The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 9781784910495, 178491049X

Citation preview

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Editor in chief

Gábor Ilon Text edited by

Judit Kvassay

Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 5

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Editor in chief

Gábor Ilon Text edited by

Judit Kvassay

Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 5

Archaeopress Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED

www.archaeopress.com

ISBN 978 1 78491 048 8 ISBN 978 1 78491 049 5 (e-Pdf)

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2015 Cover photograph by Tibor Takács

Prepress and computer graphics: József Bicskei, Nóra Romankovics, László Schilling, Tibor Takács Page layout: Archaeopress and Nóra Romankovics English translation by Bori Németh French translation by Estelle Gauthier, Maître de conférences - Université de Franche-Comté.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.

This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com

Contents List of illustrations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� iii Authors of the volume����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� v Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ vii The Szombathely – Vát project and the excavation of the Roman cemetery at Nemesbőd��������������������������������������� vii Gábor Ilon Acknowledgements�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ix Gábor Ilon Studies on the cemeteries of Savaria and its ‘territorium’������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1 Endre Norbert Fülöp, András Radics The site within the landscape������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 3 András Radics The finds������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4 András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics Pottery���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4 Glass vessels����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11 Bronze vessel���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12 Oil lamps (lucernae)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12 Clothing accessories����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 Jewellery����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14 Writing implements������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14 Iron knives�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 The box������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 Coins���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 Carved bone objects����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16 Nails, hooks������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 16 Indeterminable bronze and iron objects����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16 The dating of the graves and related features���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17 András Márton and Endre Norbert Fülöp Cemetery structure������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20 András Márton and Endre Norbert Fülöp Burial customs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22 András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics Terminology of cremation burials�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22 Primary cremations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 24 Secondary cremations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25 Terminology of inhumations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25 Defining the rituals of the excavated graves���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25 Primary cremations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 25 Secondary cremations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26 Inhumations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 27 Features not identifiable as burials������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Grave types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Cremation and the handling of cremated remains�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Position of the corpse in the inhumations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 i

The fill of the graves���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29 Position of grave goods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 30 Rites conducted on the grave goods����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30 Custom of grave furnishing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 30 Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37 Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39 András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics Interpretation of the graffiti������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 67 Andrea Barta Roman graves at the Szombathely – Vát sector of Main Road 86: results of the anthropological analysis������������������� 69 Gábor Tóth Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 69 Materials and methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69 Nemesbőd – Irtás-dűlő�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70 Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70 Vép – Surányi-patak nyugati oldala������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 73 Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73 Analysis of the archaeozoological material from the three sites at the Szombathely – Vát sector of Main Road 86��� 75 Éva Ágnes Nyerges Description of the animal bone material���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75 Assessment of the roman period animal bone material������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 77 Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78 Gábor Ilon, András Márton Résumé������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80 Gábor Ilon and András Márton Bibliography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 83 Illustration credits �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 Figures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93

ii

List of illustrations Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Figs. 5-6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Figs. 9-10 Figs. 11-17 Fig. 18 Figs. 19-20 Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Figs. 23-24 Figs. 25-26 Fig. 27 Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Figs. 31-32 Fig. 33 Fig. 34 Fig. 35 Fig. 36 Fig. 37 Fig. 38 Fig. 39 Fig. 40 Fig. 41 Fig. 42 Fig. 43 Fig. 44 Fig. 45 Fig. 46 Fig. 47 Fig. 48 Figs. 49-52 Fig. 53 Fig. 54 Fig. 55 Fig. 56 Fig. 57 Fig. 58 Fig. 59 Fig. 60 Figs. 61-62 Fig. 63 Fig. 64 Fig. 65 Fig. 66 Figs. 67-69 Fig. 70 Fig. 71 Fig. 72 Fig. 73 Figs. 74-80 Figs. 81-82 Fig. 83 Fig. 84 Fig. 85 Fig. 86 Fig. 87 Fig. 88 Fig. 89 Figs. 90-91 Fig. 92

The location of the site and the excavated part of the site in the future road line Aerial photos of the site Excavted part of the Roman cemetery at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő Documentation of Gave 1 Finds from Grave 1 Documentation of Grave 2 and its finds Documentation of Grave 3 and its finds Documentation of Grave 4 Finds from Grave 4 Documentation of Grave 5 Finds from Grave 5 Finds from Grave 5; documentation of Enclosure ditches 99 /110 and 101 /113 and finds from their fill Documentation of Gave 6 Finds from Grave 6 Documentation of Enclosure ditch 101 /113 and finds from its fill Documentation of Grave 7 and its finds Documentation of Grave 8 and its finds Documentation of Grave 9 and its finds Documentation of Grave 10 and its finds Finds from Grave 10 Documentation of Grave 11 and its finds Finds from Grave 11 Documentation of Graves 12, 13 and their finds Documentation of Graves 14, 15 and their finds Documentation of Grave 16 and its finds Documentation of Grave 17 and its finds Documentation of Graves 18 and 21 and their finds Documentation of Grave 19 and its finds Documentation of Grave 20 and its finds Documentation of Grave 22 and its finds Documentation of Grave 23 and its finds Documentation of Grave 24 and its finds Documentation of Grave 25 and its finds Documentation of Grave 26 and its finds Documentation of Grave 27 and its finds Documentation of Grave 28 and its finds Finds from Grave 28 Documentation of Grave 29 and its finds Documentation of Graves 30 and 31 and their finds Documentation of Grave (?) 32 and its finds; Documentation of Enclosure ditches 99 /110, 101 /113 and 98 /108 Finds from Enclosure ditch 98 /108 Documentation of Grave (?) 33 and its finds Documentation of Grave (?) 34 and its finds Documentation of Grave (?) 35 and Grave 36 and their finds Documentation of Grave 37 and its finds Finds from Grave 37 Documentation of Grave 38 and its finds Documentation of Grave 39 and its finds Documentation of Grave 40 and its finds Documentation of Grave 41 and its finds Samian pottery from Grave 4 Samian pottery from Grave 6 Samian pottery from Grave 4 Samian pottery from Enclosure ditch 101 /113, Grave 5 and Grave (?) 33 Thin-walled pottery from the cemetery Pottery from the cemetery Lamps from the cemetery ‘Lamp house’ from Grave 1 Fibulae from the cemetery Belt fittings from Grave 28 and iron loop with silver rings from Grave 37 Coins from the cemetery and golden foil and bronze pin with golden head Glass and bone beads from the cemetery; ring with gemma from Grave 28; bronze rings from Grave 4 Bronze amphora and bucket handle from Grave 4 Knives from the cemetery Elements of the box from Grave 37 Glass vessels from the cemetery

iii

Fig. 93 Fig. 94 Figs. 95-96 Fig. 97 Fig. 98 Fig. 99 Fig. 100 Fig. 101 Fig. 102 Fig. 103 Fig. 104

Glass vessels in situ during the excavation and after restoration from Graves 28 and 40 Bone objects from the cemetery and microscope photos of the bone pyxis Samian Ware from the territory of the cemetery excluding the finds from the graves Composition of the ceramic Finds in the Early Roman burials; Composition of the ceramic Finds in the primaryand contemporary secondary cremations Composition of the animal bones according to feature types at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (5) and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II (6-7) sites Animal remains according to species at the sites of Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregivölgyre-dűlő I – II Distribution of animal remains according to age at the sites Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregivölgyre-dűlő I – II Long bone and withers height measurements of cattle and horse remains from the Roman features at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (Site 5) and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II (Site 7) Classification of the bone fragments of identified domestic ungulates according to meat value (based on Uerpmann 1973) from the Roman features at the sites Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II Horse graves at Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II site: 1. Pit 136 /157; 2. Pit 137 /158 Bone measurements (mm) of the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758) remains from the Roman cemetery at the Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő

iv

Authors of the volume Andrea Barta Semmelweis University, Centre for Language Communication H-1094 Budapest, Ferenc tér 15; [email protected] Research fields: Usage of Latin language in Pannonia Dr. Endre Norbert Fülöp Government Office of Vas County H-9700, Szombathely, Berzsenyi tér 1; [email protected] Research fields: Roman Archaeology Gábor Ilon Hungarian National Museum, National Cultural Heritage Protection Centre, Regional Office II, Szombathely Head of office H-9730, Kőszeg, Várkör u. 18; [email protected] Research fields: Bronze and Iron Age Archaeology, archaeological topography, environmental archaeology, archaeometry András Márton, Ph.D. Centre de Recherche Bretonne et Celtique F-29238, Brest, 20, rue Duquesne; [email protected] Research fields: Classical and Roman Archaeology Éva Ágnes Nyerges Research Center for the Humanities, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology H-1014 Budapest, Úri u. 49; [email protected] Research fields: Archaeozoology András Radics Hungarian National Museum, National Cultural Heritage Protection Centre, Regional Office II, Szombathely H-9704, Szombathely, Pf. 12; [email protected] Research fields: Metal and ceramic production Gábor Tóth, Ph.D. University of West Hungary Savaria Campus, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology Associate professor H-9700, Szombathely, Károlyi Gáspár tér 4; [email protected] Research fields: Anthropology, Human biology

v

vi

Introduction The Szombathely – Vát project and the excavation of the Roman cemetery at Nemesbőd Gábor Ilon to the National Office of Cultural Heritage (KÖH), the Hungarian National Museum, and the Savaria Museum. In numbers, this corresponds to 1.38 running metres of paper documentation, or 19 DVDs and 6 CDs in digital format. Naturally, the complete material of all the sites has been conserved. This is equivalent to 280.4 ‘M30-type’ crates (20.19 m³), and in addition 108 vessels lifted out in situ and received by the base at Szombathely. An inventory has been made of the finds and their preliminarily study has been accomplished. The geoarchaeological and environmental historical analysis of the samples from the road line were conducted and published by Pál Sümegi and his colleagues.1

The writer of these lines, as the archaeological project director of the Field Service for Cultural Heritage, and later the regional director of Centre No. 2 at Szombathely, led the rescue excavations at thirteen sites where Main Road 86 was to be widened to four lanes at the sector of Szombathely – Vát (between the 89+250 – 82+270 km sections). The fieldworks were conducted between 17 July 2008 and 18 May 2009 by myself and my colleagues. Altogether 152,256 m² were excavated. The operations were conducted by Ágnes Dobozi (2008-2009) as field director of Sites 1, 3 and 9; Csaba Kálmán Kiss (2008) as director of the test excavations of Sites 2 and 4; Péter Skriba (2008) as field director of Sites 10, 11 and 12; Krisztina Varga (2008), and later Zoltán Basticz (2009) as field directors of Site 13; Ciprián Horváth (2009) as my colleague at Sites 5, 7 and 8; and myself (2008-2009) as field director of Sites 5, 6, 7 and 8.

The present volume is the presentation in monograph form of the excavated part of a Roman cemetery, which is the most significant entity to be found at Site 5 (in the 85+900 – 86+350 km section) along the road line, namely, at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (National Office of Cultural Heritage site registration No. 38574).

The work on site was aided by fourteen archaeological technicians and one field-assistant, and by Lajos Sándor who conducted the metal detector survey. The geodetic surveys at the sites and the documentation were prepared under the direction of Zoltán Tóth by Geomontan Kft. (Székesfehérvár). The aerial photos were taken by Gábor Rákóczi. Mechanical and hand excavation was supported by our subcontractors, Leveller Kft. (Kecskemét) and Platina-Bau Kft. (Pécs); this meant the involvement of 5-6 mechanical shovels, 10-14 trucks, 2-3 bulldozers, and 40-90 workers.

The site was excavated under my direction between 6 October – 11 December 2008, and 23 March – 23 April 2009, comprising an area of 23,198 m². Between October and November 2008, nearly 20,000 m² was mechanically scraped and researched. We assigned identification numbers to 225 stratigraphic units during this excavation period. We were forced to halt our work due to the changeable, rainy, muddy, and later on the extreme winter weather conditions. In the 2009 period, a further 3,076 m² of topsoil was removed and 66 new features were excavated. Thus, altogether 291 stratigraphic units were identified by numbers, which belonged to 273 features. Meanwhile, aerial photographs were taken three times. On site, my colleagues were Gábor Vámos, senior archaeological technician, Hajnalka Hekli, Eszter Móricz and Ferenc Halász archaeological technicians in 2008; Ciprián Horváth archaeologist, Eszter Móricz, Anina Vágusz archaeological technicians, and Ákos Pénzes field-assistant made up the team in 2009. The surface uncovered by the removal of the topsoil was surveyed for finds by Lajos Sándor with a metal detector. One of the most beautiful finds he recovered is a lead votive figurine of a goddess. The expert excavating workmen, led by Károly Czékus, were provided by HUSA-31 Kft. (Szeged), the subcontractors of Platina-Bau Kft.

On 25 May 2009 – six days before the expiry date of the contract – all of the excavated sites along the whole area of the planned line of the road were handed over to the contractor, National Infrastructure Developing Ltd. – NIF Corp. I should like to mention that the roadworks only began in May 2010, but stopped in the autumn of that same year and had still not continued at the time of the writing of these lines; thus, not a shadow of suspicion can fall on the archaeological excavations that they hindered the construction works. The high level of the archaeological preparation work and the excavations before construction is also justified by the fact that no archaeological site was identified later on during the watching briefs conducted by us while the earthworks were under way and which have now been almost entirely completed along the whole length of the planned road line.

The cemetery can be found north of the former ancient road connecting Roman Savaria (today’s Szombathely, Vas

By January 2011, we handed in all the required documentation of the preliminary excavations on the area of the road line

1

vii

Sümegi et al. 2011; Sümegi et al. 2011a.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) County, Hungary) and Bassiana (in the vicinity of today’s Sárvár?; Vas County, Hungary), 1,300 m away, on the eastern terrace of the Surányi Stream, ca. 860 m from the watercourse, about 300 m east of the asphalt road leading into the village of Vép. forty-four features (37 graves, 4 structures of unknown function, and three enclosure ditches) were excavated (Fig. 3). The limits of the cemetery can be found in three directions (north, east and west). Among the graves – due to its significance  –  Grave 4 has already been published.2 The cremations with enclosure ditches (Graves 5, 6 and 32), which are also early types and unique in the ‘territorium’ of Savaria, are likewise worth mentioning. From the later burials, the inhumation grave with a crossbow brooch, glass beaker and knife (Grave 40) must be highlighted.

völgyre-dűlő I), 7 (Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyredűlő II), and 5 to be introduced below. The centre of the supposed villa rustica protected by a palisade, its living quarters and main buildings can be somewhere between the future junction of the Main Road 86 still in use, and the road leading to Vép, as its stone and tegula fragments and other portable finds abound on the surface.

The cemetery is part of a Roman site complex, with a second element that – according to our current knowledge – is an area rather lightly ‘inhabited’, protected by a palisade on its south side, with an entrance opening towards the cemetery at its south-eastern corner (Figs. 1-2). Its vestiges – pits, ovens, postholes marking surface structures, and most of all: ditches that indicate the periphery of the settlement area – could be found both at the junction of the future Motorway 9 and Main Road 86 to be modernized, and along the line of the road’s main lane at Sites 6 (Nemesbőd – Csepregi-

The present volume, which appears in the Archaeopress Archaeology Series, on the rescue excavations along the line of the new section of Main Road 86 between Szombathely – Vát, is – if you will – the result of the contract signed by National Infrastructure Developing Ltd – NIF Corp. and the Field Service for Cultural Heritage.

2

The series of new publications of the Roman cemeteries from Vas County3 expands further with the monograph of this necropolis. The complete corpus of material found on the site has been permanently deposited at the Savaria Museum (Szombathely).

The manuscript was closed at the end of 2012. Kőszeg, 5 September 2012

3 Répceszentgyörgy: Kiss and Szilasi 2000-2001 [2002]; Savaria – Western cemetery: Bíró 2004; Zanat: Bíró 2005 [2006]; Sárvár: Kiss 2007.

Fülöp et al. 2010.

viii

Acknowledgements Gábor Ilon In the present volume, my colleagues and I have ventured to publish the finds of a Roman cemetery on the ‘territorium’ of colonia Savaria.

The ceramic material was restored by the staff of Archeolore Kft. – Bozzayné Judit Németh, Alíz Bozsányi, Alexandra Csiszár and Norbert Németh – led by Balázs Udvardi at the base at Szombathely. The high quality conservation and restoration of the metal objects was carried out by the managing director of the company, Szilvia Döbröntey-David in Budapest.

In my opinion, it is important to make the data that is known about the excavated part of this cemetery quickly available for those interested in the topic, and to provide new information for the study of the cemeteries of Savaria and its territory. Therefore, I initially confined the study of this material to Dr Norbert Fülöp Endre, Roman archaeology specialist. Following his advice, I involved Andrea Barta and András Márton, Ph.D. in the project, who are also archaeologists specialized in Roman archaeology.

The photographs of the objects for publication and the preparation of the plates for print were accomplished by Tibor Takács, archaeological technician and by József Bicskei photographer. The maps were prepared by my colleague István Eke, archaeologist / GIS specialist, whom I would also like to thank here.

András Radics, archaeological technician, took upon himself the bulk of the preparation of the catalogue of finds, and the object drawings are also to be credited to him.

I am indebted to the scientific editors of our book: Dr Endre Tóth and Dr Ferenc Redő, for their meticulous work, valuable advice and helpful remarks.

This was how the authors of the book assembled; I would hereby like to thank them for their – in my opinion – fast and high quality work.

My appreciation goes to Dr Judit Kvassay and László Schilling, the technical editors of the volume, for their painstaking and incisive comments, and for settling the tasks concerning the translation and publication.

I would like to express our thanks especially to Dr Dénes Gabler for his advice regarding the study of the Samian ware; and to István Vida and Dr Ferenc Redő, who identified the coins. For providing bibliographical parallels for certain objects I thank Balázs Rikker and Andrea Csapláros.

English translation was by Bori Németh; French translation was by Estelle Gauthier, Maître de conférences. Page layout was by Nóra Romankovics.

As part of the preliminary study of the materials, the anthropological and archaeozoological remains were analysed. The former is to the credit of Gábor Tóth, Ph.D. the latter to Éva Ágnes Nyerges. The archaeozoological study of Éva Nyerges also incorporates the identification of the avian bones by Erika Gál, and the results of Beáta Tugya regarding the villa estate (Nemesbőd – Csepregivölgyre-dűlő II). I would like to extend our thanks to them for their valuable contributions. I would also like to offer our gratitude to Dr László Bartosiewicz for his helpful observations concerning the archaeozoological analyses, and to Zsófia Eszter Kovács for the identification of small mammal species. We owe our thanks to Zsuzsanna Tóth for her help with the examination of the bone objects and the preparation of the microscope images.

Last but not least, on behalf of all the authors, I would also like to thank the former directors of the Centre: Károly Belényesy, director of archaeology, and Dr Gábor Virágos, director-general. They supported my publication plans from the first moment, including all the proposals for the content, and promoted its publication. It is not of minor importance, in these rather difficult and perplexing times, that Dr Boldizsár Csornay, deputy director, and Dr László Csorba, directorgeneral, were also genuine supporters of this publication.

ix

x

Studies on the cemeteries of Savaria and its ‘territorium’ Endre Norbert Fülöp, András Radics Terézia P. Buócz, archaeologist of the Savaria Museum, conducted the rescue excavation of a burial in 1971 in the vicinity of the cemetery presented below (personal communication of Ferenc Derdák, geological surveyor at the Savaria Museum). Its exact location is unknown, while its documentation and finds cannot be found in the Museum’s collection.

quality of offerings placed inside the tombs were not only defined by the social and economic statuses of the deceased and their families, but were also significantly influenced by funerary customs. For example, the ‛meagre’ offerings accompanying a secondary cremation burial could have been counterbalanced by the pomp of the cremation ceremony, the ‛wealth’ of grave goods placed on the pyre, and by the materials, by vessels used for the ceremony, as well as the quality and diversity of the food served at the funeral banquet. It is precisely these structures related to the cremation (permanent places for cremation and ephemeral pyres) that are barely known in Savaria. It must be added, that in the case of the burials published so far, the amount of information known about the details of the rites (the quantity and composition of the cremated remains) is very small, and regarding the number, sex and age of the deceased it is next to nothing.

For the identification and study of the material from the cemetery introduced in this volume in seeking parallels for its finds, the most obvious route is to take into consideration the excavated parts of cemeteries and burials in Savaria and its ‘territorium’,4 and in a wider context the material from Western Pannonia. The research into the Roman cemeteries in Savaria dates back almost two centuries. A certain chronology can be determined between the four cemeteries located according to the four cardinal points: all of them have earlier and later burials, and all the cemeteries were used for a long period of time. As so far it has only been possible to excavate small consecutive sectors, a precise chronological framework can not be determined – concluded Endre Tóth in the latest synthetic monograph.5 He estimated that about a hundred thousand burials could have been made during the existence of the colonia. Out of these graves, only half a percent of these graves had been excavated (or destroyed) until a decade ago. Although the number of burials has grown due to the excavations of the past decade, his assertion regarding the fact that not even a representative amount of material is available to us still holds true; therefore, overall conclusions cannot yet be justified.

Apart from the scattered publications, limited to a small number of discoveries, there are studies including relatively larger numbers of graves from the cemeteries of Savaria, on which we could rely during the study of the finds from our cemetery whilst searching for parallels and dating references. András Mócsy published the complete material of sixty-nine graves and, based on the grave goods, dated the excavated part of the Northern cemetery of Savaria between 85-140.6 Terézia P. Buócz made known the material from nineteen graves found during rescue excavations in another sector of the Northern cemetery, and placed the usage of the discovered part of the cemetery to the first half of the 2nd century.7 Magdolna Medgyes published the finds of some forty-five burials, also from the Northern cemetery.8 The exact number of graves cannot be determined in this case, as the rescue excavations were connected to earthworks for public utility supplies and the observations could not be too precise, or in some cases the archaeologists were only notified of the discovery of the graves afterwards. In her study, Magdolna Medgyes presented several find types previously unknown from Savaria, and also proved that the Northern cemetery was used in later periods as well (in the 3rd and even the 4th centuries). She also called attention to the fact that certain find types were used later than earlier presumed. Terézia P. Buócz, while presenting a sector of the Southern cemetery of Savaria used from the end of the 1st century until the beginning of the 2nd century, published the material of thirty-four graves and a significant number of stray finds.9

The chronological distribution of the known cemetery sectors also poses a problem. The graves of the first generation inhabitants of Savaria are scarcely known. Most of the excavated burials can be dated to the Late FlavianHadrianic periods. As most of the graves come from a few sites, the data give insight into the burial practices of the community using the given cemetery sector along a narrow chronological horizon. In urban cemeteries we most probably have to reckon with the acquisition of burial places; therefore, the ‛price’ and the prestige of each burial place would have varied within the cemetery, and each ‛plot’ may have been used by different social groups. The origins and social statuses of the deceased are difficult to determine due to the lack of epigraphic material. The information that can be deduced from the grave goods only partially allows us to do so, since the quantity and

Mócsy 1954. Buócz 1963. 8 Medgyes 1977-1978 [1984]. 9 Buócz 1961. 6 7

4 5

For the most recent definition of its boundaries, cf. Tóth 2011, 14. Kiss et al. 1998, 52.

1

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Szilvia Bíró collected the material of sixty-four graves from a sector of the Western cemetery and by dating the find assemblages from the extensive area, she could also determine the periods of use of the different parts of the cemetery.10 The Western cemetery was used throughout the Roman period.

120, mainly cremation graves were found.13 According to the preliminary report, both Early and Late Roman graves were found in the excavated part of the cemetery.14 Their scientific analysis could open a new chapter in the research of the cemeteries lying in the area of Savaria. The nine graves of the cemetery belonging to the Roman period villa at Szombathely – Zanat were published by Szilvia Bíró.15 She dated the burials to the half century following the the Flavian period. We are not going to take into account the randomly-found burials of the ‘territorium’ (e.g. Répceszentgyörgy – Cigányháza-dűlő)16 as that would exceed the scope of our planned work.

Among the recent important excavations in Savaria we have to mention those conducted in the Northern cemetery,11 and in the Eastern cemetery.12 The situation is similar in the cemeteries of the ‘territorium’. In 2004-2005, during the rescue excavations at Site 4 on the northern bypass sector of Main Road 88 at Sárvár,

Bíró 2004. Ilon and Kiss 2007, 292. 12 Gábor Ilon’s unpublished excavation in 1997; Medgyes and Kiss 1997; Farkas 2003, 226.

Field director: Gábor Ilon. Kiss 2007, 271. 15 Bíró 2005 [2006], field director: Gábor Ilon. 16 Kiss and Szilasi 2000-2001 [2002].

10

13

11

14

2

The site within the landscape András Radics The site Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő lies in the western part of Hungary, in the large region called the West Hungarian Sub-Alpine Region on the Gyöngyös Plain within the SopronVas Plain, on the southern, slight slope between the Surányi and Sormás Streams, on the outskirts of Nemesbőd, in Vas County.17 The Roman cemetery presented in this publication lies east of the subsidiary of Main Road 86 toward Vép (Figs. 1-2).

By the turn of the Late Iron Age and the Early Roman period, the percentage of ligneous plants had considerably diminished; therefore we can state that the whole region had probably been transformed into a cultivated landscape. In other words, the clearing of deciduous trees is characteristic in this region as well as can be said of the whole of Southern, Central, and Western Europe. This is confirmed by the pollen material from the Late Iron Age-Imperial period samples of the trench sections.20 The sudden growth of the pollen level of wheat among the cereals and of weeds from plough-lands is a characteristic feature. This outlines a scene of intensively cultivated and spacious agricultural lands on both a local and regional level. It can be ascertained that the typical manner of ancient plant cultivation had developed by this time; yet, contrary to the Mediterranean climate, it was most likely to have been characterized by wheat, grapes, walnut, and probably sweet chestnut in the Carpathian Basin. This local Transdanubian form of agriculture is defined as subMediterranean cultivation. Among the herbaceous plants, it was primarily the pollen ratio of weeds which had grown in the examined samples; the weeds had spread through herding and treading.

The surface of the microregion, lacking in microforms and seemingly flat, is covered with a layer of pebbles, glacial loess and loamy sediments, and loess. The monotony of the plain is made somewhat varied by the network of unleaching, or badly leaching, flat depressions and the degraded oxbows of the Gyöngyös Stream.18 Geoarchaeological and environmental historical investigations were conducted under the direction of Pál Sümegi on the municipal territory of SzombathelyZanat, Nemesbőd and Vát in the region of the sites lying along the planned new line of Main Road 86. The present summary gives an insight into the environment of the Late Iron Age and Roman period within the sixth archaeostratigraphical and plant developmental horizon established by Pál Sümegi and his scientific collaborators.19

Dövényi 2010, 377-378; Sümegi et al. 2011, 214-222. Dövényi 2010, 377-378. 19 Sümegi et al. 2011, 95-121; Sümegi et al. 2011a, 201-356. 17 18

20

3

Sümegi et al. 2011a, Figs. 138-139.

The finds András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics are not published at life-size. The difficulty of the precise identification of applied ornaments is well demonstrated in the monograph collecting together the Italian Samian ware with applied decoration from Noricum, which documented the applied decorations made in separate moulds through both photographs and drawings.29 The decoration of the plate found in Grave 6 incorporated the use of two different moulds for the dolphin appliqué. 30 Therefore, in the case of applied decorations, we only refer to a parallel or an applied ornament known from another publication (see these in the Catalogue) if it was certainly made from the same mould, or if it brings us closer to identifying the workshop of a sherd lacking a potter’s stamp. The stamped vessels serve as an obvious base to ascertain which moulds were used for decorating which potters’ wares. Based on the study of the vessels signed by the potter using C. T. Suc(.), it can be said that he rarely decorated his vessels with appliqué in the form of a pine cone (Fig. 68).31 The vessels signed by the potter were probably made before 85,32 and these cannot be found in burials dating to the Domitianic period or later.33 He probably worked between 40-80 / 85.34 According to the shape of these vessels, the two plates were made after the mid-1st century, thus we propose a dating of 5580 / 85.

Pottery Imported pottery Samian ware All the Samian ware placed among the burial goods was made in workshops of the Po Region in Italy. According to their quality, two groups can be distinguished: the finer Fabric D, and Fabric E with a glaze of lesser quality. The majority of Samian ware was found in Grave 4. These vessels include pieces belonging to the better quality Fabric D (Figs. 11.2-3; 12.2-3; 68-69).21 Each one can be categorized as form 20 according to the comprehensive classification of the forms of Italian Samian ware,22 and into subgroup 20.4.4 with applied decoration. Among the Italian Samian ware plates, this form (Consp. 20) is the most frequent in Savaria.23 Two were made by the potter from the Po Region with the signature C. T. SVC(cessus?) (and its variations). Among the products signed by him, the Consp. 20 are the most frequent in Pannonia.24 The vessels produced by this potter rarely appear south of the Po in Italy; his main export area lies in the Alps, Pannonia and Noricum.25 Among his plates found at the site, the right upper part of the die used for the stamp C°T°S (in planta pedis) was damaged (Fig. 68). Probably the same, but still complete die was used on another plate from Savaria.26 The other stamp (Fig. 69): C°T°Su (in planta pedis) can be found in Dénes Gabler’s compilation27; however, it is missing from the second edition of the monograph discussing the potters’ stamps used on Italian Samian ware.28 The majority of applied ornaments on Po valley Samian ware comes from a restricted circle of motifs; nevertheless, several moulds were used for each type, and second and third generation moulds made by moulding from an appliqué were also frequent. It was standard practice to continue to use a damaged mould or to renew the traits for the inner details. Distinguishing appliqués made from distinct moulds is frequently made quite difficult by the often simplified drawings in publications, which without doubt distort the subjects to a varying degree, as well as by photographs that

The rest of the Samian ware from the grave belongs to the less fine Fabric E. One of the plates of the same shape from Grave 435 (Figs. 11.3; 12.3; 67) based on its potter’s stamp belongs to the L.M.V. Group (the vases of this group usually show the characteristics of this fabric). The die used here is not listed either in the CVArr2, or in the compilation of Dénes Gabler.36 Dénes Gabler summarized the data concerning the L. Mag(.) Vir(.) workshop.37 Its products appear only sporadically south of the Po in Italy; its main export areas were the Alpine region, Pannonia and Noricum.38 The products of the L. Mag(.) Vir(.) workshop were most frequent in the Flavian period; the latest pieces from Pannonia are known from contexts dated to Trajan.39 We also suggest a Flavian dating for this Schindler-Kaudelka et al. 2001. Grave 6, Cat. 1. 31 Gabler 2000, 90. 32 Gabler 2000, 94. 33 Gabler 1977, 146. 34 Gabler 2000, 94. 35 Grave 4, Cat. 1. 36 Gabler 2003, Fig. 1. 37 Gabler 2003. 38 Gabler 2003, 90-93. 39 For the chronology of the workshop, cf. CVArr², No. 1085, 268; Gabler 2003, 94-99. For its distribution in Savaria, cf. Buócz and Gabler 2002, 13. kép 2; Fülöp 2004, 140, 7. tábla 6-7. 29 30

Grave. 4, Cats. 2-3. Ettlinger et al. 1990, in the following Consp. 23 Buócz and Gabler 2002, 67. 24 Gabler 2000, 75-98, with a list of his stamps in Pannonia and observations regarding the distribution of the potter’s production 77, 90-94. 25 Gabler 2000, 94, Abb. 10. 26 Gabler 1973, Abb. 5. 23. 27 Gabler 2000, Abb. 9. 14. 28 CVArr2, No. 2028, 416. 21 22

4

The finds plate. Three small Samian bowls with everted rim (Consp. 43) were also found in Grave 4 (Figs. 13.1-3; 71.1-6).40 It is also possible that these rather bad quality pieces were local copies of Italian manufactures.41 However, it is more probable that they were made in Italy, as the worst quality pieces of the workshops in the Po Region producing Samian ware; thus being very poor quality examples of the so-called Fabric E. The doubts concerning the production places could be resolved once and for all by material analysis. The Consp. 43 form small bowls first appear in Pannonia in the Flavian period, most frequently from the beginning of the rule of Domitian and are characteristic types right until the end of the rule of Trajan, their import ceasing sometime during Hadrian’s reign, or perhaps at the beginning of the reign of Antonius Pius.42 The pieces can also be dated to this period. Based on the quality of the small bowls, however, it is impossible to date them more precisely.

to the same vessel (Figs. 26.1; 72.3-4).47 Considering the potter’s stamp on one of them, the vessel was produced by the potter using the Q(.) S(.) P(.) stamp. The potter’s stamp may be identical with one listed in the Corpus Vasorum Arretinorum.48 The work produced by this potter is frequent in Northern Italy, but most common in the regions of Noricum and Pannonia.49 The cups of the Consp. 34 form appeared during the reign of Tiberius; their mass production is characteristic of the ClaudianFlavian period, later only appearing sporadically. Their import to the Danube Region is only certain until ca. 80 / 85.50 The dating for this piece is also the ClaudianFlavian period, but the Flavian period is the more likely. Two burnt Samian sherds were found during the excavation of Grave (?) 33. Both were produced in a North Italian workshop in the Po Region, and based on the quality of their material they belonged to Fabric E. One is the base of a Consp. 34 form cup51 (Figs. 57.4; 72.6) with an indecipherable, perhaps anepigraphic potter’s stamp within a foot-shaped frame inside a lathe-worked circle. It is from the Claudian-Flavian period, but the Flavian period is the more likely. The other vessel is a Consp. 20.4 form plate (Figs. 57.3; 72.5).52 Based on the applied ornamentation, it was most likely to have been made in the L. Mag(.) Vir(.) workshop as well in the period between the rule of Claudius and the end of the reign of Titus.

Incised inscriptions made after firing can be found on all the six Samian vessels from Grave 4 (Figs. 12.1-3; 13.1-3; 67.2; 68.2; 69.2; 71.2, 4, 6), which are discussed by Andrea Barta in a separate chapter. Among the finds of Grave 5, there is a body fragment with the beginning of the vertical rim of a small Consp. 20.4 Samian plate (Figs. 19.3; 72.2),43 which was probably made in the second half of the 1st century. This rather small, unburnt sherd was probably not placed into the grave as part of the grave goods, but is a residual find.

To summarize, we can state that the Samian ware vessels placed on the pyre or into the grave are the mass products of the North Italian workshops in the Po valley. Their forms also represent the plate, small bowl and cup forms (Consp. 20, Consp. 43 and Consp. 34) most frequently found in Pannonia. The potters and workshops identifiable according to the potters’ stamps are those that ‘specialized’ in the markets of the regions of the Alps, Noricum and Pannonia, and which shipped large quantities to this zone. The Samian ware within the find material consists of pieces produced during the second half of the 1st century, and the very beginning of the 2nd century; apart from the Consp. 43 form bowls, which may also have been produced in the first half of the 2nd century.

Among the finds of Grave 6, there was a Samian ware plate (Figs. 24.1; 70)44, also with a vertical rim (Consp. 20.4.4), which originates from a North Italian workshop in the Po Region and, based on the quality of its material, it belongs to the Fabric E group. This piece, similarly to the above detailed plates, also dates to the rule of Nero, or more probably to the Flavian period. The finds from Enclosure ditch 101  /113 contained several secondarily burnt sherds from Samian plates. All of them belong to the Fabric E group. One sherd from a plate with vertical rim (Consp. 20.4) is dated to the Claudian-Vespasian / Titus period. Based on its applied decoration which is very similar to or perhaps identical with an appliqué from the L. Mag(.) Vir(.) workshop, it is possible that the plate was made in this workshop (Figs. 26.3; 72.1).45 It is contemporary with the other Samian plate also of Consp. 20.4.2 form from the Enclosure ditch 101 /113 (Fig. 26.2).46 Two other non-joining cup sherds (Consp. 34) showing the characteristics of Fabric E were also found in the same ditch, and probably belong

Thin-walled pottery Three cups belonging to thin-walled pottery were found in the find material. Two forms had handles and one was without. A low footed, semiglobular cup with everted rim and barbotine decoration was found in Grave 4 (Figs. 13.5; 73.3).53 Its Enclosure ditch 101 /113, Cats. 2-3. CVArr², No. 1765. 4, 376. 49 Gabler 2000, 79; Schindler-Kaudelka et al. 2001, 147. 50 Gabler 1993, 119. 51 Grave (?) 33, Cat. 1. 52 Grave (?) 33, Cat. 2. 53 Grave 4, Cat. 9. In the classification of Eszter Szőnyi it belongs to type Ca, Szőnyi 1972, 18. 47

Grave 4, Cats. 4-6. 41 Fülöp et al. 2010, 111, 118. 42 Gabler 1990, 150. 43 Grave 5, Cat. 1. 44 Grave 6, Cat. 1. 45 Enclosure ditch 101 /113, Cat. 1. 46 Enclosure ditch 101 /113, Cat. 4. 40

48

5

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) clay was fired to light grey, with traces of black glaze on its exterior surface. According to the Magdalensberg typology, it is closest to form 106, which appeared just before the abandonment of the settlement in 30-40;54 its prime, however, followed later than the find material which we have for examination at the site. The decoration of berries hanging on curved vines with alternating arches on the top and bottom characteristically appeared in the Flavian period.55

19.3; 72.2; 73.3),61 but it cannot be ruled out that they were not imported but made within the province. The cup with handle found in Grave 26 (Figs. 46.5; 73.2),62 however, is undoubtedly a provincial product. Pottery made in Pannonia The fine-ware and coarse-ware pottery of Savaria and its ‘territorium’ has not yet been studied. The productions of the different workshops have still not been determined, and the typo-chronological system of the vase forms and the rim typology is yet to be developed. In the city and its surroundings we can primarily count on the material known from the Early Roman cemeteries. Apart from these, we must also consider data from outside the city when determining the ceramic material. The comprehensive work of Éva Bónis published in 1942 has now become rather dated.63 The pieces illustrated in the 1942 volume can be regarded as characteristic examples of each formal group, which comprise various profile and rim variations. The classification of these varieties was not carried out and could not have been at that time. Therefore, we only refer to this work in instances when it is necessary for the definition of a piece, or when there is an exact formal match. A work that cannot be left unnoticed is the publication of the coarse ware pottery from Carnuntum (Bad DeutschAltenburg / Petronell, Lower Austria) prepared by Beatrix Petznek.64 The author, when introducing each type, gives the Pannonian, thus the Savarian distribution of the formal variations as well. We only refer to these individually when the cited parallel is significant with respect to the dating or the complete profile of the vessel.

A cylindrical cup, narrowing towards the foot in a sharp angle, with barbotine decoration was found in Grave 5 (Figs. 19.1; 73.1).56 Its clay was fired to dark grey, with traces of black slip on its exterior surface. There are three groups of double horizontal incised lines on its belly at more or less the same distance from one another, with the decoration between the upper two line pairs. The only form with a handle was found in Grave 26 (Figs. 46.5; 73.2).57 Its body is biconical with a rib dividing the belly into two sections. Its rim is tall, everted and curving. Its clay was fired to grey, with a black glaze on its exterior surface. All three thin-walled pottery cups were produced with reduction firing. The vessel walls are thicker than the ‘paper-walled’ Italian examples, and neither are their glazes identical with the metallic shine of the (Magdalensberg Fabric E) import pieces. This group was primarily made at the end of the 1st century and at the beginning of the 2nd century, but it was probably manufactured up until the middle of the 2nd century.58 Eleni Schindler-Kaudelka separated the groups of North Italian thin-walled ceramics based on the Magdalensberg material, examining the clay and the colour and quality of the glaze.59 In her classification, these examples are closest to the so-called Fabric E, which are characterized by good quality, well-fired grey clay, and a shiny black glaze. However, this classification cannot be applied to the material found in the cemetery. A similar group with clay fired to grey and a shiny grey or dull black glaze, often covered with a barbotine decoration was also identified by Gabriella Fényes within the find material from Brigetio.60 She attempted to locate their place of production, rightly in our opinion, outside Northern Italy, somewhere within the regions of the province. In the case of the pieces from Graves 4 and 5, it can be considered that they are the low quality products of Italian pottery workshops (Figs. 13.5;

Jugs (lagoena) The jug placed in Grave 3 (Fig. 8.5)65 has an ovoid body elongated towards the top; a cylindrical neck; a relatively wide, round spout; the interior of the mouth rim is concave; its exterior curved, and its upper part rounded. The tripartite strap handle closing in a right angle starts from under the shoulder, from the upper section of the belly, and joins to the upper part of the neck under the rim. This rim type must have been made for a longer period, but it was most popular during the Late Flavian period and the beginning of the 2nd century.66 Most of the jugs were excavated from Grave 4. The tall jug with biconical body and slightly upward narrowing neck, a round spout, and a slightly everted, rounded rim evokes the lagynos form of the Mediterranean pottery workshops (Figs. 15.3; 79.7).67 Its parallel is known from

Schindler-Kaudelka 1975, 112-113. Mócsy and Fitz 1990, 187. 56 Grave 5, Cat. 2. In the classification of Eszter Szőnyi it belongs to type Aa. Szőnyi 1972, 18. For the form, cf. Bónis 1942, XIX. 21 and XX. 67; Petru 1972, XII.16.15, CIX. 28; Istenič 1999, ad Pl. 177. 2, 108. For the decoration, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XX / 64. 57 Grave 26, Cat. 1. In the classification of Eszter Szőnyi it belongs to type Bb, Szőnyi 1972, 18. For the form and its Pannonian distribution, cf. Istenič 1999, ad TWP 5, 108-109. 58 Gassner 1990, 257. 59 Schindler-Kaudelka 1975, 30-36. 60 Fényes 2003, 9. 54 55

Grave 4, Cat. 9; Grave 5, Cat. 2. Grave 26, Cat. 1. 63 Bónis 1942. 64 Petznek 1997; Petznek 1998; Petznek 1999. 65 Grave 3, Cat. 1. 66 Istenič 1999, ad FS 11, 124; for the shape of the rim, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XXIX /1. 67 Grave 4, Cat. 13. 61 62

6

The finds Poetovio.68 Similar pieces are known from the cemeteries of Emona.69 This vase may be the product of a south Pannonian workshop. The shape of the other two jugs are closer to the types common in the province. The vases with similar rim shape to the globular jug with a rim articulated by horizontal ribs (Figs. 15.2; 79.4)70 are characteristic of the Flavian period at Poetovio.71 The third piece (Figs. 15.1; 79.5) 72 has a flat foot with rounded sides; its body is slightly elongated and ovoid; its neck is short, narrowing at the middle; its spout is round; and its swollen rim is articulated by three ribs. Similar varieties of the rim type are known from Szombathely – Olad.73 This jug, based on the grave goods within the burial, can be dated to the Flavian-Trajanic period.

first half of the 3rd century.82 A similar, unpublished piece is known from Arrabona (Győr; Győr-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary).83 Beakers (pocula) The drinking vessels used as grave goods in burials can be divided into two larger formal groups (see above the presentation of the Samian and thin-walled drinking vessels). The first group consists of the so-called folded beakers. Its squat version, with a simple, unarticulated, curving everted rim, known from Grave 38 (Figs. 63.6; 78.1),84 is a typically 2nd century form.85 It is dated in this grave between 140 and 180 / 200 by an Almgren 70 / 73g type fibula. Another 2nd century beaker sherd was found in Grave 28 (Fig. 49.7).86 The same rim type is known from Carnuntum from a burial dating to the second third of the 2nd century.87 This small sherd is older than the other finds from the grave. Its size also indicates that it is a residual find among the grave goods of the burial. The beaker from Grave 25 (Fig. 45.5),88 with its elongated, downward narrowing body, represents the shape characteristic of the second half of the 2nd century.89

The rim of the round spouted jug from Grave 7 breaks slightly with a curve at its centre, and its ending is semicircular (Fig. 27.4).74 The type is frequent in burials at Savaria during the end of the 1st century-2nd century.75 Grave 7, based on its grave goods, can be dated to the period between 140-180 / 200. The jug from Grave 2 cannot be defined more precisely due to its missing spout (Figs. 7.4; 79.1)76. Its body is globular; the tripartite strap handle runs up steeply from its shoulder and joins to the bottom part of the neck.77 The spout is also missing from the jug excavated in Grave 38 (Figs. 63.3; 79.3)78. It has an elongated form, which, based on the fibula also found in the burial, was possibly produced between 140-180 / 200. Due to its fragmentary state, the Early Roman jug base from Grave (?) 35 cannot be assigned to any type either (Fig. 59.3).79

The second formal group belongs to the small-sized globular mugs with handles, which regarding their forms can be classified among jugs, but according to their sizes they are more like drinking vessels. That is why Vera Lányi listed this group among the drinking vessels, in our opinion rightly so.90 The earliest among these is the mug, or in other words a narrow footed, small jug from the urn of Grave 22 (Figs. 42.5; 78.3).91 These ‘cannellured mugs’ are typical pieces of the end of the 2nd century and the 3rd century.92

Only a single fragmentary piece from Grave 1 may indicate the possibility of a double handled jug (Fig. 5.4);80 however, the piece is so fragmentary that the exact type cannot be determined.

The globular mug with an articulated rim from Grave 41 is a later form (‘Topfartige Henkelbecher’, Figs. 66.3; 78.4).93 This type first appeared in the last quarter of the 3rd century, but it spread widely during the 4th century and remained in use until the end of the 4th century.94

Contrary to the above-mentioned examples, which have narrowing spouts, the diameter of the round spout of the jug from Grave 28 is almost the same size as that of the widest section of its belly (Figs. 49.4; 79.6).81 Its base without foot ring is relatively tall; its body is elongated, narrowing downwards; its shoulder is tall and steep, and the almost circular mouth rim joins to it with a rib. The vessel may date from the very end of the 2nd century, or the

Small storage vessels (ollae) This category comprises vases with same forms as the jars but which are usually about a half or a third of their size. These vessels were not used for cooking food, but probably

Mikl Curk 1976, Taf. X. 3. Petru 1972, CXII.2.7, LX.857.9; Plesničar-Gec 1972, CXVII.509.6, 10. 70 Grave 4, Cat. 11. 71 Istenič 1999, ad FS 1, 120. 72 Grave 4, Cat. 12. 73 Mátyás 2006 [2007], 2. tábla 6-7. 74 Grave 7, Cat. 1. 75 Site at Hámán Kató út, Egészségügyi Iskola, Graves 32 and 65: Mócsy 1954, 169, 172, 186, 7. kép 32. 5, 14. kép 65. 2; Rumi út 72-74, Grave V: Buócz 1961, 4. kép V.1. 76 Grave 2, Cat. 1. 77 For a similar piece, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XXVI /14. 78 Grave 38, Cat. 1. 79 Grave (?) 35, Cat. 1. 80 Grave 1, Cat. 61. 81 Grave 28, Cat. 2. 68 69

Brukner 1981, Tab. 148,153. Dénes Gabler’s personal communication. 84 Grave 38, Cat. 7. 85 Krekovič 1998, 36, Taf. 27.9. 86 Grave 28, Cat. 9. 87 Ertel et al. 1999, Abb. 5. 25, 2. 88 Grave 25, Cat. 5. 89 Ertel et al. 1999, Abb. 6. 127, 5. 90 Lányi 1972, 146. On the ambiguity of categorizing the Early Roman exemplars, cf. Petznek 1999, 235. 91 Grave 22, Cat. 3. 92 Petznek 1999, 235-236. 93 Grave 41, Cat. 4. 94 Krekovič 1998, 36; Kronberger 2005, 157-158, with further bibliography. 82 83

7

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) had ‘multifunctional’ roles (such as storage; or when their rims allowed they could also be used as drinking vessels). Each piece was dark-toned coarse ware. One of the simplest types is represented by the ovoid-bodied pieces with slightly everted and rounded rims:95 Grave 1 (Figs. 5.2; 77.7);96 Grave 4 (Figs. 14.6; 77.4);97 Grave 10 (Figs. 31.4; 77.2)98 and probably Grave 19 (Fig. 40.3)99. A vase with a similar rim shape, but with a rib decoration on its neck is known from Grave 2 (Figs. 7.3; 77.3).100

century: Grave 3 (Fig. 8.4);111 Grave 26 (Figs. 46.4; 74.4).112 Petznek’s type 5.2 from Enclosure ditch 101 / 113 is similarly early (Fig. 25.3),113 also popular in the given period.

The vase from Grave 37 has a slightly more rectangular rim (Figs. 60.4; 77.9),101 which was a common type from the Late Flavian period until the end of the 2nd century.102

The jar with triangular-sectioned rim is a slightly later type (variation of Type 6 in Petznek’s typology). The pieces found in Graves 3 and 6 (Figs. 8.4; 23.1; 76.1)116 can be identified as Petznek’s type 6.1. This rim type appeared in the later period of the 1st century and could be found throughout the 2nd century, but it is most common between 75-125.117 Similarly, the jar type from Grave 1 also occurs frequently during this period (Figs. 5.3; 76.2).118 This type, however, is used right until the end of the 2nd century.

The later type of the so-called ‘Auerberg jar’ from Grave 10 is also an early example (Figs. 31.1; 76.4).114 This variant appeared in the middle of the 1st century and remained in use over almost a century (ca. 50-150).115

The vessels found in Grave 4 were probably made in the same workshop (Figs. 14.6-8; 77.4-6),103 judging by the quality of their fabric. It is possible that one of the vessels found in Grave 1 was also made in the same workshop (Figs. 5.2; 77.7).104 All the rims of the three above-mentioned pieces show traces of a black substance. One belongs to the everted, rounded rim type (see above); the other two have grooves on the interior of the rim (Figs. 14.7-8).105 These vases are dated between 80 / 81-120 by the other objects found with them. The vase found in Grave 6 also represents an early rim shape (Figs. 23.2; 77.1),106 which was a popular type from the Flavian period until the end of the reign of Hadrian.107

The rim type of the jar from Grave 26 (Figs. 46.4; 74.4)119 is also long-lasting. It appeared at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, most frequently in the 2nd century; but it is even distributed throughout several locations during the 3rd century and eventually disappears completely at the beginning of the 4th century.120 In Grave 26, it can be dated by the other grave goods to between the end of the 1st century-beginning of the 2nd century.

The form of the wide-shouldered small vase used as an urn in Grave 3 (Figs. 8.3; 78.2)108 indicates that it probably had a different usage originally. Judging by its narrowing mouth, it could be used for storing liquids.109

The jar placed in Grave 29 is a slightly later piece (Figs. 53.3; 75.2).121 Vases with a similar rim form are characteristic of the 2nd century; however, following the Marcomannic Wars they went out of use relatively fast.122

Jars (ollae)

The form of the jar in Grave 22 perhaps also represents a later type (Figs. 42.3; 74.2).123 Beatrix Petznek dated the vessels with similar rim shape but without the groove to the 3rd century.124 The asymmetrical turning of the vessel may indicate that it is a waste product. It might be thought that a vase inadequate for kitchen use due to its instability was then placed in the grave.

Within the group of jars found in the graves, the earliest types appeared in the 1st century. Among these Petznek’s type 7.1 is the earliest,110 which was commonly used in the second half of the 1st century and in the first half of the 2nd Petznek 1997, Typ 7.1, 208-209, 50-100 /125. The same type from Savaria: Rumi út 72-74, Graves XVIII and XXVII: Buócz 1961, 7. kép XVIII. 2, 9. kép XXVII. 2. 96 Grave 1, Cat. 5. 97 Grave 4, Cat. 23. 98 Grave 10, Cat. 5. 99 Grave 19, Cat. 2. 100 Grave 2, Cat. 4. Similar piece from a Savarian burial: Hámán Kató út, Egészségügyi Iskola, Grave 1: Mócsy 1954, 167, 3. kép; Dr. Szabolcs Zoltán utca 2-5, Grave 3: Medgyes 1977-1978 [1984], 180, VIII. t. 3, from the 2nd century. 101 Grave 37, Cat. 9. 102 Petznek 1997, Typ 7.2, 210. 103 Grave 4, Cats. 22-24. 104 Grave 1, Cat. 5. 105 Grave 4, Cats. 22, 24. 106 Grave 6, Cat. 7. 107 Petznek 1997, Typ 6.4, 205. From Savaria: Rumi út 72-74, Grave I: Buócz 1961, 3. kép I.2. 108 Grave 3, Cat. 5. 109 Cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. IX / 1, with different base and a rib on its shoulder. 110 Petznek 1997, Typ 7.1, 208-209. From Savaria: Hámán Kató út, Egészségügyi Iskola, Grave 40: Mócsy 1954, 170, 9. kép 40,2. 95

The jars with elongated body and triangular-sectioned, vertical rim probably had not yet appeared at the end of the 1st century, but had definitely done so by the very beginning of the 2nd: such as in the vessels found in Graves 27 and 39 Grave 3, Cat. 2. Grave 26, Cat. 5. 113 Enclosure ditch 101 /113, Cat. 6. Cf. Petznek 1997, Typ 5.2, 199. 114 Grave 10, Cat. 2. 115 Petznek 1997, Typ 5.1, 198-199. 116 Grave 3, Cat. 4; Grave 6, Cat. 4. 117 Petznek 1997, Typ 6.1, 202-203. 118 Grave 1, Cat. 3. Cf. Petznek 1997, Typ. 6.4, 205. From Savaria: Rumi út 7274, Grave XXIX: Buócz 1961, 235, 10. kép. 119 Grave 26, Cat. 5. 120 Petznek 1997, Typ 7.6, 212-213. 121 Grave 29, Cat. 1. 122 Petznek 1997, Typ 10.1, 221-222. From Savaria: Kertész utca 43, Grave XVIII: Buócz 1963, 137, 148. 123 Grave 22, Cat. 2. 124 Petznek 1997, Typ 12.3, 225. 111

112

8

The finds (Figs. 47.5; 64.3; 74.5; 75.3),125 which were rather frequent until the end of the Marcomannic Wars; and despite their decreasing popularity, they remained in use right until the very end of the 2nd century.126

Tripod vase (tripes) A single rim sherd from Enclosure ditch 98 / 108 belongs to this group (Fig. 56.3).141 These vases were probably used for serving and perhaps also for cooking food. They were in use from the Flavian period until the end of the 2nd century.142

The parallels of the straight-walled jar with upward running rim, with a profile on its interior, found in Grave 14 are known from 2nd century assemblages (Figs. 36.3; 75.1).127

Bowls (patellae) The shape of the semiglobular bowl with ring foot from Grave 11143 follows the Samian Dragendorff 37 form (Figs. 34.2; 80.2). In the case that the development of the form of the vases produced in the local pottery workshops follows the development of the Samian ware prototypes, then the vase can most probably still be dated to the 2nd century, as it shows similarities to the shallow bowls with not very elevated rims.

The jars with elongated body, wide shoulder, and rounded rim, similar to the vase from Grave 28 (Cat. 3; Figs. 48.5; 74.3.), also appeared in the 2nd century.128 Nevertheless, this type was used with minor changes until the 3rd century.129 Based on the accompanying finds, this vase was also made during the 3rd century. The other jar from the grave has a flat rim (Figs. 48.4; 74.1),130 which characteristic appeared following the Marcomannic Wars and is the most popular in the 3rd century.131 The rim sherd from a jar, most probably residual, found in Grave 40 (Fig. 65.7)132 belongs to a short-lived group of these horizontal, flat rimmed pots.133

Mortarium Mortaria were used for mixing spices, oil and other ingredients when preparing sauces and dressings. These ceramic bowls were an irreplaceable prerequisite in Mediterranean style cooking.144 This category is represented by a small wall fragment, which we can most probably regard as a residual find in Grave 38.145

Large storage vase (dolium) This vessel type is represented by a rim sherd from Grave 37 (Fig. 60.3).134 It most probably appeared among the finds as a residual piece. This fragment resembles the latest forms of vessels with vertical, triangular-sectioned rims, the most of which have deeper indentures on their interior surfaces. These were produced during the 2nd century, but also appear in strata dating to the 3rd century.135

Plates (catilli) The dating of the plate in Grave 27 (Fig. 47.3), 146 following the Drag. 32 Samian form, is determined by the production of the Samian prototype. The production of Drag. 32 form Samian plates started just a little before the middle of the 2nd century, as this form is missing from the small fort at Hesselbach (Hesseneck; Hesse, Germany) abandoned in 155; while the study of the cemetery of Bad Cannstatt (Stuttgart; Baden-Württenberg, Germany) indicates that it was already being made in 160.147 The red-painted fragment is close to the earlier varieties of the form, produced sometime in the second half of the 2nd century or at the beginning of the 3rd century.

Deep bowls with horizontal rim (caccabi) These are deep bowls with straight rims, most often made from the grey variety of dark-toned coarse ware (Knickwandschüsseln, cac(c)abi) belonging to the group of cooking vessels within kitchen ware. 136 One example was found among the finds from Grave 1 (Figs. 5.5; 80.1),137 which shows an early rim form characteristic of the Flavian period.138 Perhaps we can also identify one of the residual sherds from Grave 38139 as the rim fragment of a caccabus (Fig. 63.4).140

The small bowls with everted rim from Graves 4 (Cats. 7-8; Figs. 13.4, 6; 80.7-8) and 6 (Cat. 6; Figs. 24.2; 80.6) can be derived from the bowls (Drag. 35 / 36) of the Samian ware services of the Flavian period. A group of them are probably imitations of Samian ware, but the form quickly became part of the repertoire of the workshops producing coarse pottery and lost contact with the Samian precursors. Their dating can be estimated as starting

Grave 27, Cat. 1; Grave 39, Cat. 1. Petznek 1997, Typ 10.1, 221-222. 127 Grave 14, Cat. 1. Cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XVIII / 25; Topál 1981, Pl. IX. 26. 1. 128 For the form, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. VII /1, with grooves on the neck on this example. 129 Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 97-98, Abb.15.17-6. 130 Grave 28, Cat. 4. 131 Petznek 1997, Typ 12, 223-226. 132 Grave 40, Cat. 1. 133 Cf. Petznek 1997, Typ 12.1, 223-224; it was probably produced between 150-250. 134 Grave 37, Cat. 5. 135 Petznek 1997, Typ 3.4, 196. 136 For the type, cf. Bónis 1942, 50, Anm. 28, Taf. XXII. 13; Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 102-103. 137 Grave 1, Cat. 4. 138 Petznek 1997, Typ. 17.2.2, 246. 139 Grave 38, Cat. 4. 140 The rim form follows Petznek 1997, Typ 17.4.1, 245-246, most probably from the 2nd century. 125 126

141 Enclosure ditch 98 /108, Cat. 5. For a similar rim form, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XXIV /18. 142 On the tripod vases see: Bónis 1942, 50; Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 107. 143 Grave 11, Cat. 4. For the form, cf. Bónis 1942, Taf. XXII.7. 144 Baatz 1977; but see recently: Cramp et al. 2011. 145 Grave 38, Cat. 6. 146 Grave 27, Cat. 4. 147 Heiligmann-Batsch 1997, 77.

9

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) from the Flavian period, and lasting until the middle of the 2nd century (from Enclosure ditch 98 /108, Fig. 56.2).148

it is most common during the 3rd century.165 Another later form is known from Grave 28 (Fig. 49.5),166 where the plate has a strongly inverted, swollen rim with a break under it. The type had been made during the 3rd-4th centuries, but it was most frequent between 230-350.167

The plate with a profiled wall found in Grave 10 can also be traced back to Samian ware precursors (Fig. 31.3).149 It was possibly derived from the Drag. 15 form.150 This form in Samian pottery was mainly produced between 60-120. Among coarse ware, it did not last much longer than the end of the manufacture of the Samian ware counterpart. A similar piece is known from Tumulus 7 at Söjtör – Bontabükk (Zala County, Hungary).151

The shallow, short bowl with a slightly everted rim and without foot ring from Grave 7 was not a frequent type (Figs. 27.5; 80.5).168 We know of its parallels from the end of the 1st century and the 2nd century.169 A similar piece is known from the contemporary tumulus cemetery at Pátka (Fejér County, Hungary).170

Plates with inverted rim (so-called Soldatenteller) are represented by several pieces. One of the earliest profile plates is from Grave 3 (Figs. 8.6; 80.3).152 This form was already produced in the second half of the 1st century and remained in use until the end of the 2nd century.153 The wide, flat plate found in Grave (?) 34 (Fig. 58.5)154 possibly also comes from the later part of the 1st century, or the 2nd century, which has a perfect parallel from Savaria, from the cemetery sector excavated at Kertész utca 43.155 The plate with a curving wall and slightly inverted rim from Grave 15 (Figs. 36.6; 80.4)156 was perhaps made in the 2nd century. Its parallel is known from the 2nd century cemetery of Matrica (Százhalombatta; Pest County, Hungary).157 Based on the finds from Carnuntum, this type also dates to the 2nd century: it was produced between 120-200.158

Lids (opercula) The forms of lids did not change as fast as the vessels to which they belonged. Two types of lids can be distinguished among the finds. The following are varieties of lids with rectangular, slightly thickened rims. The plain rectangular rim, as per the example from Grave 1 (Fig. 5.1),171 was most preferred in the FlavianTrajanic period.172 The rim, slightly swollen above and below, with straight walls from Grave 16 (Fig. 37.3)173 was in use from the middle of the 1st century until the middle of the 3rd century.174 The straight-rimmed lid with its lid-body flattening towards the rim from Grave 28 (Figs. 48.3; 76.5)175 was a frequently-produced form at the end of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd,176 but here it was found in a 3rd century burial complex. If we do not presume that a much older object had been placed among the offerings, which is highly unlikely in the case of this grey coarse pottery lid, this may be proof that the type sporadically remained in production during the first half of the 3rd century.

The plate with a more distinct break in its wall under the rim from Grave 11 is a later piece (Fig. 34.3).159 A vase with an identical profile is known from Grave 4 of the cemetery of Matrica, from the later period of the 2nd century, or the beginning of the 3rd.160 Considering the Carnuntum material, this profile type was dated by Beatrix Petznek between 180230.161

It is hard to follow the chronological changes of rounded, slightly thickened, more or less swollen-rimmed lids; they are most frequent during the 1st-2nd centuries, but in certain areas they live on in the 3rd century as well.177 This type was found in Grave 4 (Figs. 14.2; 76.6),178 Grave 28 (Fig. 49.2)179 and as a residual sherd from the fill of Grave 40 (Fig. 65.5).180 The tall lid with rounded rim and curved lid-body from Grave 26 (Fig. 46.3)181 shares attributes with similar

The type of the plate found in Grave 27 (Fig. 47.4)162 appeared in the second half of the 2nd century, and had become the leading form in use by the 3rd century.163 The profile type of the thick-rimmed plate with curving side and strongly inverted rim from Grave 25 was used over a long period of time (Fig. 45.4).164 It was produced starting from the second half of the 2nd century until the middle of the 4th, but

Petznek 1997, Typ 21.5, 261. Very similar but somewhat older piece from Savaria: Kertész utca 43, Grave III, Buócz 1963, 132-133, 145-146. 166 Grave 28, Cat. 6. 167 Petznek 1997, Typ 21.5, 261. 168 Grave 7, Cat. 2. 169 Hámán Kató út, Egészségügyi Iskola, Graves 12 and 49, Mócsy 1954, 168, 171, 186-187, 4. kép. 12,2, 11. kép 49,3. 170 Palágyi and Nagy 2002, Taf. X. 8. 171 Grave 1, Cat. 6. 172 Grünewald 1979, 63; from Savaria during the same period: Mócsy 1954, 11. kép 52,2. 173 Grave 16, Cat. 4. 174 Petznek 1997, 266-277. 175 Grave 28, Cat. 7. 176 Petznek 1997, Typ 28, 268-269. 177 Vámos 2002, 18, with further literature. 178 Grave 4, Cat. 28. 179 Grave 28, Cat. 11. 180 Grave 40, Cat. 3. 181 Grave 26, Cat. 7. 165

Enclosure ditch 98 / 108, Cat. 6. Cf. Istenič 1999, ITS 10.1, 99, between 70-150. Grave 10, Cat. 4. 150 Bónis 1942, 49, Taf. XXI / 21. 151 Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 212, Abb. 11.12. 152 Grave 3, Cat. 4. 153 50-200: Petznek 1997, Typ 21.1, 258-259. 154 Grave (?) 34, Cat. 1. 155 Buócz 1963, 148, indicated by no. 2. 156 Grave 15, Cat. 2. 157 Topál 1981, Pl. XIV. 41.4. 158 Petznek 1997, Typ 21.2, 259-260. 159 Grave 11, Cat. 5. 160 Topál 1981, Pl. II. 4.2. 161 Petznek 1997, Typ 21.3, 260. 162 Grave 27, Cat. 5. 163 Petznek 1997, Typ 21.5, 261. 164 Grave 25, Cat. 4. 148

149

10

The finds pieces that appeared at the end of the 1st century and stayed in use at least until the end of the 2nd century.182

of the pyre. Its location in the grave suggests that if it was a ‘lamp-holder’, it was not placed onto the grave; while at the same time, it cannot be ruled out that it had been used in this way at some point of the burial, and was broken deliberately or by accident and placed into the grave before it was eventually closed.

The remaining lid sherds are in such fragmentary state that it is not possible to categorize them (Figs. 49.1; 56.1).183 Miscellanea

Glass vessels

The fragments of a terracotta object were found in Grave 1 (Figs. 6; 83).184 We do not know of an exact parallel for this object type in a funerary context. Its form resembles two types of objects. The first group consists of ‘chimney pots’ with openwork decoration. The other group comprises the so-called ‘hut-urns’ that mainly occur in the area of the tribe of the Latobics.185 Nevertheless, the form of the object is not identical to any of the ‘hut-urns’ found there. The ‘hut-urns’ described in detail were well-fired in all cases. Not even the location of the fragmentary object within the grave would indicate that it was a ‘hut-urn’ of a hitherto unknown type.

The majority of the glass vessels are small perfume bottles (balsamaria). One of the earliest forms is the glass bottle found in Grave 6 (Figs. 23.4; 92.1),188 which belongs to the Isings type 28A1.189 This balsamarium type appeared in the Augusto-Tiberian period, and remained in use until the end of the reign of Trajan.190 It probably reached Pannonia through Emona via the North Italian trade route.191 Most pieces belong to the elongated, drop-shaped Isings type 28. We found the Isings 28a variety in Grave 10 (Figs. 31.5-6; 92.2-3).192 This sub-type appeared in the Augustan-Tiberian period, and can be found until the end of the rule of Trajan.193 The five pieces found in Grave 4 (Figs. 15.4-8; 92.5-9),194 as secondary grave goods, can be classed as the Isings type 28b.195 The melted glass bottle from Grave 4 (Fig. 15.9)196 most probably belonged to the same type, as did the two (?) burnt glass bottles from Grave 5 (Figs. 19.4-5).197 They are made from the mid-1st century until the 2nd century,198 but are most frequent during the Flavian period.199

The ‘chimney pots’ with openwork decoration are defined as light-towers, roof decorations, or even as incense burners.186 There are more openings in the pieces identified as light-towers. Its form also diverges from the incense burners, and there are no signs of discolouration caused by the burning coal set in them. One of the characteristics of this object is that it has only one opening. It may be interpreted as a ‘lamp house’; thus, if placed in the right direction, it would have shielded the lit oil lamp placed inside from the wind. The inadequate firing of the object suggests another possibility as well. It was observed in the case of Early Roman funerary pyres at Lyon that un-fired or half-fired wheel-thrown vessels were probably placed onto or around the pyre.187 The question of thriftiness may be one aspect in this case. Less fuel was required for the firing of these vessels, naturally, and they were thus less expensive. By this more distant example, it can be inferred that this was also the case in connection with this object, and it was not fired well due to the fact that it was only fired by the heat of the pyre.

A fragmentary glass bottle came from Grave 8 (Fig. 28.4),200 which was probably a small perfume bottle of the Isings type 101,201 which was most frequent during the last quarter of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century. We should not search for parallels of the small perfume bottle from Grave 28 (Fig. 51.8)202 among the early bagshaped glass balsamaria (Isings Form 27). Throughout the 3rd-4th centuries, a form very similar to the earlier pieces was produced made out of greenish glass, as was this piece. This later type is usually not distinguished from the earlier form; thus, neither is it in the works of László Barkóczi,203 nor Irena Lazar.204 The wall of this later variety is thicker than the earlier pieces. Its formal characteristics, which distinguish it from the earlier type, are the thick walls

The insufficiently-fired state of the object indicates that even if it was made in a workshop producing roof ornaments and ‘light-towers’, it was most probably meant for a different use. It is likely that the uniqueness of the object is supported by the fact that it was not produced in large quantities, but specially for the burial to be put on the pyre as an ephemeral decorative element, for example; and was later placed among the grave goods, broken into several pieces, following the cremation and the reordering

Grave 6, Cat. 8. Isings 1957, 28A, 42; Barkóczi 1988, Form 85, 112-113; Rütti 1991, Ar. 128, 52; Arveiller-Dulong and Nenna 2005, No. 299, 125. 190 Rütti 1991, 52. 191 Barkóczi 1988, 113. 192 Grave 10, Cats. 6-7. 193 Isings 1957, Form 28A, 42; Rütti 1991, Ar. 130. 1, 52. 194 Grave 4, Cats. 32-37. 195 Barkóczi 1988, Form 84, 111-112; Lazar 2003, Form 8.6.1 / 8.6.2, 175-179. 196 Grave 4, Cat. 37. 197 Grave 5, Cat. 28. 198 Barkóczi 1988, 111-112. 199 Rütti 1991, 52. 200 Grave 8, Cat. 3. 201 Rütti 1991, Ar. 148, 54; its older variety: Isings 1957, Form 101, 119-120. 202 Grave 28, Cat. 14. 203 Barkóczi 1988. 204 Lazar 2003. 188 189

Petznek 1997, Typ 29, 269-270. Grave 28, Cat. 12; Enclosure ditch 98 / 108, Cat. 7. 184 Grave 1, Cat. 7. 185 For a summary of this group, cf. Petru 1971. 186 Nagy 1945; Oelmann 1952, esp. 120, where he notes that some of them were also used during the burial or in the cult of the grave; Lowther 1976; Adler-Wölfl and Sauer 2000, with details on their interpretation, their distribution, dating and further bibliography. 187 Blaizot and Bonnet 2007, 221. 182 183

11

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) and pointed not rounded bottom. This type was found, for example, in a small grave group near Aquincum,205 which was used for burials after 270 / 275, probably at the end of the 3rd century or at the very beginning of the 4th century. At Zülpich-Enzen (Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany), a burial dated by dendrochronology to ca. 360 contained an example of this form.206 Thus, this form can originate from the Isings Form 27 bag-shaped glass bottles and its usage may be dated to the 3rd-4th centuries.

neck and round spout from the group was published from the cemetery of Alsópáhok – Hévízdomb (Zala County, Hungary).216 One of its closest parallels is known from the Magdalensberg (Carinthia, Austria)217 which was made before the mid-40s of the 1st century. The vessel from Grave 4 was also produced sometime between the Augusto-Early Tiberian period and the end of the rule of Claudius, and based on the same manufacturing technology, probably in an Italian workshop. Therefore, it was not new at the time it was placed onto the pyre. Most probably it had already served at least one, but probably two or more generations.

An ovoid-bodied glass bottle without foot ring, with a flat, thick bottom, and with twisted-ribbed decoration was found inside Urn ‘B’ in Grave 28 (Figs. 51.7; 93.3-4).207 It is broken at its neck so the form of its spout is unknown. We do not know of any parallels for the unusual form of the foot. The vessel belongs to the larger family of pear-shaped jugs without handles of the 3rd century,208 but the combination of its unusual foot variety, its form and decoration does not have any known parallels. The finds accompanying it also infer production dating to the 3rd century.

Oil lamps (lucernae) The finds of the cemetery comprised seven oil lamps. All of them were found in graves. The group of voluted oil lamps is represented by a single piece from Grave 10 (Figs. 30.3; 82.4),218 which corresponds with the Loeschcke IC type, or in another classification to the so-called Raetian lamps (‘Rätische Lampe’, Iványi I / 3 type).219 Based on the quality of its material, they are probably of provincial production. These are dated between 70-200;220 here they appear within an assemblage dating to the Flavian and Trajanic periods.

The only drinking vessel is the truncated cone-shaped glass beaker found in Grave 40 (Figs. 65.3; 93.1-2).209 This is also the youngest glass vase in the whole cemetery. This type was produced between the second third of the 4th century until the beginning of the 5th century.210

The factory lamp from Grave 4 (Figs. 13.7; 82.1)221 belongs to a less common type (Loeschcke IX B = Iványi XVI type).222 Its quality is perhaps identical with the group from the Poetovio cemetery, which was determined by Janka Istenič as North Italian imported ware (Quality A). The lamps bearing the CHRYSANT stamp were probably made by a smaller North Italian workshop also exporting to Pannonia, which was possibly active in the Flavian period, and perhaps also during the beginning of the 2nd century.223

Apart from the pieces with definable forms, there were several tiny glass fragments most probably from glass vessels,211 as well as glass remains from unidentified objects.212 Bronze vessel An extremely burnt and deformed bronze vessel was found in Grave 4 (Figs. 16.1a; 88.1),213 which we can reconstruct as a two-handled amphora (Fig. 16.1b).214 The vessel body was hammered from one piece; its bottom lathe-worked to make it lighter; and lastly the handles were soldered on. The exact details of the vessel shape are difficult to make out due to its deformity (the reconstruction drawing illustrates one of the most probable, but far from the only forms possible); yet without doubt, it belongs to the group of a relatively small number of 1st century bronze amphorae. These were produced from the Augusto-Early Tiberian period until the middle of the 1st century; most probably in Italy, but perhaps also in other workshops of the provinces.215 It is not a frequent type of bronze vessel in Pannonia. An ovoid-bodied example with curving

In contrast to the previous example, the rest of the factory lamps (from Graves 11, 17, 22, 24 and 28; Figs. 34.4; 38.7; 42.8; 44.8; 49.8; 81.1-3; 82.2-3)224 belong to a much more frequent Loeschcke X = Iványi XVII type.225 This type appeared around 100 in Northern Italy and spread from there to the provinces, where it quickly became popular and was produced in local workshops until at least the middle of the 4th century.226 On the basis of the quality of their fabric, all of these lamps from the cemetery can be interpreted as provincial products.

Horváth et al. 2012, 190. Sedlmayer 1999, 37, Taf. 15. 12. 218 Grave 10, Cat. 1. 219 Iványi 1935, 10-11. 220 Alram-Stern 1989, 27-29; Istenič 1999, 162-163. 221 Grave 4, Cat. 10. 222 Iványi 1935,16. 223 Istenič 1999, 150, 152, with further literature regarding the chronology of this type. 224 Grave 11, Cat. 1; Grave 17, Cat. 1; Grave 22, Cat. 1; Grave 24, Cat. 1; Grave 28, Cat 1. 225 Iványi 1935, 16-19. 226 Alram-Stern 1989, 40; Ertel et al. 1999, 55-56.

Burger 1984, Grave C, Nos. 21-22, 74, Figs. 45 and 54. Follmann-Schulz 1989, 49, Nr. 15, 55, Abb. 2. 207 Grave 28, Cat. 13. 208 Barkóczi 1988, Form 135, 153-154; Foy 2010, 289-290. 209 Grave 40, Cat. 4. 210 Isings 1957, Form 106, 126-127; Barkóczi 1988, Typ 47.b, 84-84; Rütti 1991, Ar. 68, 47; Lazar 2003, Form 3.9.1, 117-119; for its distribution in Northern Pannonia, cf. Kelemen 2008, 90. 211 Grave 5, Cats. 12-13 ; Grave 28, Cats. 17-18. 212 Grave 5, Cats. 13; 29; Grave 8, Cat. 2; Grave 28, Cat. 15. 213 Grave 4, Cat. 40. 214 ‘Zweihenkelkrug’ in the German-language bibliography. 215 Bavdek 2005, 250; Bienert 2007, 233-234. 205

216

206

217

12

The finds The unsigned lamp from Grave 24 (Figs. 44.8; 82.3)227 is dated by the ceramic vases accompanying it in the grave assemblage between the Flavian period and the middle of the 2nd century.

3rd century.237 The lamps published from the cemetery of Emona were probably produced in Northern Italy.238 This piece, however, judging by its fabric, must have been made in a provincial workshop, which, after the dating of this assemblage, dates to the 3rd century, or perhaps the very end of the 2nd century.

Four of the lamps have potters’ marks on them: CRESCES was a North Italian master, but the provincial production of the lamps bearing the Cresces mark (Grave 28; Figs. 49.8; 81.2)228 began very early at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, and lasted until the end of the 3rd.229

Clothing accessories The earliest among the fibulae at the site are varieties of the Almgren 70 / 73 form.239 The brooch from Grave 8 (Figs. 28.5; 84.2)240 most resembles the Almgren 70 / 73f type. This variety was worn during the Antonine period.241 The fibula from Grave 38 (Figs. 63.7; 84.1)242 belongs to the Almgren 70 / 73g type, which was worn in the period between 140180.243

The lamps bearing the FORTIS mark (Grave 11; Figs. 34.4; 81.1)230 were produced in Northern Italy from the end of the 1st century until the 3rd. Their import into Pannonia – on the basis of the finds at Poetovio and Carnuntum – after the reign of Trajan is to be ruled out. However, they were made in provincial workshops right until the middle of the 4th century.231 We could not identify a well-dated piece made from the same mould as the one with the potter’s mark; thus, it is not possible to define its dating on this ground more precisely. The fibula / belt clasp,232 which appeared in the later part of the 3rd century and was in use until the end of the 4th, may give some assistance in the question of dating. The ceramics from the grave can also help in this case, which were probably not made later than the 3rd century. On the basis of all the above, the oil lamp was also made sometime during the 3rd century.

A formal variety244 of the knee fibula from Grave 20 (Figs. 41.3; 84.4)245 is known from a stratum dating just before the Marcomannic Wars at Zalalövő.246 The study of Astrid Böhme indicates that the knee fibula with semicircular headplate appeared just before the mid-2nd century, and remained in use until the beginning of the 3rd century (symbolically 125-225). This variety, to which the above fibula also belongs, is the most common in the area of Noricum and Pannonia.247 The ring fibula placed into Urn ‘A’ from Grave 28 (Figs. 51.5; 84.6)248 appeared in the second half of the 3rd century 249 and remained in use until the end of the 4th century.250 The crossbow brooch in the inhumation of Grave 40 (Figs. 65.4; 84.3)251 belongs to type 3 / 4 B in the typology of Philipp Marc Pröttel.252 The Pröttel 3 / 4 type appears around 330 and its use can be followed until ca. 400-420. The B formal type is not the earliest variety; Pröttel suggests a dating between 330 / 350-420.253

The pieces marked by L NARIUS were produced between the end of the 1st century and the middle of the 2nd.233 The lamp with the mark of L Nari from Grave 17 (Figs. 38.7; 81.3)234 is very similar to the pieces known from Zalalövő (Salla, Zala County, Hungary) regarding quality and material; thus, perhaps they were made in the same workshop. These lamps are contemporary with the municipal phase of Salla.235 Therefore, the lamp from the burial may have been produced between 125 /150 and 250.

The ring fibula or belt clasp found in Grave 11 (Figs. 33.3; 84.5)254 belongs to type III in the typology of Ibolya Alram-Stern 1989, 79; Chrzanovski and Zhuravljev 1998, 77. For the stamps, cf. Gábli 2004, 51-53. 238 Petru 1972, T. XVIII.134.25, T. XXVII.303.32, T. XXXIX.602.3. 239 The Almgren forms refer to the formal typology of Oscar Almgren published in 1897. 240 Grave 8, Cat. 4. 241 Gugl 1995, 17-18. Cf. also Kovrig 1937, Group VIII; Patek 1942, XXII. t. 2. 242 Grave 38, Cat. 7. 243 Gugl 1995, 18-19. Cf. also Kovrig 1937, Group VIII; Patek 1942, IV.2. 244 Cf. Almgren 1897, 123-124; Patek 1942, 130-137; Kovrig 1937, Group X. 245 Grave 20, Cat. 2. 246 Berecz 1990, III.1. 91. 247 Böhme 1972, Typ 19.h, 19-20. 248 Grave 28, Cat. 26. 249 Böhme 1972, Typ 51.b, 72. 250 Teegen 1998, 342; Merczi 2000, 265. 251 Grave 40, Cat. 5. 252 Pröttel 1988. 253 Pröttel 1988, 362-363, 372. For the type, cf. also Berecz 1991, Group 15.D, Kat. 57; 6. kép 3, here its use still dated between 350-380 based on H. J. Keller. For its distribution in Pannonia and the chronological position of the graves containing this variety, cf. Kronberger 2005, 129-130. 254 Grave 11, Cat. 6. 237

The lamps bearing the QGC mark236 (Grave 22, Figs. 42.8; 82.2) were also manufactured in Northern Italy between the beginning of the 2nd century and the middle of the 3rd. Their provincial production began soon after the abandonment of production in Italy and lasted right until the end of the

Grave 24, Cat. 1. CRESCE / S, Grave 28, Cat. 1. 229 Alram-Stern 1989, 70. For the exemples in Savaria of this mark type with a line break, cf. Gábli 2004, 32. 230 Grave 11 Cat. 1. 231 Alram-Stern 1989, 70-71; Pongrácz 1990, 114. For their distribution in Savaria, cf. Gábli 2004, 37-40. 232 Grave 11, Cat. 6. 233 Alram-Stern 1989, 76; Pongrácz 1990, 114-115. For the stamps, cf. Gábli 2004, 43-44. 234 Grave 17, Cat. 1. 235 Pongrácz 1990, 141. 236 Such as the example in Grave 22, Cat. 1. 227 228

13

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Sellye.255 A close parallel to it happens to be known from Savaria. Jürgen Oldenstein, Mike Bishop and Jon Coulston regard it as a part of the military belt set;256 contrary to Ibolya Sellye, who identifies it as a fibula.257 The type probably appeared in the later phase of the 3rd century and was present until the end of the 4th.258

The parallels for the iron ring decorated with silver wire and silver rings found in Grave 37 (Figs. 62.4-14; 85.6)268 are found at south Pannonian sites.269 The signs of wear on the silver rings indicate that this was not a brand new piece when it entered the grave. As it was found near the feet of the skeleton, perhaps it was an anklet (Janka Istenič identified the piece from Poetovio as a bracelet). If we suppose that the woman aged between 23-30 years who was buried in the grave did not inherit this piece of jewellery from a previous generation, but had instead worn it for a certain period of time, based on the dating of the grave (80-200) this piece would have been made sometime between 60-190.

The round belt buckle from Grave 28 (Cat. 25; Figs. 50.3; 85.1; 93.4) is an exceptionally significant find. According to our knowledge, this is the only piece with a dateable context belonging to this group.259 A very closely-matching piece is known from Brigetio. The pelta- shaped fitting (Figs. 50.4; 85.3), the strap end (Figs. 50.5; 85.2), the bronze buttons (Figs. 50.1; 85.5; 50.2; 85.4) and the bronze ring (Fig. 50.6) indicate that these are all parts of a military belt. Its closest parallel is a chance find from Lentia (Linz, Austria).260 A piece from Siscia is also decorated by pelta-shaped ornaments.261 One of the westernmost occurrences of this type is known from Kempraten (St. Gallen, Switzerland).262 Good parallels of the openwork peltae decorating the round belt buckle can be found in the 3rd century jewellery decorated with an opus interrasile technique. Among these, we must mention the pendant found at the military forrtress of Lambaesis (in the vicinity of today’s Tazoult, Algeria) in 1960, into which an aureus of Julia Domna was set.263 This pendant – on the basis of the date of the inset coin – was made after 198-209. The treasure could not have been hidden before 235, and the argumentation that this happened during the events of 238 is thoroughly convincing.264 The belt buckle, on the basis of the date of oil lamp265 found together with it, was probably placed in the grave during the 3rd century and was possibly manufactured in the first or second third of the century.

Jewellery made of bronze and glass The burnt bronze ring in Grave 5 was most probably placed onto the pyre (Cat. 30; Figs. 21.10; 87.8). The form of the ring is a common type over a long period of time;270 based on the gemstone, which can be dated to the end of the 1st century by the style of its decoration,271 it might date from the end of the century, or even the very beginning of the 2nd century. It was accompanied by 20 ribbed melon beads (Figs. 20. 1-20; 87.1-2)272 and a tiny, flattened spherical, bone(?) bead (Figs. 20.21; 87.3).273 The latter is also a primary grave good.

Jewellery

A few glass beads were also found in Grave 28. The three tiny, blue, square-sectioned beads that melted together due to the heat of the pyre, belonged to the primary grave goods (Figs. 51.9; 87.6).274 In the same burial, three green glass beads were found inside Urn ‘B’: two smaller ones with a flattened spherical shape (Figs. 51.11-12; 87.4-5);275 the third one larger, its side a flattened spherical shape (Figs. 51.10; 87.7).276

Jewellery made of precious metal

Writing implements

Two burials contained jewellery made of precious metal.

In Grave 10, apart from the iron knife with a curved blade, four iron tools were also found (Figs.32.1-4).277 From among these, two are identical in size and shape (Cats. 11, 13; Figs. 32.1-2).278 These are probably iron writing stili.279 The other two implements found next to them can

Several simple pieces of gold jewellery are known from Grave 28. We cannot determine the type of object to which the deformed gold sheet with embossed decoration belonged (Figs. 51.6; 86.3).266 The other is a simple bronze pin and the pin head made of a thin gold sheet perhaps also belonging to it (Figs. 51.2-3; 86.45).267 Although both pieces were made of gold, they are very light. These were the cheap replicas of jewellery belonging to wealthy people.

Grave 37, Cat. 11. From Poetovio: Istenič 2000, Grave 127.1, 53, of silver; from Siscia: Koščević 1991, T. 2. 36, of bronze. Similar bracelets with tiny rings, but completely made of silver are known from the Northern Balkans, primarily from various parts of Moesia where it borders Dacia, Popović 2004, 41-43, Pl. 2. 270 Guiraud 1989, type 2c. 271 For a similar engraved image, cf. Geszthelyi 2000, Kat. Nr. 217-218. 74, Taf. 150. 217, 151, 218. 272 Grave 5, Cats. 4-9, 14-27. 273 Grave 5, Cat. 40. 274 Grave 28, Cat. 16. 275 Grave 28, Cat. 20-21. 276 Grave 28, Cat. 19. 277 Grave 10, Cats. 10-11, 13-14. 278 Grave 10, Cats. 11, 13. 279 Cf. Harnecker 1997, Nr. 395, 67, Taf. 35. 395. For a summary, cf. Božič and Feugère 2004, 28-31. 268 269

Sellye 1990, Taf. 3.5. Oldenstein 1976, 218-219; Bishop and Coulston 1993, 152-153, Fig. 108. 257 Sellye 1990, 36-47. 258 Sellye 1990, 64. 259 Sellye 1990, type XV-XVIII, 81-85, Taf. 5.11-17. On the type see also: Jobst 1975, 126-127, Type 36 / c; Merczi 2000, 264-265, with bibliography. 260 Sellye 1990, type XVIII, 84-85, Taf. 5.15. 261 Radman-Livanja 2004, 95, Cat. No. 290, Tab. 43. 262 Matter 1999, 195, Taf. 6. 70. 263 Salama 2001, No. Pl. XXXIII. 1046. 264 Salama 2001, 346. 265 Grave 28, Cat. 1. 266 Grave 28, Cat. 22. 267 Grave 28, Cat. 30. 255 256

14

The finds be identified as the iron spatulas used for smoothing the wax surface (Cats. 10, 14; Figs. 32.4, 3).280

The latest type was the small knife found in Grave 40 (Figs. 65.6; 89.6)294 with a long tang, short blade with curved cutting edge, and convex shaft, which is a characteristic type in Late Roman cemeteries.295

Iron knives Knives were found in seven of the excavated graves in the cemetery sector. These can be divided into two larger groups on the basis of their haft forms.

The box A single box was found at the excavated cemetery sector (a part of the smaller nails and studs could have belonged to caskets, but none of the fragments is characteristic enough to support this factually). The box excavated in Grave 37 does not have any known parallels from Early Roman burials in Pannonia. The caskets placed onto pyres or among the secondary grave goods were significantly smaller in size. The importance of the find is that the parts of the box were found in a closed context here, which enables us to identify other finds, as well as the size of the containers belonging to them.296

The first consists of knives with solid metal hafts. An example from Grave 15 (Figs. 36.7; 89.2)281 is a knife with an almost straight blade, its cutting edge slightly curving upwards toward the end, with the blade’s shaft accentuated.282 The accompanying grave goods date the knife to the 2nd century. The other piece was buried in Grave 11 during the 3rd century (Figs. 34.5; 89.1).283 Its cutting edge is curved; the shaft of its blade is straight.284 For the rest of the knives, the blade is fastened by a tang. Two have curved blades. The older of the two came from Grave 10 (Figs. 32.7; 89.4).285 The cutting edge towards the hilt is straight, and its section towards the point breaks and runs downwards steeply. The tang of the blade also follows this shape. The piece from Grave 2 is a little later (Figs. 7.5; 89.3).286 Its spine and the cutting edge of the blade is straight at a two-thirds length starting from the hilt, then breaks slightly towards the point and arches downwards in a gentle curve.

Coins297 All the coins in the cemetery are As. The four coins were minted during the 1st century imperial issue from the mint of Rome. The earliest coin is the As in Grave 26 (Fig. 86.2).298 Its dating is not without difficulty. Among the reference catalogues, the publisher of the Roman coin collection at the British Museum indicates a dot between each word and abbreviation on the obverse (M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·III); however, the dots are definitely not present on the piece found here. In this catalogue it is classed among the issues of Tiberius, but it is not dated precisely within the emperor’s reign.299 C. H. V. Sutherland describes the type without dots and attributes it to the reign of Caligula; thus dating it between 37-41.300

Knives with straight blades were found in Grave 4 (Figs. 17.19; 89.7)287 and Grave 28 (Figs. 52.14; 89.5).288 The blade of the knife from Grave 4 is shorter, the spine is straight, the blade tapers towards its point. Two iron objects from the same grave probably belong to the sheath of the same dagger (Figs. 17.12-13).289 The blade and the elements of the sheath are very similar to a dagger type common in the regions of the south-eastern Alps, which has two bronze rings on the pommel of its hilt.290 The rings found on parallel examples are exactly the same as two rings from the grave (Figs. 17.14-15; 87.9-10).291 This dagger probably also belongs to the south-eastern Alpine group.

Two graves yielded a coin minted under the Flavian dynasty. The As of Titus in Grave 4 was minted in 80-81.301

The blade of the knife from Grave 28 is longer (Figs. 52.14; 89.5);292 its cutting edge also straight and its blade only narrows at its last quarter.293 Grave 40, Cat. 6. Kelemen 2008, ad grave 165, 110-111, with further parallels. 296 On the caskets and lock mechanisms in Pannonia, cf. Gáspár 1986. On locks in antiquity, cf. most recently Guillaumet and Laude 2009, with bibliography and reconstructions. 297 We publish the description of the coins after the identification of Dr Ferenc Redő and István Vida. 298 Grave 26, Cat. 9. 299 BMC I, 142-143, No. 161-167, Pl. 16 / 7. 300 RIC I, 89, 112, No. 58, Pl. 14. On the interpretation of Agrippa’s corona navalis see: Bergmann 2011, and esp. on the so-called Agrippa-Asses, p. 97-98, where she mentions that they might have also been issued under Domitianus. 301 Cat 44; Fig. 86.1.; RIC II, No. 121a. Ref: BMC II, 264, No. 203, here there is a line above the consular number, and the division of the circumscription on the reverse is different from the type described in RIC. The BMC II, No. 205 piece is similar to our coin in both details, but the emperor portrait faces left. 294 295

Feugère’s types B1 and C1, cf. Božič and Feugère 2004, 31-33; Božič 2008, 159-160, pl. 9.11. 281 Grave 15, Cat. 3. 282 For its parallel, cf. Petru and Petru 1978, Tab. XIX. 7. 283 Grave 11, Cat. 7. 284 For its parallel, cf. Petru and Petru 1978, Tab. XIX. 10; Križ 2003, Grave 20.7, 64. 285 Grave 10, Cat. 9. 286 Grave 2, Cat. 5. 287 Grave 4, Cat. 45. 288 Grave 28, Cat. 38. 289 Grave 4, Cats. 47-48. 290 For a summary, cf. Istenič 1999, 69, Fig. 55, with a list of finds, and Božič 2008, 158-159, Pl. 9.2. 291 Grave 4, Cats. 42-43. 292 Grave 28, Cat. 41. 293 For parallels, cf. Petru 1972, Grob. 930. 30. 280

15

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) In the case of the As found in Grave 10,302 it cannot be defined with certainty for which member of the dynasty it was minted.

Nails, hooks

The 1st century As found in Enclosure ditch 98 /108, belonging to Grave 32, is so worn that it cannot be determined for whom it was minted.303

Several types can be differentiated within the group of iron nails: Long spiked nails, which were most probably used to hold together thicker elements of wood. These occur with flat310 and conical311 heads.

A short bronze nail was excavated in Grave 24 (Fig. 44.6).309

Carved bone objects

Short spiked nails (studs), which could be used for joining or decorating thin wooden elements, or some sort of decorational element or covering. Most often these were also made with flat heads,312, but varieties with conical313 and hemispherical heads314 are also attested.

The fragment of a burnt cylindrical bone pyxis (narthecium) was found in Grave 8 (Figs. 28.3; 94.3-4).304 The object belongs to a group of bone containers, the bodies of which were not lathe-worked from a single piece, but the bases of the containers were prepared separately. In the typology of Jean-Claude Béal and Michel Feugère it belongs to group 1b.305 In the case of one of its versions, tiny bone rivets were used to attach the bottom part.306 The bone nail found on the object, however, did not serve to fix the bottom. Cylindrical bone cases are most common in the 1st century, but they are also found during the 2nd century.307

Several other nails are too fragmentary to be classified.315 Iron hooks (their conditions indicating they had been burnt), which were probably used to hang up some kind of object or decorative element on the pyre (Figs. 21.3; 52.4-5).316 Indeterminable bronze and iron objects

A round object carved from an antler and bored through its centre was found in Grave 28 (Figs. 51.1; 94.1-2).308 This piece may also have been among the objects placed onto the pyre. Its function cannot be identified with certainty; it may have been a spindle whorl.

The function of several smaller bronze317 and iron318 objects and fragments could not be determined.

Grave 24, Cat. 7. Grave 4, Cats. 49-51, 54, 59 and maybe 55; Grave 5, Cat. 31, Figs. 21.1-2; Grave 6, Cats. 10-11 and one of the two nails listed under No. 12; Grave 7, Cat. 4, Fig. 27.3; Grave 16, Cat. 5; Grave 17, Cats. 4-5; Grave 28, Cat. 34. 311 Grave 4, Cats. 52-53; Figs. 17.3-4. 312 Grave 4, Cats. 56-58; Figs. 17.9-11; Grave 5, Cat. 36; Grave 6, one of the nails listed under the fragments of Cat. 12; Grave 17, Cats. 6-7. 313 Grave 27, Cats. 6-7; Figs. 47.7-8. 314 Grave 27, Cat. 8; Fig. 47.9. 315 Grave 5, Cats. 34-39; Grave 12, Cats. 1-2; Grave 13, Cat. 2; Grave 22, Cats. 8-9; Grave 28, Cats. 36, 39. 316 Grave 5, Cat. 32; Grave 28, Cat. 44. 317 Grave 4, Cats. 46, 60; Figs. 17.16-17; Grave 24, Cat. 6; Fig. 44.7, oval bronze ring; Grave 28, Cats. 29-30. 318 Grave 6, Cat. 9; Grave 10, Cat. 12; Fig. 32.6; Grave 28, Cats. 33, 35, 37-38, 42-43. 309 310

Grave 10, Cat. 8. Enclosure ditch 98 /108, Cat. 9. 304 Grave 8, Cat. 5. 305 Béal and Feugère 1983. 306 Bíró 1994, 41, No. 442 and 451, 97-98, Pl. VI-VII. 307 Istenič 1999, 81. 308 Grave 28, Cat. 46. 302 303

16

The dating of the graves and related features András Márton and Endre Norbert Fülöp Grave 1: dating is based on the coarse ware pottery. The jar and small storage vase can only set a wider time frame. The jar (Cat. 3) was most common between 75-125, but the type lives on until the end of the 2nd century. The small storage vessel (Cat. 5) was a commonly used type in the same period as well. The deep open cooking bowl (Cat. 4) is typically a Flavian form. Based on these data, the burial could have been made the earliest in the Middle Flavian period, but not later than the end of the rule of Trajan, symbolically between 75-115.

Enclosure ditch 99 / 110 was also dug out at this time. Grave 30 had been dug into the fill of this ditch, the relative chronology of which can thus be regarded as later than Grave 5; therefore, dateable to the mid-2nd century the earliest. Grave 6: the Samian ware plate (Cat. 1) in the grave is from the Neronian-Flavian period, but a dating into the Flavian era is more likely. The glass balsamarium (Cat. 8) is common from the Augustan period until the reign of Trajan, later only appearing sporadically. Based on these, the burial was most likely made under the Flavian period (symbolically 70-100); and if the Samian pottery was placed into the grave as an older piece, the upper limit can even be set to the Trajanic era (70-100 / 120).

Grave 2: dateable by the coarse ware. The rim of the jug (Cat. 1) is missing, so it cannot be precisely dated. The type of the small storage vase (Cat. 4) can be found from the Late Flavian period until the end of the 2nd century. Therefore, the burial dates from 80-200.

The Roman finds from the fill of the adjoining Enclosure ditch 101 / 113 cannot be clearly associated with it; that is, there were no joining pottery sherds from the grave and the ditch, even though a number of the objects date to the same period as the burial. The secondarily burnt Samian sherds from the fill of the ditch (Cats. 1-3) infer that sometime in the Claudian-Flavian period, or if they had used older pottery then a little later, a funeral pyre may have stood nearby, an offering made there, or these could have been the burnt utensils of a funeral banquet or libation held when the grave was made or when visited afterwards.

Grave 3: dateable by the coarse ware pottery. The jar (Cat. 2) represented by a sherd found in the grave was produced at the end of the 1st century or during the 2nd century, and is most frequent between 75-125. This sherd, however, may be residual among the material from the grave. The plate with inverted rim (Cat. 4) was a type manufactured from the Late Flavian period until the end of the 2nd century. Based on this, the burial’s date can be placed between 80-200, but most probably it was carried out between 80-125. Grave 4: the As of Titus (Cat. 44) serves as a terminus post quem (80 / 81). The Samian plates, the cup with barbotine decoration, and the oil lamp serve with the most dating value among the pottery. The stamped Samian plates belonging to the C.T.Suc(.) Group were probably not made after 85 (Cats. 2-3). The latest pieces from the L.M.V. group were still in use at the beginning of the 2nd century (Cat. 1). The factory lamp (Cat. 10) is from the Flavian-Trajanic period. Consequently, the funeral(s) were made during the reign of Domitian, or perhaps that of Trajan, symbolically between 80 / 81-120.

Grave 7: based on the jug (Cat. 1) and the plate (Cat. 2) the funeral was made in the last quarter of the 1st century or during the 2nd century. Grave 8: the bronze fibula (Cat. 4) was mainly produced and used between 140 and 180. The form of the bone pyxis (Cat. 5) was most common in the 1st century, but they appear in the 2nd century as well. This object can also be older than the rest of the find material of the grave. The small fragment of the glass vessel (Cat. 3) from the grave is probably a residual find. The burial, therefore, was carried out after the rule of Hadrian at the earliest (symbolically ca. 140). Considering that an adult was buried in the grave, who may have worn the fibula for a longer period of time, the burial may have been carried out sometime between 140-180 / 200.

Grave 5: the small Samian ware fragment (Cat. 1) can be regarded as a residual find within the material. The form of the bronze ring (Cat. 30) does not allow for a more precise dating, the gemstone set in it was made at the end of the 1st century. The thin-walled cup (Cat. 2) was most common at the end of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century, but was probably in use until the middle of the 2nd century. The bronze ring was unfortunately burnt and so it cannot be determined whether it had been a new piece, or if it had been placed into the grave already used. Consequently, the burial can be dated between the end of the 1st century and the middle of the 2nd century, symbolically between 80-150.

Grave 9: the grey coarse ware placed in the grave as funerary offerings were too fragmentary to be defined more precisely within the Roman period. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period.

17

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Grave 10: the burial is dated to 69 / 96 post quem by the coin (Cat. 8) issued during the Flavian Dynasty. The oil lamp (Cat. 1) is a form manufactured over a relatively long period (70-200). The jar (Cat. 2) is not produced after 150; the plate fragment (Cat. 4) follows a Samian form popular between 60-120. The form of the small storage vessel goes out of fashion after 100 /125. The glass balsamaria (Cats. 6-7) are also common during Trajan’s reign. Thus, the burial can be dated between 69 / 96-125.

Grave 18: no finds were excavated from the burial. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period.

Grave 11: the oil lamp (Cat. 1) in the assemblage dates between 100-300. The plate with inward curving rim and sharply profiled body(Cat. 5) was frequent at the end of the 2nd century, and the first third of the 3rd century. The semiglobular bowl (Cat. 4) was more or less contemporary with the plate. No exact parallel could be found for the jar’s profile and the shape of its rim. On the other hand, the appearance of this type of belt clasp / fibula (Cat. 6) is dated by research to the later part of the 3rd century. Its position in the tomb ruled out its interpretation as a residual find among the grave goods (for example, due to tillage). Therefore, the dating of the metal find and the pottery varies. Thus, either the belt clasp / fibula appeared earlier than what is supposed in the bibliography, or older vases were used for the burial. On the basis of the above, we can tentatively date the burial to the 3rd century, perhaps to the end of the first third, or to the second third of the century. Grave 12: the only find, an iron nail does not help in dating the burial. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period.

Grave 19: the basis of the dating is given by the small storage vase (Cat. 2), which was typical of the second half of the 1st century, but perhaps it is still in use in the early 2nd century. Grave 20: the production of the bronze fibula (Cat. 2) can be placed between 125-225. Considering the age of the deceased as well, we can date the burial between 125-225 / 250. Grave 21: the small storage vase (Cat. 1) in grey coarse ware cannot be dated more precisely within the Roman period. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period. Grave 22: the burial can be dated by the oil lamp and pottery. The oil lamp (Cat. 1) was possibly made in a workshop between 100-250. The ribbed jugs / mugs with handle (such as Cat. 3) appeared at the very end of the 2nd century, but are characteristic of the 3rd century. The dark toned coarse ware jar (Cat. 2) is from the 3rd century. Based on these, the burial can be dated between 200-250 / 275. Grave 23: the production of the two grey coarse ware vases (Cats. 1-2) in the grave cannot be determined more precisely within the Roman period. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period.

Grave 13: the glass bead and the iron nail are insufficient for determining the date of the burial. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period.

Grave 24: the unsigned factory lamp (Cat. 1) belongs to a type produced between 100-350. The small bowl with everted rim (Cat. 3) was a common form between 70 and 150. The rest of the pottery vessels found in the burial are so fragmentary that their production date cannot be determined. Based on the above, the burial can be dated between 70-150.

Grave 14: the burial can be dated to the 2nd century based on the grey coarse ware jar (Cat. 1). Grave 15: based on the coarse ware plate (Cat. 2), the funeral was possibly made between 120-200.

Grave 25: the grave can be dated on the basis of the grey coarse ware plate (Cat. 4) and beaker (Cat. 5). However, neither of the two can be dated with too much precision. Both vessels were made after the first half of the 2nd century. The plate is one of the leading formal types of the 3rd century, but it can be found later as well. Based on these data, we can tentatively date the burial between 150-350, but most probably it was carried out in the 3rd century.

Grave 16: among the finds from the disturbed grave, a grey coarse ware lid fragment (Cat. 4) can be dated. This type was produced from the middle of the 1st century until the mid-3rd century. Supposing that a vessel previously already in use had been placed into the grave, the period between 50-250 / 275 is suggested for the burial. Grave 17: the only find that can be dated more precisely is the factory lamp (Cat. 1), which was possibly produced sometime between 125 / 150 and 250. We can only suggest the same date for the burial as well.

Grave 26: the As (Cat. 9) was minted at least 40 years before it was deposited in the grave. Based on the glass balsamarium (Cat. 8), the grave cannot be older than the second half of the 1st century; while the ceramics (Cats. 1, 5, 7) indicate a date not earlier than the end of the 1st century. The lid type (Cat. 18

The dating of the graves and related features The fill of Enclosure ditch 98 / 108 contained a 1st century bronze coin, which however does not help in identifying the time of its filling up (whether a natural or man-made process).

7) is not younger than the end of the 2nd century. The thinwalled drinking cup (Cat. 1) was most likely made at the end of the 1st century-the first half of the 2nd century, and most likely it was placed among the grave goods accompanying the child in the same period.

Grave (?) 33: based on the Samian ware vessels (Cats. 1-2) the burial can be dated to between 40-100, most probably sometime between 70-100.

Grave 27: the plate following the Drag. 32 form (Cat. 4) could not have been made earlier than the Samian prototypes. The Samian workshops started producing this plate form sometime between 140 and 160. The grey coarse ware jar (Cat. 2) is from the 2nd century; however, this rim shape quickly goes out of fashion after the Marcomannic Wars. The profile type of the plate with inverted rim (Cat. 5) appeared in the second half of the 2nd century and becomes the leading form throughout the 3rd century. Thus, we can date the grave complex to the second half of the 2nd century.

Grave (?) 34: the grey ceramic plate (Cat. 1) was probably made in the last quarter of the 1st century or during the 2nd century. Therefore, we suggest a dating for the feature between 75-200 (?). Grave (?) 35: it had been partially destroyed by agricultural cultivation. The painted (?) jug fragment fired to a greyishyellow from its fill is probably Early Roman ware.

Grave 28: the factory lamp (Cat. 1) and one of the jars (Cat. 3) were made between the beginning of the 2nd century and the end of the 3rd century. The form of the other jar (Cat. 4) appeared after the Marcomannic Wars and lived on until the end of the 3rd century. The plate with inverted rim (Cat. 6) is a type used in the 3rd-4th centuries; however, it is most frequent in the 3rd century. The jug (Cat. 2) was probably also made after the Marcomannic Wars, but not later than the first half of the 3rd century. The inner stratigraphy of the grave and the position of the grave goods indicate that a relatively short period had lapsed between the interment of the two urns. Based on the above, the urns were probably deposited in the grave between 200-300.

Grave 36: a fragment of a Roman vase (Cat. 1) was found in the grave, but it did not preserve any characteristic details, thus, we cannot date it more precisely. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period. Grave 37: the burial is dated by the small storage vase (Cat. 9) in grey coarse ware. This type was made from the Middle Flavian period until the end of the 2nd century (80200). Therefore, it is likely that the grave was also made during this period.

Grave 29: based on the jar (Cat. 1), the burial dates to the 2nd century, most probably between 100-180.

Grave 38: the fibula (Cat. 7) worn by the man aged between 26-35 years was mainly made and used between 140-180. Considering the age of the deceased, the burial can hardly be younger than the end of the 2nd century. Thus, the dating of the grave is suggested to fall between 140-180 / 200.

Grave 30: the burial was dug into the fill of the ditch surrounding Grave 5; thus, the burial must have been carried out after the ditch had been dug out at the earliest (symbolically 80-150 post quem). However, most likely the grave was made later than this date, when the enclosure ditch had lost its function (according to our opinion, at least a generation after the burial of Grave 5, so after 175 the earliest). The finds from the grave itself do not help in giving a more precise dating to the burial, as the grave heavily damaged by agricultural cultivation only contained residual prehistoric pottery.

Grave 39: the dating of the burial is based on the grey coarse ware jar (Cat. 1). Its rim type was commonly used during the 2nd century. Grave 40: the crossbow brooch (Cat. 5) worn by the man aged between 40-49 years was in fashion between 330 / 350-420. The upturned truncated cone-shaped beaker (Cat. 4) dates between 335-425, which coincides with the dating suggested by the usage of the fibula as well. The burial was probably made between 350-420. If the goods interred had already been used, and bearing in mind the age of the deceased, the burial may even have happened after 420, but it cannot be younger than the first half of the 5th century. Based on the above, the deceased would have been interred between 330 / 335-420 / 450.

Grave 31: no characteristic parts are preserved of the Roman pottery found in the grave (Cat. 1); thus, we cannot date them more precisely. The cemetery sector is probably not older than the second half of the 1st century and possibly it had not been used following the first quarter of the 5th century. Therefore, the burial cannot be dated within this period. Grave (?) 32: its fill did not contain any finds that could help in dating the feature. Its position indicates that it formed a system with Enclosure ditch 98 / 108. Thus, it is approximately contemporary with Grave 5, which is dateable between 75-125.

Grave 41: the mug with an incised horizontal line parallel with the upper and lower edges of the external face of the rim (Cat. 4) is a characteristic Late Roman form, which was in use from the last quarter of the 3rd century until the end of the 4th century. 19

Cemetery structure András Márton and Endre Norbert Fülöp

As we do not know the full extent of the cemetery, our conclusions can only be very conjectural. Nevertheless, some characteristics are prominent when observing the cemetery map. The lack of burials in the north-western and south-eastern sector of the excavated area is one feature; and another is the east-north-eastern by southsouth-western axis defining the Early Roman cemetery. It is most likely that a natural or man-made feature indicating an east-north-eastern by south-south-western organization had an effect on the location of the burials (landscape feature, a road leading in this direction, a privileged burial in the unexcavated area of the cemetery, etc.). A road was found at the western end of the site, which runs across the Surányi Stream and is parallel to the Savaria – Bassiana(?) – Arrabona road about 1 km to the south. The two roads are connected by another road, the crossroad of which had also appeared at the site. The settlement (villa rustica?) belonging to the cemetery fits into this system. Most likely, this system of the use of space and the geological conditions had directly or indirectly influenced the development of the cemetery structure. This is indicated by the fact that the burials surrounded by an enclosure ditch representing one of the earliest horizons of the site are aligned to this axis, just as the location of the pyre built into a ditch near Grave 4. The ‘entrances’ of the enclosures are designated by a straight line at a right angle to this axis, with which the above-mentioned pyre built into a ditch is also parallel. It is interesting to observe that the burials belonging to the earliest known horizon of the cemetery were located in two groups. Firstly, the burials (Graves 5, 6 and 32) situated next to one another separated by a ditch that obviously determine the position of Graves 1, 2, 3, 10, 37 and 38, which are partly contemporary, while some are a little younger. We can also say that these were probably the burials of the 1st-3rd generations. This group was respected during a relatively long period. Grave 30 was dug into the filled up (either a natural or man-made process) enclosure ditch of Grave 5. This grave cannot be dated more precisely, but on a stratigraphical basis it cannot be older than the second half of the 2nd century. The fact that 2nd century graves (e.g. Graves 8 and 38) usually took into consideration such graves that were surrounded by enclosure ditches may infer that Grave 30 was a later burial. Grave 4 diverges from this group. At the moment, we do not have any convincing explanations for this. It may have been a privileged burial, perhaps with a larger area

belonging to it. This is supported by the type of grave, its size and the richness of its grave goods. The two graves from the same horizon, Grave 19 and the perhaps slightly later Grave 24 are relatively farther away from it. The study of the grave group in the south-western part of the cemetery sector is hindered by the fact that a number of burials were disturbed by agricultural cultivation or are lacking well-dateable grave goods; therefore, they can only be placed within wide time limits (Graves 12, 13, 18, 21, 23, 31 and 36). The burials of Graves 17 and 29 can only be dated inaccurately as well. This group may develop linearly from Grave 4 in a northwestern direction. After the already mentioned Graves 19 and 24 towards the north and north-west we find a row of 2nd century burials: Graves 15, 27, 29, 14, 39 and perhaps also 34 and 26. A closed group of 3rd century burials connects to this horizon: Graves 11, 22, 28 and a little further away 25. In the last quarter of the 3rd century, or perhaps already in the 4th, this linear development ceases for reasons currently unclear, and the youngest burials are located at the southern edge of this group (Graves 40 and 41). A number of the 4thcentury graves are perhaps to be located in this sector, but more to the south of the excavated area. No carved stone monuments were discovered and we are not aware of any previous data referring to any having been found in this area. Therefore, we must think that graves were not marked in such a way in the community (although, we cannot rule out the possibility that the stelae were made of wood). We must also consider the existence of mounds (which are not tumuli, of course). The enclosure ditches of the burials also visibly indicated the restricted areas belonging to them. We know of similar ditches at various cemeteries in Pannonia, mostly from the northern part of the province. The closest to Nemesbőd are the sites of Hegyeshalom (Győr-Moson-Sopron County, Hungary),319 Mannersdorf (Lower Austria),320 Halbturn (Burgenland, Austria)321 and Alsópáhok.322 While they can also be found also at other Transdanubian sites at Budaörs (Pest County, Hungary),323 Nagytétény (Budapest, Hungary)324 and Halimba (Veszprém County, Hungary).325 Figler and Vaday 1998, 8-27. Ubl 1974, 415-426. 321 Scharrer and Draganits 1996, 18-19. 322 Horváth et al. 2012, 177-178. 323 Ottományi 2005, 42. 324 Beszédes and Szilas 2007, 233-247. 325 Bónis 1960, 94. 319 320

Cemetery structure In the case of the majority of the sites, based on the graves including epigraphic material or weapons among the grave goods, we can assume the presence of veterans (as well as their family members of course, at Alsópáhok,

Budaörs, Halimba, Mannersdorf, Nagytétény); while the grave goods may also indicate an immigrant population, or one mixing with the indigenous peoples (at Alsópáhok, Halbturn, Hegyeshalom).

21

Burial customs András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics

This sector of the cemetery was used for burial both in the Early Roman and during the Late Roman periods. The chronological distribution of the graves indicates that the cemetery was continuously in use; that is, the settlement connecting to the cemetery may have existed from the Flavian period at the latest until the 4th century. Therefore, the burial rites and the customs regarding offerings should be divided into two sections as well. The younger of the two periods is less prominently represented; therefore our study will concentrate primarily on the Early Roman burials. One of the most significant questions is how to define what we regard as burials. Bruno Boulestin and Henry Duday compared the various definitions of a ‘burial’ in their study.326 Their definition is convincing, but difficult to apply in practice: ‘un lieu consacré par des funérailles, où ont été déposés les restes d’un ou plusieurs défunts’.327 It seemed more useful to build on the definition given by the ‘Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire’: ‘Lieu où ont été déposés les restes d’un ou plusieurs défunts, et où il subsiste suffisamment d’indices pour que l’archéologue puisse déceler dans ce dépôt la volonté d’accomplir de ce geste funéraire’.328 This is the reason why we did not regard those structures as burials, which did not contain any human remains despite the meticulous documentation (their interpretations will be dealt with later). Terminology of cremation burials Out of 37 burials, 32 were cremations and 5 inhumations. The terminology and typology of Roman cremations is not consistent. Not only are the terms identifying the place of the cremation used rather variably, frequently using the same expression for structures with different functions and characteristics, but the designations for various grave types are also multifarious. On the basis of the German language bibliography, there is primarily one system, developed for Northern European protohistoric cemeteries, which has been adapted to Pannonian cemeteries and spread in the connected literature. The basis of the system is given by the site of the cremation: bustum or ustrinum and the significance of the cremated remains is secondary in comparison.329 Notwithstanding the fact that the terms Boulestin and Duday 2005, 20-23. Boulestin and Duday 2005, 23. 328 Leclerc and Tarrête 1988; with explanations and further refinements, cf. Leclerc 1990. 329 For a summary with further literature, cf. Tilmann 1980. 326 327

22

ustrinum and bustum are not even clear in ancient sources, these different terms are also used inconsistently. Therefore, it is necessary briefly to run through which structures belong to the individual phases of cremation burials, to unify their terminology, and to define their meanings precisely. The definition of the cremation site is accompanied by a chaotic hoard of terms: ustrinum, bustum, primary cremation, pyre built on the ground or connecting to a pit.330 Even in the case of rescue excavations using modern methodology, we can witness the variety of terminology used as well as a certain amount of uncertainty. Two structure types mix under the term ustrinum within the archaeological literature. One is the space varying in proportions in or near the cemetery used permanently for the cremation of the deceased (frequently called ustrinum publicum), which can be partially or completely built.331 The other is the private pyre (built on the ground or connected to a pit). The latter is frequently called bustum, or if it reaches the status of a burial, a primary cremation. To avoid misunderstandings, the term ustrinum is more correct when used to signify only the first group; thus, it corresponds to the permanent cremation site and the zones within a cemetery consistently used for cremation. For example, in the case of the Septfontaine-Dëckt type cremation sites, it refers to the whole of the cremation zone and not to just the single location of a pyre. Such cremation zones may take shape in a way that the individual pyre locations built on the ground are constructed at a specific location, one next to the other; and thus the remains form a large ashy surface, which with precise excavation methods can identify the individual pyres.332 The term bustum so often mentioned by archaeologists is also variably used in antiquity. It appears as the place for the cremation of the dead, but it has also been used for the location where the cremated remains of the individual were buried, even where this was different from the place of the pyre.333 For the most part, pyres with the status of a burial can be identified with this term within the archaeological material; however, their individual or collective 330 For the problematics of terminology, Blaizot and Tranoy 2004; Blaizot 2009, 89-90. Cf., for example, the various terms used for the same structures: Gaitzsch and Werner 1993; Struck 1993; Witteyer 1993. 331 Bel 2002, 78-79, with further literature. 332 E.g. Clermont-Ferrand, Pâtural (Puy-de-Dôme, France), Blaizot 2009, 92, Fig. 72. 333 For this question with an analysis of the antique written sources, cf. Blaizot and Tranoy 2004, 172.

Burial customs characteristics are not clear. Due to the uncertainty of the terminology, it is best not to use this Latin term.

technique of cremation and the various extent and method of interventions following it. It is almost certain, that what she claims to be a cremation placed into a ritually fired grave pit did not exist. The various categories correspond to funerary pyres of different sizes and structures, which were dealt with in different ways during and after the cremation.

Pyres built on the ground are such temporary constructions, which do not have adjoining pits. It is difficult to identify them as their construction and use does not always leave any marks on the surface or these are very slight. Therefore, the signs of heat during the functioning of the pyre may leave no trace at all on the surface.334

The pyre built into a ditch is the variety of a pyre joining a pit where the whole pyre fitted into the pit; thus, the length and breadth of the pyre did not exceed that of the adjoining ditch. These structures did not need to be large, as the corpse could be burnt on a pyre shorter than the deceased. The ditch helped in obtaining a better ventilation for the pyre, and consequently the side of the ditch was more burnt than when the pyre was built above it. These are what publications most often designate as bustum. The C5 type of Judit Topál343 can be identified with pyres built into pits.

Sometimes the pyres are built on the site of an earlier pyre, in which case an anthropological analysis can show the presence of the remains of several individuals, or a stratigraphically-precise excavation may indicate the repeated use of the pyre.335 An unambiguous characteristic of the pits connecting to pyres, which differentiates them from other large pits with charcoal-rich fill is that the marks left by the intense heat of the pyre can be observed at the bottom and / or sides or other sections of the pits connecting to pyres.336 The observations indicate that the marks caused by the heat mostly appear on the top of the walls, where an oxidizing environment will most probably evolve.337 Their identification, nevertheless, is rendered more difficult by the fact that the top parts of the walls of pits happen to be damaged the most.338

The pyre built above a pit is a variety of the pyre connected to a pit, where the pyre is longer and / or wider than the pit underneath it. In comparison with the pyres built into pits, the pyres built above a pit do not only have smaller pits below the pyres, but the burn marks due to heat on their wall and / or bottom are much weaker. The C1-4 types of Judit Topál344 can be identified as pyres built above pits. Relatively large pyres may have belonged to small pits as well. The pit of a pyre at Aquincum was 58 × 90 cm large.345 The burnt-through layer of the ancient surface here designated the base of the pyre built above, which in this case was 124 cm wide and probably almost 190 cm long. The ethnoarchaeological observations concerning Far Eastern cremation practices have proved that due to the shrinking that occurs during the cremation process, the length of the pyre does not have to surpass the height of the deceased.346

Judit Topál interpreted the burnt walls and / or bottoms of grave pits as the ritual purification of ditches,339 which interpretation had been followed by the majority of publications on the burial customs in Pannonia. Not to mention that a single ritual purification process would not have sufficed to cause such an intense burning of the grave pit as is suggested by her, we must refer to what has already been mentioned above, that even the pyres built on the ground do not leave too significant marks. The only difference the scholar finds in her system between the ritually-fired (C1-3 type) and the locally-cremated bustum graves is that the latter are larger.340 The well-documented pyres built into ditches vary between 0.6 and almost 3 m.341 The size of the pyre was only partially influenced by the age and size of the deceased.342 At the cemetery of Matrica studied by Judit Topál, apart from Grave 40 where certain parts of the skeleton were found almost in anatomical order, there are no differences between the various ‘types’, either in the stratigraphy of the fill, or the quantity of the cremated remains. The latter most probably was not in relation with the functional differences of the structure, but with the

As can be demonstrated by the presence of calcined bones from several individuals, more than one body could be cremated at the same time, or one after the other.347 The stratigraphy of the inner structure of the pyre and the exact documentation of the location of the calcined bones may serve as an aid in the question whether the cremations were conducted simultaneously or one after the other. The reuse of the location of the pyre may be an explanation in those cases where the remains of several individuals are present in a secondary cremation and those belonging to one body appear in a significantly smaller quantity. Naturally, the age of the deceased is also to be considered. Much fewer remains will be found from the body of a child in comparison to that of an adult. The structure of the pyre and the position of the bodies may also have an impact. It cannot be ruled out either, that it was not attempted to collect the remains belonging to the different individuals proportionally, or

334 Andrieux 1994, 263; Lambot 1994, 256; Pautreau 1994, 307; Barber and Bowsher 2000, 61; Pautreais and Mornais 2005, 50. 335 Cf. the example of the pyres excavated in the cemetery next to Voie de l’Océan at Lyons (Rhône, France), Frascone 1999, 127-130. 336 The extent of this may vary a lot, cf. Blaizot 2009, 94. 337 For example, Gaitzsch and Werner 1993, 64-67. The burn marks were most frequent on the walls of the grave pits at the cemetery of Matrica as well: Topál 1981, 75. 338 Blaizot 2009, 94. 339 Topál 1981, 75-76. 340 Topál 1981, 78. 341 Blaizot 2009, Fig. 74. 342 Bel 2002, 89.

Topál 1981, 78-80. Topál 1981, 75-78. 345 Bécsi út, Grave 97, Topál 1993, 43. 346 Grévin 2009, 233. 347 On this topic, cf. Blaizot 2009, 97, 103-104. 343 344

23

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) that the remains of the deceased individuals had become mixed up due to the applied cremation technique.

Here we must mention the deposition pits for the disposal of the pyre remains. The place of a pyre, especially the permanent cremation areas (ustrina) required regular cleaning, during which the accumulated residue of former pyres had to be removed. This must have been less important with regard to ephemeral pyres.

The state of the pyre and the remains of the deceased following the cremation (and after the pyre has gone out or is extinguished) depends on several factors. It is least influenced by its temperature and the length of the cremation. Naturally, it depends on the material and structure of the pyre, which has an impact on not only the temperature, but also the shifts caused by the collapse of the structure. However, it relies the most on the techniques applied during the cremation: the position of the deceased on the pyre, the fastening of the limbs or lack thereof; furthermore, the number of times and in what way the person in charge of the pyre intervened during the cremation. These can be the following, to give just a few examples: fuelling and ventilating the pyre, breaking the long bones, bending back the limbs, etc. The manner of extinguishing the pyre is also important. For example, if a type of liquid was used (such as water or wine), then the bones became much more cracked and fragmentary.348

The corpse of an adult can be completely cremated on a pyre of 1 cubic metre.351 The remains of such a pyre does not amount to a large quantity of charcoal. In the case of pyres built on the ground, most probably the remains were only spread around. Where the pyres connected to pits, a part of the residue was simply scattered on the antique trodden level. If there was a large amount of material to be moved, this was probably scattered into deposition pits. It is problematic to identify these, and most importantly to differentiate between them and the ‘simple cremations’, where the calcined bones mixed with the remains of the pyre were deposited without a container. The small pits can hardly be imagined as serving for the deposition of the pyre remains; these are more likely to be ‘simple cremations’. The presence of secondary grave goods also indicates that we are dealing with graves and not deposition pits. It is more probable that the larger pits containing calcined bones, charcoal and at times burnt grave goods, served for depositing the remains of the pyres. It may be revealing, when the pit filled up in several phases and the various strata contain the calcined remains of different individuals. The use of a structure for the deposition of pyre remains may also be indicated by the fact that its find material spans across a longer period.

After the flames died down and the remains of the pyre had cooled, or were cooled, there were several tasks that may have been carrid out at the location of the pyre. It could acquire the status of a burial, or a part of the calcined remains could be taken out for them to be buried somewhere else. This space may be identical with the location of the pyre or it may be different. For instance, when the urn containing the collected calcined bones was placed in the area of the pyre. In connection with this, a part of the remains of the pyre may be cleared away; with regard to pyres connecting to pits, the pits were partially or completely cleared out and reorganized.

Primary cremations When the pyre itself acquires the status of a burial, we can call it a primary cremation.352 A grave of this type is frequently called a bustum. As it has already been discussed above, this term is not even consistent among the ancient auctors, and it is used to name various features (different types of individual pyres and pyres that acquired the status of a burial) within the archaeological literature as well. Therefore, it is more correct to use the term ‘primary cremation’ instead of the Latin denomination. We can define the location of a pyre as a primary cremation, when the parts of a skeleton are found in relative anatomical order, or when the complete remains of a body are within the grave. The presence of secondary grave goods, as well as the traces of the cult of the burial (e.g. the profusio: the pipe constructed for libation) both indicate that the site of the pyre achieved the status of a burial.

Based on the studies of contemporary cremations, the post-cremation weight of the calcined bones of an adult varies between 1001.5-2422.5 g.349 The average weight of the remains of both sexes is 1625 g. However, this value can show significant variations depending on the age and dietary habits of the deceased.350 Either the complete amount or a part of the cremated remains were collected and placed (sometimes including the remains of the pyre) into the grave. The composition of the collected bones does not only infer how the bone remains were collected (for instance, large pieces of bones indicate that the remains were lifted up by hand), but also shows whether the remains of certain parts of the body were preferred. The collected remains may be cleaned; but precaution is needed, as modern cremation studies show that depending on the construction of the pyre and its extinguishing a part of the bones may not require cleaning.

At times, after the remains have been collected and the pit of the pyre partially or completely cleared, the pyre area itself may serve as the location for burying the cremated remains in an urn.353 The latter, in all likelihood, would contain the remains of the person burnt on the pyre in the majority of cases. This can be proved with certainty by an

For details, cf. Grévin 2009. Herrmann 1976; McKinley 1993. 350 Bass and Jantz 2004; Chirachariyavej et al. 2007; referring to children, cf. Trotter and Hixon 1974; Warren et al. 1997. 348

Grévin 2009, 234. Bel 2002, 83. 353 Witteyer 1993, 73. 351

349

352

24

Burial customs anthropological analysis. At the cemetery of Valladas (SaintPaul-Trois-Châteaux, Drôme, France), adjoining fragments were found among the cremated bones both in the urn and in the fill of the pyre.354 In such cases, we may think that the plot bought for the burial was limited. Thus, the site of the pyre can also acquire the status of a burial in this way.

The primary inhumation can be defined as the following: ‘dépôt d’un cadavre ou d’une portion de cadavre réalisé alors que les éléments du squelette conservent encore la totalité de leurs connexions anatomiques’; whilst that of the secondary inhumation is determined as when ‘le dépôt de restes réalisé lorsque les éléments du squelette ont partiellement ou totalement perdu leurs connexions anatomiques’.358

Secondary cremations

Defining the rituals of the excavated graves

In the case of these types, a part or all of the calcined bones – with or without a part of the remains of the pyre and the primary grave goods – were removed from the pyre. Afterwards, following certain optional tasks (sorting, washing, etc.), the whole or just a part is deposited at another place with or without a container (urn).

Based on the above, the rites of the excavated graves can be defined as the following. Primary cremations Pyres built into pits

On the basis of the above definition, the following types of secondary cremation could be discerned:

This is a type represented by Grave 4, which belongs to the earliest Flavian-Trajanic horizon of the cemetery. Its large rectangular pit has rounded corners. The position of the grave goods within the pit of the pyre, as well as the calcined remains of the two individuals found inside the grave with a significant difference from their hypothetical weights of the complete calcined remains from two bodies, unquestionably shows that the pit of the pyre had been partially emptied following the cremation. On the basis of the secondary grave goods, this pyre acquired the status of a burial.

Cremations in containers (urns) Based on the container type used for holding the remains, we can identify several types: cremations in pottery, glass, lead urns, containers made of organic materials355 etc. ‘Heap of bones’ burials The calcined bones collected from the pyre were placed into the grave without a container or the remains of the pyre were mixed in. These types of burials are sometimes difficult to differentiate from the cremations in urns made of organic materials (unless the calcined remains had been scattered within the grave).

It may come into question why this is the only pyre built into a pit among the primary cremations. Notwithstanding the burial customs related to the deceased and his / her family, as well as the community burying the individual, there can be various possible explanations. First, this is the richest burial of the cemetery sector. It can be postulated, that the status(es) of the dead individual(s) is indicated by the chosen cremation type, and this was the reason for their choice of a more ostentatious pyre structure, which, at the same time, certainly required more wood and work for the construction of its pit. This may have had practical reasons as well, if the two individuals were cremated together: a pyre with a larger surface was required (a more detailed study follows below).

Simple cremations These are the cremations where the calcined bones are deposited mixed with the remains of the pyre without an urn.356 It is difficult to make a distinction between these and similar charcoal-rich structures (such as deposition pits for the pyre remains). One of the most definite signs is the presence of secondary grave goods;357 but indications of the funerary cult (profusio, objects placed on the surface) are also decisive in this matter.

Pyres built above a pit Three structures can be listed within this group: Graves 1, 2 and 3. All three of them probably belong to the earliest horizon of the cemetery sector. The shape of the pits under these pyres are rectangular with rounded corners.

These grave types may also intermingle with one another. In such cases, it is best to classify the burial according to the most complex type of arrangement and to specify the rite through its details.

We did not find the collapsed remains of any of the pyres, and the quantity of the calcined remains is much smaller than the theoretical weight of calcined bones after cremation. These indicate that the pyres were reorganized following the cremation, and a certain amount of the remains were removed. Based on the secondary grave goods, all three pyre structures had attained the status of a burial.

Terminology of inhumations We can designate two types of inhumations in this group: the primary and secondary inhumation. Blaizot and Tranoy 2004, 177. For the identification of the latter, cf. Le Goff 2009. 356 Bel 2002, 84-85. Some of them are included in the research among the Aschengruben: Wigg 1993. 357 Bel 2002, 85. 354 355

358

25

Boulestin and Duday 2005, 27.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) In Grave 3, this is not only supported by the secondary grave goods but also by the ceramic vase containing the cremated remains, which was excavated in the pyre.

Unurned cremations

Secondary cremations

This group consists of Graves 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and perhaps 30 as well. These burials can be dated to a relatively wide chronological scale. Grave 15 was made between 120-200; Grave 30 can be dated at the earliest to the second half of the 2nd century. Grave 11 is from the 3rd century. All this, as well as their location within the cemetery may indicate that the rest of the similar types of graves are also to be assigned to the relatively later horizon of the cemetery, but not its latest (4th century).

‘Heap of bones’ burials

Urned cremations Cremations in ceramic vessels The most common form of secondary cremations is that placed into a ceramic vessel (ceramic urn): such as in the case of Graves 3, 10, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29. Cremations in ceramic vessels already appear in the earliest period of the cemetery sector (Grave 10); and the rite continues until the end of the Early Roman period (Graves 22 and 28).

The rite at this cemetery sector relates to simple pit graves. These may be square with rounded corners (Graves 11 and 30), round- (Graves 12 and 15) and elongated oval- (Grave 13) shaped pits. Grave 14 was also a simple pit grave, but its shape is unknown.

The urns are mostly deposited into simple pits (Graves 10, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29). In one case (Grave 3), it is the pit of the pyre.

Simple cremations

Among the urns, the forms for preparing / storing food (jars, ollae) dominate (Graves 10, 22, 23, 24 Urn ‘A’, 25, 26, 27, 28 Urns ‘A’ and ‘B’, and 29). In one case, a widemouthed, small storage vessel (Urn ‘B’ from Grave 24), and in another (Grave 3) a small vessel (with narrowing rim, possibly originally a form ideal for holding small quantities of liquid) were used as urns. The jar is the most common type of ceramic vase used as an urn in Pannonia.

Graves 7, 8, 9, 20, 36 and possibly 5 belong to this group. Simple cremations probably already appeared in the earliest horizon (Grave 7). However, we can surely count with the use of this rite within the community during the Antonine period (Graves 8 and 20) until the end of the 2nd century, but perhaps also in the first half of the 3rd century. Simple cremations, with the exception of Grave 20, which is a tile grave, were placed into pit graves. Grave 7 has an elongated, trapezoid-shaped pit, but usually the pits are rectangular with extremely rounded corners (Graves 5 and 8). The small pit of Grave 9 is oval.

With the exception of Grave 23, where a part of the calcined remains were placed outside of the urn, the calcined bones in all the burials with a ceramic urn were placed only inside the urns.

Secondary cremations of uncertain rites

In one case, the urn was closed with a pottery lid (Urn ‘A’ of Grave 28). It could not be observed with the rest of the urns whether we could suppose a lid made of some kind of slowly deteriorating organic material based on the structure of the fill.

In the case of Grave 6, after collating the written and graphic documentation, the burial’s rite is not certain. The calcined bones were perhaps placed without a container in a pile; while the grave pit was probably filled up with a part of the remains of the pyre. At the same time, however, in the photograph depicting the earliest excavation phase (Fig. 22), the edges of the charcoal-rich section appear as separated from the other borders of the grave pit in a square shape and with straight edges. This ‘borderline’ may indicate that the calcined bones mixed with the pyre remains had originally been placed within an organic container (e.g. wooden box with wooden joints).

Cremation in an imbrex In Grave 17, the remains were placed into an upturned imbrex. The burial was set in a grave constructed out of tegulae. There are no examples of cremations in an imbrex among the published Early Roman burials in Pannonia. The appearance of this rare burial type in Pannonia within the cemetery in the 2nd century, or the first half of the 3rd century (125 / 150-250) perhaps infers the presence of an immigrant from another province.359

In the case of Graves 16 (?), 18, 19 (?) and 21, the disturbance caused by agricultural cultivation does not allow us to identify how the calcined bones collected from the pyre were deposited in the tile grave. The rites of Graves 30 and 31 are also unidentifiable due to disturbance by ploughing.. These could be either cremations placed into a ceramic urn, or such secondary cremations where the calcined remains were placed next to the pottery vessel.

Such a burial is known from several cemeteries in Gallia Lugdunensis: Gergy (Saône-et-Loire, France): Alary 1990, 67; CAG 71 / 4, No. 558, 483; and Seurre (Côte-d’Or, France): Roussel 1987-1989 [1993], CAG 21 / 3, No. 607, 197-198. It must be emphasized, however, that the highlighted examples cited here do not mean that we should look for the native land of the deceased at this province. 359

26

Burial customs was built into a pit (Grave 4), and three where they were built above a pit (Graves 1, 2 and 3). The well-dateable assemblages were all from the Late Flavian-Trajanic / Early Hadrianic period. The origin of the pyre in or above a pit may be found in Northern Italy, where they had already appeared at the end of the 1st century BC and became especially common in the regions north of the Po.361 The soldiers enlisted in Northern Italy and moving northward with the troops may have had a part in their distribution.362

Inhumations Primary inhumations Graves 37, 38 and 40 belong to this group. Based on the bad preservation of the skeleton, we can only presume that there was a primary inhumation in Grave 39. Due to disturbance, we cannot determine what type of inhumation was in Grave 41, but we have no reason to suspect that the burial was made after the partial anatomical decomposition of the skeleton.

Simple pit graves

Inhumations were possibly in use from the Late Flavian era (Grave 37), but certainly during the 2nd century for the burial of adults (Graves 37 and 38). Therefore, the cemetery is bi-ritual during the 2nd century. We do not know of any adult inhumations from the 3rd century. In Grave 41 (285400), a 4-6 year-old child was buried. In the case of adults, inhumations only reappeared in the 4th century (Grave 40).

Most of the cremation burials belong to this group. Their forms can be rectangular with rounded corners (Graves 5, 8, 24, 28 and 33), square with rounded corners (Graves 6, 10, 11, 16, 30, 36, and perhaps 19), elongated trapezoid with rounded corners (Grave 7), as well as oval (Graves 9, 13, 25 and 26), and round (Graves 12, 22, 23, 29, 31 and 34). All had been dug into the subsoil and do not show any interior divisions. Grave 28 is an exception, as its middle section, where the urns had been placed, deepens synclinally. No correlation can be established between the shape and dating of the pit graves.

Features not identifiable as burials In several instances, the excavated feature did not contain calcined bones, thus, we cannot determine with any certainty that they were burials.

Tile graves

A significant part of Grave (?) 32 had been destroyed by agricultural cultivation. Its location at the centre of Enclosure ditch 98 /108 indicates that the two features may have constituted a single unit. It is most likely that similarly to Graves 5 and 6 this was also a burial surrounded by a ditch.

Four burials belong to this group (Graves 17, 18, 20 and 21). All are square in shape; their sides and cover are made of tegulae, without mortar. The classification of two other graves is uncertain due to disturbance (Graves 16 and 19). This grave type appears in the cemetery sector in the second half of the 2nd century. Tile graves within the western provinces of the Roman Empire are mostly known to belong to cemeteries connected to Roman and Romanised communities.363

The topographical location of Grave (?) 33 infers that it was in connection with Grave 6 and its enclosure. This is supported by the fact that on the basis of their find material they seem to be contemporary. Probably, this was not a burial, but another type of feature connecting to Grave 6 (such as a sacrificial pit, the remnants of the funeral banquet or the pyre, or perhaps what was left after a visit to the grave).

Grave types of inhumations The majority of inhumations are simple pit grave burials (Graves 37, 38, 39 and 40). The deceased was placed into a grave constructed of tegulae in Grave 41.

No human remains were found in Grave (?) 34. There are several possible interpretations for the feature (it was a cenotaph; a burial containing only a few calcined remains; an offering pit; the remains after a visit to the grave, etc.).

Cremation and the handling of cremated remains The study of cremation burials in Pannonia is still at its initial stage. Thus, it is fortunate that Gábor Tóth has completed the analysis of the anthropological material including the cremated remains (see below in a separate chapter). The excavation and study of cremation burials however, requires a different type of documentation and methodology from both the archaeologist and the anthropologist in comparison to inhumations. Therefore, we think it would be of interest to give a brief summary

Grave (?) 35, as in the case of the previous one, also did not contain any human remains. ploughing had destroyed most of it; thus, its interpretation is even more difficult than the previous ones.360 Grave types Grave types of cremation burials Pyres built into and above pits

Fasold 1993, 383; Struck 1993a, 93; Ortalli 2001, 228-229. They can be found more to the south at Ostia: Taglietti 2001, 158, Fig. 10; around Ostia: Falzone et al. 2001, 129-131; Carbonara et al. 2001, 140, where the pyre locations joining ditches had already appeared at the end of the 1st century BC as well, as well as at Altino: Tirelli 2001, 245, Fig. 2. 362 Bel 1996, 208. 363 Philpott 1991, 11.

As has been mentioned above, in the case of primary cremations at the site there was one instance where the pyre

361

360 For the interpretation of pits with charcoal and ash not containing calcined human remains and further literature, cf. Wigg 1993.

27

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) of which data should be given from the archaeologist’s standpoint, and where the archaeologist interested in the matter may find further bibliography on the archaeological aspects of the anthropological remains of cremations. This can supplement the extensive bibliography on Hungarian research complementing the results of the cremations in the cemetery.

Around 400 Co, or 550 Co: Grave 2. Changing between 400-600 Co at various parts: Graves 3, 7, 12, 24 and 31. Varying between 525-940 Co: Graves 4 and 10. 675-940 Co: Graves 4, 20 and 29. Above 850 Co: Graves 9, 14, 17, 18, 21 and 23. The different colour of the calcined bone fragments, on the one hand, may indicate the position of the body on the pyre; and on the other, that the temperature was different at various points of the pyre due to its structure.368

When analysing the bone remains of the cremations, the following data should be given: the weight of the remains before and after washing. If it is a cremation in a container, the quantities of both the material from inside and outside the urn are required separately. The colour of the remains (with the colour definitions used in the reference works), and their state of fragmentation (according to the size scales used in the reference works) should both be given according to the large body regions. This enables the reconstruction of the amount of heat affecting each region of the body.364 In order to be able to examine whether there was a preference for a given body region – when the remains were collected from the pyre, or later during the deposition at the final place of burial  –  the ratio of the presence of each body region should be determined among the material in question, and the percentage of the given skeletal region to which it amounts. In this way it can be demonstrated if more emphasis was laid on displaying a special region in the assemblage. For a fundamental work on the anthropological methodology, the research of cremations is crucial.365

We have almost no information about the structures of the pyres; partly because they were the subject of significant interventions after the cremation which destroyed the signs indicating the structure of the pyre. Based on the pits belonging to these features, we can suppose that they were all rectangular. The large conical headed iron nails found in Grave 4 fastened together a wooden structure (perhaps the pyre?), or maybe they decorated it. The wood used for the pyres is not known. A larger wooden charcoal piece (its largest length is ca. 51 cm, its width 5 – 12 cm) was documented in Grave 3. However, no material analysis has been conducted on the charcoal remains. In the case of the brick fragment mentioned in Grave 1, it may have belonged to the pyre structure. At the same time, it cannot be ruled out either that it is what remains from the tegula covering of the pyre, which was later destroyed by cultivation. In Grave 4 (pyre built into a pit), the remains of two individuals could be identified. The question arises, whether the cremations of the two individuals happened at the same time or one after the other on the same pyre, or whether the remains of one of the deceased were carried over from another pyre. Based on the documentation, it seems that the remains of the two individuals were found mixed together. This means the two bodies were burnt on the same pyre; yet it cannot be discerned whether this happened at the same time, or if the second individual was only cremated on a new pyre built after the partial clearing of the ditch.

Conclusions on the pyre, cremation process, and handling of bone remains can be deduced from the anthropological material of cremation, and extensive further bibliography is given.366 The size range given in the anthropological analysis refers to the washed material, as Gábor Tóth reminds us. Therefore, we cannot determine either the phase of the cremation, nor its extent, not even the length of the cremation process. This implies that we can only roughly determine the temperature of the pyres on the basis of the hues of the calcined remains.367

The urns were further examined at the conservator’s studio, layer by layer. The resulting layers are indicated in the anthropological analysis by the number of parcels / bags.

Up to 250 Co and around 550 Co: Graves 1, 6, 13 and 22. 250 Co and 675-940 Co: Graves 5, 11 and 26. 285-525 Co and 675-940 Co: Grave 15. 285-675 Co: Grave 8.

Apart from the example in Grave 28, the urns contained only a symbolic or small amount of cremated remains (Grave 26: 4g; Grave 3: 310 g; Grave 27: 825 g). In several examples, we are not aware of the complete amount of bones placed into the urn due to agricultural activity: Grave 25: at least 429 g.

364 For the detailed discussion of the method, cf. Schweder and Winkler 2004, 11-12. For the definition of colour and the temperature of the pyre, cf. Masset 1987. For the blue hues of the black and white fragments, cf. Hummel et al. 1988. For the colour of freshly broken and already fragmentary bones, and their differences on the broken surface, cf. Guillon 1987. 365 Cf. Chochol 1961; Rösing 1977; Wahl 1982; Endris and Berrsche 1985. 366 Cf. McKinley 1989; Großkopf 2004; Ancel 2010. For the technique of excavating urns, cf. Duday 1987; Duday 1989; Grévin 1990; Adam and Delnef 1999, 57-58. 367 The identifications are suggested by András Márton, based on the data summarized in Großkopf 2004, 17, Tab. 3.

In the case of Grave 23, we cannot be sure whether all the 796 g of calcined bones comes from the urn; while the weight of the calcined remains placed next to the urn is unknown in this case. 368

28

Lambot 1994; Guillot et al. 1994; Adam and Delnef 1999, 60.

Burial customs In Grave 24, it is not certain whether the 596 g of calcined bones refer only to the amount contained in Urn ‘A’, or if they are to be counted together with the calcined bones in Urn ‘B’.

space. The question arises, whether this uncovered state can be in connection with the box indicated by its hinges and lock. The use of a box with a lid opening with hinges at least 160 cm in length would be a unique example for interring the deceased during the Early Roman period in Pannonia, and as far as we know also in the material of the western provinces during the same period. Based on the documentation available, we cannot decide on this matter; nevertheless, several arguments can be made against the usage of the box as a coffin, but it is clear that it was placed on another wooden structure (dowelled coffin, wooden planks), and so the former is responsible for the decomposition of the corpse in an open environment.

In Grave 28, we know the total amount of the calcined bones is 4465 g; thus, here they attempted to collect as much as possible of the calcined bones. What hinders the exact study of the material is that we are not in the knowledge of how much of this was found in Urn ‘A’ and in Urn ‘B’. The anthropological analysis does not identify which body regions were represented in what percentage among the remains placed inside the urns. We do not know if a body region was over-represented (detailed analyses resulted in significant information regarding the definition of preferences for the collection of remains).369 From this point of view, it would have been interesting to compare the size of the bone fragments from the fill of Grave 3 and its urn, as well as the ratio of the body regions represented in each.

The first and foremost reason is the arrangement of the hinges and lock. Logically, we would expect the lock to be more or less near the middle of the box. The hinges are also in the expected positions. Unless we presume that there had been a third hinge as well (or a box with a missing hinge had been interred), and the lock mechanism was placed asymmetrically, the supposed length of the box was not sufficient to hold the body of the deceased. An explanation for the position of the box hinges can be that they moved due to the weakened structure of the box and its eventual collapse. Another disturbing element is that the lock held the key. Presuming that the box contained the deceased’s body, we can suppose that the aim was to prevent the deceased from getting out again. In this case, the key would not have been left in the lock, perhaps not even in the grave. Naturally, with such an unparalleled example, many solutions deviating from the general practice can be imagined.

The calcined bones were mostly placed into the urns without the remains of the pyre (Graves 3, 10, 24, 27, 28, and perhaps 23). Apart from the remains of the pyre and the offerings, no other type of extraneous material was documented in the urns. Based on the documentation available, we cannot draw any conclusions regarding how the remains had been placed inside the urn. With detailed observation, based on the spatial location of the small bones, it is possible to identify if they had been put in a ‘bag’ made of some type of organic material, or if there had been some kind of object of organic material among or on the fragments. The anthropological analysis indicates that the arrangement of the remains was probably based on the size of the bones. The largest bone fragments were placed at the bottom, and the sizes of the following calcined bone fragments diminished in size towards the top. This important observation should be dealt with carefully, however, as not only gravitation and the possible presence of an organic inner cover may have had an effect on them, but we do not know what type of body regions were present among the bones placed into the urn either. Therefore, their position is not clear within the microstratigraphy of the urns; that is, it cannot be discerned whether a simple practical reason stands in the background of the observation, or if it is a deliberate arrangement.

In the case of Grave 38, the opened ribcage again indicates that the decomposition of the body took place in an uncovered environment. The location of the tiny, insecure bones of the skeleton, and those of the hands and feet are not indicated precisely on the drawing of the grave. On the basis of this, it can be imagined, but not proved with any certainty, that the body of the deceased was protected from the fill of the grave pit by some kind of container made out of an organic material until a certain phase of decomposition. This may be indicated by the fact that a part of the ceramic grave goods were on the lower limbs of the skeleton in an unstable manner at the time of excavation. These may have originally been placed onto the structure covering the body, having fallen down following its collapse.

Position of the corpse in the inhumations

In the case of Grave 40, it is not known whether the disintegration of the deceased took place out in the open or in a covered space.

In all the burials where the position of the body could be determined, the skeletons were in supine, extended position (Graves 37, 38, 40, and probably 39 as well).

The fill of the graves

In the case of Grave 37, the skeleton was badly preserved, and the total lack of the traces of the wooden structure rendered analysis difficult. The open ribcage indicates that the decomposition of the corpse happened in an open 369

The elements appearing within the fill of a grave, as well as its structure may be typical of the given community, and may help in reconstructing certain details of the burial rites.370

Adam and Delnef 1999, 60.

370

29

Baray 2003, 120, with further literature.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) composed of the glass perfume bottles (Grave 10; Grave 26, here with a bronze coin as well; Grave 28, Urn ‘B’). It can be presumed, that perfumes facilitated the deceased’s passage into the Netherworld. Personal adornments were also placed into the urns, such as fibulae and the belt buckle (Grave 28, Urns ‘A’ and ‘B’). The urn of Grave 22 contained an oil lamp, handled cup and an iron nail. An iron nail was also found in both the urns in Grave 28 (perhaps serving as ‘immobilization’ for the deceased).

Cremation burials The conclusions based on the documentation available are somewhat limited. Certainly had there been atypical material within the fill of the grave (stones, clay layer, sand layer), they would have been documented during the excavation. In a few case, where there was daub and charcoal in the fill of the grave pit (Graves 6, 8, 10, 22, 23 and 26), we may think that some of the remains of the pyre could have been used to fill up the pit, or some of the material of the pyre (e.g. pyre built on the ground) standing near the grave pit may have infiltrated the pit.

Position of grave goods in the inhumations In Grave 37, some of the grave goods were placed outside the coffin. The small jug behind the right shoulder of the skeleton was certainly deposited outside the coffin. Depending on its interpretation, the same can be said in the case of the hinges and locks found in the grave. The jewellery of the woman was found near the ankles, perhaps where it had been worn originally. The brooch was found where it was worn in Grave 40; but in Grave 38 it was near the head, next to the walls of the grave pit. The object may have been displaced by a small animal.

Inhumation burials In the case of inhumations, no alien materials or wellstratified layers could be discerned in the fill. Position of grave goods Position of grave goods in the cremations The pyres were usually cleared away after the cremation; therefore the secondary grave goods ended up at the bottom of each pit (Graves 3 and 4). In the case of Grave 4, the grave goods were placed one on top of the other at the centre of the large pit. If the material below the plates and between the vessels was not the ashy fill of the pyre remains, we can imagine that the pottery was piled on small tables and shelves, and had later fallen down after the disintegration of the latter constructions.371

The pottery in Graves 38 and 39 was arranged near the lower limbs. In Grave 38, perhaps on a coffin; in Grave 39, at the feet of the deceased. The pottery were placed at the feet of the deceased also in Grave 41. Rites conducted on the grave goods In several cases, it is supposed that the pottery vessels were intentionally damaged. The spouts were probably broken off deliberately from the jugs in Grave 2, the glass jug found in Urn ‘B’ in Grave 28, and the ceramic jug in Grave 38.

In the case of Grave 5, the course of the burial can be reconstructed in the following manner. First, the glass beads in some kind of organic container, perhaps a bag (Fig. 18.2), and the cup were placed into the grave. A part of the calcined remains mixed with the pyre remains were then thrown in, and the rest of the grave pit was filled up with a portion of the soil dug out previously.

Regarding the two bowls with everted rim found in Grave 4,372 it is obvious that two half bowls were placed in the burial. Custom of grave furnishing

In several occasions, the secondary grave goods, or some of them, were placed in a group: Grave 6, small storage vessel, jar and glass bottle (Fig. 22.2); Grave 7, both pottery vessels; Grave 10, pottery vessels, oil lamp, coin and glass bottle (Fig. 30.2); Grave 26, urn and cup; Grave 14, plate and iron knife next to it (Fig. 36.5).

The first question to clarify is what we can regard as a grave good. It is almost impossible to find a Roman burial that does not have at least one, or up to even a few hundred pottery sherds among its finds. Of course, not all can be identified as grave goods. A complete vessel cannot be regarded as the equivalent to an extremely fragmentary vessel, or a simple pottery sherd. The limits of the extent of fragmentation should be set to see when a pottery vessel or other object (unless it is a primary grave good) can be regarded as a grave good. We set the limits in this publication to the value of 20%, which has been well-tested in practice.373 The separate identification of grave goods and ‘residual’ sherds is hindered by two factors. Some of the vessels could already have been used before depositing them in the grave, and they could be placed inside in a

At the double burial of Grave 28, the grave goods were placed between the urns (jars), including a jug (Figs. 48.12). The jewellery of the woman and most of the military belt belonging to the man (the belt buckle was found inside the urn) were placed nearby. The offerings placed inside the urns, thus the nearest to the remains of the deceased (disregarding the calcined bone remains from food offerings also burnt on the pyre), set apart from the rest of the offerings, were most frequently

372 371

Cf. for example, Bel et al. 2008, 163-165.

373

30

Grave 4, Cats. 7-8. Bel 2002, 104-112, with further literature.

Burial customs broken state. Another group of these could have been deliberately broken during the burial either before their deposition on the pyre, or during the cremation (such as when the vessels are broken during the funerary banquet and the pieces are thrown onto the pyre), or before being buried in the grave, or even around the burial before it was sealed. Yet another group could have been broken and be scattered due to the pressure of the soil, during agricultural cultivation, or excavation. It is very difficult to distinguish vessels deliberately placed into the grave in a broken state from those pieces that got into the grave through the shifting of earth from the surroundings of the burial and which initially had no relation to it. The finds of a cemetery may originate from various sources. Some of them may come from an earlier use of the same area; but ‘residual’ finds can also result from actions related to the burials. Some of the finds may come from destroyed burials; another group from the structures used for cremation (e.g. from pyres built onto the ground). Nevertheless, they may have arrived there before, during or after the rituals connected to the burial, or funerary banquets and other visits to the grave.

an idea of the assemblages based on the primary grave goods, which were intentionally collected from the remains of the pyre. The primary and secondary grave goods had different roles within the ‘double burial’ of a cremation. The composition of secondary grave goods was determined by the necessities of the deceased in the Netherworld; thus, they can rightly be considered as the reflections of the ideas regarding the otherworld. The primary grave goods play a much more direct role in the rites of transience and purification; thus, expressing the relationship of the deceased and society.379 When examining the customs of grave furnishing, objects from various periods and sources have to be compared. The formal, typological differences of the objects do not express the variations in use or function, they simply show the differences in their origin and chronology. To be able to resolve this problem it is necessary to examine each object according to its role among the grave goods. Thus, not only can such objects be compared that have similar functions but varying types, but also the study of the quantity of objects with similar functions would be possible.

It is essential for the definition of their origins that their positions are documented precisely compared to each other and the graves, and with regard to the other structures connecting to them. The comparison of the pottery sherds from the grave fills and from their surroundings, may bring us closer to defining their origins (the studies conducted at the cemetery of Tavant (Indre-et-Loire, France) made it possible to determine the composition of sets used for the rituals / banquets around the graves.374

Bronze vessels The remains of a burnt bronze amphora and a wooden bucket were found in Grave 4, the richest in the whole cemetery. The two vessels infer that one or more bronze vessel sets (or part / s of it) were placed onto the pyre. Since a part of the pyre remains was removed, we can suppose that some of the primary grave goods were also taken from the assemblage. Therefore, we do not know if there had been any other vessels complementing the lot, and if so what types these had been. The bronze vessel sets can be divided into two larger categories. The first consists of vessels used in the bath (and the palaistra) and for ritual washing, which we can call ‘toiletry services’380; while the second comprises the services used at the table. The latter were used for serving food and drink.381 The forms that can unambiguously identify the type of the service were not included in the assemblage or were removed with the rest of the pyre (such as strainer and ladle, Badeschale and patera). Amphorae were primarily accessories for wine-drinking.382 It cannot be excluded, however, that certain amphora types were used in both bath and ‘toiletry’ services. In this question, the wooden bucket (situla) is not of any help either, as this vessel type can also be found among both the drinking and ‘toiletry’ services.383 In this sense, the material of the bucket is not of any help either, as wooden buckets were used for the consumption of alcoholic beverages. One of the most well-known examples for this are the aristocratic burials at Goeblange. In Pannonia, only a single grave

The next factor impeding definition results from the fact that the majority of the burials under study were cremations. There are two types of grave good types in cremations: the ‘primary’ offerings placed on the pyre during the cremation of the deceased, and the ‘secondary’ grave goods placed into the grave after the cremation. These two categories were defined by Gustav Müller375 and are acknowledged in current research today. In theory it is easy to differentiate between the two. The primary grave goods are burnt.376 There are no burn marks on the secondary grave goods. Nevertheless, the position of the fragments within the grave should also be considered.377 The appearance of the primary grave goods in the grave (in the case of secondary cremations), disregarding the sherds accidentally collected, is the result of a conscious decision. Based on the excavation of several permanent cremation areas (ustrina) and the study of the finds, it can be said that there is significant variation between the composition of primary and secondary grave goods.378 We can only form Riquier and Salé 2006, 61-69.   Müller 1977, 12; Bel 2002, 107-110, with further literature and a detailed discussion of the categories. 376 Baray 2003, 273. For the problems of identifying primary grave goods, especially regarding ‘potential primary grave goods’ from ashy layers, cf. Blaizot 2009, 126-128. It occurs that the ceramics used during the funerary banquets also get burnt, cf. Bel 2002, 111. 377 Blaizot 2009, 127. 378 Polfer 1993, 175-176; Polfer 1996, 108-116; Ames-Adler 2004, 88-91. 374 375

Bel 2002, 111, with further literature. On this group, cf. Nuber 1972; Nenova-Merdjanova 2002. 381 For the bronze vessel services and their successive generations, cf. Petrovszky 1993, 21-137. 382 Feugère 1991, 48, and the remark of Claude Rolley, idem. 51-52. 383 On the role of bronze amphorae among ‘toiletry services’ and drinking services, cf. Mráv 2005, ad Nr. 24, 324-325, with further bibliography. 379 380

31

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) urns) and for consuming food are the most frequent. The number of small storage vessels is also significant (10 vessels, of which 1 served as an urn). The number of jugs is almost identical to that of the plates. At the same time, there are less than half as many drinking vessels among the offerings, as there are plates.

assemblage is published that contained a bronze amphora. This comes from Grave 5 at the Alsópáhok cemetery.384 The two burials are more or less contemporary. In that grave, a wooden bucket, a patera, a Millingen type jug and several unidentifiable bronze vessels accompanied the amphora on the pyre; thus, two services can be identified among the rest of the vases, one containing forms used in ‘toiletry services’ (jug, patera), the other wine-drinking vessels (the simpulum can be identified among these), which had been placed onto the pyre. Its more distant examples are known from burials at Emona385 and the surroundings of Emona, at the small cemetery excavated at Polhov Gradec.386 At this site, the bronze amphora most probably had belonged to a wine service. During the 1st century, in the north-western part of the province, the graves containing metal vessels yielded mainly forms linked to wine-consumption.387 This may indicate that our vessel also belonged to a set that was intended to be used for the consumption of wine (or some other type of alcoholic drink).

Surprisingly, a relatively small amount of the ceramic offerings placed onto the pyres remained in the primary cremations (Fig. 97.2). This probably relates to the fact that these pyres were significantly rearranged following the cremation. During this process, most of the pyre remains, and with them the primary grave goods were probably removed. Nevertheless, three out of the four burnt jugs had come from a primary cremation. This draws our attention to the fact that jugs may have had a more important role among the ceramic offerings placed onto the pyre, than seems to be shown by secondary cremations. Grave 4 is outstanding where next to 13 vessels for preparing or consuming food (among them 8 plates) there are also three forms for serving liquids as well as one for drinking.

Ceramic vases

In the contemporary secondary cremations (Graves 6, 10, 19 and 24) forms for preparing / serving and consuming foods are the most dominant; while the forms for serving and consuming liquids (Fig. 97.2) are lacking. More pottery was deposited in the primary cremations, than in the secondary ones.

The ceramic vessels among the grave goods should be dealt with in two units, separating the Early and Late Roman burials. We have categorized each type into groups according to function: Forms for cooking / storing food, Forms for serving food, Forms for consuming food, Small storage vases (multifunctional), Forms for storing liquids, Forms for storing and pouring liquids, Forms for consuming liquids, Lids.

Six burials contained forms for consuming liquids. One third definitely dates to the 3rd century (Graves 22 and 25). This means that half of the burials containing ceramics, with a more lenient treatment of dating, that is, a third of all the burials contained forms fit for drinking. This may indicate that the importance of forms for drinking may have grown during the 3rd century; yet, due to the small number of burials, this observation has to be dealt with cautiously.

Ceramic vases from the Early Roman burials (Fig. 97.1)

The review of ceramic offerings in the burials serves with another important lesson. The residual ceramics found in the graves shows an interesting composition: 32 vessels of forms for preparing / storing food, 9 small storage vessels, and 4 vessels for consuming food were found; whereas for the consumption of liquids only 2 cups and 14 jugs are known. The number of jugs exceeds that of the jugs known from graves (both in primary and secondary types). All this obviously indicates that the composition of residual vessels was influenced by a different principle than the selection of offerings. The residual ceramics found in the burials (if there are no other activities before or after the phase of cemetery usage in the area) are comprised of the remains of rituals conducted at the cemetery during the burials and later visits. The residual sherds from the graves may indicate that these were initially such forms as were suitable for the storage of food and the serving, pouring of liquids. For example: food and drink was carried to the graves and a libation offering was carried out.

We have only included those assemblages containing ceramic vases which can be identified as burials (31 graves). On examining all the Early Roman burials, the most frequent vessel type among the primary grave goods is the jug. This is followed by forms for preparing and storing food, and lastly by those for consuming and serving food. There are no forms for drinking liquids. Among the secondary grave goods, forms for preparing / storing food (22 vessels, of which 10 served as Horváth et al. 2012, 190-192. Breščak 1982, No. 108, 54, T. 24. 386 Breščak 1982, No. 107, 54, T. 24. A superb summary of the find material from the Polhov Gradec cemetery is given by Zsolt Mráv (2005). Dr Dragan Božič, who independently studied this cemetery, has found such unpublished data, which prove that it was not a single burial, but a smaller family burial complex -we would hereby like to thank Dr Dragan Božič for sharing these results with us-. 387 Alföldy 1959-1960 [1961], 7. 384 385

Obviously, we can only gain an accurate picture after the processing of the complete ‘residual’ ceramic material. The 32

Burial customs study of the Samian ware infers that these vessels were still used in the rituals of the cemetery after they had ceased to be deposited as grave goods. This is indicated by the sherds from vessels that were the products of southern and central Gaulish workshops found in various structures (see Fig. 95). The latest piece is the work of the potter Sedatus of Lezoux. This Samian ware cup was probably made between 130-150, but based on the signs of wear it had been in use for a longer period. After the third quarter of the 2nd century, the use of Samian ware at the excavated cemetery sector stopped (the complete Samian ware material of the site can be found in a separate table: Fig. 95).

the best parallels for the number and quality of the Samian vessels is given by Grave 5 at the cemetery of Alsópáhok where, according to the potter’s stamp, a part of a Samian ware service was deposited,389 with two pieces from each of the two functional categories. The grave goods of the other burial (Grave 6) are much more humble: only a single Samian plate was deposited there. As we have mentioned before, Samian ware was not deposited in graves after the reign of Trajan, although, as proven by the residual sherds, they stayed in use until the end of the 2nd century during the various actions conducted in the cemetery. The finds from Savaria show a similar tendency.390 After the import of Italian Samian ware had ceased, the use of this pottery type decreased among grave goods of the cemeteries.

We must also mention in brief the role of imported ware. The imported ware deposited in the graves can be divided into two groups. The first group comprises such vessels that were imported for the materials they contained and transported. Therefore, they were primarily used as packaging, deposited as such in the burial complexes, or for their prestige gained from the imported materials. The re-use of these empty packaging materials instead of a locally-produced vessel belonging to a similar functional category may have been secondary. The amphorae and pottery balsamaria also belong to this group.

This can partially be explained by the fact that the best known horizon of the cemeteries of the colonia is contemporary with the importation of the Italian Samian ware; and that the Southern and Central Gaulish ware could be more costly than the Italian pieces (it is probably not by chance that the late mass produced material from the Po valley is to be found in largest number, while the contemporary Southern Gaul pieces are missing). It is likely that similarly to Poetovio,391 a complex explanation is to be sought here as well. With the reorganization of economic relationships in the province, the economic role of the town must have also changed. The veterans tried their luck near their former places of service or in settlements along the limes, as a consequence of which the market reduced. The change in the appreciation of Samian ware as a grave good may also have played a role in their gradually less frequent deposits among grave offerings. Another special feature of burials has to be mentioned as well, which distorts the picture. The burials known from Savaria are almost all secondary cremations, the pyres used for cremation are completely unknown. Therefore, we can only form our concepts on secondary grave goods.

The second group consists of those vessels that had locally produced equivalents; therefore, the deposit of the more expensive, but in many cases better quality pottery was an alternative choice. These are essentially fine tableware, especially for serving, as well as for consuming food and drink. Only this category can be found among the ceramic grave goods at the cemetery. The Samian ware vessels are the only ones that can be regarded without doubt as imported pottery (on the uncertainty surrounding the place of production of the thin-walled ceramics see above). Only two graves contained Samian ware among their grave goods. In Grave 4 we find three identical Samian plates (Consp. 20) with three identical small bowls with everted rims next to them. Without doubt, they comprised a functional ‘set’ which, for the sake of an example, may have contained three different types of food offering (among them a domestic hen) and three different sauces. The assemblage can be interpreted in another way too, however. The remains of two individuals were buried in the grave. One plate contained the food. The other two plates may have been for the two individuals to eat the offerings from, with the sauces or other kinds of food deposited in the small bowls with inverted rims. The large number of imported wares, as well as the grave type, surely implies that the buried individuals had a higher status within the community (this burial is known to contain the largest number of ceramic offerings in the whole cemetery sector). The six Samian vases deposited here can be compared in number with those from the cemeteries at Csopak (Veszprém County, Hungary), Grave 119 at Novo Mesto (Slovenia), or from Grave B1 at the Kálvária cemetery of Győr,388 yet they are all inferior in quality to these. One of 388

Among the two Late Roman burials, only one contained pottery offerings (Grave 41). A small bowl for serving or consuming food, and a handled mug for consuming liquids were deposited in the grave. Glass vessels In the Early Roman phase of the cemetery small, perfume bottles are the most frequent. A total of 11 balsamaria were deposited in 6 graves: 2 as primary, and 9 as secondary grave goods (Grave 4, 1 primary, 5 secondary; Grave 6, 1 secondary; Grave 7, 1 primary; Grave 10, 1 secondary; Grave 26, 1 secondary; Grave 28, 1 secondary). Out of Horváth et al. 2012, 183-184. Márton 2008, No. 274-288, 164-165, with literature referring to individual finds. 391 Márton 2008, 140.

389

390

Márton 2008, 150, with further literature.

33

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) the 11 balsamaria, 9 dated to the earliest phase of the cemetery sector, from a total of 4 burials (Graves 4, 6, 10 and 26), which is half of the graves that can surely be dated to this chronological horizon. The pyre built into a ditch is outstanding (Grave 4), containing 6 balsamaria. This indicates that the community using the cemetery during its earliest phase did not only employ the use of perfumes, but could also afford them. A similarly largescale utilization of perfumes is seen at the cemetery sector of Alsópáhok – Hévízdomb, where four of the six excavated burials had contained glass bottles.392 Perhaps it is not by chance that later the usage of perfumes diminishes, which may infer a change in the grave furnishing habits.

members of the community burying here either brought with them, or perhaps even adopted very early. Clothing accessories The traces of organic materials observed around the areas of the chest and pelvis of the skeleton in Grave 38 probably were originally from some type of clothing. The crossbow brooch was found on the right clavicle of the man buried in Grave 40 where it was intended to be worn, which obviously infers that it was used to clasp the garments of the deceased. It can be supposed that in the majority of cases the deceased were buried dressed or draped into a kind of organic material within the graves. However, it is difficult to identify this based on its effect on the process of the decay of the body when clothing accessories are lacking.398

Apart from the practical usage of perfumes during the burial process (washing the deceased, eliminating odours of the decomposing body), they also conveyed symbolic meaning. They had a role in separating the worlds of the living and the dead, as well as in regenerating lost vitality.393

In the case of cremation burials, there are two aspects to consider. The first are the garments and accessories worn by the deceased, as well as further pieces placed onto the pyre with the primary grave goods. The others consist of the clothes and accessories given with the secondary offerings for use in the Netherworld. Only a small number of accessories are known from the cremations at the cemetery: Grave 8, fibula, secondary grave good; Grave 11, fibula / belt clasp, primary or secondary grave good; Grave 20, fibula, secondary grave good; Grave 28, belt and its fittings, secondary grave good.

The first form for serving drinks appears in the 3rd century (Grave 28). The burial dating to the 4th century (Grave 40) contained a glass beaker. Oil lamps Seven oil lamps were found among the grave goods in the excavated cemetery sector (Graves 4, 10, 11, 17, 22, 24, and 28). We must not forget that other equipment was also used for lighting. Provincial examples of candles and torches deposited in graves are also known.394

From inhumations: Grave 38, fibula; Grave 40, fibula. After an overview of the finds, the following can be observed. Accessories do not appear in the earliest horizon of the graves (the earliest occurrence is from the second quarter of the 2nd century, but most probably only from the 40s of that century). In all probability, we can document the characteristics of the burial customs and their partial changes by this material. In the case of Grave 38, based on the Almgren 70 / 73 fibula, we can suppose that individuals with differing burial customs, in the present case with indigenous traditions, had appeared within the community.

Oil lamps were already deposited in the graves during the earliest horizon (Graves 4, 10 and 24), which indicates that the members of the community were using this Mediterranean form of lighting in the burials as a component of the grave goods as far back as the earliest period known to us. The appearance of oil lamps is frequently connected to Romanization in the western basin of the Mediterranean.395 However, oil lamps are rare north of the Alps (Pannonia is in an exceptional position in this respect), and are often completely missing from the material.396 Can we say that Aventicum (Avenches, Vaud, Switzerland) or Argentomagus (Saint-Marcel, Indre, France) was less Romanised? Perhaps it is best to speak of the reception of a Mediterranean style of lighting and the rites connecting to it,397 which the

A very similar picture is portrayed in the cemeteries of Savaria. There are also very few fibulae buried in the graves, and they are almost entirely missing from the early horizon.399 Doorselaer 1967, 120-121; Scheid 1984, 120. 398 Bizot and Signoli 2009. 399 From an unknown location: an unknown fibula type, which entered into the collection of the Museum of Graz with a ring-hilted sword. The pieces of this ‘find’ may not belong together: if they are part of the same assemblage, the fibula is younger than the 1st century, Miks 2007, No. A716, 739, with previous literature; Berzsenyi Dániel tér 3, fibulae are mentioned among the finds from graves found between 1890-1893, Kárpáti 1892, 69-70, 136 / 161 post quem and also at the same site: a female doctor’s grave was found in 1896 dating to the 3rd century based on its enamelled disc fibula, 200-275, Kárpáti 1897, 74, 4. kép and Künzl 1983, 118, with further literature; Hámán Kató út, Egészségügyi Iskola, Grave 55, with a characteristic indigenous type of animal-headed fibula, 70-100, Mócsy 1954, 171, 186-187, 12. kép; Demetz 1999, ad TKF I c2 Nr. 6, 267; Rumi út 72-74, Grave XXVII, Buócz 1961, 234-235, 9. kép,

Horváth et al. 2012, 196. Maurin 1984, 196-197; Scheid 1984, 120, 122; Bel 2002, 144. 394 For example, wax torches are known from beside a lead coffin: Ports-sur-Vienne, site of Les Gros Chilloux (Indre-et-Loire, France), Bosseboeuf 1899-1900 [1900], 186; Bosseboeuf 1899-1900 [1900]a, 228-229; Provost 1988, No. 52, 42, and for a similar find from Pannonia, from within a sarcophagus found at Győr at the site of Homokgödör in 1872, cf. Méry 1872. 395 Bel 2002, 145, with further literature. 396 Galliou 1989, 47; Castella 1999, 68, n. 105; Bel 2002, 146, with further literature. 397 One of the functions of the oil lamps was to light the path to the Underworld, to separate the two worlds of the living and the dead: 392 393

34

Burial customs It is characteristic of the urban cemeteries of Pannonia during the 1st-2nd centuries (thus in Savaria too) that the clothing accessories worn by the deceased on the pyre do not appear in the secondary burials (or they wore clothing without fibulae or belts); and they rarely appear among the secondary grave goods, therefore the deceased did not have to ‘appear’ in their everyday clothing within the grave. Therefore, it is most likely that here we are dealing with the differences between the burial customs of immigrant, ‘Romanised’ communities, and the traditions of indigenous ones. The fibulae types appearing in civic cemeteries can frequently be traced back to indigenous forms, as is the case in Grave 38, probably demonstrating individuals of indigenous origin joining the communities. At the Nemesbőd cemetery we must also come to think that accessories played an insignificant part in the offering customs of the individuals buried in the earliest horizon of the cemetery sector. Influenced by such individuals who followed indigenous customs and with time perhaps adapted to the community as well (as in Grave 38), and possibly with the slow alteration of the burial practices themselves (such as in the case of the knee fibula in Grave 20 which no longer connects to the indigenous formal repertoire), their roles had adjusted. We must also mention the belt from Grave 28, which we can define as an accessory of a military garment. In Pannonia, a strong indigenous tradition could be detected behind the burials containing arms and militaria, lasting until the end of the 2nd century.400 This grave, however, is later, most probably not connected to this tradition. The 3rd-century weapon finds and burials with weapons and militaria found in civil areas belong to veterans, armed civilians and paramilitary forces.401 During the 3rd century, civilian and military society and dress became more and more divided. This type of belt connects closely to military garments and it is highly unlikely that the wearer was not a soldier. Based on the age of the deceased (between 20-30 years), he could not have been a veteran. Perhaps we can identify him with a young soldier buried near his family, or a young man preparing to become a soldier, but who had died before he could take up service. It was important for him to express his military status even in the smaller community he had belonged to.402

The glass beads could not only be parts of necklaces (such as in the case of the unburnt beads of Grave 5), but they could be attached to items of clothing. Frequently, we find a single bead in a burial (e.g. in Grave 13). These may have served as amulets and apotropaic symbols.406 Glass beads could substitute beads of minerals with similar colours (amber, jasper, jet, etc.), and thus obtain their magical and healing attributes,407 as generally the various colours themselves carried meaning as well.

Jewellery

Toilette and cosmetic instruments

Pieces of jewellery were important means of selfexpression for women (and to a lesser degree for men as well). It was easy to identify the social status of their wearer on the basis of their jewellery.403 Relatively few

This category only contains the small, cylindrical bone pyxis from Grave 8. In Pannonia they mainly appear in urban cemeteries, and secondarily in cemeteries near military installations. Thus, it is mainly immigrants, individuals adopting the civil or military version of Roman lifestyle who used these objects, and who also placed them into their burials. They rarely appear in rural contexts.408

pieces of jewellery are known from the cemetery sector: Grave 5, bronze ring with gemstone and bone bead as primary grave goods, and row of glass beads as secondary grave good; Grave 13, glass bead as primary grave good; Grave 28, glass beads as primary and secondary grave goods, and bronze pin with golden head and unidentifiable gold plate; Grave 37, iron bracelet / anklet decorated with silver rings and silver wire. Their absence indicates that similarly to the clothing accessories, it was less important for the members of the community to add these objects to the grave goods. The bronze rings could be items belonging to both women and men.404 In Grave 5, regarding the feminine characteristics of the bone remains and the glass beads, these had been placed next to a female deceased. Rings with gemmae are not frequent at rural cemeteries in Pannonia. Its presence itself infers a Roman style jewellery type, just as does the iconography of an eagle on the gemstone. The iconography of rings with a gemma found in burials can sometimes be linked with the funerary context, such as a depiction of Mercury; nonetheless, these could also be important gods and symbols of significance for the owner.405 This ring depicting an eagle could have been owned by a veteran or even one of his relatives. The iron bracelet / anklet decorated with silver rings and a piece of silver wire from Grave 37, as we have seen above, has known parallels in Southern Pannonia. This may indicate that its wearer was from that region.

119 / 122-150; Tompa utca, Grave 2, unidentifiable fibula type, 117 / 138285, Bíró 2004, 41. sz., 83, with further literature. 400 For Pannonian burials with weapons and further bibliography, cf. Márton 2002 and Mráv 2006. 401 Cf. the synthesis of Nicolay 2007. 402 We know of various similar finds far from military camps, for example, from Grave 10 at Nagykanizsa – Inkey kápolna (Zala County, Hungary), Horváth 2003, 82-83, 8. kép, where a folded military belt was placed next to the deceased; Söjtör (Zala County, Hungary), Mound 19, the mounts of a military belt were also found in a grave dating between 222 / 235275 / 300, Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 38, Abb. 15.19.2-8. 403 Schenke 2003, 145-149, and on the jewellery finds of Roman cemeteries with further literature 111-113.

Millet 1987, 68; Philpott and Reece 1993, 418. Siepen 2001, 258; Guiraud 2008, 36. 406 Philpott 1991, 130, 133; Barber and Bowsher 2000, 68. 407 Crummy 2010, 54-55. 408 Keszthely (Zala County, Hungary), from the so-called Újmajor cemetery, from a dispersed assemblage, Kuzsinszky 1920, 74-80; Mezőszilas (Fejér County, Hungary), Tumulus VIII and perhaps also Tumulus 2, Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 22-23, with bibliography. 404 405

35

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Several exemplars are known from the cemetery sectors of Savaria.409

others as well; while it is also possible that in everyday practice the silver coins were symbolically substituted by coins of smaller value and not of precious metals. The fact that the coin offerings do not appear systematically within the burials indicates that the reason for adding the coin to the burial material is not just paying the money due to some sort of figure to reach the Underworld.

Instruments Writing instruments (stili and spatulae) were deposited in Grave 10. These tools were the modes of self-expression within society during the Early Roman period. They could be a means of visualizing the ‘Roman’ culture of the deceased, or even their professions.410

Coins may have been deposited among the funerary offerings as objects symbolizing wealth and riches pars pro toto,415 thus, providing the dead with an amount necessary in the Netherworld. This may also be true in the case of money purses (marsupia). The coins may have had a role in confining the dead and protecting the living.416 In the Early Roman burials of Pannonia during the 1st-2nd centuries, deposited coins were mostly not of precious metals. The as denomination predominates among them.417 This may imply a standardized value, but it may also convey an intent to use the denomination of the least value possible for this purpose. However, the choice of coins did not only depend on their values.

If the bone object made of antler was really a spindle whorl (Grave 28), then it probably served as a way to express the role of women. As it was a primary grave good, it represented the ideal woman and wife primarily towards the community. Apart from these, only knives were found in the graves. The Early Roman pieces are all long bladed knives or daggers (Graves 2, 4, 11, 15 and 28); they are present from the earliest horizon (Grave 4) to the end of the Early Roman period. Their conditions infer that they had been primary grave goods, and as such must have accompanied the food offerings placed onto the pyres. The long hilted, short bladed knife in Grave 40 can perhaps be classified into the group of cosmetic knives.

The iconography and legends appearing on them were also significant. The coins of colonia Augusta Nemausus (Nîmes) are missing from the burials at Lyon (Colonia Copia Lugdunum). In this case it is clearly one of the signs of rivalry between the two cities.418 The comparison of the composition of coins from the cemeteries of Brigetio with the coins from the settlement made it obvious that the reverse iconography and legend of the coins was just as significant as their values when they were selected as grave goods.419 The importance of the iconography and legends for the choice of which coin to be interred was supported by other studies as well.420 The choice was connected with the age, sex, and probably religion of the deceased. Even the detail of which side of the coin faced downwards had its significance.421

Coins All the coins from the graves were secondary grave goods.411 Among these graves, the dating of the assemblages is not based only on the coins. In the case of Graves 4 and 10, the coin could even have been buried in the year of its issue; however, the As from Grave 26 must have been in circulation at least 39 years before it was deposited. For a long time the coins placed into burials were interpreted as the fee to be paid by the deceased when travelling across to the Underworld,412 of which the myth of Charon was a later interpretation (the ‘minimal’ fee required by Charon -naulos or mistos- was an obolos -or its equivalent, a denarius-). But he was not the only one, who could request money from the dead in the other world.413 The fee paid to Charon was more common in the eastern, Greek-speaking provinces.414 Yet its appearance in the region of Pannonia cannot be ruled out either. This interpretation can be suggested primarily in the case of silver coins placed into the mouth or hand of the deceased (this cannot be observed with cremations). The analysis is made more difficult by the above-mentioned fact that apart from Charon, the required amount of money may have been put aside for

Probably, in the case of the Pannonian burials with coin offerings there is a mix of several traditions, and thus there are various notions behind the presence of a coin. These can be made clear by exact documentation, anthropological analyses, the study of coin circulation at settlements, and the cross-comparison of all these. The graves with coin offerings all belong to the early horizon of the cemetery sector. Three out of eight burials definitely dating to this period contained a coin, which implies that this offering type had a relatively significant role during this era. We can probably trace a change in the tradition of coin offerings by the disappearance of coins from the burials after the middle of the 2nd century. The reason for depositing a coin with the deceased observed

Rumi út 72-74, Grave XXVII, Buócz 1961, 234-235; Rumi út 78, Grave 1, Buócz 1964, 118-119; Tompa utca, Grave 2, Bíró 2004, No. 41, 83. 410 Boeselager 1989; Feugère 1993, 146-148. 411 Grave 4, Cat. 44; Grave 10, Cat. 8; Grave 26, Cat. 9. 412 Estiot 2001, 518. 413 We may think of the figures of Aeacus or even Dis Pater: Găzdac Alföldy and Găzdac 2009, 163. But it is also possible that there had been other similar figures requesting money from the deceased not appearing in the extant written sources. 414 Poux 2009, 34. 409

Grinder-Hansen 1991, 215. Grinder-Hansen 1991, 215. 417 Cf. the only summarizing study thus far: Fitz 1979-1980 [1980]. 418 Flück 2009. 419 Găzdac Alföldy and Găzdac 2009, 166-170. 420 Perassi 1999; Crummy 2010, 60-66. 421 Crummy 2010, 67-68. 415 416

36

Burial customs by the generations of the earliest horizon were not, or less important to the generations after.

On a Samian ware plate in Grave 4, the rump with wings of a domestic hen was served.426 A similar presentation, also on a Samian ware plate, is known from Carnuntum.427 In Grave 5, the following bones were found, probably belonging to one pig: head, bone-in spare rib, spare ribs and forequarter hock.428 The exact position of the bones during excavation is not known, so it cannot be discerned whether they had belonged to the secondary grave goods or not. Based on the bones belonging to a single specimen, the bone-in spare rib, forequarter hock and foot can much rather be identified as secondary grave goods, than as residual material. Grave 6 contained the possibly carved foot part of a sheep / goat.429

A similar proportion can be noticed at the cemetery sector of Zanat from the territories of the colonia as well. At the site, two out of the nine burials of value dating to the Flavian-Trajanic / Early Hadrianic periods contained coins.422 All this shows that the communities using the cemeteries placed coins into the burials at an early stage, if not from the very beginning. The box In so far as the box found in Grave 37 did not serve as a coffin for the deceased, then most probably it was not deposited empty into the burial. Probably such objects made of organic materials were placed inside it that did not leave any archaeologically identifiable traces (e.g. clothes or food).

The analysis of the material shows that the domestic hen was the most popular food offering among the primary grave goods. The burnt bones of a pig (head, ribs, forelegs) were found in Grave (?) 33,430 which was associated with Grave 6. This may indicate that pig meat may have had a role after all within the offerings carried out during the burial or a later visit to the grave, or among the goods placed onto the pyre. We can think of a Mediterranean practice of consecrating the grave, for example, where a piglet is sacrificed (Porca praesentana).431

Nails, studs, hooks Based on their condition, the majority of these had been affected by the temperature of the pyre. They probably served as implements for constructing and decorating the pyre. The large, conical-headed nails (Grave 4) may especially indicate some type of decorative function. A part of them may originate from the furniture and other objects (boxes, impromptu funerary beds, stretchers, etc.) placed onto the pyre. Nevertheless, we must not forget that they may also have reached the pyre indirectly, for example, with the wood material used for the preparation of the pyre.

Food offerings of meat parts containing bones as secondary grave goods are only known from the earliest horizon of the cemetery sector. The domestic hen, pig and goat are also found among these examples. Based on archaeozoological examination, in the case of pigs the first quarter of the animal, that is, the valuable, but not the best part (ham, hindquarter hock) of the slaughtered animal was sacrificed. Their absence in later burials may indicate that there had been a change in what was sacrificed and offered, as well as eaten. The meat offerings had disappeared from the offerings, or were deposited into the grave boneless.

Food offerings Based on the finds, we only get a rather incomplete picture about the food offerings. Among the offerings placed on the pyre, those food types that were boneless may have completely incinerated. The fills of the graves were not levigated during the excavation; thus, any plant remains that they may have contained have not been analysed. The pyres were partially cleared and reorganized to a large extent; so it is exactly the uppermost layer that disappeared, which would have contained most of the food offerings placed onto the pyre. On the other hand, only those remains were found in the secondary cremations which were taken out with the bone remains or with the remains of the pyre and placed into the graves. We could only determine the parts with bones among the secondary grave goods.423

From the cemeteries of Savaria, we do not know of any food offerings. On the basis of this, therefore, we cannot draw any conclusions about the food offerings placed onto the pyre, as the human remains from most of the cremated burials have not been examined, and the animal bones mixed in with these are not known to us. Regarding the secondary grave goods, it can be determined with more certainty that cooked and roasted meat with bones had a less important role within the food offerings. Summary

As primary grave goods: small ungulate (sheep / goat or pig)424 and domestic hen.425

At the site of Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő, a sector of a cemetery used in the Early and Late Roman periods was excavated. It contained 37 burials (a further three features cannot be identified with certainty, and another

422 In Grave 5 as a primary grave good, while in Grave 6 above the tegulae, as a secondary grave good, Bíró 2005 [2006], 56. 423 The archaeozoological material is discussed in detail by Éva Ágnes Nyerges in her study in a separate chapter. 424 Grave 22, Cat. 12, sheep / goat or pig, at least the head. 425 Grave 22, Cat. 11, wing, rump and upper thigh from one specimen; Grave 24, Cat. 8, limb section.

Grave 4, Cats. 2, 61. Gräberstraße (1897-1898), Grave 15, Groller 1899, Taf. XII. Fig. 8; Groller 1900, 105. 428 Grave 5, Cats. 41-42. 429 Grave 6, Cat. 13. 430 Grave (?) 33, Cat. 7. 431 Bel 2002, 139. 426 427

37

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) can be defined as the traces of a type of ritual sacrifice, or perhaps a pit containing the pyre remains). The burials at the cemetery sector had begun during the Flavian era, probably during its later years. The earliest graves are positioned in three separate, well-defined areas. A group of graves surrounded by ditches was located at the northeastern part of the excavation area. South of these stood an isolated pyre built into a ditch, which acquired the status of a burial. The latter contained the remains of two individuals. Several signs indicate that this is a privileged burial: this is the largest pyre (grave) in the cemetery area; there had not been any further burials on an extensive area surrounding it for a long time; and it has the richest grave goods among the excavated graves (bronze vessels, Samian ware service, imported oil lamp and perfume bottles). This burial is well comparable with Grave 5 at the cemetery of Alsópáhok – Hévízdomb,432 which based on an inscription on a jug among its grave goods can be connected with North Italian immigrants, or at least with their Pannonian economic interests. North-west of this burial, we find some early interments. The early phase of the cemetery was oriented east -north-east by west- south-west according to a geological or human feature. There were no burials near the pyre built into the ditch for a long time, but next to the graves surrounded by ditches, and aligned to them, there had been interments until the end of the 2nd century. At the south-west part of the cemetery sector, the burials show a horizontal stratigraphy, with the younger burials appearing more and more to the north. There was a transformation at the end of the 3rd century, and the Late Roman burials are only found at the southern borders of the excavated area.

communities.433 The Samian ware and thin-walled vessels do not only bear witness to the material wealth of the community, but also sheds light on the use of Roman vessel types for consuming food and drink, or at least this was how they wanted to furnish their dead. The pyres built into and above a ditch appeared with the Roman occupation of Pannonia. The cradle of this burial form should be sought in Northern Italy. It had spread from there to other provinces partially by military movement and enlistment. On the basis of the above, the early phase of the cemetery sector connects to an immigrant community (or their descendants), who most probably had come from Northern Italy.434 Based on the pyres built in and above ditches, they might equally have come from Southern Gaul,435 as this had also been a popular grave type there. The evidence for this is the knowledge of writing within the cemetery, the Samian ware and bronze vessels, and the pyres built into or above a ditch. The burial customs of this little community, who perhaps were the inhabitants of a villa estate, can be followed through the following three centuries. During the 2nd century, it is possible that indigenous peoples also appeared among the population using the cemetery (indicated by the Almgren 70 / 73 type fibulae, and the South Pannonian anklet or bracelet). It is also possible that other individuals from various provinces had joined the community, bringing the rite of the secondary cremation inside an imbrex, which is extremely rare in the province. Their customs of offerings had changed, with new forms of rituals and grave types appearing (such as the ‘heap of bones’ burials and tile graves), others vanishing (such as the primary cremations and coin offerings). A member of the community had joined the army or was preparing to do so during the 3rd century.

The coins and oil lamps among the grave goods of the burials dating to the earliest horizon of the cemetery indicate the ‘Romanised’, Mediterranean characteristics of the burials. The incised inscriptions (Grave 4) show the everyday usage of written Latin. The North Italian Samian ware in Savaria and its environs are known from burials connecting to the Boian elite – which we cannot deal with here  –  as well as to veterans and immigrant

It is probable that the Early and Late Roman cemetery forms a unit with unbroken use. In all likelihood, it is exactly a section of this later phase of graves that should be located outside the area designated by the line of the newly constructed road towards the south.

Gabler 1973, 25-26; Márton 2008, 136-140, Fig. 1.a-b. For the roles of North Italian immigrants within the population of Savaria and its ‘territorium’, cf. Mócsy 1959, 37-38. 435 There are examples of South Gaulish immigrants in the ‘territorium’ of Savaria: Mócsy 1959, Nr. 32 and maybe Nr. 90 /15. 433 434

432

Horváth et al. 2012, 168-173, 199.

38

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds András Márton, Endre Norbert Fülöp and András Radics

The features of the cemetery are discussed in an ascending order of grave numbers. For easier interpretation, we consider the enclosure ditches and their finds directly after the graves that they had probably belonged to. In the case of these features we have retained the original Feature / Stratigraphic Unit (SU) identification numbers which were used at the excavation.

sector that helps to easily identify the grave on the map (Fig. 3). The objects mentioned in the descriptions of excavation and structural characteristics are followed by their numbers in brackets as applied in the excavation records and on drawings – if they were assigned one in the first place; followed by the catalogue numbers given at the time of their descriptions in the grave inventory.

The catalogue also includes previous literature referring to the individual graves.

All the features appeared during mechanical scraping; thus, we only discuss the details of how they became visible in diverging cases.

If any of the definitions and descriptions given here contradict earlier studies of the find material published in preliminary reports, then we regard the data presented here as valid without any further notification.

Abbreviations used in the catalogue Bd = base diameter, Cat. = catalogue, De = depth, Diam = diameter, E = east, Fd = foot diameter, H = height, Id. no. = identification number of the Hungarian National Museum’s National Heritage Protection Centre, L = length, Meas = measurements, N = north, No. = number, Obv = obverse, Rec = reconstructed, Rd = rim diameter, Rev = reverse, S = south, Th = thickness, W = west, We = weight, Wi = width, Wth = wall thickness.

The measurements of a feature or object are given in centimetres, measurements of weight in grams. In the case of fragmentary objects, the data refer to the largest measurable value of the dimensions applicable. If not otherwise mentioned in the text, the glass vessels are free-blown, the lamps were made in bipartite moulds and the pottery is fast-wheel turned. The dating refers to AD dates.

Ceramic type codes: DTCW: dark toned coarse ware; ITCW: light toned coarse ware; PW: painted ware.

The incised inscriptions, anthropological data, and archaeozoological data are based on the studies of Andrea Barta, Gábor Tóth, and Éva Ágnes Nyerges, respectively.

Grave 1 (120 / 134; BI-16; Fig. 4) Primary cremation. E-W (60°) oriented, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 118; Wi: 59; De: 25. A brick was visible on the surface of the rectangular, black filled structure. After trowelling, a burnt red stripe of daub indicated its edges. Here it could be observed that the base of the pyre extended beyond the borders of the pit. This was inferred by a 6-8 cm wide light grey alteration. The first ceramic finds appeared high up during excavation. A grey jar (Nos. 3a, b and 4; Cat. 3), a deep bowl with horizontal rim (Nos. 1a, b; Cat. 4), and a small grey storage vase (No. 6; Cat. 5) were placed in the western corner of the grave pit. The broken fragments of a large ceramic object were found in the northern section of the grave, which on site were identified as the pieces of an ‘amphora’ (No. 5; Cat. 7), and ‘amphora stand’ (Nos. 2a, b; Cat. 7). Fragments belonging to this object were also found at the eastern edge of the grave. Anthropological analysis: 152 g of sandy-yellow and grey calcined bones of a 15-25 year-old, unsexed individual (with feminine traits).

Structure of the catalogue entries • Grave No. / Feature No. (Feature / SU; the number of the excavation sector; figure no. of the drawing of the grave and its finds). • Definition of the feature. • Previous bibliography concerning the grave. • Orientation, measurements of the feature. • Description of the feature and its excavation. • Anthropological data. • Categories of finds: primary, secondary grave goods and residual finds; in the case of skeleton burials: grave goods and residual finds. • Dating. • List of finds. The numbers in brackets following the grave number indicate the number identifying the feature during the excavation; among these the first is the feature, the second the stratigraphic unit. The code refers to the excavation 39

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) in a way that rims were formed on both parts, thus strengthening the stability of the joins. Only after this had been completed was the ‘door’ opening cut out of the lower cylindrical part. This is indicated by the fact that the weight of the upper part above it had not induced the collapse or deformation of the opening. The edges of the hole had been smoothed with a wet hand. Orange-red clay, medium tempered with rough sand. It was probably fired at a low temperature; its fabric is highly porous. H: 58; Bd: 29.5; Separating profiled rim Diam: 36.5; Opening Diam: 11×12; Wth: 2.5; Id. nos.: 48.38574.134.9-10 (Figs. 6; 83).

Primary or secondary grave good: 7. Secondary grave good: 3-5. Residual: 1-2, 6. Dating: 75-115. Finds 1. Jug, fragments: fragment of a tripartite strap handle, perhaps from a double-handled jug, and unjoining body sherds. LTCW, light greyish-yellow, medium tempered with sand. Handle L: 5.3; Wth: 0.4; Id. nos.: 48.38574.134.4-5 (Fig. 5.4). 2. Jug, partially joining sherds: base fragment with start of the body. The low ring foot separates from the body with a small rib. LTCW, fired to yellow, medium tempered with sand. H: 4; Wi: 3; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.134.6 (Fig. 5.6). 3. Jar (Nos. 3a, b and 4): reconstructed from several sherds. Flat base, ovoid body, narrowing significantly towards the base. Steep shoulder, short neck decorated with horizontal ribs, upright rim with a triangular section. DTCW, grey, medium tempered with sand. H: 26; Rd: 18; Bd: 10; Wth: 0.4; Id. nos.: 48.38574.134.1 and 8 (Figs. 5.3; 76.2). 4. Deep bowl with horizontal rim (Nos. 1a, b): reconstructed from several fragments. Flat base, deep, downward narrowing body, almost straightwalled on the top, slightly inward curving towards the rim. Horizontally everted rim, slightly heading downwards, with arched top surface. On the body, at its greatest diameter, four horizontal incised lines. LTCW, reddish-yellow, fired grey here and there, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9; Rd: 14; Bd: 6; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.134.2 (Figs. 5.5; 80.1). 5. Small storage vase (No. 6): restored from several sherds. Slightly concave base, ovoid body with curving wall narrowing slightly towards the top and the bottom. Short neck, upright rim with rounded surface and curved sides. DTCW, greyish-brown spots, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 11; Rd: 8.8; Bd: 5; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.134.3 (Figs. 5.2; 77.7). 6. Lid, rim glued from several sherds: its side is horizontally cut. LTCW, reddish-brown, medium tempered with sand, with traces of a dark brown slip on its exterior. H: 3.6; Rec Rd: 18; Diam: 24; Wi: 8; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.134.7 (Fig. 5.1). 7. ‘Lamp house’ (?) (Nos. 2a, b and 5): glued from several fragments, most of the bottom is missing. It was assembled from two parts; the bottom of the lower piece is flat, its wall is curved, with an elongated opening cut around its middle that is vaulted on its top side and just slightly arched on its bottom. Due to the damage of the bottom, it cannot be decided whether it was solid or hollow. A jutting, profiled rim separates it from the elongated, coneshaped upper part. The lower cylindrical part and the conical upper half were turned separately. The two parts were joined together while they were still wet and shapeable

Grave 2 (122 / 136; BI-17; Figs. 7.1-2) Primary cremation. E-W (64°) oriented, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 142; Wi: 82; De: 41. The feature appeared indistinctly with daub and charcoal on its surface. The burnt, dauby edges were 3-4 cm thick; it can be observed next to it that the base of the pyre extended over the edges of the pit. This was indicated by a light grey alteration. Most of the grave goods were placed in its eastern half, including the sherds of a jug (No. 2; Cat. 2), a small storage jar (No. 1; Cat. 4), and an iron knife (No. 3; Cat. 5). The fill in this part of the grave contained a large amount of charcoal. The scattered calcined bones were found mostly in this stratum. Anthropological analysis: 204 g of grey and coal-black calcined bones of a 20-30 year-old man. Primary grave good: 1, 2. Primary or secondary grave good: 5. Residual (?): 3. Dating: 80-200. Finds 1. Jug, fragmentary: glued from several sherds, the upper section of the neck and spout are missing. It has a squat, slightly conical ring foot, a slightly asymmetrical globular body elongated on its top and bottom, a narrow shoulder, and a narrowing cylindrical neck. A tripartite strap handle runs up from the shoulder to the bottom of the neck. LTCW, clay originally fired to orange-red, but has mostly turned grey as is secondarily burnt, medium tempered with sand. H: 24; Handle Wi: 3; Bd: 6; Wi: 17; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.136.1 (Figs. 7.4; 79.1). 2. Jug, partially joining, glued body fragments (No. 2): DTCW, grey fabric, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3.5; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.136.3. 3. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Grey fabric, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.1; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.136.4. 4. Small storage vase (No. 1): Flat bottom, the elongated ovoid body narrows towards the base. Arched shoulder, a horizontal rib articulates its short neck. Rounded, upward curving rim. DTCW, 40

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds clay fired to black, medium tempered with medium rough sand. H: 9.5; Rd: 7; Bd: 4; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.136.2 (Figs. 7.3; 77.3). 5. Iron knife (No. 3): intact. Its point is slightly blunt. Its tang tapers towards the hilt. The spine and the cutting edge of the blade is straight at a two-thirds length starting from the hilt, then breaks slightly towards the point and arches downwards in a gentle curve. L: 16.5-12.2 (blade); 4.3 (hilt); Th: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.136.5 (Figs. 7.5; 89.3).

clay, medium tempered with micaceous sand. H: 4; Rd: 19; Bd: 13; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.138.2 (Figs. 8.6; 80.3). 5. Small storage vase (No. 4): intact. Slightly concave base, ovoid body narrowing downwards. Flat shoulder, narrowing considerably at the neck, its upper part is decorated with horizontal incised lines. Short neck with upright rounded rim. DTCW, grey, greyish-brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. The calcined bones were partially found inside this vase. H: 11; Rd: 6; Bd: 4.5; Wi: 12; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.138.3 (Figs. 8.3; 78.2).

Grave 3 (124 / 138; BI-17; Figs. 8.1-2) Cremation in a ceramic urn, which was deposited in the area of a pyre built above a pit. N-S (346°) oriented, elongated, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners more pronounced at its northern end than at its southern one, L: 182; Wi: 50; De: 43. The limits of the structure were observed as burnt red stripes. Next to the 3-5 cm thick burnt dauby edge, it can be well observed that the base of the pyre extended over the edges of the pit. This was indicated by a light greyish, at times reddish burnt alteration. A jug (No. 1; Cat. 1) and a small storage vase (No. 4; Cat. 5) containing a part of the calcined bones, were placed along the axis of the grave pit; and a plate (Nos. 2-3; Cat. 4) lay in the south-western corner. The fill of the grave surrounding the finds contained a lot of charcoal and ash. The remains of a larger piece of wood (L: 51; Wi: 5-12 cm) lay at the bottom of the grave pit. A few larger sized calcined bones were recovered from the fill of the grave. Anthropological analysis: 310 g of greyish-white, grey and coal-black calcined bones of a 25-50 year-old man. Secondary grave good: 1, 4-5. Residual (?): 2. Residual: 3. Dating: 80-200, most probably 80-125.

Grave 4 (191 / 208; BJ-05; Figs. 9-10) Primary cremation. Pyre built into ditch, which had gained the status of a burial according to the secondary grave goods. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31; Fülöp et al. 2010. N-S (343°) oriented, rectangular grave pit, L: 311; Wi: 250; De: 80. The grave appeared as a light brown filled, rectangular structure. Its edges were indicated by a strip of daub thoroughly burnt through. Its fill turned ashy at a depth of 50 cm. The large pieces of calcined bones were found in a 6-10 cm thick, 83×35 cm stratum oriented NW-SE, in the centre of the grave. The 38 grave goods were piled on top of it. They consisted of a large jar (No. 1; Cat. 17), two smaller jars (Nos. 14, 17; Cats. 18-19), three small storage vases (Nos. 3-4, 8; Cats. 22-24), three Samian plates (Nos. 5, 18-19; Cats. 1-3), three smaller Samian bowls (Nos. 2, 15, 21; Cats. 4-6), a thin-walled cup (No. 9; Cat. 9), a lamp (No. 20; Cat. 10), two plates and a lid (Nos. 13, 16; Cats. 7-8, 28), three jugs (Nos. 6-7, 36; Cats. 11-13), seven glass balsamaria (Nos. 10-11, 28-30, 35; Cats. 32-37), a burnt and deformed bronze amphora (Nos. 12, 26; Cat. 40), the suspension loops and a broken handle of a bucket (Nos. 24, 33, 37; Cat. 41), two bronze rings (Nos. 32, 38; Cats. 42-43), a bronze coin (No. 31; Cat. 44), two iron (No. 25; Cats. 4748) and one bronze strap-holder (No. 23; Cat. 46), an iron knife (No. 34; Cat. 45) and eleven iron nails (two indicated as Nos. 22 and 27 on the grave drawing; Cats. 49-59). There was food offering on one of the Samian plates (No. 18; Cat. 2): the rump with wings of a domestic hen (Gallus domesticus). Anthropological analysis: 1540 g of chalk-white, greyishwhite and greyish-blue calcined bones from two individuals, a 30-40 year-old man and a 20-30 year-old woman. Primary grave good: 8, 15-16, 20, 25, 29-31, 37-38, 40, 49-59. Primary grave good (?): 41-43, 45-48. Primary or secondary grave good: 60. Secondary grave good: 1-7, 9-13, 17-19, 21-24, 32-36, 61. Residual: 14, 26-28, 39, 44. Possibly the fragments of the knife’s sheath: 42-43, 46-47. Dating: 80 / 81-120.

Finds 1. Jug (No. 1): intact. Ring foot with conical sides, a profiled rim juts out at its bottom. Ovoid body with tall shoulder. The cylindrical neck joins with a slight break. A tripartite strap handle breaking in almost a right angle starts from the shoulder up to the upper part of the neck. Round spout with slightly upward curving rounded rim. LTCW, yellow clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 24; Rd: 6; Handle Wi: 3; Bd: 7; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.138.1 (Figs. 8.5; 79.2). 2. Jar, rim and shoulder fragments: outcurving rim with triangular section; the short neck is decorated with horizontal parallel lines. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.2; Rec Rd: 14; Wi: 13; Wth: 0.5; Id. nos.: 48.38574.138.4-7 (Fig. 8.4). 3. Jar, body sherds: LTCW. Reddish-brown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 2; Wi: 3.3; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.138.8. 4. Plate (Nos. 2 and 3): glued from several sherds, with smaller missing fragments. Flat bottom and body with steeply curving side, the diameter is slightly narrowing at the rounded rim. LTCW, reddish-brown

Finds 1. Samian plate with vertical rim (No. 5): applied motifs below the rim: between two leaves (L: 1.9) a garland (L: 3.5) – dolphin left (L: 2) – mask (H: 41

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 1.2) – dolphin left. Glued from several sherds, with minor missing fragments. Potter’s stamp inside at the centre: L°M°V° (in planta pedis), surrounding it are two lathe-turned circles and a rouletted ornament within a double circle. The dolphinshaped applications were made in two different moulds, while the rest of the ornaments were cast from a single mould each. Soft clay fired to a light yellow colour. Red, orange-red glaze, shiny in some parts and completely worn off here and there. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 20.4.4. The potter’s stamp is not listed either in the 2nd publication of the CVArr, nor in the collection of Dénes Gabler.436 Thinner dolphin: Gabler 2003, Fig. 3. 5. Leaf motif and garland: Gabler 2003, Fig. 4. 4. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 3): on the outside of the ring foot, on the bottom of the vase: I TIIRATIS or I (?) Curantis; incised sign (perhaps damage?) on the outside of the ring foot, on the bottom of the vase: I (with lower footbar extending to the left) or S. H: 3.9; Rd: 17.6-17.8; Fd: 9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.3 (Figs. 11.3; 12.3; 67). 2. Samianplatewithverticalrim(No.18):gluedfromseveral sherds, with minor missing fragments. Applied motifs below the rim repeated two times: between two leaves (L: 2) a garland (L: 3) – rosette (Diam: 1.1) – pine cone (H: 1.9) – rosette (2 times). Potter’s stamp inside at the centre: C°T°S (in planta pedis); the mark is incomplete due to the damageof theupper rightedgeof thedie; around the stamp a rouletted ornament within a double circle. A single mould was used for each type of the applied motifs. Clay fired to a light brown colour. Dark red glaze, at times worn and splintering. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric D. Form: Consp. 20.4.4. Probably, the earlier phase of the same die can be seen on a plate found at Szombathely: Gabler 1973, Abb. 5. 23. Type of garland: Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 48. G6. Rosette type: Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 57. R46. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 1): inside the ring foot, on the bottom of the vase: I M D or A M D; outside the ring foot, on the bottom of the vase: C and X (the latter perhaps a defect?). The food offering was placed into the grave on this plate. H: 4; Rd: 17.2; Bd: 9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.2 (Figs. 11.2; 12.2; 68). 3. Samian plate with vertical rim (No. 19): glued from several sherds, with minor missing fragments. Applied motifs under the rim: between two leaves (L: 3) a garland (L: 3) – mask (H: 1) – rosette (Diam: 1.1) – mask (H: 1). Potter’s stamp inside at the centre: C °T°Su (in planta pedis); surrounded by a rouletted ornament within a double circle. The

436

4.

5.

6.

7.

Gabler 2003, Fig. 1.

42

applications were made in one mould according to each type. Clay fired to a light brown. Dark red glaze, worn and splintering here and there. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric D. Form: Consp. 20.4.4. Potter’s stamp: Gabler 2000, Abb. 9. 14. Incised inscription: inside the ring foot, radially (Inscriptions No. 3): M O H or M D I; exterior of the ring foot on the bottom: X. H: 4.7; Rd: 17.7; Fd: 9.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.1 (Figs. 11.1; 12.1; 69). Small bowl with drooping rim (No. 2): glued from several fragments, with smaller reconstructions. Lathe-turned foot; lathe-worked lines on the two edges of the rim; otherwise undecorated. Light yellow clay, fired soft, porose. Orange-red glaze, shiny in patches, at times completely worn off. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Very poor quality. Form: Consp.43. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 4): on the side of the vase, on its top: M D I (retrograde D). H: 4.1; Rd:13.9-14; Bd: 5.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.5 (Figs. 13.2; 71.3-4). Small bowl with drooping rim (No. 15): glued from several fragments, with smaller reconstructions. Lathe-turned foot; lathe-worked lines on the two edges of the rim; otherwise undecorated. Light yellow clay, fired soft, porose. Orange-red glaze, shiny in patches, at times completely worn off. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Very poor quality. Form: Consp.43. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 6): on the outside of the body, on its top (?): I D [-] (or [M] D I – retrograde D). H: 4.5; Rd:14.8; Bd: 5.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.4 (Figs. 13.1; 71.1-2). Small bowl with drooping rim (No. 21): glued from several fragments, with smaller reconstructions. Lathe-turned foot; lathe-worked lines on the two edges of the rim; otherwise undecorated. Light yellow clay, fired soft, porose. Red, orange-red glaze, shiny in patches, at times completely worn off. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Very poor quality. Form: Consp.43. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 7): on the outside of the body: D. H: 2.9; Rd: 9.2; Bd: 3.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.6 (Figs. 13.3; 711.5-6). Small bowl with drooping rim (No. 13 / A): orangered, well-levigated clay; fired porous, extremely crumbled, poorly preserved. Incised inscription (Inscriptions No. 5): on the outside of the body, on its top: M D. H: 4.6; Rd: 18.6; Bd: 7.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.18 (Figs. 13.4; 80.8, 8a).

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds 8. Small bowl with everted rim (No. 13 / B): glued from several fragments. Low foot; wide, flat body; outcurving everted rim thickening towards the edges. The outward edge of the rim is only slightly curving, almost straight. LTCW. Orange-red, welllevigated clay, fired porous, extremely crumbled. Secondarily burnt. H: 3.8; Rd: 17.3; Fd: 6.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.19 (Figs. 13.6; 80.7). 9. Barbotine decorated thin-walled cup without handle (No. 9): intact. Low ring foot, slightly concave at its base. Deep, globular body with curving wall; curved rim, everting in a sharp angle. Barbotine decoration on the upper third of the body: horizontally placed berries hanging on curved vines, with alternating arches on the top and bottom. In order to avoid a motif hiatus the lower arch of a vine is repeated. H: 5.5; Rd: 8.9; Fd: 3.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.7 (Figs. 13.5; 73.3). 10. Factory lamp (No. 20): intact. Its oil container is round, its nozzle elongated and rounded. The discus ring is reticulated and the discus continues in the narrow channel within the neck of the lamp, which narrows in the direction of the wick and terminates following the edge of the wick hole. It has a single air-hole. Potter’s mark surrounded by double concentric circles on its bottom: CHRYSANˆTH. Based on the burnt marks around the wick hole, it had been used. Brick-coloured clay. H: 3; L: 10.5; Wi: 7.1; Discus ring Diam: 4.5; Bd: 4.4; Wth: 0.20.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.8 (Figs. 13.7; 82.1). 11. Jug (No. 36): glued from several fragments. Low ring foot, slightly concave at its base; globular body, slightly elongated towards the neck and the bottom; short cylindrical neck. The round spout widens towards its upper end; its almost vertical rim separates from the neck at a right angle, and its upper end is rounded. A tripartite strap handle breaking at a right angle runs up from the lower section of the neck and attaches to its middle part. LTCW, orange-red, well-levigated clay. H: 22.8; Rd: 6.1; Handle Th: 1.2; Handle Wi: 2.4; Bd: 7; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.9 (Figs. 15.2; 79.4). 12. Jug (No. 6): glued from several fragments. Low, slightly conical ring foot; elongated, ovoid body; high shoulder with neck narrowing at the middle. Its spout is round with a slightly curved rim, and is articulated by three horizontal ribs. The tripartite strap handle curving backward from the lower part of the shoulder runs up and connects to the upper section of the neck, directly below the spout. LTCW, finely levigated yellow clay. H: 24; Rd: 6.8; Handle Th: 1.2; Handle Wi: 2.1; Fd: 8.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.11 (Figs. 15.1; 79.5). 13. Jug (No. 7): glued from several fragments. Low ring foot; the middle of the base juts out. Conical body with curving wall; wide, flat shoulder. Tall neck narrowing towards the top, with a round spout. Curving, everted rim. A bipartite strap handle curving back from the edge of the shoulder runs upwards and joins the centre of the neck. LTCW.

14. 15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

43

Cream yellow coloured clay slightly tempered with sand. H: 19.5; Rd: 5.6; Handle Th: 1; Handle Wi: 2.5; Bd: 7.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.10 (Figs. 15.3; 79.7). Jug, body sherds: red paint on their exterior surfaces. PW, orange-red clay, finely levigated. H: 5.5; Wi: 6; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.26. Jug, partially joining fragments from the body: PW, yellowish-brown clay, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt, with traces of red paint. H: 3; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.3-0.5; Id. nos.: 48.38574.208.30-32 and 34. Jug, fragment of the ring foot: LTCW, yellow clay, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 1.6; Wi: 4.5; Rec Fd: 7; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.37. Jar (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Flat base; its body is extremely narrowed towards the bottom; short, steep shoulder, with three horizontally incised lines on its upper section. Neck short, almost vertical. Curving, everted rim thickens at its upper and lower edges. DTCW, grey clay, tempered with rough sand. H: 28.4; Rd: 21.7; Bd: 11; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.12 (Figs. 14.1; 76.3). Jar (No. 14): glued from several fragments. Its base is flat; its body narrows downwards with a steep wall. High shoulder; short neck; outward turning rim with flat sides and rounded edge. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 14.3; Rd: 10; Bd: 6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.14 (Figs. 14.3; 75.5). Jar (No. 17): glued from several fragments. Its base is flat; its body narrows downwards with a steep wall. High shoulder; short neck; the curving, everted rim thickens at its upper and lower edges. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 14.9; Rd: 11.9; Bd: 6.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.13 (Figs. 14.5; 75.6). Small storage vase, partly joining fragments: outward turning rim with rounded edges. Traces of red paint on its exterior. The body is decorated with horizontal lines of rouletted (Rädchenverzierung) patterns, from which the remains of five lines have survived. PW, well-levigated greyish-brown clay, secondarily burnt. H: 6.7; Wi: 7.3; Rec Rd: 12; Wth: 0.3; Id. nos.: 48.38574.208.21, 25, 48.38574.208.2728, and 36 (Fig. 14.4). Jar, sherds: rounded rim fragments with sections of the body. DTCW, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.7; Wi: 6; Rec Rd: 15; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.38. Small storage vase (No. 8): intact. Its bottom is flat; its body slightly biconical; its short neck is decorated by two horizontal, fine incisions. Short, oblique rim with almost horizontal edges and a small groove on its interior for the lid. There are traces of a black substance on the rim. LTCW, clay fired to greyishyellow, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 10.1; Rd: 7.8; Bd: 4.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.17 (Figs. 14.8; 77.6).

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 23. Small storage vase (No. 4): glued from several fragments. Its bottom is flat; its body slightly biconical; its short neck is decorated by two horizontal, fine incisions. Its short rim is oblique, with rounded edges. There are traces of a black substance on the rim. LTCW, clay fired to a patchy greyish-yellow, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9.4; Rd: 7.6; Bd: 4.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.15 (Figs. 14.6; 77.4). 24. Small storage vase (No. 3): glued from several fragments. Its bottom is narrow and flat. Its ovoid body is elongated, narrowing downwards; its short neck is decorated by two horizontal, fine incisions. Its short rim is oblique, with rounded edges; its edges are slightly swollen at the top and bottom. There are traces of a black substance on the rim. LTCW, clay fired to a patchy greyish-yellow, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9.8; Rd: 8.5; Bd: 4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.16 (Figs. 14.7; 77.5). 25. Small storage vase, rim sherd: oblique and slightly rounded. LTCW, well-levigated; secondarily burnt. H: 1; Wi: 3.7; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.22. 26. Small storage vase, body fragment: DTCW, greyishbrown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 3.8; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.29. 27. Small storage vase, body fragment: LTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.33. 28. Lid (No. 16): glued from several fragments. Flat, conical knob handle; tall and curved, concave walled lid, with thinning rim. DTCW, g rey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.3; Diam: 13.7; Knob Diam: 2.6-3.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.20 (Figs. 14.2; 76.6). 29. Ceramic vase, body fragment: LTCW. Welllevigated; secondarily burnt. H: 4.5; Wi: 2.5; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.23. 30. Ceramic vase, body fragment: LTCW. Welllevigated; secondarily burnt. H: 3.2; Wi: 1.2; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.24. 31. Ceramic vase, body fragment: DTCW. Grey clay, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.35. 32. Glass balsamarium (No. 11): intact. The elongated, bag-shaped body with an almost straight wall narrows towards the neck. The long, cylindrical neck becomes thinner towards the top. Rounded, funnel-like spout. Transparent, light blue glass, with lots of large and small air bubbles. H: 8.8; Rd: 1.9; Bd: 1.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.40 (Figs. 15.5; 92.6). 33. Glass balsamarium (No. 10) fragment: the upper part of the neck and the spout are missing. The elongated, bag-shaped body with an almost straight wall narrows towards the neck. The long, cylindrical neck becomes thinner towards the top. Transparent, light blue glass, with lots of large and small air bubbles. H: 7.3; Bd: 1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.42 (Figs. 15.7; 92.8).

34. Glass balsamarium (No. 29): intact. The elongated, bag-shaped body with an almost straight wall narrows towards the neck. The long, cylindrical neck becomes thinner towards the top; its diameter is slightly larger than the diameter of the body where the neck joins it. Rounded, funnel-like spout. Transparent, light blue glass, with lots of large and small air bubbles. H: 9; Rd: 2.1; Bd: 1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.41 (Figs. 15.6; 92.7). 35. Glass balsamarium (No. 28): intact. Its bag-shaped body is elongated, becoming thin towards the top, with almost straight sides. The long, cylindrical neck becomes thinner towards the top. Transparent, light blue glass, with lots of large and small air bubbles. H: 11.1; Rd: 2; Bd: 1.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.39 (Figs. 15.4; 92.5). 36. Glass balsamarium (No. 30): upper half of the vase with the spout and most of the neck. Round, funnellike spout. The long, cylindrical neck becomes thinner towards the top. Transparent, light blue glass, with lots of large and small air bubbles. H: 8; Rd: 2.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.43 (Figs. 15.8; 92.9). 37. Glass balsamarium (No. 35), two unjoining, burnt and deformed fragments: from an elongated, baglike body that narrows towards the top, and from a cylindrical neck. Light blue glass, with lots of medium sized air bubbles. H: 4.4; Wi: 2.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.44 (Fig. 15.9). 38. Glass fragment: melted. Light blue glass, not transparent, with lots of tiny and medium sized air bubbles. H: 4.1; Wi: 1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.45. 39. Glass splinter: from a vase of unidentifiable form. White, transparent glass, with a few small and medium sized air bubbles. Id. no.: 48.38574.208.67. 40. Bronze amphora (Nos. 26 and 12): burnt and extremely deformed; one of its handles and some smaller fragments of the body are missing. Cast; its bottom was made lighter with a lathe, while the handles were attached by soldering. Flat, footless bottom with a point in its centre surrounded by eight concentric lathe-turned circles. The conical body narrows downwards; the shoulder is wide and curved. Tall, cylindrical neck; the round spout joins without a break. The outside of the rim is decorated by four horizontal ribs; the top of the rim is rounded off with a curve. Its handle has a square section, breaking at a right angle. Its exterior is decorated by a vertical incised line. H: 21.5; Wi: 12; Handle L: 7.8; Handle Th: 0.9. Wth: 0.1; We: 39.2 (No. 12) and 528 (No. 26); Id. no.: 48.38574.208.46 (Figs. 16.1a; 88.1). 41. Bronze attaches and handle (Nos. 24, 33 and 37): one of the loops is fragmentary; the handle is broken in half and deformed. The loop is arched; its once semi-ellipsoid body has a rectangular section at the centre that becomes round towards the extremities. The ends are turned back in a curve; its head passing through the loop is conical. One of the loops was in its original position on the handle. The other one, 44

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds

42.

43. 44.

45.

46.

47.

48. 49.

50. Iron nail: its spike has bent, otherwise intact. As Cat. 49. L: 4.7; Th: 0.4; Head Diam: 1.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.57 (Fig. 17.1). 51. Iron nail: flat head, the point has broken off. As Cat. 49. L: 3.2; Th: 0.3-0.4; Head Diam: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.56 (Fig. 17.2). 52. Iron nail: the point has broken off. Conical head, long spike with a rectangular section. L: 34.8; Th: 0.5-0.6; Head Diam: 1.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.59 (Fig. 17.4). 53. Iron nail: the point has broken off. As Cat. 52. L: 3.1; Th: 0.3-0.4; Head Diam: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.60 (Fig. 17.3). 54. Iron nail: the lower part of the spike with the point is missing. As Cat. 49. L: 2.5; Th: 0.4-0.5; Head Diam: 1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.61 (Fig. 17.6). 55. Iron nail: bent and its point has broken off. Round, flat head, relatively short spike with a square section. L: 1.9; Th: 0.2-0.3; Head Diam: 1.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.62 (Fig. 17.8). 56. Iron nail: intact. Round, flat head, short spike with a square section. L: 1.6; Th: 0.2-0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.63 (Fig. 17.10). 57. Iron nail: intact. As Cat. 56. L: 1.6; Th: 0.2-0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.64 (Fig. 17.9). 58. Iron nail: the head has broken off. As Cat. 56. L: 1.6; Th: 0.2-0.25; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.65 (Fig. 17.11). 59. Iron nail (No. 22): the head has broken off. As Cat. 49. L: 5.1; Th: 0.3-0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.58 (Fig. 17.7). 60. Bronze object, fragment: flat, lengthy, curving plate with a bronze rivet at one end. L: 2.3; Wi: 0.3; Th: 0.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.66 (Fig. 17.16). 61. The rump with wings of a domestic hen (Gallus domesticus).

which is identical both in form and size, had without doubt also belonged to the same bucket. This latter piece also included the rivet for fastening. The attachment loops consist of an originally round suspension piece that had deformed to a slightly drop-like shape during use, and three supporting extensions originating from it. The loops were attached to the bucket by a rivet each, which were driven through the hole found beneath the suspension loop. The two small fastening rivets could only have enabled the carrying of lighter loads. They were most probably the parts of a wooden bucket. The fragment of the handle with the loop: L: 7.4; Th: 0.3-0.4; Head Diam: 0.5; We: 8.2. No. 33, handle fragment: L: 12.7; Th: 0.2-0.4; Head Diam: 0.45; We: 9.74. No. 37, loop: L: 3.2; Wi: 1.4; Th: 0.25; We: 2.44; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.47 (Figs. 16.2a; 88.2). Bronze ring / band (No. 38): deformed, but otherwise intact. Thinning towards its two edges, the wire was bent to a circle, and its two ends with a round section were twisted spirally and bent onto the ring with a little overlap. Diam: 2.3; Wire Diam: 0.2; We: 1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.49 (Figs. 17.14; 87.10). Bronze ring (No. 32): as Cat. 42. Diam: 2.3; Wire Diam: 0.2-0.26; We: 1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.48 (Figs. 17.15; 87.9). Coin (No. 31): Obv: IMP T CAES VESP AVG PM TR P COS VIII. Emperor’s head with laurel wreath facing right, Rev: AEQVITAS AVGVST S – C. Aequitas stands to the left, scales on the right, holding a sceptrum in left hand. As, dating: 80-81 (minted for Titus), mint: Rome. Diam: 2.8; We: 10.26; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.50 (Figs. 17.18; 86.1). Iron knife (No. 34): its point and the end of the tang are missing. A tiny fragment of a plate made of a cupreous alloy had corroded onto the surface of the object where the tang meets the blade. The blade has a straight spine, it becomes narrower towards its point. L: 11.6-9 (blade); 2.6 (hilt); Th: 0.5-0.6; Wi: 1.2-2.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.54 (Figs. 17.19; 89.7). Bronze clasp / strap-holder (No. 23): fragmentary, deformed. Cut from a thin plate and bent. L:1.2, Th: 0.05, Wi: 0.2; We: 0.14; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.51 (Fig. 17.17). Iron clasp / strap-holder: slightly deformed, but otherwise intact. Becoming pointed towards the ends, its section is rectangular at its widest part; cut from a thin plate and bent. L: 2.2; Th: 0.2; Wi: 0.50.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.53 (Fig. 17.12). Iron clasp / strap-holder (No. 25): as Cat. 47. L: 2.6; Th: 0.15; Wi: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.52 (Fig. 17.13). Iron nail (No. 27): its point has broken off. Round, flat head, long spike with a rectangular section. L: 3.9; Th: 0.3-0.4; Head Diam: 1.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.208.55 (Fig. 17.5).

Grave 5 (99 / 112; BI-17; Fig. 18) Secondary cremation. E-W (262°) oriented, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 142; Wi: 96; De: 24. Burnt bones appeared on the surface of the light brown fill of the structure. The majority of the calcined remains had been placed in the NW corner of the grave. A thin-walled cup (No. 1; Cat. 2) and 20 glass beads (Nos. 2-5, 8-22; Cats. 4-9, 1427), probably in an organic container (bag?), were placed at the centre of the bottom of the grave. The mixture of the calcined bones and the pyre remains had been scattered around these. Several iron nails (Nos. 6-7) also came to light within the grave fill. Among the human remains, the bones of a domestic pig (Sus domesticus) and of a more precisely undeterminable small ungulate (small-bodied Ungulata) were found. The area belonging to the grave was surrounded by the square Enclosure ditch 99 / 110. Anthropological analysis: 408 g of greyish-white, greyishblue, sandy-yellow coloured calcined bones of a 20-30 year-old woman (?).

45

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 13. Glass: small, undeterminable fragments (4 pcs); white, transparent glass, with a few small air bubbles. Wi: 1.3-2; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.23. 14. Glass bead (No. 14): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.24 (Figs. 20.7; 87.1). 15. Glass bead (No. 21): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.25 (Figs. 20.8; 87.1). 16. Glass bead (No. 22): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.6×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.26 (Figs. 20.9; 87.1). 17. Glass bead (No. 20): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.27 (Figs. 20.10; 87.1). 18. Glass bead (No. 19): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.5×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.28 (Figs. 20.11; 87.1). 19. Glass bead (No. 18): intact, badly preserved. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.3×1.3×1.1; Hole Diam: 1.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.29 (Figs. 20.12; 87.1). 20. Glass bead (No. 17): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.30 (Figs. 20.13; 87.1). 21. Glass bead (No. 16): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.3×1.2×0.9; Hole Diam: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.31 (Figs. 20.14; 87.1). 22. Glass bead (No. 15): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.32 (Figs. 20.15; 87.1). 23. Glass bead (No. 13): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.4×1.4×1; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.33 (Figs. 20.16; 87.1). 24. Glass bead (No. 12): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.4×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.34 (Figs. 20.17; 87.1). 25. Glass bead (No. 11): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.35 (Figs. 20.18; 87.1). 26. Glass bead (No. 10): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.5×1.5×1.4; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.36 (Figs. 20.19; 87.1). 27. Glass bead (No. 9): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.5×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.37 (Figs. 20.20; 87.1). 28. Glass vessels, melted fragments (2 pcs): bluishgreen, melted glass fragments with a bubbly structure probably belonging to two (?) small, bagshaped perfume flasks (balsamaria). H: 4; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.38 (Figs. 19.4-5). 29. Glass fragments (3 smaller splinters): the object type cannot be determined more precisely; white, transparent glass, with a few smaller air bubbles. Wi: 0.6-1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.39. 30. Bronze finger-ring: intact. Burnt; the gemstone had cracked and discoloured to white. As a consequence of the heat that the ring was exposed to, the material of the gem is unidentifiable to the naked eye. The oval sectioned band widens towards the bezel. It is

Primary grave good: 28, 30-40. Secondary grave good: 2, 4-9, 14-27. Secondary grave good or perhaps residual: 4142. Residual (?): 3. Residual: 1, 10-13, 29. Dating: 80-150. Finds 1. Samian plate with vertical rim, fragment of the body with start of rim: from a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Form: Consp. 20.4 (?). H: 1.5; L: 3.2; Bd: 18; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.2 (Figs. 19.3; 72.2). 2. Thin-walled cup (No. 1): intact. Grey clay; a slightly shiny black slip covers its surface. Low, flat ring foot with a deep, conical body slightly narrowing towards the top. The body is articulated by three profiles on the upper two-thirds of the body; with barbotine decoration between the upper two lines: stylized tendril motifs interchanging with a row of vertical lines constantly growing shorter towards the next pattern. The almost vertical shoulder is separated with a sharp profile from the body and the rounded, vertical rim. H: 7; Rd: 7; Bd: 4; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.1 (Figs. 19.1; 73.1). 3. Small storage vase, rim sherds and disjoining wall sherds: tall, curving everted and rounded rim; globular body; with a horizontal incised line. DTCW, brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Wi: 5×6.2; Rd: 10; Wth: 0.3; Id. nos.: 48.38574.112.3-4 (Fig. 19.2). 4. Glass bead: intact. Flattened at the top and bottom, ribbed, with a globular body; its hole at the centre has an axis following the direction of the ribs. Blue glass. Meas: 1×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.14 (Figs. 20.1; 87.1-2). 5. Glass bead (No. 5), fragment: as Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1×0,6; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.15 (Figs. 20.2; 87.1). 6. Glass bead (No. 4): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.8×1.6×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.16 (Figs. 20.3; 87.1). 7. Glass bead (No. 8): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.6×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.17 (Figs. 20.4; 87.1). 8. Glass bead (No. 3): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.5×1.2; Hole Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.18 (Figs. 20.5; 87.1). 9. Glass bead (No. 2): intact. As Cat. 4. Meas: 1.6×1.4×1.3; Hole Diam: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.19 (Figs. 20.6; 87.1). 10. Glass: small, undeterminable fragment without air bubbles. Wi: 1.7×0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.20. 11. Glass: small fragments (4 pcs). Two with a decoration of parallel, thin engraved lines; white, transparent glass, without air bubbles. Wi: 0.8-1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.21. 12. Glass: small fragments (3 pcs). One has a decoration of parallel, thin incised lines; white, transparent glass, without air bubbles. Wi: 1-1.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.22. 46

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds

31.

32.

33.

34.

35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

41. 42.

Roman sherds and the bones of a large ungulate (largebodied Ungulata). Measurements of the ditch: L: 21.5; Wi: 1; De: 0.5 m.

oval with an elongated oval-shaped gem in it, which depicts an eagle with closed wings turning its head back and facing right. Diam: 2; Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.40 (Figs. 21.10; 87.8). Iron nails (2 pcs): both pieces are intact; one is bent. Flat, round head with a long, square sectioned spike. L: 2.5 and 3; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.7 and 0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.5 (Figs. 21.1-2). Iron nail / hook (No. 6): intact or its head has broken off. Its long, square sectioned spike is bent at a right angle on the opposite side to its point. L: 5.3; Th:0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.6 (Fig. 21.3). Iron nail (No. 7): broken into two. Flat, round head with a square sectioned spike. L: 1.5 and 2; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.6×0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.7 (Fig. 21.4). Iron nail, fragmentary: most of the spike is missing. Flat, once probably round head with a rectangular sectioned spike. L: 1; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.7×0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.8 (Fig. 21.6). Iron nail, fragmentary: with flattened head; most of the spike is missing. As Cat. 34. L: 0.7; Th: 0.4; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.9. Iron nail, fragmentary: most of the spike is missing. As Cat. 34. L: 1.7; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.10 (Fig. 21.5). Iron nail, fragmentary: flattened head with spike missing. L: 1.1; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.11 (Fig. 21.7). Iron nail, fragmentary: most of the spike is missing. As Cat. 34. L: 0.8; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.12 (Fig. 21.8). Iron nail, fragmentary: most of the spike is missing. As Cat. 34. L: 0.9; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.13 (Fig. 21.9). Bone bead (?): intact, burnt (?), white. Heavily compressed, globular-shaped, with a thin perforation. Meas: 0.5×0.7×0.8; We: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.112.41 (Figs. 20.21; 87.3). Domestic pig (Sus domesticus): bone-in spare rib, forequarter hock, and foot. Small-bodied ungulate (Ungulata), probably a young pig: head and spare ribs.

Finds 1. Jug, body fragment: LTCW. The clay is badly fired to orange-red, medium tempered with sand. H: 4; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.4. 2. Jar, sherd: fragment from a triangular sectioned rim. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 2.5; Wi: 3; Rim Th: 2; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.1 (Fig. 21.14). 3. Beaker (?), body fragment: with the detail of a rouletted pattern (Rädchenverzierung) arranged into horizontal lines. LTCW, orange-red clay, well-levigated. H: 3.2; Wi: 2.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.2 (Fig. 21.15). 4. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to a reddish hue on its exterior, and grey on its interior. Medium tempered with rough sand. Decorated with rough combing. H: 3; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.3. 5. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 6.5; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.5. 6. Storage vase, body fragment: handmade, clay fired to orange-red, medium tempered with tiny pebbles. Decorated with finger impressions. Bronze Age residual find in the Roman feature. H: 4.5; Wi: 4; Wth: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.7. 7. Storage vase, body fragment: handmade. Fired to brown on its exterior and brownish-grey on its interior, medium tempered with tiny pebbles. Decorated with finger impressions. Bronze Age residual find in the Roman feature. H: 3.8; Wi: 4.2; Wth: 1.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.8. 8. Small bowl, body fragment: LTCW. Orange-red clay, medium tempered with sand, badly fired. H: 2.3; Wi: 1.8; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.110.6. 9. Bones of a large ungulate (Ungulata). Grave 6 (101 /114; BI-12; Fig. 22) Secondary cremation. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31. N-S (10°) oriented, square grave pit with rounded corners, L: 125; Wi: 120; De: 25. There were pottery sherds, calcined bones and charcoal on the surface of the light brown structure. Broken pottery sherds appeared in the upper 15 cm stratum, some of them secondarily burnt. Its fill was mixed with a large amount of bigger charcoal fragments. A grey jar (No. 3) and a small storage vase (No. 2; Cat. 7) were placed at the centre of the grave. Sherds from other ceramic grave goods were scattered around them. A glass balsamarium (No. 1; Cat. 8) appeared at the bottom of its western part. When clearing the bottom of the grave pit, an iron ring (No. 4; Cat. 4) and an iron nail (No. 5; Cat. 10) were found.

Enclosure ditch 99 / 110 (BI-12, BI-17; Figs. 21.11-13) It appeared as a black filled, square-shaped structure oriented N-S with an opening on its southern side. The ditch encircles a 6×6.8 m area, with Grave 5 at its centre. Its western part is in superposition with Enclosure ditch 98 /108, while its eastern ditch superposes Enclosure ditch 101 /113. It forms a U-shaped profile with Enclosure ditch 98 /108 where the two meet. Their joint section formed with Enclosure ditch 101 /113 clearly indicates that Ditch 101 /113 is younger. Two more superpositions could be observed and documented within it: Pit 98 /109 was cut into the centre of its western ditch section, while Grave 30 was dug into the western end of its northern ditch. This implies that it had already filled up when Grave 30 had been dug, or the ditch had been covered over. Its fill contained a few 47

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) The area belonging to the grave was surrounded by Enclosure ditch 101 /113. Among the calcined human remains, bones of a precisely undefinable animal, a sheep or goat (Caprinae) were found. Anthropological analysis: 66 g of tiny and medium sized, greyish-white, sandy-yellow and grey calcined bones of a child (Infans-x years). Primary grave good: 3, 9-12. Secondary grave good: 1, 4, 6-8. Secondary grave good or perhaps residual: 13. Residual: 2, 5, 14. Dating: 70-100 /120.

7.

8.

Finds 1. Samian plate with vertical rim, partially joining fragments: soft, yellow clay; red, orangey-red glaze becoming thin here and there. A lathe-worked line is on the interior of the rim. Inside at its centre two lathe-turned circles surround a rouletted ornament; a lathe-turned circle runs towards the rim. There are applied motifs under the rim: double leaf, dolphin facing right, hare (?) twice. On another sherd a double leaf made from a different mould; on yet another one we find a dolphin facing right also made from a different mould. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 20.4.4. Dolphin type: Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 44. D10 (but not from the same mould); hare’s type: similar, but not identical to: Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 61. T16. H: 4.2; Rd: 18; Bd: 10; Wth: 0.40.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.4 (Figs. 24.1; 70). 2. Jug, rim sherd: LTCW. Orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 2.5; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.6; Rec Rd: 6; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.7. 3. Jar, rim and body fragment: globular bodied with detail of grooved decoration arranged into a horizontal line. There is a rib under the thick, broadening rim. Slightly inverted rim; its top horizontal; its side rounded. The wall of the body was pierced through after firing. LTCW, orange-red clay, well tempered with sand, secondarily burnt. Rd: 15; Wi: 7×5.7; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.5 (Fig. 23.3). 4. Jar (No. 3): glued from several fragments. Flat base, tall body narrowing downwards with curving wall. Tall shoulder; short neck widening towards the rim with a horizontal rib on it. Wide outcurving rim with a triangular section; its upper surface is curved with the remains of a black substance. LTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 7; Wi: 6.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. nos.: 48.38574.114.6 and 13 (Figs. 23.1; 76.1). 5. Small bowl, body fragment: red paint on its exterior. PW, yellow clay, slightly tempered with fine sand. H: 1; Wi: 1; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.1. 6. Small bowl: glued from several fragments. Low ring foot with vertical sides; wide, flat body with curving sides; strongly everted, outcurving rim. LTCW,

9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14.

yellow clay, well-levigated. H: 4.8; Rd: 12; Bd: 4.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.2 (Figs. 24.2; 80.6). Small storage vase (No. 2): glued. Narrow, flat base. Ovoid body narrowing strongly downwards; tall shoulder with short neck. Bevelled lip, bulging on its lower and upper sides. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 8; Rd: 6.2; Bd: 3.2; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.3 (Figs. 23.2; 77.1). Glass balsamarium (No. 1): intact. Rounded bottom; bag-shaped body with straight wall; the long cylindrical neck widens towards its lip. Round spout with swollen and rounded lip. Bluishtransparent glass, with a few small and medium air bubbles. H: 9.3; Rd: 1.5; Neck L: 6.5; Bd: 3; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.12 (Figs. 23.4; 92.1). Bronze ring (No. 4): intact. Round section, with a tiny fragment of an iron plate. Diam: 2.2; Th: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.10 (Fig. 23.5). Iron nail (No. 5): intact. Flat, round head; long spike with a square section. L: 5.5; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.8 (Fig. 23.6). Iron nail: its point is broken off. As Cat. 10. L: 4; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1 and 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.9 (Fig. 23.7). Iron nails (2 pcs): fragment with flat head and square section; fragment of a spike with a square section. L: 4.2; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1 and 1.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.114.11 (Figs. 23.8-10). Sheep / goat (Caprinae) bones: from one or more specimens: parts of the shoulder and the foreleg. Small ungulate (Ungulata) flat bone fragment.

Enclosure ditch 101 /113 (BI-12-13, BI-17-18; Figs. 21. 12; 25.1-2) The ditch appeared as a black filled circular structure oriented N-S, with an opening at its southern side. The ditch surrounds an area with a diameter of 7.8 m, and Grave 6 in its centre. Its western part is superposed by Enclosure ditch 99 /110. Their joint section clearly shows that this latter one is the younger. Its fill is hard and compact. Only the top 20 cm contained a few Roman ceramics, including two Samian sherds, as well as the burnt bones of a domestic pig (Sus domesticus) and the very badly preserved remains of a horse (Equus caballus). Measurements of the ditch: L: 23; Wi: 1; De: 0.5 m. Finds 1. Samian plate with vertical rim, rim sherd: soft, pale yellow clay; slightly shiny red, orangey-red glaze that has fired to brownish at some parts. Applied motif under the rim: female (?) mask, with a triple rosetted diadem in the coiffure. A thin profiled line on the interior of the rim. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 20.4. Secondarily burnt. The mask motif is similar to, perhaps identical with the appliqué used 48

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

by the L.M.V. Group (Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 51. 12.). H: 1.3; Wi: 5.1; Rd: 18; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.1 (Figs. 26.3; 72.1). Hemispherical Samian cup with short vertical rim and pronounced flange on the wall, body fragment: with part of the body below the rim and the flange. Greyish-white soft clay. The light red glaze is shiny in tiny specks, but mostly lustreless, fired brown here and there. Part of an appliqué decoration (dog; H: 0.8; L: 1) above the flange. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 34. Secondarily burnt. Probably belongs to the sherd with Id. no. 48.38574.113.13. If the two sherds belong to the same vase, it was made by the potter using the potter’s stamp Q(.) S(.) P(.) as a signature. The appliqué motif is probably identical with: Schindler Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 61. T 5. H: 3.5; Wi: 3.4. Wth: 0.4-0.8; Dating: Flavian. Id. no.: 48.38574.113.2 (Figs. 26.1; 72.3). Hemispherical Samian cup with short vertical rim and pronounced flange on the wall, bottom fragment. Greyish-white soft clay. The light red glaze is shiny in tiny specks, but mostly lustreless, fired brown here and there. Broken stamp: Q(.) S(.) P(.) [- (in planta pedis (?)] at the centre of the interior. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 34. Secondarily burnt. Probably belongs to the sherd with Id. no. 48.38574.113.2. Perhaps the same stamp: CVArr, No. 1765. 4, 376. Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.13 (Figs. 26.1; 72.4). Samian plate with vertical rim, fragment: soft grey clay; traces of an orangey-red glaze on its surface. Body fragment with the start of the ring foot and the rim. One thin profiled line on the exterior below the rim, and three others on the interior towards the middle. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Form: Consp. 20.4.2. Secondarily burnt. H: 4.6; Wi: 7.1. Bd: 18; Wth: 0.8; Dating: Claudian-Vespasian / Titus period. Id. no.: 48.38574.113.3 (Fig. 26.2). Jug, bottom fragment: low ring foot, concave base, with the start of the wall of the body. LTCW, orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. Diam: 11; Wth: 0.8-1; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.12 (Fig. 25.4). Jar, fragment: the tall, almost vertical shoulder is decorated with horizontal burnished lines; the short neck is articulated by a profile; bevelled rim with a triangular section and a groove on its interior. LTCW, yellowish-grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9-10; Wi: 6; Rd: 22; Wth: 0.6-0.7; Id. nos.: 48.38574.113.4, 6 and 8 (Fig. 25.3). Jar, rim and body fragment: LTCW. Orange-red clay, slightly tempered with fine sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 4; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.5-0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.5.

49

8. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Greyish-brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.5; Wi: 4; Wth: 0.8; Id. nos.: 48.38574.113.7 and 10. 9. Jar, body fragment: LTCW. Red clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.9. 10. Jar, fragment: section of vase with flat base, steep wall, and widening body. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.5; Wi: 6.5; Bd: 14; Wth: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.113.11 (Fig. 25.5). 11. Pig (Sus domesticus): burnt bones from the lower half of the foreleg of an immature specimen. 12. Horse (Equus caballus): very badly preserved remains. Grave 7 (104 / 117; BI-13; Figs. 27.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were mixed with the pyre remains and scattered around the grave without any observable container (simple cremation?). E-W (91°) oriented, elongated trapezoid-shaped grave pit with rounded corners, L: 150; Wi: 70; De: 15. The finds had already begun to appear 5 cm deep during the excavation of the light grey fill of the rectangular structure: a plate (No. 1; Cat. 2) and a crushed red jug (No. 2; Cat. 1) were discovered in the eastern half of the grave. The scattered calcined remains were collected from all parts of the grave. Anthropological analysis: 220 g of tiny and medium sized fragments of greyish-white, grey and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed, 15-30 year-old individual. Primary grave good: 3-4. Secondary grave good: 1-2. Dating: 75-200. Finds 1. Jug (No. 2), glued from several partly joining fragments: the lower section of the body and the foot are missing. Elongated, ovoid body; tall shoulder; cylindrical neck; round spout with a profiled articulation. Slightly everted and rounded rim. A tripartite strap handle starts from the shoulder bent at a right angle and joins under the upper part of the neck below the spout. LTCW, yellow clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 15.5; Wi: 15; Rd: 6; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.117.2 (Fig. 27.4). 2. Plate (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Its horizontal bottom is without a ring foot; wide and flat body. Thick, almost horizontal rim, its upper surface rounded. LTCW, orange-red clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 2.8; Diam: 17; Rd: 16.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.117.1 (Figs. 27.5; 80.5). 3. Glass balsamarium, partly melted fragments (?): may have belonged to a cylindrical bodied balsamarium. Blue, transparent glass, with lots of small air bubbles. L: 1-2; Id. no.: 48.38574.117.4. 4. Iron nail: intact. Round, flat head; long spike with rectangular section. L: 4.3; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.117.3 (Fig. 27.3).

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Grave 8 (105 / 118; BI-13; Figs. 28.1-2)

Grave 9 (177 / 215; BJ-01; Figs. 29.1-2)

Secondary cremation (?). The calcined bones were mixed with the pyre remains and scattered around the grave without any observable container (simple cremation?). E-W (93°) oriented, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 90; Wi: 45; De: 9. Scattered remains of bone, charcoal and daub were lying on the surface of the black filled structure. The finds already appeared after the removal of a 5 cm layer. A cylindrical bone object (No. 1; Cat. 5) lay in the western part of the grave; while another fragment from the same object (No. 2; Cat. 5) was found in its northern section. A bronze fibula (No. 3; Cat. 4) was placed in the southern section of the grave. The calcined remains were collected from all parts of the grave. Anthropological analysis: 158 g of tiny and medium sized, greyish-white, brownish-blue, grey and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed adult (20-x years). Primary grave good: 1-2, 5. Secondary grave good: 4. Residual: 3. Dating: 140-180 / 200.

Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were mixed with the pyre remains and scattered (?) around the grave without any observable container (simple cremation?). We managed to save the material from the absolute bottom of a grave that had been completely destroyed by tilling. Oval-shaped, NE-SW (38°) oriented grave pit, L: 50; Wi: 35; De: 6. During scraping near Grave 20, south of it, the lower halves of two pots appeared (Nos. 1a, b; Cats. 1-2). Human calcined remains could be documented scattered about. There was nothing left from either the pit or its fill. Anthropological analysis: 12 g of extremely tiny and tiny fragments of chalk-white and greyish-white calcined bones of an unsexed, 3-5 year-old child. Due to the disturbance, the grave assemblage is probably only partially known. Secondary grave good: 1-2. Dating: 1/ 50-425. Finds 1. Jar (No. 1a), fragment: flat base with a part of the downward narrowing body, with slightly curving wall. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 10.5; Bd: 7.8; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.215.1 (Fig. 29.3). 2. Jar (No. 1b), fragment: flat bottom with a part of the body with widening, steep wall. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 14; Bd: 9; Wth: 0.3-0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.215.2 (Fig. 29.4).

Finds 1. Jug, body: LTCW. Reddish-brown clay, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 4; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.118.2. 2. Glass fragment: melted, from an unidentifiable object; white, transparent glass, with a medium amount of large air bubbles. L: 2; Wth: 0.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.118.4. 3. Glass balsamarium, fragment: fragment of the cylindrical neck; round spout with horizontally everted rim. White, transparent glass, with a large amount of small air bubbles. L: 1.8 and 2.2; Wth: 0.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.118.5 (Fig. 28.4). 4. Bronze fibula (No. 3): the catch-plate and pin are broken. 2×8 spiralled with external cord. Semicircular head, the bow widens towards the spring. A profiled disc is near the centre of the bow; its foot is decorated with a knob. Cast. L: 4; Wi: 3.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.118.3 (Figs. 28.5; 84.2). 5. Bone pyxis (Nos. 1 and 2 glued together) fragmentary: its bottom and lid are missing. Lathe-worked from the bone of a large ruminant (Ruminatia), adjusted by hand tools here and there. Cylindrical body profiled at both ends. Its decoration from the rim towards the base: 0.36 cm undecorated, 0.15 cm wide ring running round (0.02 cm thick), 4.63 cm undecorated, 0.1 cm wide ring, 0.5 cm undecorated, 0.1 cm wide indented line decoration, 0.34 cm (thinner at the interior) undecorated band. Burnt, deformed. The scorch marks indicate a relatively short yet more intense fire. L: 6.18; Diam: 3.11. Average Wth of carved object: 0.32, regarding the anatomical structure of the bone: at its proximal end (including decoration) 0.34, at its distal end (made thinner) 0.22; Id. no.: 48.38574.118.6 (Figs. 28.3; 94.3-4b).

Grave 10 (121 /135; BI-17; Figs. 30.1-2) Secondary cremation in a ceramic urn. The calcined bones were placed into the urn without the pyre remains. N-S (350°) oriented, square grave pit with rounded corners, L: 90; Wi: 82; De: 25. The feature appeared as a rectangular black filled structure. Calcined remains, charcoal and an iron object lay on its surface. The finds appeared very high, already after 2-3 cm, which were placed in the centre of the grave pit: an urn (No. 1; Cat. 2), a small jar (No. 4; Cat. 3), a small storage vase (No. 8; Cat. 5), and a lamp (No. 5; Cat. 1). The bronze coin (No. 6; Cat. 8) documented above the small storage vase may imply some sort of organic external covering (box, sack, cloth) or perhaps a wooden lid. Apart from the ceramic material, iron tools (Nos. 2-3; Cats. 10, 13) were also placed next to the deceased. There were large pieces of calcined bones at the bottom of the urn onto which two glass balsamaria were placed (Cats. 6-7). After the grave goods had been removed, the form of the cleared feature was quadratic. Anthropological analysis: 269 g of metallic blue, light brown, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black, mid-sized fragments of calcined bones of an unsexed, 18-20 year-old adult. 50

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds 9. Iron knife (No. 12): its point and the end of the stay are broken off. The blade is fastened by a tang. The cutting edge towards the hilt is straight, and its section towards the point breaks and runs downwards steeply. The spine also follows this shape. L: 16-12.8 (blade); 3.2 (hilt); Blade max. Wi: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.9 (Figs. 32.7; 89.4). 10. Iron wax spatula (?) (No. 3), fragment: both its ends have broken off. Round sectioned handle, flattened on one end. L: 8.5; Th: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.10 (Fig. 32.4). 11. Iron stylus (No. 7): intact. Cylindrical; flattened to a chisel-shape at one end, and pointed at the other. L: 12; Th: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.12 (Fig. 32.1). 12. Iron object (No. 9), fragment: iron plate rounded at one end, with an iron stud in it. L: 4; Th: 0.3; Stud L: 1.7; Stud Th: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.15 (Fig. 32.6). 13. Iron stylus (No. 2): intact. As Cat. 11. L: 11.5; Th: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.13 (Fig. 32.2). 14. Iron wax spatula (?) (No. 10): deformed, broken into two, with a missing section at its centre. Elongated and square sectioned handle; its end is flattened and wide. L: 14; Head Wi: 1.7; Handle Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.14 (Fig. 32.3). 15. Iron wire (No. 11), fragment: round sectioned. L: 5.2; Th: 0.5-0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.11 (Fig. 32.5).

Primary or secondary grave good: 9-15. Secondary grave good: 1-3, 5-8. Residual (?): 4. Dating: 69 / 96-125. Finds 1. Volute-lamp (No. 5): intact. Round oil container, with an adjoining nozzle decorated by two volutes and a triangular end. Closed discus with two confronted figures (gladiators?) in a circle. Yellowish-red clay, fired to soft, with flaking surface. H: 2.5; L: 10.5; Wi: 7.5; Discus Diam: 6; Bd: 4.2; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.3 (Figs. 30.3; 82.4). 2. Jar (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Flat base; the straight-walled body widens towards the top, with wheel-turned ribs on its surface. Flat shoulder; relatively tall neck, with two incised horizontal lines. Bevelled rim with a triangular section. A black substance on the upper part of the shoulder, on the neck, and the rim. DTCW, clay fired to a patchy dark grey and brown, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 22; Rd: 15; Bd: 9; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.1 (Figs. 31.1; 76.4). 3. Jar (No. 4): glued from several fragments. Flat base; downward narrowing body; steep shoulder with an incised horizontal line. Short neck; its rim thick and swollen. DTCW, dark grey, at parts fired to yellowy spots, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 15; Rd: 11; Bd: 6; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.2 (Figs. 31.2; 75.4). 4. Plate, fragment: flat bodied, jutting out at the start of the rim. Detail of a rouletted, notched decoration on its interior. The rim is high, slightly curving, almost vertical. DTCW, grey clay, slightly tempered with sand. Rec Rd: 20; Bd: 14; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.5 (Fig. 31.3). 5. Small storage vase (No. 8): intact. Flat base; wide, slightly ovoid body. Steep shoulder, short neck with two horizontal incised lines. Rounded and everted rim. LTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9; Rd: 7; Bd: 4.5; Wth: 0.3-0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.4 (Figs. 31.4; 77.2). 6. Glass balsamarium (from jar Cat. 2 ): a part of the spout and a small piece from its body are missing. Elongated body narrowing towards the top. Long, cylindrical neck wider than the upper section of the body; funnel-like round spout. Transparent, greenish glass, with lots of small and large air bubbles. Rd: 1.8; L: 9; Bd: 1.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.6 (Figs. 31.5; 92.2). 7. Glass balsamarium (from jar Cat. 2): its spout is missing. Elongated body narrowing towards the top; long, cylindrical neck. Transparent, blue glass, with a few small air bubbles. L: 9; Wi: 2.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.7 (Figs. 31.6; 92.3). 8. Coin (No. 6): As, dating: 69-96, Obv: Flavian emperor portrait facing right, Rev: female personification, Diam: 2.4; We: 7.78; mint: Rome; Id. no.: 48.38574.135.8 (Fig. 32.8).

Grave 11 (145 /160; AI-25; Figs. 33.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones without the pyre remains were scattered around the grave without any observable container. N-S (338°) oriented, rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 79; Wi: 72; De: 16. Pottery sherds and calcined bones lay scattered on the surface of the rectangular, black filled structure. The finds were dispersed among several layers within the grave. Among them was the base fragment of a jar (No. 3; Cat. 3) turned upside down. Below it were a bronze fibula or belt clasp (No. 4; Cat. 6) and the fragment of a lamp (No. 1; Cat. 1). Further fragments of this lamp were found at the centre of the grave pit. Next to the jar lay an iron knife (No. 2; Cat. 7) at the bottom of the grave. It was clear during the excavation that several different vases had been placed into the grave; however, they were so fragmented that they could not be separated on the site. Anthropological analysis: 50 g of tiny, greyish-white and greyish-blue calcined bones of an unsexed, 10-20 year-old individual. Primary grave good: 2-5. Primary grave good (?): 6-7. Secondary grave good: 1. Dating: 200-300 (maybe 230-270). Finds 1. Factory lamp (No. 1): about a quarter of the oil container is missing. Round oil container with an elongated, rounded nozzle. Its discus runs in an 51

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

open parallel-walled channel until the wide wick opening. A name stamp is on its bottom within a double ring: FORTIS. Grey clay. H: 2; L: 8.5; Wi: 5.9; Discus ring Diam: 3.8; Bd: 3.4; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.2 (Figs. 34.4; 81.1). Jar: glued from several fragments, its base and most of its belly are missing. Barrel-shaped body decorated with wheel-marked ribs; high shoulder; relatively high neck with wheel-marked ribs. Its thick rim is everted, with its top arching and rounded. DTCW, clay fired to grey and red patches, medium tempered with rough sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 15; Rd: 11.8; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.4 (Fig. 34.1). Jar (No. 3), base: DTCW. Clay fired to grey and red patches, medium tempered with rough sand. Secondarily burnt. Bd: 13; Wth: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.6. Bowl: glued from several fragments. Conical ring foot; wide, deep body; tall, almost straight rim swollen and rounded at its edge. LTCW, yellow clay, medium tempered with fine sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 8; Rd: 19.5; Fd: 8.5; Wth: 0.4-0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.1 (Figs. 34.2; 80.2). Plate: glued from several fragments with smaller gaps. Flat base without a ring foot; steeply widening body with an everted rim. LTCW, red clay, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. Rd: 14.6; Bd: 16; Wth: 0.6-0.8; Id. nos.: 48.38574.160.3 and 5 (Fig. 34.3). Bronze fibula / belt clasp (No. 4): almost half of the object is missing. Round body, with an attaching T-shaped hook. Diam: 3.7, Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.7 (Figs. 33.3; 84.5). Iron knife (No. 2): intact. Solid metal hilt. Curved cutting edge with straight spine. Total L: 20.5; blade L: 11; hilt L: 9.5; Th: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.160.8 (Figs. 34.5; 89.1).

Grave 13 (152 /167; BI-21; Figs. 35.5-6) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones without the pyre remains were scattered in the grave without any observable container. E-W (58°) oriented grave pit, Diam: 60; De: 9. The borders of the feature were undeterminable; it did not have a definite outline separating it from its environment. The feature was indicated by the calcined bones scattered on the surface. Almost completely destroyed by tilling; only the utmost bottom of the pit could be excavated. Anthropological analysis: 1116 g of tiny, medium and large, greyish-white and sandy-yellow calcined remains of a young unsexed, 18-25 year-old adult. Primary grave good: 1-2. The grave assemblage is undoubtedly only partially known. Dating: 1/ 70-400. Finds 1. Glass bead: melted. Light blue glass, at parts dark blue. Diam: 0.5×0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.167.2. (Fig. 35.7). 2. Iron wire, fragment: circle sectioned. L: 3; Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.167.1. Grave 14 (173 /190; AI-25; Figs. 36.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones without the pyre remains were scattered in the grave without any observable container. N-S (340°) oriented grave pit of unknown shape, De: 7. The borders of the feature could not be seen, only the tiny calcined bones, daub pieces and a large amount of pottery sherds scattered about its surface indicated its limits. The wide scattering of the ceramic sherds was probably the result of the intensive tilling, which had also ruined a part of the burial. The fragments of a large jar were found in the western section of the grave. The contour of the grave did not appear even after lifting up the ceramics; thus, not even its edges could be determined. Anthropological analysis: 20 g of tiny, chalk-white and greyish-white calcined bones of an unsexed, 15 year-old or older (15-x years) individual. Primary grave good: 1. The grave assemblage is undoubtedly only partially known. Dating: 100-200.

Grave 12 (147 / 162; AI-25; Figs. 35.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones without the pyre remains were scattered in the grave without any observable container. Round grave pit, Diam: 77; De: 20. Tiny calcined remains could be documented on the surface of its round, dark blackish filled structure. Two small fragmentary iron nails were found in the remains of the grave heavily destroyed by tilling. Anthropological analysis: 66 g of tiny and medium sized, greyish-white, grey, and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed, 15 year-old or older (15-x years) individual. Primary grave good (?): 1. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

Finds 1. Jar: glued from several fragments. Flat base with a slightly concave bottom. Ovoid body, intensively narrowing downwards, with an arched shoulder. Relatively high neck widening upwards, with horizontal rim. DTCW. Dark brown clay, medium tempered with fine and rough sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 33; Rd: 22.5; Bd: 10-11; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.190.1 (Figs. 36.3; 75.1).

Finds 1. Iron nails, fragments of a deformed head and spike (2 pcs): flat, oval headed, with square sectioned spike. L: 1.2; Th: 0.2; Head Diam: 0.4×0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.162.1 (Figs. 35.3-4). 52

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds The grave goods could not be identified due to disturbance. Primary grave good (?): 5. Secondary grave good: 2. Secondary grave good or residual: 4. Residual (?): 1, 3. Dating: 50-250 / 275.

Grave 15 (180 / 197; AJ-05; Figs. 36.4-5) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were heaped up inside the grave pit without any observable container. Round grave pit, Diam: 70; De: 10. Calcined bone remains and daub pieces could be observed on the black filled surface of the feature. The grave appeared relatively high with regard to the level of today’s ground level. The contours of a heavily cracked red plate’s rim (No. 1; Cat. 2) could already be seen in the patch of the feature. A few burnt bones were above the plate, while a large amount of them were found in the layer below it. Next to the plate lay a well-preserved iron knife (No. 2; Cat. 3). The fragments of a secondarily burnt red jug (Cat. 1) were also found within the grave. Bones of a domestic hen (Gallus domesticus) were mixed with the burnt human remains. Anthropological analysis: 128 g of medium, greyish-white, light brown and grey calcined bones of an unsexed adult (20-x years). Primary grave good: 1, 3, 4. Secondary grave good: 2. Dating: 120-200.

Finds 1. Jar, body fragments: DTCW. Grey clay, medium tempered with fine and rough sand. Wi: 4.3×3; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.102.4. 2. Jar, base and body fragments: flat base with straight, steeply widening body. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Bd: 18; Wth: 0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.102.5 (Fig. 37.4). 3. Bowl, body and rim fragments: slightly everted rim and undecorated body. LTCW, orange-red clay, medium tempered with sand, badly fired. Rd: 17; Wi: 3.5-5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.102.1. 4. Lid, rim fragments and part of the lid-disk: the liddisk running steeply upwards; ellipse sectioned rim. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Rd: 20; Wi: 6-7.8; Wth: 0.9; Id. nos.: 48.38574.102.2-3 (Fig. 37.3). 5. Iron nail: its point is broken off. Flat, round head with a long square sectioned spike. L: 3.4; Th: 0.5; Head Diam: 1.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.102.6 (Fig. 37.5).

Finds 1. Ceramic vase, body fragments: round sectioned handle fragment on one sherd. Another is decorated with an incised line pattern on the exterior. Red clay with black spots, medium tempered with tiny pebbles. Secondarily burnt. H: 6; Wi: 5.8; Handle Diam: 2.3; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.197.2. 2. Plate (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Horizontal base without foot; wide, flat body with a rounded, slightly everted rim. LTCW, red clay, tempered with rough sand. H: 3.3; Rd: 18; Bd: 14.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.197.1 (Figs. 36.6; 80.4). 3. Iron knife (No. 2): intact. Solid metal hilt. Almost straight cutting edge, slightly curving upwards at the end; arched spine. The hilt widens towards the end. Total L: 20.8; blade L: 11.5; hilt L: 9.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.197.3 (Figs. 36.7; 89.2). 4. Domestic hen (Gallus domesticus): burnt wing and foot bone fragments.

Grave 17 (176 /193; AJ-05; Figs. 38.1-2) Secondary cremation in a tile grave. A part of the calcined bone remains of the deceased were placed inside an upturned imbrex. W-E (270°) oriented, square grave pit, L: 65; Wi: 58; De: 30. The surface of the feature was covered by a considerable amount of small tegula and green schist fragments. Lots of daub pieces, slabs of schist standing on their edges, many tegula and imbrex fragments could be documented in the upper layer. A few burnt human bones were in the middle of the feature. Several large tegulae standing on their edges bordered the grave pit in a square shape. During the burial ceremony, large calcined remains had been placed into the imbrex (No. 1; Cat. 8) found in the northern part of the grave (perhaps also within some sort of organic container). A lamp (No. 2; Cat. 1) lying on its side appeared in the southern half of the grave. Further excavation brought to light four iron nails (Nos. 3-6; Cats. 4-7). The fill at the bottom of the grave pit was full of charcoal, most probably from the pyre remains mixed with tiny calcined bones. Anthropological analysis: 330 g of tiny and medium, chalkwhite and greyish-white calcined remains of an unsexed, 30-40 year-old adult. Primary grave good (?): 4-7. Secondary grave good: 1. Residual: 2-3. Dating: 125 /150-250.

Grave 16 (93 /102; BI-11; Figs. 37.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones without the pyre remains were placed into a simple pit grave covered with tegulae, or in a tile grave. N-S (4°) oriented, square-shaped grave pit, L: 62; Wi: 64; De: 34. At the centre of the well-discernable, square-shaped, light grey filled feature were the remains of a brick structure thoroughly disturbed by tilling. Following the removal of the brick fragments, a square-shaped depression at the centre of the grave pit could be observed, which yielded a few pottery sherds, an iron nail and calcined human remains. Anthropological analysis: 8 g of tiny, greyish-white and sandy-yellow calcined remains of an individual of at least infant age or older (Infans-x years).

Finds 1. Factory lamp (No. 2): glued from several fragments. Round oil container with an elongated, rounded 53

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8.

nozzle. Its discus joins to an open parallel-walled channel until the wide wick opening. On the bottom: name stamp in a double circle: LNARI. Grey clay. H: 3; L: 9; Wi: 6; Discus ring Diam: 3.6; Bd: 3.7; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.1 (Figs. 38.7; 81.3). Jar, body fragments: LTCW. Medium tempered with rough sand, red, orange-red at section, decorated with a horizontal brushed pattern. Wth: 0.5-0.8; Id. nos.: 48.38574.193.2-5. Jar, body fragments: DTCW. Grey clay, brown interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 2; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.6. Iron nail (No. 6), fragment: fragmentary flat head; square sectioned spike; point broken off. L: 6.2; Th: 0.4-0.7; Head Diam: 1×2.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.7 (Fig. 38.5). Iron nail (No. 5): point broken off. Round, flat head; long spike with square section. L: 11.5; Th: 0.6-0.7; Head Diam: 1.8×2.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.8 (Fig. 38.6). Iron nail (No. 3): head broken off, spike deformed. As Cat. 1. L: 4; Th: 0.4-0.5; Head Diam: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.9 (Fig. 38.3). Iron nail (No. 4): intact. Round, flat head; short spike with square section. L: 4; Th: 0.1-0.5; Head Diam: 1.8×1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.10 (Fig. 38.4). Imbrex (No. 1), fragmentary: red, orange-red clay, tempered with rough sand. H: 8; L: 29.5; Wi: 14.8; Th: 1.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.193.11.

Anthropological analysis: 26 g of tiny and medium, chalkwhite and greyish-blue calcined remains of an unsexed, 2030 year-old adult. Secondary grave good: 2. Residual (?): 1. Due to agricultural disturbance, it is probable that the assemblage is only partially known. Dating: 50-125. Finds Jar, body fragments: DTCW. Grey clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 6; Wi: 6; Wth: 0.7; Id. nos.: 48.38574.199.1 and 3. 2. Small storage vase, fragments: rounded, everted rim; probably with straight base. DTCW, brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Rec Rd: 9; Wth: 0.8; Rec Bd: 5.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.199.2 (Fig. 39.3). 1.

Grave 20 (177 /194; joint corner of AI-25, AJ-05, BJ-01, BJ-21 fields; Figs. 41.1-2) Secondary cremation. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31. The calcined bones were placed into the tile grave together with the pyre remains. N-S (334°) oriented, square grave pit, L: 64; Wi: 62; De: 32. The contours of the feature were bordered by a red strip of tegulae. A layer of broken tegulae indicated the former closure of the grave. Its fill was mixed with a large amount of charcoal, and almost no soil. The fragments of a yellow jug (Cat. 1) and a small bronze fibula in closed position (No. 1; Cat. 2) lay near the northern tegula of the grave. The human remains were represented by large pieces, with hardly any smaller splinters. Anthropological analysis: 984 g of chalk-white, greyishwhite, grey and coal-black calcined remains of an unsexed, 30-40 year-old adult. Secondary grave good: 2. Residual: 1. Dating: 125-225 / 250.

Grave 18 (179 /196; AI-25; Figs. 39.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were placed into the tile grave without the pyre remains. E-W (256°) oriented, square grave pit, L: 61; Wi: 55; De: 15. The edges of the grave pit’s contours were bordered by vertically placed tegulae in a square shape. The grave already appeared about 15 cm below the modern trodden surface, thus, its top part was destroyed by tilling. Only a few calcined remains could be picked up from its surface. Anthropological analysis: 20 g of medium, chalk-white calcined remains of an unsexed, 15 year-old or older (15-x years) individual. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

Finds 1. Jug, body fragment: LTCW. Yellow clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 3; Wi: 2.5; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.194.1. 2. Bronze knee fibula (No. 1): the plate covering the spring is fragmentary, but otherwise intact. 2×4 spiralled with external cord. Semicircular head; its bow becomes thin in an arch with a disc-shaped foot decorated with a knob. Cast bronze. L: 3; Wi: 2.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.194.2 (Figs. 41.3; 84.4).

Grave 19 (182 /199; AJ-05; Figs. 40.1-2) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were placed into the grave without the pyre remains. N-S (356°) oriented, square grave pit, L: 77; Wi: 69; De: 20. The patch of the grave could not be seen; its surface was indicated by scattered calcined bones, as well as tegula and pottery fragments. Almost completely destroyed by tilling. During excavation, it turned out that the tegula fragments stood scattered in no special order. The pottery sherds belonged to a grey jar (Cat. 1) and a small storage vase (Cat. 2).

Grave 21 (183 / 200; AJ-05; Figs. 39.3-4) Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were placed into the tile grave without (?) the pyre remains. N-S (358°) oriented, square grave pit, L: 77; Wi: 55; De: 16. The patch of the grave was bordered by a rectangular, red strip of tegulae. Calcined remains, charcoal and brick fragments were scattered on the surface delimited by the 54

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds tegulae. It was a rather disturbed tile grave, and only its bottom could be excavated. It contained a small amount of calcined remains and a sherd of a grey, small storage vase. Anthropological analysis: 6 g of tiny and medium, greyishwhite and bluish-white calcined remains of an unsexed, 15 year-old or older (15-x years) individual. Residual (?): 1. The grave assemblage is only partially known due to its disturbance. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

3.

Finds 1. Small storage vase, sherd: flat base with steep wall. DTCW. Grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 2.2; Bd: 6; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.200.1 (Fig. 39.5). Grave 22 (171 /187; AI-25; Figs. 42.1-2) 4.

Secondary cremation. The calcined bones were placed into the urn together with the pyre remains. The charcoal and calcined human bones documented in the grave pit may have gotten there from the urn due to agricultural cultivation, but they can also refer to an element of the burial ritual. Round grave pit, Diam: 97; De: 42. The limits of the feature could not be identified; the rim of a large black jar (No. 1; Cat. 2) was visible on its surface. Its rim had already broken off in Antiquity and its fragments were inside the grave, thus they were not damaged any further by tilling. It tilted slightly on its side, with its mouth upwards in the grave. Calcined human bones were found surrounding the urn as well; its fill was full of charcoal. The urn (Cat. 2) also contained, apart from the calcined human remains, a lamp (Cat. 1), a jug / mug with handle (Cat. 3), an iron nail (Cat. 8), and the burnt bones of a domestic hen (Gallus domesticus, Cat. 11) and a small ungulate (Ungulata, Cat. 12). Inside the urn, the largest bones were on the bottom and then followed the gradually smaller pieces towards the top. Anthropological analysis: 200 g of tiny, medium and large, greyish-white, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed, 20-40 year-old individual. Primary grave good: 4, 6, 8-12. Secondary grave good: 1-3. Residual (?): 5, 7. Dating: 200-250 / 275.

5. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

Finds

12.

1. Factory lamp (No. 2; from jar Cat. 2): intact. Round oil container, with a short, rounded nozzle. The discus joins to an open parallel-walled channel until the wide wick opening. An indistinct name stamp is on its bottom: QGC. Raw brick coloured clay. H: 2.2; L: 7.7; Wi: 5.2; Discus ring Diam: 3.2; Bd: 2.3; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.7 (Figs. 42.8; 82.2). 2. Jar (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Flat base with slightly concave bottom. Elongated body, intensely narrowing downwards. The high shoulder is

separated from the neck by a 1.5 cm wide rib. Everted rim with a horizontal upper surface is articulated by grooves; while its lower half is arched. Asymmetrical, careless pottery work. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. The vase was used as an urn. A part of the calcined bones was placed inside it. H: 43; Rd: 28.5; Bd: 18; Wth: 0.4-0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.1 (Figs. 42.3; 74.2). Jug / mug with handle (from jar Cat. 2): intact. Low ring foot, with concave base. Globular body narrowing towards the foot, decorated with a slant ribbed pattern. Curved neck; round spout with an articulated rounded rim. Elliptic-shaped strap handle runs up from the centre of the body to the start of the neck. DTCW. Greyish-brown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 12; Rd: 6; Handle Wi: 1.5; Bd: 4; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.2 (Figs. 42.5; 78.3). Small storage vase, body fragments: LTCW. Red clay, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.5. Small storage vase, body fragments: DTCW. Greyish-brown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 4.8; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.2-0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.6. Beaker, partly joining sherds: tall, elongated body narrowing upwards, decorated with notches. The tall rim, almost straight with horizontal top, separates from the body by a profile. DTCW, grey and at parts brown clay, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. Rd: 7.2; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.3 (Figs. 42.4; 78.5). Beaker, body fragment: with detail of rouletted decoration (Rädchenverzierung). LTCW, reddishbrown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 3.8; Wi: 2.4; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.4. Iron nail (from jar Cat. 2), fragment: globular headed, with square sectioned spike. L: 1.4; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.8. Iron nail: fragmentary head; the point is broken off. Globular (?) head with square sectioned spike. L: 4; Th: 0.2-0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.9 (Fig. 42.7). Iron object (from jar Cat. 2), fragment: round sectioned, flattened at one end. L: 2.5; Th: 0.3-0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.187.10 (Fig. 42.6). Domestic hen (Gallus domesticus; from jar Cat. 2): bones of the wing, rump and upper thigh from a single specimen. Small ungulate (Ungulata; from jar Cat. 2): burnt skull bone fragments.

Grave 23 (187 / 204; AJ-05; Figs. 43.1-2) Secondary cremation in and around a ceramic urn. The calcined bones were placed into the urn and the grave pit with the pyre remains. Square grave pit with thoroughly rounded corners, Diam: 88; De: 27. Ceramic sherds, daub and charcoal were visible on the surface of the black filled structure. The contours of a grey jar (No. 1; Cat. 1), and the pieces of a tegula (No. 2) could 55

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) already be seen within the feature before the excavation. SE of the jar, which had been used as an urn, lay a small storage vase (No. 3; Cat. 2). Anthropological analysis: 796 g of tiny and medium, chalk-white, greyish-white, bluish-white and greyish-blue calcined bones of a 20-30 year-old woman (?). Secondary grave good: 1-2. Residual: 3-5. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

2.

Finds

3.

1. Jar (No. 1), fragment: the top of the body and the rim are missing. Flat base; steep body with slightly curved wall. DTCW, dark grey clay, at parts with spots burnt to brown, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 26; Bd: 15; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.204.1 (Fig. 43.3). 2. Small storage vase (No. 3), fragment: the top of the body and the rim are missing. Flat base; steep body with slightly curved wall. DTCW, black clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 10; Bd: 6.7; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.204.2 (Fig. 43.4). 3-5. Residual animal bones: see below in a separate chapter the details.

4.

5.

Grave 24 (197 / 214; AJ-05; Figs. 44.1-2) Secondary cremation in a ceramic urn. The calcined bones were placed into the urns without the pyre remains. N-S (350°) oriented grave pit, L: 86; Wi: 80; De: 14. The contours of a large jar could be observed, and a few calcined bones were scattered about on the surface of the well-defined feature. Tilling had destroyed the upper half of the jar (No. 1; Cat. 2), as well as damaging the other objects of the assemblage. The plough had pulled the pottery sherds and the calcined remains in a northerly direction. SE of the jar lay a red lamp (No. 2; Cat. 1) turned upside down; while two ceramic vases, namely a small storage vase (No. 5; Cat. 5) and a jug / mug with handle (No. 3; Cat. 4), as well as a small red bowl (Cat. 3) were placed directly next to it on its eastern side. A bronze nail (No. 4; Cat. 7) was found among the small vases. After the removal of the jar, a small bronze ring (Cat. 6) became visible at the bottom of the grave. Two vases inside the grave had contained calcined remains: Urn ‘A’: jar (Cat. 2). Urn ‘B’: small storage vase (Cat. 5). From Urn ‘A’, the burnt bone fragments of a bird, possibly a domestic hen (Gallus domesticus), were found among the human calcined remains. Anthropological analysis: 596 g of tiny and medium, greyish-white, grey and coal-black calcined remains of an unsexed, at least 20 year-old individual. Primary grave good: 8. Primary or secondary grave good: 6-7. Secondary grave good: 1-5. Dating: 70-150.

6. 7.

8.

Grave 25 (148 /163; AI-25; Figs. 45.1-2) Secondary cremation. A part of the remains of the deceased without the pyre remains was placed into the urn and deposited in the grave pit. N-S (316°) oriented, oval grave pit, L: 78; Wi: 60; De: 9. The limits of the feature were not visible; the pottery sherds scattered on its surface indicated the structure. A large jar (No. 1; Cat. 1) was placed in the centre of the grave. It collapsed from the pressure of the soil, while its upper part was destroyed by tilling. The fragments of a red plate (No. 2; Cat. 4) and a folded beaker (Cat. 5) lay next to it. Most of the grave had been destroyed by tilling. Anthropological analysis: 429 g of tiny and medium, greyish-white, grey and coal-black calcined remains of an unsexed, 15-30 year-old individual. Secondary grave good: 1, 4-5. Residual (?): 2-3. The grave assemblage is probably only partially known due to its disturbance. Dating: 150-350, most probably 200-300.

Finds 1.

parallel-walled channel until the wide wick opening. Reddish brick coloured clay. H: 3; L: 10; Wi: 6.6; Discus ring Diam: 3.6; Bd: 3; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.1 (Figs. 44.8; 82.3). Jar (No. 1), fragment: slightly concave base, and widening curved body. DTCW, clay burnt to black, medium tempered with rough sand, badly preserved. H: 10; Bd: 20; Wth: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.5 (Fig. 44.9). Small bowl with everted rim, unjoining base and rim sherds: very low foot-ring; wide, flat body with curved wall; extremely everted rim. DTCW, brown, at parts fired to grey patches, slightly tempered with sand. Bd: 8; Rd: 16; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.2 (Fig. 44.5). Small jug / mug with handle, base, body and handle fragments (No. 3), with large part missing: low, rounded foot; globular body narrowing downwards. Its spout is round; its rounded rim curves upwards. A strap handle with elliptic section runs up from the middle of the belly and folds back under the rim. LTCW, red clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 5.5; Handle Wi: 1.6; Bd: 4; Wth: 0.3-0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.3 (Fig. 44.3). Small storage vase, base fragment with a part of the body (No. 5): low base; part of the ovoid, downward narrowing body. LTCW, red clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 4.5; Bd: 3.8; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.4 (Fig. 44.4). Bronze ring (No. 6): intact. Slightly elongated, oval band, with round section. Diam: 4.5×5.5; Th: 0.40.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.6 (Fig. 44.7). Bronze nail (No. 4): intact. Semiglobular head, short spike with a square section. L: 2.6; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.6; We: 12; Id. no.: 48.38574.214.7 (Fig. 44.6). Domestic hen (Gallus domesticus): burnt bone fragments belonging to a limb (2 pcs).

Factory lamp (No. 2): intact. Round oil container with a short, rounded nozzle. The open discus joins a 56

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds Finds 1. Jar (No. 1), fragment: low foot, with slightly concave base. The body, narrowing extremely downwards, has a curved wall; it is decorated with parallel incised lines. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 12; Bd: 9; Wth: 0.3-0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.163.1 (Fig. 45.3). 2. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to black, with light core, medium tempered with midrough pebbles. H: 3; Wi: 5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.163.4. 3. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Light grey clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 2.5; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.163.6. 4. Plate (No. 2), fragment: slightly concave base without foot. Wide, flat body with concave wall at the base and convex on the top; rim strongly everted and rounded. DTCW, exterior fired to grey, interior to black with red spots, medium tempered with rough sand. Rd: 18; Bd: 15; Wth: 0.5; Id. nos.: 48.38574.163.2-3 (Fig. 45.4). 5. Folded beaker, partially joining sherds: low, narrow foot with slightly concave bottom. The elongated body narrows heavily above the foot, and is decorated with vertical foldings. The everted rim is rounded; it is articulated from the body by a ring in relief. DTCW, grey clay, with red core, medium tempered with rough sand. Rd: 10; Bd: 5; Wth: 0.20.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.163.5 (Fig. 45.5).

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

Grave 26 (153 /168; BI-21; Figs. 46.1-2) Secondary cremation. A part of the human remains, without the remains of the pyre, were placed into the urn and deposited in the grave. A part of the pyre remains were probably used for the fill of the grave pit. E-W (60°) oriented, oval grave pit, Diam: 73; De: 25. Pottery, charcoal and daub could be seen on the surface of the dark brown filled feature. During the excavation of the grave pit, a large jar (No. 1; Cat. 5) was found at its centre with a thin-walled cup (No. 2; Cat. 1) directly next to it. There were no human bones in the fill of the grave pit. A glass balsamarium (Cat. 8), a bronze coin (Cat. 9) and calcined remains were inside the urn. Anthropological analysis: 4 g of very tiny, greyish-white and sandy-yellow calcined remains of an individual, probably a child (infans?). Secondary grave good: 1, 5, 7-9. Residual (?): 6. Residual: 2-4. Dating: 80-150.

8.

9.

Finds

The points where the handles were attached are above the horizontal rib running around the body, as well as on both sides at the shoulder. Very worn, slightly shiny, black slip on its surface. Grey, welllevigated clay. H: 8; Rd: 6; Bd: 3; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.1 (Figs. 46.5; 73.2). Jug, body fragment: with part of an incised line. LTCW, brown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 7.5; Wi: 5.2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.4. Jug, body fragment: LTCW. Orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 5; Wi: 3.7; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.5. Jug, body fragment: DTCW. Grey clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 3.5; Wi: 3; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.6. Jar (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Low foot with slightly concave base; downward narrowing body with curving wall. High arched shoulder with short neck. Rounded everted rim swollen at its top and bottom. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with tiny and mid-rough pebbles. H: 27.5; Rd: 19; Bd: 10.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.7 (Figs. 46.4; 74.4). Jar, fragment of shoulder and body: part of horizontal, incised line on the shoulder. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with midrough pebbles. H: 4.5; Wi: 11; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.3. Lid, fragment: tall, arched sides; lid-disk decorated with a brushed pattern; its rim is slightly inverted and rounded. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9; Rd: 25; Wi: 18; Wth: 0.6-0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.2 (Fig. 46.3). Glass balsamarium: part of the spout is missing. Elongated bag-shaped body narrowing towards the top with almost straight wall. The long cylindrical neck has a diameter slightly larger at the upper section of the body. The neck narrows towards the round funnel-shaped spout. White coloured deposition on its interior. Transparent, greenish glass, with a few small air bubbles. H: 8.2; Rd: 1.6; Bd: 2; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.8 (Figs. 46.7; 92.4). Coin: intact. Obv: M AGRIPPA L F COS III, Agrippa’s portrait facing left, wearing naval crown (corona navalis). Rev: S C, Neptune standing facing, head left, naked except for chlamys draped behind and over both arms, holding small dolphin in his stretched out right hand and vertical trident in left. As, dating: 14-37 or 37-41 (restitution issue struck under Tiberius or Claudius), mint: Rome. Diam: 2.8; We: 12; Id. no.: 48.38574.168.9 (Figs. 46.6; 86.2).

Grave 27 (169 /185; AJ-05; Figs. 47.1-2)

1. Thin-walled cup (No. 2): glued from several fragments, its handles are missing. Low foot, biconical body with a rib at its centre. The body is decorated with a linear ornament composed of vertical and horizontal incisions above and below the rib. High shoulder with everted, rounded rim.

Secondary cremation in a ceramic vase. A part of the human remains were placed into the urn without the pyre remains. Round grave pit, Diam: 70; De: 20. The structure was indicated by daub and ceramic sherds observable on the surface, but no distinct limits could be defined. The grave appeared 10 cm below the current 57

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) cultivated surface, thus the tilling had damaged it extensively. A small jar (No. 1; Cat. 1) and unjoining fragments from several different vessels were found at the centre of the grave pit. The jar had collapsed due to the pressure of the soil after being deposited in the grave; its rim sherd was found inside it, and there were a lot of calcined bones within. Anthropological analysis: 825 g of tiny and medium, greyish-white, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed, 20-30 year-old individual. Regarding the position of the bones within the urn, it was observed that their colours become darker and their sizes grow from top to bottom. The more badly burnt, larger pieces were placed at the bottom. Primary grave good: 5-8. Secondary grave good: 1, 4. Residual: 2-3. Dating: 150-200.

Grave 28 (172 /188; AI-25; Figs. 48.1-2) Secondary cremation in a ceramic vase. Double burial. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31. Based on the assemblage, a man and a woman had been buried in the grave. Judging by the military buckle, the remains of the man were placed into Urn ‘B’. A part of the calcined human bones were placed inside the urns without the pyre remains. NE-SW (18°) oriented, rectangular grave pit, L: 170; Wi: 102; De: 38. The feature had rather indefinite contours with ceramic sherds on its surface. After drawing and photography, it was excavated together with the feature lying directly next to it (SU 189). It turned out during excavation that the two patches belonged to one grave. Two large urns (Urns ‘A’ and ‘B’) had been placed into the grave pit side by side (Nos. 1 and 4; Cats. 4 and 3). Both of them collapsed due to the pressure of the soil; thus, agricultural cultivation did not damage them. A very badly preserved lid (No. 3; Cat. 10), broken into several pieces, and a smaller iron nail (No. 2; Cat. 37) appeared already in the top 10 cm layer. This lid was used as a cover for Urn No. 1 (Urn ‘A’ in the following). A sideways slanting, crushed grey jug (No. 5; Cat. 2) was found between the two vases. The calcined remains were placed into the grave in larger pieces. An iron knife (No. 6; Cat. 41) in good condition lay in the south-western corner of the grave. A multi-faceted gold bead or pinhead (No. 7; Cat. 30) was found NW of the ceramic jug’s (Cat. 2) rim. Between the two jars, SE from the jug, lay a bronze belt-tip (No. 9; Cat. 31) 30 cm deep. Directly next to it, eastwards, lay a bronze pelta-shaped mount (No. 10). During the excavation of the area around the jug – below the jug, eastwards – were two bronze ’buttons’, one below the other (Nos. 11-12; Cats. 28 and 27). In the area between Urn ‘A’ (Cat. 4) and the jug (Cat. 2), lay three blue glass beads melted together and a bronze pin (Nos. 13-14; Cats. 16, 30) and below the jug was an iron hook (No. 15; Cat. 35). Urn ‘A’ (Cat. 4) contained a ring fibula (Cat. 26), an iron nail, the fragments of a red lid (Cat. 10), and a large amount of calcined remains. Urn ‘B’ (Cat. 3) contained a lamp (Cat. 1), a bronze buckle (Cat. 25), a ribbed glass bottle (Cat. 13), a glass balsamarium (Cat. 14), three glass beads (Cat. 19), a fragment of bronze wire (Cat. 32), an iron nail (Cat. 36), and a large amount of calcined bones. Anthropological analysis: there was a total of 4465 g of calcined bones in the two urns together. Urn ‘A’ (Cat. 4) contained the remains of an unsexed, 30-50 year-old adult. Urn ‘B’ (Cat. 3) contained the remains of an unsexed, 2030 year-old adult. Primary grave good: 9, 16, 21-37, 39-43. Primary or secondary grave good: 14, 20, 24, 29, 38. Secondary grave good: 1-4, 6, 10-13, 19, 21-23, 25-28. Residual (?): 5, 17, 30. Residual: 7, 8, 15, 18. Cats. 22-23, 25, 27-28 had probably belonged to a single belt. The bronze ring No. 21 was perhaps also part of the same belt.

Finds 1. Jar (No. 1), fragment: most of the shoulder and the whole rim are missing. The calcined human bones were placed into this vase. DTCW, dark greyishbrown clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 24.5; Bd: 9.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.1 (Figs. 47.5; 74.5). 2. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to dark grey on its exterior, and brown on its interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 7; Wi: 7; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.4. 3. Jar, fragment of the neck: greyish-brown, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.7; Wi: 4.6; Wth: 0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.5 (Fig. 47.6). 4. Plate, fragments from the rim, body and base with part of the ring foot. Low, conical foot; flat, wide, curving body; almost vertical, rounded rim with curved sides. PW, grey clay, slightly tempered with sand. Traces of red paint. H: 4; Rd: 16; Fd: 6; Wth: 0.4-0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.2 (Fig. 47.3). 5. Plate, partly joining fragments: footless flat base; flat, wide body with curving sides. Inverted rounded rim. LTCW. Red clay, at parts with grey patches, medium tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3.7; Rd: 17; Bd: 14; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.3 (Fig. 47.4). 6. Iron nail, fragment: domed head with square sectioned spike. The lower part of the spike is broken off. L: 1.8; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.7 (Fig. 47.7). 7. Iron nail: intact, with bent spike. As Cat. 6. L: 1.3; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.6 (Fig. 47.8). 8. Iron nail, fragment: domed head; the lower part of the square sectioned spike is missing. L: 1.1; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.185.6 (Fig. 47.9).

58

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds Dating: the urns were probably deposited in the grave between 200-300. Finds

7.

1. Factory lamp (from Urn ‘B’; Cat. 3): intact. Round oil container with a short, rounded nozzle. The discus joins to an open parallel-walled channel until the wide wick opening. Name stamp on the bottom within a double ring: CRESCE / S. Brownish-red clay. H: 2.5; L: 9; Wi: 6; Discus Diam: 3.6; Bd: 3.9; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.4 (Figs. 49.8; 81.2). 2. Jug (No. 5): intact. Relatively high, straight walled foot; globular body elongated on its top and bottom; high and curving shoulder and round spout. Round sectioned handle, extending up towards the spout, runs from the upper part of the belly and attaches to the mouth. The rounded rim is bordered by a rib from below, forming a groove for the lid on its interior side. DTCW, dark grey-black clay, medium tempered with rough sand. There were calcined bone remains in this vase as well. H: 26; Rd: 15; Handle Wi: 2.5; Bd: 8; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.3 (Figs. 49.4; 79.6). 3. Jar (No. 4; Urn ‘B’): glued from several sherds, with minor missing fragments. Flat base, the globular body is rather elongated towards the bottom; with brushed pattern decoration. It reaches its largest diameter below the shoulder. Wide, curving shoulder; short neck; everted, triangular sectioned rim. Incised concentric circles on the top of the rim. Functioning as an urn, it contained the calcined bones of a 20-30 year-old individual. DTCW, dark grey-black clay, at parts fired to brown, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 38.5; Rd: 27.5; Bd: 17.5; Wth: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.1 (Figs. 48.5; 74.3). 4. Jar (No. 1; Urn ‘A’): glued from several fragments. Flat base, ovoid body narrowing towards the bottom, which reaches its largest diameter below the shoulder. High, wide shoulder; narrowing neck and everted, rounded mouth edge. On the shoulder, nail impressed pattern in two parallel lines, with leftward running incised wavy lines in between and below the lower line. Incised net-pattern running from the shoulder to almost the bottom of the vase. Functioning as an urn, it contained the calcined bones of a 30-50 year-old individual. LTCW, greyish-brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 42; Rd: 23; Bd: 16.5; Wth: 0.6-0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.2 (Figs. 48.4; 74.1). 5. Jar, body and base fragment: downwards narrowing body, curved wall; with part of a horizontal incised line. DTCW, grey clay, slightly tempered with micaceous rough sand. Rec Bd: 9; Wth: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.6 (Fig. 49.3). 6. Plate, unjoining body and rim fragments: flat, wide body with almost straight wall and strongly inverted, rounded rim. DTCW, clay fired to light grey on its

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15. 16.

59

exterior, and black on its interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 5.4; Rec Rd: 26; Rec Bd: 18; Wth: 0.4-0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.11 (Fig. 49.5). Plate, fragment: flat, wide, arched wall, and strongly everted rim. PW, red paint on its exterior and interior. Yellow clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 2; Wi: 1.6; Wth: 0.4-0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.12 (Fig. 49.6). Folded beaker, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to black on its exterior, and light grey on its interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.5; Wi: 4; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.8. Folded beaker, fragment: high, elongated body decorated with foldings; narrowing neck; and rounded, everted, short rim. LTCW, orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3.4; Rec Rd: 7; Wi: 2.8; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.9 (Fig. 49.7). Lid (No. 3): glued from several fragments. Round knob handle; high lid-disk becoming rather flat towards its rim; its rim is wide, with a vertical edge. Traces of red paint on its upper surface. PW, orangered clay, slightly tempered with sand. Its sherds were also found inside Urn ‘A’ (Cat. 4). H: 5.3; Knob Diam: 4; Diam: 19; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.5 (Figs. 48.3; 76.5). Lid, fragment glued from two pieces: slightly bevelled rim, conical lid-disk. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Rec Diam: 13; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.7 (Fig. 49.2). Lid, fragment: oval, conical knob with the start of the lid-disk. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. Knob Diam: 2.2×2.8; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.10 (Fig. 49.1). Glass bottle (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3), fragment: glued from several fragments; the upper part of the neck and its spout are missing. Thick, solid, slightly concave walled foot; ovoid body narrowing towards the top; high, narrowing shoulder; cylindrical neck narrowing towards the spout. A twisted line decoration can be seen on the neck and the upper three-quarters of the body. Transparent, white glass, with lots of small and medium air bubbles. Perhaps the vessel is mould-blown. H: 11.5; Bd: 4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.13 (Figs. 51.7; 93.3-4). Glass balsamarium (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3), fragment: spout and upper part of neck are missing, melted. Rounded, slightly pointed base, cylindrical body. Transparent, green glass, with lots of small and large air bubbles. L: 4.5; Th: 0.9-1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.14 (Fig. 51.8). Glass fragments: tiny pieces belonging to an unidentifiable object. White glass, with a few small air bubbles. Wth: 0.5-1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.15. Glass beads (No. 13): 3 pieces melted together. They are globular, slightly elongated towards the top, with a narrow hole at the centre. Blue, opaque glass. Diam: 0.3×0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.16 (Figs. 51.9; 87.6).

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 30. Golden-headed bronze pin (Nos. 7 and 14): intact. The pin is bent, and the golden head detached from it. The pin is pointed at one end; its other end becomes thin and ends in a small knob. The head, bent from a thin gold sheet, was probably attached to it. Cylindrical neck, with a biconical body. L: 13; Th: 0.3; Pin head: 0.7×1; We: 0.12; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.25 (Figs. 51.2-3; 86.4-5). 31. Bronze strap end (No. 9): intact. The end joining the belt is an elongated trapezoid shape with a tiny rivet in it; it connects to a stem divided by a globular element into two halves and decorated with a knob at its end. The part between the boss and the belt has a rhomboid section, while that between the globular element and the knob is round sectioned. Silver plated. L: 6; Wi: 0.3-1; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.26 (Figs. 50.5; 85.2). 32. Bronze wire (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3), fragment: round sectioned, almost bent at a right angle. L: 3; Th: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.29 (Fig. 51.4). 33. Iron object (No. 8), fragment: square sectioned, slightly rounded at one end, and broken at the other. Bent almost at a right angle around its middle. H: 9,5; V: 0,7-0,9; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.30 (Fig. 52.2). 34. Iron nail: intact. Slightly domed head with square sectioned spike. L: 5.5; Th: 0.6; Head Diam: 1.8×2; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.31 (Fig. 52.13). 35. Iron object (No. 15): intact (?). Flat, pierced at one end, and driven through by an iron nail near its centre. Its square sectioned other end is thick, bent and continues in a thinning hook. Hook Th: 0.5-1; Plate L: 4.5; Hook L: 6; Iron nail L: 1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.32 (Fig. 52.1). 36. Iron nail (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3), fragment: head broken off. Square sectioned, bent at a right angle. L: 3.5; Th: 0.4-0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.33 (Fig. 52.7). 37. Iron object (No. 2): broken at one end. Square sectioned. L: 3; Th: 0.7-0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.34 (Fig. 52.12). 38. Iron object (No. 17): broken. Square-sectioned, thick, one end hammered flat, hook-shaped. L: 7; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.35 (Fig. 52.3). 39. Iron nail (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3), spike fragment: square sectioned. L: 3.7; Th: 0.4-0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.36 (Fig. 52.6). 40. Iron nail: the end of its point is missing. Slightly convex, with round head and square section. L: 1.3; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.37 (Fig. 52.11). 41. Iron knife: (No. 6): its point and tang are broken. Its central tang connects to the blade with a slight tilt. The long, wide blade becomes narrow in its last quarter; straight cutting edge. L: 17.8-14.4 (blade), 3.3 (hilt); Blade Wi: 1.6-3.4; Hilt Th: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.38 (Figs. 52.14; 89.5). 42. Iron object (No. 17), fragment: rectangular sectioned, narrowing. L: 2.8; Th: 0.7×0.4-0.4×0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.41 (Fig. 52.10).

17. Glass vessel, fragments: from a thin-walled glass balsamarium with cylindrical body. Transparent, white glass, with a few small and large air bubbles. Wi: 0.5×2.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.17. 18. Glass, thick walled, fragmentary: transparent, white glass, with a medium amount of small and large air bubbles. Wi: 0.5×2.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.18. 19. Glass bead (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3): intact. Irregular globular shape, flattened at the top and bottom, with a thin hole at the centre. Light green glass, with lots of small air bubbles. Wi: 0.6×0.6, Hole Diam: 0.1. Id. no.: 48.38574.188.40 (Figs. 51.10; 87.7). 20. Glass bead (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3): intact. Small, lentoid, with a thin hole at the centre. Bluish-green glass, with lots of small air bubbles. Wi: 0.4×0.3, Hole Diam: 0.1. Id. no.: 48.38574.188.40 (Figs. 51.11; 87.4). 21. Glass bead (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3): intact. As Cat. 20. With lots of small air bubbles. Wi: 0.4×0.3, Hole Diam: 0.1. Id. no.: 48.38574.188.40 (Figs. 51.12; 87.5). 22. Gold foil (No. 16): fragmentary, deformed. Fine piece decorated with impressed geometrical pattern. Diam: 1.1×1.8; We: 0.14; Th: 0.01; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.20 (Figs. 51.6; 86.3). 23. Bronze ring: intact. Silver plated round band, with a flattened hexagonal section. Exterior Diam: 4.6; Interior Diam: 3.3; Th: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.21 (Fig. 50.6). 24. Bronze mount (No. 10): intact. Its body is shaped of an openwork pelta motif and a joining rectangle; it is cast in one piece with its hook on its back, which is closed by a tiny square plate. Cast. Wi: 2.1×2.1; Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.22 (Figs. 50.4; 85.3). 25. Belt buckle (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3): the inner frame is damaged, the hook is broken. Its body was made of bronze. Large, circular, with openwork decoration (on the interior a band of three segments runs parallel with the edge; and stylized leaves and tendrils (?) on its exterior); three connecting peltae join onto it on one side. The hook was made of iron and had been bent onto the openwork decoration. Diam: 7.3; Hook L: 4.5; Hook Th: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.23 (Figs. 50.3; 85.1; 93.4). 26. Ring fibula (from Urn ‘A’, Cat. 4): one end and its pin are broken. Bent from a square sectioned piece of iron wire; its ends had been hammered flat and curled backward. Diam: 3.8-4.4; Ring Th: 0.3-0.6 Pin L: 3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.39 (Figs. 51.5; 84.6). 27. Bronze button (No. 12): intact. Hollow, semiglobular head, with cylindrical stem, and a flat and round foot. L: 1.6; Head Diam: 1.7; Foot Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.24 (Figs. 50.1; 85.5). 28. Bronze button (No. 11): intact. As Cat. 27. L: 1.6; Head Diam: 1.7; Foot Diam: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.27 (Figs. 50.2; 85.4). 29. Bronze object, fragments (from Urn ‘B’, Cat. 3): perhaps parts of a bronze stud. L: 0.5-1.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.28. 60

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds 43. Iron object (No. 17), fragment: square sectioned, bent. L: 2.4; Wi: 0.5×0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.42 (Fig. 52.8). 44. Iron hook (No. 17), two fragments: semicircular sectioned, arched. L: 2.2 and 4.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.43 (Figs. 52.4-5). 45. Iron nail (?) (No. 17), fragment: rectangular sectioned. L: 1.8; Th: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.44 (Fig. 52.9). 46. Carved bone object: intact. Secondarily burnt. Lathe-worked from the coronet of the shed antler of a red deer (Cervus elaphus). Its exterior parts had been burnt to white, its interior to black. Discshaped, pierced through its centre, with a concentric rib around it on one side. Diam: 3.58; Hole Diam: 0.92; We: 12.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.188.19 (Figs. 51.1; 94.1-2).

N-S (4°) oriented, square grave pit with strongly rounded corners, L: 180; Wi: 120; De: 7. The grave appeared in the western end of the northern trench of Enclosure ditch 99 /110. Its limits could not be observed. There were sherds on its surface, which turned out to be prehistoric. A few calcined bones appeared around it. The fill of the ditch frame was visible below it. Thus, it is certain that this grave was dug after the enclosure ditch had been filled up. The prehistoric pottery sherds (Id. nos.: 48.38574.111.1-2) certainly ended up in the grave fill secondarily. A square based, shallow grave pit could be documented during the excavation. Anthropological analysis: 58 g of tiny and medium, greyish-white, bluish-white and grey calcined bones of an unsexed, 10-15 year-old child. Residual: 1-2. Due to disturbance, it cannot be determined if the assemblage contained any grave goods. Dating: 80 /150 post quem (probably sometime after 175).

Grave 29 (175 /192; AJ-05; Figs. 53.1-2)

Finds

Secondary cremation in a ceramic vase. A part of the human remains were placed into the urn without the pyre remains. N-S (348°) oriented, round grave pit, L: 60; Wi: 51; De: 19. The limits of the feature could not be observed; there were calcined bones and tegulae on its surface. Apart from the tegulae fragments, there was a jar inside the grave (No. 1; Cat. 1), with a large amount of calcined bones at its bottom. Anthropological analysis: 332 g of very tiny, tiny and medium, chalk-white, greyish-white and bluish-white calcined bones of an unsexed, 15-30 year-old individual. Secondary grave good: 1. Residual: 2-3. Due to disturbance, it is possible that we only partially know the grave assemblage. Dating: 100-180.

1. Jar, body fragments: handmade, medium tempered with tiny pebbles, grey. Residual. Wi: 5.5×5.5; Wth: 0.9. Dating: Bronze Age, Urnfield culture; Id. no.: 48.38574.111.2. 2. Storage vase: everted rim, handmade, strongly tempered with tiny pebbles and mica-schist, greyish-brown. Residual. Rd: 25; Wi: 6.5×9; Wth: 1.6. Dating: Bronze Age, Urnfield culture; Id. no.: 48.38574.111.1. Grave 31 (190 / 207; BJ-01; Figs. 54.2-3) The rite of the grave cannot be determined clearly due to the disturbance caused by the agricultural cultivation. It is either a secondary cremation placed into a ceramic vase; or a secondary cremation where the calcined remains had been placed beside the ceramic vase. The grave appeared as a black filled patch. Calcined remains, charcoal, pottery and daub lay on its surface. Its patch already indicated that it had been disturbed. Agricultural cultivation almost entirely destroyed the grave, except its bottom. The fragments of a black vase were found in its strongly charcoaly fill, with a few tiny calcined bones scattered about. Round grave pit, Diam: 111; De: 14. Anthropological analysis: 12 g of tiny and medium, chalkwhite, greyish-white, grey and coal-black calcined bones of an unsexed, at least 5 year-old individual. Grave good (?): 1. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

Finds 1. Jar (No. 1): low foot, concave base. High, becoming extremely narrow towards the base; its ovoid body reaches its largest width below the shoulder. LTCW. Light brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand. The human calcined remains had been placed inside this jar. H: 20; Rd: 14.5; Bd: 7; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.192.1 (Figs. 53.3; 75.2). 2. Jar, body fragment: LTCW. Clay fired to red and grey, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.1; Wi: 5; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.192.2. 3. Jar, body fragment: handmade coarse ware. Clay fired to red on exterior and to brown on interior, tempered with fine pebbles and grog. Prehistoric residual find. Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.192.3. Grave 30 (100 /111; BI-17; Fig. 54.1)

Finds

Secondary cremation. The rite of the grave cannot be determined clearly due to the disturbance caused by the agricultural cultivation. It is certainly a secondary cremation; probably a type where the calcined bones were placed inside the grave without a container, or in one made of organic material.

1. Jar (?), body fragments: DTCW. Clay fired to black, reddish-brown core, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9; Wi: 9; Wth: 0.6-1; Id. no.: 48.38574.207.1 (Fig. 54.4).

61

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 8. Glass balsamarium, fragment of rim and neck: white, transparent glass, with a medium amount of medium air bubbles. H: 6.6; Wi: 0.9; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.7. 9. Coin: Obv: Beardless head of an emperor. Rev: extremely worn. As, dating: 1st century. From unidentifiable mint. Diam: 2.8; We: 8.76; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.8 (Fig. 56.5).

Grave (?) 32 (98 /141; BI-17; Figs. 55.1-2, 5) Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31. E-W (260°) oriented, square pit with rounded corners, L: 138; Wi: 96; De: 36. The feature appeared as a charcoaly patch. The area belonging to the pit was possibly bordered by the squareshaped Enclosure ditch 98 /108. Only a single iron nail was found during its excavation. The structure was completely destroyed by agricultural cultivation. There were no calcined bones inside the pit. Dating: 75-125 (?).

Grave (?) 33 (102 /115; BI-17; Figs. 57.1-2) No human remains were found inside the pit. Its topographical location indicates that it was related to Grave 6 and its enclosure ditch. This is supported by the fact that based on the find material they are contemporaneous. It is very likely that this is not a burial, but a feature connected to Grave 6 (offering pit, the remains of the funeral feast, the funerary pyre, or from another visit paid to the burial place). E-W (270°) oriented, rectangular pit with rounded corners, L: 119; Wi: 74; De: 20. Pottery sherds could be seen on the surface of its light brown filled feature. The burnt animal bones were mostly found in the south-eastern corner of the pit. The northwestern quarter was almost completely empty. Apart from the finds near the surface, it contained no other finds. Definite stray finds within the assemblage: 5, 6. Dating: 40-100, most probably 70-100.

Finds 1. Iron nail: intact. Flat, round head with square sectioned spike. L: 2.2; Th: 0.3; Head Diam: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.141.1 (Fig. 55.3). Enclosure ditch 98 /108 (BI-11-12, BI-16-17; Figs. 55.2, 4-5) The ditch appeared as a square-shaped, black filled patch with a N-S axis open on its southern side. The ditch encloses a 6.5×6.6 m area, with ‘Grave’ 32 in its centre. Its eastern ditch section is shared by Enclosure ditch 99 /110. At the meeting point of the ditches, it turned out that it joins with Enclosure ditch 99 /110 to form a U-profiled ditch. Both their fills had contemporaneous find material. Measurements of the ditch: L: 21; Wi: 0.9; De: 0.5 m.

Finds

Finds

1. Samian cup, base fragment: its material is soft, fired to greyish-pink. Traces of reddish-brown glaze on its surface. An undecipherable, perhaps anepigraphic master stamp in planta pedis (L: 1.2) lies inside a lathe-worked circle on the interior of the ring foot. Form: Consp. 34. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Secondarily burnt. Dating: Claudian-Flavian period, more probably Flavian. H: 0.8; Diam: 3.8; Wi: 4; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.115.1 (Figs. 57.4; 72.6). 2. Samian plate, base and rim fragment: its material was fired to yellowish-grey, its glaze is red coloured to dark brown at parts. Applied dolphin to the left below the rim (L: 2). Form: Consp. 20.4. From a North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to the Fabric E. Secondarily burnt. The dolphin ornament is very similar to, perhaps identical with one of the decorations appearing on the pieces from the L.M.V. group.437 A very similar ornament is known from Arrabona.438 H: 1.7, 3.8 and 1.5; Wi: 2.7 and 7.3; Rd: ca. 20; Wth: 0.5; Dating: Claudian-Vespasian / Titus period; Id. no.: 48.38574.115.2 (Figs. 57.3, 3a; 72.5).

1. Jar, body fragments: with brushed decoration. LTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 5.5; Wi: 4; Wth: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.4. 2. Jar, body fragment: decorated with incised hatched pattern and wavy line. LTCW, orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand, badly fired. H: 2.5; Wi: 2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.5. 3. Jar, fragment: DTCW. Flat base; widening body with steep wall. Grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 7; Bd: 24; Wth: 1.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.6 (Fig. 56.4). 4. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Fired to black, tempered with sand. Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.9. 5. Tripod vase, rim sherd : deep, inward curving, and wide body; low, rounded, almost vertical rim. DTCW, black clay, medium tempered with tiny pebbles. H: 3.5; Rd: 31; Wth: 1.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.2 (Fig. 56.3). 6. Small bowl with everted rim, fragment: wide, deep, curving body; strongly everted, rounded, curving rim. LTCW, orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 4; Rd: 21; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.1 (Fig. 56.2). 7. Lid, fragment: conical knob handle. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Knob Diam: 4.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.108.3 (Fig. 56.1).

437 438

62

Schindler-Kaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 44. D19 Gabler 1967, 3. ábra 4.

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds 3. Small bowl, fragment: LTCW. Greyish-white clay, well-levigated, badly fired. H: 2.5; Wi: 2.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.115.4. 4. Small storage vase, body fragment: decorated with a vertical incised line pattern. LTCW, grey clay, well-levigated. H: 1; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.115.3. 5. Bone splinter: the animal species or the type of bone cannot be determined. 6. Long bone fragment from probably a rodent (Rodentia). 7. Pig (Sus domesticus): burnt bone fragments, from an immature specimen. Head (mandible), ribs, foreleg, lower leg: front half of the animal.

incised line. LTCW or PW, greyish-yellow, welllevigated. Secondarily burnt. Originally, the jug was probably painted. H: 4.5; Wi: 14; Wth: 0.5; Rec Bd: 9.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.164.1 (Fig. 59.3). Grave 36 (186 / 203; AJ-05; Fig. 59.4) Secondary cremation (most probably a simple cremation). W-E (278°) oriented, square grave pit with rounded corners, L: 83; Wi: 59; De: 8. Calcined bones, pottery, charcoal and daub were on the surface of the oval feature and in its black fill. Agricultural cultivation destroyed a significant part of it; only the bottom of the pit could be excavated. The human bone remains, due to their preservation and insignificant size, could not be collected. Grave good (?): 2. Residual (?): 1. Dating: 1/ 50-425.

Grave (?) 34 (146 /161; AI-25; Figs. 58.1-2) E-W (64°) oriented, almost round pit, L: 66; Wi: 59; De: 5. The feature was mostly only indicated by the pottery on its surface. The finds excavated were thoroughly disturbed by agricultural cultivation, and lay scattered about the area of the grave. The remains of several vases were found, which had been separated later at the restoration laboratory. There were no human bones in the grave. Dating: 75-200 (?).

Finds 1. Jar, body fragment: LTCW. Light grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 5; Wi: 6; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.203.1. 2. Iron nail (?): the lower part of its spike is missing. Solid, cone-headed, with a thick, square sectioned spike. L: 3.3; Th: 0.7; Head Diam: 1.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.203.2 (Fig. 59.5).

Finds 1. Plate, partly joining fragments: horizontal base without foot; wide, flat, steep-walled body; extremely inverted, rounded rim. LTCW, red clay, slightly tempered with sand. Secondarily burnt. H: 3.5; Rec Rd: 25; Rec Bd: 16; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.161.1 (Fig. 58.5). 2. Folded cup, partly joining fragments: everted, rounded, short rim, and a slightly elongated, round body decorated by indentations. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 4.5; Rec Rd: 10; Wi: 7; Wth: 0.2-0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.161.2 (Fig. 58.4). 3. Jar, fragment: almost horizontally flaring rim, with an incised groove on its edge. LTCW, brown clay, medium tempered with rough sand, its surface is rough. H: 1.5; Rim Wi: 1.8; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.161.3 (Fig. 58.3).

Grave 37 (103 /116; BI-13; Figs. 60.1-2) Primary inhumation. Rectangular grave pit with rounded corners, L: 184; Wi: 90; De: 50. Orientation of the skeleton: S- N (182°). In extended supine position, the forearms resting on the abdomen. It appeared as a light brown filled, rectangular feature. The first finds came to light 40 cm deep. A small storage vase (No. 1; Cat. 9) in the south-eastern corner of the grave was placed outside of the coffin. On its eastern side lay an iron lock in vertical position with a bronze tongue (No. 2; Cats. 13, 17-20); while on its west side were the hinges necessary for opening the box (Nos. 3-4; Cats. 15-16). The skull was found at the southern part of the grave. At the northern end of the grave, on the outside of the right foot lay an iron ring with a silver wire twisted around it and 10 silver rings (No. 5; Cat. 11) strung on it. This find was placed inside the coffin. A bronze ring (No. 6; Cat. 12) lay next to its right thigh. For the study of the coffin structure used for the burial, a section was cut at the centre of the grave, which resulted in further fittings (Nos. 7, 9; Cats. 14, 23). The discolouration of the wooden parts, however, could not be seen in the section. Anthropological analysis: a 23-30 year-old woman. Grave good: 9, 11-12. Parts of the wooden box: 13-22. Residual: 1-8, 10. Dating: 80-200.

Grave (?) 35 (149 /164; AI-25; Figs. 59.1-2) SW-NE (232°) oriented, rectangular pit with rounded corners, L: 134; Wi: 98; De: 16. Charcoal, pottery sherds, and daub fragments were visible on the surface of the black filled feature. Its fill was very loose, interwoven by plant roots. Agricultural cultivation destroyed a significant part of it; only the bottom of the pit could be excavated. The structure did not contain human remains. Dating: 1/ 50-300(?).

Finds

Finds

1. Jug, body fragment: red paint on its exterior. PW, yellow clay, well-levigated, badly fired. H: 5.5; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.15.

1. Jug, unjoining sherds: low foot; body with curving wall. Two body fragments are decorated with an 63

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) 2. Jug, body and rim fragment: LTCW. Orange-red clay, well-levigated, badly fired. Wi: 3×2.8; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.1. 3. Jug, rim fragment: LTCW. Yellow clay, welllevigated, badly fired. Wi: 2.5×1.5; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.4. 4. Jug, body fragment: LTCW. Orange-red clay, welllevigated, badly fired. Wi: 1.5×1.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.5. 5. Large storage vase, rim fragment: wide, horizontal rim. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. Rec Rd: 18; Rim Wi: 2; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.3 (Fig. 60.3). 6. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Grey clay, slightly tempered with rough sand. Wi: 3.5×2.8; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.6. 7. Jar, body fragment: decorated with two parallel grooved lines. DTCW, clay fired to brownish-grey on exterior, black on interior, with reddish-brown core, medium tempered with rough sand. Wi: 3.5×3.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.7. 8. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to black on exterior, brown on interior, with reddish-brown core, medium tempered with rough sand. Wi: 3×2; Wth: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.8. 9. Small storage vase (No. 1): intact. Flat base; downwards slightly elongated globular body; short, steep shoulder; short neck decorated with a single rib; slantingly everted and rounded rim. DTCW. Dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 9; Rd: 5.5; Bd: 3.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.2 (Figs. 60.4; 77.9). 10. Small storage vase, base and body fragment: DTCW, light grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. Wi: 7.5×4; Bd: 6; Wth: 0.4-0.6; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.9. 11. Iron loop with silver rings (No. 5): broken into two, with smaller sections missing. The two ends of the iron loop are spirally twisted onto each other. A piece of silver wire is coiled 31 times onto one half. 10 rhomboid sectioned silver rings are strung onto the iron loop. Their ends are spirally twisted into each other. Iron ring Diam: 9; silver rings Diam: 1.6-2; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.16 (Figs. 62.4-14; 85.6). 12. Bronze ring (No. 6): intact. Round, circular sectioned, cast. Diam: 4.2; Th: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.10 (Fig. 62.15). 13. Bronze rivet (No. 2; belongs to the lock mechanism): a part of the head is missing; slightly deformed. Flattened head, with narrowing short spike. L: 1; Th: 0.1; Head Diam: 1.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.19 (Fig. 62.25). 14. Box fitting (No. 9): as Cat. 23, with smaller parts missing from the plate. L: 6.5; Wi: 5.7; Plate Th: 0.2; Nail head Diam: 1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.11 (Figs. 62.2; 91.1). 15. Iron hinge (No. 4). L: 13; Wi: 4.5; Spike Th: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.17 (Figs. 61.4; 91.4). 16. Iron hinge (No. 3). L: 13; Wi: 4; Spike Th: 1; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.18 (Figs. 61.5; 91.3).

17. Iron handle (No. 2): intact. Its shaft narrows in one direction, with an angular section. One end is bent upwards, widening; while its other end turns to the side and narrows. L: 9; Wi: 2.7; Th: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.21 (Figs. 61.2; 90.1-2). 18. Iron key (No. 2; belongs to the lock mechanism): intact. Strongly corroded, badly preserved. Tiny ring, with a short stem and sideways connecting blade. L: 8.5; Wi: 2.7; Th: 1.2; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.22 (Figs. 61.3; 90.3). 19. Bronze lock mechanism with iron escutcheon (No. 2): a part of the escutcheon is missing. Fragment of circular iron plate, with two iron rivets in it, and a slightly amorphous, trapezoid keyhole. A cast bronze tongue was attached to its interior. Escutcheon: Diam: 11; Tongue L: 8.5, Wi: 1.8 and Th: 0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.23 (Figs. 61.1; 90.12). 20. Iron nail (No. 2): 6 pcs, point broken off; globular head, deformed, with fragmentary spike. L: 4.4; Th: 0.3-0.7; Head Diam: 0.9-1.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.20 (Figs. 62.16; 18-21, 23). 21. Iron nail (No. 8): flattened head with cylindrical sectioned spike. Head Diam: 1.2; Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.12 (Fig. 62.17). 22. Iron nail, spike: 2pcs, rhomboid sectioned. Th: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.13 (Figs. 62.22, 24). 23. Box fittings (No. 7): intact. Rectangular, wrought iron plate, with three globular headed rivets. Wi: 7.2×5.6; Th: 0.2; Nail Diam:1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.116.14 (Figs. 62.1, 3; 91.2). Grave 38 (125 /139; BI-17; Figs. 63.1-2) Primary inhumation. The grave is oriented N-S (350°), L: 233; Wi: 93; De: 57. It appeared as a rectangular patch with uncertain contours. The skeleton is in extended supine position, the arms crossed in front of the chest. Based on the position of the chest bones, the decomposition of the body must have happened in the open air, either in a presumed wooden coffin, or a construction of wooden boards was placed inside the grave. The pottery had probably been placed onto the wooden construction, after the disintegration of which they had fallen onto the body. On the exterior side of the right knee of the deceased appeared a yellow jug (No. 1; Cat. 1), and between the two knees there was a red, small storage vase (No. 3; Cat. 3). A folded baeker (No. 2; Cat. 2) lay at the right foot. The only item of clothing was a bronze fibula (No. 4; Cat. 7) to the left of the head. The neck of the jug is broken, while the cup is completely intact. The contours of the presumed coffin could not be determined. Remains of organic materials could be discerned on the chest and pelvis of the deceased. Following the removal of the skeleton and the find material, a rectangular dug pit could be documented. Anthropological analysis: 26-35 year-old man. Grave good: 1-3, 7. Residual: 4-6. Dating: 140-180 / 200. 64

Catalogue of graves, enclosure ditches and their finds Finds

Finds 1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

1. Jar (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Low foot with concave sides; slightly biconical body narrowing strongly towards the bottom; steep shoulder; short neck; everted, horizontal topped rim with triangular section. Asymmetric, careless pottery work. DTCW, dark grey clay, at parts fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 16.5; Rd: 14; Bd: 6.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.1 (Figs. 64.3; 75.3). 2. Jar, everted rim and body fragments: incised line on the top of rim. DTCW, dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 1.8; Wi: 5.3; Rim Wi: 1.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.2. 3. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to black on exterior and brown on interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.5; Wi: 5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.4. 4. Jar, rim sherd: top of rim is decorated with parallel grooves. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 1.2; Wi: 4.3; Rim Wi: 1.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.7. 5. Jar, body fragment with brushed decoration: DTCW. Clay fired to grey-red spots on exterior, grey on interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3; Wi: 3; Wth: 0.7-0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.8. 6. Jar, base and body fragment: DTCW. Red clay, at parts fired to grey patchy, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.5; Wi: 3.5; Bd: 13; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.165.9. 7. Jug, body fragments: LTCW. Yellow clay, slightly tempered with sand. Wth: 0.5; Id. nos.: 48.38574.165.3 and 5-6.

Jug (No. 1): its spout is missing. Low ring foot, base jutting out at centre. Elongated ovoid body with high shoulder and cylindrical neck. Once with round spout. An elliptic sectioned strap handle runs from the shoulder up into the upper part of the neck, breaking at a right angle. LTCW, yellow clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 17.5; Rd: 3; Handle Wi: 2; Bd: 4; Wth: 3; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.2 (Figs. 63.3; 79.3). Folded beaker (No. 2): intact. Base flat, narrowing downwards, its globular body is decorated by indentations, as well as two parallel incised line decorations running around the vase on the shoulder and belly. Its shoulder is flat; its neck short; its rim rounded and everted. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 13; Rd: 8; Bd: 6; Wth: 0.3; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.3 (Figs. 63.6; 78.1). Small cup with handle (No. 3): glued from several fragments, its handle is missing. Low foot; its globular body is slightly flattened at the top and bottom; its everted rim becomes thin. The traces of where the handle attached can be found at the widest point of the belly and on the shoulder. LTCW, orange-red clay, slightly tempered with sand. H: 12; Rd: 8; Bd: 5.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.1 (Figs. 63.5; 77.8). Deep bowl with horizontal rim (?), rim fragment: horizontal rim, slightly slanting downwards; 2 and 3 incised lines at its ends running round. DTCW, clay fired to black, slightly tempered with rough sand. Rd: 17; Rim Wi: 1.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.4 (Fig. 63.4). Ceramic vase, rim and body fragment: DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3.1; Wi: 3.1; Wth: 0.4-0.7; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.5. Mortarium, body fragment: LTCW. Red clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 2.1; Wi: 2.4; Wth: 0.9; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.6. Bronze fibula (No. 4): intact. Strongly profiled fibula, 2×4 spiralled, with external cord. Its head is trumpet-shaped; its bow is decorated by profiles; its foot is elongated with a multi-profiled knob. Its catch-plate is high and wide. Cast, with incised decoration. L: 5.5; Wi: 2.1; Id. no.: 48.38574.139.7 (Figs. 63.7; 84.1).

Grave 40 (189 / 206; AJ-05; Figs. 65.1-2) Primary inhumation. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 266, 237. W-E (265°) oriented, rectangular grave pit, L: 231; Wi: 97; De: 27. Square-shaped feature with a yellow, loessy fill. A small amount of Roman pottery was found in the topmost layer. Their position raises the question whether they had been placed in the grave during the funerary rite, or secondarily with the filling up of the grave, as the grave is undisturbed. The level of the skeleton appeared 5 cm below the scraped surface. A conical glass beaker (No. 1; Cat. 4) was placed in the western corner of the grave. An iron knife lay next to the left femur, while a bronze crossbow fibula (No. 3; Cat. 5) was found on the right clavicle. The rim sherds of a jar lay at the right pelvic blade. Anthropological analysis: a 40-49 year-old man. Grave good: 4-6. Residual: 1-3. Dating: 330 / 335-420 / 450.

Grave 39 (150 /165; BI-21; Figs. 64.1-2) Most probably a primary inhumation. The orientation of the grave is E-W (72°), L: 136; Wi: 77; De: 39. It appeared as a light brown feature. Its fill was loose in its upper layers, later changing to solid. Only a few pottery sherds appeared from these strata. A badly preserved skeleton was found at the bottom of the grave represented by a few long bones and skull bones; and a collapsed jar (No. 1; Cat. 1) lay in its western half. No signs of disturbance could be observed. Anthropological analysis: unsexed, 1-1.5 year-old child. Grave good: 1. Residual: 2-7. Dating: 100-200.

Finds: 1. Jar, sherd: the steep shoulder and short neck are covered with dense wheel-marks. Thickening, 65

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

rounded, everted rim. DTCW, clay fired to black on exterior, brown on interior, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 5.5; Rd: 15; Wi: 3.5; Wth: 0.6; Id. nos.: 48.38574.206.1-2 (Fig. 65.7). Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Clay fired to black and dark grey, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 3; Wi: 4; Wth: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.206.4. Lid, rim fragments: lid thinning strongly towards the edges, with high, slightly curving sided rim. DTCW, clay fired to black and dark grey, medium tempered with rough sand. Diam: 14; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.206.3 (Fig. 65.5). Glass beaker (No. 1): glued from several fragments. Narrow, flat base; tall, conical body widening towards the top; very slightly everted, rounded rim. Transparent, very light greenish glass, without air bubbles. H: 12.5; Rd: 8.5; Bd: 3; Id. no.: 48.38574.206.5 (Figs. 65.3; 93.1-2). Crossbow fibula (No. 3): intact. Hinged, closure without a spiral. Its T-shaped head is decorated with thoroughly compressed beads on both sides, with additional tiny knobs; and discoidal elements with incised spiral ornaments before them. The spine of the bow is decorated by a line of engraved dots between two horizontal lines. Four incised circles on its foot at the stem of the bow, and six more at the other end of the foot. Cast from several parts, and decorated with incised patterns. L: 7; Wi: 4.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.206.6 (Figs. 65.4; 84.3). Iron knife (No. 2): its point is broken off. Small knife with a long tang narrowing intensively towards its end. Short blade with a curved cutting edge and a convex spine. L: 13; Blade L: 7; Blade Wi: 2.3; Hilt L: 6; Id. no.: 48.38574.206.7 (Figs. 65.6; 89.6).

Finds 1. Jug, body fragment: LTCW. Red clay, medium tempered with sand. H: 2.5; Wi: 3; Wth: 0.8; Id. no.: 48.38574.209.3. 2. Jar, body fragment: DTCW. Dark grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 2.5; Wi: 4.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.209.4. 3. Small bowl (No. 2): glued from several fragments. Low foot with concave base. Wide, flat body with strongly concave wall; the transition of the body to the almost vertical shoulder is articulated by a sharp break and a ring in relief. The strongly everted rim forms a collar, it is rounded at the top. DTCW, clay fired to black, medium tempered with tiny pebbles. H: 6; Rd: 16; Bd: 6.5; Wth: 0.5; Id. no.: 48.38574.209.1 (Figs. 66.4; 80.9). 4. Mug with handle (No. 1): glued from several fragments, with small pieces missing. Asymmetrical; foot concave on one side, and vertical on the other; ovoid body’s lower half strongly narrowing, top widening; high shoulder and short neck. Round spout with vertical rim, with an incised horizontal line parallel with the upper and lower edges of the external face of the rim. Bipartite strap handle from the widest point of the body up to the join of the rim and neck. DTCW, grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 13; Rd: 9; Handle L: 7.7; Handle Wi: 1.7; Bd: 4.5; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.209.2 (Figs. 66.3; 78.4). 5. Small storage vase, base fragments: DTCW. Light grey clay, medium tempered with rough sand. H: 2.8; Wi: 2.2; Wth: 0.4; Id. no.: 48.38574.209.5.

Grave 41 (192 / 209; BJ-01; Figs. 66.1-2) Inhumation in a tile grave. Without doubt a primary inhumation. Bib: Ilon 2010, No. 21, 30-31. W – E (250°) oriented, rectangular grave pit, L: 127; Wi: 76; De: 61. The feature appeared as a light brown patch. Its fill was light, loessy and compact. The collapsed covering tegulae appeared 23 cm below the scraped surface. At the eastern end of the grave below the tegulae, lay a grey mug with handle (No. 1; Cat. 4) on its side, and a small black bowl (No. 2; Cat. 3). Only the vertical tegulae at the end of the tile grave remained; the central ones were missing. The grave was disturbed. This is also indicated by the scattered skeletal bones. Apart from the long bones and the calvaria, nothing remained. Anthropological analysis: unsexed, 4-6 year-old child. Grave good: 3-4. Residual: 1-2, 5. Due to disturbance, it is possible that we only partially know the grave assemblage. Dating: 285-400.

66

Interpretation of the graffiti Andrea Barta supposed that initially the M D I letter group was intended for Nos. 5-7, just as it had been for No. 4.

Seven vases with incised inscriptions made after firing were found in cremation Grave 4. Latin letters can be read on six Samian plates and small bowls and on one coarse ware bowl among the grave goods. The grave can be dated to the end of the 1st, or to the beginning of the 2nd century.

Due to their shape, the letters on the Samian vessels were incised on the more easily accessible yet normally hidden lower parts, and not on their thin vertical side walls with appliqué decoration. The three letters on plate No. 1 can be read as A M D at first sight, but considering that the M and D were not incised with one line but with repeated cuts, the possibility arises that the A without a horizontal hasta should be read as I similarly to the ones on the Samian bowls, which were also indented twice. Apart from this letter group two independent incisions can be seen on the vessel, on the exterior of the ring foot, where the C-shaped one must be considered as intentional because of the accurate sketching. A palely visible Y-shaped incision, starting out as an X, is probably accidental due to the lack of the above-mentioned accuracy, as well as the other type of X that can be seen on plate No. 2.

1. = Cat. Grave 4. 2 Incisions: I M D or A M D – on ring foot C – on exterior of ring foot, on lower wall of pot, close to ring foot X – on exterior of ring foot, on lower wall of the plate, under articulation of wall 2. = Cat. Grave 4. 3 Incisions: M O H or M D I – inside the ring foot, radially X – on exterior of ring foot, on lower wall of the plate 3. = Cat. Grave 4. 1 Incisions: I TIIRATIS or I(?) Curantis – on exterior of ring foot, on lower wall of vase, under articulation of wall I (lower footbar extending left) or S – on exterior of ring foot, on lower wall of the plate

Inside the ring foot of plate No. 2 the first two letters of the tripartite letter group: M O are clearly visible; however, the third is problematic. It is easiest to consider it as a cursive H, the variation more closely similar to the Latin small h, whose vertical stem was again incised twice. Yet, considering that we are confronted by another three-letter group and the characters on plate No. 1 were scratched in several times with several lines, it is again possible that the letter l was intended by the engraver. Besides, it is possible that the engraver intended to incise a D instead of the O as well, although the written forms of the Ds on the other ceramics do not support this hypothesis. Usually the writing of these letters was very similar. The reading depended on a tiny movement: usually the stem of the D, and the left half of the O made of two half-circles was incised first (which could easily be identical, if the stem of the D curved a bit or the arch of the O happened to be straighter); and secondly with both letters the right half-circle was engraved.439 The M D I letter group incised this way would be more acceptable considering the above-mentioned examples, as well as better corresponding with the whole group of finds, but as long as none of the variations have unquestionable interpretations this can only be seen as an assumption.

4. = Cat. Grave 4. 4 Incisions: M D I (retrograde D) – on wall of vase, upside down 5. = Cat. Grave 4. 7 Incisions: M D – on wall of pot, upside down 6. = Cat. Grave 4. 5 Incisions: I D [-] (or [M] D I – upside down, with retrograde D) – on wall of the bowl 7. = Cat. Grave 4. 6 Incisions: D – on wall of the bowl The graffiti basically repeat three letters (M, D, I) except for the name on plate No. 3. Other incisions can also be observed on the Samian ware examples; nevertheless, apart from the X on plate No. 2, the rest can be interpreted as damage because of the different sketching and line thickness. The graffiti were incised on the walls of the Samian bowls – in the case of small bowl No. 5 the vessel was unmistakably set on its rim when the inscription was made as the two letters can be read from this viewpoint. Supposing the same in the case of small bowl No. 4, the letter D must be interpreted as retrograde, not the M. The D was similarly incised – dish standing on its base – into the severely damaged and fragmentary small bowls Nos. 6-7, but as the M is missing (probably originally incised into No. 6, yet without trace on No. 7), it can only be

The graffiti were applied to the lower horizontal part of plate No. 3 following the curve of the join. On the basis of the -is ending, most probably the owner’s name can be read on the vase in genitive form, although the simple nominative or the plural dative cannot be rejected either. However, the interpretation of the name is not so easy, as 439

67

Mallon 1982, 187-189.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) the pretty form could hide several name variations. It is not clear whether the I-shaped sign at the beginning of the row is a letter or not. If yes, it is still questionable whether it is the first letter of the name, as it was incised further from the others and is less deep. However, its intentionality is doubtless, since in the case of plate No. 1, A / I also stands further from MD, just as in the case of vessels Nos. 4 and 6. The accurate reading of the letters in front of the R causes further problems: they seem to be the letters TII standing on a discontinuous base line where first the letters, then the horizontal base line were incised.440 The first letter could be a C due to the discontinuous base line, but owing to the presence of the upper horizontal hasta longer on the left and the footbar, a T reading is more likely.441 The other half of the discontinuous base line connects the two Is below, thus it could be read as V (U), but apart from the fact that this is a very rare writing of this letter, the footbars of the Is also contradict this hypothesis. A horizontal hasta-like line appears at the lower quarter of the second I, but due to its uncertainty it is probably accidental and not an E without an upper hasta. The letters incised after the R can be interpreted as AT, or as ANT standing in ligature. The latter is underpinned by the fact that the oblique footbar is missing from the T, which was marked in a distinctly visible way in the case of the first letters of the inscription. To summarize the interpretation of the letters, the I TIIRANTIS reading is most likely but it cannot be accepted without doubt because of the problematic decipherment. If the form is interpreted as genitive, the two parallel I-s are read as an e, and the vertical line standing in front of the letter group is accepted as a word initial I, then we would arrive at the name Iterans, which is unknown so far, yet it would be regularly formed.442 Among the numerous less probable readings the I(?) Curantis version has to be emphasized, which might be anticipated from the overall picture of the text; however, the reasons mentioned above do not underline this hypothesis – just as the Iterantis version is also questionable.

A further, though less probable interpretation of this tripartite letter group can be derived from the site. As grave inscriptions, these letters – though generally in a different order – signify the expression D(is) I(nferis) M(anibus). In connection with the inscription on plate No. 2, it has to be mentioned that the instance of the letter H appearing in this abbreviation occurs in several parts of the Empire. Scholars dealing with these inscriptions interpret it as the equivalent of heros or consider it a hypercorrection.444 Incised pots are frequent grave goods: among the material from Grave 3 at Hallstatt, different names can be read on numerous pots connecting to the burial rite – presumably these were buried next to the dead as sacrificial accessories of the mourners, as ‘accompanying gifts’.445 The problems referring to the incised marks on the seven vessels, and some of their possible interpretations have been defined above. Only the most admissible were mentioned out of the numerous variations; nevertheless, none of them can be wholly accepted until further analogies are found – since if importance is attributed to the I-like signs incised further from the other letters, then newer possibilities may emerge.

The inscriptions on vessels Nos. 4-7 are without doubt the works of one hand: the arrangement, the shaping of the letters, and the pottery types bearing the incisions are similar.443 Probably they were also incised on the vessels at the same time. The three letters infer a tria nomina reading, which can only be specified if we suppose that the incisions create one unit; thus, by accepting the Iterans reading of the third incision, it can be considered the cognomen of the M D I abbreviation. In this case the M D I inscription would imply the owner of the pot. 440 As the lower section of the letter stems and their right angled oblique footbars are cut by this line; on incised letter fragments standing on base lines, cf. Barta 2006, 137, kat. 92. 441 Though on the basis of Mallon 1982, 187-189, the writings of these letters are extremely similar. 442 The inscription does not have to be regarded as a name by all means, but the words incised on pots in genitive were used as names almost without exception. 443 Such assemblages where the same name and abbreviation occurs several times are also known from other sites: one of the closest parallels is from Nagykanizsa, Inkey kápolna site where the name Paulina appears 25 times on pottery fragments: Bilkei 1985, 12.

444 L’Année Épigraphique 1976, 00624: D(is) H(eroibusque?) I(nferis) M(anibus) / Campanus / ex decurion[e] / vixit an(n)is / Asholes co[niugi bene] / merenti po[suit] / avetes(!) supe[ri]; and ILAlg-02-03, 10181: D(is) {H}I(nferis) M(anibus) / M(arcus) Iulius / Felicio / vix(i)t annis / XXI. 445 Zabehlicky 1991, 278.

68

Roman graves at the Szombathely – Vát sector of Main Road 86: results of the anthropological analysis Gábor Tóth the southerners were shorter and lower, and their stature also shorter than those living in the northern part of the province. The women living in the border areas had longer, wider, and lower skulls than the women of the interior areas.

Introduction We know very little about the population in the Early Roman period today due to the general use of cremations as the burial rite. More can be found out about the inhabitants of the Late Roman period, as inhumations were wide-spread during that period.446 While there is more information from the eastern half of Transdanubia (Valeria province); the population of the western half of the region is less well known (part of Late Roman Pannonia Prima province). Apart from the cemetery at Keszthely – Dobogó with a larger number of individuals,447 we only have a scattering of data from elsewhere.448 The data from Vas County consist of the solitary graves at Chernelházadamonya449 and Csepreg;450 the cemetery of Sárvár with mixed rituals;451 the cremations at Zanat;452 and from various sites at Szombathely.453 It is rather promising that various anthropological series have been examined (by the author, as yet unpublished) from the regions of Transdanubia and Szombathely (Savaria).

The sites of Western Transdanubia did not contain such a large amount of graves with well-preserved bone material to enable similarly detailed analyses. As proven in practice, the soil conditions do not favour the preservation of bones, especially that of skulls which could be used as reference material. Therefore, another result of the newer studies was the possibility to make comparisons between the various provinces based on the skeletal remains of Western Transdanubia regarded as a combined sample. The distance analysis indicates that there was a difference between the populations of Eastern and Western Transdanubia.456 In Western Transdanubia, based on the average dispersion quotient of cranial measurements, both sexes were more mixed than in Eastern Transdanubia. Similarly to Eastern Transdanubia, the women from this region turned out to be less mixed as well. Based on the average skull measurements, the neurocranium of both men and women were long, of medium width and medium height, with medium wide forehead and zygomatic process. The viscerocrania of men are short and low; while that of women are of medium length and height. Men have very narrow and low orbits, and their noses are of medium width; the orbits of women are narrow and low, and their noses are narrow. The average height of Western Transdanubian men is 168.3 cm and 158.6 cm for women, which is a tall-medium stature category. The percentage of tall individuals among both sexes exceeded 70%. Men were taller by almost 2 cm, women by almost 3 cm in comparison to the Eastern Transdanubian examples, where most individuals were also tall, although their rate did not reach 50%. In Western Transdanubia, only a fifth of the population was of small build, in contrast to the eastern half of Transdanubia, where a third of the men and a quarter of the women could be categorized into this group.

Until recent years, during the comparative analysis of the inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin, conclusions on the Late Roman population with anthropological methods could only be deduced from East Transdanubian data.454 Based on the results of these analyses, the anthropological image of the Roman population was relatively homogenous: Caucasoid population with medium long-long skull shape. The body height decreased slightly from the north towards the south. A recent comparative analysis using partly unpublished data455 confirmed the observation that the East Transdanubian Late Roman population (from Valeria) was moderately mixed, with a majority of long skulls and medium statures. The growth of information has enabled the comparison of the northern and southern halves of the former province; as well as that of the border territories and the interior regions. Although the populations of the northern and southern halves of the province, and those living at the border areas or the inlands were not significantly different to each other, a slight variation could still be identified based on the skull sizes and the stature values. That is to say, in the case of men the skulls of

More precise results can be hoped for with the unified study of the cemeteries in Savaria. A database of the results is being compiled; it also contains the mostly unpublished metrical data from excavations where the anthropological material has already been analysed.

Éry 1991, 40-42. Varga et al. 2005. 448 For a summary, cf. Merczi 2001; Merczi and Tóth 2010. 449 Zoffmann 1981 [1988]. 450 Tóth 1994. 451 Tóth and Kiss 2008; Tóth and Merczi 2010. 452 Tóth 2005 [2006]. 453 Tóth 1999; Ilon and Tóth 2001; Tóth 2003; Tóth 2004; Tóth and Buda 2004; Mayer et al. 2006; Tóth et al. 2006; Merczi and Tóth 2008. 454 Éry 1982; Éry 1983; Éry 1998; Fóthi 1998; Fóthi 2000; Varga et al. 2003. 455 Merczi 2006; Merczi 2007. 446 447

Materials and methods The anthropological analysis was conducted on the cremated, at times inhumated bone material from the 456

69

Merczi and Tóth 2010; Tóth and Merczi 2010.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) burials at the three sites of the excavated road sector. The forty bone remains, indicated by individual stratigraphical numbers, were skeletal remains in seven cases, while the rest of the burials could be identified as cremated material. The cremated remains are stored in separate containers according to the stratigraphical removal of the fills within the urns.

and the interior structure of the femur is between 20-30 years. Grave 3: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 5 containers is 310 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex based on the score of +2 of the linea aspera and the 7-8 mm thickness of the skull bone is male. Age based on the bone measurements and development is between 25-50 years.

The remains were examined in accordance with the recommendations of Lisowski, Nemeskéri and Harsányi, Wahl, Herrmann, Van Vark and Czigány.457 The basic data of sex and age and the analysis of the skeletal remains were estimated based on the general works of Éry and Molleson;458 the estimation of stature was based on the methodology of Sjøvold.459 Taxonomic classification followed the system set by Lipták.460 Demographic calculations (estimations) were prepared with the use of the palaeoanthropological computer program made by Bernert.461

Grave 4: The material from the grave was published separately.463 As stated here, we can summarize the major anthropological results in the following: the analysis was carried out on 1446 g of cremated human bones. These can be supplemented by a further 6 g of fragments from the wrist area showing female traits, with minimal traces of green patina, found next to a bronze vessel belonging to the grave goods; and 88 g of slightly burnt bone material comprising parietal bone fragments, which do not show any gender traits or sutures, but in comparison to the other parietal bone fragments of the grave the 5-7 mm thickness indicates male features. The sizes of the fragments vary from tiny pieces to the insufficiently cremated ones (above 70 mm). They are chalk-white, greyish-white and greyishblue in colour. Despite the high temperature, the remains do not indicate that they had been thoroughly cremated. Most likely, the hot ashes were not cooled down suddenly, as the signs indicating a sudden change of temperature cannot be observed on the fragments. All the anatomical regions of the skull and skeleton can be found among the remains. Even without a more precise examination, the three larger femur pieces clearly indicate that the remains had belonged to at least two individuals. 1st individual: 30-40 year-old man. Obliteration: score of 2; trajectory of femur: score of 2. Thick skull bone, 17 mm thick at occipital section, external occipital protuberance +1, occipital surface +2. Linea aspera +1. The diameter of the radius head is 17 mm. There are no pathological alterations visible on the joint surfaces, the dens of the second vertebra was slightly deformed in vivo. 2nd individual: 20-30 year-old woman. Obliteration: score of 1, trajectory of humerus: score of 1. Gracile skull bone, 12 mm thick at the area of the occipital bone. Mandible, radius, femur fragments are gracile in appearance. Reconstructed size of the femoral head is 41 mm (-1). Linea aspera: -1.

Nemesbőd – Irtás-dűlő462 Feature no. 30 / Stratigraphic unit 73 (Grave 30 / 73 in the following): The total weight of the cremated remains is 106 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyishwhite, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the structure of the skull bones and a score of 2 of the obliteration is between 20-40 years. Grave 31/ 61: Skeletal remains. Fragmentary skull and skeleton. Sex based on 5 characteristics, without weighing, regarding the robust features of the bones, is probably male (+ 0.8). Age, based on the interior structures of the obliteration, humerus and femur, and the worn state of teeth is between 33-39 years. Skull cannot be measured. Some measurements of the extremities can be determined: right clavicle 1:137. Right humerus 1:330. Left femur 9:32, 10:28, 19:48. Right tibia 1:235. Estimated height 160.1 cm. Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő Grave 1: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 4 containers is 152 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are sandy-yellow and grey. Sex unidentifiable, the greater sciatic notch has feminine traits. Age based on the bone measurements, the obliteration with a score of 1, and the worn state of teeth is between 15-25 years.

Grave 5: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 9 containers is 408 g (without the animal bones). The extremely tiny, tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, greyish-blue, sandy-yellow, grey and coalblack. Sex can be identified based on the femoral head, the large cut in the hip bone and the gracile ulna as probably female. Age based on the examinable teeth and the interior structure of the femur is between 20-30 years.

Grave 2: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 204 g. The medium-sized fragments are grey and coal-black. Sex based on the score of +2 for the femoral head is male. Age based on the bone measurements

Grave 6: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 66 g (without the animal bones). The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, sandy-

Lisowski 1968; Nemeskéri and Harsányi 1968; Wahl 1981; Herrmann 1988; Van Vark et al. 1996; Czigány 2000. 458 Éry 1992; Molleson 1986. 459 Sjøvold 1990. 460 Lipták 1980. 461 Bernert 2005. 462 NOCH site registration no. 67791; field director: Ágnes Dobozi, 2008. 457

463

70

Fülöp et al. 2010.

Roman graves at the Szombathely –  Vát section of Main Road 86: results of the anthropological analysis yellow and grey. Sex unidentifiable. Age can be estimated between 5-x years.

Grave 16: The total weight of the cremated remains is 8 g. The tiny fragments are greyish-white and sandy-yellow. Sex unidentifiable. Age may be from infant category to x years.

Grave 7: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 5 containers is 220 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, the development of the cranial bones, and the score of 1 for the obliteration is between 15-30 years.

Grave 17: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 4 containers is 330 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white and greyish-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, obliteration and joint surfaces is between 30-40 years.

Grave 8: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 158 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, brownish-blue, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements and the ulna fragments may be between 20-x years.

Grave 18: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 20 g. The medium sized fragments are chalk-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements is between 15-x years. Grave 19: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 26 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white and greyish-blue. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements and the obliteration is between 20-30 years.

Grave 9: The total weight of the cremated remains is 12 g. The extremely tiny and tiny sized fragments are chalkwhite and greyish-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, as well as the thicknesses and structures of the flat cranial sections is between 3-5 years.

Grave 20: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 4 containers is 984 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white, greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, the tooth roots, the joint surfaces of the phalanxes and the obliteration is between 30-40 years.

Grave 10: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 6 containers is 269 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are metallic blue, light brown, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, the vertebrae, tibia and olecranon of a juvenile is between 18-20 years.

Grave 21: The total weight of the cremated remains is 6 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white and bluish-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements and structures is between 15-x years.

Grave 11: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 50 g. The tiny fragments are greyish-white and greyish-blue. There is green patina on some fragments. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements and the tooth root is between 10-20 years.

Grave 22: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 4 containers is 200 g (without the bird bones). The tiny, medium and large fragments are greyish-white, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, structure and patella is between 20-40 years. Regarding that the bone material was placed into an urn, we can identify that the bone sizes grow from top to bottom and the remains are less burnt.

Grave 12: The total weight of the cremated remains is 66 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on bone measurements and structure, and a tooth is between 15-x years. Grave 13: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 1116 g. The tiny, medium and large sized fragments are greyish-white and sandy-yellow. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, the obliteration, the interior structure of the humerus with juvenile traits is between 18-25 years.

Grave 23: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 796 g (without the animal bones). The tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white, greyishwhite, bluish-white and greyish-blue. Sex based on the gracile dens axis is probably female. Age based on the bone measurements, the dens axis, the hand bones, joint surfaces, tooth roots and the obliteration is between 20-30 years.

Grave 14: The total weight of the cremated remains is 20 g. The tiny fragments are chalk-white and greyish-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements is between 15-x years.

Grave 24: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 596 g (without the bird bones). The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements is between 20-x years.

Grave 15: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 2 containers is 128 g (without the bird bones). The medium sized fragments are greyish-white, light brown and grey. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements is between 20-x years.

Grave 25: The total weight of the cremated remains is 429 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the 71

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) from the extremities: right humerus 7: 57, left femur 6:24, 7:27, 9:31, 10:22, 19:(43), 8:78. From separately packed remains: the tooth neck of the lower right M7 shows signs of caries. Signs of physical strain on the metatarsal bones; lateral ridge formation on diaphysis.

bone measurements and structure, as well as the interior structure of the humerus is between 15-30 years. Grave 26: The weight of the cremated remains from Find no. 1 is 4 g. The extremely tiny and tiny sized fragments are greyish-white and sandy-yellow. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements probably falls within an infant category.

Grave 38: The inhumated remains consist of the fragmentary skull and a generally well-preserved skeleton (with a separate container of 5 g of unburnt bone fragments). Its sex can be identified as male based on 15 characteristics, without weighing, considering the robust quality of the bones (+0.33). Its age based on the obliteration, the interior structure of the humerus, the deterioration of the teeth, and the joint surfaces is between 26-35 years. Following the premortem and postmortem tooth loss of 26 teeth can be examined, among which 2 have radix and 5 caries. A cyst on the lower right 6 molar. An epigenetic trait is an inca bone. The skull shows pathological deformations on the left parietal bone, 17 mm from the sagittal suture, and 21 mm from the lambdoid suture, which is a 32×22 mm blunt injury. The inner skull surface is negative. The wound had healed without any complications. The pathological marks of the extremities: physical strain on the calcaneum. The mid-third of the right tibia had thickened with a minimal angulation: the signs of a healed fracture, where the bone had thickened, showing a cortex-like structure. Similar type of thickening, angulation and cortex-like structure on the fibula. Bone depositions indicating inflammation on the medial side of the left tibia. Alterations indicating a fracture at the distal third of the left fibula. Considering the above, the appearance of the two limbs corresponds to the picture of osteomyelitis developing after a fracture. Data measured from the skull: 1:177, 8:149, 9:97, 10:127, 11:129, 12:114, 23:532, 43:103, 69:(31), 70:65, 71:34. Data measured from the extremities: left clavicle 6:38. Right humerus 4:67, 7:68. Left humerus 4:66, 7:63. Right radius 1:272. Right ulna 1:287. Right femur 6:31, 7:36, 8:105, 9:41, 10:29, 19:54, 20:90. Left femur 1:500, 2:498, 6:29, 7:34, 8:104, 9:41, 10:28, 19:54, 20:92. Estimated height 180.8 cm. Taxonomically Cro-magnon type.

Grave 27: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 825 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, sandy-yellow, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on bone measurements, tooth roots, phalanxes, the olecranon process and patella is between 20-30 years. Regarding that the bone material was placed into an urn, it is characteristic that the bones grow darker, their sizes grow from top to bottom and the remains become less burnt. The badly burnt, larger bone fragments were placed at the bottom of the urn. Grave 28: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 9 containers, originating from urns and from among the grave goods is 4542 g. The tiny, medium and large fragments are chalk-white, greyish-white, metallic blue, sandy-yellow and grey. The well-burnt or slightly burnt skull fragments, sutures, jaw fragments, tooth roots and teeth, tubular bone pieces from the extremities, joint surfaces, ribs and phalanxes indicate that they are the remains of at least two individuals: one aged between 3050 years, of unidentifiable sex (Find 1); and the other aged between 20-30 years, of unidentifiable sex (Find 4), but based on the mandibular condyle it shows male traits. Grave 29: The total weight of the cremated remains arriving in 3 containers is 332 g. The extremely tiny, tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white, greyish-white and bluish-white. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, tooth root, and obliteration is between 15-30 years. Grave 30: The total weight of the cremated remains is 58 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyish-white, bluish-white and grey. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the size of the pelvis fragment is between 10-15 years.

Grave 39: The inhumated remains consist of an incomplete and fragmentary skull and skeleton. Sex unidentifiable based on morphological characteristics. Age based on the denture and the measurements of the long bones is between 1-1.5 years.

Grave 31: The total weight of the cremated remains is 12 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are chalk-white, greyish-white, grey and coal-black. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements is between 5-x years.

Grave 40: The inhumated remains consist of a skull and skeleton. Its sex can be identified as male based on 16 characteristics, without weighing, considering the robust quality of the bones (+ 0.94). Its age based on the obliteration, the interior structure of the femur, and the deterioration of the teeth is between 40-49 years. Regarding the status of the denture, the maxillary dental arch is insufficient for study. On the mandible: 12 teeth were lost premortem, and 2 teeth postmortem. Of the two dental arches, we can mention the medium wear of 6 teeth and the presence of plaque.

Grave 37: The inhumated remains consist of the skull and fragments of the incomplete skeleton. Its sex can be identified as female based on 9 characteristics, without weighing, considering the gracile quality of the bones (-0.56). Its age based on the obliteration, the interior structure of the femur and the teeth is between 23-30 years. Taxonomically the individual can be characterized as a ‘gracile Mediterranean’ type. Data measured from the skull: 1:(170), 8:140, 10:(123), 11:123, 12:107. Data measured

Lesions due to physical strain on the calcanea and the patellas. Ridge formation on the second cervical and on the 72

Roman graves at the Szombathely –  Vát section of Main Road 86: results of the anthropological analysis thoracic vertebrae. Data measured from the skull: 1:189, 8:143, 9:87, 10:112, 11:127, 12:113, 20:112, 45:131, 23:534, 43:101, 46:(76), 51:36, 52:31, 66:101, 69:25, 71:30. Data measured from the extremities: Right clavicle 6:43, left clavicle 6:39. Right humerus 7:72, left humerus 7:70. Right femur 1:470, 2:468, 6:30, 7:28, 8:92, 9:34, 10:29, 19:49. Left femur 1:475, 2:474, 6:30, 7:31, 8:95, 9:34, 10:30, 19:49. Right tibia 8a:36, 9a:30, 10b:82. Left tibia: 8a:36, 9a:29, 10b:81. Estimated height 174.4 cm. Taxonomically Cro-magnon type.

(calcined), or medium well-burnt remains; at times they are burnt to a chalk-like texture, or are simply slightly or not well-burnt at all, being partially fired or just singed pieces. Their fragments are mostly in the range of tiny (10 mm and smaller) and medium sized pieces (11-50 mm). The number of extremely tiny and larger (above 50 mm) bone fragments within the bone material is smaller. The bones are broken in chunks, at times splintering. The fractures are longitudinal. The cracks are arched. Deformity is not a characteristic, occasionally the deformities on the surfaces were bent in an angle, or twisted with an axis deviation. All of the characteristics above indicate that the individual graves, or the firing of various regions of the body within the graves were not unified. Due to the large amount of unidentifiable fragments, we cannot state that there had been some sort of uniform system for the cremation of the body parts based on the firing of the remains (for example, a more careful cremation of the extremities, the body, or the skull). Usually, the cremation was carried out at a medium or low temperature; or if at a higher temperature, then for a shorter period of time.

Grave 41: The inhumated remains consist of an incomplete and fragmentary skull and skeleton. Sex unidentifiable based on morphological characteristics. Age based on the denture and the measurements of the long bones is between 4-6 years. The bag also contained 4 (long, tubular) bird bones. 28 / 3 (ditch): An unburnt human skull fragment (120×85 mm; composed of only the two parietal and the frontal bones) in the fill on the eastern side of the ditch delimiting the settlement. Thickness 6-7 mm. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the obliteration score between 1 and 2 is between 25-35 years.

Based on our observations, the remains were placed into the urn according to the size of the bone remains; it was not determined by the order of the individual body regions. The less well-burnt, larger bones were placed at the bottom; and the smaller, well-burnt fragments on top. Likewise, our earlier study aimed at defining whether the bone remains had been placed inside urns following anatomical order also proved this to be a false interpretation.466

Vép – Surányi-patak nyugati oldala464 Grave 57 / 316: The total weight of the cremated remains is 174 g. The tiny and medium sized fragments are greyishwhite, bluish-white and light brown. Sex unidentifiable. Age based on the bone measurements, the obliteration and tooth root is between 15-25 years. Iron-oxide discolouration on the maxillary dental arch.

Usually, the remains of a single individual were placed into a grave; the contrary could be determined only in two cases of cremations. In Grave 4, the remains of a man and a woman could be discerned; while in Grave 28, the sex of the two individuals cannot be identified. Among the graves examined at the nearby site of Zanat II467, we may find further examples for double burials. This could be observed in three cases out of seven features at Zanat: twice an adult was interred with a child; and once the remains of two adults survived.

Summary The results of the skeletal remains, due to their small numbers, age distribution and bad state of preservation, are purely informational, and are inadequate for any genral conclusions for the overall population. Stature could be estimated in the case of three males (160.1 cm, 180.8 cm, 174.4 cm). In two cases, the values significantly exceed the Western Transdanubian values that are a few centimetres taller than the Eastern Transdanubian statures. These two men taxonomically showed the characteristics of the CroMagnon type. Although our data are not decisive, the question arises regarding the anthropological effects and continuation of the original Celtic inhabitants.465

On the basis of sex determination and the age at death, we can define that men and women, children and adults were contemporaneously buried in the cemetery. Judging by the large number of graves and the sex and age distribution, we can presume that the cemetery had been in continual use by the inhabitants of a settlement. The estimated infant mortality rate, after the necessary corrections (with the application of palaeodemographic models), can be placed above 30%. The estimated life-span at birth was 17.4 years, which is higher by almost two years compared to the estimates of the same region’s Bronze Age population.468 At the age of 20, an estimated further lifespan was 10.9 years. Estimations made with the help of

The weight of the cremated bone remains per grave varies; being an average 282 g (rarely below 100 g, or above 300 g). The majority of the bone remains is greyish-white, grey or coal-black. More rarely, sandy-yellow or chalkwhite. Even less frequently, some of the bone fragments have discoloured to bluish-white, greyish-blue, light brown or metallic blue. They usually sound dull and porcelainlike; more rarely sharp. Generally, these are well-burnt

Ilon and Tóth 2001. Tóth 2005 [2006]. 468 Tóth 2011a. 466

NOCH site registration no. 68685; field director: Gábor Ilon, 2009. 465 Zoffmann 2009; Tóth 2011b. 464

467

73

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) palaeodemographic models469 indicate that following the high mortality rate at infancy characteristic of the age, the peak of the death rate in adulthood was between 20-30 years (based on the high mortality rate of women, which is caused by deaths during birth and puerperal fever). The gradual decrease in the mortality rate is followed by another, slight rise around the age of 35-40. This is due to the mortality

469

peak of men, which occurs in this age group. The analysis of the skeletal remains also indicates that at this stage the development of bone deformations caused by physical strain were general. In Grave 38, the healed skull wound and the fractures of the lower extremities healing with inflammatory complications also indicate such a lifestyle.

Bernert 2005.

74

Analysis of the archaeozoological material from the three sites at the Szombathely – Vát section of Main Road 86 Éva Ágnes Nyerges Excavations at the sites of Nemesbőd – Általúton kívüldűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I-II led by Gábor Ilon were conducted in 2008-2009. The three sites – nearly 10 km east of Szombathely, on an almost 5.5 ha area – form a single interconnecting unit (Figs. 1-2).

animals (Fig. 100). The remains of mature specimens can be found in the largest numbers with the majority of species. In the case of cattle, the larger rate of adult specimens – despite the fact that the remains of young or still immature specimens together approach the number of fragments  – , apart from meat production, primarily refers to the use of animals in agriculture. This seems to be further supported by the withers heights (Fig. 101), which could be measured in the case of a few long bones (1 cow, 2 bulls, 1 ox metapodium). Based on these, formerly large-medium and large bodied cattle had lived at the settlement,472 which also refers to their exploitation as draught animals.

Description of the animal bone material The true significance of the Nemesbőd – Általúton kívüldűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I-II sites is represented by the Roman site complex extending across the whole excavation area, which incorporates settlement and cemetery remains dating to the 1st-4th centuries.470

While almost 40% of sheep had been slaughtered around their third year or after (which may infer the importance of the use of wool), pigs were almost always butchered while still immature indicating their primary meat usage. Despite these differences, the results of the classification (Fig. 102), according to the quality of consumed meat based on the system of Uerpmann, mirror the osteological preservation of the animals’ anatomy, instead of revealing a characteristic custom of consumption.473

The 112 Roman features with 141 archaeological structures yielded a relatively large amount of archaeozoological material: from the 1382 fragments, 1211 pieces belonged to the settlement (Fig. 98), and 171 pieces were found in the features of the cemetery. The animal bone finds from the settlement The designated excavation area covered the southern, outer section of the former Roman settlement (see above the Introduction). Among the features belonging to the settlement section (mostly pits and ditches), only 46 contained animal bones (Fig. 98).

Among the horse bones, five long bones were adequate for calculating the withers heights (Fig. 101). Based on the results, we can reckon with small and low (1294.821319.18 mm), as well as large-statured (1597.50-1781.98 mm) horses – characteristic of the specimens appearing in Roman horse burials and villa estates of Pannonian indigenous Celtic settlements.474

81% of the relatively unfragmented (57%> = 5 cm) find material could be precisely defined. 97% of these bones belonged to domestic animals; while in comparison – similarly to the composition of zoological remains at other Pannonian villages and villas – the 2% of wild animal remains can be regarded as insignificant.471 The highest quantity as an extreme peak amount was that 41% of the material consisted of cattle (Bos taurus) bones. The merged category of sheep and goats (Ovis aries / Capra hircus) comprises a much smaller group of 7%, which surpasses the 4% of pig (Sus domesticus) remains by only a few fragments. In the case of horses (Equus caballus 21%) and dogs (Canis familiaris 25%), the majority of examples were (almost complete) skeletons thrown into ditches and buried in pits. Among game, only the bones of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, 1 pc) and wild boar (Sus scrofa, 2 pcs) could be identified according to species (Fig. 99).

Two of the horse bones suitable for measurements had each belonged to an almost complete horse skeleton. The two skeletons were buried west of the cemetery, basically alongside it, but within the ditch surrounding the settlement (Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II), in relatively small pits compared to the sizes of the animals, with legs drawn up to the breast and lacking any harness – similarly to the horse burial at the Early Imperial cemetery of Solymár described by István Vörös citing parallels.475 The larger, large-bodied horse476 with a ca. 1608.16 mm withers height was placed into the pit with its head towards the west and lying on its right side (Pit 137 /158: Fig. 103.2). Its neck was unnaturally pointing / pulled forward, which

40% of the fragments were adequate for determining the age at time of death for the slaughtered or naturally dying 470 471

Vörös 1985-1986 [1987], 245; Vörös 1990-1992 [1993], 41. Uerpmann 1973. 474 Vörös 1993-1994 [1994], 202. 475 Vörös 1991, 351. 476 Id. No.: 48.38576.158.1. 472 473

Ilon 2010, 31. Vörös 1993-1994 [1994], 202.

75

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) may also be a result of the slight ‘backward tilt’ of the head. The skeleton is incomplete. The nose, the left foreleg, as well as the pelvis and two back legs are missing; their existence, however, was indicated by a few bone splinters.

the complex study of the archaeological find material can be read in the first publication of the burial.478

The smaller, low specimen,477 with only a 1294.82 mm withers height had a much more complete skeleton; yet, the preservation of most of its bones was rather poor. The animal lay with its head towards the north in the pit (Pit 136 /157: Fig. 103.1) on its right side. Its neck curved naturally; its skull was missing apart from the section of its nose – most probably it had been disturbed by the agricultural cultivation carried out in the area. Its jaw is complete, except for the coracoid and joint spurs. Its legs were pulled up to the body.

Twelve animal bone fragments: Pig (Sus domesticus Erxl. 1777), 7 fragments, vertebra cervicalis, humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpus, phalanx, one specimen, juvenilis (Cat. 41). These bones were unearthed together with the human cremated remains; although the fragments are not burnt, therefore they had been mixed with the human remains after they had cooled down.479 Thus, the bones were not placed onto the pyre, but into the grave, probably serving as a food offering. Small ungulate (Ungulata) cranium, costa, vertebra – based on the observations during the osteological analysis, it is likely that these are fragments belonging to the young pig (Cat. 42). Large ungulate (Ungulata) costa from Enclosure ditch 99 /110 subsequently mixed in with the material (Cat. 9).

Grave 5 and Enclosure ditch 99 /110

The 247 pieces of dog remains from Roman features may have belonged to approximately 20-30 specimens based on the observations made during their examination. The finds are a mix of small, medium, and larger sized specimens. 99% of the ‘carcasses’ were unearthed from various sections of the ditches – already filled up to various degrees naturally or deliberately – belonging to the Roman settlement.

Grave 6 Sheep / goat (Caprinae) scapula, radius, ulna, phalanx; from a young specimen; unburnt (Cat. 13); whether the fragments had belonged to the same specimen could not be discerned; they had been placed into the grave as a food offering, or perhaps as parts of several ‘slices of meat’.480 Small ungulate (Ungulata) flat bone fragment, unburnt (Cat. 14). These bones – although they had been found among the human cremated remains – do not show any signs of transformation due to heat; that is, their mingling with the human remains must have happened subsequently, as in the case of Grave 5.

The animal bone finds from the cemetery At the eastern half of the Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő site, south-east of the former Roman settlement, a sector of the cemetery dating to the 1st-4th centuries was also excavated. Archaeozoological material was found in ten out of 41 burials. Grave 4 Fifteen animal bone fragments, not burnt, one from a Samian ware plate (Cat. 2): Domestic hen (Gallus domesticus L. 1758): vertebrae, lumbosacrale, radius (sin., dex.), ulna (sin., dex.), metacarpus (dex.), phalanx I.ant. (dex.), from a larger sized specimen (Cat. 61). The food offering consisted of the wings together with the rump. The head and the bones of the free hindlimbs are missing. No cut marks can be discerned on the bones, which would indicate the initial removal of the legs. However, purely taphonomic reasons for the absence of the body parts may be refuted by the fact that skull remains did not come to light even in cases of domestic hen offerings where the otherwise fragile skeletal parts had been well preserved. The skeletal bones that had survived were well preserved in this case as well, and several measurements could be obtained from them (Fig. 104). Traces of secondary burn marks can be seen on the plate containing the hen placed into the grave as food offering. The animal’s bones, however, had not become burnt, although they were quite discoloured when found; thus, the bowl had been placed onto the still very hot calcined remains, but the bones were most probably only stained by the ashy, dark soil covering them later. The reconstructed description of the burial rite structured upon

Enclosure ditch 101 /113 Domestic horse (Equus caballus L.1758) tibia, in fragments, very bad preservation, unburnt (Cat. 12). Pig (Sus domesticus Erxl. 1777) radius, calcined, subadult (Cat. 11). Grave 8 One burnt bone pyxis (Cat. 5, Figs. 28.3, 94.3): Large ruminant (Ruminantia); bone container carved from the diaphysis section of the animal’s stylopodium (probably femur); in 2 pieces. (For its detailed description see under Cat. 5, and its assessment in ‘The Finds’ section). Grave 15 Two pieces (Cat. 4) of calcined fragments from among the human remains: Fülöp et al. 2010, 122. Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 55-65. 480 Palágyi and Nagy 2002, 136. 478 479

477

Id. Nos.: 48.38576.157.1-2.

76

Analysis of the archaeozoological material from the three sites at the Szombathely – Vát section of Main Road 86 Possibly from domestic hen (Gallus domesticus L. 1758), tibiotarsus and ulna fragments, from one specimen. (For the detailed description of the probable interment of the bird remains see Grave 22).

Bone splinter, unidentifiable (Cat. 5). Probably rodent (Rodentia) long bone fragment (Cat. 6). Pig (Sus domesticus Erxl. 1777) 7 fragments, mandible, costa, humerus, ulna and long bone splinters unidentifiable more precisely, belonging to the same specimen (Cat. 7). The immature pig skeleton remains – based on the extent of how burnt and fragmented they were – probably required less time for firing than what was needed for the cremation of the human body. The photographs of the grave (Fig. 57.2) show the left tibia and astragalus (tibia, distalis epiphysis, sin., calcined; astragalus, almost complete, sin., calcined) of a small ruminant (Ruminantia) – probably belonging to a single specimen  – , which indicate further ‘offering(s)’ within the feature.

Grave 22 Among human cremated remains, from the lower layer of the urn, six calcined animal bone fragments: Small ungulate (Ungulata) neurocranium fragment (Cat. 12). Domestic hen (Gallus domesticus L. 1758) humerus, radius, ulna, lumbosacrale, femur fragments, from one specimen (Cat. 11). Based on the remains, it can be presumed that the head and feet of the domestic hen had been deliberately removed, while the rest of the body had been left together as a food offering. As these bones had been found together with the human cremated remains, calcined, yet still in identifiable form, it is possible that the hen had been placed onto the funeral pyre towards the end of the ceremony, and the human and animal ashes were lifted together from there into the urn.481

Assessment of the Roman period animal bone material Animal remains definable as food offering in the cemetery section at the Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő site were found in only 6 graves (Graves 4, 5, 6, 15, 22, 24; total 15%). Contrary to the species averages (41% cattle) indicated by the animal bone material (waste) of the partially excavated and archaeologically still not fully studied villa rustica at the Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyredűlő I-II sites, domestic hen and pig bones represented the highest number of animals as meat offerings at the cemetery. (Identifiable) sheep / goat bones were only found in a single burial (Grave 6).

Grave 23 114 unburnt animal bone fragments from among the human remains. All had been in secondary position, thus with value for the documentation, but archaeologically they cannot be determined: Small ungulate (Ungulata) mandible fragment, not quite 1 g, unburnt, and can be regarded as a piece subsequently mixed into the material (Cat. 3). Bicoloured shrew (Crocidura leucodon H. 1780) mandible fragment, modern (Cat. 4). European mole (Talpa europaea L. 1758), 112 skeletal fragments, nine specimens, modern (Cat. 5).

Based on the hen remains of the burials – most likely with heads and feet ends cut off  – , the hens had been placed onto the pyre with the deceased, but only burnt for a shorter period of time. However, the small number of such examples (in Graves 4, 15, 22, 24) cannot sufficiently support the general use of this method.

Grave 24

In the case of the two ungulates, the shoulder, spare ribs, (fore-)thighs and hock parts can be discerned among the offerings, regardless of whether they had been burnt together with the deceased, or they had been placed into the grave following the interment (cooling) of the human remains. Yet, while with sheep / goat the bone remains indicate the ‘meat slices’ of individual specimens, in the case of the pig material, several parts (together or separately) of a single specimen were placed into the burials.

Two calcined animal bone fragments from among the human remains, from the lower layer of the urn: Probably domestic hen (Gallus domesticus L. 1758) long bone fragments, from a single specimen (Cat. 8). (For a detailed description of the presumed burial of bird remains, see Grave 22.) Grave 28 From Urn ‘A’ (Cat. 4), one burnt, carved bone object: Red deer (Cervus elaphus L. 1758), from the shaft of a shedded antler, lathe-worked, disc-shaped object (Figs. 51.1, 94.1-2). (For its detailed description see Cat. 46, and for its assessment ‘The Finds’ section)

The mandible and skull fragments of a pig, and a small ungulate probably identifiable as a pig, may also indicate the possible existence of certain Celtic customs.482

Grave 33 Nine calcined fragments, mostly from the south-eastern corner of the grave: 481

Zsidi 2003, 257; Palágyi 2003, 260.

482

77

Vörös 1991, 352.

Summary Gábor Ilon, András Márton

The present volume contains the study of the most significant feature of the Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő site: a Roman cemetery. The site was excavated between 6 October 2008 and 23 April 2009 led by Gábor Ilon, involving the excavation of 23,198 m² (Figs. 1-3). The detailed environmental historical analysis of the cemetery and its nearest surroundings, as well as the modelled areas around the road line can be found in the work of Pál Sümegi and his colleagues.483 Therefore, only a short summary written by András Radics deals with this topic in this publication. The cemetery lies within the former ‘territorium’ of Savaria (today’s Szombathely), ca. 1300 m north of the road connecting the settlements of Savaria and Bassiana (at the borders of today’s Sárvár?), on the eastern terrace of the Surányi Stream, ca. 860 m from the watercourse, ca. 300 m east of the road leading to the town of Vép. Fortyfour features (37 graves, 4 structures with unidentifiable functions, and 3 enclosure ditches) had been excavated in the cemetery bordered from three directions (north, east and west) (Fig. 3). In order to identify the finds material of the cemetery described here, and to search for for parallels, it is most straightforward to examine the excavated cemetery sectors and graves of Savaria, as well as its ‘territorium’;484 while in a wider context, the published record of the Western Pannonian material is also to be considered. The research of the Roman cemeteries in Savaria goes back almost two centuries. As thus far the four cemeteries could only be excavated on small contiguous areas during rescue excavations connected to construction works, a comprehensive chronological study could not be written as yet – concluded Endre Tóth in the latest comprehensive monograph.485 He estimated that about a hundred thousand burials could have been carried out during the existence of the colonia; while almost half a percent of these graves had been excavated or destroyed – the rate of the latter being much higher, in our opinion – up to the last century. The number of professionally-excavated burial complexes has grown due to the excavations conducted during the past decade, yet his assertion considering the inadequate amount of representative data still holds true; overall studies can still not be carried out. The chronological distribution of the known cemetery sectors is also rather uneven. Sümegi et al. 2011a. For the most recent definition of its boundaries cf. Tóth 2011, 14. 485 Kiss et al. 1998, 52.

The situation regarding the cemeteries of the town’s ‘territorium’ within the Hungarian borders is similar. Apart from the find material found by chance, such as in the case of the two sarcophagi excavated at Répceszent­ györgy – Cigányháza-dűlő,486 we know of only a small number of new finds. The nine graves connecting to the Roman villa at Szombathely – Zanat (field director: Gábor Ilon) were published by Szilvia Bíró,487 and she determined the dates of the burials starting from the Flavian Age and continuing for a further half century. At the northern bypass section of Main Road 88 at Sárvár, at Site 4 of the rescue excavations (field director: Gábor Ilon) conducted there during 2004-2005, a hundred and twenty, mainly cremation burials belonging to the Roman Age had been found. According to the preliminary report, both Early and Late Roman graves can be found at the excavated part of the cemetery,488 of which a scientific analysis could open a new chapter in the study of the cemeteries on the ‘territorium’ of Savaria. After this sketchy review of the state of current research, it is obvious that the sooner the data from the Nemesbőd site is published the better, it may serve with significant additional information for the description of the contemporary history of the ‘territorium’ of colonia Savaria. A cemetery sector (probably continuously) in use during the Early and Late Roman periods was found at the site of Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (Fig. 3). It definitely contained thirty-seven burials. One feature can be identified either as the remains of some kind of ritual offering, or perhaps as the pit where the remains of the pyre were deposited. The function of three features cannot be identified with any certainty. This part of the cemetery was in use probably from the later period of the Flavian Age. The earliest graves are located in three well-delineated areas. At the north-eastern part of the site, there was a group of burials surrounded by ditches (the female burial of Grave 5, the child burial of Grave 6, and Grave 32 without any cremated remains). South of these – at the other end of the site – we find the isolated Grave 4, also serving as the location of the cremation. It contained the remains of two individuals (a 30-40 year-old man, and a woman between 20-30 years). Several signs indicate that Grave 4 had been a privileged burial: this is the largest pyre location (grave) in the whole cemetery section; there had been no other burials in its vicinity for a long period; its grave goods are Kiss and Szilasi 2000-2001 [2002]. Bíró 2005 [2006]. 488 Kiss 2007, 271.

483

486

484

487

78

Summary the richest among the excavated graves (bronze vessels, a Samian ware set, imported oil lamp, and perfume bottles, etc.). There are a few other early burials north-west of this burial as well. The early phase of the cemetery was oriented east -north-east by west - south-west according to a geological or human feature. While there were no burials near the pyre location built into a pit (Grave 4) for a long time, they had used the area near the burials surrounded by ditches, aligning the new interments to these, until the end of the 2nd century. At the south-western part of the site, the burial complexes show horizontal stratigraphy, with the younger burials appearing gradually more to the north. There had been a change in the 3rd century, from which time the Late Roman burials were to be found along the southern borders of the excavated are.

very rare in the province. Their customs of grave furnishing had changed, with new forms of rituals and grave types appearing [such as ‘heap of bones’ burials (Graves 37-40) and tile graves (the cremation burials of Graves 16-21, and the inhumation of Grave 41) during the course of the 2nd century], others vanishing (such as the primary cremations and coin offerings). Based on the belt buckle interred with the deceased, a member of the community had joined the army or was preparing to do so during the 3rd century (Grave 28: Fig. 85.1). All this points to the fact that the Early and Late Roman cemetery had an unbroken history. Probably it is exactly a sector of this later phase of graves that should be located outside the area designated by the line of the auto route towards the south.

The coins and oil lamps found in the burials of the earliest horizon of the cemetery section indicate the ‘Romanised’ and Mediterranean aspects of the interments. The incised inscriptions (Grave 4: Figs. 12-13, 67-69, 71 and 80) show the knowledge and everyday usage of written Latin. The Northern Italian Samian ware in Savaria and its environs is known from burials connecting to the Boian elite – which we cannot deal with here  – , as well as to veterans and immigrant communities.489 The Samian ware and thin-walled vessels do not only bear witness to the material wealth of the community, but also shed light on the use of Roman vessel types for consuming food and drink, or at least this was how they wanted to furnish their dead. The pyres built into and above ditches appeared with the Roman occupation of Pannonia. The cradle of this burial form should be sought in Northern Italy. It had spread from there to other provinces partially by military movement and enlistment. On the basis of the above, the early phase of the cemetery sector connects to an immigrant community (or its descendants), who most probably had come from Northern Italy.490 Based on the pyres built in and above ditches, they might equally have come from Southern Gaul,491 as this had also been a popular grave type there. The imprints of this are the knowledge of script within the cemetery, the Samian ware and bronze vessels, and the pyres built into pits or above them. The burial customs of this little community – who perhaps were the inhabitants of a villa estate which was partially excavated at Site 7, namely Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II, lying west -north-west of the cemetery – can be followed through more than three centuries after.

The relatively large number of graves and the distribution of sex and age infer that this had been a cemetery in constant use by a villa estate. According to the anthropological analysis conducted by Gábor Tóth, the results for the inhumations (due to their small number, age distribution and bad preservation) are purely informative and insufficient for making any conclusions regarding the population. The height of three male individuals could be estimated (160.1 cm, 180.8 cm, 174.4 cm). Two of these values significantly exceeded even the values of Western Transdanubians, who surpass the Eastern Danubian population by centimetres. The taxonomy of these two men showed the characteristics of the CroMagnon type. The estimated infant mortality rate, after the necessary corrections (with the application of palaeodemographic models), can be placed above 30%. The estimated life-span at birth was 17.4 years. At the age of 20, an estimated further life-span was 10.9 years. Estimations made with the help of palaeodemographic models492 indicate that following the high mortality rate at infancy characteristic of the age, the peak of the death rate in adulthood was between 20-30 years (based on the high mortality rate of women, which is caused by death during birth and puerperal fever). The gradual decrease in the mortality rate is followed by another, slight rise around the age of 35-40. This is due to the mortality peak of men, which occurs in this age group. Animal remains that can be identified as food offerings with certainty were only found in six graves (Graves 4, 5, 6, 15, 22, 24; total 15%). Contrary to the species distribution indicated by the archaeozoological find material in connection with the settlement joining the cemetery (41% of the settlement bone remains came from cattle), the domestic hen and pig were the most frequent animals deposited as food offerings. The hens with heads and feet-ends cut off, were perhaps burnt on the pyre for a short while together with the deceased. However, due to the small number of occurrences (Graves 4, 15, 22 and 24),

During the 2nd century, indigenous peoples had also possibly appeared among the population using the cemetery (indicated by the Almgren 70 / 73 type fibulae, and the Southern Pannonian anklet or bracelet). It is also possible that other individuals from various provinces had joined the community later, bringing the rite of the secondary cremation inside an imbrex (Grave 17), which is Gabler 1973, 25-26; Márton 2008, 136-140, Fig. 1.a-b. For the roles of Northern Italian immigrants within the population of Savaria and its ‘territorium’ cf. Mócsy 1959, 37-38. 491 There are examples of Southern Gallic immigrants in the ‘territorium’ of Savaria: Mócsy 1959, Nr. 32. and maybe Nr. 90 /15. 489 490

492

79

Bernert 2005.

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) it is not known if this method was generally in use. The (identified) remains of sheep / goat bones were only found in a single burial (Grave 6).

had been burnt on the pyre together with the dead, or had been placed into the burials as secondary grave goods. Nevertheless, while in the case of sheep / goat, the bone remains infer that ‘meat slices’ from several specimens could have been deposited in the burials; regarding the pig remains, various parts of a single specimen (together or separately) were sacrificed.

In the case of the two ungulate species, the deposition of parts of the shoulder, spare ribs, (fore)leg and forequarter hock can be observed irrespective of the fact whether they

Résumé Gábor Ilon, András Márton Le présent volume correspond à la monographie de la partie la plus importante du site Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő : la nécropole romaine. Le site a été fouillé sur une surface de 23 198 m² (Figs. 1-3), entre le 6 octobre 2008 et le 23 avril 2009, sous la direction de Gábor Ilon.

synthèse.495 Il a estimé qu’environ cent mille tombes auraient pu être créées durant toute la période où la colonie a existé ; tandis qu’approximativement un demi pourcent de ces tombes ont été fouillées ou détruites jusqu’au siècle dernier – la proportion de ces dernières étant certainement beaucoup plus importante, à notre avis  – . Le nombre des complexes funéraires fouillés selon les méthodologies modernes a augmenté grâce aux opérations conduites lors de la dernière décennie, mais, compte-tenu de la quantité insuffisante de données représentatives, il reste vrai qu’une étude globale ne peut pas encore être réalisée. La distribution chronologique des sections connues des nécropoles est aussi assez inégale.

Le détail des études environnementales et historiques du site et de ses abords, ainsi que les résultats des opérations effectuées le long du tracé routier peuvent être retrouvés dans la publication de Pál Sümegi et leur collègues.493 Ces points n’ont donc fait l’objet ici que d’un bref résumé rédigé par András Radics (Chapitre 4). La nécropole se trouve sur l’ancien territoire de Savaria (l’actuelle Szombathely), à environ 1,3 km au nord de la route reliant Savaria et Bassiana (aujourd’hui en limite de Sárvár ?). Elle se situe sur la terrasse orientale du Surány, à environ 860 m du cours d’eau et environ 300 m à l’est de la route menant à la ville de Vép.

La situation concernant les nécropoles du ‘territorium’ de la colonie, à l’intérieur des frontières de la Hongrie, est similaire. Outre le matériel trouvé de manière fortuite, comme par exemple les deux sarcophages fouillés à Rép­ceszentgyörgy – Cigányháza-dűlő,496 nous connaissons seulement un petit nombre de trouvailles nouvelles. Neuf tombes se rattachant à la villa romaine de Szombathely – Zanat, ont été publiées par Szilvia Bíró, qui a daté les tombes de l’époque flavienne au demi-siècle suivant.497 Au niveau de la section nord du contournement de la Route Principale 88 à Sárvár, cent-vingt tombes de l’époque romaine, principalement à crémation, ont été trouvées sur le Site 4 des fouilles de sauvetage conduites en 2004-2005 sous la direction de Gábor Ilon. Selon le rapport préliminaire, la partie fouillée de ce cimetière comportait des tombes du Haut-Empire et de l’Antiquité tardive.498 L’analyse scientifique de cette section pourrait ouvrir un nouveau chapitre de l’étude des nécropoles du ‘territorium’ de Savaria.

44 structures (37 tombes, 4 structures de fonction non identifiée et 3 enclos) ont été fouillées dans cette nécropole délimitée sur trois côtés – nord, est et ouest – (Fig. 3). Afin d’identifier le matériel de cette nécropole et pour rechercher des parallèles, le plus utile est d’examiner les segments de nécropoles fouillés et les tombes de Savaria et de son ‘territorium’.494 A une échelle plus large, le matériel publié de Pannonie occidentale doit aussi être pris en considération. Les premières recherches sur les nécropoles de Savaria remontent à près de deux siècles. Comme jusqu’à présent, les quatre nécropoles n’ont pu être fouillées que sur de petites zones contigües, à l’occasion de fouilles de sauvetage liées à des travaux de construction, une étude chronologique précise ne pourrait pas encore être menée – comme le fait remarquer Endre Tóth dans la plus récente

Après ce bref résumé de l’état des recherches, il paraît évident que plus les données du site de Nemesbőd seront publiées tôt, plus elles seront utiles, car elles apporteront Kiss et al. 1998, 52. Kis et Szilasi 2000-2001 [2002]. 497 Bíró 2005 [2006], fouille dirigée par Gábor Ilon. 498 Kiss 2007, 271. 495

Sümegi et al. 2011a, 201-353. 494 Pour l’hypothèse la plus récente sur le tracé de cet espace, voir Tóth 2011, 14.

496

493

80

Résumé des informations nouvelles et significatives, sur l’histoire du ‘territorium’ de la colonia Savaria.

types de vases romains pour la consommation de nourriture et de boissons, ou tout au moins sur la manière dont ils ont souhaité munir leurs défunts.

Une partie d’une nécropole en usage (probablement de façon continue) pendant le Haut-Empire et l’Antiquité tardive a été mise au jour sur le site de Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (Fig. 3). 37 tombes y sont assurées. Une structure peut être identifiée soit comme le vestige d’une fosse rituelle, soit, peut-être, comme une fosse dans laquelle des restes de bûcher ont été déposés. La fonction de trois autres structures ne peut pas être identifiée avec certitude. Cette partie de la nécropole était probablement en usage depuis la période flavienne. Les tombes les plus anciennes se trouvent dans trois endroits bien définis. Dans la partie nord-est du site, il y avait un groupe de tombes entourées de fossés (la sépulture féminine de la Tombe 5, la sépulture d’enfant de la Tombe 6, et la Tombe 32 sans aucun reste brûlé). Au Sud de celles-ci – à l’autre extrémité du site – se trouve, isolée, la Tombe-Bûcher 4. Elle contenait les restes de deux individus (un homme de 30-40 ans et une femme âgée de 20 à 30 ans). Plusieurs signes indiquent que la Tombe 4 était une sépulture privilégiée : il s’agit du plus grand bûcher funéraire (ayant acquis le statut de sépulture) de l’ensemble de cette section de la nécropole, il n’y a eu aucune autre tombe dans son voisinage pendant une longue période, son mobilier funéraire est le plus riche parmi les tombes fouillées (vaisselle de bronze, service en terre sigillée, lampes à huile d’importation, balsamaires, etc.).

Les bûchers construits dans ou sur une fosse sont apparus en Pannonie avec l’occupation romaine. L’origine de cette forme de sépulture doit être recherchée dans le Nord de l’Italie. De là, elle s’est diffusée dans les autres provinces, en partie via les mouvements militaires et les enrôlements. Sur la base de ce qui précède, on peut dire que la phase ancienne de cette section de la nécropole est rattachée à des communautés d’immigrants (ou leurs descendants), venus très probablement du Nord de l’Italie.500 Si l’on se base sur les bûchers construits dans ou sur fosse, ces personnes ont pu aussi provenir du Sud de la Gaule,501 car ce type de tombe était aussi populaire là-bas. Les traces de leur présence au sein du cimetière sont des indices de la connaissance de l’écriture, de la céramique sigillée et de la vaisselle de bronze, ainsi que des bûchers dans ou sur fosse. Les coutumes funéraires de cette petite communauté – qui vivait peut-être sur le domaine d’une villa qui a été partiellement fouillée sur le Site 7, Nemesbőd – Csepregivölgyre-dűlő II et située à l’Ouest – Nord-Ouest de la nécropole  – , peuvent être suivies sur plus de trois siècles. Pendant le 2e siècle, des personnes d’origine indigène sont peut-être aussi apparues parmi la population utilisant la nécropole (ce qu’indiqueraient des fibules de type Almgren 70 / 73 et un anneau de cheville ou bracelet sud-pannonien). Il est aussi possible que d’autres individus provenant de provinces diverses aient rejoint plus tard la communauté, apportant avec eux le rite de la crémation en position secondaire dans une imbrex (Tombe 17), qui est très rare dans la province. Leurs habitudes en matière d’offrandes funéraires ont changé, avec de nouvelles formes de rituels et des types de tombes apparaissant [comme des tombes à amas d’ossements (Tombes 37-40) et des tombes en tuiles (les sépultures à crémation des Tombes 16-21, et l’inhumation de la Tombe 41) au cours du 2e siècle], d’autres disparaissant (comme la crémation en position primaire et l’offrande de monnaies). Une boucle de ceinture placée dans une tombe laisse penser qu’un membre de la communauté avait rejoint l’armée ou bien s’apprêtait à le faire, au cours du 3e siècle (Tombe 28: Fig. 85.1).

Il y a aussi quelques tombes anciennes au nord-ouest de cette sépulture. La phase ancienne de la nécropole était orientée est – nord-est / ouest – sud-ouest selon des éléments géologiques et / ou humaines déterminants. Alors qu’il n’y a pas eu de tombe à proximité du bûcher en fosse (Tombe 4) pendant une longue période, la zone proche des tombes entourées de fossés a été utilisée jusqu’à la fin du 2è siècle, les nouvelles sépultures s’orientant par rapport à celles-ci. Dans la partie sud-ouest du site, les structures funéraires présentent une stratigraphie horizontale, les tombes les plus récentes s’installant au fur et à mesure vers le nord. Un changement est survenu au cours du 3è siècle ; à partir de ce moment là, les tombes de l’Antiquité tardive ont été placées le long de la bordure sud de la zone fouillée. Les monnaies et les lampes à huile trouvées dans les tombes de l’horizon le plus ancien indiquent une «romanisation» et des aspects méditerranéens dans les pratiques funéraires. Les graffito (Tombe 4: Figs. 12-13, 67-69, 71 et 80) témoignent de la connaissance et de l’usage quotidien de l’écriture en latin. A Savaria et ses environs, la sigillée du Nord de l’Italie est connue dans des tombes en lien avec l’élite boïenne – ce qui n’est pas le cas ici – ainsi que de vétérans et de communautés d’immigrants.499 La céramique sigillée et à paroi fine ne témoigne pas seulement de la richesse matérielle de la communauté, mais elle apporte aussi des éclaircissements sur l’utilisation des différents 499

Tous ces points mettent en évidence que la nécropole a formé une unité continue du Haut-Empire à l’Antiquité tardive. C’est probablement des tombes d’une partie de cette dernière phase qui peuvent être localisées plus au Sud en dehors du tracé de l’autoroute. Le relativement grand nombre de tombes et la distribution des sexes et des âges indiquent que cette nécropole a été utilisée de façon constante par le domaine de la villa. 500 Sur le rôle joué par les immigrants du Nord de l’Italie parmi les populations de Savaria et de son ‘territorium’, voir Mócsy 1959, 37-38. 501 Des immigrants du Sud de la Gaule sont connus sur le ‘territorium’ de Savaria: Mócsy 1959, Nr. 32. et peut-être Nr. 90 /15.

Gabler 1973, 25-26; Márton 2008, 136-140, Fig. 1.a-b.

81

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) D’après les analyses anthropologiques conduites par Gábor Tóth (Chapitre 8), les résultats pour les inhumations (en raison de leur petit nombre, de la distribution des âges et de la mauvaise préservation des ossements) sont purement informatifs et insuffisants pour faire des comparaisons par rapport à la population. La taille de trois individus masculins a pu être estimée (160,1 cm, 180,8 cm, 174,4 cm). Deux de ces valeurs excèdent de façon significative les valeurs pour les Transdanubiens occidentaux, qui surpassent celles des populations Danubiennes orientales de plusieurs centimètres. La taxonomie de ces deux hommes présente des caractéristiques du type Cro-Magnon.

Les restes animaux qui ont pu être identifiés avec certitude comme des offrandes alimentaires ont été trouvés dans seulement six sépultures (Tombes 4, 5, 6, 15, 22, 24; total 15 %). Contrairement à la composition du matériel archéozoologique de l’habitat probablement en connexion avec la nécropole (41 % des restes d’ossements animaux de l’habitat proviennent du bœuf), la poule domestique et le porc étaient les animaux les plus fréquemment choisis comme offrandes alimentaires. La poule, la tête et les pattes coupées, était peut-être brûlée sur le bûcher moins longtemps. Toutefois, en raison du faible nombre d’occurrences (Tombes 4, 15, 22 et 24), on ne sait pas si cette méthode était couramment utilisée. Des restes d’ovins / caprins ont été identifiés seulement dans une tombe (Tombe 6).

Le taux de mortalité infantile, après les corrections nécessaires (par l’application de modèles paléodémographiques), peut être estimé à plus de 30 %. La durée de vie estimée à la naissance était de 17,4 ans. A l’âge de 20 ans, une durée de vie supplémentaire pouvait être évaluée à 10,9 ans. Des estimations faites à partir de modèles paléo-démographiques502 indiquent qu’après le taux élevé de mortalité infantile, caractéristique de cet âge, le pic du taux de mortalité à l’âge adulte se situe entre 20 et 30 ans (sur la base du fort taux de mortalité des femmes, en raison des décès durant l’enfantement et des infections puerpérales). La diminution graduelle du taux de mortalité est suivie d’une autre légère hausse autour de 35-40 ans. Ceci est dû au pic de mortalité des hommes qui apparaît dans ce groupe d’âge.

502

Dans le cas des deux espèces d’ongulés, on observe que les parties de l’épaule, des côtes, des jambes (antérieures) et le jarret avant ont été tantôt brûlées sur le bûcher, ou tantôt placées dans la tombe comme offrandes secondaires. Néanmoins, alors que dans le cas des ovins / caprins, les restes osseux permettent de savoir que des ‘morceaux de viande’ provenant de plusieurs spécimens ont pu être déposés dans les tombes, concernant les restes de porc, différents quartiers d’un même spécimen (ensemble ou séparément) ont été sacrifiés.

Bernert 2005.

82

Bibliography Abbreviations ActaArchHung AntKözl ArchKorrBlatt ArchÉrt BudRég ComArchHung DissPann RLÖ

Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae Anthropologiai Közlemények Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt Archaeológiai Értesítő Budapest Régiségei Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae Dissertationes Pannonicae ex Instituto Numismatico et Archaeologico Universitatis de Petro Pázmány Nominatae Budapestinensis Provenientes Der römische Limes in Österreich

Barber, B. – Bowsher, D. 2000. The Eastern Cemetery of Roman London: Excavations 1983-1990. London Archaeological Service Monographs, 4, London. Barkóczi, L. 1988. Pannonische Glasfunde in Ungarn. Studia Archaeologica, IX, Budapest. Barta, A. 2006. Római kori feliratos edénytöredékek Zalalövőről (Römerzeitliche Gefässfragmente mit Inschriften von Zalalövő). ComArchHung. 123-148. Bass, W. M. – Jantz, R. L. 2004. Cremation weights in East Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 49.5, 901904. Bavdek, A. 2005. Rimsko žarno grobišče Volarije pri Žirjah na Krasu (The Roman cremation cemetery at Volarije near Žirje on Kras). Arheološki vestnik, 56, 235-262. Bel, V. 1996. Étude spatiale de sept incinérations primaires gallo-romaines de la région lyonnaise. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’anthropologie de Paris, 8.3-4 (1996), 207-222. Bel, V. 2002. Pratiques funéraires du Haut-Empire dans le Midi de la Gaule. La nécropole gallo-romaine du Valladas à Saint-Pal-Trois-Château (Drôme). Monographies d’Archéologie Méditerranéenne, 11, Lattes. Bel, V. – Barberan, S. – Chardenon, N. – Forest, V. – RodetBéarby, I. – Vidal, L. 2008. Tombes et espaces funéraires de la fin de l’Age du fer et du débout de l’époque romaine à Nîmes (Gard). Monographies d’Archéologie Méditerranéenne, 24. Lattes. Berecz, K. 1990. Römerzeitliche Fibeln aus Zalalövő. ActaArchHung, 42, 77-96. Berecz, K. 1991. Római kori fibulák Zala megyéből I (Römische Fibeln aus dem Komitat Zala I). Zalai Múzeum, 3,163-183. Bergmann, B. 2011. Die corona navalis - eine Sonderehrung für Agrippa. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 126, 77-106. Bernert, Zs. 2005. Paleoantropológiai programcsomag. Folia Anthropologica, 3, 71-74. Beszédes, J. – Szilas, G. 2007. Excavation of prehistoric and Roman priod sites along the route of the M6 highway in 2006. Aquincumi füzetek, 13, 233-248.

Adam, A.-M. – Delnef, H. 1999. Quelques tombes romaines à incinération découvertes au Hexenberg (Leutenheim, Bas-Rhin). Cahiers alsaciens d’archéologie, d’art et d’histoire, 42, 45-63. Adler-Wölfl, K. – Sauer, R. 2000. Dachaufsatz, Lichthäuschen oder Räuchergerät? Zu einer keramischen Objektgruppe aus dem römischen Siedlungskomplex in Unterlaa. Fundort Wien, 3, 158-167. Alary, J.-C. 1990. Nécropole du Grand Champeau à Gergy. Mémoires de la Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologie de Chalon-sur-Saône, LIX, 61-77. Alföldy, G. 1959-1960 [1961]. Bronze vessels in the burial rites of the native population in North Pannonia. Archeologia, XI, (Warszawa – Wroclaw), 1-12. Almgren, O. 1897. Studien über nordeuropäische Fibelformen der ersten nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte mit Berücksichtigung der provinzialrömischen und südrussischen Formen. Stockholm. Alram-Stern, A. 1989. Die römischen Lampen aus Carnuntum. RLÖ, 35, Wien. Ames-Adler, B. 2004. Das Gräberfeld mit Verbrennungsplatz von Altforweiler, Kreis Saarlouis. Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, 68, Bonn. Ancel, M.-J. 2010. La crémation en milieu rural en Gaule Belgique romaine. Les exemples de la Lorraine et du Nord-Pas-de-Calais. Thèse de doctorat en Langues, histoire et civilisations des mondes anciens sous la direction de Jean-Claude Béal. Présentée et soutenue publiquement le 28 mai 2010. Université Lumière Lyon 2, Lyon. Andrieux, Ph. 1994. Étude de la combustion du bûcher. In: Lambot – Friboulet – Méniel 1994, 262-279. Arveiller-Dulong, V. – Nenna, M.-D. 2005. Les verres antiques du Musée du Louvre II. Vaisselle et contenants du Ier siècle au début du VIIe siècle après J.-C., Paris. Baatz, D. 1977. Reibschale und Romanisierung. Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum Acta, XVII-XVIII, 147158. Baray, L. 2003. Pratique funéraire et sociétés de l’Age du Fer dans le Bassin parisien. (fin du VIIe - troisième quart du IIe s. av. J.C.). 56e supplement à Gallia, Paris. 83

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Boulestin, B. – Duday, H. 2005. Ethnologie et archéologie de la mort : de l’illusion des références à l’emploi d’un vocabulaire. In: Mordant, Cl. – Depierre, G. dir. Les pratiques funéraires à l’âge du Bronze en France. Actes de la Table Ronde de Sens-en-Bourgogne, 10-12 juin 1998. Paris, 17-30. Božič, D. 2008. Late La Tène-Roman cemetery in Novo mesto. Ljubljanska cesta and Okrajno glavarstvo. Studies on fibulae and on the relative chronology of the Late La Tène period. Catalogi et monographiae, 39. Ljubljana. Božič, D. – Feugère, M. 2004. Les instruments de l’écriteure. In: Feugère, M. P. – Lambert, -Y. dir. L’écriture dans la société gallo-romaine. Eléments d’une réflexion collective. Gallia, 61, 21-41. Bónis, É. 1942. Die kaiserzeitliche Keramik von Pannonien (ausser den Sigillaten) I. Die Materialen der frühen Kaiserzeit. DissPann, Ser. II. No. 20, Budapest. Bónis, É. 1960. Römerzeitliche Gräber in Halimba (Komitat Veszprém). Folia Archaeologica, XII, 91-110. Böhme, A. 1972. Die Fibeln der Kastelle Saalburg und Zugmantel. Saalburg Jahrbuch, XXIX, 5-112. Breščak, D. 1982. Antično bronasto posodje Slovenije (Roman bronze vessels in Slovenia). Situla, 22 /1, Ljubljana. Bruckner, O. 1981. Rimska keramika u Jugoslovenskom delu provincije donje Panonije. Beograd. Buócz, T. P. 1961. Korarómai sírok a szombathelyi Rumi úton (Frührömische Gräber in Szombathely, Rumi-Strasse). ArchÉrt, 88, 219-239. Buócz, T. P. 1963. A Kertész utcai római temető. Savaria, 1, 131-148. Buócz, T. P. 1964. Temetők és városfalmaradványok Savariaban. (Friedhöfe und Stadtmauerüberreste aus Savaria). Savaria, II, 109-127. Buócz, T. – Gabler, D. 2002. Savariai városfal. A városfal építési ideje a terra sigillaták tükrében. Sárvár. Burger, Sz. A. 1984. Későrómai sírok Aquincumban (Spätrömische Gräber in Aquincum). BudRég, XXV, 65118. CAG 21/ 3: Provost, M. 2009. La Côte-d’Or. Alésia (de Nuits-Saint-Georges à Voulaines-les-Templiers). Carte Archéologique de la Gaule, 21/ 3, Paris. CAG 71/ 4: Rebourg, A. 1994. Saône-et-Loire. Carte Archéologique de la Gaule, 71/ 4, Paris. Carbonara, A. – Pellegrino, A. – Zaccagnini, R. 2001. Necropoli di Pianabella: vecci e nuovi ritrovamenti. In: Culto dei morti, 139-148. Castella, D. 1999. La nécropole gallo-romaine d’Avenches «En Chaplix». Vol 1. Étude des sépultures. Cahiers d’Archéologie Romande, 77, Lausanne. Chirachariyavej, T. – Limburanasombat, S. – Tiensuwan, M. 2007. The relationship between bone and ash weight to body weight and body length of Thai corpses in Bangkok and central part of Thailand after cremation. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 90.9, 1872-1878. Chrzanovski, L. – Zhuravlev, D. 1998. Lamps from Chersonesos in the State Historical Museum – Moscow. Studia Archaeologica, 94, Roma.

Béal, J.-C. – Feugère, M. 1983. Les pyxides gallo-romaines en os de Gaule méridionale. Documents d’Archéologie Méridionale, 6, 115-126. Bienert, B. 2007. Die römischen Bronzegefäße im Rheinischen Landesmuseum Trier. Trierer Zeitschrift Beiheft, 31, Trier. Bilkei, I. 1985. Római edényfeliratok a nagykanizsai Thury György Múzeumban (Inscriptions on Roman vessels from the György Thury Museum of Nagykanizsa). Zalai Gyűjtemény, 21, 5-21. Bíró, M. T. 1994. The Bone Objects of the Roman Collection. Catalogi Musei Nationalis Hungarici Series Archaeologica, II. Budapest. Bíró, Sz. 2004. Savaria nyugati temetője (Das westliche Gräberfeld von Savaria). Savaria, 28, 63-134. Bíró, Sz. 2005 [2006]. Római villához tartozó temető Szombathely-Zanat határából (Gräberfeld einer römischen Villa aus der Flur von Zanat). Savaria, 29, 5361. Bishop, M. C. – Coulston, J. C. N. 1993. Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome. London. Bizot, B. – Signoli, M. dir. 2009. Rencontre autour des sépultures habillées. Actes des journées d’étude organisées par le Groupement d’Anthropologie et d’Archéologie funéraire et le Service Régional de l’Archéologie de Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Carry-le-Rouet (Bouchesdu-Rhône), 13-14 novembre 2008. Teloché. Blaizot, F. sous la dir. 2009. Pratique et espaces funéraires de la Gaule durant l’Antiquité. Gallia, 66.1. Blaizot, F. – Bonnet, C. 2007. Traitements, modalités de dépôt et rôle des céramiques dans les structures galloromaines. In: Baray, L. – Brun, P.  – Testart, A. dir. Pratiques funéraires et Sociétés. Nouvelles approches en archéologie et en anthropologie sociale. – Actes du colloque de Sens, Centre de Recherche et d’Étude du Patrimoine, 12-14 juin 2003 – Dijon. Dijon, 207-228. Blaizot, F. – Tranoy, L. 2004. La notion de sépulture au HautEmpire. Identification et interprétations des structures funéraires liées aux crémations. In: Baray, L. sous la dir. Archéologie des pratiques funéraires. Approches critiques. Collection Bibracte, 9, Glux-en-Glenne, 171187. BMC I: Mattingly, H. 2005. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. Volume I. Augustus to Vitellius. 20053, London. BMC II: Mattingly, H. – Carson, R. A. G. 1966. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. Volume II. Vespasian to Domitian. London. Boeselager, D. von 1989. Funde und Darstellungen römischer Schreibzeugfutterale zur Deutung einer Beigabe in Kölner Gräber. Kölner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, 22, 221-239. Bosseboeuf, L. A. 1899-1900 [1900]. Communication – Séance du 31 mai 1899. Bulletin Trimestriel de la Société Archéologique de Touraine, XII, 186. Bosseboeuf, L. A. 1899-1900 [1900]a. L’Abbaye bénédictine de Bois-Aubry. Bulletin Trimestriel de la Société Archéologique de Touraine, XII, 225-248. 84

Bibliography Chochol, J. 1961. Anthropologische Analyse menschlicher Brandreste aus den Lausitzer Gräberfeldern in Usti nad Labem-Strekov II und Zirovice, Bezirk Cheb. In: Plesl, E. Lužická kultura v severozápadních Čechách. Monumenta archaeologica, 8, Praha, 273-290. Consp. vid. Ettlinger et al. Cramp, L. J. E. – Evershed, R. P. – Eckardt, H. 2011. What was a mortarium used for. Antiquity, 85.330, 13391352. Crummy, N. 2010. Bears and Coins: The Iconography of Protection in Late Roman Infant Burials. Britannia, 41, 37-93. Culto dei morti: Heinzelmann, M. – Ortalli, J. – Fasold, P. – Witteyer, M. Hrgg. Römischer Bestattungsbrauch und Beigabensitten in Rom, Norditalien und den Nordwestprovinzen von späten Republik bis in die Kaiserzeit. Internationales Kolloquium, Rom 1.-3. April 1998. Culto dei morti e costumi funerari romani Roma, Italia settentrionale e province nord-occidentali dalla tarda Repubblica all’età imperiale. Palilia, 8, Wiesbaden, 2001. CVArr2 vid. Oxé et al. Czigány, J. 2000. Rendellenes méretű és alakú gyermekkoponyák paleopathologiája. Budapest. Demetz, S. 1999. Fibel der spätlatène- und frühen römischen Kaiserzeit in der Alpenländern. Frühgeschichte und Provinzialrömische Archäologie, Band 4, Rahden. Doorselaer, A. van 1967. Les nécropoles d’époque romaine en Gaule septentrionale. Dissertationes Archaeologicae Gandenses, 10, Brugge. Dövényi, Z. 2010. Magyarország kistájainak katasztere. Budapest. Duday, H. 1987. La quantification des restes humains. Application à l’étude des sépultures à incinération, ou des différentiels autres que la conservation. Actes de la table ronde de la R.C.P. 742 du CNRS, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, mai 1987, ronéotypé, 17-21. Duday, H. 1989. La nécropole du Peyrou à Agde (Hérault). Étude anthropologique. In: Nickels, A., Agde la nécropole du premier Age du Fer. Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise Supplément, 19, 459-472. Endris, R. – Berrsche, R. 1985. Color change in dental tissue as a sign of thermal damage. Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin, 94, 109-20. Ertel, Ch. – Gassner, V. – Jilek, S. – Stiglitz, H. 1999. Untersuchungen zu den Gräberfeldern in Carnuntum. Band I: Der archäologische Befund. RLÖ, 40, Wien. Estiot, S. 2001, Trouvailles monétaires de tombes. Actes du 2e colloque international du Groupe suisse pour l’étude des trouvailles monétaires (Neuchâtel, 3-4 mars 1995), Dubuis (O. F.), Frey-Kupper (S.), Perret (G.) éd. Revue numismatique, 6.157, 517-522. Ettlinger, E. – Hedinger, B. – Hoffmann, B. – Kenrick, Ph. – Pucci, G. – Roth-Rubi, K. – Schneider, G. – Schnurbein, S. von – Wells, C. M. – Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger, S. 1990. Conspectus formarum terrae sigillatae italico modo confectae. Materialien zur römisch-germanischen Keramik, 10, Bonn.

Éry, K. 1982. Újabb összehasonlító statisztikai vizsgálatok a Kárpát-medence 6-12. századi népességének embertanához (Comparative statistical studies on the physical anthropology of the Carpathian basin population between the 6-12th centuries A. D.). Veszprém Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei, 16, 35-85. Éry, K. 1983. Comparative statistical studies on the physical anthropology of the Carpatian basin between the 6-12th centuries A. D. Alba Regia, 20, 89-141. Éry, K. 1991. Paleoantropológia – Paleodemográfia. ELTE Kézirat [Manuscript], Budapest. Éry, K. 1992. Útmutató csontvázleletek vizsgálatához. ELTE Kézirat, Budapest. Éry, K. 1998. Összegző embertani tanulmányok a Kárpátmedence IV-XVII. századi népességeiről. In: Tóth G., szerk. Szemelvények a magyar antropológia eredményeiből. Panniculus, Ser. B. 2, Szombathely. 3538. Falzone, S. – Olivanti, P. – Pellegrino, A. 2001. La necropoli di Fralana (Acilia). In: Culto dei morti, 127-138. Farkas, Cs. 2003. Szombathely, Szent Márton utca 53. In: Kisfaludi J., ed. Archaeological Investigations in Hungary 2001, Budapest, 226. Fasold, P. 1993. Romanisierung und Grabrauch: Überlegungen frührömischen Totenkult in Rätien. In: Struck 1993, 381-395. Ferdière 1993: Ferdière, A. sous la dir. Monde des morts, monde des vivants en Gaule rurale. Actes du Colloque ARCHEA /  AGER (Orléans, 7-9 février 1992). Orléans. Feugère, M. 1991. Les amphores. In: Feugère, M. – Rolley, Cl. publiés par. La vaisselle tardo-républicaine en bronze. Dijon, 47-59. Feugère, M. 1993. L’évolution du mobilier non céramique dans les sépultures antiques de Gaule méridionale (IIe siècle av. J.-C. - début du Ve siècle ap. J.-C.). In: Struck 1993, 119-165. Fényes, G. 2003. Import kerámiák és helyi utánzataik Brigetioból (kivétel terra sigillaták) (Importierte Keramik und ihre lokalen Nachahmungen in Brigetio  / ausser Terra Sigillaten / ). Komárom-Esztergom Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei, 10, 5-53. Figler, A. – Vaday, A. 1998. Előzetes beszámoló a Hegyeshalomban feltárt római kori temetőről. A Hansági Múzeum Évkönyve, 1, 8-27. Fitz, J. 1979-1980 [1980]. A római temetők anyaga és a pénzforgalom (Das Münzmaterial der römischen Gräberfelder und der Münzverkehr). Numizmatikai Közlöny, LXXVIII-LXXIX, 23-40. Flück, J. 2009. Les monnaies découvertes dans les tombes. In: Goudineau, Ch., sous la dir. Rites funéraires à Lugdunum. Paris, 39. Follmann-Schulz, A.-B. 1989. Ein römischer Grabfund des 4. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. Aus Zülpich-Enzen, Rheinland. Kölner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, 22, 49-68. Foy, D. 2010. Les Verres antiques d’Arles. La collection du Musée départemental Arles antique. Paris. Fóthi, E. 1998. Összehasonlító antropológiai vizsgálat a Kárpát-medence népeinek etnogeneziséhez. Embertani kapcsolatok a 6-8. században az eurázsiai steppe és a 85

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Găzdac Alföldy, Á. – Găzdac, C. 2009. Coins in Funerary contexts. The case of Brigetio. In: Bíró, Sz. szerk. EX OFFICINA… Studies in honorem Dénes Gabler. Győr, 161-174. Geszthelyi, T. 2000. Antike Gemmen im Ungarischen Nationalmuseum. Catalogi Musei Nationalis Hungarici Series Archaeologica, III, Budapest. Goudineau, Ch. sous la dir. Rites funéraires à Lugdunum. Paris, 229-235. Grévin, G. 1990. La fouille en laboratoire des sépultures à incinération, son apport à l’archéologie. In: Crubézy, E. – Duday, H. – Sellier, P. – Tillier, A.-M. dir. Anthropologie et Archéologie : dialogue sur les ensembles funéraires. Actes de la Réunion organisée par la Société d’anthropologie de Paris au Musée d’Aquitqine les 15 et 16 juin 1990. Bulletin et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 2.3-4, 67-74. Grévin, G. 2009. Les crémations sur bûchers : de nous jours et dans l’Antiquité. In: Goudineau, Ch., sous la dir. Rites funéraires à Lugdunum. Paris, 229 – 235. Grinder-Hansen, K. 1991. Charon’s Fee in Ancient Greece? – Some Remarks on a Well-known Death Rite. Acta Hyperborea, 3, 207-218. Groller, M. v. 1899. Die Gräber. Bericht des Vereins Carnuntum in Wien für die Jahre 1897-1898, 79-94. Groller, M. v. 1900. Die Gräber. RLÖ, I, Wien, 101-116. Großkopf, B. 2004. Biologisches und kulturhistorisches Quellenmaterial zur Rekonstruktion vor- und frühgeschichtlicher Populationen und ihrer Funeralpraktiken. Von der Fakultät für Geschichte, Kunst- und Orientwissenschaften der Universität Leipzig angenommene Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor Philosophiae (Dr. phil.). Leipzig. Grünewald, M. 1979. Die Gefässkeramik des Legionslagers von Carnuntum (Grabungen 1968-1974). RLÖ, 29, Wien. Gugl, Ch. 1995. Die römischen Fibeln aus Virunum. Klagenfurt. Guillaumet, J.-P. – Laude, G. 2009. L’art de la serrurerie gallo-romaine : l’exemple de l’agglomération de Vertault (France, Côte-d’Or). Dijon. Guillon, F. 1987. Brulés frais ou brûlés secs ? In: Duday, H. – Masset, Cl., dir., Anthropologie physique et Archéologie, Méthodes d’étude des sépultures. Actes du colloque de Toulouse du 4-6 novembre 1982. Paris, 191-194. Guillot, H. – Guillon, F. – Pignolet, F. 1994. La degré de calcination des os peut-il être un indicateur de la position des os sur le bûcher ?. In: Lambot – Friboulet – Méniel 1994, 281-282. Guiraud, H. 1989. Bagues et anneaux à l’époque romaine en Gaule. Gallia, 46, 173-211. Guiraud, H. 2008. Intailles et camées de l’époque romaine en Gaule (territoire français). 48e supplément à Gallia, Paris. Harnecker, J. 1997. Katalog der römischen Eisenfunde von Haltern. Bodenaltertümer Westfalens, 35, Mainz am Rhein.

Kárpát-medence között. Móra Ferenc Múzeum Évkönyve, Studia Archeologica, 4, 97-521. Fóthi, E. 2000. Anthropological conclusions of the study of Roman and Migration Periods. Acta Biologica Szegediensis, 44, 87-94. Frascone, D. 1999. La voie de l’Océan et ses abords. Nécropoles et habitat gallo-romains, à Lyon vaise. Documents d’Archéologie en Rhône-Alpes, 18, Lyon. Fülöp, E. N. 2004. Terra sigillata leletek Savariából, a Perint patak nyugati oldaláról (Terra-SigillataBefunde aus Savaria, an der westlichen Seite des Perint Baches  / Szombathely, Dózsa György Str. 4 / ). Savaria, 28, 139-158. Fülöp, E. N. – Radics, A. – Tóth, G. – Barta, A. 2010. An Early Roman Age grave in the territory of Savaria from the Site of Nemesbőd – Általúton-kívül-dűlő. In: Kvassay, J. ed. 2008 Field Service for Cultural Heritage Yearbook and Review of Archaeological Investigations. Budapest, 2010, 107-138. Gabler, D. 1967. Arrabona legkorábbi sigillátái (The Earliest Sigillatae of Arrabona). Arrabona, 9, 21-53. Gabler, D. 1973. Italische Sigillaten in Nordwest-Pannonien. Wissenschaftliche Arbeiten aus dem Burgenland, 51, Eisenstadt. Gabler, D. 1977. A dunai limes I-II. századi történetének néhány kérdése (Some Remarks on the History of the Danubian Limes of the First and Second Century). ArchÉrt, 10, 145-175. Gabler, D. 1990. Terra sigillata az inotai és a pannoniai halomsírokban (Die Terra Sigillaten der inotaer und pannonischen Hügelgräber). In: Palágyi, S. Hrg. Norischpannonische Hügelgräber. Vorträge der Várpalotaer Tagung von 21 Oktober 1988, Veszprém, 149-162. Gabler, D. 1993. Samian Ware from the Albertfalva Vicus. BudRég, XXX, 119-132. Gabler, D. 2000. Italische Sigillaten mit Töpferstempel in Pannonien. Alba Regia, XXIX, 75-98. Gabler, D. 2003. L Mag ( ) Viri(lis). Un atelier tardo padano di terra sigillata. ActaArchHung, 54, 81-100. Gabler, D. – Márton, A. 2009 avec la collaboration Gauthier, E. La circulation des sigillées en Pannonie d’après les estampilles sur sigillées lisses de Gaule, de Germanie et de la région danubienne. Revue Archéologique de l’Est, 58, 205-324. Gaitzsch, W. – Werner, A. 1993. Rekonstruktion Brandbestattung vom Typ Bustum aufgrund archäologischer Befunde aus Siedlungen der Jülicher Lößbörde. In: Struck 1993, 55-67. Galliou, P. 1989. Les tombes romaines d’Armorique. Essai de sociologie et d’économi de la mort. Documents d’Archéologie Française, 17. Paris. Gassner, V. 1990. Feinware aus Carnuntum. Carnuntum Jahrbuch, 88, 253-292. Gábli, C. 2004. A firmamécsesek feldolgozásának új módszere. A Savaria Múzeum Régi Gyűjteményének firmamécsesei alapján. Panniculus, Ser. A. No. 1, Szombathely. Gáspár, D. 1986. Römische Kästchen aus Pannonien. Vol. I-II, Antaeus, 15.

86

Bibliography Heiligmann-Batsch, K. 1997. Der Römische Gutshof bei Büsslingen. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg, 65, Stuttgart. Herrmann, B. 1976. Neuere Ergebnisse zur Beurteilung menschlicher Brandknochen. Zeitschrift für Rechtmedizin, 77, 191-200. Herrmann, B. 1988. Behandlung von Leichenbrand. In: Knußmann, R., Hrg. Anthropologie: Handbuch der Vergleichenden Biologie des Menschen. Stuttgart, 576585. Horváth, L. 2003. Villa rustica temetője Nagykanizsán. Zalai Múzeum, 12, 79-95. Horváth, L. – Tokai, Z. M. – Tóth, G. 2012. Excavation report on an Early Imperial period cemetery at Alsópáhok, Zala County. In: Kvassay, J. ed. 2009 Field Service for Cultural Heritage Yearbook and Review of Archaeological Investigations. Budapest, 163-222. Hummel, S. – Schutkowski, H. – Herrmann, B. 1988. Advances in Cremation Research. Advances in cremation research. In: Buchet, L. ed. Anthropologie et Histoire ou Anthropologie historique? Actes des 3e Journées Anthropologiques de Valbonne, 28-30 mai 1986. Notes et Monographies Techniques, 24, CNRS, Paris, 177-194. ILAlg-02-03: Pflaum, H.-G. – Dupuis. X. eds. 2003. Inscriptions latines de l’Algérie. Tome 2, Volume troisième, Inscriptions de la Confédération cirtéenne, de Cuicul et de la tribu des Suburbures. Paris. Ilon, G. 2010. Nemesbőd – Általúton-kívül-dűlő (Vas megye, 5. lelőhely). In: Kvassay, J. ed. 2008 F.S.C.H. Yearbook and Review of Archaeological Investigations, Budapest, 30-31. Ilon, G. – Kiss, P. 2007. Szombathely, Paragvári utca 77. In: Kisfaludi, J. ed. Archaeological Investigations in Hungary 2006, Budapest, 292. Ilon, G. – Tóth, G. 2001. Ein römerzeitliches Urnengrab von Szombathely und die anthropologische Untersuchung der Aschen. Régészeti Füzetek, Ser. I. No. 51. (1998), 51-58. Isings, C. 1957. Roman glass from dated finds. Archaeologica Traiectina, II, Groningen – Djakarta. Istenič, J. 1999. Poetovio, the Western Cemeteries. Poetovio I. Contribution. Catalogi et monographiae, 32, Ljubljana. Istenič, J. 2000. Poetovio, the Western Cemeteries II. Catalogue. Catalogi et monographiae, 33, Ljubljana. Iványi, D. 1935. Die pannonischen Lampen. Ein typologischchronologische Übertsicht. DissPann, Ser. II. No.2., Budapest. Jobst, V. 1975. Die römischen Fibeln aus Lauriacum. Forschungen in Lauriacum, 10, Linz. Kárpáti, K. 1892. Leletek. A Vasmegyei Régészeti Egylet Évkönyve, XIX-XX, 68-70. Kárpáti, K. 1897. Sabariai régiségekről. ArchÉrt, XVII, 6874. Kelemen, H. M. 2008. Solva Esztergom későrómai temetői (Die spätrömische Gräberfelder von Esztergom). Libelli Archaeologici, Ser. Nov. III., Budapest. Kiss, G. – Tóth, E. – Zágorhidi Czigány, B. 1998. Savaria  –  Szombathely története a város alapításától 1526-ig. Savaria – Szombathely története, 1, Szombathely.

Kiss, P. 2007. Temető a Savaria – Arrabona út mentén (Sárvár, Sár) – előzetes beszámoló. In: Bíró, Sz. ed. Fiatal Római Koros Kutatók I. Konferenciakötete. Győr, 267-273. Kiss, P. – Szilasi, A. B. 2000-2001 [2002]. Római szarkofágok Répceszentgyörgyről (Römische Sarkophage aus Répceszentgyörgy). Savaria, 25 / 3, 87-89. Koščević, R. 1991. Antička bronca iz Siska umjetničkoobrtna metalna produkcija iz razdoblja Rimskog carstva. Zagreb. Kovrig, I. 1937. Die Haupttypen der Kaiserzeitlichen Fibeln in Pannonien. DissPann, Ser. II No. 4., Budapest. Krekovič, E. 1998. Römische Keramik aus Gerulata. Studia Archaeologica et Mediaevalia, IV, Bratislava. Križ, B. 2003. Draga near Bela cerkev. Roman cemetery. Novo mesto. Kronberger, M. 2005. Siedlungschronologische Forschungen zu den canabae legionis von Vindobona. Die Gräberfelder. Monographien der Stadtarchäologie Wien, I, Wien. Kuzsinszky, B. 1920. A Balaton környékének archaeologiája. Budapest. Künzl, E. 1983. Medizinische Instrumente aus Sepulkralfunden der römischen Kaiserzeit. Kunst und Altertum am Rhein, 115, Köln – Bonn. Lambot, B. 1994. Le bûcher expérimental d’Arcy-Romance. In: Lambot – Friboulet – Méniel 1994, 281-282. Lambot, B. – Friboulet, M. – Méniel, P., dir., 1994. Les nécropoles dans leur contexte régional. Le site protohistorique d’Acy-Romance (Ardennes). Volume II. Mémoires de la Société Archéologique Champenoise, 8e supplément, Reims. Lazar, I. 2003. The Roman glass of Slovenia. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae, 7, Ljubljana. Lányi, V. 1972. Die spätantike Gräberfelder von Pannonien. ActaArchHung, 24, 53-213. Leclerc, J. 1990. La notion de sépulture. Bulletin et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 2.34, 13-18. Leclerc, J. – Tarrête, J.1988. Sépulture. In: Leroi-Gourhan, A. ed. Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire. Paris 1988, 963964. Le Goff, I. 2009. Le devenir du cadavre incinéré en Gaule Belgique. Méthodes et analyses de cas. In: Pinard, E. – Desenne, S. «Les gestuelles funéraires au second âge du Fer» tenue à Soissons les 6 et 7 novembre 2008. Revue archéologique de Picardie, 3-4, 113-127. Lipták, P. 1980. Embertan és emberszármazástan. Budapest. Lisowski, F. P. 1968. The investigation of human cremations. In: Peter, R. – Schwarzfischer, F. – Glowatzki, G. – Ziegelmayer, G. Hrsg. Anthropologie und Humangenetik. Stuttgart. 76-83. Lowther, A. W. G. 1976. Romano-British Chimney-Pots and Finials. The Antiquaries Journal, 56, 35-48. McKinley, J. I. 1989. Cremations: expectations, methodologies and realities. In: Roberts, Ch. A. – Lee, F. – Bintliff, J. eds. Burial Archaeology Current Research, Methods and Developments. British Archaeological Reports British Series, 211, Oxford, 65-76.

87

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) Fiatal Római Koros Régészek III. Konferenciája. Szombathely. Összefoglalók. 12. Merczi, M. – Tóth, G. 2010. Újabb adatok a NyugatDunántúl késő római kori népességének embertanához (Nagykanizsa Inkey-kápolna és Palin lelőhelyek, 3-4. század). Zalai Múzeum, 19, 239-254. Méry, E. 1872. A győri homokgödrök kősírjai. ArchÉrt, VI.10, 24-248. Mikl Curk, I. 1976. Poetovio I. Catalogi et monographiae, 13, Ljubljana. Miks, Ch. 2007. Studien zur römischen Schwertbewaffnung in der Kaiserzeit. Kölner Studien zur Archäologie der römischen Provinzen, 8, Rahden. Molleson, T. I. 1986. Skeletal Age and Palaeodemography. In: Bittles, A. H., Collins, K. J., eds. The Biology of Human Ageing. Society for the Study of Human Biology Symposium 25, Cambridge, 95-118. Mócsy, A. 1954. Korarómai sírok Szombathelyről (Frührömische Gräber in Savaria (Szombathely). ArchÉrt, 81, 167-191. Mócsy, A. 1959. Die Bevölkerung von Pannonien bis zu den Markomannenkriegen. Budapest. Mócsy, A. – Fitz, J. Szerk. 1990. Pannonia régészeti kézikönyve. Budapest. Mráv, Zs. 2005. Ein frühkaiserzeitliches Aristokratengrab aus dem Tauriskergebiet. Der Fund 1914 von Polhov Gradec (Slowenien). ComArchHung, 309-361. Mráv, Zs. 2006. Paradeschild, Ringknaufschwert und Lanzen aus einem römerzeitlichen Wagengrab in Budaörs. Die Waffengräber der lokalen Elite in Pannonien. ArchÉrt, 131, 33-73. Müller, G. 1977. Die römischen Gräberfelder von Novaesium. Novaesium, VII, Berlin. Nagy, L. 1945. Egy pincelelet az aquincumi polgárvárosban (A Cellar-find in the Aquincum Civil-Town. The Problem of the Pannonian Clay Lantern-Towers). BudRég, 14, 157-202. Names 8: Hartley, B. R. – Dickinson, B. M., Names on Terra Sigillata. An Index of Makers’ Stamps & Signatures on Gallo-Roman Terra Sigillata (Samian Ware), Vol. 8 (S to Symphorus). London 2011. Nemeskéri, J. – Harsányi, L. 1968. A hamvasztott csontvázleletek vizsgálatának kérdései (Questions of the examination of cremated bone-finds). AntKözl, 12, 99-116. Nenova-Merdjanova, R. 2002. Bronze vessels and the toilette in Roman times. In: Mattusch, C. C. – Brauer, A.  – Kundsen, S. E. eds. From the Parts to the Whole. Volume 2. Acta of the 13th International Bronze Congress, held at Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 28 – June 1, 1996. Portsmouth – Rhode Island, 201-204. Nicolay, J. 2007. Armed Batavians Use and Significance of Weaponry and Horse Gear from Non-military Contexts in the Rhine Delta (50 BC to AD 450). Archaeological Studies, 11, Amsterdam. Nuber, H. U. 1972. Kanne und Griffschale. Ihr Gebrauch im täglichen Leben und die Beigabe in Gräbern der römischen Kaiserzeit. Bericht der RömischGermanischen Kommission, 53, 1-232.

McKinley, J. I. 1993. Bone fragments size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and the implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 3, 283-287. Mallon, J. 1982. De l’écriture. Recueil des études publiées de 1937 à 1981. Paris. Masset, C. 1987. Le « recrutement » d’un ensemble funéraire. In: Duday, H. – Masset, Cl. dir. Anthropologie physique et Archéologie, Méthodes d’étude des sépultures. Actes du colloque de Toulouse du 4-6 novembre 1982. Paris, 111-134. Matter, G. 1999. Der römische Vicus von Kempraten. Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, 82, 183-211. Maurin, J. 1984. Funus et rites de séparation. In: Aspetti dell’ ideologia funeraria nel mondo romano. Archeologie e storia antica. Annali dell’Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, IV, 191-208. Mayer, A. – Nagy, Á. – Nagy, M. 2006. Anthropologische Angaben über die Bevölkerung von Savaria in den spätrömischen Zeiten. Specimina Nova, 20, 147-158. Márton, A. 2002. Roman Burial with a Weapon from the Bécsi Road Cemetery (Aquincum, Budapest). ComArchHung, 117-152. Márton, A. 2008. Mobilier en terre sigillée dans les sépultures pannoniennes. ComArchHung, 135-189. Mátyás, S. 2006 [2007]. Egy kora római település Savaria territóriumáról (En Early Roman Settelement within Savaria). Savaria, 30, 159-197. Medgyes, M. 1977-1978 [1984]. Leletmentések Savaria É-i temetőjében (Fundbergungen im nördlichen Friedhof von Savaria 1970-75). Savaria, 11-12, 177-209. Medgyes, M. – Kiss, G. 1997. Újabb ókeresztény sírfelirat Savariából. Lapok Szombathely történetéből. Panniculus, Ser. C. No. 72. 54. sz. Mees, A. W. 1995. Modelsignierte Dekorationen auf südgallischer Terra Sigillata. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in BadenWürttemberg, 54, Stuttgart. Merczi, M. 2000. Római kori gyűrűfibulák KomáromEsztergom megyéből (Römerzeitliche Ringfibeln aus dem Komitat Komárom-Esztergom). KomáromEsztergom Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei, 7, 253-287. Merczi, M. 2001. Embertani adatok a Dunakanyar (Visegrád-Diós) késő római kori népességéhez (Anthropological data to the Late Roman Period population of the Danube bend [Visegrád – Diós]). AntKözl, 42, 33-44. Merczi, M. 2006. A Kelet-Dunántúl népessége a késő római korban. (Die spätrömerzeitliche Bevölkerung des östlichen Transdanubien.) In: Újlaki Pongrácz Zs. szerk. Hadak Útján. CD. Nagykovácsi, 37-52. Merczi, M. 2007. A Kelet-Dunántúlon élt késő római népesség újabb összehasonlító vizsgálata (A new comparative study of the Late Roman Period population of East-Transdanubia). AntKözl, 48, 129-143. Merczi, M. – Tóth, G. 2008. Kelet- és Nyugat-Dunántúl embertani képe a római korban. In: Kiss, P. Szerk. 88

Bibliography Oelmann, F., Die tönerne Porta des Ilarus von Intercisa. In: Moro, G. ed. Festschrift für Rudolf Egger. Beiträge zur älteren europäischen Kulturgeschichte, Band I. Klagenfurt 1952, 114-125 Oldenstein, J. 1976. Zur Ausrüstung römischer Auxiliareinheiten. Studien zu Beschlägen und Zierrat an der Ausrüstung römischer Auxiliareinheiten des obergermanisch-rätischen Limesgebietes aus dem zweiten und dritten Jahrhundert n. Chr. Berichte der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission, 57, 49-284. Ortalli, J. 2001. Il culto funerario della Cispadana romana. Rappresentazione e interiorità. In: Culto dei morti, 215242. Ottományi, K. 2005. A római kori település temetője Kamaraerdő területén. In: Vass, J. S., ed. Antik gyökereink. Budaörs múltja a régészeti leletek fényében. Budaörs, 38-55. Oxé, A. – Comfort, H. – Kenrick, Ph. 2000. Corpus Vasorum Arretinorum. A Catalogue of the Signatures, Shapes and Chronology of Italian Sigillata. Antiquitas, Reihe 3, Bd. 41, Bonn. Palágyi, K. S. 2003. Roman period tumuli in Transdanubia. In: Visy, Zs. ed. Hungarian Archeology at the Turn of the Millennium. Budapest, 257-261. Palágyi, K. S. – Nagy, L. 2002. Römerzeitlicher Hügelgräber in Transdanubien (Ungarn). Budapest. Patek, E. 1942. Verbreitung und Herkunft der römischen Fibeltypen in Pannonien. DissPann, Ser. II. No. 19, Budapest. Pautreau, J.-P. 1994. Quelques aspects des crémations contemporaines en Asie du sud-est. In: Lambot – Friboulet – Méniel 1994, 306-315. Pautreais, J.-P. – Mornais, P. 2005. Quelques aspects des crémations actuelles en Thaïlande du Nord. In: Mordant, Cl. – Depierre, G. dir. Les pratiques funéraires à l’âge du Bronze en France. Actes de la Table Ronde de Sensen-Bourgogne, 10-12 juin 1998. Paris, 47-60. Perassi, C. 1999. Monete delle tombe in età romana imperiale: casi di scelta intenzionale sulla base dei sogetti e delle scritte? In: Dubuis, O. F. – Frey-Kupper, S. – Perret, G. éd. Trouvailles monétaires de tombes. Actes du 2e colloque international du Groupe suisse pour l’étude des trouvailles monétaires (Neuchâtel, 3-4 mars 1995). Lausanne, 43-69. Petru, P. 1971. Hišaste žare Latobikov (Hausurnen der Latobiker). Situla, 11, Ljubljana. Petru, S. 1972. Emonske nekropole (odkrie med leti 16351960). Catalogi et monographoae Emona, II, Ljubljana. Petru, S. – Petru, P. 1978. Neviodunum (Drnovo pri Krškem). Catalogi et monographiae, 15, Ljubljana. Petznek, B. 1997. Römerzeitliche Gebrauchskeramik aus Carnuntum. Carnuntum Jahrbuch, 167-323. Petznek, B. 1998. Römerzeitliche Gebrauchskeramik aus Carnuntum. Carnuntum Jahrbuch, 261-404. Petznek, B. 1999. Römerzeitliche Gebrauchskeramik aus Carnuntum. Carnuntum Jahrbuch, 193-319. Petrovszky, R. 1993. Studien zur römischen Bronzgefässen mit Meisterstempeln. Kölner Studien zur Archaeologie der Römischen Provinzen, I, Köln. 89

Philpott, R. 1991. Burial Practices in Roman Britain. An Archaeological Survey of Grave Treatment and Furnishing AD 43-410. British Archaeological Reports British Series, 219, Oxford. Philpott, R. A. – Reece, R. 1993. Sépultures rurales en Bretagne romaine. In: Ferdière 1993, 417-423. Plesničar-Gec, L. 1972. Severno Emonsko Grobisce. Catalogi et monographiae, 8, Emona, III, Ljubljana. Polfer, M. 1993. La nécropole gallo-romaine de Septfontaines-Deckt (Grande-Duché de Luxembourg) et son ustrinum central : analyse comparative du matériel archéologique. In: Ferdière 1993, 173-176. Polfer, M. 1996. Das gallo-römische Brandgräberfeld und der dazuhörige Verbrennungsplatz von SeptfontainesDëckt (Luxembourg). Dossiers d’Archéologie du Musée national d’Histoire et d’Art, 5, Luxembourg. Pongrácz, Zs. 1990. Lampen aus Zalalövő (1973-1987). ActaArchHung, 42, 111-145. Popović, I. 2004. Bijoux romains dans les Balkans : traditions locales et influence de la romanisation. Balcanica, XXXIV, 39-61. Poux, M. 2009. De a veillée au tombeau. In: Goudineau, Ch., sous la dir., Rites funéraires à Lugdunum. Paris, 25-46. Provost, M. 1988. L’Indre-et-Loire. Carte Archéologique de la Gaule, 37, Paris. Pröttel, Ph. M. 1988. Zur Chronologie der Zweibelknopffibeln. Jahrbuch des RömischGremanisches Zentralmuseums, 35.1, 347-372. Radman-Livanja, I. 2004. Militaria Sisciensia. Zagreb. RIC I: Sutherland, C. H. V. 1984. The Roman Imperial Coinage. Volume I. Augustus-Vitellius (31 BC-69 AD). Revised edition, London. RIC II: Mattingly, H. – Sydenham, E. A. 1926. The Roman Imperial Coinage. Volume II. Vespasian-Hadrian (69138). London. Riquier, S. – Salé, Ph. 2006. La nécropole du Haut-Empire de Tavant (Indre-et-Loire). In: Ensembles funéraires galloromains de la Région Centre vol. I. Supplément à la Revue Archéologique du Centre de la France, 29, Tours, 7-108. Roussel, L. 1987-1989 [1993]. La nécropole gallo-romaine des Fougerers à Seurre. Mémoires de la Commission des Antiquités du Département de la Côte-d’Or, XXXV, 193204. Rösing, F. W. 1977. Methoden und Aussagemöglichkeiten der anthropologischen Leichenbrandbestimmung. Archäologie und Naturwissenschaften, 1, 53-80. Rütti, B. 1991. Die römischen Gläser aus Augst und Kaiseraugst. Forschungen in Augst, 13 /1-2, Augst. Salama, P. 2001. Le trésor d’orfèvrerie et monnaies découvert en 1906 dans le camp de Lambèse. Essai de présentation. Revue numismatique, 6e série - Tome 157, 337-346. Scharrer, G. – Draganits, E. 1996. Das spätantike Gräberfeld von Halbturn. Archäologie Österreichs, 7.2, 18-19. Scheid, J. 1984. Contraria facere : renversements et déplacements dans les rites funéraires. In: Aspetti dell’ ideologia funeraria nel mondo romano. Archeologie e

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary) storia antica. Annali dell’Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, IV, 117-139. Schenke, G. 2003. Schein und Sein. Schmuckgebrauch in der römischen Kaiserzeit. Monographs on Antiquity, I, Louvain. Schindler-Kaudelka, E. 1975. Die dünnwandige Gebrauchskeramik vom Magdalensberg. Archäologische Forschungen zu den Grabungen auf dem Magdalensberg, 3, Klagenfurt. Schindler-Kaudelka, E. – Fastner, U. – Gruber, M. 2001. Italische Terra Sigillata mit Appliken in Noricum. Archäologische Forschungen, 6, Wien. Schweder, B. I. M. – Winkler, E.-M. 2004. Untersuchungen zu den Gräberfeldern in Carnuntum Band II: die menschlichen Skelettreste des römerzeitlichen Gräberfeldes Petronell-Carnuntum südlich der Zivilstadt (Notgrabungen 1984-1986). RLÖ, 43, Wien. Sedlmayer, H. 1999. Die römischen Bronzgefäse in Noricum. Monographies instrumentum, 10, Montagnac. Sellye, I. 1990. Ringfibel mit Ansatz aus Pannonien. Savaria, 19 /1, 17-102. Siepen, M. 2001. Ein eiserner Fingerring mit Gemme aus Krefeld-Gellep. ArchKorrBlatt, 31, 253-260. Sjøvold, T. 1990. Estimation of stature from long bones utilizing the line of organic correlation. Human Evolution, 5.5, 431-447. Struck, M. 1993, Hrg., Römerzeitliche Gräber als Quellen zu Religion, Bevölkerungsstruktur und Sozialgeschichte. Internationale Fachkonferenz von 18.-20. Februar 1991. Mainz. Archäologischen Schriften des Instituts für Vorund Frühgeschichte der Gutemberg-Universität Mainz, 3, Mainz. Struck, M. 1993a. Busta in Britannien und ihre Verbindungen zum Kontinent. Allgemeine Überlegungen zur Herleitung der Bestattungssitte. In: Struck 1993, 81-94. Sümegi, P. – Csuti, T. – Takács, T. – Törőcsik, T. 2011. A 86. elkerülő út váti szakaszán és a Hosszú-víz patak allúviumán végzett környezettörténeti vizsgálatok eredménye. (Results of the economy history research conducted at the allovium of the Hosszú-víz brook and the Vát section of the bypass road Nr. 86.) Savaria, 34 /1, 95-121. Sümegi, P. – Náfrádi, K. – Persaits, G. – Páll, D. G. – Törőcsik, T. – Ilon, G. 2011a. The results of the environmental archaeological analysis of the Zanat site and its surrounding area. In: Kvassay, J. ed. The Late Urnfield Period cemetery from Szombathely – Zanat supplemented by an assessment of Prehistoric and Medieval settlement features. VIA – Monographia Minor in Cultural Heritage, 2, Budapest, 201-356. Szőnyi, T. E. 1972. Észak-Itáliából importált császárkori agyagcsészék a győri Xántus János Múzeumban (Poterie de l’Italie du Nord du Haut-Empire au Musée János Xánthus de Győr). Arrabona, 14, 5-25. Taglietti, F. 2001. Ancora su incinerazione e inhumazione: la necropoli dell’Isola Sacra. In: Culto dei morti, 149-158. Teegen, W-R. 1998. Die germanischen Ringfibeln der römischen Zeit. In: Kunow, J. Hrsg. 100 Jahre Fibelformen nach Oscar Almgren. Internationale Arbeitstagung

25.-28. Mai 1997 Kleinmachnow, Land Brandenburg. Forschungen zur Archäologie im Land Brandenburg, 5, 339-349. Tilmann, B. 1980. Zur Terminologie provinzialrömischer Brandgräber. ArchKorrBlatt, 10, 253-258. Tirelli, M. 2001. …ut…largius rosae et esc[a]e… poneretur. I rituali funerari as Altinum tro offerte durevoli e deperebili. In: Culto dei morti, 243-253. Topál, J. 1981. The Southern Cemetery of Matrica (Százhalombatta – Dunafüred). Fontes Archaeologici Hungariae. Budapest. Topál, J. 1993. Roman Cemeteries of Aquincum, Pannonia. The Western Cemetery, Bécsi Road I. Budapest. Tóth, E. 2011. Lapidarium Savariense. Savaria római feliratos kőemlékei. Savaria, 34 / 2. Tóth, G. 1994. A Csepreg-szentkirályi római sír embertani anyaga. Vasi Honismereti Közlemények, 2, 53-54. Tóth, G. 1999. 5. századi hamvasztásos sír embertani vizsgálata (Anthropological examination of cremated remains in a 5th century grave). In: Perémi, S. Á. szerk. A Népvándorláskor Fiatal Kutatói 8. Találkozójának Előadásai, Veszprém, 68-71. Tóth, G. 2003. Előzetes beszámoló a szombathelyi Szent Márton templomban 1989-1991-ben feltárt sírok embertani vizsgálatáról. Lapok Szombathely Történetéből, 113, Panniculus, Ser. C. 170, 1-3. Tóth, G. 2004. A Járdányi Paulovics István Romkertből származó római kori gyermekcsontváz. (Kinderskelett aus der Römerzeit  / Ruinengarten Járdányi Paulovics István, Szombathely / ). Savaria, 28, 335-336. Tóth, G. 2005 [2006]. Zanat II. Az embertani anyag vizsgálatának eredményei (Zanat II. Ergebnisse der anthropologischen Untersuchung). Savaria, 29, 62-63. Tóth, G. 2011a. Über was uns Knochen erzählen – Kennen zir die prähistorischen Menschen? In: Farkas, Cs. Hrg. Zeitschencke. Neue Forschungsergebnisse zur Vorgeschichte vom Komitat Vas. Katalog Prähistorie Band, 3, Szombathely, 221-223. Tóth, G. 2011b. The anthropological material and evaluation of the cemetery. In: Kvassay, J. ed. The Late Urnfield Period cemetery from Szombathely – Zanat supplemented by an assessment of Prehistoric and Medieval settlement features. VIA – Monographia Minor in Cultural Heritage, 2, Budapest, 187-196. Tóth, G. – Buda, B. 2004. Klippel – Feil-szindróma Savaria római kori embertani anyagában. (Klippel-Feil syndrom in the Roman Age anthropologic material of Savaria.) A Berzsenyi Dániel Főiskola Tudományos Közleményei XIV. Természettudományok, 9, 37-42. Tóth, G. – Kiss, P. 2008. Sebészi trepanáció Sárvár (Vas megye) római kori temetőjéből. (Chirurgische Trepanation aus dem Friedhof der Römerzeit in Sárvár [Komitat Vas].) Folia Anthropologica, 7, 63-64. Tóth, G. – Mátyás, K. K. – Buda, B. 2006. A szombathelyi Isis-szentélyben feltárt emberi csontmaradványok vizsgálatának előzetes eredményei. (Die Vorergebnisse der an den im Isis-Heiligtum von Szombathely freigelegten mensclichen Knochenresten durchgeführten

90

Bibliography Untersuchungen). In: Újlaki Pongrácz, Zs. Szerk. Hadak Útján. CD, Nagykovácsi, 33-36. Tóth, G. – Merczi, M. 2010. Sárvár (Vas megye) római kori temetője. (The Roman Age cemetery of Sárvár [Vas Conty].) A Nyugat-magyarországi Egyetem Savaria Egyetemi Központ tudományos közleményei, XVII, Természettudományok, 12, 165-176. Trotter, M. – Hixon, B. B. 1974. Sequential changes in weight, density, and percentage ash weight of human skeletons from an early fetal period through old age. The Anatomical Record, 179, 1-18. Ubl, H. 1974. Das römerzeitliche Gräberfeld und die zugehörige Siedlung von Mannersdorf a. Leithagebirge, Flur Hausfelder am Arbach. Actes du IXe congrès international d’études sur les frontières romaines. Mamaïa, 6-13 septembre 1972. Bucureşti – Köln, 415426. Uerpmann, H.-P. 1973. Animal bone finds and economic archaeology. World Archaeology, 4 / 3, 308-309. Varga, P. – Bernert, Zs. – Gyenis, Gy. – Fóthi, E. 2003. Multivariate Statistics on Roman and Migration Period Populations of the Carpathian Basin. Anthropologie, 41.1-2, 135-144. Varga, P. – Bernert, Zs. – Fóthi, E. 2005. Antropológiai adatok a Keszthely-Dobogó római kori temetőhöz. In: Korsós, Z. szerk. IV. Kárpát-medencei Biológiai Szimpózium. Budapest. 193-196. Vark, G. N. van – Amesz-Voorhoeve, W. H. M. – Cuijpers, A. G. F. M. 1996. Sex-diagnosis of Human Cremated Skeletal Material by Means of Mathematical-statistical and Data-analytical Methods. Homo, 47 (1-3), 305-338. Vágó, E. B. 1977. Die oberitalisch-padanische AuflagenSigillata in Transdanubien. ActaArchHung, 25, 77-109. Vámos, P. 2002. Fazekasműhely az aquincumi canabae déli részén. (Töpferwerkstatt im südlichen Teil der Canabae von Aquincum). ArcÉrt, 127, 5 – 87. Vörös, I. 1985-1986 [1987]. The animal remains from the Roman imperial period of Kővágószőlős. Janus Pannonius Múzeum Évkönyve, 30-31, 234-247.

Vörös, I. 1991. Temetési étel- és állatáldozat leletei Solymár kora császárkori temetőjében (Speise- und Tieropferfunde der Bestattungen des frühkaiserzeitlichen Gräberfeldes von Solymár). Studia Comitatensia, 21, 349-363. Vörös, I. 1990-1992 [1993]. Apagy barbaricumi császárkori település állatcsont maradványai. A Nyíregyházi Jósa András Múzeum Évkönyve, 33-35, 33-65. Vörös, I. 1993-1994 [1994]. A balatonaligai császárkori telep állatcsont leletei (Tierknochfunde in der Siedlung aus der Kaiserzeit in Balatonaliga). A Veszprém Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei, 19-20, 195-214. Wahl, J. 1981. Beobachtungen zur Verbrennung menschlicher Leichname. ArchKorrBlatt, 11, 271-279. Wahl, J. 1982. Ein Überblick über die Bearbeitung und Aussagemöglichkeiten von Brandgräber. Prähistorische Zeitschrift, 57.1, 1-125. Warren, M. W. – Maples, M. A. – Maples, W. R. 1997. The anthropometry of contemporary commercial cremations. Journal of Forensic Science, 42.3, 417-423. Wigg, A. 1993. Zu Funktion und Deutung der „Aschenguben’. In: Struck 1993, 111-115. Witteyer, M. 1993. Die Ustrinen und Busta von MainzWeisenau. In: Struck 1993, 69-80. Zabehlicky, H. 1991. Ritzungen auf Grabbeigaben aus Hallstatt. Specimina Nova, 7, 271-280. Zoffmann, Zs. K. 1981 [1988]. Das anthropologische Material des spätrömischen Grabes von Chernelházadamonya (42-46 jähriger Mann). Savaria, 15, 209-213. Zoffmann, Zs. K. 2009. Kelta kori embertani leletek HajdúBihar megyéből (Celtic anthropological finds from Hajdú-Bihar county). Ősrégészeti Levelek, Prehistoric Newsletter, 11, 115-121. Zsidi, P. 2003. Burials. In: Visy, Zs. ed. Hungarian Archeology at the Turn of the Millennium. Budapest, 251-257.

91

Illustration credits Field photographs Ferenc Halász: Figs. 4, 7-10, 21, 25, 27-30, 35-36, 38-41, 43-45, 48, 53-55, 58-59, 63, 65-66. Hajnalka Hekli: Figs. 18, 22, 33, 37, 39, 42, 46-47, 60. Eszter Móricz: Figs. 18, 47, 57, 60, 63, 64. Ákos Pénzes: Figs. 103, 105. Aerial photography – Gábor Rákóczi (Aero Art): Fig. 2. Excavation drawings Áron Földi, Hajnalka Hekli, Zoltán Kovács, Eszter Móricz, Ákos Pénzes, Tibor Takács (after the plans made by the Geomontán Kft), Gábor Vámos: Figs. 4, 7-9, 18, 21-22, 25, 27-30, 33, 35-48, 53-60, 63-66. Objet photos Ceramic, metal, glass and bone objets – Tibor Takács: Figs. 67-94. Microscope photos – Zsuzsanna Tóth (ELTE): Figs. 94.2, 4a-b. Photos during restauration – Krisztina Katalin Kiss (Archeolore Kft): Fig. 90.2. Object drawings András Radics: Figs. 5-8, 11-17, 19-21, 23-66. Maps István Eke (after the land-surveying made by the Geomontán Kft.): Figs. 1, 3.

92

Figures

86 Nemesbőd

Vép

6 5

0

1

2

3

4 100m

Fig. 1 The location of the site and the excavated part of the site in the future road line Legend: 1. Contemporary road system; 2. Expropriation area of the new line of Main road 86; 3. Area of the archaeological excavation; 4. Roman features; 5. Roman cemetery; 6. Roman settlement

Fig. 2 Aerial photos of the site

93

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Fig. 3 Excavated part of the Roman cemetery at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő Key: 1. Primary cremations; 2. Secondary cremations; 3. Inhumation; 4. Feature not identifiable as burial

94

Figures

Key Legend Pottery

Bronze

Pottery

Iron

Pottery

Glass

Pottery

Bone

Tegula

Calcined bones

Burnt layer/burnt clay

Animal bone

Charcoal The different shades and fill symbols indicate object made of the same or similar material distinguishable at the time of the excavation.

95

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

3/b 1/b

1/a

4

A

B

2/b

5 2/a

3/a

5 6

5

A

B 5

A

B

0

1m

1 2

Fig. 4 Grave 1: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos of its patch and stages of its excavation

96

Figures

1

2

3

4

5

Fig. 5 Grave 1: 1. lid; 2. small storage vase; 3. jar; 4. jug; 5. deep bowl (caccabus); 6. jug

97

6

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Fig. 6 Grave 1: ‘lamp house’

98

Figures

C

1 A

B 3 2

D A

B

C

D

2

1

1

1 0

1m

3

4

5

Fig. 7 Grave 2: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. small storage vase; 4. jug; 5. knife Key: 1. Yellowish brown mixed fill

99

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

4

1

2

A

3

B 4

1

D

A

B

C

A

B

C

D 2

1

1

2 1m

0

1

4

3

6

5

Fig. 8 Grave 3: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. small storage vase; 4. jar; 5. jug; 6. plate Key: 1. Yellowish brown mixed fill

100

Figures

32

9 8

22

7 1

30

3

27

2 34 4

38 29 37 35

18

17 5

15

A

26

16 14 13

28

31 33

11 10

21 19

6

20

B

34 25 24

23

12

13

A

B

5 5 2 1

2

3

4

1m

0

1

2

Fig. 9 Grave 4: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation Key: 1. Compact, burnt red layer; 2. Loose layer with charcoal; 3. Layer containing calcined bones and charcoal; 4. Yellow layer with gravel; 5. Clay with loess

101

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Fig. 10 Grave 4: Photos during excavation and details

102

Figures

1

2

3

Fig. 11 Grave 4: 1-3. Samian plates (Cats. 3, 2, 1) and their applied decoration and potter’s stamps (applied decoration and potter’s stamps in full scale)

103

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

Fig. 12 Grave 4: 1-3. Samian plates (Cats. 3, 2, 1) and their graffiti (full scale)

104

Figures

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Fig. 13 Grave 4: 1-3. Samian bowls (Cats. 5, 4, 6) and their graffiti; 4. bowl (Cat. 7) and its graffiti; 5. thin-walled cup (Cat. 9); 6. bowl (Cat. 8); 7. lamp (Cat. 10) (graffiti and potter’s mark in full scale)

105

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

3

1

5

4

6

7

8

Fig. 14 Grave 4: 1. jar 8 (Cat. 17); 2. lid (Cat. 28); 3. jar (Cat. 18); 4. small storage vase (Cat. 20); 5. jar (Cat. 19); 6-8. small storage vases (Cats. 23, 24, 22)

106

Figures

2

1

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig. 15 Grave 4: 1-3. jugs (Cats. 12, 11, 13); 4-9. glass balsamaria (Cats. 35, 32, 34, 33, 36, 37)

107

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1a 1b

2a

2b

Fig. 16 Grave 4: 1a. bronze amphora; 1b. the reconstruction of the amphora (not to scale); 2a. bronze bucket handle; 2b. the reconstruction of the bucket (Cats. 40-41)

108

Figures

1

2

3

4 5

6

8

9

10

11

7

12

13

14

15

16

17

BMC II. Nr. 203 19

18

Fig. 17 Grave 4: 1-11. iron nails (Cats. 50, 51, 53, 52, 49, 54, 59, 55, 57, 56, 58); 12-13. iron clasps / strap-holders (Cats. 47-48); 14-15. bronze rings (Cats. 42-43); 16-17. bronze objects (Cats. 60, 46); 18. coin (Cat. 44); 19. iron knife (Cat.45)

109

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

25 4 A

3

1

5

B

2

24 23

D 8 7

A

9 10 11 12 22 13 21 14 20 15 19 18 17 16 6

1

B

C

A

B

0

1m

1 2

Fig. 18 Grave 5: 1. drawings: patch, during excavation, plan and section; 2. photos: patch, during excavation and details

110

Figures

1

4

2

3

5

Fig. 19 Grave 5: 1. thin-walled cup and its decoration (in full scale); 2. small storage vase; 3. samian plate; 4-5. glass balsamaria (Cats. 2, 3, 1 and 28)

111

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Fig. 20 Grave 5: 1-20. glass beads; 21. bone bead (Cats. 4-9, 14-27 and 40)

112

Figures

5 1

2

4 3

6

8

7

A

B

C

9

10

D

1

1

A

C

B

D

1

1

1m

0

11

12

14

15

13

Fig. 21 Grave 5: 1-9. iron nails; 10. bronze fingerring with gemma (Cats. 31-33, 36, 34, 37-39, 30); Enclosure ditch 99 /110: 11. drawing of the section; 13. photo during excavation; 14. jar; 15. beaker(?) (Cats. 2-3); Enclosure ditches 99 /110 and 101 /113: 12. photo of the intersection Key: 1. Dark brown, compact fill

113

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

A

B

1

3 3 3

2

A

B 3

1

A

B

0

1m

1

2

Fig. 22 Grave 6: 1. drawings: patch, plan and section; 2. photos during excavation and details

114

Figures

2

1

4

5 3

6

7

8

9

10

Fig. 23 Grave 6: 1. jar; 2. small storage vase; 3. jar; 4. glass balsamarium; 5. bronze ring; 6-10. iron nails (Cats. 4, 7, 3, 8-12)

115

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

Fig. 24 Grave 6: 1. Samian plate and its applied decoration (full scale); 2. bowl (Cats. 1 and 6)

116

Figures

A

C

B

D

1

1

E

F

1

0

1m

2

1

3

4

5

Fig. 25 Enclosure ditch 101 /113: 1. drawing of the section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar; 4. jug; 5. jar (Cats. 6, 5 and 10) Key: 1. Dark brown, compact fill

117

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

Fig. 26 Enclosure ditch 101 /113: 1. Samian cup; 2-3. Samian plate and its applied decoration (applied decoration and potter’s stamp in full scale) (Cats. 2-4, 1)

118

Figures Figures

A

2

B

1

A

B

2 1m

0

1

3

4

5

Fig. 27 Grave 7: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. iron nail; 4. jug; 5. plate (Cats. 4, 1 and 2)

119

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

A

B 3 1

A

B

2 1

1m

0

4

3

5

Fig. 28 Grave 8: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. bone pyxis; 4. glass balsamarium; 5. fibula (Cats. 5, 3 and 4)

120

Figures

A

B

1

A

B

50cm

0

1

3

2

4

Fig. 29 Grave 9: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3-4. jars (Cats. 3-4)

121

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

A

B 2 3

9 10 7

1

A

B

2 12 4

8 6

11 3

5

A

B

2

0

1m

1

3

Fig. 30 Grave 10: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. lamp (Cat. 1)

122

Figures

1

2

3

5

4

6

Fig. 31 Grave 10: 1-2. jars; 3. plate; 4. small storage vase; 5-6. glass balsamaria (Cats. 2-7)

123

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

4

3

5

6

1st century

7

Fig. 32 Grave 10: 1-6. iron instruments; 7. iron knife; 8. coin (Cats. 11, 13-14, 10, 15, 12, 9 and 8)

124

8

Figures

A

B

1

A

B

2 1

3

A

B

4

2

A

0

B

3

1m 1

Fig. 33 Grave 11: 1. drawings: patch, plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. fibula / belt clasp (Cat. 6)

125

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

1

3

4

5

Fig. 34 Grave 11: 1. jar; 2. bowl; 3. plate; 4. lamp and its potter’s mark (in full scale); 5. iron knife (Cats. 2, 4, 5, 1 and 7)

126

Figures

A

B

A

B

2

3 0

50cm

4

1

A

B

A

B

6 A

B

7 0

50cm

5

Fig. 35 Grave 12: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3-4. iron nails (Cat. 1); Grave 13: 5. drawings: patch, plan and section; 6. photo during excavation; 7. glass bead (Cat. 1)

127

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

A

B

2

1m

0

1

2 1

A

B

A

3

B

0

50cm

4

6

7

5

Fig. 36 Grave 14: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar; Grave 15: 4. drawings: plan and section; 5. photo during excavation; 6. plate; 7. iron knife (Cats. 2-3)

128

Figures

A

B

A

B

2

0

1m

1

3

4

5

Fig. 37 Grave 16: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. lid; 4. jar; 5. iron nail (Cats. 4, 2 and 5)

129

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

1

A

2

B

3 4

5

A

B

1m

0

1

2

3

5 4

6

7

Fig. 38 Grave 17: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3-6. iron nails; 7. lamp and its potter’s mark (full scale) (Cats. 6-7, 4-5, 1)

130

Figures

A

B

A

B

A

B

0

1m

1

A

B

A

B

0

2

1m

3

5

4

Fig. 39 Grave 18: drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; Grave 21: 3. drawings: plan and section; 4. photo during excavation; 5. small storage vase

131

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

A

B

A

B

2

0

50cm

1

3

Fig. 40 Grave 19: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. small storage vase (Cat. 2)

132

Figures

A

B

A

B 1

A

B

2

0

1m 1

3

Fig. 41 Grave 20: 1. drawings: patch, plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. fibula

133

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

1 A

B

2

50cm

0

1 4

5

3

6

7

8

Fig. 42 Grave 22: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar; 4. beaker; 5. mug; 6. iron nail; 7. iron object; 8. lamp and its potter’s mark (full scale) (Cats. 2, 5, 3, 10, 9 and 1)

134

Figures

2

A

B 1

C

D 1 2

A

B

0

1m

1

2

3

4

Fig. 43 Grave 23: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. jar; 4. small storage vase Key: 1. Dark brown, compact fill; 2. Black, loose fill

135

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

5 4 1

2

3

A

B

2 1

A

B

1m

0

1

4

3

6

5

8

7

9

Fig. 44 Grave 24: 1. drawings: patch, plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jug; 4. small storage vase; 5. small bowl; 6. bronze nail; 7. bronze ring; 8. lamp; 9. jar (Cats. 4, 5, 3, 7, 6, 1 and 2)

136

Figures

2

A

B 1 2

A

0

B

50cm

2 1

3

4

5

Fig. 45 Grave 25: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. jar; 4. plate; 5. beaker (Cats. 1, 4-5)

137

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

A

2

B

1

3

A

B

50cm

0

1

4

BMC I. Nr. 161-167 5

6

7

Fig. 46 Grave 26: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. lid; 4. jar; 5. thin-walled cup; 6. coin; 7. glass balsamarium (Cats. 7, 5, 1, 9 and 8)

138

Figures

A

B 1

A

B 1

A

B

50cm

0

1

2 3

4

6

7

8

9

5

Fig. 47 Grave 27: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. plate; 4. plate; 5-6. jars; 7-9. iron nails (Cats. 4, 5, 1, 3 and 6-8)

139

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

8

14

7

13

A 3

11 12

1

15

5

B

4

9 10 6

A

B

0

1m

1 2 3

4

5

Fig. 48 Grave 28: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. lid; 4-5. jars (Cats. 10, 4 and 3)

140

Figures

1

2

3

5

4

6 7

8

Fig. 49 Grave 28: 1-2. lids; 3. jar; 4. jug; 5. plate; 6. small bowl; 7. beaker; 8. lamp and its potter’s mark (full scale) (Cats. 12, 11, 5, 2, 6-7, 9 and 1)

141

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

3

2

4

5

6

Fig. 50 Grave 28: 1-2. buttons; 3. belt buckle; 4. mount; 5. strap end; 6. ring (Cats. 27-28, 25, 24, 31 and 23)

142

Figures

1

4 2

6

5

3

8

7

9

10

11

12

Fig. 51 Grave 28: 1. bone object; 2. golden pin head; 3. bronze pin; 4. bronze wire; 5. fibula; 6. golden foil; 7. glass bottle; 8. glass balsamaria; 9-12. glass beads (Cats. 45, 30, 32, 26, 22, 13-14, 16 and 19-21)

143

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

4

3

5

6

9

7

8

10

11

12

14 13

Fig. 52 Grave 28: 1-13. iron objects; 14. iron knife (Cats. 35, 33, 38, 44, 39, 36, 43, 45, 42, 40, 37, 34 and 41)

144

Figures

A

B

A

B

0

50cm

2

1

3

Fig. 53 Grave 29: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar (Cat. 1)

145

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

A

B

1m

0

1

A

B

A

B 1

0

3

2

1m

2

4

Fig. 54 Grave 30: 1. drawings: plan and section; Grave 31: 2. drawings: plan and section; 3. photo during excavation; 4. jar Key: 1. Dark brown fill containing charcoal; 2. Burnt bone

146

Figures

A

B

3

A

B

A

B

1m

0

A

2

1

B

1

A

B

1

C

D

1

E

F

1

A

B

1 0

1m

4

5

Fig. 55 ‘Grave’(?) 32: 1. drawings of patch, plan and section; 3. iron nail; Enclosure ditch 98 /108: 2. photo during excavation; 4. drawing of the section; Enclosure ditches 99 /110, 101 /113 and 98 /108: 5. photo during excavation Key: 1. Dark brown, compact fill

147

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

? 5

Fig. 56 Enclosure ditch 98 /108: 1. lid; 2. small bowl; 3. bowl; 4. jar; 5. coin (Cats. 7, 6, 5, 3 and 9)

148

Figures

A

B

A

B

2

1m

0

1

3

4

3a

Fig. 57 ‘Grave’(?) 33: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3-3a. Samian plate and its applied decoration; 4. Samian cup and its potter’s stamp (Cats. 2, 1)

149

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

2

A

B

3

0

50cm

1

4

5

Fig. 58 ‘Grave’(?) 34: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar; 4. beaker; 5. plate (Cats. 3, 2 and 1)

150

Figures

A

B

A

B

0

1m

2

1

3

A

B

A

B

5 0

1m

4

Fig. 59 ‘Grave’(?) 35: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jug; Grave 36: 4. drawings: plan and section; 5. iron nail

151

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

2

3 4

9

B

A 6

7 5

1

8

2

B

A

0

1m

1

3

4

Fig. 60 Grave 37: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos: patch and during excavation; 3. large storage vase; 4. small storage vase (Cats. 5 and 9)

152

Figures

1

3

2

4

5

Fig. 61 Grave 37: 1. lock mechanism; 2. iron handle; 3. iron key; 4-5. iron hinges (Cats. 19, 17, 18 and 15-16)

153

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

15

16

17

18

19

4

5

6

7

20

21

22

23

24

25

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Fig. 62 Grave 37: 1-3. box fittings (Cats. 23 and 14); 4. iron loop with spirally twisted silver wire; 5-14. silver rings (Cat. 11); 15. bronze ring (Cat. 12); 16-24. iron nails Cats. 20-22); 25. bronze rivet (Cat. 13)

154

Figures

A

B 3

2 1

4

A

B 3 1

2

A

B

1m

0

1

4 2

3

5

6

7

Fig. 63 Grave 38: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation; 3. jug; 4. bowl; 5. mug; 6. beaker; 7. fibula (Cats. 1, 4, 3, 2 and 7)

155

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B 1

A

B

0

1m 1

2

3

Fig. 64 Grave 39: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. jar (Cat. 1)

156

Figures

2 A

B 1

3

A

B

0

1m

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

Fig. 65 Grave 40: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photo during excavation; 3. glass beaker; 4. fibula; 5. lid; 6. iron knife; 7. jar (Cats. 4, 5, 3, 6 and 1)

157

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

A

B

1

2

A

B

1

A

B

0

1m

1

2

3

4

Fig. 66 Grave 41: 1. drawings: plan and section; 2. photos during excavation and details; 3. mug; 4. small bowl (Cats. 3-4)

158

Figures

Fig. 67 Grave 4: Samian plate and its applied decoration, potter’s stamp and graffiti (applied decoration, potter’s stamp in full scale; Cat. 1)

159

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Fig. 68 Grave 4: Samian plate and its applied decoration, potter’s stamp and graffiti (applied decoration, potter’s stamp in full scale; Cat. 2)

160

Figures

Fig. 69 Grave 4: Samian plate and its applied decoration, potter’s stamp and graffiti (applied decoration, potter’s stamp in full scale; Cat. 3)

161

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Fig. 70 Grave 6: Samian plate and its applied decoration (full scale; Cat. 1)

162

Figures

1

2

4 3

5

6

Fig. 71 Samian bowls and their graffiti (Grave 4: 1-2. Cat. 5; 3-4. Cat. 4; 5-6. Cat. 6)

163

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 72 Samian plates and cups: 1, 3-4. Enclosure ditch 101 /113 (Cats. 1-3); 2. Grave 5 (Cat. 1); 5-6. ‘Grave’(?) 33 (Cats. 2, 1)

164

Figures

1

2

3

Fig. 73 Thin-walled cups: 1. Grave 5 (Cat. 2); 2. Grave 26 (Cat. 1); 3. Grave 4 (Cat. 9)

165

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

Fig. 74 Jars: 1, 3. Grave 28 (Cats. 4, 3); 2. Grave 22 (Cat. 2); 4. Grave 26 (Cat. 5); 5. Grave 27 (Cat. 1)

166

Figures

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 75 Jars: 1. Grave 14 (Cat. 1); 2. Grave 29 (Cat. 1); 3. Grave 39 (Cat. 1); 4. Grave 10 (Cat. 3); 5-6. Grave 4 (Cats. 18-19)

167

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 76 Jars and lids: 1. Grave 6 (Cat. 4); 2. Grave 1 (Cat. 3); 3, 6. Grave 4 (Cats. 17, 28); 4. Grave 10 (Cat. 2); 5. Grave 28 (Cat. 10)

168

Figures

1

4

2

3

5

6

7

8

9

Fig. 77 Small storage vases: 1. Grave 6 (Cat. 7); 2. Grave 10 (Cat. 5); 3. Grave 2 (Cat. 4); 4-6. Grave 4 (Cats. 23, 24, 22); 7. Grave 1 (Cat. 5); 8. Grave 38 (Cat. 3); 9. Grave 37 (Cat. 9)

169

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

Fig. 78 Beakers, small storage vessel and mug: 1. Grave 38 (Cat. 2); 2. Grave 3 (Cat. 5); 3, 5. Grave 22 (Cats. 4-5); 4. Grave 41 (Cat. 4)

170

Figures

1

2

3

4

6

6

5

7

Fig. 79 Jugs: 1. Grave 2 (Cat. 1); 2. Grave 3 (Cat. 1); 3. Grave 38 (Cat. 1); 4-5, 7. Grave 4 (Cats. 11-12, 13); 6. Grave 28 (Cat. 2)

171

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 8a

Fig. 80 Plates and bowls: 1. Grave 1 (Cat. 4); 2. Grave 11 (Cat. 4); 3. Grave 3 (Cat. 4); 4. Grave 15 (Cat. 2); 5. Grave 7 (Cat. 2); 6. Grave 6 (Cat. 6); 7-8, 8a Grave 4 (Cats. 8, 7: small bowl and its graffiti in full scale); 9. Grave 41 (Cat. 3)

172

Figures

1

2

3

Fig.81 Lamps and their potter’s mark: 1. Grave 11 (Cat. 1); 2. Grave 28 (Cat. 1); 3. Grave 17 (Cat. 1)

173

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

Fig. 82 Lamps and their potter’s mark: 1. Grave 4 (Cat. 10); 2. Grave 22 (Cat. 1); 3. Grave 24 (Cat. 1); 4. Grave 10 (Cat. 1)

174

Figures

Fig. 83 ‘Lamp house’: Grave 1

175

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

5

4

6

Fig. 84 Fibulae and fibula / belt cup: 1. Grave 38 (Cat. 7); 2. Grave 8 (Cat. 8); 3. Grave 40 (Cat. 5); 4. Grave 20 (Cat. 2); 5. Grave 11 (Cat. 6); 6. Grave 28 (Cat. 26)

176

Figures

3

2

1

4

5

6

Fig. 85 Belt fittings: 1. belt buckle; 2. strap end; 3. fitting; 4-5 buttons; 6. iron loop with silver rings (1-5. Grave 28, Cats. 25, 31, 24, 28 and 27; 6. Grave 37, Cat. 11)

177

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

5

1

3

2

4

Fig. 86 Coins and golden artefacts: 1-2. coins; 3. golden foil; 4-5. bronze pin with golden head (1. Grave 4, Cat. 44; 2. Grave 26, Cat 9; 3-5. Grave 28, Cats. 22, 30)

178

Figures

2

1

3

9

6 4

5

7

8

Fig. 87 Glass and bone beads, rings: 1-2, 4-7. glass beads; 3. bone bead; 8. ring with gemma; 9-10. bronze rings (1-3, 8. Grave 5, Cats. 4-9, 14-27, 40 and 30; 4-7 Grave 28, Cats. 20-21, 16 and 19; 9-10. Grave 4, Cats. 42-43)

179

10

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

Fig. 88 1. bronze amphora; 2. bucket handle (Grave 4, Cats. 40-41)

180

Figures

1

2

3

4

5

6 7

Fig. 89 Iron knives: 1. Grave 11 (Cat. 7); 2. Grave 15 (Cat. 3); 3. Grave 2 (Cat. 5); 4. Grave 10 (Cat. 9); 5. Grave 28 (Cat. 41); 6. Grave 40 (Cat. 6); 7. Grave 4 (Cat. 45)

181

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

Fig.90 Box parts: 1. lock mechanism; 2. lock mechanism before conservation; 3. iron key (Grave 37, Cats. 17, 19, 18)

182

Figures

1

2

3

4

Fig. 91 Box parts: 1-2. fittings; 3-4. hinges (Grave 37, Cats. 14, 23, 16, 15)

183

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3

4

9

5

6

7

8

Fig. 92 Glass balsamaria: 1. Grave 6 (Cat. 8); 2-3. Grave 10 (Cat. 6-7); 4. Grave 26 (Cat. 8); 5-9. Grave 4 (Cats. 35, 32, 34, 33, 36)

184

Figures

1

2

4

3

Fig. 93 Glass vessels: 1. glass baker in situ; 2. glass baker; 3. glass bottle; 4. glass bottle and belt buckle in situ (1-2. Grave 40, Cat. 4; 3-4. Grave 28, Cats. 13 and 25)

185

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

1

2

3 4a

4b

Fig. 94 Bone objects: 1. carved bone object; 2. microscope photo of the object; 3. bone pyxis; 4a-4b. microscope photo of the pyxis (1-2. Grave 28, Cat. 46; 3-4b. Grave 8, Cat. 5)

186

Figures

Inv. no.

Feature type

Height (cm)

Description

Width (cm)

Diameter (cm)

Feature

SU

48.38574.0003.001

29

3

Ditch

Rim fragment of a plate. Glued from several fragments.

3

5.6

cca. 20

48.38574.0003.002

29

3

Ditch

Base of a cup (Drag. 33) and the start of the foot and the wall. Inside in a circle: Sedati ° m (in tabula ansata).

1.5

5.5

Foot: 5.3

48.38574.0003.003

29

3

Ditch

Wall fragment of a plate from the outside of the beginning of the foot. Inside rouletted pattern.

5.6 max.

4.7 max.

48.38574.0003.004

29

3

Ditch

Two unjoining fragments of a cup: from the bottom with leathered circle and from the wall.

1.8; 1.2

2.6; 2

48.38574.0003.005

29

3

Ditch

Rim fragment of a hemispherical cup with short vertical rim and pronounced flange. Above the flange applied decoration: right half of a double-spiral (length: 1.9 cm; height: 1 cm).

2.4

3.3

48.38574.0007.019

4

7

Pit

Joining fragment to Inv. No. 48.38574.0003.001.

4.2

3.5

48.38574.0034.027

29

34

Pit

Small wall fragment of a relief decorated bowl.

1.3

1.1

48.38574.0037.015

32

37

Pit

Wall fragment of a relief decorated bowl. Ovolos, demarcation line, frieze of leaves to left, dot line, fragment of tendril or arcade pattern.

5.4

5.5

cca. 20

48.38574.0037.016

32

37

Pit

Rim and unjoining wall fragment.

3.8; 4.4

6.2; 3.7

cca. 18

48.38574.0037.017

32

37

Pit

Fragment of a goblet from the profiled part above the ring-foot. The fragment is broken into two parts, only the outer surface is preserved.

2.2

2.7

n / a

48.38574.0037.018

32

37

Pit

Wall fragment of a cup from the part above the rim with a grooved line. The fragment is broken into two parts, only the outer surface is preserved.

2.5

2.6

n / a

48.38574.0045.136

40

45

Pit

Rim fragment of small bowl with outward curving rim.

3.2

3.3

cca. 19

48.38574.0045.137

40

45

Pit

Small wall fragment.

1.7

1

48.38574.0045.138

40

45

Pit

Rim and wall fragment of a plate.

8.1

7.5

cca. 20

48.38574.0045.139

40

45

Pit

Wall fragment of a cup.

5.6

7.8

cca. 13.5

48.38574.0045.140

40

45

Pit

Rim and wall fragment of a plate.

4.5

5.6

cca. 18

48.38574.0046.001

41

46

Pit

Rim fragment of a cup.

1.8

3.2

cca. 10

48.38574.0046.002

41

46

Pit

Rim fragment of a small bowl with outward curving rim.

1.5

1.8

n / a

48.38574.0052.001

46

52

Pit

Fragment of the bottom of a plate, with a part of the foot and the wall.

2.2

13

Foot: 11

48.38574.0080.045

73

80

Ditch

Wall fragment of a relief decorated bowl: fragment of the wing of Victory to left.

3.4

2.4

48.38574.0080.046

73

80

Ditch

Fragment of a cup.

1.7

2.3

48.38574.0080.047

73

80

Ditch

Small Samian fragment.

1.3

2.2

1.1

2.1

0.9

2.7

48.38574.0101.016

92

101

Pit

Rim fragment of a small bowl with outward curving rim decorated with barbotine leaves.

48.38574.0225.001

207

225

Pit

Rim fragment of a relief decorated bowl (?).

Fig. 95 Samian Ware from the territory of the cemetery excluding the finds from the graves

187

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Inv. no.

Clay

48.38574.0003.001

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

48.38574.0003.002

Light brown, fired hard, with Brownish-red, shiny. very small particles of chalk.

Lezoux, by Sedatus iv; Die 2a, cf. Names 8, 190. Dating: 130-160. On the distribution of the production of the potter in Pannonia see Gabler – Márton 2009, No. 569, 277.

48.38574.0003.003

Light brown, fired hard, with Compact, slightly very small particles of chalk. shiny red.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 18R. Dating: 80-120.

48.38574.0003.004

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, shiny.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 27. Dating: FlavianTrajanic.

48.38574.0003.005

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Very worn brownishred.

North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to Fabric E. Form: Consp. 34. Dating: ClaudianFlavian period, more probably Flavian.

Shiny, compact red.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 18. Dating: 80-120.

Shiny red.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 37. Dating: FlavianTrajanic.

48.38574.0007.019 48.38574.0034.027

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk. Light brown with a lot of particles of chalk.

Glaze

Commentary

Compact, shiny red.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 18. Dating: 80-120.

Late South Gaulish workshop. The mould used for the bowl was worn, so the decoration is not clear.

48.38574.0037.015

Brownish-red, shiny.

48.38574.0037.016

Light brown with a lot of particles of chalk.

Red shiny, shelling off.

North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to Fabric D. Form: ?. The inner surface is very damaged.

48.38574.0037.017

Pale brown with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, shiny.

South Gaulish, probably from La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 33. Dating: Flavian-Trajanic. No doubt from the vase of Inv. No. 48.38574.0037.018.

48.38574.0037.018

Light brown with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, shiny.

South Gaulish, probably from La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 33. Dating: Flavian-Trajanic.

48.38574.0045.136

Light, yellowish-brown.

Brownish-red, worn, slightly shiny.

North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to Fabric E. Form: Consp. 44. The Consp. 44 form bowl appeared in the Flavian period, in greater numbers under Domitian, and remained very popular until the end of the reign of Trajan. Their importation ended under Hadrianus or Antoninus Pius: Gabler 1990, 150.

48.38574.0045.137

Light brown, with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, very worn.

South Gaulish. Form: undeterminable plain form. Dating: 80-120.

48.38574.0045.138

Brown, with a lot of particles of chalk.

Shiny red, some part worn, shelling off on the inside.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 18. Dating: Trajanic.

48.38574.0045.139

Brown, with a lot of particles of chalk.

Shiny red.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 27 (large version). Dating: Trajanic.

48.38574.0045.140

Brown, with a lot of particles of chalk.

Shiny red, some parts worn, shelling off in the inside.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 18. Dating: Trajanic.

48.38574.0046.001

Pale salmon with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, with some black particles.

South Gaulish, La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 27 (small version). Dating: Trajanic.

48.38574.0046.002

Light brown.

Brownish-red, shiny.

Form: Plate (Consp. 20.4).

48.38574.0052.001

Soft, pale yellow.

Red, orange-red, slightly shiny, at some parts brownish.

North Italian workshop in the Po Region. Based on the quality of the material, it belongs to Fabric E. Secondarily burnt. Form: Consp. 20.4. Similar, perhaps identical mask is used by the LMV Group (SchindlerKaudelka et al. 2001, Abb. 51. 12). Dating: Claudian-Vespasian / Titus.

48.38574.0080.045

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, shiny.

South Gaulish, probably from La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 37. The figure of Victory to left was used by several potters: e.g. Mees 1995, Taf. 120. 2, Masclus, 185. 1, C. Cingius Senovir. Dating: 80-120

48.38574.0080.046

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Brownish-red, shiny.

South Gaulish, probaby from La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 33. Dating: Flavian-Trajanic, more probably Domitian-Trajanic.

48.38574.0080.047

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Shiny red.

South Gaulish. Form: undeterminable. Secondarily burnt.

48.38574.0101.016

Salmon colour with a lot of particles of chalk.

Red, shiny.

South Gaulish, probaby from La Graufesenque. Form: Drag. 35 / 36. Dating: Flavian-Trajanic.

48.38574.0225.001

Light brown with some particles of chalk.

Shiny red.

South Gaulish. Form: Drag. 37 (?). Dating: Flavian-Trajanic.

Fig. 96 Samian Ware from the territory of the cemetery excluding the finds from the graves

188

Figures

35 pcs 30

25

20

15

10

5

0 P S U R P S U R Vessels for cooking / storing food

Vessels for serving food

R Mortarium

P S U R P S U R P S U R

P S U R P S U R P S U R

Small storage vessels Vessels for storing Vessels for serving Vessels for of liquids and pouring liquids consuming food (handled forms)

Vessels for consuming liquids

R

Lids

Unidentifiable forms

P S U R

R

Lids

Unidentifiable forms

10 pcs 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

P S U R P S U R Vessels for cooking / storing food

Vessels for serving food

R Mortarium

P S U R P S U R

P S U R P S U R P S U R

Small storage vessels Vessels for storing Vessels for serving Vessels for of liquids and pouring liquids consuming food (handled forms)

Vessels for consuming liquids

Primary cremations Contemporary secondary cremations

Fig. 97.1: Composition of the ceramic grave goods in the Early Roman burials. 97.2: Composition of the ceramic grave goods in the primary and contemporary secondary cremations (4-4 graves) Key: P: primary grave good; S: secondary grave good U: unknown (primary or secondary grave good); R: residual; Pcs: pieces (Compiled by András Márton)

189

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Feature type pit ditch drainage ditch rubble posthole Total:

Site 5 animal bone SU (pcs) (pcs) 15 3       18

SU (pcs)

93 462       555

Site 6 animal bone (pcs)

1 1 1     3

7 12 33     52

Site 7 animal bone (pcs)

SU (pcs) 12 11   1 1 25

217 319   67 1 604

Total SU (pcs)

animal bone (pcs)

28 15 1 1 1 46

317 793 33 67 1 1211

Fig 98 Composition of the animal bones according to feature types at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (5) and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II (6-7) sites

Species Cattle Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758

NISP

%

411

40,85

Sheep Ovis aries Linnaeus, 1758

3

Goat Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758

1

Sheep and Goats Caprinae

63

Pig Sus domesticus Erxleben, 1777

41

4,08

Horse Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758

213

21,17

Dog Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758

247

24,55

Domestic animals

6,66

979

97,32

Roe deer Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758

1

0,10

Wild boar Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758

2

0,20

Carnivores Carnivora

1

0,10

Rodents Rodentia

5

0,50

Gastropods Gastropoda

9

0,89

18

1,79

4

0,40

Equidae

4

0,40

Galliformes

1

0,10

1006

100,00

Unidentifiable (large ungulate) Indet. (Ungulata maior)

163

 

Unidentifiable (small ungulate) Indet. (Ungulata minor)

21

 

Unidentifiable Indeterminabile

21

 

1211

 

Wild animals Bovinae

Total of identified fragments (NISP)

Total fragments (n)

Fig. 99 Animal remains according to species at the sites of Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II

190

Figures

%

Sus domesticus

%

Equus caballus

%

Canis familiaris

%

Total

%

0,00

Ovis aries  /  Capra hircus 0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

0

0,00

29

7,06

1

1,49

5

12,20

17

7,98

0

0,00

52

5,31

42

10,22

9

13,43

5

12,20

7

3,29

10

4,05

73

7,46

91

22,14

15

22,39

1

2,44

49

23,00

71

28,74

227

23,19

Bos taurus

%

foetus

0

neonatus

0

juvenilis subadultus adultus

 

maturus

5

1,22

2

2,99

0

0,00

20

9,39

5

2,02

32

3,27

indet.

244

59,37

40

59,70

30

73,17

120

56,34

161

65,18

595

60,78

Total

411

100,00

67

100,00

41

100,00

213

100,00

247

100,00

979

100,00

Fig 100 Distribution of animal remains according to age at the sites Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II

Species

Skeletal part

Greatest length GL (mm)

Proximal width BP (mm)

BP / GL*100

Sex

Withers height WH (mm)

Feature

SU

Site

Bos taurus

metacarpus

201,0

63,1

31,39

bull

1272,33

0091.

0106.

7

Bos taurus

metacarpus

218,0

65,0

29,82

bullock

1347,24

0068.

0072.

7

Bos taurus

metacarpus

215,0

69,1

32,14

bull

1360,95

0092.

0107.

7

Bos taurus

metatarsus

252,0

52,4

20,79

cow

1519,56

0058.

0066.

7

Equus caballus

humerus

319,5

99,0

 

 

1597,50

0137.

0158.

7

Equus caballus

radius

373,0

81,1

 

 

1618,82

0137.

0158.

7

Equus caballus

metacarpus

207,0

44,4

 

 

1294,82

0136.

0157.

7

Equus caballus

metacarpus

210,8

 

 

 

1319,18

0092.

0101.

5

Equus caballus

metatarsus

283,0

51,0

 

 

1781,98

0013.

0017.

7

Fig 101 Long bone and withers height measurements of cattle and horse remains from the Roman features at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő (Site 5) and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II (Site 7)

191

Total

Equus caballus

Sus domesticus

Skeletal parts (n = 708¹) 

Caprinae

Bos taurus

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Best meat value (A) parts: vertebrae os sacrum scapula pelvis humerus femur

81 1 19 18 22 15

6 1 1   2 2

1   4   4 2

19   6 11 11 11

‘A’ total:

107 2 30 29 39 30 237 pcs 33,47 %

Medium meat value (B) parts: neurocranium

7

3

2

5

17

mandibula

31

6

10

14

61

dens (inf.) ² costa sternum radius ulna tibia fibula

16 26   22 5 19  

14 1   5   10  

8 1   2 2 1 1

21 6 2 12 3 15  

59 34 2 41 10 45 1 270 pcs 38,14 %

4 19 3 9 8 6 11

13 32 15 34 34 24 49 201 pcs 28,39 %

‘B’ total: Low meat value (C) parts: viscerocranium dens (sup.) 3 os carpale metacarpus os tarsale metatarsus phalanges

8 8 12 23 24 15 36

‘C’ total: Total:

  4   2 1 3 2

1 1     1    

708 pcs 100 %

No. of fragments sufficient for classification according to meat value Indicator of mandible 3 Indicator of maxilla 1 2

Skeletal parts by meat value categories (Uerpmann1973) ‘A’ category: best meat value

Vertebral column (except caudal vertebra), proximal limb segments, shoulder and pelvic girdles

‘B’ category: medium meat value

Middle elements of the limbs, brain skull, mandible (including tongue and masseter muscle), ribs and breast-bone

‘C’ category: low meat value

Facial bones, tail, foot (including tarsus joint)

Fig 102 Classification of the bone fragments of identified domestic ungulates according to meat value (based on Uerpmann 1973) from the Roman features at the sites Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő and Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő I – II

192

Figures

1

2

Fig. 103 Horse graves at Nemesbőd – Csepregi-völgyre-dűlő II site: 1. Pit 136 /157; 2. Pit 137 /158

193

The Early and Late Roman Rural Cemetery at Nemesbőd (Vas County, Hungary)

Feature type

Grave 4 Primary cremation

Grave 22 Secondary cremation

Skeletal bone

Side

Age

Greatest length (GL)

Proximal breadth (BP)

Proximal depth (DP)

Smallest breadth (SB) 

Smallest depth (SD) 

Distal breadth (BD) 

Distal depth (DD)

radius

dex.

adultus

 

3,7

3,6

 

 

 

 

radius

sin.

adultus

 

3,7

3,7

 

 

5,0

1,9

ulna

sin.

adultus

 

 

 

4,5

3,0

7,7

4,9

ulna metacarpus II-III.

dex. dex.

adultus adultus

73,0 33,0

9,0  

6,6  

4,7  

3,1  

7,9  

4,9  

ulna

sin.

adultus

51,5

 

 

2,6

1,2

5,0

2,8

Fig 104 Bone measurements (mm) of the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758) remains from the Roman cemetery at Nemesbőd – Általúton kívül-dűlő

194