The Metallurgy of Bosporan Silver Coinage: Third Century Ad 9789042949300, 9789042949317, 9042949309

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The Metallurgy of Bosporan Silver Coinage: Third Century AD

By Mikhail G. Abramzon, Yuliya Y. Efimova, Natalya V. Koptseva, Irina A. Saprykina and Tatyana N. Smekalova

PEETERS

THE METALLURGY OF BOSPORAN SILVER COINAGE: THIRD CENTURY AD

COLLOQUIA ANTIQUA Supplements to the Journal ANCIENT WEST & EAST

SERIES EDITOR

GOCHA R. TSETSKHLADZE (UK) EDITORIAL BOARD

Sir John Boardman (UK), M. Dana (France), J. Hargrave (UK), M. Kazanski (France), A. Mehl (Germany), A. Podossinov (Russia), N. Theodossiev (Bulgaria), J. Wiesehöfer (Germany) ADVISORY BOARD

S. Atasoy (Turkey), L. Ballesteros Pastor (Spain), S. Burstein (USA), J. Carter (USA), B. d’Agostino (Italy), J. de Boer (The Netherlands), A. Domínguez (Spain), O. Doonan (USA), A. Kuhrt (UK), J.-P. Morel (France), M. Pearce (UK), D. Potts (USA), A. Rathje (Denmark), R. Rollinger (Austria), A. Snodgrass (UK), M. Sommer (Germany), M. Tiverios (Greece), C. Ulf (Austria), J. Vela Tejada (Spain)

Colloquia Antiqua is a refereed publication

For proposals and editorial and other matters, please contact the Series Editor: The Gallery Spa Road Llandrindod Wells Powys LD1 5ER UK E-mail: [email protected]

COLLOQUIA ANTIQUA ————— 37 —————

THE METALLURGY OF BOSPORAN SILVER COINAGE: THIRD CENTURY AD

By

MIKHAIL G. ABRAMZON, YULIYA Y. EFIMOVA, NATALYA V. KOPTSEVA, IRINA A. SAPRYKINA and TATYANA N. SMEKALOVA

PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT

2023

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-90-429-4930-0 eISBN 978-90-429-4931-7 D/2023/0602/8 © 2023, Peeters, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval devices or systems, without prior written permission from the publisher, except the quotation of brief passages for review purposes.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VII

Series Editor’s Foreword – Gocha R. Tsetskhladze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Authors’ Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XIII

General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

PART 1. FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Silver Staters from Cotys III to Ininthimeus: Debasement, Alloys and Metal Sources . . . . . . 2. Rhescuporis V’s Silver and Silvered Billon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Experiment Reproducing a Rhescuporis V Stater Blank: Formation of a Depletion Silvered Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. AD 253/4 Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes Staters: Comparison of Silvering Techniques. . . . .

9 9 16

PART 2. MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Surface-Silvered Copper Staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes. . . . . . . . . . . 6. Silvered Thothorses Staters of AD 286/7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix. XRF Analysis of the Staters of Rhescuporis V from the Kerch 1988 Hoard, Kerch Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23 25

35 35 47 53 55 65 71 75

SERIES EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION

I am very pleased to be able to publish yet another numismatic volume with a Black Sea flavour, the third, following volumes 32 and 34 in this series. It goes some way to fulfilling my plea in the first of those volumes for the better integration of numismatics into the mainstream (of ancient history and classical archaeology), in this instance through the application of scientific practices. Once again, Mikhail Abramzon is one of the authors. Prof. Abramzon is Russia’s foremost classical numismatist, author of many books and articles. He has participated in excavations for many years, especially at Phanagoria. Currently, he is Leading Research Fellow of the Department of Classical Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, and Director of the Research Institute for Historical Anthropology and Philology, Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University. Yuliya Efimova is Assistant Professor and Senior Research Fellow of the Centre of Collective Usage, Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’, Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, the author of a book and articles on the archaeometry (Bosporan 3rd-century staters). Natalya Koptseva is Professor and Senior Research Fellow of the Centre of Collective Usage, Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’, Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, the author of a book and articles on the archaeometry (Bosporan 3rd-century coinage). Irina Saprykina is a Research Fellow of the Department of Archaeological Heritage Preservation, Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, a leading Russian archaeometrist, the author of many books and articles on archaeometry and natural scientific studies in archaeological metal (ancient jewellery, Roman and Greek coins.) Tatyana Smekalova was a visiting Professor at the Centre for Black Sea Research, Aarhus University, a Senior Research Fellow of the Crimean Branch of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, and Head of the Department of Natural Science Methods in the Archaeology of the Crimea, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University. She is one of founders of the archaeometrical studies of Bosporan and Pontic coins in Russia, author of many books and articles on coinage alloys in the Pontic region. She has worked on many archaeological expeditions in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Germany, Sweden, Turkey, Norway and Denmark. As usual, my thanks to our publisher, Peeters, and especially to Bert Verrept, for the skilled handling of this volume, and to James Hargrave for second-reading the submitted text. Gocha R. Tsetskhladze Series Editor

AUTHORS’ PREFACE

This project was implemented in 2016–21. It had its origins in a study undertaken by one of the authors, Tatyana Smekalova, in the early 2000s, the results of which were subsequently published as her doctoral thesis and in a monograph (Smekalova 2001; Smekalova and Dyukov 2001). To some extent, our new project was inspired by the grandiose project of Kevin Butcher and Matthew Ponting, The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage (Butcher and Ponting 2014). The goal of the present volume is to sum up the results of metallurgical studies of 3rd-century AD Bosporan silver coinage. The critical debasement of the chief Bosporan denomination, the gold/electrum stater, occurred in the period from Rhescuporis III (AD 211/2–228/9) to Cotys III (AD 227/8–233/4), when the stater rapidly lost its gold content and became a silver and then a billon coin, and, further on, a copper one containing only small portion of silver. In order to impart nominal value with the quality of ‘silver money’ to these debased coins, different techniques of silver surface enrichment, from depletion silvering to silver plating, were applied. While the body of data demonstrating the effectiveness with which the Bosporan state, as well as the Roman state, disguised the adjustments to the silver content of their coinage continues to grow, one of the main tasks of the volume is an attempt at defining the possible techniques of silvering the Bosporan staters and comparing them with the synchronous silver coinage of the Roman empire where the same crisis was observable – the disintegration of the monetary system, inflation, debasement of coins (mainly of silver), hoarding, resulting from the operation of so-called Gresham’s Law, and silver surface enrichment of coins with a copper core. Within the 3rd-century historical background, the study of Bosporan coin-production is of special interest. The turbulent events in the northern Black Sea region called forth by the raids of German and Sarmato-Alanian tribes, accompanied by devastation of Bosporan settlements and aggravation of the economic condition of the state, led to a progressive debasement of the stater which, during an extremely brief time span, was transformed from gold/electrum coin to a silver one, then into billon and, finally, by the end of the century, into a purely copper coin. A fresh impulse for the studying this catastrophic process was induced by the discovery of a significant hoard of staters of Cotys III and Sauromates III at the Volna 1 Settlement (Taman Peninsula) in 2014. This assemblage contains electrum and silver staters struck with the same die combinations. Another very important base for studying the metallurgy of Bosporan silver coinage is the huge Phanagorian 2011 hoard containing 3695 staters of the 3rd and early 4th century AD, of which over 2300 coins were struck from silver-copper alloys. This large and homogeneous assemblage of silver, billon and silvered copper staters reflects most vividly the process of the official debasement of silver coinage induced, on the one hand, by that of the Roman currency and, on the other, by the shortage of silver for the Panticapaean mint occasioned by the increasing military outlay to counter the growing pressure of nomadic tribes upon the frontiers of the Roman empire and the Bosporus, as well as by supply problems of metals in the Bosporan kingdom. The result was a progressive decline in the silver content of the coinage alloy and, after the almost complete disappearance of silver, the transition to silvering the surface of copper coins ensued. This is why the Phanagorian 2011 hoard provides precious evidence on the Bosporan economy, monetary history, and on the historical background of the period under consideration. Studying of the coins of the Phanagorian 2011 hoard during the last six years has been conducted with application of a wide spectrum of scientific techniques in numismatics/archaeological metallurgy: XRF analysis, electron microprobe analysis (EPMA), focused scanning electron microscopy (FIB–FESEM–EDX; SEM–EDX), metallography, neutron resonance analysis in radiation capture (NRCA), neutron tomographic analysis diffraction, MC–ICP–MS lead isotope

X

AUTHORS’ PREFACE

analysis, etc. The recent studies, of which the results are summarised in the present volume, allow us to form a more comprehensive idea about the metallurgy of the last Bosporan ‘silver’, including the silvering techniques applied at the Bosporan mint. An important landmark in the expansion of the metallurgical studies of Bosporan coinage was presented by the Russian Science Foundation project no. 18-18-00193 ‘The initial period of the history of money: transition from full-weight coin to token money’ (2018–20) and its continuation, project no. 18-18-00193-P (2021–22). The microchemical and metallurgical examinations of staters of the hoards from Kerch (1964 and 1988), Anapa (1987), Phanagoria (2011) and the Settlement of Volna 1 (2014) were carried out in co-operation between the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), and many scientific institutions including the Restoration Laboratory of the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’, the Institute of the Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography and Geochemistry, RAS, the A.N. Severtsov Institute of the Problems of Ecology and Evolution, RAS, the Research Centre of the History and Archaeology of the Crimea of the V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, the Centre of Collective Usage of the Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’ of the Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University, the I.M. Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics of the United Institute of Nuclear Research, the State Research Institute for Restoration, etc. It is of note that all earlier investigations of Bosporan staters were limited to only small samples, whereas the lead isotope analysis of Bosporan coins now has been realised for the first time. We are grateful to our colleagues and co-authors: Dr N.V. Bazhazhina (Simbirtseva), Mrs O.L. Gunchina, Dr S.E. Kichanov, Dr A.M. Yergashov, Dr S.T. Mazhen, Dr Y.D. Mareev, Dr D.P. Kozlenko, Dr K. Nazarov, Dr L.A. Pelgunova, Dr I.G. Ravich, Dr P.V. Sedyshov, Dr A.V. Chugaev and Dr V.N. Shvetsov, as well as to many other experts from the institutions enumerated, for their co-operation in studying the technological aspects of the Bosporan coinproduction with the application of scientific methods in archaeology. We would especially like to thank Prof. Vladimir Kuznetsov, the Director of the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’, the Head of the Department of Classical Archaeology of the Institute of Archaeology, RAS, and the director of excavations at Phanagoria, for his initiative and organisation of the interdisciplinary investigation of the Phanagorian 2011 hoard staters. Also, we heartily thank Dr Sergey Bezuglov, the director of excavations at Volna 1, as well as the keepers and curators of museums, Mrs Elmira Ustaeva (Taman Archaeological Museum), Dr Andrey Novichikhin (Anapa Archaeological Museum) and Dr Natalya Bykovskaya (Kerch Museum), for kindly allowing us to investigate hoards in their custody and for their help in organising large-scale XRF studies. Publication of this volume would never be possible without invaluable help of Prof. Gocha Tsetskhladze. We are grateful to our dear colleague and friend for checking the whole text and publishing this volume in his Colloquia Antiqua series, and hope that our collaboration will continue. Mikhail Abramzon Yuliya Efimova Natalya Koptseva Irina Saprykina Tatyana Smekalova December 2021

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CH XI

CIRB JSI MAIET PIFK RIC RPC Cons. Suppl.

RPC Suppl. 3 VDI

M.G. Abramzon and V.D. Kuznetsov, Greek Hoards: The Cimmerian Bosporus (Coin Hoards XI; Colloquia Antiqua 32) (Leuven/Paris/ Bristol, CT 2021). V.V. Struve (ed.), Korpus bosporskikh nadpisei/Corpus inscriptionum regni Bosporani (Moscow/Leningrad 1965). Journal of Surface Investigation: X-ray, Synchrotron and Neutron Techniques. Materialy po Arkheologii, Istorii i Etnografii Tavrii. Problemy istorii, filologii, kul’tury. C.H.V. Sutherland et al., Roman Imperial Coinage, vols. I–X (London 1984–94). P.P. Ripollès, A. Burnett, M. Amandry, I. Carradice, M. Spoerri Butcher, Roman Provincial Coinage Consolidated. Supplement I–III (1992– 2015) (http://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/supp/rpc_cons_supp_1-3.pdf). M. Amandry, A. Burnett, I. Carradice, P.P. Ripollès, М. Spoerri Butcher, Roman Provincial Coinage. Supplement 3 (New York 2014). Vestnik Drevnei Istorii.

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

Silver fineness of the antoninianus (after Estiot 2012, 543, fig. 29.A) and the Bosporan stater in the 3rd century AD. Cotys III’s stater of AD 227/8 and Sauromates III’s stater of AD 230/1 struck from the same die combinations in electrum (a, c) and silver (b, d). From the A.V. Lavrov collection, magnification factor 1.5. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: diagram illustrating silver, gold and copper content in the staters of Cotys III (AD 229/30, 231/2) and Sauromates III (AD 230/1). Volna 1 2014 Hoard: posthumous electrum stater of Rhescuporis III (no. 4) and Cotys III’s silver stater (no. 30) struck from the common reverse die. Cotys III’s billon (no. 52) and silver (no. 54) staters struck from the same die combination. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: Cotys III’s silver staters. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: electrum staters of Cotys III (nos. 37, 38) and Sauromates III (nos. 83, 95). Silver staters of Sauromates III (Volna 1 2014 Hoard, nos. 92, 96, 99) and Ininthimeus’ billon (Phanagorian 2011 Hoard, no. 1). Kerch 1988 Hoard: Ininthimeus’ billon and silver staters. Metallographic examination of Rhescuporis V’s staters: (1) 3D model of the cross-section trough the rim of coin no. 1025 obtained with neutron tomography: silver phase (red) and copper phase (green); (2) diffractogram of coins nos. 732 and 961; (3) coin no. 2025: (a) dendritic-eutectic microstructure: α-phase of silver (yellow) on the background of copper in the core; (b) microstructure near the surface of sectioned coin before acid-pickling; (c) surface layer of the cross-section through the rim of coin after acid-pickling. Magnification factor 450. Kerch 1988 Hoard: diagrams illustrating distribution of silver and gold content in Rhescuporis V’s staters. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Histograms showing the silver content in staters of AD 242/3 to 247/8. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Histograms showing the silver content in staters of AD 248/9 to 257/8. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: changes in silver content in the coinage alloy over the first 15 years of Rhescuporis V’s reign, AD 242/3 to 257/8. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s silver staters of AD 244/5. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 249/50 to 253/4. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 255/6. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 256/7 to 261/2. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 261/2 to 264/5. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 264/5 to 266/7. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Rhescuporis V (nos. 1916, 1963, 523) and Pharsanzes (no. 2141). Schematic representation of surface enrichment of the silver-copper replication: (a) silver-copper alloy’s button; (b) dissolution of copper by acid-pickling of the surface layer; (c) surface hammering (after Saprykina, Pelgunova, Gunchina et al. 2017, 489, Fig. 6). Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: SEM image of Rhescuporis V’s stater nο. 1074 by M4 Tornado, magnification factor 10. Kerch 1964 Hoard: Pharsanzes’ silvered staters. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Pharsanzes’ silvered staters. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard staters of AD 253/4: (a) Rhescuporis V; (b) Pharsanzes.

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Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34. Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 38.

Fig. 39.

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45.

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523: silver and copper distribution mapping of the surface (dark stripes at the silver distribution map are associated with shading due to the protrusion of the relief). SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 525: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 526: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 527: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 528: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s staters nos. 525 (a‒d) and 523 (e‒f): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin. EDX element distribution map of the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2138. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2133: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2135: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2138: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectra (3 and 4) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin. SEM image of the reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 526 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square. SEM image of the obverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2135 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). SEM image of the reverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61.

Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75.

XV

SEM image of the reverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Microrelief with small pits on the convex sections of coins of Rhescuporis V no. 523 (a) and (b) Pharsanzes no. 2138. SEM images of the microrelief at the surface (a, c) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 525 and the EDX spectra of pits (b) and the smooth part (d) of the surface. SEM images of the microrelief of the surface (a, c) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134 and the EDX spectra of pits (b) and the smooth part (d) of the surface. EDX element distribution maps in the pits at the surface of staters of Rhescuporis V no. 526 (a) and Pharsanzes no. 2134 (b). SEM images of a small flakes of silver taken from the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters nos. 2136 (a), 2133 (b), 2137 (c) and 2138 (d). EDX element distribution maps of the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters nos. 2137 (a), 2136 (b) and 2134 (c) with flakes. SEM image showing the thickness of a silver flake taken from the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2133. Microstructure of a cross-section through the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524. Phase diagram of the silver-copper system. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) (b, c) of a central area of a cross-section at the rim of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 524. SEM image (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) (b) of a cross-section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524. Microstructure of a cross-section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524 showing the silver surface layer, magnification factor 500. SEM image (a) showing ЕРMA measurements near the surface of a section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’ stater no. 524 and EDX spectra (15 kV): (b) silver surface, (c) at the depth of 3 microns. SEM image of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 524 and the element distribution map (a). Element distribution along the line in a cross-section through the rim of coin (b). Microstructure near the surface of a cross-section through the rim of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524. SEM image of the surface of Rhescuporis V’ stater no. 523 and silver and copper distribution mapping. Microstructure of the cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136. SEM image (a) showing EPMA measurements in the centre of the cross-section through the rim of the Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and EDX spectra of this area (b, c, d). SEM image (a) of the cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and a characteristic EDX spectrum from this area (b). Microstructure of a cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136, magnification factor 500. Map of the distribution of copper and silver in the cross-section through Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136. SEM image (a) showing ЕРMA measurements in the centre of a cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and EDX spectra (15 kV): (b) silver surface, (c) core. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes, AD 274/5 and 275/6. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: histogram of the average silver content of Rhescuporis V’s AD 274/5 and 275/6 staters. SEM images of the reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132. Red squares indicate the location of areas (a, b) of mapping elements at the surface of the coin. SEM image of the reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 and the element distribution map. SEM image (a) of reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 and characteristic EDX spectra of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

XVI

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

Fig. 76. Fig. 77.

Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

81. 82. 83. 84. 85.

Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88.

Fig. 89.

Fig. 90.

Fig. 91.

Fig. 92.

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

Fig. 95.

Fig. 96. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102.

Fig. 103.

SEM image of the reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b). SEM image of the surface and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin. SEM images of small flakes of the silver coating taken from the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132. EDX element distribution map of an area of the silver surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132. SEM images of areas of the remnant silver coating (a, c) taken from the surface of reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132, and the characteristic EDX spectra (b, d). Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Sauromates ΙV’s staters of different types. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Sauromates ΙV’s staters with the highest silver content. SEM image of distribution of Ag–Au pair at the surface of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2151. SEM images of Sauromates IV’s staters nos. 2155, 2186, 2218, 2222 and 2224, magnification factor 7.5. SEM images of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 (a), and that of Teiranes no. 2264 (b), both with the remnants of the silver coating, by M4 Tornado, magnification factor 10. SEM images of the surface areas at the obverse of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2224 and maps of element distribution. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2155: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2186: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2218: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d, e) of the field of the coin. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2224: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2155 (b, d): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2218 (b, d): ED spectra (1, 5) show the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectra (2, 6) of depression, ED spectra (3, 7) of the field of the coin. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 (b, d): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectra (3, 4) of the field of the coin. SEM images of areas of the obverses of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 and maps of element distribution. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2186. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Teiranes. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: histograms of the average silver content in Teiranes’ staters. Stater no. 2240: fractures in microstructure near the surface, magnification factor 450. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: sample of Teiranes’ staters with traces of silver coating. Element distribution maps over the surface areas on reverses of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2343 (a), 2269 (b) and 2346 (c). SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

XVII

Fig. 104. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2264 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 105. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2268 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 106. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2269 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 107. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2343 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 108. SEM image (a) of the reverse of the Teiranes’ stater no. 2344 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 109. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2346 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 110. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2362 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 111. SEM image of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b). Fig. 112. SEM image of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2343 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b). Fig. 113. SEM images of the surface (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2237 (a‒b), 2344 (c‒d) and 2269 (e‒f): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin. Fig. 114. SEM images and silver and copper distribution maps of the surface areas of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2346 (a), 2362 (b, c), 2264 (d, e). Fig. 115. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237. Fig. 116. SEM images of small flakes of silver taken from the surface of the reverses of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2269 (a) and 2346 (b). Fig. 117. SEM image of the area with a flake of silver taken from the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2269, showing the silver and copper distribution (a) and characteristic EDX spectra from those areas (b, c). Fig. 118. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Thothorses’ staters of AD 286/7 with remnants of silver coating. Fig. 119. Diagram showing the silver content in AD 286/7 staters of Thothorses. Group A (4‒11% Ag). Fig. 120. SEM images of the Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398, 2399, 2401, 2402, 2413 and 2414, magnification factor 7.5. Fig. 121. SEM images of areas on the surface of Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398 (a – obverse) and 2402 (b – reverse) and maps of copper and silver distribution. Fig. 122. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 123. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2399 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 124. SEM image of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2401 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 125. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2402 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 126. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2413 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 127. SEM image of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2413 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 128. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2401 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 129. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2414 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 130. (a) the green square indicates the location of an area of mapping elements on the surface of Thothorses’ silvered stater no. 2398. (b) Scatterplot of copper against silver for stater no. 2398.

XVIII

LIST OF ILUSTRATIONS

Fig. 131. (a) Reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2399. (b) SEM image showing the distribution of the Ag–Au pair at the surface. Fig. 132. SEM images of Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398 (a) and 2399 (b) and maps of copper and silver distribution over their surface. Fig. 133. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Thothorses’ stater no. 2414. Fig. 134. SEM image showing the needle crystals (a) at the surface of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 and the characteristic EDX spectrum of the investigated surface area (b). Fig. 135. Thothorses’ stater no. 2398: microstructure of a cross-section through the rim. Fig. 136. SEM image (a) showing EPMA measurements in the centre of the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 and EDX spectra of this area (b, c, d). Fig. 137. SEM image (a) of the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 (a) and a characteristic EDX spectrum from this area (b). Fig. 138. Microstructure of the near-surface layer of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398. Fig. 139. (a) Element distribution along the line in the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398. (b) SEM image of the same coin and the map of the element distribution on its surface.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. Debasement of Bosporan Silver Coinage, and Monetary History in the 3rd Century AD Third-century striking of silver/‘silver’ staters represents one of the most interesting and least studied episodes of the Bosporan coin production. Meanwhile, it is impossible to study the metallurgy of the Bosporan stater of this time without comparing it with that of synchronous Roman silver coinage for the following reasons. First of all, since the end of the 1st century BC, Bosporan coinage had, with all its particulars, undoubtedly developed within the riverbed of Roman provincial coinage and the contemporary coinages of client states.1 Rome sanctioned the right of Bosporan kings to strike. The Bosporan coinage of the Roman period utilised two metals – gold/ electrum and copper, from the time of Queen Dynamis (21/0–17/6 BC) to Rhescuporis III (AD 211/2–228/9); then silver and copper from Cotys III (AD 227/8–233/4) to Rhescuporis V (AD 242/3–276/7); and finally only copper (silver-coated under Sauromates IV, Teiranes and partly Thothorses). The system of denominations is well understood until the 3rd century. Initially, the Bosporan gold stater standard copied the Roman aureus, while the copper money corresponded to the Roman system of denominations.2 Under Nero, new copper denominations were introduced – the sestertius and dupondius. However, by the mid-2nd century, monetary stability was broken. The striking of Rhoemetalces (AD 131/2–153/4) and Eupator (AD 154/5– 170/1) were already limited to only two denominations – the stater and the sestertius. The reform of Sauromates II in the AD 180s added some copper denominations: the denarius, double denarius, double sestertius and triple sestertius (or drachm = 3/4 denarius).3 But already under Rhescuporis V, the issues of copper coinage were limited to a single denomination – the double denarius, which finally disappeared simultaneously with the last billon of that king in AD 267/8. Secondly, the debasement of silver money became a common characteristic of Roman imperial and provincial coinage and of Bosporan minting. In particular, the debasement of the Bosporan stater must be regarded as an indicator of worsening the fiscal health of the Bosporan kingdom, with the apparent rapid decline of the silver (a little later than gold/electrum) content being treated as evidence for the progressive shortage of precious metal and the collapse of the supply sources of silver for the Bosporan mint. Finally, in the 3rd century, in the Roman empire and the Bosporus, a common technique of production of coin blanks from a silver-copper alloy obtained, with silver surface enrichment of the flans prior to striking or to already-struck coins after striking (see below). In the AD 230s and 260s, in both states, monetary reforms were realised in order to restore confidence in the debased silver money. The techniques of silvering Bosporan staters from AD 275/6 to 286/7 and synchronous antoniniani with an approximately equal silver content (about 4–5%) were evidently similar. This critical period in the history of the Roman empire could not have left untouched the minting technologies of either the empire or the Bosporus. Similar negative processes were experienced in consequence of common historical events and critical phenomena in the financial sphere. The currency crisis in the Roman empire was mainly manifested in the debasement of the antoninianus and denarius, which had almost completely lost their silver content by the middle of the century.4 R. Duncan-Jones, for example, highlights the traditional date (AD 235) of the beginning of the so-called ‘crisis of the 3rd century’ (a date which ‘cannot be eliminated by any 1 2 3 4

See, for example, Sear 2001, nos. 5427–5506; RPC Suppl. 3, 37; RPC Cons. Suppl., 96–97. For more about the establishment of the Roman system of monetary denominations, see Anokhin 1986, 82–86. See Anokhin 1986, 114–17; Frolova 1997b I, 149–52. See, for example, Cope 1969.

2

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

revisionist preferences’) when the fineness of the silver Roman coins started to fall at an accelerated pace.5 Simultaneously, rapid debasement of the stater-aureus occurred in the Bosporus, with the gold content under Rhescuporis III decreased to 30% and lower and an increase in the percentage of silver and copper. Under his successors it finally came to naught.6 The silver staters of the AD 230s quickly yielded place to billon minted until AD 267/8 (of note, however, is the return of a scanty volume of silver and gold coinage in AD 263/4 and 264/5). After the resurrection of the Bosporan coinage in AD 275, silvered staters were for a short period issued from a copper alloy with a small silver content. In AD 286/7 for the last time, coins from a coppersilver alloy with an appreciable silver content (about 5–9% on average) and a silver coating were minted. Thenceforth, until the end of the Bosporan coinage in AD 341/2, only copper staters remained in circulation. The results of the present studies allow us to define in more details the technology of production of the Bosporan ‘last silver’ in the 3rd century. The process of debasement of the Bosporan stater (from gold to silver to billon to silvered bronze) cannot be oversimplified as resulting only from a progressive deficiency of precious metal for the Bosporan kings, the cessation of Roman subsidies, etc. The 3rd-century currency ‘collapse’ in the Roman empire demonstrates the operation of Gresham’s Law;7 the same is true for the Bosporus. Moreover, the catastrophic debasement of Roman imperial silver and the Bosporan stater took place almost simultaneously, as did monetary reforms intended to stabilise the financial situation. ‘Good’ coins disappeared from circulation in both states, either hoarded, melted or exported. But some of them might have remained in circulation together with ‘bad’ coins if monetary demand was greater than nonmonetary demand. Gresham’s Law prevented one of the consequences of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ money circulating together (circulation of ‘good’ money at a premium), and caused another (removal of ‘good’ money from circulation) to take its place.8 In the empire, the beginning of rapid debasement falls in the reign of Septimius Severus when the fineness of the denarius was decreased by half. The reform of Caracalla in AD 215 implied an attempt to review the nominal price of silver coin: the antoninianus introduced by him weighed 50% more than the denarius with the same silver content, but in circulation it was equal to two denarii. Simultaneously the reduction of the weight of aureus took place. Afterwards, from AD 238 to 270, the antoninianus was to fall sharply in both weight and the fineness and was transformed into a billon and then copper coin. From AD 240, the denarius ceased to be struck regularly. A particularly rapid decline of the silver content occurred in the difficult years of AD 253–260, which was marked by invasions by barbarian tribes and finally with the political fragmentation of the empire. At the beginning of the reign of Aurelian there were already no silver coins.9 At precisely the same time, the further debasement of the Bosporan stater occurred, which was the result of the sea-borne raids by Germanic and Sarmatian-Alanian tribes (see below). By AD 250, the production of coins from triple bronze Cu–Sn–Pb with an additive of silver had become a common practice; the surface of these coins remained silvered. Under Valerianus I (AD 253–259), the antoniniani were struck from bronze (with the silver content of 3–4% or even less) and were coated with a thin layer of white metal that must have denoted them as belonging to a silver series. This silver coating quickly wore off. Silvering of coins was carried out at different mints and with different degrees of success; the thickness of the coating and its chemical composition varied. Under Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus and during the earlier years

5 6 7 8 9

Duncan-Jones 2004, 20. Smekalova and Dyukov 2001, 94–95; Abramzon, Bezuglov, Gunchina et al. 2020, 36–40. Cf. Aubert 2003; Estiot 2012, 542; Butcher and Ponting 2014, 48–52. Butcher and Ponting 2014, 49–50. Estiot 2012, 540–43; Elliott 2014, 132–33.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

3

of Aurelian, the antoniniani reached the highest extent of their debasement.10 They were of a small size, were irregularly issued and so poorly silvered that now it is difficult to find an example with traces of that process preserved just to demonstrate that it was not abolished. Aurelian’s reform in AD 274 led to a certain improvement in the quality of the coins; the new antoninianus or ‘aurelianus’ weighed 3.88 g and contained about 5% silver – at least if it was issued at the central mints. Marks of the denomination appeared on the coins, for example XX I (20 = 1), XX, KA, etc. Aurelian evidently issued no quinarii and silver series, but these coins appeared under Gallienus, Probus, Carus and other emperors and they are distinguished in their small diameter (14 mm).11 Tacitus issued coins with the double silver content and lowered their value down to 2.5 denarii at his mints in the East (now they bore the mark XI). Probus returned to Aurelian’s fineness which remained unchanged until AD 293.12 These processes, as mentioned above, were taking place almost synchronously also at the Bosporus. While under Cotys III, Rhescuporis IV and Ininthimeus, the coins often contain up to 70–90% silver. Then, after the first 15 years of the reign of Rhescuporis V (AD 242/3 to 257/8), according to our observations (see below), the quantity of silver in the staters produced from silver-copper alloy dropped doubly, i.e. to 11–15% (meanwhile, at the beginning of this process in AD 243/4 to 245/6, staters of highest fineness containing 50% to 90% silver constituted almost two thirds, billon a third: see Appendix). In AD 263/4 to 265/6, a monetary reform took place. Its essence is well known.13 At the first stage, in 560 BE = AD 263/4, along with billon staters, petty gold14 and silver (>90% Ag) 15 coins were minted. V.A. Anokhin stated that the gold coin was not a triens but a semis of Gallienus (based on the weight of the aureus – 5.05 g during the latter’s rule). This supposition seems correct. Small silver coins of high fineness were equivalent to staters. Thus, in 560 BE, the value of gold semis was equal to ten silver coins or ten billon staters. At the second stage of the reform, in 561 BE (= AD 264/5), gold was possibly not minted but silver emissions continued (only a single coin weighting 2.38 g is recorded).16 Billon staters of the old style and new ones with the value mark I (= 10) were issued.17 At the third stage, in 562 BE (= AD 265/6), only billon staters were struck – with marks I and К (= 20). Taking the numeral I as the mark of value of 10 double denarii and К as 20 denarii, Anokhin supposed that the monetary system had acquired the following form: gold semis = 10 small silver coins = 10 billon staters = 200 copper denarii. Furthermore, in his opinion, there was no difference in value between the old and new staters.18 However, this supposition runs contrary to the mass overstriking of staters of previous years into new staters with the symbol К. In addition, besides these numerous overstrikes in the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, there is a stater of the old type with the date ΞΦ – 560 BE = AD 263/4 (no. 1005) corrected with a chisel by means of which the portrait of one of the two emperors, Valerianus and Gallienus, on the reverse was re-carved into the symbol I. Furthermore, other corrected staters of this type are known.19 The purpose of these operations was undoubtedly to increase the nominal value of the staters. It is not by chance that during the subsequent two years, exclusively staters with the symbol К were minted.

10 While in AD 238, the antoninianus weighed 4.60 g and contained about 47% silver, in AD 270 it never weighed more than 2.80 g with the content of only 2.5% silver. The weight of silver per each coin decreased from 2.20 g to 0.1 g. See Estiot 1996, 40; 2012, 542. The same process occurred with the Bosporan stater from AD 237/8 to 275/6. 11 RIC V.1, 8–10; Haklai-Rotenberg 2011, 9. 12 Harl 1996. 13 Anokhin 1986, 125–26; Frolova 1996, 57–59. 14 Anokhin 2011, no. 2070. Weight 2.62 g. 15 Frolova 1997b II, pl. L.13–15. Weight about 3 g. 16 Anokhin 1986, no. 711 = 2011, no. 2074; Frolova 1997b II, pl. LII.3. 17 Anokhin 1986, no. 712а = 2011, no. 2076. 18 Anokhin 1986, 125–26. 19 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 39, fig. 18; ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site: https://Bosporankingdom.com/7104864/1.html.

4

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The transformation since the second quarter of the 3rd century of the Bosporan stater from ‘pale’ gold towards billon was correctly tied by A.N. Zograf to the consecutive and uninterrupted debasement of the Roman denarius.20 K.V. Golenko also directly connected the devaluation of Bosporan staters with the debasement of the Roman silver coins (the antoniniani and denarii) in the late 2nd and 3rd century.21 N.A. Frolova, on the contrary, believed that Roman valuta cannot have influenced the debasement of Bosporan staters since it was not circulating in the Bosporus – rather, debasement of Bosporan and Roman money arose from contemporary external political events shaking the Roman empire and the Bosporus. On the one hand, she investigated in detail the connection of the interruptions in 3rd-century Bosporan coinage with the gradual ceasing of provincial mints to function, beginning with the reign of Gordianus III (AD 238–244). This process was due to the debasement of the antoniniani and especially denarii after AD 260, resulting in a currency crisis in the middle of the century. The ‘collapse’ of the Roman imperial currency made provincial striking unprofitable and the closing of provincial mints under Gallienus is explained by the attempt to stabilise the financial situation of the empire. On the other hand, the dates of cessation of a number of provincial mints coincide with those of devastating raidsby the Goths and other tribes22 (with these raids, three chronological groups of hoards at the Bosporus are connected).23 In AD 276, under Tacitus, the last provincial mint, that of Perga in Pamphylia, closed.24 However, until the early 4th century AD, striking of billon tetradrachms continued in Egypt.25 In our opinion, of special note is the fact that Bosporan billon staters and billon tetradrachms, after the reform of Aurelian,26 were close to each other in terms of metrology and silver content and probably this was not mere coincidence. Thus, the debasement of the antoninianus and Bosporan stater was simultaneous (Fig. 1), while the main cause of the reforms in the Roman empire and at the Bosporus in AD 260–270s without doubt was one and the same: the debasement of the silver coin reached its maximum, and the states attempted to return confidence in the debased currency. It remains to add that the body of data demonstrating the effectiveness with which the Roman state and Bosporan authorities disguised the adjustments to the silver content of its coinage continues to grow. 2. Late Bosporan Silver Coinage: Archaeometallurgical Studies While for Roman silver coinage the 19th century witnessed systematic attempts to examine fineness, and developments in chemistry led to a greater interest in the precise composition of ancient coins,27 the situation was incomparably worse with the study of the alloy of Bosporan silver coins: only a limited understanding of the alloys used for manufacturing 3rd-century Bosporan staters, as well as the silvering technique. For example, Kerch archaeologist and numismatist Efim Lyutsenko described the staters from the Kerch 1871 hoard in his manuscript ‘Some information about the coin hoards found recently on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, as well as in the South of Russia’ (1880) thus: On the eve of 1871, the Kerch dealer in antiquities, Boris Bukzel, acquired a large quantity (about 500 pieces) of royal Bosporan potin coins and some silver examples which were badly oxidised and 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Zograf 1940, 59–60. Golenko 1972, 241. Frolova 1997b II, 68–70. See Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 11–12; 2019, 328, Tab. 7. Estiot 2012, 543. Butcher and Ponting 2014, 606–64. The weight of tetradrachms was stabilised at 7.9 g. See Metcalf 1998, 275. See Butcher and Ponting 2014, 62–77.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

5

covered with green patina. These were coins, as defined after their cleaning, of the kings Ininthimeus, Rhescuporis IV and Rhescuporis V, of different dies and years of issue and which had been long known. Most of these coins consisting of an alloy of copper, tin and small amount of silver were coated with a fairly thick silver plating and at first sight looked as silver. This kind of ancient royal coins was then for the first time encountered in the Bosporan numismatics: we are acquainted only with coins although silvered but not coated with so thick a plating.28

Moreover, until the end of the 20th century, the metal of 3rd-century staters was hardly studied. While in Russian museums, late Bosporan silver and billon staters were inventoried in books titled ‘Special Account of Silver’, their fineness was determined only in some cases, and the chemical composition of the alloy received little attention. Improving techniques of scientific analysis gave students of ancient (mostly Roman) coinage new data about fineness and provided new and very important information about the nature of alloys used for ancient coinage. Archaeometallurgists were becoming increasingly alert to the problems of ‘surface enrichment’ of ancient alloys.29 The quantity of works concerned with the metallurgy of Roman silver coinage, the process of debasement of the antoninianus, the techniques of production (silver surface enrichment of coins made of silver-copper alloy), as well as economic models of the consequences of the monetary reforms intended to stop the further debasement of the money, is ever increasing in parallel with the expansion of the arsenal of the most modern natural scientific methods employed in numismatic studies. This enormous literature cannot be embraced here.30 By contrast, in Russia, in the 1980s and at the turn of the 1990s and 2000s, the possibilities of the instrumental base for rare archaeometallurgical studies of the Bosporan coinage was very modest, limited mostly to semi-quantitative analysis of the elemental composition of the alloy of rather small coin samples from collections of the State Hermitage and State Historical Museum.31 In general, these studies have allowed the students of Bosporan coinage to obtain a relatively clear picture of the debasement of the stater, but they have barely touched on minting technologies (such as coating techniques and the silver surface enrichment of staters) or identification of the possible ore sources for the Bosporan mint in the Roman period. The large-scale investigation of the metallurgy of Bosporan coinage (samples of unprecedented volume and sets of pioneering research methods for in Bosporan numismatics) started after the discovery of a huge hoard of late Bosporan staters at the necropolis of Phanagoria in 2011. First of all, using the non-destructive method of XRF analysis, an extremely large database of the elemental composition of staters was obtained (3695 specimens, about 12,000 tests). The coins under consideration were minted from AD 237/8 until 307/8.32 A recent study of the alloys of staters from the Gai-Kodzor 1972, 1977 and 1986 hoards (in total 1362 specimens and 4086 28 Lyutsenko 1880, Sheet 16, no. 11. Lyutsenko was a Kerch archaeologist and numismatist, the author of a memoir about the directors of the Kerch Museum of Antiquities A.B. Ashik and D.V. Kareisha. His brother, Alexander Lyutsenko (1807–84), was director of the Kerch Museum of Antiquities, 1853–78. E. Lyutsenko served as a laboratory assistant at the museum, helped his brother with excavations and acquired coins from the hoards found in Kerch and the Taman, which fell into the hands of Kerch antiquities dealers. He maintained close relations with the most famous collectors of Bosporan coins: Count L.A. Perovsky, Count S.G. Stroganov, P.O. Burachkov, F.I. Gross and others. At the same time, E. Lyutsenko contributed to the largest Russian museums in replenishing their numismatic collections with valuable specimens. All generations of Russian students in Bosporan numismatics turn to his manuscript, first published in Abramzon and Frolova 2007–08, 581–96. 29 For a detailed overview of the works from the 1960s to 2012, see, for example, Butcher and Ponting 2015, 77–89 (with references). 30 See, for example, Walker 1978; Pense 1992; Estiot 1996; Sarah, Gratuze and Barrandon 2007; Haklai-Rotenberg 2011; Ponting 2009; 2012; Ponting, Evans and Pashley 2003; Rodrigues et al. 2011; Butcher and Ponting 2014, 77–89; Langmuir 2018; Butcher 2020. 31 See Treister 1988; 1999; Frolova 1997b I, 160–64; 1997b II, 146–49; Smekalova and Dyukov 2001, 90–104. An exception is the dissertation by T.N. Smekalova devoted to evolution of the coinage alloys utilised at northern Black Sea mints. See Smekalova 2001a; 2001b. 32 Abramzon and Gunchina 2016; Saprykina and Gunchina 2017; Saprykina, Pelgunova et al. 2017; Ravich and Saprykina 2019.

6

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

tests) comprised the period of Bosporan coinage from AD 276/7 to AD 341/2, i.e. from Teiranes to Rhescuporis VI.33 To these samples of the very large homogeneous coin assemblages of the period under study were added the results of studies of the metal of staters from the Kerch 1964 and 1988 hoards,34 the Anapa 1987 hoard,35 and the hoards from the site of Volna 1 on the Taman Peninsula.36 The data obtained provide a detailed picture of the nature of the alloys utilised at the Bosporan mint from Sauromates II to Rhescuporis VI. Secondly, to determine the elemental composition of the cores of silver/billon staters of Rhescuporis V from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, neutron resonance capture analysis was employed for the first time – by the Intense Resonance Neutron Source at the I.M. Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. These investigations of Bosporan staters were conducted jointly with the Institute of Archaeology, RAS.37 Again for the first time lead isotope measurements were taken for silver staters of Cotys III, Rhescuporis IV and Ininthimeus from the Anapa 1987 hoard, using the method of MC–ICP–MS analysis.38 In European-American archaeological studies, the Pb–Pb method had long been a routine approach in identifying sources of silver imported during different periods to a particular region.39 The high reliability of the lead isotope method provides the possibility of its interdisciplinary application in interpreting the results of analysis of lead in silver, particularly for archaeological artefacts. A promising circumstance is that the Pb–Pb database of ore deposits is being continually supplemented throughout Europe, Central Asia, etc.40 However, in Russian archaeological studies, this method has been used only in recent years, first for the Bosporan silver coins.41 The potential of the Pb–Pb method provides the possibility to obtain information on the sources of silver for the Bosporus, in particular during the Roman period. Lead isotope measurements for staters from the Anapa 1987 hoard took place in the Laboratory of Isotopic Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Institute of Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy and Geochemistry, RAS, using high precision analysis based on the application of the method of multicollector mass-spectrometry with ionisation of the substance in an inductively coupled plasma (MC–ICP–MS).42 For the first time, investigations took place to identify the technique of silver surface enrichment of the late Bosporan staters made of a copper-silver alloy.43 Of special importance for this is the discovery of a group of Thothorses’ silvered staters of AD 286/7 in the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. The existence of such coins had not been known before.44 The 2020–21 studies of them at the Centre of Collective Usage of the Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’ of the Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University by the EPMA method yielded unexpected results. For the first time, in the surface silver layer of these coins, the presence of chlorine, calcium, sodium and magnesium was established, suggesting the use of special pastes for silvering late Bosporan staters.45 As demonstrated by the most recent investigations of other coins from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, the same technique had been used at the Bosporus for silvering the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters of AD 253/4 (see below). The silver surface enrichment of synchronous 33

Abramzon, Novichikhin, Saprykina and Smekalova 2019. Smekalova, Abramzon, Saprykina, Antipenko et al. 2019. 35 Saprykina et al. 2020. 36 Abramzon, Bezuglov, Gunchina, Saprykina, Smekalova and Ustaeva 2020; Abramzon 2020b; 2021. 37 Bazhazhina et al. 2018; Sedyshev et al. 2019. 38 Saprykina, Chugaev, Abramzon, Novichihin and Smekalova 2020. 39 Stos-Gale 1986; 2017; Stos-Gale and Gale 2009; Baron et al. 2011; Albarède et al. 2012; Gale and Stos-Gale 2016. 40 Gale and Stos-Gale 2016. 41 Saprykina, Chugaev, Gunchina and Pelgunova 2020; Saprykina, Chugaev, Abramzon, Novichihin and Smekalova 2020; Abramzon, Saprykina, Chugaev et al. 2021. 42 Saprykina, Chugaev, Abramzon, Novichikhin and Smekalova 2020. 43 Saprykina, Pelgunova, Gunchina et al. 2017; Abramzon et al. 2017; Abramzon, Saprykina, Kichanov et al. 2018; Abramzon, Saprykina and Smekalova 2018; Abramzon and Saprykina 2019; 2020; Abramson et al. 2018. 44 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 53–56. 45 Abramzon, Efimova et al. 2020; Abramzon et al. 2020; Abramzon, Efimova, Koptseva, Saprykina and Smekalova 2021. 34

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

7

staters of Rhescuporis V was carried out using another technique. The employment of differing coating techniques in the coinages of these kings probably excludes the hypothesis that their staters were issued at the same mint, and hence that these kings were co-rulers. The technique of silvering with pastes containing silver, mercury and soda, may also have been used in Roman coinage of the later 3rd century.46 Studies of Roman coins minted after AD 293/4 reveal the presence of mercury in the surface silver layer, indicating the use of amalgams and several cycles of heating of the coins.47 Finally, the results of experimental investigations at the Restoration Laboratory of the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’48 suggest the using the technique of silver surface enrichment of blanks for the Rhescuporis V’s billon staters similar to the Roman technique (including etching of the blanks by acids to remove copper oxides and the development of the silver phase with its deposition (segregation) on the surface).49 3. The Material Sampled The material selected for our project includes hoard coins from the Archaeological Museum of Taman, the Anapa Archaeological Museum, the Kerch Museum (the East Crimean Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve) and the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’. Additional coins for the project were acquired from coin collectors, mainly Mr Alexander Lavrov. The total number of 3rd-century staters analysed is over 4000. The hoard material comes from the following finds: Settlement of Volna 1, Taman Peninsula, 2014. CH XI, 199. For details, see Abramzon 2021. The large settlement of Volna 1 is located in the southwestern Taman Peninsula, 5 km south of the ancient city of Hermonassa (the modern stanitsa of Taman). In May 2014, during excavations at the central part of the settlement, the remains of a small building destroyed by a great fire were revealed, inside which the 3rd-century hoard of Bosporan electrum and silver staters was discovered. Ninety-nine coins were folded in a small red-clay one-handed mug, lying in a thick layer of black soot on the floor. The hoard was brought to the Archaeological Museum of Taman (Inv. Nos. KМ–14010/1–99). All the coins are well preserved, many of them have no traces of circulation. Six posthumous staters of Rhescuporis III issued by Cotys III in AD 228/9 are the earliest coins. Remaining staters belong to Cotys III himself (75 examples) and Sauromates III (18 examples). The issues presented in the hoard cover a narrow chronological gap, the five years from AD 228/9 to 232/3. The alloy of all the above staters was studied by XRF analysis. The hoard shows the process of change from electrum staters to silver in the period AD 231/2–232/3. Anapa, 1987. CH XI, 209. For details, see Frolova and Ireland 1995. This large hoard of 517 coins was found during the excavations at ancient Gorgippia which was destroyed in ca. AD 238/9. Apart from 497 bronze coins of the Bosporan kings from Rhescuporis II to Ininthimeus, as well as Panticapaean coinage, Leucon II’s coin, provincial coinages of Tyra (Caracalla, Severus Alexander) and Chersonese (Elagabalus), it included 20 electrum and silver staters of Cotys III, Sauromates III, Rhescuporis III and Ininthimeus. The hoard was acquired by the Anapa Archaeological Museum (Inv. Nos. KM 12386/1–19, 12465/1–493). Nine staters have been submitted for XRF and lead isotope analyses.

46 47 48 49

Cf. RIC V.1, 8, n. 1. Vlachou et al. 2002. Saprykina, Pelgunova, Gunchina et al. 2017, 488–90. Cope 1972, 261; Beck et al. 2004, 158.

8

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Kerch, 1964. CH XI, 214. For details, see Golenko 1970. The hoard, comprising 77 billon staters and a denarius of Severus Alexander, was discovered during the archaeological excavation near the Church of St John the Forerunner. The hoard arrived in the Kerch Museum (Inv. Nos. KN–2755, 2757–2801). Apart from 24 coins completely destroyed during cleaning or indefinable, the remaining 53 staters belong to Rhescuporis V (three pieces, all of AD 252/3) and Pharsanzes (50 pieces). The hoard was concealed in AD 253/4, when Pharsanzes usurped power in the Bosporus. Unlike Rhesсuporis V’s staters, Pharsanzes’ are silver-plated coins. The archaeological context of the find strongly suggests that Pharsanzes’ mint may have been located here. Kerch, 1988. CH XI, 215. For details, see Abramzon et al. 2007. А hoard of ca. 2000–2500 Bosporan staters of AD 234/5 to 253/4 was found bу chance in Kerch. Part of the hoard (521 pieces) was acquired by the Kerch Museum (Inv. Nos. KN–3955–3968; 3978–4484). It contains staters of the following kings: Ininthimeus (five), Rhescuporis V (508) and Pharsanzes (eight). Almost all these coins are new; many are uncirculated and are in ‘mint state’. Phanagoria, 2011. CH XI, 231. For details, see Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2019. A large hoard of 3695 billon and copper Bosporan staters was discovered in Phanagoria’s Eastern necropolis in 2011. It contained coins struck under Ininthimeus, Rhescuporis V, Pharsanzes, Sauromates IV, Teiranes and Thothorses, as well as barbarian imitations of latter staters. The hoard is now considered the biggest of all the late Bosporan hoards found to date. XRF analysis of the staters showed that production of blanks for staters of Ininthimeus to Thothorses supposed different coating techniques for silver surface enrichment of coins made of silver-copper alloys. Neutron tomographic analysis first revealed silver-coated staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV, Teiranes and Thothorses. Recent investigation of Thothorses’ silvered staters of AD 286/7 by scanning electron microscopy combined with X-ray spectral microanalysis provides evidence of the use of a silvering paste composed of silver chloride. A similar silvering technique might have been used in Roman coinage from the late 3rd to beginning of the 4th century. The latest coins are the staters of AD 307/8, which actually provide the terminus post quem for the concealment. The Phanagorian hoard could have been deposited in the period from the autumn AD 307 to the autumn AD 308, during the Sarmatian-Alanian incursions into the Bosporus. Alexander Lavrov’s Collection. Α dozen staters of Rhescuporis III, Cotys III and Sauromates III, were kindly provided by the collector for our research. We selected coins minted from the same die-combinations in electrum, silver and billon (see, for example, Fig. 2).

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

1. Silver Staters from Cotys III to Ininthimeus: Debasement, Alloys and Metal Sources It is not fortuitous that the heading coincides with the title of a subsection ‘From “Silver” Coinage to Coinage in Billon’ concerned with Roman coinage of the later 3rd century in The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage.1 The transition from silver coinage to coinage in billon in the Roman empire and the Bosporus began almost simultaneously in the AD 230s. The debasement of Roman and Bosporan silver coins was called forth by incursions of barbarian tribes and by military and political crisis in the both states. Transition to Silver/Billon Stater: Hoard Analyses The last Bosporan electrum staters were issued by Cotys III (AD 227/8–233/4) and Sauromates III (AD 229/30–231/2). Earlier studies gave general data on the gold and silver content of the alloy.2 Their gold and silver staters are minted by same dies (Fig. 2). Recent XRF analyses of the Volna 1 2014 hoard staters provide a good picture of the process of debasement of the gold/electrum stater and its transformation into a silver and soon a billon coin.3 This hoard contained six posthumous staters of Rhescuporis III issued by Cotys III in AD 228/9 and the staters of Cotys III himself (75 examples) and Sauromates III (18 examples).4 The posthumous staters of Rhescuporis III (nos. 1–6) contain gold varying between 17.7% and 23%. Some staters contain more than 73% silver and only 2.8–4.5% copper (nos. 4, 5). Meanwhile, the AD 228/9 gold and silver staters of Rhescuporis III and Cotys III are often minted from same dies (Fig. 4.4, 30). Most likely, up to a certain point, there was a tolerance for coins of different gold content, but after a sharp decline of precious metal content in the alloy, ‘good’ electrum and silver staters rapidly fell out of circulation in hoards.5 The AD 228/9 Cotys III staters (nos. 7–34) contain gold, varying mainly between 19% and 23.5%. Some contain 14.4–17.3% gold (nos. 9, 10), and only one specimen (no. 30) is minted from high-grade silver alloy (85.21% silver, 0.30% gold and 13.60% copper). Usually, staters from this year contain an average of 65–70% silver. The AD 229/30 Cotys III staters (nos. 35–41) were made from an alloy averaging 20% gold, 70% silver and 7–13% copper. Previously, it was considered that coins from this year contained only 3–5% (and very rarely just above 10%) gold.6 There are no AD 230/1 staters of Cotys III in the hoard, but it includes 18 staters of Sauromates III of this year (nos. 82–99), containing gold varying between 5% and 15%, silver between 74% and 85%, and 2–13% copper. Of these, seven (nos. 85, 87–89, 92, 96, 99) were minted from high-grade silver (80–85%) and contained 5% to 13% gold. The catastrophic fall of the Bosporan stater occurred in AD 231/2 and especially 232/3. The group of AD 231/2 staters (nos. 42–58) shows that the gold content in the alloy declined from 8.5% to less than 2%. In fact, these are silver coins; of which ten were made from an alloy averaging silver between 80% and 83% and gold less than 0.25–0.5% (nos. 42, 43, 45–47, 49, 1 2 3 4 5 6

Estiot 2012, 540. See Frolova 1997b II, 20–21; Smekalova and Dyukov 2001, 95. Abramzon, Bezuglov, Gunchina et al. 2020а; 2020b; Abramzon 2021. Abramzon 2021. Frolova 1997b II, 20; Golenko 1978, 21. Golenko 1978, 21; Frolova 1997b II, 20–21.

10

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

54–57); seven coins contained less 70% silver. There are also two coins (nos. 52, 53) made from an alloy averaging silver between 56% and 58%, copper between 35% and 38%. Finally, the AD 232/3 staters (nos. 59–81) show the further debasement of a Bosporan electrum stater. All these are silver coins, of which 14 still contain gold varying between 5% and 9.6% (nos. 59–62, 64–67, 70–73, 76, 79), while nine pieces contain much less gold – 0.24–2.3% (nos. 63, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81). The percentage of gold in the alloy of 0.5 or less, apparently, indicates micro-impurities of silver ores. Zinc, lead, tin (unless it is associated with a ligature), bismuth, arsenic, nickel and iron should be noted among the other trace elements in the coinage alloys for staters of Cotys III and Sauromates III. Thus, according to the XRF analyses, the Volna 1 2014 hoard shows the final change from electrum staters to silver ones in AD 231/2 to 232/3. Staters of this period (nos. 54, 63, 78, 80, 81) contain 0.24–0.32% gold. Table 1. XRF analyses of the Volna 1 2014 Hoard staters of Cotys III and Sauromates III with the highest silver content (81–96%). Taman Museum. Catalogue No.7

Year AD

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Sn

Pb

Bi

Fe

Ni

As

0.36 0.43 0.24 0.18 0.15 0.17 0.23 0.24 0.21 0.30 0.25 0.33 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.69 0.29 0.35 0.27 0.27

0.23 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.42 0.20 0.18 0.04 0.11 0.17 0.09 0.17 0.09 0.18 0.03 0.04 0.10

0.11 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.07

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00

0.06 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.10 0.04 0.09

0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.08 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Cotys III 30 42 43 45 46 47 49 54 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 66 75 78 80 81

228/9 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 231/2 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3 232/3

0.30 8.36 8.51 8.40 6.69 7.64 7.20 0.26 1.73 2.94 9.67 7.20 7.46 8.27 7.46 5.05 1.02 0.28 0.32 0.24

85.21 84.25 83.67 82.65 83.72 87.60 82.61 87.35 82.27 81.16 83.62 83.92 83.56 84.54 83.56 85.45 83.34 87.56 96.13 83.27

13.60 6.87 7.13 8.57 9.18 4.52 9.76 11.34 15.40 14.25 6.34 8.29 8.20 6.65 8.20 8.43 14.53 11.36 3.24 15.79

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00

Sauromates III 85 87 88 89 92 96 99 7

230/1 230/1 230/1 230/1 230/1 230/1 230/1

12.79 11.32 12.37 12.08 5.42 10.59 8.06

82.90 81.86 80.88 84.89 85.85 80.46 80.69

3.80 6.36 6.25 2.59 8.11 8.50 10.71

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.37 0.34 0.37 0.36 0.38 0.32 0.38

For the catalogue and the complete XRF database, see Abramzon, Bezuglov, Gunchina et al. 2020, 54–63.

11

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

While there are no Cotys III staters of AD 227/8 in the Volna 1 2014 hoard, a study of those from Lavrov’s collection shows that the beginning of the production of silver coins (containing 78–96% silver and the gold as only a trace element) is recorded from the first year of the rule of Cotys III (see Fig. 2.c). The transition from the electrum coinage to the coinage in silver is accompanied with a progressive growth of the percentage of copper in the coin alloys (see Table 2). Table 2. XRF analyses of the Volna 1 2014 Hoard staters of Cotys III with the highest copper content (30–41%). Taman Museum. Catalogue No.8

Year AD

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Sn

Pb

Bi

Fe

Ni

As

52 53 68 74 76

231/2 231/2 232/3 232/3 232/3

2.63 7.50 2.34 2.09 4.90

58.55 55.99 55.73 63.95 63.69

38.19 35.32 41.05 32.99 30.58

0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.22 0.79 0.47 0.32 0.31

0.19 0.05 0.22 0.24 0.30

0.08 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.07

0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00

Thus, the XRF investigation of the chemical composition of the alloys of staters of Cotys III and Sauromates III from the Volna 1 2014 hoard shows that the final transformation of the gold stater into a silver took place after AD 230/1 (and slightly later into a billon coin). At the same time, it is impossible to accept the supposition about the withdrawal of staters with a high gold content in order to replace them with silver ones.9 During this period, according to Gresham’s Law, a process was occurring of the natural elimination of gold staters from circulation and their deposition into hoards, just as a large quantity of aurei in the western provinces of the Roman empire were deposited in hoards in the first half of the 3rd century and afterwards used as jewellery ornaments or as the recycling metal for jewellery.10 We should not forget the possibility of recycling of electrum staters which were used for re-melting (and dilution with new portions of silver) to strike the new money. This is confirmed by evidence of the continuous presence of gold in small quantities in the alloy of silver staters of the kings after Cotys III, i.e. Ininthimeus and Rhescuporis V.11 Thus, the transition to silver coinage between AD 227/8 and 232/3 meant the natural erosion of the gold standard and replacement of one precious metal (gold) with another (silver) during a progressive deficit of both two precious raw materials to supply the mint. The intensification of the latter was caused by the rising military expenditure of the state in precisely those years: exactly when the initial stage of the ‘Scythian’ wars of the 3rd century took place. The growing deficit of silver in the Bosporan state, especially notable in AD 231/2 and 232/3, and the debasement of the Roman silver currency, led to the further debasement of the silver stater and its replacement with a billon coin. Thus the Volna 1 2014 hoard, for example, indicates the decline of the silver content 56–64% in Cotys III’s billon of these years with a simultaneous increase in the percentage of copper to 30–41 (see Table 2). The XRF analysis of nine staters of Cotys III, Rhescuporis IV and Ininthimeus, from the Anapa 1987 hoard, has disclosed electrum staters of Cotys III of AD 228/9 and 231/2, as well as an AD 232/3 silver stater which is about 84% fine.12 However, Rhescuporis IV’s staters of the 8

For the catalogue and full database, see Abramzon, Bezuglov, Gunchina et al. 2020, 54–63. Smekalova 2001, 147. 10 Bland 1993, 65. 11 Smekalova 2001, 146–48; Saprykina and Gunchina 2017. 12 Saprykina, Chugaev, Abramzon, Novichikhin and Smekalova 2020, 153. 9

12

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

next year already contain markedly less silver (65–77%) and more copper (15–28%); at the same time, they retain about 5% gold. Both staters of Ininthimeus of AD 238/9 struck from silver of slightly less than 80% fineness. The alloys of these staters contain trace elements of tin, zinc and iron; in single cases the presence of arsenic and antimony has been recorded; copper, lead and gold are here among the doping components of the alloy (Table 3). Gold in the alloy of these coins is present in fairly high concentrations: greatest in the emissions of AD 228/9–231/2 (there are no coins of AD 227/8 in the hoard); later, the gold content decreases to 1–3%. Table 3. XRF analyses of the Anapa 1987 Hoard staters of Cotys III, Rhescuporis IV and Ininthimeus. Anapa Archaeological Museum. No.

Inv. No.

Year AD

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Sn

Pb

Sb

Fe

As

0.05 0.13 0.00 0.00

0.27 0.41 0.36 0.52

4.64 0.21 2.43 1.48

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00

0.45 0.27 0.28

1.74 1.30 1.10

0.00 0.00 0.02

0.00 0.07 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.34 0.48

1.23 2.06

0.03 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

Cotys III 1 2 3 4

KM-12386/1 KM-12386/3 KM-12386/5 KM-12386/7

228/9 228/9 231/2 232/3

22.01 15.01 27.32 6.31

66.13 65.82 63.85 83.99

6.9 18.42 5.99 7.70

Rhescuporis IV 5 KM-12386/15 6 KM-12386/16 7 KM-12386/17

233/4 233/4 233/4

5.84 4.86 4.91

77.15 71.02 65.35

14.82 22.45 28.34

0.00 0.03 0.00

Ininthimeus 8 KM-12386/18 9 KM-12386/19

238/9 238/9

1.23 3.20

76.41 78.70

20.76 15.56

0.00 0.00

XRF analyses of Ininthimeus’ staters of AD 234/5, 237/8 and 238/9 from the Kerch 1988 hoard (Fig. 8)13 have disclosed the presence of gold from 1.2% to 6.4% in the alloy but basically the latter consists of almost equal percentages of copper and silver (on average 47% Cu and 49% Ag).14 The sample comprises a silver stater of AD 238/9 (Table 4.5) with the silver content of about 72%. There are silver staters of Ininthimeus of the same year in the Anapa 1987 hoard (see Table 3.8, 9). Meanwhile, the stater of Ininthimeus of AD 237/8 from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard already contains only ca. 14% silver, trace concentrations of gold and above 85% copper.15 It is of note that the results of the XRF analyses of the silver coins from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard have shown that after Ininthimeus there began a rapid drop in the silver content in the alloy of Bosporan staters (see Table 5).

13 East Crimean Historical-Cultural Museum-Preserve. Inv. No. КН–3978–82. See Abramzon and Ivanina 2006, 65–81; Abramzon and Frolova 2007–08, 371–84. 14 Smekalova et al. 2019, 392. 15 Saprykina and Gunchina 2017, 286, no. 1.

13

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

Table 4. XRF analyses of the Kerch 1988 Hoard staters of Ininthimeus. East Crimean Historical-Cultural Museum-Preserve (Kerch Museum). No.

Inv. No.

Year AD

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Sn

Pb

Sb

Fe

As

1

КН-3978

234/5

2

КН-3979

234/5

3

КН-3980

237/8

4

КН-3981

237/8

5

КН-3982

238/9

2.78 2.23 2.50 5.84 7.04 6.44 1.26 1.21 1.23 0.53 0.34 0.43 1.85 1.61 1.73

51.58 41.31 46.44 44.38 51.25 47.81 43.76 37.59 40.67 44.23 30.28 37.25 70.51 73.32 71.91

44.11 55.03 49.56 48.45 40.24 44.34 53.03 59.60 56.31 53.90 68.32 61.11 25.79 23.14 24.46

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1.04 0.91 0.97 0.96 1.13 1.04 1.08 0.89 0.98 0.84 0.59 0.71 1.39 1.41 1.40

0.40 0.42 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.22 0.71 0.58 0.64 0.43 0.46 0.44 0.36 0.42 0.39

0.10 0.11 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.09

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Table 5. XRF analyses of the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard stater of Ininthimeus of AD 237/8. Phanagoria Museum. Analysis No.

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Sn

Pb

Sb

Bi

Fe

Ni

As

1a 1b 1c 1d 1e

0.26 0.23 0.21 0.22 0.30

13.35 14.19 12.11 13.32 17.37

86.93 85.14 87.31 86.02 81.91

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.16 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.19

0.09 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.09

0.11 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.14

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.07 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.00

Average

0.24

14.06

85.66

0.00

016

0.10

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.03

0.06

Metal Sources of the Bosporan Coinage in the 3rd Century As rightly pointed out for Roman coins, minor/trace elements and lead isotopes provide evidence for the supply of materials and refining and minting technologies. Sometimes this allows scholars to determine the provenance of the metal, whether freshly mined or recycled. It can even pinpoint likely episodes of recycling old coins and, when combined with the study of hoards, hint at possible strategies of stockpiling metal. A combination of trace element analysis and lead isotopes has been used to characterise batches of silver used by Roman mints, rather than to try to determine the origin of metal of complex mixed origins.16 All of the above is also true for the Bosporus. Discussion of the metal sources of the Bosporan coinage presented in this volume sets out a new and admittedly controversial landscape. Most of the silver/billon staters analysed include minor/trace elements such as zinc, tin, lead and bismuth; however, the presence of these elements is mostly very low (4%

961 1174, 1238

>10% 1191

1427

1862, 1839

1854

1900, 2069

Thus, the noticeably high gold content in Rhescuporis V’s coinage alloys is certainly the result of recycling/re-melting of older staters. 3. Experiment Reproducing a Rhescuporis V Stater Blank: Formation of a Depletion Silvered surface Butcher and Ponting pointed out: The blanks for the coins had often been intentionally enhanced before striking, and the effects of this artificial surface enrichment, or ‘depletion silvering’, are often much deeper than those produced by the natural process, forming a thick, silver-rich crust extending well below the surface. The goal of the depletion-silvering technique was to ensure that coins made from a coppery-looking alloy appeared to be of fine silver, but by deliberately removing a portion of the copper in the alloy, the ancient mints had artificially raised the silver content of the coin. The amount of copper removed would have varied from coin to coin, so that the global silver content of each coin that left the mint would have varied, but would always have been higher than the content of the original alloy from which the coin blank had been made.63

L.H. Cope proposed a mode of formation of a silver surface on copper-debased silver coinage alloy by five successive steps: (1) casting button of silver-copper alloy, (2) heating the button in air to form a layer of copper oxides, (3) acid-pickling the flan for removing the copper oxides and revealing the silver-phase, (4) hammering the blank for spreading silver-phase laterally and (5) striking the blank.64 By testing Cope’s hypothesis experimentally, L. Beck was convinced that the fabrication of replications of silver-copper alloy coin blanks has demonstrated the possibility of direct production of an external surface enriched in silver.65 Other studies of the surface of Roman coins of the 3rd century, experimentally proved by ED–XRF, have led to similar conclusions: (1) the depletion-silvering was a common practice and executed by first tempering and oxidising the flan, then attacking it with organic acids like acetic or tartaric acid, with or without

63 64 65

Butcher and Ponting 2014, 78–79. Cope 1972, 261; Beck et al. 2004, 158. Beck et al. 2004.

24

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

adding salt, before striking; (2) that the thickness of this depleted layer is probably in the range of 20 to 30 microns, which are worn off by circulation in about 50 to 80 years on average.66 In order to resolve the issue of whether the depletion-silvering technique was used for production of blanks for the Rhescuporis V’s billon staters of containing below 15–20% silver (such staters constitute a considerable part in the Phanagorian hoard – authors), an experiment took place in 2016, at the Restoration Laboratory of the State Historical and Archaeological MuseumPreserve ‘Phanagoria’.67 A replication of a cast button was made from modern silver of 92.5% fine melted with pure copper to obtain a copper-silver alloy with the silver content of 14.5%. The weight of the button (8 g) approximately corresponded to that of a Bosporan stater. After removal of the slag and remains of the flux from the surface and slight grinding, a blank of the copper colour was produced (concentration of silver at the surface was 8–10%). The goal of the experiment was to remove the copper oxides from the surface of the blank. During heating in air at up to 300–400°C (the temperature must not exceed 1100°C) the surface of the button darkens, while СuO (oxide of bivalent copper/cupric oxide) is formed: 2Cu + O2 = 2CuO Cupric/copper (II) oxide reacts with acids with the formation of corresponding salts of copper (II) and water. Since the experiment must repeat as closely as possible the technologies of the first centuries AD, it is reasonable to use carboxylic acids (acetic, tartaric, citric), which supposedly must have been available at the Bosporan mint in the day-to-day life during the epoch under consideration. Carboxylic acids exhibit typical acidic properties: a salt and water are formed in the reactions with oxides of metals. Reaction with acetic (ethanoic) acid: CH3COOH + CuO = (CH3COO)2Cu + H2O The copper acetate produced is soluble in water, therefore copper from the alloy is transferred to the solution while silver remains on the surface. This procedure was repeated a dozen times until the surface acquired a grey hue while simultaneously remaining dull without a silvery lustre and becoming porous. The XRF analysis of the surface released from copper showed an increase of the silver content up to 20–21.5%. The next stage of our experiment included hammering of the for spreading silver-phase laterally. As a result, the porous surface was compressed and acquired a metallic lustre; the silver content in the surface layer was increased up to 29–30% (Fig. 21). Visually, the blank began to look not like copper but resembled silver.68 Summarising, it is possible to state that Rhescuporis V’s staters were manufactured without using the special technique of surface silvering while the increase of the silver content at the surface of the coins was achieved in the process of casting and then cooling of the cast button, segregation of silver at the surface, and subsequent hardening of the surface. In addition, the results obtained allow us to explain the recorded variations in the silver percentage at the surface of staters of Rhescuporis V. Here again we must compare this technique with the Roman one. Butcher and Ponting write: What is less well known is that the Roman state intentionally disguised its manipulation of the silver content of the coins it produced. There are two ways that this could have been done. The first of these is similar to the natural process of surface enrichment, in that it removed the copper in the alloy at

66 67 68

Zwicky-Sobczyk and Stern 1997, 404. Saprykina, Pelgunova, Gunchina et al. 2017, 489–90. For experimental replication of a Roman silver-copper coin, see Beck et al. 2004, 159, fig. 5.

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

25

the surface of the coin, but differs in the increased intensity of the process and its effect. In addition, this process was conducted on the coin blank prior to striking, thereby creating a consolidated, nearly pure silver surface layer after striking. The second method relies on the natural process of inverse (or dendritic) segregation. the natural processes of segregation during solidification in silver alloys containing more than 72% silver (the eutectic composition) will result in a silver-rich layer 20 to 80 microns thick, whilst cast blanks of alloy containing between 18% and 72% elemental silver will produce a silver-rich surface 10 to 40 microns thick.69

Nevertheless, among the staters of Rhescuporis V are coins nos. 1074, 1075 (AD 264/5) and 1868 (AD 267/8) showing a technique of production possibly differing from that described above. Thus, in nos. 1074 and 1075, the silver content during scanning of the surface in a vacuum of 600 mbar using the XRF spectrometer M4 Tornado (Bruker) was defined as about 4–6.5% and 7.4–9%, while at the whitish areas discerned at the surface of the coins it was about 11–16%. At 10-fold magnification of the surface of stater no. 1074, exfoliation of the silver layer was observed, suggesting the presence of a silver coating on this coin – plating(?) (Fig. 22). 4. AD 253/4 Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes Staters: Comparison of Silvering Techniques Scientific methods applied to coins sometimes prove definitive in solving difficult questions of Bosporan political history in the 3rd century. Thus, until now there has been no clear understanding of the nature of the simultaneous rule of two kings in AD 253/4, Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes, who minted coins with the date NФ = 550 BE. Some scholars believed that they were co-rulers, while others maintained that Pharsanzes usurped power for some time. Earlier, we supported the hypothesis of the division of rule between them in autumn of AD 253 (or in AD 254), explaining this through the activity of a coalition of the Borani and Goths near the frontiers of the Bosporus and their incursions into Panticapaeum (as suggested by the fire layers and discoveries of the Kerch 1871, 1964 and 1988 hoards). The Kerch 1964 and 1988 hoards and the Phanagorian 2011 hoard include staters of both kings dated to 550 BE. The Phanagorian hoard contains six staters of Rhescuporis V (nos. 523– 528) and 16 staters of Pharsanzes (nos. 133–2148) (Fig 20.523, 2141). Rhescuporis V’s staters were struck from two obverse dies (one of them was that of the previous year – ΘΜΦ) combined with three reverses; those of Pharsanzes were struck from seven obverse dies combined with 13 reverses. The Kerch 1964 hoard yielded still more dies of Pharsanzes: ten obverses and 28 reverses. This is why K.V. Golenko concluded that in the beginning of AD 253 (but not its first month), Pharsanzes usurped power at the Bosporus for ten months. In his opinion, there was no simultaneous.70 N.A. Frolova maintained that the number of dies offered the opportunity to define only the intensity of striking but not to resolve the issue of these kings’ rule. It is also unknown whether the Bosporus under them was divided into two parts and who ruled in each of these. The supposition that Pharsanzes briefly asserted himself in the Asiatic Bosporus where the Goths and other barbarians had settled down (and that this fact, moreover, somehow is related to the destruction of Gorgippia and Tanais), but then was stripped of power by Rhescuporis V,71 is not confirmed by any sources. In Gorgippia, finds of staters of Pharsanzes have not been recorded at all, but instead a stater of Rhescuporis V of AD 249/50 is known.72 In Tanais too, in the fire layer, only a stater of Rhescuporis V of AD 250/1 has been found. The excavations at Phanagoria have yielded about ten staters of Rhescuporis V (they include no examples of AD 253/4) and only one 69 70 71 72

Butcher and Ponting 2014, 107–08. Golenko 1970, 93. Zubar and Zinko 2006, 162–63. Frolova 1980, 131, no. 97; 1997, 146; Alekseeva 1997, 76.

26

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

of Pharsanzes of that year.73 From the necropolis of Cytaeum, a stater of Pharsanzes is recorded.74 This list does not clarify the political situation at the Bosporus in AD 253/4. It is only certain that the striking of staters under the name of Pharsanzes was considerably more intensive than that of Rhescuporis V. This is indicated by the quantity of the coins numbered by Frolova, of which 14 belong to Rhescuporis V and 89 to Pharsanzes.75 In the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site, another 20 staters of Rhescuporis V and 160(!) of Pharsanzes have been recorded to date.76 The same ratio is manifested by the hoards and particularly clearly by the Kerch 1964 hoard: three staters of Rhescuporis V, 50 of Pharsanzes. Pharsanzes’ coinage in 550 BE, according to our calculations, exceeds the emissions of Rhescuporis V by a factor of nine. After Frolova, we supposed that the staters of both kings were manufactured at the same mint, as is suggested by the commonness of their types, style, iconography, execution and metrology. The silver content of the AD 253/4 staters of Pharsanzes and Rhescuporis V varied between 12% and 15%.77 In the next year, the volume of strikings by Rhescuporis V markedly rises. The question about the rule of Pharsanzes that year remains open: his single preserved stater of 551 BE in the Hermitage Museum is in a poor condition, and the reading of its date is arguable.78 There was a supposition that the necessity of further joint rule perhaps had ceased because Rhescuporis V had undertaken successful military operations, as may be judged through the appearance of a rare symbol (a wreath) on the reverses of the staters of AD 254/5.79 Meanwhile, the XRF analyses of the 550 BE staters from the Kerch 1964 and 1988 hoards and the Phanagorian 2011 hoard shed new light on the minting technology, allowing us to determine whether it was the blanks that were silvered or the coins themselves after striking. Establishing the fact that different technologies were used is important for solving the question of the coinage of the two kings being struck at different mints and in turn can lead conclusions about the character of their reign. Data of the Kerch 1964 and 1988 Hoards The Kerch Museum allowed further examination of staters from these hoards.80 In 2018–19, all coins underwent XRF analysis using a spectrometer M1 Mistral (Bruker). The standard time of measuring was 30 seconds at one point of sampling. For each coin, from one to three points on the obverse and reverse were chosen. The XRF analysis of Rhescuporis V’s staters from the Kerch 1988 hoard disclosed the silver content at a level of 10–30% with its heightened concentration in the surface layer.81 A metallographic examination has confirmed the conclusion of the staters’ production without using special techniques of silvering the surface, while the increased silver content was attained in the process of the casting and subsequent segregation of silver through ageing in acetic or citric acid (the most widely available in antiquity) and strengthening of the surface by hammering. The silvering technique used for the Pharsanzes staters, judging from the results of coins from the Kerch 1964 and 1988 hoards, was basically different. It discloses exfoliation of the surface 73

Inv. No. F-16-9. East Crimean Historical-Cultural Museum-Preserve. Inv. No. KN-5326. Abramzon and Ivanina 2010, no. 494. 75 Frolova 1997b II, 54. 76 Cf. the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site: http://Bosporan-kingdom.com/723-4058/, etc. 77 Recent T.N. Smekalova’s investigations of staters of Pharsanzes in the State Hermitage Museum have demonstrated that in terms of the composition of the alloy at the surface of the coins they do not differ from the coins of Rhescuporis V of the same year, but the staters of Pharsanzes were silver-plated: Smekalova et al. 2019, 390. 78 Frolova 1997b II, 50–55. 79 See Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 36. Only two examples with a wreath are known – from the Sudak 1958 hoard and in the Hermitage Museum. See Frolova 1997b II, pl. XLVII.15, 16. 80 See Smekalova et al. 2019. 81 The results confirm the data obtained in 2016 by XRF investigations of staters from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. 74

27

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

silver layer from the body of a stater from the Kerch 1964 hoard. This certainly indicates the use of a silver-plating technique.82 XRF analysis of the bodies of the coins and their surfaces showed that the low-grade (copper-silver) core evidently had been coated with a silver foil of high fineness (Fig. 23). The stater blanks were cast from an alloy containing on average 10–15% silver, whereas, at the surface, the silver content reaches 80%. In the body of the silver-plated coins, silver sometimes is absent entirely (cf. Table 10, nos. 9, 10). An experiment some time ago on plating with silver foil has shown that the best effect is attained where the method of hot plating is used with heating from 800 to 950°C for a very short time. In this case, the best adhesion of the two metals occurs due to the diffusion of the silver layer through the copper alloy.83 As a rule, heating is carried out in an oven. Here, the archaeological context of the Kerch 1964 hoard is of extreme importance. This hoard was found during excavation of an auxiliary room next a huge production kiln recovered near the Church of St John the Forerunner. Among the collapsed remains of the kiln 78 coins were found. In the kiln were numerous complete and fragmentary copper and bronze objects, the abundance of which undoubtedly indicates the purpose of the oven: it was used for melting of metals and casting various domestic objects. Near the kiln, other coins were retrieved from the fill of the room. The room itself, together with the furnace, was destroyed by fire during the first Gothic raid of AD 256. Presumably, the coins had been manufactured in this room which possibly was part of Pharsanzes’ mint.84 It is probable that the room mentioned served as a workshop (officina) for plating coins with silver foil(?). The visual appearance of the coins indirectly indicates that the process of plating had not been finally completed. It seems that the room with a furnace near the church was correctly interpreted by researchers as a mint. Table 10. XRF analyses of the Kerch 1964 hoard staters of Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes. Kerch Museum. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9

10

82 83 84

Inv. No., point analysed 2757 2758 2759 2760 2761 2762 2762 2763 2764 2764 2764 body 2765 body 2765 plating 2765 body 2766 body 2766 plating 2766 scratch 2766 edge 2766 plating

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Zn

Fe

Sb

Au

53.27 14.77 20.68 9.97 60.63 70.65 12.83 6.84 20.07 9.05 8.98 1.51 40.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.98 40.82 78.66

43.06 83.15 77.52 87.97 37.24 27.43 86.26 91.66 77.67 89.11 89.44 98.18 58.08 86.59 84.31 72.49 84.75 56.93 18.78

0.29 0.85 0.10 0.88 0.04 0.00 0.23 0.42 0.87 0.74 0.66 0.06 0.05 0.26 0.48 0.30 0.47 0.49 0.00

2.43 0.37 0.81 0.32 1.62 1.27 0.35 0.52 0.76 0.37 0.35 0.18 0.93 0.35 0.47 0.69 0.43 1.04 1.77

0.00 0.00 0.40 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.41 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.30 0.28 0.21 0.19 0.24

0.055 0.08 0.092 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.91 0.73 0.39 0.40 0.37 0.57 0.25 0.40 0.49 0.27 0.23 0.00 0.49 0.40 0.16 0.29 0.16 0.54 0.56

Smekalova et al. 2019, 393–94. Zwicker et al. 1993, 229. Makarova 1997, 350; Smekalova et al. 2019 (with bibliography).

28

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

Inv. No., point analysed 2767 2768 2769 2770 2771 2772 2773 2774 plating 2774 body 2775 plating 2775 body 2776 plating 2776 body 2777 plating 2777 body 2778 2778 body 2779 plating 2780 body 2780 plating 2781 plating 2782 2783 body 2783 plating 2784 body 2784 plating 2785 plating 2785 body 2786 2787 plating 2788 2789 2790 body 2791 plating 2792 plating 2793 plating 2794 2795 2796 plating 2796 body 2797 plating 2798 2799 2800 2801

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Zn

Fe

Sb

Au

17.79 40.07 27.25 12.06 28.08 11.68 23.61 53.57 25.41 53.96 23.92 50.51 25.17 28.78 16.07 14.67 6.773 63.66 11.14 17.24 31.72 10.47 18.38 79.66 12.54 61.61 85.86 16.95 28.11 92.02 29.77 49.65 16.78 78.31 78.96 50.06 72.33 36.32 60.74 30.83 90.03 30.31 84.25 41.77 9.49

80.11 58.50 70.52 86.67 69.90 86.82 74.69 44.92 73.93 44.10 74.11 46.72 73.14 69.84 82.97 83.83 92.48 34.70 87.88 81.34 66.29 88.37 79.99 16.72 86.54 36.38 11.48 81.66 70.37 5.33 68.73 48.78 81.61 19.06 17.41 48.51 25.03 61.09 37.42 68.02 6.96 68.20 12.68 55.38 88.64

1.06 0.00 0.96 0.22 0.21 0.83 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.81 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.35 0.00 0.39 0.00 0.60 0.37 0.11 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.27

0.54 0.99 0.83 0.42 0.54 0.33 0.65 0.98 0.47 1.39 0.94 0.93 0.50 1.20 0.72 0.38 0.21 1.27 0.28 0.44 0.70 0.38 0.95 3.15 0.33 1.41 1.93 0.44 0.69 2.05 0.71 1.01 0.49 1.59 2.40 1.08 1.63 1.02 1.30 0.79 2.41 0.86 1.61 1.95 0.29

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.85 0.31 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.07 0.14 0.11 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06

0.13 0.03 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.00 0.21 0.27 0.12 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.04 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.11 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.16 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.06

0.37 0.41 0.37 0.37 1.23 0.29 0.33 0.45 0.19 0.34 0.68 0.92 0.52 0.09 0.09 0.70 0.14 0.25 0.26 0.91 0.44 0.23 0.42 0.30 0.14 0.44 0.72 0.34 0.69 0.60 0.54 0.32 0.31 1.04 0.82 0.34 1.01 0.72 0.22 0.28 0.53 0.57 1.40 0.86 0.19

29

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

It is of note, however, that it has been proven experimentally that the basic mode of formation of a silver surface on ancient coins and other archaeological objects (statues, etc.) was that of amalgam silvering by immersion of the object into a molten alloy.85 The formation of the thin silver plating at the surface of Late Roman coins has been subject to extensive research. Cope, in his work on Late Roman coinage, proposed that the plating was produced by dipping the blanks into molten silver chloride.86 However, hot-dipping methods were not really suitable for mass production.87 XRF analysis of Pharsanzes’ staters from the Kerch 1988 hoard (Fig. 24) with a very good preservation state indicates a slightly different situation (Table 11). In the silver content they correlate with the data obtained for the series of staters from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. Table 11. XRF analyses of the Kerch 1988 hoard staters of Pharsanzes. Kerch Museum. No.

Inv. No.

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Fe

Au

1.

KN-4477

2.

KN-4478

3.

KN-4479

4.

KN-4480

5.

KN-4481

6.

KN-4482

7.

KN-4483

8.

KN-4484

18.50 10.87 12.00 13.79 13.93 16.63 15.27 9.57 9.10 9.33 10.27 9.25 9.75 12.38 12.12 12.25 11.85 13.47 12.65 8.35 7.96 8.15 11.31 11.36 11.44

79.79 87.77 86.55 84.70 84.42 81.64 83.02 89.36 89.79 89.57 88.15 89.26 88.70 86.46 86.71 86.58 86.85 85.27 86.05 90.89 91.21 91.04 87.18 87.03 86.98

0.45 0.49 0.50 0.48 0.76 0.65 0.70 0.29 0.35 0.31 0.88 0.83 0.85 0.56 0.59 0.57 0.33 0.24 0.28 0.25 0.29 0.27 0.58 0.65 0.64

0.75 0.63 0.63 0.66 0.57 0.64 0.60 0.38 0.40 0.38 0.43 0.38 0.40 0.29 0.32 0.30 0.68 0.62 0.64 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.58 0.61 0.61

0.07 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.05

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.10 0.09

0.43 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.25 0.34 0.29 0.28 0.23 0.25 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.18 0.19 0.30 0.36 0.32 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.18 0.20 0.17

85 La Niece 1990, 8; Vlachou et al. 2002. It is known that the addition of substantial layer to surface of the base (copper) core of the coin can be carried by two main ways: (1) by attaching an envelope of silver foil to the core and (2) by covering the core with a layer of hard (i.e. silver copper) solder (for details, see Zwicker et al. 1993, 228–29, as well as their experimental work on plating). 86 Cope 1972. 87 Vlachou et al. 2002, II9.2.3.

30

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

Data of the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard – Method of Examination The metallographic study of 12 staters of Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes of 550 BE from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard took place in the Centre of Collective Usage of the Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’ of the Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University by the combined use of a stereomicroscopy Meiji Techno RZ–B at the magnification factor 7.5 and the Thixomet PRO system of computer analysis of images. The image of a microstructure was input into the computer equipped with a digital camera and then was analysed using specialised software. The micro-chemical structure and surface of the coins were studied by use of SEM JEOL JSM–6490 LV in secondary electrons. In order to determine the thickness of the coating, as well as to establish the presence of the diffusion layer, a metallographic cross-section was made at the rim of each of two staters according to a standard method using the preparation line of the Buеhler Company. Electron Probe Micro Analysis (EPMA) was carried out by use of a special attachment to the scanning microscopy (SEM) – energy dispersive spectrometry INCA Energy which allows simultaneous recording of the X-ray spectrum from all the elements present in the analysed sample in the coordinates ‘relative intensity, impulse/s – energy, keV’. The qualitative and quantitative analysis was conducted in the regime of automatic identification of the X-ray peaks of the chemical elements located in the area under examination by means of acquisition of the spectrum at a point by scanning along the selected direct line or scanning over the selected area in the raster image. In addition, a mapping of the element distributions on the coin surface was carried out. The X-ray analysis took place at the SHIMADZU XRD–7000 diffractometer by radiation from a chrome anode.88 It was conducted in the range of the angles 2q from 50° to 130°. The measuring mode was continuous with the rate of 1°/min. During the recording, the coin studied was placed parallel to the linear focus of the X-ray tube. – Results and discussion Six staters each of Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes were selected for analysis from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. Coins analysed: Rhescuporis V

Pharsanzes

523 524 525 526 527 528

2133 2134 2135 2136 2137 2137

The visual examination of the staters shows that the surface of Rhescuporis V’s coins possesses a characteristic silvery colour and lustre. By contrast, the surface of the Pharsanzes’ staters is of a dark hue with separate local areas with the characteristic silvery colour and areas with a reddish-copper colour and hues of green (Fig. 25). 88

The authors are sincerely thankful to Dr D.A. Gorlenko for the realisation of these investigations.

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

31

Mapping of element distributions over the surface of the Rhescuporis V staters shows that silver is spread practically uniformly over the entire surface of the coin (Fig. 26). This corresponds well with the silvery colour of the coins observed visually. At the same time, copper is also distributed practically uniformly. EPMA was carried out in local areas of the Rhescuporis V coins; its results, shown in Figs. 27–32, disclose the presence of peaks of silver, copper and oxygen in the X-ray spectra. The presence of oxygen is explained by the copper oxides formed at the surface of the coins due to the process of corrosion while the coins were in the cultural layer. The contents of metals on the convex parts of the relief of the surface of the coins were 45–90% Ag and 6–45% Cu (with the presence of 5–11% oxygen); in the hollows of the relief, 23–78% Ag and 8–63% Cu (with the presence of 5–13% oxygen); in the flat field of the coin, 37–90% Ag and 4–59% Cu (with 5–16% oxygen). The comparative intensities of the spectral peaks of the elements (Fig. 33) show well the ratio of the number of elements in different parts of the relief of staters nos. 525 and 523. It reveals that, at the surfaces of different coins, the character of the distribution of silver and copper is the same. The greatest quantity of silver is observed on the convex parts of the relief and within the field without relief, while the least is in the hollows of the relief of a coin. Similar results were obtained for other Rhescuporis V staters. This type of elemental distributions is due to the peculiarities of the striking of the relief of the staters. The redistribution of the material under the effects of strong stresses during the deformation and filling of the working hollows of the die leads, due to the local transformation of the thickness of the material, to the silver of the surface layer being squeezed out into the areas of higher relief while the quantity of silver in the areas of the low relief decreases. The maps of element distributions at the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters show that copper is spread practically homogeneously while silver is localised in particular areas (Fig. 34). These results correspond well to the silvery colour of the coins recorded visually (see Fig. 25.b). To determine whether foil or leaf gilding was applied, EPMA measurements took place for the Pharsanzes staters. Studies disclosed their essential difference from the coins of Rhescuporis V. In the spectra obtained from different areas of the surface of the Pharsanzes staters, along with the peaks of silver, copper and oxygen, there are peaks of chlorine, calcium and magnesium (Figs. 35–40). In addition, the mapping has indicated that the predominant localisation of the chlorine is observed at the areas of a high concentration of silver (Fig. 34). At the convex areas of the relief of the coin surface we have 10–82% Ag and 8–78% Cu (with 7–22% oxygen), in the hollows of the relief, 12–64% Ag and 21–78% Cu (with 5–18% oxygen), in the flat field of the coin, 5–59% Ag and 20–83% Cu (with 9–20% oxygen). The content of chlorine is from 0.9% to 6.17%, sodium 4–17%, calcium 0.2–2.1% and magnesium 0.21–0.26%. In some cases, the spectra include peaks of silicon (explainable through the unremoved remains of the impurities from the soil). A comparison of the intensities of the peaks in spectra of the discovered elements of Pharsanzes’ staters nos. 2136 and 2137 is shown in Figs. 41 and 42. It indicates that the distribution of silver and copper in different areas of the relief, even within the boundaries of a single coin, is haphazard in character. Moreover, even in the neighbouring areas of the coin field, a scatter in the contents of the elements there is to be observed (spectra 3 and 4 in Fig. 42.d, f). The summary characteristic spectrum scanned from areas of the staters has confirmed the presence of the above-mentioned elements (Figs. 43–46). Along with the relief struck from the die, a microrelief is observable at the surface of the staters in the form of small pits on the convex parts and the flat field of the coin (Fig. 47). In the

32

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

pits, the content of copper exceeds that of silver; in the smooth areas of the microrelief the silver content has proved to be higher than that of copper (Figs. 48, 49). This is explained by the fact that the integrity of the silver coating in the pits was disturbed for different reasons (partial wear, mechanical damage in the course of cleaning of the coins, etc.), and because the X-ray spectra were recorded from the coin alloy based on copper. These results are well shown in the maps of element distributions (Fig. 50). The presence of chlorine, calcium, magnesium and sodium in the surface layer of the Pharsanzes staters is supposedly due to the technique of silvering the surface of the coins using paste. Pastes for silvering were used in the Roman coinage of the late 3rd and early 4th century AD.89 This method is based upon an electrochemical reaction between the paste and the metal to be plated. The basic component of these pastes is freshly precipitated silver chloride. Other additives might be sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, potassium hydrogen tartrate, mercuric chloride and chalk as thickener. The operation takes place after striking. The components were available in antiquity.90 Using SEM, relatively smooth small flakes of silver measuring 100–1000 microns and more were disclosed at the surface of the Pharsanzes staters (Fig. 51). Element distribution mapping has shown that in the flakes there was silver while copper was absent (Fig. 52). The thickness of silver flakes is about 10 microns as was distinctly observed at their edges at large magnification (Fig. 53). Thus, the silver flakes provide evidence for the presence of a silver coating on Pharsanzes’ staters. Table 12. EPMA of the surface of staters of Rhescuporis V (nos. 523–528) and Pharsanzes (nos. 2133–2138) from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. Phanagoria Museum. Average content of elements Catalogue No.

Cu

Ag

О

Cl

Ca

Na

Mg

Other elements

523 524 525 526 527 528 2133 2134 2135 2136 2137 2138

18.21 38.40 30.31 11.55 36.40 50.25 54.96 36.30 65.14 42.00 54.11 52.78

71.40 49.90 62.47 82.09 53.61 41.23 22.91 32.73 22.62 38.67 30.00 33.11

10.22 11.70 07.22 06.36 09.99 08.52 04.63 11.65 09.11 16.59 05.19 09.43

– – – – – – 0.93 0.82 0.87 1.52 1.10 1.33

– – – – – – 2.15 1.31 1.05 0.81 – 3.1

– – – – – – 13.93 16.61 – – 08.12 –

– – – – – – – – 0.21 0.26 – 0.25

– – – – – – 0.49 0.58 1.00 0.17 1.48 –

To determine the phase composition at the surface of the Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes staters, X-ray structural analysis took place and its results are shown in Figs. 54–55. At the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523 the presence was confirmed of a solid solution of silver in copper (1% Ag and 99% Cu), a solid solution of copper in silver (97% Ag and 3% Cu) and cuprous oxide (Cu2O) (Fig. 54). In Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2133, along with the solid solutions and cuprous oxide, silver chloride (AgCl) was disclosed (Fig. 55). Its presence confirms the 89 90

RIC V.1, 8, n. 1; Anheuser 1997; Vlachou et al. 2002. Vlachou et al. 2002, II9.2.3.

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

33

above conclusion about the production of silver coating from pastes containing chlorinated reagents. The microstructure of the cross-sectioned Rhescuporis V stater no. 524 is shown in Fig. 56. Based on analysis of the phase diagram of the silver-copper system (Fig. 57), it can be concluded that it is constituted of grains of the primary β solid solution based on copper with secondary inclusions of the α solid solution based on silver and degenerate eutectic mixture from β and α solid solutions.91 A similar structure of coin alloys was identified during investigations of Gallo-Roman coins.92 The microstructural analysis and local EPMA of the cross-sectioned Rhescuporis V stater no. 524 have allowed us to identify that the silver in the structure of the alloy presents in the form of separate (eutectic and secondary) inclusions, where its constitutes about 85% (Fig. 58.b), and in the form of a solid solution based on copper, where the silver content does not exceed 5% (Fig. 58.c). All this corresponds to the top solubility of the components in the α and β phases of solid solutions included in the composition of the eutectics of silver in copper (Fig. 56). The results of EPMA by the method of scanning spectra of the cross-sectioned Rhescuporis V stater no. 524 (Fig. 59) provide evidence for the use of a copper-silver alloy containing about 10–17% silver. Microanalysis of the cross-sectioned Rhescuporis V stater no. 524 has disclosed a surface silver layer whose thickness fluctuates between 1.5 and 3 microns (Fig. 60.а) while in the areas of the high relief of the coin, the thickness of silver layer increases to 15–30 microns (Fig. 60.b). The results of EPMA with acquisition of the spectrum by scanning in local areas (Fig. 61.a) show that the total amount of silver constitutes from 86% to 95% in this surface layer (Fig. 61.b); beneath it there are areas containing up to 95% copper (Fig. 61.c). The results of mapping also disclose the presence of a surface layer containing almost pure silver (Fig. 62.а). The element distribution along a line in the most typical area of the microstructure confirms that at a depth of approximately 3 microns from the surface the content of copper is decreased and that of silver increased (Fig. 62.b). An analysis of the microstructure of the cross-section has disclosed at the surface of the coin a dense layer rich in silver (Fig. 63.а) under which there is a fairly loose layer enriched in copper (Fig. 63.b). But there are areas at the surface where the silver-rich layer is absent (Fig. 63.c). Mapping of the surface of the coin field without a relief, conducted at large magnifications, has confirmed the presence of local areas with a reduced silver and increased copper content (Fig. 64). The results can, it appears, be explained through features of the manufacturing technique of the coins, with the silver concentrated at the surface while copper was extracted from it by means of a special technique. The SEM images of the microstructure of the surface layer (Fig. 63) correspond well with the scheme of refinement of the stater’s surface from the low-grade silver alloy (Fig. 21). The microstructure of the cross-sectioned Pharsanzes stater no. 2136 is shown in Fig. 65. It is generally similar to the microstructure of the alloy of the coins of Rhescuporis V. Silver in the structure of the coinage alloys is also available in the form of isolated (eutectic and secondary) inclusions, where its amount constitutes about 93% (Fig. 66.b), and in the form of a solid solution in a matrix with its content not exceeding 5% (Fig. 66.c). Further, in some areas of the microstructure of the coin alloy of Pharsanzes stater no. 2136 there are separate inclusions containing up to 50% Sn in their composition (Fig. 66.d); these areas also are shown above in Fig. 65. 91 92

See, for example, Butcher and Ponting 2015, 106, fig. 5.1. Deraisme et al. 2006, 474.

34

PART 1: FROM SILVER COINAGE TO COINAGE IN BILLON

The results of EPMA undertaken by scanning of the spectrum over the cross-section at the edge of the Pharsanzes stater no. 2136 suggest the use of the copper-silver alloy containing up to 10% silver with an addition of tin (up to 1%) (Fig. 67). Microanalysis of the cross-sectioned Pharsanzes stater no. 2136 has disclosed the surface silver layer which thickness fluctuates from 5 to 15 microns (Fig. 68); this is indicated also by the results of mapping (Fig. 69). On Roman coins of the late 3rd and early 4th century, the thickness of the silver layer also is 5–10 microns (see below).93 The EPMA shows that there is a surface silver layer containing up to 95% silver (Fig. 70.b). Under this layer, there is a fairly dense core; by contrast with the Rhescuporis V coin’s core, it contains practically pure copper (up to 95%) (Fig. 70.c). Conclusions The results of metallographic and X-ray micro spectral analyses have shown that (1) for striking the Rhescuporis V staters of AD 253/4 a silver-copper alloy containing up to 17% silver was used, while the increased silver content in the surface layer of coins was attained by the method of refinement; (2) for striking Pharsanzes’ staters of same year an alloy of silver, copper and tin was used which contained up to 10% Ag and about 1% Sn (a silver coating up to 10 microns thick is disclosed, gained evidently by the use of silvering pastes); (3) differing modes of formation of the silver surface on the staters of Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes most probably provide evidence for their production at different mints, or at least non-simultaneously if there was a common mint. Hence, Rhescuporis V and Pharsanzes were not co-rulers and the latter evidently usurped power for a brief period (less than a year) at the Bosporus in AD 253/4. Thus, establishing that the staters of Pharsanzes and Rhescuporis V were produced using differing minting technologies, in conjunction with the short period of the rule of Pharsanzes, induces us to recollect a well-known passage by Zosimus (1. 31. 3): ‘yet subsequently, when the royal line was extinct, and the authority had fallen into the hands of mean and worthless individuals, they yielded to fear, and gave the Scythians a free ingress into Asia, even carrying them over in their own ships’.94 After AD 254, all traces of Pharsanzes are lost, evidently to be explained by his death. The strikings of Rhescuporis V, however, suggest that his rule, possibly interrupted in AD 253/4, then continued until AD 276/7.95

93 94 95

Esty 1991, 226. Ridley 1982. T. Mommsen (1913, 217, n. 1) was the first to suppose that Zosimus meant, apparently, Pharsanzes. Smekalova, Abramzon, Saprykina, Antipenko, Loboda et al. 2019, 396.

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

5. Surface-Silvered Copper Staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes The Revival of ‘Silver’ Coinage and Historical Background At the very end of 571 BE (autumn of AD 275), the Bosporan coinage was revived after a sevenyear interruption. Rhescuporis V issued silvered copper staters with the erroneous date ΑΞΦ – 561 BE (= AD 264/5) instead of ΑΟΦ – 571 BE (= AD 274/5) (Fig. 71.1074).1 The question of the dating of these coins struck from the same obverse die as his staters with the dates ΒΟΦ – 572 BE (= AD 275/6) and ΓΟΦ – 573 BE (= AD 276/7) has long remained a point of discussion.2 In 2016–17, 27 ΑΞΦ staters from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard were studied by XRF analysis (see Table 13 below) at the Restoration Laboratory of the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’ using a spectrometer M1 Mistral (Bruker). The XRF analyses disclose the presence of a silver coating and show that staters were made of a copper-based alloy containing ca. 5–10% silver and 90–95% copper. Since the silver-coated staters ΒΟΦ struck from the same obverse die were made of the same alloy, it compels us to consider the issues ΑΞΦ and ΒΟΦ as undoubtedly consecutive. This fact corroborates the proposed by V.A. Anokhin of dating the ΑΞΦ coins to the very end of 571 BE when Rhescuporis V possibly obtained the right to recommence striking from the emperor Tacitus who ascended the throne on 25 September, AD 275.3 In AD 275/6, three Bosporan kings minted silvered staters: Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes (Fig. 71.2132, 2155, 2242). Probably, the military crisis at the Bosporus forced Rhescuporis V to share the power with co-rulers. There is no information on the character of the reign of the three kings at the Bosporus in 572 and two in 573 BE, but the numismatic sources refute the hypothesis of an internal struggle in the Bosporus during these years.4 The synchronous striking of money by these kings is more logically explained by a tripartite dismemberment of the Bosporan kingdom, each part with its own ruler. Most likely, the appointment of co-rulers took place directly before or during the last sea raid organised by the Sarmatians, the Alani and the Goths from the Maeotis to the Roman provinces. This raid must be dated to AD 276. Rome and the Bosporus undertook maritime operations against this tribal coalition.5 In Thrace the barbarians were defeated by Tacitus (AD 275–276) while Florian (AD 276) operated against them in Asia Minor. Having embarked near the shores of Asia Minor, the participants in the raid were crushed by Teiranes off the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus on their way back (CIRB 29). The staters of all the three rulers are of the same type in terms of the style and iconography, metrology, metallurgy and the minting technology. They are made from a copper-silver alloy with a small content of silver (below 10%). Undoubtedly, these coins were issued at a single mint, i.e. in Panticapaeum. The Phanagorian 2011 hoard provides evidence for this supposition with the staters of Rhescuporis V (no. 2132) and Teiranes (no. 2238) of 572 BE struck from the same reverse die (Fig. 71). Staters of Sauromates IV struck with that reverse die are unknown.

1 Anokhin 1986, no. 716. In the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site such staters not by chance are recorded as ‘billon’ ones: ΑΞΦ – https://Bosporan-kingdom.com/716-4402/12.html, etc.; ΒΟΦ – https://Bosporan-kingdom.com/7174843/4. html, etc.; ΓΟΦ – https://Bosporan-kingdom.com/718-4740/1.html, etc. 2 See Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 39–40 (with references). 3 Anokhin 1986, 124. 4 Gaidukevich 1949, 452–53. 5 Khairedinova 1994, 522.

36

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

The coins of the three kings were circulating simultaneously as suggested by the joint finds in four hoards of the last quarter of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century: from Tyritace (1937),6 Batareika (1958),7 Sudak (1958)8 and Phanagoria (2011).9 Thus, the numismatic evidence allows us to state with confidence that these kings were co-rulers but not rivals. On the other hand, the hoards indicate that the volumes of striking of each of the three kings differed in AD 275/6.10 This fact makes it possible to define in more detail the workload of officinae at the Panticapaean mint in that turbulent year. Whereas the Rhescuporis V striking, resumed after a seven-year interruption, is noted by fairly considerable number of recorded staters of 571 BE – over 80,11 only slightly more than ten staters of 572 BE are known,12 and only two of 573 BE.13 In contrast, Sauromates IV’s striking in 572 BE was the most intensive (at present, over 230 pieces have been recorded),14 possibly suggesting a longer term than the striking of Teiranes of the same year (today, over 50 are known).15 The technique of surface silvering of new (copper) staters after AD 275 differs absolutely from the Rhescuporis V’s billon of AD 242/3–267/8 and is rather closer to that of the Roman coins of the same time. A shortage of silver for the production of money to finance the military operations against the tribes invading the Roman provinces and the Bosporan client-state, coupled with inflation, compelled both Roman emperors and Bosporan kings from as early as the AD 250s to strike coins from a copper-silver alloy coated with a thin layer of silver. Similar crises; similar consequences for coinages of the third quarter and beginning of the fourth quarter of the 3rd century AD. Recent research shows that, after AD 275, similar proportions of silver were used in the alloys of Bosporan and Roman strikings, as well as possibly common techniques of silvering the debased coins. As mentioned above, the Roman state and Bosporan authorities effectively disguised the adjustments to the silver content of the coinage. The chemical composition of the AD 275 staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes, as well as the silvering technique, remained poorly studied before the discovery of the Phanagorian 2011 hoard. Previous investigations of the chemical composition of these coinages were limited to a small sample, and the use of then available instrumental base led to insufficiently verified conclusions.16 Thus it was believed that the last issue of staters of Sauromates IV and Teiranes with a silver content of 50% took place in AD 275/6; later, silver gradually disappeared from the metal of the Bosporan stater, to be replaced first by copper and then by ever increasing proportions of tin and lead.17 Analysis of the chemical composition of the State Hermitage’s coins also led the scholars to the conclusion that, from the time of Sauromates IV and Teiranes, staters finally lost a precious metal content to their alloy and started to be struck from lead-tin bronze with a large content of lead.18 These conclusions, however, are erroneous.

6

CH XI, 225. CH XI, 226. 8 CH XI, 227. 9 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017; 2019; CH XI, 231. 10 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 46, fig. 23. 11 Of these, 27 come from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, 22 are recorded in the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site, over 30 are recorded by Frolova (1997b II, 268–69). 12 Phanagorian 2011 hoard – 1; Frolova 1997b II, 275 – 6; the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site – 4. 13 1. Frolova 1997b II, pl. LVIII.27. 2. See the ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ Catalogue-Archive web-site: https://bosporan-kingdom. com/718-4740/1.html. 14 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 46, n. 224. 15 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 44–46. 16 For example, the investigations of coins from the State Hermitage in the late 1990s used the ‘AR-104’ analyses produced at the St Petersburg geophysical instrument making company ‘Geologorazvedka’. 17 Frolova 1997b II, 72–73, 148. However, evidence from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, where the coins of Sauromates IV and Teiranes are twice as numerous as those known before, does not confirm that the silver content in staters of these kings was 50%. Only in a single stater of Sauromates IV does the silver content in different points of the surface vary between 8.35% and 35.28% (Saprykina and Gunchina 2017, 427, no. 2222), and that was related to the manufacturing technique of the staters in general. 18 Smekalova and Dyukov 2001, 91, 96, 103. 7

37

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

Rhescuporis V’s Staters of AD 274/5 and 275/6 from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard XRF Analysis XRF analysis of 28 Rhescuporis V staters of AD 274/5 and 275/6 from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard shows that silver content in the copper alloy varied between 4.49% (minimum) and 10.04% (maximum), with an average 5–9% (Fig. 72). In addition, the alloys of these staters contain such trace elements as gold, tin, lead, arsenic, antimony and nickel. Table 13. XRF analyses of the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard staters of Rhescuporis V of AD 274/5 and 275/6.19 Phanagoria Museum. No.

Catalogue No.

Ag

Cu

Au

Sn

Pb

Sb

Ni

0.10 0.00 1.01 0.09 0.22 0.38 0.27 0.44 0.49 0.75 0.22 0.30 0.46 0.37 0.14 0.20 0.47 0.38 0.25 0.48 0.56 0.44 0.29 0.17 0.29 0.35 0.17

0.28 0.30 0.41 0.29 0.32 0.38 0.40 0.35 0.33 0.20 0.89 0.25 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.25 0.36 0.29 0.17 0.35 0.34 0.09 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.35 0.13

0.14 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.06

0.03 0.16 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04

0.58

0.73

0.09

0.04

AD 274/5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1095a 1096 1097 1098 1099

9.41 10.04 7.19 9.30 5.31 4.96 4.69 5.26 6.40 5.70 7.44 4.49 4.64 5.27 5.76 6.12 6.30 5.70 5.43 6.77 4.98 4.68 6.81 7.97 4.82 5.47 6.09

89.97 88.98 91.28 90.07 93.73 93.99 94.42 93.69 92.59 93.05 91.18 94.76 94.55 93.89 93.65 93.14 92.56 93.35 93.88 92.09 93.88 94.52 92.31 91.26 94.44 93.57 93.35

0.07 0.10 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.11 0.04 0.15 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.11 0.12 0.17 0.22 0.10 0.14 0.15

AD 275/6 28

2132

5.44

93.14

0.04

The chemical composition of staters with the dates ΑΞΦ (Table 13, nos. 1–27) and ВОФ (no. 28) is similar; tin and lead present as trace and minor elements. Noteworthy is a group of staters with the highest silver content varying between 7% and 10% (nos. 1–4, 11, 24).

19

All these staters staters were struck from the same obverse die.

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PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

Metallographic, SEM and EPMA Measurements of Rhescuporis V’s Stater no. 2132 ЕРМА measurements of the surface of the stater no. 2132 (Fig. 73), struck in AD 275/6, took place at the Centre of Collective Usage of the Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’ of Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University in 2021. Mapping of element distribution throughout the surface of the coin shows that copper is uniformly distributed over the analysed area whereas silver is localised in separate spots (Fig. 74). The map of the silver distribution throughout the surface of the stater corresponds well to the areas of a silvery colour observed visually. Also, the presence of chlorine has been established, exactly in the spots containing silver. The results of EPMA have demonstrated the presence of peaks of silver, copper, oxygen and chlorine (Fig. 75), as well as calcium and magnesium (Fig. 76), on the surface of the stater. On the convex parts of the relief of the surface of the coins there were found 2.61–15.76% Ag and 69.28–80.17% Cu (with 9.19–15.04 % of oxygen), in the depressions of the relief there were 14.18–84.07% Ag and 6.98–73.46% Cu (with 8.14–15.36 % of oxygen), and in the flat field of the coin 5.38–14.65% Ag and 67.84–82.26% Cu (with 10.46–15.97% of oxygen). The amount of chlorine constitutes up to 2.45%; that of calcium up to 2.94%; magnesium 0.28 %. A comparison of the peak intensities in the spectra of these elements demonstrated that the maximum quantity of silver was preserved in the depressions of the relief while the minimum was on the convex parts and in the flat field of the coin (Figs. 77, 78). This fact is due to the wear of the surface layer of the coin during circulation. The presence of silver in combination with chlorine, calcium and magnesium on the surface of the stater indicates that the silvering was made most probably by using a silvering paste like in the case of coins of Pharsanzes, Sauromates IV, Teiranes and Thothorses. Along with the regular elements – copper, silver, oxygen, chlorine and calcium – different trace elements are present in small quantities, usually not exceeding 1.0%: aluminium, silicon, etc. (Table 14), probably un-eliminated remains of soil impurities. Table 14. Quantitative EPMA of the chemical composition of the surface of stater no. 2132. Average contents of the elements, % Cu

Ag

О

Cl

Ca

Mg

Other elements

59.32

22.89

14.09

1.05

1.62

0.28

0.75

The maps of the element distribution and spectra obtained from the areas of the preserved coating indicate that in those spots where predominantly silver is found, copper is absent or is present in lesser amounts: up to 84% Ag and about 7% Cu. (Figs. 79, 80). These data also confirm the fact of silvering the surface of the coins. The X-ray structural analysis revealed the following phases on the surface of stater no. 2132: silver, copper, solid solution of silver in copper (Ag97Cu3)0,04, silver chloride (AgCl), as well as cuprous oxide (Cu2O) (Fig. 81). The presence of silver chloride is evidently explainable through the technology of silvering. The results of analysis of the chemical composition of those areas on the surface of the coins where the silver coating is not observable visually indicate that silver is nevertheless present in the quantity of 5.24%.

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

39

The results of metallographic studies and EPMA show that: (a) the stater of Rhescuporis V of AD 275/6 was minted from a copper alloy with a small percentage of silver (up to 5.24%); and, (b) on the surface of the stater there is a silver coating obtained apparently by using silvering pastes. Staters of Sauromates IV from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard XRF Investigation The XRF analysis of 88 Sauromates IV staters from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard has shown that the silver content in the copper alloy varies between 3.62% (minimum) and 35.28% (maximum), with an average 5–9%. Trace elements includes gold, tin, arsenic, antimony and nickel in the same amounts as in Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132 (see below). Despite the slight variability of the silver content in the copper-based alloy, it can be concluded that the least amount of silver (5–6%) presents in the group of staters with the reverse type of bust of Tacitus without additional symbols20 (nos. 2149–2185) (Fig. 82.2158). The sample comprises 37 specimens with a silver content below 5% (nos. 2149, 2155, 2156, 2164, 2178, 2180, 2181, 2184, etc.), and one case below 4% (no. 2167). The highest silver content (an average of 8–10%) is in staters with an eagle on a column (27 coins, nos. 2186–2212).21 This issue, most probably, was of a triumphal character, possibly devoted to the victory of Tacitus’ fleet over the ships of the Goths and Heruli in the Pontus (Fig. 82.2187).22 In this group, the silver content seldom fell below 7–8%, reaching >11% (nos. 2193, 2196) and even >14.5% (no. 2189) (Fig. 83). In the third group of the staters, with an eagle on a sphere (24 coins, nos. 2213–2236),23 the average silver content is 7–8%. Here coins are encountered containing both up to 35.28% (no. 2222) or 15% silver (no. 2217) and below 5–6% (nos. 2229, 2232, 2235). The average silver content in Sauromates IV’s staters is higher than in Teiranes’, where a stable silver content varies between 5% and 7%.24 The silver content on the surface of Sauromates IV’s staters varies haphazardly between 8.4% and 21.1% (no. 2189), 7.78% and 19.20% (no. 2214), or from 8.35% to 35.28% (no. 2222). Some staters of this king do not differ from the billon staters of Rhescuporis V, possessing a silvery colour and lustre although with comparable silver contents in the alloy.25 Microscopic examination (SEM) of the surface of the other Sauromates IV staters disclosed small spots visually characterised by grey colour peculiar to silver chloride or sulphide.26 A comparison of the data on the maximum silver content on the surface of the staters analysed and areas of the most intensive colour shows that they coincide.27 Measurements of some staters took place using the XRF spectrometer M4 Tornado (Bruker). It has been established that the maximum concentrations of silver really coincide with the areas of light grey colour discerned during the SEM examination on the surface of the staters analysed (Fig. 86a).

20

Sear 2001, no. 5501; Frolova 1997b II, pls. LXIV.4–20, LXV.1–12a. Frolova 1997b II, pls. LXIII.19–27, LXIV.1–3. 22 For an interpretation of the types of Sauromates IV, see Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 47–51. 23 Frolova 1997b II, pl. LXIII.10–18. 24 This silver content in staters of Teiranes correlates in general with the data obtained through analysis of Roman coins of the 3rd–4th century AD, on which partial wear of the upper layer is notable: see Klockenkamper et al. 1999, 318. 25 Here the maximum values of the silver content in staters of Sauromates IV are implied. 26 Danilevskii et al. 1935, 107. 27 The comparison was conducted employing the option of photography of the area analysed by the XRF method, provided by the software support of XSpect Bruker. Saprykina, Gunchina et al. 2017, 280–81. 21

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PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

EPMA Investigation of Sauromates IV’s Staters from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard ЕРМА measurements of five Sauromates IV’s staters took place at Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University in 2021. The coins analysed from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, Phanagoria Museum (Fig. 85), were nos. 2155, 2186, 2218, 2222 and 2224. Some staters of Sauromates IV seem to have been struck from billon with a dull silvery surface (Figs. 82, 83, 85, 86а), while others have a dark surface with separate local spots of silvery colour and areas of a reddish-copper colour. The copper is uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the staters, whereas silver is localised in isolated areas. The maps of silver distribution throughout the surface of coins of Sauromates IV correspond well to the local areas of silvery colour observed visually. Apart from silver, chlorine was discovered on the surface of the coins, most often in those spots where silver was revealed (Fig. 87). EPMA defined that in all the EDX spectra obtained from the surface of the staters examined there are peaks of silver, copper, oxygen and chlorine (Figs. 88–92). In the spectra of the surface of nos. 2155, 2224 and 2186 there are also peaks of calcium and sodium, while in no. 2224 there are peaks of potassium as well (Fig. 92b). In the convex areas of the relief of the coin surface, quantitative EPMA defined 4.5–58.5% Ag and 26.3–94.8% Cu (with 2.9–27.3% of oxygen); in the depressions of the relief, 5.6–92.7% Ag and 5.4–85.2% Cu (with 4.4–33.8% of oxygen); and in the flat field of the coin, 4.3–88.3% Ag and 6.3–83.2% Cu (with 5–55.6% of oxygen). Chlorine constitutes from 0.38% to 2.35%, sodium 6–10%, calcium 0.35–1.3% and potassium 1.95%. The silver and copper distribution in different areas of the relief of the coin surface, according to comparison of the intensities of the peaks in the spectra of these elements, is haphazard (Figs. 93–95). A similar picture was observed with the coins of Pharsanzes. Moreover, even in the areas of the field of the coin near to each other, a scatter in the content of the elements was observable (cf. spectra 3 and 4 in Fig. 95d). Quantitative analysis of the chemical composition of the coins shows that the average copper content on the surface Sauromates IV’s staters varies between 49.19% and 67.60%. Such a variation can be explained through different degrees of oxidation of copper, confirmed by the different percentage of oxygen (varying between 10.11% and 13.21%). The average silver content on the surface of different coins varies from 13.64% to 36.16%. It is noteworthy that chlorine is found on the surface of all the coins, varying from 0.72% to 1.24%, in nos. 2155 and 2186 calcium (0.4–0.6%), and in nos. 2155, 2186 and 2224 sodium (6.0–7.6%). The presence of such elements on the surface of the staters certainly indicates that these coins were silvered using pastes containing them – for example, silver chloride, sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, potassium tartrate, mercury chloride and chalk as a thickener. In coin no. 2222, small quantities of different minor elements were found, most not exceeding 1.0%: aluminium, silicon and sulphur (see the Table 15). The maps of element distribution over the surface of the staters analysed show that in those areas where silver is found, copper is absent or is contained in lesser amounts (Fig. 96); this circumstance also confirms the fact of silvering the surface of the coins.

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PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

Table. 15. Quantitative EPMA of the chemical composition of the surface of Sauromates IV’s staters. Average contents of the elements, % Catalogue No.

Cu

Ag

О

Cl

Ca

Na

2155 2186 2218 2222 2224 2264

64.43 66.64 67.60 49.19 54.72 63.47

13.64 15.49 18.08 36.16 24.95 19.76

13.21 10.11 13.12 11.80 10.40 10.18

0.72 0.96 1.20 0.86 1.03 1.24

0.40 0.80

7.60 6.00

Pb

6.95 5.35

K

Other elements

1.95

1.99 -

X-ray structural analysis revealed the following phases on the surface of stater no. 2186: solid solution of silver in copper (1% Ag and 99 % Cu), silver (AgCl), as well as cuprous oxide (Cu2O). As on coins of Pharsanzes, Rhescuporis V (AD 275/6) and Teiranes, the surface of the Sauromates IV stater revealed silver chloride (AgCl). There is calcium carbonate as well (СаСО3) (Fig. 97). The presence of these substances is evidently explainable through the technology of silvering. The analysis of the chemical composition of areas of the coin surface a where silver coating is not visible shows that silver is nevertheless present there in a quantity of about 8%, and in some coins about 6% of lead has been found. Thus, metallographic analysis and EPMA demonstrate that: (a) staters of Sauromates IV were minted from a copper-silver alloy containing about 8% Ag, and also from a copper-silver-lead alloy (with about 6% Pb); (b) on the surface of these coins there is a silver coating which probably was applied using silvering pastes. Staters of Teiranes, AD 275/6–278/9 from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard XRF Analysis and the Metallographic Investigation at the Restoration Laboratory of the State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Preserve ‘Phanagoria’ and the State Research Institution for Restoration An almost invariably low silver content (5–7%) is recorded for all the coins of Teiranes (Fig. 98, 101); approximately the same amount of silver, as shown above, is contained in the staters of Rhescuporis V and Sauromates IV dated by AD 275/6.28 Nevertheless, there are single coins of Teiranes for which a marked variability in the silver content is notable: from 5.16% to 18.46% (no. 2285). The SEM examination of coins of this type has disclosed that their surface retains small areas distinguished by a greyish colour. The lowest amount of silver (ca. 4.5%) is in stater no. 2237 with the erroneous date ΓΞΦ – 563 BE = AD 266/7 (Fig. 98.2237). Staters with this date are extremely rare29 and have never been tested. Recently we proved that ΓΞΦ staters were issued in AD 276/7.30 28 This silver content in staters of these kings generally correlates with the data obtained from analysis of the surface of Roman coins of the 3rd–4th century AD where partial abrasion of the upper layer was noted that resulted in a lower percentage of silver on the surface of worn coins; these have acquired a reddish hue, while coins in a better state of preservation had a higher content of silver and a bright silvery appearance. See Klockenkamper et al. 1999, 318. 29 By now, only four examples have been recorded; they all are struck from a single die-combination. The Batareika 1958 and Phanagorian 2011 hoards each contain one such coin; two specimens are recorded in The ‘Coins of the Bosporus’ CatalogueArchive web-site. See Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 41; https://Bosporan-kingdom.com/727-4878/1.html; https://Bosporan -kingdom.com/7274878/2.html. 30 See Abramzon 2020. This emission caused a series of erroneous interpretations. There were hypotheses about the usurpation of entire power by Teiranes or about his rule in the Asiatic Bosporus in AD 266/7, as well as about Rhescuporis V’s appointing him a co-ruler, etc. (Kruglikova 1966, 119; Frolova 1997b II, 59–62, 73–74; Yailenko 2002, 321; Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017,

42

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

The presence of silver in this issue is not fortuitous. It correlates with, for instance, the amount of silver (3–4.9%) in the post-reform silvered antoniniani of Gallienus of AD 260–268, which often looked like ordinary copper coins.31 Recent study of stater ΓΞΦ no. 2237 revealed traces of a silver coating (see below). In other Teiranes staters of AD 276/7 (79 specimens) the highest silver content is recorded, i.e. 6–7%. The most abundant emission of Teiranes also falls on this year. The large volume of that striking is explained by the king’s need to provision his military operations against the Heruli and Goths who, in the autumn of the same year, were returning to the north via the Bosporus after their defeat by Florian.32 Metallographic examination of stater no. 224033 shows that its surface bares no additional silver layer while in the body of coin itself, silver is extremely dispersed (its real content in the alloy is considerably smaller) (Fig. 100).34 XRF analysis of a number of Teiranes’ staters, as well as of those of his co-rulers (see above), has disclosed a slight scatter of the concentration of silver over several points, the content of which in different plots varied between 5% and 11% (nos. 2268, 2282), from 4–5% to 14% (nos. 2302, 2313) and from 5% to 18% (no. 2285), etc. These leaps in the silver content indicate the surface enrichment of staters of Teiranes and Sauromates IV similar to the Roman coins of the AD 270–280s, i.e. the antoniniani of Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, et al.35 (see below). Previously, we believed that the silver traces on the surface of staters after AD 275/6 resulted from the use of the technique of hot-plating the coins with silver foil.36 Indirectly, the results of metallography favour this hypothesis when compared with the XRF data and the maps of element distribution on the surface of the coins. This method was used in Roman coinage of an earlier period,37 as well as in the coinage of the Gallic empire in the 3rd century.38 It was supposed that the absence of mercury in the results of analysis of coins of that period indirectly indicated the use of hot-plating.39 Perhaps, at the Panticapaean mint in AD 275/6–278/9, silver amalgam was not used,40 whereas in Roman coinage it predominated, beginning with AD 250,41 and up to the time of Diocletian.42 41). Meanwhile, A.A. Ashrafian (1982, 70) asserted that the obverse die of the stater of 563 BE from the Batareika 1958 hoard was used for striking of Teiranes’ staters of 572 and 573 BE, hence it was made in 572 or 573 BE but the carver erroneously engraved in the place of tens the sign of the preceding decade. This opinion was supported also by Anokhin, who pointed out that in this case the supposition must be refuted concerning the striking of Teiranes in 563 BE contrary to the hypothesis upon which Frolova insists (Anokhin 1986, 124). The Phanagorian 2011 hoard was the first that provided a unique possibility to put stop to this discussion. First of all, this hoard includes ten staters of 573 BE struck from the obverse die of 563 BE (nos. 2325–2334) combined with two reverse dies. In terms of style and minting technology, these staters of 563 and 573 BE do not differ. Secondly, the chemical compositions of the staters of 563 and 573 BE struck from a single obverse die are identical: Cu (on average) 92% and Ag ca. 5–7%. Thus, in AD 266/7, Teiranes was not a co-ruler of Rhescuporis V and did not mint coins, so that the issue with ГXF dates to 573 BE. 31 By the very end of the rule of Gallienus, the silver content in antoniniani of the sixth issue of the mint of Rome fell to less than 3%. See King 1989, 290–91. 32 Frolova 1997b II, 73; Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 52–53. 33 The authors are sincerely grateful to Dr I.G. Ravich at the State Research Institute for Restoration for carrying out metallographic analysis of a sample of the Phanagorian 2011 hoard staters. 34 The silver content on the surface of this coin is 4.98–10.5%. 35 In Roman coins, the decline of the silver content is traceable beginning in the AD 250s: it varies between 5% and 20% (see King and Northover 1997, 73–78; Vlachou et al. 2002; Deraisme et al. 2006). Under Aurelian, the silver content in Roman coins again fell down and constituted between 1% and 5% (see King and Northover 1997, 78–80). The silver content in the antoniniani issued after AD 270 was below 5% (see Caley and McBride 1956, 285). 36 An experiment has shown that the adhesion of silver foil to a copper flan occurred at a temperature of 950°C. After the diffusion of silver into copper, the sample was subjected to cold hammering, which resulted in the microstructure and thickness of the silver coating corresponding precisely to the original. See Deraisme et al. 2006, 476–79. 37 Kraft et al. 2006, 87–90. 38 Deraisme et al. 2006, 476. 39 Analysis took place for coins of Sauromates IV nos. 1868 and 2151, as well as no. 2239 of Teiranes. 40 This question needs further study. 41 Vlachou et al. 2002. 42 The method of neutron activation has revealed a silver content varying between 3.4% and 4.3% (with an average of 3.87%) in the post-reform folles of Diocletian. The low denominations of copper contained silver in smaller ratios. The base of the alloy was constituted of copper 96.2%. See Sutherland and Harold 1961, 56–61; RIC VI, 94.

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

43

Finally, it must be pointed out that among Teiranes’ coins occur staters with a complete absence of silver in the alloy. Nos. 5266 (AD 275/6) and 5270 (AD 276/7) in the State Historical Museum contain silver only as a trace element, 0.02% and 0.05% respectively.43 Investigation of coins in the State Hermitage Museum has shown that some of Teiranes’ staters do not contain even traces.44 In the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, there is only a single stater of AD 276/7 (no. 2273), containing from 85.29% to 88.95% of copper and from 10.69% to 14.31% of lead, with no silver content at all. This specimen was struck from the same obverse die A573/1 as coins nos. 2256– 2287 containing 5–6% silver. In rare specimens, the silver content declined below 4% (nos. 2356, 2361); however, in the bulk of Teiranes’ coins it remains at an average level of 5–7%. SEM and EPMA Investigation of Teiranes’ Staters from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard SEM and ЕРМА measurements of eight of Teiranes’ staters took place at Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University in 2021. Coins analysed (the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, Phanagoria Museum) (Fig. 101): Sample 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Catalogue no. 2237 2264 2268 2269 2343 2344 2346 2362

Year BE ΓΞΦ ΓΟΦ ΓΟΦ ΓΟΦ ΔOΦ EOΦ ΕΟΦ ΕΟΦ

Visual examination of the Teiranes staters shows that their surface is of a dark colour with separate local spots of a characteristic silvery colour, to be found predominantly in the depressions of the coined relief and on the flat areas of the field of the coin. There are also areas of a reddish-copper colour and hues of green. This observation is confirmed by the results of mapping the elements, carried out during the SEM examination, which showed the same differences in copper and silver distribution over the surface of the staters (Figs. 102, 114). The maps of element distribution also indicate the presence of chlorine in the spots of localisation of silver. X-ray structural microanalysis revealed that in spectra obtained from different areas of the surface of the coins (Figs. 103–110), as well as in the summary spectra (Figs. 110–113), there are maxima characteristic of silver, copper and oxygen, and also peaks of tin, chlorine, calcium, sodium and magnesium. It is of note that in the spectra obtained from staters nos. 2269 and 2362, peaks of tin are absent, whereas in nos. 2264 and 2268 there are peaks of lead (Figs. 104, 105). Quantitative analysis allowed us to define that the convex areas of the relief of the coin surface are 3–20% Ag and 43–79% Cu (with 7–25% of oxygen); in the depressions of the relief, 6–84% Ag and 8–86% Cu (with 4–28% of oxygen); and in the field of the coin surface 2–70% Ag and 17–80% Cu (with 8–25% of oxygen). The content of chlorine is from 0.46% to 2.29%, of sodium 4–14%, calcium 0.6–0.9% and magnesium 0.19–0.21%. Comparison of the peak intensities in the spectra of the revealed elements in staters nos. 2237, 2344 and 2269 (Fig. 113) shows homogeneous silver and copper distribution over the surface of these coins. The maximum silver content is in the depressions of the relief; the minimum is on 43 44

See Frolova 1997b II, 75, pl. XXVI.6. Smekalova and Dyukov 2001, 91, 96.

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the convex parts of the relief, where the silver surface coating was worn away in the process of circulation. The results of the quantitative analysis of the chemical composition of the surface of the coins are presented in Table 16. The average copper content on the surface of staters of Teiranes varies from 51.58% to 65.07%, to be explained by the different degree of its oxidation as confirmed by different percentages of oxygen: from 23.3% to 11.65%. The average content of silver on the surface of coins varies from 8.6% to 22.41%, and of tin from 2.31% to 3.58%. Coins nos. 2237, 2343 and 2346 exhibit trace elements, mostly not exceeding 1.0%, of aluminium, sulphur and iron (see Table 16). The results of EPMA showed that chlorine is present on the surface of all the coins examined (0.52–1.44%), on staters nos. 2237 and 2343 calcium (0.58–0.83%), on nos. 2237 and 2268 sodium (7.82 %), and on nos. 2343 and 2346 magnesium (0.19–0.21 %). The presence of these elements indicates that the technique of silvering Teiranes’ coins was analogous to that applied to the staters of Pharsanzes, Rhescuporis V (AD 275/6) and Sauromates IV as well as those of Thothorses of AD 286/7. Table 16. Quantitative EPMA of the chemical composition of the surface of Teiranes’ staters. Average contents of the elements. % Catalogue no.

Cu

Ag

О

Cl

Ca

Sn

2237 2268 2269 2343 2344 2346 2362

51.58 53.37 59.64 56.83 59.76 59.71 65.07

8.6 14.38 22.14 19.54 15.63 18.42 22.41

23.3 16.26 13.39 18.5 18.41 16.32 11.65

1.2 0.52 1.44 0.99 1.22 1.19 0.87

0.58

2.34 3.58 3.39 2.31 3.39

0.83

Pb

Na

4.07

7.82 7.82

Mg

Other elements 4.58

0.21

0.79

0.19

1.59

The silvering of coins is suggested by the results of the element distribution mapping of the examined surface areas (Figs. 102, 114). In the maps, it is clear that, alongside the homogeneous copper distribution, areas with a high silver content are found in local spots. At the same time, copper in sometimes not found in these areas or is present in lesser quantities than on the remaining surface. X-ray structural analysis showed that on the surface of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237 (ΓΞΦ) the following phases are found: solid solution of tin in copper (Сu32Sn)0.12; solid solution of silver in copper (AgCu99 or 1% Ag and 99% Cu), pure elemental silver (Ag) and cuprous oxide (Cu2O). As on the surface of the coins of Pharsanzes, Rhescuporis V (AD 275/6) and Sauromates IV, there was silver chloride (AgCl) and СаСО3 (Fig. 115), the presence of which is explainable through the technology of silvering. Analysis of the chemical composition of areas of the coin surface lacking a visual indication of the presence of a silver coating shows that nevertheless silver is present there in the quantity of 4.97–5.94%. The alloy contains up to 3.58 % tin and 4.07% lead. It must be noted that on the surface of Teiranes’ coins were relatively smooth flakes of silver measuring 60–100 microns or more (Fig. 116). EPMA has shown that these flakes contain up to 80% silver, while copper is practically absent (below 2.5%) (Fig. 117). Thus, the existence of the

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

45

flakes and their chemical composition also prove the presence of a surface silver layer on staters of Teiranes. To summarise, the results of a metallographic analysis and EPMA of the coins indicate that: (a) staters of Teiranes were minted from a copper-silver alloy which contained up to 4.97– 5.94% Ag, and a copper-silver-tin alloy (2.31–3.39% Sn) or copper-silver-tin-lead alloy (3.58% Sn and 4.07% Pb); (b) on the surface of the staters there is a silver coating which evidently was applied by using pastes. Comparison with Roman Silver Denominations of the AD 250–270s As mentioned above, Bosporan coinage traditionally is considered within the context of Roman provincial coinage and the coinages of dependent kingdoms.45 In the 3rd century, the mint at Panticapaeum undoubtedly was within the main channel of the Roman state’s attempts to dissolve the problem of debasement of silver denominations. The copper staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes, like Roman denarii and antoniniani issued after AD 250–260s,46 frequently have a dark coloured surface and look like ordinary copper coins (by contrast to the lustrous billon of Rhescuporis V of AD 242/3 to 267/8). However, in the course of cleaning coins from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, it was noted that many staters of Sauromates IV and Teiranes have partly retained a silvery colour and lustre on the surface. What was the technique of silver coating used? Apparently, the answer should be sought in the Roman production of surface-silvered coins made from copper alloy with a small silver content in the third quarter of the 3rd and early 4th century AD. By AD 250, the production of complex copper alloy (Cu–Sn–Pb–Ag) coins with a silvered surface had become common practice. The same method continued to be applied during the 4th century AD for the production of a new denomination introduced by Diocletian in AD 293– 294. The silver content in silver denominations declined to 5%, occasionally varying by up to 20%.47 The latest antoniniani of Valerianus I (AD 253–260) contained only 3–4% silver (occasionally slightly more) and looked like purely copper coins;48 after striking, a thin layer of silver was coated onto their surface and soon was worn away during circulation of the money. The antoniniani of Aurelian (AD 270–275) were already so poorly silvered that specimens retaining traces of the process of silvering are extremely rare.49 After AD 270, the silver content in Roman coins fell again and varied already between 1% and 5%.50 The antoniniani of Tacitus (whose bust is depicted on Bosporan staters of AD 275 – M.A. et al.) contained from 4% to 13% silver;51 post-reform folles of Diocletian had with an average 3.87% silver, while the lower denominations of his copper coinage had still less.52 The chemical composition of copper staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes in general is very similar to that of the antoniniani of the AD 260s to 276 (Table 17). Moreover, a silver covering of approximately equal thickness was applied on the surface of both coinages.

45

See, for example, Sear 2001, 534–43. Verboven 2007, 246–49. 47 King and Northover 1997, 73–78; Vlachou et al. 2002, II9.2.1; Deraisme et al. 2006. 48 In comparison with them, Rhescuporis V’s staters of AD 256/7 and 257/8 contained ca. 12% silver (Abramzon and Gunchina 2016, 292) and still looked like as silver money. They retained this quality until AD 267/8 but subsequently a seven-year interruption took place in the Bosporan coinage. 49 In RIC V.1, the results of a modern experiment are presented showing that the application of a paste composed of two parts silver, one part mercury and one part soda will produce a covering exactly similar to that which is still found on the best preserved silvered antoniniani. These materials were available in Roman mints. RIC V.1, 8, n. 1. However, in the alloy of Bosporan staters, mercury was not found, possibly because of its complete evaporation during heating above 750°C. 50 King and Northover 1997, 78–80; Caley and McBride 1956, 285. 51 Esty et al. 1993, 202, tab. 1. 52 Sutherland and Harold 1961, 56–61; RIC VI, 94. 46

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Table 17. Comparative analysis of alloys of AD 275–277 staters from the Phanagorian 2011 Hoard and the antoniniani of AD 260 to 276.53 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ruler/Catalogue No. Rhesсuporis V, AD 274/5, no. 1074 Rhesсuporis V, no. 1075 Rhesсuporis V, no. 1077 Rhesсuporis V, no. 1086 Rhesсuporis V, no. 1087 Rhesсuporis V, AD 275/6, no. 2132 Sauromates IV, AD 275/6, no. 2149 Sauromates IV, no. 2155 Sauromates IV, no. 2151 Sauromates IV, no. 2236 Sauromates IV, no. 2193 Sauromates IV, no. 2217 Teiranes, AD 276/7 (ГΞФ), no. 2237 Teiranes, AD 276/7, no. 2240 Teiranes, AD 276/7, no. 2268 Teiranes, AD 276/7, no. 2282 Teiranes, AD 277/8, no. 2335 Teiranes, AD 278/9, no. 2344 Postumus, AD 259‒267 Postumus Postumus Postumus Gallienus, AD 260‒268 Gallienus Gallienus Claudius II, AD 268‒270 Tacitus, AD 275‒276 Tacitus Tacitus Tacitus

Ag

Cu

Au

Sn

Pb

Ni

10.04 07.19 09.30 04.64 05.27 05.44 04.84 04.93 05.83 06.31 11.35 15.37 04.46 07.74 10.97 08.06 04.68 05.58 12.14 140 130 150 06.01 05.02 04.89 04.22 03.32 04.75 10.81 04.16

88.98 91.28 90.07 94.55 93.89 93.14 94.09 94.34 93.04 92.44 87.82 83.24 92.72 91.5 87.47 88.80 94.29 91.40 86.42 85 86 84 87.88 92.20 93.64 88.07 95.65 94.24 87.77 94.75

0.10 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.04 0.13 0.11 0.24 0.15 0.10 0.12 0.09 0.18 0.30 0.27 0.10 0.11 traces 0.07 0.07 0.08 traces

0.00 1.01 0.09 0.46 0.37 0.58 0.35 0.28 0.50 0.62 0.09 0.30 2.19 0.15 0.20 1.22 0.58 1.82 0.88 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.77 0.42 0.50 5.17 1.02 1.01 1.46 1.10

0.30 0.41 0.29 0.18 0.22 0.73 0.40 0.23 0.23 0.25 0.18 0.23 0.36 0.18 0.82 1.65 0.22 0.80 traces 0.9 0.9 0.9 3.00 0.51 0.27 2.27

0.16 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.44 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.13 0.33 0.62

0.73

The thickness of the silver-rich layer on Roman coins of the second half of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century AD varied from 5 to 10 microns:54 on the antoniniani of Valerianus and Gallienus it was below 7 microns; on those of Probus 5 microns, etc.55 The formation of a silver surface on coins could have been carried out through heating the coin with silver chips scattered over it so that they melted during heating and enveloped the entire coin with a thin layer of silver.56 Another possible mode of production of silver plating is by dipping the blanks in molten silver chloride.57 However, hot-dipping methods were not really suitable for mass production.58

53 Coins of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes are from the Phanagoria Museum. Sample of antoniniani: Postumus, Gallienus and Claudius II, after Caley and McBride 1956, 286, tab. 1 and Deraisme et al. 2006, 472, tab. 3; Tacitus, after Esty et al. 1993, 202, tab. 1. 54 Esty 1991, 226. 55 Cope 1972, 270, 274. 56 Esty 1991, 226, n. 1. 57 Cope 1968, 115–49; 1972. 58 Anheuser and Northover 1994; Vlachou et al. 2002, II9.2.3.

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

47

Experimentally, the possibility has been demonstrated of using a paste composed of silver, mercury and soda to silver the surface of antoniniani after striking. Other components of the paste, as mentioned above, might have included sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, potassium hydrotartrate, mercury chloride and chalk as a thickener.59 Amalgam plating was intensively used for silvering the surface of Roman coins.60 Was this method used at the Bosporus after AD 275/6? There is no exact answer: the results of mapping of element distribution on the surface of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2151 and the coins of Teiranes have not revealed any traces of mercury.61 Possibly, this indicates indirectly the use of the technique of hot-plating of the coins with silver foil (silver-gold foil in the case of Bosporan coins), which besides has been proved for Roman coins.62 Conclusions Analyses of the chemical composition of copper-silver staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes have disclosed a stable low silver content (average 5–9%) in the alloy, which is close to the antoniniani of the central part of the empire beginning with the issues of Gallienus (AD 260–268), Claudius II Gothicus (AD 268–270),63 and then of Tacitus (AD 275–276) and Florian (AD 276). Apparently, the minting technology of Bosporan staters is close to that used in striking the silvered coins of Aurelian, and afterwards of Tacitus and of Florian. The antoniniani of these emperors were made from a copper-based alloy containing silver with an average 9–11%, and with a silver covering containing from 19% to 63% silver.64 Evidently, in the coinages of the Bosporus and the Roman empire of the third and early fourth quarters of the 3rd century AD, similar processes were occurring called forth by common crises, in the first hand, by a shortage of silver for the production of money resulting in the debasement of silver denominations. During this period, the Bosporan stater, retaining the elder metrology of aureus (weight and size) until the end of coinage, in terms of the silver content and the technique of silvering the surface, was now oriented to the main Roman silver denomination, i.e. the antoninianus, and suffered the same stages of debasement. 6. Silvered Thothorses Staters of AD 286/7 XRF Analysis It has been maintained that beginning with the reign of Thothorses (AD 285/6–309/10) until the cessation of the Bosporan coinage in AD 341/2, only copper coins were issued. However, in the course of cleaning and restoration of the Phanagorian 2011 hoard coins, a group of Thothorses’ staters of 583 BE = AD 286/7 with traces of silver coating was disclosed (Fig. 118).65 The visual observation was confirmed in 2016 when the first analytical method to be used was XRF that took place at the Restoration Laboratory at Phanagoria. All 24 coins dated to 583 BE have been submitted to XRF analysis. Seventy-seven probes were obtained from the obverses and reverses 59

RIC V.1, 8, n. 1; Anheuser 1997, 127–34; Vlachou et al. 2002. Vlachou et al. 2002, II9.2.3. 61 On the other hand, considering that mercury completely evaporates when heated above 780°C, further investigations of this issue are needed. It has been established experimentally that the complex alloys Cu–Sn–Pb–Ag of late Roman coins, containing 1–5% silver and 3–9% each of tin and lead, produced effective silver coating if the metal was heated to a sufficiently high temperature so that mercury evaporated (Vlachou et al. 2002). However, the alloy of staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes was, in essence, binary (Cu–Ag) including proportions of lead and tin of only 0.1–0.4% each (like trace elements), very seldom 1–1.4%. Antoniniani of Postumus, Gallienus and Tacitus had a similar composition of alloy (cf. Table 17). 62 Deraisme et al. 2006, 476–79; Ingo et al. 2004, 174–76. 63 Antoniniani of Gallienus contain ca. 6% silver, those of Claudius II about 4–5%. See Caley and McBride 1956, 286, tab. 5; Cope 1969, 144–61. 64 Esty et al. 1993, 201–04. 65 Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017, 54–56. 60

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of the staters. The results are surprising: the spectrum shows that nine staters of that year were made from a copper-based alloy with the average content of silver ca. 4–12% (maximum 20%) and have a silver coating. This discovery allows us to state that a series of silvered staters was struck by Thothorses in AD 286/7. The first issue of 583 BE, apparently, should be considered staters, on whose reverse there is no tamga (nos. 2413–2414).66 Their average silver content varies between 4.14% and 4.28%. An issue followed in which all coins were struck from the other obverse die (nos. 2397– 2405). Nine such coins from the hoard are divided into two groups with a differing silver content. The silver content in seven coins of this issue is higher than in the previous one: no. 2397, 7.22%; no. 2398, 11.52% (the probes from some points show even 18.93% and 20.05%); no. 2399, 9.28% (the values from separate points are 12.72% and 14.63%); no. 2400, 5.53%; no. 2401, 3.66%; no. 2402, 4.22%; and no. 2403, 6.14%. It is known that copper coins were struck from the same obverse die but with the reverse type of an eagle instead of the emperor’s bust and year BE.67 Possibly, this series provides evidence of an attempt at monetary reform in the second year of Thothorses’ rule.68 We can assume that its essence was to restore the monetary system of the time of Rhescuporis V, based on bimetallism and comprising of two denominations: the ‘silver’ stater and the double denarius, a single copper denomination. However, it failed. Already in two staters of 583 BE struck from the same obverse die (nos. 2404–2405), the silver content was reduced to less than 2%. In other staters of 583 BE (nos. 2406–2412, 2416– 2420) and the staters of 584 BE (no. 2421) the silver content remains at the level of 1%. Then silver vanishes altogether or presents as a trace element. Table 18. XRF analyses of the Phanagoria Hoard staters of AD 286/7. Phanagoria Museum.69 Catalogue Side Analysis Ag No. analysed no. 2397 2398

2399

2400

2401 2402

66

obverse reverse obverse obverse reverse reverse obverse obverse reverse reverse obverse obverse reverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse

2397a 2397b 2398ab 2398ac 2398bb 2398bc 2399ab 2399ac 2399bb 2399bc 2400ab 2400ac 2400bb 2400bc 2401a 2401b 2402a 2402b

9.55 4.90 3.51 18.93 3.58 20.05 4.31 12.72 5.49 14.63 3.80 6.82 4.74 6.76 3.65 3.56 4.37 4.07

Cu

Au

Zn

Sn

Pb

Bi

As

Sb

Fe

Ni

77.16 86.22 93.87 71.75 93.71 71.80 93.36 82.05 91.70 78.40 89.87 82.17 86.20 85.57 91.28 92.65 92.68 91.23

0.14 0.10 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.16 0.10 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.10

0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00

2.94 2.64 1.52 2.67 1.62 2.68 1.29 1.85 1.26 2.09 4.49 5.04 5.67 4.27 1.88 1.84 1.32 1.40

9.16 5.58 0.68 5.94 0.71 4.94 0.56 2.71 1.12 4.19 1.44 5.33 2.94 2.93 2.57 1.44 1.17 2.67

0.03 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.25 0.11 0.13 0.10 0.12 0.00 0.12 0.15 0.13 0.17 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.09 0.19 0.10 0.12 0.23

0.52 0.35 0.16 0.39 0.14 0.30 0.23 0.33 0.15 0.32 0.23 0.35 0.26 0.25 0.29 0.26 0.17 0.22

0.11 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.05

0.03 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03

Anokhin 1986, no. 731; 2011, no. 2102. Zograf 1951, pl. L.12; Frolova 1997b II, pl. LXXXI.1–2; Anokhin 1986, no. 732; 2011, no. 2104. There is no information about the chemical composition of these coins. 68 No traces of silver have been revealed in a stater of the first year of Thothorses’ striking (582 BE = AD 285/6) found in Phanagoria. 69 The tone highlights coins with an average silver content of 4–10% and a silver coating. 67

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

2403

2404 2405 2406 2407 2408 2409 2410 2411 2412 2413

2414 2415 2416 2417 2418 2419 2420

obverse obverse reverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse obverse reverse

2403ab 2403ac 2403bb 2403bc 2404a 2404b 2405a 2405b 2406a 2406b 2407a 2407b 2408a 2408b 2409a 2409b 2410a 2410b 2411a 2411b 2412a 2412b 2413a 2413bb 2413bc 2414a 2414b 2415a 2415b 2416a 2416b 2417a 2417b 2418a 2418b 2419a 2419b 2420a 2420b

4.35 7.99 3.96 8.25 1.91 1.96 1.91 1.89 1.94 1.83 0.95 1.00 1.08 1.10 1.40 1.48 1.38 2.00 2.00 2.20 1.08 1.19 3.92 3.99 4.94 3.71 4.57 1.66 1.48 0.92 0.89 1.12 1.24 1.93 2.10 2.10 1.67 1.67 2.05

92.33 88.49 93.30 87.76 93.44 94.08 93.89 92.91 92.89 93.58 95.96 95.67 90.17 89.73 95.99 95.68 93.80 88.61 93.04 92.48 92.82 93.20 91.75 92.39 91.46 92.98 91.81 94.32 91.59 93.33 94.64 92.27 87.52 93.37 92.82 92.82 93.58 93.33 93.06

0.09 0.11 0.06 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.59 0.51

1.64 1.81 1.70 1.96 2.82 2.79 3.17 3.27 3.54 3.43 1.78 1.64 6.21 6.21 1.63 1.69 1.90 2.32 3.67 4.10 3.31 3.66 3.53 2.96 2.87 2.48 2.65 1.05 1.16 2.69 2.40 1.63 1.66 3.36 3.53 3.53 2.53 3.28 3.51

1.22 1.26 0.63 1.55 1.32 0.75 0.72 1.57 1.24 0.83 1.10 1.43 2.20 2.63 0.76 0.87 2.62 6.63 0.88 0.79 2.37 1.54 0.29 0.21 0.26 0.39 0.45 2.80 5.51 2.85 1.89 4.73 9.31 0.93 1.13 1.13 1.89 0.90 0.53

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.12 0.10 0.08 0.11 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12

0.23 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.21 0.23 0.27 0.33 0.31 0.27 0.15 0.19 0.18 0.21 0.15 0.17 0.13 0.16 0.31 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.17 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.23 0.11 0.11

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.06

49 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.05

EPMA Investigation of the Thothorses ‘Silver’ at Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University ЕРМА measurements of a sample of six Thothorses staters of AD 286/7 were taken at Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University in 2018, sheds a new light on the late Bosporan coin silvering technique.70 The coins analysed (all from the Phanagorian 2011 hoard, Phanagoria Museum) are nos. 2398, 2399, 2401, 2402, 2413 and 2414 (see Fig. 120).

70

Abramzon, Baryshnikov et al. 2020; Abramzon, Efimova, Koptseva, Saprykina and Smekalova 2021, 96–112.

50

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

On the surface of these coins there are isolated local areas with a characteristic silvery colour, observed predominantly in the depressions of the struck relief and in the smooth areas of the field of the coin. There are also areas with a reddish copper colour and with green hues. EPMA mapping of element distributions of entire coin surfaces shows local spots of silver (Fig. 121), which well correspond to the visually observed local areas with a silvery colour (Fig. 120). EPMA measurements took place on the coin reverses in local areas marked with a red frame. Typical results of the measurements are shown in Figs. 122–129. The EDX spectra show peaks of copper, silver, tin and silicon, as well as of chlorine and oxygen, with the exception of stater no. 2402, in the spectra of which tin is absent, and staters nos. 2398, 2401 and 2402, in the spectra of which, apart from the specified elements, there are peaks of lead. EPMA was carried out also in different areas of the stamped relief of the coins: projections, depressions and in smooth areas of the field. The results are presented in Figs. 122– 129. They show that on the surface of coins nos. 2398, 2399 and 2401, where numerous areas of the silvery colour are observed, the contents of the elements were: 3–23% Ag and 49–83% Cu (with 13–21% oxygen) in the convex parts of the relief of the coin surface; 6–22% Ag and 71–80% Cu (with 7–9% of oxygen) in the depressions of the relief; and in the flat coin field 4–11% Ag and 52–60% Cu (with the presence of 12–15% oxygen). The amounts of chlorine are 0.3–1.7%, sodium 4–17%, calcium 0.5–2.3% and magnesium 0.2–0.7%. Examples of the X-ray spectra of these coins are presented in Figs. 122–124. On the surface of coins nos. 2402, 2413 and 2414, where the silvery spots are few, the contents of the elements were: in the convex parts of the surface relief of the coins, 4–26% Ag and 47–80% Cu (with 7–39% oxygen); in depressions of the relief, 2–33% Ag and 29–80% Cu (with 10–36 % oxygen); in the flat field of the coin, 2–17% Ag and 31–55% Cu (with 18–33% oxygen). The concentration of chlorine is 0.6–4%, sodium 3–10%, calcium 0.5–2% and magnesium 0.2–0.7%. Examples of the X-ray spectra of these coins are presented in Figs. 125–129. Noteworthily: despite the visually differences observed in the number of the areas of silvery colour, the concentrations of the elements in them are the same. On a number of the silvered coins, mapping of the element distributions of the surface in pairs Ag–Cu and Ag–Au was carried out; the distribution of silver over the surface showed its local character and its good correspondence with the visually recorded spots (Figs. 130, 131). Table 19. Quantitative EPMA of surfaces of Thothorses’ silvered staters. Average element content, %

Catalogue No.71

Cu

Ag

2398 2399 2401 2402 2413 2414

44.74 54.43 65.79 39.92 72.31 54.15

20.06 17.45 11.60 13.26 13.70 06.28

Sn

Pb

Fe

As

P

S

Si

Al

О

Cl

Ca

Mg

Na

2.26 3.62 − − − 0.33 0.83 0.5 26.77 0.89 − − 1.98 − − − − 0.34 0.48 0.47 23.23 1.10 0.52 − 2.41 3.53 − − − 0.67 0.69 0.18 12.07 0.60 2.3 0.16 − 9.88 0.25 0.17 0.41 0.69 1.28 0.38 32.07 0.74 0.73 0.22 4.32 − − − − − 0.83 − 08.02 0.82 − − 1.60 − − − 0.21 0.6 1.79 1.13 25.70 1.31 0.98 0.45

− − − − − 5.8

Like in the staters of Sauromates IV (see Fig. 84), the gold on the surface is localised in combination with silver. Possibly, gold was included into the composition of the silver coating.

71

Abramzon and Kuznetsov 2017.

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

51

The average copper content in the staters analysed varies between 39.92% and 72.31%. This difference can be explained by its different extent of oxidation, confirmed by the different content of oxygen – varying from 32.07% down to 8.02%. The average silver content of different coins varies from 6.28% to 20.06%, tin from 1.6% to 4.32%, lead from 3.53% to 9.88%. In all the coins, with the exception of no. 2413, different trace elements are found in small quantities, seldom exceeding 1%: aluminium, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, iron and arsenic (Table 19). Thus, staters nos. 2399, 2414 and 2413 were produced from tin bronze with the tin content varying between 1.6% and 4.32%; nos. 2398 and 2401 were from lead-tin bronze with the lead content at 3.53–3.62% and tin at 2.26–2.41%; no. 2402 from lead bronze with a lead content of 9.88%. The results of EPMA have shown that chlorine is found on the coin surfaces in the amount of 0.6% to 1.31%; in staters nos. 2399, 2401, 2402 and 2414 there is calcium (0.52–2.3%); in no. 2414 sodium (5.8%); and in nos. 2401, 2402, 2414 magnesium (0.16–0.45%). The presence of these elements on the surface of Thothorses’ staters probably indicates that these had been subjected to silvering with the application of pastes according to the technology described above for the staters of Pharsanzes. The silvering of surfaces is confirmed by the results of mapping the element distribution over the surface of the areas studied (Fig. 132). It is clear from this mapping that copper is absent in those areas where silver is found. X-ray structural analysis has shown that on the surface of stater no. 2414 the following phases are discernible: solid solution of tin in copper (15% Sn and 85% Сu), solid solution of silver in copper (1% Ag and 99% Cu), silver, and also cuprous oxide (Cu2O). As on the surface of Pharsanzes’ coin, silver chloride was found (AgCl) and СаСО3 (Fig. 133), the presence of which probably is explained by the features of silvering technique. A detailed analysis of the surface structure in separate areas showed the presence of needle-shaped crystals (Fig. 134). EPMA has indicated in these areas the presence of about 30% Ag, 20% Cu, 8% Na, 1% Сl and oxygen. This morphology of the crystals indicates the absence of the effects of deformation in these areas, suggesting that the coin was subjected to silvering after striking. The microstructure of the cross-sectioned stater no. 2398 of Thothorses, with an indication of the structural components, is presented in Fig. 135. It consists of grains of the primary β solid solution based on copper and degraded eutectics of β and α solid solutions. Silver, in the structure of the alloy of no. 2398, sd in the coins of Pharsanzes and Rhescuporis V, is present in the form of separate (eutectic) inclusions, where it constitutes about 85% (Fig. 136.b), and as a solid solution in a matrix where its content does not exceed 3% (Fig. 136.c). In addition, in certain areas of the microstructure there are isolated inclusions of lead and tin (also shown above in Fig. 135). Results of EPMA measurements of an area at the centre of the cross-section (Fig. 137), as well as from a local area (Fig. 136.b), disclosed the presence of a small amount of tin (up to 2.5%). Thist proves that stater no. 2398 was struck from a lead-tin bronze with the silver content up to 3%. Microanalysis of no. 2398 disclosed the presence of a light colour layer up to 15 microns thick (Fig. 138) on its surface. The element distribution along a line (Fig. 139.а) indicates that, at some depth from the surface, the copper content was reduced while the silver content was increased. The element distribution mapping also shows the silver-enriched surface layer (Fig. 139.b). The chemical composition of the silver layer confirmed that the coating of Thothorses’ staters was produced by the application of special pastes (see Fig. 138).

52

PART 2: MICROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF AD 275–286/7 STATERS: COATING TECHNIQUES

Conclusion The results of metallographic and X-ray microspectral investigations of Thothorses’ staters of AD 286/7 demonstrate that: (1) the coinage alloys are represented by (a) tin bronze with a tin content varying between 1.6% and 4.32%, (b) lead-tin bronze containing 3.53–3.62% lead and 2.26–2.41% tin, (c) lead bronze containing 9.88% lead; (2) on the surface of such staters there is a silver cover with a thickness of 15 microns, applied using silvering pastes containing chlorides of silver, as well as, for example, sodium, ammonium, hydrotartrate of potassium, mercury chloride, and chalk as a thickener. In the conditions of large-scale production of coins, they could have been dipped in bulk into containers with the same paste. It must be taken in consideration that the volume of striking of silvered staters of AD 286/7 was very small.

CONCLUSION

The results of measurements of ca. 3000 staters from quite a number of Bosporan hoards, using XRF, EPMA, NRCA, FIB–FESEM–EDX, SEM–EDX, MC–ICP–MS lead isotope analysis, etc., conducted in 2016–21, enable a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of Bosporan silver coinage, especially silvering techniques, in the 3rd century. The data of chemical and metallurgical studies of coinage alloys indicate that from AD 227/8 to 286/7 (with interruptions), staters from silver or those containing some amounts of silver (and occasionally some amount of gold) were struck on the Bosporus. During this time, a debasement of the Bosporan stater was occurring and the latter was soon transformed from an electrum coin into silver and billon one (issued for almost 40 years – until AD 267/8) and, finally (since AD 275), into a copper coin with silver content of about 4–6% and coated with silver. This process was synchronous with the debasement of Roman silver – the antoninianus and denarius (which also were minted, often irregularly, from an alloy with a debased silver content), reflecting the same stages of debasement of money and attempts of the state at returning confidence to ‘silver’ money. In the empire, these were represented by infrequent small issues of quinarii and silver series in the coinages of Uranius Antoninus (only gold), Gallienus, Probus and Carus in the AD 260s–280s, and the reforms of Aurelian and Diocletian. At the Bosporus, the reform was by Rhescuporis V in the middle of the AD 260s, accompanied by a tiny issue of small gold and silver coins of high fineness synchronously with a billon as token money. Experimental studies of the surface of antoniniani and Bosporan staters suggest that a single (or at least similar) technique was used in the Roman and Bosporan coinages for enrichment of the silver surface of flans for striking billon coins. This included the operations of tempering and etching of the blank in acids in order to remove copper oxides and to develop the silver phase, with subsequent hammering of the blank and producing the effect of silver segregation on the surface. In the second half of the AD 270s, both in the empire and the Bosporan kingdom, silvered copper coins are issued with a practically equal proportion of silver in the alloy; the technology of their manufacture also may have been similar. For the first time it has been established that chlorine is present in the surface layer of Pharsanzes’ staters of AD 253/4, whereas Rhescuporis V’s staters of the same year were silvered by application of an absolutely different technique. This implies the production of the coins in different mints and therefore leads to the conclusion that these kings were not co-rulers. Now we have unambiguous idea of the silvering technique of copper staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes of AD 275. Their outer appearance differs little from that of Thothorses’ silvered staters of 286/7: both the former and the latter contain an almost equal amount of silver in the alloy and their surface is coated with silver. The presence of chlorine, calcium, sodium and magnesium has been revealed on the surface of these kings’ staters, which suggests a possible application of special silvering pastes. Finally, for the first time, the fact has been established of the striking of the last silvered staters by Thothorses in AD 286/7. In the surface silver layer of these coins, the presence of chlorine, calcium, sodium and magnesium has also been revealed. This suggests a possible application of special pastes containing chlorides of silver, sodium, ammonium and mercury, hydrotartrate of potassium and chalk for the silvering of late Bosporan staters.

APPENDIX XRF ANALYSIS OF THE STATERS OF RHESCUPORIS V FROM THE KERCH 1988 HOARD, KERCH MUSEUM

Here, for the first time, XRF data are published about the chemical composition of the alloy of 469 of Rhescuporis V’s staters from the Kerch 1988 hoard. The shading marks the silver staters (above 50% fineness). No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

3984 3985 3986 3987 3988 3989 3990 3991 3992 3993 3994 3963 3995 3996 3997 3998 3956 4035 4036 4037 4038 4039 4040 4041 4042 4043 4044 4047 4048 4049 4050 4051 4052 4053 4054 4055 4056 4057 4058

242/3 242/3 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 243/4 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5

44.042 31.408 44.177 52.715 59.805 61.253 67.06 51.005 52.033 42.199 46.006 43.206 54.336 55.582 76.796 41.967 54.844 45.229 55.159 36.908 62.674 58.541 81.26 46.673 88.845 67.677 21.746 26.743 64.386 61.933 51.711 67.89 45.137 67.338 60.102 59.169 44.193 42.531 23.652

53.977 66.361 52.312 42.998 37.53 36.584 30.786 44.199 44.986 55.717 50.009 52.257 43.249 41.282 20.594 55.53 43.476 50.854 43.348 57.843 33.852 39.941 16.854 52.055 9.536 29.784 74.858 70.504 34.177 35.274 46.573 30.294 53.311 31.136 38.082 39.174 51.344 53.333 72.79

0.488 0.145 0.289 0.358 0.363 0.605 0.164 0.276 0.975 0.449 0.284 0.298 0.14 0.22 0.322 0.27 0.221 0.364 0.464 0.153 0.161 0.216 0.275 0.142 0.142 0.258 0.186 0.226 0.107 0.275 0.257 0.141 0.401 0.16 0.155 0.142 0.102 0.296 0.152

0.932 0.751 0.947 1.132 1.2 1.237 1.349 0.972 1.076 0.847 0.504 0.853 1.07 1.113 1.422 1.87 1.062 0.743 0.684 0.462 0.711 0.732 1.04 0.556 1.029 0.871 0.337 0.443 0.758 0.836 0.76 0.977 0.589 0.936 0.884 0.736 0.727 0.528 0.477

0.13 0.099 0.084 0.11

0.431 1.237 2.191 2.687 1.102 0.278 0.505 3.458 0.885 0.789 3.115 3.291 1.032 1.579 0.617 0.255 0.275 2.671 0.257 4.466 2.453 0.448 0.459 0.44 0.357 1.203 2.74 1.937 0.421 1.51 0.555 0.476 0.466 0.3 0.632 0.615 3.466 2.984 2.844

0.043 0.135 0.089 0.046 0.081 0.095 0.174 0.223 0.248 0.108 0.122 0.139 0.088 0.167 0.149 0.123 0.112 0.133 0.09 0.208 0.133 0.147 0.151 0.172 0.144 0.222 0.095 0.129 0.144 0.165 0.169 0.326 0.085

56

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88.

4059 4060 4061 4062 4063 4064 4066 3966 4032 4033 4034 4045 4046 3999 4000 4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007 4008 4119 4013 4014 4015 4016 4017 4018 4019 4020 4021 4023 4025 4026 4027 4024 4030 4031 4065 3957 3964 4010 4011 4022 4028 4029 4067

244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 244/5 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 245/6 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 246/7 247/8 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9

45.165 24.725 47.391 31.624 30.021 31.317 36.13 58.724 77.129 53.05 53.639 45.663 53.117 31.898 44.034 29.838 41.444 32.983 38.998 40.656 41.695 56.201 46.892 35.216 23.074 48.741 30.995 31.77 37.451 45.77 33.325 27.102 29.491 33.198 32.181 34.015 27.918 35.944 36.558 46.355 28.422 17.106 26.891 15.600 25.392 41.520 29.612 14.293 29.789

52.626 71.669 51.146 64.513 65.267 64.626 58.303 39.048 20.463 45.19 44.633 48.309 43.828 64.701 54.279 67.929 56.692 65.725 58.094 56.784 57.155 40.358 51.398 60.23 74.645 49.316 67.19 64.954 59.813 50.345 64.463 71.182 67.766 63.8 65.002 62.222 71.122 60.222 59.426 49.339 67.958 80.887 70.055 82.360 72.978 54.056 66.158 84.119 67.335

0.256 0.153 0.203 0.149 0.205 0.271 0.178 0.175 0.263 0.219 0.146 0.195 0.318 0.174 0.15 0.227 0.17 0.206 0.156 0.148 0.257 0.106 0.17 0.385 0.305 0.212 0.118 0.336 0.068 0.109 0.135 0.23 0.336 0.292 0.287 0.268 0.185 0.179 0.21 0.282 0.32 0.281 0.248 0.550 0.427 0.528 0.515 0.435 0.288

0.704 0.419 0.632 0.394 0.529 0.536 0.792 1.079 1.579 1.074 1.157 1.132 1.283 0.916 0.831 0.746 0.913 0.775 0.791 0.571 0.471 0.642 0.54 0.738 0.563 1.316 0.364 0.478 0.472 0.533 0.398 0.365 0.426 0.939 0.406 0.392 0.363 0.725 0.714 1.059 0.466 0.227 0.882 0.550 0.411 0.958 0.592 0.310 0.621

0.156 0.098 0.12 0.159 0.127 0.117 0.129 0.12 0.188 0.096 0.129 0.172 0.164 0.145 0.2467 0.144 0.136 0.088 0.101 0.202 0.134 0.127 0.086 0.18 0.083 0.098 0.088 0.094 0.107 0.108 0.098 0.076 0.129 0.074 0.146 0.106 0.154 0.139 0.168 0.112 0.116 0.123 0.100 0.060 0.078 0.100 0.087 0.068 0.095

1.093 2.937 0.508 3.16 3.85 3.13 4.469 0.854 0.378 0.371 0.296 4.529 1.29 2.166 0.459 1.115 0.645 0.223 1.858 1.639 0.288 2.566 0.914 3.251 1.331 0.317 1.246 2.366 2.088 3.134 1.582 1.046 1.852 1.696 1.978 2.996 0.258 2.792 2.923 2.853 2.718 1.375 1.823 0.580 0.713 2.838 3.036 0.775 1.873

57

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137.

4068 4069 4070 4071 4072 4073 4074 4075 4076 4077 4078 4079 4080 4081 4082 4083 4084 4085 4086 4087 4088 4089 4090 4091 4092 4093 4094 4095 4096 4097 4098 4099 4100 4101 4102 4103 4104 4105 4106 4107 4108 4109 4110 4111 4112 4113 4114 4115 4116

248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9 248/9

14.102 20.675 18.933 18.657 36.827 25.354 17.676 26.175 26.360 18.364 20.995 26.665 23.047 33.453 41.238 34.350 29.456 37.071 25.870 33.397 16.725 16.119 19.604 26.842 22.874 26.875 21.008 20.497 39.829 16.322 20.816 25.399 25.644 23.099 29.843 29.644 43.265 37.453 33.311 28.269 39.296 19.100 32.603 34.543 38.445 32.674 26.850 27.642 28.248

84.067 76.386 79.081 79.970 60.728 72.434 80.187 70.629 70.543 79.479 77.084 70.483 75.229 62.570 55.176 63.321 67.191 59.343 71.760 63.902 81.807 82.323 78.290 70.614 74.574 71.179 77.110 77.211 56.847 81.518 77.043 71.568 72.316 74.967 65.947 67.613 50.535 59.375 62.147 67.656 56.991 78.956 64.441 62.125 58.409 63.050 69.344 68.183 67.438

0.581 0.347 0.357 0.304 0.262 0.376 0.185 0.582 0.187 0.264 0.264 0.369 0.211 0.507 0.258 0.249 0.252 0.224 0.310 0.634 0.211 0.303 0.316 0.115 0.299 0.319 0.292 0.611 0.375 0.223 0.230 0.410 0.288 0.201 0.534 0.438 0.361 0.280 0.615 0.388 0.217 0.213 0.244 0.272 0.221 0.203 0.303 0.409 0.402

0.704 0.677 0.383 0.324 0.616 0.367 0.332 0.679 0.437 0.265 0.322 0.462 0.359 0.585 0.615 0.474 0.412 0.518 0.430 0.461 0.247 0.385 0.357 0.386 0.441 0.440 0.338 0.518 0.584 0.269 0.350 1.095 0.454 0.345 0.470 0.529 0.600 0.578 0.495 0.421 0.866 0.311 0.518 0.898 0.641 0.520 0.432 0.430 0.407

0.112 0.119 0.107 0.063 0.200 0.153 0.109 0.130 0.099 0.096 0.070 0.092 0.083 0.093 0.069 0.049 0.151 0.125 0.070 0.093 0.076 0.065 0.028 0.121 0.112 0.091 0.100 0.093 0.135 0.030 0.078 0.093 0.079 0.029 0.084 0.084 0.105 0.087 0.078 0.047 0.108 0.024 0.097 0.103 0.137 0.101 0.083 0.066 0.085

0.435 1.797 1.139 0.681 1.366 1.317 1.510 1.684 2.373 1.531 1.265 1.929 1.030 2.792 2.643 1.557 2.538 2.720 1.550 1.513 0.934 0.806 1.405 1.921 1.700 1.005 1.152 1.070 2.230 1.513 1.484 1.435 1.219 1.359 3.122 1.692 5.134 2.228 3.353 3.219 2.522 1.398 2.096 2.059 2.147 3.451 2.989 3.270 3.421

58

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186.

4118 4187 4188 3958 3959 3961 3967 3968 4117 4120 4121 4122 4123 4124 4125 4126 4127 4128 4129 4130 4131 4132 4133 4134 4135 4136 4137 4138 4139 4140 4142 4143 4144 4145 4146 4147 4148 4149 4150 4151 4152 4153 4154 4155 4156 4157 4158 4159 4160

248/9 248/9 248/9 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50

39.274 48.130 40.473 22.409 12.526 26.663 18.503 38.736 16.134 32.480 42.790 26.201 61.59 12.255 22.301 26.040 30.446 33.526 13.655 14.934 17.314 41.989 37.007 29.993 25.045 31.586 47.063 35.463 23.283 20.073 51.630 23.320 16.848 35.314 39.705 47.779 17.681 32.832 40.777 21.524 25.09 10.728 26.911 26.965 28.48 15.863 26.01 29.352 41.833

57.302 47.235 55.156 75.585 86.370 70.415 79.231 57.468 82.090 65.212 53.710 71.580 36.783 86.613 76.093 71.739 68.275 64.113 85.415 83.101 80.766 56.467 60.279 68.224 73.322 66.100 50.906 61.610 73.759 78.460 46.020 74.828 81.832 61.942 57.254 51.164 79.72 65.142 58.109 77.009 73.1 88.085 71.691 71.285 69.21 82.544 71.61 68.506 54.483

1.392 0.340 0.232 0.316 0.291 0.285 0.515 0.334 0.541 0.264 0.740 0.354 0.352 0.399 0.252 0.264 0.291 0.348 0.294 0.168 0.222 0.300 0.153 0.502 0.222 0.147 0.598 0.359 0.990 0.219 0.690 0.439 0.229 0.608 0.921 0.296 0.848 0.208 0.49 0.263 0.509 0.273 0.782 0.321 0.44 0.349 0.24 0.462 1.009

Sn 0.923 0.930 0.820 0.436 0.307 0.775 0.607 0.780 0.481 0.598 1.140 0.798 0.939 0.288 0.380 0.605 0.478 0.535 0.461 0.782 0.435 0.645 0.586 0.588 0.404 0.600 1.067 1.027 0.751 0.495 0.900 0.422 0.301 0.224 0.369 0.4 0.696 0.253/4 0.373 0.427 0.216 0.449 0.348 0.26 0.238 0.378 0.47 0.264 0.495

Sb

Au

0.129 0.116 0.105 0.067 0.048 0.134 0.068 0.124 0.081 0.154 0.160 0.095 0.097 0.067 0.051 0.040 0.039 0.088 0.000 0.073 0.074 0.042 0.077 0.188 0.070 0.130 0.131 0.108 0.076 0.086 0.100 0.106 0.057 0.16 0.158 0.082 0.075 0.078 0.044 0.057 0.034 0.072 0.062 0.069 0.062 0.077 0.11 0.07 0.162

0.980 3.248 3.214 1.187 0.457 1.729 1.076 2.558 0.672 1.291 1.470 0.972 0.239 0.377 0.924 1.312 0.472 1.390 0.176 0.943 1.190 0.557 1.898 0.506 0.937 1.436 0.235 1.432 1.142 0.667 0.660 0.886 0.733 1.752 1.593 0.278 0.981 1.487 0.208 0.719 1.052 0.393 0.206 1.1 1.569 0.789 1.57 1.347 2.019

59

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235.

4161 4162 4163 4164 4165 4166 4167 4168 4169 4170 4171 4172 4173 4174 4175 4176 4177 4178 4179 4180 4181 4182 4183 4184 4185 4186 3965 4189 4190 4191 4192 4193 4194 4195 4196 4197 4198 4199 4200 4201 4202 4203 4204 4205 4206 4207 4208 4209 4210

249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 249/50 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1

29.056 46.401 84.16 38.72 24.446 33.043 59.396 28.639 54.52 40.137 21.724 24.217 51.439 26.255 25.209 14.081 36.009 48.14 34.27 19.8 42.893 57.07 59.643 23.815 24.235 30.511 20.082 48.568 24.434 29.722 28.468 26.14 20.632 21.583 46.878 36.875 31.095 58.889 25.013 43.75 23.147 25.232 25.871 28.65 42.924 27.968 26.678 24.8 45.992

68.942 50.687 13.23 58.64 73.941 63.599 37.066 69.585 43.115 58.614 76.78 73.593 45.434 71.724 72.557 84.339 61.586 48.288 64.72 79.49 55.747 41.607 38.635 73.981 74.06 67.188 77.899 49.296 73.826 68.569 69.472 71.31 77.712 77.016 51.324 61.297 66.518 37.767 73.32 54.09 74.749 73.715 72.893 69.19 55.657 69.512 71.944 72.9 52.688

Pb 0.207 0.306 1.19 0.32 0.306 0.755 0.137 0.168 0.349 0.26 0.424 0.524 0.411 0.189 0.473 0.639 0.539 1.107 0.13 0.18 0.15 0.17 0.451 0.809 0.51 0.335 0.81 0.377 0.223 0.251/2 0.294 0.76 0.49 0.222 0.645 0.321 0.69 1.172 0.385 0.36 0.264 0.172 0.195 0.35 0.385 0.375 0.207 0.53 0.156

Sn

Sb

Au

0.332 0.414 1.04 0.45 0.308 1.458 0.578 0.377 1.302 0.43 0.237 0.428 0.857 0.337 0.281 0.334 0.421 0.564 0.36 0.26 0.499 0.618 0.7 0.338 0.511 0.61 0.433 1.081 0.51 0.873 0.363 0.4 0.267 0.331 0.576 0.744 0.425 1.137 0.361 0.83 0.358 0.38 0.478 0.76 0.531 0.411 0.511 0.42 0.646

0.149 0.109 0.00 0.15 0.051 0.139 0.178 0.122 0.14 0.041 0.029 0.092 0.189 0.08 0.136 0.069 0.087 0.189 0.06 0 0.142 0 0 0.058 0.111 0.127 0.138 0.102 0.075 0.067 0.098 0.1 0.065 0.069 0.181 0.082 0.101 0.155 0.075 0.13 0.091 0.035 0.123 0.09 0.11 0.108 0.072 0.11 0.077

1.314 2.084 0.39 1.72 0.947 1.005 2.645 1.109 0.574 0.518 0.807 1.146 1.67 1.415 1.344 0.537 1.357 1.712 0.46 0.28 0.569 0.535 0.571 0.999 0.573 1.229 0.638 0.575 0.931 0.47 1.305 0.93 0.834 0.778 0.395 0.522 1.171 0.88 0.847 0.83 1.392 0.465 0.44 0.7 0.392 1.625 0.588 1.1 0.442

60

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254. 255. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284.

4211 4212 4213 4214 4215 4216 4217 4218 4219 4220 4221 4222 4223 4224 4226 4227 4228 4229 4230 4231 4232 4233 4234 4235 4236 4237 4238 4239 4240 4241 4242 4243 4244/ 4245 4246 4247 4248 4249 4250 4251 4252 4253 4254 4255 4256 4257 4258 4259 4260

250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1

30.663 28.085 28.303 45.86 29.358 26.255 36.833 18.75 26.446 20.497 28.159 63.422 46.143 33.117 29.364 43.002 56.178 31.06 26.913 23.773 23.177 41.853 21.396 15.33 52.938 32.674 37.895 29.162 25.17 38.236 40.421 43.019 47.149 32.001 44.302 23.843 18.304 44.67 29.741 28.723 31.435 31.608 31.809 25.602 25.977 21.033 50.05 46.713 60.371

66.59 70.448 69.994 52.508 69.388 71.906 59.934 80.182 72.449 77.66 69.474 33.594 51.784 65.708 69.115 54.829 42.173 66.718 71.396 74.422 74.774 56.391 76.982 83.39 45.208 65.768 58.777 65.447 72.77 60.45 57.293 54.42 50.526 66.046 54.248 73.86 80.151 52.402 67.746 69.999 64.889 66.217 64.402 71.978 71.982 77.152 48.747 51.668 38.032

0.203 0.321 0.287 0.295 0.471 0.225 1.036 0.308 0.18 0.296 0.516 0.27 0.385 0.228 0.482 0.299 0.288 0.682 0.35 0.331 0.542 0.184 0.557 0.194 0.215 0.243 0.66 1.026 0.235 0.162 0.248 0.541 0.195 0.34 0.123 0.382 0.495 0.885 0.461 0.263 1.196 0.409 0.226 0.376 0.291 0.54 0.133 0.125 0.098

0.498 0.451 0.388 0.89 0.478 0.757 1.369 0.44 0.418 0.337 0.871 1.073 0.698 0.498 0.437 0.652 0.841 0.492 0.503 0.513 0.646 0.949 0.364 0.387 0.732 0.7 1.435 1.115 0.909 0.671 0.677 0.855 0.758 0.478 0.691 0.496 0.408 1.293 0.889 0.582 1.425 0.518 0.534 0.484 0.697 0.402 0.661 0.754 0.92

0.1 0.078 0.204 0.106 0.07 0.095 0.119 0.105 0.071 0.063 0.092 0.149 0.148 0.095 0.096 0.251 0.157 0.093 0.163 0.028 0.093 0.1 0.066 0.061 0.101 0.089 0.11 0.169 0.092 0 0.114 0.137 0.209 0.115 0.055 0.072 0.077 0.173 0.104 0.082 0.094 0.105 0.13 0.108 0.082 0.043 0 0.093 0.101

1.947 0.617 0.824 0.341 0.234 0.762 0.553 0.214 0.436 1.147 0.889 1.493 0.842 0.353 0.507 0.968 0.363 0.955 0.675 0.933 0.767 0.461 0.635 0.637 0.806 0.525 0.987 3.081 0.824 0.48 1.247 1.029 1.163 1.02 0.58 1.347 0.564 0.576 1.059 0.35 0.962 1.144 2.898 1.452 0.97 0.83 0.409 0.572 0.478

61

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. 295. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 333.

4261 4262 4263 4264 4265 4266 4267 4268 4269 3960 4009 4270 4271 4272 4273 4274 4275 4276 4277 4278 4279 4280 4281 4282 4283 4284 4285 4286 4287 4288 4289 4290 4292 4293 4294 4295 4296 4297 4298 4299 4300 4301 4302 4303 4304 3962 4012 4307 4308

250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 249/50 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 250/1 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2

46.958 31.376 42.607 21.185 39.357 26.881 31.191 26.676 19.942 27.969 60.999 45.099 42.791 29.688 39.054 25.395 46.376 31.621 32.769 39.597 23.162 77.196 34.239 31.669 24.805 32.916 26.494 21.98 21.579 33.096 32.17 24.602 34.137 32.669 27.665 19.641 26.795 25.538 23.61 27.65 29.624 22.556 33.124 31.702 35.603 25.228 19.809 37.664 38.589

51.056 66.562 55.228 77.129 55.84 70.729 67.421 71.096 78.165 70.399 35.395 53.797 54.898 68.467 58.863 72.349 52.003 66.225 65.008 58.039 75.084 19.597 64.127 67.084 71.651 65.006 71.587 76.725 77.186 64.763 65.63 74.105 63.905 65.889 70.333 79.129 70.986 72.58 74.70 70.42 68.802 76.038 64.788 65.874 62.938 72.921 78.635 60.102 59.804

0.342 0.581 0.393 0.277 0.105 0.612 0.354 0.517 0.739 0.373 1.016 0.093 0.497 0.248 0.35 0.155 0.063 0.376 0.587 0.293 0.312 0.288 0.23 0.214 0.217 0.239 0.407 0.326 0.221 0.641 0.57 0.463 0.326 0.465 0.577 0.391 0.522 0.386 0.41 0.7 0.281 0.406 0.825 0.693 0.364 0.218 0.568 0.418 0.049

0.796 0.507 0.617 0.363 0.676 0.701 0.578 0.764 0.346 0.298 0.722 0.516 0.444 0.36 0.886 1.042 0.995 0.405 0.456 0.539 0.404 2.267 0.477 0.51 0.484 0.64 0.516 0.415 0.267 0.993 0.54 0.509 0.415 0.526 0.352 0.316 0.845 0.573 0.34 0.41 0.439 0.317 0.836 0.8 0.529 0.663 0.357 0.565 0.738

0.278 0.09 0.113 0.03 0.155 0.088 0.074 0.068 0.114 0.109 0.166 0 0.117 0.096 0.093 0.044 0.042 0.097 0.087 0.108 0.083 0.152 0.108 0.1 0.065 0.094 0.073 0.039 0.065 0.138 0.11 0.072 0.171 0.106 0.086 0.079 0.078 0.079 0.06 0.07 0.109 0.03 0.118 0.102 0.103 0.098 0.05 0.121 0.148

0.57 0.884 1.042 1.016 3.868 0.989 0.383 0.879 0.693 0.852 1.703 0.494 1.252 1.141 0.754 1.016 0.52 1.277 1.093 1.425 0.956 0.5 0.818 0.423 2.778 1.106 0.923 0.514 0.682 0.368 0.97 0.248 1.046 0.345 0.987 0.444 0.774 0.843 0.88 0.75 0.744 0.654 0.31 0.829 0.462 0.872 0.581 1.131 0.671

62

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 341. 342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354. 355. 356. 357. 358. 359. 360. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367. 368. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378. 379. 380. 381. 382.

4309 4310 4311 4312 4313 4314 4315 4316 4317 4318 4319 4320 4321 4322 4323 4324 4325 4327 4328 4329 4330 4331 4332 4333 4334 4335 4336 4337 4338 4339 4340 4341 4342 4343 4344 4345 4349 4350 4351 4352 4353 4354 4355 4356 4357 4358 4359 4360 4361

251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2

40.683 23.04 18.537 50.736 16.282 19.278 20.639 38.369 22.115 27.91 27.521 22.009 14.986 29.238 20.194 16.732 19.907 21.998 33.556 61.633 23.504 24.166 31.578 28.207 26.837 24.995 32.2478 21.436 37.06 31.13 24.989 26.44 28.451 39.329 26.222 25.482 23.359 28.849 27.963 19.129 30.658 26.767 21.14 54.88 25.107 20.451 16.561 23.108 26.799

57.311 75.43 80.039 47.727 82.335 79.216 77.614 59.812 75.962 70.081 68.572 76.267 83.668 69.148 78.143 81.284 78.485 75.928 64.355 35.748 75.477 73.379 65.94 70.826 70.975 72.034 65.283 76.559 61.24 66.977 73.882 72.141 69.964 58.605 72.196 71.99 75.537 69.654 69.92 79.385 67.847 71.261 76.526 43.617 73.436 78.157 82.00 75.151 71.154

0.299 0.35 0.178 0.331 0.315 0.28 0.279 0.282 0.322 0.634 1.314 0.354 0.494 0.31 0.256 0.965 0.292 0.447 0.242 0.213 0.344 0.424 0.653 0.156 0.892 0.704 0.623 0.453 0.214 0.271 0.111 0.153 0.598 0.203 0.255 0.809 0.259 0.291 0.727 0.328 0.232 0.478 0.77 0.159 0.198 0.135 0.212 0.15 0.208

0.636 0.56 0.347 0.67 0.365 0.572 0.393 1.182 0.622 0.565 1.532 0.705 0.319 0.613 0.687 0.564 0.563 0.796 0.605 0.925 0.382 0.932 0.537 0.453 0.503 0.581 0.522 0.719 0.703 0.583 0.495 0.425 0.533 0.659 0.464 0.757 0.461 0.502 1.052 0.373 0.55 0.651 0.535 0.898 0.514 0.492 0.583 0.436 0.536

0.149 0.09 0.078 0.109 0.053 0.065 0.087 0.085 0.076 0.079 0.161 0.103 0.08 0.133 0.13 0.03 0.057 0.082 0.122 0.168 0 0.101 0.114 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.116 0.08 0.1 0.114 0.064 0.084 0.09 0.131 0.096 0.098 0 0.047 0.075 0.074 0.039 0.1 0.082 0.049 0.042 0.041 0.067 0.157 0.19

0.921 0.53 0.82 0.426 0.65 0.589 0.987 0.271 0.903 0.731 0.9 0.562 0.454 0.559 0.59 0.424 0.695 0.748 1.12 1.314 0.294 0.999 1.177 0.327 0.713 1.606 1.21 0.753 0.684 0.926 0.459 0.757 0.364 1.073 0.767 0.865 0.385 0.658 0.263 0.712 0.675 0.744 0.947 0.397 0.702 0.725 0.578 0.998 1.113

63

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

383. 384. 385. 386. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. 431.

4365 4366 4378 4381 4384 4385 4386 4388 4389 4390 4392 4393 4394 4396 4397 4398 4399 4400 4401 4402 4403 4404 4405 4406 4409 4411 4412 4413 4414 4415 4416 4417 4418 4419 4420 4421 4422 4423 4424 4425 4426 4427 4428 4429 4430 4431 4432 4433 4434

251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2 251/2

13.811 17.951 17.845 3.821 28.928 69.447 35.035 12.998 15.324 25.411 24.231 25.288 26.916 23.314 22.581 16.56 22.839 37.278 14.899 18.084 23.05 22.458 20.615 26.398 14.279 27.806 25.216 11.936 18.340 26.133 14.128 28.892 18.129 21.02 29.83 17.199 13.864 29.071 20.594 20.287 18.725 20.216 18.007 21.263 18.971 17.22 23.095 14.492 18.088

84.454 80.454 80.456 95.372 69.163 28.141 61.989 85.75 83.398 72.542 73.861 73.278 70.936 74.936 75.813 82.014 75.259 60.354 84.101 77.632 75.143 75.912 77.056 71.647 84.513 69.762 72.857 86.852 80.278 72.173 84.613 68.669 78.619 77.178 68.331 81.309 84.744 68.762 77.703 77.226 79.559 78.252 80.09 76.949 79.474 81.782 74.776 84.395 79.935

Pb 0.773 0.448 0.388 0.358 0.211 0.158 1.016 0.288 0.355 0.334 0.15 0.135 0.529 0.406 0.263 0.359 0.449 0.171 0.342 0.775 0.252/3 0.408 0.847 0.405 0.286 0.212 0.384 0.285 0.233 0.208 0.337 0.587 0.476 0.446 0.166 0.338 0.146 0.361 0.303 0.508 0.438 0.305 0.075 0.352 0.286 0.224 0.601 0.288 0.516

Sn

Sb

Au

0.695 0.433 0.501 0.287 0.552 1.649 0.737 0.342 0.346 1.179 0.632 0.443 0.541 0.667 0.461 0.459 0.529 0.681 0.358 2.707 0.629 0.591 0.735 0.716 0.324 0.967 0.603 0.526 0.436 0.502 0.337 0.565 1.933 0.458 0.613 0.385 0.469 0.751 0.565 1.347 0.467 0.448 0.992 0.552 0.479 0.331 0.426 0.331 0.655

0.077 0.082 0.09 0.039 0.089 0.13 0.15 0.067 0.061 0.098 0.111 0.109 0.191 0.066 0.119 0.069 0.085 0.173 0.028 0.118 0.07 0.074 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.118 0.089 0.043 0.068 0.082 0.064 0.117 0.107 0.076 0.119 0.075 0.067 0.139 0.073 0.098 0.056 0.069 0.07 0.039 0.054 0.024 0.098 0.058 0.068

0.189 0.631 0.721 0.123 1.058 0.475 1.072 0.555 0.517 0.437 1.016 0.746 0.887 0.61 0.762 0.539 0.839 1.343 0.272 0.643 0.856 0.558 0.656 0.745 0.539 1.135 0.851 0.357 0.645 0.901 0.521 1.17 0.737 0.821 0.94 0.694 0.711 0.915 0.762 0.534 0.756 0.71 0.727 0.845 0.735 0.419 1.004 0.436 0.659

64

APPENDIX

No.

Inv. Nr.

Year AD

Ag

Cu

Pb

Sn

Sb

Au

432. 433. 434. 435. 436. 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446. 447. 448. 449. 450. 451. 452. 453. 454. 455. 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. 462. 463. 464. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469.

4437 4438 4439 4440 4441 4442 4443 4444 4445 4446 4447 4448 4449 4450 4451 4452 4453 4454 4456 4458 4459 4460 4461 4462 4463 4464 4465 4466 4467 4468 4469 4470 4471 4472 4473 4474 4475 4476

252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 252/3 253/4 253/4 253/4

18.017 20.966 31.843 23.162 42.885 18.387 64.119 31.444 13.695 12.481 12.148 13.751 21.525 18.975 25.434 12.426 12.355 17.877 17.191 18.499 20.916 44.819 16.227 17.745 16.417 12.694 11.456 24.113 20.783 17.481 30.27 30.27 14.374 13.756 58.418 16.07 52.00 11.89

80.618 77.442 64.451 74.963 54.454 79.988 33.322 66.449 84.79 85.895 86.724 84.959 77.377 79.798 73.43 85.987 86.23 80.667 81.192 79.628 76.898 52.331 82.112 80.599 82.149 85.415 86.743 73.491 77.563 80.879 67.43 67.43 84.329 84.952 38.902 82.14 46.2 86.46

0.427 0.506 0.237 0.85 0.169 0.87 0.195 0.429 0.911 1.062 0.614 0.439 0.305 0.294 0.154 0.917 0.3 0.5 0.623 0.719 0.648 0.649 0.62 0.381 0.478 1.233 0.477 0.845 0.336 0.162 0.46 0.46 0.433 0.568 0.13 0.8 0.06 1.02

0.409 0.517 0.477 0.528 0.657 0.343 1.374 0.677 0.339 0.359 0.261 0.368 0.563 0.664 0.563 0.521 0.429 0.532 0.719 0.521 0.712 1.501 0.505 0.528 0.49 0.369 0.911 0.711 0.394 0.822 0.52 0.52 0.433 0.398 0.992 0.5 1.15 0.41

0.068 0.068 0.056 0.088 0.1 0.073 0.124 0.104 0.058 0.047 0.052 0.034 0 0.076 0.068 0 0.064 0.079 0.065 0.084 0.071 0.146 0.063 0.053 0.07 0.056 0.076 0.079 0.09 0.067 0.11 0.11 0.063 0.062 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.04

0.461 0.501 2.936 0.408 1.735 0.339 0.865 0.897 0.207 0.157 0.202 0.449 0.229 0.194 0.351 0.15 0.622 0.346 0.21 0.551 0.755 0.555 0.473 0.694 0.396 0.164 0.337 0.761 0.834 0.589 1.12 1.12 0.367 0.264 1.448 0.26 0.49 0.19

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Archaeometry 4, 56‒61. Treister, M.Ju./M.Y. 1988: ‘Spectroanalytical Study of the Kingdom of Bosporus Bronze Coins’. Bulletin of the Metals Museum 13, 3–21. —. 1999: ‘Nekotorye itogi spektral’nogo izucheniya bronzovykh monet Bospora’. Numizmatika i Epigrafika 16, 197– 217. Verboven, K. 2007: ‘Demise and Fall of the Augustan Monetary System’. In Hekster, O., de Kleijn, G., Slootjes, D. (eds.), Crisis and the Roman Empire (Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire, Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006) (Impact of Empire 7) (Leiden/Boston), 245–57. Vlachou, C., McDonnell, J.G. and Janaway, R.C. 2002: ‘Experimental Investigation of Silvering in Late Roman coinage’. In Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings 712, 461–70. Walker, D.R. 1978: The Metrology of the Roman Silver Coinage. Pt. III: From Pertinax to the Usurpation of Uranius Antoninus (BAR Supplementary Series 40) (Oxford). Yailenko, V.P. 2002: ‘Gunno-bulgary I‒V vv. n.e. po dannym epigrafiki i antroponimiki’. Drevnosti Bospora 5, 303– 33. Zograf, A.N. 1940: ‘Tiritakskii klad’. Kratkie Soobshcheniya Instituta Istorii Material’noy Kul’tury 6, 58‒61. —. 1951: Antichnye monety (= Materialy i Issledovaniya po Arkheologii SSSR 16) (Moscow).

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Zubar, V.M. and Zinko, V.N. 2006: Bospor Kimmeriiskii v antichnuyu epokhu. Ocherki sotsial’no-ekonomicheskoi istorii (= Bosporskie Issledovaniya 12) (Simferopol/Kerch). Zwicker, U., Oddy, A. and La Niece, S. 1993: ‘Roman Techniques of Manufacturing Silver-Plated Coins’. In La Niece, S. and Craddock, P. (eds.), Metal Plating and Patination. Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments (Oxford), 223–46. Zwicky-Sobczyk, C.N. and Stern, W.B. 1997: ‘X-Ray Fluorescence and Density Measurements on Surface-Treated Roman Silver Coins’. Archaeometry 39.2, 393–405.

INDEX

amalgam silvering 7, 29, 42, 47 analysis energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) 23, 53 electron probe micro analysis (EPMA) 6, 30–34, 38–41, 43–45, 49–53 general 5 inductively coupled plasma mass-spectrometry (MC–ICP–MS) 14, 53 lead isotope 6, 7, 14–15, 53 metallographic see metallography neutron activation 42 neutron diffraction 16–17 neutron resonance capture analysis (NRCA) 6, 17, 53 neutron tomographic 8, 16–17 non-destructive 5 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 8, 30, 32–33, 38–39, 41–45, 49–51 surface 25, 27, 38, 40–41, 43–44, 50–51 trace element 13, 15 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) 5, 7–13, 18–21, 23–30, 35, 37–39, 41–44, 47–48, 50–52 Anokhin, V.A. 3, 35, 42 antimony, trace element 12, 37, 39 antoninianus 1–6, 42, 45–47, 53 arsenic, trace element 10, 12, 14, 37, 39, 51 Ashrafian, A.A. 42 Asia Minor 14, 15, 20, 34–35 Aurelian, emperor 2–4, 42, 45, 47, 53 aureus 1–3, 11 Beck, L. 23 billon coins 1–9, 11–13, 16, 18–19, 21–22, 24, 36, 39–40, 45, 53 binary alloys see silver-copper alloys bismuth, minor or trace element 10, 13, 15 blanks 1, 7–8, 23–27, 29, 46, 53 Bosporan stater blanks 1, 7–8, 24, 26–27 recycled 11, 13–15, 18, 21, 23 bullion 15, 21 Butcher, K. 15, 20, 23–24 calcium, component of silvering paste 6, 31–32, 38, 43–44, 50–51, 53 Caracalla, emperor 2, 7 Carus, emperor 3, 53 Chersonese 7 chlorine, component of silvering paste 6, 31–32, 38, 40, 43–44, 50, 53 Claudius II Gothicus 2, 46–47 coating techniques see silver coating coinage 1–2, 4–8, 35–36, 42, 45, 47, 53 Cope, L.H. 23, 29 copper-silver alloys 2, 6, 24, 27, 33–36, 41, 45, 47 Cotys III, king 1, 3, 7, 9, 15 staters 6–7, 9–12, 14–15, 21 currency crisis, collapse, debasement of 1–2, 4, 11 Dacia 15 Danube 19

denarius 1–4, 8, 14–15, 45, 48, 53 debasement of Bosporan coinage 1–5, 9–11, 19, 45, 47, 53 Roman silver coinage 1–5, 9–11, 19, 45, 47, 53 depletion silvering 23–24 Diocletian 42, 45, 53 Duncan-Jones, R. 1 Dynamis, queen 1, 53 Egypt, tetradrachms 4 Elagabalus 7 electrum 1, 7–11, 16, 21, 22, 53 Eupator, king 1 eutectic 25, 33, 51 Evans, J. 15 fineness of Roman silver coins 2–5, 15 of Bosporan stater 3, 5, 12, 14, 18–19, 27, 53 fire-gilding technique 19 flans see blanks Florian, emperor 35, 42, 47 Frolova, N.A. 4, 25–26, 42 Gallia 14 Gallic empire 42 Gallienus, emperor 3–4, 42, 46–47, 53 gold minor component in silver 11, 37, 39 content of 2, 9, 10 Golenko, K.V. 4, 25 Gordian III 4 Gorgippia 7, 14, 25 Gresham’s Law 2, 11 Hermonassa 20 hoarding 9, 11, 13, 19–20, 26 hoards Anapa 1987 hoard 6–7, 11–12, 14 Batareika 1958 hoard 36, 42 Gai-Kodzor 1972, 1977 and 1986 hoards 5 Kerch 1871 hoard 4, 20 Kerch 1964 hoard 6, 8, 20, 25–27 Kerch 1988 hoard 6, 8, 12–13, 18, 20, 22, 26 Patraeus 1970 hoard 20 Phanagorian 2005 hoard 15 Phanagorian 2011 hoard 3, 5–6, 8, 12–13, 16–19, 21–23, 25–26, 29–32, 35–43, 45–50 Sudak 1958 hoard 26 Taman 1958 hoard 20 Tyritace 1937 hoard 36 Volna 1 2014 hoards 6–7, 9–11, 14–15 hot-dipping 29, 46 hot-plating 42, 47 inflation 21, 36 Ininthimeus, king 3, 5, 7 staters 6, 8–9, 11, 12–15 iron, trace element 10, 12, 44, 51 Kerch 4–5, 8

72 laboratories Centre of Collective Usage of Research Institute ‘Nano-steel’ NMSTU 6, 30, 38, 40, 43, 49 I.M. Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics UINR 6, 14, 16–17 Laboratory of Isotopic Geochemistry and Geochronology IGODPMG, RAS 6 Restoration Laboratory of the Museum ‘Phanagoria’ 7, 24, 35, 41, 47 State Research Institution for Restoration 41–42 lead minor/trace element 10, 12–14, 37 principal component 12, 18, 36, 43, 51 leaf gilding 31 Leucon II 7 Lyutsenko, E. 4–5 Maeotis 19, 35 magnesium, component of silvering paste 6, 31–32, 38, 43–44, 50–51, 53 mercury 7, 40, 42, 45, 47, 52 metallography 17–18, 26, 30, 34, 38–39, 41–42, 45 microscope, metallurgical 17 microstructure 18, 30, 33, 42, 51 mines Dacian 15 Spain 15 mints Asia Minor 15 Bosporan (Panticapaeum) 5–6, 11, 15, 18–19, 24, 26–27, 34–36, 42, 45 northern Black Sea 5 Roman 13, 45 Rome 15 Mommsen, T. 34 money 1–2, 4–5, 11, 19–21, 35–36, 45, 47, 53

INDEX

under Rhescuporis V 3, 22, 53 under Sauromates II 1 under Thothorses 48 re-melting 11, 15, 18, 21–23 revival of coinage 35 Rhescuporis II, king 7 Rhescuporis III, king 1, 7 posthumous statres 7, 9 staters 7, 20, 21 Rhescuporis IV, king 3, 5 staters 11–12, 14–15 Rhescuporis V, king 1, 3, 5, 20, 22, 34–35, 42 reform of coinage 3, 53 staters 6–8, 11, 16–27, 30–39, 41, 44–45, 47–48, 51, 53 Rhescuporis VI, king 6 Rhoemetalces, king 1 Roman empire 1–2, 4, 9, 11, 15, 19–20, 35–36, 47, 53

quinarius 3 Quintillus 2

Sauromates II, king 1, 6 Sauromates III, king 7, 15 staters 7, 9–11, 14–15, 21 Sauromates IV, king 1, 35 staters 8, 35–36, 38–42, 44–47, 53 segregation 7, 18, 20, 24–26, 53 Septimius Severus, emperor 2 Severus Alexander, emperor 7–8 silver bullion 15, 21 coating for copper coinage 2, 5, 17, 25, 32–33, 35–36, 38–39, 41–42, 44–45, 47–48, 50 deficit/shortage of 11, 19, 36, 47 from mixed sources 13, 15 silver content of Bosporan stater 1–2, 9–12, 14, 17–21, 24–27, 29, 32–37, 39–45, 47–48, 51, 53 silver content of antoniniani, denarii 1–4, 23, 41–42, 45–46 silver surface enrichment 5–6, 17, 23–24, 53 sources 13–15 trace element 43, 48 silver coating see silver coating for copper coinage silver chloride, component of silvering process 8, 29, 32, 38, 40–41, 44, 46, 51 silver-copper alloys 1, 3, 5, 8, 16 silver-plated coins 8, 26, 27 silvering paste 6–8, 32–34, 38–41, 45, 47, 51–53 silvering technique 7, 26, 36, 38, 44, 49, 51, 53 Smekalova, T.N. 5 soda, component of silvering paste 7, 45 sodium, component of silvering paste 6, 31–32, 40, 43–44, 47, 50–51, 53 sources of metal 5, 13–15 of ores 5 Spain 15 supply of metals 1, 11, 13 surface enrichment 5–6, 17, 23–24, 42 surface-silvered coins 35, 45

recycling 11, 13–15, 18, 21–23 refining 13, 15 reform of coinage under Aurelian 3–4, 53 under Caracalla 2 under Diocletian 42, 53 under Nero 1

Tacitus, emperor 4, 35, 39, 42, 45–47 Taman, stanitsa 7 Taman Peninsula 5, 7 Tanais 20, 25 techniques of production 5 Teiranes, king 1, 5, 35, 42 staters 35–6, 38–39, 41–47, 53

Nero, emperor 1 nickel, trace element 10, 14, 15, 37, 39 ore deposits 6 ore source 5 Pamphylia 4 Pashley, V. 15 Perga 4 Pharsanzes, king 8, 25, 34 staters 6, 8, 25–27, 29–34, 38, 40, 41, 44, 51, 53 Pitiunt 20 Ponting, M. 15, 20, 23, 24 Pontus 39 post-reform coinage 22, 42, 45 Postumus, emperor 46 Probus, emperor 3, 46, 53 provincial imperial coinage 1

73

INDEX

Thothorses, king 1, 47 staters 6, 38, 44, 47–52, 53 Thrace 19, 35 tin major component 14, 34, 36, 43 minor or trace element 10, 12–15, 37, 39 token money 53 Trabezon 20 trace elements 10, 12–15, 18, 37–39, 43–44, 47–48, 51 Trebonianus Gallus, emperor 20 tribes Alani 19, 35 Borani 19–20, 25 Germanic 2, 19, Goths 19–20, 25, 35, 39, 42

Heruli 19, 39, 42 Sarmatian-Alanian 2, 8, 19 Sarmatians 19, 35 Tyra 7 Uranius Antoninus, emperor 53 Valerian I, emperor 2–3, 45–46 Volusian, emperor 20 zinc, trace element 10, 12–13, 15 Zograf, A.N. 4, 19 Zosimus 34

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1. Silver fineness of the antoninianus (after Estiot 2012, 543, fig. 29.A) and the Bosporan stater in the 3rd century AD.

Fig. 2. Cotys III’s stater of AD 227/8 and Sauromates III’s stater of AD 230/1 struck from the same die combinations in electrum (a, c) and silver (b, d). From the A.V. Lavrov collection, magnification factor 1.5.

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Fig. 3. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: diagram illustrating silver, gold and copper content in the staters of Cotys III (AD 229/30, 231/2) and Sauromates III (AD 230/1).

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Fig. 4. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: posthumous electrum stater of Rhescuporis III (no. 4) and Cotys III’s silver stater (no. 30) struck from the common reverse die. Cotys III’s billon (no. 52) and silver (no. 54) staters struck from the same die combination.

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Fig. 5. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: Cotys III’s silver staters.

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Fig. 6. Volna 1 2014 Hoard: electrum staters of Cotys III (nos. 37, 38) and Sauromates III (nos. 83, 95).

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Fig. 7. Silver staters of Sauromates III (Volna 1 2014 Hoard, nos. 37, 38) and Ininthimeus’ billon (Phanagorian 2011 Hoard, no. 1).

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Fig. 8. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Ininthimeus’ billon and silver staters.

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Fig. 9. Metallographic examination of Rhescuporis V’s staters: (1) 3D model of the cross-section trough the rim of coin no. 1025 obtained with neutron tomography: silver phase (red) and copper phase (green); (2) diffractogram of coins nos. 732 and 961; (3) coin no. 2025: (a) dendritic-eutectic microstructure: α-phase of silver (yellow) on the background of copper in the core; (b) microstructure near the surface of sectioned coin before acid-pickling; (c) surface layer of the cross-section through the rim of coin after acid-pickling. Magnification factor 450.

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Fig. 10. Kerch 1988 Hoard: diagrams illustrating distribution of silver and gold content in Rhescuporis V’s staters.

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Fig. 11. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Histograms showing the silver content in staters of AD 242/3 to 247/8.

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Fig. 12. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Histograms showing the silver content in staters of AD 248/9 to 257/8.

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Fig. 13. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: changes in silver content in the coinage alloy over the first 15 years of Rhescuporis V’s reign, AD 242/3 to 257/8.

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Fig. 14. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s silver staters of AD 244/5.

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Fig. 15. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 249/50 to 253/4.

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Fig. 16. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 255/6.

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Fig. 17. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 256/7 to 261/2.

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Fig. 18. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 261/2 to 264/5.

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Fig. 19. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Rhescuporis V’s billon staters with the depletion silvered surface, AD 264/5 to 266/7.

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Fig. 20. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Rhescuporis V (nos. 1916, 1963, 523) and Pharsanzes (no. 2141).

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Fig. 21. Schematic representation of surface enrichment of the silver-copper replication: (a) silver-copper alloy’s button; (b) dissolution of copper by acid-pickling of the surface layer; (c) surface hammering (after Saprykina, Pelgunova, Gunchina et al. 2017, 489, Fig. 6).

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Fig. 22. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: SEM image of Rhescuporis V’s stater nο. 1074 by M4 Tornado, magnification factor 10.

Fig. 23. Kerch 1964 Hoard: Pharsanzes’ silvered staters.

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Fig. 24. Kerch 1988 Hoard: Pharsanzes’ silvered staters.

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Fig. 25. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard staters of AD 253/4: (a) Rhescuporis V; (b) Pharsanzes.

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Fig. 26. Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523: silver and copper distribution mapping of the surface (dark stripes at the silver distribution map are associated with shading due to the protrusion of the relief).

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Fig. 27. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 28. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 29. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 525: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 30. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 526: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 31. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 527: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 32. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 528: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 33. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhescuporis V’s staters nos. 525 (a‒d) and 523 (e‒f): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 34. EDX element distribution map of the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2138.

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Fig. 35. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2133: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 36. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 37. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2135: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 38. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 39. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 40. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2138: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 41. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectra (3 and 4) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 42. SEM images of the surface areas (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 43. SEM image of the reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 526 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square. Fig. 44. SEM image of the obverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2135 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 45. SEM image of the reverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c). Fig. 46. SEM image of the reverse of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2137 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

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Fig. 47. Microrelief with small pits on the convex sections of coins of Rhescuporis V no. 523 (a) and (b) Pharsanzes no. 2138.

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Fig. 48. SEM images of the microrelief at the surface (a, c) of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 525 and the EDX spectra of pits (b) and the smooth part (d) of the surface.

Fig. 49. SEM images of the microrelief of the surface (a, c) of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134 and the EDX spectra of pits (b) and the smooth part (d) of the surface.

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Fig. 50. EDX element distribution maps in the pits at the surface of staters of Rhescuporis V no. 526 (a) and Pharsanzes no. 2134 (b).

Fig. 51. SEM images of a small flakes of silver taken from the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters nos. 2136 (a), 2133 (b), 2137 (c) and 2138 (d).

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Fig. 52. EDX element distribution maps of the surface of Pharsanzes’ staters nos. 2137 (a), 2136 (b) and 2134 (c) with flakes.

Fig. 53. SEM image showing the thickness of a silver flake taken from the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2134.

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Fig. 54. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 523.

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Fig. 55. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2133.

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Fig. 56. Microstructure of a cross-section through the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524.

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Fig. 57. Phase diagram of the silver-copper system.

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Fig. 58. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) (b, c) of a central area of a cross-section at the rim of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 524.

Fig. 59. SEM image (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) (b) of a cross-section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524.

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Fig. 60. Microstructure of a cross-section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524 showing the silver surface layer, magnification factor 500.

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Fig. 61. SEM image (a) showing ЕРMA measurements near the surface of a section at the edge of Rhescuporis V’ stater no. 524 and EDX spectra (15 kV): (b) silver surface, (c) at the depth of 3 microns.

Fig. 62. SEM image of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 524 and the element distribution map (a). Element distribution along the line in a cross-section through the rim of coin (b).

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Fig. 63. Microstructure near the surface of a cross-section through the rim of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 524.

Fig. 64. SEM image of the surface of Rhescuporis V’ stater no. 523 and silver and copper distribution mapping.

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Fig. 65. Microstructure of the cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136.

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Fig. 66. SEM image (a) showing EPMA measurements in the centre of the cross-section through the rim of the Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and EDX spectra of this area (b, c, d).

Fig. 67. SEM image (a) of the cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and a characteristic EDX spectrum from this area (b).

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Fig. 68. Microstructure of a cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136, magnification factor 500.

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Fig. 69. Map of the distribution of copper and silver in the cross-section through Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136.

Fig. 70. SEM image (a) showing ЕРMA measurements in the centre of a cross-section through the rim of Pharsanzes’ stater no. 2136 and EDX spectra (15 kV): (b) silver surface, (c) core.

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Fig. 71. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Rhescuporis V, Sauromates IV and Teiranes, AD 274/5 and 275/6.

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Fig. 72. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: histogram of the average silver content of Rhescuporis V’s AD 274/5 and 275/6 staters.

Fig. 73. SEM images of the reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132. Red squares indicate the location of areas (a, b) of mapping elements at the surface of the coin.

Fig. 74. SEM image of the reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 and the element distribution map.

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Fig. 75. SEM image (a) of reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 and characteristic EDX spectra of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

Fig. 76. SEM image of the reverse of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b).

Fig. 77. SEM image of the surface and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Rhesсuporis V’s stater no. 2132: ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 78. SEM images of small flakes of the silver coating taken from the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132.

Fig. 79. EDX element distribution map of an area of the silver surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132.

Fig. 80. SEM images of areas of the remnant silver coating (a, c) taken from the surface of reverse of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132, and the characteristic EDX spectra (b, d).

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Fig. 81. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Rhescuporis V’s stater no. 2132.

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Fig. 82. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Sauromates ΙV’s staters of different types.

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Fig. 83. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Sauromates ΙV’s staters with the highest silver content.

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Fig. 84. SEM image of distribution of Ag–Au pair at the surface of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2151.

Fig. 85. SEM images of Sauromates IV’s staters nos. 2155, 2186, 2218, 2222 and 2224, magnification factor 7.5.

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Fig. 86. SEM images of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 (a), and that of Teiranes no. 2264 (b), both with the remnants of the silver coating, by M4 Tornado, magnification factor 10.

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Fig. 87. SEM images of the surface areas at the obverse of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2224 and maps of element distribution.

Fig. 88. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2155: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 89. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2186: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 90. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2218: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 91. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d, e) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 92. SEM image (a) and EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2224: ED spectrum (b) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (c) of depression, ED spectrum (d) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 93. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2155 (b, d): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 94. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2218 (b, d): ED spectra (1, 5) show the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectra (2, 6) of depression, ED spectra (3, 7) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 95. SEM images of the surface (a, c) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 (b, d): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectra (3, 4) of the field of the coin.

Fig. 96. SEM images of areas of the obverses of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2222 and maps of element distribution.

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Fig. 97. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Sauromates IV’s stater no. 2186.

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Fig. 98. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: staters of Teiranes.

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Fig. 99. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: histograms of the average silver content in Teiranes’ staters. Fig. 100. Stater no. 2240: fractures in microstructure near the surface, magnification factor 450. Fig. 101. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: sample of Teiranes’ staters with traces of silver coating.

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Fig. 102. Element distribution maps over the surface areas on reverses of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2343 (a), 2269 (b) and 2346 (c).

Fig. 103. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

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Fig. 104. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2264 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

Fig. 105. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2268 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

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Fig. 106. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2269 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

Fig. 107. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2343 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

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Fig. 108. SEM image (a) of the reverse of the Teiranes’ stater no. 2344 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

Fig. 109. SEM image (a) of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2346 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

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Fig. 110. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2362 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin. Fig. 111. SEM image of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b). Fig. 112. SEM image of the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2343 (a) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (b).

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Fig. 113. SEM images of the surface (a, c, e) and superimposition of EDX spectra (15 kV) of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2237 (a‒b), 2344 (c‒d) and 2269 (e‒f): ED spectrum (1) shows the chemical composition of convex relief, ED spectrum (2) of depression, ED spectrum (3) of the field of the coin.

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Fig. 114. SEM images and silver and copper distribution maps of the surface areas of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2346 (a), 2362 (b, c), 2264 (d, e).

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Fig. 115. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Teiranes’ stater no. 2237.

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Fig. 116. SEM images of small flakes of silver taken from the surface of the reverses of Teiranes’ staters nos. 2269 (a) and 2346 (b).

Fig. 117. SEM image of the area with a flake of silver taken from the reverse of Teiranes’ stater no. 2269, showing the silver and copper distribution (a) and characteristic EDX spectra from those areas (b, c).

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Fig. 118. Phanagorian 2011 Hoard: Thothorses’ staters of AD 286/7 with remnants of silver coating.

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Fig. 119. Diagram showing the silver content in AD 286/7 staters of Thothorses. Group A (4‒11% Ag).

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Fig. 120. SEM images of the Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398, 2399, 2401, 2402, 2413 and 2414, magnification factor 7.5.

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Fig. 121. SEM images of areas on the surface of Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398 (a – obverse) and 2402 (b – reverse) and maps of copper and silver distribution.

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Fig. 122. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

Fig. 123. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2399 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

Fig. 124. SEM image of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2401 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

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Fig. 125. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2402 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

Fig. 126. SEM image of the reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2413 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

Fig. 127. SEM image of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2413 (a, b) and EDX spectrum (15 kV) of a surface area indicated with the red square (c).

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Fig. 128. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2401 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

Fig. 129. SEM image (a) of the obverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2414 and characteristic EDX spectra (15 kV) of the convex relief (b), depression (c) and the field (d) of the coin.

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Fig. 130. (a) The green square indicates the location of an area of mapping elements on the surface of Thothorses’ silvered stater no. 2398. (b) Scatterplot of copper against silver for stater no. 2398.

Fig. 131. (a) Reverse of Thothorses’ stater no. 2399. (b) SEM image showing the distribution of the Ag–Au pair at the surface.

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Fig. 132. SEM images of Thothorses’ staters nos. 2398 (a) and 2399 (b) and maps of copper and silver distribution over their surface.

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Fig. 133. Results of X-ray structural analysis of the surface of Thothorses’ stater no. 2414.

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Fig. 134. SEM image showing the needle crystals (a) at the surface of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 and the characteristic EDX spectrum of the investigated surface area (b).

Fig. 135. Thothorses’ stater no. 2398: microstructure of a cross-section through the rim.

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Fig. 136. SEM image (a) showing EPMA measurements in the centre of the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 and EDX spectra of this area (b, c, d).

Fig. 137. SEM image (a) of the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398 (a) and a characteristic EDX spectrum from this area (b).

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Fig. 138. Microstructure of the near-surface layer of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398.

Fig. 139. (a) Element distribution along the line in the cross-section through the rim of Thothorses’ stater no. 2398. (b) SEM image of the same coin and the map of the element distribution on its surface.

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