoléon (1897—99) ; T. Nasica, Mémoires sur Penfance et la jeunesse of it.” de Napoléon; Baron H. Larrey, Madame Mère (1892); Walter Geer, Napoleon was equally dissatisfied with his brother’s conduct ponclen His Family (1927); Emil Ludwig, Napoleon (Eng. as lieutenant-general of France, while he himself was conducting rans., 1927). The brothers and sisters of Napoleon I., taken in order of age, the campaign of 1814 in the east of France. On March 30, Joseph empowered Marmont to make a truce with the assailants of are the following :— I. JosepH (1768-1844), was born at Corte in Corsica on Jan. Paris if they should be in overpowering strength. On the surrender 7, 1768. He was educated at the college at Autun in France, re- of the capital Joseph at once retired. The part which he played turned to Corsica in 1784, and studied law at Pisa. Like his during the Hundred Days (1815) was also insignificant. After brothers, he embraced the French or democratic side, and on the the surrender of his brother to the captain of H.M:S. ‘“‘Bellevictory of the Paolist party sought refuge in France. He settled rophon” at Rochefort, Joseph went to the United States. In at Marseilles and married Mlle. Julie Clary, daughter of a mer- 1830 he pleaded for the recognition of the claims of the duke of chant of that town. Joseph went on a mission to Genoa in 1795 Reichstadt (king of Rome) to the French throne. He afterwards In connection with plans for the recovery of Corsica. In 1796 visited England, and for a time resided at Genoa and Florence. he accompanied Napoleon in the early part of the Italian cam- In the latter city, the cradle of his race, he died on July 28, paign, and had some part in the negotiations with Sardinia which’ 1844. In person he somewhat resembled Napoleon, but utterly led to the armistice of Cherasco (April 28). He took part in the lacked his strength and energy. He was too mild, supine and French expedition for the recovery of Corsica, and helped the luxurious for the tasks thrust upon him by his brother. Yet his commissioner of the French Republic, Miot de Melito, in the correspondence and memoirs prove that he retained for Napoleon reorganization of that island: In March 1797 he was appointed warm feelings of affection. by the Directory minister to the court of Parma; and then to Of the many works dealing with Joseph Bonaparte we may cite

Rome. Discords arose between the Vatican and the French Republic, and it is clear'that Napoleon and the French Directory ordered Joseph to encourage revolutionary movements in Rome. On Dec. 28, 1797, a disturbance took place opposite the French embassy, which led to the death of the French general Léonard

Duphot. Joseph returned to Paris, and became one of the members for Corsica in the Council of Five Hundred. Before the coup d'état of Brumaire he helped Napoleon in making overtures to Siéyès and Moreau, but otherwise did little. He was a member

of the council of state and of the Corps

kégislatif. He concluded at Mortfontaine, a convention with the United States (1800). He also presided over the negotiations Which led to the Treaty of Lunéville with Austria (Feb. 9, 1801); and he and Maret represented France in the lengthy discussions With the British envoy, Lord Cornwallis, which resulted in the signature of the Treaty of Amiens (March 25, 1802). On the

Baron A. du Casse, Mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire du roi Joseph (1854), and Les Rois fréres de Napoléon (1883); J. S. C., Abbott, History of Joseph Bonaparte (1869); G. Bertin, Joseph Bonaparte in America; Joseph Bonaparte jugé par ses contemporains (anon.); the Memoirs of Count Miot de Melito (trans. ed. General Fleischmann, 1881); R. M. Johnston, Tke Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy (with an excellent bibliography, 1904),; Correspondence af Napoleon with Joseph Bonaparte (1856).

Il. Lucien (1775-1840), prince of Canino, was born at Ajaccio on May 21, 1775. He followed his elder brothers to the schools of Autun and Brienne, but, being debarred' by defective sight

from the army, went to the seminary at Aix in Provence (1786). His excitable and volatile disposition agreed ill with the discipline

of the place, and on the outbreak of the Revolution mn’'1789 he

returned to Corsica, and became the leading speaker in the Jacobin club at Ajaccio. Lucien urged his brothers to break with Paoli, and headed a Corsican deputation which went to France

BONAPARTE

838

HOUSE |

||

Francois Clary

Carlo Maria Bonaparte = M. Letizia Ramolino

Gua

o Desidérie

|3 Lucien

Julie= Joseph

| = Marshal Bernadotte

K. of Naples

(Charles XIV.

K. of

K. of Sweden)

Spain 1808-14

Oscar I. = Josephine de

OF BONAPARTE

f 1844

mea Marie Louise

P. of Canino T 1840

|

(r)=Chr. Boyer

div. 1814

(2)=Alexandrine (de Bleschamps)

Elise

(x) =(2) Josephine (1) =Victe. Tascher de la Alex.

(2)=C. Adam Neipperg

div. Jouberthou

2

(1) =(2) Napoleon I.f 1821

of Austria Dss. of Parma

Pagerie

de

div. 1809

Beauharnais

|

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T1820 =F. Bacciochi

D. of Lucca

S Zenaide

1P

2nd P. of

oe .

D. of Reichstadt t 1832

| Charlotte

Canino

BA

(son of

f 1824

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A

; ugustus T 1835

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N. Louis

f 1807

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= (1) Maria

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bial Maximilian f 1852

Lucien Card. Bonaparte T 1895 s.p.

Lucien t 1878

3 sons

Maria de

Jerome

K. of Westphalia 4807-14 + 1860

|

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(t) 1803= Elizabeth

(2 L. Lucien f 189r s.p.

Napoleon

i

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Ds. of Leuchtenberg

Joseph

t a

= Eugénie

Lucien 2 daus. P. Murat à

=M. Nicolaievna G. Dss. of Russia

2 sons

11865s.p.

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l

2 (2) Charles=Zenaide Paul P. of Canino f 1827 s.p. T 1859

Ch. Louis Nap.

S..

Sweden

George P. Romanovsky (2) = Anastasia of Montenegro

_|@ (2) Pierre Antoine 1881 SD. = Eléonore Ruflin

6 daus.

Roland

Jeanne

P. Imperial

T 1879 s.p.

(x) Jerome Nap. b. 1805 f 1870

2) Jerome N. {18x14 P. of Montfort

t 1847 s.p.

Patterson

annulled 1805 (2) 1807 = Catharine of Wiirttemberg (2) (2) Mathilde N. Jos. Charles =P. Anatole P. Napoleon Demidoff T 1801 = Clotilda of

Charles = Marie Felix Blanc = Henri M. de P. Bonaparte Villeneuve-Esclapon Marie=P. George Jerome N. Ch, Joseph French Col. ¢ 1893 Alttorney-Gen. U.S.A. Maria =Lieut. Enrico of Greece Eug énie Gotti = Napoleon Ney d’Elchingen great-g.-son of Marshal Ney div. 1903 Louise =C. Moltke-Huitfeldt | Jerome Nap. Charles f 1878 Victor N. P. Napoleon

K. of

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o

K. of

Naples 1808-7 5

i

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PA

Camillo Borghese

D. of Guastalla s.ġ.

Beauharnais

Napoleon

= Joachim Murat

(2) =P.

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(Reproduced by permission of the Cambridge University Press from vol. xiii. of the Cambridge Modern History.)

to denounce Paoli and to solicit aid for the democrats. In the south of France he worked hard for the Jacobinical cause. In May 1794, he married Catherine Boyer. The coup d’état of Thermidor (July 28, 1794) compelled him to accept a small post at St. Chamans. There he was arrested and imprisoned for a time until Napoleon procured his release, and found him a post as commissioner in the French army campaigning in Germany. Lucien disliked the army, and was sent to Corsica. In 1798 he entered the Council of Five Hundred at Paris as deputy for Corsica. He was president of that body on the 19th Brumaire (Nov. 10) 1799, when Napoleon overthrew the national councils of France at the palace of St. Cloud. The refusal of Lucien to put the vote of outlawry, for which the majority of the council clamoured, his opportune closing of the sitting, and his appeal to the soldiers outside to disperse les représentants du poignard, turned the scale in favour of his brother. By a strange irony this event, the chief event of Lucien’s life, was fatal to the cause of democracy of which he had been the

most eager exponent. In one of his earlier letters to his brother Joseph, Lucien stated that he had detected in Napoleon “an ambition not altogether egotistic but which surpassed his love for the general weal; ... in case of a counter-revolution he would try to ride on the crest of events.” Lucien’s suspicion of his brother became a dominant feeling; and the relations between them became strained during the period of the consulate (17991804). He accepted office as minister of the interior, but was

soon deprived of it owing to political and personal differences with the First Consul. Napoleon then appointed him ambassador to the court of Madrid (Nov. 1800), where he again fell into disgrace with his brother. He returned to Paris, and again opposed Napoleon’s schemes.

Lucien’s next proceeding completed

the breach between the two brothers. His wife had died in 1800; he became enamoured of a Mme. Jouberthou and despite the express prohibition of the First. Consul, secretly married her at his residence of Plessis on May 25, 1803. At that time Napoleon was pressing Lucien to marry the widow of the king of Etruria, and he now ordered him to leave French territory.

Lucien de-

parted for Italy with his wife and infant son, after annoying Napoleon by bestowing on her publicly the name of Bonaparte.

For some years he lived in Italy, chiefly at Rome. In Dec.

1807 the emperor sought to come to an arrangement by which Lucien would take his place as a French prince, provided that he

would annul his marriage. This step Lucien refused to take; and

after residing for some time at his estate of Canino, from which he took the papal title of prince of Canino, he left for America.

Captured by a British ship, he was taken to Malta and thence to England, where he resided under some measure of surveillance

up to the peace of 1814. Returning to Rome, he offered Napoleon his help during the Hundred Days (1815), stood by his side at the “Champ de Mai” at Paris, and was the last to defend his

prerogatives at the time of his second abdication. He spent the rest of his life in Italy, and died at Rome on June 29, 1840. He

BONAPARTE

839

wrote an epic, Charlemagne, ou lV’Eglise délivrée (2 vols. 1814),

him, returned to Paris

also La Vérité sur les Cent Jours and Memoirs, not completed.

caused some scandal. In 1806 she received the title of duchess of Guastalla. Her off-hand treatment of the new empress, Marie

For sources see T. Jung, Lucien Bonaparte et ses mémoires

(1882-

83); j anonymous work, Le Prince Lucien Bonaparte et sa famille 1888).

II. MARIANNE ELISA (1777-1820), born at Ajaccio on Jan. 3, 1777, married (May 5, 1797) Felix Bacciochi. In 1805, Napoleon bestowed upon her the principality `of Piombino and shortly afterwards Lucca; in 1808 her importunities gained for

her the grand duchy of Tuscany.

Her pride and ability had a

great influence on the administration and on Italian affairs in

general. Her relations with Napoleon were frequently strained; and in 1813—14 she abetted Murat in his enterprises (see MURAT). After her brother’s fall she retired, with the title of countess of Compignano, first to Bologna and afterwards to Santo Andrea near Trieste, where she died on Aug. 6, 1820. See J. Turquan, Les Soeurs de Napoléon (1896); P. Marmothan, i Hai

(1898);

E. Rodocanachi,

Élisa Bonaparte

en Italie

1900).

IV. Lours (1778-1846) was born at Ajaccio on Sept. 2, 1778. His elder brother Napoleon supervised his education and in 1795 procured for him admission to the military school at Châlons. Louis went through the Italian campaign of 1796-97 with Napo-’ leon and acted as his aide-de-camp in Egypt in 1798—99. In 1802 the First Consul married him to Hortense Beauharnais, a forced union which led to most deplorable results. In 1804 Louis was raised to the rank of general, and entered the council of state. In the next year he became governor of Paris and undertook various military and administrative duties. After the victory of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805) Napoleon proclaimed Louis king of Holland (June 6, 1806). From the first the emperor reproached him with being too easy with his subjects. Their relations were embittered by a violent jealousy which Louis conceived against his wife. In 1808 the emperor offered Louis the throne of Spain then vacant; but on Louis refusing to accept it the honour went to Joseph. In 1809 Napoleon virtually resolved to annex Holland, in order to stop the trade which the Dutch secretly carried on with England. At the close of the year Louis went to Paris, partly in order to procure a divorce from Hortense and partly to gain better terms for Holland. He failed in both respects. After the collapse of negotiations with Great Britain in the spring of 1810, the emperor again pressed Louis hard, and finally sent French troops against the Dutch capital. Thereupon Louis fled from his kingdom and finally settled at Téplitz in Bohemia. On July 9, 1810, Napoleon annexed Holland to the French empire. Louis spent the rest of his life chiefly at Rome, concerning himself with literary and philosophic studies and with the fortunes of his sons. Their devotion to the national and democratic cause in Italy in 1830~31 gave him much pleasure, which was overclouded by the death of the elder, Napoleon Louis, in the spring campaign of 1831 in the Romagna. The failure of his other son, Charles Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.), to wrest the French crown from Louis Philippe by the attempts at Strasbourg and Boulogne also caused him disappointment. He died on July 25, 1846. His sons were Napoleon Charles (1802-07), Napoleon Louis (1804-31), and Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-73), afterwards emperor of the French as NapoLeon III. (g.v.).

and gratified her whims

in ways

that

Louise, led to her removal from court in 1810. Nevertheless in 1814 she repaired with “Madame Mère” to Elba, and is said to

have expressed a wish to share Napoleon’s exile in St. Helena. She died in 1825 of cancer. Canova’s statue of her as Venus reclining on a couch is well known. See J. Turquan, Les soeurs de Napoléon (1896).

VI. Marta ANNUNCIATA CAROLINE (1782-1839) was born at Ajaccio on March 25, 1782. Early in 1800 she married Joachim Murat, whose interests she afterwards advanced with all the power of her ambitious and intriguing nature. He became governor of Paris, marshal of France (1804), grand duke of Berg and of Cleves (1806), lieutenant of the emperor in Spain (1808),

and early in the summer of that year king of Naples. The distance of this capital from Paris displeased Caroline; her relations with Napoleon the equivocal his tragic end trian territory.

became strained, and she associated herself with movements of her husband in 181q4~15. Before at Pizzo on Oct. 13, 1815, she had retired to AusShe died on May 18, 1839.

See J. Turquan, Caroline Murat, reine de Naples (1899). under MURAT, JOACHIM.

VII. Jerome

See also

(1784—1860) was born at Ajaccio on Nov. 15,

1784; he shared the fortunes of the family in the early years of the French Revolution, was educated at Juilly and was called to the side of his brother, then First Consul of France, in 1800.

While in the Consular Guard he fought a duel with the younger brother of General Davout and was wounded. Soon afterwards he was transferred to the navy and cruised in the West Indies, where he left his ship and travelled through the United States. At Baltimore he married Elizabeth Patterson. When in 1805 Jerome brought his wife to Europe, the emperor ordered her to be excluded from his states. Jerome vainly sought to bend his brother’s will in an interview at Alexandria. In May 1805 he received command of a small squadron in the Mediterranean, while his wife proceeded to Camberwell, where she gave birth to a son. In November Jerome returned to service in the navy. Napoleon made him a prince of France, and gave him command of a division of South Germans in the campaign of 1806. After Jena, Jerome received the surrender of several Prussian towns. An imperial decree having annulled the Patterson marriage, the emperor united Jerome to the princess Catherine of Wirttemberg; and in pursuance of the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) made him king of Westphalia. In the Russian campaign Jerome was entrusted with a movement which might have brought the southern Russian army into grave danger; on his failure (which was probably due to his lack of energy) the emperor promptly subjected him to the control of Marshal Davout, and Jerome returned to Cassel. In 1813, on the fall of the Napoleonic régime in Germany, Jerome retired to France, and in 1814 spent some time in Switzerland and at Trieste. Returning to France in 1815, he commanded a division on the French left wing at Waterloo and attacked Hougoumont with great pertinacity. On Napoleon’s second abdication Jerome proceeded to Wiirttemberg, was threatened with arrest unless he gave up his

wife and child, and was kept under surveillance at Goppingen;

finally he was allowed to proceed to Augsburg, and thereafter resided at Trieste, or in Italy or Switzerland. His consort died in la Hollande 2nd ed. (1820); F. Rocquain, Napoléon Ier et le Roi 1835. He returned to France in 1847, and after the rise of Louis Louis, d'après les documents conservés aux archives nationales (1875) ; Baron A. du Casse, Les Rois frères de Napoléon (1883); A. Garnier, Napoleon to power, became successively governor of the InLa Cour de Hollande sous le règne de Louis Bonaparte, par un auditeur valides, marshal of France and president of the senate. He died (Paris and Amsterdam, 1823); T. Jorissen, Napoléon Ier et le roi de on June 24, 1860. His children were Jerome Napoleon (see Hollande (18061813) (Paris and The Hague, 1868); Loosjes, Louis XIV.), Mathilde (see XII.) and Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Koning van Holland (1888); L. Wichers, De Regeering (born in 1822); the last was afterwards known as Prince Napovan Koning Lodewijk Napoleon (1806-10) (Utrecht, 1892) ; Memoirs of Queen Hortense, ed. by Prince Napoleon and Jean Hanoteau (1928). leon (see XI. below) and finally became the heir to the fortunes V. Marre Pauttne (1780~1825), the gayest and most beautiful of the Napoleonic dynasty. member of the family, was born at Ajaccio on Oct. 20, 1780. At The chief works relating to Jerome Bonaparte are: Baron Albert du The chief works on the life and reign of Louis are le comte de

Saint-Leu, Documents historiques et réflexions sur le gouvernement de

17 she married General Leclerc, a staff officer of Napoleon, and accompanied him to St. Domingo, where he died of yellow fever im 1802. Returning to Paris she married Prince Camillo Borghese

Casse, Mémoires et correspondance du roi Jérôme et de la reine Cathérine (1861—66) and Les Rois frères de Napoléon (1883); M. M.

Kaisenberg, König Jerome Napoleon; W. T. R. Saffell, The Bonaparte‘Patterson Marriage; August von Schlossberger, Briefwechsel der

(Aug. 22. F802) and went with him to Rome: : She soon tired-of . Kénicin Katharina und des Kénigs Jerome von Westfalen mit Konig

840

BONAPARTE

Friedrich von Wiirttemberg (Stuttgart, 1886-87), supplemented by du , Casse in Corresp. inédite de la reine Cathérine de Westphalie (1888-93); A. Martinet, Jéréme Napoléon, roi de Westfalie P. W. Sergeant, The Burlesque Napoleon (1903).

(1902);

VITI. Cuartes Lucien Jutes Laurent (1803-1857), prince of Canino, son of Lucien Bonaparte, born on May 24, 1803, and died July 29, 1857, was a scientist rather than a politician and a correspondent of many learned societies. He married his

phalia, by his wife Catherine, princess of Wlirttemberg, and was

born at Trieste on Sept. 9, 1822. After the French Revolution of 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly as a representative of Corsica, and (his elder brother, Jerome Napoleon Charles dy-

ing in 1847) assumed the name of Jerome. Notwithstanding his ostensible opposition to the coup d’état of 1851, he was designated, upon the establishment of the Empire, as successor to the throne if Napoleon III. should die childless. Privately he pro.

cousin, Zénaide Bonaparte, daughter of Joseph, in 1822. At fessed himself the representative of the Napoleonic tradition in the age of 22 he began the publication of an American Orni- its democratic aspect, and associated mainly with men of adthology (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1825-33), which established his vanced political opinions. At court he represented the Liberal scientific reputation. A series of other works in zoology followed. Party against the empress Eugénie. In 1854 he took part in the He took part in the political agitation in Italy, and he declared Crimean campaign as general of division. Returning to France himself at Venice in favour of the independence of Italy and the he undertook the chief direction of the National Exhibition of expulsion of the Austrians. He entered the Junto of Rome in 1855, in which he manifested great capacity. In 1858 he was 1848 and was elected deputy by Viterbo to the national assembly. appointed minister for the colonies and Algeria, but his activity The failure of the revolution forced him to leave Italy in July was diverted into a different channel by his sudden marriage in 1849. He gained Holland, then France, where he turned again Jan. 1859 with the princess Marie Clotilde of Savoy, daughter to science. His principal works were, Conspectus systematis orni- of Victor Emmanuel, a prelude to the war for the liberation of thologiae, mastozologiae, erpetologiae et amphibologiae, Ichthy- Italy. In this war Prince Napoleon commanded the French corps ologiae (Leyden, 1850), Tableau des oiseaux-mouches (Paris, that occupied Tuscany, and it was expected that he would become 1854), Ornithologie fossile (Paris, 1858). Eight children sur- ruler of the principality. The next few years were chiefly disvived him: Joseph Lucien Charles Napoleon, prince of Canino tinguished by remarkable speeches. Unfortunately his indiscretion (1824-65), who died without heirs; Cardinal Lucien Louis Joseph equalled his eloquence: one speech (1861) sent him to America Napoleon; five daughters; Napoleon Charles Grégoire Jacques to avoid a duel with the duke d’Aumale; another (1865), in which Philippe, who married the princess Ruspoli, by whom he had he justly but intemperately protested against the Mexican expeditwo daughters. tion, cost him all his official dignities. The fatal war of 1870 was IX. Louis Lucien (1813-1891), son of Lucien Bonaparte, was resolved upon during his absence in Norway, and was strongly born at Thorngrove, Worcestershire, England, on Jan. 4, 1813. condemned by him. After the fall of the Empire he lived in He passed his youth in England, not going to France until 1848, comparative retirement until in 1879 the death of Napoleon III's when, after the revolution, he was elected deputy for Corsica son, the Prince Imperial (see XIII. below) made him direct heir (Nov. 28, 1848); his election having been invalidated, he was re- to the Napoleonic succession. His part as imperial pretender turned as deputy for the Seine in June, 1849. He sat in the right was unfortunate and inglorious, and before his death he was of the Legislative Assembly, but had no direct part in the coup ‘virtually deposed in favour of his son Prince Napoleon Victor. d’état of his cousin on Dec. 2, 1851. Napoleon EII. named him He died at Rome on March 17, 1891. In the character of his senator and prince, but he took hardly any part in politics during intellect, as in personal appearance, he bore an extraordinary rethe Second Empire, and after the proclamation of the Third semblance to the first Napoleon, possessing similar insight, and the Republic in 1870 he withdrew to England. There he busied him- gift of distinguishing the essential from the non-essential. He self with philology, and published notably some works on the was a warm friend of literature and art. Basque language. He died on Nov. 3, 1891, leaving no children. His eldest son, Prince Napoleon Victor Jérome Frédéric (1862X. PIERRE NAPOLEON (1815-1881), son of Lucien Bonaparte, ), became at his death the recognized head of the French was born at Rome on Oct. 11, 1815. He joined the rebels in the Bonapartist Party. The second son, Prince Louis Napoleon, an Romagna (1830-31); was then in the United States, where he officer in the Russian army, showed a steadier disposition, and was went to join his uncle Joseph, and in Colombia with General more favoured in some monarchist quarters; in 1906 he.was made Santander (1832). Returning to Rome he was taken prisoner by governor of the Caucasus. order of the pope (1835-36). He finally took refuge in England. XII. MATHILDE LETITIA WILHELMINE (1820~1904), daughter At the revolution of 1848 he returned to France and was elected of Jerome, and sister of Prince Napoleon (XI.), was born at deputy for Corsica to the Constituent Assembly. He declared Trieste on May 20, 1820; after being almost betrothed to her himself an out-and-out republican and voted even with the cousin Louis Napoleon she was married in 1840 to Prince Anatole Socialists. He pronounced himself in favour of the national work- Demidov. His conduct, however, led to a separation within five shops and against the Joi Falloux. His attitude contributed greatly years. After the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency of to give popular confidence to his cousin Louis Napoleon (Napo- the republic she did the honours of the Elysée till his marriage. leon III.), of whose coup d’état on Dec. 2, 1851, he disapproved; She continued to live in Paris, having great influence as a friend but he was reconciled to the emperor and accepted the title of and patron of men of art and letters, till her death on Jan. 2, 1904. prince. The republicans at once abandoned him. From that time XIII. Napotton Evcene Louis Jean Josepu (1856-1879), on he led a debauched life, and lost all political importance. In Prince Imperial, only son of the emperor Napoleon III. and the Jan. 1870 a violent incident brought him again into prominence. empress Eugénie, was born at Paris on March 16, 1856. He was As the result of a controversy with Paschal Grousset, the latter a delicate boy, but when the war of 1870 broke out his mother sent him two journalists to provoke him to a duel. Pierre Bona- sent him to the army. After the first defeats he had to flee from parte took them personally to account, and during a violent dis- France with the empress, and settled in England at Chislehurst, cussion he drew his revolver and killed one of them, Victor Noir. completing his military education at Woolwich. On his father’s The High Court acquitted him of murder, and criticism then fell death (Jan. 9, 1873) the Imperialists proclaimed him Napoleon upon the Government. Pierre Bonaparte died in obscurity at IV., and he became the official Pretender. The Bonapartist leadVersailles on April 7, 1881. He had married the daughter ‘of a ers thought that he should win his crown by military prestige, Paris working-man, Justine Eleanore Ruffin, by whom he had, and he was persuaded to attach himself as a volunteer to the before his marriage, two children: (x) Roland Napoleon (b. British expedition to Zululand in Feb. 1879. While out on a 1858) and (2) Jeanne, wife of the marquis de Vence. reconnaissance with a few troopers he was surprised by Zulus, XI. NapoLteon JosEpH CHartEs PauL, commonly known as and killed (June 1, 1879). His body was brought back to EngPrince Napoleon, or by the sobriquet of “Plon-Plon,”! (1822— land, and buried at Chislehurst. 1891), was the second son of Jerome Bonaparte, king of WestXIV. The BONAPARTES of BALTIMORE are a branch of the Derived, it is supposed, from the nickname “Plomb-plomb,” or family settled in America, descended from Jerome Bonaparte by “Craint-plomb” (fear-lead), given him by his soldiers in the Crimes.

his union with Elizabeth (b. 1785), daughter of William Patter-

BONAR—BOND

841

son, a Baltimore merchant, probably descended from the Robert

spirituality and immortality.

Paterson who was the original of Sir Walter Scott’s Old Mortality. The marriage (see under VII. above) took place at Baltimore on Dec. 24, 1803. It was valid according to American law, and Pope Pius VII. refused to declare it void. Nevertheless Jerome was

morphic composition of the soul, and regards the faculties as dis-

forced to separate from his wife, and after a stay in England she

returned to Baltimore. She died in 1879. Jerome’s only child by this marriage was Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870), who was born in England, but resided chiefly in Baltimore. He was

on good terms with Jerome, who for some time made hima large allowance, and father and son occasionally met. His elder son, also called Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1832-93), entered the French army, with which he served in the Crimea and in Italy. Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851-1921), younger son of the first Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, and a grandson of Jerome, king

of Westphalia, attained a distinguished place in American politics. Born at Baltimore on June g, 1851, and educated at Harvard university, he became a lawyer in 1874 and was elected president

of the National Municipal League and occupied other public positions. He was secretary of the Navy in President Roosevelt’s cabinet from July 1905 to Dec. 1906, and then attorney-general

of the United States until March 1909. He died on June 28, 1921. See A. H. Atteridge, Napoleon’s Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1922).

BONAR, HORATIUS

Brothers

(1909); J. B. Bishop,

(1808-1889), Scottish Presbyterian

divine, was born in Edinburgh on Dec. 19 1808, and died there on July 31 1889. He was appointed parish minister of Kelso in 1837, and at the disruption of 1843 became minister of the newly formed Free Church, where he remained till 1866, when he went to the Chalmers memorial church, Edinburgh. In 1883 he was moderator of the general assembly of his church. Bonar’s best work was done in hymnology, and he published three series of Hymns of Faith and Hope between 1857 and 1866 (new ed., 1886). = Horatius Bonar, D.D., a Memorial (1889).

BONAVENTURA,

SAINT

(Joun or Franza)

(1221-

1274), Franciscan theologian, was born at Bagnorea, Tuscany. He became a Franciscan about 1243 and studied at Paris under Alexander of Hales and John of Rochelle to whose chair he succeeded in 1253, having been lecturing from 1248. His opposition to the masters of the university who, under the leadership of William of Saint-Amour, sought to exclude the mendicants from teaching, was successful owing to the intervention of Alexander IV., and as a result he received the degree of doctor in 1257, some few months after he had been appointed general of his Order. He sought to reconcile the Sfirituales and the Relaxti, his revised constitutions of the Order being promulgated by the General Chapter of Narbonne (1260). In 1265 he declined the archbishopric of York. In 1273 Gregory X., whose election he had been instrumental in procuring, made him cardinal and bishop of Albano, and insisted on his presence at the great Council of Lyons (1274). At this meeting he died. Bonaventura, deservedly known as “Doctor Seraphicus,” was canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV. and ranked as sixth among the doctors of the Church by Sixtus V. in 1587. Bonaventura combined the character of a man of action with

that of a philosopher, theologian and mystic. In philosophy, con-

trary to his friend St. Thomas, he strongly adhered to the Augustinian school with its Platonic elements, and, mindful of the Paris condemnations, accepted Aristotle only in so far as his teaching was compatible with revelation and tradition. Hence, like his Franciscan predecessors, he attributed to primary matter an imperfect actuality, and held that it was endowed with rationes seminales or aptitudes for the forms which it receives during the processes of becoming. Not matter alone, but the union of matter and form is the principle of individuation. Likewise in psychology, his Franciscan training is evident. Man, like all other beings, has a plurality of forms corresponding to the grades of perfection in him, but his unity is preserved by the subordination of the lower forms to the highest form, the rational soul. The most important of the

Bonaventura also supports the hylo-

tinguished from its essence in a manner between the real distinction of St. Thomas and the identity theory of Alcher of Clairvaux.

The soul’s knowledge of the corporeal world is produced by the action of the active and the passive intellect on the material derived from objects by the senses. To acquire certitude this knowledge must be conformed, with the aid of Divine illumination, to the rationes aeternae, the ideas in the Divine mind, wherein the fullness of all sense objects is contained. In addition to this knowledge, we can have a knowledge of spiritual beings through innate species which enable the soul to know itself and in so knowing itself to know God, of whom it is the image. The existence of God is also provable by @ posteriori arguments, by Anselm’s ontological argument and by Augustine’s argument from the nature of truth. To complete philosophical speculation, which in its concern for all things leads to God, we need the imperfect but certain knowledge of God given in faith, for the soul’s faculties of knowing and loving, though of Divine origin, have been contaminated by its union with the body. Faith, in its turn, is the foundation of the mystical contemplation of God, which Bonaventura regards as the glorious end of man and develops at great length after the inspiration of the pseudo-Dionysius and the Victorines. This contemplation, which requires the restoration of the image of God in the soul and the practice of prayer, meditation and the theological virtues, especially charity, by Divine grace originates in the discernment of the traces of God in the corporeal world and passes through the recognition of His image in the soul to an apprehension of His being and His infinite goodness. The perfect beatific vision is reserved for the next life. The best known of Bonaventura’s works are the commentary on the Sentences of the. Lombard, Itinerarium Mentis ad Deum, Breviloquium, De Reductione Artium ad Theologiam, Soliloquium, De Triplict Via, De Septem Itineribus Aeternitatis, Hexaémeron, and a life of St. Francis. Of the several editions, the best is that by the Franciscans of Quaracchi, Opera Omnia, to vols. (1882— 1902). E Bien. ee E. Lutz, Die Psychologie Bonaventuras (Miinster, 1909) ; E. Longpré, “La Théologie mystique de S. Bonaventure” in Arch. Fran. Hist. (Quaracchi, 1921) ; B. Luyckx, Die Erkenntnislehre Bonaventuras (Miinster, 1923); J. d’Albi, S. Bonaventure et les luttes doctrinales de 1267~77 (1923); E. Gilson, La Philosophie de S. Bonaventure (1924); B. Rosenmöller, Religiöse Erkenntnis nach Bonaventura (Münster, 1925). Complete bibliography in Ueberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philosophie, Teil 2 (1928). (D. E. Sa.)

BONCHAMPS, CHARLES MELCHIOR ARTUS, Marquis DE (c. 1760-1793), Vendéan leader, was born at Jouverteil, Anjou, May 10 1760. He gained his first military experience in the American War of Independence, and on his return to France was made a captain of grenadiers in the French army. In the spring of 1793 he was chosen leader by the insurgents of the Vendée, and to his counsels may be attributed in great measure the success of the peasants’ arms. He was present at the taking of Bressuire, Thouars and Fontenay, and at Fontenay he was wounded; but dissensions among their leaders weakened the insurgents, and at the bloody battle of Cholet (Oct. 16 1793) the Vendéans sustained a severe defeat, and Bonchamps was mortally wounded. He died the next day. A statue of him by David d’Angers stands in the church of St. Florent.

BOND, SIR EDWARD

AUGUSTUS

(1815-1898), Eng-

lish librarian, was born at Hanwell, Dec. 31, 1815, the son of a schoolmaster. He was educated at Merchant Taylors’ school, and in 1832 obtained a post in the Public Record Office. In 1838 he entered the manuscript department of the British Museum. In 1854 he became assistant keeper of mss., and in 1867 was promoted to the post of keeper. His work in re-organizing the manuscript department was of lasting value, and to him is due the classified catalogue of mss. and the improved efficiency of the lower forms is the forma corporeitatis (like Grosseteste, he regards department. From 1878-88 he was principal librarian. Under his It as lux) which, by giving actuality to the human ‘body as to all supervision were erected the new buildings of the “White wing,” bodies, preserves the independence of the soul and ensures its which provide accommodation for prints, drawings, manuscripts.

842

BOND—BONDED

and newspapers, and the purchase of the Stowe mss. was concluded while he remained in office. He founded, in conjunction with Sir E. Maunde Thompson, the Palaeographical Society, and first made classical palaeography an exact science. He was created K.C.B. the day before his death, on Jan. 2, 1898. He edited four volumes of facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon charters from 679 to the Conquest, The Speeches in the Trial of Warren Hastings (185961), and a number of other interesting historic documents.

WAREHOUSE person from whom the obligor has expectations.

Such a bond if

the obligee has exacted unconscionable terms, may be set aside. Bottomry Bonds.—A bottomry bond is a contract of hypoth. ecation by which the owner of a ship, or the master as his agent

borrows money for the use of the ship to meet some emergency, e.g., necessary repairs, and pledges the ship (or keel or bottom of the ship, partem pro toto) as security for repayment. If the ship safely accomplishes her voyage, the obligee gets his money

BOND, SIR ROBERT (1857-1927), son of John Bond (a back with the agreed interest; if the ship is totally lost, he loses Devonshire man and founder of the Newfoundland branch of it altogether. A Respondentia Bond is one in which the cargo William Hounsell and Co.), was educated at Queen’s college, alone is charged. Lloyd’s Bonds.—Lloyd’s bonds are instruments under the sea] Taunton, and Edinburgh university, where he studied law. He returned to Newfoundland and entered politics in 1882, when he was elected to the House of Assembly. In 1884 he became Speaker, and in 1889 Colonial Secretary under the Liberal ministry. From 1890 to 1914 he was engaged in negotiations with the French Government on the question of fishing rights, and was also largely responsible for the Hay-Bond Treaty which settled the American fishing claim. In 1900, while still Colonial Secretary, he became Prime Minister, and held these offices until 1909, when the newly formed People’s Party came into power. He then used his gift of forceful eloquence as leader of the Opposition until 1914, when he resigned his seat as a protest against the divided aims of a section of the Opposition, the “‘Coakerites.”” He died on March 16, 1927, at St. John’s, Newfoundland.

BOND, in English law, an obligation by deed. Its design is to secure that the obligor, i.e., the person binding himself by the bond, will either pay a sum of money, or do or refrain from doing some act; and for this purpose the obligor binds himself in a penalty to the obligee, with a condition added that, if the obligor pays the sum secured (which is usually half the penalty) or does or refrains from doing the specified act, the bond shall be void: otherwise it shall remain in full force. This condition is known as the defeasance because it defeats or undoes the bond. If the condition is not performed, z.e., if the obligor does not pay the money by the day stipulated, or do or refrain from doing the act provided for, the bond becomes forfeit or absolute at law, and charges the obligor and his estate (see Conveyancing Act 1881, s. §9). In old days, when a bond was forfeit, the whole penalty was recoverable at law and payment post diem could not be pleaded to an action on it, but the court of chancery early interposed to prevent oppression. It held the penalty of a bond to be the form, not the substance of it, a pledge merely to secure repayment of the sum bona fide advanced, and would not permit a man to take more than in conscience he ought, z.¢., in case of a common money bond, his principal, interest and expenses. This equitable relief received statutory recognition by an act of 1705 which provided that, in case of a common money bond, payment of the lesser sum with interest and costs shall be taken in full satisfaction of the bond. In cases of special conditions, the court of equity will relieve from a penalty, but if the sum agreed to be paid on default is held to be real damages, it will not interfere.

The leading case is Kemble v. Farren (1829) 6 Bingham 148. Bonds were and still are given to secure performance of a variety of matters other than the payment of a sum of money at a fixed date. They may be given and are given, for instance, to guarantee the fidelity of a clerk, of a rent collector, or of a person in an office of public trust, or to secure that an intended husband will settle a sum on his wife in the event of her surviving him, or that a building contract shall be carried out, or that a

rival business shall not be carried on by the obligor except within

certain limits of time and space. The same object can often be more conveniently attained by a covenant and covenants have largely superseded bonds, but there are cases where security by bond is still preferable to security by covenant. Bonds given to secure the doing of anything which is contrary to the policy of the law are void. It was not without design that Shakespeare laid the scene of Shylock’s suit on Antonio’s bond in a Venetian court; the bond would have had short shrift in an English court.

Post Obit Bonds.—A

post obit bond is one given by an

of a railway company, admitting the indebtedness of the company

to the obligee to a specified amount for work done or goods sup. plied, with a covenant to pay him such amount with interest on a future day. They are a device by which railway companies were enabled to increase their indebtedness without technically violating their charter. The name is derived from the counsel who settled the form of the bond.

Debenture Bonds.—Debenture bonds are bonds secured only by the covenant of the company without any floating or fixed charge on the assets. (See Company Law: Mortgage.) Recognizance.—A recognizance differs from a bond in being

entered into before a court of record and thereby becoming an obligation of record. Heritable Bond is a Scots law term, meaning a bond for money, joined with a conveyance of land, and held bya creditor as security for his debt. For goods “in bond” see BONDED WAREHOUSE.

BONDAGER, a word meaning, generally, a servant, but specially used in the south of Scotland and Northumberland as the term for a female outworker whom a married farm-labourer, living in a cottage attached to the farm, undertakes as a condition of his tenancy to supply for field-labour, sometimes also to board and lodge. The origin of the system was a dearth of field-labour.

BONDE,

GUSTAF,

Count (1620-1667), Swedish states-

man, advocated a pacific policy at a time when war on the slightest provocation was the watchword of every Swedish politician. In 1659 he succeeded Herman Fleming as lord high treasurer, and was one of the council of regency appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of Charles XI. In 166z he presented to the senate a plan which aimed at rendering Sweden altogether independent of foreign subsidies, by a policy of peace, economy and trade-development, and by further recovery of alienated estates. His budget in the following year, framed on the same principles,

subsequently served as a guide to Charles XI. Bonde’s tenacity of purpose enabled him for some years to fulfil his programme; but the ambition of the oligarchs, and the fear and jealousy of innumerable monopolists who rose in arms against his policy of economy, by the resumption of the alienated Crown lands, proved at last too strong for Bonde, while the costly and useless expedition against Bremen in 1665, undertaken contrary to his advice, completed the ruin of the finances. He practically retired from the Government some time before his death. See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhetstid

BONDED

(Stockholm, 1881).

DEBT, that portion of the indebtedness of a

government or subdivision of government, or of a business, firm or corporation which is represented by outstanding bonds. This

is often known as the “funded debt.” The bonds representing the bonded or funded debt create a fixed financial charge in the form of interest, which, in a business, must be met at each period to

prevent foreclosure; hence, care must always be taken to avoid issuing more bonds than can be properly cared for.

BONDED

WAREHOUSE.

A warehouse in which goods

liable to customs or excise duties may be stored without the duty being paid, subject to supervision by revenue officers and to secutity being given for eventual payment of duty if the goods are not exported. Bonded warehouses constitute an important feature of the revenue machinery in all fiscally-developed countries, their function being to enable merchants to hold stocks of dutiable

expectant heir or legatee, payable on or after the death of the goods without paying the duty until these goods are to be put

BONDFIELD—-BONDU on the home market, and without paying it at all if they are

exported. In the latter case merchants avoid the lock-up of capital in the payment of duties, and in the former case the period between payment of duty by the merchant and his recoupment by his customer is minimized, thus reducing the amount of work-

ing capital required. Customs duties are of greater antiquity than excise (internal) duties, and the original use of bonded warehouses was for the storage of imported goods, on which cus-

toms duties fall.

There are, however, examples

of the use of

bonded warehouses for goods liable to excise duties. A bonded warehouse is essentially a place for the storage of goods, but operations necessary for their preservation during storage, simple forms of treatment to improve their condition and their preparation for sale or exportation, are permitted. Examples are the “repacking” of goods into packages of different sizes; blending and bottling wines or spirits; fortifying wine with added spirit. As a rule manufacturing processes are not allowed

to be carried on in bonded warehouses, but there are exceptions, e.g., the smelting and refining of crude ores in the United States. Goods for the home market pay duty according to the tariff in force at the time of withdrawal from a bonded warehouse. Allowance is made for unpreventable losses in warehouse attributable to such causes as evaporation, leakage, etc., and merchants are

only required to pay duty upon the quantity remaining at the time of withdrawal. Origin and History.—In the United Kingdom, the beginnings of the bonded warehouse system go back to 1700, when provision was made for the “wrought silks”? of India and Persia, the use of which at home was prohibited, to be deposited in bonded warehouse for re-exportation. In 1709 pepper and in 1742 rum, were allowed to be deposited in bond, either for subsequent re-exportation or home consumption. Tea, rice and tobacco followed, and in 1803 a general warehousing act brought further extensions. The consolidation of customs acts in 1825 brought the bonded warehouse system to something approaching its modern scope. The main customs law as to bonded warehouses is contained in

the Customs Consolidation Act, 1876 (39 and 40 Vict., cap. 36),

although alterations of detail have been effected by later acts. The principal statutory provisions relating to excise bonded warehouses are contained in the Spirits act, 1880 (43 and 44 Vict., cap. 24). British spirits are regularly deposited in bonded warehouses for storage and maturing. The Customs and Inland Revenue act, 1881, as amended by the Revenue act, 1898, allowed imported goods, ż.e., goods subject to customs duties, to be deposited in excise warehouses, and goods liable to excise duties in customs warehouses. Since the amalgamation of the customs and excise departments in 1909 the distinction between customs warehouses and excise warehouses has ceased to exist. Bonded warehouses in the United Kingdom are provided, not by the Government, but by private individuals or companies— frequently port authorities—-who charge merchants for the storage of their goods. Every bonded warehouse must be approved by the commissioners of customs and excise, and its construction must conform to rules designed to secure that goods cannot be taken out without the knowledge of the revenue officers. A bonded

warehouse may be approved for the storage either of dutiable goods in general or of one or more specified classes of dutiable

goods. There are bonded warehouses at all the principal seaports and also at many inland places. The bond required as security for the duty on the goods is entered into by the pro-

prietor of the warehouse. ` The doors of bonded warehouses are locked outside working hours with revenue locks, in addition to those affixed by the pro-

prietor; but the proprietor remains solely responsible for the

safe custody of the goods and the revenue officers are’ concerned only to see that none pass into consumption without paying the Proper duty. Goods not liable to any duty, and goods, the importation of which into the United Kingdom is prohibited, may not be deposited in bonded warehouses. ‘Forestalling,” or the with-

drawal of abnormal quantities of goods on the eve of a budget With a view to escaping an expected increase of duty, may be Prevented by the commissioners of customs and excise, who are

843

empowered by law to restrict the quantities which may be withdrawn at such times. Facilities are given for the inspection of goods and the taking of samples by the owner or prospective purchasers, and goods may be sold “in bond” to await withdrawal by the purchaser when he requires them. With regard to bonded warehouses in other countries, the general statements in the opening paragraph above sufficiently describe the essential conditions, although there is some diversity in details of practice.

To mention one important particular, the

provision of bonded warehouses is not invariably left to private enterprise, but may be undertaken by the State or a municipality. United States.—In the United States the bonded warehousing system was inaugurated in 1846 when it was provided by law that goods might be deposited in public warehouses for a period not ex-

ceeding a year. The time was subsequently extended to three years, and varying types of warehouses were authorized. The secretary of the Treasury in the United States is in charge of the warehousing system with authority to make rules. In general, warehouses may be (1) Government owned or leased, and under the direct control of the collector of customs; (2) private importers’ bonded warehouses established as a special provision for a large importer; (3) private bonded warehouses, doing a general storage business or dealing with specific articles such as grain or wines, permission being secured from the secretary of the Treasury and the goods remaining under the control of Government officials; and (4) manufacturing warehouses in which goods intended for export may be manufactured from imported materials without the payment of duty. Goods remaining in custody for over three years may be sold under regulations prescribed by the secretary of the Treasury. At any time within three years they may be withdrawn upon payment of the duties and discharges, or may be shipped in a manner prescribed by the secretary of the Treasury to another port and held there under the same circumstances as if originally imported at that place. For the statutory provisions governing bonded warehouses see the eae the Laws of the United States of America, Title 19, Subtitle .

Part 4.

BONDFIELD, MARGARET GRACE (1873J, British politician, was born March 17 1873, at Chard, Somerset. She early became an assistant in a draper’s shop at Brighton, but soon she moved to London, and in 1898 became assistant secretary of the National Union of Shop Assistants. In 192r she succeeded Mary Macarthur as secretary of the National Federation of Women Workers. She was made chairman of the Trades Union Congress in 1923, and in November of that year was elected M.P. for Northampton. In the Labour Government of 1924 she was parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Labour, and did notable work as British Government delegate on the Governing Body of the International Labour office and at the Sixth Session (Geneva, 1924) of the International Labour Conference, especially in connection with the development by international agreement of facilities for the utilization of the spare time of the workers, on which subject a general Recommendation,

which has proved of great value, was adopted by the Conference. In Nov. 1924 she failed to retain Northampton at the general election, but was subsequently elected for Wallsend, July 1926. See M. A. Hamilton, Margaret Bondfield (1924).

BONDING,

in brickwork or masonry, the building of the

bricks or blocks in such fashion that the joints of successive courses or layers do not vertically coincide and so weaken the structure. This rule of avoiding adjacent vertical joints is termed “breaking joint.” There are various ways of laying bricks to

secure good bonding. (See BRICKWORK.)

BONDU, a French protectorate in West Africa, dependent

on the colony of Senegal. Bondu lies between the Faleme riyer and the upper course of the Gambia, between 13° and 15° N., and 12° and 13° W. The country is plateau, dissected in the southern and central parts, which are generally unproductive, and covered with stunted woods. The lower country is more fertile, and grows baobab, tamarind and various fruit-trees. The Bondu streams flow rapidly during the rains but are empty in the dry season. The

BOND

84-4-

VALUE

inhabitants are mostly Fula, though the trade is largely in the hands of Mandingos. Mohammedanism is fairly generally distributed. Mungo Park, in 1795, was the first European to visit the country. The royal residence was then at Fatteconda, but was moved before 1818 to Bulibani, a small clay walled town. In 1845 the king signed a treaty recognizing French sovereignty over his country. It was at first disregarded by the natives, but in 1858 Bondu came definitely under French control. (See SENEGAL.)

BOND VALUE TABLES, tabulations from which may be

ascertained the value of bonds of definite maturity when bought to produce a certain rate of yield. The tables are usually found in book form, generally show bond maturity up to 50 years, with stipulated interest rates from 3% to 7%, and with various fractional yields. There are quite a number of such books published in the United States, varying slightly in terms, rates and yields covered. One has recently been published in which the order is

reversed and shows what the yield will be when the bond is bought at some definite price.

BONE, HENRY

(1755-1834), English enamel painter, born

at Truro. He was employed by London jewellers for small deSigns in enamel, and in 1800 the beauty of his pieces attracted the notice of the Royal Academy, of which he was admitted an associate; in 1811 he was made an academician. Up to 1831 he executed many beautiful miniature pieces of much larger size than had been attempted before in England; among these are 85 portraits of the time of Queen Elizabeth, of different sizes, from 5 by 4 to r3 by 8in., now at Kingston Lacey, Wimborne, Dorsetshire. These, and pieces in the Wallace Collection, London, were his greatest works. :

BONE,

MUIRHEAD

(1876-

_), British painter and

etcher, born at Glasgow on March 23, 1876, son of David Drummond Bone, a journalist. He first studied architecture and then art in the evening classes of the Glasgow school of art. Being attracted by the picturesque aspect of buildings he executed drawings of views in his native town. It is as an etcher whose method is that generally of dry-point and as a draughtsman with pencil, charcoal and sepia that Bone has become known. In 1899 he issued a Portfolio with etchings of Glasgow. He moved to London in 1901 where the exhibition of his works in 1903 established his fame. In 1904 ten of his dry-points were published by Obach. His work displays a devotion for every form of intricate scaffolding; thus his famous etching “The Great Gantry” (1906) isa study of Charing Cross railway station after the accident to the roof in 1905, with a network of scaffolding set up for reconstruction. This and his “Ayr Prison,” “Building,” “The Shot Tower,” “Liberty’s Clock” are among the finest things in dry-point. During the war he was appointed official artist at the western front and with the fleet. . He illustrated several books: Gertrude Bone’s Children’s Children (1907) and James Bone’s The London Perambulator (1925).

TABLES— BONE and are then simmered in hot water for six hours. The boili period is kept to a minimum lest the bones become too soft for

working. The fat which rises to the surface is skimmed off. It is pale in colour and is used in pharmacy for the manufacture of pomades, and by the soap-maker.

The boiled out bones are

cooled, individually scrubbed to clean them, dried and sold to the button and fancy goods trade, finding their chief markets in Germany and France. The shavings and scrapings from the bone-carvers are treated for high-grade gelatin, while the fine meal from the drills, etc., finds a use in poultry- and dog-foods. The feet of sheep, horses and cattle (the hoofs having been

removed) are also treated separately by the simple boiling process.

These bones yield oils which are largely consumed in the

manufacture of the more delicate grades of leather. Neat’s foot oil (strictly the oil from the feet of cattle only), when separated from any deposited solid stearine, is used as a lubricant for delicate machinery such as clocks, guns, etc., being valued on account

of its low solidifying temperature (“cold test” 25°—28°F.). The open boiling process only recovers about one-half of the fat contained in the bones, and is unsuitable for old and putrid bones, on account of the inferior yield and because of the offensive odour emitted from the vats. A better yield is obtained

by treating the broken bones in autoclaves with open steam under two or three atmospheres pressure.

If the steaming is not unduly

prolonged only a small amount of the glue-yielding constituents

is leached out, and a good quality fat results if fresh bones are employed. Bones contain, on an average, 12% of fat, of which 70% is recoverable by this method. The grease may be pressed, yielding fatty bone oil which resembles neat’s foot oil in its properties and is used for the same purposes.

Whale bone oil is extracted by similar treatment, but usually

at the blubber-refining stations. Benzine Process.—-Practically the whole of the fat contained

in bones can be recovered without any loss of gelatinous material by the benzine extraction process. The fat is extracted by

digesting the bones with petroleum ether (benzine) or Scotch shale oil (boiling point 212°-270°F.). The grease recovered from the extract by distilling off the solvent is dark in colour, of rank odour, and consequently unsuitable for soap-making, although on the continent a certain amount of extracted bone-fat is used for this purpose. The bulk of the product passes to the candle-maker, who recovers the fatty acids which are satisfactorily bleached by distillation. The degreased bones are passed on to the glue makers, benzineextracted bones being very suitable. The gelatinous material is extracted by digestion with steam and hot water in open vessels, or with direct steam under pressure in autoclaves. The weak glue liquors which are obtained as a by-product from the boiling process of degreasing can be partially concentrated, e ao Dodgon, Eichings and Drypoints by Muirhead Bone until on cooling they set to a jelly containing 75% water; this 1909). jelly is marketed as size. The glue liquors from the degelatinizing BONE, the hard tissue constituting the framework of the treatment are clarified if necessary with alum, and may be animal skeleton. For anatomy see SKELETON and CONNECTIVE bleached with sulphurous acid gas; they are then evaporated (prefTISSUES. erably under vacuum) to such a concentration (equivalent to BONE, INDUSTRIAL USES OF. There is an applica- about 33% dry glue) that on cooling in shallow ‘troughs the solution for every constituent of bones, the by-product of the meat tion “jellies.” The jelly is cut into cakes and dried to give glue. trade, in various branches of industry. Besides. the direct use Off-colour and twisted cakes are ground to a powder and marof bones for such articles as buttons, knife-handles, etc., there keted as concentrated size. Besides its use in joinery and furis a large range of valuable secondary products. The mineral niture-making, there is a large consumption of glue in the paper matter—phosphates, lime—is of value as artificial manure and and book-binding trades; the great textile industries absorb conas a component of porcelain; the fat is worked up by the soap- siderable quantities of glue and size for dressing and finishing maker and chandler, and the gelatinous constituents are the yarns, sizing woollen threads, stiffening carpets, etc. There are source of much of the glue and.gelatin of commerce. Further, by numerous minor applications of glue, including use in preserving dry distillation, not only bone charcoal, a valuable purifying ropes, in the preparation of caoutchouc substitutes, etc. medium, but ammonia and bone-tar are obtained. Liquid Glues.—These are glues treated with acids, such as Degreasing.—-For all purposes the degreasing of. the bones is phosphoric, acetic or nitric acid. In the presence of acid the the first process to be carried out. The leg and thigh bones, gelatinizing property is lost. and the glue solution remains liquid termed “marrows” (containing 18-20% of fat), are the most when cold, but the adhesiveness is unimpaired. | valuable and are treated separately. The ends are sawn off and Gelatin.—This is prepared from bones pre-treated with hydroworked up with other bones; the marrows are steeped in weak chloric acid to remove the phosphate of lime. Carefully picked, brine for three days to free them. from fibrous matter, blood, etc., spongy-bones are chosen and well cleansed. The decalcified hones

BONE

BED—BONES

845

are treated with hot water and steam; the fat being skimmed off, the gelatin is obtained by evaporation of the aqueous liquors. Gelatin is used for photographic emulsions, as a culture medium in bacteriology, for culinary purposes and for the clarifying of wines and beers; it is also employed as a dressing for white fabrics, silks and straw hats. The residual degreased and degelatinized bones are ground to 4 meal and used as fertilizer, being valuable on account of the

thread; the pattern is marked out with pins, round which are twisted the different threads, each wound on its own bobbin. The lace was so called from the fact that bobbins were formerly

phosphate of lime content. .Raw bones are rarely used by the

made of bone. (See Lace.)

farmer. More often the bone-meals are converted into “superphosphates.” To effect this the ground bone-residues are treated

with sufficient sulphuric acid to convert the insoluble tri-calcium

phosphate Cas(POx)2 of the bones into the more soluble mono-

calcium phosphate CaH,(PO,)2 which is more readily assimilated

by the plants. Dissolved Bones.—This is the term strictly applicable to the superphosphate manufactured from degreased bones only; not being degelatinized, these bones furnish nitrogen to the soil without the necessity for compounding with additional ammoniacal

salts. The expression is loosely used for superphosphate fertilizers made chiefly from bones.

|

Animal Charcoal—One of the most valuable products fro bones is animal charcoal (or boneblack) which is obtained as a residue from the carbonization of degreased bones (which may be partly degelatinized as well) out of contact with air. The bones are carbonized in retorts (usually horizontal =~ section) very similar in design to coal-gas retorts. The volatile products comprise a gas suitable for illumination and heating, a tar, and aqueous ammoniacal liquors. The tar is redistilled, giving a volatile product condensing to “bone oil” (“Dippel’s oil,” “oil of hartshorn’’). There is no practical use for this “bone oil,” which is a mixture of pyridine and fatty amine derivatives with a most offensive odour, except as a fuel for the factory boilers. There remains in the tar-still a valuable pitch (amounting to 14 Ib. per ton of bones treated) which is used in the manufacture of black varnishes such as Brunswick black. The ammonia liquors are steam-distiled and the ammonia recovered as sulphate from sulphuric acid collectors; the product is impure but suitable for fertilizer. The residual charcoal, which is the most valuable product of the carbonization, is removed from the retorts into closed iron coolers, and protected from exposure to air until cold. It is then crushed and graded. Bone charcoal is employed as a decolourizing and refining medium, chiefly in the sugar industry, which consumes enormous quantities; it was used in France to decolourize beet-sugar solutions as early as 1812. The fine dust charcoal is sifted out and used in the preparation of blackings and “ivory

black.” In sugar-refining the “char” is required from lentil to nut-size; about one ton is needed to decolourize one ton of sugar, but the char can be revivified by washing and reburning (out of contact with air) for a life of about two years. When the decolourizing power is exhausted the spent char is discarded by the sugar manufacturer, but finds a ready market as a source of superphosphate; or it may be calcined in air to bone ash.

Bone Ash.—This, also obtained by burning fresh bones, is composed of calcium phosphate; it is used to make cupels for assaying, and is an important constituent of the paste used for

“English bone china” (English soft porcelain). When treated with sulphuric and phosphoric acids, bone ash yields a substitute for

cream of tartar in baking powders. BrsriocrarHy.—See Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats and Waxes

(1923)

for Bone Fat;. Thorpe, Dictionary of ae Chemistry (1923) for Bone Oil; T. Lambert, Bone Products and Manures (1925). i (E. L.; G. H. W.)

BONE BED, a term loosely used by geologists to denote

any stratum or deposit which contains bones. It is applied therefore not only to those interstratified layers occurring at definite geological horizons, but also to the brecciated and stalagmitic deposits found on the floors of caves. The stratified deposits are frequently associated with current bedding and prob-

ably indicate a sorting out and segregation of the heavier bony material accompanying partial or complete removal of the finer

sediment by the action of currents. A well known bone bed of this nature, the Ludlow Bone Bed, composed of fragments of

spines, teeth and scales of ganoid fish, occurs at the base of the Downton Castle Sandstone in Britain.

BONE-LACE, a kind of lace made upon a cushion from linen

BONER

j

or BONERIUS,

ULRICH

(f. 14th century),

Swiss writer of fables, was born in Berne. He was descended from an old Bernese family, and, as far as can be ascertained, became a monk; yet, as he subsequently married, it appears that he received the “tonsure” only and was thus entitled to the benefit of the clerici uxoriati, who, on divesting themselves of the clerical garb, could return to secular life. He is mentioned in records between 1324 and 1349, but neither before nor after these dates. He wrote, in Middle High German, a collection of fables entitled Der Edelstein (c. 1349), one hundred in number, which were based principally on those of Avianus (4th century) and the Anonymus (edited by I. Nevelet, 1610). This work he dedicated to the Bernese patrician and poet, Johann von Rinkenberg, advocatus (Vogt) of Brienz (d. c. 1350). It was printed in 1461 at Bamberg—the first book printed in the German language. Der Edelstein has been edited by G. F. Benecke (1816) and Franz Pfeiffer in vol. iv. of Dichtungen des deutschen Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1844) ; a translation into modern German by K. Pannier will be found

in Reclam’s Universal-Bibliothek (Leipzig, 1895). See also C. Waas, Die Quellen der Beispiele Boners (Giessen, 1897).

BONES, DISEASES

AND

INJURIES

OF.

The more

specific diseases affecting the bones of the human body are treated under separate headings (see TUBERCULOSIS; VENEREAL DisEASES, etc.); in this article injuries, inflammations and tumours of bone are dealt with. There are two kinds of bone, the compact, which is dense and hard and forms the shafts of the long bones of the limbs and fingers, and the cancellous, which is bone of a more open, spongy structure, and forms the ends of the long bones and the whole of such bones as the vertebrae and those of similar shape. Every bone is closely invested by a thin, fibrous sheath—the periosteum —which adheres closely to it and affords attachment for muscle and tendons. It also plays a part in the production of new bone, not only during the period of growth but also in conditions of injury and disease. A typical long bone consists of a shaft composed of compact bone and of two articular ends formed of cancellous bone, the line of union between them being known as the epiphyseal line, which is a narrow zone of actively-growing bone cells. It is here that growth in the length of the bone occurs until adult life is reached, when the epiphysis disappears and no further increase in length is possible. Injury or disease of the epiphyseal line may result in cessation of growth forthwith, or in certain rare cases it may produce excessive growth with the result that the affected limb becomes longer than its fellow. In rickets (q¢.v.) the epiphyseal line becomes widened and very irregular, thus producing the characteristic changes at the wrist and in the ribs. The shaft of a long bone is hollow and is filled with marrow, a fatty tissue possessing numerous blood vessels which branch in all directions and enter the bone through tiny channels for the purpose of supplying it with nourishment. Injuries of bone vary considerably, the kind and extent depending upon the nature and the force of the violence producing them. At one end of the scale is the simple bruise resulting from a slight injury which tears a few minute blood vessels in the periosteum, and allows the escape of a small quantity of blood into the surrounding tissues, including the space between the periosteum and the bone; the effused blood is soon absorbed, the swelling goes down, and recovery is complete. But not always, for sometimes a little permanent swelling remains as a result of the escape of blood between the bone and the overlying periosteum, which is thereby excited into activity and produces a layer of new bone upon the surface of the old. At the other end of the

84.6

BONES

scale is the complete shattering of a bone by a fragment of shell or a rifle bullet fired at close range.

Fractures (q.v.) constitute by far the largest proportion of injuries to bone. In the aged the bones become more brittle and break as the result of a degree of violence which in earlier life might almost pass unnoticed. In the very young the opposite condition obtains, for the bones are relatively soft and the fracture may be of the Greenstick variety, in which the bone bends

instead of breaking completely through. There is a rare disease known as fragilitas ossium, in which for some unknown reason the bones are unduly fragile, and fractures repeatedly follow trivial injuries. Fractures are also described as being simple and compound. A simple, or, as it is now usually called, a closed fracture, is one where the overlying skin is not injured, or at least not injured in such a way as to establish communication between the broken bone and the external air. A fracture is described as compound, or open, when the overlying skin is damaged in such a way as to expose the injured bone to the danger of infection by microbes gaining entrance from the outside air through the broken skin. The detection of a fracture depends upon intelligent appreciation of the symptoms following the injury. These may be very obvious, for the limb may be grossly deformed and shortened by overlapping of the fragments, and on examination a grating feeling may be elicited—crepitus—when the broken ends are moved. But in some cases the swelling of the soft parts is so great that it is difficult for the medical attendant to determine whether a fracture is present or not. It is in these cases that X-rays have developed one of their greatest uses in medicine, and it is an almost universal custom to have an X-ray photograph taken in all cases of injury to bone. Treatment of Fractures—As soon as the presence of a fracture is detected it is essential to get the broken ends into close apposition with one another by one of the numerous means available. It may be possible to effect this by ordinary manipulation, with or without an anaesthetic, but in many cases this proves impossible and more radical measures have to be adopted. An operation is then undertaken on the following general lines. The site of the fracture is exposed by an incision through the overlying soft parts and the fractured ends of the bone are brought into close contact with one another; they are then held in position temporarily by means of special bone forceps. It is then necessary to decide what particular method shall be utilized for the purpose of obtaining permanent fixation. A complicated fracture in a large bone like the thigh bone affords plenty of scope for the ingenuity of the surgeon. He may decide to fix the broken ends together with wire of silver, or some similar material of sufficient tensile strength to bear the strain, and sufficiently soft to admit of easy manipulation; but in all probability, with so large and strong a bone to deal with, he will not pin his faith on wire but will adopt the more difficult but more certain method of plating.

Plating consists in bridging the fracture with a narrow steel plate from three to six inches in length which is fixed by several screws to the uninjured bone above and below the fracture. ‘This method of fixation of fractures with wire or metal plates has the

disadvantage that the foreign body nécessarily left in the limb may subsequently give rise to trouble and have to be removed. This difficulty has led to the development of still another method by means of plates fashioned from beef-bone and fixed by beefbone screws or pegs. These are carefully prepared from the leg bones of the ox, are sterilized by boiling, and have this great advantage, that after their work is done they are slowly absorbed by the tissues and in time completely disappear.

Operations of this character are serious undertakings only embarked upon after careful consideration of all the factors in the case, and after failure to adjust and maintain the bone in position by simpler means. They are not of course confined to the treatment of recent fractures, but are also applicable to old-standing cases of non-union or mal-union which have resulted from ineffective or inefficient treatment. Such non-union or mal-union frequently arises from causes outside the control of the medical

attendant, as for example in cases of compound fracture result. ing from gunshot wounds or other causes, where injury to the soft parts precludes successful and immediate treatment of the frac. ture itself. Inflammations of bone fall into two categories, the acute and

the chronic. The acute forms include the simple and evanescent

conditions resulting from slight injuries, but they also include the disease known as acute osteomyelitis, the most violent and the most serious inflammatory condition of bone. Generally speaking, it is a disease of young people and is due to infection of the interior of the bone by staphylococcus pyogenes aureys—

the same microbe that causes boils and carbuncles; indeed, this disease might in a sense be well described as a carbuncle of bone. Owing to the confined space available, the pus resulting from the inflammation is formed under so much pressure that great pain, high temperature and great constitutional disturbance soon manifest themselves. The pus rapidly makes its way up and down the marrow cavity and also outwards through the bone,

and so collects under the periosteum which it strips from the bone, thus depriving it of some of its blood supply. The simulta-

neous destruction of blood vessels in the marrow by the pressure of pus may be so complete as totally to deprive the affected part of the bone of its essential blood supply and cause its death, or necrosis, the dead portion of bone subsequently becoming separated

from the living and forming a sequestrum. Since this disease nearly always affects the bone near a joint it is often mistaken at its onset and treated for acute rheumatism, even by skilled observers. This is a serious matter, for osteomyelitis is so grave a disease

and is so apt to be complicated by general blood-poisoning (septicaemia) that delay in its detection may cost the limb or even the life of the patient. The appropriate treatment is immediate incision over the affected area, the evacuation of the pus found under the periosteum, and the opening up of the marrow cavity in order to permit of free escape of the poisonous products from the interior

of the bone. But no matter how prompt and how successful the

treatment may be, recovery is slow and healing long delayed. Chronic inflammations of bone may be produced by a variety of infective agents, including the organisms of syphilis and typhoid, but by far the most common and most important is the tuberculosis bacillus which especially selects the cancellous ends of the long bones or such cancellous bones as the vertebrae for its attacks, producing the slow destructive effect known as tuberculous caries. The treatment of this disease has fortunately undergone a revolution in recent years, for the drastic and crippling operations formerly in use are now replaced by a régime

which includes complete rest of the affected part and, very limited and conservative surgical operations for the purpose of evacuating abscesses, combined with sunlight treatment, real or artificial. When persevered with, such methods almost always effect a cure in every case. Prof. Rollier of Leysin has been a pioneer in the development of this line of attack upon the tuberculosis of bone, and great success has been obtained at his clinic in the Swiss mountains. Similar methods of treatment have been proved to be possible in our English climate, and at the Treloar Home for Cripples at Alton a high degree of success has been obtained. | Tumours, or new growths of bone are comparatively rare dis-

eases. Of the simple or non-malignant new growths of bone the only one of real importance is the cyst, which develops in the long

bones of young people and grows so slowly and imperceptibly that its presence may be entirely unsuspected until the bone be-

comes so weakened that it is fractured by some trivial injury.

Treatment consists in opening the cyst and scraping out the lin-

ing membrane, the resulting cavity being filled with a graft of healthy bone taken from the patient’s shin.

In a few recent

cases a graft of fatty tissue taken from the abdominal wall has proved successful. ’

Malignant tumours (see Tumours) may arise primarily mbones, and are then known as sarcomas. There are two main varieties of sarcoma affecting bones, the endosteal or myeloid, and the periosteal. The former arises almost always within the

articular ends of the long bones and forms a tumour of very Pe euliar character. It slowly expands the bone in which it arises

BONESET—BONGHI

84.7

and destroys its interior, so that in due course a large swelling is of the pits extending for a long distance beneath the firth. Ironproduced which consists of the tumour itself, covered by a layer

of bone so thin that the mere pressure of the examining finger gives rise to the sensation known as egg-shell crackling, and may, indeed, fracture it. The malignancy of endosteal

growths is rather limited, for although if untreated they go on growing indefinitely, and may destroy life by their local effects, they do not give rise to secondary growths in other parts of the body, and in consequence are

founding, distilling, stone-quarrying and the manufacture of earthenware and chemical manures are also important. Traces of the wall of Antoninus may be seen especially near Inveravon.

BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO, 15th century Italian painter, was born at Perugia. The most important of his extant works are a series, in fresco, of the life of St. Louis of Toulouse, in the communal palace of Perugia.

BONFIRE,

a large fire lit in the open air.

The earliest

known instance of the derivation of the word occurred as ban fyre ignis ossium in the Catholicon Anglicum (1483). Other derivations have been sought for the word. Thus some have this often means the sacrifice of the affected limb. When dealing with periosteal sarcoma we are faced with an thought it Baal-fire, passing through Bael, Baen to Bane. Others entirely different set of circumstances. As its name implies it have declared it to be boon-fire, a “contribution” fire, every one grows from the outer surface of the bone, generally a long bone in the neighbourhood contributing a portion of the material. Whatever its origin, the word has long had several meanings— of the lower limb, and it is malignant in the highest possible degree. The most usual treatment is amputation of the affected (a) a fire of bones; (b) a fire of corpses, a funeral pile; (c) a limb, but even then the disease is apt to return in the stump or fire for immolation, such as that in which heretics and proscribed else in the form of secondary deposits in the lungs. On the books were burnt; (d) a large fre lit in the open air, on occasions whole periosteal sarcoma is a terribly fatal disease, for no matter of national rejoicing, or as a signal of alarm, such as the bonfires how prompt and how radical the treatment may be, the percentage which warned England of the approach of the Armada. Throughof cases that may be regarded as cured is smaller than in almost out Europe the peasants from time immemorial have lighted bonfires on certain days of the year, and danced around or leaped every other kind of malignant growth. Cancer or carcinoma cannot originate in bone, but does occur over them. The earliest proof of the observance of these bonfire with some frequency as a secondary phenomenon during the ceremonies in Europe is afforded by the attempts made by course of such disease as cancer of the breast, prostate, thyroid Christian synods in the 7th and 8th centuries to suppress them and kidney. Small fragments of the original growth become de- as pagan. Thus the third Council of Constantinople (680), by tached and are distributed by the blood or lymph to the bones of its 65th canon, orders: “Those fires that are kindled by certhe arms or thighs or spine. A characteristic of this condition, taine people on new moones before their shops and houses, over owing to the replacement of healthy bone by cancer tissue, is which also they use ridiculously and foolishly to leape, by a the occurrence of so-called spontaneous fractures, 7.e., fractures certaine antient custome, we command them from henceforth resulting from the muscular strain of ordinary movements. When to cease.” Leaping over the fires is mentioned among the superstitious this stage in the course of a cancer case is reached, the patient is beyond the help of medicine and surgery, and nothing can be rites used at the Palilia (the feast of Pales, the shepherds’ goddone, in our present state of knowledge, beyond measures di- dess) in Ovid’s Fasti (q.v.). The lighting of the bonfires in Christian festivals was significant of the compromise made with rected to the relief of pain. BrsriocrapHy.—F. H. Baethjer and C. A. Waters, Injuries and the heathen by the early church. In Cornwall bonfires are lighted often spoken of as semi-malignant. They are healed by complete removal of the part of the bone in which they originate, though

Diseases of Bones and Joints (1921); A. Léri, Etudes sur les Affections des Os et des Articulations (1926, bibl.); J. A. Foote, Diseases of Bones, Joints, Muscles, and Tendons (1927, bibl.). (C, W.R

BONESET

(Eupatorium per-

foliatum), a North American plant of the family Compositae. It is also called thoroughwort, ague-weed and Indian sage, common in wet places from Nova

on the eve of St. John the Baptist and St. Peter’s Day; some-

times effigies are burned in these fires, and there are grounds for believing that in ancient times human sacrifices were actually made in the bonfires. Spring and midsummer are the usual times at which these bonfires are lighted, but in some countries they are made at Hallowe’en (Oct. 31) and at Christmas. See J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. iii.

Scotia to Manitoba and southward to Florida and Texas. It is a coarse, rough, hairy perennial, 2 ft. to 6 ft. high, with lanceshaped, taper-pointed, toothed, wrinkled, very veiny leaves, 4 in. to 8 in. long, which are joined together at their bases around the stem. In August the plants bear small, tubular, white flowers in numerous heads which are arranged in a flattish much- BY COURTESY OF THE WILD FLOWER PRESERbranched cluster 4 in. to 7 in. VATION SOCIETY wide. Boneset was formerly in BONESET, A HAIRY HERB COMMON IN WET PLACES IN THE EASTERN high repute for its medicinal UNITED STATES AND CANADA properties and is still used in household medicine by many persons. (See EUPATORIUM.) \

P

ieee

BONESETTING: see MANIPULATIVE SURGERY. BO'NESS (originally BorrowsTouNNESS), a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, 17m. W. by N. of Edinburgh, and 24m. by rail, the terminus of the L.&N.E. railway’s branch

line from Manuel. Pop. (1931) 10,095. It has an extensive harbour and imports pit-props and exports coal, but Grangemouth, higher up the firth, has limited its trade, in which it ranked next

Leith in the 18th century. The chief industry is coal-mining, some

BON-GA (sand-pictures): see Bon-sEKI. BONGARS, JACQUES (1554-1612), French scholar and diplomatist, was born at Orleans and brought up in the reformed faith. He served Henry IV. of France in a long series of diplomatic missions both before and after his accession to the throne. Bongars’ works are: an abridgement of Justin’s abridgement of the history of Trogus Pompeius (1851); collections of contemporary accounts of the crusades and of Hungarian chronicles, entitled Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611), and Rerum Hungaricarum scriptores varii (Frankfort, 1600); and Epistolae (Leyden, 1647, Fr. trans. 1668—70). The largest collection of his

ms. papers is at Berne, but others are in Paris libraries.

See H. Hagen, Jacobus Bongarsius (Bern, 1874); L. Anquez, Henri IV. et V Allemagne (1887).

BONGHI, RUGGERO

(1828-1895), Italian scholar, writer

and politician, was born at Naples. He was professor of Greek at Pavia (1859), of Latin literature at Florence (1865), and of ancient history at Rome from 1876 onwards. Elected deputy in 1860 he became celebrated by the biting wit of his speeches, and by the acrimony of his polemical writings. Minister for public instruction in 1873-76, he reformed the Italian educational system, suppressed the privileges of the University of Naples, founded the Vittorio Emanuele library in Rome, and prevented

the establishment of a Catholic university in the capital. A bitter critic of King Humbert, both in the Perseveranza and in the Nuova Antologia, he was, in 1893, excluded from court, only securing readmission shortly before his death. In foreign policy a Francophil, he combated the Triple Alliance.

848

BONGO—BONIFACE

BONGO, a tribe of Nilotic negroes, also known as Dor or

onwards, but her fame dates from the Paris exhibition of 18 55 her many works the most famous are perhaps: “Ploughing in Of district, Welle the of tribes Zande the to related probably Deran, Nivernais” (1848), in the Luxembourg gallery; “The Horse the province, al inhabiting the south-west portion of the Bahr-el-Ghaz Sudan. The Bongo lived in countless little independent and peace- Fair” (1853) in the Metropolitan Museum, New York (replica in ful communities. Their huts are well built, and sometimes 24ft. the National Gallery, London); and “Hay Harvest in Auvergne” high. The Bongo are a race of medium height, inclined to be (1855). Rosa Bonheur was the first woman to receive (1894) thick-set, with a red-brown complexion and black hair. Schwein- the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. She died at By, near 25 1899. furth declares their heads to be very round. The women incline Fontainebleau, on May See Laruelle, Rosa Bonheur, sa vie, ses oeuvres (1885) ; Roger-Miles which bast of tail the with this and life, later in steatopygia to , Rosa Bonheur (1900). they wore, gave them, as they walked, the appearance of “dancing BONHEUR DU JOUR, the name for a lady’s writing-desk, baboons.” The Bongo men formerly wore only a loin-cloth, and many dozen iron rings on the arms (arranged to form a sort so called because, when it was introduced in France about 1760, of armour), while the women had simply a girdle, to which was it speedily became intensely fashionable. The bonheur du jour is attached a tuft of grass. Both sexes now largely use cotton always very light and graceful; its special characteristic is a cloth as dresses. The tribal ornaments consist of nails or plugs raised back, which may form a little cabinet or a nest of drawers, which are passed through the lower lip. The women often wear or may simply be fitted with a mirror. The top, often surrounded a disk several inches in diameter in this fashion, together with with a chased and gilded bronze gallery, serves for placing small a ring or a bit of straw in the upper lip, straws in the alae of the ornaments. Beneath the writing surface there is usually a single nostrils, and a ring in the septum. The Bongo are not great drawer. The details vary greatly, but the general characteristics cattle-breeders, but employ their time in agriculture, cultivating are always traceable. The bonheur du jour has never been so delisorghum, tobacco, sesame and durra. The Bongo eat the fruits, cate, so charming, so coquettish as in the quarter of a century tubers and fungi in which the country is rich, and almost every which followed its introduction. The choicer examples of the creature—bird, beast, insect and reptile, with the exception of the time are inlaid with marqueterie, edged with exotic woods, set in dog. Earth-eating is common among them. They are skilled in the gilded bronze or enriched with panels of Oriental lacquer. BONI, GIACOMO (1859-192 5), Italian archaeologist and smelting and working of iron. Iron forms the currency of the classical scholar, was born in Venice April 25 1859. He entered ornamental and useful of kinds all for country, and is employed purposes. Bongo spears, knives, rings, and other articles are the Venice Academy of Fine Arts, where he graduated as an frequently fashioned with great artistic elaboration. They have architect, after which he studied practical mechanics in England. a variety of musical instruments—drums, stringed instruments, On returning to Venice he became assistant in the work of restorand horns—and they indulge in a vocal recitative which seems ing the Ducal Palace, and in 1888 inspector of fine arts in Rome. intended to imitate a succession of natural sounds. Marriage is Ten years later he undertook the excavations in the Forum and by purchase; and a man is allowed to acquire three wives, but the Palatine with which his name is chiefly associated. He also not more. Tattooing is partially practised. As regards burial, the erected the Museo Forense in the church of Santa Francisca corpse is bound in a crouching position with the knees drawn up Romana. In 1914 he undertook excavations on the Palatine. to the chin; men are placed in the grave with the face to the Boni was made Senator in 1923 by Sig. Mussolini. He was the north, and women with the face to the south. The form of the author of a large number of essays, pamphlets and articles on grave consists of a niche in a vertical shaft. The tombs are fre- archaeological and kindred subjects and also on botany. He died quently ornamented with rough wooden figures representing the in Rome July 7 1925. BONI: see CELEBES. deceased. Of the immortality of the soul they have no defined BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754), the apostle of Germany, notion; and their only approach to a knowledge of a beneficent deity consists in a vague idea of luck. They have a most intense whose real name was Wynfrith, was born of a good family at belief in a great variety of petty goblins and witches, which are Crediton or Kirton in Devonshire. While still young he became essentially malignant. Arrows, spears and clubs form their weap- a monk, and studied first at Exeter, then at Nutcell near Winons, the first two distinguished by a multiplicity of barbs. Eu- chester, under the abbot Winberht. He soon distinguished himself phorbia juice is used as a poison for the arrows. Shields are rare. both as scholar and preacher, but in 716 he followed the example Their language is musical, and abounds in the vowels o and a; of other Saxon monks and set out as missionary to Frisia, He its vocabulary of concrete terms is very rich, but the same word was soon:‘obliged to return, however, probably owing to the hoshas often a great variety of meanings. The grammatical structure tility of Radbod, king of the Frisians, then at war with Charles Martel. At the end of 717 he went to Rome, where in 719 Pope is simple. See G. A. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa (London, 1873); W. Gregory II. commissioned him to evangelize Germany and to counteract the influence of the Irish monks there. Crossing the Junker, Travels in Africa (Eng. edit., London, 1890-1892).

BONGO

(Bodcercus eurycerus), a West African bushbuck,

the largest of the group. The male is deep chestnut, marked on the body with narrow white stripes, on the chest with a white crescent, and with two white spots below the eye. Both sexes bear horns.

BONHAM, a city in the north-eastern part of Texas, U.S.A, t4m. §. of the Red river and 62m. N.N-E. of Dallas; the county seat of Fannin county. It is served by the Texas and Pacific and the Denison, Bonham and New Orleans railways. The population in 1920 was 6,008, and in 1930 it was 5,655. Corn and cotton are the leading crops of the district. The city has a large cottonmill, cotton gins, flour and cotton-seed oil mills, and a furniture factory. The first settlement was made in 1836. The town was incorporated in 1850, and was named after J. B. Bonham of South Carolina, who was killed in the Alamo.

BONHEUR, ROSA (Marw Rosarwæ) (1822-1899), French

Alps, Boniface visited Bavaria and Thuringia; but upon hearing of the death of Radbod he hurried again to Frisia, where, under the direction of his countryman Willibrord (d. 738), the first bishop of Utrecht, he preached successfully for three years. About 722 he visited Hesse and Thuringia, won over some chieftains, and converted and baptized great numbers of the heathen. Having sent special word to Gregory of his success, he was sum-

moned to Rome and consecrated bishop on Nov. 30, 722, after taking an oath of obedience to the pope. Then his mission was enlarged. He returned with letters of recommendation to Charles

Martel, charged not only to convert the heathen but to suppress heresy as well.

Charles’s protection, as he himself confessed, made possible his great career. Armed with it he passed safely into heathen Ger-

many-and began a systematic crusade, baptizing, overturning idols,

animal painter, was born at Bordeaux on March 22 1822, the founding churches and monasteries, and calling from England daughter of an artist, Raymond Bonheur (d. 1849). She was the monks and nuns, some of whom have become famous: St. Lull, eldest of four children, all of whom were artists, and studied in his successor in the see at Mainz; St. Burchard, bishop of WiirzParis. Rosa Bonheur’s paintings of animals were remarkable for burg; St. Gregory, abbot at Utrecht; Willibald, his biographer; the firm handling of the subjects, and the extraordinary accuracy St. Lioba, St. Walburge, St. Thecla. In 732 Boniface’ was created of the drawing. She had regularly exhibited in the Salon from 1840 archbishop. In 738 for the third time he. went to Rome. On his

849

BONIFACE four bishreturn he organized the church in Bavaria into the

oprics of Regensburg, Freising, Salzburg and Passau. Then his power was extended still further. In 741 Pope Zacharias made the whole him legate, and charged him with the reformation of

n, 1911); J. J. Laur, Boniface has been translated by E. Kylie (Londo rg i. B. 1922); Der hl. Bonifatius, Apostel der Deutschen (Freibu ius (1926). F. Flaskamp, Das Hessische Missionswerk des hl. Bonifat

(Bonifacius), the name of nine of the popes. >

BONIFACE

of Pope Bontrace I., pope from 418 to 422. At the death one of s, faction two into divided were clergy Zosimus, the Roman priest Boniwhich elected the deacon Eulalius, and the other the order, face. The imperial government, in the interests of public the ng reservi town, the leave to itors In commanded the two compet s having broken his ban, Buraburg and Eichstädt, and set over them his own monks. Eulaliu . council a to case the of n decisio 742 he presided at what is generally counted as the first German the emperor Honorius decided to recognize Boniface, and the as a council. At the same period he founded the abbey of Fulda, an council was countermanded. Bavari the under it placing , and culture ic centre for German monast Bonrrace IL., pope from 530 to 532, was by birth a Goth, es of the IV., Felix ssor, predece his of Sturm, whose biography gives us many picturesque glimps tion nomina the tine. Then owed his election to electors had time, and making its rule stricter than the Benedic and to the influence of the Gothic king. The Roman the Virgil, with versy contro inary who died us, Dioscor called ria came a theological and discipl Alexand of priest a him that opposed to for him. open n positio the left Irish bishop of Salzburg, who held, among other heresies, thus election, and been a most a month after his there were other worlds than ours. Virgil must have nominate his own successor, thus transto oured endeav e Bonifac he held into custom, the proceeding by which remarkable man; in spite of his leanings toward science death. forming into law, or at least his after zed canoni was and e, Bonifac against his own clergy and the senate of Rome forced the but ed; benefit had he AdalBoniface was more successful in France. There a certain him to cancel this arrangement. obtained bert or Aldebert, a Frankish bishop of Neustria, had caused great BoNIFACE III., pope from Feb. 15-Nov. 12, 606. He d to disturbance. He had been performing miracles, and claime recognition of the “headship of the Phocas r empero the from Boniface, have received his relics, not from Rome, like those of which signifies, no doubt, that Phocas comfields church at Rome,” open the in crosses ng Planti angels. the from y directl but Constantinople to abandon (momentarily) great pelled the patriarch of he drew the people to desert the churches, and had won a oecumenical patriarch. of title the to claim to his following throughout all Neustria. Opinions are divided as was pope from 608 to 615. He received (Saint) IV. ce Bonrra Frankwhether he was a Culdee, a representative of a national r Phocas to convert the Pantheon at empero the from ion permiss him. ish movement, or simply the charlatan that Boniface paints church. an Christi a Rome into the christianAt the instance of Pippin, Boniface secured Adalbert’s condemnaBonrrace V., pope from 619 to 625, did much for a t, Clemen and he, but 744; in s Soisson of tion at the synod mentions (Hist. Eccl.) that he wrote enBede d. Englan of izing Scottish missionary and a heretic on predestination, continued to couraging letters to Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury, and Justus, or Justus, to nd followers in spite of legate, council and pope, for three bishop of Rochester, and quotes three letters—to Aethelberga. wife his to four years more. and mbria, Northu of king , Eadwin Between 746 and 748 Boniface was made bishop of Mainz, and William of Malmesbury gives a letter to Justus of the year 625, as Utrecht, and s bishopric see of BritRhine the over tan became metropoli in which Canterbury is constituted the metropolitan well as over those he had established in Germany—thus founding ain for ever. 15 days the pre-eminence of the see of Mainz. In 747 a synod of the BonrFACE VI. was elected pope in April 896, and died Frankish bishops sent to Rome a formal statement of their sub- afterwards. 985. His mission to the papal authority. The significance of this act can BonrFace VIL was pope from Aug. 984 to July formathe toward tius s Crescen tendencie by the uted recalls one substit when was he only be realized family name was Franco. In 974 tion of national churches, which had been so powerful under the and the Romans for Benedict VI. who was assassinated. He was Merovingians. Boniface does not seem to have taken part in the ejected by Count Sicco, the representative of the emperor Otto anointing of Pepin as king of the Franks in 752. In 754 he Il, and fled to Constantinople. On the death of Otto (983) he resigned his archbishopric in favour of Lull, and took up again returned, seized Pope John XIV., threw him into prison, and inhis earliest plan of a mission to Frisia; but. on June 5, 754, he stalled himself in his place. to 1303, and his companions were massacred by the heathen near Dockum. Bonrrace VIII. (Benedetto Gaetano), pope from 1294 law civil and canon studied , Anagni at His remains were afterwards taken to Fulda. family was born of noble St. Boniface has well been called the proconsul of the papacy. in Italy and possibly at Paris. After being appointed to canonicates His organizing genius, even more than his missionary zeal, left in both of these countries, he accompanied Cardinal Ottobuona its mark upon the German church throughout all the middle ages. to England in 1265 for the purpose of reconciling Henry III. and The missionary movement which until his day had been almost the baronial party. Later he became advocate and notary at the independent of control, largely carried on by schismatic Irish papal court and in 1281 was made cardinal-deacon, and in 1291 monks, was brought under the direction of Rome. In so welding cardinal-priest (SS. Sylvestri et Martini). After helping the intogether the scattered centres and binding them to the papacy, effective Celestine V. to abdicate, he was chosen pope at Naples Boniface was actuated by simple zeal for unity of the faith, and on Dec. 24, 1294, and crowned at Rome in Jan. 1295. By his as in spiritual not by a conscious political motive, attempt to exercise his authority in temporal as well Though pre-eminently a man of action, Boniface has left sev- affairs, he involved the papacy in many controversies with leading eral literary remains. We have above all his Letters (Epistolae), European powers. The policy of supporting the interests of the difficult to date, but extremely important from the standpoint of house of Anjou in Sicily proved a grand failure. The attempt to history, dogma, or literature; see Dimmmler’s edition in the build up great estates for his family made most of the Colonna Monumenta Germaniae historica (1892). Besides these there his enemies. Until 1303 he refused to recognize Albert of Austria are a grammar (De octo partibus orationibus, ed. Mai, in Classici as the rightful German king. Assuming that he was overlord of Auctores, t. vii.), some sermons of contested authenticity, some Hungary, he declared that its crown should fall to the house of ssful poems (Aenigmata, ed. Dümmler, Poetae latini aevi Carolim, i. Anjou. He humbled Eric VIII. of Denmark, but was unsucce the

who Frankish church. With the support of Carloman and Pippin, had just succeeded Charles Martel as mayors of the palace, zed Boniface set to work. As he had done in Bavaria, he organirg, Würzbu the east Frankish church into four bishoprics, Erfurt,

of Scotland, on

in the attempt to try Edward I., the conqueror d in in Theologische Quartalschrift, Tubingen, vol. 70, 1888), the charge of interfering with a papal fief; for parliament declare noted authenticity of which it is hard to prove or to refute. Migne in 1301 that Scotland had never been a fief of Rome. The most In 1296 his Patrologia Latina (vol. 89) has reproduced the edition of conflict of Boniface, was that with Philip IV. of France. of taxes, levying the S.) T. (J. forbade 1884). Boniface’s works by Giles (London, by the bull Clericis laicos, the pope his consent. Forced to Bonifatii Brstiocraray.—W. Levison has edited the Vitaeed sancti however disguised, on the clergy without by Eng. into translat ordinances of Philip, being d ting Willibal by retalia that the by 190s), (Hanover, this position The English Correspondence of St. recede from er 1881), a penitential, and some Dicta Bonifacii (ed. Nürnberg

G. W. Robinson (Harvard, 1916) ;

BONIFACE

850

OF SAVOY—BONINGTON

Boniface canonized the king’s grandfather Louis IX. (1297). The

hostilities were later renewed; in 1302 Boniface himself drafted and published the indubitably genuine bull Unam sanctam, one of the strongest official statements of the papal prerogative ever made. The weight of opinion now tends to deny that any part of this much-discussed document save the last sentence bears the marks of an infallible utterance. The French vice-chancellor Guillaume de Nogaret was sent to arrest the pope, against whom grave charges had been brought, and bring him to France to be deposed by an oecumenical council.

The accusation of heresy has usually

been dismissed as a slander; but recent investigations make it probable, though not quite certain, that Boniface. privately held certain Averroistic tenets such as the denial of the immortality

of the soul. With Sciarra Colonna, Nogaret surprised Boniface at Anagni, on Sept. 7, 1303, as the latter was about to pronounce the sentence of excommunication against the king. After a nine hours’ truce the palace was stormed, and Boniface who had been saved by Nogaret from the vengeful Colonna, imprisoned for three days, until released by the citizens of Anagni. He was conducted to Rome, only to be confined by the Orsini in the Vatican, where he died in Oct. 1303. Dante, who had become embittered against Boniface while on a political mission in Rome, calls him the “Prince of the new Pharisees” (Inferno, 27, 85), but laments that “in his Vicar Christ was made a captive,” and was “mocked a second time” (Purgatory, 20, 87 f.). Boniface patronized the fine arts, interested himself in the Vatican library and founded the University of Rome. Bonrrace IX. (Piero Tomacelli), pope from 138ọ to 1404, was born at Naples of a poor but ancient family. He was able to restore Roman authority in the major part of the papal states, and in 1398 put an end to the republican liberties of the city itself. Boniface won Naples, which had owed spiritual allegiance to the antipopes Clement VII. and Benedict XIII. of Avignon, to the Roman obedience. In 1403 he ventured at last to confirm the deposition of the emperor Wenceslaus by the electors and the choice of Rupert. Negotiations for the healing of the Great Schism were without result. In spite of his inferior education, the contemporaries of Boniface trusted his prudence and moral character; yet when in financial straits he sold offices, and in 1399 transformed the annates into a permanent tax. In 1390 he celebrated the regular jubilee, but a rather informal one held in 1400 proved more profitable. Though probably not personally avaricious, he was justly accused of nepotism. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Liber

Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne

(1882);

Regesta

Romanorum Pontificum, ed. Jaffé (Leipzig, 1885); Potthast, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum (1875); Digard, Faucon and Thomas, Les

Registres de Boniface VIII. (1884 ff.) ; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, vol. ii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1883), 1037—62; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, vol. iii. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897), 291-300 contains an elaborate bibliography; J. Loserth, Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters (Munich, 1903), 206-232; H. Finke, Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII. (Minster, 1902) ; Gditingische gelehrie Anzeigen, Jahrgang 166, 857-869 (1904); R. Scholz, Die Publizistik zur Zeit Philipps des Schonen und Bonifaz VIII. (Stuttgart, 1903); K. Wenck, “War Bonifaz VIII. ein Ketzer?” in von Sybel’s Historische Zeitschrift, vol. xciv, (Munich, 1905), 1-66. Special literature on Unam Sanciam: C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstiums (2nd ed., Tübingen, 1901), 148 f£.; Kirchenlexikon xii. (1901) 229-240, an exhaustive discussion; H. Finke, 146-190; J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. i. (Boston, 1904), 346 f. On Clericis laicos: Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of Englisk Ckurch History (1896), 87 fi. (W. W. R.)

BONIFACE

OF SAVOY (d. 1270), elected archbishop of

Canterbury in 1243, through the favour of Henry III., whose queen, Eleanor of Provence, was his niece. Boniface spent much of his time on the Continent attending to family affairs and made little impression on Church or State. In 1250 he provoked the English bishops by claiming the right of visitation in their dioceses. In the barons’ war he at first took the side of the national party but later supported the king. See Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora; Frangois Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre (Chambéry, 1890).

BONIFACIO, maritime town, in southern Corsica, arrondissement of Sartène, 87m. S.S.E. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. (1926) 2,278.

Bonifacio overlooks the straits of that name

separating

Corsica from Sardinia and occupies a remarkable situation on a

peninsulą of limestone parallel to the coast and enclosing a nar-

row harbour. Founded about 828 by a Tuscan marquis, as a defence against Saracen pirates, in the 11th century it became sy. ject to Pisa, and in the 12th was taken and colonized by the Geno-

ese, whose influence may be traced in the character of the popu-

lation. In 1420 it withstood a protracted siege by Alphonso y. of Aragon. In 1554 it fell into the hands of the Franco-Turkish

army. St. Dominic, built (13th century) by the Templars, and the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore (12th century) are the chief buildings.

The fortifications and citadel date from the 16th

and x7th centuries. Trade is chiefly with Sardinia in cereals, wine, and cork. Cork-cutting, tobacco-manufacture and coralfishing are carried on. The olive is largely cultivated and there are oil-works in the town. BONIFACIUS (d. 432), the Roman governor of the province of Africa who is believed to have invited the Vandals into that province (429), though that action is by Procopius attributed to his rival Aëtius. Whether he really invited the Vandals or not, there is no doubt that he soon turned against them and bravely defended the city of Hippo from their attacks. In 432 he re-

turned to Italy, was received into favour by Placidia, and appointed master of the soldiery. Aëtius, however, resented his promotion, the two rivals met, perhaps in single combat, and

Bonifacius, though victorious, received a wound from the effects of which he died three months later. See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. iii. pp. šos306, edited by J. B. Bury (London, 1897), and E. A. Freeman’s article in Eng. Hist. Rev., July 1887.

BONIN ISLANDS: see OGASAWARA JIMA.

BONINGTON, RICHARD PARKES

(1801-1828), Eng-

lish painter, was born at Arnold, near Nottingham, Oct. 25, 1801. His father, one time governor of Nottingham gaol, was also a

drawing-master. In 1817 the family moved to Calais where the

father started business in connection with the Nottingham lace trade. Here young Bonington became acquainted with Louis Francia, the friend of Girtin, who grounded him in the principles of English water-colour painting. Moving to Paris, he studied and copied the Dutch and Flemish masters in the Louvre. In 1820 he entered the studio of Baron Gros, which was a meeting-place of revolutionary spirits. In France at that time the classicist art of David was still predominant, but Géricault and Delacroix were preparing the romantic movement. Bonington met Delacroix at the Louvre and

the two formed a close friendship. Both had the same passion for the new conception of historical painting, both studied the costumes and the new histories of the middle ages and the early Renaissance which attracted the writers and actors of the day. Bonington, who from his early youth in Nottingham had loved the theatre, clearly showed the influence of the stage on his designs.

Repeated visits to London kept him in touch with English contemporary art when Constable was developing his own original

conception of landscape painting. Bonington painted his first landscapes from nature in Normandy and Picardy. In 1822, ona visit to Venice, he produced a series of Venetian pictures. He received the gold medal in the Salon of 1824. On his return to England, his works exhibited at the British Institution in 1826 and

at the Royal Academy in 1828, excited admiration and he was befriended by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He died of consumption in London on Sept. 23, 1828. His early death deprived England oi

one of the fairest promises in the field of art, for although he had studied in France he belonged to both countries.

His sparkling

and luminous colour was a quality unknown in France at that time and was rivalled among English water-colourists only by Constable and Turner. Thus he brought the knowledge of English

art to France, and linked the new vision of English landscapes to the art of the Barbizon school. Moreover, he possessed a dexterity in execution which has since become, among both artists and artlovers, a tradition in English painting. . Bonington’s best known works are “Henry IV. and the Spanish Ambassador” in the Wallace coitection, Londou, and “Francis L and the Duchesse d’Etampes” in the Louvre, Paris. Nowhere can

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BONITO—BONNAT Bonington’s art be studied so well as in the Wallace collection which possesses 11 oil and 25 water-colours. The Louvre and the National Gallery, the Victoria and Albert museum, the Tate gallery, the British Museum print room, and most galleries in

Chisen as a substitute for earth for modelling not only hills, but rocks and stones also.

used.

Nowadays actual stones are hardly ever

As the art gained popularity, all sorts of devices were

tried, including old newspapers soaked in water, as substitutes England possess specimens of his work. He produced a number of for the earth. Usually, on a round, oval or rectangular tray of lithographs, of which the “Rue de la grosse Horloge à Rouen” is from x to 3ft. in extreme dimension, hills, rocks and ground are modelled with keto-tsuchi, newspaper preparation, or earth by the most famous. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—Aglaüs Bouvenne, Catalogue de Poeuvre gravé et means of a spatula, and then are painted to give an appearance of lithographié de R. P. Bonington (1873); Hugh Stokes, Girtin and snow, a water-fall or distant scenery, the nearer parts being Bonington (1922); A. Dubuisson, Richard Parkes Bonington, His Life covered with fine moss and planted with vegetation of appropriate and Work (1924). size and form. Different coloured earth is strewn to indicate a BONITO (Sarda sarda), a fish of the mackerel family, abun- path, and sand is used to represent water. The views may be dant in the Mediterranean and in the warmer parts of the Atlan- embellished with miniature houses, towers, bridges, figures, birds, tic ocean. It is similar in form to the tunny (q.v.), but is a smaller etc., of baked clay. Bon-kei very strongly resembles Aako-niwa, fish, not exceeding 30in. in length. The colour is steel blue above, though the latter is meant to be kept for years, while the former silvery below, with numerous narrow dark stripes running is primarily to meet a temporary need (though with care it may obliquely downward and forward from the back. The name is be preserved for months in its original freshness and proportion), given to S. chilensis of the Pacific ocean and to the little tunnies and is very quickly made; it is entirely different from bon-sekt,

(Gymnosarda). BONITZ, HERMANN

in which neither earth nor vegetation is used.

(18214-1888), German scholar, was

born at Langensalza in Saxony. He held many important teaching

posts and.took great interest in higher education; he reorganized

the schools and universities of Austria and was chiefly responsible for the system of teaching and examination in use in the high schools of Prussia after 1882. But it is as a commentator on Plato and Aristotle that he is best known outside Germany. His most important works in this connection are: Disputationes Platonicae Duae (1837); Platonische Studien (3rd ed., 1886); Observationes Criticae in Aristotelis Libros Metaphysicos (1842) ; Observationes Criticae in Aristotelis quae feruntur Magna Moralia et Ethica Eudemia (1844); Alexandri Aphrodisiensis Commentarius in Libros Metaphysicos Aristotelis (1847); Aristotelis Metaphysica (1848-49) ; Uber die Kategorien des A. (1853); Aristotelische Studien (1862—67); Index Aristotelicus (1870). Other works: Beiträge zur Erklärung des

Thukydides

(1854), des Sophokles (1856-57):

der homerischen Gedichte

(sth ed., 1881).

Über den Ursprung

Full bibliography in the

obituary notice by T. Gompertz in Biographisches Jahrbuch für Alter-

tumskunde (1890).

BONIVARD,

FRANCOIS

(1496?-1570), Genevan poli-

tician, the hero of Byron’s poem, The Prisoner of Chillon, was born in Seyssel of an old Savoyard family. Bonivard has been described as “a man of the Renaissance who had strayed into the age of the Reformation.” His real character and history are, however, widely different from the legendary account which was popularized by Byron. Son of Louis Bonivard, Lord of Lune, he succeeded his uncle as prior of the Cluniac priory of St. Victor, close to Geneva. He naturally, therefore, opposed the increasing power of the duke of Savoy, aided by his relative, the bishop of the city. He was imprisoned by the duke at Gex from 1519 to 1521, lost his priory, and became more and more anti-Savoyard. In 1528, supported by the city of Geneva, he took up arms against those who had seized his ecclesiastical revenues, but in 1530 he was again seized by the duke and imprisoned for four years underground, in the castle of Chillon, till he was released (March 29, 1536) by the Bernese, who then wrested Vaud from the duke. Becoming a Protestant, Bonivard obtained a pension from Geneva and was four times married. He was entrusted in 1542 with the task of compiling a history of Geneva from the earliest times. In rssz his ms. of the Chroniques de Genève (ending in 1530) was submitted to Calvin for correction; but it was not published till 1831, when it was edited by Dunant. The best edition is that of 1867. He also wrote De l’Ancienne et Nouvelle Police de Genéve (1555).

BON-KEI (“tray-landscape”), generally acknowledged to be

an evolution of hako-niwa (q.v.), is a popular branch of the Japanese art of making miniature landscapes with earth or its substitutes, representing trees, grass, houses, figures, etc., on bronze, concrete or porcelain trays and used as decorations for windows or rooms. The art is occasionally called bon-tei (traygarden), and the name bon-kei is then given to another branch popularly known as bon-seki (qg.v.), but this is not generally accepted. Bon-kei, in its present phase, has not been in existence very long, having taken a new life at the dawn of the 2oth century, when keto-tsuchi, 2 sort of peat, was introduced by Idzumi

BONN, town of Rhenish Prussia, Germany, on the left bank

of the Rhine, 15m. S. by E. from Cologne. Pop. (1885) 35,989; (1905) 81,997; (1925) 90,100. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge (1898), 1,417ft. in length, flanked by an embankment 24m. long, parallel with which is the Coblenzer-strasse, with villas and gardens, which add greatly to the appearance of the town from the river. Bonn (Bonna or Castra Bonnensia), a Roman military settlement, was the scene, in a.D. 70, of of the Romans. Greatly reduced by successive barbarian it was restored about 359 by the emperor Julian. In turies that followed the break-up of the Roman empire

a defeat inroads, the cenit again

suffered, and was finally devastated in 889 by bands of Norse raiders. Fortified again in the 13th century, from 1265 to 1794 it was the residence of the electors of Cologne. During the various wars of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the town was frequently besieged. Occupied by the French after 1794, it was made over by the Congress of Vienna (1815) to Prussia. The fortifications were dismantled in 1717. The central part of the town, with its narrow streets, contains the Miinster (minster), built of grey stone, in Romanesque and Transition styles (12th and 13th centuries). It is surmounted by five towers, of which the central (31sft.) is a landmark in the Rhine valley. The Minoritenkirche dates from 1278-1318, but the other churches are more recent. The town hall on the market square dates from 1737 and there is a fine block of law-court buildings. The finest building, however, is the famous university (1786-1818), which occupies the larger part of the southern frontage of the town. Originally the electoral palace of the archbishops of Cologne, it was constructed about 1717 out of the materials of the old fortifications, and remodelled after the town came into Prussian possession. There are five faculties—a legal, a medical, and a philosophical, and one of Roman Catholic and one of Protestant theology. The museum contains a valuable collection of Roman relics discovered in the neighbourhood. An academy of agriculture, with a natural history museum and botanic garden, is established in the palace of Clemensruhe at Poppelsdorf, reached by a long avenue of double rows of chestnut trees. A splendid observatory, long under the charge of Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, stands on the south side of the road. On the Kreuzberg, above the suburb of Poppelsdorf, is a 17th. century church and Franciscan monastery, approached by a flight of “holy steps,” in imitation of those at Rome. Only one tower, “Der alte Zoll,” commanding a magnificent view of the Siebengebirge, remains of the old fortifications. Beethoven was born in Bonn, and a statue was erected to him in the Münsterplatz in 1845. In 1889 a museum of Beethoven relics was opened in the house where he was born. The chief manufactures are stoneware and office furniture. Numbers of foreign residents are attracted by the scenery and by the educational facilities.

BONNAT, LÉON JOSEPH FLORENTIN (1833-1922),

French portrait-painter, was born at Bayonne on June 20, 1833, and died on Sept. 8, 1922. He studied under Madrazo at Madrid, and under Cogniet in Paris. His earlier works were genre and

historical paintings in which his study of old Spanish art was

852

BONNER—BONNET

evident. The long series of characteristic portraits began in 1875. In these he drew inspiration from Velasquez and the Sparsh realists. He painted Thiers, Victor Hugo, Carnot, Taine, Pasteur and other contemporaries, some 200 in all, the finest of these being perhaps the portrait of Léon Cogniet in the Luxembourg. In 1888 he became professor of painting at the Ecole des BeauxArts, and in 1905 director.

BONNER, EDMUND

(?1500-69), bishop of London, was

perhaps the natural son of George Savage, rector of Davenham, Cheshire, by Elizabeth Frodsham, who was afterwards married to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of Hanley in Worcestershire. This account, which was printed with many circumstantial details by Strype (Eccles. Mem., III. i. 172-173), was disputed by Strype’s contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmere, who asserted on not very satisfactory evidence (ib. Annals, I. ii. 300) that Bonner was of legitimate birth. He was educated at Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke college, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil and canon law in June 1519. He was ordained about the same time, and admitted D.C.L. in 1525. In 1529 he was Wolsey’s chaplain, and he was with the cardinal at Cawood at the time of his arrest. Subsequently he was transferred, perhaps through Cromwell’s influence, to the service of the king, and in Jan. 1532 he was sent to Rome to obstruct the judicial proceedings against Henry in the papal curia. In Oct. 1533 he was entrusted with the unmannerly task of intimating to Clement VII., while he was the guest of Francis I. at Marseilles, Henry’s appeal from the pope to a general council. Towards the end of that year he was sent to further what he called “the cause of the Gospel” (Letters and Papers, 1536, No. 469) in north Germany; and in 1536 he wrote a preface to Gardiner’s De vera Obedientta, which asserted the royal supremacy. After a brief embassy to the emperor in the spring of 1538, Bonner superseded Gardiner at Paris, and began his mission by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against his predecessor (ib. 1538, ii. 144). He was almost as bitter against Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a “papist,” and the violence of his conduct led Francis I. to threaten him with roo strokes of the halberd. He seems, however, to have pleased his patron, Cromwell, and perhaps Henry, by his energy in seeing the king’s “Great” Bible in English through the press in Paris. He was already king’s chaplain; his appointment at Paris had been accompanied by promotion to the see of Hereford, and before he returned to take possession he was translated to the bishopric of London (Oct. 1539). Hitherto Bonner had been known as a somewhat coarse and

unscrupulous tool of Cromwell. In the Reformation only the re-

pudiation of papal control appealed to him; and he was one of those numerous Englishmen whose views were faithfully reflected in the Six Articles. He became a staunch conservative, and, apart from his embassy to the emperor in 1524-43, was mainly occupied during the last years of Henry’s reign in brandishing the “whip with six strings.” The accession of Edward VI. opened a fresh and more creditable chapter in Bonner’s career. Like Gardiner, he could hardly

repudiate that royal supremacy, in the establishment of which he had been so active an agent; but he began to doubt that supremacy when he saw to what uses it could be put by a Protestant council, and either he or Gardiner evolved the theory that the royal supremacy was in abeyance during a royal minority. The ground was skilfully chosen, but it was not legally or constitutionally tenable. Both he and Gardiner had, in fact, sought from the young king fresh licences to exercise their ecclesiastical jurisdiction; and, if he was supreme enough to confer jurisdiction, he was supreme enough to’ issue the injunctions and order the visitation to which Bonner objected. Moreover, if a minority involved an abeyance of the royal supremacy in the ecclesiastical sphere, it must do the same in the temporal sphere, and there

could be nothing but anarchy. It was on this question that Bonner

came into conflict with Edward’s government. He resisted the visitation of Aug. 1547 and was committed to the Fleet, but he withdrew his opposition and was released in time to take an active part against the government in the parliament of Nov.

1547. In the next session, Nov. 1548-March 1549, he was a leading opponent of the first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer. When these became law he neglected to enforce them, and on Sept. 1 1549, he was required by the council to maintain at St. Paul’s Cross that the royal authority was as great as if the king were 40 years of age. He failed to comply, and after a seven days’ trial he was deprived of his bishopric, by an ecclesiastical court over which Cranmer presided, and sent to the Marshalsea. The fall of Somerset in the following month raised Bonner’s hopes, and he appealed from Cranmer to the council. After a struggle the Protestant faction gained the upper hand, and on Feb. 7 150, Bonner’s deprivation was confirmed

by the council sitting in the Star Chamber, and he was further condemned to perpetual imprisonment. He was released by Mary’s accession, and was at once restored to his see. He very vigorously restored Roman Catholicism in his diocese, made no difficulty about submitting to the papal jurisdiction which he had forsworn, and in 1555 began the persecution to which he owes his fame. His apologists explain that his action was merely “official,” but Bonner was one of those who brought it to pass that the condemnation of heretics to the fire should be part of his ordinary official duties. The enforce-

ment of the first Book of Common Prayer had also been part

of his official duties; and the fact that Bonner made no such pro-

test against the burning of heretics as he had done in the former case shows that he found it the more congenial duty. Many of his victims were forced upon him by the council,

which sometimes thought that he had not been severe enough (see Acts of the P.C. 1554-1556, pp. 115, 139; 1556-1558, pp. 18, 19, 216, 276). So completely had the State dominated the Church that religious persecutions had become State persecutions. Bonner is seen at his worst in his brutal jeers at Cranmer when he was entrusted with the duty of degrading his former

chief. It is a more remarkable fact that, in spite of his prominence, neither Henry VIII. nor Mary should ever have admitted

him to the privy council. He seems to have been regarded by his own party as a useful instrument, especially in disagreeable work, rather than as a desirable colleague. On her accession Elizabeth refused to allow him to kiss her hand; but he sat and voted in the parliament and convocation of 1559. In May he refused to take the oath of supremacy, acquiring, like his colleagues, consistency with old age. He was sent

to the Marshalsea, and a few years later was indicted on a charge

of praemunire on refusing the oath when tendered him by his diocesan, Bishop Horne of Winchester. He challenged the legality of Horne’s consecration, and a special act of parliament was passed to meet the point, while the charge against Bonner was withdrawn. He died in the Marshalsea in 1560. BrsriocrapHy.—See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vol. iv.-xx.; Acts of the Privy Council (1542-69) ; Lords’ Journals, vol. i.; Wilkins’ Concilia;

Foxe’s

Acts and Monuments,

ed. Townsend;

Burnet, ed.

Pocock; Strype’s Works; Gough’s Index to Parker Soc. Publ; S. R. Maitland’s Essays on the Reformation; Froude’s and R. W. Dixon’s Histories; Pollard’s Cranmer and England under Somerset; other authorities cited in Dict. Nat. Biogr.

BONNET,

CHARLES

(1720-1793), Swiss naturalist and

philosophical writer, was born at Geneva on March 13 1720, of a French family. He made law his profession, but his favourite pursuit was the study of natural science. In 1740 his paper to the Academy of Sciences containing a series of experiments establishing what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphides or tree-lice, obtained for him the honour of being admitted a corresponding member of the academy. In 1741 he began to study reproduction by fusion and the regeneration of lost parts in the freshwater hydra and other animals; and in the following year he discovered

that the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies is performed by

pores, to which the name of stigmata has since been given. In 1743 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in the same year he became a doctor of laws. , In 1745 appeared his Traite d’insectologie, and in 1754 his Recherches sur Vusage des feuilles dans les plantes; in which he suggests that plants possess powers of sensation and discernment. But Bonnet’s eyesight, which threatened to fail altogether,

BONNET—BONOMI caused him to turn to philosophy. In 1754 his Essai de psychologie was published anonymously in London. This was followed by

the Essai analytique sur les facultés de ’éme (Copenhagen, 1760),

in which he develops his views regarding the physiological conditions of mental activity. He returned to physical science, but

to the speculative side of it, in his Considérations sur les corps

organisés (Amsterdam, 1762), designed to refute the theory of

epigenesis, and to defend the doctrine of pre-existent germs.

In

his Contemplation de la nature (Amsterdam, 1764—65) he sets forth the hierarchy of all creatures, and in his Palingénésie philosophique (Geneva, 1769—70), treats of the past and future of living beings, and supports the idea of the survival of all animals. Bonnet’s life was uneventful, and he seems never to have left Switzerland. Between 1752 and 1768 he was a member of the council of the republic. He died at Genthod, near Geneva, May

20, 1793. (See EVOLUTION, history.)

Bonnet’s complete works appeared at Neuchâtel in 1779-83, partly revised by himself. An English translation of certain portions of the Palingénésie philosophique was published in 1487, under the title, Philosophical and Critical Inquiries concerning Christianity. See also A. Lemoine, Charles Bonnet (1850); the duc de Caraman, Charles Bonnet, philosophe et naturaliste (1859) ; Max Offner, Die Psychologie Charles Bonnet (Leipzig, 1893); Joh. Speck, in Arch. f. Gesch. d.

Philos, x., xi. (1897), p. 58 foll., xi. (1898), pp. 1-211; J. Trembley, Vie privée et littéraire de Charles Bonnet (Bern, 1704).

BONNET, originally a soft cap or covering for the head, the common term in English till the end of the 17th century; this sense survives in Scotland, especially as applied to the cap known

853

BONNEVILLE,

BENJAMIN

L. E. (c. 1795-1878),

American military engineer and explorer, was born in France about 1795. He emigrated to the United States and graduated at the U. S. Military Academy at West Point in 1815. In 1831-36, having obtained leave of absence from the army, he conducted an exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains. After being cut off from civilization for several years, he returned with a valuable account of his adventures, which was edited by Washington Irving and published under the title The Rocky Mountains: or Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the For West; from the Journal of Captain Benjamin L. E. Bonneville of the Army of the United States (2 vol., 1837), subsequent editions bearing the title The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West. He became a major in 1845, and was breveted lieutenant-colonel for gallantry during the Mexican War. He became a colonel in 1855, commanded the Gila river expedition against the Apaches in 1857, and from 1858 to 1861 commanded the department of New Mexico. He was retired in 1861, but served during the Civil War as recruiting officer and commandant of barracks at St. Louis, Mo., receiving the brevet rank of brigadier-general in 1865. He died at Fort Smith, Ark., on June 12 1878, The extinct glacial lake which once covered what is now north-western Utah has been named in his honour.

BONNEY,

THOMAS

GEORGE

(1833-1923),

English

geologist, son of the master of Rugeley grammar school, was educated at Uppingham school and St. John’s college, Cambridge,

and: held various academic posts and ecclesiastical preferments. He became secretary and afterwards president of the Geological

Society (1884-86), secretary of the British Association (1881-85), president of the Mineralogical Society and of the Alpine Club. In addition to many papers published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society and Geological Magazine, he wrote several works on geology. See Geological Magazine for Sept. 1901 (with bibliography).

BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1488-1525), French soldier, was brought up with Francis I. of France, and after the young king’s accession he became one

FROM KELLY, “HISTORIC

FRENCH 1770

BONNET,

COSTUME,”

1782;

BY

PERMISSION

ENGLISH

OF B. T. BATSFORD,

BONNET,

1774;

LID.

GERMAN

BONNET,

as a “glengarry.” The “bonnet” of a ship’s sail now means an additional piece laced on to the bottom, but it seems to have formerly meant a piece laced to the top, the term “to vail the bonnet” being found at the beginning of the 16th century to mean “strike sail” (cf. Fr. avaler), to let down. “Bonnet” came to be used of a type of head-covering for women fitting closely to the head; hence, the term is also applied to certain protective devices, as in a steam-engine or safety-lamp, or in slang use to a-gambler’s accomplice, a decoy. A common use is of the covering which protects from the weather the engine of a motor-car. BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE, Comte ve (1675-1747), French soldier of fortune, known as Ahmed Pasha. He entered the Royal Marine Corps at 13, and at 16 transferred tothe army. He served until 1704, when he was court-martialled for insolence. He then took service under Prince Eugéne, and, with a short interval, served in the Austrian army until 1724, when his ungovernable temper again brought him into disgrace. He then entered the Turkish service and took the name of Ahmed,

reorganized the Turkish artillery, and was made a pasha. He served in the sultan’s wars against Russia and Persia, and died in Constantinople on March 23, 1747. The Memoirs published under his name are spurious. See Prince de Ligne, Mémoire sur le comte de Bonneval (1817); and A. Vandal, Le Pacha Bonneval (1885).

of the most powerful of the royal favourites. In 1518, as the head of the French embassy in England, he acted as proxy for the Dauphin in his marriage with Princess Mary. He was the implacable enemy of the constable de Bourbon and contributed to his downfall. In command of the army of Navarre in 1521, he occupied Fuenterrabia and was probably responsible for its nonrestoration and for the consequent renewal of hostilities. He succeeded Marshal Lautrec in 1523 in the command of the army of Italy and entered the Milanese, but was defeated and forced to effect a disastrous retreat, in which the chevalier Bayard perished. He was one of the principal commanders of the army which Francis led into Italy at the end of 1524 and died at the battle of Pavia on Feb. 24, 1525. According to Brantôme, Bonnivet was the successful rival of the king for the favours of Madame de Châteaubriand and is said to have been the hero of the fourth story of the Heptameron. BiBLIOGRAPHY.—Bonnivet’s correspondence in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; memoirs of the time; complete works of Brantôme, vol. iii., published by Ludovic Lalanne for the Société de Histoire de France (1864 seq.). See also Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de France, vol. v. by H. Lemonnier (1903-04).

BONOMI, GIUSEPPE (1739-1808), English architect, was born at Rome on Jan. 19, 1739, and died in London on March o, 1808. He already had a considerable reputation in Italy when he came in 1767 to England and began to practise. Bonomi was largely responsible for the revival of classical architecture in England. His most famous work was the Italian villa at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, designed for the Duke of Argyll. In 1804 he was appointed honorary architect to St. Peter’s at Rome. His son, Grusrerpr Bonomt (1796-1878), studied art in London at the Royal Academy, and is best known as an illustrator of the leading Egyptological publications of his day. From 1824 to 1832 he was in Egypt, making drawings of the monuments in the company of Burton, Lane and Wilkinson. In 1833 he visited the mosque of Omar, returning with detailed drawings, and from 1842 to 1844 was again in Egypt, attached to the Prussian gov-

854

BONONCINI—BON-C-SEKI

ernment exploration expedition under Lepsius. He assisted in the arrangement of the Egyptian court at the Crystal Palace in 1853, and in 1861 was appointed curator of the Soane Museum. He died on March 3, 1878. BONONCINI or BUONONCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1672-1750?), Italian musical composer, was the son of the composer Giovanni Maria Bononcini (1640~1678), best known as the author of a treatise entitled J] Musico Prattico (Bologna, 1673), and brother of the composer Marc’ Antonio Bononcini (1675—1726), with whom he has often been confused. Fle was born at Modena in 1672, but the date of his death is uncertain. He was a pupil of his father and of Colonna, and produced his first operas, Tullo Ostilio and Serse, at Rome in 1694. In 1696 he was at the court of Berlin, and between 1700 and 1720 divided his time between Vienna and Italy. In 1720 he was summoned to London by the Royal academy of music, of which Handel was director. In London he was not in favour at court, where German musicians were preferred, but he enjoyed the patronage of many great houses, and the Marlboroughs gave him

a home and a stipend. During the years of his residence in London he produced many operas. His chief success was Astarte, originally produced in Rome in 1714 and now revived. About 1731 it was asserted that he had a few years before produced a madrigal by Lotti as his own work, and after a long and bitter controversy he was obliged to leave the country. He remained for several years in France, and in 1748 was summoned to Vienna to compose music in honour of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He then went to Venice as composer to the opera there but the end of his career is unknown. Bononcini has been mainly remembered on account of his rivalry with Handel in London, but he was in himself a musician of considerable merit, and seems to have influenced the style, not

only of Handel but even of Alessandro Scarlatti. Either he or his brother was the inventor of that sharply rhythmical style conspicuous in Z} Trionfo di Camilla (1697), the success of which at Naples probably induced Scarlatti to adopt a similar type of melody. It is noticeable in the once popular air of Bononcini, L'esperto nocchiero, and in the air Vado ben spesso, long ascribed to Salvator Rosa, but really by Bononcini. Works attributed to Bononcini include 22 operas, five oratorios and many masses, cantatas, etc.

BONONIA (mod. Botocna), an important town of Gallia Cispadana (see Arminia V1), in Italy. It was said by classical

writers to be of Etruscan origin, and to have been founded, under the name Felsina, from Perusia by Aucnus or Ocnus. Excavations have shown that the site of Bologna was previously occupied by several (perhaps four) isolated hamlets of the Villanova culture (1050-500 B.C.), the cemeteries of which have been found on all sides of the city. About soo s.c. the Etruscans founded the city of Felsina, and several large Etruscan cemeteries have been found. It was, indeed, their most important city north of the Apennines. In 196 B.c. it was in the possession of the Boii, and had probably by this time changed its name of Bononia; and in 189 B.c. it became a Roman colony. After the conquest of the mountain

tribes, its importance was assured by its position on the Via Aemilia, by which it was connected in 187 B.c. with Ariminum and Placentia, and on the road, constructed in the same year, to Arretium; while another road was made, perhaps in 175 B.c., to Aquileia. It thus became the centre of the road system of north Italy. In 90 B.c. it acquired Roman citizenship. In 43 B.c. it was used as his base of operations against Decimus Brutus by Mark Antony, who settled colonists here; Augustus added others later, constructing a new aqueduct from the Letta, a tributary of the Renus, which was restored to use in 1881. After a fire in A.D. 53 the emperor Claudius made a subvention of 10 million sesterces (£100,000). It was able to resist Alaric in 41o and afterwards belonged to the Greek exarchate of Ravenna. Of remains of the Roman period, however, there are none above ground, though various discoveries have been made from time to time within the city walls, the modern streets corresponding closely with the ancient lines. Remains of the bridge of the Via Aemilia over the Renus have also been found—and also of a massive prolongation

of it, of late date, in the construction of which a large number ọ Roman tombstones were used, the river itself having moved t the west. See D. Randall MacIver, Vilanovans and Early Etruscans (Oxtforc

1924) 1-37 for the archaeology VILLANOVANS.

of the early periods; and his arl

BON-SAI (potted dwarf tree). Strictly speaking, the nam

applies only to dwarf trees planted in shallow vessels, those j

deeper pots being called kachi-uye (pot-planted). But both ar known as bon-sai, irrespective of the vessels they grow in. Th growth of the plants is controlled by pruning, fertilization, ete. so that the trees are trained into the stately shapes of ancient bi trees, the vacant space in the pot suggesting plains or distan

mountains.

The trunk of the tree, the spread of the roots, th

distribution of branches, all of which may be used to give a;

aged appearance to the tree, are especially important. Withoy showing any trace of artificiality, each tree should develop its ow; characteristics. The deciduous should have the dignity of ag either with or without the leaves, as in nature, though in som

the leaves, while in others the flowers or fruits, may constituti

the main attraction, according to the season.

The bon-sai ma

consist (1) of a single tree (ippon-dachi) either in an upright o

leaning attitude; (2) of two trunks (a#-o7) growing out of a singl stump, or planted closely together to appear as such; (3) o

groups (yose-uye) of similar or different kinds of trees to sugges a forest or wooded mountain side; it may also have (4) high ex posed roots (ne-agari); (5) trees or vines drooping down (ken gai) as if overhanging from acliff; or (6) roots growing out of anc

embracing a rock (ishi-zuki).

The pot in which the trees an

planted plays an important part in the scheme, shapes and size: being determined by the kinds of plants contained. The pots ar generally plain, but some have considerable decoration in relief o

in painting. They are of earthenware, with a hole in the bottor

for drainage lest the roots rot, in shape round, oval, rectangular octagonal or lobed, etc., of varying depths, and chosen to be ir harmony with and in right proportion to the tree. For centuries

the Japanese have cultivated the art of dwarfing trees, using them as ornaments for rooms, and bon-saé still remains a hobby among the aristocrats as well as among the working people of

apan. BON-SEKI

(tray-stone) is the Japanese art of creating a

landscape on a tray with stone and sand. Its origin in Japan is traced to the reign of the empress Suiko (593—628) when stones of rare shapes were presented to the court from China. Placed on a board or tray, the stone was admired on account of its beautiful lines or shape that might, perhaps, suggest a stately mountain or a tremendous precipice. Furthermore, the people appreciated it for its own qualities—its solid reality, its unchanging and lasting virtues which they believed to have a power of “softening the hardened hearts of men.” Later, sand was used in conjunction with the stones to suggest mountains and water, and the art of arranging them came to be known by the name bon-zan (traymountain). A further development led to its use to represent sentiments of poems or to reproduce famous scenes in all their complicated phases, showing distant ranges of mountains as well as nearer hils, with villages, temples and pagodas overlooking a shimmering lake or sea, with sailing boats and flying geese, etc., all portrayed by means of stones, pebbles and sand. When the

art attained this stage of development it was for a time called bon-kez (g.v.) by some. That name was soon dropped, however, for the original name bon-seki, bon-kei being given to another branch of the art, a development of hako-niwa (q.v.), in which earth, or its substitutes, and living vegetation were used to make a landscape on a tray.

In bon-seki, it is needless to say, the selection of the stone is of

greatest importance. One that resembles a mountain or a range of mountains, an island or a chain of isles, is highly valued. How-

ever well shaped it may be, if it has been chiselled to get. the

desired form it is despised as a “dead stone”; it must and those found in mountain streams are considered best. Greenish stones are used for a spring landscape a fresh verdure; black ones for summer, indicative of

be natural, to be the to suggest dark shad-

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FOR

ORNAMENTATION

A withered and deformed tree drooping down (kengai) as though overhanging a cliff 4. A deciduous tree, the earth receding from its roots, its few remaining branches and leaves discoloured and brittle

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modelling 1 and 2. Examples of Bon Kei. Earth or a substitute is used for ihese miniature landscapes, which are then embellished with moss miniature with and trees, and grass and small plants to represent is houses, towers, bridges, figures, etc., of baked clay. Bon Kei different from Bon Seki, examples of which are shown below, in that is latter the and materials the former is fashioned from perishable fashioned from imperishable ones 3. Bon Seki, entirely made of stones and pebbles used in conjunction Stones with sand, in this case to represent the river Fuji, in Japan. are used for the landscape, and sand for the water and the beach Black stones, indicative of 4. Bon Seki, called Moonlight on the Sea. on dark shadows, are used for the summer landscape. The markings

PARAPHERNALIA

5. 6G. 7.

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calm, the sea, made with a heron’s plume, are meant to suggest rippling summer waters stone of are sea-scapes and landthe The flight of geese at Kobado, and sand, the geese are portrayed with pebbles a Stones with sand between them, the whole designed to represent comwaterfall. Black stones are used here, and in fact are most sand white the with well look monly used, because they with Stones of shapes that suggest mountains are used here together sand flowing through them to represent the river isuzu, in Japan the do that plumes the The brushes that sweep the sand together, modelling and marking of the sand, and all the other parapherSeki nalia that go to make up the equipment of an artist in Bon

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PLATE II

SEKI

BONSTETTEN—BONUS ows; reddish ones for autumn, suggestive of tinted hill-sides: whitish ones for winter, to denote snow. Black stones, however, from the provinces of Kii, Satsuma and Echigo are most com-

monly used for all scenes, irrespective of seasons, as they go well with the white sand. The desirable size of the principal stone is considered to be about 7 or 8in. long, and 4 or sin. high, though a considerable latitude is allowed in practice, Stones of smaller sizes are also necessary to get variation and perspective. The bottom of the stone is usually sawn flat for stability and is covered

with silk so that it may not scratch the surface of the lacquered tray. Besides the principal stones there are soye-ishi (auxiliary

855

subject: trees and houses, flowers and birds, natural scenes and

historical events—a pictorial art in sand. Bon-ga is distinct from bon-seki, though the latter sometimes appropriates for itself what is practised in the former, and the former does not enjoy either the artistic prestige or the popularity of the latter. Still another branch of art in which sand is used is suijo-sunaye (sand-pictures-

on-water), or sui-ga (water-picture) for short. Using wax-coated sand of different colours, the artist draws pictures on the water contained in a tray. In order to prevent the rippling of the water, which would prevent the sand from floating, pulverized white

cowpeas and alum are previously stirred in. This art was in vogue stones), sute-isht (thrown-away stones), sacrificed to emphasize in the era of Bunkwa (1804-18), but is now seldom practised. Apart from bon-seki, there still prevails among the Japanese the more important ones, and ashirai (small stones for creating: details of the scene). Agate, ruby, serpentine and rock crystals of their ancient custom of enjoying rare stones by themselves. While various shades are also used, though very rarely, for forming some of them are too large, others may be used in bon-seki as well. They call these stones ki-seki (rare or strange stones), or islands or as ashiraz. Sand is indispensable to bon-seki, White sand from the prov- merely ishi (stone), and some are among heirlooms of ancient inces of Bizen and Bingo has been popular, but now-a-days families. Provided with individual wooden stands, they are placed crushed calcareous spar is most generally used. It is generally on one’s writing desk or in tokonoma (alcoves in the guest room), prepared in ten different grades. Grades from x to 5 are used to that the gazer may be led into reveries by the fancies their add details to the scenery, the 6th, 7th and 8th grades for making shapes suggest, such as mountains, immense cliffs or some natural promontories and seashore, the 9th for streams and waves, and phenomena. A stone with a white streak or vein may suggest a the roth, the finest, for mists, snow or clouds. Not only cal- waterfall, the sound of which may be heard, or rather felt, in the careous spar, but also agate and corals are granulated and used as momentary solitude of one’s room, for “heard melodies are sweet, sand, though rarely, except the red coral for the rising sun to but those unheard are sweeter,” Some stones are placed on a tray with low-growing grass or distinguish it from the moon. Black lacquered trays are generally preferred, either oval (with bamboo in order to emphasize the immensity of nature suggested extreme length and width of about 16 and roin. respectively) or by the stone. Another way of enjoying them, which has been for fan-shaped in a smaller size, with low borders, or rectangular, centuries and still is popular among the Japanese, is known as sui-seki (water-stone). A natural stone of desirable shape is without any border. Brushes are used very effectively by some masters of this art, placed in a porcelain or bronze tray or dish with sand and water. but plumes are indispensable. Feathers of hawks, cranes, swans Months and years of patient watering and care may, according

to the kind of stone used, bring forth a thin coating of moss, enlivening the stone with a verdure like a mountain or an island (J. Har.) tray, another, with the aid of a small ruler, to make mists. Still with forest and meadows. BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE (1745-1832), another is required to mark streams and waves of different varieties, for each season has its characteristic waves; for spring Swiss writer, was born at Berne and educated in his native town, they are peacefully long and continuous near the beach and higher at Yverdon, and (1763-66) at Geneva, where he came under the off the shore; for summer, ripples cover the calm sea; for autumn, influence of Rousseau and of Charles Bonnet, and imbibed liberal they are rough, intermingled with more peaceful ones; for winter sentiments. Recalled to Berne by his father, he was soon sent to waves, the feather is brushed roughly to right and left, making Leyden, and then visited (1769) England, where he became a a choppy sea with roaring surges. The directions of wind peculiar friend of the poet Gray. After his father’s death (1770) he made to each season must not be overlooked; the front of the principal a long journey in Italy, and on his return to Berne (1774) entered stone is always considered as facing south. Other paraphernalia political life. From 1779 onward he held various administrative required in bon-seki include sieves to sift different grades of sand, posts, but in 1798 had to leave Switzerland on account of his a metal spoon and a tube for the sand, a pair of chop-sticks to political opinions. He spent the years 1798 to r8ar in Denmark, manage small pebbles, forms for making crescent or full moon, with his friend Frederika Brun, and then settled down in 1803 in and miniature models in silver or bronze bridges, temples, Geneva for the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society of many distinguished persons, among whom was (1809-17) pagodas, etc. Bon-seki has had a long history, for it was already in vogue at Madame de Staël, It was during this period that he published the time of Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-90) and the period that his most celebrated work, L'Homme du midt et Phomme du nord followed, when cha-na-yu, commonly known as ceremonial tea, (1824), a study of the influence of climate on diferent nations, being “a cult founded upon the adoration of the beautiful amidst the north being exalted at the expense of the south. But his sordid facts of everyday life,” flourished. As in other branches best known works are his descriptions of Switzerland, especially of Japanese art, there arose different styles or “schools,” some the Lettres pastorales sur une contrée de la Suisse (1779). Lives by A. Steinlen (Lausanne, 1860), by C. Morell (Winterthur, of the more prominent being Takeya-ryu, Kiyohara-ryu, Tozanryu, Hosh6-ryu, Ikuta-ryu, Uda-ryu, Sekishyu-Toyama-ryu, Kono- 186r), and by R. Willy (Bern, 1898). His correspondence with Frederika Brun was published in 1829 in Frankfurt a.M. See also ryu and Hosokawa-ryu. The last-mentioned school is most active vol. xiv. of Sainte-Beuve’s Causeries du Lundi.

and herons are employed for various purposes.

One kind is used

to sweep the sand together or remove unnecessary sand from the

at present, having for its chief master Katsuno Hakuyen, of Nagoya, who revived the school with his rare talent, and established branches all over Japan and her colonies. There is a special kind of bon-seki called kake-gaku Changing

picture) or tome-ye

(fastened painting).

The sand is mixed

with powdered paste and the completed picture steamed, so that

BONTOC IGOROT, the name of a powerful, head-hunting tribe of the island of Luzon. The divisions of the tribe are political and exogamic; intensive agriculture is the means whereby subsistence is obtained as, owing to the hilly nature of the Bontoc territory, game is scarce.

The language is somewhat complicated

it sticks to the tray. Usually a fine grade of sand is used for

in structure and has a good vocabulary.

this purpose, though recently some masters have contrived to stick

- See Seidenadel, A First Grammar of the Language of the Bontoc Igorot (Chicago, 1909) ; A. E. Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot (Ethnologic Survey Publication, Manila, 1905), and various publications of the Science Museum, University of the Philippines, Manila.

even stones by means of gum arabic. There is a similar art known as bon-ga (tray-pictures), an evolution of suna-ye (sand-paint-

ing), which men on the street- were accustomed to practise at various times in Japanese history, record showing that the custom

existed in the era of An-ei (1772-81). Sands, not only of natural colours, but artificially dyed, are used in depicting almost any

BONUS, a term used in business or finance to describe an

exceptional, occasional, or gratuitous addition to customary payments. It is a jocular and effective application of the Lat. bonus,

BONUS—BOOKBINDING

856

for bonum, “a good thing.” When a joint-stock company makes an exceptional profit, and enlarges its dividend temporarily, it pays a “bonus” to its shareholders to distinguish between the extra and the customary payment. When new shares are created out of reserves, and distributed to shareholders, they are termed bonus shares. Similarly, life insurance companies often distribute, out of accumulated surplus (see Lire InsuRANCE), bonus additions to the face value of policies. The rise of prices caused by the World War led to the wages of civil servants and others being increased by bonus payments calculated to cover the rise in the cost of living.

BONUS,

EMPLOYEE,

a phrase used especially in the

United States, to designate an award in cash or its equivalent by an employer to an employee, for accomplishment other than that paid for by regular wages, such accomplishment being considered desirable and perhaps implied, though not required, by the contract of employment. It is usually intended as a stimulus but may also express a desire on the part of the employer to share with the employee the fruits of their joint enterprise. Related to bonus, but considered under other headings, are such activities as profit-sharing, stock ownership, prizes, savings plans, extra holidays, vacations with pay, free transportation, luncheons, suggestion systems and “cost of living’ bonus; the latter, a device for making the wage scale flexible. The use of the bonus as a means for stimulating employees to greater efforts received a marked impetus during the period of the World War when labour shortage made it imperative that maximum production per individual be obtained. Early schemes were simple in structure and took into account quantity of production with some provision for penalizing the worker for deficiency in quality of performance. Since then, bonus plans have increased in complexity, and various factors other than quantity and quality are considered. They have also been extended to cover other classes of workers than those employed on direct production. Bonus plans have been developed for practically all classes of employees including supervisory and executive staff. As illustrative of variety in the application of the bonus idea in the United States the following examples are cited:—

Attendance bonus, usually a stipulated percentage of and paid in addition to regular salary for perfect attendance over a given period of time. Ten per cent of a week’s salary for a month of

perfect attendance is typical. Annual or Christmas bonus, a type which has grown in favour rapidly where it has been difficult, if not impossible, to measure individual output, but where the company wished to express its appreciation for extra efforts put forth by all of its employees during a successful business year. Economy or efficiency bonus, a type based on a predetermined schedule or comparative standard whereby employees are rewarded for increased economy in the use of material, reduction

There has been an increasing interest in the development of bonus plans for executives and those in supervisory positions, This type of bonus is usually paid annually when a lump sum is divided among the executives in accordance with some predetermined plan. This usually takes into account one or more measurable factors having to do with the successful conduct of the business. Experiments are in progress with rating scales as bases for bonus apportionment among executives.

The devising and application of bonus plans presents many problems and difficulties. The bonus must be large enough to be attractive

and to give a sense

of adequate

requirements for earning the bonus must be such as question as to fairness and once established, must lessly altered. This is particularly true with respect the requirements for earning the bonus. Necessary

reward.

The

to be beyond not be needto increasing adjustments

must be made with great care and explained to the employees, It bas also been found wise to maintain

the identity of the

bonus as distinguished from regular wages; otherwise it loses its incentive power. Most bonuses are paid separately on this ac-

count. It is also necessary that all employees who can reasonably

claim to have the right to partake in a bonus plan, be included. See Wace Systems IN INDUSTRY. (O. G. S.)

BONZE, the European name for the members of the Buddhist

religious orders of Japan and China. The word is loosely used of all the Buddhist priests in those and the neighbouring countries, (Port. bonze from Chinese bon-tze.) ;

BOOKBINDER, the workman in a printing house or bindery by whom the printed sheets as they come from the press are folded, stitched or sewed together, covered and made up into their final form as books or pamphlets. Although originally a handicraft, practically all bookbinding operations to-day are performed by machine. The exceptions are blank book work, repairing damaged books and very small editions of de luxe works. In such cases the work is performed by craftsmen commonly known in the trade as “hand binders,” who are perhaps the most skilled workmen in the whole printing and publishing industry. In the manufacture of a book by hand, the binder receives the sheets folded either by hand or machine, He assembles the sections into complete books and sews them together, using a sewing frame in which the sections are securely held and yet accessible. After being sewn, the books are placed in a vise and given a rounded back with a hammer. Meanwhile, the operation of case making—making the stiff or flexible cover of the book—has been going on. These are built up of board covered with cloth‘ or leather. The ornamentation of the cover with the title of the work, and decoration of gold leaf applied with small heated tools and dies is also part of the binder’s work. Having completed the case the binder then “cases in”—makes fast the sewed sections in the cover, either by gluing down the tapes to which the book is sewed, which is customary in heavy or expensive books, or by pasting the end sheets of the first and last sections. Some of the other operations in the finishing of a book are head banding, marbling, edge guilding and edging. The above includes only the barest outlines of the binder’s work. There are dozens of styles of binding such as full, half, quarter, check, flexible and hard, each of which has its own

in operating costs, reduction in waste, elimination of errors, etc. Group bonus, paid on the basis of the activities of the group as a whole and divided among the individuals according to some predetermined arrangement. This type of plan is frequently used to reward the so-called non-productive type of wage earner and often for distributing bonus payments to executives. It is distinguished from the annual bonus type in that it employs some peculiar technique. In modern bookbinding, whether pamphlet measurable quantity as a basis and is paid more frequently than or edition, all the above operations are performed by machinery once a year. and the average “bookbinder” knows little of hand work. He Production or quality bonuses, a stipulated payment for a pre- sets and operates folding, gathering, sewing, stitching, case makdetermined volume of production or maintenance of quality ing and covering machines, trimming and gold stamping machines, standard or both. This is perhaps the earliest known type of plan and is in fact a highly skilled machine operator. Hand work, and the one most readily applied because of its direct relationship such as tipping and feeding machines, hand-gathering and padding, to measurable accomplishment. is largely unskilled and is performed by low-paid et te Length of service bonus, usually given as a mark of appreciation | R, T. W. for continuity of service where it is undesirable to further in-BOOKBINDING, the art of fastening sheets of paper crease the wage scale. (vellum, cloth, papyrus, etc.), together to make into portable Safety bonus, used to focus attention upon the accident-reduc- form a written or printed treatise. tion problem. Usually a group type of bonus. HISTORY Sales bonus, used as an additional stimulus beyond that provided by commissions or to reward those connected with sales Bookbinding began in the Christian era with the change from though not in the commission class. the continuous roll or volume to the book made up of sepa-

Pras I

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BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM

THE

GOSPELS

OF CHARLEMAGNE

This German binding, of the late 10th or early 11th century, is made of beechwood overlaid with gold. Around the centre figure of Christ enthroned are three borders, each set with precious stones, the outer one being further enriched

with

rectangles

of cloisonné

enamels.

The

specimen

is characteristic

of the precious

valuable religious books during the early and middle ages, and is one of the few examples extant

bindings

put on

BOOK BINDING

PLATE {I

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OO a os

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OT Ona

COURTESY

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DIRECTOR

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THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

diaper is enclosed ings of this period

two brass clasps.

by a border adorned

consists with

The four raised-brass

and served

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BINDING

of the late 15th century

“BARTHOLOMEUS.”

a

MUSEUM

LEATHER This binding

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of wooden

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ornamental

15TH

CENTURY

bo ards covered lozenges.

corners

and

with blind tooled brown leather. The At the head is the title in Gothic letters,

centre

the surface of the leather from

boss are frequently

rubbing.

The covers

met

with

are held

in bind-

together

by

The work is unsigned but bears a similarity to work attributed to Antony Koberger of Nuremberg ~

BOOKBINDING

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BY

COURTESY

OF

(1,

5) THE

THE

VICTORIA

ENGLISH

AND

DIRECTOR

OF

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

EUROPEAN

(2)

THE

SOCIETY

BINDINGS

1. MS. Gospel of St. John found at the head of St. Cuthbert’s body in 1104 when the shrine of 698 was opened. St. Cuthbert died in 687. The binding is red leather with repoussé design and painted blue and yellow lines impressed by hand

2. Winchester Doomsday Bock (‘‘Liber de Terris Regis Reddentibus Langabulum et Brugium in Winton”), of the 12th century. The binding is dark brown leather and is blind-tooled with individual stamps. Manuscript on vellum. Size, 934 by 634 3. “Il Petrarca,” a 15th century binding of Venetian workmanship, one of the very early examples of gold tooling in Europe

4. Sixteenth century binding with interlaced geometrical design made for Jean Grolier, viscount d’Aguisy, whose library of 8,000 volumes was

OF

ANTIQUARIES

7TH

OF

TO THE

LONDON,

(3, 4, 6) THE

16TH

TRUSTEES

OF THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

CENTURIES

the finest of his time. The back has seven bands. The cover carries the inscription “lo Grolierie et Amicorum” and motto ‘‘Portio mea Domine sit in Terra Viventium” 5. Sixteenth century brown calf binding with gold tooled panel, designed about 1529 by Geoffrey Tory, royal printer and binder for Francis | of France 6. “Fanfare” binding of red morocco bearing the arms of Jacques Auguste de Thou and attributed to Nicholas Eve, the first of the Eve family of binders. De Thou was the most celebrated patron of binding dur-

ing the last part of the 16th century, and many of his 8,000 volumes were bound in the “fanfare” manner

BOOKBINDING

PLATE IV

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BY COURTESY

OF

(1 4) HUBEL

AND

DENCK,

(5, 6, 7)

THE

KUNSTGEWERBESCHULE,

EXAMPLES 1, 2, 3 and 4. Modern German bindings 5. Vellum binding with hand gilding

6. Half-vellum binding with hand painted paper

HANOVER,

(8)

OF MODERN

SYBIL

PYE

BOOKBINDING

7. Half-vellum binding with blind lettering and vellum paste-down 8. Binding in green Levant morocco, with gold tooling 9. White pigskin bind ing Wi th blind and gold tooling, a Vale Press book

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BOOKBINDING rate sheets.

Early books are composed

vellum at first, of paper later—folded

of single sheets—of

once and collected into

gatherings or quires of convenient size. The leaves were held to-

gether in the quire by sewing through the central fold; the quires

were held together in proper order by sewing them on to flexible

bands at right angles to the backs. Later books only differ in that the quire is usually a large single sheet folded several times so that the outer folds require cutting before the book can be read. Origin of Bookbinding.—To keep the leaves flat and un-

857

producers, who are unknown, but after famous collectors, or reputed collectors. “Canevari” bindings, which have in the centre a cameo stamp of Apollo driving a chariot, were so-called after their supposed collector Demetrio Canevari, physician to Pope Urban VIII. Their real collector has recently been shown to have been Pier Luigi Farnese, son of the succeeding Pope, Paul III. Many of the finest Italian and French bindings were made for Jean Grolier, viscount d’Aguisy, treasurer of France in 1545,

and bear upon them the legend Portio mea domine sit in terra

injured, early books, which were large, were placed between thin viventium and Io. Grolierii et Amicorum (PI.IIL., fig. 4). Although wooden boards. Soon it was found as convenient as it was simple not uniform in origin or appearance, these are known as Grolier or to join book and boards together, by fixing to the boards the Grolieresque bindings. “Maioli” bindings are named after Thomas ends of the bands holding together the quires. By the time a Maiolus, another famous collector of the period, who used similar leather covering had been added to hide and protect the back of the quires, overlapping or completely covering the boards, all the

elements of the modern book, half-bound or fully bound, had

been evolved. A greater variety of materials is now used, but the principle of construction remains the same. Early Decoration.—The covers of the bound book lent themselves readily to ornamentation

and decoration.

Already in the

letters of St. Jerome reference is made to jewelled bindings, so that books were being sumptuously ornamented by the 4th century of the Christian era. Costly bindings were often destroyed for their valuable materials; but examples survive, mostly in churches and museums, of books covered or decorated with precious metals, enamels, jewels or carved ivory panels. The earliest is the 7th century Gospels of Theolinda at Monza in Northern Italy. Famous examples are the so-called Gospels of Charlemagne (Plate I.) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and the Lindau Gospels in the J. Pierpont Morgan collection,

New York. Others exist in libraries such as the British Museum and the Bibliotheque Nationale. These precious bindings are, and always were, unusual; they are mostly found on devotional books intended for royal personages or for the service of the church. The ordinary book, covered wholly or partly with leather over boards, was decorated with patterns of lines or stamps, or both. The earliest surviving decorated leather binding on a book, belonging to the same period as the earliest known precious binding, is on St. Cuthbert’s Gospel-book (Plate III., fig. 1), taken from his coffin when it was transferred to the new Durham cathedral in 1104, and now preserved at Stonyhurst. college. This is ornamented with repoussé and painted line-work, and stands quite by itself. The other early decorated bindings are impressed with small stamps in blind (4.e., ungilt) in more or less elaborate patterns, and, apart from isolated examples, date from the century in which St. Cuthbert’s Gospel-book was found. Fine examples of these bindings were made during that century at Winchester (Pl. ITL, fig. 2) and Durham, and later, at Oxford, Cambridge and London. Such bindings with small stamps, supplemented at the very end of the period by roll stamps, were the prevailing fashion in all the European countries from the 12th to the 15th century; but in the Germanic

countries (Pl. II.), cut leather bindings also were produced by incising a pattern in the leather, the outline being sometimes emphasized by stippling the background. With the introduction of printing into Europe about the middle of the rsth century the number of books produced suddenly increased enormously, involving a corresponding increase in the number of people employed in binding. The making and binding of books was transferred from the monasteries to the houses of printers and binders, and soon the names, initials or devices of printers or binders are found stamped on book-covers. Advances were made in the art of binding, styles of decoration developed and as books circulated freely, were copied in other countries. Famous Styles.—About a quarter of a century after the invention of printing, the greatest advance was made in artistic bookbinding in Europe by the introduction, probably through Venice, of gold-tooling from the East, where it had been practised much earlier. The art quickly developed in Italy, and spread to other countries. The celebrated Venetian printer, Aldus

Manutius, was the first to give his name to a style in this new art; but in general, the early styles are called not after their

inscriptions to Grolier’s. Until quite recently he was considered to be an Italian, Tommaso Maioli, but he is now claimed to be a Frenchman, Thomas Mahieu, and identified with the secretary of Catherine de’Medici. Italian gold-tooled bindings were imitated in other countries. In England, Thomas Berthelet, printer and binder to Henry VIII., was amongst the first to produce gold-tooled bindings “in the Venetian manner,” while Thomas Wotton, as a collector, is an English counterpart to Grolier. In Germany, on the other hand, blind stamping, especially with panels on pigskin, continued in general use. In Italy itself fine bindings long continued to be made for great patrons like popes and cardinals, but recent investigations suggest that the supremacy in binding was passing to France earlier than is generally supposed. Grolier and Maioli bindings were produced in France under those patrons of the arts, Francis I. and Henry IT. The royal printer and binder for the former, Geoffrey Tory, who also worked for Grolier, designed a decoration for bindings made for his books (Pl. ITI. fig. 5) which includes his device of the pot cassé. Fine bindings were made for Henry II., for his queen, Catherine de’Medici, and for his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, and from this time onwards French binders and families of binders have excelled in technical skill and initiative. Later royal binders, Nicholas and Clovis Eve, developed “fanfare” binding (Pl. III., fig. 6) usually associated with their name: “Le Gascon” in the early 17th century developed the pointille style, where the dotted line replaces the right line; and the Padeloup and Derome families of the late 17th and the 18th century developed the dezielle binding, so called from their

lace-work borders. In England, after Berthelet’s time, fine bindings were made for royal and noble patrons, and usually decorated with their arms or badges. Meantime velvet and embroidered bindings, common to most countries, increased in vogue and became espe-

cially popular during the Stuart period. In gold-tooled leather bindings a characteristic native style was not evolved until the late 17th century, when Samuel Mearne, royal binder to Charles II., devised the “cottage” design, so-called from its walls and its roof appearance. Along with the richly decorated binding of Mearne and his followers, the characteristic blind-tooled black leather binding, with dark, instead of gilt edges, became fashionable for religious books in England, for some half a century. English binding deteriorated during the 18th century, but it was redeemed towards the end of the century by a brilliant and original artist, Roger Payne, who with his fine small tools and original designs, with their proper appreciation of blank spaces, is the most inspiring of the English book binders. During his time John Edwards of Halifax worked on different lines; he was famous for his transparent vellum bindings covering delicate paintings, and, with Jobn Whitaker, for “Etruscan” bindings, so called from their classical borders and other ornamentations that were carried out in the classical tradition. Modern Work.—The roth century witnessed the development of decoration by machinery, whole covers being impressed in blind or gold by means of metal dies, a practice which was greatly. extended with the introduction of machine-made cloth bindings. But these developments hardly affected high-class bindings. In France, from the beginning of the century onwards, binding and decoration have been more remarkable than ever for their technical perfection, at the hands of a long line of artists: Bozérian

BOOKBINDING

858

Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic, Niedrée, Duru, Capé, Chambolle, Cuzin, Michel and others. In England the most original binder of last century was Charles Lewis (Thomas Grenville’s binder), while others followed traditional styles, sometimes rather mechanically, notably Kalthoeber,

Tools Used.—The chief tools of the hand binder are (1) the sewing frame (see fig. 1) on which the folded sections of a book are sewn to upright cords or tapes, (2) the lying or cutting press

(see fig. 2) used for backing and cutting books, (3) the standing

Staggemeier, Walther, Hering, Bedford and the existing firms of Riviere and Zaehnsdorf. But towards the end of the century

an artistic revival took place, inspired by William Morris, who was responsible for the modern revival in printing. The practical founder of the modern school was T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, who established the Doves Press and bindery; a series of his fine bindings is in the British Museum. His most successful pupil is Douglas Cockerell, whose increasing output, revealing originality, combined with a sense of the craft’s historic back-

ground, confirms his position as the head of the bookbinders of to-day. Mention may also be made of Charles Ricketts, especially for his work on the Vale Press books (Plate IV., fig. 9) and of a recent convert to the decoration of bindings, Glyn W. Philpot, R.A. A number of women bookbinders, Miss Adams (Mrs. Webb), Miss E. M. MacColl, Miss Sarah Prideaux, Miss Sybil

ACI 2 p ee

=p |

NIL

Pye, Miss Mary Robinson and others, have helped to increase the prestige of the modern English school, which has influenced the

course of artistic binding on the Continent and in the United States. In France and Germany, and to a lesser extent elsewhere, besides work on sounder lines (see Plate IV.), there is an increasing output of bindings which exceeds the true limits of book decoration, partly under the influence of modernist tendencies in other branches of art. (See Book; Books, MODERN AMERICAN; Books, MovERN ENGLISH.) BrsriocraPuy.—S. T. Prideaux, Historical Sketch of Bookbinding (1893) ; W. Y. Fletcher, Bookbindings in the British Museum (1895, 1896) ; C. J. Davenport, English Embroidered Bookbindings (1899); J. Loubier, Der Bucheinband in alter und neuer Zeit (1904); T. Gottlieb, K. K. Hofbibliothek, Bucheinbande (1910); H. P. Horne, The Binding of Books (2nd ed., 1915); G. D. Hobson, Maioli, Canevari, and others (1926); E. P. Goldschmidt, Gothic and Renais-

sance Bookbindings (1928).

(H. THO.)

THEORY AND PRACTICE

A book is said to be bound when the sewing cords or tapes are firmly attached to the boards independently of the covering material; books are said to be cased when the cover or case is made apart from the book. In English-speaking countries most books of any importance are issued cased in cloth and a very small

percentage of these books are rebound. On the European continent where books are generally issued in paper wrappers bind-

READY TO BE SEWN

TO THE VERTICAL

CORDS

OR TAPES

press used for pressing books during the process of binding. For the lettering and decoration of the covers brass stamps set in wooden handles are used. These are engraved with a letter or decorative device and are pressed on to the prepared leather when hot. Stamps too large to be struck by hand are called

f

ma

A 7 WB U y Se Sa

ing for private customers is much more usual. While machinery of great complexity has been invented to cope with the casing of the immensely increased output of books resulting from the introduction of paper-making and printing machinery, hand binding is still done by methods and with simple appliances that have changed but little during 400 years. Classes of Bookbinding.—The letterpress bookbinding trade is now divided into two main branches: publishers’ or printers’ binders who deal by machinery with the casing of large numbers of identical volumes; miscellaneous binders who deal with the binding of individual books with comparatively little help from machinery. The library binders who rebind books for the public and other libraries occupy a position between the two, while account-book or stationery binders form a trade apart, using rather different and generally sounder methods than those used by the letterpress binders. The miscellaneous binder is called upon to deal with many classes of books; books of value that require careful repair and strong protective covers; memorial and ceremonial books that may have highly decorated bindings; books for hard use that have to be bound strongly and cheaply; books that merely need to be held together tidily for occasional reference; memorandum and FIG. 2.—LYING OR CUTTING PRESS, IN WHICH THE BACK OF A BOOK IS CUT AND GROOVES ARE MADE ON EACH SIDE OF THE ROUNDED BACK ms. books; diaries; etc. For fine binding good leather is the best and most usual cover- blocks and are impressed with the aid of a press with a heated ing material as it has the quality of being readily moulded to platten called a blocking press. When there are several books of the shape of the book while wet and by its toughness and flexi- one title to be lettered brass type is sometimes set up in a holder bility it strengthens the back without impeding the opening of and a line impressed by one operation. Long straight lines are the book. = made with a wheel called a filet; a wider wheel called a roll, with

BOOK BINDING

PLATE V

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a

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ye va wr

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1e

w

hts ee

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w

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ed >pra Po

SMii-a

sN Ran

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wt, aa A

aa A

BY COURTESY

OF THE

KINGSPORT

PRESS

BOOKBINDING 1. Marresford plate and end paper machine used for tipping on inserts or end papers to the outside of signatures. The machine automatically tips feeds the signatures into position, applies the paste to the edge, tip, on the Insert or end papers, presses the signature and pasted-on and delivers them in a pile 2. Brackett stripping machine which is automatically attaching muslin reinforcements to signatures sig3. Juengst gathering mechine which gathers and collates the loose natures of a volume machine

in their

proper

sequence

ready for the sewing

MACHINERY 4. Another view of the Juengst gatherer showing the Sheridan perfect In bookbinding plants the binder and coverer in the foreground. perfect binder is also used for applying the glue and muslin backbone strips on regular sewed books 5. Book-sewing machine which is sewing signatures together. The operator is feeding signatures from a collated and gathered book onto the arm of the sewing machine, which sews the signatures into individual volumes 6. Singer signature reinforcing stitcher adding extra stitching to strengthen

the book

Prate VI

BOOKBINDING

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BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

KINGSPORT

PRESS

PROCESSES

INVOLVED

IN

MODERN

BOOK-MAKING

1. A workman burnishing gold on the edges of books with a flat burnisher, a process which is still performed by hand

4. The round-cornering machine pamphlets or books

2. A Seybold three-knife drum type continuous trimmer, used for trimming the edges of books

5. A rough-edging

3. A three-knife

6. A Seybold for the

trimmer

pile of books

which

cuts

in one operation

the fop, front

and

foot edges

of a

the edges

machine,

of the sewn

rounding

in which

the

corners

of a

number

of

a rotating

studded

plate roughens

the

of books

in preparation

book

book-compressor pressing stitching machine

leaves

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BOOKBINDING YePa

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BY

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3. 4.

COURTESY

OF THE

KINGSPORT

PRESS

OPERATIONS

IN MODERN

considerable skill Laying gold on the book edges, a process requiring ry to transferring colours Spattering colours on marbling vat preparato to book edges by dipping process the colours spattered on Dipping books in marbling vat by which process surface of vat compound are transferred to book edges smashing and stitching, the after Applying glue to the backs of books trimming are completed

BOOK-MAKING

back of the sewn book 5. A Crawley rounder and backer, which rounds the and sets up the Joints type), used in book plants The Beutler backliner, (the perfect binder linings for attaching muslin and paper backbone books into covers A Smythe casing-in machine, which fastens the A board cutter stripping cover boards

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BOOK BINDING Prare VIII

BOOKBINDING a pattern engraved on the edge, enables endless bands of ornament to be impressed easily and rapidly. Leather bindings may be decorated by the impressions of the heated tools directly on the leather, leaving a “blind” impression, or after the leather has been prepared the tools may be struck through gold leaf, leaving the impression in gold.

Gold tooling

is the commonest and most characteristic method of ornamenting bindings and may be used by itself or in conjunction with blind

tooling or with inlays of various-coloured leathers. Gold-tooled patterns are designed by arranging the impressions of the tools in some orderly manner. The tools may consist of

859

a strong woven basis will serve. The cheaper cloths used largely by publishers’ binders consist of little but a weak muslin filled in with dressing and these have little strength. Bookbinding leather is not now always a reliable material. The Royal Society of Arts appointed a committee to investigate the causes of the premature decay of bookbinding leather and a valuable report was issued. The chief cause of decay was found to be the use of sulphuric acid in the dye bath, and certain leather manufacturers now supply leather that they guarantee to be free from injurious acid. Some, but not all, of these guaranteed leathers have proved to be satisfactory for as long as they have been tested. On the whole, sumach tanned goat-skin (known as morocco) has been found to be the most generally satisfactory leather for binding books, although the skins of many other animals if properly prepared may be employed for this purpose. (D. Coc.) MACHINE

FIG. 4.—ON THE RIGHT, ARE THE ELEMENTARY TO FORM THE DESIGN ON THE LEFT

TOOLS WHICH

ARE

USED

more or less complete designs in themselves (see fig. 3) or may consist of single leaves, flowers, dots, etc. Generally speaking, the more elementary the actual tools, the greater the freedom of the designer. Fig. 4 shows how a design may be formed by the use of elementary tools. Construction.—The “spine” of a well-bound book should “throw up” when the book is opened, that is to say, the spine convex when the book is closed should become concave when it is open. The leather, if its full qualities are to be utilized, should be attached directly to the back of the sections. This results in a certain creasing of the leather when the book is opened, and this is sometimes objected to as it may injure the gold tooling. This difficulty is got over by lining up the spine so that it cannot alter its shape, but the result is that the book cannot open freely. An alternative is to make what is known as a hollow back, FIG. 3.—A GOLD-TOOLED DESIGN, COMPLETE IN ITSELF, USED TO which allows the actual back to IMPRESS ORNAMENTAL PATTERNS throw up independently of the ON BOOKBINDINGS leather. This method throws a great strain on the leather at the joints and in every large library many leather-bound books will be found with the “hollow” breaking away. In cloth-bound books a hollow back is necessary because the cloth cannot be moulded to the shape of the back. The raised bands on the back of a book are caused by the cords on which the book is sewn. If raised bands are shown on a hollow-backed binding they are false and have nothing to do with the construction. Materials for Bindings.—Where a whole leather binding is too costly, a saving can be made by binding in half-leather. In a half-binding the back and corners only are covered by the leather and the sides are covered by cloth or paper. Library binders make very strong bindings by sewing books on tapes and securing the ends of these between “split” boards. The spines may be covered with leather that can be left fairly thick if a small interval is left between the boards and the joint so that the bend of the leather is not confined to a single line. Where

leather is too expensive, books may be bound in a woven material.

The best book cloths are known 4s buckrams, but any cloth with

BOOKBINDING

Bookbinding by machine methods has been greatly improved in the past decade. Automatic machines have made possible mass production and eliminated much of the hand work heretofore necessary. Machine production is divided into two classes, edition or hard bound products and pamphlet or paper bound publications. Pamphlet Binding.—lIn the field of pamphlet production the introduction of web and rotary type printing presses, with folding equipment as part of the press, have eliminated the separate operation of folding such printed sheets. Automatic inserting machines introduce separate leaves or sections and the automatic assembling, wire-stitching and covering machine units complete the operation of pamphlet binding to the point of trimming the edges and packaging for shipment. Several types of machines, combining these operations, are in use and a method known as “perfect binding” is sometimes employed where the side or saddlestitch type of wiring does not please. Perfect binding is effected in a machine which accepts the complete book in sections, clamps and cuts off the back or folded edge of the sections, glues, affixes crash and in turn glues on a paper cover, completing the book for trimming. Trimming, or cutting the edges, has been improved by the introduction of rapid three-knife machines which cut the top, front and foot edges of a large pile of books or magazines at one operation. Packaging or wrapping for mailing is accomplished by automatic machines, often in conjunction with addressing equipment synchronized with the wrapping device. Edition Binding.—Edition binding still included, in 1928, folding printed sheets in machines automatically fed from a pile, one sheet at a time, and delivering one or more sections, or signatures, of 16, 32 or 64 pages each, up to as many as eight 16’s or four 32’s, at each revolution. Bundling of signatures after folding has been improved by the introduction of compressed air bundlers, in place of the former hand and electrically driven types. The pasting in of illustration leaves and affixing to the first and last sections of each book of the fly-leaves and cover-lining sheets is accomplished by Marresford tipping machines. No machine has yet been developed to paste satisfactorily insert-leaves inside a folded section. End papers may also be affixed to books by attachments built on assembling machines, but as yet few of these equipments have been introduced into binderies. Reinforcing maps, folded sections and the end sections of books is accomplished by Brackett stripping machines, which work equally as well with muslin, twill or paper. Other machines performing similar operations are the Marsh end paper, the Marsh twill school book end paper and the Eldredge end paper machines. Gathering or assembling of the separate signatures into book sequence is almost entirely performed by machines, among which are the Sheridan, Jeungst and Plimpton. These machines consist of ten or more pockets or metal bins in which quantities of each signature are placed in consecutive order, and by the operation of the machine one drawn from the bottom of each pocket, dropped on a travelling conveyor and with one circuit of the machine a gathered book emerges. These machines are often synchronized with perfect binders, stitchers, pamphlet coverers and have end paper affixing

860

BOOKCASE

and smashing units. Smashing and nipping operations have been improved by the introduction of the Sheridan belt conveyor smashers and the Seybold compressor. These machines reduce the books to uniform bulk, eliminate printing impression, and the compressor reduces the swell caused by thread used in sewing. Sewing machines have been improved in speed and uniformity. It is possible to sew not only on tapes but, by affixing the cotton or twill tapes, to the book proper by stitches passing through the tape. The Smyth curved needle and the National straight needle

machine to the inspector ready for building into presses between wooden boards having brass, aluminium or other metal edgin which set the cover and form the valley along the back of the book, which gives a hinge to the cover. Screw type compression presses are being replaced with types of compressed air power

pressers,

Stock cutting methods have been improved by the Cameron slitting machine, which slits to any desired width and re-rolls paper cloth, artificial leather or crash in rolls of suitable size for cover

machines are frequently used in American production. The Staubli Swiss machine, with straight needles, automatic gauging and pasting devices, with straight arm feeding and tape sewing attachments, is a noticeable improvement in machine method. The oversewing machine, for extra strong and library bindings, and the Leonard wire sewing machine, for particular problems, are new developments. A new type of thread binding machine has just

making, backlining and wrapping machines. The Smyth cloth cutter slits and cuts off full width rolls of book cloth or artificial

of the gathered book and in the slots automatically places, cuts

feeding the cloth from the roll, glue-off the back of the cloth. affix the boards and backlining, cut the cover material to size, shear off the corners and turn in the complete cover at the rate of 1,800 to 2,000 an hour. The Smyth casemaker, formerly hand

been offered which cuts diagonal slots traversely across the back

off and glues in strong threads, tipping the thread ends down on the front and back leaves of the book. This is designed as an im-

provement over ordinary perfect binding, which has been attempted on edition book work with some success on low cost production. School-books are often side stitched with thread through and through, the book and end papers having twill reinforcements. The Morrison stitcher, which first drills holes half way through the book, and with synchronized stitching attachment forces the needles through the prepared holes, has made possible stitching of books up to one inch in thickness, where five-eighths of an inch was considered the maximum before. Book trimming machines, as in magazine trimming, have been improved in speed, accuracy and capacity. The Smyth continuous trimmer, three-knife type, in which the knives cut against the next book instead of against a base-board, and the Seybold three-knife drum type continuous trimmer have to a large extent superseded the former duplex two-knife and the single knife trimmers for book work.

In edging, the application of gold is still made by the old process of scraping, filling, sizing, laying on leaf in sheets and burnishing. Edge colouring, formerly done by sponge or brush, is now largely accomplished by air gun; sprinkling likewise. Marbling materials have been improved, but the method of spattering colours on a vat and dipping books while held under pressure is still followed. Simulating deckle edges has been improved by the introduction of a steel studded disc, revolving at high speed, against which the front and foot edges of books are held by pressure until the edge is roughened in an even manner. Shaping the back, whereby the concave front and the rounded back edge is obtained, and the joint set, against which the cover will hinge, is accomplished by the Crawley machine. The Pleger gluing-off mfchine is accepted in many plants as a substitute for hand gluingoff the backs of books before backing. Murray, of London, has developed a new roller type machine backer and an automatic feed for sewing machines, which are not yet introduced in America nor on a large scale abroad. Thumb cut indexing is largely a hand operation, with the improvement in the aperture cutting tools using air pressure to operate instead of hands. In backlining and headbanding, which includes the application of glue, crash, glue and paper to the back and the small ornamental woven headbands, machines are now in vogue which eliminate practically all hand work. These machines include the Blauvelt, Sheridan, Beutler and Brock types; the latter two being exclusively used in plants where they were developed by individuals. The Blauvelt, Brock and Sheridan are the only ones which affix headbands as well as linings. Casing-in, or affixing the book in the cover, is entirely accomplished, where the book must be glued tightly into the cover at the back, by hand, and on much of the flexible and limp type of leather and artificial leather bindings. All ordinary productions and many unusual types are affixed in cover by Smyth or Sheridan automatic casing-in machines which, accepting the book placed on a revolving arm by the operator, paste off the end papérs well into the joints and affix the cover, fed simultaneously from a magazine, delivering the book on the‘arm of the

leather into single cover size for otber types of cover making machines. Board cutting has been simplified by the introduction of the Stolp-Gore automatic feeder for rotary board cutters, which feeds board strips (after the large sheet has been stripped)

at triple the hand feeding speed. Machine cover making has been developed by improvements on the Sheridan casemakers which,

fed, is now equipped with an automatic

feeder, which makes

possible a production nearly equal to the Sheridan. New devices on the Smyth machine also make possible the production of leather and artificial leather covers, some types of round corner covers and a large variety of flexible (thin board) and parti type covers, Hand casemaking is more rapid by the use of the Booth, USS. Shoe Machinery Company and Anthony type machines. The use

of gluing machines either with or without belt conveyors to carry the glued materials to operators has superseded hand gluing methods and also for gluing or pasting off labels, inlays and other mountings. Cover stamping or blocking has had more attention than the majority of machine binding operations. Automatic feeders have been developed by Miller and Kluge for feeding book covers from magazines into Chandler and Price and other presses. The use of electrically heated plates as a base for affixing dies in presses

has simplified the blinding or blanking out of pattern cloths before inking, thus perfecting register. The introduction of the Peerless, American roll gold and Brighten roll leaf attachments for upright two and four rod Sheridan and Standard Machinery Company presses have eliminated to a very large extent the hand laying and slow stamping with gold leaf, metal leafs and ink foils. The two-way attachment by Peerless is the latest development in equipment of this type. Hand laid gold is still employed on many fine quality productions, especially where deep grain goat-skin and cowhide is used for cover material. The use of airbrush methods for sizing covers and particularly in effecting superfinish results, by which variegated colour combinations, grainings, panelings, embossing and several tone treatments are produced, has reached a high point of development. Superfinishing, originated by Utley and developed on book cover work by Molloy, has now become an accepted form of cover decoration in all large binderies. Automatic feeding devices have been installed on Standard machinery upright presses to cope with automatic fed inkers. Book inspection and jacketing continues to be done by hand, but individual wrapping and packaging is now accomplished by

machine,

|

BrsriocrapHy.—Pleger, Bookbinding (1924); Philip, The Business of Bookbinding (1912) ; Hasluck, Bookbinding (1920) ; Hitchcock, The Building of a Book (1927) ; B. L. Goodwin, Pamphlet Binding (1925);

E. W. Palmer, A Course in Bookbinding (1927).

(E. W. P.)

BOOKCASE, a piece of furniture, forming a shelved receptacle for the storage of books. Books written by hand were kept in small coffers which the great carried about with them on their journeys. As manuscript volumes accumulated in the religious houses or in regal palaces they were stored upon shelves or in cupboards, and it is from these

cupboards that the bookcase of to-day directly descends. At a somewhat later date the doors were discarded, and the evolution of the bookcase made one step forward. Even then, however, the

volumes were not arranged ‘in the modern fashion. They were either stacked in piles upon their sides or placed upright with their

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