The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Parts i and ii: Proceedings of a colloquium held at the University of Sheffield in April 1986 9781407388236, 9781407388243, 9780860543817, 9781407345642

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The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East Proceedings of a colloquium held at the University of Sheffield in April 19 8 6 edited by

Philip Freeman and . David Kennedy Part i

British Institute of Afchaeology at Ankara Monograph No. 8

BAR International Series 297(i)

1986

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A .R •

©.

S297 (I), 1986: 'The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East' Part I

The Individual Authors, 1986

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388236 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388243 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543817 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407345642 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543817 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS

( 1)

Acknow ledgements P lates

v ii

F igures

x i

P articipants

x v

Abbreviations

x ix

E ditors'

x xi

P reface

I ntroduction 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

T .

x xiii

B auzou D eux M illiares I nk lits J ordaine d u N orde

1 - 8 d e V aballath e n

A .D.H. B ivar B ardes S kieros, t he B uwayhids, a nd t he M arwanids a t H isn Z iyad i n t he L ight o f U nnoticed A rabic I nscription J . B owsher T he F rontier

P ost

o f M edain

9 - 2 1 a n

2 3

- 2 9

3 1

- 4 9

5 1

- 5 8

S aleh

D . B raund T he Caucasian F rontier: Myth, t he D ynam ics o f I mperialism

E xploration a nd

D .B. C ampbell What H appened a t H atra? T he P roblems o f S everan S iege O perations

t he

6 .

J .C . C oulston R oman, P arthian a nd S assanid T actical D evelopments

5 9

- 7 5

7 .

J . C row A Review o f t he P hysical F rontier o f C appadocia

7 7

- 9 1

9 3

- 1 08

8 .

E . D abrowa T he F rontier

i u S yria

i n

R emains

o f

t he

t he F irst C entury A D

9 .

1 0.

1.

1 2.

1 3.

H . D evijver E questrian O fficers B . D e V ries U mm E I-Jimal

i n

t he R oman F rontier

P .W . F reeman T he P rovince o f C ilicia a nd

1 8.

1 9.

t he

2 2.

2 3.

2 53

- 2 75

2 77

- 2 85

2 87

- 3 10

3 11

- 3 23

3 25

- 3 28

3 29

- 3 36

3 37

- 3 42

3 43

- 3 56

3 57

- 3 81

3 83

- 3 95

3 97

- 4 09

4 11

;4 29

I nterpreting a n A erial J ebel S injar

A P relim inary E xcavation

S . H art N abataeans a nd R omans

i n

S outhern

K . H opwood T owers, T erritory a nd T error: E ast w as H eld

B . I saac R eflections o n

D .L. K ennedy ' Europaean' o f H atra

- 2 52

t o

J ordan

H ow t he

2 0. A . I nvernizzi K ifrin a nd t he E uphrates L imes 2 1.

2 43

J udaean C lient K ings

S . G regory R oad, Wall o r R ock: P hotograph f rom t he

1 7. R . H arper U pper Z ohar: R eport

- 2 41

i ts O rigins

1 4. M . G ichon A spects o f a R oman A rmy i n War A ccording t he B ellum J udaicum o f J osephus

1 6.

2 27

i n A rabia

D . F rench C appadocia a nd t he E astern L imes: A spects o f R omanisation a t Amaseia i n C appadocia

o f

- 2 25

t he F irst T hree C enturies A D

3 . E adie T he E volution o f

1 5. M . G racey T he A rm ies

1 09 f rom t he E ast

t he R oman A rmy

S oldiers a nd

L .J.F. K eppie L egions i n t he E ast

t he

i n

t he E ast

S everan

f rom A ugustus

S iege

t o T rajan

,

2 4. A .C . K i IIi ck U druh a nd t he S outhern F rontier

4 31

- 4 46

2 5.

4 47

- 4 53

2 6. A .D.H. L ee Embassies a s E vidence f or t he M ovement o f M ilitary I ntelligence B etween t he R oman a nd S asanian Empires

4 55

- 4 61

2 7.

4 63

- 4 74

2 8.

S . L ieu 4 75 Captives, R efugees a nd E xiles: A S tudy o f C ross-Frontier C ivilian M ovements a nd C ontacts B etween R ome a nd P ersia f rom V alerian t o J ovian

- 5 05

2 9.

S . L ieu U rbanism i n H ellenistic, M esopotam ia

5 07

- 5 08

5 09

- 5 29

5 31

- 5 47

3 . L ander D id H adrian A bandon A rabia?

3 .H. W . L iebeschuetz G enerals, F ederates a nd B uccelarii A rm ies A round A D 4 00

P arthian a nd R oman

3 0. C .S. L ightfoot T illi - A L ate R oman E quites F ort T igris? 3 1.

H .I. M acAdam S ome N otes o n E ast J ordan

i n R oman

o n

t he

t he Umayyad O ccupation o f N orth-

3 2.

J .F. Matthews Ammianus a nd t he E astern F rontier i n t he F ourth C entury: A P articipant's V iew

5 49

- 5 64

3 3.

T .B. M itford A L ate R oman F ortress

5 65

- 5 73

5 75

- 6 02

3 5. M .P. O ' Connor T he E tymology o f S aracen i n A ramaic a nd P re-Islamic A rabic C ontexts

6 03

- 6 32

3 6.

6 33

- 6 60

6 61

- 6 76

S outh o f

3 4. M . Mbr T he R oman A rmy i n E retz-Israel Y ears AD 7 0-132

3 7.

L ake V an

i n

t he

S .T. P arker R etrospective o n t he A rabian F rontier a D ecade o f R esearch D .N. R iley A rchaeological A ir E astern L imes

P hotography a nd

ii

t he

a fter

3 8.

Z . R ubin D iplomacy a nd W ar B yzantium a nd t he C entury A D

6 77

-6 95

i n t he R elations B etween S assanids i n t he F ifth

3 9.

F . V illeneuve A d-Diyatheh: V illage e t C astellum R omains e t B yzantins a l 'Est d u J ebel D ruze ( Syrie)

6 97

-7 15

4 0.

M . W hitby P rocopius a nd t he D evelopment o f R oman D efences i n U pper M esopotam ia

7 17

-7 35

7 37

-7 83

7 85

- 7 96

4 1. M . Whitby P rocopius' D escriptions ( Buildings 1.1-3) 4 2.

D .F. G raf T he N abataeans a nd

o f D ara

t he D ecapolis

I ndex

7 97

i v

ACKN OWLED GE MENTS B oth f or t he C olloquium a nd t he s ubsequent p reparation o f t exts f or p ublication, a g reat many p eople p rovided i mportant a ssista nce . F or t he f irst g roup: F red C oupland, H ugh E lton a nd J ack S kelton-Wallace; N eil Watson a nd P enny J ohnson. F or t he s econd, N oelle McVicar a nd F iona A iken h elped p repare t he i ndex; H elen B ush, Marie B oam a nd C arol C overall u ndertook s ome o f t he t yping, while Carol MacAdam u ndertook a l arge n umber o f i ndividual a rticles; J ohn Owens a nd D avid Maddington p repared p rints f or many o f t he i llustrations; P eter A rmstrong ( seemingly m iracul ously) t ransferred t ext s ubmitted o n d isc o nto o thers w hich c ould b e r ead b y o ur t ypist 's own w ord-processor. F inancial a ssistance t owards t he c ost o f p reparing t he t exts w as p rovided b y t he B ritish I nstitute o f A rchaeology a t A nkara, i n w hose s eries o f M onographs w e a re d elighted t o a ppear. F inally, two o ther p eople, w ithout whom, a t t he l east, i t would n ever h ave b een c ompleted b y o ur s elf-i mposed d eadline: J ulie Kennedy p ut i n v ery l ong a nd a rduous h ours ' stripping-in ' G reek, a dding d iacritical marks, making o ther ' improvements' t o t he f inal t ext, d rawing s ome f igures a nd m ounting a ll t he i llustrat ions. N ot f or t he f irst t i me, h er h usband a t l east h as w ondered h ow h e would h ave g ot t hese t hings d one w ithout h er. R obin Z velebil w ill p robably o pt t o s tarve r ather t han work a gain f or u s . T his h as p roved a v ery t rying c ollection o f e ssays t o p rep are, a nd h as t aken a ll h er v ery c onsiderable s kill a nd e nterp rise . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat b y t he t ime o ne o r o ther o f u s i s l ooking a gain f or a t ypist i n t he f uture, s he w ill h ave f orgotten t he m isery o f t his o ccasion a nd b e a vailable .

PLATES

( i) P l.

P l.

P l.

P l.

P I.

2 .1

6 .1

6 .2

1 0.1

1 6.1

H arput i nscription o f d ated [ 3183/9934

' Ayn a l-dawla

1 0

S assanid a rmoured, l ance a nd b ow a rmed h orseman , T aq-I-Bustan, I ran ( after B ivar 1 972) .

6 4

C rown P rince S hapur u nhorsing a P arthian m iddle p air o f f igures, F iruzabad, I ran ( after G hirshman 1 962) .

6 4

S tein 's p hotograph o f t he ' Old R oad ' Z airwan(Crown C opyright r eserved)

1 7 .1

U pper

P I.

1 7 .2

West S ide w ith g ateway, b uilding

1 7: 3

P l.

1 7 .4

P l.

2 0 .1

r ider,

a ) A rea T :1 E arly R oman s haft t omb s how ing c apstones i n s itu b ) A rea T :1 r ing o f s tones m arking t omb c ) A rea R :2 p re-excavation p hoto d ) A rea R :5 p re-excavation p hoto e ) F loor o f t he a edes w ith t he h ole f or s upporting t he s tandard f ) T he N abataean v ersion o f t he G adhime b ilingual

P l.

P l.

J iwakam ,

Z ohar

I nterior,

f rom R as

e z Z uweira

l ooking N E ,

N E t omb , i nterior, i n s ection

n ear 3 26

( telephoto)

NW t ower

a nd

2 0 .2

K ifrin:

s tucco

P l.

2 0 .3

K ifrin:

t he

P l.

2 0 .4

K ifrin:

3 32

s econGa:y 3 32

w ith

i nternal

s howing s eries

b uildings

o f

3 34

h earths 3 34

K ifrin: B uilding A f rom t he b ack . I n b ackground, l eft, t he C itadel Walls

P I.

2 30

d ecoration

o f

B uilding A

i wan o f B uilding B

B uilding B f rom

v i

t he

t he

b ack

3 60 3 60 3 65 3 65

P I.

P l.

2 0 .5

2 0 .6

P l. 2 0.7

P l.

2 0 .8

K ifrin: s tructures t he t own K ifrin:

p ilae o f

i n

t he N c orner

o f 3 70

t he e xtra moenia b aths

3 70

K ifrin: t he b aths i n t he C itadel. I n t he b ackground t he C itadel w alls a nd, b eyond, B uilding A ( left) a nd t he E xpedition h ouse ( right)

3 71

K ifrin:

3 71

t he

b aths

i n

t he C itadel

( ii) P l.

P l.

P l.

P l.

2 4 .1

2 4.2

2 4.3

2 4.4

A erial p hotograph o f U druh l ooking t o s outh-east ( Courtesy o f D r R . C leave, W idescreen P ictorial A rchive)

t he 4 33

E xternal v iew o f t he t own wall o f U druh, w ith b locked n orth g ate a nd p rojecting i nterval t ower

4 34

E xcavations w ithin t he t own, b locking i n t he t op r ight

4 34

M ilestones a nd a way-side v isible i n t he d istance

s outh

4 35

C ontinuous

U druh

4 35

P l.

2 4.6

C ontinuous wall t o t he s outh o f U druh w ith a djacent s tructure

4 37

T el Abara. T he l ines o f t he c amp c an b e s een a round t he t op o f t he h ill

4 37

2 4.8

t he

U druh

2 4.5

P I.

t o

a ltar.

P I.

PL 2 4.7

wall

n orth g ate

o f

A erial p hotograph ( 1.5 x 1 km) o f T ell A bara w hich i s t he r ectangular s tructure i n t he c entre o f t he p hotograph

4 39 4 39

P l.

2 4.9

T he

f ort

o f

A bu D anna

P l.

2 4.10

F ort o r f ortified t o t he n orth-west

P l.

2 4.11

L arge

P l.

2 4 .12

J ebel a l T ahuna w ith a c istern f oreground

P l.

2 4.13

D am a t

P l.

2 4.14

T ower

s ettlement

J ebel i n

a l

f armstead o f U druh

i n

t he h ills

4 11

s ite i n

t he

t o

v ii

4 42 4 42

T ahuna

t he h ills

4 11

t he w est

o f U druh

4 43

P l.

P l.

P l.

2 4 .15

3 0 .1

3 0 .2

E xcavations s tructures

i n

1 985 o n T ell

U druh .

I ron

4 43

G eneral v iew o f T illi f rom t he n orth b ank o f t he T igris l ooking s outh-east

5 13

W all f ragment: r ough a shlar b onding c ourses

5 15

3 0 .3

P l.

3 3 .1

G ayda K ale:

w est

w all,

g eneral

P l.

3 3 .2

G ayda K ale:

w est

w all,

d etail

P l.

3 3 .3

G ayda K ale:

t unnelled e ntrance u nder

P l.

3 7 .1

T he a ncient r oad f rom P almyra i s a P otez 2 5 a ircraft

P l.

P l.

P l.

P l.

P l.

P l.

P U .

3 7 .2

3 7 .3

3 7 .4

3 7 .5

3 7 .6

3 7 .7

3 7 .8

3 9 .1

B rickwork

s et

w ith b rick

P l.

P l.

I

i n a r ubble c ore

T he V ickers V incent. H endon

5 15 v iew

5 69 5 69 s outh

t o H it,

C opyright,

wall

5 71

o n w hich 6 62

t he R AF Museum 6 65

T he V ickers Wellesley . M useum , H endon

C opyright,

t he R AF 6 65

T he f ort a t H an a l-Manqoura, S yria, a round w hich a re many s heepfolds b uilt b y b eduin h erdsmen . T his e xcellent p hotograph p rovides v ery g ood r ecord o f t he s ite ( Poidebard 1 934: P l. 2 0)

6 66

T he f ort a t D eir S emali a nd, b eyond i t, t he i ntersection o f . t wo r oads, s hown b y l ight r ef lected f rom t he d esert s urface i n t his ' contre j our' p hotograph ( Poidebard 1 934: p l. 9 )

6 66

T he l arger o f t he t wo f orts a t A in S inu , I raq a nd, i n t he b ackground, t he f oothills o f t he J ebel S injar. T he w all o f t he f ort a nd t he r emains o f w ell-preserved b arrack b locks a re c learly v isible, p robably s hown b y v egetation m arks . P hotograph b y R AF f or S ir A urel S tein

6 68

T he f ort a t A zraq , J ordan s een b efore t he s urrounding l and b ecame c overed b y h ouses a nd g ardens . t he f ort s tands i n a l arge w alled e nclosure, a t l east p art o f w hich i s o f ' playingc ard ' o utline

6 68

T he f ort a t S heik I brahim , I raq, c learly o utl ined b y a g rowth o f v egetation ( dark) i n h ollows a nd b y b are s oil ( light) o n b anks

6 70

V ue

7 01

ün6rale

d es

r uines

v iii

d u

p lateau,

v ers

l 'est

P l.

3 9 .2

L e Wadi

P l.

3 9 .3

P artie c entrale d es r uines d u v ersant, v ues v ers l e n ord . S ur l e p lateau, a u c entre: l e f ort

7 05

L e

7 05

P l.

3 9.4

P l.

3 9 .5

P l.

P l.

3 9 .6

3 9 .7

P I. 3 9.8

P l.

P l.

P I.

3 9 .9

4 1.1

4 1.2

f ort:

S ham ,

v ue

v u d u

s ite v ers

e xterne,

f ace

l e

s ud-est

7 01

o rientate

I nt6rieur d u f ort, c oin s ud-est. A u p remier p lan, ä g auche, l a c ourtine o rientale . A u f ond, l a c ourtine s ud, a vec Uescalier ä d eux v ol es d ivergentes, e t ä d roite l es d eux t ours e ncadrant rentr6e p rincipale

7 07

I nt rieur d u f ort, t roncon d e c ourtine t race d 'un r efend p erpendiculaire

7 07

a vec

I nt rieur d u f ort: c ontact e ntre l a t our d 'angle n ord-ouest, a nt rieure, s ans b locs d e remploi, e t l a c ourtine o uest, p ost6rieure, a vec f - e mplois

7 09

L a " cour ä d egr s", ä l 'est d u f ort: v ers l a s ud

7 09

i nt rieur,

U n e xemple d 'habitation ä e tage e t ä d eux g roupes d e p i ces spar s, p armi l es r uines d u v ersant: f acade e t ä l 'arri re-plan . 1 6 rnents d u mur d e d ivision i nterne s 6parant p i ces a vant d es p i ces a rri re T ower i n s outh wall, s howing r ectangular e xternal wall

t wo c ourses

l es 7 11

o f 7 41

T he s outh water g ate f rom t he o utside, s howing t he r emains o f t he c ross wall; t he t wo n arrow m asonry p iers b ehind t he c hildrens ' h eads c arried t he s tructure a cross t he r iver b ed; i n t he f oreground, o ne o f t he c onduits t hrough t he p roteichisma

7 41 7 45

P l.

4 1.3

T he n orth water

g ate,

i nner

f ace

P l.

4 1.4

I nner f ace o f w all i mmediately s outh o f n orth g ate, s howing b locked s tair a nd e ntrance t o c ollapsed s outh-east g ate t ower

7 45 7 46

P l.

4 1.5

B locked

s tair

P l.

4 1.6

R emains o f p ostern i mmediately a djacent n orth-west t ower o f n orth g ate

i x

t o 7 46

F IGURES

( i ) F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

2 .1

7 .1

7 .2

M ap t o i llustrate t he a rea o f M uslim a nd B yzantine m ilitary o perations o n t he M esop otam ian b order b etween 3 67/977-8 a nd 3 83/993-4

1 4

M ap s how ing t he d istribution o f m ilitary i ns criptions i n e astern C appadocia a nd A rmenia

7 8

M ap s how ing d istribution o f u nits c ommand o f t he D ux A rmeniae

l isted

i n

t he 8 1

F ig.

9 .1

( Asia)

1 42

F ig.

1 0.1

U mm e l-Jimal

F ig.

1 0.2

C ästellum a t U mm e l-Jimal

2 35

F ig.

1.1

S tationes o n

t he V ia N ova T raiana

2 45

F ig.

1 7.1

U pper

Z ohar:

p lan

3 30

F ig.

1 7.2

U pper

Z ohar:

S ection 0 3B

3 30

F ig.

1 7.3

U pper

Z ohar:

S ection 2 3

3 33

F ig.

1 7.4

U pper

Z ohar:

S ection

3 33

F ig.

1 8.1

( Southern E dom S urvey):

T he N orthern A rea

3 39

F ig.

1 8.2

( Southern E dom S urvey):

T he S outhern A rea

3 39

F ig.

2 0.1

T he M iddle E uphrates a nd K ennedy 1 985)

i n

t he

t hird c entury

2 28

3 1

( adapted

f rom G regory 3 58

F ig.

2 0.2

T he

f ortress a t K ifrin

3 61

F ig.

2 0.3

K ifrin:

p lan o f

t he c itadel

F ig.

2 0.4

K ifrin:

p lan o f

t he n orth

F ig.

2 0.5

K ifrin:

r econstruction o f B uilding A

3 66

F ig.

2 0.6

K ifrin:

d ipinti

3 79

3 64

s ector

a nd g raffiti

o n

o f

t he

s herds

t own

3 66

F ig.

2 2.1

H atra a nd

F ig.

2 3.1

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier:

1 7-18

4 14

F ig.

2 3.2

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier: A D 6 3-64

4 17

F ig.

2 3.3

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier:

A D 6 9

4 20

F ig.

2 3.4

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier: A D 7 5

4 22

F ig.

2 3.5

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier:

4 24

F ig.

2 3.6

L egions o n

t he e astern

f rontier: A D

F ig.

2 4.1

T he s urvey a rea i s l im ited t o w ithin t he m odern r oad l ine. T he b ox m arks t he s ize o f e ach o f t he a erial p hotographs u sed i n t he f ield

4 33

S ketch m ap o f T urkey

5 10

F ig.

3 0.1

t he v icinity

i n

t he S everan p eriod

t he T igris V alley

F ig.

3 0.2

S ketch m ap o f R oman M esopotamia

F ig.

3 1.1

M ap o f n orth-east

F ig.

3 3.1

C anon W igram 's

F ig.

3 3.2

G ayda K ale

F ig.

3 6.1

M ap o f s outh-eastern Empire

A D

A D 7 9

i n

19

3 99

4 25

s outh-east

5 20

J ordan b ased o n K ennedy

( 1982)

f ortress

5 33 5 66 5 70

f rontier

o f

t he R oman 6 34

F ig.

3 6.2

N orthern s ector o f A rabian

F ig.

3 6.3

C entral

F ig.

3 6.4

S outhern s ector

F ig.

3 6.5

P lan o f Q esr B shir, a t ypical D iocletianic q uadriburgium , b uilt i n A D 3 06

6 43

P lan o f t he l egionary f ortress o f e l-Lejjun, b ase o f l egio I V M ärtia, i n t he e arly 4 th c entury S

6 44

P lan o f e l-Lejjun i n e arly 6 th c enturies

6 45

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

3 6.6

3 6.7

3 6.8

3 6.9

s ector

o f A rabian

N orthern s ector o f t he 4 th c entury C entral s ector o f t he 4 th c entury

6 36

f rontier

o f A rabian

t he

f rontier

6 38

f rontier

l ate 4 th

t he A rabian

6 40

t hrough

f rontier

i n 6 46

t he A rabian

f rontier

i n 6 48

x i

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

F ig.

3 6.10 P lan a nd e levation o f g o asr A bu R ukba, a t ypical l ate R oman w atchtower i n t he c entral s ector o f t he f rontier 3 6.11

3 6.12

3 7.1

3 7.2

3 9.1

3 9.2

3 9.3

T he l imes z one i n t he U pper W adi M ujib t he 4 th a nd 5 th c enturies

6 49

i n 6 50

S outhern s ector o f t he A rabian f rontier ( Limes P alaestinae) i n t he 4 th c entury

6 51

M ap o f N orth-eastern S yria s how ing a pproxim ate t racks o f f lights m ade b y P oidebard i n M ay 1 925, p iloted b y L t. d e L a F erté o f t he 3 9th R egiment o f A viation. T he s ites s hown a long t he R ivers K habur a nd J aghjagha a re t hose c o r rmented o n b y P oidebard ( 1927: 6 0), t hough i t s hould b e n oted t hat h e d id n ot g ive T ell S heik S ieb o n t he m ap l ater p ublished w ith L a t race d e R ome d ans l e d esert d e S yrie. T his f igure i s b ased o n a m ap p repared s oon a fter t he f lights h ad b een m ade ( Poidebard 1 927: p l. XX I)

6 63

M ap o f L eja a nd S afa r egion, S yria, s how ing t rack o f f light m ade b y P oidebard o n 1 0 M ay 1 927 p iloted b y L t. T ourre ( Poidebard 1 928)

6 64

C arte d e l ocalisation: a d-Diyatheh ä l a l im ite o rientale d u H auran a ntique. L a c arte f igure l es r outes r omaines

6 98

a d-Diyatheh: p lan p rovisoire d es r uines d u p lateau, p artie o uest. L es r uines d u v ersant n e s ont p as f igur es, n i l es r uines d u p lateau s itu6es ä l 'est d u f ort P lan p rovisoire d u e n b as

f ort

r omain.

L e

7 00

n ord e st 7 03

F ig.

4 0.1

M esopotam ia

i n

t he

f ifth c entury

7 18

F ig.

4 1.1

M esopotam ia

i n

t he

f ifth c entury

7 38

F ig.

4 1.2

S ketch p lan o f D ara,

F ig.

4 1.3

S ketch o f t wo s torey w all a t D ara, A nastasian a nd J ustinianic w ork

F ig.

4 2.1

P alaestina

i n

t he

r edrawn

f rom P reusser

f irst c entury A D

x i i

t o

7 40

i llustrate 7 57 7 86

L I ST

OF

PARTI CI PANTS:

T he f ollowing l ist i ncorporates t he n ames a nd a ddresses o f t hose w ho e ither s poke a t t he C olloquium o r w ho h ave c ontributed p apers l ater. M .T .

1 72 A venue M aurice D auvergne 7 7350 L e f ee-sur-Seine F rance

BAUZOU

DR A .D.H.

B IVAR

S chool o f O riental a nd A frican S tudies U niversity o f L ondon, M alet S treet L ondon Y ACIE 7 HP

MR J .

BCWSHER

1 22 F ernbrook R oad L ondon S E13 5 NH

DR D .

BRAUND

D ept. o f C lassics, Q ueen's B uilding E xeter U niversity E xeter, D evon

MR D .B.

CAMPBELL

MR J . CCULSTON

c /o D ept. o f A rchaeology 9 L ilybank G ardens T he U niversity G lasgow G 12 8 Q 1 1 Q c /o D ept. o f A rchaeology T he U niversity N ewcastle-upon-Tyne T yne a nd W ear N EI 7 RU

M RJ .

CROW

5 S haftoe C rescent H exham N orthumberland N E46 3 DS

DR E .

DABRO%A

J agiellonian U niversity I nstitute o f A ncient H istory u l. S w ierczewskiego 3 3 1-116 K rakow , P oland

P ROF.

DR H .

D ept. K lassieke S tudies K atholieke U niversiteit L euven, B elgium/ D ept. o f C lassics U niversity o f A ntwerp

D EVIJVER

DR B .

D E VRIES

D ept. o f H istory C alvin C ollege G rand R apids, M ichigan 4 9506 U SA

P ROF.

3 .W .

D ept. o f H istory U niversity o f M ichigan A nn A rbor, M ichigan 4 8109 U SA

MR P .W .M .

E ADIE

F REEMAN

c /o D ept. o f A ncient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S IO 2 TN

DR D .

F RENCH

B ritish I nstitute o f A rchaeology T ahran C addesi 2 4, K avaklidere A nkara 0 6700, T urkey

P ROF.

N L G ICHON

D ept. o f C lassical S tudies, D ivision o f C lassical A rchaeology T el A viv U niversity R amat A viv 6 9978 P CB 3 9040 T el A viv, I srael

MR M .H.

GRACEY

F lat 2 , Merlyn Court A ustin D rive, D idsbury M anchester V 20 0 EA

DR D .F.

GRAF

D ept. o f H istory U niversity o f M iam i C oral G ables, F lorida U SA

M ISS S .

GREGORY

c /o D ept. o f A ncient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN

MR R .P.

H ARPER

B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology J erusalem P .O . B ox 1 9283 J erusalem, I srael

i n

MR S .

H ART

B ritish I nstitute a t Amman A rchaeology a nd H istory P .O . B ox 9 25071 A i rman, J ordan

MR K .

HOPAC IOD

D ept. o f C lassics S aint D avid's U niversity College L ampeter, D yfed S A48 7 ED, Wales

x iv

f or

P ROF.

A .

I NVERNIZZI

D ipt. d i S cienze A rcheologiche U niversita d i T orino V ia S . O ttano, 2 0 1 0124 T orino, I taly

P ROF.

B .

I SAAC

D ept. o f C lassical S tudies, D ivision o f C lassical A rchaeology T el A viv U niversity R amat A viv 6 9978, P OB 3 9040 T el A viv, I srael

DR D .L.

KENNEDY

D ept. o f A ncient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN

DR L .J.

KEPPIE

H unterian M useum U niversity o f G lasgow G lasgow G 12 8 Q 1Q

MR A .C .

K ILLICK

W illow C ottage, B anning S treet R omsey, H ampshire S O4 1 8Q

DR J .

LANDER

MR A .D.

PROF. W .

DR S .

LEE

L IEBESCHUETZ

L IEU

c /o TASIS E ngland, C oldharbour L ane T horpe, S urrey TW20 8 TE 5 8 G range R oad C ambridge CB3 9 DH D ept. o f C lassical a nd A rchaeol ogical S tudies U niversity o f N ottingham N ottingham NG7 2 RD D ept. o f C lassics U niversity o f W arw ick Warw ick

DR C .S.

L IGHTFOOT

B ritish I nstitute o f A rchaeology T ahran C addesi, 2 4 K araklidere A nkara 0 6700, T urkey

DR H . I .

MACADAM

c /o 4 9 E instein D rive P rinceton, N ew J ersey U SA

0 8540

D R J .F.

MATTHEWS

T he Q ueen's C ollege O xford OX! 4 AW

DR T .B.

M ITFORD

O ld S chool H ouse, B uriton P etersfield, H ants.

XV

DR M . MR

D ept. o f J ew ish H istory U niversity o f H aifa Mount C armel, H aifa 3 1599 I srael

DR M .P. O 'C IDNNOR

Two T iger B ook H ut 1 012 E ast U niversity A nn A rbor, M ichigan 4 8104 U SA

P ROF.

D ept. o f H istory B ox 8 108 N orth C arolina S tate U niversity R aleigh, N orth Carolina 2 7695 U SA

S .T.

D R D .N.

P ROF.

DR F .

P ARKER

R ILEY

Z . RUBIN

V ILLENEUVE

DR. M . WHITBY

D ept. o f A ncient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield S heffield S 10 2 TN D ept. o f G eneral H istory T el-Aviv U niversity R amat-Aviv 6 9978 P .O .Box T el A viv, I srael I FAPO , A i rman,

P OB 3 74 J ordan

3 V entfield C ottages H orton-cum-Studley Oxford OX9 1 AP

x vi

3 9040

ABBREV IAT ION S BC

B ritish M useum C atalogue o f C oins L ondon 1 923-

C IL

C orpus

I nscriptionum L atinarum . B erlin

C IS

C orpus

I nscriptionum S emiticarum . L atinae

S electae

o f

t he R oman Empire .

1 863-

P aris ( ed.

H .

1 881-

I LS

I nscriptiones 1 916.

D essau)

I GRR

I nscriptiones G raecae a d R es R omanas P ert i nentes ( ed. R . Cagnat) 1 906-

MAMA

M bnumenta A siae M inoris A ntigua 1 928-1962.

P G

P atrologiae C ursus,

S eries G raeca

P L

P atrologiae C ursus,

S eries L atina

P LRE

A .H.M . J ones, J .R . Martindale a nd 3 . Morris T he P rosog raphy o f t he L ater R oman Empire I , A D 2 60-395 . O xford 1 971.

P ME

H . D ev j ver P ro sograph ia M il itia rum E questr ium Q uae F uerunt A b A ugusto a d Gall i enum— (T v ols). U niversit aire P ers L euven 1 976-1980 .

R IG

R oman

R M ID

R oman M ilitary D iplomas ( ed. M . R oxan) L ondon. 1 9547 8; 1 978-85 ( University o f London, I nstitute o f A rchaeology O ccasional P ublications S eries) .

I mperial

C oinage

( ed .

x v ii

H .

( 8 v ols).

1 892-

Manchester

S utherland) .

EDI T OR' S

PREFACE

B y t he t i me t his p ublication a ppears, we e xpect t hat s ome f our m onths w ill h ave e lapsed s ince t he e nd o f t he C olloquium . R apid p ublication was o ur i ntention f rom t he o utset, a nd BAR 's s wift t urn a round o f c amera-ready t ext m akes t hat p ossible o nce t he l atter h as b een c ompleted . P reparation o f a c amera-ready t ext, h owever, w as c onditional o n c ontributors s ubmitting, a s r equired i n o ur ' Notes t o C ontributors ', t ext w hich w as c omplete i n e very r espect a nd c onformed t o o ur c onventions f or l ay-out a nd c itat ions . T hose w ith n ecessary r evisions a rising f rom q uestions a nd d iscussion were a llowed t o r etain t heir t ext b eyond t he e nd o f t he Col l oquium a nd s ubmit i t n ot l ater t han t he e nd o f A pril. F ortunately most d id j ust t hat. M ost d eserving o f mention i s H ubert D evijver, w ho p resented a l ong a nd c omplex t ypescript, i n n ear p erfect c ondition b efore h e l eft S heffield. O ther p apers c aused s ome p roblems a nd d elay f rom t he way t hey w ere p resented; o ne i n p articular, which h ad b etter r emain a nonymous, i gnored a lmost a ll o ur r equirements, a nd r equired s ome 1 2 h ours o f work t o r ecast a nd c omplete s everal d ozen(sic) i ncomplete o r e rroneous r eferences . I n t he s ort o f world e nvisaged i n c lassical mytho logy, t he a uthor w ould b e c ondemned t o a n e ternity o f e diting p apers s uch a s h is own. A n o pti mistic t rend o n which we w ere a ble t o c apitalise i s t he s pread o f word-processors amongst a cademics. A bout t en p apers w ere p repared o n d iscs, c opies o f w hich we r equested. W ith o ne e xception, o ur Computing S ervices D epartment, i n t he s hape o f P eter A rmstrong, was a ble t o t ransfer t exts p repared o n B BC A corn, C ompucorp, A pricot o nto I BM -usable d iscs. T hey c an n ow a lso d o t he s ame f or Amstrad a nd e xpect t o b e a ble t o d o i t f or m ost word-processors i n t he f uture . T he t i me may n ot b e f ar o ff w hen e ditors c an r equest a ll a uthors t o s ubmit a d isc a nd h ardc opy i nstead o f t he i mmensely wasteful t ask o f r e-typing e very p aper, p erhaps i ntroducing n ew e rrors. T he n ext C olloquium m ay b e p ublishable w ithin t hree months much more c heaply a nd w ith l ess e ffort t han t his o ne . P apers a re a rranged b elow s i mply i n a lphabetical o rder. T hat b y G raf a rrived a t t he e leventh h our a nd h as b een a dded a t t he e nd a nd i s n ot t aken a ccount o f i n t he I ndex. O nly t wo p apers d eliv ered a t t he C ol l oqui m a re n ot i ncluded. T hose b y C onrad a nd C asey a re t o b e p ublished e lsewhere, Conrad's n ot h aving b een c ompleted i n t i me d ue t o u nforeseen t echnical p roblem 's. I n e diting t exts, w e w ere c oncerned w ith s i mplicity o f s tyle a nd c larity . We h ave n ot a ttempted t o f orce a ll p apers i nto o ur own

s tyle s traight j acket. P rofessor D evijver 's p iece employed c onv entions u tilised b y t he a uthor i n h is o ther b ooks a nd, t hough n ot e ntirely i n a ccord w ith t he s tyle u sed e verywhere e lse, w e l eft i t a s i t was. L ikewise, w e f elt t hat c onsistency w ithin p apers s hould b e g iven a h igher p riority t han o verall c onsistency f or t he c ollection. T he e ditors c ould n ot a gree o n what s hould b e g iven c apital l etters; f orgive u s i f w e a re i nconsistent h ere a nd t here a nd f or a ny o ther s lips a nd g affes. We h ope t hat t hese m ay b e s et a gainst t he c onvenience o f r apid p ublication . M ost p roof-reading w as, w ith t he a uthors ' c onsent, c arried o ut b y t he e ditors. Most o f t hose who d id t heir own p roof-reading r eturned t ypescripts r apidly - a gain P rofessor D evijver was o uts tanding h ere a nd w e a re v ery g rateful t o h im . O ne s et o f p roofs h as, h owever, n ot b een r eturned a fter o ver t wo months. T he r esumes f or t wo p apers ( French a nd G ichon) a nd t he s ub-title f or o ne ( French), w ere s upplied b y t he e ditors; t he a uthors ' own c opy a rrived t oo l ate t o b e u sed. R eferences w ithin t he t exts b elow, t hus: [ De V ries*] i ndicate a c ross-reference b y t he e ditors t o a nother p aper w ithin t his c ollection.

x ix

INTRODU CTI ON I t h as b ecome a c ommonplace t hat i n t he s tudy o f t he R oman l imes, t he e astern f rontier o f t he Empire i s t he p oor r elation. T his h as b een a lluded t o i n a t l east t wo o f t he g eneral C ongresses o f R oman F rontier S tudies a nd, a t more l ength, b y S tephen M itchell i n t he I ntroduction o f h is f orerunner o f t his v olume . I t m ay b e s een a s a m easure o f h ow m uch w ork i s c urrently b eing c arried o ut o n t he a r my a nd f rontier i n t he E ast t hat t he c urrent e ditors f elt a ble, i n i nviting c ontributions t o t his C olloquium, t o d iscourage ' mere ' r eports o n c urrent work, a nd s olicit p apers w hose t heme was a nalysis a nd d iscussion o f p roblems. A s o rigina lly c onceived, i t was h oped t hat w e m ight a ttract a d ozen s peakers a nd t wo o r t hree d ozen p articipants; i n f act t here w ere s ome t hree d ozen p apers a nd o ver s eventy p articipants f rom s everal c ountries. A s triking f eature o f t hose a ttending w as h ow f ew o f t hem were r egular a ttenders o f F rontier S tudies C ongresses. T he r ange o f p apers o ffered a t t he C ol l oquium, t ogether w ith a f ew o ffered s ince, r eveal s omething o f t he r ange o f r esearch i n p rogress. I n p ractice, t he E ast i s c urrently b uzzing w ith a ctiv ity a nd h as b een f or m uch o f t he p ast d ecade . S ome o f t he f ieldw ork i s r escue e xcavation, t he b y-product o f d am c onstruction o n t he E uphrates i n T urkey, S yria, a nd n ow I raq ; much m ore i s r esearch s urvey o r e xcavation o n t he o ften e xtremely wellp reserved m ilitary i nstallations. I t i s c lear t hat n owhere i s f ield-work more i ntense t han i n t he f ormer p rovince o f A rabia, e specially t hat p art o f i t which l ies i n modern J ordan . A n e xciting d evelopment o f r ecent y ears, h owever, i s t he s urvey o f S audi A rabia, which h as b rought t o l ight much n ew material o n t his h itherto l ittle-known c orner o f t he N abataean k ingdom a nd h elped s ti mulate d ebate o n t he r elationship o f t he H edjaz t o t he R oman p rovince ( David G raf d elivered a n i mportant p aper o n t he s ubject ' a t a c onference a t V albonne, n ow i n p ress). F oremost a mongst t hose w orking i n A rabia i s T homas P arker w hose e agerly a waited R oman a nd S aracens. A H istory o f t he A rabian F rontier was p ublished j ust a fter t he C olloquium h ad e nded. M any o thers a re a t w ork o n m atters r elating t o t he e astern f rontier n ot n ormally i nvolving f ield-work. I t was e specially g ratifying t o h ave s o m any o f t hem a t t he Col l oquium . A part f rom t hose s uch a s D abrowa, L ieu a nd Matthews, whose p apers a re p ublished h ere, t here a re o thers a t work who c ould n ot a ttend. T hus, b ureauc ratic d elays i n g ranting a pproval f or e xternal p ublication p rev ented u s i ncluding t he p aper o f A lexandre G rouchevoy f rom L ening rad . F ortunately, we h ave t he v ery v aluable c ollection o f e ssays b y Maurice S artre which i ncludes o ne o n t he n omadic

XX

p eoples o f t he A rabian f rontier. W e m ay l ook f orward n ow t oo, t o H enry MacAdam 's S tudies i n t he R oman P rovince o f A rabia which s hould a ppear j ust a head o f t hese C ol l oquium P roceedings, a nd i ncludes t oo, much r elating t o t he n ative p eoples o f A rabia, a s w ell a s t he e vidence f or v eterans i n t he r egion . A n e specially i mportant d evelopment i n r ecent y ears h as b een t he d iscovery o f n ew m ilitary s ites. I n a r egion i n w hich s o m uch i s w ell-preserved, i t h as b een s a 1u tory t o h ave r eports f rom, a mongst o thers, D e V ries o f a n ew c astellum a t Umm e l Jemal , E adie a t H umai ma, K ennedy a nd MäcAdam a t Umm e l-Quttein, K illick o f a n a pparent t emporary c amp - t he f irst i n t he E ast - i f o ne e xcludes t hose a ssociated w ith s ieges, a s well a s MacDonald 's e nigmatic s ite a t , Umm U btulah . We m ay e xpect many more s uch s ites t o a ppear a nd c an h ope s omeday t o l ocate t he p robable m il i tary s ites a t, f or e xample, P etra a nd G erasa . T here a re f ew n ew s ites i n S yria, n one r ecent e nough t o w arrant m ention . Most w ork t here i s o n e xisting s ites, e specially d eserving o f a ttention b eing t he r ecent p ublication b y Gawlikowski o f t he P olish e xcavations o n L es P rincipia d e D iocl6tien ( Pal myre V III). D ura-Europos c ont inues t o a ttract a ttention, m ost r ecently w ith a rticles b y J ames a nd MacDonald o n t he c hronology o f t he e nd o f t he c ity. F or t he M iddle E uphrates w e n ow h ave t he v aluable r eport b elow b y A ntonio I nvernizzi o n I talian e xcavations a t K ifrin. F urther R oman, o r p ossibly Roman, m ilitary s ites i n b oth I raq a nd J ordan a re n ow d iscussed m ore f ully i n G regory a nd K ennedy 's p ublication o f S ir A urel S tein 's 4 5 y ear o ld L i mes R eport a nd i ts a ccompanying c ommentary w here f urther r eferences t o c urrent r elevant w ork o n t he I raqi E uphrates c an b e f ound. We a re f ortunate t o h ave t he p ublication b elow o f t wo s ites f rom t he n orth-eastern f rontier r egion which may b e R oman o r B yzantine . F urther d am b uilding i s n ow g oing o n t o i nundate t he S amosata r egion; s o f ar, h owever, w e h ave s een n othing p ublished o n t he c onsequences f or t he l egionary f ortress t here a nd n o l ight was s hed o n t he q uestion a t t he C olloquium . I n p roposing t his C ol l oquium o ver a y ear a go, we h ad i t i n m ind t hat s uch a g athering - a s h ad b een t he c ase f or t he n orthe astern s ector w ith S tephen M itchell's A r mies a nd F rontiers i n R oman a nd B yzantine Anatolia - would s ti mulate d iscussion a nd i nterest o n t he e astern f rontier a s a w hole a nd a cross t he e ntire t ime-span f rom e arly i nvolvement i n t he l ate R epublic o nwards. R eports f rom p articipants would s uggest t hat t he meeting d id s erve a u seful p urpose a nd m ore t han o ne h as p roposed a f ollow u p i n a f ew y ears t i me . D avid K ennedy P hilip F reeman D ept. o f A ncient H istory a nd C lassical A rchaeology U niversity o f S heffield 2 9 J une 1 986

x xi

I .

DEUX

MI LLI AI RES INEDI TS DE JORD ANI E DU NORD

VAB ALLATH

EN

T homas B auzou P aris I n 1 984 2 milestones o f Vaballathus were f ound a long t he V ia N ova ( a R oman r oad t hat l inked S yria t o t he R ed S ea) a t t he 1 5th a nd 2 0th m ile s tations f ron t Bostra. T he i nscriptions a re i n L atin o nly; V aballathus' t itles a re " REX, COS, IMPERATOR, DVX ROMANORVM". This i s o bviously a d evelopment o f t he c oin-legend " VCRI MDR" o ne c an r ead o n t he A urelianus/Vaballathus A ntoniniani f rom Antioch ( or Emesa?). We a lso l earn t hat V aballa thus h ad t he t itle o f Consul. Z enobia i s n ot mentioned, f or h er a uthority was n ot o fficially r ecognised b y t he Romans i n A rabia. T he a bsence o f A urelianus ' mention i s more s urprising: c an t hese i nscriptions h ave b een c arved s ome t i me b efore h is a ccession? T hese m ilestones a re a t race o f R oman t roop a ctivity o n t he V ia N ova u nder P al myrenian r ule i n A rabia . O ne may b ring i t t ogether w ith t he war t hat t ook p lace i n t his v ery a rea b etween t he P al myrenians a nd t he A rab t ribe o f Tanukh. A s t he o fficial c ommander o f Roman a nd P ai myrenian t roops, V aballathus c ould h ave t hen g ained t he t itle o f " Arabicus" we c an r ead o n l ater m ilestones o f t his r oad i nscribed f or V aballathus A ugustus. I n s pite o f t he well a ttested d estruction o f t he I IIrd L egion's s anctuary i n B ostra b y t he P al myrenians, i t i s l ikely t hat R oman t roops a nd P al myrenians c o-operated b etween 2 69 a nd 2 71 i n d efending t he p rovince a gainst t he A rabs. I t c ould e xplain why t hese, Vaballathus' m ilestones, were n ot e rased when Roman r ule was r es tored.

D ans l a P rovince R omaine d ' Arabie, o n a ppelle V ia N ova l a r oute q ui f ut c onstruite p ar T rajan d e 1 07 ä 14 p our r elier l a S yrie ä L a Mer Rouge. L a p artie s eptentr i ona l e d e c ette r oute, e ntre B ostra e t P hiladelphie ( Amman) e st c elle q ui a f ait l 'objet d epuis l e c i but d u s iècle d es e xplorations a rch ologiques l es p lus i ctail16es. E n 1 904, d eux m illiaires d e V aballath A uguste a vaient é té c i couverts p ar l e P . Ger mer-Durand a ux m illes 1 1 e t

1

3 6 d epuis B ostra ( Ger mer-Durand 1 904: 3 -4). 1 L ors d e n otre p rospection d e 1 984, 2 n ous a vons P u r etrouver a u m u le 1 4 u ne t roisieme i nscription d e c ette s erie, t andis q u 'aux m u les 1 5 e t 2 0 e taient r eleves d eux n ouveaux t extes a u n om d e V aballath, a nterieurs ä s on u surpation d u t itre d 'Auguste . C es i nscriptions s ont i nteressantes ä d eux t itres: 1 ) E lles n ous d onnent e n t outes l ettres l a t itulature e xacte d e V aballath t eile q u 'elle a pparart e n a brege s ur l es m onnaies d 'Antioche e t d 'A lexandrie . 2 ) C ette d ouble s erie d e m illiaires t emoigne d e l 'activite d e s oldats r omains a u s ud d e B ostra, a u t emps d e l a d omination p almyrenienne. A ) M illiaire c alcaire s ans b ase, c ouche a u b ord d e l a v oie r omaine ä 1 5 m u les a u s ud-ouest d e B ostra. H auteur 2 ,03m d iametre ä l a b ase 0 ,56m . L a b orne p orte 4 i nscriptions, l a l ere g ravee s ous C ommode e n 1 81, martelee e t r ecouverte p ar u ne 2 e i nscription s ous P ert max e n 1 93, l a 3 e, d e rautre c öte, d ate d e V aballath ( 271?); l a 4 e d ate d e l a T etrarchie ( 305-6) e t s urc harge l es d eux p remieres. C es i nscriptions a vaient e te r elevees p ar l 'Expedition d e P rincet on mais, e n r aison d e s ol l mauvais e tat, c elle d e V aballath n 'avait p as e te d echiffree' ( Butler ( Magie) 1 921: II A 2 , X IXXX , n o. I V). H auteur d e l 'inscription 9 1,5cm, d es l ettres e t e stampee. 1

5

5 ä 8 cm . D ecalquee

USAVRELI M IUS IW IrLATH ENODORUS COS R iy I-ORDVX 9 PAORUM

X-V9

IC

[ L(UC IUS) I UL HUS A VRELI[US / S EPTII MIUS / [ UA]BALLATH[US / ATHIENCOCRUS / [ REX] CO (N)S(UL) / [ I MPE]RATOR D VX / [ R]OL WANORUM / ( MILLIA P ASSUUM ) X V / B ) L a s econde i nscription p rovient d u m u le 2 0 . E lle a e te l ue s ur u n p etit f ragment d e m illiaire c alcaire t res e rode. L a p ierre a e te r amenee a u d epöt d e f ouilles d e K hirbet e s-Samra . H auteur d u f ragment 4 5cm, h auteur d es l ettres 6 ,5 ä 8 cm, l igne d e 1ä 2 cm . D ecalquee e t e stampee .

2

i nter-

1 . 1y1r I VSAVREL BAF >ALLAT 1 U ,XCO 4

eNo

L (UC 1US) I VLIVS A VREL[IUS S EPTI MIUS] / B ABALLAT[HUS A THENODORUS] /R EX CO (N)[S(UL) I MPERATOR D UX / RO ]MANO [RUM / . —] O n c onstate q ue c ette t itulature c orrespond e n g ros a ux l egendes m onetaires d es emissions c onjointes d e V aballath e t A urelien, t ant p our ratelier d 'Antioche q ue p our c elui d 'A lexandrie . S ur l es a ntoniniani d 'Antioche ( Cohen ( Aurelian) 1 = R IC ( Aurel ian) 3 81) o n t rouve l a l egende V ABALATHVS V CRI MDR , q ui s e d evelo ppe V .C . R (EX) I M (PERATOR) D (UX) R (OMANORUM). I n 'est p as m entionne d e c onsulat c omme s ur n os m illiaires. V .C . s ignifie e n p rincipe V (IR) C (LARISSI MUS). P eut-on y l ire V (IR) C (ONSULARIS) o u V . C ( ONSUL)? L 'hypothese e st t entante, mais d es m illiaires c ontemporains, d ecouverts p ar B . I saac s ur l a r oute d e S cythop olis v ers l e N ord, e t d ont l e t exte m 'a ét é t res a i mablement c ommunique p ar l eur i nventeur, d onnent ä V aballath l es t itres " V.C .CONS". L e c onsulat d e V aballath e st p ar c ontre c lairem nt m entionne s ur l es l egendes d es m onnaies g recques d 'A lexandrie ( BMC .16: 3 09 n o . 2 387), s ur l esquelles o n p eut l ire: I .A .C .OVABAAAA0 132 AOHN.V .A .C .P., c e q ui s e d evelloppe s ans p eine o o(000000) o (0000000) o (00000000) 0 0000000000 0 000 ( 000000) o o(00000) o (000000000) o (00000000) o o(000000). E n r evanche, l e t itre d e R oi n 'y a ppara it p as. E n a dmettant q ue V .C . s ignifie s ur l es m onnaies d 'Antioche V (IR ) C (LARISSINCS), o n p eut e sti mer q ue c es monnaies d atent d e 2 70, ä l 'avenement d 'Aurelien. C herchant ä s 'entendre a vec l es P alm yreniens a u d ebut d e s on r egne, l 'empereur a ura f ait n ommer V aballath c onsul s uffect e n 2 71, e t c e t itre a pparaft s ur l es m onnaies d 'A lexandrie d atees d e l a s econde a nnee d 'Aurel i en . D e l a m e me f acon, l es m illiaires d e l a V ia N ova mentionnant l e c onsulat d e V aballath d ateraient d e 2 71. O n p eut f aire d 'autres r emarques s ur l e t exte d e c es m illiaires . I n 'y e st f ait a ucune mention d 'Aurelien, c e q ui p eut e tre i nterprete c omme u ne v olonte d 'independance p ar r apport ä R ome. O n n e t rouve p as n on p lus d e mention d e l a r eine Z enobie, q ui p ourtant e xercait l a r ealite d u p ouvoir, n e s erait-ce q u 'en r aison d u j eune a ge d e s on f ils V aballath . S ur d es m illiaires d e l a r oute d e P al myre ä Emese, 5 l a r eine e st m entionnee a vec t ous s es t itres s ur d e b elles i nscriptions b ilingues g reco-pal myreni ennes. I ci, l e c ontexte e st t out d ifferent p uisque n ous n e n ous t rouvons p as d ans l e R oyaume d e P al myre ä p roprement p arler m ais d ans u ne p rovince r omaine. L 'autorite n 'y e st d onc e xercee o fficiellement q u 'au n om d e V aballath s eul, e n r aison d es t itres o fficiels r omains q u ' A urelien l ui a r econnus. L es emissions m onetaires s ont l e r eflet d e c ette s ituation a dministrative, p uisque Z enobie n e f it p as b attre monnaie ä s on e ffigie a vant

3

d 'avoir u surpe l e t itre d 'Augusta . E n o utre, a pres c ette u surpat ion, i l n 'y e ut d e monnaies d e Z enobie q u 'en E gypte ( BMC 1 6:311 n o . 2 398). L 'atelier d 'Antioche c ontinua d e n e f onct1-37-n er q ue p our V aballath ( Cohen ( Vaballathus) 6 = R IG ( Vaballathus) 6 ), t andis q u 'en A rabie l es b ornes m illiaires n e f urent i nscrites q u'ä s on n om . S ur n os i nscriptions d e 2 71, V aballath n 'apparait p as c omme l 'egal d 'un e mpereur r omain . T ous s es t itres s ont h ierarchiquem ent i nferieurs ä c elui d 'Auguste, q u 'ä c ette é poque A urelien e st s eul ä p orter. D 'autre p art, l e c onsulat e t 1'i mper i um maius m ontrent c lairement q ue l a t itulature d e V aballath s e s itue b ien d ans l e c adre d es i nstitutions r omaines. E nfin, e t c 'est u n d etail q ui p eut a voir u ne s ignification p rotocolaire, l a t itulat ure d e V aballath e st a u n ominatif a lors q ue d epuis l e r egne d 'Elagabal t ous l es m illiaires d e l a V ia N ova p ortaient l e n om e t l es t itres d e l 'empereur a u d atif, r inscription p renant l a f orme d 'une d edicace . Q uand V aballath a ura p ris l e t itre d 'Auguste, o n t rouvera s on n om a u d atif s ur l es m illiaires d e c ette r oute. T outefois, c ette r emarque n e v aut q ue p our l es i nscriptions d e l a V ia N ova e n A rabie: l es u sages p araissent a voir e te d ifferents a illeurs p uisque l es m illiaires d e V aballath V .C .CONS . d ecouverts p ar B . I saac e n J udee emploient l e d atif. E nfin, e t c 'est s ans d oute s criptions n e s ont r edigees l a V ia N ova p uisque t outes B ostra ä P hiladelphie) ( Cf. t oute a utre l angue .

l e p oint l e p lus i mportant, c es i nq u 'en l atin. C 'etait u ne r egle s ur l es i nscriptions ( 138 r epertoriees d e n . 2 ) s ont e n l atin, ä l 'exclusion d e

D ans u ne p rovince c omme l 'Arabie, l 'ar mee r omaine e tait s eule ä u tiliser l a l angue l atine, l es h abitants n e p arlant q ue l 'arameen o u l e g rec. L es P al myreniens, d e l eur c öte, s emblent n 'avoir e mploye q ue l eur l angue o u l e g rec. N os d eux m illiaires d e V aballath o nt d onc e te t res v raisemblablement g raves p ar d es m ilitaires r omains p asses s ous l e c ontröle d es P almyreniens . O n p ense q ue l a g arnison d e B ostra r esista s ans s ucces ä l 'invasion p al myrenienne, s ans d oute e n 2 69. U n p assage d e M alalas f ait a llusion ä u ne i nvasion d e l 'Arabie p ar Z enobie s ous l e r egne d e C laude ( II), e t ä l a mort d u c hef d es R omains " Trasso . s " t ue a vec t ous s es h ommes ( Malalas C hronogr. XII.299.4; S peidel 1 977: 7 23). Ce " Trassos" n 'est p as c onnu p ar a illeurs, e t Malalas e n f ait u n D ux, c e q ui e st u n a nachronisme. Q uel c redit a ccorder ä c ette i nformation? L e c hroniqueur a urait-il p u f aire u ne c onfusion a vec l e f ameux d esastre d e C rassus t ue p ar l es P arthes t rois s iecles a uparavant? I l e st d ifficile d 'affirm er q uoi q ue c e s oit s ur c e p oint. C ependant, l a v ictoire d es P al myreniens s ur l es R omains ä B ostra e st c onfir mee p ar u ne i nscription l atine c elebrant l a r econs truction d u t emple d e J upiter H ammon ä B ostra, a pres s a d est ruction p ar " les e nnemis p al myreniens" ( I GLS X III: 9 107). C e t emple e tait l e s anctuaire d e l a IIe L egion Cyrenaique, c e q ui l aisse e ntendre q ue c ette u nite f ut d efaite e t s on c amp i nvesti.

4

M ais n ous n e s avons p as q uel f ut l e s ort d e c ette l egion a pres c es e venements, n i q uelle f ut l 'attitude d es a utres u nites d e l 'armee r omaine d 'A rabie f ace a ux P al myreniens. U n p assage d e l 'Histoire A uguste e voque l e p illage d u t emple d u S oleil ä P al myre p ar l es p orte-enseignes e t l es t rompettes d e l a " Troisiefe L egion" , v raisemblablement ä l ' issue d e l a p rise d e l a v ille p ar A urelien ( SHA A urel. XXXI). E . W ill ( 1966: 1 415) e stime q u 'il s 'agit d e l a IIe L egion C yrenaique, r econstituee e t ä n ouveau o perationnelle, v engeant l a d estruction d e s on t emple ä B ostra . C ette e xplication e st t res s eduisante, b ien q u 'on i gnore e videmment d ans q uelles c onditions e t d ans q uelles c irconstances l a r econstitution d e c ette u nite a neantie a p u a voir l ieu e n s i p eu d e t emps. T outefois S artre c onteste c ette i nterpretation e n f aisant r emarquer q ue l e n om d e T roisieme L egion p eut s 'appliquer ä d 'autres u nites d e l 'ar mee r omaine s usceptibles d 'avoir p ris p art ä l a c ampagne d 'Aurelien ( Cf. I GLS X III: 9 107). L a IIe L egion C yrenaique n 'etait p as l a s eule u nite r omaine s tationnee e n A rabie ä c ette é poque . O n s ait p ar e xemple q ue s ur l a V ia N ova u n c amp f ut c onstruit ä G adda ( A l-Hadid, a ux e nvirons d e Z arcTO Tentre 2 53 e t 2 59 s ous l e g ouverneur A urelius T heo, p our a briter d es t roupes t ransferees d e P alestine e n A rabie ( Butler ( Li t t mann) 1 907: II A .1; 9 , n o. 9 ; c f. S peidel 1 977: 7 25 n . 1 0). I l e st t res v raisemblable q ue c es s oldats a ient e te e ncore e n p lace a u moment d e l a c onquete p al myrenienne mais o n i gnore l eur s ort a pres 2 69 . U ne i nscription f uneraire g recque p ourrait e tre l 'indice d 'une p articipation d es t roupes r omaines d u H auran ä l a c onquete d e l 'Egypte p ar l es P al myreniens ( Seyrig 1 954: 2 14-17). C 'est d u m om s ! 'opinion d e S peidel, e t c et e ngagement d 'elements r omains a ux c ötes d es P al myreniens e st c onfirme p ar n os d eux m illiaires. P our f inir, l 'emplacement meme d e c es b ornes c ation s ur l es a ctivites d e l 'ar mee r omaine 2 71-2.

c onstitue u ne i ndid ans l a r egion e n

D e n ombreuses i nscriptions d ecouvertes ä D er'a, B osra e t a illeurs n ous a pprennent q ue f urent menes v ers 2 60 d 'i mportants t ravaux d e f ortifications e t d e r enforcement d es s tructures d efensives e xist antes . dans l e n ord d e 1' Arabi e ( Pfl a um 1 952: 3 07-9; I GLS X III.9106 ( Bostra); B utler ( Li t t mann) 1 907: I IIA .1, 9 , n o. 97 -a 77 H adid). C es t ravaux s ont c onsideres p ar l es h istoriens c omme u ne r eponse ä l a menace s assanide. T outefois, o n r emarque q ue l e l ong d e l a V ia N ova , r oute s trategique m ettant B ostra e n r elation a vec l e r este d e l a p rovince d ont e lle e tait l a c apitale, a ucun m illiaire i nscrit n e t emoigne d e t ravaux d e r estauration ä c ette é poque. D ans l 'etat a ctuel d e n otre d ocumentation, l a d erniere r estaurat ion d e c ette v oie a vant 2 69 r emontait ä l 'annee 2 37-8, s ous M axim in l e T hrace ( Germer-Durand 1 904: 1 9 n o. 2 7; 2 3 n o. 3 5; T homsen 1 917: 4 3 n o. 8 8d; 4 4 n o. 9 7b). C ette r oute p ievait e n p rincipe

e tre

r estauree

t ous

l es

v ingt

5

a ns

e n m oyenne .'

O n

p eut

b ien s ür p enser q u 'une r estauration a p u a voir l ieu s ans q u 'on g rave t oute u ne s erie d 'inscriptions, mais c 'est p eu p robable q uand o n v oit q ue, d e 1 14 ä 2 37-8, t ous l es empereurs r omains a yant r egne a u mom s u n a n ( ä l 'exception d 'Antonin l e P ieux d ont a ucun m illiaire n 'est c onnu a u P roche-O rient) o nt f ait i nscrire ä l eur n om d es m illiaires s ur c ette p ortion d e l a V ia N ova . O n e st d onc e n d roit d e p enser q ue l a v ague d e g rands t ravaux m ilitaires d es a nnees 2 53-260 d ans l e n ord d e l 'Arabie a e pargne L a V ia N ova, b ien q ue l ' installation d e t roupes n ouvelles ä a lH adid montre q ue l a r oute c onservait s a v aleur s trategique. N os d eux m illiaires d e V aballath C onsul, j oints a ux t rois m illiaires d e V aballath A uguste, t emoignent-i I s d 'une r estauration d e l a r oute e n 2 71-2? L a r oute d evait e n a voir b esoin m ais i l e st d ifficile d e l 'affirmer. I ls t emoignent e n t ous c as d e l 'activite d e l 'ar mee r omaine l e l ong d e c ette v oie d e c ommunication d ans u ne p eriode t roublee d e l 'histoire d e l a p rovince . O n p eut r approcher c es i nscriptions d e c e q ue n ous s avons d es c ombats q ui o ppos rent l es A rabes d e G adhima , R oi d e T anukh, a ux P almyreniens ä l 'epoque d e Z enobie ( Sartre 1 982: 1 34; B owersock 1 983: 1 33). On a d es r aisons d e c roire q ue c es c ombats e urent l ieu a u s ud d e B ostra p uisqu 'on a r etrouve ä U nun a l-Ji mal l a a t ombe d u p recepteur d e G adhima ( Butler ( Littmann) 1 914: I VA , n o . 4 1; c f. B owersock 1 983: 1 33 a nd S artre 1 982: 1 34 [ cf. D eVries*]) . D 'autre p art l es m i 11i aires d e V aballath A uguste l ui d onnent l e t itre d 'Arabicus Maxi mus, c e q ui p eut e tre u ne c onsequence d e l a d efaite d e c es A rabes. I f aut b ien e ntendu d emeurer p rudent e t n e p as e chafauder d 'hypoth ses t rop p recises ä p artir d e d onnees a ussi s ommaires q ue d e s i mples b ornes m illiaires. T outefois, n ous n ous t rouvons e n p resence d 'un e nsemble d 'indices c oncordants q ui l aissent e ntrevoir q u'apr s l a c onquete p al myrenienne, d es t roupes r omaines, a gissant a u n om d e V aballath C onsul p uis Auguste, e taient t oujours p resentes a u s ud d e B ostra, ä u n m omenmt o ü l a. r egion d evait e tre d efendue c ontre l es t ribus a rabes n omades .

N otes 1 .

L e

t exte d es m illiaires d e V aballath A uguste e st I M. CAESARI L . IVL I0 / AVREL I0 SEPT IMI O VABALLATHO/ ATHENODORO PER / S I CO MAXI MO ARA/BI CO MAXI MO ADI A/BENI CO MAXI MO P I O / FEL ICI I NVI CTO AV.

I nscr. n o. 8 ( p. 6 ); c f. n o . 7 3b e t 4 4 n o. 9 6b.

i nscr.

n o. 2 2

( p.

3 3)

l e

= T homsen

s uivant:

1 917:

3 8

2 . L 'ensemble d es m illiaires i nscrits d a l a V ia N ova e ntre B ostra e t P hiladelphie, c omprenant l es i nedits r eleves e n 1 983 e t 1 984, s era p rochainement p ublie a vec l es f ouilles d e K hirbet e s-Samra, s ous l a d irection d 'A . D esreumaux e t J .B . H umbert.

6

3 . L 'inscription d e Vaballath a é té l ue: [IMP. CAE] SAR / ...IVS... / / / — .COS. —/ — .ORO—. / . .ORUM ... / XV / I E ( no. I V C ). Magie s e c ontente d e ! ui a ttribuer " a l ate d ate" d 'apres l e s tyle d e l ' criture. T homsen ( no. 7 7a3) q ui n 'a p as v u l a p ierre, p ropose l a d ate d e 1 14, s ous T rajan. B eyer 1 935: 1 41-2, p roposait u ne a utre i nterpr & tation, d&nentie d e t outes f acons p ar restampage r éalisé e n 1 984. 4 . Emission d at e d e V aballath.

l a

5 . L a b orne s e t rouve N ational d e D amas. 6 . C 'est m illiaires n . 2 ).

2 e a nn e d 'Aur lien e t

a ujourd'hui

d ans

l e

d e

l a

S e

j ardin

a nn e

d u

d e

Mus e

du mom s ce q ui r essort d e l ' tude d e t ous l es d e l a V ia N ova d ont j e p r pare l a p ublication ( cf.

B ibliographie B EYER,

G .

1 935

B UTLER, H .C ., 1 907-49 L ITMMANN, E ., MAG IE, D ., N ORRIS, F .A ., S TROEVER , E .R. a nd S TUART, D .R. B CWERSOCK

G. W.

GERMER-DURAND,

P FLAUM ,

H .-G .

J .

D ie Meilenzählung d er R omerstrasse P etra-Bostra . Z eitschrift d er d euts chen P alästina-Vereins 5 8: 1 29-59 . S yria . P ublications o f t he P rincet on U niversity A rchaeological E xpe d itions t o S yria i n 1 904-5 and 1 909 . L eyden.

1 983

R oman A rabia.

C ambridge, Mass.

1 904

R apport s ur Pexploration a rch olog igue e n 1 903 d e l a v oie r omaine e ntre Ammane e t B osra. Bulletin a rch ologique d u c omit6 d es t ravaux h istoriques e t s cientifiques: 3 -41.

1 952

L es f ortifications d e l a v ille d 'Adraha d 'Arabie ( 259-60 ä 2 74-5) d 'apr s d es i nscriptions rcemment d&ouvertes, S yria 2 9: 3 07-30.

S ARTRE,

M .

1 982

T rois e tudes e t b yzantine . L atomus).

S EYRIG,

M .

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f un raire E pigramme 14-17 ( S yria 3 1: 2 : 1 20-3). S yriennes 5

1 977

T he R oman a r my i n A rabia. I n H . T emporini ( ed.) Aufstieg u nd N ied-

S PEIDEL,

M .

7

s ur l 'Arabie r omaine B ruxelles ( Collection

d u Hauran. Antiquit s

e rgang d er r ömischen Welt: 6 87-730 . B erlin. T HOMSEN,

W ILL,

E .

P .

I,

8 ,

1 917

D ie r ömischen Meilensteine d er P rov inzen S yria, A rabia u nd P alästina . Z eitschrift d er d eutschen P aläst ina-Vereins 4 0: 1 -103.

1 966

L e s ac d e P al myre. I n R . C hevallier ( ed.) / f langes d 'arch6ololie e t d 'histoire o fferts à André P iganiol II: 1 409-16. P aris.

8

2 . BARDES SKL E R OS, THE MARWÄNI DS AT HI SN ZI YÄD UNNOTI CED ARABI C

BU W AYHI DS, AN D IN THE LI GHT OF INS CRI PTI ON

THE AN

A .D.H. B ivar L ondon An u nnoticed A rabic i nscription i n t he museum a t H arput ( formerly H isn Z iyäd) p rovides i nternal e vidence t hat t he f ragmentary d ate s hould b e r estored a s 3 83/993-4. I t n ames a Musli m g overnor whose u nusual n ame i s o f a t ype a ttributable t o t he I ranian Daylamite t ribesmen a ctive i n t he l ands o f t he Caliphate a t t his p eriod. S hortly b efore t his d ate, d uring t he e xpansion o f Buwayhid p ower i n J azira u nder t he r ule o f 'Mud a ldaw la, t he f orces o f t his I ranian d ynasty b riefly e stab lished c ontact w ith t he B yzantine b order, a t t he moment when t he B yzantine g eneral B ardes S kerlos was making a b id f or t he B yzantine t hrone. A fter h is d efeat h e s ought a sylum w ith t he B uwayhids, a nd was i nterned a t B aghdad. H owever, a fter t he d efeat o f t he Emperor B asil I a t S erdica o n 7R abP I 3 76/17 A ugust 9 86 h e was r eleased f rom d etention, s umptuously r ec eived a t t he p alace o f S , am5äm a l-dawla, a nd r eturned t o B yzantine t erritory t o make a f resh a ttempt u pon t he t hrone . Bardes h ad a greed i n r eturn t o s urrender c ert ain f rontier c astles t o t he Musli ms, a nd a fter h is d eparture t o t he West t hese may h ave r emained i n t he h ands o f D aylamite o fficers, i ncluding p ossibly H arput i tself. T he e xpansion o f t he Märwünids a fter 3 80/9901 , t he d eath o f t wo e phemeral B uwayhid p rinces, a nd t he d eparture o f t heir s uccessor Bahä ' a l-dawla t o K ir man c ould t hus h ave c ut t he l inks b et ween t hese o fficers a nd t he B uwayhid s tate, l eaving t he t itulary o f t he i nscription b riefly i n a n a l most i ndependent p osition i n o r n ear H arput.

O n a j ourney t o I ran i n 1 974, t he p resent w riter h ad t he o ccasion t o v isit t he museum a t H arput i n e astern T urkey, w hich c ontains a n umber o f A rabic i nscriptions. H e h ad b een a lerted t o t he p ossib ility t hat o ne o f t hese p resented p oints o f more t han u sual i nterest b y h is c olleague D r G za F eh6rväri, who h ad p assed t hrough t he r egion p reviously . W hereas a c onsiderable n umber o f t he i nscriptions i n t his museum were i n t he f loriated K ufic s cript t ypical o f t he p eriod o f t he U rtuqid r ulers i n t his a rea, t he s peci men t hat a ttracted a ttention was i n e veryday s i mple

9

P l.

2 .1

H arput. I nscription o f [ 3]83/ 9 34.

1 0

' P lyn a l dawla J rwäkäm ;

d ated

K ufic o f e vidently e arlier d ate ( Pl. 2 .1). T hough a p hotograph w as t aken o f t he i nscription, i t w as n ot p ossible a t t he t i me t o a scertain f rom what s ite i t h ad b een b rought t o t he museum . A n ot i mprobable a ssumption m ight b e t hat i t c ame o riginally f rom o ne o f t he t owers o f t he r uined c astle o f H arput, a n i mpressiv m onument t hat l ies a f ew h undred y ards n orth o f t he l ittle t own .' I f t his w ere t he c ase, i ts f ormer l ocation s hould b e v erifiable f rom o lder p hotographs o f t he c astle. S o f ar, h owever, i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o f ind a ny o ld p icture o r t raveller's r eport w hich t hrows l ight o n t he matter. I t i s o f c ourse e qually p ossib le t hat t he e pigraph was r ecovered f rom s ome n earby I slamic a rchaeological s ite - f or e xample t hat o f S hi mshät ( Arsamosata), w hich i s s aid t o l ie 1 9 m iles e ast o f E lazig, a t H araba n ear t he v illage o f I cme. T his i s a matter, h owever, which i t h as n ot s o f ar b een p ossible t o i nvestigate. A t t he t i me o f t he v isit t o H arput t he w riter r eceived t he i mpression, f rom p ersons p resent i n t he museum , t hat s ome s cholar w as p reparing a n e dition o f t he i nscription, which m ight s hortly b e e xpected. C ertainly t he e xistence o f t he i nscription a ppears t o h ave b een k nown t o D r C . C ahen, who makes a n i ndirect a llusion t o i t, s o i t s eems i n a n a rticle i n t he E ncyclopaedia o f I slam ( s.v. K hartapirt). 2 H owe ver, more t han e leven y ears h ave n ow p assed s ince t he v isit t o t he museum, a nd t o t he p resent w riter's k nowledge t his t ext r emains u npublished . I n v iew o f i ts q uite c onsiderable i nterest, e specially f rom t he I ranian v iewpoint, i t s eems t hat t he t i me h as s urely c ome t o b ring i t i nto t he a rea o f l earned d iscussion, a nd t hat i s t he r eason f or t he p resent p aper. T he f ortress t own o f H arpyt, a ppearing u nder v arious s pellings, i s s aid b y I bn a l-Athir t o h ave b een k nown i n t he e arlier I slam ic M iddle A ges u nder t he d esignation o f H isr ) Z iyäd. A c ritical q uestion a rises w hether t he s ite i s i dentical w ith t hat o f Z iata m entioned b y Ammianus Marcel 1i nus ( XIX .6.1) i n c onnect ion w ith t he s iege o f Amida ( modern D iyarbekr) b y t he S asanian K ing S hapur I: I nnumeram c erni mms p lebem, q uae Z iata c apto c astello, a d h osticum d ucebatur, q uem i n l ocum u t c apacissi mum e t m unitum s patio q uippe d ecem s tadiorum ambitur p romiscua c onfugerat m ultitudo. A ccording t o Markwart ( 1930: 2 42ff), whose v iew h as b een w idely a dopted, t he p lace m entioned b y Ammianus M ärcellinus h ere, w hile l ying t o t he n orth o f D iyarbakr, i s n ot i dentical w ith H arput, b ut r epresents a d ifferent s ite l ying i n t he a ngle o f t he T igris a nd D eba ( Dibene S u) r ivers, a nd o nly a f ew k i l ometres f rom D iyarbekr. T his o f c ourse f its t he d escription o f Ammianus, t hat t he R oman p risoners w ere b rought o n f oot b y t he S asanians t owards A m ida ( Diyarbekr) f rom t his p lace . O n t he o ther h and, I h ave n ot b een a ble t o c onfirm f rom o ther l iterary s ources t he e xistence o f a s ite c alled Z iata a t t he s pot a ssumed b y Markwart. I t i s c ert ainly n ot o ut o f t he q uestion t hat p risoners o f t he S asanians c ould h ave b een marched 1 56km f rom H arput t o Amida, s ince p res umably many d eported t o I raq a nd e lsewhere h ad t o c omplete e ven t hose i mmense j ourneys o n f oot. F or t he t i me b eing, t herefore,

1 1

w e must l eave o pen f or f uture d ecision t he q uestion o f w hether t he s ite m entioned b y Ammianus i s i dentical w ith t he H ish Z iyäd o f I bn a l-AthTr, a nd w ith t he m odern H arput. W e may r eturn t hen t o t he q uestion o f o ur A rabic i nscription . S o f ar a s t he r eading o f t he A rabic t ext i s c oncerned, t his p resents s erious d ifficulty a t o nly a f ew p oints.

5

b i ism [ A]lläh a l-ra[h]män a l-rahTm l ä i läha i llä A llah, M uhammad r asUl A llah. H ädhä m ä a mara b i-'amalihi a l-a[m ]Tr a l-ajall a l-[sayyid] ' Ayn a l-daw la S ayf a l-mulk A bi ( sic) S a'Td T rwäkam ä däm A llah ' uluwahu f i a yyäm I shä[q] i bn S ayyär a l-MarzTra ( ?) f T s anat t haläth w a-thamänTn w a-[thaläthm i'a. H asbunä A llah w a-ni'am a l-wakil. k atabahu a l-W ... I n t he n ame o f A llah, t he M erciful, t he C ompassionate. T here i s n o g od b ut A lläh. Muhammad i s t he p rophet o f A lläh. T his w hat g ave o rders f or t he m aking o f i t t he M ost N oble Amfr, t he L ord, t he E ye o f t he S tate, t he S word o f t he K ingdom , A b] t S a'Td T rwäkäm , m ay A lläh p rolong h is e levation, i n t he d ays o f I shäq b . S ayyär a l-MarzTr iT ( ?), i n t he y ear [ 3183. A lläh i s o ur s ufficiency, t he B est o f A dvocates. W rote i t a l-WalTd ( ?) - -

T he f irst p oint t o b e d ecided b efore a ttempting a h istorical m ise n s cene f or t his t ext i s t he c orrect r estoration o f t he H ijri d ate i n l ine 6 . A t er minus p ost q uem i s e vidently p rovided b y t he p resence o f n o l ess t han t wo h onorary l aqabs a ccompanying t he n ame o f t he o fficer d esignated ' Ayn a l-dawla, S ayf a l-mmlk. A ccording t o H iläl a l-SäbT, R usi lm D är a l-Khiläfa ( Tr. S ali m: 1 09), t he f irst Musli m p rince t o a ssume t wo l aqabs w as t he B uwayh id ' Adud a l-dawla F anäkhusru, w ho a ssumed t he s econd t itle T äj a l-m illa . B ahä ' a l-dawla a ssumed a t hird l aqab, a nd e ventually a f ourth . S ince ' Ayn a l-dawla o f t he p resent i nscription was e vidently a f airly o bscure g overnor, i t i s i mprobable t hat h e c ould h ave u sed more e laborate t itles t han B ahä ' a l-da wla, t he p rem ier AmTr o f h is d ay, w ho a ccording t o o ur s ource a dopted h is t hird t itle a t t he t i me o f t he a ccession o f t he A bbasid c aliph a l-Qüdir b i-Alläh i n 3 81/991, a d ate which a ccordingly p rovides t he t erminus p ost q uem f or o ur r ecord . I t i s p erhaps c onceivable, i ndeed p robable, t hat t he m oment w hich s aw t he a doption o f t he t hird l aqab b y t he p remier B uwayhid p rince s aw a lso t he a ssumption o f a s econd l aqab b y s ome o f t he l eading g overnors. S o f ar a s a l ower l i mit i s c oncerned, o n t he o ther h and, i t i s h ard t o b elieve t hat i f t he d ate h ad b een s o l ate a s 4 83/1090-1, n o a llusion w ould b e made i n a Muslim i ns cription t o t he S eljuq p rinces w ho a fter t he B yzantine d efeat a t t he b attle o f Malazgird ( 463/1071), h ad o verrun A natolia a nd w ere r anging a s f ar t o t he west ward a s N icaea i n P hrygia, n or y et t o t he D anishmendids w ho w ere e stablishing t hemselves i n S ivas a nd

1 2

t hence f urther t o t he p roxim ity o f H arput.

s outh a round Malatiya,

a nd

i n

t he

i mmediate

W e h ave t herefore t o c onsider t he p roposition t hat t he c orrect r estoration o f o ur d ate i s 3 83/993-4, a s p roposed i n o ur t ext. T he n ext p roblem t o b e r esolved i s t he c orrect r eading o f o ur g overnor's p ersonal n ame ( ism), w hich f ollows i mmediately a fter t he k unya A bu S a'Td a t t he e nd o f l ine 4 . T he c onsonant o utline a ppearing i s c ertainly a r ather e nigmatic o ne, which c annot b y a ny s tretch o f t he i magination b e r esolved i nto a r outine A rabic n ame, i n s pite o f t he c orrect A rabic p rotocol o f t he f oregoing t itles. T he l etters w hich i mmediately p recede t he A rabic b lessi ng r ead w ithout a ny ambiguity äkäm , s o d ifficulties a re e ffect ively c onfined t o t he o pening t hree c haracters o f t he n ame. T hese b eing i ndeed u npointed c ertainly p resent s ome ambiguity, b ut t he r ange o f o ptions i s f airly l i mited, t he c hoice b eing e ffectively b etween K h.t.w- a nd t he a lternative J i w-. I n a ny e vent, t he f orm o f t he n ame, e vidently a t wo-part c ompound, d oes n ot i n a ny w ay c onform t o A rabic g rammatical r ules. F our c onson ants i f n ot f ive a re u nquestionably p resent, a nd a n on-Arab p ersonal n ame i s c ertainly i ndicated. A t H arput, i ndeed, t he p resence o f A rmenian i ndividuals i s c ertainly p ossible, a nd t he p resent w riter c an c lai m n o k nowledge o f A rmenian o nomastics. N o d oubt s pecialists w ho m ay h appen t o r ead t his p aper w ill c onsider t he p ossibility t hat t he n ame c ould b e A rmenian . Y et t he t heory t o b e c onsidered h ere l eads i n a d ifferent d irection . I f t he d ate o f o ur i nscription b e a ccepted a s 3 83/993-4, i t may t hen b e h elpful t o s urvey w hat w as t he p olitical s ituation i n t he H arput a rea a t t he m oment i n q uestion. T his was a j uncture, i n f act, when p olitical e vents o f s ome c elebrity a nd c omplexity were t aking p lace o n t he n orth Mesopotamian f rontier. T he H amdänid p rince, U ddat a l-daw ia A bu T aghlib a l-Ghalanfar o f M osul, w hose d ynasty h ad l ong c ontrolled t he Mesopotamian f rontier, was e xp elled f rom Mosul i n 3 67/997-8 b y t he p owerful B uwayh i d Amir 'Mud a l dawla, who was t hen i n f ull c ontrol a t B aghdad . Abu T aghlib f led f irst t o MayyäfäriqTn, b ut b eing p ursued b y t he m inister Abu a l- Wafä ' , t ook r efuge f irst a t B idlTs, t hen f led s outh-westwards t o a l-Hasaniya o n a n orthward t ributary o f t he T igris. T hen h e a scended t o t he f ortress o f K uwästa i n t hat v icinity t o c ollect moneys d eposited t here, b efore f inally e scapi ng a cross t he B yzantine b order t o H arput, w here h e h oped t o f ind a sylum w ith t he l ocal B yzantine c ommander, B ardes S kleros, who h appened t o b e t he s on-in-law o f t he H amdänid ( Amedroz 1 914: 9 15), a nd w ho w as a t t he t i me i n r ebellion a gainst t he B yzantine Emperor Basil I I. M eanwhile B ardes S kleros was h i mself d efeated b y t he I mperial B yzantine f orces a t t he b attle o f P ankaleia o n 2 4 March 9 79/ 2 1 S ha'ban 3 68 . H earing t herefore o f t he d ecisive d efeat o f B ardes S kleros, A bü T aghlib r eturned a cross t he Musli m b order t o h is own f ief o f Amid, a nd t hence f led a cross S yria, w here h e w as f inally a ssassinated . B ardes i n t urn was o bliged t o c ross t he Musli m b order t o MäyyäfäriqTn ( Silvan), w hich b y t his t i me h ad s ubmitted t o ' Adud a l-dawla. B ardes, k nown t o t he Musli ms a s Ward b .

1 3

F ig.

2 .1

M ap t o i llustrate t he a rea o f Musli m a nd B yzantine m ilitary o perations o n t he M esopotamian b order b etween 3 67/977-8 a nd 3 83/993-4 . 1 4

M unTr, was c onsequently i nterned b y t he B uwayhid o fficials. T o o btain t he f ugitive 's e xtradition, a B yzantine embassy a rrived i n B aghdad i n 3 69/978-979, h eaded b y N icephorus U ranus, who s ome y ears l ater was t o b ecome t he B yzantine g overnor o f A ntioch ( Amedroz 1 914: 9 17 a nd n . 1 ). T he f ollowing y ear a Musli m e mbassy was s ent t o Constantinople u nder t he l eadership o f t he Qä cr i " A bü B akr ( Amedroz 1 9 4: 9 18 c iting I bn a lA thIr I X: 1 1-12), t o c ontinue t he d iscussions, b ut i t a ppears f rom t he r eports t hat l ittle was a chieved ( Amedroz 1 914: 9 18). A pparently t he q uid p ro q uo d emanded b y t he Musli ms was t he c ession o f a n umber o f f ortresses o n t he M esopotamian f rontier, t hose a pparently w hich h ad r ecently b een c aptured b y t he B yzant ines f rom t he Musli ms, a nd which h ad l ately b een u nder t he c ontrol o f B ardes o r o f t he f orces u nder h is c ommand. F urther r eference t o t hese w ill b e made b elow . T he B yzantines, h owever, w ere u nwilling t o m ake t hese c oncessions, e ven t hough t hey w ere p repared t o h and o ver t he t ribute o f A leppo, r eceivable b y t hem f rom t he r emaining H amdanid r uler i n e xchange f or B yzantine m ilitary p rotection . I n 3 71/981-982 a f urther M uslim d elegation l ed b y I bn S hahräm was s ent t o C onstantinople t o r e-open t he d iscussions, a nd t he s tory o f h is m ission i s r elated a t s ome l ength, b ut a gain i t h ad i nconclusive r esults ( Amedroz 1 9l4: 9 29). E vidently B ardes S kieros w as b rought f rom M ayyäfäriqTn t o B aghdad a lready d uring t he l ifeti me o f 'Mud a l-dawla b efore 3 72/982-983, a nd h eld t here i n d etention. B ut t he B uwayhid p rince was o bv iously well aware o f t he v alue o f B ardes, a p owerful m ilitary c ommander w ith a c redible c lai m t o t he B yzantine t hrone, a s a d iplomatic c ounter a gainst t he B yzantines . I n v iew o f t he f ormer a lliance b et ween A bü T aghlib a nd B ardes, t he i nterests o f t he B yzantines a nd t he B uwayhid h ad f or merly t o s ome e xtent c oinc ided, y et n one t he l ess w ith t he d isappearance o f t he H amdanid, t he p olicy o f 'Mud a l-dawla b egan i ncreasingly t o a ssume a p anI slam ic c haracter. T he B uwayhid w as i ndeed d irecting t he d iplomacy o f t he Cal i phate a s a whole, a nd t hus c oncerned t o r ecover f ormer Musli m t erritory t hat h ad b een o ccupied b y t he r eviving B yzantine p ower, o r e ven t o a chieve s ome e xpansion a t B yzantine e xpense . A fter t he d eath o f 'Mud a l dawla i n 3 72/982-983, a nd t he s uccession o f 5 , am§äm a l-dawla a s p aramount Amir a t B aghdad, t he i nternee was f inally s et a t l iberty. T his s eems t o h ave t aken p lace d uring 3 76/986, p resumably n ot l ong b efore h is r ecept ion a t t he B uwayhid c ourt t o b e m entioned b elow . I t i s n o d oubt c orrectly r eported b y a G eorgian h istorian ( Canard 1 973: 6 0 n . 1 ) t hat 'Mud a l-daw la h ad a dvised h is s uccessor t o r elease B ardes i n f ulfil ment o f a n a greement t he B uwayh i d h ad made w ith t he l atter. Whether t here was t ruth i n t he r eport q uoted b y S chlumberger ( 1896: 6 79) f rom B yzantine s ources t hat S kieros h ad a ssisted t he B uwayhid Amir b y r aising a f orce o f B yzantine p ris oners, a nd d efeating a T urkish r ebel ( "Inargos") a gainst t he B aghdad a uthorities, t he A rabic h istorians a ppear n ot t o c onfirm . H owever a p recipitating f actor was o bviously t he d efeat b y t he B ulgars a t S erdica o f t he B yzantine Emperor B asil I o n T uesday 7 R abi I I 3 76/17th A ugust 9 86, a n e vent which made S kleros o nce m ore a p owerful p olitical f igure i n t he B yzantine a rena . I t w as

1 5

t

no doub t as con sequence of this �ews, evident �y soon know n to _ the Muslims, that Bardes was received by the Amir as a splendid reception held at his palace in 376/986, and d escribed b y Hi lal al-�abT. In the day s of �am?am al-dawla in the year 376/986 I witnessed the ar rival of W ard, the g r eat B y zantine dignitary to the Royal [Buwayhid] Residence. He had been defeated by Basil and had sought refuge with 'Agud al-dawla. 'A9ud al-dawla seized him in MayyafariqTn and brought him to Baghdad where he was detained until the death of 'Adud al-dawla and until the end of Samsam al­ dawla's reign. But the com mander of the ar�y at that time, Ziyar b. Shahrakawayh, interceded for his release and return to his countr y. Thereupon he was set free after agreement had been reached on certain conditions. Ward was accorded a ceremonial welcome. For his arri­ val the Royal Residence was decorated with large ' AqudT drapes usuall y used in the royal councils. Elegant brocade drapes were hung at the doors of all its rooms, courtyards, passageways and corridors. The Daylamites were l i ne d u p i n t w o r ow s , a c co r d i n g t o their r a n k , from the Tig ris to the seat of �am?am a l-daw la. They were attired in the best dress and had the most magni­ ficent equipment and weapons. They and their ghilman carried shor t spear s and shiel ds in their hands. The dariy ya ghil man and the servant s , i n beautiful at tire, stood on the balcony attending them. �am�am al-dawla sat on a golden Sidilla, and under his great elevated seat ran a s t ream of w ater in a lead ­ plated bed. Golden fire burners with lighted aromatic sticks were placed before him. War d with his b rother and a son, approached between the two rows of soldiers. Ward was in a loose long-sleeved garment with a gilded girdle. Attending him were chambertains car r ying swords i n pear l-s tu d de d g i r d les. HI s greet in g to �am�am al-dawla did not involve more than a slight �ow and a kissing of the hand. Ward w as offered a chair with a cushion. They conversed through an interpreter. (Tr. Salim: 18ft) Meanwhi 1e, soon after the demise o f 'Adud a 1-dawla on 1 0 Shaww a 1 at 372/28 Mar ch 98 3, a n d h i.s s u cc e s s i o n a s Am i r al-Um a ra Baghdad b y �amfam al-daw la, another elem e n t appeared on the comple x p o l it i c a l s c e ne of the f�es op o t am i a n f r o n t ie r • Th e Kurdish condottiere known as Bad(h) (Amedroz 1903: 123), in full Ab 'Abdallah al-ijusayn b. DTistak ai-ijarbukhtT, emerged from the mountains, where he held control of Manazkirt and Akhlat, and in 374/984-5 seized May yafariqTn, and "held it with the rest of Diyar Bakr against the generals of �am�am al-dawla the Buwayhid" ( Arned roz 1 9 0 3: 1 2 3 ) . I n 3 7 5 I 98 5 -6 he w as e n g a g e d i n o pe r at ion s agains t N isibin, where hi s b rothe r Abu a l-Fawaris a 1 u say n was killed in act.ion, and where Bad is mentioned in a letter of Samsam a 1 -d a w l a i n th at y ea r t o th e Ch ie f j ib o f N isi b" in •

□

-1:f

l:f a.

16

L ater, B äx l a ttempted t o c apture Mosul, b ut was d efeated a nd k illed i n 3 80/990-991 n ear t he T ur A bdin b y t he H amdanid p rinces I brahi m a nd a l-l jusayn. T he e ldest o f h is t hree n ephews, A bu ' A 1T a ll jasan, t hen t ook c ommand o f h is f orces a nd o ccupied Mayyäf äriqin, s o e stablishing t he M ärwänid d ynasty . T his d evelopment n aturally r estricted t he a ccess o f t he B uwayhid o fficers t o t he B yzantine f rontier. B efore h is r eturn t o B yzantine t erritory, S kieros h ad s igned a t reaty w ith t he M usli ms o f w hich t he c haracter b ecomes c lear f rom l ater n otices. T he i nter mediary i n h is n egotiations w ith t he B uwayhid p rinces was t he p owerful D aylamite o fficer, A bu H arb Z iyär b . S hahrakawayh ( Canard 1 973: 6 5; c f H il l a l-SäbT ( trans S alem 1 977: 1 9)) . A l-QalqashandT ( XIV .20) h as p reserved t he t ext o f t his t reaty, d ated S ha b an 3 76/6 D ecember 9 86-3 J anuary 9 87, b etween S amsãm a l-dawla a nd B ardes, r equiring t he l atter t o s urrender s even f ortresses o n t he Mesopotamian f rontier, n amely H isn Arhakäh, a l-Sanäsuna, H isn H owit, H isn a l-Ak.1 ( now E gil), A ndTb ( read A nzTt), H älT ( read H änT), a nd T el H i lm . I n v iew o f t he d ifficulties o f d ecipherment o f t he c ursive s cripts u sed f or I slamic s tate d ocuments, C anard 's emendations o f t he p rinted p lace-names, a s f ound i n t he t ext o f a l QalqashandT, a ppear f ully j ustified, a nd t he p laces i n q uestion e vidently s ituated n ear t he w atershed t o t he n orth o f A -mid ( Diyarbakr). 1 . 1 i n a l Sanäsuna ( today S isun K ala) a nd H owit a re p laced o n t he u pper waters o f t he B atman S u . E gil a nd H ani l ie n orth-north-east o f Amid, T el H um t o i ts n orth-west, a nd t he r ather mysterious A rhakäh, k nown a lso a s a l-H .n.d.r.s., i s t entatively i dentified b y C anard w ith H aluras, a p lace n ear t he T igris s ource j ust s outh o f t he H azar L ake . A nzit i s i dentified b y C anard w ith T el J ubayr p laced n ear t he H azar L ake; o r b y A nderson 's map a t T el A nzit, a bout 1 0 m iles n orth-north-east o f t he l ake, a nd o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p lain o f E lazig, s o f acing H arput, which s tands o n t he e scarpment t o t he n orth . T hese f ortresses, a ccordingly, m ust h ave b een h anded o ver t o B uwayhid o fficers, o ne o f w hom , w e c ould s uppose, may h ave b een t he ' Ayn a l-dawla J i wäkäm o f o ur i nscript ion. W ith t he e xtension o f Mar wänid p ower t o Mayyäfäriqin, we h ave . seen t hat B uwayhid a ccess t o t he E uphrates f rontier w as b ecoming i ncreasingly p recarious. A lready i n S hawwäl 3 76/February-March 9 87, t he B uwayhid a uthorities h ad t o s end S kieros t o Malatiya u nder t he e scort o f t he B eduin c hiefs o f t he B anu N umayr a nd B anu U qayl, t heir a llies i n t he Mosul a rea, u nder w hose p rotection h e a nd h is c ompanions made t he j ourney i n A rab d isguise, a nd i n d esperate h aste ( Schlumberger 1 896: 6 76 c iting Y abyä b . B atrik). F or S kleros i t w as n ot a moment t oo s oon, f or a lready d uring t he p revious month 5 am äm a l-dawla h ad b een d eposed a nd b linded i n S hiraz a t t he i nstigation o f h is b rother S haraf a l-dawla, a nd Z iyär b . S hahrakawäyh may f or a moment h ave b een a cting o n h is o wn i nitiative. D uring h is f irst r ebellion, i ndeed, B ardes h ad i nitially p laced h is magazines a t H arput ( Schlumberger 1 896: 3 60), a nd o ne m ight h ave e xpected h im t o r etain p ersonal c ontrol o f t he g reat f ortress d uring h is s econd a ttempt. I t may b e, h owever, t hat t he r eference t o A nz7t i n t he t reaty f ormally

1 7

r equired t he p retender t o p lace e ven H arput i n Muslim h ands, a nd t hat a D aylamite g overnor was a t o nce i nstalled, i n 3 76 . I n a ny e vent, t he c ampaign o f S kleros a gainst t he B yzantine emperor q uickly l ed h im t o t he West. O n 1 7 J umada I 3 7 7 /14 S eptember 9 87 S kieros was b etrayed a nd i mprisoned b y h is g reat r ival B ardes P hocas, t hen a lso i n r evolt a gainst t he B yzantine t hrone . A lQ elqashandi ( Canard 1 973: 6 8 c iting a l-QalqashandT V II.113-15) r ecords a f urther l etter t o B ardes f rom A b i i a l-Fawäris H uf ür a lT urki a l-Mu'izzi, a T urkish o fficer o f t he B aghdad r egi me, d ated 8 th D hu a l-Hijja 3 79/9 March 9 90, i n r esponse t o a l etter o f B ardes d ispatched f rom " Marj L arissa", a s tation p ossibly t o b e i dentified w ith E krek ( Larissa o f C appadocia), e astwards o f K aiseri. T his l etter s eems t o c oincide w ith t he d efinitive r elease o f S kieros, a nd h is r econciliation w ith t he B yzantine e mperor. I t was f ollowed b y t he r eturn o f t he p retender t o C onstantinople, a nd h is f inal r emoval f rom t he s phere o f t he I slam ic r ulers. O ne way o r a nother, H arput c ould q uickly h ave p assed i nto t he c ontrol o f a Musli m g overnor. T hus we s ee t hat t he y ears f ollowing t he c apture o f Mosul b y 'Mud a l-dawla, a nd t he n egotiations s urrounding t he i nternment o f B ardes S kieros, p rovide a n o pening f or D aylamite i nvolvement i n t he r egion o f H arput. W ith h is r eturn t o B yzantine t erritory B ardes a ppears t o h ave h anded o ver t he p romised f rontier f ortr esses t o t he B aghdad r ulers, a s h e h ad a greed. T he i nterest o f t he D aylamite o fficer Z iyär b . S hahrakawayh i n t he r efugee a nd i n t his r egion w ill n aturally h ave g iven a n o pening i n t hat a rea t o h is f ellow-tribesmen, who i n a ny c ase p layed a n i mportant r ole t hroughout t he d ominions o f t he B uwayhids. W ith t he s ubsequent b reak i n t he l ink b et ween t he D aylamite p rinces a nd t his a rea, D aylam ite o fficials o n t he f rontier c ould well h ave b ecome d et ached f rom t he B aghdad s ervice, a nd e ither e xercised i ndependent c ommands, o r l ent t heir a llegiance t o l ocal c hiefs . I n 3 82/992-3 t he s ucceeding B uwayhid Amir, B ahä 'al-dawla, h ad l eft B aghdad f or F ars, where h is p resence a t t he h ead o f t he e xpedition marching a gainst K ir man i s mentioned i n t he wel 1 -known i nscription a t P ersepolis ( Donahue 1 973: 7 8) . T hus p recisely a t t he m oment o f 3 83/993-4, which we d educe t o b e t he d ate o f o ur i nscription, a D aylam ite n ame a t 1 . 1 iF I Z iyäd o r a n eighbouring s tronghold i s e ntirely c redible . E xplaining n ow t he u nusual n ame J iwäkäm f ound i n t he i nscription, i t i s p ossible t o s ee i n i t a n I ranian c or np ound, e ither o n t he l ines o f j ivag-käma " living l ove", o r i f t he m edial l ong a u f b e i nsisted o n, o ne c ould c ompare r ather s uch f orms a s t he D aylamite S hahräkTm ( Justi 1 895 ( 1963): 2 76), s o c lose t o t he S hahrakawayh whose n ame o ccurs i n a ssociation w ith o ur n arrative, a nd was c ertainly t ypical o f t he D aylamite e lite . A n I ranian o rigin t hus s eems b est t o e xplain t he o ccurrence o f t his s trange p ersonal n ame, w ith c onventional C aliphate t itles, a t 1 . 1 in Z iyäd d uring t he B uwayhid p eriod . T here r emain c ertain m inor p roblems i n t he r eading o f t he i ns cription . T he n isba o f I shäq b . S ayyär p resents d ifficulties, w hich t he p resent e ditor h as b een u nable t o s olve. T he i nitial m im , w ith r ä ' a nd z ä ' i n whatever c ombination, s eem e ffectively c ertain . Two u ncertain l etters p recede t he f inal y ä '. I t

1 8

a ppears t hat I shaq b . S ayyar i s u nnoticed i n h istorical s ources, s o e xternal e vidence f or h is c orrect n isba i s n ot a vailable . We c an o nly s uppose t hat h e m ay h ave b een a n A rab S haykh, a llied t o t he B anu N umayr o r B nu ' Uqayl, a nd s trong e nough t o l end s ome s upport t o a D aylam ite o fficer i n t his r egion . F inally, t he n ame o f t he s cribe r esponsible f or t he d ocument i s n ot r eadily d ec ipherable . T hough a l-WalTd i s a p ossible i nterpretation o f t he l etter o utline, t his n ame d oes n ot s eem v ery t ypical o f t he p eriod, a nd t he u ncertainties a re s uch t hat many o ther p ossibilit ies a re a dmissible . I n c onclusion, i t i s t hus maintained t hat t he i nscription d isc ussed b elongs t o t he y ear 3 83/993-4 . T he u nfam iliar n ame o f t he t itulary i s b est a scribed t o t he s hort p eriod o f D aylamite c ont act w ith t he Mesopotamian f rontier, a nd r ecords a n o ther wise u nknown e pisode i n t he o bscure i nterlude b efore t he a rrival o f t he S eljuq f orces i n t his p art o f e astern A natolia . T he s cenario h ere v isualised i s t hat B ardes S kleros, d uring h is c ommand o n t he e astern B yzantine f rontier, h ad e stablished h i mself i n a s trong f rontier z one i ncluding H arput, M älatiya, a nd t he s even f rontier f ortresses mentioned i n t he l ater t reaty. A fter h is f light t o Musli m t erritory i n 3 68/979, h is i nternment, s ubsequent r elease, a nd r eturn t o h is f ormer c ommand, h e w ill h ave f ulfilled h is p rom ise t o h and o ver t he f ortresses t o B uwayhid o fficers, o ne o f w hom w ill h ave b een t he i mpressively t itled'Ayn a l-daw la J iwäkäm , b efore h i mself d eparting t o t ry h is f ortune i n t he West. P erhaps e ven h is own c itadel a t H arput w ill t hus h ave r emained i n B uwayhid h ands. H owever t he c onsolidation o f Mar wänid r ule a t Mayyäfäriqin a nd Am id f rom 3 80/990-1 o nwards c ould h ave r apidly c losed B uwayhid a ccess t o t he B yzantine f rontier. I n 3 82/992-3 t he MarwUnid AmTr Abr i ' A ll a ll jasan b . Marwan h ad t o b eat o ff a G reek a ttack o n h is n orthern p ossessions, A khlat, Manazj i rd, A rjish a nd B arkari, r ound t he n orth-west a nd n orth s ide o f L ake V an ( Amedroz 1 903: 1 24). I bn a l Azraq d oes n ot r elate what s ituation p revailed a t t hat t i me i n H arput, b ut we may s ur mise t hat T fwäkäm h eld t hat s tronghold i n a n i ndependent c apacity . T he i nquiry i nto t his s hort A rabic i nscription o n t he s tone a t H arput l eads i nto o ne o f t he most c omplex p eriods a t o nce o f B yzantine a nd I slam ic h istory . H ere e pic c haracters a nd n ations, B ardes S kleros, B ardes P hocas, D aylamites, K urds, B ulgars a nd e ven V ikings r ub s houlders f or a moment. A v isitor f rom I ran m ust b e e xcused f or f eeling, d espite S chlumberger's monumental t reatment, a t rifle a s ea i n s uch a maelstrom o f p eoples a nd e vents. I f a n e asier s olution c an i n t he e nd b e f ound f or i ts h istorical p roblems, t hen s urely m embers o f t he p resent r eaders hip would k now o f i t. N otes I . O n t he i nscriptions o f t he c astle o f H arput, C .F . L ehman H aupt, A rmenien e inst u nd j etzt, I , 4 76, w rites: " Uber d em L owen s teht r echts e ine a rabische I nscrift, d ie i ch g leich e iner g anzen

1 9

A nzahl a nderer I nschriften, d ie i ch a n d em H auptturme d es S chlosses a us d er S abirnakschlucht e rblickte, n icht k opierte, w eil i ch a nnahm, d as s ie l ängst b ekannt s eien". S urprisingly, t he i nscriptions o f H arput s eem e ven n ow t o b e n ot f ully r ecorde d. 2 . D r Cahen h owever k indly i nforms me t hat h e l earnt o f t he d iscovery o f an ew A rabic i nscription a t H arput o nly i ndirectly t hrough a T urkish s tudent, a nd c annot s ay w hether i t i s i dentical w ith t hat d iscussed h ere . 3 . I bn a l-Athir, V III, 5 09 ( of Abr i T aghlib): f a-nazala Z iyäd, wa-yu'rif a l-än b i-Khartabirt " He t arried a t 1 j i n Z iyäd, a nd i t i s k nown n ow a s K hartabirt" . H e i s f ollowed b y Yaqut, I, 2 76: H isn Z iyäd b i-ard A rminiya, wa-yu'rif a l-yawm b i-Khartabirt, w a-huwa b ayna Amid wa-Mälatiya . 4 . Y abyä b . S a'id b . B atrik a IAntäki, r eported b y S ch 1umberger 1 896: 6 67, p rovides t he e xact t l ijrT d ate o f t his e vent.

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e inst

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B erlin.

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3 .

THE

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POS T 3 .

OF

MEDA1 N

SALEH

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B owsher L ondon

Medain S aleh l ies i n t he n orthern H ejaz s ome f our h undred k ilometres s outh-east o f Aqaba . I t was p robabl y t he s outhernmost p oint o f t he N abataean K ingdom a nd t hus a n i mportant c ommercial c entre o n t he n orth-south r oute . I t was c ertainly g arrisoned b y t he Nabataean a rmy: a n umber o f h igh r anking o fficers a re b uried t here . T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he Romans d id n ot a nnex t he s ite i n 1 06 with t he r est o f t he K ingdom . T hat t hey a lso s aw i t a s t he s outhernmost p oint o f t heir d omain i s i ndicated b y t he g arrison t hat t hey l eft t here. There i s s ome e vidence t hat a p ortion o f t he p rovince 's l egion, t he II Cyrenaica was s tationed t here . H owever most o f t he t roops were a uxiliaries. T here a re t hree main a reas where G reek g raffiti h ave b een f ound, two o f t hem mentioning u nits. I t i s c lear, f rom t he t opog raphy, t hat a ll t he major r outes i nto t he c ity were g uarded . T hese g raffiti h ave b een d ated t o t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury, b ut a rchaeological e vidence a t p resent, i s v ery meagre. We k now n othing o f t he l ife o f t he c ity i tself b ut i t i s p robable t hat t he s ite l ost i ts i mportance i n t he l ater t hird c entury.

I .

T he C ity

I t i s n ot k nown e xactly when t he N abataeans f irst o ccupied t he s ite o f Medain S aleh. T heir e arliest p resence i s a ttested b y p ottery f ragments o f t he f irst c entury B C ( Winnett a nd R eed 1 970: 1 80 ; P arr e t a l. 1 972: 2 3). N abataean e xpansionism w as a scendant i n t he l ate s econd a nd e arly f irst c enturies BC , a nd i t was p robably t his p eriod t hat s aw a p ush t o t he s outh ( Bowersock 1 983: 2 5). H owever, T arn ( 1929: 2 1) h as s peculated t hat t he N abataean a dvance w as c hecked b y t he L ihyanite k ingdom o f D edan, p erhaps w ith P tolemaic a ssistance . T he c ity k nown a s H egra would h ave b een e stablished a s t he s outhernmost p oint o f t he N abataean r eal m . T his a rea h as b een d escribed a s t he f rontier b etween S yria a nd t he H ejaz ( Lammens 1 928 : 3 15 0, a nd h ere, two s pheres o f p olitical a nd c ommercial

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T he N abataeans n ow h ad c ontrol o f t he t rade r oute n orth, p erhaps e xacting c ustoms d ues a t H egra a s t hey d id a t t heir p ort o f L euce C ome ( Bowersock 1 983: 7 0) . C ertainly b y t he e arly f irst c entury A D H egra s eems t o h ave s hared i n t he g eneral p rosperity o f t he K ingdom which was much d ue t o t he a ctivities o f t hat e nergetic m onarch , A retas I V . H egra was a f lourishing c osmopolitan 2 c ity, a lthough t here a re f ew r emains o f i t t oday ( 3aussen a nd S avignac 1 909: 3 02). I I. N abataean D efence A fter t heir e stabl i shment a t H egra, t he N abataeans would h ave b een c oncerned w ith a n umber o f s ecurity c onsiderations. F irstly t he t rade r oute a nd l ines o f c ommunication h ad t o b e s afeguarded . I n c onjunction w ith t his, t he n ative T hamudic p opulation, o ver w hom t he N abataeans h eld s way, h ad t o b e p oliced . A s a f rontier t own, t here m ust a lso h ave b een a w atch k ept o n s outhern d evelopm ents. L ittle i s k nown o f t he d eployment o f t he N abataean a r my, b ut i n M edain S aleh, f unerary i nscriptions f rom t he f irst t hree q uarters o f t he f irst c entury A D , r eveal t hat a n umber o f s enior o fficers w ere b uried t here ( Jaussen a nd S avignac 1 909: N ab . I nscr. n os. 5 , 6 , 7 , 2 0, 2 4, 2 8, 3 1, 3 2, 3 4, 3 8). G raffiti s uggest t hat a n umber o f o ther o fficers a nd t roops p assed t hrough ( Negev 1 976: 2 23, 2 26f.). A lthough t here a re n o f unerary i nscriptions f rom t he c apital, P etra,' t ombs s uch a s t he s o c alled T omb o f t he R oman S oldier, w hich i s a lso d ated t o t he m id-first c entury AD ( Lyttleton 1 974: 6 2), may w ell h ave b een t he r esting p lace o f a s enior o fficer i n t he N abataean a rmy .4 M edain S aleh w as n ot a s n aturally d efensive a s P etra a nd t here a ppears t o h ave b een a c ity w all w ith s quare t owers ( 3aussen a nd S avignac 1 909: 1 32; W innett a nd R eed 1 970: 1 80). A . g uard p ost s outh o f t he c ity m ay well h ave b een manned b y N abataean t roops ( Jaussen a nd S avignac 1 914: N ab . I nscr. n os. 2 27, 2 4:6 ) b efore i t was o ccupied b y t he R oman a rmy ( Bowersock 1 983: 9 5, a nd s ee b elow) . S uch e vidence, t herefore, r eveals t hat s ecurity c onsiderations w ere w ell c atered f or. T his a pparent c oncentration o f m ilitary p ersonnel, a nd t he f act t hat e pigraphic a ctivity a t H egra s eems t o c ease w ith t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A D h as e xcited much c omment. I t h as b een s peculated t hat t ribal i ncursions ( Negev 1 976: 2 29) o r f actional s trife ( Graf 1 978: 6 ) s pelt t he d emise o f t he c ity. H owever, l ack o f a rchaeological i nfor mation means t hat n o s uch c onclusion c an b e r egarded a s f irm . T he m yth t hat P etra s tarted a r apid d ecline a fter AD 1 06 i s n o l onger c urrent ( Bowersock 1 983: 8 6). A t Medain S aleh t here a re s urface i ndications o f

2 4

s econd 1 80).

a nd

t hird

c entury

AD

a ctivity

( Winnett

a nd R eed

1 970:

I s uggest, t herefore, t hat w hatever s ocial a nd p olitical c hanges m ay h ave o ccurred, t he m ilitary a nd c ommercial i mportance o f t he s ite w ill h ave e nsured i ts s urvival f or s ome t ime . II. Roman D efence T he N abataean k ingdom was a nnexed b y R ome i n A D 1 06 a s t he P rov ince o f A rabia . T he t ransition t o R oman r ule s eems t o h ave b een s mooth a nd many o f t he N abataean s ecurity a rrangements were c ontinued . D espite t he a bsence o f a f ortified f rontier i n t he s outh, t he s trategic i mportance o f H egra c annot h ave b een i gn ored . I t i s l ikely t hat a g arrison would h ave b een d espatched t here i mmediately t o e nsure t he u ninterrupted s afety o f t he c aravan r outes. T he h eadquarters o f t he p rovincial l egion, t he II C yrenaica, was a t B ostra s ome 9 00km t o t he n orth o f Medain S aleh. H owever, a n a ltar s et u p b y o ne H adrianus, p ainter o f t he l egion, was f ound a t t he s ite ( Barger 1 969: 1 39 0, a nd i ndicates t hat t here was p robably a p ortion o f t he l egion b ased a t H egra . A part f rom s ome a dministrative o fficials t hough, t he b ulk o f t he g arrison would h ave b een a uxiliary t roops a cting a s f rontier p olice ( Cheesman 1 914: 1 07). e vidence f or s uch t roops h as, o f c ourse, b een k nown f or s ome t i me, b ut a s tudy o f t heir l ocation r eveals c oncern o ver t he d efence o f t he t own a nd t he f rontier. T he r ocks o f Q ebr e l-Gindi a nd Maqad e l-Gindi l ie a stride t he r oute t o D edan s ome 6 1km s outh o f t he c ity s ite o f H egra. T here a re N abataean i nscriptions c ut i nto b oth r ocks ( see a bove), b ut t he e astern r ock, Q ebr e l-Gindi, r eveals l ater e vidence. T here a re s teps c ut i nto t he r ock ( Jaussen a nd S avignac 1 914: 9 2) w hich may h ave l ed t o aw atch p ost o n t op. T here a re 1 1 n ames w ritten i n G reek ( see T able), b ut s ome o f t he n ames a nd t he s tyle o f t he G reek i ndicates t hat t he t roops were A rabs i n t he s ervice o f R ome. 5 F ive o f t he n ames i dentify t hemselves a s members o f a d romedary u nit. T hese.troops t herefore, s eem t o h ave r epresented t he s outhernmost p oint o f R oman c ontrol. T he f act t hat o ne o f t hem m ay h ave b een a b eneficiarius s uggests t hat t he s ite was i ndeed a " road s tation" ( Spiedel 1 977: 7 04), o r c ustoms p ost f or t hose e ntering H egra. A s econd g roup o f g raffiti ( see T able 3 .1) i s c arved o n a n i sol ated r ock a bout 1 -km s outh-east o f t he c ity s ite . T his r ock i s a lso r eached b y a ( little u sed) t rack t hat r uns e ast a nd may h ave l ed t o t he c ity o f T eima i n a ncient t i mes . H ere, t wo o f t he n ames a re e xpressly i dentified a s m embers o f t he a la G aetulorum . T his a la i s k nown t o h ave b een i n P alestine i n t he f irst c entury a nd i n A rabia i n t he s econd ( Speidel 1 977: 7 05 0. I t i s p ossible

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t o H egra

i n AD

T he n orthern e ntrance t o t he p lain o f Medain S aleh c omes t hrough t he n arrow d efile k nown a s Mabraq e l-Naqa s ome 1 2km n orth o f t he c ity s ite. S cores o f i nscriptions t estify t o i ts u se i n a ncient t imes a nd i t w as l ater u sed a s t he H aj r oute ( Doughty 1 926: 8 1ff; J aussen a nd S avignac 1 909: 3 ). Amongst t he i nscriptions t here a re s ix n ames i n G reek ( Doughty 1 926: 3 62), o ne i s c learly c lassi cal, t he r est b eing s emitic. T here i s n o i ndication t hat t he owners o f t he n ames a re m ilitary b ut i t w ould b e s trange i f s uch a n i mportant e ntrance t o H egra w ere n ot g uarded i n a ntiquity . I t w as n oticed b y S eyrig ( 1941: 2 20) t hat t he t wo a reas o f a uxil iary i nscriptions w ere s ome d istance a part. H e c oncluded t hat d ifferent a reas w ere g uarded b y d ifferent u nits, a lthough G raf ( 1978 : 1 7) h as p ointed o ut t hat many a uxiliary r egi ments h ad t heir own d romedary d etachments . N evertheless, i f t here w ere t wo q uingenary a lae a t a n i mportant s ite l ike H egra, i t w ould n ot b e a n e xcessive amount . T roops s tationed t here w ould a lso h ave b een i nvolved i n p atrols a nd e scorts. T here i s a n i ndication o f t urmae a t t he G indi s ite who may h ave t aken t urns g uarding t his p ost a nd o thers. T he g raffiti h as b een d ated b y S eyrig ( 1941: 2 23) t o t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury . A lthough i t may b e t hat t roops were s tat ioned i n H egra s ince AD 1 06, t hey h ad g one b y t he t i me o f t he N otitia D ignitatum i n t he f ourth c entury . T hey w ere p ulled b ack, t herefore, p erhaps a s e arly a s t he S everan o r a s l ate a s t he D iocletianic f rontier r eforms. A reas b eyond t he r educed b oundaries o f t he p rovince w ere n ow l eft i n t he h ands o f c apable A rab p hylarchs ( Sartre 1 982: 1 32 0. A n i nscription n ow i n J eddah, b ut o riginating f rom t his a rea, r eveals s uch a man ( Stiehl 1 970: 8 7ff). A dnon s on o f H ny i s d escribed a s t he h ead o f H egra a t a d ate c orresponding t o A D 3 556 . H is c ousin i s d escribed a s t he h ead o f T ei ma, a nd S tiehl h as p ostulated t hat t heir g randfather Smwl m ay h ave p een t he r uler o f H egra a nd T ei ma a t t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury . I V. Conclusion Ih ave t ried t o s how t hat f rom t he b eginning o f N abataean o ccupat ion t o t he d issolution o f R oman p ower, Medain S aleh was more t han j ust a " commercial c enter" ( Graf 1 978: 4 ). R oman i nherit ance o f a s ite o riginally a cquired t hrough N abataean a ggression m eant t hat a m ilitary c onsideration h ad t o b e a dded t o i ts u nd oubted c ommercial v alue . I t s eems t hat m ost p oints o f e ntry t o t he c ity w ere g uarded, w hich s hows a c oncern f or d efence . H egra r epresented a f rontier t own u nder i mperial c ontrol, b ut w hether i t c an b e r egarded a s a p ost o f d efence i n ( extreme) d epth c annot b e p roved u ntil m ore w ork i s d one i n t he a rea. I n Medain S aleh i tself o ne l ooks f orward t o f urther a rchaeological w ork w hich m ay r eveal, n ot o nly t he n ature o f t he N abataean s ettlement, b ut s omething o f i ts l ater h istory.

2 7

N otes 1 . Ih ad t he o pportunity t o s pend s ome t i me a t t he s ite i n 1 985 . I am g rateful t o D r A bdullah Masri, D eputy D irector o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f t he K ingdom o f S audi A rabia f or a llow ing me t o d iscuss t his a spect o f t he s ite, s uggested t o me b y D r D avid K ennedy . 2 . E pigraphy t estifies t o m any v isitors t o H egra f rom e lsewhere i n N abataea; T ei ma ( Jaussen a nd S avignac 1 909: N ab . I nscr 1 2), A ila ( ibid: 1 89), Moab ( ibid: 1 914: N ab. I nscr 3 86), S alkhad ( ibid: 2 26). 3 . M . G awl i kowski ( 1975/1976: 3 5-41) h as s uggested t hat t here m ay h ave b een a r eligious b an o n f unerary i nscriptions a t P etra . 4 . A nother s uch ' military ' t omb a t P etra o f t he s ame d ate m ay b e t hat o n t he M aghar a l N assara r ange w ith t rophies i n t he f rieze . I am g rateful t o D r J . McKenzie f or d iscussing t hese t ombs w ith m e. 5 . Is ee n o r eason why S abru o f S alkhad ( see a bove n . 2 ) s hould b e r egarded a s a s oldier, l et a lone a R oman o ne. B owersock ( 1983: 9 6) i s t he l atest s cholar t o p erpetuate t he v iew t hat h e w as. 6 . I am g rateful t his i nscription.

t o D r

J .E . H ealey f or d rawing my a ttention

t o

B ibliography B ARGER ,

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a vant

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1 '

i n C lassical

E gra.

d e

o f

f rom N orth A rabia.

4. THE EXPL ORATI ON

CAU CASI AN FR ON TI E R: MYTH, AND THE DYNA MI CS OF IMPERI ALI S M D avid B raund E xeter

T his p aper d eals w ith t he r ole o f v arious t ypes o f myth i n C lassical a nd B yzantine a ttitudes t o t he Caucasus e specially a s i ncentives/disincentives t o i mperial i nvolvements t here . T his i s a ll p art o f a b road i nterp lay b etween i mperialism a nd e xploration . T he p ri mary p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o d evelop a n a pproach t o a ncient i mperialism which h as l argely b een i gnored i n t he f urore o f t he H olleaux-Harris d ebate. T his a pproach i s a model a pplicable t o many f rontier c ontexts, t hough t he Caucasus h as b een c hosen a s my p articular e xample . I n e stablishing a nd a pplying t his model I h ope a lso t o s hed s ome l ight o n t he r ole o f t he Caucasus a s a n i mperial f rontier i n a ntiquity .

I n r ecent y ears much p rogress h as b een made i n t he s tudy o f R oman i mperialism , p articularly t hrough a ttempts t o e stablish i ts d ynam ics. H ol l eaux 's c onception o f what may b e c alled ' defensive i mperialism ' ( even ' accidental i mperialism ' - b orn o f c ollective R oman p aranoia a nd c ommitments t o a llies) h as l argely b een r ep laced b y H arris' c onception o f s tructural i mperialis m, o f a R oman s ociety i deologically c ommitted t o i mperialist a ggression i n i ts n eed f or t he g lory a nd b ooty w hich w ere t he f ruits o f t hat a ggression. S cholars i n t he f ield h ave a pparently s ettled d own t o a p rocess o f r efinement c arried o ut w ithin t he f ramework o f t he a rguments a nd i deas v ariously a dvanced b y H olleaux a nd b y H arris. F or e xample, i t h as b een a rgued v ery p lausibly t hat H arris ' v iew d oes n ot r equire t hat w e s uppose R ome t o h ave b een s olely r espons ible f or e very war s he f ought. A gain, t hat a nnexation o r n ona nnexation i s n ot a c entral i ssue - o r, i ndeed, n ot a n i ssue a t a ll: i mperialism d oes n ot r equire a nnexation . I n f act, o ne m ight a rgue t hat t he a lliances f ormed b y R ome ( which a re c entral t o H olleaux's c onception o f d efensive i mperial i sm) a re t hemselves e xpressions a nd p roducts o f t he s tructural R oman i mperialism e stablished b y H arris. I ndeed, i n t he a ncient world, a s i n t he m odern, a lliances a nd i stic o f i mperialist

i ndirect i nfluence a re f ar m ore c haractera ctivity t han a re a nnexation a nd d irect

3 1

c ontrol ( Holleaux W hite 1 980; N orth

1 935; 1 981;

H arris B raund

1 979 ; c f amongst o thers, 1 984b: e sp . 1 81ff) .

S herw in-

B ut t he p urpose o f t his p aper i s n ot s i mply t o r efine o r b alance i deas a lready c urrent i n t he d ebate o n t he d ynamics o f R oman i mperialism . More i mportantly, i ts p urpose i s t o a dd a f urther d imension t o t he d ebate - myth. O f c ourse, s ome f or ms o f m yth h ave a lready p layed s ome p art i n t hat d ebate, b ut o ther f orms o f m yth h ave b een much n eglected, e specially myths a bout f oreign l ands. T he n eglect o f t hese l ast i s a ll t he m ore s urprising b ecause t hey a re a ccorded a c entral p lace i n o ur u nderstanding o f t he i mperial i st a ctivities o f o ther s ocieties. T he s ingle m ost f am iliar i nstance m ust b e t he m yth o f E l D orado i n t he c ontext o f t he c onquest o f t he N ew World. A nd w e s hould o bserve t hat t his c onquest w as c onducted i n t he c ontext o f w hat c an o nly b e c alled g ross g eographical i gnorance . T he m yth o f E l D orado a nd g eographi cal i gnorance o perate i n t andem . A nd t hey h ave t heir c ounterp arts i n a ntiquity which s hould n ot b e i gnored ( Baumgart 1 982: 1 8-21). I n w hat f ollows, a n a ttempt i s m ade t o a chieve t wo o bjectives. F irst, t o d iscuss t he r ole o f n eglected m yths i n t he d ynamics o f R oman i mperialism i n g eneral ( Part I ). S econd, t o a pply t he r esults o f t his d iscussion t o a p articular a rea - t he Caucasus, e specially Colchis o n t he e ast c oast o f t he B lack S ea ( Part I). T he Caucasus h as n ot b een c hosen b ecause i t h appens t o s uit t he a uthor's p urposes: o ther a reas w ould h ave d one e qually w ell. R ather, t he Caucasus h as b een c hosen f or p articular a ttention b ecause i t n eeds i t: w ith t he n otable e xception o f S oviet s cholars, m ost a ncient h istorians h ave v iewed t he C aucasus w ith a l ack o f i nterest w hich amounts t o p rofessional n egligence . P art

I

R oman myth a nd h istory w ere r eplete w ith m ilitary h eroes c lothed i n g loria a chieved t hrough b rave a nd o ften s elf-sacrificing d efence o f t he c ommunity o r s terling c onquest o f a f ormidable f oe - s ometimes b oth, a s w ith Cami lus, who i s c redited w ith t he c onquest o f V eii a nd t he v ital r epulse o f t he Gauls e arly i n t he f ourth c entury B C . T he d istinction b etween d efence a nd a ggression i s o ften n o m ore t han a v alue-judgment ( an i ntrinsic p roblem o f t he H olleaux-Harris d ebate) . T he i mpact o f t his s ort o f myth/history u pon R oman a ttitudes ( which i n t urn c reated a nd e ncouraged t hat m yth/history) h as b een w idely r ecognised. T he i ndividual R oman s ought t o emulate h is f am ily a ncestors a nd m ore g enerally t he a ncestors o f t he c ollect ive R oman s tate, a s w ell a s c ontemporary r ivals. N or was a ttent ion c onfined t o t he R oman p ast. W iseman h as r ecently b rought o ut t he r elevance a nd i mpact o f H omeric myths i n t he c ontext o f t he q uasi-Homeric i deology o f t he e lite o f t he l ate R oman R epublic. A nd , o f c ourse, A lexander t he G reat r emained a d om inant o bject o f e mulation f or a spiring R omans ( Wiseman 1 985: 1 0-13) .

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R oman r hetoric e ncapsulated p atterns o f R oman t hought. I t dwelt o n p aradigms, o r e xempla. Comparison t hrough e xempla was a p owerful t ool o f t he R oman o rator a nd w riter. U seful c ollections o f e xempla, h andily c ategorised, w ere d uly c ompiled, l ike t hat o f V alerius Maxi mus p roduced i n t he r eign o f T iberius. T iberius h imself i llustrates t he i deology. When t hat emperor r eceived M hroboduus a nd g ranted h im r efuge i n I taly, h e d ilated i n t he S enate u pon t he h istorical c omparisons a vailable f or h im ( Tac., A nn . 1 1.63). T his s ort o f r hetoric i s e ntirely c onsistent w ith t he b roader p attern o f R oman t hought. A t t he c entre s tands emulat ion o f s uccesses a chieved b y t he g reat i n t he mythical a nd h istorical p ast ( W iseman 1 979) . N or i s s uch emulation p articular t o R oman i deology. We h ave o nly t o c onsider A gesilaus, k ing o f S parta . H e d eliberately c hose A ulis a s t he p oint f rom which t o l aunch h is i nvasion o f t he P ersian Empire i n o rder t o r ecall t he T rojan War a nd A gamemnon, f rom w hom h e m ight c lai m d escent ( Xen" H ell. 1 11.4.4-5). S ince t he myths s o f ar d iscussed f unction p articularly i n c ont exts o f r ivalry, t hey may r easonably b e l abelled ' r ivalry m yth '. H owever, t wo p oints must b e r emembered t hroughout. F irst, t hat c ontrary n egative m yths e xist w hich a re n ot t o b e emulated . T hese m yths c an e ven c ut a cross p ositive myths s o t hat, f or e xample, a lthough A lexander may b e u sed a s a n o bject o f emulation, h e m ay a lso b e u sed a s a n o bject o f warning a nd r epulsion - a g reat c onqueror who went t oo f ar, c ould n ot s top, l ost c ontrol o f h im self ( Ah! 1 976: 2 23). S econd, R oman ' rivalry myth ' l ooks n ot o nly t o t he p ast ( and t he p resent) b ut a lso t o t he f uture. A ugustus, f or e xample, b oasts o f t he f ine e xempla h e h as e stab lished f or t he f uture ( RG 8 .5) . A p rime f unction o f l iterary a nd m aterial a rt - a nd t he R es G estae i s o f c ourse b oth - i s t o p reserve s uch e xempla. T he i ndividual's c oncern f or h is r eputat ion i n f uture g enerations t ends t o b e o verlooked i n c onsiderat ions o f h is m otivation i n t he p resent. ' R ivalry myth ' h as r eceived c onsiderable s cholarly a ttention . . ' K inship myth ' h as r eceived m uch l ess . I n t he l ate R epublic R ome d eclared t heir f riends t he A edui o f G aul t o b e f ratres c onsang uineique, ' brothers a nd b lood-kin '. T he b lood r elationship w as m eant q uite l iterally, f or t he A edui, l ike t he R omans, c lai med d escent f rom T rojans who h ad e scaped t he G reek s ack o f T roy ( Braund 1 980). T he A edui a re b ut o ne m inor e xample o f a much b roader u se o f t he myth o f R ome 's T rojan o rigins i n t he c ontext o f R oman i mperialism . G abba, i n p articular, h as s hown h ow t he T rojan myth g ave R ome a p lace i n t he Mediterranean world a t l arge . A s t he h eir o f T roy s he h ad a r ight t o a cceptance a s a m ajor Mediterranean p ower, e specially i n n orth-west A sia M inor ( Gabba 1 974; C ornell 1 975; G abba 1 976). T hanks t o t he T rojan m yth , Rome was n ot a b arbarian i nterloper. T o t hat e xtent, t he T rojan myth j ustified R oman i mperialism . F riends o f R ome a ccepted a nd e ncouraged t he myth, e specially t hose who, l ike t he A edui, c ould c lai m a n e specially c lose r elationship w ith R ome t hrough T roy ( Galinsky 1 969 : 6 3-102) . E nemies o f R ome s ought t o u ndermine i t, c lai ming f or e xample t hat A eneas w as a c oward w ho h ad d esert -

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e d T roy i n h er h our o f n eed o r I taly ( et S cuderi 1 976: 3 6ff).

t hat

A eneas

h ad

n ever

r eached

' Kinship myth ' was v ery f amiliar i n t he G reek world, d oubtless e ncouraged b y t he f act t hat many G reek c ities h ad i ndeed b een f ounded b y c olonists f rom o ther c ities, w ho t hereby e stablished a ' real' k inship. T his was n o R oman i nnovation o r i mposition . T he e xtent o f ' kinship-myth ' i n t he West i s d ifficult t o g auge t hrough t he i nadequacies o f o ur s ources, b ut, f or what i t i s w orth, c lassical w riters c ertainly p erceived i t t here ( Braund 1 980 : 4 21 n .8). J ustification i s o nly p art o f t he r ole o f k inship m yth. A lso s ignificant was i ts r ole a s a c ohesive f orce, p roviding c ohesion n ot o nly b etween k in-communities b ut a lso w ithin t he k nown w orld a t l arge. A s B ickermann a nd Momigliano h ave d one m uch t o s how, m yths o f o rigins g ive e ach c ommunity a p lace i n t he world: t hey g ive s tructure t o t he w orld a nd make s ense o f i t. W ith r egard t o i mperialism , t herefore, k inship m yth n ot o nly j ustifies i mperiali sm b ut b onds a nd g ives s hape t o t he empire c reated ( Bickermann 1 952; Momigl i ano 1 975; c f Wolf 1 982; R eynolds 1 983). A nd i t i s b ut a s hort s tep f rom j ustification a nd c ohesion t o d ynamic . M ost o bviously, o ne c ommunity c an a ppeal t o a nother f or m ilitary a ssistance o n t he b asis o f k inship myth. K inship l ends e special m oral w eight. S o C icero, w hen a ttacking V erres f or h is maladminis tration o f S icily, d uly s tresses t he k inship l ink b et ween R ome a nd t he S egestans o f S icily ( again t hrough T roy) t o b lacken h is o pponent s till f urther ( Cic., I n V err. 1 1.4.72). C aesar, n arrati ng h is q uestionable o perations a gainst A riovistus, s tresses t he f raternitas b etween R ome a nd t he A edui, w hose a ppeal f or h is h elp w as a p rincipal j ustification o f t hose o perations ( Braund 1 980 : 4 20 n .2). T he c omplexities a re e ndless: t he A carnanians, f or e xample, a re s aid t o h ave a ppealed t o R ome o n t he b asis o f t heir n on-participation i n t he war a gainst T roy, Rome 's mother-city ( Holleaux 1 935: 5 ff). F inally, ' geographical m yth '. I t i s a ll t oo e asy t o a ssume w itho ut t hought t hat t he R omans h ad a s ound k nowledge o f t he a reas i nto w hich t hey e xpanded . D ilke h as r ecently s hown, b y g athering i nformation o n R oman m aps i n p articular, t hat R oman k nowledge o f t he o utside world, t hough s trong i n many r espects, was w eak i n o thers. (Dilke 1 985). F urther, i t i s s till e asier t o a ssume t hat, k now ledge a part, t he R omans t hought a bout t heir w orld a s w e d o. T he p articular s tate o f R oman k nowledge a nd R oman c onceptions o f t he w orld c ombine t o p roduce ' geographical m yth '. D ilke s uggests w ays i n w hich g eography c ould f unction a nd b e u sed i n t he c ontext o f i mperialism ( Dilke 1 985 ; c f M illar 1 982; J anni 1 984). I n p articular, h e o bserves t hat maps c an b e u sed t o d isplay e mpire, w hether i t b e t he m ap o f A grippa d epicted o n t he P orticus V ipsania a t R ome o r t he f amiliar s chool m aps o f q uite r ecent g enerations w ith t he B ritish E mpire m arked o ut i n r ed . A s i mperialist d isplay a nd i ncitement, t he map s hould b e a llowed a p lace b eside t he m uch-discussed R oman t riumph . D ilke a ptly q uotes

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t he r hetorician E umenius a s chool a t A utun:

( 3rd-4th c entury A D),

p lanning a m ap

f or

A lso l et t he s choolchildren s ee i t i n t hose p orticoes a nd l ook e very d ay a t a ll l ands a nd s eas a nd e very c ity, r ace o r t ribe t hat u nconquerable emperors e ither a ssist b y t heir s ense o f d uty o r c onquer b y t heir v alour o r c ontrol b y i nspiring f ear. ( Du ke 1 985 : 5 4) A t t he s ane t i me, i t w as a p rofoundly i mperialist R oman o utlook w hich g loried i n t he s uperiority o f I taly i n g eneral a nd R ome i n p articular. T he f ertility, r esources a nd v ery p osition o f R ome a nd I taly a re p layed u p. I t was a ppropriate t hat t he i mperial p ower s hould b e b est i n e very r espect. N ot o nly a ppropriate, b ut n atural. T he s uperiority o f t he i mperial p ower h ad, a fter a ll, b een o rdained a nd e nsured b y s upernatural f orces. T hose s ame f orces h ad s een t o i t t hat t he r uling l and w as a lso t he b est l and i n e very way ( e.g. D udley 1 967: 3 -6; P utnam 1 979: 9 7ff; T homas 1 982). V itruvius p uts i t b luntly: '— .the d ivine m ind h as a llott ed t o t he R oman s tate a n e xcellent a nd t emperate r egion i n o rder t o r ule t he world ' ( Vitruv., D e A rch. V I.1.11). A bove a ll, t he r uling l and must n ot b e d ependent u pon f oreign s ubject l ands. H ence t he i ndignation a t R ome 's n eed f or i mported f oodstuffs, a s e xpressed f or e xample b y Columel l a. F or Columel l a t his n eed/ d ependence i s b oth t opsy-turvy a nd s elf-i mposed . A nd, i t i s s till w orse when i t t akes t he f or m o f s elf-i mposed d ependence o n f oreign l uxury i mports. D id n ot d ivine f orces f irst b estow a gric ultural p ractices u pon t he p eople o f L atium? B y d ue a ttention t o p roper, t raditional c oncerns - n ot l east t he l and i n g eneral a nd C olumella's work i n p articular - t he p roper, t raditional d omin ance o f R ome a nd I taly c an b e r estored ( Columella, D e R e R ust. I p ref.20). T his c omplex o f a ttitudes t owards R ome, I taly a nd t he o utside w orld i nteracted w ith a d egree o f q uite u nderstandable i gnorance t o g enerate a nd c ondition R oman i mperialist a ction . T he o utside w orld was f ull o f c uriosities: d angerous a nd/or s eductive, t hat w orld a nd i ts c uriosities w ere u ltimately i nferior. B efore p roceeding w ith t his a rgument, a c omparative c ase may h elp t o i llustrate t his c omplex a t work. When C olumbus d iscovered America h e was b ent o n q uite a d ifferent e xpedition. H e h ad s et o ut t o f ind t he f abulously-rich i slands d escribed b y Marco P olo a s s ituated o ff t he c oast o f A sia . I n f act, C olumbus t ook C entral America t o b e A sia . O n h is t hird v oyage t o t he Americas h e b elieved t hat h e h ad f ound P aradise i tself . . Why n ot? I sidore, B ede , Ambrose a nd many o thers h ad l ocated P aradise i n t he E ast a nd t hat was where C olumbus t hought h i mself t o b e. T he d elta o f t he O rinoco w as, f or C olumbus, t he f our r ivers o f P aradise w hich f low f rom t he T ree o f L ife . Weckmann, f rom whose work much h as h ere b een t aken, s ums u p t he o utlook o f t he medieval world i n a f ew w ords: T he m edieval w orld w as s urrounded b y a r ealm o f f able . B eyond t he k nown w orld t here e xisted o thers, p opulated

3 5

i n m edieval f antasy — . b y a ll k inds o f m ythical b eings .. monsters — . Amazons — . p eople who l ived o nly o n s mells, h eadless b eings w ith e yes i n t heir s tomachs, b earded women — . g riffons, d ragons, t he S ea o f Darkn ess, t he l and o f P rester J ohn e tc. ( Weckmann 1 951: 1 32). M uch t he s ame m ight b e s aid f or t he R oman world. T here t oo d ist ant l ands c onstitute " fantasy-space", a s t he s ocial p sycholog ists t er m i t ( Downs a nd S tea 1 977; S ack 1 980). R oman " fantasy s pace" w as s i milarly o ccupied b y t he monstrous, t he b izarre a nd t he f abulous; i nversions o f c omfortable n or ms b ulk l arge. W ith r egard t o t he n orth, f or e xample, Mela a nd P liny s peak o f men w ith h orses' f eet o r w ith g igantic e ars which s erve t hem a s c lothing . E ven t he t ough-minded T acitus, f or a ll h is c aution, i s n ot p repared t o d ismiss s uch f antasies: T he r est i s f ull o f r omance. They s ay t hat t he H ellusii a nd Oxiones s port t he f aces a nd f eatures o f m en a nd t he b odies a nd l i mbs o f w ild b easts. S ince t his i s u nknown I l eave t he matter o pen. ( Tac., G erm . 4 6.6 w ith A nderson a d l oc o n P liny a nd Mela) . I n t he modern world, t he ' global v illage ', f antasy-space i s i n s hort s upply . A f ew c orners r emain - t he H imalayas, f or e xample, d uly p opulated w ith t he f antastic A bominable S nowman . B ut f or t he m ost p art f antasies h ave b een p ushed i nto O uter S pace w here o ther w orlds c an p roliferate . A nd t he o bservation i s n ot a s t rivial o r f rivolous a s i t may s eem . N ote t he f amiliar t erminology - t he ' conquest ' o f s pace, t he ' exploration ' o f s pace, e ven ' to b oldly g o where n o man h as g one b efore ' ( sic). T he n otions o f ' conq uest', ' exploration ' a nd ' being f irst a nd d aring ' ( or, more g enerally, o perating w ithin s tructures o f ' rivalry myth ') a re b andied a bout a s i f s ynonymous a s a nother f or m o f i mperialis m p roceeds . A s w ith, f or e xample, C ortes a nd P izarro , e xploration, c onquest a nd r ivalry a re u ltimately i ndistinguishable ( et A lmagia . 1 937: 4 ). A ntiquity was n ot e xceptional i n t his r espect. An o bvious i nstance i s t he R es G estae, w here A ugustus p roudly p roclaims: ' My f leet s ailed a cross O cean f rom t he mouth o f t he R hine t o t he e astern r egion, a s f ar a s t he b order o f t he C i mbri, w here n o R oman h ad p reviously g one b y l and o r b y s ea, a nd t he C i mbri a nd t he C harydes a nd t he S emnones a nd o ther G er man p eoples o f t he s ame t ract s ought t hrough e nvoys my f riendship a nd t hat o f t he R oman p eople ( RG 2 6.4). A nd a l ittle

l ater:

T o m e r oyal e mbassies f rom I ndia h ave o ften b een s ent, n ot s een b efore w ith a ny R oman l eader ( RG 3 1 .0 . A nd:

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..very many o ther p eoples h ave e xperienced t he g ood f aith o f t he R oman p eople i n my p rincipate, p eoples w ith whom p reviously t he R oman p eople h ad h ad n o e xc hange o f embassies a nd f riendship ( RG 3 2 .3) . T he t er minology o f f riendship a nd d iplomacy s hould n ot b lind u s t o t he i mperialist r eality ( Braund 1 984b). T he p rinceps r evels i n t he i mperialist s uccess a chieved b y t he s tate u nder h is l eade rship - i .e . a chieved b y h im . T hese a re i ndeed ' the a chievements o f t he d ivine A ugustus b y which h e s ubjected t he world t o t he p ower o f t he R oman p eople ' ( RG p reface). A nd t he c onquest o f t he w orld m ight e ven b e h eld t o i nclude s upernatural f orces, s o t hat C laudius ' i nvasion o f B ritain, f or e xample, c ould b e c onceived a s t he c onquest o f O cean ( Braund 1 985: n os.210-12, c f i nter a lia, V al. F lacc. 1 .7ff). F or a nalytical c onvenience, p rojections i nto f antasy s pace m ay b e c ategorised a s a ttractive o r u nattractive. U nattractive, f or e xample, a re b east-men whose v ery s avagery makes t hem i ntracta ble . Beast-men h ave l ittle o r n o r ational f aculty. B east-men h ave s cant h istory, i f a ny ( Wolf 1 982). What was t he i mpact o f s uch a ttitudes u pon R oman i mperialism? S avage f oes a re f ormidable f oes: i mperialism m ay b e c hecked, a s most o bviously i n S pain i n t he m id-second c entury BC . Y et, a s t hat c ase i ndicates, s avage f oes c an a lso e ncourage i mperialism : t hrough s avagery t hey c ons titute a c hallenge a nd t heir c onquest - e ven a w illingness t o f ace t hem - r edounds t o t he c redit o f a R oman c oncerned f or g loria a nd t raditional m ilitarism ( Astin 1 967: 4 2ff). A nd t hat m ilitarism i s n ot t hreatened b y myths o f s avagery a nd i nferiori ty: r ather t hey t end t o s upport e ach o ther. R oman s uperiority a nd d ominance i s o nce m ore s een t o b e n atural a nd j ustified . A ttractive f antasies a re m ore d irect s purs t o i mperialism . P ride o f p lace b elongs t o myths o f t he E l D orado t ype - f antasies o f e xtraordinary w ealth i n f ar-off l ands . S uch f antasies e xisted i n t he R o man world a nd c an o nly h ave i nspired i mperialist a ction. S uch a ction was r egularly a ssociated w ith c onsiderations o f w ealth a nd b ooty. I ndeed, b ooty was p art o f g loria, h ence i ts p rom inence i n t he t riumph . When C aesar i nvaded B ritain t here w as a c ertain d isappointment t hat t his n ew c onquest h ad s o l ittle t o o ffer i ts c onqueror i n t he way o f w ealth a nd m aterial r esources ( Frere 1 978: 3 20) . A nd w here a nnexation was c onsidered, f inancial c alculations w ere p rominent ( Strabo I V .5.3(200); A ppian, P reface 7 ). T he b est-attested i nstance o f t he E l D orado myth a t work i s A elius G allus ' i nvasion o f A rabia F elix . S ome t hirty y ears o r s o e arlier D iodorus S iculus h ad d escribed i n g lorious d etail t he g old, s ilver, p erfumes a nd s pices w ith w hich, h e b elieved, A rabia F elix was r eplete ( 111.46-47). Moreover, S trabo i s q uite e xplic it t hat s uch f antasies w ere a m ajor i mpetus t o G allus ' i nvasion . A s G allus' f riend, S trabo was i n a g ood p osition t o k now. M yths o f t he e ffete u nwarlike e asterner m ay h ave m ade t he c onquest s eem a n e asier p rospect, t hough t hreatening t o d i minish g loria. S trabo

s tates:

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M any o f t he s pecial c haracteristics o f A rabia h ave b een d isclosed b y t he r ecent e xpedition o f t he R omans a gainst t he A rabians — . A elius G allus — . was s ent b y A ugustus Caesar t o e xplore t he t ribes a nd t he p laces, n ot o nly i n A rabia, b ut a lso i n E thiopia, s ince C aesar s aw t hat t he T roglodyte c ountry which a djoins E gypt n eighbours u pon A rabia, a nd a lso t hat t he A rabian G ulf, w hich s eparates t he A rabians f rom t he T roglodytes, i s e xtremely n arrow . A ccordingly h e c onceived t he p urpose o f w inning t he A rabians o ver t o h i mself o r o f s ubjugat ing t hem . A nother c onsideration was t he r eport, which h ad p revailed f rom a ll t i me, t hat t hey w ere v ery wealt hy, a nd t hat t hey s old a romatics a nd t he most v aluable s tones f or g old a nd s ilver, b ut n ever e xpended w ith o utsiders a ny p art o f what t hey r eceived i n e xchange; f or h e e xpected e ither t o d eal w ith w ealthy f riends o r t o master w ealthy e nemies. ( Strabo X VI.4.22 ( 780)) H ere w e s ee l ong-standing E l D orado m yth t o t he f ore , a ssociated w ith a d egree o f g eographical p recision . We s ee t he s ignificance o f R oman c onceptions o f f oreign wealth i n t he d ynamics o f i mp erialism . A nd we s ee t hat i mperialism i ntertwined w ith e xplorat ion a nd c ouched, i n p art, i n t he t erminology o f f riendship . T he c onception o f t he f eeble e asterner a lso p lays i ts p art: S trabo o bserves: .. t he A rabians a re n ot v ery g ood w arriors . . r ather b eing h ucksters a nd merchants.— ( XVI.4.23 ( 780)). A nd h is p rejudice was c onfir med b y a b attle i n w hich, s ays S trabo, 1 0,000 A rabs d ied, while t he R omans l ost o nly t wo men ( XVI.4.24 ( 781-2)). S trabo s eeks e xcuses f or h is f riend G allus t hat h e was m isled b y t he t reacherous S yllaeus ( Braund 1 984b : 9 7) a nd t hat, i n f act, h e v ery n early r eached E l D orado ( XVI.4.24 ( 782)). B y c ontrast, t he R es G estae, t ypically, dwells o n t he p ositive a chievements o f Gallus' e xpedition - e nemies k illed,. d istant l ands a ttained, a nd a ll d one , o f c ourse, ' by m y o rder a nd u nder my a uspices' ( RG 2 6.5; c f B raund 1 983). W e h ave s een h ow myth was a d ynamic o f R oman i mperial i sm - i n p articular, r ivalry m yth, k inship m yth a nd g eographical m yth . We m ay n ow p roceed t o a pply t o a p articular a rea t he g eneralisations w hich, . it i s h oped, h ave b een e stablished: t hat a rea i s t he C aucasus . I t i s n ot o f c ourse s uggested t hat myth w as t he o nly d ynam ic o f i mperialism h ere o r a nywhere e lse . P art C entral t o m yths a bout t he A rrian r eported t o H adrian e astern c oast o f t he B lack J ason a nd t he A rgonauts . O n

I

C aucasus w as t he s tory o f J ason . W hen h is j ourney o f i nspection a round t he S ea, h e h ad m uch t o s ay o n t he m yth o f A psarus, h e o bserves:

T hey s ay t hat A psarus i s t he p lace t hat was l ong a go c alled Apsyrtus, s ince i t was t here t hat Apsyrtus was

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k illed b y Medea. T he v isitor i s s hown t he t omb o f A psyrtus . A nd t hey s ay t hat t he n ame was c orrupted b y t he n eighbouring b arbarians, j ust a s m any o ther n ames h ave b een c orrupted b y t hem . ( Periplus 7 ) A nd e ntering

t he R iver

P hasis:

' There t oo t he v isitor i s s hown t he a nchor o f t he A rgo . Y et, s ince i t i s i ron, i t d id n ot s eem t o me t o b e a ncient ( yet i ts s ize was n ot t hat o f a nchors o f t he p resent d ay a nd i ts f orm w as d ifferent), b ut i t s eemed m ore r ecent i n d ate. A nd o ld f ragments o f a nother a nchor, a s tone o ne, were a lso o n s how : y ou m ight b etter s uppose t hese t o b e t he r emains o f t he a nchor o f t he A rgo . T here i s n o o ther monument t here o f t he m yths r elating t o J ason ( Periplus 1). A rrian's i nterest i n J ason i s e vident, p articularly w hen s een i n t he c ontext o f t he l argely mundane a nd p ractical n ature o f t he P eriplus a s a whole, w ith i ts l ists o f d istances, p eoples a nd R oman i nstallations . A s imilar a dmixture o f m yth a nd a dministrat ive p ractical i ty i s t o b e f ound e lsewhere i n works a kin t o A rrian's P eriplus, m ost n otably i n t he t enth c entury D e A dminist rando I mperio o f C onstantine P orphyrogenitus. O n t he l atter, i ts e xcellent e ditors o bserve, ' It i s c lear t hat t his o ut-of-date a nd a ntiquarian i nformation c ould b e o f n o u se a s a l esson i n c ontemp orary g overnment a nd d iplomacy ' ( Jenkins 1 962: 3 ). H owever t he D e A dministrando I mperio may h ave b een c ompiled, i t s hould b y n ow b e a pparent t hat ' out o f d ate a nd a ntiquarian i nformation ' was v ery much p art o f c ontemporary g overnment a nd d iplomacy . A rrian 's c oncern w ith myth i n h is c ommunication w ith H adrian f urther c onfirms t he p oint. Myth i s v ital t o works o f t his n ature: i t s tructures t he w orld a nd m akes s ense o f i t. A s a n e arly a nd f amous c onqueror i n t he C aucasus, J ason, h owever b lackly h e m ight s ometimes b e p ainted, b ecame a p ri me c andidate f or ' rivalry m yth ' . A ny e xpedition t o t he C aucasus was i nevitably f ollowing i n t he f ootsteps o f J ason ( and o f c ourse t he A rgonauts w ho m ight o r m ight n ot i nclude H eracles). T he a ntiquity a nd T enown o f J ason 's m yth m ade c omparison i nescapable . P articularly s o , when J ason h ad a lso b ecome i mportant t o t he p eoples t o t he e ast o f t he B lack S ea. S trabo, f or e xample, o bserves t he w ides pread c ult o f J ason i n t he a rea ( Strabo 1 .2.38 ( 45); 1 1.13.10 ( 526); c f J ustin X LII.3). S trabo s hould k now. H e was b orn i n C appadocia a nd h is g reat-uncle, M oaphernes, h ad b een M ithridates E upator's g overnor o f C olchis. T i monax i n h is S cythica s tates: ' Ch e ntry t o t he P ontus v isitors a re s hown g ardens c alled J asonioi, a t which J ason i s s aid t o h ave made a l anding a nd i n A ea t here a re g ymnasia a nd d iskoi a nd t he marriage c hamber o f M edea where s he was married a nd t he t emple o f J ason s ituated b y t he c ity a nd many s acred p laces b esides' ( Ti monax a p. s chol. a d A pollonius R hodius I V .1217). I n a ddition t o J ason t here was A lexander. T here was a s trong t radition i n a ntiquity t hat A lexander h ad b een a ctive b etween t he

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B lack S ea a nd t he C aspian ( e.g. D iod. S ic. XVII.75, P lut. A lex. 4 4ff, P lin" H N I V .39) . A lexander a lso f igures p rominently i n t he C aucasian t radition, f or e xample, i n t he G eorgian L ife o f G eorgia ( Karthlis T skhovreba). H ow much A lexander a nd/or h is f orces a ct ually d id i n t he C aucasus must r emain i n d oubt b ut A rrian, i n p articular, t ells a gainst much i nvolvement t here ( Arrian, A nab. I V.15.1ff; V .3.1). Y et, t he s trong t radition r emains. I ndeed, A rrian h i mself s tates t hat A lexander i ntended a n e xpedition i n t he C aspian/Black S ea r egion ( especially t he C aspian i tself) b ut w as f orestalled b y h is d eath ( VII.16). A nd, a s i s w ell k nown, A lexander c onstituted a v ery i mportant o bject o f i mitation a nd r ivalry among t he R oman e lite . I t i s a lso w orth p ausing t o o bserve A lexander's a ssociation w ith D ionysus, q uite p ossibly e ncouraged b y A lexander h i mself ( Rice 1 983: 8 3). D ionysus, l ike A lexander, was t hought t o h ave b een a ctive i n t he Caucasus: D ionysus a rrived t here o n h is t riumphal r eturn f rom I ndia ( Nonnus XXI.198ff, c f 3 09ff; XXVI.329ff). M üller p rovides a u seful t reatment o f t he c omplexities o f t hat t radition ( 1855: 1 47). F urther, D ionysiac c ult i s s trongly a ttested f or t he Caucasus n ot o nly i n l iterary s ources b ut b y a rchaeology ( e.g. L ordkipanidze 1 979: 2 03-5). B ehind J ason ( and H eracles) a nd A lexander, D ionysus t oo must f igure a s a p otential o bject o f r ivalry-myth a nd t hus a p otential d ynam ic o f i mperiali sm . K inship myth b ound t he C aucasus t o many a reas o f t he Mediterr anean world a nd b eyond - E gypt, P ersia, T hessaly, B oeotia, C orinth, C rete, S parta, L ibya e tc. T his i s n ot t he p lace t o t race t hese c onnections i n d etail: t hat i s f or a f uture s tudy. H owever, we must o bserve t he l inks e stablished t hrough k inship m yth b etween t he C aucasus a nd t he w estern M editerranean i n p artic ular. T here i s a s trong t radition t hat J ason a nd t he A rgonauts ( w ith C olchian Medea), s eeking t o e scape t he C olchians w ho w ere g iving t hem h ot p ursuit, h eaded s outh ( sic) i nto t he A driatic . O n t he b asis o f t his t radition p eoples a nd c ommunities i n t he A driat ic c lai med d escent f rom Colchian p ursuers who g ave u p t heir . c hase a nd s ettled. P liny, f or e xa mple, mentions P ola ( HN 11.129), O lchinium ( 111.144) a nd O r i cum ( 111.145). T here w ere a lso t he H istri ( Justin XXXII.2.13 0. A s S trabo n otes, t he t radition o f C olchians i n t he A driatic was a t l east a s o ld a s C allimachus ( Strabo 1 .2.39 ( 46)). A t A rgos i n E pirus t here s tood, *s ays Ampelius, ' a g reat b ridge, d ouble-columned, w hich i s s aid t o h ave b een b uilt a t t he c ommand o f Medea . P ainted t here a re t he s teering-oars o f t he A rgonauts. — ' ( Amp.VIII.3). T here were a lso s trong l inks t hrough myth b etween C olchis a nd I taly. T he b est k nown l ink was t hrough C irce, t he s ister o f A e tes, K ing o f C olchis, a nd a r esident o f s outhern I taly. A nd t he p recise n omenclature o f mythical C olchis a nd t he l and o f C irce, A ea/Aeaea, i nevitably a ttracted t he p edant ( scholia a d H om . Od. I X .32). S trabo i s i nformative: A nd l ikewise i t was o n t he b asis o f H omer's a ctual k now ledge o f t he C olchians, o f J ason 's e xpedition t o

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A ea, a nd o f t he s tories o f f act a nd f iction t old a bout C irce a nd Medea r egarding t heir u se o f magic p otions a nd t heir g eneral s i milarity o f c haracter, t hat h e i nvented a b lood-relationship b etween t he t wo, a lthough t hey l ived s o v ery f ar a part, t he o ne i n t he r emote r ecess o f t he P ontus, a nd t he o ther i n I taly, a nd a lso i nvented a r esidence f or b oth o f t hem o ut b y O ceanus, t hough i t may b e t hat J ason wandered a s f ar a s I taly; f or t here a re s ome i ndications t hat p oint t o t he wand erings o f t he A rgonauts i n t he r egion o f t he C eraunian M ountains, a bout t he A driatic S ea, i n t he G ulf o f P oseidonia, a nd i n t he i slands t hat l ie o ff T yrrhenia ( 1.2.10 ( 21)). Cbelius s tated t hat Medea was b uried b y J ason a t B uthrotum . H e a lso h eld t hat Medea w as t he s ister o f C irce a nd A ngitia a nd t hat Medea's s on b ecame t he r uler o f t he I talian Marsi ( Solinus 1.28). A nother v ersion h ad i t t hat Medea c ame w ith J ason t o t he p eoples a round t he F ucine L ake, p articularly t he M arsic Marruvii, a nd was g iven t he n ame A ngitia b y t hem ( schol. a d V erg., A en. X II.750). T hough t he d etails v ary, a nd may b e q uestioned ( as b y S trabo), t he b onds o f k inship myth b et ween C olchis a nd a reas o f t he W estern M editerranean a re e vident e nough . T hey w ere f urther b uttressed b y a ssociations o f p lace-names: f or e xample, t here w as a lso a S ybaris i n C olchis ( Diod. S ic. I V .48.1). A nd o f c ourse t here were t he I berians - I berians o f t he C aucasus a nd I berians o f t he I berian p eninsula . T he s cope f or m ythical e xplanations a nd s cholarly a necdote w as v ast: t he v iew t hat t he C aucasian I berians w ere c olonists f rom S pain t ended t o p revail i n a ntiquity ( Strabo 1 .3.21 ( 61); A pp. M ithr. 1 01; A vienus O r. Mar. 8 82ff). G eographical m yth h ad ample s cope i n t he C aucasus . Among c uriosit ies, t here w as t he p lace o f P rometheus ' p unishment. A rrian n otes e n p assant, ' And a p eak o f t he C aucasus was v isible - t he n ame o f t he p eak i s S trobilos, where, t he myth g oes, P rometheus was s uspended b y H ephaestus b y o rder o f Z eus' ( Periplus 1 6). P hilos tratus i ndicates t he c omplex o f d etailed v ariations i n t he m yth o f P rometheus a nd p roceeds t o n ote: ..the i nhabitants o f t he C aucasus r egard t he e agle a s a h ostile b ird a nd b urn o ut t he n ests w hich t hey b uild a mong t he r ocks b y h urling i nto t hem f iery d arts a nd t hey a lso s et s nares f or t hem , d eclaring t hat t hey a re a venging P rometheus: t o s uch a n e xtent a re t heir i magin ations d ominated b y t he f able ( Vit. A poll. 1.3). A s w ith t he m yth o f J ason, s o P hilostratus h ere s uggests t hat t he m yth o f P rometheus was o f c onsiderable i nterest t o t he l ocal p eople o f t he Caucasus a s well a s t he o utsider. A ll t he more d esirable, i n v iew o f P hilostratus' s tatement, i s s ome e xplanat ion o f t he w idespread e agle-symbolism r evealed b y a rchaeological e xcavation i n t he C aucasus. A nother major c uriosity were t he Amazons. V ariously l ocated i n t he B lack S ea r egion, t he Amazons were r egularly p laced i n t he

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C aucasus. D ionysus was s aid t o h ave c onquered t hem a nd t urned t hem i nto maenads ( Seneca Oedipus 4 67ff; Nonnus XXVI.329ff). A lexander was s aid t o h ave e ntered d iplomatic r elations w ith t hem , c onsummated i n 1 3 d ays o f p assionate s ex w ith a n Amazon q ueen ( Curtius R ufus V 1.5 .24ff) . Y et t hat s tory w as d oubted b y a s ignificant m inority o f w riters, a s P lutarch r eports; h e r efrains f rom e xpressing h is own v iew ( Plut" A lex . 4 6). I n h is a ccount o f A lexander's c ampaigns, A rrian o bserves t hat t hat s ignificant m inority i ncludes a ll t he a uthors whom h e c onsiders t o b e r elia ble . T herefore A rrian a rgues t hat Amazons, t hough t hey p robably e xisted l ong a go, h ad c eased t o e xist s ome t i me b efore A lexand er's c ampaigns . A nd h e i s f urther f ortified i n t his v iew b y t he a bsence o f Amazons f rom t he A nabasis o f h is b eloved X enophon ( Arrian A nab . V I1.13). A rrian 's a ttitude t owards t he Amazons h elps t o a ccount f or h is f ailure t o m ention t hem i n h is P eriplus. H owever, f or a ll t hese d oubts, t he Amazon myth r emained p otent: A mazons were s till a n i ssue. C urtius R ufus a part, Caracal l a i s s aid t o h ave h ad b ody-guards d ressed a s Amazons ( Dio L XXVIII.5.4), while G othic women, d eclared t o b e Amazons, were p araded i n Aurel i an 's t riumph ( SHA A ure 1 . XXXIV .1; c f i n g eneral T yrrell 1 984). C uriosities may a lso b e l uxury i tems. S o t he ' Phasian b ird ', t he p heasant. A ccording t o A gatharchides, t he e stuary o f t he R iver P hasis i n Colchis ( itself a c uriosity: A rrian P eriplus 1 0) was t he h ome o f p heasants who f locked t here t o f eed ( Athenaeus I X .387c). T he k eeping a nd e ating o f t he ' Phasian b ird ' was a m ark o f h igh l iving ( et A thenaeus X IV .654c). S ince t he p heasant c ons tituted f oreign l uxury f ood, i t w as a n o bvious t arget f or m orali stic d enunciations a t R ome ( Plin., H N X IX .52; c f Manilius V .376ff; J uv. 1.59; P aneg . L at. I(XI 11 .14; E nnodius 1.68.7). M oralistic d enunciation o f t he p heasant w as t hus a t iny f acet o f t he i mperialistic i deology o f R oman m oral a nd material s uperiori ty d iscussed i n t he f irst p art o f t his p aper. A nd , a s a n i tem o f f oreign l uxuria, t he ' good ' emperor d uly a voided e ating p heasant, w hile t he ' bad ' emperor a te p heasant i n b ulk ( et T oynbee 1 973: 2 55). A nother c urious l uxury was t he g iant C aucasian h unting-dog. A lexander i s s aid t o h ave b een g iven a g igantic h unting-dog b y t he r uler o f C aucasian A lbania . T hat b east, s ays P liny, w ould n ot d eign t o t ackle b ears, b oars a nd t he l ike b ut would o nly b e s purred t o a ction when p resented w ith a worthy f oe, s uch a s a l ion o r a n e lephant ( Plin" H N V I11.149 0 . T his w as n ot t he o nly r emarkable d og f rom t he C aucasus: C aucasian h ounds were r ecomm ended b y e xperts ( Oppian, C yneg. 1 .397; N emesianus Cyneg . 2 28; c f Calp. S ic. V 1.4). T he a ssociation o f g reat d ogs a nd p heasants w ith t he Caucasus was a ll t he more n atural f or R oman i deology w hich t ended t o i dentify a reas w ith r eference t o t heir f auna - m ost o bviously, E gypt, l and o f t he c rocodile a nd h ippopotamus ( Braund 1 984a : 1 77). W hereas p heasants w ere o f i nterest p rimarily t o t he g ourmand, d ogs were o f u se t o t he h unter. A nd i n R oman i deology h unting was a s l auda ble a s g our mand isi ng was d etestable ( e.g. H orace E pist.

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I .18.45ff). F or t hat r eason, while t he p heasant was c ondemned, t he C aucasian h unting-dog s eems t o h ave e scaped c riticism . T he C aucasus w as a lso k nown f or i ts w ealth i n m inerals. C innabar w as s aid t o o ccur n aturally i n I beria a nd C blchis: i n C olchis i t h anged f rom c rags w hence i t w as s hot d own b y t he l ocal C olchians ( Theophr. On G ems V II.58; P lin. H N XXXIII.113-4). T here was a lso t opaz ( Pl . H N —XXXVII.110) a nd j asper ( ibid. 3 5). T here were e ven s trange t ales o f l ynxes w ho b rought d own p recious c rystals f rom t he m ountains ( C laudian E p . a d S erenam 8 ) . Moreover, C aucas ian r ivers were t hought t o r un w ith g old. S trabo m entions t he c ollection o f g old f rom t he r ivers o f I beria ( XV .1.57 ( 711)). A nd o ne o f t he s everal r ationalisations o f t he myth o f t he G olden F leece h eld t hat C aucasians u sed f leeces t o p an f or g old i n t heir r ivers ( Strabo X I.2 .19 ( 499)) . M etallurgy was s trongly a ssociated w ith t he e astern B lack S ea c oast, e specially t he i ron-working Chalybes ( see K hakhutaishvili 1 977). T he Caucasus t herefore b oasts many o f t he f eatures o f a n E l D orado . P ondering t he h istoricity o f J ason 's e xpedition ( and a ccepting i t), S trabo o bserves: ..the wealth o f t he r egions a bout C olchis, which i s d erived f rom t he mines o f g old, s ilver, i ron a nd c opper, s uggests a r easonable motive f or t he e xpedit ion. ( Strabo 1 .2.39 ( 45)). H is o bservation n eatly i llustrates t he t wo m ain p oints w hich h ave b een a rgued a bove . F irst, t hat c onsiderations o f a n a rea 's w ealth c an i nspire i mperialist a ctivity i n t hat a rea. F or S trabo t he p oint i s s o o bvious t hat h e s i mply a ssumes i t. S econd, t hat c onsiderations o f w ealth m ight b e a n a dequate e xplanation f or i mperialist a ctivity i n C olchis i n p articular. T he i dea o f t he C aucasus a s a n E l D orado was t hreatened t o s ome e xtent b y o ne o r t wo n egative myths: O vid f or e xample d escribes t he g oddess H unger a s ad enizen o f t he Caucasus, s cratching t he r ocky g round w ith h er b ony h ands ( Met. V II.784ff). S trabo ment ions t he l ocal L ice-Eaters ' who h ave r eceived t heir n ame f rom : t heir s qualor a nd t heir f ilthiness' ( XI.2.19 ( 499)). Y et s uch n egative c onceptions w ere c onsiderably o utweighed n ot o nly b y t he c urious ( and n egative c onceptions may a lso b e c urious) a nd t he r ich b ut a lso b y t he c lose a ssociations b etween t he C aucasus a nd a reas o f t he s outh - n otably I ndia a nd E gypt. A s D ilke n otes, t here was a t endency, f or e xample i n A grippa 's map, t o u nderesti mate t he r eal e xtent o f t he l and mass b etween t he B lack S ea/Caspian r egion a nd p oints s outh ( Dilke 1 985: 5 2). T his was a n i ssue o f c onception a s w ell a s - i ndeed, m ore t han k now ledge . T he C aucasus w as r egularly c onceived i n a m uch w ider s ense t han n ormal t oday . I t w as c ommonly c onceived a s e xtending f rom t he B lack S ea t o t he H i malayas ( e.g. A rrian A nab. V .3.1; P hilostr., V A . 1.2-3; O ros . 1 .3 0 . I slamic s ources, w ell-informe d o n t his a rea, t ake m uch t he s ame v iew o f t he s outherly e xtent o f t he Caucasus ( M iguel 1 975: 2 67ff). A nd s uch c onceptions o f

4 3

t he Caucasus s upported a nd were s upported b y t he movement o f I ndian g oods t o t he P hasis, a s e nvisaged b y V arro a nd P liny a fter h im ( HN V I.52; c f S en., Med. 4 83f). T here i s g ood r eason t o w onder h ow m uch t raffic r eally p assed t hrough t he C aucasus f rom I ndia a s w e u nderstand t hose t erms ( Schmitthener 1 979). F urther, D ionysus w as h eld t o h ave r eturned f rom I ndia u p t he C aucasus t o t he B lack S ea r egion. A nd, a s we h ave a lso s een, A lexander's f orces were h eld t o h ave p assed t he s ame way. Small wonder t hat T zetzes s tates t hat ' the C olchians a re I ndian S cythians ' ( on L ycophron 1 74). T here i s n o r eason t o emend away H esychius' d escription o f t he C aucasian Cercetae a nd S indi a s ' Indian '. A nd i t i s i n t he c ontext o f t his c onception o f t he Caucasus t hat we s hould u nderstand t he t radition o f a n a ncient S cythian e xpedition t o I ndia ( Philostr., VA . 1 11.20; c f S chürer 1 979: 1 42-5 o n S cythopolis i n P alestine). S o t oo t he s trong t radition t hat t he C olchians h ad t heir o rigins i n t he e xpedition o f a n E gyptian k ing, S esostris ( Hdt. 1.104-5; D iod. S ic. 1 .55; Amm . M arc. X XII.8.24; c f A r mayor 1 980: e sp.64) . T he Caucasus a s we c onceive i t w as c onceived i n a ntiquity a s s omething o f a u nity w ith I ndia a nd/or E gypt. A nd m ilitary c ampaigns h ad b een c onducted, i t was h eld, u p a nd d own t hat b roader C aucasian a rea f rom t he B lack S ea a nd C aspian t o I ndia a nd E gypt. I t r emains t o l ook f or t he v arious C aucasian myths we h ave d isc ussed i n p articular R oman i mperial a ctions a nd p lans, s pecifica lly i n t he C aucasian c ampaign o f P ompey a nd t he p rojected e xped ition o f N ero . I n b oth i nstances, m yth b ulked l arge. F irst,

P ompey .

A ppian p roves most

i nstructive:

' He ( sc. P ompey) a dvanced t o C olchis i n o rder t o g ain k now ledge o f t he c ountry v isited b y t he A rgonauts, t he D ioscuri, a nd H ercules, a nd h e e specially d esired t o s ee t he p lace where t hey s ay t hat P rometheus was f astened t o Mount C aucasus. Many s treams i ssue f rom C aucasus b earing g old-dust s o f ine a s t o b e i nvisible. T he i nhabitants p ut s heepskins w ith s haggy f leece i nto t he s tream a nd t hus c ollect t he f loating p articles; a nd p erhaps t he g olden f leece o f A eetes was o f t his k ind .. P ompey w as a fterwards awarded o ne o f h is t riumphs a t R ome f or t hese e xploits. Among t he h ostages a nd p risoners many women were f ound, who h ad s uffered w ounds n o l ess t han t he men. T hese were s upposed t o b e Amazons, b ut whether t he Amazons a re a n eighbouring n ation, who were c alled t o t heir a id a t t hat t i me, o r w hether a ny warlike women a re c alled Amazons b y t he b arbarians t here, i s n ot k nown ( Mithr.103) T he A rgonauts, P rometheus, r ivers o f g old a nd Amazons a re a ll t o t he f ore i n A ppian 's a ccount ( et P itschadse 1 985). P lutarch, a fter a p assing r eference t o A lexander a nd a b rief d isplay o f c onfusion o ver t he c ourse o f t he A raxes, c oncentrates u pon t he Amazons. F or P lutarch t he Amazons w ere a r eality:

4 4

I n t his b attle i t i s s aid t hat t here w ere a lso Amazons f ighting o n t he s ide o f t he B arbarians, a nd t hat t hey c ame d own f rom t he m ountains a bout t he r iver T hermodon . F or when t he R omans were d espoiling t he B arbarians a fter t he b attle, t hey c ame u pon Amazonian s hields a nd b uskins; b ut n o b ody o f a woman was s een. T he Amazons i nhabit t he p arts o f t he C aucasus m ountains t hat r each d own t o t he H yrcanian S ea, a nd t hey d o n ot b order o n t he A lbani, b ut Gelae a nd L eges dwell b etween. W ith t hese p eoples, who meet t hem b y t he r iver T her modon, t hey c onsort f or t wo months e very y ear; t hen t hey g o a way a nd l ive b y t hemselves. ( Plut., P omp. 3 5). J ustin a dds a nother d etail. I n t he c ourse o f a n e xtended v ersion o f t he myth o f J ason, a fter a n a llusion t o t he C aucasian e xploits o f H ercules a nd D ionysus ( Liber), J ustin s tates: H e ( sc . J ason) s truck a t reaty w ith t he A lbanians, w ho a re s aid t o h ave f ollowed H ercules f rom I taly, f rom t he A lban Mount, w hen H ercules h ad k illed G eryon a nd l ed h is c attle t hrough I taly . A nd t he A lbanians, r ememberi ng t heir I talian o rigin, a cclai med t he a rmy o f G naeus P ompeius, i n t he c ourse o f t he M ithridatic War, a s b rothers ( Justin XLII.3.4). I f t he Gallic A edui c ould b e k insmen o f t he R omans, why n ot t he C aucasian A lbanians? I t i s n ot d ifficult t o s uppose t hat t he n otion o f R oman a nd A lbanian b rotherhood p layed a p art i n P ompey's c ampaign a nd n egotiations i n t he Caucasus. A nd f hat n otion i s c onsistent w ith t he b roader n etwork o f r elationships e stablished b etween t he C aucasus a nd t he West. N ero e vidently t ook c onsiderable i nterest i n t he C aucasus: s hortl y b efore h is d emise h e h ad s et i n t rain a n e xpedition. S uetonius t ells u s t hat h e c reated a n ew l egion, c onsisting o f I talians o ver s ix f eet t all: t his n ew l egion was t he l egio A I talica, w hich N ero c alled t he ' phalanx o f A lexander t he G reat r: T his l egion, we a re t old, was c reated s pecifically f or N ero 's p rojected e xpedition t o t he Caspian Gates ( Suet., N ero 1 9.4). P liny mentions t he p roject, a lludes t o A lexander's a ssociation w ith t he C aspian G ates a nd dwells u pon t he c urrent c onfusion o ver t he meaning o f t he t er m ( Plin., H N V I.40). F or a ll t he c onfusion ( geographical, t erm inological o r p olitical - s o K olendo ( 1982)), P liny's a ccount t ends t o s upport S uetonius' i ndication t hat N ero's e xpedition was p lanned i n t he c ontext o f r ivalry myth r ivalry a nd i mitation o f A lexander. A t t he s ame t i me, P liny's d iscussion h ighlights o nce a gain t he i nterconnection o f i mperiali sm a nd e xploration . G riffin h as r ecently d rawn a ttention t o a n o dd f eature o f N ero 's C aucasian p roject. T here i s s ome r eason t o s uppose t hat t roops f or t hat p roject w ere g athered a t A lexandria, q uite p ossibly b ecause t he Caucasian c ampaign was t o b e l inked w ith a nd/or p receded b y a nother c ampaign o f c onquest a nd e xploration t o E thiopia a nd t he s ource o f t he N ile . A s G riffin i s well aware,

4 5

t he s ources a re o pen t o a v ariety o f i nterpretations ( Griffin 1 984: 2 29). B ut l et u s a t l east c onsider t he a pparent l ink b et ween N ero 's t wo p rojects. T he s ource o f t he N ile, l ike t he C aucasus, was a lso r edolent o f A lexander t he G reat ( Burstein 1 976). I ndeed, L ucan, a c ontemporary o f N ero, i s q uite e xplicit u pon A lexander's a ssociation w ith t he u pper r eaches o f t he N ile ( X .268ff). A nd t here i s g eographical myth. We h ave s een t he t radition o f e xpeditions w hich t ook i n b oth E gypt ( and I ndia) a nd t he C aucasus. We h ave a lso n oted t he e xtended c onception o f t he C aucasus s outhwards. I f N ero d id p lan a g reat e xpedition i nvolv ing t he s ource o f t he N ile a nd t he ' Caspian G ates', t hen a c ombination o f r ivalry myth a nd g eographical myth would h elp u s t o u nderstand w hat m ight o therwise b e d ismissed a s l unacy . O f c ourse, i t would b e q uite u nfounded - e ven r idiculous - t o a rgue t hat R oman c ampaigns were r egularly i nspired, d riven a nd d irected o nly b y myth. I t i s q uite e vident, f or e xample, i n t he c ases o f P ompey a nd N ero t hat o ther f actors were a lso a t work. B efore t oo l ong, t hese w ill b e d iscussed a t l ength e lsewhere. T he p oint i s t hat myth d id p lay a p art. We d o n ot h ave t he q uantity o r q uality o f i nformation c losely t o a ssess h ow g reat a p art myth p layed i n most c ases: t he c ase o f Aelius Gal l us i s a n e xception i n t hat r espect. I t may r easonably b e s upposed t hat t he r ole o f m yth v aried g reatly i n i mportance f rom o ne s ituation t o a nother o ver t ime a nd s pace. Y et, f or a ll t hat, t here i s s urely e nough a ncient e vidence t o c onfirm w hat c omparative e vid ence s uggests - t hat, i n g eneral, m yth i n i ts v arious f orms was c entral t o t he d ynamics o f i mperialism . I t was c entral t o t he p rocess o f e xploration a nd c onquest a nd a lso t o t he a dministrat ion, c ohesion a nd j ustification o f t he i mperial world t hereby c reated. A cknow ledgement I t i s ap leasure t o a cknowledge t he s upport g iven t o my w ork o n t he a ncient C aucasus b y t he Marjory Wärdrop F und o f t he O riental I nstitute, Oxford. B ibliography 1 976

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5 . WH AT HAPPENED AT HATRA? PR OBLE M OF THE SEVERAN SI E GE

OPERATI ONS

D uncan B . Campbell G lasgow T he S everan s ieges o f H atra a s d escribed b y Cassius D io a nd Herodian r aise a n umber o f p oints o f i nterest i n t he f ield o f R oman military s tudies. Above a ll, t he a pparent f ailure o f t he S everan s iege operations r eq uires e xplanation. Of c rucial importance t o t his i s t he p roblem o f t he d istribution o f b ooty i n t he Roman i mperial a r my: t he emperor's r eluctance t o s hare t he s poils o f c onquest w ith h is t roops h as b een s een a s t he u nderlying r eason f or h is w ithdrawal f rom H atra ( extrap olated f rom Cassius D io LXXV 1 2). I n t he f ollowing p aper, an a ttempt w ill b e made t o d iscuss t his a nd o ther r elated t opics. One o f t hese, t he c omposition o f t he besieging f orce, h as r ecently b een t ouched u pon i n p rint ( Speidel 1 984) . H owever, t he w ider r epercussions o f Speidel's t hesis h ave n ot s o f ar b een a ppreciated; i n particular, t he l ikelihood o f S everus' a r my having c omprised o nly S yrian t roops. I n e xploring t hese t opics, i t i s h oped t hat a g reater i nsight i nto t he S everan s iege-operations may b e a chieved .

We a re s ingularly f ortunate t o h ave X iphilinus ' e pitome o f D io 's Roman H istory. A lthough s everal a ncient a uthorities c hronicle t he S econd P arthian War o f S eptimius S everus, o nly t hree m ention h is a tte mpt o n t he c ity o f H atra; o f t hese, o nly D io mentions t hat h e a ttacked t he c ity t wice .' F or a d etailed s tudy o f t hese e vents, t hen, o ur s ources d o n ot i nspire c onfidence. N everthel ess, t he b asic o utline c an b e d educed . F irst, t he d ating . A t o ne e nd, a t er minus i s p rovided b y t he s ack o f C tesiphon ( Dio L XXV .9 .4) o n J anuary 2 8, A D 1 98, a ccording t o t he F eriale D uranum ( I 1 4-16 = F ink 1 971: 4 23-4); a t t he o ther e nd, b y S everus's v isit t o E gypt ( Dio LXXV.13.1) e arly i n t he f ollow ing y ear ( Hannestad, 1 944: 2 22). T hus, t he c hronology i s c lear, i f l ess t han r efined. S everus ' t wo a ttempts o n H atra must b e p laced i n AD 1 98. H is f irst a ttack i s d escribed t ersely: ' he a ccomplished n othing ' ( Dio L XXV.10.1), p erhaps d ue t o b ad p lanni ng . A fter a n u nspecified i nterval, S everus r eturned t o b esiege t he c ity. I n t he i nteri m, h e h ad p repared q uantities o f p rov isions a nd s iege-engines; t his was t o b e a n a ltogether more o rganised a ffair. Y et t he o utcome was t he s ame: ' he l ost a

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g reat d eal o f m oney a nd a ll o f h is w ar-machines .—not t o m ention m any s oldiers ' ( Dio L XXV .11.1). H atra r emained i ntact. C learly, t he H atreni w ere a w orthy e nemy, t enacious i n d efence o f t heir c ity a nd w ell-equipped f or w ar . S everus m ust h ave h ad g ood r eason t o p rovoke t heir e nmity . T he s trategic l ocation o f t heir c ity may b e s uggested . S tanding o n t he m ain n orth-south a rtery o f Mesopotamia, H atra c ommanded t he r outes f rom C tesiphon a nd t he P ersian G ulf t o S ingara a nd t he R oman Empire; o nly t he E uphrates r oad b y-passed t he c ity. I t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he H atreni d erived g reat w ealth f rom t he c aravan t rade ( Raschke 1 978 : 6 43) . H atra's r ole, h owever, s urpassed t hat o f a n e mporium . A rdashir, f irst o f t he S asanians, a llegedly a i med t o e xploit h er a s a f orward p osition f or r aiding R oman t erritory ( Dio LXXX .3.2), a l atter-day e piteichismos. I n t he e vent, i t was t he Romans who s ucceeded i n e stablishing s uch a b ase, w ith t he d eployment o f a n a uxiliary c ohort h ere a round AD 2 40 ( Mar i cq 1 957: 2 89). T he p osition w as p otentially o f s ome i mportance t o b oth s ides; t hat m uch i s c lear. H owever, a t H atra, p olitics r ather t han s trategy w ere u ppermost i n S everus ' m ind . O ur a uthority i s t he g enerally u nreliable H erodian: h e a lleges, more t han o nce, t hat t he k ing o f H atra h ad s upplied t roops t o S everus ' r ival, P escennius N iger ( 111.1.3; 5 .1; 9 .1). R eason e nough f or t he v indictive emperor, a s o ther i nstances s how ( SHA , S ev. I X .4-8; XV ' .4). S o m uch f or t he c asus b elli; w hat o f t he s iege i tself? T his s econd s iege i s s omething o f a n e nigma , n ot l east b ecause i t w as a bandoned a fter o nly t wenty d ays ( Dio L XXV .13 .1) . T he R oman a rmy c ould c ertainly p erform s ome r emarkable f eats o f m ilitary e ngineering o n o ccasion, b ut t o h ave e xpected v ictory a fter s o s hort a s iege s eems o verly o pti mistic. V aluable c omparative m aterial may b e g leaned f rom J osephus: a t J erusalem, f or i ns tance, T itus' a rmy s pent f ifteen d ays c apturing t he o uter most w all; t he c ity i tself f inally f ell a fter a g ruelling f ive-month s iege ( BJ. V .7.2 ( 299-302); 8 .1-2 ( 331-347); V I.10.1 ( 435)). D io's f ear t hat a l engthy a ction d emoral i sed t he a rmy ( Di9 L XV.5.4) s eems o verstated i f n ot u nfounded . T he S everan b lockade o f P escennius N iger 's h eadquarters a t B yzantium i nvites c omparis on; t here t he o perations d ragged o n f or a l most t hree y ears ( Dio 4XX IV.12.1). A p rotracted s iege i ndeed, b ut t o n o o bvious d etrim ent. C learly, a t wenty-day s iege n eed n ot h ave b een a g reat h ardship: o ther f actors w ere s urely a t w ork . I n t his r egard, t he t opography o f H atra d emands c omment. A lt hough t he i nhabitants h ad p lentiful d rinking w ater f rom wells a nd a r eservoir w ithin t he c ity, o utside was b arren d esert. A gain, c omparison p roves f ruitful, t his t i me w ith t he c elebrated s iege o f M asada . H ere t oo, t he d esert p resented p roblems: ' not o nly w ere s upplies c onveyed f rom a d istance — .but e ven w ater h ad t o b e b rought' ( Joseph., B J. V II.8 .2 ( 278)). N evertheless, F lavius S ilva was a ble t o b ring t he a ction t o a s uccessful c onc lusion . B ut t he p arallel c annot b e p ressed: a t H atra, p roblems n ot o nly o f s upply a nd f orage b ut o f d isease s upervened; t he u nhealthy c li mate o f t he r egion a dvised a s hort s tay ( Dio L XVIII.31.1-2; H erodian 11.9.6).

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S everus was w ithin s ight o f h is g oal w hen h e c onceded d efeat. H e h ad b reached t he v ery walls o f H atra, a s h ad T rajan b efore h i m, a nd t he r iches o f t he c ity were a l most h is f or t he t aking . D io o ffers a r ather l ame e xcuse: ' he e xpected t he A rabians t o c ome t o t er ms' ( Dio L XXV .12.2). T raditionally, i t i s s upposed t hat S everus f eared t he l oss o f H atra 's t reasure i f h is s oldiers w ere a llowed t o p lunder a t w ill ( Platnauer 1 918: 1 21; D ebevoise 1 938 : 2 61). I ndeed, i t h as e ven b een a sserted t hat ' the p rizes o f a ssault went t o t he s oldiers, b ut t hose o f s urrender, f or which S everus h oped, t o t he c ommander ' ( Colledge 1 967: 1 69), p araphrasi ng t he w ords o f n o l ess a n a uthority t han T acitus: ' expugnatae u rbis p raedam a d m i Ii tem, d editae a d d uces p ertinere' ( Hist. 11.19). B ut i s t his r eally w hat T acitus m eans? A c ursory e nquiry i nto t he t heme o f p lundering i s d emanded. N otices o f t he t aking o f b ooty b y i mperial t roops a re n ot u nc ommon i n o ur s ources . T he m echanics o f t he s ystem , o n t he o ther h and, a re n ot a t a ll c lear: h ow t he b ooty was a ccumulated a nd d istributed r emains l argely u nknown . We m ust r esort t o P olybius f or a n e xplicit s tatement: ' all t hose w ho h ave b een d etailed t o c ollect p lunder b ring i t b ack, e ach man t o h is own l egion ' ( Hist. X .16.4). S uch b ooty was t he p roperty o f t he g eneral t o d o w ith a s h e s aw f it; o ther i nstances d emonstrate t he r ule ( Shatzman 1 972: 2 02-4). S o f ar, t he R epublic. U nder t he P rincipate, t wo i mportant c hanges w ere i ntroduced . F irst, s upreme i mperium w as n ow h eld b y t he emperor, a nd l egati e ngaged i n warfare were h enceforth o perating u nder h is a uspices . S econdly, t he c reation o f t he a erarium m ilitare a nd t he i nstitution o f r egular p ay r eplaced t he s oldiers' e ntitlement t o a s hare o f t he b ooty. T o b e s ure, i t i s i nconceivable t hat s oldiers i nvolved i n l ooting w ould n ot a ppropriate c ertain s mall i tems f or t hemselves, y et t he s poils o f war b elonged t o t he emperor a s c ommander-in-chief. A gain we may l ook t o J osephus f or c orroboration: a fter t he d estruction o f J erusalem, T itus a rranged f or t he b ulk o f t he c aptured g oods t o b e t ransported t o C aesarea Maritima, o bviously f or s hipment t o R ome ( BJ V II.1.3 ( 20)). T he i mmediate d estinat ion o f s uch t reasure was t he t riumphal p rocession ( Eä V II.5.5 ( 132-150)). L ater c onverted i nto b ullion, i t c ould b e s pent i n a ny n umber o f w ays a t t he emperor 's d iscretion . O ne e xample w ill . s uffice . T rajan d isplayed p lunder a t R ome ( Pliny, P an. XVII.13 ), f rom t he D acian wars, we may p resume ( Dio LXVIII.10.2; 1 4.45 ); t he p roceeds w ere s pent, a t l east p artly, o n b uilding a t R ome ( Gell., NA . X III.25 .1; 2 5 .28-30). T he t roops, h owever, d id n ot g o u nre warded ( Pliny, P an. XXV .2; c f. C ichorius 1 896-1900: p l. x xxiv). S uccessful w arfare e ntailed g enerous d onatives, p romot ion a nd t he b estowal o f d ona m i 1it ar i a ( Onasander, S trat. X XX IV.1-5). A fter t he f all o f J erusalem, f or i nstance, T itus r ewarded h is t roops w ith t he u sual m ilitary d ecorations, a nd e ven d istributed ' out o f t he p lunder, s ilver, g old, a nd c lothing, a s w ell a s many o ther v aluables' ( Joseph., B J V II.1.3 ( 15)). R eturning t o T acitus, i t i s c lear t hat t here was a c hoice t o b e m ade b y t he F lavians b efore C remona i n A D 6 9 ( Hist. 11.19). I t i s e qually c lear t hat t he t roops s tood t o b enefit b y e ither c ourse . T he c hoice was b et ween t aking t he p lunder b y f orce, o r

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b y n egotiation; s oldiers n aturally f avoured t he f or mer. O f c ourse, d iscretion s hould b e e xercised when g eneralising f rom m ilitary p rocedure i n t his y ear o f a narchy . D iscipline h ad g iven w ay t o g reed a nd l icence . T acitus i s o utraged a nd c ritical: t he t urbulent s oldiery ' praemia q uam s tipendia malebar ( Hist. 1 .5 0. Y et t he e xceptional e vents o f A D 6 9 p rove t he g eneral r ule : t he r ewards w ere g iven b y t he emperor, n ot t aken b y t he t roops . T o c ontinue, i t h as b een a lleged t hat, a t H atra, S everus h oped f or s urrender; o nly t hus c ould h e e njoy t he r iches o f H atra f or h imself. T his i s p atently f alse. T he R oman a rmy was b uilt o n s trict d iscipline; i ndiscri minate l ooting was n ot t he n atural c oncom itant o f c onquest. A gain, J osephus p rovides c onfirmation: w hen T iberias c apitulated i n AD 6 7, V espasian ' ordered [ the s oldiers] t o r efrain f rom l ooting a nd v iolence ' ( B3 11.9.8 ( 461)). O ther i nstances may b e c ited. A s a d emonstration o f dementia, C aesar 's t roops w ere f orbidden t o p lunder t he l ands o f t he B ituriges i n 5 1 BC ; a s c ompensation, t hey were e ach g ranted a d onative o f 2 00 H S ' praedae n omine ' ( B . Gall. V III.4). T he e xample o f S everus h i mself may b e a dduced. W hen h e s tor med C tesiphon, ' he s et t he s oldiers t o l oot t he whole p lace ' ( Dio L XXV.9.4; c f. H erodian 1 11.9.11). T here a re t wo i mplications. F irst, i t was S everus ' d ecision t o p lunder a nd, s econd, i t w as o n h is b ehalf t hat t hey p lundered, n ot f or t hemselves. H is b iog rapher, t oo, h as t he s tory; t here w as p erhaps a d onative d rawn f rom t he b ooty ( SHA , S ev. XVI.5). S o much f or t he d igression . R eturning t o H atra, S everus' w ithd rawal s till r equires e xplanation . T he t heory h as b een c anvassed t hat t he emperor c oncluded a t reaty w ith t he H atreni ( Rubin 1 975: 4 23-5). T he h ypothesis r ests o n t hree p oints. F irst, s uch a t reaty i s i mplied s ome f orty y ears l ater w ith t he s tationing o f R oman t roops i n t he t own ( 1 Vericq 1 957: 2 89-91); s econd, i t i s a rgued t hat H atra a ppears o n S everus' t riumphal a rch a t R ome ( Picard 1 962: 1 2; c ontra B rilliant 1 967: 1 73); a nd l ast, S everus a dvertised h is e xpedition a s a c omplete s uccess ( e .g . BMC V . 3 658 ). T hus, a p rime f acie c ase e xists f or a d iplomatic v ictory a t H atra; t here w as c ertainly n o m ilitary v ictory. H erodian's H atra n ow c ome t o t he f ore: t hat i t i s t he t win o f t he c ity d epicted o n p anel 4 o f t he A rch o f S everus c annot b e d enied; n either c an t he p robability t hat i ts o rigin l ies i n t he l atter: C learly t here i s a p roblem . N evertheless, t he f act t hat H atra f inds a p lace o n a t riumphal m onument, i f c onceded, c arries n o i mplications . T he s cene d epicts a s iege, n ot a c onquest . N or n eed t he R oman t reaty w ith H atra p re-date Caracalla, o r e ven S everus A lexander. F inally, t he p roclamation o f a v ictoria P art hica i s n ot i nconsistent w ith f ailure a t H atra; t he c ity was c learly i ndependent a lthough l ying w ithin t he P arthian o rbit. F urther, t he e astern t heatre w as s ufficiently d istant f rom R ome f or t he s uppression o f s uch a s etback t o b e a v iable c onsiderat ion; a c omment o f T acitus o n a s imilar o ccasion c onfirms ( Ann. X V.18). S o, t he e vidence f or a d iplomatic a rrangement i s f rag ile . I f S everus d id r each a greement w ith t he H atreni, t he a ncient h istorians k new n othing o f i t.

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S ilence i n t he s ources i s n o p roof. B ut t he o fficial motive f or a ttacking H atra s hould n ot b e f orgotten . A s s upporters o f P escennius N iger, t he H atreni h ad a ttracted t he w rath o f S everus. H is r uthlessness i n l iquidating N iger's p artisans e lsewhere s uggests t hat h e w ould h ave h ad n o q ual ms a bout r azing H atra ( SHA S ev . X V.4-6). Comparison w ith t he s i milarly d isposed O srhoene a dvises c aution: t he c ountry was a nnexed i n A D 1 95, y et a s omew hat r educed r egnum A bgari c ontinued i n e xistence a round E dessa, t he o ld c apital ( Wagner 1 983: 10). T here i s n o s ign o f s uch a s ituation a t H atra. I ndeed, a s traight f orward i nterpretation o f t he e vidence s uggests t hat t he H atreni r etained t heir i ndependence u ntil much l ater. N or n eed t he p roxi mity o f t he S everan f rontier h ave i mpaired h er a ctivit ies a s a t rading c entre. H atra h ad a l ways p ursued a p olicy o f s plendid i solation . I t i s u nlikely, t hen, t hat s he would h ave e ntered i nto c lientage w ith S everus, q 'ennemi d e H atra ' ( Maricq 1 957: 2 92). O ur e nquiry r everts t o t he t ext o f X iphilinus; a n i nteresting i tem i s p reserved , n amely t he m utiny o f a b ody o f t roops w hom t he h istorian c alls ' Europaeans' ( Cass. D io LXXV .12.3). T he s cenario i s c lear e nough: t he mutineers w ere s oldiers f rom t he West, t he o thers S yrians ( Platnauer 1 918: 1 21). T hus, t he t raditional r endering o f t he t ext ( Cary 1 927: 2 23) . H owever, a r ecent t heory p roposes t hat t he G reek i s b etter r endered ' the E uropaeans...and t he o ther S yrians' ( Speidel 1 984: 3 07). S peidel i dentifies t he f ormer a s a n e lite u nit o f S yrian t roops f rom D ura E uropos; a n e xtensively r estored i nscription ( AE 1 934 : 278) i s p ressed i nto s ervice t o d emonstrate t hat t his was, i ndeed, what t he D ura g arrison c alled i tself ( Speidel 1 984: 3 03-4). H owever, X iphili nus ' t ext i s p roblematic a nd d efies a ny d efinitive t ranslation: t he c ase i s, a t b est, u nproven. O ne o ther p iece o f e vidence i s m arshalled . S peidel a sserts t hat t he c oncept o f aE uropean, a s o pposed t o a n O riental, a r my d ates f rom t he d ivision o f t he e mpire i n t he l ate t hird c entury, a nd n o e arlier ( 1984: 3 06) . . B ut e vidence t o t he c ontrary i s n ot f ar t o s eek . We n eed l ook n o f urther t han H erodian f or r efutation: h e was well aware o f t he j uxtaposition o f E urope a nd Asia ( IV.3.5-6; c f. Tac., Ann. X II.63). [ See K ennedy*]. — T his i s n ot t he e nd o f t he matter. T he t heory h as w ider r eperc ussions n ot d iscussed b y S peidel: i n p articular, t he a bsence o f w estern t roops i n S everus ' t ask-force . N ow , t he a rmy o f S yria i s t raditionally s een a s a n i ll-disciplined f orce, f or v arious r easons ( MacMul l en 1 963: 7 7-8; Watson 1 969: 1 19); b y c ontrast, S everus ' E uropean t roops h ad b een c ampaigning s uccessfully f or s ome y ears. C ommon s ense would h ave a dvised t he s election o f e xperienced a nd b attle-tried m en t o e nsure s uccess a t H atra, a nd w hom b etter t han t he Moesian c ontingent w ho h ad r ecently r educed B yzantium ( Cass. D io LXXIV, 1 0.1-14.1; I LS 2 935)? T o r esume . I t i s c lear t hat t he m utiny was t he u ltimate c ause o f f ailure ( Cass. D io L XXV .12.4). F or P arker, t his was s ymptomatic o f t he g eneral s lackening o f m ilitary d iscipline: ' we h ear o f

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n ot i nfrequent r evolts...and t he p acification o f t he r estive t roops b y l arge d onatives' ( 1958: 8 7). T his c annot b e s ubstant iated . I ndeed, P arker c an c ite o nly t wo m utinies, b oth p roducts o f c ircumstance a nd i n n o w ay i ndicative o f g eneral i ndiscipline . C ertainly, t he s oldiers were w ell o ff u nder S everus; t hat much m ust b e c onceded. B ut i t was a ll t hat t hey d eserved: t he p ay r ise was t he f irst i n o ver a c entury, a nd h is d onatives were c orrespondingly moderate. T hen w hy t he mutiny? S everus h ad c alled h is s oldiers b ack f rom t he b rink o f v ictory; s uch i s t he t raditional v iew . R ather a n u nlikely c ause f or m utiny, n onethel ess. S i milar m ismanagement, t his t i me b y T itus d uring t he b itter s iege o f J erusalem , d id n ot p rovoke s uch a n e xtreme r eact ion ( Joseph., B J V .8.1 ( 331-42)). T here i s a b etter e xplanat ion. A gain X iphilinus p reserves a n i nteresting d etail, a nd a s inister o ne: t he e xecution o f J ulius L aetus ( Cass. D io L XXV .10.3). A s a c ause o f mutiny, t he u nprovoked k illing o f t he h ero o f L ugdunum a nd N isibis h as b een n eglected ( Whittaker 1 969: 3 20 n .1). L aetus ' p opularity w ith t he t roops c annot b e o ver-estimated: t he s oldiers u sed t o s ay t hat t hey w ould n ot t ake t he f ield u nless h e l ed t hem . T his r eport b ecomes a ll t he more p oignant i n t he p resent c ircumstances. T he t roops ' r efusal o f t he o rder t o a dvance f alls i nto p lace; s imilarly, S everus ' l ater r epentance o f t he d eed ( SHA , S ev. XV .6). U nderstandably, i f i t h ad c ost h im t he t reasures o f H atra . T o c onclude t he matter. S everus ' s iege o perations a t H atra p resent a p erplexing p roblem . H ard f act s tands i n s hort s upply; c onjecture c annot b e e vaded. T he i nsalubrious d esert a nd t he m utinous t roops, b oth a re r elevant: t he s a me c ombination o f f actors i s o ffered, w ith n ew emphases. I n t he f inal a nalysis, i t m ust b e a dmitted t hat w e s hall p robably n ever k now p recisely w hat h appened a t H atra. N ote 1 . Out o f a h alf-dozen o r s o a ccounts, o nly Cassius D io ( LXVIII.31.2; L XXV .10 .1-13 .1), H erodian ( 111.9.3-8), a nd Ammianus M ärcellinus ( XXV .8.5) mention S everus a t H atra; t he e pisode i s om itted f rom t he P arthian War n arrative b y t he l ate b iographer o f S everus ( SHA ,Sev. 1 5-16). A ccording t o B rilliant ( 1967: 1 73 n .19), ' the f arther away f rom e vents t he w riter, t he c loser h e a dheres t o t he o fficial h istory w hich w ould c ertainly h ave p layed d own S ept i mius' f ailure t o t ake t he c ity'; a n o bservation w hich f ails t o t ake A r mianus i nto a ccount .

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6 .

ROMAN, PARTHI AN AND SASS ANI D TACTI CAL DEVEL OP MENTS Coulston N ewcastle

T he e astern f rontiers o f t he R oman Empire were a p artic ularly i mportant s phere o f i nteraction w ith o pposed t actical s ystems q uite u nlike t hose t he Romans met e lsewhere . T he u se o f h eavily a r moured, l ance a nd b ow a rmed c avalry b y A siatic a nd Mesopotamian a dversaries p osed s pecific p roblems o f o ffence a nd d efence which n ecessitated t he modification a nd s upplementation o f t raditional Roman s ystems. To b e p roperly u nderstood t hese d evelopments must b e v iewed i n t heir w idest h ist orical context, w ith t he e xamination o f c omparative p ractices o f t he H ellenistic a nd more r ecent p eriods. S pecific f orms o f e quipment w ill b e c losely e xamined, w ith r egard b oth t o t heir r egional u sage a nd t o t heir t actical a pplication.

T he m aterial f rom w hich a ncient t actical s ystems m ust b e r econs tructed i s b ewilderingly v aried a nd o ften q uite d eficient. R el iefs o f k ings, f or e xample, a re n ot p erhaps t he b est p ictorial s ource f rom w hich t o g eneralise . A rchaeological s mall-finds f rom t he R oman E ast, w ith t he s ignal e xception o f t he D ura-Europos a ssemblage, a re r are i n t he e xtreme. Ancient h istorians o ften w rote a t s econd h and w ithout r eal i nterest o r u nderstanding i n m ilitary a ffairs, t hough t here w ere e xceptional m en l ike A rrian, Am i l ianus a nd P rocopius. T he s urvival o f t actical manuals i s particularly f ortunate b ut t he s uspicion t hat t hese may r epresent t he i deal r ather t han t he r ealistic n or ms i n e quipment i nvites c aution . Modern c ommentators h ave o ften s tudied a ncient w arfare w ithout t he g rasp o f m ilitary a ffairs a nd p racticalities a cquired b y t he p ursuit o f a b roadly d iachronic a pproach . T he d rawing o f h istorical p arallels must, h owever, f ollow a d elicate c ourse, r un a long t he f irm g round o f t rue t ypology a nd c omparison, a voiding t he s hifting s ands o f s uperficially a ttractive s i milarity . A ll t actical d evelopments a re i nevitably l inked w ith c hanges i n a rmour a nd weaponry ( Chandler 1 976: 1 44) b ut t he c hanges w ith r egard t o a ncient p ractices a re o ften s low a nd d ifficult t o t race i n d etail. C onflict b etween t actical s ystems i s o ften t he c atal yst o f c hange a nd i t i s i mpossible t o s tudy o ne s ystem i n c omp lete i solation . T his p aper c annot h ope t o b e a f ull d escription O f t he Roman, P arthian a nd S assanid ' Art o f War ' b ut t wo a reas o f

5 9

c entral i mportance may b e e xamined w ith r eference t o t he R oman d efence o f t he E ast. T hese a re L T he e quipment a nd r ole o f a rmoured c avalry a nd I. T he m ilitary i nfluence o f s teppe c ultures o n t he t actical s ystems o f t he R oman Empire a nd i ts e astern o pponents. I n c onclusion s ome a ttempt w ill b e made t o c haracterise t he s ystems o f t he r eg ion i n q uestion . I .

A rmoured c avalry

C avalry m ay b e c lassified b y t heir w eaponry a nd b y t heir a rmour, b oth d ictating a nd d ictated t o b y t heir t actical f unction. J os ephus a nd A rrian s uggest t hree m ain t ypes i n R oman s ervice: s pear a nd/or j avelin a nd s hield a rmed , l ance a rmed a nd b ow a rmed ( Joseph., B J 11.5 .5 ( 96); A rrian, E k . XXI). T he f irst o f t hese w as a s pecifically western t ype e xploiting t he s kills o f t he N um idian, Gallic, I berian a nd T hracian a uxilia f amiliar f rom g ravestone r epresentations ( Schl i ermacher 1 984). T hese would h ave b een p articularly v aluable i n d ealing w ith e nemy h orsea rchers. L ance a rmed c avalry w ere a dopted a s a r esult o f S armat ian c ontacts o n t he D anube a nd p resumably t hrough e xperience o f o riental c avalry p ractices. H orse-archers were s upplied b y c lient k ings a nd many, i f n ot most, o riental a uxiliary u nits c omprised o f a rchers, R oman f orces t aking a dvantage o f t he c ultural b ackground o f t he S yrian a nd A rabian p rovinces i n t his r espect. T he n ecessity f or t hese t roops i s c lear w hen P arthian a nd S assanid a rmies w ere f aced ( Coulston 1 985: 2 93f.) . I n t he 1 st-2nd c enturies A D a uxiliary c avalry would f or t he m ost p art h ave worn n ormal R oman e quipment o f l orica s quamata o r h amata . S ymmachiarii would h ave r etained t heir n ative d ress. H owever, s ome u nits d escribed b y A rrian w ere e quipped w ith f ull a rmour f or h orse a nd man ( Tact. I V ). T his r eflects t he i nfluence o f, a nd c onflict w ith, A r menian a nd P arthian c ataphracts w hich w ould h ave b een s uperior t o t he o ther R oman c avalry t ypes i n m elee s ituations ( et P lut., C rass. XXV; Z os., H ist. N ova 1 .50). T hroughout t he p eriod b efore H unnic c ontacts Roman a r mies were p rimarily i nfantry-based, c avalry b eing u sed i n a f lanking s upport r ole i n b attle. I n t he 3 rd c entury AD c avalry was u sed m ore e xtensively f or f rontier d efence a nd r eserve m obility b ut e ven t he 4 th c entury b attles d escribed b y Ammianus were w on o r l ost b y t he i nfantry ( XVI.12.42-56; XXV .6.1-3; XXXI.13.1-8). C ommencing i n t he 4 th c entury, b ut a ccelerating i n t he 5 th-6th c enturies, t he s hock o f s teppe n omad c onflicts c aused a s hift o ver t o a r eliance u pon c avalry a s t he p rimary t actical a rm w ith i nfantry i n a s upporting ( and s ometi mes u nreliable) r ole. T he a rmoured, b ow a nd l ance a rmed c avalryman d escribed b y P rocopius c orresponds w ith t he P ar t ho-Sassanid a nd s teppe t ypes o f h eavy c avalry ( Proc., Wars 1 .1.12-3). T he P artho-Sassanid f orces were f or c ultural, e cological a nd s ociological r easons c omposed t hroughout t he p eriod p rimarily o f c avalry . T hese were d ivisible i nto t wo t ypes: l ight h orsea rchers a nd a r moured, l ance a nd b ow a r med t roops. T he f ormer f ulfilled a s kir mish, ambush, h arass a nd s creen f unction i n s upport o f t he c ataphracts. T he l atter wore v arying amounts o f

6 0

e xpensive a rmour a nd were c omposed o f men o f h igher s ocial s tatus a nd wealth. T his c ombination o f l ight a nd h eavy c avalry was e stablished i n t he Ir ano-Mesopotamian r egion a t t he o pening o f t he P arthian p eriod a s a r esult o f s teppe i nvasion a nd c ontinued t hrough, w ith p eriodic n omadic i ncursions, i nto t he 1 8th c entury A D ( Dio XL.15; H erodian I V.15.1-2; Amm . Marc. XXV .1.2; Tarn 1 930: 7 3f; R ubin 1 955; K hazanov 1 984: 2 83). T he P artho-Sassanid a rmies e volved t actically v ery l ittle o ver t he p eriod, u nlike t he R oman a rm ies which were a ble t o e volve a r mament a nd t actics t o s uit d ifferent a dversaries. S teppe c ontacts d id, h owever, i nfluence S assanid s word-suspension methods, a rmour a nd a rchery e quipment ( Trousdale 1 975: c hap. 4 ; Overlaet 1 982; Coulston 1 985: 2 73f). S assanid a r mies, u nlike P arthian f orces, were c apable o f c apt uring c ities, p artly p erhaps b ecause o f c hanging m ilitary a ims, b ut m ainly a s a r esult o f t he i nfluence o f R oman s iege t echnology ( Tac . Ann. XV.4; H erodian 1 11.4.7-9; Amm . Marc. X IX .2-8; XX .6; V egetius I II.10). G reater u se was made o f i nfantry f or m issile s upport a nd s iege manpower ( Amm . Marc. X IX .5. 1 ; XXIII.6.83; XXIV.4.16). K ushan c onflicts e ncouraged t he u se o f war-elephants w hich were n ot u sed b y P arthian a r mies i n s ignificant n umbers ( Julian, O r. I . 6 3B; 6 5C ; Amm . Marc. X IX .2.3; 7 .6; XXV .6.1-3; Z os . 1 11.30). T he e ffectiveness o f a ncient h eavy c avalry h as o ften b een d oubted b y m odern c ommentators d espite i ts c hronologically l ong a nd g eog raphically w ide c urrency . T his d oubt i s b ased p ri marily o n t he l ack o f s tirrups a nd t he p utative a bsence o f p roper s addles o r s ufficiently l arge h orse b reeds ( Rostovtzeff 1 936: 4 46, n .17; A dcock 1 957: 4 9f; W hite 1 962: 8 f.; E adie 1 967: 1 62f; T omlin 1 981: 2 57). H ow e ffective t hen w ere t he c ataphracts which f ormed t he c ore o f P artho-Sassanid a rmies a nd which p layed a n i ncreasingly i mportant p art i n R oman f orces? T his q uestion may b e a nswered b y a n e xamination o f c avalry e quipment a nd weapons. S tirrups were a E urasian n omad i nnovation i ntroduced t o t he T 'ang C hinese b y t he T urks a nd t o t he West p robably b y t he A vars; t heir a bsence b efore t he l ater 6 th c entury AD i s u ndisputed ( Bivar 1 955; 1 972: 2 86f.). H owever, t he d ebi Iit at i ng e ffects o f t heir l ack h ave b een b adly e xaggerated . R iders t rained f rom c hildhood . would h ave d eveloped t heir l eg m usculature a ccordingly a nd m odern c avalry a re t rained t o r ide w ithout s tirrups, p artly t o s i mulate t heir l oss i n b attle. T his r esults i n l ittle l oss o f h orse c ontrol o r l ack o f s tability i f a s addle i s u sed. I t was p rec isely b ecause X enophon 's c avalrymen were r iding o n b lankets o r b are-back t hat h e p aints s uch a p icture o f i nstability ( Horsemans hip

V II.5).

W hilst i t i s t rue t hat t he h ighly d eveloped H igh Medieval ' jousti ng ' s addles d id n ot e xist i n t he Roman p eriod t here i s ample p ictorial a nd a rchaeological e vidence f or e fficient s addles. R oman g ravestones, P arthian t erracottas a nd P al myrene s culptures i n p articular d epict s addle h orns g iving g ood s upport t o t he b ase o f t he s pine a nd f or t he t highs ( de N oettes 1 931: 2 16-30; G hirshman 1 975). R ecent r econstruction work o n t he R oman V alkenb urg s addle h as d emonstrated t he s urprisingly h igh e fficiency o f

6 1

t he h orns which e nable t he r ider t o l ean r ight o ut t o s pear o r s lash a t o pponents l ow o n t he g round a nd o n e ither s ide. T he h orns o ver t he t highs i n p articular a ct j ust l ike s tirrups ( Connolly 1 986 f orth., a nd p ers. c omm .). T he r ider i s i n n o way d iscommoded b y t he l ack o f s tirrups i n t he u se o f s pear, s word o r b ow ( Coulston 1 985: 2 92). T he v iew t hat h orses employed b y R oman c avalry were s mall, l ittle m ore t han p onies, b ased u pon a rtistically s caled-down h orses o n g ravestones a nd T rajan's Column, i s e xaggerated ( Richmond 1 968: 8 3; Webster 1 969: 1 51). T he S assanid r ock r eliefs d epict l arge a nd p owerful h eavy c avalry h orses a nd s keletal r emains f rom R oman s ites s uch a s N ewstead a nd V indonissa i ndicate t he p resence o f s erviceably l arge c avalry h orses ( Curie 1 911: 3 71; E ngels 1 978: 1 27f; L uff 1 982: 2 52-8). When t he K refeld-Gel l ep AD 6 9 war c emetery i s p roperly p ublished i t w ill a dd a g reat d eal t o t he e vidence f or h orse s izes ( Luff 1 982: 2 56). Nevertheless, t he s upply o f h eavy c avalry h orses h as b een a p roblem i n a ll h istoric al p eriods ( Creel 1 965; D avies 1 969; S inor 1 977). A r moured h orses p robably c ollapsed a s much b ecause o f h eat e xhaustion a s d ue t o e ncumberance ( Zos., 1 .50; Amm . Marc., XVI.12.38). I ronic ally, t he h eaviest h orse a r mours d eveloped i n h ot e cological z ones. T he l iterature d ealing w ith t he d evelopment o f h eavy c avalry a rmour i s e xtensive a nd a r ehearsal o f i ts h istory i s u nnecessary h ere ( Tarn 1 930: 7 3f; R ostovtzeff e t a l. 1 936: 4 44-9; R ubin 1 955; White 1 962: 8 ; B ernard 1 964; Gamber 1 964; 1 968; E adie 1 967; H offmann 1 969: 2 65-7; B ivar 1 972: 2 76-81; Maenchen-Hel f en 1 973: 2 41-53; Haldon 1 975; S peidel 1 984). I n r egions d ominated b y a rchery, u nprotected h orses would h ave b een s tung b y a rrows, c ausing t hem t o p anic a nd b ecome u nmanageable, b reaking u p t he c ohesion o f c avalry f ormations b y b ridling, b ucking a nd b olting . H orse a r mour d eveloped e arly a nd c ontinued i n u se t hrough i nto m odern t i mes. U nfortunately i t i s r arely d epicted i n t he R oman p eriod b ecause Roman s oldiers o ften a ppeared i n ' undress' u niform w ithout a rmour; a nd i n B osphoran, P arthian a nd S assanid a rt i t i s p redominantly s cenes o f t he h unt a nd h igh c eremony w hich s urvive . T he d egree o f c overage f or man a nd h orse i n P artho-Sassanid a rm ies p resumably d epended u pon a n i ndividual's p ersonal w ealth a nd s ocial s tatus, whereas i n t he R oman f orces e quipment was i ssued w ith s ome d egree o f f unctional u niformity . I n a ll a rmies a g reat v ariety o f m aterials a nd s tyles must h ave b een i n c ontemp oraneous u se. P arthian r eliefs s uggest f elt, q uilted f abric, m etallic s cale o r l eather/horn s cale h orse a r mour w ith s cale, s plint a nd s egmental p late f or t he r ider ( Tolstov 1 962: f ig. 8 2; G hirshman 1 962: p l. 6 9; P ugachenkova 1 971: p l. 6 1-2, 1 28). T he D ura a rmoured l ancer g raffito s uggests metallic s cale h orse a rm our i n a ccord w ith t he b ronze a nd i ron s cale t rappers f rom T ower 1 9 ( Ghi r shman 1 962: p l. 6 3C ; Rostovtzeff e t a l. 1 936: p l. XXIXXII). T he man may w ear a mail a ventail which p oints t owards t he F iruzabad r ock r elief w ith t he v ictorious S assanids i n l ongs leeved mail c orselets, s egmental l eg a rmour a nd f abric o r m etal b reast p lates ( Pl. 6 .2; Ghirshman 1 962: p l. 1 63-6). T he h orses o n t his r elief a nd o n t he N aqsh-i-Rustam p anels a lso h ave f abric

6 2

h orse h ousings i n a ccord w ith Ammianus ' d escription ( Bivar 1 972: p l. 1; Amm . Marc . X XIV .6.8). A nother D ura g raffito, d epicting a c ataphract a rcher, s hows a c learly s eparate p eytral w hich h angs d own l ower t han t he t rapper ( Rostovtzeff e t a l. 1 952: f ig. 6 ; c f R obinson 1 967: f ig. 8 1). A p eytral c ould b e worn w ithout t he t rapper a s s een o n t he T aq-i-Bustan r ider r elief ( Pl. 6 .1) a nd a s d escribed i n Maurice's S trategikon ( XI.2.7). T rends i n a r mour d evelopment may b e b roadly c haracterised o ver t he p eriod a s a l ong-ter m r eplacement o f s cale b y l amellar a r mour f or ms, t he l atter b eing t he s teppe t ype p ar e xcellance . L amellar i s s een o n t he T aq-i-Bustan r elief a nd a l arge a rticulated p iece h as b een f ound a t Kasr-i A bu N asr ( Houser 1 934: f ig. 1 1). Mail was t he p roduct o f s edentary s ocieties a nd f rom i ts C eltic o rigins i t p assed t o mass employ i n t he Roman a r my. I t e ntered western b arbarian a nd e astern n omad s ocieties i n t he f orm o f t rade g oods a nd b ooty. B y t he 3 rd c entury AD mail was i n I ranian u se a s t he F iruzabad r eliefs d emonstrate ( Pl. 6 .2). I n t he Roman s phere t here h as b een s ome d iscussion a bout t he d istinction b et ween c atafractarii a nd c libanarii. T he l atter t erm i s s pecifically r eferred t o a s a P ersian u sage ( SHA A lex. S ev . L VI.5; Amm . Marc . X VI.10 .8). R oman m ilitary t erms w ere v ery c hangeable b ut S peidel h as r ecently made s ome i nteresting c omm ents i n r elation t o a n i nscription f rom C laudiopolis ( Bithynia) w hich r efers t o a s ingle u nit w ith b oth t itles ( Speidel 1 984). H e p ostulates t hat ' catafractarii' r eferred g enerically t o a ny u nusually h eavily a r moured c avalry a nd t hat ' clibanarii', i n a ccordance w ith t he N otitia D ignitatum t itles, d enoted a s pecific ally Mesopotamian t ype . T he l atter i s l eft u ndefined b y S peidel b ut h e r ightly d oubts a s i mple a rmoured/unarmoured h orse d istinct ion . P erhaps t he c libanarii were b ow a nd l ance a rmed, w ith s ome h orse a rmour, whilst t he c atafractarii n ot o f t he o riental t ype w ere h eavily a rmoured men, s ome p erhaps o n a rmoured h orses, b ut w ith t he western c ombination o f s pear a nd s hield. T his would a ccord with o ne g ravestone r epresentation ( Schl i er macher 1 984: n o . 4 9). T he o ne a rea i n which t he l ack o f s tirrups may h ave r estricted a ncient c avalry p ractices was i n t he u se o f t he l ance b ut a gain t his c an b e e xaggerated. O ne e ffective m ethod o f employing t he l ance, p articularly a gainst mounted a nd a rmoured a dversaries, w as t o c ouch i t u nder o ne a r mpit s o t hat t he p oint c ould b e d extero usly"ai med a nd t he whole f orce a nd weight o f i mpact o f man a nd h orse was r igidly d elivered t o o ne p oint o n t he t arget. A s addle s upporting t he b ase o f t he s pine a nd a s traight, r igid p osture f or t he l egs, b raced b y t he s tirrups, was n ecessary t o p revent t he r ider t umbling b ack o ver t he h orse 's h indquarters b ecause t he f orce o f i mpact was e xerted h igh u p o n t he r ider's b ody. F or o bvious r easons t here i s n o e vidence t hat t his method was a ttempted i n t he a ncient p eriod b ut t o c ondemn a ncient l ancers a s i neffective b ecause o f t his i s t o f orget t hat c ouching was n ot t he o nly m ethod o f l ancing u se . I t i s most s ignificant t hat t he a doption o f c ouching was n ot c ontemporaneous w ith t he i ntrod uction o f s tirrups, a s s i mplistic v iews o f ' technical d etermini sm ' h ave s uggested ( White 1 962; b ut s ee S awyer a nd H ilton 1 963),

6 3

P l.

6 .1.

S assanid a rmoured, l ance a nd b ow a rmed h orseman, T aqi -Bustan, I ran ( after B ivar 1 972). N ote l a mellar h orse-armour, s hield, s addle a nd s teppe ' hourglass' q uiver.

P l.

6 .2.

C rown P rince S hapur u nhorsing a P arthian r ider, m iddle p air o f f igures, F iruzabad, I ran ( after G hirshman 1 962). N ote mail, f abric h orse-housing, s egmental l imb d efences a nd t he u se o f t he l ance a cross t he h orse 's n eck. 6 4

a nd t hat a lternative l ance methods c ontinued t o b e d epicted i n Central A sian p ictorial s ources t hrough t he Medieval p eriod ( Belenitzky 1 968: p l. 1 36-8). T he c ontinuous u se o f l ances b y c onsumately s killed E urasian h orsemen b y t hese m ethods i n i tself v indicates t hem . A ll H ellenistic p eriod d epictions o f l ances s how t hem b eing h eld i n o ne h and, u sually u nderar m, b ut n ot i n a c ouched p osition ( Markle 1 977: 3 33-6). N one s how i t u sed w ith t wo h ands a nd i t may b e a ssumed t hat a t t his p eriod t he l ance was a t hrusting w eapon r ather t han f or ' shock ' momentum b ecause p roper s addles h ad n ot y et b een d eveloped . A ll p ost-Hellenistic r epresentations o f l ances u sed i n c ombat s how t hem b eing c arried i n t wo h ands. T hey a re h eld h orizontally e ither o verar m o r u nderar m . T he l atter method i s d epicted w ith t he l ance a t waist l evel a long t he r ight s ide o f t he h orse 's n eck ( Rostovtzeff 1 913: p l. LXXVIII.1, L XXXVI II. 2; T olstov 1 962: f ig. 6 5; Ghirshman 1 962: p l. 1 22; K iechle 1 964: p l. 1 0; B elenitzky 1 968: p l. 3 4, 1 36-8) o r h eld d iagonally a cross t he b ack o f i ts n eck ( Pl. 6 .2; Ghirshman 1 962: p l. 6 9, 1 63, 2 20, 2 23; B ivar 1 972: p l. l a). B y g rasping t he s haft w ith b oth h ands, h unching f orward a nd b racing h is l egs, t he r ider was u nlikely t o b e u nhorsed o n i mpact i f h e h ad a g ood s addle. On t he D ura-Europos b attle f resco R oman r iders a re s een t umbling f rom t heir s addles o n t he p oints o f l ances w ielded i n t his way ( Goldman a nd L ittle 1 980: p l. I -VII). O n t he F iruzabad r eliefs h orses a re d epicted b eing b owled o ver b y t he i mpact ( Pl. 6 .2; Ghirshman 1 962: p l. 1 63, 1 66. S ee a lso p l. 1 56, 2 19-20). T he I sola R izza d ish d epicts a ( Lombard?) h orseman p iercing a n i nfantryman ( Roman?) a nd B osphoran f rescoes d epict t he method employed i n h unting ( von H essen 1 968: p l. 4 2; Rostovtzeff 1 913: p l. LX ) (XI X). A vitus i s r ecorded a s h aving k illed a H un b y p assi ng h is weapon t hrough t he man 's a rmoured f ront a nd b ack i n a way w hich s uggests a l ance i mpact ( Panygeric o n A vitus 2 89-92). A rrian t ook e xtraordinary measures i n d eepening h is l egionary l ine a nd g rading i ts s hafted weapons i n o rder t o w ithstand t he p hysical i mpact o f t he A lanic c harge ( Ek . X V-XVIII). T he t wo-handed method h ad i ts l i mitations, h owever, o ne o f w hich w as t he d ifficulty o f r ecovering t he l ance a fter i mpact a ssuming t hat i t h ad n ot s napped o r b een d ropped. T here i s a lso t he q uestion o f w hat w as d one w ith t he l ance s hould t he r ider w ish t o u se h is b ow o r f ind h i mself i n a melee where s horter w eapons w ere m ore a ppropriate. I n t his c onnection i t i s worth q uoting a n a ccount o f t he 1 7th L ancers a t U lundi d uring t he Z ulu War ( 1879) t o d emonstrate h ow m odern c avalry d ealt w ith t hese p roblems: I t was a r iding-school e xercise . H ardly b reaking f orm ation, t he l ancers r ode d own t he s lope t hrough t he r etreating Z ulus, p icking t heir men f rom t he r uck . T he m omentum o f t he h orses s pi t ted t he warriors o n t he p oints, a nd a s t hey p assed, a s trong o ut ward f lick o f t he w rist c leared t he weapon, which swung b ack u p a nd f orward a gain t o p oint, w ith s tained t ip a nd d yed p ennon, a t t he n ext v icti m . G eorge Massop f ollowed i n t he w ake o f t he c harge a nd was f ascinated b y t he move-

6 5

m ent, a l most t oo f ast f or t he e ye t o f ollow, a s l ance a fter l ance f lipped t hrough i ts d eadly a rc . O ne o r t wo o f t he l ances f ouled i n a s hield, w hich would n ot d rop o ff, a nd t he l ancers s lowed a nd t ried t o s lough t hem o ff a gainst t heir h orses. ...The l ancers f ormed a gain a nd p lunged i nto t he l ong g rass a fter t he Z ulus . T hese w arriors s tood t heir g round, g rabbing a t t he l ances a nd s tabbing a t t he b ellies o f t he h orses, a nd b efore t he Z ulus t urned t o r un, t he c harge h ad d isintegrated i nto a s eries o f i ndividual f ights. Most o f t he men j ammed t he l ance b utts i nto t he l eather s ockets o n t heir r ight s tirrups, t hrust t heir a rms p ast t he e lbow t hrough t he h aft l oops a nd d rew t heir s abres t o c ontinue t he s laughter, a nd t he m ounted v olunteers o vertook t hem a nd f anned o ut t o f ire a t t he r efugees. M orris 1 976 : 5 70-1 T hese l ances were s horter a nd p resumably much l ighter t han t he a ncient c ontus s o more e asily w ielded w ith o ne h and . There may b e s ome s i milarity b etween t his a ccount a nd t he a ctions o f s pear a rmed c avalry d ealing w ith i nfantry. T he a ncient method o f h olding t he l ance a cross t he h orse 's n eck would h ave made i t v irtually i mpossible t o f ree t he w eapon o f a s pitted o pponent o r h orse s o a fter t he f irst p enetration i t would n ecessarily h ave b een d iscarded . H eld a longside t he h orse 's n eck t here would h ave b een m ore c hance o f f reeing i t b ut t he v ery l ength o f t he w eapon w ould h ave made r ecovering i t o n t he b ack-hand i mpossible. T he t wo methods d epend i n p art o n which s ide t he r ider p assed h is t arget. A ttaching t he l ance t o t he h orse s eems t o b e a r ecipe f or d isaster ( Heliodorus A eth. I X .15). C arriage o f t he l ong l ance e ither v ertically o r h orizontally o utside c ombat s ituations i s o bviously p racticable w ith o ne h and ( Markle 1 977 : 3 34-6) . Two b odies o f l ancers may b e p ictured c harging e ach o ther. T he i nitial i mpact r esults i n men a nd h orses b eing s pitted b y s ome . l ances w hich h ave t o b e d ropped . O ther l ances b reak ( Rostovtzeff 1 913: p l. L XIV .1, L XXXVIII.2) a nd a re d ropped, o r t hey m iss t heir t argets a ltogether. T he l atter a re t hen e ither d iscarded i n f avour o f c loser r ange weapons o r t hey a re r etained f or t hrusting . F encing w ith t hese r emaining l ances i n t he o verhand p osition w ould a llow t hem t o b e u sed a ll a round t he r ider ( Appelg ren-Kivalo 1 931: f ig. 9 3; B ivar 1 972: p 1.3). T his would c ont inue u ntil t hese t oo were f ouled o r b roken, a nd d ropped. A p ennon b elow t he l ance-head h elped t o p revent i nconveniently d eep p enetration o f t he p oint a nd i t w ould s eem t hat t his w as a s teppe i nnovation, p erhaps i ntroduced t o t he West b y t he A vars ( Le C oq 1 931: f ig. 3 2, 5 0, 7 0; A ppelgren-Kivalo 1 931: f ig. 9 3; Ghirshman 1 962: p l. 4 46; G amber 1 964: f ig. 3 9; B elenitzky 1 968: p l. 1 32, 1 36-8; B ivar 1 972: p l. 3 ). I f t he l ance h ad a h aft t hong i t c ould e asily b e r etained when o ut o f u se ( Maurice S trat. 1 .2.2) a nd a Y enissei p etroglyph d epicts a l ance w ith p ennon a nd t hong ( Appelgren-Kivalo 1 931: f ig. 2 11).

6 6

T he d evelopment o f c avalry a rmour, e specially f or h orses, c orrel ates d irectly w ith t he s ignificant p ractice o f m ilitary a rchery. F or e xample, H apsburg c avalry b rought b ody a rmour a nd h el mets o ut o f s tore f or T urkish wars l ate i nto t he 1 8th c entury p recisely b ecause o f O ttoman a rchery ( Chandler 1 976: 3 3; D uffy 1 977: 9 4). W ith t he i ncrease o f a rmour c overage w ent a c oncomitant d evelopm ent o f s pecial w eapons f or h and-to-hand c ombat. Two b alanced c avalry a rmies c ould d ent e ach o ther 's a rmour t o s ome e ffect w ith a rrows f or h ours b ut c ombat w ith p enetrative a nd c oncussive w eapons, s uch a s l ong a nd h eavy swords, maces, a xes a nd l ances, w ould d ecide t he i ssue . A ll t hese w eapons a ppear i n t he l ists o f T abari a nd t he S trategicon ( Bivar 1 972: 2 91). S hields would p robably h ave g iven l ittle p rotection a gainst t he f ull i mpact o f a l ance a nd w ere i n a ny c ase u nnecessary w ith f ull c ataphract a r mour ( Julian O r. 1 .57 C ). T hey c ould n ot h ave b een u sed w ith t he two-handed l ance a nd h orse-archers f ound t hem a r estriction when u sing t he Mediterranean r elease. T his w riter w as m istaken i n p recluding t he Mongolian r elease f rom t he M esopot am ian t heatre p rior t o t he a ppearance o f t he H uns b ecause f letchings o n a rrows f rom D ura-Europos s eem t o a ccommodate t he t humb l ock ( Rostovtzeff e t a l. 1 936: 4 53; C oulston 1 985 : 2 76; MT . S . J ames p ers. c omm .). Small s hields c ould b e u sed w ith t he M ongolian r elease b ut t here i s s till n o e vidence f or t he u se o f s hields b y c ataphracts o r h orse-archers w ith t he e xceptions o f P a lmyrene r eliefs, d epicting men w ith s horter s hafted weapons ( Coulston 1 985: 2 81), a nd t he T aq-i-Bustan r ider. T he d oubleh anded l ance u sage e xplains t he ' shields' which a ppear i n P rocopius ' d escription o f c avalry e quipment a nd p erhaps t hose i n t he S trategicon ( Procop. Wars 1 .1.13; S trat. 1 .2.3). T hese w ere s trapped t o t he u pper a rm t o p rotect t he f ace a nd n eck, a cting m ore a s s ode o r a ilettes t han a s s hields p roper. T he T aq-iB ustan h orseman i s t he o nly e xception i n t his r espect ( as i n o thers) d epicting a l ance h eld o verarm i n o ne h and a nd a s hield i n t he o ther ( Pl. 6 .1). T he s hield i s a s mall, r ound b uckler s im ilar t o e xamples s een o n p ost-Sassanian s ilverware, t errac ottas a nd f rescoes ( Le Coq 1 925: f ig. 6 4-5, 7 4; G orelik 1 979: f ig . 3 5). I n l ater m anuscript i lluminations l ong l ances a re u sed o ne-handed a nd e ven c ouched b ut t he s hields a re g enerally emp loyed o nly w ith s words o r maces i n c lose c ombat ( Gorelik 1 979: f ig . 4 4, 4 6-8). T abari's l ist o f P ersian e quipment i ncludes a b uckler ( Bivar 1 972: 2 91) a nd i t may b e t hat t he T aq-i-Bustan a r tist with a n u nusually s tatic l ancer s ubject w ished t o d epict a ll t he e quipment. F or ' shock ' c avalry t o h ave b een e ffective t hey would h ave mano euvred a nd f ought i n c lose f ormation, p resumably g raded i n d epth b y d egree o f a r mour. T he men o f h igher s tatus who c ould a fford m ore complete a r mour would h ave p ositioned t hemselves a t t he f ront. T hus a g iven c avalry f ormation c ould h ave h orsemen w ith p rotective e quipment r anging f rom f ully a r moured men o n f ully a rmoured h orses t hrough t o p artially a rmoured m en o n u narmoured h orses. O ne q uestion r emains t o b e e xamined . I n v arious p eriods t he a r ming o f ' shock ' t roops w ith m issile weapons h ad b adly u ndermined t heir r eadiness t o c harge h ome ( Chandler 1 976: 5 1,

6 7

5 3). Were t he a ncient c avalry p ri marily l ancers o r h orsea rchers? A f ew h istorical i nstances may s erve t o r esolve t his p roblem . I n t he c onfrontation b etween S armatians a nd P arthians d escribed b y T acitus, t he f or mer, f inding t heir b ows o utranged, t ook u p t heir s words a nd l ances a nd c harged i n t o l essen t he e ffects o f t he e nemy a rchery, i mplying p erhaps t hat b oth s ides would h ave b een h appy t o e xchange a rrows o n a n e qual f ooting ( Tac. A nn. V I.35). D uring J ulian 's P ersian c ampaign t he R oman i nfantry c harged P ersian c avalry i n o rder t o n ullify t he e ffect o f t he e nemy a rchery which m ight s uggest r eluctance o n t he p art o f t he c avalry t o c lose, i t b eing most u nusual f or i nfantry t o t ake t he i nitiative a gainst c avalry l ike t his ( Amm . Marc . X XV .1.16). I n t he B attle o f C al 1i nicum t he p redominantly mounted Roman a nd S assanid a r mies f aced e ach o ther i n a p rotracted a rchery d uel b efore t he P ersians a dvanced, r outed t he R oman a llies, o utflanked a nd s cattered t he Roman c avalry c entre a nd i solated t he R oman i nfantry w ing ( Procop . W ars 1 .18 .30-50). H ere t he P ersian t actic al methods a re c learly r evealed . T he R oman i nfantry p ut t heir b acks t o t he r iver a nd r epulsed r epeated c avalry c harges, d emons trating a d egree o f d eter mination o n b oth s ides. C avalry h ave s eldom d efeated s teady i nfantry b y f rontal a ttack s o i t i s u nsurprising t hat t he ' shock ' c avalry f ailed t o d o s o h ere . T his i s d emonstrated e ven i n C rassus' d isastrous c ampaign when t he P arthian c ataphracts ( admittedly n ot p resent i n v ast n umbers) w ere u nable t o b reak l egionary f ormations. T heir r ole w as t o m enace t he i nfantry f ront o r p in i t w ith c harges w hilst t he l ight h orse-archers k ept u p v olleys o f m issiles a nd t ried t o work t heir w ay a round t he R oman f lanks ( Plut. C rass. XXVII). L ight h orsea rchery t actics i nvolved h arassment, s kir mishing a nd f eigned f light d esigned t o b reak u p s tatic e nemy f ormations a nd t o d raw o ut e lements w hich c ould b e d ealt w ith i n d etail ( Coulston 1 985: 2 93f.) T his l ies b ehind R oman c omments o n t he r eluctance o f P arthian a nd S assanid c avalry t o e ngage h and-to-hand ( e.g . H erod ian

I V .15.2-3).

B ow a nd l ance a rmed c avalry w ere t herefore i ntent o n u sing t heir a rchery t o t he g reatest e ffect i n d isorganising, d emoralising a nd d epleting a n e nemy u ntil h e was d iscomfitted e nough t o c rumble b efore t he i mpact o f t heir massed l ances.

I I.

S teppe c avalry

C onstant r eference h as b een made a bove t o t he i nfluences o f s teppe e quipment i nnovations o n R oman a nd P artho-Sassanid t actic al s ystems . S teppe p opulations w ere n ot n umerically l arge b ut w ere h ighly e fficient i n t he p roportion o f t heir m anpower m obilis able a nd s killed i n w ar. S teppe p astoral e conomies e nsured t he h ighest e questrian p roficiency . W arriors w ere b oth h ighly m obile a nd g eographically w ide r anging . I n p ure p astoralist s ocieties s ocial d ifferentiation w as s i mple i n t he e xtreme, b eing b ased o n s tock h oldings w hich c ould b e d im inished b y g ift-giving a nd b ad s easons. C ontacts w ith s edentary s ocieties p romoted s ocial

6 8

d ifferentiation a nd p rovided n ecessary manufactured a nd a gric ultural p roducts. Conquests o f s edentary s ocieties i nvolved d ecay o f t he p astoral s ystem a s t he n omads m oved i nto n ew e colog ical z ones ( Khazanov 1 984: c hap. 4 ). A n i nteresting e xample o f t his i s t he P arthian i nvasion o f M esopotamia-Iran w hich r esulted i n P arthian a cculturation b y t he s edentary I ranian a nd H ellenist ic p opulations b ut t he n ew e cological z one, w ith i ts i ndigenous e questrian a nd a rchery t raditions, e nabled t heir s teppe m ilitary s ystem t o b e maintained ( et P lut. C rass. XXIV; K hazanov 1 984: 2 83). A ll w ays i n w hich n omads s ubjugate o r c onquer s edentary s ocieties c an b e r egarded a s a f or m o f p olitical a dapt ation t o t he o utside s edentary world. T hey a ll i nv olve a t ransformation o f t he s ocio-political b ackwardn ess o f n omads i nto a m ilitary a dvantage, t hat i s a s trong, mass a nd m obile m ilitary o rganisation u nited b y t he p rospect o f e xploiting a n a gricultural a nd u rban p opulation. K ahzanov 1 984: 2 23 A s e ach d ominant h orde m oved a cross A sia a nd i nto E urope o r I ran i t b rought t he l atest A siatic i nnovations i n c avalry e quipment. N ew b ow d esigns, q uiver v ariants a nd l oosing m ethods t ransformed a nd v italised t he a rchery o f s edentary s ocieties ( Coulston 1 985: 2 41-5, 2 71-5, 2 77f.). T he i ntroduction o f l ances a nd t he t woh anded u se o f t hem, v arying f or ms o f sword s uspension b y s cabbard-slides o r l ockets ( Trousdale 1 975: c hap. 4 -5), k aftan t ype c lothing ( Maurice S trat. 1 .2.8) a nd s tirrups c an b e t raced i n R oman o r P artho-Sassanid c ontexts b ack t o n omad c ontacts . F or e xample, f rom t he i st c entury o nwards R oman f orces w ere o ften i n v iolent c ontact w ith S armatian l ance a rmed c ataphracts a long t he D anube . I n t he T rajanic-Hadrianic p hase o f c onflict u nits o f c ontarii a nd c atafracti were c reated, i t c an o nly b e c oncluded, i n r esponse t o s teppe t actics. I nterestingly S armatian i nfluence w as i mportant o n l ance a nd a rmour u sage b ut n ot o n R oman a rchery i t s eems ( Syme 1 929 : 1 30-33; E adie 1 967: 1 65-8 ; S ulimirski 1 970 : 2 9; Maenchen-Hel f en 1 973: 2 38f.; W ilkes 1 983: 2 58:; Coulston 1 985 : 2 41f.). T he d raco f or m o f s tandard a ppears i n A rrian's a ccount o f c avalry e xercises ( Tact. XXXV .2-3) a nd i t i s s een c arried b y c avalry o n t he A ntonine P ortonaccio S arcophagus, t he 3 rd c entury L udovisi S arcophagus, t he A rch o f G alerius a nd t he A rch o f Constantine ( Gamber 1 964: f ig. 1 , 1 6; K iechle 1 964: p l. 1 3-5). I ts u se s eems t o h ave s pread t o i nfantry u nits i n t he 3 rd c entury ( SHA Gall d uo V III.6; A urel XXXI.7; V egetius 1.13 i f t his e vidence i s n ot a ll a nachronistic) a nd w as c ommon f or c avalr y i n t he 4 th c entury i n t he f ield ( Amm . Marc. X V .5 .16; S VI.10.7; 1 2.39; Z osi mus 11.19). I ts u se b y S assanid f orces i s a lso r ecorded ( SHA , A urel. XXVIII.5) a lthough i t i s n owhere d epicted i n P ersian a rt. I n R oman a rt d racones a ppear i n a ssociation w ith S armatians a nd D acians a nd t heir R oman a doption i s a gain a ttrib utable t o S armatian c ontacts o n t he D anube ( C ichorius 1 896-1900: S c . XXV, XXXI, XXXVIII, L IX , LXIV, LXVI, L XXV, LXXVIII, CXXII; A rrian, Tact. XXXV .2). D racones c ontinued t o b e u sed i n C entral

6 9

A sia 8 ).

i nto

t he 8 th c entury AD ( Le C oq 1 925:

1 8,

f ig.

1 01-2,

1 16-

T acitus, P ausanius a nd Ammianus d escribe h orn a rmour manufactured b y t he S ar matians ( Tac. A nn . 1 .79; P aus. 1 .21.6; Amm . Marc. X VII.12.2). A s hortage o f metal r esources i n s teppe s ocieties s timulated t he d evelopment o f h orn a nd f abric p rotection ( for f elt s ee Maurice S trat. X I.2 .7). S cales s ewn t o a f abric b acking o r t he m ore f lexible l aced l amellar w ithout a b acking a re s omet imes s een i n d epictions o f S ar matian a nd l ater s teppe c avalry a nd t hese f or ms c ould b e e xtended t o c over t he whole h orse ( C ichorius 1 896-1900: s c. X ) (XI, XXXVII; R ostovtzeff 1 913: p l. L XXX IV.3; K ieseritzky a nd Watzinger 1 909: n o. 6 50; H ind 1 983-4: 8 7). M ail w as n ot m anufactured b y s teppe s ocieties b ecause t he t echniques o f w ire-drawing r equired a s edentary b ase ( Robinson 1 967: 1 1). H owever, i n marginal s teppe a reas o f c ontact w ith s edentary s ocieties ( e.g. t he H ungarian P lain, t he C ri mea a nd T ransoxiana) t rade a nd warfare c ould s ecure s ome s upply o f mail f rom u rban s ources. T he C entral A sian ' equipment p ool' w ould h ave i ncreased o ver t ime a nd p restige i tems would h ave b een l ooted b ut s eldom l ost a ltogether. F unerary d eposition w ould h ave b een t he o nly m ajor l oss m echanism ( et L ewis 1 974: 4 9,60). P ersonal u se o f b ody a nd h orse a r mour would h ave d epended o n w ealth a nd s tatus t o a much l esser e xtent t han i n s edentary s ocieties b ecause o f t he f luid a nd t emporary n ature o f n omad s ocial d ifferentiation . S teppe a rmies w ere l ess l ikely t o h ave f allen t actically i nto c lear-cut l ight h orse-archer a nd h eavy a rcher/lancer t roop-types. A s hading o ff b et ween t he two, p erh aps b ased more o n a ge a nd e xperience t han o n wealth a nd c lass s tatus, w ould h ave p roduced m uch l ooser a nd more m obile c avalry f ormations, c oalescing a nd o pening u p w ith c hanging b attlefield c ircumstances. S armatian n omads s eem t o h ave d irectly i nfluenced R oman c avalry a rmour a nd l ance u sage b ut n ot t o h ave g reatly a ffected R oman . a rchery . A ll t hree a reas o f e quipment w ere r adically t ransformed i n t he C ri mea b y t he ' Sar mat i ci s at i on ' o f t he Bosphoran a ristoc racy . T he P arthian t akeover o f Mesopotamia-Iran r eplaced t he o ld P ersian s ystem w ith t he s teppe f or m . Contacts w ith t he E phthalites a nd C hionites g reatly i nfluenced S assanid a rchery a nd a rmour. P ainful e xperience o f t he H uns a nd A vars w as i nstrument al i n t ransfor ming t he R oman t actical s ystem f rom i nfantry t o c avalry-based, s omething which c enturies o f c onflict w ith t he P arthians a nd S assanids h ad f ailed t o d o . I II.

T actical

I n c onnection w ith t he R oman s ystems may b e c haracterised:

s ystems

d efence

o f

t he

E ast

t hree

t actical

( 1) R oman: i nfantry-based . E volved f rom c itizen l egionary u nits w ith c avalry a nd s upporting i nfantry i n a s ubordinate r ole.

7 0

T ransformed b y b ased s ystem .

l arge-scale

s teppe

n omad

c ontacts

i nto a c avalry-

( 2) P ar t ho-Sassanid: c avalry-based. L ight h orse-archers s upporting c ataphract a rchers/lancers . E ssentially a s teppe f orm s uccessfully a dopted t o t he Mesopotamian-Iranian e cological z one . S edentarisation g ave i t t he m etallic a rmour c apabilities b ut made i t i nferior t o p ure n omad s ystems. S ome e volution o ccurred o f a rmour a nd s iege t echnology u nder R oman i nfluence a nd o f a rmour a nd w eaponry w ith s teppe c ontacts. ( 3) S teppe: c avalry-based. N on-metallic a r moured a rchers/ l ancers a nd h orse-archers. L east c hanging o f t he s ystems b ut i nnovatory i n c avalry e quipment t echnology a nd a ffected b y s edentarisation t hrough s uccessful c onquest. ***

T he w riter w ould l ike t o g ratefully a cknowledge t he v aluable h elp a nd a dvice o f D r M .C . B ishop, M r P . Connolly, D r H . D odge, M r S . J ames a nd M r S . N utt f or t he c omposition o f t his p aper. D r D odge a nd M r N utt k indly r ead t he f inal d raft b ut r esponsibility f or m istakes a nd o pinions e xpressed h ere l ies w ith t he w riter a lone .

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A

REVI E W OF THE FRONTI ERS

PH YSI CAL RE MAI NS OF CAPP AD OCI A

OF

THE

J . C row H exham R esearch a nd f ieldwork o ver t he l ast e ighty y ears h ave g reatly extended o ur k nowledge o f t he h istory a nd p hysical r emains o f t he f rontier o f Cappadocia a nd A rmenia . T his e ssay a ttempts t o a ssess where a nd when t he m ilitary g arrisons were l ocated o n t his f rontier b y e xam ining t he d istribution o f m ilitary i nscriptions a nd t he s tructural e vidence . F ew m ilitary i nscriptions a re k nown, b ut f or t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies AD, t he main b ias i s b eyond t he E uphrates, r ather t han a long t he r iver b ank. This contrasts with t he main t extual s ources - t he N otitia D ignitatum a nd t he r oad t ables w hich r epresent t he main f orces a long t he r ipa . T hese t exts d ate f rom t he t hird t o t he e arly f ifth c entury. T he s tructural r emains o f a uxiliary f orts a nd l egionary f ortresses i s t hen c onsidered. L ittle o r n o e vidence f or m ilitary d efences o r b uildings i s k nown f rom B arzalo, Dascusa o r Z i mara. A t Pagnik Oregni t he f ort i s f ourth c entury a nd t he d efences a re c ompared with c ontemporary w ork o n t he t he l ower D anube . F ew s pecif ically Roman f eatures a re k nown a t S abus a nd t he n ewly f ound f ort f rom t he B lack S ea C oast a t H yssos L i men i s n oted . There i s l ittle a t t he f ortresses o f S atala o r Melitene t hat i s l ikely t o d ate b efore t he f ifth o r s ixth century a nd i t i s s uggested t hat much o f t he c ircuit a t Melitene i s more l ikely t o b e e ighth c entury A rab, r ather t han s ixth o r e leventh c entury a s h as b een c laimed. F inally t he e vidence f or a p ossible R oman r oad e ast o f t he E uphrates t owards E rzerum i s b riefly d is C ussed. I n t he a ccount o f t heir j ourney t hrough t he P ontus i n t he s pring o f 1 900 t he C umonts o bserved t hat, ' On n e s ait p as e ncore e xactem ent q uel é tait l e s yst me d efensif d e c ette f ronti re, m ais i i n e semb 1e p as a voir c omport d' o uv ra ge s c ons i ra b Ies ( Cumont 1 906: 3 22). T heir t ravels c overed o nly a p art o f t he a rea o f t he U pper E uphrates f rontier, b ut a fter e ighty y ears i t i s u seful t o r eflect o n t he p hysical t races o f t he Cappadocian f rontiers a nd h ow t hey c an b e r elated t o t he p roblems o f Roman f rontier s yst ems.

7 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

F ig.

7 .1

K asrik ( C IL II: 6 741) G orneae Tr a 7c. A nn. X II.45) Absarus ( Pliny H N V I.12) S ebastopolis ( Pliny H N V I.14) P hasis ( Arrian P eriplus 9 ) P ontic A lps - p raesidia ( Tac. A nn. X III: 3 9) P a nik Ö regni ( M itford 1 974: 1 72-3, n o. 8 ) Z imara ( M itford 1 974: 1 71-2, n o. 7 ) H armozica ( ILS 8 795) B üyük T as ( AE 1 951: 2 63) K arjagino ( M itford 1 980: 194, n . 5 7) A rtaxata ( Aiekelyan 1 971: 17-18) T rapezus ( C IL II: 6 745; 6 747) C aenopolis — TTLS 9 117; 3 94; S EG 1 5(1958): 8 39) A rarat m ilestone ( C IL II: 1 367a) M elik e rif ( AE 1 908: 2 2) T rapezus ( ILS 6 39)

M ap s howing t he d istribution o f m ilitary i n E astern C appadocia a nd A rmenia .

7 8

i nscriptions

S ince t he t urn o f t he c entury much h as b een w ritten o n t he h ist ory o f t he e astern f rontier o f Cappadocia a nd A r menia a nd t he r ecent p ublication o f a n umber o f l engthy a rticles p rovides a w ealth o f d etail a nd i nterpretation ( Chaumont 1 976; M itford 1 980 ; S herk 1 980). D espite f ieldwork o ver t he p ast t wo d ecades, n ota bly b y M itford ( 1980), Wagner ( 1977) a nd F rench ( 1983) o nly a h andful o f s ites a re k nown w hen c ompared w ith t he e vidence f rom S yria a nd J ordan. O ver a s i milar p eriod e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut b ecause o f t he t hreat o f d am c onstruction o n t he E uphrates a nd Murat R ivers. S o f ar o nly o ne s ite h as b een s hown b y e xcavation t o b e a f ort a nd t hat w as o f t he l ate R oman p eriod o nly ( Harper 1 977). A d istribution map o f t he s tructures a lone w ould b e e xtremely s parse, s o Ih ave a dded a nother c ategory o f p hysical e vidence, m ilitary i nscriptions w hich a re a lso a rtefacts a ttesting t he R oman m ilitary p resence w ith t he a dvantage t hat t hey a re o ften e asily d ated. Coins a nd s mall f inds, s uch a s m etalwork, a re omm itted a s t here i s s o l ittle a vailable e vidence . O n t he d istribution maps I h ave a lso a dded s elected l iterary r eferences f or t he l ocation o f R oman f orces; t hese a re i ncluded t o c omplement t he e pigraphic e vidence . I . E pigraphic E vidence T he f irst map ( Fig . 7 .1) s hows t he d istribution o f k nown m ilitary i nscriptions a nd o ne m ilestone k nown f rom e ast o f t he E uphrates . A ll m ilestones f rom r oads w est o f t he E uphrates a re omitted s ince m ilestones a nd r oads may b e u sed t o d efine R oman t erritory a nd l ines o f c ommunications b ut t hey d o n ot p resume a s tatic m ilitary g arrison o r a f ormal f rontier o rganisation. T he e arliest i ns cription ( Fig. 7 .1(1)) i s f rom n ear E lazig, p robably f rom a t ropaeum s et u p t o c elebrate T iridates s ubmission b efore C orbulo ( M itford 1 980:1178). S ignificantly, i t l ies e ast o f t he E uphrates. N o o ther i nscriptions a re k nown b efore t he F lavian p eriod b ut a R oman g arrison i s r ecorded a t G orneae, s ummer r esid ence o f t he A r menian k ings a s e arly a s 5 1 ( Tacitus A nn. X II.45) ( Fig . 7 .1(2)). A long t he P ontic s hore P liny r ecords c astella a t A bsarus a nd S ebastopolis ( HN V I.12f), while t he f ort a t P hasis h ad a n e arlier t i mber p hase b efore i t w as r ebuilt i n b rick i n t he r eign o f H adrian ( Arrian P eriplus 9 . 4 ) ( Fig. 7 .1 ( 3, 4 , 5 )). G arrisons were a lso e stablished d uring C orbulo 's c ampaigns t o s ecure t he s upply r outes o ver t he P ontic M ountains, i nland f rom T rapezus ( Toe Ann.XIII.39.1) ( Fig. 7 .1(6)). A lthough P liny n otes o ther ' places w hich l ater f ormed p art o f t he E uphrates f rontier, s uch a s Dascusa a nd Z i mara ( Pliny H N V .83; c f. M itford 1 980: 176), t he e arly c oastal f orts a nd t he mountain p raesidia f orm p art o f a n i ntegrated s upply r oute d uring N ero 's r eign b efore t he a nnexation o f P ontus P olemoniacus i n 6 4. T he p resence o f f orts a long t he c oast a t s uch a n e arly p eriod, m ay b e b est i nterpreted a s t he i mmediate n eed t o s ecure t he r oute f or c orn s upplies f rom t he C ri mea t o t he a rmies c ampaigning i n A rmenia ( Hind 1 971: 4 93; B ryer a nd W ; .nfield 1 985 : 1 8, 8 1-2) . T he c ostal f orts w ere s ecure h avens f or t nis r oute i n t he s ame way t hat f orts a nd g arrisons a long a l i mes r oad c ould p rotect l and t ransport. O nly l ater, w ith t he a nnexation o f P olemo 's k ingdom i s i t l ikely t hat t here w as a m ore g eneral c oncern f or t he s ecurity o f t he B lack S ea a nd

7 9

t he n eed t o i ntervene 1 923: 12-14).

i nland

t owards C olchis

a nd

I beria

( Cumont

T he p eriod f rom 7 0 u ntil T rajan 's P arthian War i s g enerally s een a s o ne o f c onsolidation o n t he U pper E uphrates ( Mitford 1 980: 180ff). E pigraphical l y t here i s r emarkably l ittle e vidence. O nly o ne e arly F lavian i nscription i s k nown f rom t he E uphrates. T his was f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f t he l ate R oman f ort a t P a nik Ö regni a nd may b e d ated a fter 8 2 . I t i s p resumed t o c ome f rom a n e arlier a uxiliary f ort ( Mitford 1 974: 1 72-3) ( Fig. 7 .1(7)). A f ragmentary i nscription f rom Z i mara c an b e d ated t o 14 b ut d oes n ot n ecessarily p rove a f ort a t t his p eriod ( M itford 1 974: 1 71) ( Fig. 7 .1(8)). A n i nscription o f a la I I U lpia A uriana ( C IL I II: 6 743) a ttests a g arrison p robably i n t he l ater s econd o r t hird c enturies . P aradoxically, s ince t his i s t he o nly a uxili ary i nscription f rom t he U pper E uphrates, Z i mara d oes n ot a ppear i n t he l ist o f t he D ux A rmeniae i n t he N otitia D ignitatum . A lso r elating t o t he e vidence, o r r ather l ack o f e vidence, f or a F lavian g arrison t he r ecent p ublication o f a n i nscription f rom n ear A ntioch i n S yria b y v an B erchem ( 1983) d emonstrates t hat X VI F lavia F ir ma was f rom i ts c reation a l ways a p art o f t he S yrian a rmy a nd c annot h ave b een t he e arliest g arrison a t S atala . W hatever t he r ealities o f t he C appadocian l i mes o n t he U pper E uphrates u nder t he F lavians, t wo i nscriptions f rom t he k ingdoms o f I beria a nd A lbania r emain o f e nduring i nterest. T he f irst f rom n orth o f H ar mozica ( Fig. 7 .1(9)) d ated t o 7 5 r ecords t he c onstruction o f f ortifications p robably a s p art o f t he d efences f or t he D ariel P ass t hrough t he C aucasus. U nlike most o f t he o ther i nscriptions i t i s i n G reek, b ut i t d emonstrates i mperial m ilitary a id f or h er C aucasian a llies, l ikely t o h ave b een c arried o ut b y m ilitary e ngineers, b ut l eft t o b e r ead b y e duc ated n atives. More s urprising, a nd e voking s omething o f t he ' Great G ame ' b etween R ome a nd P arthia i s a n i nscription o f a c enturion o f X II F ul minata o verlooking t he Caspian S ea ( Fig. 7 .1(10)). I t d ates b etween 8 4 a nd 9 6 a nd may b e c ompared w ith. a nother i nscription n ow l ost, o f X II F ul minata f rom t he l eft b ank o f t he A raxes a t K arjagius ( Mitford 1 980: 1 194, n . 5 7) ( Fig. 7 .1(11)). I t i s s alutary t o c onsider t hat t here i s m ore e vidence f or a m ilitary a ctivity o n t he K ura R iver t han o n t he U pper E uphrates i n t he l ast t hree d ecades o f t he f irst c entury. T he l iterary s ources s uggest o therwise, b ut i t i s i mportant n ot t o p redict ' a f rontier s ystem f or t he F lavian p eriod, l argely b y a nalogy w ith e vidence f rom t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies. T rajan i nvaded A r menia i n 1 14, a nd i n 1 15/116 L egio I V S cythia s et u p a massive b uilding i nscription, 8 .5m l ong, a t A rtaxata ( Fig . 7 .1(12)) p robably e vidence f or t he n ew l egionary f ortress b uilt a t t he o ld c apital o f t he A rmenian k ingdom . O ther i nscript ions which a re l ess s ecurly d ated f rom T rapezus ( Fig. 7 .1(13)) r ecord v exillations o f X II F ul minata a nd X V A pollinaris p robably i n t he l ater s econd o r t hird c entury. B eyond t he E uphrates a s trong m il i tary p resence o f v exillations f rom t he s ame l egions w as maintained a t C äenopolis, t he n ew A rmenian c apital, f rom t he l ate A ntonine p eriod o nwards ( Fig . 7 .1(14)). A lthough i t i s a

8 0

F ig. 7.2

M ap s howing t he d istribution o f u nits l isted i n t he c ommand o f t he D ux A r meniae. Many o f t he s ites c annot b e l ocated p recisely .

s mall s ample, t he w eight o f t he e pigraphic e vidence i s o nce a gain b iased t owards t he r egions b eyond t he r ipa. A t antalising h int o f t he c ommunications w hich s uch f orces r equired i s s een f rom t he f ragment o f a m ilestone c lose t o t he f oothills o f A rarat ( Fig. 7 .1(15)); p resumably r epresenting t he r oad f rom A rtaxata t owards E rzerum a nd t he t wo l egionary b ases a t S atala a nd Melitene . O nly o ne a uxiliary u nit m ay b e d ated f rom t he f rontier a rea a t Melik e rif o f c ohors I L epidiana o f 1 98 ( Fig. 7 .1(16)). Whether t his s ignifies a f ort o r r oad s tation o n t he r oad f rom S atala t o S ebasteia i s u nclear ( Cumont 1 906: 3 26-8; c f. B ryer a nd W infield 1 985 : 1 65ff.). A fter t he S everan p eriod t he m ilitary e pigraphy b ecomes e ven r arer. T he o nly l ate i nscription i s o f t he n ew l egio I P ontica s tationed a t T rapezus, b ut a lso k nown i n I sauria ( Fig. 7 .1(17); G illiam 1 974). ***

I n c ontrast t o t he d iverse l ocation o f m ilitary i nscriptions, t he d isposition o f t he f rontier a r my f rom l iterary s ources a re u niform a nd l inear ( Fig . 7 .2), b ut w ith t he e xception o f A rrian 's P eriplus a ll d ate f rom t he t hird c entury o r l ater. T he A ntonine I tinerary r ecords t he r oad s tations f rom S atala t o Melitene a s p er r ipam ( French 1 983), a p hrase which r ecalls t he u se o f r ipa

8 1

a s t he r iverine e quivalent o f l i mes f rom t he t itles o f D ux R ipa f rom D ura-Europos o r p raefectus r ipae f luminis E uphratis 2 709). What h as c ompelled t he c onventional v iew o f l inear d ispos itions o n t he U pper E uphrates f rom t he F lavian p eriod o nwards, i s t he c orrespondence o f t he t opographical s ources - t he A ntonine I tinerary a nd P eutinger T able - w ith t he a r my l ist u nder t he c ommand o f t he D ux A r meniae i n t he N otitia D ignitatum ( van B erchem 1 952: 3 01 7— d ating t o t he v ery e nd o f t he f ourth c entury . I n t he l ong h istory o f t he e astern f rontier i t i s i ronic t hat t he f ullest s ource f or a r my u nits s hould i llustrate a p eriod o f r etrenchment f ol l owing J ovian's t reaty o f 3 63 a nd b efore t he a dvance i nto A rmenia w ith t he n ew f rontier f ortress o f T heodosiop olis ( Erzerum) b egun i n 4 21. W e s hould a sk h ow t he c onventional v iew , f requently r epresented i n t he s tandard works o n c lassical g eography ( Cornell a nd Matthews 1 982: 1 51), r eflects t he r eal o rganisation o f t he f rontier. B ut b efore e xamining t he i mplicat ions o f t his e vidence I w ish t o t urn t o t he e vidence o f t he m aterial r emains.

( r t s

I.

T he S tructural E vidence

D espite e ighty y ears o f r esearch we c an a dd o nly a l ittle t o t he e vidence o f t he s tructures o f t he f rontier k nown i n C umont 's d ay a nd i ndeed we c an o nly d espair a t t he e xtensive l oss o n m any s ites s ince t hen. I n t his b rief s urvey I s hall e xclude m inor w orks s uch a s t owers a nd b ridges ( Crow a nd F rench 1 980; F rench 1 983) s ince t hese s tructures a re f ound t hroughout t he r oad s ystem o f A sia M inor a nd a re n ot s pecific t o t he f rontier. T he m ain q uestion c oncerns t he f orts a nd f ortresses a nd we s hould n ote t he i mportant c ontribution o f M itford ( 1980) a nd o f B ryer a nd W infield ( 1985). E vidence f or a uxiliary f orts w ill b e e xam ined f irst. On t he b orders o f Cappadocia a nd S yria t races o f c lassical b uildings a re k nown a t K illik, s ite o f t he f ort o f B arzalo ( Mi tf ord 1 980: 1 189-90), b ut n one o f t he v isible s tructures a re s pecifically m ilitary . E xcavation a nd s urvey i n . t he Malatya b asin p receding t he f looding o f m uch o f t he r ipa h as s o f ar f ailed t o p rovide a ny s pecific e vidence f or m ilitary s tructures ( Özdogan 1 978) a lthough w ork i s c ontinuing. I n t he a rea i mmediatly t o t he n orth n ow f looded b y t he K eban D am o nly o ne m i 1i tary s ite was f ound a t P agnik Ö regni, a nd l ess s pecific d efended s tructres were f ound n earby ( Serdaroglu 1 972: 3 3, p l. 2 3). P a nik r emains t he o nly e xcavated f ort o n t he U pper E uphrates ( Harper 1 977). I t w as o ccupied i n t he f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies b efore t he f rontier l ine a dvanced i nto A rmenia . I t m aybe i dentified w ith t he l ater s ite o f D ascu , sa a nd h as b een t hought t o b e a r eplacement f or a n e arlier a uxiliary f ort f rom w hich a F lavian i nscription s urvives ( Fig. 7 .1(7)). I n s ize a nd p lan P agnik i s s i milar t o f orts f rom t he D anube p rovince o f S cythia, e specially D inogetia ( Scorpan 1 980; C row 1 981), b ut a m ore d etailed e xamination r eveals t elling v ariation . I n a rea a nd o utline p lan t he t wo f orts a re s i milar, h owever, t he s cale o f t he C appadocian f ort n owhere m atches i ts D anubian c ounterpart • b oth i n t he s ize o f t he p rojecting U -shaped t owers a nd t he t hickness a nd c onstruction o f t he c urtain . I n t he f ourth c entury t he t hreat t o

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t he E uphrates g arrisons c ame f rom S assanian P ersia, a r ival p ower t o R ome a nd c ompetent i n c omplex s iege w arfare . O n t he D anube, b y c ontrast, t he G othic t ribes, l ike many b arbarians s howed a n a version t o s iege w arfare . T he d ifference b etween t he t wo f ortif ications c an o nly r eflect a v ery d ifferent p erception o f t he a ctual t hreats t o t he f rontiers a nd a d ifferent r esponse b y t he i mperial a uthorities i n t he f orm o f i nvestment i n m ilitary f ortif ications. A t P a nik, a lthough t he d efences f ollow t he n ew p attern o f l ate R oman f ortifications ( Johnson 1 983), t hey a re a ltogether f railer a nd weaker t han s i milar d efences f rom t he D anube . T his i s c onsistent w ith a d iffering a pproach t o t he d efence o f t he E ast, where t he i nvestment was i n t he f ortressc ities o f Mesopotamia a nd S yria, s uch a s P almyra o r Amida, w hich w ere t he ' bul wark ' t o S assanian i nvasions. T he r ole o f s maller f orts i n p eripheral a reas w as t hus d iminished a nd t his i s w hat w e s ee a t P a nik . I t a lso d emonstrates what c an b e l earnt f rom a s tudy o f t he s tructural e vidence r ather t han a l i mited v iew o f l iterary s ources a lone f or t he h istory o f t he l ate R oman f rontier ( cf. W hitby 1 986). N orth o f t he Agin a rea a d efended s ite i s c it H arabe p ossibly S abus ( Mitford 1 980 : 189) . T he s ite i s c onsiderably l arger t han P a nik, 4 .05ha c ompared t o 0 .91ha ( Mi tf ord 1 980: f ig. 1 4). T he p lan may r epresent t he q uadrilateral e nclosure o f a n a uxiliary f ort l ater e xtended o n t he e ast s ide. T he s ize o f t he d efences i s n ot i nconsistent w ith t his v iew, b ut t here i s n o p ublished R oman m aterial f rom t he s ite, t he c onstruction t echnique o f t he w alls w as n ot u sed i n t he R oman p eriod a lone a nd f or a f ort w hich c ontinued i n u se i nto t he l ate f ourth c entury i t i s u nusual t hat t here a re n o e xternal p rojecting t owers. A t Z i mara d espite t he s urvival o f t he p lace n ame n o s ite a ppropriate f or a n a uxiliary c ohort i s k nown ( French 1 983: 8 5). T he o nly p ossible f ort s ite b etween Z i mara a nd t he B lack S ea h as r ecently b een s uggested a t K älur K ale, 5 0km w est o f S atala ( Bryer a nd W infield 1 985: 1 69). E vidence f or t he c oastal f orts h as b een r ecently r eviewed b y Wagner ( 1977) a nd M itford ( 1980). T he f ort o f S ousourmainaJ H yssos L i men h as n ow b een i dentified a t A rakli B urunu ( Bryer a nd W infield 1 985: 3 28-9, f ig . 15) w here a r ectangular e nclosure 3 00 b y 2 00m h as b een f ound. A s w ith o ther B lack S ea s ites i t i s d ifficult t o b e c ertain h ow much which s urvives i s R oman r ather t han e arly B yzantine o r mediaeval i n d ate. A lthough t here h as b een m ore e xtensive e xcavation i n S oviet G eorgia i t i s s urprising h ow m uch s tructural e vidence i s k nown f rom t he P ontic s hore r ather t han i nland . A p ossible e xplanation i s t hat t here was i ndeed a d ifference b etween t he P ontic s hore a nd t he U pper E uphrates f rontiers . I n p art t he P ontic f rontier w as e arlier a nd w e g et a v ivid p icture o f a H adrianic f rontier f rom A rrian 's v isit ( Periplus; S tadter 1 980: 3 3ff). N o s uch p icture, w hether s tructural o r l iterary, emerges f or t he U pper E uphrates a nd i t w ould b e more r ealistic f or t he p eriod f rom 7 0 t o c . 2 00 t o q uestion whether t here w ere f orts a long t he r ipa r oad o n t he m odel o f o ther f rontiers, l ater p resented b y t he r oad t ables a nd t he N otitia D ignitatum . ***

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F or t he l egionary f ortresses o f S ata la a nd Melitene t he p hysical r emains a re c ertainly m ore i mposing t han f or t he a uxiliary s ites. B ut h ere a lso t here r emains a q uestion o f h ow much i s R oman o r l ate R oman w ork . 1 .

S atala

C umont, who s aw more o f t he r emains t han s urvive t oday, c onside red l ittle t hat s urvived t o b e e arlier t han t he s ixth c entury ( 1906: 3 45) a lthough h e may h ave b een s wayed b y t he e vidence o f P rocopius, B uildings ( 111.4.1-5) which a s h as b een r ecently o bs erved " when i n d oubt a bout t he e xact n ature o f h is master's b uilding a chievements, P rocopius t ended t o p lay s afe a nd e xaggera te" ( Bryer a nd W infield 1 985: 3 30). T he p lan d rawn b y M itford ( 1980: f ig. 1 3) c onfor ms i n g eneral p lan a nd a rea t o a l egionary f ortress o f t he l ate f irst c entury. T he i nitial g arrison b y X VI F lavia F irma i s n o l onger a ccepted s ince t hat l egion h as n ow b een s hown t o h ave b een p art o f t he S yrian a r my f rom 7 5 ( van B erchem 1 983). I f t here were t wo l egions i n t he g reat F lavian c ircons cription o f p rovinces o nly X II F ul minata i s k nown w ith a ny c ertainty . A part f rom t he s ixth c entury w ork c laimed b y C umont w e c an o nly o bserve t hat t he a ngles were p rovided w ith p rojecting a ngle t owers n ow marked a t t he n orth-east b y a r obber t rench. T he s ite c ontinues t o s uffer a t t he e xpense o f a n e xpanding m odern v illage a nd a s a measure o f t he l oss c ompare p hotographs o f t he a queduct b y C umont ( 1906: 3 41) w ith t hat o f M itford ( 1980 : p l. V ). 2 .

Melitene

T he f ortifications o f M elitene s tand m ore p roudly, y et a gain w e s hould q uestion w hat s urvives o f t he e arly f ortress a nd s ettlem ent. T he c ity was a major u rban c entre t hroughout t he M iddle A ges a nd was n ot a bandoned u ntil t he e arly n ineteenth c entury. T oday a s mall t own o ccupies p art o f t he s ite a nd t he r est i s c overed b y f ertile g ardens a nd o rchards. T he s ite h as b een . s tudied b y G abriel ( 1940: 2 63-8) a nd M itford ( 1980: 1 186, f igs. 1 0-11) a nd I s hall e xamine t wo p roblems which a rise f rom t heir s tudies: t he d ate o f t he f ortifications a nd t he l ocation o f t he l egionary f ortress. M elitene w as a f rontier f ortress f or o ne t housand y ears c ontrolle d i n t urn b y R oman, A rab, B yzantine a nd T urk, c onsequently t he s tructural h istory i s c omplex. We k nown l ittle o f t he e arly g arrison e xcept t hat X II F ul minata was s ent t here i n 7 1. I t r emained t he g arrison u ntil t he e arly f ifth c entury, b ut l eft l ittle e vidence o f i ts s ojourn b y w ay o f i nscriptions. T here i s a s urprising s ilence i n t he c lassical s ources a nd t he c ity was f ortunate e nough n ot e ven t o a ppear i n t he s o-called Res G estae D ivi S aporis ( Mar i cq 1 958). A c learer p icture o nly emerges i n t he s ixth c entury w ith P rocopius' d escription o f Melitene i n B uildings ( 111.4 .15-20) w hich r ecords t he w ork o f r estoration t o t he d efences c arried o ut b y A nastasius a nd J ustinian . T he l ater h istory o f t he c ity i s f ully d ocumented b y H onigmann ( 193 0 . I t m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: t he c ity f ell t o t he A rabs i n 6 53

8 4

a nd f ormed a s trongpoint o n t he f rontier o f t he C ezire ( Haldon a nd K ennedy 1 980: 1 09) . R epairs t o t he w alls w ere c arried o ut b y t he Calif H i s ham i n 7 40-1 f ollowing a B yzantine s iege, b ut t he c ity f ell t o Constantine Copronymous i n 7 50 a nd t he b uildings w ere l evelled, n othing b ut a h alf r uined g ranary b eing l eft s tanding . I t was r ecaptured b y t he A rabs s even y ears l ater a nd r efortified t ogether w ith a mosque a nd b arracks. T he e arly t enth c entury w i t nessed a r evival i n B yzantine p ressure a gainst t he f rontiers o f t he A bbasid C alifate a nd i n 9 34 t he c ity w as f inally c aptured b y J ohn K urkuas. T he walls were s lighted a nd t he c ity w as d epopulated . I t l ater b ecame a c entre f or S yrian C hristiani ty, b ut when t he T urks a ttacked i n 1 058 t he w alls w ere u ndefende d . T he d ouble wall a nd d itch were r estored b y C onstantine X D ucas p robablyin 1 060-61 a nd f urther r epairs w ere c arried o ut b y K ilic A sian I i n 1 178 . G iven t his c omplex r ecord i t i s r ash t o b e d ogmatic a bout p articular p eriods w ithout a d etailed s urvey a nd e xcavation . U ntil t his c an b e a chieved w e m ust a ssess v arious c laims c oncerning t he d ate o f t he w alls. G abriel w as u nderstanda bly h esitant a bout c ommitting h imself t o a d ate ( Gabriel 1 940 : 2 68), w hile M iford c onsidered t he w ork t o b e e ssentially t hat o f J ustinian ( Mi t ford 1 980: 1 186). T he B yzantine c ase h as b een s upported b y T unefeld ( 1972), who c onsiders t he walls t o b e e leventh c entury. T he m edieval s ources ( Honigmann 1 936) r efer t o t he d ouble w alls a nd d itch, a lthough G abriel c ould f ind n o t race o f t hem ( 1940: 2 68). A long t he s urviving west c urtain a re a n umber o f s mall p entagonal t owers which p roject d irectly i nto t he b road d itch. S im ilar s haped t owers a re f ound a t t he s outh-west c orner a nd a long t he e ast h alf o f t he s outh c urtain ( cf. G abriel 1 940: f ig. 1 95; r eproduced b y M itford 1 980 : f ig . 1 0) . N o c lear d istinction i s made o n G abriel's p lan b ut t he t owers o f t he w est c urtain a re c onsiderably s maller t han a t t he s outh-west a ngle o r a long t he s outh c urtain. C lose b ehind t he west c urtain a re t wo b locks, s hown o n Gabriel's p lan a nd i t l ikely t hat t hey r epresent t he l ine o f t he i nner wall a nd t hat t he s urviving w est c urtain w ith s mall t owers i s t he o uter wall ( proteichisma). A s i milar i nner l ine m ay b e s een o n t he s outh s ide w here G abriel n otes a n i rregu lar e nclosure marked 6 . ' restes d e c onstruction a ntiques(?)'. O n t he s outh s ide a wall i s p arallel w ith t he s urviving s outh c urtain a nd t he r emains o f t wo t owers p roject f rom i t. T his i solated l ength o f i nner w all a ppears t o c ontinue t he l ine o f t he i ndented s outh c urtain 6 5m t o t he e ast. O n t he b asis o f t hese o bservations i t i s l ikely t hat t he i nner w all w as n ot c ontinuous t hroughout t he e ntire c ircuit, b ut w as f ound o nly a long t he w est a nd p art o f t he s outh c ircuit. I f t his s uggestion a bout t he o uter wall i s a ccepted we must m odify G abriel's i ngenious t heory a bout t he p ossible l ocation o f t he l egionary c amp . H e n oted t hat t he s outh-west c orner f ormed a r ight a ngle a nd t hat t here a re d istinct d islocations i n t he l ine o f t he c urtain n orth o f t he west g ate a nd e ast o f i rregular c losure 6 . G iven a lso t hat t he s outh-west c orner i s r ounded t his w ould a ppear t o b e a s uitable l ocation f or t he west a nd s outh s ides o f t he l egionary f ortress ( Gabriel 1 940: 1 96) a nd t hat i n

8 5

t he l ater c ircuit c ivil a nd m ilitary s ettlement a re o ne. A p arallel f or t his c ombination i s t he c ircuit o f t he l egionary f ortress a nd s ettlement a t N ovae i n M oesia I nferior o n t he l ower D anube ( Chichikova 1 980:55 ) . I f t he i dentification o f t he l ine o f t he i nner wall i s a ccepted G abriel's l ine s hould b e a ltered s lightly, s ince t he e arlier c ircuit w as p robably p reserved i n t he i nner l ine. A l ater o uter wall a lso e xplains why t he g ates a re i n e ccentric p ositions f or a n ormal l egionary f ortress; t he e arlier g ates w ill h ave b een s uperseded b y l ater c onstruction . A p ossible a pproach t o r esolve t he q uestion o f t he d ate o f s urvivng work i s t o e xamine t he a rchitectural f orm o f t he f ortif ication . T he c onstruction i s g enerally o f mortared r ubble c ore w ith c oursed r ubble f acings, a shlar a ppears o nly i n a l i mited a rea o f t he e ast c urtain. Gabriel n oted t wo s hapes o f t owers o n t he c ircuits, r ectangular a nd p entagonal ( 1940 :268); v ariations i n t he s ize o f t he p entagonal t owers h ave a lready b een n oted ( cf. M itford 1 980: f ig. 1 1). P entagonal t owers a re f irst r ecorded i n t he r epertory o f R oman m ilitary a rchitecture w ith t he b uilding o f t he f ortress o f T heodosiopolis-Erzerum i n 4 21, d escribed b y M oses o f Chorene. P entagonal a nd V -shaped t owers a re m ore c ommonly f ound i n t he B alkan p rovinces i n t he f ifth a nd s ixth c enturies a nd e xamples a re r estricted i n S yria a nd M esopotamia t o A ntioch, R esafa a nd Märtyropolis ( C row 1 981: 1 28-32; S mith a nd C row f orthc om ing). T he f orm c ontinued i n u se t hroughout t he e arly B yzantine p eriod a t c astles s uch a s A nkara a nd a lso i n a l ess s pecifically B yzantine c ontext a t K emak a nd i n t he c itadel o f D iyarbekir. T he u se o f s uch t owers o n t he o uter w est wall i s u nusual i n t he c ontext o f l ate R oman d efences, w ith t he e xception o f t he p rot eichisma a t C onstantinople which i s p rotected w ith f lanking t owers ( Crow 1 981: 1 89-91) . S uch t owers a re l ikely t o b e m ediev al r ather t han l ate R oman i n d ate . T he l ocation o f t he s outh-west g ate o n t he a ngle i s v ery u nusual a lthough i ts t actical weakness i s p artly c ompensated b y t he m assive f lanking t owers. I t a lso m akes m ore s ense m ilitarily a s . p art o f a n o uter a nd i nner wall s ystem ( Mi tf ord 1 980: f ig . 1 1). T he f orm o f t he west g ate i s a lso u nusual. I t c onsists o f a s ingle d eep g ate p assage b etween t wo r ectuangular t owers w hich a re u nique s ince t he o uter a ngle i s b evelled . T he s cheme r ecalls t he s emi-circular t owers p ierced b y a s ingle g ate f rom U kaidir i n I raq ( Cresswell 1 958) . T he B yzantine w ork i n 1 061 i s u nlikely t o h ave b een more t han a r estoration o f t he e arlier c ircuit f or t hroughout t he h istory o f • t he A rab-Byzantine c onflict t he B yzant ines r azed a nd d epopulated t he c ity, while t he A rabs b uilt t he • city a nd i ts f ortifications a nd e ncouraged u rban . l ife . A lthough t he m ain e lements o f t he f ortifications o riginate i n t he t radit ion o f L ate A ntiquity, i n d etail t here a re s ignificant v ariat ions. I t i s u nlikely t hat t he s urviving c ircuit i s a monument t o A bbasid u rbanism a nd a lthough d ifferent f rom c ontemporary w ork a t R aqqa, t his d istinction c an b e e xplained a s t he S yrian c ity d rew o n t he s outhern M esopotamian t radition o f b rick f ortifications, w hile M älatya-Melitene w as b uilt i n s tone a nd m ortar, c loser t o l ate a ntique t raditions.

8 6

I II.

C onclusions

T he p hysical r emains o f t he R oman f rontiers i n C appadocia h ave p roved t o b e v ery e lusive, i ndeed i t i s p robably s afe t o s tate t hat t hey a re amongst t he l east s ubstantial t races o f a ny f ront ier i n t he empire . T here r emain p roblems o f f ieldwork: n o a ir s urvey h as e ver b een c arried o ut, s o t here i s n ot t he embarrassment o f s ites c haracteristic o f t he S yrian f rontier. T ravel c onditions a re n ot a l ways e asy a nd s ometi mes r ecall t he f ears e xpressed b y W illiam C amden o n a pproaching t he c entral s ector o f H adrian's wall i n 1 598 . B ut, p erhaps r ather t han s pecial p leadi ng a bout t he n ature o f t he e vidence, we s hould a sk whether t he f rontier r eally w as s i milar t o o ther l i mites . A rmenia r etained a s tatus d ifferent f rom m ost o ther c lient n eighbours o f t he R oman Empire b ecause i t f ocused s o much o f t he s uper-power r ivallry b etween Rome a nd P arthia. P erhaps i t was p olitical r ather t han m ilitary c onditions w hich d etermined t he f orm o f t he f rontier i n t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies? L ate i n t he t hird c entury P robus c oncluded a t reaty w ith A rdashir. T he c onditions a re r ecorded b y t he A rmenian h istorian Moses o f C horene, who w rote t hat t hey " divided o ur c ountry a nd f ixed t he f rontier b y c ausing d itches t o b e d ug" ( Chaumont 1 976: 1 27,n. 2 98). T he c oncern e xpressed h ere i s f or d efinition r ather t han d efence. P robus' d itches a re p erhaps s i milar t o t he l ine o f wall a nd d itch a long t he J ebel Cembe, west o f S ingara ( Poidebard 1 934: CXLVI-VIII). F rom t he f irst c entury BC t he E uphrates h as f ormed a c onvenient l ine b etween Rome a nd P arthia ( Millar 1 982: 1 9) t he d itches were n o more t han t his, i n t he s ame w ay t hat t he p loughed f urrow d efined t he p omerium o f a c ity . C onditions h ad n ot a ltered s ignificantly i n t he s ixth c entury when P rocopius r eports t hat t he R omanP ersian f rontier i n C horzane, s outh o f E rzerum , n ot b eing marked o ff f rom t he P ersian t erritory b y t he w ater o f a ny l ake o r b y a ny r iver's s tream o r b y a w all o f mountains which p inch t he r oad i nto a n arrow p ass, b ut t he t wo f rontiers a re i ndistinct. S o t he i nhabi tants o f t his r egion, whether s ubjects o f t he R omans o r o f t he P ersians, h ave n o f ear o f e ach o ther, n or d o t hey g ive o ne a nother a ny o ccasion t o a pprehend a n a ttack, b ut t hey e ven i nter marry a nd h old a c ommon m arket f or t heir p roduce a nd t ogether s hare t he l abour o f f arming ( Buildings 1 11.3.9-11). S uch c onditions c ould n ot b e a llowed t o p revail b etween major p owers a nd J ustinian 's s olution w as t o g arrison a s trong f ortress a t A rtalesou. H e t hus s ecured t he f rontier, e ven i f o n t his o ccasion h is p anegyricist c ould n ot r estrain .a n i ronical n ote a bout t he t hreat t o t he l ocal p opulation. S ecurity was n ot t he main p roblem , more i mportant w as t he c ontrol o f t he f rontier a nd i ts

p opulation .

T he c reation o f t he F lavian f rontier i n C appadocia h as o ften b een s een a s a r esponse t o t hreats f rom t ribes i n t he C aucasus r anges a nd f oothills o r b eyond ( Bosworth 1 976) . S uch a v iew u nderestimates t he s ignificance o f t he A rmenian k ingdom a nd t he m echanism

8 7

b y w hich R oman a uthority c ould b e e xercised . T he e vidence f rom i nscriptions s uggests t his a uthority w as d irectly i mposed . M it f ord h as r ightly s tressed t he c rucial s trategic s ituation o f S atala a nd N iel i tene ( Mitford 1 980: 186). F rom t hese b ases t he l egions c ould i ntervene d irectly a nd m aintain v exillations u p t o 1 000km e ast o f t he E uphrates w hen r equired . A uxiliary g arrisons w ere l ocated o n t he m ain l ines o f c ommunications, w hether n orth t o s outh b etween t he l egionary b ases o r p erhaps e ast t o w est. T hey a re l ikely t o h ave b een c oncerned a s m uch w ith t he p roblems o f i nternal s ecurity a s w ith e xternal t hreats ( cf. I saac 1 984) . A s a n i llustration o f h ow t his c ould h ave w orked I w ill c ite t wo p ieces o f e vidence. T he o nly F lavian a uxiliary i nscription i s t hat o f C äesennius G allus f rom D ascusa ( Pa nik Ö regni). I n 1 866 C onsul T aylor o f D iyarbekir t ravelled e xtensively a round t he D ersim . O n t he 8 th o f S eptember h e r eported t races o f a n a ncient p aved r oad, t he S ultan Murat Y ol, w hich M itford s ubsequently s howed was t he main r oad f rom S atala t o Melitene ( Taylor 1 868: 3 09-10; M itford 1 980 : 184) . J ust o ver a m onth l ater T aylor s aw t races o f a nother r oad, e ast o f t he E uphrates, b etween P ertek a nd M äzgird ( 1868: 3 42), h e d escribed i t i n s i milar t er ms t o t he S ultan Murat Y ol a nd r eported t hat h e h ad b een t old i t c ould b e f ollowed t o E rzerum . N o l ater t raveller o r a rchaeologist h as n oted t his r oad . F ieldwork i s n eeded t o c onfirm o r d isprove t his l ine . I f i t i s g enuiune, h owever, i t c ould e xplain w hy D ascusa, w hich i s c lose t o t he p oint where t he r oad m ight c ross t he E up hrates, h as a n e arly s ignificance w hen e ast t o west m ovement was m ore s ignificant t han r oads l eading f rom n orth t o s outh. B ut o n t his n ote o f a rmchair s peculation, a way f rom t he h eat a nd d ust o f r esearch, I s hall c lose. B ibliography A RAKELYAN,

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N ew r esearch o n t he E uphrates f ront ier: s upplementary n otes 1 a nd 2 . I n S . M itchell ( ed.) A r mies a nd F rontiers i n Roman a nd B yzantine A natolia: 7 9-101. Oxford ( BAR , I nt ernational S eries 1 56).

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9 1

l a R eforme

8 .

THE FRONTI ER IN SYRI A THE FI RST CENTURY AD

IN

E dward D abrowa K rakow T he p roblem o f t he d efence o f t he e astern f rontier o f S yria i n t he f irst c entury AD h as b een f requently i nvestigated, i t h as n ot, h owever, b een s cientifically d escribed . T he a im o f t his s tudy i s t o make u p, a t l east p artially, f or t his n eglect. Two p eriods may b e s eparated i n t he h istory o f f ortifying t he Roman d ef ence l ine o n t he E uphrates i n t he f irst c entury AD : a ) f rom A ugustus t o C laudius, b ) f rom N ero t o D omitian . T he f irst p eriod c ontributed l ittle t o t he d evelopment. I n t he o pinion o f t he Roman r ulers o f t he t ime, t he p resence o f g reat m ilitary f orces i n t he p rovince was s ufficient t o warrant s ecurity . T his o pinion was a ddit ionally j ustified b y t he s upremacy o f Rome i n r elat ions w ith P arthia, t he o nly p ower a ble t o t hreaten S yria . H owever, c hanges t hat t ook p lace i n P arthia a fter V ologaeses I t ook p ower f ound r epercussions i n h is p olicy t owards R ome . T he t hreat t o S yria - a ttacke d twice b y V ologaeses - made t he R omans r evise t heir p rinciples o f d efensive p olicy i n t his p rovince . I ntens ive a ctivity b y V espasian i n o rder t o s trengthen R oman p ositions o n t he E uphrates i s t he s ignificant e vidence o f i t. T he l ocation o f n umerous f ortified g arrisons a long t he E uphrates b anks was t o s erve t his p urpose. V espasian's s ons c ontinued t he works u ndertaken b y t heir f ather.

Among .t he R oman p rovinces i n t he E ast, S yria a l ways h eld a s pec ial p osition. T he e xplanation was, i n p art, b ecause o f i ts l ocation; i n p art a nd e specially b ecause o f t he f act t hat t he e astern s ection o f i ts f rontier w as a t t he s ame , t i me, t hroughout i ts l ength, t he f rontier b etween R ome a nd P arthia ( Fr zouls 1 980 : 3 59-73). U nder t hese c ircumstances S yria b ecame t he k ey p osition i n t he s truggle b etween t hese t wo p owers f or i nfluence i n t he e astern e nd o f t he Mediterranean. A lthough, s ince i ts c onquest i n 6 4 BC , R ome h ad b een aware o f t his, t he f irst s teps l eading t o a g uaranteed s ecurity o f t he o riental f rontier w ere o nly u ndert aken b y A ugustus. A fter h i m, d uring t he f irst c entury AD, s im ilar a ctivities w ere u ndertaken b y h is s uccessors . T he p robl em o f p rotecting t his f rontier was n ot, h owever, s olved u ntil

9 3

t he F lavians. I n t he h istory o f t hese a ctivities, a nd a ccording t o t he n ature o f t he s teps u ndertaken, t wo p eriods may b e i sol ated: 1 ) f rom A ugustus t o C laudius; 2 ) f rom N ero t o D omitian. I n t rying t o c haracterise t hese o ne c annot c oncentrate o nly o n t he e sti mation o f e mperors; i n o rder t o c omplete t his c haracteris ation o ne m ust t ake i nto a ccount t hose f actors w hich i nfluenced t heir d ecisions. I . A ugustus

t o C laudius

S ince A ugustan t i mes, t he p resence o f r egular t roops o f t he R oman a rmy i n t he t erritory o f S yria f ormed t he b asis o f i ts s ecurity . T hus, a fter 2 7 BC t hree l egions: II Gallica, V I F errata a nd X F retensis c onstituted t he n ucleus o f f orces s tationed i n t his p rovince ( Joseph A J XVII.10.9 ( 206); B J 1.3.1 ( 40); 5 .1 ( 67); K nox M 'Elderry 1 909: 4 7; R itterling 1 925: 1 519, 1 589, 1 672; A nderson 1 932: 2 79-80). I n a bout IBC t he S yrian a rmy was r einf orced b y t roops f rom o ther p rovinces i n c onsequence o f G aius C aesar's c ampaign t o A rmenia w hich w as b eing p repared : l egio X II F ulm inata w as among t hem ( R itterling 1 925 : 1 231-2, 1 242-3; P arker 1 928 : 9 2, n o.1; A nderson 1 932: 2 80 a nd n o.1). P robably a fter t he c ampaign t his l egion r emained i n S yria t hereafter ( Tac. A nn. I V.5.2; R itterling 1 925: 1 706). B esides l egions, a n u nknown n umber o f a uxiliary u nits was p resent i n t his p rovince ( Joseph A J X VII.10.9; B J 1.5 .1 ( 67)) 1. I t i s i mpossible t o s ay, h owever, w here p articular u nits w ere s tationed d uring t his t ime ( Anderson 1 932: 2 80-3). A t l east t wo c ircumstances i nfluenced A ugustus' d ecision t o l oc ate t hese l arge m ilitary f orces: h is e agerness f or o rder a nd p eace i n t he p rovince a nd h is d esire t o p rotect i ts s ecurity a gainst R ome 's n eighbours. T he p roblem o f i nternal s ecurity f or S yria w as o f g reater i mport ance t han i n o ther p rovinces b ecause a l arge n umber o f v assal s tates was s ituated w ithin i ts f rontiers ( Dobias 1 924: 3 10-7; . A nderson 1 932: 2 81-3) . T heir e xistence h ad b oth m any a dvantages a nd many s erious d isadvantages f or p rotecting R oman i nterests. O ne o f t he d isadvantages w as t he n ecessity o f f requent i nterfere nce i n t heir i nternal a ffairs o ften c onnected w ith t he u se o f f orce i n o rder t o e stablish p eace . Apart f rom p roblems w ith v assals, t he a ttitude o f s ome e thnic g roups l iving i n t he t errit ory o f S yria made t he R omans u se m ilitary f orce w ithin t he p rovince . A lthough S yria • h ad b een u nder R oman r ule s ince 6 4 BC , u ntil A ugustus' t i me i t would h ave b een d ifficult t o r ecognise t his r egion a s f ully p acified . I t w as o nly w hen R oman p rovincial a uthorities u ndertook f irm s teps a gainst n omadic A rab t ribes a nd t he a ggressive i nhabitants o f t he mountainous r egions o f S yria t hat t hese s ources o f u nrest w ere r apidly b rought t o a n e nd ( ILS 2 683). A s e vents f rom t he p eriod o f t he c ivil wars s howed , t he s ituation i n t he p rovince a l ways h ad a g reat i nfluence o n t he s tate o f i ts e xternal s ecurity . T hat i s w hy A ugustus, b esides m ilitary o perat ions, u ndertook a dministrative a ctivities h aving m ore o r l ess

9 4

r elat , kon w ith t he p roblem o f s ecurity o f t he e astern f rontier o f S yria' . T iberius b ehaved i n t he s ame w ay . T iberius ' a nnexation o f C ommagene ( Strabo XVI.2.3 ( 749); T ac. A nn. 1.42.5; 5 6.4; J oseph A J XVIII.2.5 ( 53)) a nd P al myra ( Bowersock 1 973: 1 35-6; T eixidor 1 984: 1 0-14) i n AD 1 7 c ould h ave b een o f g reat i mport ance f or S yria 's s ecurity; b ut n o s ources e xplicitly c onfirm t he r elation o f t hese a nnexations t o f rontier f ortification o n t he E uphrates. A ugustus' a nd T iberius ' d esire t o g ain c ontrol o ver t erritories a djoining t he f rontier w ith P arthia i s c lear e nough i f o ne l ooks a t t hem t hrough t he p rism o f e arlier R oman-Parthian r elations. T he t ransformation o f t he r emains o f t he S eleucid s tate i n S yria i nto a R oman p rovince i n 6 4 BC was p articularly i mportant i n t hese r elations. P arthian k ings h ad made e fforts t o g ain i nflue nce i n S yria l ong b efore t he R omans a ppeared t here. S ince M ithridates I, o ccupation o f S yria was o ne o f t he main a i ms o f A rsacid f oreign p olicy i n t he West. I t r esulted f rom t he p rog ramme o f t his d ynasty which a i med a t r egaining p ower o ver a ll t hose t erritories w hich o nce b elonged t o t he Empire o f t he A chaem enids, o f w hom t hey c onsidered t hemselves, t he l egal s uccessors ( Tac . A nn . V I.31.1) . A lthough t he R omans w on t he c ompetition f or o ccupying t he r emains o f t he S eleucid s tate, t he A rsacigs, i n s pite o f t heir d efeat, n ever g ave u p h ope c oncerning S yria . T he R omans d id n ot r ecognise t he d anger a rising f rom t his a ttitude, n or d id t hey t reat P arthian c lai ms s eriously. T heir a ttitude p robably r esulted f rom t he c onviction t hat t he P arthians w ere n ot o pponents whom t hey o ught t o b e a fraid o f. N ot o nly d id c onstant t ension a nd c onflicts w ithin t he A rsacid s tate, ( which i tself t o a c ertain e xtent m ade i t w eaker), h elp t o r einforce t his c onvict ion, b ut s o d id t he b elief t hat a f ir m a ttitude i n r elations w ith P arthia 2a s s hown b y S ulla a nd P ompey t he G reat, was t he s uccessful w ay t o g uarantee p eace f rom t heir s ide ( Dabrowa 1 983: 2 1-2, 2 5-30). T he R omans r ealised t heir m istake i n u ndere stimating t heir e astern n eighbour i n t he f ace o f C rassus ' d efeat a t Carrhae a nd t he a ttitude o f O rodes I I t owards e vents t aking p lace i n Rome d uring t he l ast y ears o f t he R epublic. O rodes, t aking a dvantage o f t he f ighting b etween t he R oman p arties i n 4 0 BC managed t o s eize S yria a nd a c onsiderable p art o f R oman A natolia w ithout a ny g reat d ifficulty. T hus, t he b asic a im o f A ugustus ' p olicy t owards h is e astern n eighbour w as t o p revent t he r epetition o f s i milar s ituations. T he s truggle f or t he t hrone t hat b roke o ut a t t he e nd o f t he 3 0s BC i n t he A rsacid s tate, b etween t he u surper T iridates I a nd t he r uling P hraates I V , c reated a s ituation w hich e nabled t he R oman r uler t o i nterfere i n P arthian i nternal a ffairs. A part f rom t his, t he p olitical weakness o f P hraates I V - i n s pite o f h is v ictory o ver a u surper - was u sed b y A ugustus i n o rder t o make h im r elease i n 2 0 B C a ll t he R oman l egionary s tandards c aptured b y t he A rsacids ( Res G estae D ivi A ugusti 2 9; L ivy P er. 1 41; V ell. P at. 1.91.1; S uet. A ug. XXI.3; T ib. I X .!; D io L IV .8.1-3; J ust. E pit .

X LII.5.11;

O ros.

V I.21.29).

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T he p redominance a cquired b y A ugustus i n h is r elations w ith P arthians was p robably a cknowledged i n R ome a s a s ufficient w arrant o f s ecurity f or S yria . T his b elief m ade t he f irst p rinc eps t urn h is a ttention t o A rmenia w hich h ad b een a ttracting R ome f or s ome t i me. A t t his t i me A rmenia was a l and u nder p owerful P arthian i nfluence; a s trong p osition i n A rmenia g uaranteed t he A rsacids s ecurity f or t heir n orthern f rontier. T he Romans t oo r ealised t he a dvantages t o b e g ained f rom i ts s ubordination . T he f actor t hat f avoured A ugustus' p lans was a n u nstable p olitical s ituation i n P arthia w hich e ffectively p revented i ts r ulers f rom o pposing R oman i ntentions; t aking a dvantage o f i t, A ugustus m ade f irst P hraates I V ( Veil. P at. 1 1.100), t hen P hraataces ( Dio L V.10.20; L V .10a.4) w ithdraw f rom A rmenia ( Dobias 1 924: 3 08-9, 3 46-8; A nderson 1 932: 2 64, 2 75; Z iegler 1 964: 4 8, 5 3-4; D abrowa 1 983: 4 1-5). A ugustus d id n ot want t o t urn i t i nto a R oman p rovince b ut t o s trenghten R oman i nfluence i n i ts t erritory w ith t he h elp o f a r uler r aised t o t he t hrone b y R ome; t he s ame a im w as s ought b y T iberius a nd C laudius. A n a nalysis o f t he m ilitary a ctivity o f t he S yrian t roops b etween A ugustus a nd C laudius s uggests t hat t he p roblem o f t he s ecurity o f t he e astern f rontier o f S yria was c onsidered a s s olved. T he m ajority o f m ilitary o perations i n w hich S yrian l egions t ook p art h ad a n o ffensive c haracter a nd t ook p lace f ar f rom t he f rontier o f t he m other p rovince . Many t i mes d uring t his p eriod t he S yrian a rmy was u sed t o b ring p ressure o n t hose P arthian r ulers who t ried t o d efend t he i nterests o f t heir s tate a gainst Rome ( Tac. A nn . V I.37.4; D abrowa 1 983: 1 05-12, 1 21-2). T he o ffensive c hara cter o f t he S yrian a r my meant t hat t he l egions i ncluded i n i t d id n ot h ave r egular c amps b ecause t heir c onstant m ovement m ade t he b uilding o f s uch c amps p ointless . T his f act e xplains, i n my v iew , w hy o ne h as s o m any d ifficulties t rying t o l ocate t he c amps o f p articular S yrian l egions d uring t he r ule o f t he f irst e mpero rs o f t he J ulio-C laudian d ynasty. T hese d ifficulties a re a ll t he g reater b ecause we d o n ot h ave a t o ur d isposal, e ither f rom A rmenia o r f rom S yria, a ny o f t he a rchaeological d ata w hich w ould . h elp t o e xplain s ome o f t he d etails c oncerning t he p resence a nd a ctivity o f R oman t roops a s i s t he c ase w ith, f or e xample, G ermany ( see S chönberger 1 969: 1 44-97; Wells 1 972). I n v iew o f t his f act, T acitus' a ccount r eferring t o t he p lace o f l egio X F retensis ' q uarters i n AD 1 8 a nd l egio V I F errata i n AD 1 9 ( et b elow ) a cquires a d ifferent meaning f rom t he o ne w hich h as n orma lly b een a scribed t o i t. A s i s k nown, t he f irst o f t hese l egions was b ased i n C yrrhus ( Tac. A nn. 1 1.57.2), while t he s econd was n ear L aodicea ( Tac. Ann . 1.79.2). T he majority o f s cholars t reat t hese i ndicated p laces a s e quiyalent t o t heir r egular c amps a lthough s uch a c onclusion d oes n ot a rise f rom T acitus ' a ccount ( Knox M 'Elderry 1 909: 4 8; Cumont 1 917: 2 24; H onigmann 1 925: 1 99; R i t ter Ii ng 1 925: 1 627; P arker 1 928: 1 28; A nderson 1 932: 2 82-3; Wagner 1 976: 5 23, n .42; F r zouls 1 977 : 1 82, 1 95-6). H e s tates c learly • t hat t he w inter c amps o f t hese u nits w ere s ituated i n t he p laces mentioned b y h im .4 T heir p resence i n C yrrhus a nd n ear L aodicea w as o f a t emporary n ature, t he c ause o f w hich m ight b e r elated t o G ermanicus ' m ission . R egular c amps f or t he S yrian l egions p robably a ppeared m id-way t hrough T iberius'

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r eign . A ccording t o J . Wagner, t he c amp o f l egio X F retensis w as l ocated i n Z eugma j ust a fter AD 1 8 ( 1975: 7 6-7; 1 976: 2 86; 1 977: 5 22-i a nd 5 23, n .45; 1 983: 1 21-2, n .29; c f R ey-Coquais 1 978: 6 7).' S umm ing u p t his p art o f o ur r esearch, i t may b e s tated t hat t he f irst emperors, who h eld b oth t he i nitiative a nd d ominance i n t heir r elations w ith t he A rsacids, d id n ot c onsider i t n ecessary t o c reate a d eveloped d efensive s ystem a long t he e astern f rontier o f S yria . T his a ttitude r esulted p robably f rom t heir b elief t hat s eizure o f A rmenia would e l i minate t he n eed f or s uch a s ystem . I t i s v ery p robable t hat o nly w hen f uture p rospects f or p ermanent p eace i n A rmenia a ppeared t o b e u nattainable t hat t he f ortificat ion o f a t l east s ome s ections o f t he f rontier o n t he E uphrates was a dmitted t o b e u seful. T he p resence o f a la I B osporanorum n ear E uropos o n t he E uphrates a t t he e nd o f C laudius' r eign may b e, t hus, e xplained ( ILS 2 510 = C IL II 6 707; AE 1 969/70: 6 49, 6 52 , 6 53; s ee D abrowa 1 979: 2 33 a nd 2 45, n .9). — I.

N ero t o D omitian

When N ero a ssumed p ower, R oman i nterests i n t he E ast h appened t o b e u nder s erious t hreat . T he s ituation i n A rmenia w hich h ad b een f airly s table f or q uite a l ong t i me, c hanged d uring t he l ast months o f C laudius ' r eign t o R ome 's d isadvantage . T his h appened b ecause o f t he P arthian k ing V ologases I , who, c oming t o t he P arthian t hrone i n A D 5 1, s ought t o r ealise t he p rogramme o f A rsacid f oreign p olicy i n t he West. H is f irst s tep i n t his d irection was t o r aise h is b rothers t o t he t hrone i n A rmenia a nd Media A tropatene ( Joseph. A J XX .3.4 ( 74); T ac. A nn. X II.50.1; XV.2.1; D io LXIII.1.2; 5 .2; R ome t ried t o n egotiate i n t he c ase o f A rmenia ( Tac. A nn. X III.9.1) b ut when i t a ppeared t hat t he P arthian r uler d id n ot i ntend t o a bandon h is p lans t owards i t, N ero d ecided t o c lai m R oman r ights b y means o f war ( Tac. A nn. X II.34.2; 3 7.4). H owever, i t a ppeared q uite q uickly t hat t his war, i n s pite o f s ome s uccesses a chieved b y R ome, h ad a c ompletel y d ifferent c haracter f rom a ny o f t he e arlier c onflicts. T he p articipation o f t he P arthian monarch i n t he w ar m ade t hat i nevit able . I t w as h e i n A D 6 1 w ho c aused R ome f or t he f irst t i me t o jace u nited A rmeno-Parthian f orces a nd a w ar o n t wo f ronts, f or i n t his y ear V ologases u ndertook m ilitary o perations s i multan eously i n A rmenia a nd a gainst S yria ( Tac. A nn. XV .2.4; 3 .1; D io LXII.20.2). T his s ituation a ppeared t o h ave b een s o d angerous t hat C orbulo, c ommanding t he R oman f orces, was f orced t o c all i nhabitants o f S yria t o t he c olours a nd t o u ndertake i ntensive f ortification works a long t he E uphrates t o r epel t he P arthian a ttack o n t he t erritory o f t his p rovince, which was b eing p rep ared ( Tac. A nn. X V .3 .2). P reparations f or t he c ampaign i n AD 6 2 -m aking u se o f a n a rmistice - i ncluded C orbulo 's f ortifications o n t he E uphrates. I n c onsequence o f t hese works, t he R oman d efensive l ine b ecame s o s trong t hat P arthian t roops c ould n ot e ven a pproach t he r iver ( Tac. A nn. X V .9.1-2). T he P arthian k ing w as c ompel l ed t o g ive u p h is a ttack o n S yria. T hough a ll t he w eight o f m ilitary o perations w as t ransfered t o A rmenia b y V olo-

9 7

g ases, C orbulo d id n ot c ease t o k eep t he d efensive S yria i n f ighting r eadiness ( Tac. A nn . XV .12.1).

s ystem o f

A ccording t o T acitus, t he main p art o f t he d efensive s ystem c reated b y C orbulo c onsisted o f t he l egions w hich w ere s tationed i n s trenghtened p ositions a long t he E uphrates s upported b y a l evy i n mass o f i nhabitants o f t his p rovince . A part f rom f ortifying t he S yrian b ank o f t he r iver w ith s eparate b uildings, a ll t he s ources o f p otable w ater were s pecially c oncealed t o d eny e nemy a ccess t 9 t hem i n c ase t hey s hould manage t o o vercome t he R oman d efense.' I n t he s econd p hase o f f ortifying w orks c arried o ut a t t he t urn o f AD 6 1/62, t he R oman d efensive l ine was s trengthened b y f urther f ortified p ositions, w hilst R oman s hips w ere p laced o n t he E uphrates i n o rder t o p revent P arthian t roops c rossing. A part f rom t ypically d efensive u ndertakings, C orbulo t hrew a b ridge a cross t he E uphrates e nabling R oman t roops t o r each t he e nemy b ank. A s trongly f ortified b ridge-head l ocated o n t he P arthian b ank o f t he r iver g uaranteed s ecurity o f t he b ridge ( Tac . Ann . XV .9.1). H aving u ndertaken a ll t hese s teps C orbulo d emonstrated t hat t he s ystem o f p ermanent f ortifications o n t he E uphrates c ould a ssure S yria 's s ecurity a long t he r iver a nd b e a n e ffective way o f r estraining t he s uperior f orces o f t he e nemy e ven w hen R oman manpower w as l i mited ( see T ac . A nn . X V .12 .1) . C onclusions d rawn f or t he f uture f rom Corbulo 's o perations must h ave b een n oticed i n R ome . H owever, t heir p ractical r ealisation w as d isturbed b y a n i nsurrection w hich i n AD 6 6 b roke o ut i n J udaea . I t g rew t o s uch a n e xtent t hat t he Roman a uthorities w ere f orced t o s end n early a ll t he u nits a t t heir d isposal i n t he E ast t o f ight t he J ewish i nsurgents. L egio X F retensis was a mongst t he o nes s ent t o J udaea b ut i ts , p lace i n Z eugma was i mmediately t aken b y l egio I V S cythica.' T his f act d eserves s pecial emphasis. I t i s e vident t hat i n s pite o f R oman-Parthian r elations t urning o ut well f or b oth s ides i n AD 6 3, t he R omans d id n ot t rust t he P arthian r uler ( see T ac. A nn. X V .24.1-2; D io LX III.5.3; E utropius V II.3.1). T his l ack o f c onfidence i s a lso . s hown b y t he f act t hat e ven d uring t he h eaviest f ighting i n J udaea t his l egion d id n ot e ven momentarily l eave i ts p ost ( see D abrowa 1 983: 1 70-1, n .32). T his c aution was n ot w ithout r eason. T he p roblem o f S yria 's s ecurity a long t he f rontier w ith t he A rsacids q uite u nforeseen a nd i n a n u nexpected f orm a ppeared i n t he s econd h alf o f A D 6 9. I nvolved i n t he s truggle f or t he t hrone a nd a t t he s ame t i me h aving h is h ands t ied b y t he J ewish i nsurgents, V espasian r eq uested t he A rmenian a nd P arthian k ings t o r emain , n eutral t owards t he e vents t aking p lace w ithin t he R oman Empire ( Tac. H ist. 1.82.5 ; D abrowa 1 981: 1 88-94; 1 983: 1 58-64). I n a ns wer, V olog ases p roposed t o g ive h im c onsiderable m ilitary h elp ( Tac .Hist. I V.51.1-2; S uet. V esp. V I.7). V espasian 's s ituation w as s o d ifficult t hat e ither a cceptance o r r ejection o f t his o ffer c ould b e e qually d angerous i n i ts c onsequence . A lthough, b y d iplomacy V espasian managed i n t he e nd t o a void t hese d angers, V ologases' a ttitude m ust h ave made h i m aware, w ith a ll i ts s harpness, o f t he w eakness o f t he R oman p ositions o n t he E uphrates. B eing u nable

9 8

t o r educe t he manpower o f t he a r my i n J udaea w hich h ad a lready b een d i minished a s ac onsequence o f C . L icinius Mucianus' c amp aign i n I taly ( Joseph. B J. I V .11.1 ( 632); T ac. H ist, 1 1.83.1), V espasian d ecided t o f or m a n ew l egion - X VI F lavia, which was c reated b etween O ctober A D 6 9 a nd March A D 7 0 ( see 1 982: 6 14-9 ; 1 983: 1 61). T he h ypothesis t hat t his u nit was p ri marily i ntended t o s trengthen t he e astern f rontier o f S yria s upports n ot o nly t he d ating o f i ts c reation b ut a lso t he f act t hat i t was n ever u sed i n w arfare i n J udaea t hough s tationed i n S yria . I t s eems t hat t he p roposal o f t he P arthian r uler made V espasian r ealise o ne m ore t hing - t he n ecessity o f f ortifying t he e astern f rontier o f t he Empire i n a ll i ts l ength, b oth i n S yria a nd i n A natolia . T his n ecessity, b esides d efensive r easons, was d ict ated b y p olitical c onsiderations. T he c hange i n t he b alance o f p ower i n A r menia t o t he A rsacids' a dvantage c oncealed many u npleasant s urprise i f or R ome . T he R omans n ow h ad t o b e p repared t o c ounteract t hem .' I n V espasian 's a ctivities, a i med a t t he c reation o f ad efensive s ystem o f t he e astern f rontier o f S yria, t he r e-annexation o f Commagene i n A D 7 2 m ust b e r ecognised a s a t urning p oint ( Joseph . B J . V II.7.1-3 ( 219-43); S uet. V esp . V III; E utropius V II.19.4; O ros . V II.9.10; I LS 9 198; AE 1 943: 3 3). T his e vent went b eyond l ocal l i mits b ecause o nly a fter R ome 's a nnexation o f Commagene d id t he c reation o f a d efensive s ystem a long t he e astern f rontier o f t he R oman Empire b ecome p ossible . A s l ong a s C ommagene h ad a n i ndependent p olitical e xistence - r estored b y G aius i n A D 3 8 r ealisation o f s uch a n i ntention was i mpossible. T he t erritory o f t his s tate s eparated, b y aw ide b elt, S yria f rom C appadocia, t hus p reventing R ome f rom g aining c ontrol o ver a l arge a nd i mport ant s trategic s ector o f t he E uphrates ( Strabo XVI.2.1-3 ( 749); P liny HN . V .86; J oseph. B J. V II.7.1 ( 224); K nox M 'Elderry 1 909: 5 0-2 ; Wagner 1 975 : 7 4-5 ; H ellenkemper 1 977: 4 67-8, 4 71; S ullivan 1 977 : 7 34; D abrowa 1 980 : 1 4-15 , 1 9-23; 1 980b: 2 48-51; v an B erchem 1 985 : 7 1). T hough t he k ing o f C ommagene h ad b een c ounted a mongst t he f aithful v assals o f R ome, h is c ountry a djoined t he t erritory o f P arthia a nd h is c apital, S amosata, was s ituated a t a c onv enient f ord a cross t he E uphrates. B oth t hese f acts c oncealed a potential d anger f or R oman i nterests i n A natolia i n c ase o f a ny c hange i n C ommagenian r elations w ith R ome ( Strabo X VI.2 .3 ( 749); J oseph . B J. 1 .16.7 ( 321); V II.7.1 ( 221-4); H ellenkemper 1 977: 4 63; W agner 1 977: 5 20 ; S ullivan 1 977: 7 91-4; D abrowa 1 980: 2 1 a nd n .27). T hese r easons p robably c onvinced V espasian o f t he n ecessi ty o f a nnexing C ommagene; t he n ew a cquisition b ecame a dministrat ively s ubordinated t o t he g overnor o f S yria . E vents t hat t ook p lace i n S yria p robably n ot l ong a fter t he a nnexation o f Commagene p roved t hat V espasian's f ears o f h is e astern n eighbour w ere n ot w ithout f oundation . T hey a re c onnecte d w ith a r ather mysterious R oman-Parthian m ilitary c onflict ( Pliny P an. 1 4; A ur. V ict. Caes. I X .12; S uda s .v. b ci ,mÄnw l). I t may b e c alled mysterious b ecause i t i s k nown o nly t hat M . U lpius T raianus, t he g overnor o f S yria b et ween AD 7 3-8, f ather o f t he l ater emperor, was i ts h ero ( PIR V 5 74; H anslik 1 965: 1 032, n .1;

9 9

V äisänen 1 979: 1 6-21; E ck 1 982: 2 93-9; v an B erchem 1 983: 1 87-8). I t i s n ot k nown e xactly when i t t ook p lace, t he r eason f or i t, i ts c ourse a nd t he f inal r esult, n or t he t erritory o n which i t t ook p lace. G .W . B owersock h as p ut f or ward t he h ypothesis t hat t he f ighting t ook p lace i n C ommagene ( 1973: 1 35; s ee H anslik 1 962: 1 846). I t i s n ot d ifficult t o i magine t hat t his c onflict must h ave c onvinced V espasian o f t he n ecessity o f f urther o perations i n o rder t o s ecure t he e astern f rontier o f S yria. A s i s k nown, h e t ook h is f irst s teps i n t his d irection j ust a fter AD 7 2 w hen, i mmediately a fter a nnexation, R oman g arrisons were p laced i n t he t erritory o f C ommagene . T he s igns o f t heir p resence a re k nown i n d ifferent p laces ( see C row a nd F rench 1 980 : 9 06-7). I n AD 7 3 t he s oldiers o f l egio II G allica w ere b usy w ith c onstruction w ork o n t he b ank o f t he E uphrates a t s ome d istance f rom S amosata ( ILS 8 903 - I GLS 1 .66 = H el l enkemper 1 977: 4 68, n .38; I GLS 1 .65; W agner 1 975: 7 7; 1 977: 5 21-2). T he p resence o f s oldiers o f t his l egion j ust i n t hat p lace l ed s cholars t o c onclude t hat t he c amp o f t his u nit h ad t o b e s ituated i n S amosata ( Wagner 1 975: 7 6; H e Uenkemper 1 977: 4 68-9; D abrowa 1 980: 2 50; s ee S peidel 1 983: 8 ). 7 D uring a rchaeological w orks i n T ille, t he r emains o f m ilit ary b uildings were f ound, t he o rigin o f which m ight b e d ated f rom t he l ast q uarter o f t he i st c entury AD. T he i ndications p oint t o t he a la F lavia A grippiana ( C row a nd F rench 1 980: 9 03-5; F rench 1 980: 1 98; 1 982: 1 70 a nd 1 71, i ll.5.1). I t p robably a ppeared i n T ille j ust a fter AD 7 2 a nd was s tationed t here t ill t he b eginning o f t he 2 nd c entury A D ( Dabrowa 1 985 : 2 27-33) . T he f ortifying o f t he S yrian b ank o f t he E uphrates was n ot l im ited t o t he t erritory o f C ommagene . A rchaeological e xavations a t T ell e l-Hajj, i dentified w ith a ncient E ragiza, a re c onvincing ( Stucky 1 975 : 1 67-9 ; B ridel a nd S tucky 1 980 : 3 49-53) . R emains o f R oman m il i tary b uildings u ncovered d uring e xcavations i n t he o ldest p art, m ay b e d ated f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he i st c entury A D ( see B ridel a nd S tucky 1 980: 3 52). A s i n many o ther s i milar c ases f rom t he p eriod o f t he F lavians, i t i s n ot p ossible t o a scertain d uring t he r eign o f w hich emperor i t t ook p lace . L ikew ise, a s a t T ille, i t was p ossible t o i dentify which u nits were s tationed a t T ell e l-Hajj. T he f irst o f t hem was t he p reviously u nknown c ohors I P ia F idelis s tationed i n E ragiza p robably d uring t he 7 0s a nd 8 0s AD ( Dabrowa 1 979: 2 38). T hen i ts p lace w as t aken b y c ohors I T hracum m illiaria ( C IL XVI 3 5 ; AE 1 961: 3 19 RMD 4 ; J arry 1 985: 1 13, n o.16). 1° T he f unction o f c urator r ipae s uperioris a nd i pferioris, k nown f rom t he i nscriptions f rom D omitian 's r eign ( CIL X II 1 357 . I LS 2 709 ; S eyrig 1 946: 1 80, n o.6 = AE 1 947: 1 72; 1 81, n o.7) s hould p resumably b e c onnected w ith s trengthening o f R oman p ositions o n t he S yrian b ank o f t he E uphrates b y t he F lavians. We h ave t oo f ew d etails t o d etermine i ts c haracter. I t i s f requently a ssumed, h owever, t hat a ll t he a ffairs c onnected w ith t he d efence o f t he E uphrates l ine c ame d uring D omitian 's r ule ( Seyrig 1 946: 1 83-4; E nsslin 1 854: 1 335-6; v on D omaszewski-Dobson 1 967: 1 35). 1

1 00

D evelopment o f t he i nfrastructure t o t he r ear: t he n aval s tat ions ( IGLS 11.1131, s ee I GLS 11.1134-1134 b is; v an B erchem 1 983: 1 86-7, 1 92-5; 1 985 : 5 3-61, 6 8, 7 0, 7 6-7) a nd i n p articular, t he n etwork o f r oads c onnecting p articular g arrisons a nd t he m ain t ransport r outes w ithin t he p rovince ( see H ellenkemper 1 977: 4 637 ), was i ntended t o s erve t he d efensive s ystem c reated o n t he r iver. T he F lavians' a ctivity i n t his f ield i s b est k nown f rom t he t erritory o f A natolia b ut t here i s e vidence w hich a llows u s t o b elieve t hat t his was u ndertaken i n S yria o n a l arge s caie, b oth i n t he a reas s ituated o n t he b order ( e.g. a m ilestone o f AD 7 5 f rom E rek s ituated o n t he r oad f rom P al myra t o S ura o n h e E uphrates ( AE 1 933: 2 05; s ee v an B erchem 1 985: 7 0-1)) a nd i n t he t erritories d istant f rom t he f rontier ( AE 1 974: 6 53; T homsen 1 917: 1 8, n o.9 a1 ; s ee n o. 1 0 a' ; Goodchild 1 949: 1 13, 1 19, 1 20; R ey-Cbquais 1 978: 7 0; v an B erchem 1 985: 7 1, 7 7). E vidence a t o ur d isposal p roves t hat t he F lavians d id more t han o ther emperors i n t he i st c entury AD t o f ortify t he e astern f rontier o f S yria . T hey managed t o a chieve i t t hanks t o r egular a nd s ustained e fforts. Work b egun b y V espasian was, t o a c ertain e xtent, c ontinued b y D omitian. T hey s haped t he R oman d efensive s ystem i n S yria o n t he E uphrates w hich i n many w ays w as s i milar t o t he o ne c reated b y C orbulo a t t he b eginning o f t he 6 0s . We d o n ot k now, h owever, t o what e xtent t he F lavians made u se o f h is e xperiences. I t may b e s aid t hat t hese s i milarities a re n ot c oincidental b ut a re f ully c onscious. R eference t o Corbulo 's t ested s olutions g uaranteed t heir e fficiency. T his d oes n ot m ean, h owever, t hat t he a chievements o f t he F lavians a re d eprived o f o riginality . T he r ange o f t asks t o w hich t he d efensive s ystem c reated b y t hem w as t o b e e qual, l ed t o i ts a dequate p reparation b y t he d evelopment o f a n e ssential i nfrastructure i n i ts r ear. T he b uilding o f a r oad n et work was i ts most i mportant e lement b ecause i t f acilitated p rovision o f t he a rmy, c ommunication a nd r apid movement o f u nits t o p laces o f d anger, b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he p rovince ( see H el l enkemper 1 977: 4 69; F rench 1 983: 7 1-82). T his moment d eserves e mphasis. O ne m ust r emember t hat t he d efensive s ystem o f S yria a fter F lavian t i mes w as a f ragment o f t he d efensive s ystem o f t he e astern f rontier o f t he R oman Empire. O ne m ore i mportant m erit o f t he F lavians ' w ork m ust b e m entioned . I ts s tructures n ot o nly a llowed e fficient d efence o f t he E uphrates l ine b ut, a s l ater e vents s howed, t hey c ould a lso s erve a s t he b ase f or o ffensive Roman o perations a gainst A r menia a nd P arthia ( Dabrowa 1 980b 2 50-1) . T he h istory o f t he c reation o f t he R oman d efensive s ystem a long t he e astern f rontier o f S yria i n t he 1 st c entury AD i s a t t he s ame t i me t he h istory o f R oman-Parthian r elations. A s l ong a s R ome h eld t he i nitiative a nd p redominance i n t hem , t he n ecessity o f c reating s uch a s ystem w as n ot n oticed . T he n ecessity o f i ts c reation was r ealised i n R ome o nly w hen t he o nce i gnored n eighb our q uite u nexpectedly a ppeared t o b e a s inister a nd d angerous o pponent d uring b oth w ar a nd p eace . T he e vidence o f r ising R oman f ears i s t he p resence i n S yria i n t he e arly 7 0s A D o f f our

1 01

l egions ( van B erchem 1 983: 1 86-7, 1 89-91; 1 985: a t l east t wo w ere s tationed o n t he E uphrates.

8 5-6),

o f w hich

N otes 1 . S ome o f t hem c an b e i dentified . F rom A ugustus ' t i me a re k nown: a la I B osporanorum ( Dabrowa 1 979: 2 33) a nd c ohors I C lassica —TTLS 2 683; D abrowa 1 979: 2 36; S addington 1 982: 5 /17 F rom C laudius ' t i me, b esides t he o nes m entioned: a la V erterana G allorum , a la T hracum ( see R oxan 1 976: 6 2 a nd T ab.IV), a la G allorum e t T hracum A ntiana a nd a la G allorum e t T hracum C onstant ium ( CIL XVI 3 ; D abrowa 1 979: 2 34; S addington 1 982: 2 55-6). A uxiliary u nits s tationed i n J udaea c reate a s eparate p roblem . B ecause o f t he p olitical s tatus o f H erod 's k ingdom , a uxilia i n t he t erritory o f J udaea h ad d ifferent f unctions f rom t hose i n S yria ( Saddington 1 982: 1 81; S peidel 1 982/3: 2 33-40) t hough f rom t he f or mal p oint o f v iew t hey were a lso s ubordinated t o t he g overnor o f S yria ( Ghiretti 1 985 : 7 60 , 7 63, 7 65-6). 2 . S ubordination o f C ilicia C ampestris t o t he g overnor i n 2 2 B C may b e i ncluded t o t hem ( Dobias 1 924: 3 05-6) . ( 1932: 2 79) t hinks t hat i t h appened i n 2 7 BC .

o f S yria A nderson

3 . S ee N eusner 1 963: 4 0-59; Wol s ki 1 966: 6 5-89; 1 977: 3 95-417. T he A rsacids d id n ot g ive u p t heir c lai ms c oncerning S yria u ntil t he e nd o f t he e xistence o f t heir s tate ( Dabrowa 1 984 : 1 49-64) . 4 . T ac. A nn. 1.57.2: C yrri...apud h iberna d ecumae T ac . Ann. 1 1.79.2: . .Domitius L aodiciam u rbem S yriae a dpulsus, c um h iberna s extae l egionis p eteret. . . . 5 . K nox M 'Elderry 1 909: 4 8 t hinks t hat i t t ook b efore t he o utbreak o f t he i nsurrection i n A D 6 6 .

p lace

s hortly

6 . T ac. A nn. XV .3.2: a tque i nteri m r eliquas l igiones p ro r ipa E uphratis l ocat, t ummltuariam p rovincialium manum a rmat, h ostiles i ngressus p raesidiis i ntercipit. e t q uia e gena a quarum r egio e st, c astella f intibus i mposita; q uosdam r ivos c ongestu h arenae a bdidit. 7 . T he e vidence o f J oseph. ( BJ. XXXI.207) i ndicates t he p resence o f

V II.1.3 ( 17)) a nd P hilo L eg. l egio X F retensis i n Z eugma .

8 . T his f act e xplains t he r eason o f f irst V espasian 's a nd l ater D om itian's i nterest i n t he t erritory o f Caucasus: G rosso 1 954: 17-79; B osworth 1 976: 6 3-78; D abrowa 1 980a: 3 79-88 ; 1 983: 1 65-6, 1 72-3, n .46. 9 . T here a re a lso s upporters o f t he v iew t hat e ither l egio V I F errata ( Knox M 'Elderry 1 909: 5 2; M itford 1 980: 1 181) o r l egio X VI F lavia ( Weissbach 1 920: 2 222; B owersock 1 973: 1 35; v an B erchem 1 983: 1 91) w as s tationed a t S amosata . 1 0 . T his u nit w as s till s tationed o n t he E uphrates a t t he b eginn ing o f t he 2 nd c entury AD . A fter H adrian 's c hanges i n t he

1 02

p rovincial a dministration o f J udaea i t a ppeared w ithin t he f ront iers o f t he p rovince o f S yria-Palaestine c reated b y h im ( CIL X VI 1 39; RMD 69 = AE 1 976: 6 90; AE 1 979: 6 31 a nd 6 33). 1 1. R ecently Teixidor ( 1984: 4 4) h as p ut f orth t he h ypothesis t hat t his f unction h ad more o f a f iscal t han a m ilitary c haract er.

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O xford .

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E .

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VAN B ERCHEM ,

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D .

1 07

am E uphrat/Zeugma .

RE

I

A:

W ies-

2 2 2 0 -4 .

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1 08

S yri a.

Acta

9.

EQUESTRI AN

OFFI CERS

FROM

THE

EAS T

H . D evijver A ntwerpen - L euven

E rico B irley o ctogenario m agistro e t am ico

O n t he b asis o f t he P rosopographia M ilitiarum E quest rium ( Leuven 1 976-1980) a nd o f t he v olume o f A ddenda n ow i n p reparation ( Devijver 1 985) a c onspectus h as b een c ompiled o f t he e questrian o fficers o riginating f rom Asia, P ontus-Bithynia, Galatia ( Pisidia), L yciaP a rnphylia, S yr i a-Palaest i na/ I udaea, A rabia and A egyptus. O f 1 63 o fficers t he o rigo i s f airly c ertainly e stab lished ; a nother 3 3 c an b e l ocalised, w ith s ome p robab ility, i n a n e astern p rovince; a nd 3 7 c an o nly b e c haracterised a s O r i entales. About 1 09 6 , r oughly e s tim ated, o f t he k nown e questrian o fficers c ome f rom t he E ast. A f irst r equirement i s a s tudy o f t he g eographical t he c hronological d istribution o f t he material.

a nd

S ocial s tratification a nd mobility: t he p roblem o f I talian i mmigrants o r t rue a utochthones; municipal e lites; c itizenship p olicy o f t he emperors a nd p rovinc ial g overnors; d etailed e xamination o f t he o nomastic d ata; t he t hree-generation-phenomenon(?) . T he c areer: t rue v iri m ilitares o r a l i mited c areer i n t he E ast? I nfluence o f l inguistic, c li matological f actors - o r e ven f amily t raditions? T he r endition i n G reek o f t he Latin t er minology o f t he militiae e questres. A n e xamination o f t he n on-O riental e questrian o fficers w ho s erved i n t he E ast s hould c omplete a nd q ualify t he g lobal p icture .

1 09

CONTENTS L 2 .

I ntroduction A S urvey: I . I. II. I V . V . V I. V II. V III. I X . X . X I.

3 .

A sia e t I nsulae P ontus - B ithynia L ycia - P amphylia C ilicia G alatia S yria l udaea A rabia A egyptus N o e questrian o fficers f rom : A ssyria, M esopotamia/Cyprus O rientals ( ?)

17 1 54 1 60 1 71 1 72 1 79 1 90 1 91 1 93 C appadocia/Armenia, 1 98 1 99

C onclusions: a . b . c . d .

4 .

11

C hronological a nd G eographic d istribution S ocial s tratification a nd p romotion ' Militiae e questres ' a nd ' O rdo s enatorius ' T he c areer o f t he e questrian o fficer - t he ' m ilitiae e questres '

B ibliography

2 01 2 01 2 06 2 10 2 19

1

I NTRODUCTI ON

F or a s tudy o f t he o rdo e quester a nd t he o fficers o f t his o rder d uring t he R epublic o ne c an n ow c all u pon t he works o f S uolahti ( 1955) a nd N icolet ( 1966/1974, 1 967). T he masterly o euvre o f t he l ate H .-G . P flaum ( 1950, 1 960, 1 982) o ffers a c omprehensive v iew o f t he p rocuratores f rom t he o rdo e quester u nder t he Empire . H owever i mportant - i n s ocial t erms t he p rocuratores m ay h ave b een, t hey c onstitute o nly a p ortion t he u pper s tratum o f membership o f t he e questrian o rder. I n my o pinion, t hree m ore g roups o f k nights m ust b e s tudied t o c omplete t he p icture . A f irst g roup i s t hat o f t he p rimipilares, w ho r each t he p ri mipil ate a nd e questrian r ank v ia t he c enturionate; t his g roup h as b een d iscussed i n d epth b y D obson ( 1978) . A s econd g roup a re t he e questrian o fficers o r m ilitiae e questres. A s mall n umber o f t his g roup a dvanced t o p rocurator a nd was t hus d ealt w ith b y P flaum . A n e xhaustive s tudy o f t he m i 1i tiae e questres was a lready c alled f or y ears a go b y E . B irley ( 1949), a nd t his g rand m aster a nd i nspirator a lso d rew u p t he m ethod f or s uch r esearch ( Birley 1 951). H is i nspiring p ublications, h is e ffective h elp, e ncouragement a nd f riendship, e nabled me t o r ealise t he P rosopographia M ilitiarum E questrium ( Devijver 1 975, 1 976-1980 ; h ereafter PME). A f urther v olume i s c urrently i n p reparation ( Devijver 1 985). May t he p resent c ontribution b e d eemed a f itting t ribute a nd a nt i dorum t o o ur o ctogenarian m entor. T he t hird g roup o f e questrians, i s made u p o f t hose who n ever t ranscended t he b oundaries o f t heir own c olonia o r m unicipium t o e xercise a m ilitary c ommand o r h old a p ost i n t he s tate a dminis tration . T hey make u p t he b ulk o f t he e questrian o rder, o ften h aving c limbed f rom t he r anks o f t he d ecuriones a nd t he b ouleytai ( Ijsew ijn 1 983-84) . A c omprehensive s tudy o f t his g roup would c omplete t he p icture o f t he o rdo e quester a nd t o me s eems a n u rgent d esideratum . I n t he s ystem o f t he m il i tiae e questres t hree p hases c an b e c learly d istinguished, which c oincide r oughly w ith t he f irst, s eCond a nd t hird c enturies: b etween A ugustus a nd T rajan-Hadrian t he s ystem r eceived i ts p roper p hysiognomy, b etween H adrian a nd M arcus A urelius i t r eached i ts a pex, w ith C ommodus t he d ecline s et i n ( Devijver 1 973: 5 49). I n t he i nitial s tage - A ugustus/Tiberius - t here i s n o s trict h ierarchy . B ut a t rend i s n oticeable: k nights f irst b ecome t ribunus l egionis, t hereafter p raefectus e quitum ; t he p raefectura c ohortis - n ow h eld b efore, t hen a gain a fter t he t ribunate o ccurs b ut r arely. T he Emperor C laudius i ntroduced a s ocial s tratification i nto t hese c ommands . T he p raefectura a lae - p reviously a lso o pen t o

1 11

s enators - a nd t he t ribunatus a ngusticlavius l egionis - p reviousl y a lso o pen t o t he p rimipili-centuriones - a re n ow t he e xclusive p reserve o f t he e quites, a s i s t he p raefectura c ohortis. C laudius a lso f ixed t he s equence, t he h ierarchy: p raef. c oh" p raef. a lae, t rib . l eg. ( Devijver 1 970). T his " Claudian o rder" f ailed t o s urvive b ecause t he p raefectura a lae r equired h igher q ualificat ions t han t he t ribunatus l egionis . A fter C laudius t he c lassic s cheme o f t he t res m ilitiae emerged: 1 . p raefectura c ohortis q uingenariae; 2 . t ribunatus a ngustic lavius l egionis; 3 . p raefectura a lae q uingenariae . I nto t his s ystem t wo n ew c ommands w ill b e i nserted i n t he c ourse o f t he f irst c entury . T he c ommand o f t he c ohortes v oluntarioruml i ngenuorum c ivium R omenorum i s e ntrusted t o t he e quites ( Le G lay 1 972): t hose a ppointed r eceive t he t itle t ribunus a nd t he r ank o f t he m ilitia p ri ma. ( For t he o verall c ontext, s ee L e G lay 1 972; D evijver 1 970, 1 973). P robably u nder t he F lavii t he c ohortes m illiariae w ere f ounded, o n t he o ne h and b y i ncreasing t he s trength o f e xisting c ohortes f rom 5 00 t o 1 000 men, o n t he o ther h and b y r ecruiting n ew u nits ( Kennedy 1 983). T he o fficers o f t hese c ohortes must b e d isting uished f rom t heir c olleagues - p raefecti o f 5 00 m en - a nd t hey r eceive t he t itle a nd t he r ank o f t he m ilitia s ecunda: t ribunus c ohortis m illiariae . F inally, we r e-encounter t he t wofold s tructure o f t he c ohorts ( quingenariae a nd m i 11i ariae) i n t he a lae. T he p raefectus a lae q uingenariae h eld t he m ilitia t ertia , h is c olleague w ho c ommanded a n a la m i 11i aria was g ranted t he m ilitia q uarta . T he e arliest a ttestation o f a n a la m i 11i aria c omes f rom S yria c a. A D 8 1 ( Birley 1 966; K ennedy 1 985). T he o rigin, t he e xact s ize, t he o rganisation, t he p recise d ates o f t hese u nits r emain u ncertain, a s i s a lso t he c ase w ith most t ypes o f a uxiliary t roops ( Holder 1 980 ; K ennedy 1 983, 1 985 : 1 81) . S till, i t may b e s tated t hat t he s ystem o f t he m ilitiae e questres w as f ully d eveloped b y t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury. A s t he n obilitas h ad i ts c ursus h onorum f rom t he R epublic, s o t oo t he o rdo e quester n ow h ad i ts e quivalent. T he s ystem w as o f e xceptional i mportance f or t he f ormation o f a q ualified o fficer c orps, f or R ome h ad n o m ilitary a cademy f or t he t raining o f i ts o fficers ( Al f öldy 1 969a). B efore b eing c harged w ith a n i mportant i ndependent c ommand o f a n i nfantry o r c avalry u nit o f 1 000 men, t he o fficer f irst h ad t o p rove t hat h e c ould m anage a u nit h alf t hat s ize. A n o fficer i n c harge o f t he t actic ally i mportant a la m illiaria h ad h ad t o d emonstrate h is q ualific ations i n t he p receding t res m ilitiae . I n a ddition, a n atural s election w as b uilt i n, a s i t w ere, i n t he s ystem i tself a nd t hat i n v arious ways. T he e questrian o fficer w as n ot u nder p er manent c ontract; h e r emained, o n a n a verage, t hree y ears a t h is p ost a nd t hen r eturned t o c ivil s tatus ( Birley

12

1 949). H is f irst a ppoint ment h e f requently owed t o a n i nfluential s enator, g overnor o r f ormer g overnor, o r h igh-ranking e ques . Amical a nd/or marital t ies o ften p layed a r ole h ere ( 7707-e r 1 980, 1 982). B ut f urther p romotion was d ecided b y t he r eports which t he emperor a nd h is a b e pistulis r eceived i n R ome f rom t he g overnment o f t he p rovince i n which t he e questrian o fficer s erved. A s ynopsis o f t he s everal r anks a nd o f t he n umber o f a vailable p osts p er r ank a round t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury w ill i llustrate t he p yramidal c oncept o f t he m ilitiae . O nly 3 9 6 o f t he o fficers t hat s tarted i n t he m ilitia p ri ma c ould e ver h ope t o a ttain t he m ilitia q uarta ! M ilitia

Ic a.

3 00 p osts:

- p raefectus c ohortis ( quingenariae) - t ribunus c ohortis v oluntariorum R omano r um M ilitia

I I c a.

/ i ngenuorum

c iv ium

1 90 p osts:

- t ribunus a ngusticlavius l e i onis - t ribunus c ohortis ( m illiariae M ilitia

II

c a.

9 0 p osts:

- p raefectus a lae M ilitia

I V c a.

( quingenariae)

9 p osts:

- p raefectus a lae

( m illiariae)

T he o pportunities o pen t o o fficers o f t he m ilitia p ri ma were r estricted e ven f urther b y t he f act t hat many members o f t he m unicipal a ristocracy who a ttained t he e questrian o rder h ad n o m ilitary ambitions a nd w ere c ontent w ith t he m ore a dministrative p ost o f l egionary t ribune. T he t ribunate o f a l egion c ould b e h eld " extra o rdinem" b ecause t hat t ribune w as a m ember o f a s taff o f o fficers; h e d id n ot e xercise a n i ndependent c ommand b ut w as i n t he main c harged w ith b ureaucratic a nd j uristic d uties ( Devijver 1 968) . T he a ristocratic e lite o f t he p rovincial c ities t hat e ntered t he o rdo e quester o ften s aw i n t his t ribunate " extra o rdinem " t he c rowning, t he c onfir mation o f t heir n ew s tatus, w ithout t he s lightest ambition f or a ny o ther p osition w ithin t he a rmy o r i n t he i mperial a dministration . T he members o f t his municipal e lite h ad f requently h eld l ocal o ffice i n t heir h ome t own ( Quass 1 982; D evijver 1 984; D e B lois 1 984) a nd b estowed l argesse t here b efore p roceeding t o t he m ilitiae e questres - o ften l i mited t o t he l egionary t ribunate. T his e xplains t he q uite r estricted a ge-range o f m ost e questrian o fficers. I ndeed, a d etailed s tudy b y t he p resent w riter ( Devijver 1 974a) c onfirmed t he f indings o f E ric B irley ( 1949) a s t o t he a ge o f t he e questrian o fficers: t he v ast m ajority o f t hem

1 13

w as, f or t he r eason j ust mentioned, 3 5 t o 4 5 y ears o ld. A s mall g roup w as y ounger, f or e xample t he s ons o f p ri m ipilares: a nother s mall g roup w as o lder t han 4 5 . A ugustus p ursued i n I taly a nd t he West a p olicy o f r eviving t he c ollegia i uvenum i n t he municipia a nd c oloniae . T hus w e f ind t hat i n many t owns t he c ampus b ecame i ncorporated i nto t he u rban s tructure . O n t he c ampus t he s ons o f t he municipal e lite c ould c ompete i n s ports a nd s o a ssure t hemselves a p aramilitary t raini ng . P resumably t he a i m was t o g ive t his e lite a m ini mum o f t raining b efore i t e ntered t he m ilitiae e questres ( Devijver - V an W onterghem 1 984, 1 985: 1 57). I n t he E ast t here e xisted t he t radition o f t he g ymnasia a nd p alaestrae . E questrian o fficers who h ad t o l eave t he m ilitia f or l ack o f v acancies f ound o nly l imited o pportunities i n t he p rocuratorial c ursus . F or t his p roblem t he r eader i s r eferred t o t he s tudies o f P flaum ( 1950, 1 960, 1 982). T he p ay a nd d ecoration s chemes f urther d emonstrate t hat t he m ilitiae e questres f ormed a well-knit p romotional s ystem . T he p ay s cales a nd t heir i ndexation h ave b een c alculated b y B . D obson ( 1972: 2 03): " Domitian t o S everus ( i ndex 1 0): p raef. c oh. ( 20,000), t rib. m il. 7 t rib. c oh. M . 776 7501 7 p raef. a lae D . ( 60,000), p raef. a lae M: 7-8 -3 70 -5 3 7 ." T he r elation b etween t he m inimum-census a nd t he p ay o f t he e questrian o fficers a nd t he e conom ic i nfrastructure o f t he s ystem w ill b e d iscussed e lsewhere ( Devijver 1 986). T he d ecoration s cheme h as r ecently b een e xamined b y V alerie A . Maxfield ( 1981: 1 58-73: V III. I mperial s cales o f a ward: E questrians) . ***

B y a r ough e stimate, a bout 5 0,000 e questrian o fficers s aw s ervice i n t he p eriod A ugustus ( 30 BC ) - G al 1i enus ( AD 2 68 ). S ome 2 000 o f t hese a re k nown t oday, i .e . a g ood 4 9 6 ! S till, t his p ercentage i s s ufficient, s tatistically s peaking , t o a llow s ome v alid c onc lusions . I ndeed, t he r emaining 9 69 6 b elong t o a s ocially m ore o r l ess h omogeneous g roup, s o t hat t he k nown 4 9 6 c an p rovide s trong i ndications f or t he w hole ! T he c rucial q uestion f or u s h ere i s t hat o f t he p rovincialisation o f t he c adres, n amely t he r atio n ucleus-periphery, i .e . t he r atio R ome/Italy a nd t he p rovinces. Was t he i ncorporation o f o fficers o f e thnically h ighly d isparate p rovinces t he c ause o f t he l ater d isintegration o f t he Empire? O r c ould t hat Empire maintain i tself f or s o l ong p recisely b y t he p rogressive i nvolvement o f p eripheral

p rovincials

i n

i ts g overnment?

I t i s e vident t hat a c lose e xamination p er p rovince i s r equired h ere . I n t he p resent p aper w e w ill t ry t o d eterm ine t he s hare o f t he E astern p rovinces . I n o rder t o o btain a c orrect p icture, i t i s i n m y v iew b est t o e xclude A chaia, Macedon, T hrace a nd M oesia a nd t o c oncentrate o n t he p rovinces f rom A sia/B ithynia-Pontus t o E gypt.

1 14

T he e vidence i n i ts e ntirety y ields 1 96 o fficers, d istributed a s f ollows: I . A sia-Insulae ( 84); I. B ithynia-Pontus ( 12); II. L ycia-Pamphy11-7— ( 23); I V . C ilicia ( 1); V . G alatia ( 21); V I. S yria ( 31); V II. I udaea ( 1); V III. A rabia ( 6); I X . A egyptus ( 17); X . Cappadocia, A r menia, A ssyria, Mesopotamia, C yprus h ave p roduced n o o fficers. T his t otal o f 1 96 m ust b e n uanced b ecause f or s ome 2 0 c ases we e ither d o n ot k now t he e xact p lace o f o rigin w ithin t he p rovince o r a re n ot a bsolutely c ertain t hat t hey w ere " O rientales" a fter a ll. B ut i f w e t ake i nto a ccount a n umber o f o fficers w ho may b e r egarded a s p otential " O rientales", b ut w ith n o i ndication a s t o t heir n ative p rovince ( see 2 . A S urvey: X I. O rientales), we c an t hen s tate t hat a t l east c a. 2 00 o f s ome 2 000 k nown e questrian o fficers, o r a bout 1 0% , w ere f rom a n E astern p rovince ! T his g lobal p icture m ust b e w orked o ut m ore c oncretely p er i ndiv idual p rovince. T he e volution was s urely n ot u niform a nd s ync hronous t hroughout t he a rea i n q uestion: c ertain a reas may p erhaps a t s ome t i me h ave s een a n a bundance, while o thers s tagn ated o r p roduced n othing . P er

p rovince,

w herever

p ossible,

t he

f ollowing

s urvey

i s

o ffered:

A . P rosopographia : t he c areer i s s ketched i n o utline. F or t he s ources a nd f or modern l iterature t he r eader i s r eferred t o t he P ME . " New" o fficers, n ew s ource-editions, a nd l iterature p ubl ished s ince t he a ppearance o f t he P ME a re g iven i n f ull. B . Chronological a nd g eographic s urvey o f t he e vidence: t his i nitial o rientation o r s ynopsis i s e ssential t o a c orrect u nders tanding o f t he f ollowing s ection . C . S ocial o rigin a nd s tratification : t he f undamental p roblem i s t o d eter mine t he s ocial s trata o f t he o fficers f rom a g iven p rovince: i mmigrants o r t rue a utochthons? C an t he I talian i mmig rants - v eterans, c olonists, n egotiatores, a dventurers - b e i solated? I s i t p ossible t o d etect t he a utochthonous k nights: n ew c itizens a s w ell a s e quites, o r d escendants o f n ew c itizens t hat a ttained t he o rdo e quester i n a f ollowing g eneration? Were t hey g iven t he c itizenship b y a n emperor, a s enator o r a p rovinc ial g overnor? D o w e e ncounter d escendants o f i mperial l iberti? C an .w e d etermine t he motives f or t he g rant o f t he c itizenship a nd o f e questrian s tatus: p aideia, e ugeneia, wealth a nd e uergesia. H ad o ne f irst t o b e h ellenised t o b e a ble t o e nter t he o rdo e quester? What r ole w as p layed i n a ll t his b y a mical r elations, f am ily c onnections, m arriage? When d id t hese e questrian f amilies a ttain t heir u ltimate g oal, n amely t he s enatorial o rder? A nd w as t his g oal a chieved more r apidly b y I talian i mmigrants t han b y m embers o f t he l ocal e lite? S o m any a bsorbing q uestions t hat c an e nhance o ur i nsight i nto t he r omanisation p rocess! D . T he c areer o f t he o fficers: d id t he O rientales p roduce t rue " viri r n ilitares"? I s t here p erhaps a d istinction b et ween t he m ilitary c areer o f t he c olonists o r d escendants o f v eterans a nd

1 15

t he a utochthonous l ocal e lite? T he l atter, which b ecause o f i ts p aideia - d octors, p hilosophers, o rators - o r b ecause o f i ts e ugeneia - e .g. a s r elatives o f l ocal r uling d ynasties - o r b ecause o f i ts w ealth a nd e uergesia h ad a chieved t he c itizenship a nd e questrian s tatus, c ould p erhaps b e c ontent w ith t he t enure " extra o rdinem" o f t he r ather a dm inistrative l egionary t ribunate, a nd t hat i n t he E ast i tself? T hey c ould r egard t his s ingle m ilitia a s t he c oronation, s o t o s peak, o f t heir e questrian s tatus. B ut when t hey o pted f or a m ilitary c areer, were t hey t oo p osted t o o utlying p rovinces i n t he West? O r d id t hey, p erhaps o n t he b asis o f l inguistic a nd c limatological c onsiderations r emain i n t he E ast ( Devijver 1 981a)? A ttention w ill a lso b e d evoted t o t he l anguage o f t he i nscript ions: G reek o r L atin . I t c ould p rove i nstructive t o e xamine t he O rientals ' G reek e quivalents f or t he L atin t erminology o f t he m ilitiae e questres ( Devijver 1 973). C an a s ummary o f s uch s tudies p er p rovince p roduce a n uanced p icture? I am well aware t hat d ue t o a s hortage o f s ource m aterial m any q uestions w ill r emain u nanswered o r e ven r aise n ew o nes . I t i s i mpossible t o r econstruct c ompletely t he h eavily m utilated mosaic o f t he R oman E ast's p ast! B ut t he s tudies p er p rovince w ill p erhaps m ake i t p ossible t o f it a f ew p ebbles i nto t hat c olourful, a lbeit f ragmentary, m osaic .

2 . I . A .

A SURVEY

ASI A

ET

I NSULAE

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

1 . L . Aburnius S everus, H eracl(ea) ( PME A 3 ): H eracl(ea), s c. a d S albacum , Car j a; a . 1 46 I ul. 1 9; a lae — rl iispan. A rvac. c ui p raest ( Pannonia S uper i or) . 2 . L . Aburnius A burni T usciani f ilius T orquatus ( PME A 4 ): H eraclea a d S albacum, Car j a; a et. T raiani; I . t napxoc a r tEL ;pr Ic b eutgpac ' Ic T rux[ v ]i ic r coXci . [ TG 5v ' 1 D]wu r a .Cc ov ( Mauretania T ingitana) . x LX PXO 0 EC pr iG Tp t Iv r ls • 0[ eA r t i : .] C tC n ETPC . [ i ; c o]v (Cappado c ia). . EtT tapxos E I 'xrd c n[ oxe c cr : S v p c ou ] a ( Dacia? P ann onia I nfer i or?); p ater: n . 3 .

[ w v ]

3 . [ L . A ]burn[ius Tuscianus] ( PME A 5 ): H eraclea a d S alb acum , Car i a; a et. T raiani Cr to .px] oc tnv TC , E x3 v v r( . 1 3v; I. xeLÄ[ C .c a ,p]xog X cyL .C . 5voc TP I :T T IC [ E]ce 50 .0Tf ic ( Africa). I . t T t[o .p3xoc a r ti .pr ic i pt " , -r ns • E cßa cr t-% epcu ta[v ] r ,TUT LX " C ( Syria). I . thapxoc u rapr ic T pCirc epax ( Xv]ZuPLaxlc t . nn o tf ic ( Syria). t r cLucÄT ITAc ani .pr[g] npe zTrc 0 .Ar ti .ac l i cipaCc ov ( Syri a) t r tLucx[rj r r ic c . )ervcac T c 7 ) T Z0X el . 14 ) Tr p T I C .Pe 13 ([4 5] T f IC SX 8 T 19 TO O EÜ (PeC IT O U ( a. 1 14-117; S yria). I. x L M .aPx0C X cyt .( 1 5voc I xtr ic E Lbnpdc(Syria) L5 c5 cz ionuEg]voz, e tc. ( donis d onatus a b I mp. T raiano). II. t r z .o .px0C E tA . T IC T r • P c bTr iC O Ur tC , o .c o L [ yy] X o .p t : . ( 3 )v ( Syria). -ycvó 1 . Lcvo ô x ca , tiy8L xoc . 6 T tep T f Ic r taTpi .boc - e tc., f ilius: n . 2 . 4 . ( P .) Ael(ius) T hemistocles ( PME A 6 5): C eramus, C ar i a; a et. A ntonini P i i ; c l oCapxoc x ai , ( Rossner 1 974: 1 13 n . 1 68; H oltheide 1 983: 3 82. H 180 n . 2 : P . A elius P rotoleon, c rpa ,Try6c, p ater; ambo i n n ummis ( Ceramus, M ilete) m emorantur). 5 . T . Ael(ius) V [aler]ianus ( PME A 6 9): S ynnada, P hrygia; m e .dio Is.; 8C , Q xEL[Xi .apxoc---)(HolT f7F ide 1 983: 3 80 H 1 54 n . 2 ) . 6 . M . Aemi Ii us M .f. P al(atina) P ius ( PME A 8 5): E phesus, A sia?; a et . N eronis; I . p raef. c oh. I B osp(or J r-rj rum) e t c oh. I H isp(ano rum ) ( in A sia ( Overbeck 1 981: 2 73) vel-in-Galatia/ C appadocia? ( Speidel 1 983: 1 4-15); c f. E phesos, II 7 15 = I LS 9 499; E phesos, V I I ., 2,4118. 7 . T . 1 32):

Ant(onius) C l(audius) A lfenus A rignotus Quirina ( PME A T hyatira, L ydia; a et. S ept. S everi/Caracallae; t : r tr cel k

` Pc o[1 .00 . ,[1 :03 Q: , d u r tö TpLi bv x LXLc toxt . Zv, T6 t r ).C .-r ov x L .Xt ;apx .oc; I . t r tapxoQ onci .pa .c b eutgpac ( 1 5 X. NovuL8C .N ( Dacia I nfer i or); noaLn6c 5L -r og c : r-L EC .K CO Q 5 EUTgpaQ X . B EGO C ' Z YV ( Dacia I nferior); ( t )T I (a)0 (X0 ) d t vv U olvn 8E00" Avtc ovci ,vou C 3o .L X ] L ugv c ov EXE UXE I l eL[Ejp[C .jaQ(a. 1 75). II . x i .Ä .C .ap x og C Y T LEC .pag r t . p c ir cr Ig K LÄ ,t :xwv ( Moesia I nferior ) , T r .p c xu r tdoc ros one n .p c i r rnQ ra v ro lA ' c ov(Moesia I nfer i or ) ; II I. r t o .pxo c Xr i 6 cuTipac X A yp v an L avf ic ( Syria);- r cpc i o-t 6c yc roc E LvEylÄapi . cov ( Syria); t n i :Tponoc T o E . e r !pxr Ic AEL5Lavf ic) ( centenarius?); ö f cocbc e tc ; a

1 17

t ribus m ilitiis e t e odem t empore l ogistes c omplurium c ivitatium S yriae e t Moesiae I nferioris ( Rossner 1 974: 1 13 n . 2 17: A lfenus M bdestus, doudpxnc ( Inscr. S cythia M inor, V , 3 00, T hracia), e iusdem s tirpis; H oltheide 1 983: 2 44 . ( 34 ) . -8 . C . Antonius M .f. V olt(inia) R ufus ( PME A 1 43): P hilippi, M acedonia? A lexandria T roas?; a et. C laud Y nNeronis; d ivi I uli f lamen, f lamen d ivi A ug. c ol(oniae) C l(audiae) Aprensis e t c ol(oniae) I ul(iae) P hilippensis, e orundem e t p rinceps, i tem c ol(oniae) I ul(iae) P arianae; I . t rib. m il. c oh . XXXII v olun., S c . C . R . ( Pannonia); I. t rib. m il. l eg . X III G em . ( Pannonia); II. p raef. e quit. a lae I S cubulorum ( Pannonia); ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 38.C9 n . 1 ). 9 . L . A nt9[nius] [ Pole]monis f ilius C or[neli]a Z eno ( PME A 1 47): L aodicea, P hrygia; a et. C laudii/Neronis; xELACatf rxoc ] C l i c t ] d t pxLcpc. ic . A[c r i :J ac. (Rossner 1 974: 15 n . 1 04 ; H oltheide 1 983: 2 45.C131 n . 2 ; H alfmann 1 979: 1 62 n . 7 4, 1 83 n . 1 05; H alfmann 1 982: 6 11, 6 35: e iusdem s tirpis: M . A ntonius Z eno, c os. ( suf f . a . 1 48) e t f ilius e ius, M . A ntonius Z eno, c os. ( suff. a . 1 68/170). 1 0 . T . Aufidius T .f. Ani(ensi) B albus ( PME A 1 96): a nte a . 4 0; t rib. m il. A lexandr(eae) a 7 1 — Äegypt(um) a nn(is) V IIII; p ater: n . 1 1.

P ergamum; l eg . XXII

1. T . Aufidius T .f. Ani(ensi) S pinter ( PME A 1 99): P ergamum; a et. T iberii; t r. m il. i n H ispania a n(nis) V ( sc. l egionis I V Macedonicae); f ilius: n . 1 0. 1 2 . Aur(elius) Ael(ius) S tratonicus ( PME A 2 11): E phesus; a . 2 40 ; W aY r[a]pxo0vioc A i )p. A t .X. E TPC I LTOVCC .HOU m iAoc reß. dnä x L .Ä .L .a .p .xL( :w(Ephesos, I V, 1 121 ( CI G I I 2 999), c f. E phesos, V I1,1,3283; H oltheide 1 983: 3 99) 7— E f. C . Voc(onius r Aelius S tratonicus, Aka rnantius ( signum), ( Dorylaeum; PME V 1 22 b is; n . 7 9; D evi j ver 1 983: 2 71 n ot. 1 ),( 5 . 1 16 t . nnv r tC jv c r ipatcLaw,parentela c um i llo c oniunctus s it. 1 3 . [ Au]r(elius) A rtemidorus ( PME A 2 12 b is, I : 5 07): E umeneia , P hrygia; II s .; c tn . ! ) c r ipatet :ac; A ur(e i a) Ta[tia]; ( Ho It he i de 1 983: 4 34 n . 5 8, n . 5 9). 1 4 . M . Aur(elius) Bassus ( PME A 2 16): T hyat i ra, L ydia; II s .; i nnCxäc,xL M .o .pxoc X ey a Lvoc 8 cuTepaz'ITaXLx1c(Noricum) - dnä X ELXLc i .pxLC bv—eoc ticLprv (iv ( 3 cn Acuir jdEphesos, II, 2 43 = A E 1 982, 8 65; H oltheide 1 98): 4 21 n . 3 9). 1 5 . Aurelius Gai us ( PME A 2 28): Moxeänoi; I II s .; c ind c ipa .TELC o 'v;(Holtheide 1 98-3 —: - 4 46. I 1 38 n . 6 ; c f. Rossner 1 974: 17 n . 2 57: h omonymus, c lot . cipxrc vaC zv t c 1 5v t v I l Epyd . i .up; ineunte II s .); c f. Aurel i us Menophi l us, n . 1 7: f rater: p arentes: A p(AXL .oc) ' Acn tXdc O C IÜGTOU, Aüp ( r }2 % .C o . ) t h i va E p rva r u 1 6 . M . Aur(el i us) H ecataeus ( PME A 2 29 b is): I asos, Car i a?; s .; d c r zb o TP C ITELG Y V ( BI ümel 1 987 .F -7 5 n . 3 76 = C IG I 2 688).

18

I II

1 7 . Aurel i us Menophi l us c r rpatc L c in ); (Ho 1t he i de 1 983: 1 5 : f rater, ( parentes).

( PME A 2 46): Moxeanoi; II s .; 6 .n6 47 /77 I 1 38 n . 7 ); Aurelius Gaius, n .

1 8 . Apel l es ( PME A 2 74 b is): E phesus; a et. C laudii; x cL M .apxoc ÄeyLC ovoc e l : 77 1z E L & Ipac ( Syria); tna[c pxoc E txrz / o nc Cp r iz? -j; Ephesos, I, 463; cf. Ephesos, II, 987, 1 .4, 9 88, 1 .6 : q uidam O d tvLoc " AT LEÄÄ T Ic). ( ---) Aurel i anus Apel l as ( PME A 2 81): N ysa, L ydia; I s . / T Tf l K upnvo .1 :xf 1S(Arabia); c f. M . A 6p. : Ar teXXdv 5 Lc UAI r cc ULa .v6v, d ( v8pa . e tc..., b er .ov L ru to 4C ov xaL & Kb x etltapxtt in t x a t [ b ]xtzp6xwv ( Sebastopol i s, Car i a; AE 1 938, 1 60 ; H oltheide 1 983: 1 92 n . 8 72, 4 69. I 1 93 n . 1 ). 1 9 .

II s . ; xtLXi .apxoc XcyL . c vo

2 0 . ö tz

S er. Calpurnius I ulianus ( PME C 5 7): L ydia; I l s . / II s .; ( ?) x cLÄC .apxoc,sc. t ribuniT s7Militum b is? -6Tcway mpdpoQ,

c iputry[6]c, ä yopay6uoc, T t [L]TcTcXcx x c x .. T dC X cLToopyCac X O .L mrpecCac n &o c tc T 1 n c tip t . 05 1 „, e tc.

Ä oLnäc . '

2 1 . T . Camurius T .f. Qu(i)r(ina) I ustus ( PME C 7 3): E phesus; a et. C laudii, a nte a . 4 3; t rib. m il. l eg. X I T I— Geminae ( Germania S uperior); ( Ephesos, V II, 1 , 3 019; c f. E phesos, II, 8 88: a nony mus: TC . T OC [— ] v, t r ib . l eg. X I II ). 2 2 . [ .] C laudius M .f. S ynnada, P hrygia: I s .?; n . 8 ).

[ Pa]p(iria) Asiaticus ( PME C 1 20): t rib. m il.; ( Holtheide 1 983T -3 17. E 154

2 3 . [Ti. C laud]ius T i. C laudi [-8 1.]i 1 . Q uir(ina) [ Ba] I bi 1l us ( PME C 1 24): E phesus; a et. C laudii, a . 4 3; p rae[f.] f abr. d ivi CraT ,d i] e t [ trib . m ilit. l elg . XX ( sc. X X V aleria V ictrix; i n e xpeditione B ritannica, a . 4 3), [ et d (onis) d (onatus) i n t riul m[ pho a d ivo] C laudio [ corona m urali e t v exillo e t h asta] p ura .-; a d l egationes e t r es[ponsa G raeca C a]esar i s A ug. d ivi C laud[i] ( ducenarius?), [ a ]edium d ivi A ug. e t [ - 1 31. - e ]t l ucorum s acro[rumque omnium q u]ae s unt A lexan[dreae e t i n t ota A egypt]o e t s upra m u[s]eu[m] e [t a b A lexandri]na b ybliothece e t a rch derei e t a d H er m]en A lexandreon p e[r a nnos - 5 1. ] ( ducen arius), p raefectus A egypti ( a. 5 5-59); ( Ephesos, V II, 1 , 3 042, c f. 1 , 3 041; S EG XXVIII 8 85; T homasson 1 984: 3 45 n . 2 6; Merkelb ach 1 978: 1 86-7: T i. C laudius T hrasyllus, A lexandrinus, a stroI c*us I mp . T iberii, f ortasse p ater. 2 4 . T ib . C laudius Meleagri f ilius Q uirina C haridemus P hilometor ( PME C 1 29): M agnesia Maeandri; a et. H adriani;c ipxLepatcüc ra .c -r « f lC ' AoCc .C xc xeLXLc i .pxAc rac, s c . t ribunus m ilituM vel-a ( Rossner 1 974: 1 21 n . 1 90; Meleagros, p ater, a siarchos; T ib. C laudius P olydeuces Marcel l us, a siarchos, h i Magnetes e iusdem s tirpis a c C laudii E phesii, e t f ortasse e rant c ives E phesii; c f. E phesus: C . C laudius V erulanus Marcellus, a siarchos ( a . 1 30-131) e t u xor: S captia F irmilla, a rchiereia A sias; T ib . C laudius P olyd euces Marcel l us, a siarchos, e t f rater L . C laudius C har i demus P hilametor; E phesos, II, 6 42, c f. 6 35 C , 6 39; H oltheide 1 983: 6 8 , 3 22 n . 1 7); c f. n . 3 5.

1 19

2 5 . [ C ]laud[ius] C hionis C laudii P hilostrati f ilius ( PME C 1 30): M iletus; I p ar t e Is .; T t pow i l itr ic, [ p3 xL iv püTavLc, [ t ] r t aoxos t v ` P c 1 ) 1 . 1r j, s c . p raefectus f abrum R omae ,— x ELX pxoc t v ' AXcEavöpe , s c . t rib. m il. l eg . I II Cyrenaicae-aut-XXII D eiotarianae; A egy p tus-, ' Guy [ t h] ybr il loc c i vaypa c pci ,c t v [ a p ap : 4 ) [ E c fa c iXi to . T OZ Y £ [ VOIL L VOU T f IQ • Aoi .ac a veur t[d]Tov e tc. - c omes a d a erarium d el atus Messallae p ro-consulis A siae ( cf. T homasson 1 984: 2 13 n . 5 2, 2 25 n . 1 6, 2 40 n . 2 26), a pud q uer n u nus s i mul muneribus f unctus e st a b e pistulis, a r esponsis, a d l egationes ( vel a r escriptis), a b e dict i s, d pxicpc i 5c T Z TAv E cß]a[aT]I 5v, T t Er tpcoß coxlc i r t[tp T t ]aTp t : ( 5oc i l o Ut i[xLc n p6c] T OÜQ aüTo l ipdTopec ( Holtheide 1 983: 6 8, 6 9, 3 23, E 186 n . 7 , n . 1 : C laudius P hi l os tratos, Q Of Tr tf l, 6 pxt ,T tp t 'y ravLc, a et. C laudii, p ater). 2 6 . T i. C laudius H eracliti f ilius Q uirina C leonymus ( PME C 1 34): C os; a et. C laudii, x et .XLa .P v ic lavra t v r cpuav i :a t . X cyc i i rvoc nPid ItYclna4 4 6i .c u ovap v ioavia x aL x peo f icßoaw ro .T to ?1 4 / . X 6 :KLQ e ncp T f iZ T t aTpi .boc 1 P6C Z eßaCTO .g ( Holtheide 1 983: 5 8-9, 2 75, E 2 n . 3 ); c ivitate d onatus e st a b I mp . C laudio; C . S ertinius X enophon, f rater, a rchiatros T iberii, C aligulae, C laudii, t rib. m il. i n e xpeditione B ritannica, a . 4 3; p atronus X enophontis f u , it: C . S tertinius Maxi mus, c os. o rd. a . 2 3 ( n. 7 2) c f. P IR I C959 ( stemma); c f. f ilius X enophontis, T i. C laudius P hilinus, t ribunus ( n . 3 0). 2 7 . T ib. C laudius D emocratis f ilius Quirina D emocrates ( PME C 1 38): Magnesia Maeandri; a et. C laudii ( a. 5 0-54); ( .1cpeüE — g-L e t ß t :ou T OO E EßUOTOG r EP I MV 0 4 .00 x at . X LÄCa i DX0Q X EyLC OVOQ 0 3; S C . X I I F ulm inatae, S yria; T f ic ' Ac YC .ac 6 . p ) (Lepu . 3c ( Rossner 1 974: 1 22 n . 1 03; H oltheide 1 983: 6 8, 3 21. E 185 n . 1 ). 2 8 . T i. C la(udius) F rontonianus ( PME C 1 42): E phesus; a et. S even i A lexandri; t àc ( TPEr -Q) c r Tpa -r €777 t T tLanvC Dc e rpazeuodp .evov, S c . t ribus m ilitiis p er f unctus, ( 5Lc ) rç A cc Lç c i oxLEpac c iucvov } t at , d ywvoecTAc rayTa I t aL 7 1 6Xec ov t ruJ oavecudiwy X oytaTECac E lt 4 D C IL LEVOV x aL E l :g 7E r 3 61T y ropa ( Rossner 1 974: 1 22 n . 2 55; f rater ( T .) F lavii C litosthenis ( Iuliani, ö Lç 6 . 0Lc ipx • nc); p ater C laudii T hemistocl i s ( d toLc ipxrc ) e t T iberiae C laudiae F rontonianae, u xoris F lavii C litosthenis c onsularis: c f. E phesos, II, 6 35A , B , 6 55; H alfmann 1 982: 6 11, 6 32. 2 9 . C laudius Lupianus ( PME C 1 53): P ergamum ; a et. T raiani; r t pir cavLc, x cL . M .apxoc [ Xeyeavoc y ' K t ionvaZw Ic t v A i .yd[r ti4 )], l eg . II C yrenaica-vel-XXII D eiotariana(?); ( Holtheide 1 983: 6 0 , 2 84 . E 36 n . 6 ). 3 0 . T ib . C laudius X enophontis f ilius P hilinus, p atruus C . S tert inii Xenophont i s, f ilii Heracliti Cornelia ( PME C 1 66): C alymna, q uae e st p agus Cooru m, Cos; a et.-- E laudi x cLXLapxAcavia,sc. t ribunus l egionis; c f. n . 2 6, n . 7 3, P IR I I' C 959 ( stemma) . 3 1. T ib. C l(audius) N icomedis f ilius Quirina P ius ( PME C 1 68): P ergamum ; a et. S epti mii S even ; I. x cLXCapxos a nct :FF E- i , nnLl if iz ' PwuaLC ov n oXLTGA ) ( Cappadocia? S yria P alaestina?); I. x c LA , Capxo2

1 20

Ä cyL cZvoc b ' E xoeLxf ic(Syria); I. x cLI .Capxoc Ä cy a ävoz y ' rcaXL . K i l-Q ( Syria); I II. t napxoc E nnc ‹ h puyr oy ( sc. a la V II P hrygum, S yria); -c i pxLepci )c d ywyoeeinc; ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 86 . E 36 n . 3 4); p ater T . V ibii P h , n . 7 6. 3 2 . P . C laudius T ib. f ilius P al[l]atina ( sic) P ollio ( PME C 1 69): T eos; Is . e xeunte?; e T taroxio ( me 1 : pnc n . p c : ) -r nz u cLÄ .L7 1-6 7 .-a c e pax [C . )-] v ( Syria P alaestina); ( Holtheide 1 983: 3 04. E 53 n . 1 ). 3 3 . T ib. C l(audius) Pol [1i ]o ( PME C 1 70 b is): E phesus; exeunte I I s . / m ieCTFo I II s .; x cL(XLapxc ac,sc. e ques R omanus e t a m ilitiis; 16you dyopnv6uou ( Devijver 1 983: 2 70-4; S EG X ) (XI V II, 1 , 3 493); f ortasse i dem a c: [ ---] P ollio ( PME

Metropolis / L T Ini .xo0 ä n6 ( p LAoc reß(dur rou)

9 75; E phesos, P 1 27), n . 6 6?

3 4 . T ib. C laudius T ib. f ilius Quirina P riscus ( PME C 1 73): E phesus; a et. V espasiani; I . t naoxoc o ncCorz n p d y rnz T3e T rd iv ( Germ ania S uperior); I. x eLA t "apxoc X cyLC ovoc 6 exc iTr Ic O pcinvoi .ac ( Iud aea); c f. E phesos, V II, 1 , 3 032: f ilius T ib . C laudii ( Prisci?), q ui c ivitatem a ccepit a C laudio / N erone, n epos D ionysii; a vu nculi: F lavius P riscus H eraclitus, F lavius Z opyrus, ( Flavius?) D ionysius, c ivitate a V espasiano f ortasse d onati s unt; ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 88 . E 46 n . 8 ). T . C laudius S tatilius F rontonianus P ollia L ucidas - f ortasse i dem a c: T . S tati[lius T iti] P olli[a F rontonia]nus ( PME S 6 5 b is)? c f. n . 7 0. 3 5 . T ib. C laudius T uendianus Magnus ( Quirina) ( PMEC 189 b is): E phesus; a et. H adriani,ante a . 1 30-132; T pLc x eLX7O 7F xoc, S c. a t ribus r n ilitiis; xp erc i ,v&c , c f. E phesos, II 6 50 = S EG XXVI 1 247; Ephesos, II 6 50A ; E phesos, I V 1 049; c f. E phesos, I I 2 79 = C IG I I 2 965; s temma ( Ephesos, II 6 50): p ater: T ib. C laudius T uendus; u xor: C laudia C har i demi s ; T ib . C laudius T uend ianus Magnus C haridemus, g rammateus e t a rchiereus ( Ephesos, I 2 79) e t T ib . C laudius T uendianus n eoteros, p rytanis ( Ephesos, I V 1 049; V 1 895?); c f. Tib. C laudius Meleagri f ilius Quirina Charid emus Phi l ometor, n . 2 4, h i omnes C laudii e iusdem s tirpis, c ives E phesii e t Magnetes; H oltheide 1 983:291. E 46 n . 5 4: T i. C laudius T i.f . Qui(rina) Magnus ( PME C 1 55), p raef. c oh. 111 S ugambrorum f ortasse i dem? 3 6: C l(audius) T yrannus ( PME C 1 90): E phesus?; I s .; I. t rib . l eg . XVI F ( 1a v ia e) F (irTJ T e) ( Syria); I I. t rib. c oh.III B at(avorum ) ( Pannonia I nferior, V etus S alina, i bi mortuus e st); c f . T i b . C laudius Tyrannus, E eßacTo0 4 r teXcü E rDoQ, i aToös ( Magnesia Maeandri; C laudius; H oltheide 1 983: 6 8, 3 21 E 185 n . 3 ) . 3 7 . L . Cusinius [ ---fit.] Messalinus ( PME C 2 62): E phesus; a et. N ervae / T raiani; [ xLX1 :aQxog] XEyLC I 5voQ r y"4 ra).% . [XL K f iG] ( Syria); d cpx ( 3v 7 1

x '

( EC . Rocuf ig)

[ 1 41Xnpovo[uLcly,

tnL]Tpo[nog

Ka t]oapog,

II 6 60c); d e C usiniis, E phesiis, c f. E phesos, V II, 2 , 4 119, 4 120; II 6 60c; V II, 1 , 3 335; c f. G asperini-Paci 1 982: 2 38 :Cusinii, p ertinentes a d t ribum V eliam , f ortasse o rti s int e P iceno , I taliae . L . C usinius M essa-

t n t :t[ ponov---loy

e s oC 5 N[:poua](Ephesos,

1 21

l inus, q uadam p arentela c um h is c oniunctus s it? I s p ostea s edem c ollocavit R omae, e t f iglinarum e t p raediorum ( a . 1 24, 1 26) p ossessor, s ic e tiam f ilia, C usinia G ratilla ( a . 1 46-147). 3 8 . Gn. D om(itius) Mä. [ filiusj Ael[i]anus ( PME D 1 5): Magnesia M äeandri; a et. C aracallae; a c i p [xLEP R :üs[xic ti .7 7 ( 3auu c t[Teü]c T 1E 0 M ayvAtc ov [ T tö]Xewc E xa n T g :Ac x eL P s . napxoc, s c . a t ribus m ilitiis. 3 9 . [ Domi]tius(?) g [ufus n ( PME D 3 1 b is): S aittae, L ydia; c a. a . 2 50-260: [ 4p]xLE°g[c t ' AoCac v ol ov T C 0V] t V E dO [56OLV] / [ ä n e D] T rpaT[E a by],sc. a m ilitiis, v el l egendum s it: [ ] o tPaT NY6v)? TAM V , 1 , 7 8: t itulus f ortasse s pectat a d D omitium ' Rufum , q ui p arentela c oniunctus s it c um f amilia i llustri, S ardiana, c uius D om itii R ufi, p ater e t f ilius, a siarchos f uerunt ( cf. TAM V , 1 , 2 30 1 .2, 1 .26). 4 0 . L . Egnatius L .f. Teretina Quartus ( PME E 3 ): Acmonia / T emonothyrae, P hrygia; I I s .?; I . t napxoc a nitPr ic ß ' KXau8 1 :ac / [naul6Lay . M c ( Cappadocia) - t ru ivw / t nLu O tnif ic E tAnQ L l Ingwy E e3uaTf iz L L, 51 . 4 .ou ( curator a lae A ugustae G eminae, S c. c o l onorum; C appadocia); I. x ELA ,C .apxoi X eyi , ( ; )voc n ' Apt i oöc TTn ( Germania S uperior); II. Vnapxoc c LAnc L T Ingwy A ipi f o tk rTnc ( Britannia? S yria?), c f. AE 1 977, 8 02. 4 1. C . F abricius C .f. Ani(ensi) T uscus ( PME F 1 8): A lexandria T roas; a et. A ugusti / T iberii; I v ir, a ugur; 1 . p raef. c ohort. A pulae ( sc. c ivium R omanorum, i n A sia a d A lexandriam T roadem) ( Speidel 1 976: 3 40) e t o perum q uae i n c olonia i ussu A ugusti f acta s unt; 2 . t rib. m il. l eg. I II C yr(enaicae) V III ( sc. p er a nnos V III; A egyptus); 3 . t rib(unus) d ilectus i ngenuorum q uem R omae h abuit A ugustus e t T i(berius) C aesar ( cf. A E 1 978, 7 90: S c . p ost b ellum V arianum); 4 . p raef. f abr(um) I III T c. p er a nnos III); 5 . p raef. e quit(um ) a lae p raet(oriae) III ( sc . p er a nnos III i n G ermania; Ger manico I mperatore; a la p ostea I F lavia p raetoria s ingularium c .R .), h asta p ura e t c orona a urea d onatus e st a G ermanico Caesare i mp(eratore) b ello G er manic° ( sc . a . 1 6); O. A E 1 975, 8 06. 4 2 . T . F lavius V arus Calvisianus S tratoneici f ilius Quirina H ermocrates ( PME F 8 2): P hocaea; a et. D on nitiani / T raiani; t napxoc T exvc7TE N ) t v ' PWun 8 ( .z; I . t na r pxoc a neCprc B oonopLaylc n p ( 1 )T T IQ(Cappadocia); I. x ciACapxoc X cyLüvoc [ L]E i'Kepauvow6pou ( leg 'ionis X II F ul minatae; Cappadocia); - d pxLcpcüc ' A ca k :aQ v ao0 T OO f y 'a pga c p, n o l 5Tay[Lc],ci maym p6poc, kaLiepe z T 1Q Maoca 7aac 5 1z , dyc ovoegTr ic, ß ao lAc c H oltheide 1 983: 7 7 , 3 35 , F 38 n . 1 ; R ossner 1 974: 1 30 n . 1 39; H alfmenn 1 982: 6 11, 6 27; H alfmann 1 979: 2 01-2 n . 1 38, n . 1 38a, n . 1 38b; u xd r: F lavia Ammion, & PXLspeta'Ac r i :aQ v acA 3 T OO L \ ) l a pgo (4) , n püTavLc, a TE ( Dayn co6°0C 5 ( :C, t CpcL t c M eac raXCa , e t ywyoe f tLc: f ilius: f ortasse ( Flavius) R ufus, amicus A risteidis; n epos: F lavius R ufinianus, c os. s uff., a et. C ommodi ( Halfmann 1 979: 2 01-2); c f. P . F lavius H er mocrates, w i .X600 ( pog(CIG 3 414 = I GR I V 1 326), i dem a c F lavius H er mocrates, W LX600W0Q, O TEQUV W C 5O0C ( C IG 3 414b = I GR I V 1 324), e iusdem s tirp is.

1 22

4 3 . [ ----]ius Fa[ustia]nus ( PME F 1 04): E umeneia, P hrygia; I s .; x c t i,X C •c t f )Xiog x ( 1[0Tr is ] n iTnz ' Io[nay cZy ] ( Arabia?) k ai . X ELX q aPX0S xh4 DT T-1 [ no ( 1 )]Tr Iz [ 'P]aLT6 3[v] ( Asia; c f. O verbeck 1 981: 2 57-76: f ortasse e rrore: x cLXC[ apxos] l oco j n apxoz, s ed v ide PME I nc. 3 2: x eL M .apxosr .ane pnc] l o ci o Tnz £P[Lti by]); c f. H oltheide 1 983: 3 77. H 1 14 n . 2 : a d n o men: I n . A CX? hoz Oa[uoTLa]v6z. 4 4 . [ ---] G . T i mocratis f ilius Quirina F lavianus ( PME F 1 09): S amos; I I s .; I . t napxoQ a nci .Qnz n oC oTng N ouuL U 3v 773-7 ria v el C appadocia); I. x a t , x cLX [ apxoc c i nECpnc n p c ir cnic a ITaXLxf is ( Capp adocia); II.xa n apxoQ d X 7-1 G 6 cuTgpaQ r d [X]Xwv ( Cappadocia); [-c LunecLc ... 1 E x ig p]oLc o TEwdy9 n upyc oti i i x aL _ 66paTL > t at ( donis d onatus); ftepcüc] E eßacTGA ) x at . ä yc ovoe f tng u cyäXwv ' Ax Tv .axC ov ä Yc o 'vuNj . 4 5 .

V ACAT .

4 6 . P . Gavius P . f ilius P alat(ina) Balbus ( PNE G 7 ): O rientalis; E phesus?; a et. H adr i ani / Antonini P ii; t 'r t no - 3 7 1u6oLoy E x c ov ( equo p ublico); t v T ot o Xb tToLz x ptCywy ( iudex d e s electis); ET I C LOXOZ T EXVELT C A N ( praefectus f abrum); Lenao(xoc ) o neCpnc ( 3 ' A ouxr ivoCwv ( coh . I I L ucensium ; Moesia I nferior); I I. x cLX 1 .6 4 Dxr iC X ey( a iwoc ) ß " E Eß(acr t f ic ) ( legio I A ugusta; B ritannia); II. t napxoc eNc r iz a ' KaV V E VECP UTC WV ( ala I Cannanefatium; P annonia S uperior); t rCiponoc Z ec to -r oOtT ti . T C r yv x r ivou ry r cac t -r Cac x ca n a0Xayovi .ac ( sexag enarius). e nLucAmif ic 8 8 ( 1% ) K opyr IXL :ac x ca T ptoup A pakCac ( sexagena rius), t ru :Tpo r toc TOO E cf lacTo0 t. r t apxeCaC x cpoovAaou ( centenar ius); E phesos, V II, 1 , 3 048. 4 7 . H erennius A tticus ( PME H 1 2): P hiladelphia; a et. A ntonini P ii; T t pai .pex -r oz ( sc. p raeiTEtus c ohor ti s); c f. 4 8, 8 1. 4 8 . H erennius P ii; npai . c pcx -r oc

( PME H 1 7):

( sc.

P hiladelphia;

a et.

p raJTeCtus cohortis); c f. 4 7, 8 1.

A ntonini

4 9 . C . I ulius, H y[--, p hilo]patridos f ilius, [ tribu], [ f lus ( PWE I 1 1): Smyrna; I I s .; t napxoc T exy[LTC 5v] ; [ xLXilapxoc XEYLCZV Og E [ k Tr I Q EL 6] n OdC ( legio V I F errata; S yria P alaestina); P etzl 1 982: I nschr. Smyrna, 4 24; H oltheide 1 983: 2 60. D 52 n . 5 . 5 0 . T i. I ulius C .f. Corn(elia) A lexander Cäpito ( PME I 1 7): E phesus/Sardes; a et. D omitiani/Traiani; I I. t rib . m i r—T eg . II C yrenaic(ae) ( Aegyptus); I II. p raefectus e quitum a lae A ug(ustae) ( Aegyptus); - p roc. d ivi [ Nervae] e t I mp. N ervae T raiani A [ug. Ger]manici p rovinc . A chaiae ( centenarius); . i tem p rovinc. A siae ( ducenarius); d ucenarius i n A egypto; E h esos, II, 6 84A , 6 84B; P flaum 1 982: 2 7-9 n . 7 5; H oltheide 1 983: 2 56. D 56 n . 2 4, 2 64. D 86 n . 1 3; c f. 5 1: c onsanguineus.

5 1. T i. I ulius T i.f. Cor(nelia) Celsus P olemaeanus ( PME I 4 2): E phesus/Sardes; a . 6 9; I I. t rib. l egion is I II C— y— r— e naicae ( Aegyptus; p raefecto I ulio A lexandro); - a dlectus i nter a edilic ios a d ivo V espasiano ( a. 7 0), p raetor p opuli R omanorum ( ca. a .

1 23

7 5/76), l egatus A ugg . d ivorum V espasiani e t T iti ( i .e . i uridicus) p rovinciae C appadociae e t G alatiae,Ponti, P isidiae, P aphlagoniae, A rmeniae m inoris ( Lycaoniae) ( ca. a . 7 8-79), l egatus d ivi T iti ( xc c L I DTox f pätopoc E EßaoTo 15 , i .e . D om itiani) l egionis 111 S cythic ae ( Syria; c a. a . 8 1-82), p roconsul P onti e t B ithyniae ( ca. a . 8 4-85), p raefectus a erarii m ilitaris, l egatus A ugusti p ro p raet ore p rov. C iliciae ( ca. a . 8 9-91), c onsul s uffectus ( a. 9 2), XV v ir s acris f aciundis, c urator a edium s acrarum e t o perum p ublic orum p opuli R omani, p roconsul A siae ( ca. a . 1 05-106); E phesos, V II, 2 , n n. 5 101-15; V II, 2 , 5 102 ( titulus G raecus), V II, 2 , 5 103 ( titulus L atinus); H oltheide 1 983: 5 3, 2 64. D 86 n . 3 : S ardianus; p ater c ivitate d onatus s it a b I mp . T iberio; T i. I ulius A quila P olemaeanus ( cos. s uff. a . 1 10), f ilius; T ib. C laudius I ulianus ( cos. c a. a . 1 30), n epos; c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 11 n . 1 6, 1 47 n . 5 7, 1 90-1 n . 1 16; H al f mann 1 982: 6 08, 6 09, 6 31;Thomasson 1 984: 2 21 n . 9 2, 2 46 n . 2 4, 2 65 n . 8 , 2 89 n . 4 ; E ck 1 982: 3 09, 3 16-18, 3 41; S herk 1 980: 1 001-3. 5 2 . C . I ulius E pigoni f ilius F abia C leon ( PME I 4 7): E umeneia/ A cmonia ; a et. Neronis ( a. 5 4-59); äpirg7 Sci )c T f ic ' Acq .nc: x EL M .apxoc X eyLüvoc C ' E L6rodz ( legio V I Ferrata; S yria); E phesos, II 6 88; AE 1 979, 5 97; S EG XXVI 1 244; Rossner 1 974: 1 20 n . 3 29, 3 30 ( uxor B assa, 6 . ox i . PETF Y .T; H oltheide 1 983: 2 65. D 100 n . 2 , 2 66. D 114 n . 1 . 5 3 . C . I ulius Maxi mus ( PME I 8 4): P ergamum ; Is . ; I. x EL M .apxoc X cyLC ovoc c '-r tgunTrQ ( legio V Macedonica, Moesia ? -vel-Alauda, G ermania?); II. t napxoc i . nngwy ( praefectus e quitum); - T t pü t a vt . , y uuyaoi .a f pxos, L . EQE . ü c E na 1 3 L00 T o0 n uei .ou ' An c9AwvoQ, T LunTAz, e < pyvooTc o a c .ac , c upar r ly6 ; H oltheide 1 983: 2 52. D 36 n . 6 . 5 4 . S ex. I ulius Phi I on ( PME I 9 4): I lium; a et. V espasiani; t r ta .pxoz oT ter ,pnc O XaßLavf ic ( 1 7 1-7 17 ' :1;yu l lyao l :apxoG; H oltheide 1 983: 4 4, 2 50 . D 22 n . 3 : maiores c ivitate d onati s unt a b I mp . A ugusto . 5 5 . I ulius P o[s]idonius ( PME I 9 8): P hiladelphia; I s ./ II s .?; [ x ]cuÄt :apxoc [ A] yolk s -c ou; H oltheide 1 983: 2 63. D 83 n . 2 . 5 6 . N L I ulius S ura, f ilius I ulii P risciani ( PME I 1 29 b is): E phesus?; c a. a . 2 09-211; T pLßoavos X EyLC ovoc; E phesos, A ddenda, 1 9 a d E phesos, II 6 91 ( AE 1 982, 8 76), 6 93 ( AE 1 972, 5 81), e t: E ck 1 981: 2 46-8, X = AE 1 982, 8 63 e t S EG XXXI 9 56; K dOOLO E eßCÖTOZ L TMEÜQ sP WW 1CWV, h onorat M . I ulium S uram, T tpooTäTry ( Ephesos, II, 6 91); I ul(ius) P riscianus, v ir e gregius, p rocurat or t rium A ugustorum ( PIR I V2 I 4 85; P flaum 1 960: 1 072, 102); f ortasse p arentela c oqiunctus s it c um a liis S uris: P IR I V 2 I5 94 ( c.v.praetor), P IR I V' I 1 01 ( procos. L yciae e t P amphyl i ae; TAM , 2 , 1 , 1 22; AE 1 972, 5 81); c f. H oltheide 1 983: 2 56. D 46 n . 3 8 .5 7 . T . I unius D .f. A ni(ensi) Montanus ( PME I 1 48): A lexandria T roas; a et. A ugusti; 1 . t r(ibunus) m i 1(i -t T l i n-) V I ( sc. p er a nnos V I); 2 . p raef(ectus) e quit(um) V I ( sc. p er a nnos V I); 3 . p raef( ectus) f abr(um) ( II); 4 . p ro l egato I; H alfmann 1 979: 1 03 n . 6 , n . 6 a; H alfmann 1 982: 6 06, 6 27: T . l unius C .f. A ni. Montanus, c os . s uff. ( a. 8 1) ( AE 1 973, 5 00), i dem a c p rocos. p rov.

1 24

S iciliae, p atronus c oloniae ( Alexandria T roas), n epos f ortasse e ius; c f. T homasson 1 984: 3 n . 1 4, 2 19 n . 8 4; E ck 1 983: 2 03 n . 5 78 ; c f. D emougin 1 982: 1 02 n . 2 3. 5 8 . Q . Lol 1i us Q .f. Ani(ensi) F ronto ( PME L 2 6): A lexandria T roas; a et. A ugusti/Tiberii; 1 . t rib. m iT 7 leg . II Aug(ustae) ( Africa); 2 . p raef. f abr(um) t ert(io); 3 . p raef. e quitum a lae N um id(icae), ( sc. a la I F lavia; A frica, N umidia); - I I v ir, p ont(ifex); c ivitates X XXXIIII e x p rovinc(ia) A frica q uae s ub e o c ensae s unt. 5 9 . Magnius D ionysios ( PME M 1 1): D orylaeum; II s .; L Tu tLx6c, d ru b c r upaTeLi bv(eques R omanus, a m ilitiis); M . A urelius D ionysios, p ater, e t M . A urelius H er molaos, a ffinis, a rchontes e t s tephan ephoroi. 6 0 . L . Malius R eginus ( PME M 1 4 b is): I talicus, q ui f ortasse s edem M ileti c ollocavit; F r iJ aio I s . ; x eLX I :apxoc ( tribunus m ilitum l egionis); x aL c r i mayrw6poc m aL n aLboy6uoz I t aL y uuvacCapxoc n äyTwy T aN y uuvaci .c ov; I nschr. D idyma, 3 43 a d C IG I 2 885, c f. i bi: Malia R ufina e t p arentes: L . Malius S aturninus e t I ulia L ucia, e iusdem s tirpis. 6 1. L . ( ---) Macedo ( PME M 7 8): C olossae?, P hrygia; a . 1 29; x c[L1XL :apxo [c](tribunus— W ITlitum); c f. D obson 1 978: 2 41 n . 1 19: f ortasse i dem a c T i. C laudius S ecundinus L . S tatius Macedo, p rimus p ilus e tc.? ( CIL V 8 67 = I LS 1 339; AE 1 934, 2 32; C IL XV 7 740 = I LS 8 686). 6 2 . [C . N ]orbanus C .f. An(iensi) [ Quiadratus ( PME N 1 2ter): A lexandria T roas; c a. a . 3 0-40: 1 . p ri m(us) p i 1( t igT ; 2 . [ tri]b (unus) m i 1i t(um) ( sc. l egionis); 3 . p raef(ectus) c astr(orum); a ugur, I I v ir; C IL II 3 81 ( testament° p oni i ussit [ Ti. C ] l audio D rusi [ Ger]manici f il. N eroni G ermanico); c f. D obson 1 978 : 1 78 n . 2 3. 6 3 . T . Oppius A fer P ollius T ertullu[s] ( PME 0 2 0): E phesus; c a. a . 1 60, [ x LX(Capxoc) X c]yi . ( 7 . 1voc L e' ' AnoXE77 E tpCac ( Cappadocia); ,( Even ievoc I d LPXLEPE C1 T % ' Ao tc xç x a. Ä oyicT / l ic T lc K i 5xewc E phesos, V II, 2 , 4 341; c f. E phesos, II, 8 37; R ossner 1 974: 1 34 n . 2 02; B urton 1 979: 4 82 n . 6 . 6 4 ; Q . P inarius L .f. Aemilia ( PME P 3 3): E phesus?; a et. A ugust i v el-fortasse a et. t riumvir.; x j7äPxog X syL oG e xTf lg M axEbovLIC IQ ( Macedonia?); E phesos, II, 7 05A = I LS 8 862; u xor, P inar i a D oxe, f ortasse l iberta e ius; c f. D emougin 1 983: 2 96 B 3 . 6 5 . Cb. P ompeius H er mippus ( PME P 5 9): E phesus; m edio I s .; d ox i ,EpE Q ' AcCag v c 1 .6 3-v T c 7n ) t y ' Ewgow x c I LL v eo K 600c T 6 3\ . )E e f 30 -0TGA ) xai Y uuva0C .a f pxog x ca Y PauuaTEjs T oG 6 Auou; x ELx 1c LpxOc o nEConS.Enavf ig ( tribunus c ohortis H ispanorum, n escio c uius); n ocaßeüoavTa n o Uc ixL . i c pb‘ T O S A VTOX O ,TOPC 14 x aL T I IV i . cp c oTdT i ly a l . . )vxXr 1Toy; E phesos, II, 7 09, 7 10 ( ubi s temma); Ephesos, I V 1 150; E phesos V I, 2 069; E phesos, V II, 1 , 3 036, 3 219; E phesos, V II, 2 , 4 113; R ossner 1 974: 1 35 n . 1 78; H al f mann 1 982: 6 12, 6 19, 6 22, 6 29, 6 38,

1 25

6 46; H oltheide 1 983: 2 35. B 46 n . 9 ; S EG XXVIII 8 65, 8 73; C n. P ompeius Quartinus, Y PauunTeüc TOO ôr ou , f ilius; C n. P ompeius H erm ippus A elianus, a lter f ilius s enator; M erkelbach 1 978 : 1 08 . 6 6 . [ ---] P ollio ( PME P 1 27): E phesus?; p ost a . 1 65; I . p raef. c oh. I T hracum S yr rä c—um ( sic) ( Moesia S uperior); I. t ribunus l eg(ionis) I I talicae [ ---] ( Moesia I nferior); E phesos, I II, 7 07B ; f ortasse i dem a c: T ib. C l(audius) P ol[li]o ( PME C 1 70 b is), n . 3 3? 6 7 . P . [ ....]il i us [ .f.] Col 1i [n]a P ostu[ mus] ( PME P 1 29): T eos; I s ./IIIs.: 2 napxoc a ncCpr ic T p t :Trc t y M aup Ty rd7 )T E i : ( sc. c oh . I II A sturum i n Mauretania T ingitana?). 6 8 . N L S ervi 1i us P . f ilius P alatina E unicus ( PME S 4 1): N ysa, L ydia; p ost a et. H adriani; t r unci )c ' pc o l la t :wy ( ues Romanus); i , c f pcüc A c Lopevitvoc ( sacerdos L aurent i um L avinatium); E napxoc a neCpac E ä g : 46 c ov ( fortasse c ohors I S ardorum i n Mauretania C aesari ense); a xpeZee x uatcn 4toc X t3Pe tPLoc ( scriba q uaestorius l ibrar ius); c f. S aulnier 1 984: 5 28 n . 4 6: i nter a . 1 20-160. 6 9 . T . S t(atilius) Apollinarius ( PME S 6 3): H eraclea a d S alb acum , Car i a; a et. Antonini P ii7 - 1 I . a tr rc ic TE np ibTOV i v XEL .A .L a[ px ti l a v ----] ( sc. t ribunus m ilitum); II. [EncLic i . t napxci .ay----) ( sc. p raefectus a lae) - [ 1 4 .1aL T aüT[o .1 t nv9avG 5Q g nLTEXgoaQ; -nLa[Tcuee ' i ,g 5 r uTpone l :av A u o .çJ n auwuXt :ac K ünpou ( procurator, f ortasse c entenarius); c f. T . S tatilius S olon, f ilius n atu major, p rimipilaris e t p raefectus c astrorum ; D obson 1 978: 2 58 n . 1 39. 7 0 . T .Stati[lius T iti] f ilius P olli[a F rontonia]nus ( PME S 6 5 b is S 6 1): H eraclea a d S albacum , Caria; c a. a . 1 29 7 1-n; I . ' j napxo [ s] o ne L : p r iQ g ' O üÄn t :[a r oAc tic Zy] ( sc. c oh. I U lpia G alat arum , e adem a c c oh . IG alataruM , q uae a . 1 39 i n S yria P alaestina c astra h abuit); I. [xEL M .apxoc X eycC ovoc] T ETdpirc E x h8Lxf 1C] ( Syria); Holtheide 1 980: 1 25-6 = S EG XXX, 1 264; s ecundur n H oltheide f ortasse i dem a c: T .C laudius S tati l ius F rontonianus P ollia L ucidas ( MAMA V I 18). 7 1. N L S t(atilius) T rypho ( e l m_s 7 1): H eraclea a d S albacum, C aria ; a et. H adriani; L epec oc - [ 5]Lä f 3L OU T OO n poka[e lnyeudvoc ' HoaxX [o luz; tx eLALäpxou [ XlEyLe l y vo ( sc. l egio V II, C laudia ( ?), i n Moesia); y u[u ]vaoLdpxou x aL e v [ n ]oXhot :c e üepygiou [ T]i % n aipi .6oz. 7 2 . C . S tertinius H eracliti f ilius C ornelia Xenophon ( PME S 7 9): C os; a . 4 3; T öv ä pxLaipäy T C JA ) e c c : by E c5acT ( 3 5y ( ärchiatros T iberii, C äligulae, C laudii); 1 . xcLALaoxAc layTa k aL T Luc tegvTa e y T 4 5 [ Taw] B oeTavv c . 7 . Y v e pCauß c p c Te ( pdv4 ) XJDU C L4) ) (Qi 56 O aTL Ü T I 6 T OO C LGT OXOdT0O0 1 0 .au8i .ou K ai ,c rapoc eE 0 Ü ( tribunus, l egionis a licuius(?), e xpedit ione B ritannica, a . 4 3, d onis d onatus a b I mp. C laudio, c orona a urea, h asta p ura); 2 . I t ca E napxoy y cyov6Ta T d iv 4xtze w r6vwv t ni ' PWurz ( praefectus f abrum R omae); T e lh ) 'E UT I VL kebV änoxpLudTwy ( ad r esponsa G raeca; S c . d ucenarius); [( pLX .ov o c ov]a, ( r ) L a c tpa, [ ( i ) LX0 0 k r 3 C LG TOV , I,X0 OCOTICI:C OV , LX6 T IC LT O1 , V e üepy -t r i v

1 26

T f iQ i taxpC[C loG] , d pxLEpga ' r aw bah ) xa i . L erAc t 8 L6 1 . ß i .ou T e rn ) E EF 30 . 40TGA , x ci A c rO tan i .o0 x ca ' YyCaQ multisque a liis s acerdotiis f unctus e st; H oltheide 1 983: 5 8-9; c ivitate d onatus e st o pere C . S tertinii Maxi mi, c onsulis a . 2 3, Coi; Q . S tertinius, medicus p rincipum, f rater; c f. T i. C laudius C leon y rnus , n . 2 6, e t T i. C laudius P hilinus, n . 3 0, e iusdem s tirpis; c f. S EG XXVII 5 21; E ck 1 982a: 2 22: C IL XV 7 544: f istula p lumbea C .Stertinii X enophontis. 7 3. M . U lpius Z enonis f ilius Quirina T rypho Megas A ntonianus ( PNE U 1 8): T hemisoniu m; I I S .; ä OXLEOga T f IQ ' AoCag; X eO ttapxloaw ra x aL y ev6ucyov g napxoy a ne 4mQ T i cx : Y rnz O X T 1 1 :ag raX .O .T ( 7 )V ( a m ilitiis e t p raefectus I U lpiae G alatarum; S yria P alaestina); A ntonia A riste A lbilla , n eptis e ius t itulum p osuit; R ossner 1 974: 1 37 n . 3 23; H oltheide 1 980: 1 26 n . 7 : p ater n omen p eregrinum , Z enonem , h abuit, i deoque f ilius n ovus c ivis, a et. T raiani/Hadriani?; H oltheide 1 983:89; 3 63. G 157 n . 1 . 7 4. P . Vedius P .f. Quirina Antoninus ( PME V 6 0): E phesus; i neunte I I s .; n p t :r rayLc ( inter a . 9 6- 79 T ; I . [ Enapxo] c o r tei .prds---] ( praefectus c ohort i s); I I. x eLA .i ,apxoc X cyLC I 5voc npWinc ' ITaXLx1G(tribunus l egionis I I talicae; M oesia I nferior); -ä o l :apxoc, y rymuuateüc T OO 6 A 1 . 10U T Ö E phesos, I II, 7 26 = AE 1 975 , 8 02 = S EG XXVI 1 251; E phesos, II, 7 26 A ; c f. E phesos, I I 4 29 e t AE 1 962, 1 84, AE 1 967, 4 69 e t S EG XXIX 1 111; E phesos, I V, 1 016 ; E phesos, I V, 1 381 A ; c f. E phesos, A ddenda, p . 1 1 a d n . 4 31, n . 4 38; Robert, B ullet. E pigr. 1 984: 4 83 n . 3 70; R ossner 1 974: 1 25-6 n . 1 38; H alfmann 1 979: 1 68-70 n . 8 4-5, n . 1 50; H al f mann 1 982 : 6 10, 6 27-8; s temma V ediorum e t C laudiorum ( Ephesos, V II, 1 , 3 075-85, p p. 8 8-90; F orsch. E phesos, I X , 1 , 1 28-30): P . V edius A ntoninus p ost a . 1 28 a doptavit M . C laudium S abinum, q ui n omin atus e st: N L C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus S abinus, a siarchos e t a rchiereus; f ilius e ius: N L C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus P haedrus S abinianus ( XX v ir, t rib . l eg . I V S cythicae; q uaestor C ypri), u na c um u xore, F lavia P apiana, g ymnasium e t o deum E phesiis a edificari i ussit ( inter a . 1 40-160); V aleria L epida, a ltera u xor P haedri S abiniani; f ilius: P . V edius P apinianus A ntoninus; p arentela c um h is V ediis c oniuncti: V edius C äius S abinianus ( archiereus A siae; i neunte I II s .), C laudius S alvius (äaCc ipxnc v a c ,n ) T an . ) e y 20 5pv I D; i neunte I II s .), C laudius Z eno ( 6 ,0 1 :apxrQ; I p arte II s .). 7 5 . V etulenius S abinianus ( PME V 8 3): E phesus; II s .; L Tu tLx6 ( ec fues Romanus); ä n6 x ELXLaoxTaz ( a m ilitiis); E phesos, V , 1 553; R ossner 1 974: 1 40 n . 3 27: mater c u iu s n omen p er iit f uit [ 6 .px ]te[petav] ' Ac t ag w i t co v T C OV t y ' Ew6 c 74 ); V etulenius A ugurinus, e ques R omanus, f rater. 7 6 .

T .

P ius ( PME V 1 03): P ergamumi a et. S everorum; I . Eno .vC ov -- 7 . -p o !y rn ( quae c oh. I H ispanorum?); I . x cL M .apxoc a nEI :pr is [ --] c x ? ) aLp f twy r E cALTGA ) ( sc. c ohors v oluntar iorum c .R ., i teratio m ilitiae p ri mae); I. Rai , xcLXi .apxo XcyLC ovoQ K A .au5 1 :ag ( sc. L a '10 % .au6i :az; Moesia I nferior); II. [ Enapxog E tA .n ----]ou(praefectus a lae q uingenariae); I V . xos C iAng A BAPBA K--] ( fortasse p raefectus a lae I B atavorum Enapxog

V ibius

a r tECpr IG

1 27

m illiariae; m ilitia p ater, n . 3 1.

q uarta?

D acia);

c f. Tib.

C laudius

P ius,

7 7 . C .Vibius C .f. Oufent(ina) S alutaris ( PME V 1 06): E phesus; a et. D omitiani; p hilartemis e t p hilocaes-a-r- - 0 LX c ip -r euLc xc tL c o LXoxatoc cp; p romagister p ortuum p rovinc. S iciliae i tem p romag( ister) f rumenti mancipal i s e iusdem p rovinc. - c i pv iwr ic X Luev c ov t napxct :ac E LxE M .ac x ca ä pxdAmc a cCtou 6 Auou ' Pw i la t :c ov; I . p raefec . c oh . A sturum e t Callaecorum - ' inapxoc o rnt i :OT IC ' Ac riol : )pwv x ca Ka UaLx (Zy ( Mauretania T ingitana?). I. t rib. m il. l eg . XXII P rim igeniae p (iae) f (idelis) x ci . M .apxoc X cyL2Noc x f Y n pcLuLyev i 'ac n i :ac m L6AXEwc ( Ger mania S uperior); - s ubprocurator p rovinc . Mauretaniae T ingitanae i tem p rovinc. B elgicae ( sexag enarius) - äyTent :Tponoc e na r pxci :ac M aupciav t :ac T LyycLiavIc x ca t napxE t :ac B cXyLxf ic; - c ivis e t s enator E phesi ( a . 1 04); E phesos, I a, 2 7-35, 3 6A-D, 3 7; c f. T ib . C laudius S ecundus, d ives E phesius, a equalis e ius ( Ephesos, I II, 6 46); amicus o pti mus: L .Nonius C älpurnius T orquatus A sprenas, p rocos. p rov . A siae ( Ephesos, V II, 1 , 3 072); a lter amicus: N L A rruntius C laudianus ( cf. L ycia n . 2 , P ME A 1 66). 7 8 . L . V inuleius P ataecius ( PME V 1 18): A lexandria T roas; a et. N eronis; I . tnapxoc anet :pn 7 - 5 raef. coh.), I I. xci ACapxoc XcyLd ivoc e xTnz ( VI V ictrix i n H ispania-vel-VI F errata i n S yria?), II. t ' r tapxog , e tAn ( praef. a lae); i t t -r poT toc i t i )ToxpäTopoQ K ca mpoc OüeGnaaLavo0 E cßacr ro0 tnc toxeL 5v A0 31 3T1, A cnc L , 8 Q4 ) .0 1c ( ducenarius t er); T homasson 1 984: 1 01 n . 2 ; c f. A E 1 979, 5 65. 7 9 . 1 22

C . V oc(onius) A elius S tratonicus, A kamantius ( signum ) ( PME V b is = A64): Dory 1a eu m; i nter a . 2 12-253; änö t nnLx v c r EpaTcLd iv ( a m ilitiis e questribus); xca d t pxLepeüQ ' Ac tas v a C i 5v TCJV t y Hcpyäu4 ), enLaTdTnc Tf IQ n c 5Xecog x ca o-r ewco . in cp6pog(idem e st a tque A elius S tratonicus ( PME A 6 4); R obert 1 981: 3 56-8 ; R ossner 1 974 : 12 n . 2 89; c f. Aur(elius) Ael(ius) S tratonicus ( PME A 2 11), n . 1 2, c i n6 x eLA .Lapx a by ( a m ilitiis, a . 2 40), f ortasse 7a-r entela c um i llo c oniunctus s it ( Devi j ver 1 983: 2 71 n . 1 ). 8 0 .

[ ---], I GR I V 4 48 ( PME I nc. 2 2): P ergamum; I s .?; [ - t cpga] yglvoyZ-[ xtlaa r iiov 5 a L y '] K upnvarxlc [ Xcyc c 3voc] ( Arabia?); g y mnasiarchos b inorum g y mnasiorum e pheborum e t i uvenum .

8 1. [ ---1, I GR I V 1 627 ( PME I nc. 2 3): P hiladelphia; a et. A ntonini P ii; x7r napx]ov - --7 17-r oxpätopoc T . An t[tov] X6pLavoG 'Avi covci .vo[u Eü]otßoüc K oapoc E cEßacjTo0 ( tribunus r n ilitum); H erennii ( PME H 1 7) e t A tticus ( PME H .1 2), n . 4 8, n . 4 7, p osuerunt, I GR I V 1 627, t ribuno i gnoto . 8 2 . E phesos, II, 8 37 ( PME I nc. 2 4): E phesus?; a et. C äracallae v el p os t ea; I . p [ F a -e - f (ectus ) ] c oh(ort i s) V I P etr[aeorum] ( Syria); I. t ribunus l eg(ionis) [ XV] Apollinaris ( Cappadocia); I II. [ praef(ectus) a lae A ugustae G ]ermaniciana[e] ( in O riente, P isidia?) v el l e e ndum s it: [ praeposituS ( duarum) v exillationum] G ermeniciana r um ? c f. E phesos, A ddenda, 2 1 a d

1 28

II, 8 37; E phesos,III, 8 37; V alde i ncertum s it a n E phesos, 7 23 s pectet a d e undem t itulum? D e p rocuratela, c f. P ME I nc .

II, 2 4 .

8 3 . [ , E phesos, V II, 1 , 3 055 = F orsch. E phesos, II, 1 41 n . 5 5 ( PME I nc. 2 5): E phesus; e xeunte I s ./ineunte II s .; [T]äy x [p]d t[T]LoU rov/ u ]cid t n doac i . nn t .w ic/[oT]paici .ac ( omnibus m ilitii s e questri b us p er f unc t us); b ouxnvdoi .cly/ d ]c li .aoxnv, n aTgPa/ [y] pauuat g wy T t pdy rü y v, Ä uTapxi Lv , e tc . 8 4 . c a . I II

[ , S ardis, V II, 1 =AE 1 933, 2 55 ( PME I nc. 2 6): S ardes?; a . 1 25/150; x ei .XCapx[o]c X eytC ovoc K vp[r Tr arxf ic T pi ,Tnc ( legio C yrenaica; A rabia).

8 5 . [ -], J ournal o f R oman S tudies, 1 6 ( 1926) 9 3 n . 2 27 ( PME I nc . 2 7): S ebaste, P hryg ia ( ?), I I s ./ I II s .; ] n ap& T T DTE E eßaoTotc c y rpaetolic f l iAoTeLui .aLc e tc. ( sc. m ilitiis d onatus s it).

B .

CHRONOLOGI CAL

AND

GEOGRAPHI CAL

I .

J ULICGCLAUDIAN D YNASTY

1 .

A lexandria T roas

D ISTRIBUTI ON

S ix e questrian o fficers ( 8, 4 1, 5 7, 5 8, 6 2, 7 8) c an b e l inked w ith t he Augustan c olonia A lexandria T roas. F our ( 41, 5 7, 5 8, 6 2) m ention t he t ribus o f t he c olony, v iz. t he A niensis. T hese f our a ppear t o h ave b elonged t o t he i nitial n ucleus o f p resumably I talian c olonists. C . F abricius T uscus ( 41) was p raefectus o perum q uae i n c olonia i ussu Augusti f acta s unt. N ot o ne b ears t he n omen g ent i1i cium o f t he emperor. O nly a f ifth o fficer, C . Antonius Rufus ( 8), c ould b e d escended f rom a n ew c itizen ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 38.69 n . 1 ); h e was f lamen d ivi A ugusti c olon iae C laudiae A prensis ( Thrace) e t c oloniae I uliae P hilippensis ( Macedonia), ,e orundem e t p rinceps, i tem c oloniae I uliae P arianae ( Asia). T he r esidents o f v icus I h onour h im a s d ivi I uli f lamen . H e b elonged t o t he t ribus V oltinia a nd t hus may h ave b een a n ative o f P hilippi i n Macedonia ( Frisch 1 983: 7 6 n . 6 9). T he l anguage o f t he i nscriptions i s L atin. O nly t he h onorific i ns cription f or L . V inuleius P ataecius ( 78), p resumably f rom A lexa ndria T roas, i s i n G reek, a s i t i s a h omage b y t he b oule a nd d emos o f I lium . I t i s c onspicuous t hat t he e vidence d ates f rom t he p eriod A ugustus - V espasian . L ater t here i s n ot a t race o f o fficers f rom t his A ugustan

c olony .

F or f our o f t he s ix k nights l ocal o ffices a re k nown ( 8: f lamen; 4 1: p raef. o perum ; 5 8: I v ir, p ontifex; 6 2: a ugur, I v i717B ut t he most s triking f act i s t hat t hese e questrian c olonists, i n c omparison w ith t he a utochthonous k nights f rom A sia, were v iri m ilitares. T he n ative g roup was u sually c ontent w ith a s ingle l egionary t ribunate - t he m ost a dministrative o f t he m ilitiae; b ut

1 29

t he o thers w ell: 8 : 4 1: 5 7:

5 8: 6 2:

7 8:

h eld

s everal

m ili

i ae ., a nd

i n

s everal

p rovinces

a s

t hree m ilitiae i n P annonia f ive p osts ( Asia, E gypt, R ome, G er many); d ecorated b y G ermanicus; c harged w ith a d ilectus f our p osts ( but, a s i s o ften t he c ase i n t he e arly p eriod,the u nits a re n ot m entioned, s o t hat we d o n ot k now t he l ocation o f t he g arrisons; a s w ith n o . 4 1, a nd e qually t ypical o f t he e arly p eriod, t he d uration o f t he a ppointments i s s pecified) ( Devijver 1 970: 6 9-81). t hree p osts ( Africa, N umidia), a nd c harged t here w ith t he c ensus o f X XXXIIII c ivitates d isplays a f ine r ecord a s p ri mipi l ar i s, b ut a gain b ec ause o f t he omission o f t he u nits we d o n ot k now w here h e s erved; t he i nscription was s et u p b y t estament i n h onour o f T i. C laudius D rusi Ger manici f il. Nero G ermanicus ( a. 3 7-41). t hree m i Iiti ae, a gain n o u nits mentioned; t hereafter p rocurator d ucenarius i n A frica , A sia a nd T hracia .

F inally, b e i t n oted t hat t he p resumable g randson o f T . l unius Montanus ( 57) w as p robably t he h omonymous c onsul s uffectus o f t he y ear 8 1 a s well a s t he f irst s enator f rom t his A ugustan c olonia ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 27). 2 .

I lium

I lium w as r egarded b y t he I ulii a s t he ' heimat' o f t heir p rogenit or I ullus, s on o f A eneas. I n 2 0 B C : Augustus v isited t he t own. O nly f ive n atives o f I lium a re a ttested w ith t he n ame I ulius, b ut a ll p ossessed g reat w ealth ( Holtheide 1 983: 4 3-4) . O ne o f t hese i s t he o nly k nown e questrian o fficer f rom I lium, S ex. l ulius P hilon ( 54), who u nder N ero/Vespasian was t napxoc u f nELprc 0 2 1 .a . f 3La .v s(ubi?) . H e w as o f f amous s tock a nd made g enerous d onat ions t o h is n ative t own ( Holtheide 1 983: 4 3-4). 3 .

P ergamum

F rom a n i nscription o f P ergamum ( C IL II 3 99), o f A ugustan d ate, w e k now t wo e questrian o fficerg-710, 1 1). T ullia M .f. h ad, d uring h er l ifeti me, a f unerary monument s et u p f or h erself ( sibi) a nd h er own ( suis), i .e. h er b rother M . T ullius M .f. C UT(n ielia) C ratippus ( i-g lerdos R omae e t s alutis), h er s on T . A ufidius T .f. Ani(ensi) B albus t rib . l eg. A lexandr(iae) a d A egypt(um ), a nd h er h usband T . Aufidius T .f.. Ani(ensi) S pinter ( 11), t rib. l eg. i n H ispania. T hese were p resumably I talian i mm igrants. P ossibly t he h usband a nd s on were, i n v iew o f t he t ribus A niensis, among t he f irst c olonists o f A lexandria T roas. C . I ulius Maxi mus ( 53) was x ELXCapxoz X cyL( . 3voz E ' ( Moesia?, G ermania?), tnaoxoc t . nngwv , h eld many l ocal o ffices; h e m ay b e d escended f rom a wealthy f amily t hat r eceived t he c itizenship f rom A ugustus . H is c areer c annot b e a ccurately d ated, b ut s urely b elongs t o t he f irst c entury, p robably t he f irst h alf.

1 30

4 .

E phesus

W ith P ergamum E phesus w as t he m ost a dmired H ellenistic c ultural c entre o f A sia . T he c ity a ccordingly p roduces t he most e quest rian o fficers ( 23, o f which s even a re u ncertain), s pread o ver t he t hree c enturies o f t he Empire .

Q .

P inarius L .f. A emilia ( 64) i s p resumably a n I talian i mm igrant o r t he d escendant o f a n I talicus. H e i s p erhaps s till t o b e s ituated i n t he p eriod o f t he t riumviri. H e h eld o nly t he l egionary t ribunate ( Macedonia?). O r was h e a n ative o f t hat p rovince ( tribus A emilia)? F or t he t i me o f C laudius t hree o fficers a re k nown: o f Apelles ( 18) t he n omen g ent i1i cium i s u nknown; h e was t rib. l eg. i n S yria . T . Camurius I ustus 7-2 1) w as l egionary t ribune i n G ermania ( Superior) a nd was c harged w ith t he s upervision o f t he e rection o f a n e questrian s tatue o f t he Emperor C laudius o n b ehalf o f t he c onventus c (ivium) R (omanorum) q ui i n A sia n egotiantur ( see E phesos, I, 4 09). H e was p robably a wealthy k night o f I talian o rigin who l ooked a fter c ommercial i nterests i n A sia . A t hird o fficer, T i. C laudius Balbillus ( 23), was, l ike h is f ather, c learly a n ew c itizen. Was h e p erhaps t he s on o f T i. C laudius T hrasyllus, t he A lexandrian a strologer o f T iberius? B albillus was c elebrated f or h is g reat b eneficence n ot o nly a t E phesus, b ut a lso i n Smyrna a nd D elos ( Holtheide 1 983: 6 0-1). H e c learly e njoyed t he f avour o f C laudius: h e was t he emperor's t rusted m ilitary a ide ( praefectus f abrum ) a nd a ccompanied h im a s t ribunus l egionis o n t he e xpeditio B ritannica o f t he y ear 4 3, d uring which c ampaign h e w as d ecorated . T he e mperor v alued n ot s o m uch h is m ilitary p rowess a s h is p aideia, a s i s a pparent f rom h is f urther c areer i n which C laudius s howed much r espect f or B albillus ' H ellenistic t radition a nd b ackground: a d l egationes e t r esponsa G raeca C aesaris A ug . d ivi C laudi, a nd t hereafter t he s upervision o f t he Museum a nd L ibrary a t A lexandria i n E gypt. H is c ursus c ul minated i n t hat p osition o f t rust, t he p raefectura A egypti. P resumably h e i nterceded o n b ehalf o f many A sians i n t he m atter o f c itizenship g rants. M . A emi 1i us P ius ( 6; N ero), p ossibly d escendant f rom a n I talian i mm igrant, w as t wice p raefectus c ohortis i n t he E ast. 5 .

S ardes/Ephesus

T i. l ulius Celsus P olemaeanus ( 51) h eld o nly t he l egionary t rib unate i n E gypt u nder t he c ommand o f I ulius A lexander. A dlected b y V espasian t o t he s enate, h e p ursued a wholly O riental s enat orial c ursus. H e was t he s cion o f a wealthy s acerdotal f amily o f S ardes ( tcpcbc , n c a nd f ounded t he C el s us-1 i brary a t E phesus ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 31) . H is f ather p resumably r eceived t he c itizenship f rom t he Emperor T iberius. H is s on, T i. I ulius A quila P olemaeanus, c os. s uff. a . 1 10, was r elated t o C . I ulius S everus, o f r oyal b lood, f rom A ncyra ( Hal f mann 1 982: 6 31). H is d aughter I ulia Q uintilia I saurica p erhaps r efers t o t he Q uinti 1ii

T e c . 14 i )

1 31

o f E phesus, i ndicating t hat h e m ay h ave m arried a l ady g ens Q uintilia ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 15) . 6 .

f rom t hat

Magnesia

T ib . C laudius D emocrates, D emocratis f ilius, Q uirina ( 27) was p resumably a n ew c itizen o f C laudius. A rchiereus o f A sia a nd p riest o f G ermanicus, h e was a m ember o f t he o ld n obility o f M agnesia . H is i nscription, i n G reek, m entions o nly o ne l egionary t ribunate, i n S yria . H e i s p robably i dentical w ith t he O lympian v ictor i r r igoxpdT1‘ k i lgoxpdmou ( Augustus; H oltheide 1 983: 6 8 n . 4 75). 7 .

M iletus

L . Malius Reginus ( 60), m id-first c entury, h eld l ocal o ffice a nd w as t ribunus l egionis . P resumably a n i ntegrated I talian f amily ( inscription i n G reek). 8 .

Cos

T he b rothers C . S tertinius X enophon a nd Q . S tertinius, p ersonal p hysicians o f t he emperors, a re r esponsible f or t he c itizenship o f t heir f amily f rom C os. B oth w ere g ranted t he f ranchise b y T iberius t hrough t he i ntercession o f C . S tertinius Maxi mus, c os. a . 2 3. C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72), was a rchiatros t o T iberius, C aligula a nd C laudius. T he l atter emperor r aised h im t o e quest rian r ank - x etkCapxoc - p resumably t o e nable h im t o a ccompany t he r uler o n t he e xpeditio B ritannica ( a. 4 3). H e was d ecorated f or h is s ervices a nd b ecame p raefectus f abrum i n R ome, a nd t hen p romoted t o a d r esponsa G raeca; f inally h e h eld a s eries o f p riesthoods. T i. C laudius B albillus o f E phesus h ad a n a nalogous c areer. C . S tertinius X enophon, w ith a n a nnual s alary o f 5 00,000 H S a nd owner o f a d omus o n t he mans C oelius i n R ome ( Pliny, H N 2 9,7; f istula a quaria e ius: C IL A V 7 544), h ad e normous i nfluence a t C laudius ' c ourt a nd t hrough h is i ntercession h is e ntire f amily w as g ranted t he c itizenship b y t he e mperor: h is m other, C laudia H edia; h is b rother T i. C laudius C leonymes ( 26), t rib. l eg. . i n G ermany; h is u ncle T ib. C laudius P hilinus ( 30), l ikewise t rib. l eg. T he r ise o f t his f amily, which h ad p ut i ts medical T exw q - f or g ood p ay ! -a t t he emperor's s ervice, w as c rowned b y a dlection t o t he s enate: C laudius X enophon, l eg. A ug. p r. p r. B ritanniae I nf. ( a . 2 23); t his s enator w as p robably t he s on o f t he p rocurator T i. C laudius X enophon ( PIR 2 C 1 054) a nd a d escendant o f o ur T i. C laudius X enophon ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 25). 9 .

E umeneia/Aamonia

C . l ulius E pigoni f ilius F abia C leon ( 52) . H is n omen g entilicium a nd t he t ribus F abia, i n w hich t he n ew c itizens o f A ugustus w ere r egistered, a re p roof o f r ecent c itizenship . H is f ather E pigonos i s p resumably i dentical t o t he T iberian m int-master ' E ldyovo‘ e tÄdeaTp i4 ( AE 1 979, 5 97). H e was a rchiereus A siae - l ikewise

1 32

h is w ife B assa: a rchiereia ( Asiae?) - a nd t hen t ribunus l egionis i n S yria . A gain a l oyal, w ealthy m ember o f t he n ative e lite w ho a chieved p romotion . 1 0 .

L aodicea

L . A ntonius P olemonis f ilius Cornelia Z eno ( 9; C laudius/Nero) i s o f P ontic-Thracian r oyal s tock . T his f amily 's c itizenship g oes b ack t o Z eno o f L aodicea, o ne o f t he w ealthiest A sians o f t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury B C . T o r eward h im f or h is h elp a gainst a P arthian i nvasion i n 4 1 BC A ntony p robably g ranted h im c itizenship. H is s on, P olemon E usebes, a lso a R oman c itizen, was l ater k ing o f P ontus. A n i mportant b ranch o f t his f amily r esided i n L aodicea ( Holtheide 1 983: 3 5). L . A ntonius Z eno ( 9) was t ribunus m ilitum a nd a rchiereus Asiae. T he f amily a ttained s enatorial r ank a bout t he m iddle o f t he s econd century AD: M . Antonius Z eno, l e£atus Au pr. p r. T hraciae ( ca. a . 1 41/144), c os. s uff. ( a. 1 48T , a nd h is s on M . A ntonius Z eno, c os. s uff. ( ca. a . 1 68/170), p rocos. A fricae ( a. 1 83/185) ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 35). I.

F LAVII

L

P hocaea

T . F lavius V arus C alvisianus S tratoneici f i 1i us Quirina H er moc rates ( 42) r eceived t he c itizenship f rom a F lavian emperor, a s d id h is w ife, F lavia Moschi f ilia Ammion. B oth s tem f rom a p rom inent f amily o f P hocaea . T he t wo m int-masters f rom t he t i me o f C laudius, v iz . H ermocrates a nd Moschus, m ay b e h is g randfather a nd f ather-in-law , r espectively ( Holtheide 1 983: 7 7) . T . F lavius H ermocrates ( 42) w as p raefectus f abrum b is R omae, p raefectus c ohortis a nd t ribunus l egionis ( both i n C appadoc r iT7 A t P hocaea h e h eld a n umber o f l ocal o ffices, a nd u lti mately b ecame a rchier eus i n t he i mperial t emple a t E phesus, where h is w ife was a rchiereia A siae. D uring t he s econd c entury t he f amily s upplied i mportant f igures o f t he S econd S ophistic ( Holtheide 1 983: 7 7 n . 5 64): t hus F lavius R ufinianus, p resumably h is g randson, c os. s uff. u nder Commodus ( Hal f mann 1 982: 6 11, 6 27). T he s on o f t he cos. s uff., L . F lavius Her mocrates, a lso a p hilosopher, a ppa rently d id n ot h ave s enatorial r ank . 2 .

E phesus

T ib . C laudius T ib .f. Quirina P riscus ( 34) was t he s on o f T ib. C laudius ( Priscus?), a n ew c itizen o f C laudius o r N ero, a nd t he g randson o f D ionysius. H is f ather's b rothers were n ew c itizens o f V espasian ( Ephesos, V II,1, 3 032). P riscus s erved i n U pper G ermany a s p raefectus c ohortis a nd i n J udaea a s t ribunus l egionis ( under V espasian).

1 33

C . V ibius S alutaris ( 77), r egistered i n t he t ribus O ufentina, p robably o f N orth I talian o rigin ( RE V III A 2 ( T333) 1 982 n . b ecame c ivis e t s enator E phesi ( a . 1 04) . A fter t wo a ppointments a s p romagister i n S icilia, h e b ecame p raefectus c ohortis ( Mauret ania T ingitana?) a nd t ribunus l egionis ( Germania S uperior) u nder D om itian . B et ween 8 1 a nd 9 6 h e was s ubprocurator i n Mauretania T ingitana a nd i n B elgica. S alutaris' s ubstantial d onations t o E phesus r eveal h is w ealth . We a re r eminded o f h is r ich c ontempor ary T ib. C laudius S ecundus ( Ephesos, I II, 6 46 = A E 1 975, 8 03), h onoured b y t he E phesians a ctive i n t he s lave t rade ( i orum q ui i n s tatario ( slave-market) n egotiantur). H is amical c ircle i s e pigraphically a ttested: L . N onius C älpurnius T orquatus A sprenas, p rocos. p rov. A siae ( ca . a . 1 07/108: amicus o pti mus; E phesos, V II, 1 , 3 027), M . A rruntius C laudianus, t he f irst s enat or f rom L ycia ( see L ycia, 2 ; PME A 1 66). L . Cusinius Messalinus ( 37) was l egionary t ribune i n S yria ( Nerva) a nd t hen b ecame p rocurator. H e i s a m ember o f t he w ellk nown E phesian f amily o f t he Cusinii, r egistered i n t he t ribus V elia, a nd p robably o riginally i mmigrants f rom P icenum i n I taly . M essalinus i s l ater a ttested i n R ome a s f iglinarum e t p raediorum p ossessor ( a. 1 24, 1 26), l ikewise h is d aughter C usinia G ratilla ( a . 1 46-147). T his f amily's h istory d emonstrates, o n t he o ne h and, t he mobility i n t he R oman Empire, o n t he o ther h ow d iffic ult i t i s t o a scertain s omeone 's o rigo . 3 .

M iletus

C laudius Chionis C laudii P hilostrati f ilius ( 25) w as p raefectus f abrum R omae a nd t ribunus l egionis i n E gypt. A s c omes h e e ntered t he s ervice o f t he p roconsul o f A sia ; h e w as p rophetes, a rchipryt anis a nd a rchiereus ( zu iv Z eßac rvZv). H e d escended f rom a n o ld s acerdotal f amily o f M iletus, which f or a l ong t ime p ast h ad t ended t o t he c ult o f A pollo a t D idyma - a c ult w hich c aught t he a ttention o f t he emperors. H is f ather, C laudius P hilostratus, w ho w as a lso p rophetes, w as g ranted t he c itizenship b y C laudius. H is g randfather, C hionis, was n ot a R oman c itizen ( Holtheide 1 983: 6 8). 4 .

S ardes/Ephesus

T . I ulius C .f. Corn(elia) A lexander Capito ( 50) was t ribunus l egionis a nd p raefectus a lae, b oth i n E gypt; h e was p rocurator N erva T rajan) A chaiae, A siae, a nd d ucenarius i n E gypt ( Nerva/ T rajan). H e i s a r elative o f T i. I ulius C elsus P olemaeanus ( 51) a nd b elonged t o t he wealthy a nd p restigious p riestly f amily o f S ardes. II. 1 .

A NTONINI

- I I s .

S amos

[--] G . T i mocratis f ilius Quirina F lavianus ( 44) p erformed i n t he s econd c entury t he t hree m i 1i tiae i n t he E ast ( probably a ll t hree i n Cappadocia). H e was f urther [ t :E QE Ü g] i z eßacTJA , ka L

1 34

c l ywyo f tng . e lite. 2 .

H e

t herefore

d isplays

t he

p rofile

o f

t he

l ocal

P ergamum

C laudius L upianus ( 29; T rajan) w as a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen; h e w as p rytanis a nd t ribunus l egionis i n E gypt. T he a nonymous ( 80; I I s .?) was l egionary t ribune ( Arabia?) a nd b elonged t o t he m unicipal e lite o f P ergamum , w here h e s erved i n a p riestly f unction a nd w as g ymnasiarchos. 3 .

E phesus

P . V edius P .f. Quirina A ntoninus ( 74) was p rytanis ( a. 9 6-99), p raefectus c ohortis ( ubi?), t ribunus l egionis ( Moesia I nferior) a nd a siarchos, g rammateus ( a. 1 17/118). T he V edii o f E phesus w ere o f I talian i mmigrant s tock ( Hal f mann 1 982: 6 27-8). P . V edius Antoninus a dopted M . C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus, who b ecame a siarchos a nd a rchiereus. T he l atter's s on, M . C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus P haedrus S abinianus, b ecame t he f irst s enator t o i ssue f rom a f am ily o f p rovincial h igh p riests . T he e uergesia o f t he V edii i s a pparent f rom t he f act t hat t he f irst s enator, w ith h is w ife F lavia P apiane, h ad t he u mnasium a nd t he o deum b uilt ( inter a . 1 40-160). P . Gavius Pf. P alat(ina) Balbus ( 46) c ompleted a f ine e questrian c areer u nder H adrian/Antoninus P ius: e quo p ublico, i udex d e s electis, p raefectus c ohortis ( Moesia I nferior), t ribunus l egionis ( Britannigi, p raefectus a lae ( Pannonia S uperior T , p roc urator August i a d c ensus Galatiae e t P aphlagoniae, c urator v iarum C orneliae e t t riumphalis, p rocurator A ugusti p rovinciae C hersonesi ( Thraciae). H e was h onoured a t E phesus w ith a b ronze s tatue b y t he b oule o f t he municipium A elium C oela, c apital o f t he C hersonesus, f or s ervices r endered w hile p rocurator t here . I b elieve t hat B albus s ettled i n E phesus a s a n i mmigrant. Why d id t he C hersonesitani h onour h im t here? T . Oppius A fer P ollius T ertullus ( 63) w as, l egionis i n C appadocia . H e w as a rchiereus t he c ity. H e was h onoured b y t he b oule a nd H e o bviously was a m ember o f t he m unicipal

a bout A D 1 60 , t ribunus A siae a nd l ogistes o f d emos w ith a s tatue. e lite .

P ompeius H ermippus ( 65) was a rchiereus o f b oth i mperial t emples i n E phesus a round t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury, a nd t ribunus co h ortis ( ubi? ). L anded p roperty i s a ttested i n K aystrotal ( f lalfmann 1 982: 6 19) . H is s on, C n . P ompeius H ermippus A elianus, b ecame a R oman s enator, who i n t urn s eems t o h ave h ad f our s ons i n t he R oman c uria. A nother s on o f H ermippus, C n. P ompeius Quart i nus, d id n ot b ecome a s enator b ut h eld municipal o ffices a t E phesus ( on t his p henomenon s ee H alfmann 1 982: 6 22). T he a nonymous ( 83) h eld t he m i 1iti ae e questres, was d ucenarius a nd a siarchos ( late s econd/early t hird c entury); h e b elonged t o t he E phesian e lite .

1 35

T hat C l(audius) T yrannus ( 36) E phesus c annot b e e stablished C laudius T yrannus, f reedman o f ( Holtheide 1 983: 6 8.321 E .185 4 .

a nd P ollio ( 66) r eally c ome f rom w ith c ertainty. A h omonym i s T i. C laudius a nd p hysician a t M agnesia n . 3 ).

E phesus/Magnesia Mäeandri

T ib . C laudius Meleagri f ilius Q uirina Charidemus P hilometor ( 24) a nd T ib . C laudius Tuendianus Magnus ( Quirina) ( 35) w ere t wo e questrian o fficers u nder H adrian: x ELALap v ic rac ( 24), T P ; . ,C x cLXCapxoc ( 35), p robably e quivalent, r espectively, t o t he L atin a m ilitiis, a t ribus m ilitiis. B oth b elonged t o a p rominent f am ily o f a siarchoi a nd a rchiereis . O ne w as h imself a rchiereus A siae ( 24), t he o ther p rytanis ( 35). T he f amily 's c itizenship p robably g oes b ack t o N ero. 5 .

Smyrna

C . l ulius, H y[--], [ philo]patridos f ilius, [ tribu], ( 49): h is p raefectura f abrum w as f ollowed o nly b y t he l egionary t ribunate i n S yria P alaestina ( second century). H e was p resumably a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen o f A ugustus . 6 .

T eos

P . C laudius T ib. f ilius P al [1 ]atina ( sic) P ol 1i o ( 32; l ate f irst c entury?) h eld a p raefectura c ohortis i n S yria P alaestina; d escendant o f a n ew c itizen o f C laudius. 7 .

S ardes

T he a nonymus ( 84), c a . 1 25/150, h ave b een a n ative o f S ardes. 8 .

t ribunus

l egionis

i n A rabia ,

may

P hiladelphia

H erennius A tticus ( 47) a nd H erennius N [---] ( 48), b oth n paCycx -r oc ( sc . c ohortis?), h onour t he a nonymous ( 81), t ribunus m il i tum u nder A ntoninus P ius; a re a ll t hree f rom P hiladelphia? I ulius P osidonius ( 55) was [ X]cLÄi .apxoS [ A]l 5yo oTou, a nd was p erhaps d escended f rom a n ew c itizen o f A ugustus; t he d ating i s u ncertain: f irst/second c entury? 9 .

N ysa

N L S ervilius P . f ilius P alatina E unicus ( 68), e ques R omanus, s acerdos L aurentium L avinatium , p raefectus c ohortis ( Mauretania C aesariensis?), s criba q uaestorius l ibrarius ( mid-second c ent ury?), p ublicly h onoured a t N ysa, m ight b e a n ative s on; h is c areer r efers t o a n I talian i mmigrant?

1 36

1 0 .

H eraclea a d S albacum

I n t he p eriod T rajan/Antoninus P ius t wo f amilies e nter t he m ilitiae, v iz. t he A burnii a nd t he S tatilii. L ater w e f ind n o m ore e questrian o fficers f rom H eraclea . T he p resence o f o fficers i n p recisely t his p eriod c an p erhaps b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he t own was g ranted t he s tatus o f c olonia b y T rajan: H eraclea U lpia ( Robert 1 934: 2 11). L . A burnius Tuscianus ( 3) a nd h is s on L . Aburnius T orquatus ( 2) a chieved a n impressive r ecord i n t he mil i tiae. T he s on, T orquatus, p erformed h is t hree m i 1i tiae i n, c onsecutively, M auretania T ingitana , C appadocia a nd o n t he D anube . T he f ather, T uscianus, was f irst p raefectus f abrum i n R ome a nd t hen b ecame t ribunus l egionis i n A frica; t hereafter h e w as t wice p raefectus c ohortis i n S yria . H e s ubsequently b ecame a s pecialist, a s i t w ere, o f t his m ilitary z one, f or a ll h is o ther a ppointments w ere h eld i n t his p rovince: c urator c ohortis, c urator a nnonae b ello P arthico ( a. 1 14-117), t ribunus l egionis, d onis d onatus, p raef ectus a lae . A t hird m ember o f t he g ens A burnia i s k nown f rom a d iploma m ilitare ( CIL XVI 1 78, P annonia S uperior): L . Aburnius S everus, H eracl(ea rti), who was p raefectus a lae ( a. 1 46). T he g ens S tatilia a lso s upplied t hree e questrian o fficers, i n e xactly t he s ame p eriod a s t he g ens Aburnia . T . S tatilius Apollinarius ( 69) w as t ribunus m ilitum a nd p raefectus a lae - t he s ite o f t he g arrisons i s u nknown - t hen p rocurator L yciae, P amphyliae, C ypri. H is e lder s on was p ri mipilaris a nd p raefectus c astrorum . T hey b elong t o a f amous f amily o f p hysicians f rom H eraclea; t wo members, T . S tatilius C r it o a nd T . S tatilius A ttalus, were d octors t o T rajan, A ntoninus P ius a nd Marcus A urelius ( Pf l aum 1 960: 2 99-300). T he f amily p robably r eceived t he c itizenship f rom a T . S tatilius i n t he c ourse o f t he f irst c entury . T he ' fasti' o f A sia h ave h itherto n ot y et y ielded a p roconsul o f t hat n ame . CW d id t hey p ut t heir m edical k nowledge a t t he s ervice o f t he w ell-known S tatilii T auri? O r w as a m ember o f t his g ens p roconsul A siae i n t he f irst c entury? W e d o k now a S tatilia, d aughter o f T . S tatilius T aurus, c os. o rd. a . 2 6 BC , w ho was t he w ife o f t he p atrician L . Calpurnius P iso, p roconsul A siae ( ca. a . 5 -12 B C ; T homasson 1 984: 2 08 n . 1 5; Camodeca 1 982: 1 55 ; S oh n 1 982: 4 30)l S urely o f t he s ame f amily a re T . S tat dlius T iti] f ilius P oll da F rontonia bus ( 70) a nd N L S tatilius T rypho ( 71). F rontonianus p erformed h is p raefectura c ohortis a nd t ribunatus l egionis i n S yria; T rypho h eld l ocal o ffice a nd was b enefactor o f h is h ome t own, a nd t ribunus l egionis i n Meesia . 1.

C eramus

O nly o ne e questrian o fficer, ( P .) Ael(ius) T hemistocles ( 4), i s k nown: c i oCapxoc % a . Atapxoc ( Ant. P ius). H is f ather, P . A elius P rotoleon, s trategos, p robably w as g ranted t he c itizenship b y H adrian, who v isited Car i a i n 1 29. I n C eramus A elius i s t he

1 37

e arliest a ttested i mperial n omen g entilicium ( Holtheide n . 8 12). T his i s c learly t he l ocal e lite. 1 2 .

1 983:

1 02

A cmonia/Temenothyrai

L . Egnatius L .f. T eretina Quartus ( 40; s econd c entury) h eld t he t hree m ilitiae: p raefectus c ohortis ( Cappadocia, w here h e w as a lso c urator a lae), t ribunus l egionis ( Germania S uperior), a nd p raef ectus a lae ( Britannia o r S yria?) . H e was p robably a c itizen o f t he t wo a forementioned t owns. P ossibly d escended f rom a n I talian i mm igrant: t he t ribus T eretina i s a ttested o utside I taly o nly i n A relate, G allia N arbonensis, a nd i n X anthus, L ycia . 1 3 .

S ynnada

T wo e questrian o fficers a re a ttested f or t he s econd c entury: T . A elius V alerianus ( 4), Ö Cc x eL[Äix tpxoc--- 3a nd [ .] C laudius M .f. [ Pa]p(iria) Asiaticus ( 22), t rib. m il.; t he meagre e vidence o f t hese t wo i nscriptions o nly p ermits t he a ssumption t hat t hey w ere d escendants o f n ew c itizens. 1 4 .

E umeneia

[— Ar ius Fa[ustia]nus ( 43) was i n t he s econd c entury t wice t ribunus c ohortis, i n A rabia ( ?) a nd i n A sia. T hese g arrisons i ndeed s eem t o p oint t o a n l O rientalis, whose n omen m ay h ave b een [ P.Ael]ius a nd whose c itizenship may t hus g o b ack t o H adrian ( Holtheide 1 983: 3 77). 1 5.

C olossae

L . Mäcedo ( 61) may h ave h is o rigins h ere. T he i dentification w ith t he p ri mus p ilus T i. C laudius S ecundinus L . S tatius Macedo i s f ar f rom c ertain . 1 6.

T hem is on i um

N L U lpius Z enonis f ilius Ouirina T rypho Megas A ntonianus ( 73) b elonged, a s a rchiereus A siae, t o t he e lite a nd p resumably r e.c eived t he c itizenship f rom T rajan. H is f ather s till b ore a n omen p eregrinum . I V. 1 .

T HE S EVERI

- II

s .

P ergamum

F or t he p eriod o f S eptimius S everus t wo e questrian o fficers a re k nown t o u s: T ib. C1(audius) N icomedis f ilius Quirina P ius ( 31), t he f ather, a nd T . V ibius P ius ( 76), h is s on. I t i s c lear t hat t hey d escend f rom a n ew c itizen o f C laudius/Nero . T ib. C laudius P ius w as t ribunus c ohortis ( Cappadocia/Syria P alaestina?), t ribunus l egionis ( Syria), a nd t wice p raefectus a lae ( also i n S yria). H e w as f urthermore a rchiereus A siae . H is s on T . V ibius P ius h eld t wo m ilitiae p ri mae ( garrisons u nknown), f ollowed b y a l egionary t ribunate i n Moesia I nferior a nd a p raefectura a lae

1 38

( ubi?); h e may h ave h eld t he m ilitia q uarta i n D acia(?). T o t he s ame f amily b elonged C l(audius) N icomedes, o zoonny6c ( under C bmmodus), a nd T i. C laudius N icomedes, m etoz1c, v ewx6po‘ ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 85-6 n . 3 2-3). 2 .

T eos

P . P ostu[ mus] ( 67), p raefectus c ohortis ( II s ./ I II s .) i n Mauretania, was h onoured b y t he d emos o f T eos f or h is e uergesia t oward h is h ome t own . 3 .

E phesus

P erhaps s ix o fficers a re f rom E phesus i n t his p eriod; t he n omen g entilicium o f f ive h as s urvived, a nd f our o f t hese b ear a n i mperial n omen g entilicium . T ib . C laudius P ollio ( 33), l ate s econd/early t hird c entury, was e ques Romanus a nd 6 7 1 ,6 x eLaz, i .e. a m ilitiis. H e c alls h im self p hilosebastos a nd was avranomos. N L I ulius S ura ( 56?) was t he s on o f I ulius P riscianus, v ir e greg ius, p rocurator t rium A ugustorum ( a. 2 09-211). H e h i mself was o nly t ribunus l egionis . P erhaps r elated t o N L I ulius S ura Magnus A ttalianus, p raetor, a nd t o [ ---] I ulianus S ura M agnus, p roconsul L yciae e t P amphyliae ( PIR L I 5 94, 1 01). A n a nonymus ( 82; C aracalla o r l ater) may h ave b een a n E phesian; h e h eld t he t hree m ilitiae i n S yria, C appadocia, a nd P isidia ( ?) . A t ypical c ursus f or a n l O rientalis. T i. C laudius F rontonianus ( 28; S everus A lexander) e xercised t he t hree m ilitiae; b ut t he u se o f a s ummary f ormula h ides t he g arris on l ocations. H e w as a p restigious E phesian: t wice a rchiereus A siae, a gonothetes, l ogistes ( curator) o f c ities o f n ote, r hetor. H is s on C laudius T hemistocles w as t wice a siarchos, h is d aughter T i. C laudia F rontoniana was married t o T . F lavius C litosthenes ( of T ralleis, L ydia), c os. s uff. c a . 2 20/230 ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 11, 6 32). A urelius Aelius S tratonicus ( 12), a . 2 40, i c ktr rdp r n‘, m i ,Xoac f 3., ä nä x LALapxLcb y(a m ilitiis) was p resumably r elated t o C . V oconius A efius S tratonicus, A kamantius ( signum) ( 79) o f D orylaeum . V etulenius S abinianus ( 75; t hird c entury), e ques Romanus, c i nd ) x eLALapxt :c t, i .e. a m ilitiis; h is b rother was a lso a k night. T heir mother, whos n ame h as b een l ost, was a rchiereia A siae o f t he i mperial t emples i n E phesus. D id t he f amily r eceive t he c itizenship f rom C . V ettulenus C ivica C erial i s,proconsul A siae c a . a . 8 8 ( Thomasson 1 984: 2 17 n . 7 4)? 4 .

Magnesia

C h . D omitius Aelianus ( 38 ; C aracalla) w as a rchiereus a nd g rammat eus i n Magnesia a nd -r c x cL[X i :]apxo , i .e . a t ribus m ilitiis;

1 39

d oes t he f amily 's c itizenship g o b ack t o t he p roconsul A siae G n . D om itius C orbulo ( C laudius; T homasson 1 984: 2 12 n . 4 6), o r i s t he a rchiereus a d escendant o f I talian i mmigrants? 5 .

L ydia

S er. Calpurnius I ulianus ( 20 ; s econd/third c entury) w as t ribunus m ilitum ( bis?); h e h eld n umerous l ocal o ffices a nd t herefore m ust h ave b elonged t o t he l ocal e lite . 6 .

T hyatira

T . A nt(onius) W audius) A lfenus A xginotus Q Uirina ( 7; S eptimius S everus/Caracalla) h ad a n e xtensive m ilitary c areer: p raefectus c ohortis a nd p raepositus c ohortis i n D acia I nferior, c urator a nnonae p ortuum S eleuciae P ieriae, t ribunus c ohortis a nd p raepos itus c ohortis i n Moesia I nferior, p raefectus a lae a nd p raepos itus a lae i n S yria. D uring h is t hree m il i tiae h e was a lso l ogistes o f s everal c ities i n S yria a nd Moesia I nferior. T he a bbreviated f ormula T ä T pi .Toy x iACaoxoz i s t he e quivalent o f ä r t6 T pLGN x L .A .Laox a 3v, a s i s p roved b y h is i nscriptions . H e c oncluded h is c areer a s p rocurator Augusti a rcae L ivianae . H e a lso h eld s everal l ocal p riesthoods, e .g . o f t he p rincipal o ld-established c ult o f h is n ative r egion, v iz . T yri mnos, a nd n eokoros o f t he i mperial c ult. H e was t he s on a nd g randson o f a rchiereis A siae. A lfenus A pollinaris, a c ensibus A ugusti, w as h is u ncle . A p rest igious f amily o f l ong-standing c itizenship, a s t he n ames A ntonius a nd C laudius s uggest. N L Aurelius Bassus ( 14) was k night a nd t ribunus l egionis i n N oricum . H e was, a s b ouleutes, a member o f t he m unicipal e lite o f T hyatira. Whether h e was g ranted t he c itizenship b y M . A urelius o r b ecame a n ew c itizen a s a r esult o f t he Consti t ut i o A ntoniniana c annot b e a scertained . 7 .

S aittae

[ Dom i]tius ( ?) I t Eufus?' ( 39), a rcheireus A siae a nd a m ilitiis ( ?); p resumably r elated t o t he S ardes f amily o f D omitii R ufi: .f ather a nd s on were a siarch . 8 .

N ysa

( ---) Aurelianus Apellas ( 19) was l egionary t ribune i n A rabia ( second/third c entury). Was h e r elated t o M . Aurelius A pellas, f ilius A pellae, A pellianus, o f S ebastopolis ( Cäria), w ho b oasted o f b eing t he u ncle o f k nights w ho h ad h eld m ilitiae a nd p rocurat elae? 9 .

l asos

N L A urelius H ecataeus ( 16; t hird c entury), a m ilitiis, i s p robabl y an ative o f I asos, where h e was b uried . Was h e, o r a n a ncest or, a n ew c itizen o f M . A urelius o r t hanks t o t he C onst it ut i o A ntoniniana?

1 40

1 0 .

D orylaeum

C . V oc(onius) Aelius S tratonicus, Akamantius ( signum) ( 79; b et ween 2 12-253), a m ilitiis e questribus a nd a rchiereus A siae o f t he t emples i n P ergamum , e pistates a nd s tephanophoros o f h is h ome t own . S urely r elated t o Aurelius Aelius S tratonicus ( 12) o f E phesus. N ägnius D ionysios ( 59; t hird c entury), R oman k night a nd a m ilitiis; h is f ather, M . Aurelius D ionysios, a nd a r elative, M T A urelius H ermolaos, w ere a rchontes a nd s tephanophoroi. O bviously n ew c itizens o r d escendants o f n ew c itizens among t he l ocal e lite. 1.

N l oxeanoi

T he b rothers Aurelius Gaius ( 15) a nd Aurelius N ienophilus ( 17) w ere b oth a m ilitiis. T heir p arents: A urelius A sclas s on o f F austus a nd A urelia D omna d aughter o f I renaeus. A n amesake o f A urelius Gaius was a siarchos o f t he t emples i n P ergamum . A ll p robably b ecame c itizens a s a r esult o f t he C onstitutio A ntonini ana. 1 2 .

S ebaste

O nly o ne e questrian o fficer, a n a nonymus ( 85), c omes f rom S ebaste; * t he f ragmentary i nscription a llows f or c onclusions. 1 3 .

p resumably n o f urther

E umeneia

[ Au]r(elius) A rtemidorus ( 13; t hird c entury) w as a m ilitiis a nd a m ember o f t he l ocal e lite. H is e uergesia i s a pparent f rom t he f act t hat h e f urnished t he h eroon . H is w ife , A urelia T atia, l ike h e h imself, p resumably r eceived t he c itizenship t hrough t he C ons titutio Antoniniana .

1 41

V .

CONCLUSION :

- c hronological a nd g eographical - c ities a nd n umber o f o fficers

- S amos ( 1) -C os ( 3) l a I lium ( 1) 1 A lexandria T roas ( 6) 2 P ergamum ( 7) 3 P hocaea ( 1) 4 S myrna ( 1) 5 T eos ( 2) 6 E phesus ( 24) 7 Magnesia M äeandri ( 3 ) 8 M iletus ( 2) 9 T hyatira ( 2) 1 0 S aittae ( 1) 1 S ardes ( 1) 1 2 P hiladelphia ( 4)

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8a 1 8b 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

d istribution

N ysa ( 2) H eraclea a d S albacum ( 6) I asos ( 1) C eramus ( 1) D orylaeum ( 2) A cmonia (1 ) T emenothyrae M oxeanoi ( 2) S ebaste ( 1) S ynnada ( 2) E umeneia ( 3) L aodicea ( 1) C olossae ( 1) T hem isonium ( 1)

C ertain p oleis p roduce e questrian o fficers t hroughout t he P rincip ate . E phesus w ith 2 4 t ops t hem a ll. T he o fficers f rom E phesus a re q uite e venly s pread i n t i me: f irst c entury 1 0, s econd c entury 9 , t hird c entury 5 . Perga mu m t akes s econd p lace w ith 3 /2/2. Mägnesia a nd Eumeneia p roduce f or e ach p eriod o ne o fficer. S ome c ities h ave o fficers f or a v ery II hink t here may b e a n e xplanation:

1 42

r estricted

p eriod;

f or

s ome

-

A lexandria T roas: 6 o fficers d uring t he J ulio-C laudian d ynasty; t o b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat i t was a n A ugustan c olony ( 8, 4 1, 5 7, 5 8, 6 2, 7 8)

-

Cos : 3 o fficers, a ll p ersonal C laudian h ouse ( 26, 3 0, 7 2)

-

H eraclea a d S albacum : t he g ens A burnia ( 1, 2 , 3 ) a nd t he g ens S tatilia ( 69, 7 0, 7 1) e ach p rovide 3 o fficers i n t he p eriod T rajan/Ant. P ius . T he S tatilii s upplied p ersonal p hysicians f or T rajan, A ntoninus P ius a nd Marcus A urelius! T rajan p robably g ave H eraclea t he s tatus o f c olonia: U lpia H eraclea

-

P hiladelphia : t he f our o fficers ( 47, 4 8, 5 5, 8 1) may a ll b e c alled c hance a ppearances; t hree ( 47, 4 8, 8 1) a re mentioned i n a s ingle i nscription, a nd t he d ating o f I ulius P osidonius ( 55) i s u ncertain ( I s ./ I I s .?)

T he c ities t heses. C .

t hat

SOCIAL

p roduce o nly

ORI GINS

AND

o ne

o r

p hysicians

t wo o fficers

o f

t he

p ermit

n o

J ulio-

h ypo-

STRATIFI CATI ON

I t s eems i mportant t hat a d istinction b e d rawn b etween t he I tal ian a nd o ther i mmigrants i n A sia a nd t he t rue a utochthons t hat a ttain e questrian s tatus . A f irst c riterion s hould b e o nomastic, a lthough I am aware t hat i t must b e h andled w ith g reat c aution. L et u s t herefore t ry t o c ombine o nomastics w ith t he s ocial, e conom ic, c ultural, a nd r eligious c ontext o f t he f amily i n q uest ion. F or Asia we a re f ortunate t hat w e c an c onfront o ur m aterial w ith t he i mportant s tudy o f B . H oltheide ( 1983), who h as p rovided a c omprehensive e xamination o f R oman c itizenship p olicy a nd o f t he n ew c itizens i n t his a rea . T he o verall n umber o f a ttestations o f n omina g entilicia f or A sia i s 6 695, o f which 1 845 a re n on i mperial a nd 4 850 i mperial ( Holtheide 1 983: 2 32), which i s a r atio o f a bout 1 t o 3 . I f o ne i ncludes t he n omina P ompeius a nd A ntonius i n t he i mperial g roup, a s H oltheide d oes, t he f ollowing p icture i s o btained f or t he e questrian o fficers: P ompeius: 1 ( 65); A ntonius: 3 ( 7-9); I ulius: 8 ( 49-56); C laudius: 1 5 ( 22-36); F l a v iu s : 1 ( 42); U l p iu s: 1 ( 73); A elius: 3 ( 4-5, 7 9); A urelius: 6 ( 12-17); S ept i mius: 0 . T his m eans t hat o ut o f a t otal o f 7 1 - f or t he n omen g entilicium i s l ost i n 1 3 c ases - 3 8 b elong t o t he i mperial g roup a nd t hat 3 3 b ear a nother n omen - t he r atio h ere i s 1 : 1 . O f c ourse t he g roup o f 3 3 may c ontain e questrians t hat r eceived t he c itizenship f rom a p roconsul A siae o r a p rocurator A siae e tc . ! L et

u s

f irst

t ry

t o

i dentify

t he

b earers

g entilicium :

1 43

o f

a n on-i mperial

n omen

I )

I talian

c olonists:

A n ucleus o f c olonists - v eterans ( Italici) who p erform t he m ilitiae - a re f ound i n t he A ugustan c olonia A lexandria T roas: F abricius ( 41), I unius ( 57), Lol Ii us ( 58), Norbanus ( 62), V inuleius ( 78). P robably t he Aufidii: B albus ( 10) a nd S pinter ( 11), a ttested a t P ergamum, a lso b elong t o t his g roup; t heir t ribus, t he A niensis, p oints i n t hat d irection . 2 )

I mmigrants:

D uring t he J ulio-C laudian d ynasty w e f ind L . Mal i us R eginus ( 60), p erhaps o f I talian s tock, a t M iletus . A ll t he o ther e questrian o fficers o f t his g roup a re a ttested i n E phesus, n ext t o P ergamum t he p olis t he R omans a dmired most i n A sia: Q . P inar i us ( 64), b ecause o f h is t ribus A emi 1i a a n I talicus o r o f Macedonian o rigin . T . Camurius I ustus ( 21), p erhaps I talicus, w as c harged w ith t he e rection o f a n e questrian s tatue o f t he Emperor C laudius o n b ehalf o f t he c onventus c ivium R omanorum q ui i n A sia n ego.t iantur; i s i n t his c ase t he r eason f or t he i mmigration k nown, v iz , c ommercial i nterests? Was N L Aemi 1i us P ius ( 6) a n I talian? F or t he F lavian p eriod o nly o fficers f rom E phesus a re k nown: C . V ibius Salutaris ( 27), i n v iew o f h is t ribus, t he Oufentina, p resumably a N orth I talian; h is e normous w ealth a nd h is c ircle o f f riends p rove t hat h e w as a s uccessful b usinessman . L . Cusinius Messalinus ( 37), p ossibly a n i mmigrant f rom P icenum i n I taly, h ad p erhaps p ut h is b usiness p rofits i nto l and a nd p roperty. T he A ntonine p eriod p roduces t hree o fficers f rom E phesus: P . V edius Antoninus ( 74) w as o f I talian i mmigrant s tock a nd b elonged t o o ne o f t he m ost p restigious f amilies o f E phesus, w hich u ltim ately a ttained s enatorial s tatus. P . Gavius Balbus ( 46) was p resumably d escended f rom I talici. T . Oppius A fer Pol 1i us T ertullus ( 63) may a lso b e a s cion o f i mmigrants. Herennius A tticus ( 47) a nd H erennius N E---] ( 48) a re p ossibly i mmigrants i n P hiladelphia? N L S ervilius E unicus ( 68), a ttested a t Nysa: h is c areer i s r eminiscent o f a n I talian i mmigrant? T he f amily o f t he Aburnii ( 1, 2 , 3 ) may well b e o f I talian o rigin. A nd f inally we h ave L . Egnatius Quartus ( 4), a p robable c itizen o f Acmonia/ T emenothYrai, who i n v iew o f h is t ribus T eretina c an s tem f rom I taly, A relate ( Narbonensis) o r X anthus ( Lycia). S er. Calpurnius I ulianus ( 20) b elonged t o t he l ocal e lite o f L ydia ( second/third c entury) . T he n ame o f D omitius R ufus ( 39) i s t he r esult o f a c onjecture ; h e p robably h ails f rom S aittae ( third c entury). 3 )

N ew c itizens:

C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72), o f Cos, w as a rchiatros o f T iberius, C aligula a nd C laudius; t he f am ily r eceived t he c itizenship f rom t he c onsul o f 2 3, C . S tertinius Maximus.

1 44

T he g ens S tatilia, f rom H eraclea a d S albacum , p roduced t hree e questrian o fficers ( 69, 7 0, 7 1) u nder H adrian/Antoninus P ius. T hey b elonged t o a l ocal f amily o f m edici; t wo o ther m embers o f t he f am ily were p ersonal p hysician t o T rajan, A ntoninus P ius a nd M arcus A urelius. D id t he f amily r eceive t he c itizenship v ia S tatilia , d aughter o f T . S tatilius T aurus ( cos. o rd. a . 2 6 BC ) a nd w ife o f L . Calpurnius P iso ( procos. Asiae c a. a . 1 2-5 BC )? T . V ibius P ius ( 76) was t he s on o f T ib. C l(audius) N icomedis f ilius Q uirina P ius ( 21), u nder S epti mius S everus a t P ergamum; t hey a re descended f rom a n ew c itizen o f C laudius/Nero. V etulenius Sabinianus ( 75; u nder C aracalla), o f E phesus, may d escend f rom a n ew c itizen o f C . V ettulenus C ivica C erialis, p roconsul As i ae c a. 8 8 . Cm. D omitius Aelianus ( 38; u nder C ara c alla), o f Magnesia, i s p erhaps t he d escendant o f a n ew c itizen o f Cn. D omitius Corbulo, p rocos. Asiae u nder C laudius. Magnius D ionysius ( 59; t hird c entury), o f D orylaeum, was t he s on o f A urelius D ionysius; c learly, t hen, a f amily o f n ew c itizens. T o

s um u p:

b earers o f a n on-i mperial n omen g entilicium : - I talian c olonists: 7 - I mm igrants, I talici e t a l.: 1 8 - N ew c itizens: 8

M .

3 3

T he l atter g roup, t he n ew c itizens, was made u p o f p ersons who p resumably h ad b een g ranted t he c itizenship b y a c onsul o r p roc onsul A siae, v iz, s ix; t wo, h owever, h ad a f ather who b ore a n i mperial n omen g entiliciunh T herefore t he o verall n umbers g iven a bove s hould b e modified t o r ead: 3 1: b earers o f n on-imperial n .g. 4 0: b earers o f a n i mperial n .g. T he n ew c itizens o f a n emperor d id n ot a l ways e nter t he o rdo e quester r ight away. Ih ave t he i mpression t hat o nly a s mall g roup w as made c itizen a nd e ques s i multaneously; m ost h ad t o w ait 1 t o 3g enerations t o a ttain e questrian s tatus. C onsider, f or example , t he C laudii, n ew c itizens o f C laudius/Nero, w hich a fter a ll f orm t he l argest g roup: 1 5 r epresentatives ( 22-36) . F our o f t he 1 5 (*) r eceive c ivitas a nd o rdo e quester t ogether: 2 3, 2 6, 2 7, 3 0 . T i. Claudius B albillus ( 23) was p ossibly t he s on o f T i. C laudius T hrasyllus, o f A lexandria, t he Emperor T iberius ' a strol oger. Balbillus a ccompanied C laudius o n h is e xpeditio B ritannica ( a . 4 3). H e was a man o f g reat p aideia, t hereafter b ecom ing a d l egationes e t a d r esponsa G raeca t o t hat emperor, t hen h ead o f t he Museum a nd L ibrary o f A lexandria . T i. C laudius C leonymes ( 26) a nd T ib. C laudius P hilinus ( 30) w ere o f t he f amily o f C laudius ' p hysician, C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72) w ho a lso w as

( *) T he d istribution o f t he r emaining C I a udi i : 3 4 ( Vespasian); 2 5, 3 2 ( II p arte I s .); 2 9 ( Trajan); 2 4, 3 5 ( Hadrian); 2 2, 3 6 ( II s .); 3 3 ( II s ./ I II s .); 3 1 ( Sept. S ev.); 2 8 ( Sev. A lex.).

1 45

w ith t he emperor o n h is B ritish c ampaign. T ib. C laudius D emoc rates ( 27) was o ne o f t he Magnesian e lite, p riest o f d ivus G ermanicus a nd a rchiereus A siae . E ugeneia a nd p aideia, which p resume w ealth a nd e uergesia, w ere c haracterisitc o f t his e lite. A c lose s tudy o f t heir i nscript ions s hould y ield i nformation o n t heir s ocial s tatus a nd o n t he r easons f or t he r ise o f a f amily t o c itizen a nd/or e questrian s tatus. L et u s t ry t o s ketch a s ociogram o f t he p aideia, e ugeneia, g esia o f t he k nights t hemselves a nd/or o f t heir f amily :

e uer-

-

p articipation i n t he h onores o f t heir p olis: ( 3)t, 7 , 8 , 1 2, 1 4, ( 20), 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 2 8, 2 9, 3 1, 3 3, 3 5, ( 41), 4 2, ( 44), 5 3, 5 4, 5 6, ( 58), ( 59), ( 60), ( 62), ( 63), 6 5, ( 71), ( 74), ( 77), ( 79), ( 80), ( 83)

-

o n t he p rovincial l evel: a siarchs a nd a rchiereis: 4 , 7 , 9 , 1 2, 1 5, 2 4, 2 5, 2 7, 2 8, 3 1, 3 5, ( 38), ( 39), 4 2, 5 2, ( 63), 6 5, 7 3, ( 74), ( 75), 7 6, ( 79), ( 83)

-

f am ilies o f p riests o f w ell-known c ults: 7 ( Tyri mnus a t T hyatira), 2 5 ( Apollo a t D idyma), 5 0 a nd 5 1 ( priestly f am ily a t S ardes), 5 3 ( I l eCou ' A i coXI ,wvoc ) , ( 72) ( Asclepius, H ygieia, H epione)

-

m edici:

-

p hilosophers: 4 2 r hetors: 2 8 a strologers: 2 3 t ies w ith r oyal h ouses:

-

e uergesia : r eturns c ontinually; I mention b ut a f ew c onspicuous i nstances: 1 3 ( had a h eroon b uilt); 2 3 . ( beneficence: E phesus, Smyrna, D elos); 5 1 ( founder o f t he C elsus-library a t E phesus); ( 74) ( family b uilds g ymnasium a nd o deum a t E phesus), ( 77) ( beneficence a t E phesus)

2 6,

3 0,

3 6?,

( 69),

9 ,

( 70),

( 71),

( 72)

5 1

F rom t his s ociogram i t i s a pparent t hat R ome i ntegrated i nto i ts c adres t he l oyal l ocal e lite t hat c ould s how g ood s tock, e ducat ion a nd w ealth . R ome w alked t he r oad o f g raduality . A n i mportant a spect t hat u nfortunately d oes n ot s how i n o ur s ource material i s t he r ise o f t he l iberti, i n -p articular t he i mperial f reedmen! I t i s o bvious t hat a f amily o f l iberti t hat h ad c limbed t he s ocial l adder w ould d o e verything i n i ts p ower t o p resent i tself t o b est a dvantage, a nd c ertainly t o a void a nything t hat m ight b e r eminiscent o f t hat p ast. F rom i nscriptions, e .g . E phesos, II, 8 51-63, we k now a w hole s eries o f i mperial

( t) N on-I mperial

n omina g entilicia a re

1 46

i n b rackets

l iberti. C l(audius) T yrannus ( 36) h as a n amesake i n Magnesia, T ib . C laudius T yrannus, l ibertus A ugusti, t aTo6c; b ut i t c annot b e e stablished t hat t he t wo w ere r elated . 4 )

Adlection

t o

t he

S enate:

I f i n t he r ise t o t he c itizenship a nd t he o rdo e quester f amily a nd amical t ies a lready p layed a s ignificant r ole ( see 7 2 a nd 2 6, 3 0; 6 9, 7 0, 7 1; 7 7), t hat r ole was e ven more i mportant i n t he r ise t o t he o rdo s enatorius, t he c oveted d estination o f a ny e questrian f amily. T he c hannels t hat l ed t o t he s enate f or t he O rientales h ave b een t horoughly e xamined b y H alfmann ( 1979, 1 982, 1 982a). L et u s c onfine o urselves h ere t o t he e questrian o fficers a nd t he s enatorial o rder. A s triking f act i s t hat o nly o ne o fficer o ut o f 8 4 made i t s traight t o t he c uria: T i. I ul i us Cel s us Polemaeanus ( 51; E phesus/Sardes), a dlectus i nter a edilicios a d ivo V espasiano ( a . 7 0), f ounder o f t he f amous Cel s us-1 i brary a t E phesus, p ossibly m arried t o a l ady o f t he g ens Quinti 1i a o f E phesus. H is s enat orial c areer was s pent i n t he E ast. P olemaeanus' p aideia a nd w ealth s urely c ontributed t o h is r ise ( he may b e d escended f rom a n ew c itizen o f T iberius) . H is c ase i s h ighly e xceptional; u sually t he c limb t o t he S enate t ook s everal g enerations, R ome p referring t he p ath o f g raduality: a s on o r a g randson m ight e nter t he c uria . C n . Pompeius H er mippus ( 65; s enatorial s on, C n . P ompeius C n . Pompeius Q uartinus, d id l ocal o ffice i n E phesus ( see

E phesus, m id-second c entury) h ad a H ermippus A elianus, w hereas a nother, n ot r each t he s enate, o nly h olding H alfmann 1 982: 6 29) .

T . I unius C .f. A ni. Montanus, c os. s uff. a . 8 1, was p erhaps t he g randson o f T . I unius D .f. Ani. Montanus ( 57) o f t he A ugustan c olonia A lexandria T roas . L ikewise F lavius R ufinianus ( Phocaea, c os. s uff. u nder C ommodus) may b e t he g randson o f T . F lavius. V arus Calvisianus H er mocrates ( 42), e questrian o fficer a nd a rchiereus As ia e u nder T raj a n; a nd M . C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus P haedrus S abinianus, q uaestor C ypri, o f E phesus, t he g randson o f t he o fficer P . V edius Antonint iT T 74), w ho a dopted t he s enator's f ather, M . C laudius ( P . V edius A ntoninus) S abinus. S ome f amilies a pparently r eached t he c uria i n am uch l ater g enera tion: L . Antonius Z eno ( 9) o f L aodicea ( Claudius/Nero) was r elated t o M . A ntonius Z eno ( cos. s uff. a . 1 48) a nd h is s on M . A ntonius Zeno ( cos. s uff. a . 1 68/170). C laudius X enophon, l egatus A ug . p r. p r. B ritanniae I nferioris ( a . 2 23), p resumably a s on o f t he p rocurator T . C laudius X enophon ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 25), i s p ossibly a member o f t he f amily o f p hysicians-equestrian o fficers o f C os: C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72), T i. C laudius C leonymus ( 26), T ib . C laudius P hilinus ( 30), u nder C laudius.

1 47

N L I ulius S ura ( 56), a n o fficer p robably f rom E phesus, may h ave b een r elated t o I ulianus S ura Magnus, p roconsul L yciae e t P amphyliae ( Thomasson 1 984: 2 85 n . 5 8). T he l inks b et ween o rdo e quester a nd o rdo s enatorius were o ften c onsolidated b y t ies o f f riendship d iTa T ir marriage. C . V ibius S alutaris ( 77), a n o fficer f rom E phesus, i s p roud t o b e t he f riend o f L . N onius C alpurnius T orquatus A sprenas, p roconsul o f A sia, a nd o f M . A rruntius C laudianus, t he f irst s enator f rom L ycia . T iberia C laudia F rontoniana, d aughter o f T i. C laudius F rontonianus ( 28), e questrian o fficer f rom E phesus u nder S everus A lexander, wed t he c onsular T . F lavius C I i tosthenes o f T ralleis ( cos . s uff. c a. 2 20/230), whose f ather, T . F lavius C I it osthenes F 2 45), w as a siarch a nd p riest o f Z eus L arasios i n T ralleis.

D . 1 )

THE CAREER AS T he e arliest

EQUESTRI AN

OFFI CER

c areers

T here a re t wo r easons why t hese c areers must b e considered s eparately; f irst b ecause t he s ystem o f t he m i 1i tiae e questres o nly a ssumed a d efinite s hape a fter N ero, a nd s econdly b ecause t he e vidence f or t his p eriod f rom A sia p roduces v iri m i 1i tares w ho c ome e xclusively, s o t o s peak, f rom t he A ugustan c olony A lexandria T roas ( 8, 4 1, 5 7, 5 8, 6 2, 7 8).

-

-

A ntonius Rufus ( 8): t res m ilitiae i n P annonia F abricius T uscus ( 41): p raef. c oh. ( Asia a d A lexand riam T roadem), t rib. l eg . ( 8 y ears i n E gypt), t rib. d ilectus R omae,praef. f abr. ( 4 y ears), p raef. a lae ( 4 y ears i n G ermany) a nd d ecorated b y G ermanicus T . I unius Montanus ( 57): t rib. m il. ( 6 y ears), p raef. e q . ( 6 y ears), p raef. f abr. ( 2 y ears), p ro l egato ( 2 y ears) Lol 1i us F ronto ( 58): t rib. m il. ( Africa), p raef. f abr. t ert(io), p raef. e quit. ( Africa) a nd c harged w ith t he c ensus t here . N orbanus Quadratus ( 62): p ri mms p ilus, t rib . m il., p raef. c astrorum L . V inuleius P ataecius ( 78): p raef. c oh., t rib. l eg. ( Hispania?, S yria?), p raef. a lae, l ater p rocurator i n A frica, A sia, T hracia ( CC )

T o t he m ilieu o f t his c olony may a lso h ave b elonged f ather a nd s on Aufidius: T . Aufidius S pinter ( 11), t rib. l eg. ( 5 y ears i n S pain), a nd Balbus ( 10), t rib. l eg. ( 9 y ears i n E gypt). N L A emi Ii us P ius ( 6), t wice p raef. c oh. i n A sia, T . Camurius l ustus ( 21), t rib. l eg. i n U pper G ermany, L . Mal i us Reginus ( 60), t rib . m il., Q . P inar i us ( 64), t rib . l eg. ( Macedonia?), were p resumably i mm igrants, p erhaps I talici, w ho h ad m ade t heir f ort unes i n A sia, a ttained t he o rdo e quester, a nd s aw i n t he s ingle m ilitia t he t angible e vidence o f t heir s uccess.

1 48

W hat w as t he p rofile o f t he c areer o f n ew c itizens u nder t he J ulio-C laudian d ynasty? T here i s n ot a s ingle v ir m ilitaris i n t heir r anks. T he p arallel i sm i n t he c ursus o f T i. C laudius B albillus ( 23) a nd C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72) i s q uite s triking . B oth w ere p raef. f abrum ( divi C laudi, 2 3; R omae, 7 2) a nd a ccomp anied t he emperor a s t ribunus l egionis o n h is B ritish c ampaign i n 4 3: X enophon c ertainly a s p ersonal p hysician, B albillus p erh aps a s a strologer? B oth were d ecorated b y t he emperor a nd r eceived a n ew a ppointment: B albillus a s a d l egationes e t r es[ponsa Graeca Calesaris Aug., X enophon a s t i lL TaA) ‘ ' E X XT I VL X C AW ä r toxoLudiwy . B albillus f urther h eld p restigious p osts i n E gypt, c oncluding h is c areer a s p raefectus A egypti ( a . 5 5-59) . T i. C laudius C leonymus ( 26), t rib. l eg. i n G ermania, a nd T ib . C laudius Phi Ii nus ( 30), t rib. l eg., c lose r elatives o f X enophon, r eceived t hrough h is i ntercession t he c itizenship a nd e questrian s tatus f rom C laudius . B oth h eld o nly t he l egionary t ribunate . A ll t he o ther o fficers e xercise b ut o ne m ilitia, t he t ribunatus l e i onis; o nly S ex . I ulius P hilon ( 54) was p raefectus c ohortis g arrison u nknown) a nd C . I ulius Maximus ( 53) t rib. l eg., p raef.

-

-

L . A ntonius Z eno ( 9): t rib . a nd a rchiereus A siae [ ---] Apelles ( 18): t rib. l eg. ( Syria) T ib . C laudius De mocrates ( 27): t rib. l eg. ( Syria), a rchiereus A siae T i. I ulius C elsus P olemaeanus ( 51): t rib . l eg . ( Egypt), a dlectus a V espasiano a nd s enatorial c areer i n t he E ast I ul i us C leon ( 52): a rch i ereus A siae, t rib. l eg . ( Syria)

A pparently t he l ocal e lite was o ften c ontent w ith t he r ather a dm inistrative l egionary t ribunate, p referably i n a n E astern p rovince: S yria, E gypt. T hat t ribunate w as t he c rowning o f t heir a ssumption o f e questrian s tatus. 2 )

T he m ilitiae e questres

N o k night f rom A sia i s k nown w ith c ertainty t o h ave h eld t he m ilitia q uarta, t he p raefectura a lae m illiariae . T . V ibius P ius ( 76) was p raef. c oh. ( ubi?), t rib. c oh. v olunt. c .R . ( ubi?) t hus h olding t he m ilitia p ri ma t wice - t rib . l eg . ( Moesia p raef. a lae ( quingenariae, u bi?), a nd p erhaps p raef. a lae I B atavorum m illiariae ( Dacia?, a et. S everorum). O f s even o fficers d etail: 1

2

t he

t res m ilitiae a re k nown more o r

l ess

i n

L . Aburnius T orquatus ( 2), H eraclea a d S albacum, T rajan: I . M auretania T ingitana, I. C appadocia, II. D acia? P annonia I nf.? L . Aburnius T uscianus ( 3), H eraclea a d S albacum, T rajan: p raef. f abr. R omae, I. f irst e xercised a l egionary t ribu nate i n A frica, t hen b egan a n ormal c ursus: I . S yria, I .

1 49

3

4

5

6

7

i terum : S yria - c urator c oh . ( Syria) - c urator a nnonae b ello P arthico a d r ipam E uphrat i s ( Syria), I. S yria - d onis d onatus, II. S yria P . Gavius Balbus ( 46), E phesus?, H adrian/Ant. P ius: e quo p ublico, i udex d e s electis, p raef. f abr., I . Moesia I nf., I. B ritannia, I II. P annonia S up.; p roc. LX ( GalatiaP amphylia), c urator v iae ( LX), p roc. A ug. p rov. C hersonesi ( C ) L . E gnatius Quartus ( 40), A cmonia/Temenothyrae, I I I . C appadocia - c urator a lae, I I. G ermania S up., II. B ritann ia?, S yria? F lavianus ( 44), E umeneia, I s .: I . S yria/Cappadocia, I. Cappadocia, I II. Cappadocia - d onis d onatus; [ ni DEÜQ] T E rn ) E cßaci c Zy x aL 6 . ywvo g -r ncl icy c i .Ä .uN ' Ak[m i .ax ( 7 , 5y ä yC ovwv] T . Ant(onius) C l(audius) A lfenus A rignotus ( 7), T hyatira, S ept. S everus/Caracalla: i . nneüz ' Pw [4 ]a [to]c - 6 7 16 T pLüv x LXLaoxLc Zy, T6 T QC -r ov x iAi .o .oxos; I . D acia I nf. - p raepositus c ohortis - a nnonam c uravit p ortuum S eleuciae P ieriae, I. M oesia I nf. - p raepositus c ohortis, II. S yria - p raepositus a lae; p roc. Aug. a rcae L ivianae ( C?); ö E CPEÜQ e tc. v ewx6poc e tc . -a t ribus m ilitiis e t e odem t empore l ogistes c omplurium c ivitatium S yriae e t M oesiae I nferioris [ ---] ( 82), C appadocia,

E phesus?, Caracalla v el II. P isidia?

T o t hese m ust b e a dded i n a bbreviated f orm : 8

9 1 0 1

t he o fficers

p ostea:

t hat c ite t heir

I . S yria,

I.

t res m ilitiae

T i. ( 2 1(audius) F rontonianus ( 28), E phesus, S everus A lexand er: T ac ( TpEtc) o zp cmcCac t niway ( Lz e rpaTevodgevov - a rchier eus A s i ae e tc. T ib . C laudius T uendianus Magnus ( 35), E phesus, H adrian: TpLc x cLACapxozo . L 7c Pt v ravi, C h . Dom(itius) Aelianus ( 38), M agnesia, Caracalla: T pi .c x cL[XClapxoc - a rchiereus e t g rammateus e tc . [ ---] ( 83), E phesus, e xeunte I s ./ineunte II s .: 11äy . x [p]d[T]Lo[roy u ]u ra n doac L nn o if tsE cT]paTEi :ac, - d ucenarius -a siarchos

T he i nscriptions o f t hese o fficers w ere a ll, w ith t he e xception o f n o. 7 , i ncised i n G reek. T he g eographical p attern o f t he p romotions s hows t hat s ome were p osted b oth t o Western a nd E astern p rovinces ( I?, 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 ), w hile o thers r emained e xc lusively i n t he E ast ( 5, 7 ) . Was i t d ue t o c ircumstances o f w ar t hat a n o fficer b ecame s pecialised, a s i t were, i n a c ertain f ront l ine? L . Aburnius T uscianus ( 3) b egan h is ,cursus i n A frica i n t he m ilitia s ecunda, b ut t hen c ommenced t he n or mal t res m ilitiae which were a ll e xercised i n S yria ( perhaps b ecause o f t he c risis s ituation: b ello P arthico - d onis d onatus); s ee a lso [ ---] F lavianus ( 44), d onis d onatus . C ertain k now ing

o fficers a ttained t he p raefectura i f t hey h eld m ilitiae I /II:

1 50

a lae

w ithout

o ur

-

-

-

L . Aburnius S everus ( 1), H eraclea a d S albacum, a . 1 46: p raefectus a lae i n P annonia S uperior; n o f urther d et ails o n h is c areer a s t he s ource i s ad iploma m ilitare T i. I ulius A lexander Capito ( 50), E phesus, D omitian/ T rajan: I. E gypt, II. E gypt; - p roc. A chaiae ( C ), A siae ( CC ), d ucenarius i n A egypto T ib . C laudius P ius ( 31), P ergamum, S ept. S ev.: I . C app adocia? S yria P alaestina?, I. S yria, I. i terun i S yria, II. S yria; a rchiereus A siae, a gonothetes

A lso t o b e mentioned a re t he o fficers w ho o nly e xercised m ilitiae Ia nd I, o r w ho c ite i teratio o f o ne o f t he t wo r anks: -

-

-

T ib . C laudius P r is cus ( 34), E phesus, V espasian: I . Germania S up., I. I udaea C . V ibius S alutaris ( 77), E phesus, D omitian: p romagist er p ortuum i tem f rumenti m ancipalis p rov . S iciliae; I . Mauretania T ingitana?, I. Germania S up.; s ubproc. Mäuret. T ing. i tem B elgicae ( LX) T . F lavius V arus Cälvisianus H ermocrates ( 42), P hocaea, D om itian/Trajan: p raef. f abrum R omae b is, I . Cappad ocia, I. C appadocia; a rchiereus A siae e tc . P . Vedius Antoninus ( 74), E phesus, i neunte p rytanis, I . u bi?, I. Moesia I nf.; a siarchos e tc. T . S tat i1iu s F ronton i anus ( 70), H er ac 1e a a d S a 1b acum, a . 1 29-130 : I . S yria P alaestina, I. S yria C laudius T yrannus ( 36), E phesus?, I Is.: I I. S yria, I I. P annonia I nf. F austianus ( 43), E umeneia, Is.: I. A rabia?, I. A sia P ol 1i o ( 66), E phesus?, p ost a . 1 65: I . Moesia S up., I I. Moesia I nf.

F inally t here s tation: - p raefecti -

-

- t ribuni

•

i s

t he g roup o f w hich o ne m ilitia

i s k nown w ith

i ts

c ohortis:

P . C laudius P ollio ( 32), T eos, e xeunte I s.: I . S yria P alaestina N L U lpius T rypho I v iegas Antonianus ( 73), T hemisonium, I Is.: a rchiereus A siae, I . S yria P alaestina ( a m ilitiis e t p raef. c oh.) P . [ ....]ilius . Postu rnus ( 67), T eos, Is./IIIs.: I . Mauretania ( sc . T ingitana?) N L S ervilius E unicus ( 68), N ysa, p ost a et. H adriani: e ques Romanus, L aurens L avinas, I . Mauretania Caes.; s criba q uaestorius l ibrarius l egionis:

-

N L

-

R omanus, I. N oricum ; b ouleutes ( ---) Aurelianus Apelles ( 19), A rabia

Aurelius

Bas s us

( 14),

1 51

T hyatira, N ysa,

I lls.:

e ques

I ls./Ills.:

I.

-

-

-

-

C laudius Chionis ( 25), M iietus, I p arte I s.: p rop hetes, p raef. f abr. R omae, I. A egyptus; c omes p rocons ulis e tc., a rchiereus e tc. C laudius L upianus ( 29), P ergamum , T rajan: p rytanis, A egyptus L . Cusinius Messalinus ( 37), E phesus, N erva/Trajan: I. S yria; p romagister ( LX), p roc. ( C3) I ulius [ ---ltus ( 49), Smyrna, Is.: p raef. f abr., I. S yria P alaestina T . Oppius A fer P ol Ii us Tertullus ( 63), E phesus, c a. a . 1 60: I. C appadocia; a rchiereus A siae e t l ogistes N L S tat i1iu s T rypho ( 71), H erac l ea a d S a Ib acum, H adrian: t cpcbC e tc ., I. Moesia; g ymnasiarchos [— A ( 80), P ergainum, I Is.?: t cpcbc, I I. A rabia?; g ymn asiarchos [ ---] ( 84), S ardes?, a . 1 25-150: I I. A rabia

I n my v iew , a nalysis: 1 )

2 )

3 )

a f ew s alient

f eatures c an b e d educed

f rom

t he a bove

T hose who h eld t he t res m ilitiae d uring t he s econd c entury a re a pparently, t o j udge b y t heir n ames, d escendants o f I talian i mmigrants, w ho w ere p erhaps s till b ilingual. T he d escendants o f n ative n ew c itizens o nly s tart t o b reak t hrough f rom S epti mius S everus. T hey a re t o b e f ound, h owever, among t he h olders o f o nly t wo m ilitiae i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury . A c onsiderable n umber i s c ontent w ith a s ingle m ilitia, u sually t he l egionary t ribunate, w hich i n 8 o ut o f 1 0 c ases i s e xercised i n a n eighbouring E astern p rovince : C appadoc ia, S yria, A rabia, E gypt. T his e lite o f b ouleutai r egarded t he r ather a dministrative l egionary t ribunate a s t he c onfirm ation o f t heir e questrian s tatus.

D ue t o t he u se o f a bbreviated f ormulae t o i ndicate t he m ilitiae e questres n o d etails c an b e g iven o f t he c ursus h onorum o f many. e questrian o fficers. S till, i t i s d esirable t o dwell f or a m oment o n t he G reek f ormulae ( see D evijver 1 973; s ee a lso A egyptus, p . 1 97). T he i ng

t erm o zpamera i s u sed a s a s ynonym o f m ilitia i n t he f ollowe xpressions: dnö c r rpaTc o .2 ( 13, E umeneia , Ins.) d nä 0-um -t e aL A ) ( 15, 1 7, Moxeanoi, I lls.; 1 6, I asos?, Is.; 3 9, S aittae, a . 2 50-260) L T tT tL àc ä n6 c upaTeLC ov ( 59, D orylaeum , 6 7 .6 L i-t rux ( " ov c y rpaTELC by ( 79, D orylaeum , i nter a . 2 12-253) T as ( T p er , Q) c mpaTeCa‘ t i lLway c bg o TpaTEvoduevoc ( 28, E phesus, S ev. A lex.) [ 1 1)6Te l n doac i . nnv i . tdc [ cT]paTEL :as ( 83, E phesus, i neunte -

-] n apa T oUg E c3acToi .

o zpalla [ic

Is./IIIs.)

1 52

]( 85 ,

S ebaste?

A nother manner o f c iting t he m ilitiae e questres i n a bbreviated f orm i s t he u se o f x (c)t .l .Capxoc, X (e)tAtapX(e)Cap X(c)XLaPXgw : -

T o i ,c x cLACapxoc ( 35, E phesus, H adrian, a nte a . 1 30-132; 3 8, Magnesia, C aracalla) T 6 T QC ,Toy x L .X . apxoc ( 7, T hyatira, S ept. S ev iCaracalla) L extxbc l o tt , x c lAtapxeCac ( 33, E phesus, e x . I Is./in. IIs.; 7 5, E phesus, IIs.) L e i c t ,xbc c i nd x i , X La p)( LCA ) ( 12, E phesus, a . 2 40; 1 4, T hyat ira, M s.; s ee 1 9: e eto ' 1 mb x e tAtapxLc bv

-

-

x a t

[ t]I ttzp ib i tu vO

sh up .atoc ä r tä T pLi bv x LXLaoxr _Zy ( 7, T hyatira, S ev.) x etItapxloavma k al y evöuEvoy E nc toxoy a ncCpng n oC oTns 00o 1Ca rcaaTC ZA ) ( 73, T hemisonium, 1 1s.; s ee a lso 2 4, M agnesia, H adrian: ä oxLepaTci ioa T f iz ' AoCac x aL x ci .A .Lap v ianZ )

S ept.

-

I t i s c lear t hat a ll t hese f or mulae a re t he e quivalent o f t he L atin e xpression a m ilitiis, a t ribus m ilitiis, omnibus e quest ribus m ilitiis p erfunctus . I n L atin a m ilitiis a lways a ppears i n t he p lural, whereas i n G reek o ne o ften a lso meets t he s ing ular: e mb o zpazeCac, 6 . 7 ce . x ciktapxstac . D oes t his i ndicate t hat t he o fficer i n q uestion e xercised o nly a s ingle m ilitia? B ut i n L atin t he p lural i s a lso a l ways u sed when o nly o ne m ilitia h as b een h eld, a p rocedure a lso e ncountered i n G reek, s ee 1 4: L ro lLx6c, x l .X .Capxoz X EyLe bvoc a nd d i to x eLALapxLCv ( see D evijver 1 973). W hat i s c ertain i s t hat t he c ategory o f t he e questrian o fficers e ven i f o nly o ne m ilitia i s h eld - w ants t o manifest i tself v isà -vis t he k nights t hat r emain w ithin t he l evel o f t he l ocal c uria o r b oule ( 73: X ELÄLapxAcaC , k aL y evä l lEvoZ E napxoc G I-L e i :P I-1 Q ) . T hus t he d e f acto d ivision o f t he e questrian o rder i nto a c ivil a nd a m ilitary f action i n t he t hird c entury was a nticipated ( Alföldy 1 979:

1 49).

1 53

I I. A .

PONTUS

B ITHYNI A

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

1 . T . A urelius Calpurnianus Apollonides ( PME A 2 17): N icaea; c a . a . 1 92-7; I. x ii i .CapxoG X ey(L( Lvog ) L 6' FT i ls ( legio X IIII Gen ina; P annonia S uperior); I I. x t .X(t :apxog ) X Ey(LC ovoc )Ly' r eui .vns ( XIII G emina; D acia);' IC T QOT LO S EGA ) E eßao f oy t nao ,x c i lac F aXX -C ac A xouLTavL w r Ig ni , xAvawN ( procurator A ugustorum p rovinciae G alliae A quitanicae a c ensibus; s exagenarius; J acques 1 977: 3 04 n . 1 6: a . 1 97/198); L aCT0(o7o ) r t aoxE c xc M uoCo LG T 1 3c x d -r w ( proc urator p rovinciae Moesiae I nferioris; c entenarius); e r t i :Tp(onoc) e nc coxECa . 8 0,4 xng ( procurator p rovinciae T hraciae; c entenarius); t aCTp(or toc) 6 oux(f lydpLo ) t nap[xleCac A ca l laTCaG x ca ' Ic r t-p Cac ( procurator d ucenarius D a l r natiae e t H istriae); t r ICTp (onoc) 8 ouxnvdp L os ' AXE E a .v6pe t : a ,g - At yüT tr ou - TO O C 8t : ou X 6you ( procurator d ucenarius i diu l ogu A lexandreae e t A egypti); C oac tu t V E ' ( vixit a nnos L V); S ahin 1 979: n . 5 8. 2 . T . D om[i]tius H eron, d (omo) N icomedia ( PME D 2 2): N icomedia ; II s .; c oh(ors) I G al (l orum) e (quitata), p raef(ectus) ( Britann ia). 3 . L . D omi[tius] P roclus ( PME D 2 9): P rusias a d H ypium ; i nter a . 17-200; I . t napxoc o net :plaG g ]w rns A ouaLTavWo(ouu ) t v ' pa LT Cq ( coh . V I L usi t anoru m i n Raetia); I . [x]c ti , n pdy cnc XoußepM c : g pou l l )] ( praef. c oh. I Cugernorum i n B ritannia; c f. D avies 1 977: 3 85-92); I I. [xlciALdoxnc Ä eye co [voc 6 ]euTg ioac A ir roüGT[nG ] % ) BpetavvCq ( leg. I A ugusta i n B ritannia); I. [ X]cycC ovoQ e f 386 1 .anc e v] ' IonavCq ( leg . V II G emina i n H ispania; L e R oux 1 982 : 3 07 n . 2 7); Ameling 1 985: 1 56-158 n . 9 0. 4 . [ . I ulius .] . f ilius M . l ulii Gavinii S acerdotis ( PME I 8 ): P rusias a d H ypium?; i nter a . 2 03-211. M doxov -1 6 7 5Trov r aoueCvLov E axe r p8 c oTa n a -rpo . 6 qs x eL Ud tpxou ( filius e rat t ribunus m ilitum b is); Ameling 1 985 : 8 3-7 n . 2 0; p ater h onoribus . m unicipalibus p erfunctus e st. 5 . [ ---Atilius P . f . C lu(stumina) L op(g)us ( PME L 50 b is = L 49): A pamea; a et. N eronis; 1 . [ t]rib. m il. l eg . 1 111 S cythic(ae) b eneficio d ivi C laudi ( Moesia); 2 . p raef. c oh. II s agittar( iorum ) ( ubi?); - a dlectus i nter p raetor(ios) [ a]b I mp .Vespasiano A ug(usio) ( Houston 1 977: 4 5 n . 5 3; D evreker 1 980: 7 3 n ot. 2 1); [ 1]egatus ( sc. p roconsulis) p ro p r(aetore) p rovinciae A sia(e); p atronus c ol(oniae)Iul(iae) C onc(ordiae) A pameae; c f. H al f mann 1 979: 15 n .18: n omen g entilicium l egendum s it: [ . C altilius? c f. L . C atilius S everus I ulianus C laudius R eginus, c os. o rd. a . 1 20, e p oster s ( Halfmann 1 979: 1 33 n . 3 8; H al f mann 1 982: 6 07, 6 37, 6 39 ; S ahin 1 981: 1 204 = AE 1 941, 1 29; 1 205; D emougin 1 982: 8 1 n ot. 5 %); E ck 1 981: 2 42-4, V II = AE 1 982 8 60: n omen g ent i1i cium: [ . C altilius-vel-[. A ]tilius; v ide n unc: C orsten 1 985a : 1 21-31. 6 . Q . P etronius Quintianus, d om(o) [ Nicol midia ( PME P 2 8) : N icomedia; a et. G ordiani II; I. t rib. m il. l eg. I T aTt(hicae) ( Mesopotam ia); I I. t ri b. coh. I X Maur ( o rum) Go rd a nae

1 54

( Mesopotam ia); c f. D rijvers 1 977: 8 25-6. d om (o) [ Nu]rnidia l egendum s it ( ?) .

V ide n unc AE 1 983, 9 35:

7 . [ ---1Patrocles ( PME P 1 20) : N icaea; c a. a . 1 00-130; I . [ tr tapxo] a r te t :pnc f 3 P ET-i EKT IN E l . ) 0 0 00 C n u ml ic ( coh. I H i s panorum p ia f idelis; u bi?); I .[Enapxoc c r ]net[olnc n ody cnc O l 'A raac ' AppCN t v A XEFav6pet :g t ( coh . IU lpia A frorum e quitata i n A lexand rea, a d A egyptum); [enCiponoc? T p]auo Lvo0 ' A5pt .a .vo0Eeßacr ro€ 3 x ca n pa r roG c i px c ov x ca I t oo[g r ithiC x a t . n avnYu r pLäPxnC d pyupota l iCac g y8Lxoc, I tnul leXni r s ic] t pywv xaT6 . T o T o0 x upi ,ou 0 .6T0 1 1 .pdTC OQ 3 . 7 .6xpL .1 . 1 .a . ( fortasse: l e r tapxoc T plauc tvo0 - l oco t ni .T r oono - H adr ianus N icaeae n pe roc d pv 0v e lectus e t P atrocles l oco e ius i bi t naPx0G ); S ahin 1 979: 5 1b, 5 3a n . 5 6 = I LS 8 867. 8 . [ ----]pus Severus ( PME S 1 03): N icaea; x eLÄ U ic t .oxoc X .Eyl . V OC LE ' " An T aXLva [oCag] ( legio X V C appadocia); a hin 1 979: 9 1 a n . 9 9 = AE 1 947, 1 9.

II s./IlIs.; A pollinaris;

9 . [----]o nacianus S everus ( PME S 1 04): Amastris; I s .?; I .[xcuX(i .apxoc ) o x]erpr iG [ k V xok((Twv) ' Pwu(c it : c ov)] - [ tri b . c ]ohor. XXXIII ( ?) c (iviu m) R (omanorum) ( in Oriente); I I. [ xciA(ud tpxoc) X ]cyu3v[oc y ' r aX2 to thc] - [t rib.] l egionis I II G allicae ( Syria ? );III. i gnapxoc d Xn]c n u rpay11Q r uXaTc-o v] [ praefect]us a lae v eteranae G allo[rumd ( Syria-vel-Aegyptus). 1 0 . Q . T ineius Q .f. S ab(atina) H er[mes?-vel-on?], d omo N icomedia ( PME T 2 0): N icomedia; I II s .; m [i]litiarum III; p ater i nfelix T ineiae H ieropis ( CIL V I 3 499); c f. S alomies 1 985: 1 99-202: f ortasse c ivitate d onatus s it a Q . T ineio S acerdote,cos. a . 1 99, e t l egato Aug. p r. p r. B ithyniae e t P onti ( a. 1 98-9; c f. T homasson 1 984: 2 49-50). 1. N L V alerius l ulianus Agrippa ( PME V 1 4bis = V 3 2): P rusias a d H ypium ; r nedio I II s .; ö x päTuaToc; d r . n6 GT OC IT EL GA ) t nnLx ( " by ( a m ilitiis e questr ib us ) ; x at , t r tutodru oy ( et e x p rocurateI i s), Ameling 1 985: 8 8-90 n .22 a d I GR II 5 8; s temma, c f. Amel i n .g 1 985:89; f ilia: T itia S tatilia V aleria A grippiane F adilla; u xor: T itia S tatilia F adilla ; s ocrus: U lpia T itia F adilliane A rtemonis ( Ameling 1 985: 1 27 n .54); s ocer: T . S tati 1i us C alpurnianus F ado; e iusdem s tirpis: U lpius T itius C alpurnianus F ado ( tru t , (4) 8 nuoci , (4) TETELL M UE VOV t g c v xou La LTL6N o c,i .e . e quo p ublico e x i nquisitione a llectus); T itius U lpius A elianus, e t amicus, M . A urelius A ntoni nus:"( ! ) x pdTLaToc n pEL I J .LnELXdpLc ( primipilaris, c f. D obson 1 978 : n . 1 84; P flaum 1 960:n. 306); T itius U lpius P apianus h onorat a m icum , q ui m ilitiis p erfunctus s it, c f. n . 1 2. 1 2 . [ ---], Ame 1i ng 1 985: 1 31-2 n .57 a d I GR II 1 420 = I LS 8 868 ( PME I nc . 3 0) : P rusias a d H ypium ; Ip arte II s 4 n omen f ortasse l egendum s it : T u. K A. A r0 [ --, T. n a. r 0[--?;n0 [ --?; I . g napxoQ a neCpnG a 'repuavG )v x etALdv8pou ( praef. c oh . IG ermanorum m illiariae; C appadocia); I A. x EL M .c toxog X cy(Eawoc ) L c' -( 15X (0 .00Cag ) 0 i ,pur is ( legio XVI F lavia F ir ma; S yria); I II. [ gnapxoG i . ] r u t wy 00 1G a ' 8 Pc 1 . 1 (GN ' HpaxXELayf is ( praef. e quitum a lae I T hracu r r ' l H erc ulanae; i n O riente); - [e n[Toor toG E ( . .wx 7 T1c x XnpovouLaw E v]pCas x ca [ 0 _ ]oLvt :xnG w i t . " Apaßi .ag x ca E u r p t :ac H aXaLaTt :vng ( SEG XXVIII,

1 55

1 043)-ad: P flaum 1 960: n .261: [ tr t[ToonoQ T t i X oübwv t napxELt l ev E ulpi ,as e tc . - s exagenarius); c f. P flaum 1 982: 8 2 i terum d efendit s uam l ectionem ; T itius U lpius P apianus, amicus, t itulum p osuit, d e e o c f. n . 1 1 B .

CHRONOLOGI CAL AND

GEOGRAPHI CAL

D ISTRIBUTI ON

O nly o ne o fficer i s a ttested w ith c ertainty f or t he e arliest p eriod o f t he f irst c entury: Apamea ( 5 ; a et. N eronis) . A ll ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)

( 4)

t he o thers b elong

t o

t he

s econd a nd

t hird c enturies:

Amastris: 9 ( Ils.?). N icaea: 1 ( ca.a.192-7), 7 ( ca.a.100-130), 8 N icomedia : 2 ( Ms.), 6 ( aet. G ordiani II), 1 0 ( IIIs.). N ote t hat a ll t hree o fficers e xplicitly s tate: d omo N icomed ia*. P rusias a d H ypium : 3 ( inter a . 17-120), 4 ( inter a . 2 031), 1 1 ( medio I lls.), 1 2 ( I p arte IIs).

* F or 6 ( aet. Gordiani II), s ee n ow AE d om (o) [ Nicolmidia, mais d om(o) [ Nu]midiät—

C .

SOCI AL

ORI GINS

AND

1 983

9 35:

n 'est

p as

STRATIFI CATI ON

I t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he e arliest e vidence c omes f rom Apamea . C aesar was a t t he r oot o f c olonial p olicy i n B ithynia, a nd A pamea c olonia I ulia Concordia Augusta - s urely h ad a n ucleus o f p re-Augustan c olonists-veterans ( Harris 1 980:873, 8 75). [ .Ca nti 1i us L o ggius ( 5; N ero) o f A pamea w as r egistered i n t he t ribus C lustumina, which w ithout d oubt b etrays a n I talicus ( presumably f rom R egio V I). H e p robably b elonged t o t he c ore o f t he f irst c olonists o r was a d escendant t hereof. H e was t rib . l eg . b eneficio d ivi C laudi i n k loesia a nd p raef. c oh. ( garrison u nknown). A dlected b y V espasian i nto t he s enate w ith t he r ank o f p raetorius, h e b ecame l egatus i n A sia . H e w as p atronus c oloniae I uliae C oncordiae A pameae . L . Catilius S everus I ulianus C laudius Reginus, c os. s uff. 1 10, g overnoT o f Cappadocia a nd A r menia Major ( a. 1 147 7 ), o f S yria ( 117-9), c os. o rd. I ( a. 1 20), p roconsul A fricae ( ca. 1 24/125), w as p erhaps r elated t o o ur s enator f rom Apamea ( Hal f mann 1 982:639). A c olonist f amily, p resumably v eterans f rom I taly, w hich h ad c li mbed r apidly . W hy d o a ll t he t est i monia d ate f rom t he s econd a nd mostly t hird c enturies? A lthough P ontus-Bithynia w as a c onsular p rovince, i t w as i mportant m ilitarily a nd s trategically . T he p rovince p rosp ered d uring t he f irst c entury a nd e njoyed e conomic s tability ( Harris 1 980:894). P liny t he E lder, w riting a bout A D 7 7, s ays t hat B ithynia n umbered 1 2 c ities ( Harris 1 980:800; J ones 1 971:164). S o a t f irst g lance a ll t he e lements r equired t o p roduce e questrian o fficers, d escendants o f n ew c itizens, were

1 56

t here . B ut t he H ellenistic t radition o f t he G reek p oleis, d reami ng o f a utonomy a nd a lways i n r ivalry w ith o ne a nother, l ived o n i n B ithynia a nd c aused a d e f acto s tagnation o f t he R omanisation p rocess . I t w ill s uffice t o mention o nly t he s truggle b et ween N icomedia a nd N icaea, w hich h ampered t heir r elations, f or s uprem acy i n B ithynia: ' r p wrcta . N icomedia w as t he ' capital' o f t he R oman o verlord: s eat o f t he k oinon a nd c entre o f t he i mperial c ult, r esidence o f t he p roconsul, i t b ore t he t itle µ rm d i t c Aic xat e x pd m i B LOvvCac x at I l dw rou. N icaea, o n t he o ther h and, a lso b ore t he t itle x dem K AL‘ ( Harris 1 980:890). T here was a lso d istrust o f t he R oman a uthorities b ecause o f t heir m ismanagement a nd c orruption. H adrian, p hilhellene, t wice v isited t he G reek E ast; h e h ad N icom edia r ebuilt a fter a n e arthquake . B ithynia w as a lso t he b irthp lace o f h is f avourite A ntinous. B ut p olitically s ignificant w as t he d irect c ontrol b y t he emperor o f t he a dministration o f t he p rovince ( Harris 1 980 :896). N icaea: Patrocles ( 7; c a .a . 1 00-30): p resumably a d escend ant o f a n ew c itizen ( ?); t wice p raef. c oh., h e h eld l ocal o ffices; H adrian was e lected f irst a rchon o f N icaea, a p ost P atrocles h eld o n b ehalf o f t he emperor. -

[ ----]pus S everus ( 8; Is./IIIs.): was o nly t rib. l eg ., s erving i n C appadocia; t his p erhaps p oints t o a m ember o f t he l ocal e lite, c ontent w ith a t ribunate i n a n E astern p rovince.

-

T . Aurelius Calpurnianus Apollonides ( 1; c a .a . 1 92-7): p ossibly a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen ( ?), t wice l egionary t ribune o n t he D anube, t hereafter a n o uts tanding c areer a s p rocurator.

N icomedia: -

T . D omitius H eron, d (ome) N icomedia ( 2; I lls.). P etronius Q uintianus, d om (o) [ Nico]media ( 6; G ordian II). D om itius a nd P etronius a re p resumably d escendants o f n ew c itizens o r o f n egotiatores? T ineius CO. S ab(atina) H er[ mes n ( 10; IIs.): h eld t he I III m ilitiae; p erhaps r eceived t he c itizenship f rom Q .Tineius S acerdos, c os. a . 1 99, g overnor o f B ithy nia-Pontus ( a. 1 98-9).

Amastris: -

[ ----]onacianus S everus ( 9; I Is.?): c ised t he II m ilitiae i n t he E ast.

1 57

p resumably e xer-

P rusias a d H ypium : -

L . D omitius P roculus ( 3; i nter a . 1 17-200): h eld f our a ppointments i n t he West. Many D omitii, l ocal a nd p rovincial o fficials, a re a ttested f or P rusias; p res umably a lso a s enator M . D omitius V alerianus ( cos. s uff. a . 2 38/239: H alfmann 1 982: 6 38).

2 03-11):

l ocal

I ulii Gavinii S acerdotis ( 4; i nter a . e lite; d escendants o f n ew c itizens?

-

N L Valerius I ul i anus Agrippa ( 11; medio I IIs.): a m ilitiis e questribus, e x p rocuratelis; i n v iew o f h is f am ily t ies p resumably a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen .

-

[— A ( 12; I p arte IIs.): h is n omen g entilicium p erh aps C laudius ( ?), p ossibly a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen; i n a ny e vent, h e h eld a ll t hree m ilitiae a s w ell a s p rocuratelae i n t he E ast.

T herefore w e k now w ith c ertainty o nly o ne e questrian o fficer w ho m ade i t t o t he s enate: [ . Ca ntilius L o dglus ( 5), m ember o f a n I talian c olonists' f amily t hat r ose r apidly i n t he e arliest p eriod. D .

THE CAREER AS

EQUESTRI AN OFFI CER

[ .Cä?]tilius L o gglus ( 5; N ero) s tarted h is c areer i n Moesia a s t rib . l eg" a nd was t hereafter p resumably p raef. c oh . ( ubi?) . H e h ad a lready w on t he g oodwill o f t he Emperor C laudius: t rib . m il. l eg . b eneficio d ivi C laudi; a s econd i mperial i ntervention i s s een i n h is a dlection t o t he s enate b y V espasian, a nd t o p raet orian r ank a s well! H e was l ater l egatus p ro p r. p rovinciae A siae a nd p atronus o f A pamea . T he r eward o f a n I talian i mmig rant? T he q uattuor m ilitiae:

Q . T ineius H er[ mes?] ( 10; I lls.) h eld t he I III m ilitiae, b ut t he a bbreviated f or mula p rovides n o H e m ay h ave b een a n ew c itizen . T he

f urther c lues a s

t o h is c areer.

t re 's m ilitiae:

O nly t wo o fficers e xercised t he t res m il i tiae: [ ----]onacianus S everus ( 9; Is.?) h eld t he t hree p osts i n t he E a “ .; l ikewise t he a nonymous ( 12; I p arte I lls.) w hose n omen g ent i1i cium may h ave b een T i C I ( audius). T he l atter a lso h eld a p rocuratela, a lso i n t he E ast. O fficers r ank: -

w ith

o ne o r

t wo m ilitiae,

o r

a n

i teratio o f

t he

s ame

L . D omitius P roculus ( 3; i nter a . 1 17-200): p raef. c oh. i n R aetia, p raef. c oh. e t t rib. l eg. i n B ritannia,

1 58

t rib . l eg . i n H ispania. H e e xplicitly mentions t he p rovinces i n w hich h e s erved; w as h e s o p ointing u p t he e xceptional n ature o f h is c areer, w ith s ervice i n t he ' far W rest '? -

[ ---]Patrocles ( 7; c a. 1 00-130): p raef. c oh. ( ubi?) a nd p raef. c oh. i n A lexandria, E gypt. H e was o ne o f t he f irst e questrian o fficers o ut o f t he N icaean e lite, p erhaps a s a r esult o f H adrian 's a ctivity i n t he E ast. F or t hat m atter, h e w as p resumably p raefectus a t N icaea o n b ehalf o f t hat emperor.

-

T . Aurelius Calpurnianus Apollonides ( 1; c a. 1 92-7): t w ice t rib. l eg. o n t he D anube ( in P annonia S uperior a nd i n D acia); t hereafter a b rilliant c areer a s p roc urator i n G allia Aquitanica ( LX), Moesia I nferior ( C ),Thrace ( C ), D al matia a nd H istria ( CC ), i dios l ogos A lexandreae e t A egypti ( CC). H e p erhaps b elonged t o t he c ategory o f t he b ouleutai-elite, w ho w ere u sually c ontent w ith t he l egionary t ribunate. H is was a more a dm inistrative c areer. O ther p ossible members o f t he s ame c ategory w ere:

a nd -

P etronius Quintianus ( 6; Gordian I II): t rib . c oh" b oth t i mes i n M esopotamia .

[ —]pus d ocia.

S everus

( 8;

I Is./IIIs.):

T . D omi[tius] H eron p raef. c oh. i n B ritain. -

( 2;

t rib .

I lls.),

t rib.

l eg .

d (omo)

l eg .

i n C appa-

N icomedia:

O f t wo o fficers t he u nit a nd t herefore g arrison-place a re u nknown: n o.4 1 0 .téQa 5C x eLÄLdpxou, a nd M . V alerius I uli anus Agrippa ( 11; medio I IIs.), Hj e hT L OT O Q; e l nä OT Q aT E L 2N LT I T ILX ( 1 5V x aL t nLTpönwv .

1 59

I II. A .

LYCI A - PAMPHYL IA

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

1 . N L A rruntius Aqui l a, fi1iu s L . A rruntii H er makotae ( PME A 1 65 b is): X anthus, L ycia; c a. a . 5 0; . xcLA . 1 :aoxoc Ä eyeavoc K uPnvaixIC ( sc . l egio I II C yrenaica; A egyptus); - e nCtponoc [ Kla[Coapoc] n [au mACac---](cf. CIL II 6 737 = I LS 2 15; a . 5 0: v ias r efecit); B alland 1 981 : 1 57 n .64 = AE 1 981, 8 11, c f. S EG XXXI 1 316; p ater : L . A rruntius H ermakotas o merynthc ey roxpaTöpwv, p raeceptor I mper atorum , o b merita f ortasse c ivitate R omana d onatus s it, e t p atronus e ius e rat : L . A rruntius ( cos. a . 2 2 BC) v el f ilius c onsulis, e tiam c onsul ( a . 6J, I talici, A tinates; f ortasse p ater e t a vunculus m aternus N L A rruntii C laudiani ( n .2) c ivitate R omana d onati s int a etate C laudii e t M . A rruntius A quila f ortasse e rat p atronus e orum ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 13, 6 39). 2 . M . A rruntius N L f ilius T er(etina) C laudianus ( PME A 1 66): X anthus, L ycia; a et. D omi ti ani ; I . p ra[ef.coh]ort(isT -t napxoc a ncConc; I I. t ribunus [ bis] - 8 Lc x eLXCa[oxoc]; I II. p raef. a la[e e t] v ex[il]li P rae[to]rianorum, d oni[s m i 1]it ar i bu[s d onlatus h asta p ur[a v e]xillis a r[genteis c ]orona a urea [ e]t c oron[a--]8 i ,c g napxoc EUnc; Te lQ e v L nnLx1 E rdEEL doxd f .c 8 L 0 .8 c G iv ( donis d onatus e st b ello D omitiani c ontra D acos); [proc(urator)] R omae f ru[menti mancipal i s] I t(aliae) - v el i t(em) ( AE 1 972, 5 72; P flaum 1 982 : 114) -enCtponoc t [v] 11 ) 6 3uu A i d TO O ji7Tou; p raef( ectus) c lass(1s) [ Moesiacae e t r ipae D an]uvi(i) - g napxoc TOO t v M oLaCaL c m6Xou xat . T lc ö xCnc ( inter a . 9 5-100: D oru Ou-Boilä 1 977: 8 9-100 ( SEG XXVII, 7 37), 1 977a: 2 89-96; c ontra: S uceveanu 1 979: 4 7-61; P etolescu 1 981: 4 72; W ilkes 1 983: 2 67 n ot.34: a nte a . 8 6); TC LG tv t nn t ,x1 U c c itet f i pxa‘ ö te M e lv ugx pt en u r pon(11 4 .1c dpxf %); - [ adlectus i n amplissim]um o rdine[m i nter a ed]ilicios, p ra[etor] p (opuli) R (omani), l eg(atus) [ pr(o) p r(aetore) p ]rovinc iarum A [cha]iae e t A siae b is - x aTaXeXeyt ievoc E t% o üv k AnTov e tc... [ To° t evouc] n p ( LToc a t ivxhnTLx6s ( pri mus omnium L yciorum . s enator Ro manus f actus), E xca X eyeC ov]oc 6 euTepac TocaavIc [ Cauxupdc } c at d lve l6natoc M axe8Eovi :a ] (1e gatus l eg ion is I I T raianae f ortis; a et. T raiani c ontra D acos; p roconsul M acedoniae, s c . s ub T raiano, p ost b ella D acica; E phesos, I II, 6 20 . AE 1 974, 6 19 ; E phesos, A ddenda, 1 8 a d 6 20; A ichinger 1 979: 6 22 n .18; E ck 1 983: 1 99 n ot.560; T homasson 1 984: 1 82 n .18; Chastagnol 1 980: 2 76- 7 ) ;» c f. B alland 1 981: 2 2 n .5 ( AE 1 981, 7 99), 3 1 n .13 ( AE 1 981, 8 02), 3 1 n .14 ( AE 1 981, 8 03), 1 46 n .55 ( AE 1 981, 8 00; p atronus e t e uergetes L yciarum), 1 47 n .56 ( AE 1 981, 8 01), 1 49 n .57 ( AE 1 981, 8 07), 1 49 n .58 ( AE 1 981, 8 05), 1 49 n .59 ( AE 1 981, 8 06), 1 50 n .60 ( AE 1 981, 8 08), 1 51 n .61 ( AE 1 981 -, 8 09), 1 51 n .62 ( AE 1 981, 8 10), 1 54 n .63 ( AE 1 981, 8 04), 2 2 n .6 ( AE 1 981, 8 12); c f. AE 1 982, 8 61; S EG XXXI 1 316; B alland 1 981: 1 52, s temma : C leon, a bavus maternus; T i. C laudius S tasithemis, a vus maternus; A rruntia O indeme e t M . A rruntius ( archiereus ? ), p arentes; M bschos, a vus p aternus, h uius d uo f ilii: N L A rruntius ( archiereus ? , j am me moratus) e t M . A rruntius T (e)ithonos; A rruntia H egetoris, f ilia M . A rruntii T (e)ithoni e t A rruntiae A pollinidis, u xor p ri ma e t d t veg iLd M . A rruntii C laudiani; C laudia A rruntia

1 60

M arcella, u xor s ecunda p ost m ortem p rimae; M . A rruntius C lemens ( AE 1 981, 8 12, e iusdem s tirpis); c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 25 ; H alfmann 1 982 : 6 13, 6 39; d e c ivitate R omana, c f. n .1; amicus: C . V ibius S alutaris ( PME V 1 06; c f. E phesus, A sia: n .77). 3 . I N . A ur(elius) Abas ( PME A 2 10bis): T ymbriada(?), P amphyl i a; e xeunte I s ./III s .; ä r Dir-E pe l ' ic T o0 E Eßacto0 x a[L e l ywyoet]t.n c; g [no .pxoQcraci .)pnc c upateuoduevoc v r A [- c a . 9 1 .-] ( praefectus c ohortis m i 1it ans i n...); S t. M itchell t itulum, q uem f oras d abit i n: A natolian S tudies, 3 5 ( 1985), n obis l itteris c ommunicavit. 4 . [M . Au del(ius) T ues danus] ( PME A 2 57ter): S ide ( ?) , P amphyl ia; i neunte II s .; I l.[trib. l eg. I T rai]anae ? [ fortis? ] ( Aegyptus vel n omen a lterius l egionis s upplendum s it?), [proc( urator) s exag(enarius) v ice]s(i mae) h [e]red[ it at i um] [ provinc ia]rum S yr(iae)[Phoenic(es)?], [ Palaestin]ae e t Adabiae], [ cent (enarius) p roc(urator) p rov(inciae)] D ac(iae) Apul[ensis b is a gens v i]ce p raes[idis], [ pra]ep(ositus) s ac[r]ae a [nnon(ae) ? e xp(editionalis)], v (ir) e (gregius) a d ucen(is) [ provin(iarum) S yriae] C oel(es) e t S pan(iae) B [aeticae], v (ir) p (erfectissi mus), [ a r atione p riva]ta ( trecenarius) ( Thomasson 1 984: 1 59 n .66); ( adlectus i n amplissi mum o rc linem, s c, i nter p raetorios), [ v(ir) c (larissimus)],[praes(es) p ]rov(inciae) Gal 1( iae) L [ugdunens (is)], [ a c ens(ibus)], c o(n)s(u1) d esig(natus) ( Thomasson 1 984: 4 2 n .21); - [ p]atro[nus]; A lföldy 1 979a: 2 47-71 . AE 1 979, 5 06 . I nscr. D aciei, I II, 2 , 8 8; P flaum 1 982: 8 1-86 n .320A ; Robert 1 979: 5 23 n .582; c f. n .7: c onterraneus, t rib. l eg. I T raianae; H alfmann 1 982: 6 43. 5 . T ib. C laudius Agrippa ( PME C 1 15): T er messu ,s, P amphylia; a et. A ntonini P ii, a nte a . 1 40/T T I 5-; y evc 5 1 . 1Evoc 6 t6 . ß Cou AL6G E c Au l lewc E tcp u i 'c] .; I . E gniapxoc a neCpng a ' n avywvi .[c ov L ]nnvxf ic n aÄaLds ( coh . IP annoniorum e quitata v eteranorum , i n Moesia S uperiore ? ); I. x eLÄC ,apxoc [ Xe]yEG 5voc 1 . , n au s 5Cac c 5a 0o0c n LaTIG ( leg . X I C laudia p ia f idelis; Moesia I nferior); I II.LelnaPxoc EU T IG a ' Opq .x( by ' Hpa l aLcoTLxf iG ( ala I T hracum H erculania; S yria), y ev6p .evoc c i pxLa -r d -r wp 0 üXepCou E t 56 .a t :uovoc t r t c ipxou At , “m r ou ( Thomasson 1 984: 3 49 n .55: a . 1 42-143). 6 . T ib . C laudius C laudii I asonis f ilius Q uirina A grippinus ( PME C 1 16): P atara, L ycia; I I s .; g napxoc T EXVELTG 5V ( praefectus f abrum ); I I. xeLA .Capxoc XeyeG yvoG TpCinc raXXLI . Oc ( l eg. II. Galli ' ca;Syria); I I. x eL[X( :]apxoc X E e6 5voG n pdy rnc C ITa)XL m is ( leg . I I talica; Moesia I nferior); II. g napxoc eCA .nc [Opu]y( l iv ( ala V II P hrygum; S yria); - äpxLepeüG Tr oy EeißacnT6 5v a t ypa . 1 .4 . ta r ei . )g r [ o( 3 AukC wv] xoLvo l 3; c f. B alland 1 981: 1 67 n .65 . TAM , I, 2 , 4 95 ( Attaleia): h omonymus i dem s it, c i .v itatem multarum c ivitatium L yciae p ossidebat ( e.g . P atara, X anthus, Myra.—); T i. C laudius Agrippinus, c os. s uff. a . 1 60 ( Patara, L ycia), c erte q uadam p arentela c oniunctus s it c um Agrippino nostro, avus maternus A grippini, c onsulis, e rat f ortasse : I ulius D emosthenes ( PME I 5 5;cf . n . 1 5), c f. f ilius e ius: I ulius A ntoninus ( PME I 2 0; c f. n . 1 4); c f. H alf mann 1 979: 1 64 n . 8 0, 1 66; H alfmann 1 982: 6 11, 6 17, 6 40.

1 61

7 . L . C l(audius) P ropinquianus A [p]ellinus ( PME C 1 75): P erga, P amphylia; I Is.; x eiddCapxoc) X ey(ci zvoc ) 1 31 T paLav f ic ( leg . I T raiana; Aegyptus); M . C l(audius) R utilius V arus ( PME C 1 80; c f. n . 8 ), e x P erga, u na c um A pellino, d edicavit C lauirrJ e P aulinae ( Thy u duunv o t g yyovoL); c f. C l(audius) A pellinus, l eg. Aug. p r. p r. B r it anniae I nf. ( sub S evero A lexandro; B irley 1 981: 1 95; T homasson 1 984: 7 4 n . 4 6) e p oster s ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 42-643) . 8 . N L C l(audius) Rutilius V arus ( PME C 1 80): P erga, P amphylia; Is.; g napxoc t nn wv E tx T IG a ' x oXwv ( Zv ( praef. e quitum a lae I , S c . A ugusta Gemina, c olonorum; Cappadocia); L .C1(audius) P ropinq uianus A [p]el 1i nus ( PME C 1 75; n . 7 ), t rib. l eg. I T raianae, u na c um Varo, d edica —v -Tt C I a ud i ae P aul i nae l i duunv o t g yyovoL); T . R utilius V arus ( PME R 2 1), a V espasiano a dlectus, q uodam m odo c um e o c oniunctus s it?? 9 . T i. C laudius, f ilius T i. C laudii S tasithemis, a bnepos C laudii T elemachi, Quirina, T elemachus ( PME C 1 87 b is): X anthus, L ycia; c a . a . 1 85; Q LXoc eaoTov x at . c o uXö[natpuv, s Pun iatov] x at E dv rLov x ca n a mpga k atMupia ( civitatem m ultarum c ivitatium L yciae p ossi debat), T äv T Cv A üToxpaT6pwv E g[vov]; I. [ xEL Mapxov] X eye@voc 8 'ExueLxIc ( legio I V S cythica; S yria); T äv d PXLCPea T aV E EPaaT co v x aI C ypauuatea A ux t :c o y t o0 x oLvoü ( ca. a . 1 85-90), c i pxLepo . -r e aavTo . T e LV E c ( 3a ,a ‚rav, e tc. ( grammateus, a gonothetes, L yciarcha s ub C ommedo u t v idetur e t p rinceps g erusiae S idymorum ; AE 1 981, 8 42; P IR 12 2 52 n . 1 037); T elemachum v el p otius f ilium e ius? - p ost s ummos i n p atria h onores g essisse l atum c lavum a ccepisse v idetur: q uaestor A chaiae, a cuvdTaToc n peoßeu dc rA c i Nac ( legatus p roconsulis p r. p r.), X 0Y1 .01 1) 1 C ( i.e. c urator) K [aX)ÄaI-L avav n c 5Xc c oc M uo [i ,ac] ( praetorius p uto, P IR 1 . 1.); c onsul s uffectus a . i nc.; p roconsul A fricae ( ineunte I II s ., T homasson 1 984: 3 89 n .154); B alland 1 981: 2 81 n .92 ( = AE 1 981, 8 44), 2 79 n .90 ( = AE 1 981, 8 42), 2 80 n .91 ( = A E 1 981, 8 43); s temma, c f. B alland 1 981: 2 82 ( AE 1 981, 8 42), P IR IN 2 54; a bnepos ( Ti.) C laudii T elemachi ( archierei, a . 10 7 )7 p arentes: T i. C laudius S tasithem is q uidam , a rchiereus, e t Marcia T lepolemis, a rchiereia,. q uae p ertinebat a d g entem V eraniam ( cf. H alfmann 1 982 : 6 40) . 1 0 . [. Crepere i ( PME C 2 54): A t t a l e i a, P amphylia; a et. A ntonini P ii; [ yuuvaoLapx Uay -r a] x ca v v x ca n aC8 c ov; I . e napxoc • u ne[Cpr Ic] B pu ctavvi .x 7 3c ( sc. c oh. I II B r it annorum; R aetia); I. x eLÄCapxoc X eyLC o [voc L e'l ' AxolAtvapCac ( leg. XV A pollinaris; C appadocia); II. g napxoc E CÄnc n p[e oTnc] A apödvwv ( ala I D ardaf orum ; Meesia I nferior); -gnapxoc g evouc A pou[---I ( praef. g ent is D rom[ --] s exagenarius); y gvouc o uvxXT ITLxo0, m EXoc x aL t [n]ilTpo]noc Y EVC 5 1 1EVOC T a n ) E0aoT co v ( affinis v et p ater s enat orum , amicus e t p rocurator A ugustorum); T . C repereius F ronto, f ilius; c f. n . 1 1: e iusdem s tirpis; H alfmann 1 982: 6 07, 6 13, 6 46: g ens C repereia, o riginis I talicae, f ortasse o rta s it e C . C repereio G allo ( Tacitus, A nn. X IV . 5 ; AE 1 964, 1 72, 1 73; e x A ntiochia a d P i si diam), p rocuratore e t f ami 1i are A grippinae, m atris N eronis; L . C repereius P roculus, c os. s uff., p roconsul [ ---] ( I GR I 4 39; N eapolis) c erte c um h is C repereis ( n.10, n .11) p arentela c oniunctus s it; c f. C repereius P aulinus, P ompeiopoli-

1 62

t anus, s cripsit n .1568).

d e

b ello P arthico

I mperatoris

V eri

( PIR

I

2

3 85

I. L . C repereius L . f ilius S ergia P aulus ( PME C255): A ttaleia, P amphylia, a et. Antonini P ii, a nte a . 1 48; I . t i lapxoc a neCpnc a ' O N8A [....]LxIc ( coh. I ?); I. x eO ttapxoc Ä cyLtWoc B onboa ( leg. I Ad iu t ri x; Pannonia I nferi or); I II. g napxoQ E tUns a ' KavvaTaTtWv - [p raef. a lae I G ännene]fatium ( Pannonia S uperior); -enCTponoc TO O ECIS U CT OÜ d pyupopum 7 ov n avvoy o t co v [ ---] p roc(urator) A ug(usti) a rgenta[riarum P ]annonicaru[m] ( centenar ius); xpb[c e an , i löCw [t] M y[an..] ( idiologus A egypti; d ucenar ius); d e g ente C repereia, c f. n .10 . 1 2 . T . F lavius Laco, S ide ( PME F 5 3): S ide, P amphylia; a . 1 38 F ebr. 2 8; coh(ortis) I MatTi T cor(um), c ui p rae(e)st T .Flavius L aco, S ide ( Moesia I nferior) . 1 3. T . F l(avius) V alerianu[s] P apiria A lexander ( PME F 8 1): S agalassus, P amphylia; e xeunte I S .; g naoxoc x . Wp — kr i d ' lc T eTd[p]inc r d U c ov ( coh . I V G allorum ; Moesia I nferior ( ?)) . 1 4 . [ I]ulius Antoninus, f ilius C . [ lullii D emosthenis ( PME I 2 0): C enoanda, L ycia; a et. H adriani; I . y ey6ucvoc E naPxoZ a l ii77 )> T I C n p& Enc g el av t iv ( quae c oh. I H ispanorum?); I . x at [ 0 ], te(pl‘ 7 c pf f im 1 1‘ K eX1-0 3 7 1pwv ( quae c oh. I C eltiberorum?); I I. x ELA ,Capxoc X eyEGN0C T eTd[o ]Tn[c E ]xue o t[lc] ( leg. I V S cythica; S yria); d e p arentela c um T i. C laudio A grippino, c os. s uff. a . 1 60 ( Patara, L ycia), c f. s ub n .6; s temma : P IR I 2 1 66 a ppositum e t 2 30 a ppositum ; H alfmann 1 979: 1 66, 1 64 n .80. I ulius A ntoninus i n m atrimonium d uxit L icinniam Maximam , q uae p ri mum L icinnio Maxi mo n upserats; f ilia e ius I ulia L ysi macha, mater s tirpis c onsularis ( PIR I V' 1 42 n .153); c f. n .15 p ater. 1 5 . C . [ Iu]lius D emosthenes ( PME I 5 5): O enoanda, L ycia; a et. T raiani; I I. 2 5 4 t yb . )cTo x eLX ( :apxoc A . EyE (Zvoc E L6npdc ( leg . V I F errata ; S yria); II. aL t c tpxoC cunc è 5à i j .nc O puy c lv ( ala V II P hrygum ; S yria); - e ni ,TponocA üToxpdTopog - K ai .oapoc N epoua TpaLavo0 E cßa c yTo0 [ rEp i lavLxo0 A c c]x o to0 t r tapx6Cas E tA ic Mac } t at . T u e )V 6 . X .Xwv TG3V E NeX O UVTEXOUG CN v Ac rowv ( procurator I mp. T r aia n i p rovinciae S iciliae a liarumque i nsularum a d e ar n p ertinentium; c entenarius); dpxLepcüg T C OV [ Eeßao ] -aN y pauuaTe l l )c A u [x( :wv ] T o0 x 9Lvoi 3 I t aL d ywyoee[T i l d, A uxLdoxnc; c f.n.14, f ilius e t d e s tirpe e ius. 1 6. T . M[ar]cius Q u[i]rina D eiotarianus, f ilius Märcii T itiani ( PME M 2 7): B albura ? , L ycia; a et. H adriani; x ELXCapxoc X ey1 . (2vo[c n peLuLyevc[C]ag ( leg. XXII P ri migenia; G ermania S uperior)' AuxLdov nG; H al fmann 1 979 : 149-51 n .60, 1 50 ( ubi s temma, P IR V ' 1 80 n .229) : Marcius T itianus ( cf. n . 1 7, 8 % n peLua r tetAapLog), p ater D eiotariani ( n.16) e t Marciae L yciae, u xoris C . L icinnii M ärcii T hoant ia n i L ong i ( A umLapxr is ) . Marcia T lepolemis, dpxLepELa T P ç, l d tuun a uyxAnTLx( Ly ( mater s tirpis s enatorum), f ilia D eiotariani ( n.16). Marcius D eiotarianus ( AE 1 980, 8 84 = S EG X XVIII 1 242 e t B ullet. E pigr. 1 978 : 4 77-8; T yriaion, L ycia), f ortasse i dem s it; A ristainete, q uae p osuit t itulum, o rta

1 63

A rycanda ( ubi p ater P erpenduberis m emoratur p arentela c oniunctus s it c um h is M arciis.

i n

T AM

I I

7 92),

1 7 . T . Marcius T itianus ( PME M 3 3): B albura?, L ycia; a et.Traiani; 1 . g napxoc a neLpr zy ( praef. c ohortium); 2 . x euXt :a .pxoc Ä cyLdw c ov ( trib . l egionum); 3 . ( 3 ' ( Eqc) npeLuonEuXdpLoc ( pri mus p ilus b is; D obson 1 978 : 2 34 n . 1 16)- c f. I GR II 5 76 : x ciALd tpxou I t at . E ds n peLuonet ,XapCou; - f ortasse: A uxLe tpxnc; w rCaT T Ic T Ic n eAc c oc ( Balb ura); f ilius, c f. n .16, e t i bi d e g ente; H al f mann 1 979: 1 49 n .61 1 8 . ( ---) Menecrates ( PME M 8 3): C omama, P amphylia; I s ./III x eLÄCapxoc o tpati .nG x ÄuTo0(tribunus m ilitum e xercitus c elebris); g nCtponoc d vax -doc) ( procurator) . 1 9 . [ L .] P accius N L f i[I.] [ F] 0(ia) Montany[s] ( PME P 3 ): P amp hylia,Colonia I ulia A ugusta F ida C omama; medio -i i— s .; [ tr]ib. l eg . I III [ .— .] ( sc. l egio I V S cythica?),[---I F [ ---] ( incertum a n a ltera m ilitia memorata s it?); d ecurio C ol(oniae) I ul(iae) A ug(ustae) P rimae F idae C omamae; F rench 1 983: 4 7-56, d at a lterum f ragmentum t ituli C IL I II 1 2151 = A E 1 893, 1 4; d e f ami 1i a, c f. F rench 1 983: 5 1: u xor: L . P accia V aleria S aturnina; f iliae: L . P accia V aleria S aturnina, A urelia V aleria S criboniana F rontina ; f ilius: [ .] P accius A p[---]; c f. C IL II 6 885: L . P accius M . f il. F ab . M ontanus C omamenus ( paullo a nte a . 1 44; T homasson 1 984 : 2 48 n .34), f ortasse i dem . 2 0 . N L S empronius A lbanus ( PME S 1 7): A ttaleia, P amphyl i a; a et. V espasiani; dpxLepeüc x aL d 7 7oe f tnc; II. g napxoc t ru llwy c xnc E eßa cT rIc r epgavtxtavf ic ( praef. e quitum a lae A ugustae G ermanicia nae ; i n O riente, P isidia ? , c f. n .4 ( Pisidia), n .82 ( Asia), PME I1 01); M . P lancius V arus ( Pergensis, P amphyl i ae), amicus e fü 7 ,q uaestor p ro p raetore p rovinciae P onti e t B ithyniae, l egatus p ro p raetore p rovinciarum A chaiae e t A siae, p roconsul p rov. P onti e t B ithyniae ( Halfmann 1 979: 1 04 n .8 ; 1 982: 6 42; T homasson 1 984: 2 16 n .70; E ck 1 982: 2 84 n ot.12; E ck 1 983: 2 01 n .571). 2 1. [ U] 1 pi u s [ A]ci 1i an[us ( PME U 4 ): C remna, P amphylia; I s ?; Z napxoc xWo r rnc] a ' ( ?) ' k l .a )LT[a ]v[GAy. _ Bpc[tavy t .. —.] ( sc. c oh . IA quitanorum — . i n B ritannia ? ). 2 2 . L . U pturius Agrippa A ristianus ( PME U 2 1): P amphylia ? ; I s .?; [x t .A .C .apxoc ] X ey(LC ovoc ) L E s 77 6T r oXXLva[p]Cas, T pLoLy d pi ,[cdi.e [Co]Lc T ETELunu[g]vo[s] ( trib. l eg. XV A pollinaris; t ribus d onis m ilitaribus d onatus; C appadocia); t itulum, r ep. i nter C remnam e t C omamam , p osuit f iliae e t matri. 2 3 . V alerius S tatilius Castus ( PME V 3 9): T er messus M inor ( ad O inoanda), L ycia; c a. a . 2 53; 6 xF o r t 7 iToTog 0 Ü 1 1 1 10 .X0G T C OV E Eß0 .076 5V, / t pa o rdatTo‘ ß LELXaTLdwwv 7 povonoduevog T f iG e tprvAG x ath e dac tac ray x aTä y f iv ( praepositus v exillationum , d icitur p aci p rovidisse t erra m arique, p er L yciam p uto ( cf. P IR II 3 78 n .137): O enoandae i n L ycia d egit, c um a dferretur i mago V aleriani i unioris A ugusti, a .253 u t v idetur); i ncertum a n m ilitia e questri p erfunctus s it; c f. S peidel 1 984: 2 23.

1 64

B .

CHRONOLOGI CAL

AND GEOGRAPHI CAL

D ISTRIBUTI ON

T he f ollowing t owns i n L ycia p roduced e questrian o fficers: B alb ura ( 16, 1 7 T rajan/Hadrian), Oenoanda ( 14, 1 5 T rajan/Hadrian), P atara ( 6, II s.), Termessus M inor ( 23, c a.a.253). Only Xanthus y ields e questrian o fficers i n t he f irst c entury ( 1, c a. a . 5 0; 2 , D om itian; 9 , c a. a . 1 85). F or P amphylia t he f ollowing p laces a re r epresented i n t he m ilit iae e questres: Attaleia ( 10, 1 1, A nt. P ius; 2 0, V espasian), Com ma ( 18,19, I Is.), C remna ( 21, Is.?), Comama/Cremna ( 22?, us?), P erge ( 7, I Is.; 8 , I lls.), S agalassus ( 13, e x. Is/IIIs.), S ide ( 4, i n. IIs.; 1 2, a . 1 38), T ermessus ( 5, A nt. P ius), T ymb riada ( 3, Again i t i s c onspicuous t hat o nly o ne o fficer i s k nown f or t he f irst c entury ( Attaleia : 2 0, V espasian) . C. 1 )

SOCI AL

ORI GINS

I mm igrants

AND

STRATIFI CATI ON

- c olonists

Comama a nd Cre mna w ere A ugustan c olonies ( Makro 1 980: 6 75). A ttaleia , which b elonged t o A ugustan Galatia, h ad w ithin i ts e xisting s tructure a s ettlement o f A ugustan c olonists ( Mitchell 1 980: 1 067). I t i s i ndeed s triking t hat, t o j udge f rom o nomast ics, t he o fficers d escending f rom i mmigrants - I talici ( ?) s tem f rom p recisely t hese a reas, w hile t he v ast m ajority o f t hose a ttested e lsewhere was n ewly e nfranchised o r d escendant o f n ew c itizens. F or A ttaleia we h ave M . S empronius A lbanus ( 20, V espasian), o ne o f t he e arliest o fficers, who w ould s eem t o b e d escended f rom a n I talian i mmigrant. H e a ppears t o b e wholly i ntegrated. H is i nscription i s i n G reek. H e was p raef. a lae i n t he E ast, a nd a rchiereus, a gonothetes; h e t herefore b elonged t o t he e lite o f P amphylia . H e was a f riend o f M . P lancius V arus ( senator, f rom P erge). Two members o f t he g ens C repereia o f A ttaleia were e questrian o fficers ( 10, 1) u nder A ntoninus P ius . [ Crepereius] ( 10) a nd L . C repereius P aulus ( 11) b oth h eld t he t res m i 1i tiae a nd w ent o n t o b ecome p rocurator, P aulus e ven t o i diologus A e t i. [Cr eperei us] 1 0) s tates i n h is i nscription y y ouc a vvx .A .r itLxo0- i .e. a ffinis o r p ater s enatorum - a nd a lso t hat h e w as amicus a nd p rocurator A ugustorum . O ne o f t he t wo was n o d oubt — t he f ather o f t he s enator L . C repereius P roculus ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 07, 6 13, 6 46). T he f amily, o f I talian o rigin, s temmed f rom t he p rocurator a nd f amiliaris o f A grippina, m other o f N ero, C . C repereius Gallus, who was r esident i n A ntiochia P isidiae ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 46). L . P accius Montanus ( 19), m id-second c entury, h onoured a t C omama a s d ecurio f or h is b enefactions, i s p resumably a d escendant o f a n I talian colonist. N ote t hat h is t ribus, F abia, i s t hat o f t he I ulii. L . U pturius A grippa A ristianus ( 2i ), 71—s . , m ay p erhaps b e a d escendant o f a c olonist f rom C omama o r C remna .

1 65

F inally* w e h ave t he f ather-and-son-pair u nder T rajan/Hadrian, T . Marcius T itianus ( 17) a nd T . Marcius D eiotarianus ( 16), s urely f rom L ycia, b ut n ot n ecessarily f rom B albura. Were t hey i mmig rants o r d escendants o f i mmigrants? H ad t hey r eceived t he c itizenship v ia S ex. Marcius P r is cus, l eg. Aug. p r. p r. L yciae e t P amphyliae ( a. 6 8/69; T homasson 1 984: 2 76 n .5)? * Valerius S tatilius Castus ( 23): i t i s n ot c ertain t hat h e h eld m ilitiae, n or c an i t b e e stablished t hat h e d escended f rom a n ew c itizen o r a c olonist.

2 )

N ew c itizens

- d escendants o f

n ew c itizens

O f 1 4 e questrian o fficers ( out o f 2 3) i t c an b e s aid w ith s ome a ssurance t hat t hey w ere t he o ffspring o f n ew c itizens . N L A rruntius Aquila ( 1) o f X anthus, c a. a . 5 0, i s t he e arliest a ttested o fficer. H is f ather, L . A rruntius H er makotas, was a t eacher a t t he i mperial c ourt, x aenynThc a ür oxpaT6pwv ( AE 1 981, 8 11), a nd i t i s n ot s urprising t hat h e o btained t he c itizenship f or h is f amily b efore 3 7, h is p atron b eing e ither L .Arruntius, c os. a . 2 2 BC , o r h is s on, a . 6 . T he f ather a nd t he u ncle o f M . A rruntius C laudianus ( 2) p robably r eceived t he c itizenship f rom C laudius; t heir p atron w as N L A rruntius Aquila ( 1) . N L A rruntius C laudianus ( 2) i s a dlected, a fter t hree m i 1i tiae a nd p rocuratel ae, t o t he s enate; h e b oasts o f b eing t he f irst s enator f rom L ycia a nd u ltimately b ecame p roconsul M acedoniae ( under T rajan) . T he r emaining e questrian o fficers b ear a n i mperial n omen g entil icium : J ul i i ( 14, 1 5), C laudii ( 5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ), F lavi i ( 12, 1-3 )71g lpius ( 21), Aurelii ( 3, 4 ). C . J ulius D emosthenes ( 15) a nd h is s on I ulius Antoninus ( 14), u nder T rajan/Hadrian, b elonged t o t he e lite o f Oenoanda; b oth p erformed t heir m ilitiae i n S yria. D emosthenes was a rchiereus a nd g rammateus o f t he L ycian k oinon, a gonothetes a nd L yciarch ( Jameson 1 980 : 8 43-47), a nd w as k nown f or h is g reat b enefactions ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 12 n ot. 4 4). T ib . C laudius Agrippa ( 5) f rom T ermessus, r eign o f A nt. P ius, w as p riest .t here, a nd h eld t he t hree m ilitiae. T here may b e s ome r elation t o T ib. C laudius Agrippinus ( 6), f rom P atara , p resumably f irst d ecades o f t he s econd c entury; A grippinus p erformed m ilit iae a nd was a rchiereus, g rammateus o f t he L ycian k oinon. T he h omonymous c onsul o f 1 60 i s a d escendant. L . C laudius P ropinq uianus Apellinus ( 7) o f P erge h eld o nly o ne t ribunate i n E gypt. C laudius A pellinus, g overnor o f B ritannia u nder S everus A lexand er, i s a d escendant. N I . Claudius Rutilius V arus ( 8), a lso f rom P erge, I Is., was p raefectus a lae i n C appadocia, a nd h onoured, t ogether w ith A pellinus, C laudia P aulina. T i. C laudius T elemachus ( 9), o f X anthus, c a. a . 1 85., was a man o f r enown; h e h eld t he c itizenship o f s everal L ycian c ities, a s w ell a s t he h ighest l ocal a nd p rovincial r eligious o ffices, s uch a s L yciarch ( Jameson

1 66

.

1 980); h is o nly m ilitia was a l egionary t ribunate i n S yria . h e h imself - o r p erhaps h is s on - a dlected t o t he s enate?

W as

T . F lavius L aco ( 12), f rom S ide, a . 1 38, a nd T . F lavius V aleri anus A lexander ( 13), f rom S agalassus, l ate s econd/early t hird c entury, may b e d escendants o f n ew c itizens o f t he F lavii. U lpius A ci Ii anus ( 21) , c itizen o f T rajan.

C remna,

Is"

p erhaps d escendant

o f

a n ew

N L Aurelius Abas ( 3), P amphylia, l ate s econd/early t hird c entury, a nd U L? Aurelius T uesianus ( 4), o f S ide, e arly t hird c entury, p erhaps d escendants o f n ew c itizens o f Marcus A urelius. A bas ( 3) o nly h eld, a s f ar a s we k no w, o ne p raefectura c ohort i s. T uesianus ( 4), o n t he o ther h and, a lso'served b ut a s ingle m ilit ia; b ut a fter a b rilliant c areer a s p rocurator h e was r ewarded w ith a dlection t o t he s enate, a nd e ven r eached t he c onsulate . 3 )

A dlection

t o

t he S enate

I t i s s triking h ow q uickly s ome n ew c itizens e nter t he s enate, while o ther n ew c itizens, a s w ell a s I talian i mmigrants, h ave t o w ait f or g enerations b efore r eaching t he t op o f t he s ocial l adder. Two g ood e xamples o f s peedy p romotion a re N L A rruntius C laudianus ( 2), t he f irst L ycian s enator, a nd o ne o f t he l ast k nown s enators f rom P amphy 1ia, N L? A urelius T uesianus ( 4). C laudianus' f ather n o d oubt r eceived t he c itizenship f rom t he Emperor C laudius, a nd h e p resumably c hose a s h is p atronus M . A rruntius Aquila ( 1), t he f irst a ttested e questrian o fficer f rom X anthus . T he f amily i nit ially t hanked i ts r ise t o L . A rruntius H er makotas , A quila 's f ather, a t eacher a t t he i mperial c ourt. N L A rruntius C laudianus ( 2) w as p robably a dlected t o t he s enate s till u nder D omitian; h e i s p roud t o c all h i mself t he f irst s enator f rom L ycia! H is f ather, N L A rruntius, was n o d oubt a rchiereus. H e w as a m aternal g randson o f o ne T i. C laudius S tasithemis, w ho w as t he a ncestor o f a nother s enator f rom X anthus, T i. C laudius T elemachus ( 9) . M L? A urelius T uesianus ( 4), p resumably d escendant o f a n ew c itiz en o f M . A urelius, f rom S ide, a lready r eached t he s enate b y t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury, a fter a n o utstanding c ursus a s p rocurator. T he C repereii ( 10, 1), f rom A ttaleia, e questrian o fficers u nder A ntoninus P ius, were, a s a lready n oted, o f I talian s tock. T hey were a lready i n t he E ast a t a v ery e arly d ate: C . C repereius Gallus, p rocurator a nd f ami Ii ar i s o f A grippina, N ero 's mother, h ad s ettled i n A ntiochia i n P isidia. A r elative, L .Crepereius P roculus, c os. s uff., p roconsul [ ---] ( from G alatia?), a ttained t he s enate o nly d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 46) . T he Crepereii o f A ttaleia ( 10) i ndeed s tate t hat t hey w ere y vouG o uvxXnTLxoü, i .e. r elated t o o r a ncestor o f a s enatorial f amily.

1 67

S low t oo was t he r ise o f t he C laudii ( 6, 7 , 9 ). T ib. C laudius C laudii l asonis f ilius Quirina Agrippinus ( 6), f rom P atara , p erf ormed t he m ilitiae e questres, was a rchiereus a nd g rammateus o f t he p restigious k oinon o f t he L ycians . T he f amily d escended f rom a n ew c itizen o f C laudius/Nero, a s t he t ribus Q uirina s hows; o nly a bout t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury d id t his f amily r each t he s enate: T i. C laudius A grippinus, c os. s uff. a . 1 60, a lso f rom P atara, s urely w as a m ember o f t his f amily . T he i nter weaving o f t he p rovincial e lite t hrough marriage a nd f riendship i s d emons trated b y t he f act t hat C . I ulius D emosthenes ( 15) w as p resumabl y t he maternal g randfather o f t he c os . s uff. o f 1 60 . T he g randd aughter o f C . l ulius D emosthenes ( 15) a nd d aughter o f l ulius A ntoninus ( 14), v iz . I ulia L ysi macha , c alls h erself m ater s tirpis c onsular i s. L . C laudius P ropinquianus Apel Ii nus ( 7), a mong h is d escendants C laudius A pellinus, I nferior u nder S everus A lexander.

P erge, Is., n umbered g overnor o f B ritannia

T i. C laudius, f ilius T i. C laudii S tasithemis, a bnepos C laudii T elemachi, Quirina, T elemachus ( 9) , X anthus, c a . a . 1 85, w as o ne o f t he most p rominent L ycians, s on a nd g randson o f a n a rchiereus, r elated b y marriage t o t he p restigious f amilies o f t he Arruntii, Marcii, V eranii ( AE 1 981, 8 42). T he c itizenship o f T elemachus' f am ily c ertainly g oes b ack t o C laudius/Nero : t he t ribus Q uirina, a nd t he f amily o nly m akes i ts e ntrance i nto t he s enate a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury: T elemachus ( 9) h i mself o r h is s on ( ?) . I s t he g radual, r ather s low r ise o f t hese C laudii p erhaps t o b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t hey d escend f rom i mperial l iberti? T hey r equired a c ouple o f g enerations t o r elegate t o o blivion t he f act t hat t hey were o nce l ibertus a nd t o b uild u p e ugeneia . I s t here a ny c onnection b et ween M . C laudius Rutilius Varus ( 8), P erge, Is., a nd T . Rutilius V arus ( PME R 2 1) f rom N ola, I taly, e questrian o fficer i n t he E ast a nd s enator o f V espasian? A d aughter o f T . Marcius D eiotarianus ( 16), a nd g randdaughter o f T . Marcius T itianus ( 17), was Marcia T lepolemis, a rchiereia t er, m ater s tirpis s enatorum ( Halfmann 1 979: 1 49-50). T he amical r elations b et ween t he o rdo e quester a nd t he o rdo s enatoiius a re o ften a pparent f rom t he i nscript i ons. M. S empronius A lbanus ( 20), o f A ttaleia, u nder V espasian, was t he f riend o f M . P lancius V arus, o f P erge, l egatus p ro p raetore i n A chaia a nd A sia, a nd p roconsul o f P ontus a nd B ithynia . C . V ibius S alutaris, o f E phesus ( see A sia, n o. 7 7 ) , was t he f riend o f M . A rruntius C laudianus ( 2) o f X anthus . D . 1 )

THE T he

CAREER

I N

THE MILI TI AE EQUESTRES

t res m ilitiae

T he e arliest a ttested e questrian o fficer f rom L ycia w ho h eld t he t res m ilitiae i s N L A rruntius C laudianus ( 2) o f X anthus: p raef.

1 68

c oh., t rib. b is, p raef. a lae b is e t v exilli. T he c urtness o f t he i nscription makes i t i mpossible t o e stablish t he g arrison-places. H e was, h owever, d ecorated, n o d oubt b y D omitian i n t he D acian war. T hereafter h e was p rocurator i n R ome, p raefectus c lassis Moesiacae e t r ipae D anuvii - i .e. b ack t o t he D anube f ront - a nd was a dlected b y D om itian t o t he s enate p robably o n a ccount o f h is merits i n t his a rea . A fter h olding t he p raetura h e b ecame l eg atus p r. p r. p rovinciarum A chaiae e t A siae b is . T rajan r ecalled t his c onnoisseur o f t he D anube f ront a s l egatus l egionis I T raianae f ortis i n t he c ampaign a gainst t he D acians . F inally h e was p romoted t o p roconsul Mäcedoniae . F or P amphylia t hree e questrian o fficers a re k nown who h eld t he t res m il i tiae u nder A ntoninus P ius. T ib. C laudius Agrippa ( 5), o f T ermessus, h eld a l ocal p riestly f unction, was p raef. c oh. ( Moesia S uperior ? ), t rib. l eg. ( Moesia I nferior), p raef. a lae ( Syria), a nd a rchistator u nder t he p refect o f E gypt V alerius E udaemon ( a. 1 42-143). T he t wo C repereii ( 10, 1 1), o f A ttaleia ( w ith i ts s ettlement o f A ugustan c olonists), a nd d escendants o f I talici, p erformed t he t res m ilitiae . Was t he c olonist m entality s till a live i n t his f amily i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury? [ . Crepereius ---] ( 10), g ymnasiarch, p raef. c oh. ( Raetia), t rib . l eg. ( Cappadocia), p raef. a lae ( Moesia I nferior), p raef. g entis C L X ) . L . Crepereius Paulus ( 11), p raef. c oh. ( U UTT) : t rib . l eg. ( Pannonia I nferior), p raef. a lae ( Pannonia S uperior), p rocurator ( C , i n P annonia), i diologus A egypti ( C O. N ote t hat t hese o fficers w ere d eployed f or t heir m ilitiae a nd t heir l ater c areer i n t he E ast a nd o n t he D anube . 2 )

i n

I ncomplete m ilitiae

O f a n umber o f o fficers o nly t he f irst, t he k nown, o r o nly t he s econd a nd/or t hird r ank .

s econd m ilitia

i s

I ulius Antoninus ( 14), O enoanda, H adrian, was t wice p raef. c oh. ( ubi?), a nd t rib. l eg . ( Syria). H is f ather, C . I ulius D emost henes ( 15), was t rib . l eg. ( Syria), p raef. a lae ( Syria), p roc urator S ici 1i ae ( C ); a pparently h e d id n ot h old t he m ilitia p rima . H e was a rchiereus, g rammateus o f t he L ycian k oinon a nd L yciarch . T heir p lace o f g arrison - a s f ar a s we k now - was a lways S yria. A n a nalogous c areer t o D emosthenes' was made b y T ib . C laudius Agrippinus ( 6), P atara, I Is., p raef. f abrum - b ut n o m ilitia p ri ma - t rib. l eg. ( Syria), t rib . l eg. TMoesia I nferior), p raef. a lae( T Ei a); h e was a lso a rchiereus a nd g ramm ateus o f t he L ycian k oinon . F or t wo o fficers t he m ilitia t ertia i s a ttested: N L C laudius Rutilius V arus ( 8), P erge, Is" p raef. a lae ( Cappadocia), a nd M L S empronius A lbanus ( 20), A ttaleia, V espasian, p raef. a lae ( in P isidia ? ); t he l atter was a rchiereus a nd a gonothetes. T hese a re a ll manifestly m embers o f t he l ocal e lite w ithout l ofty m ilitary a spirations, mostly s erving i n t he E ast. T his i s a pparently s urely t he c ase w ith t he f ollowing c ategory .

1 69

3 ) O f -

O fficers f our

f or w hom o nly o ne m ilitia

o fficers o nly

t he m ilitia p rima

i s

k nown

i s a ttested:

N L Aurelius Abas ( 3), P amphylia, Is./IIIs " a rchiereus, a gonothetes, p raef. c oh. ( ubi?) T . F lavius Laco ( 12), S ide, a . 1 38, p raef. c oh. ( Moesia I nferior) T . F lavius V alerianus A lexander ( 13), S agalassus, e x. Is . / p raef. c oh . ( Moesia I nferior?) U lpius Aci 1i anus ( 21), C remna, Is.?, p raef. c oh. ( Br it ann ia?)

T ribunus -

-

-

l egionis: N L A rruntius Aquila ( 1), X anthus, c a. a . 5 0, t rib . l eg. ( Aegyptus), p rocurator P [amphyliae -] ! A .? Aurelius T uesianus ( 4), S ide, i neunte I lls., t rib. l eg . ( Aegyptus), a fter a n o utstanding c ursus a s p roc urator ( trecenarius) s enator a nd c onsul L .Claudius P ropinquianus A pel 1i nus ( 7), P erge, I ls., t rib . l eg. ( Aegyptus) T i. C laudius T elemachus ( 9), X anthus, c a. a . 1 85, t rib. l eg . ( Syria), b rilliant l ocal a nd p rovincial c areer, p erhaps s enator ( ---) Menecrates ( 18), C omama, Is./ I iIs .4rib . ( ubi?), p rocurator. L . P accius Montanus ( 19), C omama, r nedio us., t rib. l eg . ( ubi?), d ecurio c oloniae

A pparently we a re a gain d ealing h ere w ith o fficers whose o nly a mbition was t he r ather a dministrative l egionary t ribunate a s t he c onsecration o f t heir e questrian s tatus. A ccordingly t hey t ended t o s tay i n t he E astern p rovinces; t hree s erved i n E gypt. O f T . Marcius D eiotarianus ( 16), B albura?, H adrian, o nly o ne t ribunate i n a l egion i s k nown, b ut i n G ermania S uperior. D eiot arianus, who was L yciarch, s till b elongs t o t he l ast c ategory, e ven t hough h e s erved i n U pper G ermany. T he e xplanation i s p erhaps t o b e s ought i n t he f act t hat h is f ather, T . Marcius T itianus ( 17), w as a t rue v ir m ilitaris! 4 )

C enturio e x e quite R omano

T . Marcius T itianus ( 17) was a member o f t he L ycian e lite, a nd w as p erhaps L yciarch. I n a ny e vent h e b elonged t o t he o rdo e quester a nd b egan h is m ilitiae e questres a s g r capxo u neLpC ov a nd w as t hen x cLXL :apxoG Ä cyLWvwv. A fter h is m ilitia s ecunda h e p resumably t ook a f ancy t o s oldiering a nd t herefore o pted f or a c areer i n t he a rmy a s c enturio. U lti mately h e b ecame p ri mus p ilus b is. I t i s n ot a ll t hat s urprising , then, t hat h is s on, D eiotarianus, s erved i n U pper G er many ( whereas t he majority o f h is c lass s tayed i n t he E ast). I t s eems n ot i mpossible t hat h e w as p osted t o G ermany p recisely t hrough t he i ntercession o f h is s on, w ho w as g arrisoned t here .

1 70

I V.

C ILI CI A

1 . L . Aurelius T arrutenius-vel-Tarruntenus D emetrius ( PME A 2 57bis): C ilicia; m edio I lls.; I I. x eO timpxo‘ X eye c iwo4 Z xuetxf i‘ ( leg . I V S cythica; S yria); - 6 ö ngtoupybc ( i.e. magis tratus e ponymus i n C iliciae c ivitatibus), x at x liov oc x at 6 .00 scPcbC ' t i Lv ectoednwv Ael 'oxpaT6pwv ; c ivitate f ortasse d onatus s it a q uodam L . A urelio T arrutenio; c ognomen e p riore n omine t raxit: x pdmepov x p • rwmzCoaG Arg e rptoc A nw r ImpCou . T aria L ucilla q uae e t Matrona, u xor ( Tap (a A cmx 0aa x at M a o rpeva 1 y vve a l 5Toü ), f ortasse n omen a ccepit a p roconsule A siae , T ario T itiano ( Thomasson 1 984: 2 33 n . 1 68: a . 2 02-5?); S EG XXVIII 1 255, c f. B ullet. E pigr. 1 979 : 5 26 n . 5 96.

e

L . A urelius Tarru(n)ten(i)us D emetrius p resumably r eceived t he c itizenship f rom o ne L . A urelius T arrutenius. H is c ognomen was h is o riginal G reek n ame: x pdTepov X Pn4aTCca‘ i tm ilTptoc An i mpCou H is w ife T an a L ucilla q uae e t Matrona w ou ,d s eem t o a ttribute h er c itizenship a nd h er n ame t o T arius T itianus, p roc onsul As i ae ( a. 2 02-205?). L . A urelius T arru(n)ten(i)us D emet rius, l ocal magistrate, b enefactor a nd p rovincial a rchiereus, w as w orthy o f t he o rdo e quester; a nd l ike s o many o f t he b ouleut ai-elite, i n t he E ast h e w as c ontent w ith a l egionary t ribunate, t he c rowning o f h is e questrian s tatus, i n a n E astern p rovince ( Syria). T he p aucity o f r epresentatives o f C ilicia f or t he m ilitiae e quest res i n t he o rdo s enatorius ( see H al f mann 1 982: 6 47: o nly t wo c ertain c ases) Ti- t o b e a scribed t o t he l ow l evel o f u rbanisation u nder t he Empire ( Hel l enkemper 1 980: 1 265; M itford ( 2) 1 980: 1 230-61) a s well a s t o t he s carcity o f s ources d ue t o i nsuffic ient s ystematic e xcavation ( Hellenkemper 1 980: 1 274). P aideia c ould o nly f lourish w ithin a n u rban i nfrastructure, a nd p aidei .a w as a conditio s ine q ua n on f or p articipation i n t he o rdines o f t he h onestiores.

1 71

V . A .

GALATI A

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

1 . P . Ael(ius) S emp(ronius) L ycinus ( PME A 6 0): A ncyra; a et. S eptim ii S even ; omnibus e questribus — Militiis p erfunctus o rnatus; - p roc(urator) X X h (ereditatium) p rovinciarum Galliarum N arbonensis e t Aquitaniae ( sexagenarius; P flaum 1 978: 1 46 n .3), p roc(urator) p rovinc(iae) D aciae P orolissensis ( centenarius), p roc(urator) CC ( ducenarius) A lexandria[e] i diu l ogu, p roc(urat or) A ug(ustorum) n (ostrorum) p rov(inciae) S yriae P alaestinae ( ducenarius); c f. n . 7 , G . F abius T itianus, a m ilit ii s, municeps e ius p osuit amico i ncomparabi 1i , C IL I II 6 757; H al f mann 1 982: 6 44: P . A elius S empronius Metrophanes, o uvxXnTLx6c ( IGR II 1 67), s enator, f ortasse f ilius e ius, c erte p arentela c oniunctus s it c um ' ab e pistulis G raecis ', T . F lavio S empronio A quila ( IGR II 1 88 ; A E 1 9 37 , 2 5 7 ; I sa u ra v e tu s ) , c u iu s f i lia S em p ro n ia R om ana s e n a __ t orem i n matrionium d uxit. 2 . M . A rruntius N L f it. S erg(ia) F rugi ( PME A 1 67): I conium, L ycaonia(?); c f. B irley 1 981 : 3 02 n ot. 3 : t r-TEr ls S ergia f ortasse s pectat a d A ntiochiam , P isidiae; a et. T raiani; I . p raef. c oh . II U lp(iae) P etraeor(um) ( Cappadocia; f ortasse i n A r menia Minore; c f. M itford ( 1) 1 980: 1 201 n ot. 9 2: A r meniaca e xpeditione T raiani); I I. t rib. m il. l eg. X II G em ( i nae)( f ortasse i n e xpedit ione A r meniaca T raiani, c f. M itford ( 1) 1 980: 1 201 n ot. 9 2); II. p raef. a lae P arthor(um) s agit(tariorum) ( in O riente a et. T raiani, c f. K ennedy 1 977: 5 24, 5 26); - p roc(urator) Aug(usti) p rovin(ciae) B ritan(niae) a d c ensus ( sexagenarius), p rovin(ciae) C ilic(iae) ( centenarius), p rov(inciae) C äppadoc(iae) e t A rmeniae M inoris e t P onti M editerrani ( ducenarius); c f. P flaum 1 982: 4 4-45 n . 1 57. 3 . T ib . C l(audius) B occhus T ib . C la(udii) A lexandri f ilius ( PME C 1 26): A ncyra; a et. A ntonini P ii; / LXLap v iaaG g v X eyLi ihu K upnwaUx i f l ( leg. I II Cyrenaica; A rabia); d cpxLEpcüc a EßaoTowavT6c, c i ywvoagIng, T t doaç d t pxhg X ELToupyCfaG] [] nt l [6 160EL , b iTEX[g]GaG T b n aTpi .8L;. r aXazdo r rx ( filius: T i. C laudius P rocillianus, e tiam F aXaTdpxnc ). 4 . T i. C l(audius) Cändidus ( PME C 1 27): A ncyra?; I t ribun t is [ 1]e[g(ionis) X V] A poTTTn(aris) ( Cappadocia).

s ./ III s .;

5 . [ Ti. C laudius .. Ai f ilius Quirina Heras ( PME C 1 44): P essinus; a et. M . A urelii/L . V eri; 8 exatov uu rC4T1 6,7— apxLep a, n gunTov 8 g F aXaT io v 8 LO . ß ou t . ep a MT1 T p6 Q eE C OV UEYC IXT 1G TU g v f l eaotvo0vTL R O . [ M 1EL8ac W, TG5V T E EE(3 0. 0Tiih) d3 L ç c i p xL E pi a

T OO

X OL V O O

E

0 a CTr I VC OV

r aX UT C OV1 C at

AY° V08 ETIV ,

O E B a CT OO d V IT IV

T OG

v ao6 g v HE O OL V O G V TL t epaodgsvov l ux 7 y ro[v1 , y ouvaa mpxAoavTa x aL b IL . 5461ceLg 6 6vTa ; I . E napxov u xeCpT IG -' ITupaCwv ( quae c ohors I turaeorum?); II .OT . x EL V ,apxoy Xdyc R ovwv ö üo, 8w8gkaIns K epauv [oW pou ( trib. m il. b is l egionum d uarum, l eg . X II - F ul min atae; C äppadocia);II. x at T pU rng Kupnvaixf i 'z, bU i zb] T C O V EcßacT6 " 3v T enetµrµgv[ov] 6 6paTL x aeap c 7 ) a Tu pd tv (4) TE I L ] XL X 9 ( trib. l eg.

1 72

II C yrenaicae, a b A ugustis d onis d onatus h asta p ura e t c orona m urali; A rabia). 6 . C [la]u[d]ius S everus ( PME C 1 84bis I1 25): P ompeiopol i s?; a nte a . 1 33/134; t ri[b(unuil T mil(itum) l eg(ionis) V I F e[rr(at ae)] ( Syria); c f. H alf mann 1 979: 1 80-1 n .101: C n.Claudius, c os. ( suff. f ortasse a . 1 67), c os. I ( ord. a . 1 73), f ortasse e iusdem s tirpis a c C [la]u[d]ius S everus, c uius n omen s ic r estituendum s it i n: I GL S yr. I V 1 400 = C IL I II 1 4165, 1 3 = AE 1 897, 1 36. 7 . G . Fab(ius) T iti[an]us ( PME F 1 5): A ncyra; a et. S even ; a m iliti(i)s; c f. n . 1 :- M r iniceps e ius e t amicus a bilis.

S epti mii i ncompar-

8 . V alerius ( Iul i us ? ) [ Lonigus ( PME V 1 9): I sauria? ( in t err t or i o r opyopw l igwy - 1Gorgorör neis-T r. IIs ./ IIIs ; T pLf loüyou ( sc. t ribunus m ilitum?); Ke .XtoToc ob co(v)oµ6c ( sc . l ibertus) V alerii L ongi p osuit e i t itulum s epulcralem; c f. B ullet. E pigr. 1 978 4 04-5 n . 1 37 : 6 8 f i l log r opyop c ougwv t ici .unc ycv r dauv I o XLo ' PoGwoy T 6v ( b conovTdpxlv } e at c i pxLep a . T i rn ) E cßa cm l iv E nA ( 3 Cou . 9 . [ T . V ol l umnius ( sc. S er(gia)) V arro ( PME V 130): C aesarea; a et. C laudii/Neronis; [ II]vir, q uaest(or) I T T p]ontif(ex); I . p raef. c oh. [-c( ivium) R (omanorum)] It a 1i c(orum) ( Syr ia -ve 1Cappadoc ia?), I. t rib. m il [ 1]eg. V II C laudiae p iae fi del i s ( Dal matiav el-Moesia); - t itulus s epulcral i s C aristaniae F rontinae I uliae mandatu T . V olumni V arronis p ositus A ntiochiae P isidiae, c f. n n.13-17: C aristanii. Antiochia P isidiae - G alatia 1 0. C . Anicius C .f. S er(gia) Caesianus ( PME A 1 16): A nt i ochia; I p arte I s.; I v ir; t rib. m il. l eg . [ III Gr allicae ( Syria); f ilia: A nicia Caesiana; u xor : Caesia P rocilla; c f. P . A nicius P .f. S er(gia) Maxi mus ( PME: I , 9 7; D obson 1 978: 1 88 n . 5 2; a et. C laudii), f ortasse J 77 ; Anicii Maxi mi, p roconsul i s p rov . P onti e t B ithyniae ( inter a . 9 8-109), e iusdem s tirpis ( Halfmann 1 979: 1 29 n . 3 5, n . 3 5a, n . 3 5b; H al f mann 1 982: 6 07, 6 45). 1 1. [ ----Aus]picatus ( PME A 2 83): A ntiochia; a et. C al i gulae/ C laudii; I I v i[r q uing(T iennalis)], a ug(ur); 1 . t rib. m il. [ leg. X ] F retensis ( Syria); 2 . p r[aef. f a]brum I; 3 . p raef. ( sc. e quitü rn ? ); 4 . p raef. P . Corne[li S ul l ae] F elicis g ene[ri G erman i]ci Caesar[ i s] ( cu m S ul l a ( duovir) Ant i ochiae e rat); 5 . [ praef.? c o]hort i s ( ?). 1 2 . L . Calpurnius L .f. S er(gia) F rugi ( PME C 5 4): p arte I s.; I I v ir, s acerdos, p raef. 1 -7 13r(um); A ug(ustae) G ermanicianae ( in O riente, P isidia) .

A nt i ochia; I p raef. a lae

1 3 . C . Car i st[alnius CA: S er(gia) F [ron]to ( PME C 8 0): A ntioc hia ; a et. N eronis; I. t rib. m il.; II. priä( ; e f.] e q(ui t ur n) a l(ae) Bosp(oranae) ( Syria); - a dl[e]ctus i n s enatu i nter t ribu nic(ios) ( a. 7 3/74), p romotus i nter p raetorios ( ca. a . 7 5/76), r eg . p ro p r. P onti e t B ithyn. ( ca. a . 7 6/77), l eg. I mp. d ivi

1 73

V espasian(i) A ug . I X H ispanae i n B ritann(ia) ( Birley 1 981: 2 33-4 : a . 7 6-9), l eg. p ro p r. I mp. d ivi T iti Caes. A ug. e t I mp. D om itian(i) Caes. A ug. p rovinc. P amphyliae e t L yciae ( inter a . 8 1-4; T ho masson 1 984: 2 77 n . 1 1; E ck 1 982: 3 05-8), consul ( suffectus a . 9 0); c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 09 n . 1 3; H alfmann 1 982: 6 06-7, 6 13, 6 45; D evreker 1 980: 8 1 s ub2; H ouston 1 977: 4 1 n . 4 , 5 2, 2 n . 5 ( Pisidian f amily f rom E truria); u xor: S ergia L .f. P aulla; f ilius: Caristanius P aulinus,trib, m il. ( laticlavius) l eg . X II F ul minatae; a vus: n . 1 4, q ui s equitur. 1 4 . C . Caristanius C .f. S er(gia) F ronto Caesianus I ulius ( PME C 8 1): A nt i ochia; a et. A ugusti; p raef. f ab(rum); 1 . t rib. m il. l eg . X II F ul m(inatae) ( Syria); 2 . p raef. c oh. B os[p(oranae)] ( in O riente); - p ontif(ex), p raef(ectus) P . S ulpicii Q uirini I v ir(i) ( cos. a .12 BC ; c f. T homasson 1 984: 2 53 n . 3 : l egatus c onsularis Ga 1a ti ae), p raef(ectus) M . S ervi 1i ( cos. a . 3 ; T homasson 1 984: 2 53 n .3: G alatiam p aullo a nte c onsulatum r exisse v idetur; S herk 1 980: 1 037-8); p raef(ectus) [ ---1, s acerdos; c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 09 n .13a; H al f mann 1 982: 6 06-7, 6 13, 6 45; c f. s ub n . 4 . 1 5 . C . Caristanius [ C .f.Ser(gia) I ]ulianus ( PME C 8 2): A ntiochia ; a et. D omitiani; I I. [ trib. m il. l eg. X I]I F u[1 7r n (inatae) ( Cappad ocia); I II. p r(aefectus) [ a]lae[---]; (adlectus i n o rdinem s enatorium), [ praetor miter c [iv]is e t [ civis e t p eregr]inos e t i n[ter] p er [ egr ]i nos, l e[g(atus) p r]o p r(aetore) p rovinc(iae).— p rocos. ( Achaiae; i nter a .98-102, T homasson 1 984: 1 92 n . 2 3; E ck 1 982: 3 34-5 n ot. 2 17: a .100/101, 1 02?); c f. D evreker 1 980 : 75 n ot. 3 7; H alfmann 1 979: 1 29 n . 3 4; H alfmann 1 982: 6 06-7, 6 13, 6 45. 1 6 . [ .C]aristan[ius I ]ustianu[s] ( PME C 8 3): A ntiochia; Is.?; p raef. [ c]oh . I H am[ior(um)] Tr 37 itannia) .

e xeunte

1 7 . [ C . Caristanius C .f. S er(gia)] P aulinus ( PME C 8 4): A ntioc hia ; a et. D omitiani; I v ir I, [ q(uinquennal i s) TIIII, s acerdos. I mp . C (aesaris) V esp(asiani) A ug(usti); [ trib.] m il. l eg. X II F ul(m inatae) ( Cappadocia); f ilius n atu m ajor C . C aristanii F ront onis, n . 1 4(?), i dem a c C .Caristanius P aulinus, t rib. ( latic lavius) m il. l eg. X II F ul minatae ? ; c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 29 n . 3 3. 1 8 . C . I ulius C .f. S ergia P roculus ( PME I 1 01): Antiochia; a et. N eronis; I I v ir, a ug(ur); t rib .mil. l eg . I II C yrenaic(ae) ( Aeg yptus); iuridicus A lexandreae e t Aegypti 8 LkaLo86Trg P ayönTou, p roc(urator) N ero[nis C l]audi C a[esaris] Aug(usti) G erma[nici p r]ovinciae [ Cappladociae e t C iliciae - h-dTponoz EEßac yToo f lapxECac Kanna8oxi .ag xa. K LA .Lxi . ag ( ducenarius); P flaum 1 982: 1 1 n . 2 5; f i 1i a , t D rocul i c ivi S idae P amphyl i ae n upserat ( AE 1 966, 4 72), c f. P IR VL M270. 1 9 . [ ---], J ournal o f R oman S tudies, 2 (1912)234 ( PME I nc. 6 2): A ntiochia?; I s.?; [ ---p 7177aefectus) [ fab]r(um); [ t-TT7b. [ m]il. l eg . V [ Ma]cedonicae ( Moesia ? ).

1 74

20. [---], -AE 1926, 80 (_!:�E Inc. 64): Antiochia; ante Flavios; 1. [prae] fecTTus) coh(ortisT Ityr(aeorum) - vel - I Tyr(iorum)? (in Moesia?); 2. trib. mi l. leg. IV Scyticae (sic) (Moesia); 3. praef. equit(um); 4. praef. rip(ae) Danuvi. 21. [---], AE 198 2, 8 8 5 (_!:M� Inc. 65) : Antiochia; aet. Tibe ri i; [ ---]; 1. [trib. mil. leg. --1; 2. [praefec] t(us) alae An t!(anae] ( sc. ala Ga l lorum et Thracum Antiana; fortas s e in Syria) - vel alae Anti(ochensium]? (minus probabile); 3. [pr]aef(ectus) veter­ an [orum leg(ionis)] X I I (Fu l minatae in Syria); -praefect(us) [ -? C]omnageni[s] (i.e. praeses procurator Commagenis; Demougin 1981: " ·· 109; P f la u m 1 9 8 2: 9 n . 7A); [ p r ae f( ect u s ) Ti(be r i )_] e i opo I i s p r o duc ed pe r hap s one e q u e s t ri an of fic e r ( 6? ; u n de r Pessinus (5; un der Marcus Aurel ius/L. Verus) and Hadrian?), Isaur i a ( 8 ; I Is ./ I I Is.) l ike wi s e. Ancyra, an important junction of roads and we 11-known for its

temple of Au g u s t us an d Rome, on l y p rod uc ed e q ues t rian o f fic e r s from the mid d l e of the second century (1 , 3, 4?, 7).

C. SOCIAL ORIGINS AND STRATIFICATION 1.

Irrmigrants - colonists - veterans

Augustus pursued in Pisidia an intensive colonisation policy in order to exercise a form of permanent control over the mountain tribes (Mitchell 1980 : 1067). Antioch would seem to have played a ma j or ro 1e within this ·po1icy • At least 8 of the 12 equestrian officers are· to .be situated under the Julio - C laudian dynasty: 10, 11, 12, 13, 1 4, 1 8 , 20, 21; two are to be dated to Domitian (15; 17), one to the first century (19), and final ly one, presumably, to the end of the second century (1 6). Taking a look at their onomastics, they would appear to be descendants of Italian colonists -veteran s. On ly one (1 8) bears an imperial nomen gentilicium: C. I u I i u s Pr o c u l u s (1 8; Nero) • L. Ca I purn i us Frug i (1 2 ) may be a n e w citi z e n o f L. Calpurnius Pi so, l eg. Aug. pro praetor e (ca. a. 14 -13 BC; Sherk 1980: 964b), or a descendant of a freedman of this governor?

175

T he most c onspicuous f act p roduced n o l ess t han f ive

i s t hat t he f amily o f o fficers ( 13-17)!

W e e ncounter i n A ntiochia t he s ame T roas, a n A ugustan c olony i n A sia .

s ituation a s

t he Caristanii

i n A lexandria

T . V olumnius V arro f rom C aesarea ( 9) a nd G . F abius T itianus f rom A ncyra ( 7) may p erhaps a lso b e r eckoned t o t he a bove g roup . 2 .

N ew c itizens

C . I ulius P roculus ( 18) a nd L . Calpurnius F rugi ( 12) o f A ntioch, t hen, may h ave b een n ew c itizens: i .e. 2 o ut o f 1 2 ( !). B ut i t i s s triking t hat o f t he 9 r emaining o fficers f rom G alatia 7 w ould s eem t o r efer t o a n a ncestor, n ew c itizen o r l ibertus! F ive o fficers d isplay a n i mperial n omen C laudii a re 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ; P . Aelius: I .

g entilicium:

N L A rruntius F rugi ( 2), u nder T rajan, c an, i n v iew o f h is t ribus S ergia, h ave a l ink w ith A ntioch; i s h e a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen o r a l ibertus o f A rruntius, l aticlavius, p atronus A ntiochiae P i s idiae ( PI R z— A 1 133) o r o f h is s on Cornutus ( Arruntius) Aquila C P1g2- A 1 137; S herk 1 980: 9 65), l egatus p ro p raetore ( Galatiae; a . 6 BC )? V alerius ( Iul i us?) [ Lon]gus e d t o t he a bove g roup. 3 .

A dlection

t o

( 8 ;

Is./IIIs.) m ay a lso h ave b elong-

t he S enate

I t i s e vident t hat we w ill e ncounter t he f irst s enators i n t he r anks o f t he e questrian o fficers - o r t heir d escendants - f rom A ntioch . T he p ri me c andidate i s t he C äristanii f amily - p ossibly i mm igrants f rom E truria - whose t radition o f l oyalty was a s upport t o R ome i n d istant G alatia: 5o fficers! C . C aristanius F ronto ( 13) w as a dlected t o t he s enate a fter t wo m ilitiae ( a . 7 34 ); c os. s uff. a . 9 0, h e was p resumably t he g randson o f C . C aristanius F ronto Caesianus I ulius ( 14). H e was married t o S ergia L .f. P aul l a, a s ister o f L . S ergi u s L .f. Paul l us, q uaestor; t he g ens S ergia w as a lso a w ell-known s enatorial f amily f rom A ntiochia, P isidiae ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 45). A s econd member o f t he f amily, C . Caristanius I ulianus ( 15), p roconsul A chaiae ( inter a . 9 9-102), was a d l ected t o t he s enate, p robably a fter h is m ilitae, u nder D omitian . F or f urther s enators o f t he g ens C aristania s ee H alfmann 1 982: 6 45 . A nicius Maxi mus, p roconsul P onti e t B ithyniae, i nter a . 9 8/109 ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 45-6), b elonged t o a f amily a lready r esident i n A ntioch u nder A ugustus: C . Anicius Caesianus ( 10) a nd P . Anicius M i aximus, p ri mipilaris ( Dobson 1 978: 1 88 n . 5 2). T he g ens , A nicia w as a pparently r elated t o t he g ens s enatoria F lavonia , a lso f rom A ntioch ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 45-6).

1 76

T he A ntiochian s enators r eveal a n etwork o f r elations, m arriages w ithin t he o rdo s enatorius: t he g ens Car is tania was s o t ied t o t he g ens S ergia, t he g ens A nicia t o t he g ens F lavonia ! T he A ugustan v eterans ' c olonies p roduced o ne o r t wo g enerations l ater e questrian o fficers, w hich i n t urn f urnished s enators f rom t he t i me o f V espasian/Domitian . A s f or t he n ew c itizens, t his e volution t ook p lace i n t he s econd/third c entury . 01 . C laudius S everus, c os. ( suff. a . 1 67?), c os. I I ( ord. a 1 73), w as p erhaps r elated t o C laudius S everus ( 6) 7 171 T 1fmann 1 982: 6 43) f rom P ompeiopolis. P . A elius S empronius Metrophanes, o uvRAnTLx6c ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 44), f rom A ncyra, w as p resumably t he s on o f P . A elius S empronius L ycinus ( 1), t i me o f S eptimius S everus.

D .

THE CAREER AS

EQUESTRI AN

OFFI CER

I t w ould s eem e xpedient, i n v iew o f t he p receding d iscussion, d eal w ith t he o fficers f rom A ntiochia f irst.

t o

A g ood many o f t hese h eld l ocal o ffices, which s hows t hat t hey b elonged t o t he municipal e lite: 1 0, 1 1, 1 2, 1 4, 1 7, 1 8, 2 1. I n c onnection w ith l ocal o ffices, i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he c olonia s ometimes o ffered a h onor t o t he p rovinical g overnor ( 14, T ., . q77)7 t o a m ember o f t he i mperial f amily ( 11) o r t o t he e mperor h imself ( 21); a l ocal magistrate t hen d ischarged t he d uties i nvolved, a nd b ore t he t itle o f p raefectus. Many e questrian m ilitiae d ate f rom t he p eriod b efore C laudius/ N ero, i .e. b efore t he c lassic s ystem o f t he t res m il i tiae was e stablished, a nd c onsequently d isplay s ome e xplainable a nomalies ( 11, 1 2, 1 4, 2 0, 2 1). I nsofar a s i t i s p ossible, w ith t hese e arly c areers, t o t race t he g arrison-places, i t a ppears t hat t hey u sually s erved i n t he E ast: 1 1 ( trib . l eg. - S yria), 1 2 ( praef. a lae - P isidia?), 1 4 ( trib. l eg. - S yria; p raef. c oh. - i n O riente), 2 0 ( praef. c oh. - Moesia?; t rib. l eg. - Moesia; p raef. r ipae D anuvi), 2 1 ( praef. a lae - S yria; p raef. v eteranorum S yria ; p raef. C ommag7T-1 M7 T he r emaining c areers were a lso mostly s pent i n t he E ast. C . Anicius Caesianus ( 10), t rib. l eg. i n S yria; C . I ulius P roculus ( 18), t ri b. l el . i n E gypt, l ater i uridicus A l e xandreae e t A egypti, p rocurator C appadociae e t C iliciae . T he a nonymous ( 197 w as p erhaps t rib . l eg . i n Moesia? T he c areer o f t he Cäristani s uggests t he e xistence o f s omething l ike a f amily t radition: t hree members s erved a s t ribune i n l egio X II F ul minata ( 14 - S yria; 1 5, 1 7 - C appadocia). C . Cäristanius F ronto ( 13) was t rib. m il., b ut t he u nit i s n ot m entioned; h e was p raef. a lae i n S yria; s o h e t oo c an p ossibly h ave s erved w ith l egio X II F ul minata . H is s enatorial c ursus t ook h im t o P ontus-Bithynia, B ritannia, P amphylia a nd L ycia. C .

1 77

Iulianus (15� served, as already noted, with legio �ristanius _

. I I Fu lm 1 n at a (Capp ado c 1 a ), and w as pr a ef . al a e (ubi ? ) ; a f ter adlection to the senate he became proconsul Achalae (between 98 nd 102). Another member of this branch of the family was praef. h. in Britannia (16) towards the end of the second century (?).

The career of [T. Vo] lumnius Varro (9; Claudius/Nero) corresponds osely to the early careers of Antioch: local offices, praef. coh. (Syria or Cappadocia), trib. �- (Dalmatia or Moesia). Arrunti s Frugi (2), aet. Traiani, perhaps a d escendant of a ew citizen, and because of his tribus Sergia possibly from Antioch, exercised his three militiae in Cappadocia, Armenia, the E t, and then became procurator in Britannia (LX), Cil icia (C), ..appadocia and Armenia Minor and Pontus Mediterranus (CC).

�or a nurpber of officers only the tribunate is known. Tib. audius cchus (3), from Ancyra, under Antoninus Pius, was i ply tr�b. �- in Arabia. He fits the profile of the local lite without military aspirations for which the simple tribunate in a neig bouring province was the top prize of the ordo equ s er. He was archiereus bis etc., and Galatarches. Men no doubt of similar ilk: Ti. Claudius Can di dus (4), trib. �- in Cappadocia· Claudius Severus (6), trib. �- in S yria; Valerius Iu ius?} L ngus (8), tribune. this category Ti. Claudius Heras (5) can also be ranked. allowing a prestigious career including all the major priest­ oods of Galatia, he lists his militiae: praef. coh. (ubi?), bis (Cappadocia and Arabia), donis donatus-.ib.

J�

,o officers cite their militiae in abbreviated form. G. Fabius itianus (7 ), a militiis, honours his friend, municeps e ius et 1 cu i ncompar ab il is: P. Ae l i us Sempron i us Lye i nus ( l )-:-under

eptiriiius S everu s • Th e l a t t er k n i ght o nly men t i o ns: o m nibus estribus militiis perfunctus/ornatus. He thereafter became p ocurator LX (Gallia Narbonensis, Aqu itania), C (D aci a Poro­ . issensis ), CX: (Alexandriae idiu logu), CC (Syria Palestina). He had travers dthe Imperium Romanum, and probably his son was rewarded with the ordo senatorius. striking feature of this province is that o nly 3 of the 21 officers wrote their inscription in Greek.

178

V I. A .

SYRI A

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

1 . M L A cilius A lexander, P al myr(a) ( PME A 7): P al myr(a); a .134 A pr. 2 ; c oh(ortis) I C laudiae S ugambrTj i-um) c ui p rae(e)st ( sc. p raefectus; c oh. I C laudia S ugambrorum v eterana e quitata ( ?); M oesia I nferior); c f. n . 2 ( eiusdem s tirpis), n . 1 6 ( praef. e iusdem c ohort i s). 2 . N L A cilius A cili M oci mi f ilius S ergia A /henodorus ( PME A 8 ): P almyra; I p arte Is.; I I. x EtAtapxog X Ey(LC ovoc) L ' p pu rr ic rix ic ( Syria P alaestina). I. x aL x eLXCapxos a nEtpnc a ' a rAnCaQ n eTpaZxls - n eTpa t :wy ( coh. I U lpia P etraeorum; S yria); x aTä n ä [vTa T b] T I 6XeL Cov ra d o W i l H aL U oiXöir taipLy(Pal myra); c f. n .1 ( eiusdem s tirpis), n . 2 7 ( amicus A thenodori) . 3 . T . A eliu[s---] ( PME A 1 8et a dd s:1000): P al myra; i nter a . 1 385 9/60 ; [t naPxog T GA ) ] r i apoXiloo c p Tf jç X( ; )1 PC I , ve 1Tf is ä v c oTgiPaQ(?) Awdag [ xalT5J OXEyugy c ov T oE6Twv, o t . d ru b t oo r m cho[u] C IA 7 ) T O G 0 ÜTLE UX O U TE LTIf i [X d PL V] ( Petolescu 1 979: 1 05-9; P etolescu 1 981: 4 67-8, 2 90 n .2; S EG ) O XXI 1 393: [T f i c I d ) ] p a A axCag; c f. P iso 1 985 : 4 71-481: [ TIc d t vc oTg]Pac Awdas: P al myreni s agittarii morantes P orolissi, s ed d ilecti e T ibisco, D aciae S uperioris; c f. S peidel 1 984: 2 22. 4 . A elius Maxi mus ( PME A 4 6): E itha, S yria; Is ./IIIs.?; t napxoG ( utrum c ohorti / a lae a licui a n r egioni p raefectus f uerit n on d iscernitur). 5 . Q . A emi Ii us CO. P al(atina) S ecundus ( PME A 9 0): B erytus?; a et. A ugusti; [ in] c astris d ivi A ug(usti r - q ub] P .Sulpi[c]io Q uirinio l e[gato] C [a]esaris S yriae ( cf. T homasson 1 984: 3 04 n .12) h onoribus d ecoratus : 1 . p r[a]efect(us) c ohort(is) A ug(ustae) I ( Syria); 2 . p r[a]efect(us) c ohort(is) I I c lassicae ( Syria); idem i ussu Quirini c ensum e gi A pamenae c ivitatis m illium h ominum CXVII ( a . 6 -7; c f. B alty 1 977: 17-120; T homasson 1 982: 3 05 n ot. 1 , 3 12) i dem m issu Q uirini a dversus I turaeos i n L ibano m onte c astellum e orum c epi, e t a nte m ilitiem p raefect(us) . fabrum d elatus a d uobus c o(n)s(ulibus) a d a erarium ; e t i n c olonia ( sc . B eryto) q uaestor, a edil(is) I, d uumvir I I, p ontifex; ( Aem ilii S ecundi o rti e V enetia , I taliae? c f. P ME A 9 0) . 6 . [ L i Antonius W Lf. Fab(ia) Naso ( PME A 1 39): H eliopolis; a et. N eronis; [ (centurio) l e]g . II C yrenaTE T e ( Aegyptus), [ (centurio l e]g . XIII Geminae ( Pannonia), [ honorat]us a lbata d ecursione a b imp . [ praef(ectus)] c ivitatis C olaphianorum ( Pannonia), [ pri mus] p ilus l eg. X III G em(inae) ( Pannonia), t rib. l eg. I I talic(ae) ( fortasse a .66; S ept. 2 0; a duersus A lbanos; c f. K olendo 1 977: 3 99-408), [ trib. c oh.] 1 111 v igi l um, t rib. c oh. XV u rban(ae), [ trib . c oh.] X I u rban(ae), t rib. c oh. I X p rae[t(oriae), d onatus] a b I mperator[e N erone c o]ron(a) [ valla]ri c orona a u[rea] v exillis [ duob]us h a[stis p urls] d u[a]bus, [ pri mus p ilus b is l e]g . X IV G em(inae) ( Dal matia), [ trib. c oh.] I p raet(oriae) e t p ra[ep]os itus s upra [ vetera]nos R omae m [o] r ant i um [ pl u r i u] m e xercituum

1 79

( Dobson 1 978: 2 03 n .75); p roc(urator) Aug(usti) [ Po]nto e t Mithynilae ( a. 7 9; d ucenarius; F rench 1 981: 1 49-50 n .2 = S EG X XXI 1 071 = C orsten 1 985: 8 8 n .14). 7 . M . Aurelius H ierax x ELXCapxoc ( tribunus

( PME A 2 31):

A ntiochia;

a .

2 04/205;

8 . [ Tib. C laudius Phi....-vel- P ..-..] ( PME C 1 65): P al myra; a et. A ntonini PH; I . r t apxoc a r te t ; pr ic T t pdr i-n —c — A l 3yoüc rinG e p cp . t c 7 ov L nnb ,A ) ( praef. c oh. I Augustae T hract im e quitatae; S yria P alaestina; S peidel 1 977: 7 10-11: f ortasse e adem c ohors a c c ohors I T hracu m A rabiae); I I. x ca x eLA .CapxoG X ey a 5voc t xuaL6exdtr ig f i XaouCas o t :puns ( trib. l eg. XVI F laviae F irmae; S yria): I II; x o . i . E napxoc eUnc n p ( 1 )Tnc [ O l 'AnC] ac 6 pouabapC c ov n aX i lupn[v ( Ly] ( praef. a lae I U lpiae d romedariorum P al myrenorum; S yria; c f. C IL XVI 1 06: a . 1 56/157, a la I U lpia d romedariorum n oXe ardc T f is naXuupn[v] a ) n 6[Ä]ewc. 9 . L . D idius Marinus ( PME D 8 ): S yria; c a. a . 2 00; I I. t rib. c oh . I p raetor(iae) ( sc. c oh. a uxiliaria m illiaria; u bi?); p roc(urator) f am(iliarum) g lad(iatoriarum) p er A siam , B ithyn( iam), G alat(iam), C äppadoc(iam), L yciam P amphyliam , C ilic(iam ), C yprum , P ontum , P aflag(oniam) ( sexagenarius), p roc(urator) v ectig alior(um ) [ p]opuli R (omani) q uae s unt c itra P adum ( sexagenar ius), p roc(urator) a li men[to]r(um) p er T ranspadum, H istriam [ et] L iburniam ( sexagenarius), [ pr]oc(urator) M inuciae ( Romae; s exagenarius), p roc(urator) f am(iliarum) g lad(iatoriarum) p er G allias, B ret(anniam), H isp[a]nias, G erman(ias) e t R aetiam ( sexag enarius ; P flaum 1 978: 1 73; B irley 1 981: 3 00), p roc(urato ,r) G alatiae ( centenarius), p roc(urator), p roc(urator) A ug(usti) n (ostri) p rovinc(iae) A ra[b(iae)] ( centenarius), p roc(urator) A ug[g(ustorum )] ( sc. p rovinciae A sturiae e t G allaeciae; d ucena rius; c a. a . 2 11-12), p roc(urator) A ugusti n (ostri) p rovinciae A siae ( ducenarius), e t a s acris c ognitionibus, v ir p erfectissimus ( inter a . 2 15-17; c f. E phesos, I II, 6 60E; V II, 1 , 3 051); f ortasse: p raefectus p raetorio; c larissimus v ir; p atronus C anusi-» n orum ( a. 2 33); C ornificia, f ilia Marci A urelii I mp., u xor; B owersock 1 982: 6 67 n .32. 1 0 . L . Domitius C .f. F ab(ia) Catullus ( PME D 1 7): B erytus; p arte I s .; [ p]raef(ectus) ( sc . c ivitatis, -F ör lortis?) . 1. F l avi us [ ---]nus ( PME F 3 5): v a .uap[xA GO . V TO . ( nauarchus: m — u nus i n E r i c xp l x ov ( ?) x . ( 1 )0T[n ---] .

I

S yria?; I Is./IIIs.?; r eligi one I sidis);

1 2. T . F l(avius) C laudianu[s], e x S yr(ia) Antio(chia) ( PME F 4 4): A ntiochia ; a et. S everorum; t rib(unus) mi 1i tu[ m] l eg(ii i 1 57-s ) XXII P r(im igeniae) p (iae) f (idelis) ( Germania S uperior); f ortasse n on i dem s it a c: T . F lavius A rchelaus C laudianus, l egatus Augusti, S c . i uridicus ( ?) ( IIIs.; A lföldy 1 969: 1 10), q ui f ortasse i dem s it a tque A rchelaus C laudianus, c onsularis, o rtus P hiladelphia, L vdiae ( IGR I V 1 621; B owersock 1 982: 6 68) .

1 80

1 3. F lavius L ong[us], d omo S amosata ( PME F 5 5): S amosata; a et. S eptim ii S ever i/ Caracal l ae?; t rib. m r 1E7 l eg . XX [ V(aleriae) V (ictricis)] ( Britannia);una c um f ilio L ongino v otum s olvit G enio l oci p ro s al(ute) d ominorum n (ostrorum) I nvictissi moru m A ugg(ustorum). 1 4. [ ----]a[ ] d [ome? P ]al myr(a) o rien[s?] ( PME G 2 9bis . A 3 0): [ P]al myr(a); I I p arte I Is.; p raef(ectus) caTortis) I A ug(ustae) I [tur(aeorum)?]-vel-T[hrac(um)?] ( Dacia S uperior); I nscrip Oile D aciei R omane, 11,2,348 . 1 5 . C . I ulius Av[itus] A lexianus ( PME I 3 2): Emesa; i nter a . 1 809 0; L[praef(ectus) c oh(ortis) I V-V-vel VI U lp(iae)] P etraeo[r( um)] ( Syria P alaestina?), I I. L trib(unus) l eg(ionis)---1; I II. p raef(ectus) e quitum [ alae---]; [proc(urator)] a d a nno[nam A ugg(ustorum ) O stiis] ( sexagenarius); adlectus i n ampl i ssi mum o rdinem , c larissi mus v ir ( ca. a . 1 93), p raetor ( a. 1 94), e tc. d e c ursu s enatorio v ide n unc: P flaum 1 979: 2 98-314 ( AE 1 979, 4 5, 5 17 P flaum 1 982: 6 2 n .237B; H al f mann 1 982a: 2 20-224; B irley 1 981: 3 69-70 ; T homasson 1 984: 5 2 n .41, 8 0 n .25, 9 4 n .46, 2 34 n .179, 2 99 n .29; I ulia M aesa, s oror I uliae D omnae, u xoris S epti mii S even , e rat u xor C . I ulii A viti A lexiani. N epotes: I mp. E lagabalus ( Varius Avitus) e t I mp. S everus A lexander ( Gessius B assianus A lexianus), c f. P flaum 1 979: 2 98-314; B owersock 1 982: 6 65 n .15; S ullivan 1 977: 1 98-219 . 1 6. M . I ulius M l .f. F abia P isonianus q ui e t D ion, d omo T yro ( PME I9 5): d omo T yro, metropolis P hoenices e t Coeles S yriae a et. H adriani; p raef. f abrum; I . e t p raef. c oh(ortis) C l(audiae) S ygambr(orum ) v eteranae e quitatae, q ui a Moesia I nf(eriore) Mont an(ense) p raesidio n umerum i n A sia p erduxit ( Moesia I nferior, C ästra Montanensium ; c f. S peidel 1 975: 2 05); c f. n .1 ( praef. e iusdem c ohort i s). 1 7. [ M .] I ulius M ia mi f il. F ab[i]a R ufus P api[n-vel- dianus S ent iu[s] Gemellus, d o[ m]o Ber[y]t[o] ( PME I 12): B erytus; e xeunte I s ./ineunte II S . ; p raef(ectus) c [dUrj rtis) I ] A qy[it(anorum)] c astris [ ---] ( sc . c ohors I A quitanorum v eterana e quitata e t n on: c oh . II Aquit. v eter. e q . c .R .; G er mania S uperior; v otum s olvit: I ovi O pti mn M axi mo H eliopolitano); C ästritius, C lauss 1 980: 2 00 n .15 a d C IL X III 6 658. 1 8 . L ic(innius) S abinianus ( PME L 2 3): A pamea; a et. S epti mii S even i v el p os t ea; d nä o TP ,Titr ov ( sc. a m il i tiis); n aTpög o uymAnTLxo0 ( filius s enator i s); a e T f iS t V " Anauct : ( 4 . h yydwr ig ( magistratus A pameae). 1 9 . M . S ent i us S ex. f . F ab(ia) P roculus ( PME S 25): B erytus; a et. H adriani; d ec(ur i o), I I v ir c o 1( on i ae T ; I . p raef. c oh. I T hrac(um ) S yr(iacae) e (quitatae) e t v exillat(ionis) c oh(ortis) I C i 1i c(um ) e t c oh(ortis) V II B reucor(um) ( Moesia S uperior); I I. t rib . m il. l eg. XVI F (laviae) F (irmae) ( Syria); II. p raef. a lae g em(inae) c ol ( onorum) ( Cappadocia); quaest(or) p rovinc(iae) A siae, t rib(unus) p l(ebis), p raet(or) p ereg(rinus), l eg(atus) p ro p r(aetore) p rovinciae A fricae; p atronus c oloniae; c f. D evreker

1 81

1 980: 7 6 n ot.40; H al f mann 1 979: 2 07; c f.Sex.Sentius S ex. f . F ab. P roculus, q uaestor p ro p raetore p rovinciae A siae ( Ephesos, II, 7 18 ; RE S uppl. X IV ( 1974) 6 95 n .8b, n .8c), f ortasse f rater; H alfmann 1 979: 2 07; B owersock 1 982: 6 65 n .11, n .12. 2 0 . S epti mius A lexander ( PME S 2 9): P al myra; c a. a . 2 67; o tpaTLEN ( sc . a m ilitiis); 1 75 -i lia C .f . S aturnina c oniunx .

d nö

2 1. L . S epti mius L .f. F ab(ia) Märcellus ( PME S 3 1): A radus?; m edio I s .?; t rib. l eg . I II A ug(ustae) (T LT IMidia); c f. n .22, f ilius; c f. L . S ept i mius Marcel l us ( C IL I II 1 86 = I LS 2 657 . I GL S yr. 4 015, A radus, S yria) f ratri o pti mo M . S ept i mio M .f. F ab . M ägno, c enturioni l egionum c omplurium ( cf. C IG 4 536 g . p .1179 I GL S yr. 4 016); L urcia P utiolane, u xor; L . [ Septi] m[ius M ]aximus F . Magnus, a lter f ilius; h i omnes v otum s olverunt I ovi D olicheno Aug(usto) ( CIL V III 2 622 . I up. D olich. ( P . Merlat), 2 87). 2 2 . L . S eptin nius L .f. F ab(ia) Maxi mus ( PME S 3 3): A radus?; m edio I s .?; t ribunus l eg. I II A ug(ustae); c f. n . 2 1, p ater, i bi e t i am d e f ami 1i a; p ater a c f ilius i n e adem l egione m ilita p erfuncti s int. 2 3 . P . S tatilius C .f. F ab(ia) I ustus S entianus ( PME S 6 6): H eliop olis; I I s .; d ecurio c ol(oniae); p raef. f abrum; t rib. l eg . I I T r(aianae) f ort(is) ( Aegyptus); H alfmann 1 979: 2 11-12 ; S tatilii, s enatores, f ortasse e S yria o rti. 2 4.

( ---) S everus ( PME S 1 02):

'A ox aC wv o g

S yria?;

x c LA .C a px d-g- Tfil mu t pi .En

I I

s ./III

twi X oT cL uA o at o

s .?; ( sc.

Ec ouf i po G

t ribunus

l egionis/cohortis?). 2 5 . [M]arcus U lp i u[ s Abga]rus ( PME U 3 ): P al myra; a . 1 41; g napxos n aXuupev c 1 3 [y T O] .0 -tii-)V XCLL yE p[ 7 :7 7 ] ( praefectus s agittari orum P al myrenorum; P orol i ssum, D acia); c f. P iso 1 985: 4 80 n ot. 3 0 ; P etolescu 1 981: 4 68; p ater: T aimarsö; u nus f iliorum c enturio . f uit; h omonymus: A E 1 947, 1 75 . 2 6 .

N L

U lpius Antiochianus P ulcher, d omo H emesa ( PME U 6 ): a . 1 62-8; I I. t ribunus m il. l eg. V II CeTT (inae) f el(icis) ( Hi s pan i a; L e Roux 1 982: 3 07 n .30); I I. e t I II A ug(ustae) ( Numidia); t itulus p ositus e st a . 1 68 N ov. 1 2 ( Thebae A egyptii s); P ulcher f ortasse c um , e x-tribuno, e x A frica i n S yriam r everteretur, i nspexit T hebarum monumenta . l i rr ies a;

c a.

2 7 . N L U lpius Malchus ( PME U 1 2): P al myra; • I p arte Is.; T ä(Q ) T pEtc L nnt .x c ic c y rocu reCac t ribus m ilitiis); c f. n .2 ( amicus M älchi). 2 8 . C . V alerius T . f . F ab(ia) Rufus ( PME V 3 1): B erytus; c a. a . 12-20; h onor(ibus) d ecurionalib(us) — ( 7 7-n (atus) d ec(reto) d ec( urionum); I . p raef. c oh. V I p raetor(iae) ( Bithynia); I. t r. m il. l eg. V II C l(audiae) p (iae) f (idelis), m issus c um v exillo a b I mp . N erva T raiano o ptumo A ug(usto) G er(manico) D acico P arth(ico) C yprum i n e xpeditionem ( a. 1 16/117); II. p raef. a lae G aet-

1 82

ulor(um) (Sy r i a? Ar abi a?); - pr ae f. Im p. Caesar i s Tran i(s ic) Hadriani Au g(us t i ) p(atr i s ) p(at r i a e), II v ir al i pot e stat(e) f(unctus) . 29. [---], AE 1957, 3 1 (PME Inc. 5 1 ) : v a l d e incertum : [t]r(i bunu s?) 1(itum) le g(i O nTsl V M[aCed(0 n iCae)?] [e X Ci]V ( i tate) Silia Suriae?

m"T

30. [---], IGL Syr. III, 2, l l 8 8 (PME Inc • 6 8) : 5 e l e uc i a?; ae t'. Hadriani vel postea; I.[fnapxoc cmiion� ---]uoL.avwv (praef. coh. ---usianOrum); II. X E LA L apx O C A£ y £ WV OC [---] (tr ib • le g i O n i s) 7 : III. [fnaoxoc] cCATlC 'Hpax>..L.c.i.rnxfic (praef. alae I Thracum Herl· culaniae; Syria?); III./IV. �napxoc [cC>..nc---] (praef. a·lae quin­ genariae-vel-milliariae?) . 31. [---] , AE l 9 4 0, l 73 (PME Inc. 7 l ) : Palm y r a?; c a. a l 40/14 l ; [--- XEL.ALO.PXOC >..] cycwvoc -�£"Cci[p"CT')C txu]�hx[f}c] (trib. le g. IV Scythicae; Syria).

B. CHRONOLcx:;ICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

i) j) k) l)

Ant ioch ia: 7 (a • 2 04/205); l 2 (a e t. Se ve r or um ) Apamea: 1 8 ( ae t. Se p t. Se v. ve l po s te a) Ar adus: 21?, 22? (medic I Is.?) Be r y t u s : 5? (ae t • Au g u s t i); 1 0( I p art e Is.); 17 (e x . Ils./in. Ills.); 19 (aet. Hadriani); 28 (ea. a. 112120) Eitha: 4 (Ils./Ills.?) F.mesa: l 5 (i nt er a. 180 - l 9 0); 2 6 (ca. a. l 62 - l 6 8) He I iopo I is: 6 ( ae t. Nero n i s); 23 ( I I s.) Pa Imy r a : l ( a. l 34); 2 (I p ar t e IIs .); 3 ( in t e r a. 1 3 8 159/60); 8 (aet. Ant. Pii); 14 (II p arte I Is.); 20 (ea. a. 267); 25 (a. 141), 27 (I p arte IIs.); 31? (ea. a. 140/141) Samosata: l 3 (a e t . 5 e p t • S e v./Ca r a c all ae ?) Se I euc i a: 30 ? (a e t. Hadr. ve l p o s t e a) Ty r us: 16 (aet. Hadrian i) 9 (ea. a. 200); 1 1? (IIs./IIIs.?); 24? (Ils./Ills.?); 29?: Syria

Bertys and Heliopolis, both Augustan colonies, provided the first equestrian officers: under Augustus/Nero (5?, 6, 10).

This trend persisted in the period Trajan/Antoninus Pius: Berytus (28, 19), Heliopolis (23). But the im port ance of Palmyra now become s c l e a r ( l , 2, 3 , 8 , 2 5 , 2 7, 3 l ? ) . A f e w e q u e s t r i a n off icers come from Ar ad u s (21? , 22?), Ty ru s ( l 6), Se I e u c i a (30?).Emesa produced two officers (15, 26), under Marcus Aurelius and Comnodus. Pal m y r a too has an off ice r (14). Antiochia (7, 12), Apamea (18), Berytu s (17), Samosata (13), Pa Imyra (2 O ) are re presented in the period 5 e v eri/th ird centu r y •

1& 3

B erytus was a lready u nder s trong R oman i nfluence t owards t he e nd o f t he R epublic . I t w as t he o bvious l ocation f or t he f irst R oman c olonia ( Lauffray 1 977: 1 46-7). T hese c olonists - I talici? w ill n ormally p rovide t he f irst e questrian o fficers. T he s econd i mportant t own ( from t he s econd c entury) f or t he r ecruitment o f e questrian o fficers was P al myra ( Lifshitz 1 977: 2 3-5; D rijvers 1 977: 8 37-863). A n o asis b etween S yria a nd B abyl onia, t he t own owed i ts e normous w ealth t o t he t ransit-trade b etween t hose t wo r egions. I t c ontrolled t he c aravan-routes a nd r eached t he a pex o f i ts e conomic p rosperity i n t he s econd c ent ury . P al myra was t hus a n i deal b reeding-ground f or t he o rdo e quester. T he t own was o riginally i ndependent, b ut w as a nnexed b y R ome a nd b ecame a c ivitas s tipendiaria u nder T iberius. H adrian - p resumably o n t he o ccasion o f h is v isit i n 1 29 - g rante d i t t he s tatus o f c ivitas l ibera; i n g ratitude P al myra a dded H adriana t o i ts n ame. U nder t he S even i i t b ecame a c olonia. T hus we s ee t hat f rom H adrian e questrian o fficers f rom P al myra e nter t he r anks o f t he R oman a r my. T hey h eld two s ignificant t rumps t o a id t hem i n t heir m ilitary r ole: 1 . t heir r enowned a rchers ( 3, 2 5): P al myreni s agittarii; 2 . t heir d esert e xperi ence ( Bowersock 1 982: 77r ): a dapted t o t he c limate a nd d eprivat ion, t heir e xperience w ith c amels: p raefectus a lae I U lpiae d romedariorum P al myrenorum ( 8) . C.

SOCI AL

ORI GINS

AND

STRATIFI CATI ON

T he o nomastics o f t he e questrian o fficers f rom S yria l ook l ike t his: 1 6 b ear a n i mperial n omen g enti 1i cium; o f 5 t he n omen i s u nknown; 1 0 h ave a n on-i mperial n omen g entilicium . 1 .

T he c olonists

O f t he 1 0 o fficers w ith a n on-imperial n omen g entilicium f our c an b e s ituated i n Berytus ( 5, 1 0, 1 9, 2 8) a nd t wo i n H eliopolis ( 6, 2 3). I t s eems n o a ccident t hat t his o nomastic material i s t o b e . f ound p recisely i n t he A ugustan c olonies B erytus a nd H eliopolis. Berytus merits o ur p articular a ttention b ecause t he c olonists o f H eliopolis p robably were i nitially d ependent o n t he c olonia B erytus ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 62 n ot. 6 0) . B oth f oundations b elonged t o t he t ribus F abia, t he t ribus o f t he I ulii. a )

B erytus

( Lauffray

1 977:

1 45-8).

-Q . Aemi 1i us CO. P al(atina) S ecundus ( 5), a et. A ugusti, w as p resumably o ne o f t he f irst c olonists i n B erytus. H is f am ily s eems t o h ave h ad i ts r oots i n V enetia, I taly . H e d id h is m ilitary s ervice i n S yria, w as c harged b y t he g overnor P . S ulpicius Q uirinius ( a. 6 ) w ith t aking t he c ensus a t A pamea, a nd h eld l ocal h onours a t B erytus. H e b elongs t o t he t ribus P a l at i na, a nd n ot t o t he Fab i a, which i s B eryt—u —s T f— F roTr ab T77 -f— w as h is I talian t rib — u s— . -- -L . Domitius C .f. p raef. ( in B erytus?

F ab(ia) Catullus ( 10; I p arte I s.) was o r a m ilitary a ppointment?) . R egistered

1 84

i n t he t ribus F abia c olonists.

h e may

h ave

b een

o ne o f

t he e arliest

-N L S entius S ex .f. Fab(ia) P roculus ( 19, a et. V esp./Hadr.) w as d ecurio, Ivir, p atronus c oloniae o f B erytus a nd p erhaps a d escendant o f a c olonist. A fter t he t res m ilitiae h e w as a dlected t o t he s enate ( by V espasian? B owersock 1 982: 6 65 n .11) a nd was o ne o f t he f irst S yrian s enators. -C . Valerius T .f. Fab( i a) Rufus ( 28; c a. a . 12-120), p resumably d escendant f rom a c olonist, h onoured b y t he d ecuriones o f B erytus. A fter h is r ather meritorious t res m ilitiae h e d eputises f or t he emperor i n t he t own: p raef. I mp . Caesar i s T rani ( sic) Hadriani Auz(usti) p (a7T-T 7 P (äiriaj), I v irali p otestairjr f ( inctus) . b )

H eliopolis - [ L.] Antonius M .f. Fab(ia) N aso ( 6; a et. N eronis), r egist ered i n t he t ribus F abia, may h ave b elonged t o t he s econd g eneration o f c olonists i n H eliopolis. H e p ursued a s c ent urio a b rilliant c areer i n t he E ast a nd o n t he D anube . -P . S tatilius C .f. F ab(ia) I ustus S entianus ( 23; I Is.) was d ecurio c oloniae, p raef. f abrum a nd t rib . l eg. i n E gypt; h e t oo may p resumably b e r egarded a s t he d escendant o f a c olon ist. A member o f t he municpal e lite, h e p robably was c ontent w ith a l egionary t ribunate i n t he E ast.

2 . T here r emain f our more o fficers, b earers o f a n on-i mperial n o r ren g entilicium : -M . Acilius A lexander, P al myr(a) ( 1; a .

1 34).

-M . Aci 1i us Acili Moci mi f ilius S ergia A thenodorus ( 2; I p arte us.), a lso o f P al myra, w as c ertainly a m ember o f t he s ame f amily . Was A thenodorus a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen, A cilius Moci mms? H e was r egistered i n t he t ribus S ergia, t he t ribus o f t he A elii. -L . D idius Marinus ( 9; c a. a . 2 00) h ad a n o utstanding c areer a s p rocurator, s erving t hroughout t he Empire. H e r f i arried a d aughter o f Marcus A urelius, b ecame p raefectus p raetorio, a nd e ntered t he s enate. H e was p resumably a d escendant o f an ew c itizen; h is c ognomen Marinus s uggests A rabian o rigin ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 67 n .32). -L ic(inius) S abinianus ( 18; a et. S ept. S ev.), a m ilitiis, A pamean magistrate, s on o f a s enator, me mber o f t he m unicipal e lite, p erhaps a d escendant o f a n ew c itizen? A C . Li c i n iu s Mucianus was g overnor o f S yria a . 6 7/69 ( Thomasson 1 984: 3 07 n .28).

1 85

3 .

N ew c itizens

( ?) w ith a n

i mperial

n omen g entilicium :

- I ulii: N L I ulius N Lf. P isonianus q ui e t D ion, d omo T yro ( etc.; 1 6; H adrian) b elonged t o t he t ribus Fabia, t hat o f t he I ulii. H e may h ave b een r elate-a— T U— L M U— T Ulius N Lf. F abia Rufus P api[n/ dianus S entius Gemellus, d omo Beryto ( 17; e x . I Is./in. IIs.), who i n t urn may h ave b een a n a dopted member o f t he g ens S entia f rom Berytus ( 19). C . I ulius Avitus A lexianus ( 15; a . 1 80-190), o f Emesa, was m arried t o I ulia Maesa, s ister o f I ulia D omna, w ife o f S eptimius S everus. -C laudii: T ib . C laudius P hi.— ( 8; A nt. P ius), P almyra, e xercised t he t res m ilitiae i n S yria .

c itizen o f

-F lavii: u nder t he S even i T . F lavius C l audianus, e x S yr(ia) A ntio(chia) ( 12) a nd F lavius L on eus], d omo S amosate ( 13), b oth t rib. l eg., t he f irst i n U pper Germany, t he s econd i n B ritain. A t hird F lavius ( 11) o ffers f ew c ertain d ata. -U lpii: M . U lpius T raianus, t he emperor's f ather, was g overnor i n S yria ( a. 7 4/76 o r 7 3/77?). A re t he t hree M . U lpii, S yrian o fficers, d escendants o f n ew c itizens o f t he g overnor o r o f t he Emperor T rajan h i mself? M . U lpius A bgarus ( 25; a . 1 41, P al myra) was p erhaps h i mself a n ew c itizen, s ince h is f ather's n ame was Tai mars6 . M . U lpius N älchus ( 27; I p arte I Is.) was a lso f rom P al myra . M . U lpius A ntiochianus P ulcher, d omo H emesa ( 26; c a.a. 1 62/.168) b el onged t o t his g roup a s w ell. -A elii: T . A elius [ ---] ( 3; i nter a . 1 38-159/60); Aelius N äximus ( 4?) . T he Emperor H adrian, P . A elius H adrianus, h ad b een g overnor o f S yria i n 17 . -A urelii: N L A urelius H ierax ( 7; a . 2 04/205), o f A ntioch; . h is c itizenship g oes b ack t o M . A urelius.

-S eptimdi: S epti mius A lexander ( 20; a . 2 67, P al myra) may b e ad escendant o f an ew c itizen o f S ept i mius S everus. O f L . S epti mius Marcel l us ( 21) a nd h is s on, Maxi mus ( 22), b oth t rib . l eg., we c annot s ay f or s ure whether t he f ami l y r ec eived t he c itizenship f rom S eptimius S everus. ***

T he S yrians must h ave b een p roud o f t heir o rigins, a lways w hen t hey s et u p a n i nscription o utside S yria c itly m entioned t heir o rigo: -

P almyr(a) ( 1; D acia) e x S yr(ia) A ntio(chia) ( 12; G ermania S uperior) d omo S amosata ( 13; B ritannia) . d [omo? P lal myr(a) o rien[s?] ( 14 ; D acia) d omo T yro,metropolis P hoenices e t C oeles S yriae

1 86

f or a l most t hey e xpli-

( 16;

A sia)

-d o[m]o B er[y]t[o] ( 17; G ermania S uperior) -d omo H emesa ( 26 ; A egyptus) -[ ex c i]v(itate) S ilia S uriae? ( 29; Moesia?) 4 .

A dlection

t o

t he S enate

I t i s t he A ugustan c olonia B erytus t hat p roduced t he f irst e quest rian o fficers a s w eil a s t he f irst s enator t o a scend v ia t he m ilitiae equestres: M . S entius P roculus ( 19), p erhaps a dlected b y V espasian. T he d escendants o f n ew c itizens o nly e nter i nto c onsideration a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury. Two i llustrious i nstances a re k nown o f f ormer e questrian o fficers w ho m ade i t t o t he i mperial c ourt t hrough marriage . - C . I ul i us Avitus A lexianus ( 15), o f Emesa, a dlected b y S eptim ius S everus a fter t he t res m il i tiae a nd a p rocuratela ( clarissimus v ir, c a. a . 1 93, p raetor a . 1 94). A lexianus was s urely a d escendant o f a r elative o f t he r oyal h ouse o f Emesa ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 53, 6 65 n .14, n .15). I n v iew o f h is e ugeneia, h is l oyal s ervice, h is S yrian o rigin, h e was a s uitable h usband f or I ulia Maesa, t he s ister o f I ulia D omna, w ife o f S epti mius S everus . H is g randsons were t he Emperor E lagabalus ( Varius Avitus) a nd t he Emperor S everus A lexander ( Gessius B assianus A lexianus). - L . Didius hkarinus ( 9), p resumably o f S yrian o rigin ( Bowersock 1 982 : 6 53 n ot.5, 6 67), went f rom t he p raefectura c ohort i s o n t o a n o utstanding p rocuratorial c areer, i n which h e t raversed t he whole Empire. H e was p robably t he c larissi mus v ir o f t he y ear 2 33 ( C IL I X 3 38 = I LS 6 121; P IR 2 D 7 1). H is b rilliant c ursus a s p rocurator c an p resumably b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat u nder S eptim ius S everus' r eign h e wea o ne o f t he d aughters o f t he l ate Emperor Marcus A urelius, n amely C ornificia ( Pflaum 1 960 : 9 96-7) . B owersock ( 1982: 6 67 n .39) s uggests t hat [ L .? S lept(i mius) L .fil. Märia[nus?] ( PME S 3 2 ; C IL V I 1 630), a dlected t o t he s enate a fter r n ilitiae a nd p rocuratelae ( Pf l aum 1 960: n . 3 00), may h ave c ome f rom P al myra: " Name s uggests A rab, p erhaps P almyrene o rigin" . P . S tatilius I ustus S entianus ( 23) o f H eliopolis m ay b e l inked t o t he s enatorial S tatilii, who may s tem f rom H eliopolis ( Halfmann 1 979 : 211-12). T . F lavius C laudianus, c os. a nn. i ncert. ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 68), c annot b e c onnected w ith h is h omonym ( 12), t rib. m il., e x S yr. Antio. L icinius S abinianus ( 18) o f A pamea i s p erhaps t he s on o f a s enat or.

1 87

D . 1 .

THE CAREER AS T he e arliest

EQUESTRI AN

c areers

OFFI CER

,

T he e arliest c areer i s t hat o f a n I talian c olonist f rom t he A ugustan c olony B erytus: Q . Aemi Ii us S ecundus ( 5). H e s erved i n c astris d ivi Augusti, u nder t he g overnorship o f P . S ulpicius Q uirinius, was t wice p raef. c oh. i n S yria, was c harged w ith t aking t he c ensus i n A pamea, c ommanded a m ilitary o peration a gainst t he I turaei i n which h e was s uccessful. Earlier h e w as a lso p raef. f abrum . H e p ursued t he l ocal c ursus h onoru m i n h is c olonia, B erytus, a nd h eld t he p ontificate t here. A t rJ ly o uts tanding r ecord. T he c areer o f L . A ntonius Naso ( 6; N ero), p robably a H eliopölitan c olonist, s hows u s a c enturio i n E gypt, t hen P annonia w here h e i s p romoted t o p rimus p ilus . N ero c alls o n t his e xperienced o fficer t o s erve a s a s taff o fficer o f a n ew ly f ormed l egion , I I talica . H is b rilliant c areer a s p ri mipilaris i s f inally c rowned w ith t he p ost o f p rocurator CC i n P ontus-Bithynia . 2 .

T he

t res m ilitiae

T he e arliest a ttested o fficers t o h ave t raversed t he t res m ilit iae c ome f rom B erytus - w here t he c olonist m entality l ived o n ! N L S entius P roculus ( 19) h eld l ocal o ffice i n t he c olonia, w as p raef. c oh. ( twice i n Moesia S uperior), t rib . l eg. ( Syria) a nd p raef. a lae ( Cappadocia). H e b ecame t he f irst s enator o f B erytus: q uaestor i n A sia a nd l egatus p ro p r. p rov. A fricae. C . V alerius Rufus ( 28) e xercised, a fter l ocal h onores i n Berytus, t he t res m ilitiae ( ca. a . 1 12-20): p raef. c oh. i n B ithynia, t rib. l eg . i n Moesia ( and s ent o n a n e xpedition t o Cyprus w ith a v exillatio), p raef. a lae p robably i n S yria o r A rabia? T he f irst g eneration o f v iri m ilitares, t hen, i s m ade u p o f d escendants o f c olonists. I n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury d escendants o f n ew c itizens a ppear o n t he s cene. T ib. C laudius P hi. — ( 8; Ant. P ius), f rom P almyra, t hat f lourishing c ivitas l ibera, was p resumably r ewarded f or h is k nowledge o f t he E ast: I . ( Syria P alaestina o r Arabia), I. ( Syria), II. p raef. a lae ( Syria) I U lpiae d romedariorum P almyrenorum : w ho b ut a P al myrene f amiliar w ith t he d esert c ould c ommand t his u nit? T he c areer o f C . I ul i us Avitus A lexianus ( 15; a . 1 80-90) i s i nsufficiently d ocumented f or t he t res m ilitiae d ue t o t he f ragm entary n ature o f t he i nscription: p raef. c oh. ( Syria Palaesti na?), t rib . l eg. ( ubi?), p raef. a lae ( ubi?). H e was t hen p roc urator LX i n O stia. T here f ollows h is a dlection t o t he s enate w ith a n o utstanding c ursus t hanks t o h is marriage t o l ulia M aesa, s ister-in-law o f S epti mius S everus. F inally w e h ave t he f ragmentary c areer o f t he a nonymus ( 30), w ith n o d etails. N or a re t he g arrison p laces o f N L U lpius N ialchus ( 27) k nown: T6 l( ) TOE tr , : L . 3,. a . go Tr iaTc

1 88

3 .

T he

i ncomplete m ilitiae

- P raefecti

c ohortis:

-N L Aci 1i us A lexander, P alm/r(a) ( 1; a . 1 34), mentioned i n a d iploma m ilitare a s p raef. c oh . i n Moesia I nferior -T . Aeliu[s---] ( 3) a cts a s p raefectus o f t he r enowned P almyreni s agittarii i n D acia -L . Domitius Catullus ( 10) a nd -F lavius [ ---]nus ( 11) may h ave b een p raef. c oh . - [ -- G aemellus ( 14), p raef. c oh. i n D acia S uperior -N L I ulius P isonianus ( 16), p raef. f abr., p raef. c oh. i n M besia I nferior, l eads a n umerus t o A sia -N L I ulius Rufus e tc . ( 17), p raef. c oh. i n G er mania S uperi or -N L U lpius Abgarus ( 25; a . 1 41), p raef. o f t he P al myreni s agittarii i n D acia. - T ribuni

l egionis/cohortis:

-N L Aci 1i us A thenodorus ( 2), o f P al myra, I p arte I fs., was t rib . l eg. ( Syria P alaestina) a nd t ribune o f t he c ohors I U lpia P etraeorum i n S yria -N L Aurelius H ierax ( 7; a . 2 04-5), t ribunus ( ubi?) -L . D idius Marinus ( 9), t rib. c oh. ( ubi?); o utstanding c areer a s p rocurator, e nding a s s enator ( see a bove) -T . F lavius C laudianus ( 12; a et. S everorum), t rib. l eg. i n G ermania S uperior -F lavius Lon[gus] ( 13; a et. S ept. S ev.?), t rib. l eg. i n B ritannia -L . S epti mius Marcel l us ( 21) a nd h is s on, p erhaps f rom A radus(?) -L . S epti mius Maxi mus ( 22), b oth t rib . l eg . i n N umidia -P . S tati i us l ustus S entianus ( 23), o f H eliopolis, d ecurio c oloniae, p raef. f abr. a nd t rib. l eg. i n E gypt ( second c entury) -N L U lpius Antiochianus P ulcher, d omy H emesa ( 26; c a. a . 1 62-168), t rib . l eg . i n S pain a nd a gain i n N umidia - t he a nonymous ( 31) was t rib. l eg. i n S yria c a. 1 40/141. Two o fficers, f inally, u se t he f ormula dnö o TpaTELEN(a m ilitiis) ( 18, 2 0) w ithout f urther d etails c oncerning t he n umber o f p osts a nd/or t he g arrisons s erved i n . I t i s s triking t hat t he S yrians, more t han t he o ther O rientals, a re a lso p osted t o p oints West a nd o n t he D anube; c learly t hey w ere m ore mobi l e; i n a ny e vent, a s h as a lready b een o bserved, t hey u sually d raw a ttention t o t heir o rigo i n t heir i nscriptions o utside S yria.

1 89

V II.

I UDAEA

1 . [ T. F lavius] I uncus ( PME F 5 2bis = A81) : c olonia F lavia N eapolis S amaria ( ?), a et:— T 7aiani/Hadriani; I . p raef. c oh . I P annoniorum ( Aegyptus); I. t rib. c ohort i s V Gemellae c ivium R omanorum ( Iudaea, P alaestina); I I. t ribunus l eg. X F retensis ( Iudaea , P alaestina); I II. p raef. a lae Gallor(um) v eteranor(um) ( Syria v el A egyptus); donatus a b I mp . T raiano i n b ello P arthico h asta p ura e t c orona v allari ( a . 1 14-7; p raef. c ohortis?); p roc(urator) C ilic(iae) e t C ypri ( centenarius; s ub H adriano), i uridicus A lexandreae a d Aegyptum ( ducenarius), p roc(urator) p rovinc(iae) A siae; E phesos, V II, 2 , 4 112; U alf mann 1 979: 1 45-6 n . 5 5, n . 5 5a, c f. n . 7 9, n . 1 20; c f. I G I I 4 512 ( Athenis); P . T ebt. I, 2 86 . C hrest. ( L . M itteis), 8 3; c f. E phesos, I II, 7 13 e t A dd.: 1 9, e t H alf mann 1 979: 1 45-6 n .55 a dnot. : i dem a tque F lavius I uncus, q ui u na c um U lpio P roculo, i n t itulo E phesio, h onorat Q . P ompeium F alconem, p roconsulem A siae ( a . 1 23-124); a nonyma, f ilia v el s oror n atu major L .Aemi 1ii I unci ( cos. a . 1 27), c oniunx [ T . F lavii] I unci; d e A emiliis I uncis ( Tripolis, S yria), c f. H alfmann 1 979: 1 45-6.

O nly o ne e questrian o fficer c omes f rom I udaea. H is c areer was s pent e xclusively i n t he E ast: t he t res m ilitiae i n E gypt, I udaea, a nd S yria/Egypt, d ecorated b y T rajan, p rocurator i n C ilicia a nd Cyprus, i uridicus A lexandreae a d Aegyptum a nd p roc urator o f A sia . T hrough m arriage h e w as r elated t o t he A em ilii I unci o f T ripolis ( Syria): h e wed t he d aughter o r e lder s ister o f L . A emilius I uncus ( cos. a . 1 27; B owersock 1 982: 6 66 n . 2 7). I t s eems a t f irst g lance s urprising t hat s uch a n i mportant a nd u rbanised p rovince a s I udaea/Syria P alaestina p roduced o nly o ne e questrian o fficer, a nd n ot a s ingle s enator ( Bowersock 1 982: . 6 55; T i. I ulius I ulianus A lexander, c os. s uff. a . 1 26, a h elleni sed J ew f rom A lexandria a d A egyptum; B owersock 1 982: 6 56 n ot. 2 1; H alfmann 1 979: 1 43 n .5 7 . P ossibly r eligious m otives o n t he p art o f t he J ews t hemselves w ere r esponsible f or t heir h atred o f R oman a uthority . B ut o n t he o ther h and t he J ews w ere s uspect i n t he e yes o f R ome a nd i t may well h ave b een d eliberate p olicy o n t he p art o f t he R omans t o d iscriminate a gainst J ews f rom I udaea . H ellenised J ews i n t he d iaspora, h owever, were o pen t o i ntegrat ion ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 56, 6 58) .

1 90

V III. A .

ARABI A

PROSOPOGRAPH I A

L Aurel(ius) I ulianus ( PME A 2 34): G erasis, medio i lls.; d u t6 o tpaTeLi by ( a m ilitiis); --5 77 yLaTf ic, n c itpwv " C ' Q 1 6 .X .E c oG ( logistes e t p atronus; h onoratus a s enatu G eraseno). 2 . Cassius T i motheus ( PME C 9 8): P hilippopolis; a et. P hilippi; ä r t6 e . (Eve)(p(LxLapi ,ou ) ( 77 — b eneficiario); n eTEUTop ( sc. p etitor m ilitiae equestris); c f. Magioncalda 1 982 : 2 18-9 n ot. 2 56: t itulus p ositus a C assio T i motheo f ilio C . I ulii P risci, p raefect i Mesopotamiae, eminentissi mi v iri, p raefecti p raetorio . 3 . F l(avius) V erus ( PME F 8 3): A rabia?; a . 2 61-264; & p u .T b itwy ( architectus o perum q -j a-e A drahae muniendae f acta s unt); - 6 716 0 TP(aTELGA )) ( a m ilitiis). 4 . C . F urius S abinius Aquila T i mesitheus ( PME F 9 9): A rabia?; c a. a . 2 15; I . p raef. c oh. I G allic(ae) i n -HTipan(ia); - p roc(u rator ) r ati on(is) p rivat(ae) per B elgic( am) e t d uas G erm(anias)(sexagenarius); p roc(urator) p rov(inciae) A rabiae i bi v ice p raesid(is) b is ( centenarius; a . 2 21-222); p roc(urator) i n u rbe m agister X X ( sc . h ereditatium) i bi l ogista t hymelae ( ducena rius); p roc(urator) p rov(inciae) S yriae P alaestinae i bi e xactor r eliquor(um ) a nnon(ae) s acrae e xpeditionis ( bello P arthico S eveni A lexandri, a . 2 32); p roc(urator) p atri mon(i) p rov(inciarum) B elg ic(ae) e t d uarum G ermaniar(um) i bi v ice p raesid(is) p rov(inciae) G erman(iae) I nferior(is); p roc(urator) p rov(inciae) B ithyniae P onti P aphlagon[iae] t am p atri moni q uam r at(ionis) p rivata[e] i bi v ice p roc(uratoris) XXXX i tem v ice < proc(onsulis)> ( aet. Maxi m . T hracis); p roc(urator) p rov(inciae) A siae i bi v ice XX e t XXXX i temq(ue) v ice p rocos.; p roc(urator) p rov(inciarum) L ugud(unens is) e t Aquit(anicae); p raef(ectus) p raetorio; eminent is si mus v ir; I GL S yr. X III, 1 , 9 019 . AE 1 936, 1 51; T homasson 1 984: 5 9 n . 1 02, 2 35 n . 1 89, 3 32 n . 2 3; I mp. G ordianus II d uxit f iliam T imesithei e t e um p raefectum p raetorio s tati m f ecit ( a . 2 41) . 5 . I ul(ius) Cyri 1l us C yrillus p raepositus A em illio Aemi 1Ii ano, 1 984: 3 34 n . 3 6); ä nä 9 108, 9 109 = AE 1 973,

( PME I 5 3): A rabia?; c a. a . 2 68-278; I ulius o pen a licui ( a. 2 78/279; a . 2 82/283), p raeside A rabiae ( a. 2 82-283; T homasson G ipaTtAly(a m ilitiis); I GL S yr. X III, 1 , 5 50.. •

6 . M . U lpius Andromachus, U lpii D iogenis f ilius ( PME U 5 ) : P etra?, I Is.?, t napxoc cUnc ß ' A üpLäynG ( praef. a lae-Tr Ulpiae A urianae ; Cappadocia; d ecuriones, 6 Ex c i8apxoL, p osuerunt p raef ecto). B .

CQVMENTARY

T he m eagre e vidence - a l most e xclusively f rom t he t hird c entury c an b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat A rabia o nly o fficially b ecame a n i mperial p rovince i n 11 ( Bowersock 1 983: 8 2-9). F urthermore, A rabia r emained, d espite t he f act t hat i t h ad o ne l egion, o utside

1 91

t he mainstream o f e vents i n t he E ast. O nly i n t he t hird c entury d id i t b ecome i nvolved i n t he d efence o f t he e astern empire, e specially u nder D iocletian a nd C onstantine . T his s ituation o fficers.

i s

r eflected

i n

t he e vidence

o n

t he e questrian

O ne o fficer c an p erhaps b e s ituated i n t he s econd c entury: M U lpius Andromachus, U lpii D iogenis f ilius ( 6), p raef. a lae i n C appadocia . H e c ould b e d escended f rom a n ew c itizen o f T rajan 's ( M . U lpius!). H is s ervice - a s f ar a s w e k now - was a ll i n t he E ast. O f t he f ive r emaining o fficers - w ith t he e xception o f T i mesit heus ( 4) - l ittle i s t o b e g leaned f rom t he s ummary mention o f t heir c areers: Aurel(ius) I ulianus ( 1), F l(avius) V erus ( 3), I ul(ius) Cyril l us ( 5) a re a ll ä r tä O TOWL T EL E N , i .e. a m i 1it i i s. I ul(ius) Cyr i1l us ( 5) i s t o my k nowledge t he l ast t o u se t he f ormula 6 7 .6 OT P aT EL COV, n amely i n 2 82-283 ( AE 1 973, 5 50) . Cassius T imotheus ( 2; a et. P hilippi) i s an ice e xample t o i llustrate t he d ecline o f t he c lassic s ystem o f t he m il i tiae. H e was a n e x b eneficiario, d e f acto a s oldier f irst c lass who a spired t o t he e questrian m ilitia: p etitor m ilitiae e questris ( PME A 2 24, A 2 27 e tc., s ee D evijver, PME, I II. I ndices: 1 244, s .v. m i 1it iae p etit or). O nly o n t he c ursus o f C . F urius S abinius Aquila T i mesitheus ( 4) a re we i nf o r med i n more d etail. T i mesitheus was p resumably a n A rab ( PIR II F 5 81), s urely a n O rientalis ( Pflaum 1 960: 8 20-1). A fter a p raefectura c ohortis i n S pain h e embarks o n ab rilliant c areer, eminently p ortrayed b y t he l ate l amented P flaum ( 1960: 8 11-21). F rom t he o utset h e e njoyed t he f avour o f t he S yrian p rincesses, t he g randmother a nd mother o f S everus A lexander. H e w as t he c olleague o f C . I ulius P riscus, b rother o f t he f uture E mperor P hilippus A rabs. T i mesitheus' d aughter wed t he y oung Emperor Gordian II u pon which t he f ather i mmediately r ose t o . p raefectus p raetorio . H e b ecame t he m ost i nfluential man o f t he emperor's e ntourage . H e d ied o n c ampaign a nd w as r eplaced b y M . I ulius P hilippus, t he A rab f rom S hahba ( Bowersock 1 983: 1 23). A gain we e ncounter h ere a v eritable web o f r elati ons a nd m arriage. N o A rabs a re k nown t o h ave g ained t he s enate, j ust l ike t he J ews: " The J ews were s uspect a nd f ractious, a nd t he A rabs o utside o f S yria w ere m arginal" ( Bowersock 1 982: 6 56) .

1 92

I X. A .

AEGYPTUS

PROSOPOGRAPH IA

1 . A I 1i us H ermolaus ( PME A 1 07): A egyptus; a . 1 89-90 ; x cLÄLc ipxou k ey t ,i i )voc 'T patarf ic ri oxupac ;A egyptus; c f. P . Washington U niv. I , 3 = N elson 1 979: 6 8-73; H agedorn 1 984: 8 7-90 ( epikrisis, Oxyrhynchus, A egyptus). 2 . M . A urel i us Corel Ii us A lexander ( PME A 2 21): H ermopol i s; c a . a . 2 60; L iu tLxo i 3 a tpa . -r i -C ov, i .e. e ques R omanus, a m i 1it i i s; E i )enyLap mf l oavto5 y ouvaoLd tpxou ( 3 0Lacuto0 v ewx6pou T O G gV T aG e a 1 ,E Y , ±A . 0 1 EO L OÖ .T t1 .8 0S tVCiPX O U l I P UT d VEC te If j5 C L GTT S r t ölcas. 3 . ( ---) Ael i anus, fiIi us E uphranor i s ( PME A 2 67): A lexandrea a d A egyptum ; c a. a . 1 30; A ilt ,a .vbc E 6çp t h 'opoç y evougvou k grYnToC i t abc vu ox .6p04 T o t 3 u cy6 .Ä .ou Z ap e C lo 50C ; y cvducvos t x[6 . ] p xo‘ ° T IE C pn 6 cu -r ( paC ) K ou l lay m . )C l iv L n i tix T )g, s c. p raef. c oh. I Commagenorum e quitatae, M icia, D acia S uperior; 1 : epe6s x a .t äpxL8Lxactek } {c ti , T t p3c T? 1 é r tLueXeCa . T C )v x Pnuc c -E Latc-ö v h at T ( 7 )v ä Umy x pi -up t :c ov; c f. P . IFAO , II, 1 8 . 4 . ( ---) Balbinianus, B albiniani f 1i us ( PME B 3 6): A lexandrea a d A egyptum; II S . ? ; B a .Xe leivLav it? , B a .ZT ( e— L vtavoi ) y Evo l i vou ' T ti .r p c 5 T tou E eßac -r o Z 3 o i4, . vc óp (e) T O G i l eyd r .A .ou E apä r t i .8o5; y Evo i . ilv (4) r t d i .px4 ) a r tei .pmc T t pd y rn tc X auCaç t . r t rux r i c, s c . p raefectus c ohort i s I F lay i ae C i Ii cum; S yene, A egyptus; T 6 3V tV M ouGe( .4 ) c r eitoul ievwv t , cpci ., d t pxL6i .xac ril x a .t T t p6s t f ) U t t .p .eXet :q c T i l-i vxpnuatLc si c 7N x a .t . T i rw 6 .1 . XXwv x pu unpi . c ov. 5 . T ib . C laudius T ib . C laudii N eronis ( PME C 19): A egyptus; a . 1 09 Mai.14; a m ilitiis.

fi1i us Q uirina A pol 1i nar i s r i ln ) x exei .Ä .La .pxnxc itc ov, i .e.

6 . C laudius Ph iIo xenus ( PME C 1 67): A egyptus; c a. a . 1 30; v cox6po [T O G I lE Y] 6 .X 0 0 E apant8oc; y cy6ucvoc g r tapxoc G I-E L :pr ig r _ t pd GIn g [A c cp .o .c rI , s c . p raef. c oh . ID amascenorum ; S yria P alaesti na ; t c-L v t v M ouc ret ; (4) c Liou l ilv c ov d r reÄ . ( 7 . )v, [i . cpeü js x a . t : d tpxL8Lxac r -t r k. C f. h omonymus: P .Flor. II 3 74 .1; B astianini 1 982: 2 12 n .l. 7 . M . Cl audius S erenus ( PME C 1 83): A egyptus; c a. a . 1 30; v eum600( T O Ü u zydÄo l i E apd ru8oc; I CA ) x cx 0 .Lapxnx6Tc ov Y cv6 1 1EvoG rnapxoc s a nECpnc n pe oinc ä a i lao k tinv c a iv, S c. a m ilitiis e t p raef. c oh . I D amascenorum ; S yria P alaestina; x cu : c i pxtyco )py6 , E l lYT ITAS ( a. 1 32). 8 . C I ( a ud iu s ) Theon ( PME C 1 88) T pLßouv[o]s, s c . t ribunus mr li -T u rn? •

Aegyptus

? ;

a .

2 68;

•

9 . ( ---) Celer, S otionis E f iIi us] ( PME C 2 72bis): A lexandrea a d A egyptum?; c a . a . 1 58-159;[- y evot igv4 ) T i . äpx . (4) on eCpr ig c t 'I X c iou t ;ag i . nruxf IG K [ L X .i :Kwv] , s c. p raef. c oh. I F laviae e quitatae S yene , A egyptus; c f. P . 2xy. X 1 270 ( a. 1 59), f ortasse i dem: [ y cyougl w o Tpa(In v i ) ) t nç T I 6XEws, S c. ' oiupüyxwv, i . c[pcu,

1 93

apxL6umoTfj] Hat ,cp�, TT) £TILUEAELQ. -dwv XPTJJ.O.'tLO'tWY] xa� Twv t:J.)..Awv HPLTnoUwv]; (Devi jver 1981: 205-18); Devi jver 1982: 17383). l0. Ti b. I u I i us A I ex an d er (PME I 16): Ae gyp tu s; a. l 58; YEVO.UEVOs Enapxo� OTIE:LPll� a, )..aou"1a�, SC. praef. coh. I Flaviae, sc• coh• I F la v i a e e q u i t at a e C i l i. c um ; Sy en e, A e gyptu s ; Twv f)yopavounHoTwv, o tn L rf'\ s e.u3nv Cas Tou 8 • y pa.ul.J.aTo [ d . Tib. lulius Vestinianus Asclepiades, qui et Leonidas (PME I Aegyptus(?); a. 12 7; €'naoxoG ond.oa[d 138): ydvo]u [Evod S C. p ra e f. co h. I I I TPLTns [ 8]PQ.XWV xa � npwTns [ 8] PQ.X[ WV] , Thracum et I Thracum ; in Arabia/Syria ? (Speidel 1977: 712 l, not. 92); o £LEP£�G [ xat cioxL61.xao] TllG; cf. � Mi l. �- VI 2 64 (a. 12 7; T ebtynis, Aegyptus). 11.

12. [---]apus Munatiani filius (PME M 85): Alexandrea ad Ae­ gyptum; ea. a. 125; --]a.n4) -TM]o�·vaTLavou mrn[ •••• J y Evo( [ UEvo]] µt.vou ciox 1.6L[ xa.o]-t[ oi] uc'i?, -rwv tv Mouo£ L 4) a£ C -rouutvwv ciTEAwv_, xcx( e] 1,)..1,a.px11x6'tc., i.e. a mi Ii t iis,yEvoutvQ oToaTnYQ Tf)� . [Twv no).. £WG, t e:pe: 'C, a.px L 6 L l

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3 . a ) Chronological

CON CLUSI ONS

a nd g eographical

d istribution

T he c hart s hows t hat t he e volution w as n ous t hroughout t he Empire .

n ot

p arallel

a nd

s ynchro-

F our p rovinces s upplied e questrian o fficers d uring t he f irst c entury , t hough n ot i n e qual m easure . A sia a nd G alatia a re m ost s trongly r epresented ; e specially c onspicuous i s t he l arge n umber o f c olonists-veterans-negotiatores o r t heir d escendants. T he m eagre e vidence f or P on tusB ith yn ia, L ycia-Pamphylia, S yria, h owever, a lso d emonstrates t he p resence o f t hat s ame g roup. A utochthonous k nights a re s trongly r epresented i n A sia f rom C laud ius. T he A rruntii ( 1, 2 ) o f X anthus i n L ycia were a lso a utoc hthones . S ome a reas a re wholly a bsent. I t w ill a lso b e s hown b elow , i n c onnection w ith t he s ocial s tratification, t hat i nside w ell-represented p rovinces c ertain c ities a lso r emain a bsent, w hile p rofoundly h ellenised p laces ( e .g . P ergamum , E phesus) a cted l ike a m agnet. D uring t he s econd c entury t he e volution i n A sia p roceeds a long t he s ame l ines. L ycia-Pamphylia a nd S yria s how a more marked p rofile t han i n t he f irst c entury. I udaea a nd A rabia e ach p rod uce o nly a s ingle o fficer. T he s udden, a nd a ctually r ather b rief, p resence o f E gypt ( in p articular o f t he A lexandrian e lite) u nder t he p hilhellene H adrian i s q uite s triking . I n t he t hird c entury A sia s upplied mainly a utochthonous k nights; P ontus-Bithynia i s more s trongly r epresented; L ycia-Pamphylia, G alatia a nd E gypt l ess s o . C ilicia a nd A rabia, p eripheral a reas, n ow p rovided o fficers t oo. S yria s eemed t o p rofit f rom t he p resence i n R ome o f t he S yrian p rincesses. C appadocia ( insufficiently h ellenised), a s A ssyria, Mesopotamia ( peripheral p rovinces, l ate), a re n ot r epresented a t a ll. b )

S ocial

well a s A r menia, a nd a nnexed q uite

s tratification a nd p romotion

L et u s n ow p aint So me m ore d etail i nto t his f irst t he c hronological a nd g eographical d istribution .

r ough

s ketch o f

T he c lear d istinction, t he d ichotomy - e specially d uring t he f irst c entury - b etween t he e questrians f rom t he m ilieu o f I talian i mmigrants ( colonists, v eterans, n egotiatores) o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he l ocal n ative a ristocracy t hat h ad a ttained t he o rdo e quester o n t he o ther, i s t he most s triking f eature. T his d ist inction, f or t hat matter, i s a lso n oticeable w ithin t he o rdo s enatorius ( Hal f mann 1 982: 6 04, 6 50). I t a lso p roves h ow ambig uous t he n otion o f " O rientalis" i s i n t his c ontext. T he Augustan c olonies a l ways o fficers, c learly i mmigrants

p rovide t he e arliest e questrian f rom I taly a nd t he West. T hese

2 01

c olonists-veterans o r t heir d escendants m ake u p t he f irst g enerat ion o f e questrian o fficers, r eal v iri m il it ares. Augustus a pparently i ntended t hese c oloniae a s t rue b ases, c entres o f r omanisation i n, a bove a ll, t he a lready h ellenised p rovinces . 1 . A sia: T he A ugustan c olonia A lexandria T roas p roduces s ix o fficers ( 8, 4 1, 5 7, 5 8, 6 2, 7 8); t wo k nights a ttested a t P erg amum ( 10, 1 1) p robably b elong i n A lexandria. A ll a re t o b e s ituated i n t he p eriod A ugustus-Nero . I n t he s ame p eriod we e ncounter i mmigrants, I talian n egotiatores, i n Ephesus ( 21, p rob ably a lso 6 , 6 4; s ee a lso 7 7) a nd M i iletus ( 60). I n a ddition t o t hese 1 2 c olonists-negotiatores w e f ind, i n t he s ame p eriod b ut f rom C laudius, s ome t en a utochthonous o fficers. 2 . P ontus-Bithynia: Apamea ( colonia I ulia Concordia Augusta) a lready h ad a n ucleus o f p re-Augustan c olonists-veterans. T he o nly a ttested o fficer f rom t he f irst c entury, [ . Za?]tilius L ongus ( 5), t i me o f N ero, b elongs t o t his m ilieu . H e was l ater a dlected t o t he s enate b y V espasian. 3 . L ycia-Pamphylia: A ttaleia, w hich w as p art o f A ugustan G alat ia, h ad a s ettlement o f A ugustan c olonists . A n o fficer f rom t he r eign o f V espasian ( 20) c ame f rom t his m ilieu; s ee a lso u nder A ntoninus P ius ( 10, 1) . T he A ugustan c oloniae Comama a nd C remna o nly p rovide e questrian o fficers i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury . I t i s c ertainly n o a ccident t hat t he o fficers d isplayi ng I talian o nomastics a ll s tem f rom t hese c olonies . 5 . Galatia: A ugustus p ursued i n Antiochia a d P isidiam a n i ntens ive c olonisation p olicy . H e w anted t o h ave a p ermanent c heck o n t he mountain t ribes. N o l ess t han 1 2 - a nd p erhaps 1 3 ( see n o. 2 ) - o f t he 2 1 G alatian o fficers c ome f rom A ntiochia ! A t l east 8 d ate f rom t he J ulio-C laudian d ynasty ( 10, 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 8, 2 0, 2 1), 2 f rom u nder D omitian ( 15, 1 7), a nd t wo f rom t he l ate f irst/early s econd c entury ( 16, 1 9). T hese o fficers a re a ppare ntly d escendants o f I talian v eterans-colonists; o nly o ne ( 18) . b ears a n i mperial n omen g entilicium . 6 . S yria: T he A ugustan c olonies B erytus a nd H eliopolis f urnish t he f irst k nown e questrian o fficers ( 5,6, 1 0) u nder t he J ulioC laudian d ynasty. T he t hree o fficers ( 19, 2 3, 2 8) f rom t he s econd c entury a lso b elong t o t he m ilieu o f t he c olonists-immig rants: F rom t he f oregoing o ne p ole o f t he r omanisation p rocess e merges q uite d istinctly, n amely c olonisation. H ow ,c l id R ome i ntegrate t he l ocal e lite i nto t his p rocess? T he c oloniae w ere c learly a n i mported s uperstructure! O n w hich a utochthonous i nfrastructure d id R ome r ely i n i ntegrating t he e thnically s o d isparate p rov inces? I h ave t he i mpression t hat e ugeneia a nd/or p aideia w as e xpected o f t he l ocal e lite. T hese t wo c riteria p resupposed w ealth, p roperty. A f eature o f t he e thos o f t he e lite was e uerg esia . I t i s a s t hough o ne f irst h ad t o b e h ellenised b efore o ne c ould e nter i nto R ome 's s ervice !

2 02

T he d ichotomy b etween t he t wo g roups m entioned p rovides a c lear p icture o f t he s ocial s trata, t he mechanisms a nd a bove a ll t he g raduality o f t he r omanisation p rocess a nd o f s ocial p romotion . L et

u s

t ake a c loser

l ook a t

e ach

p rovince .

1 . A sia: T his p rovince h ad t he l ongest a nd most i ntense G reek t radition a nd i s a ccordingly t he f irst t o s upply e questrian o fficers i n l arge n umbers. T he major c ultural c entres s uch a s Magnesia Maeandri, P ergamum a nd e specially E phesus - w ith s ome 2 0 o fficers - p rovide t he b ulk o f t he o rdo e quester. A pparently C laudius a lso a pplied t o t he E ast t he p olicy h e p ronounced i n h is c elebrated s peech d e i ure h onorum G allis d ando ( AD 4 8; C IL X III 1 668 = I LS 2 12): — .divus A ugustus . .et...Ti. C aesar omnem f lorem u bique c oloniarum e t municipiorum, b onorum s cilicet v irorum e t l ocupletium, i n h ac c uria e sse v oluit" . T he e lite, w ho a re b oni a nd l ocupletes, c an g ain a ccess t o t he c uria, a nd a f ortiori t o t he o rdo e quester. A f ew c oncrete e xamples, t he e arliest a ttested A sian e questrian o fficers: - T i. C laudius Balbillus ( 23) ( perhaps t he s on o f T i. C laudius T hrasyllus, t he A lexandrian a strologer o f T iberius?) was wellk nown f or h is e uergesia n ot o nly i n E phesus, b ut a lso i n Smyrna a nd D elos. H e c learly e njoyed t he f avour o f C laudius: h e was h is p raefectus f abrum a nd a ccompanied t he emperor a s t ribunus l egionis o n t he e xpeditio B ritannica ( AD 4 3, f or which h e was d ecorated). B ut t he e mperor w as e vidently p articularly i mpressed b y h is p aideia, f or B albillus was a ppointed a d l egationes e t r esponsa Graeca Caesaris Aug. d ivi C laudi, a nd i n E gypt p ut i n c harge o f t he Museum a nd L ibrary i n A lexandria . T he p raefectura A egypti, a p osition o f t rust, w as t he c ul mination o f t his c areer. -C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72), f rom C os, member o f a f amous f amily o f medici, was a rchiatros o f T iberius, C aligula a nd C laudius. H e r eceived t he c itizenship u nder T iberius t hrough t he i ntercession o f C . S tertinius Maxi mus ( cos. a . 2 3). C laudius p romoted h im t o e questrian s tatus, a nd l ike B albillus h e a ccomp anied t he emperor a s t ribunus l egionis a nd p ersonal p hysician o n t he B ritish c a mpaign ( AD 4 3 ; h e t oo was d ecorated. H e t hereafter was p raefectus f abrum a nd a d r esponsa G raeca. A man o f h igh s tanding i n R ome, h e r eceived a s p ersonal p hysician a s alary o f 5 00,000 H S a nd p ossessed a d omus o n t he mons Coelius. H is e ntire f amily was g ranted t he f ranchise b y C laudius; h is b rother, T i. C laudius C leonymes ( 26), a nd h is u ncle, T i. C laudius P hilinus ( 30), a lso a ttained t he o rdo e quester. - T i. I ulius Cel s us P olemaeanus ( 51), f rom S ardis/Ephesus, h ad b een n o more t han t ribunus l egionis i n E gypt b efore b eing a dl ected t o t he s enate b y V espasian. H is s enatorial c areer was s pent e ntirely i n t he E ast. H e d escended f rom a p riestly f amily o f S ardis a nd f ounded t he C elsus-library a t E phesus . H is f ather p robably h ad r eceived t he c itizenship f rom T iberius. H is s on, T i. I ulius A quila P olemaeanus ( cos. s uff. a . 10), w as r elated t o t he r oyal s cion C . l ulius S everus o f A ncyra ( Halfmann 1 982: 6 31) .

2 03

-L . Antonius P olemonis f ilius Z eno ( 9), t i me o f C laudius/Nero, b elongs t o a b ranch o f t he P ontic-Thracian r oyal h ouse. T he f am ily's c itizenship g oes b ack t o A ntony . -T ib . Claudius D emocrates ( 27), f rom Magnesia o n t he Maeander, w as g ranted t he f ranchise a nd e questrian r ank b y C laudius. A m ember o f t he l oyal a nd wealthy municipal e lite, h e was t epcb ö Ca f 3 Cou TOÜ Z eßa cmo l l r epµavtxoeand a rchiereus A siae . C . l ulius C leon ( 52), o f E umeneia/Acmonia ( time o f N ero), was a lso a rchi ereus A siae. S ex. l ulius P hilon ( 54), u nder N ero/Vespasian, c ame f rom I lium, b irthplace o f t he l ulii's p rogenitor, a nd was t he s cion o f a w ealthy f amily; h e h eld t he p ost o f g ymnasiarchos. T hese e arly e xamples who a ttain t he c ivitas a nd t he o rdo e quester t ogether, o r f irst t he c itizenship a nd i n a s ubsequent g eneration t he e questrian o rder, i n a ny e vent r eveal a f ew c lear g uidelines a nd c riteria f or t he i ntegration o f a utochthones i nto t he o rdo e quester: - p aideia: -e ugeneia:

-e uergesia:

p hysicians, p hi l osophers, r hetores, men o f l etters, a strologers - r elatives o f r oyal f amilies - t enure o f h onores i n t heir p oleis - o n t he p rovincial l evel a siarchs a nd a rchiereis - p riestly f amilies a ttending t o major c ults ( e .g . t hat o f A pollo a t D idyma ( 25)). t he m ost o bvious o utlet o f t his e lite 's e thos.

S ome d escendants o f n ew c itizens a ttain e questrian r ank o nly m any g enerations l ater: t hus C laudii u nder T rajan ( 29), H adrian ( 24, 3 5), i n t he s econd c entury ( 22, 3 6), s econd/third c entury ( 33), u nder S epti mius S everus ( 31), u nder S everus A lexander ( 28) . M ay t hey s till b e c alled t rue d escendants o f c itizens n ewly e nfranc hised b y C laudius? I t i s e qually p ossible t hat t hey d escend f rom f reedmen o f n ew c itizens, o r e ven f rom l iberti o f l iberti! I n a ddition, t here was i n A sia a s ubstantial g roup o f imperial. f reedmen ( see e .g. E phesus I II, 8 51-853), who i n c ommerical m etropoleis f ound p lenty o f o pportunity t o make a f ortune a nd g ain e questrian s tatus. B ut t here i s n o t race o f a ny o f t hese g roups i n o ur s ources! 2 . P ontus-Bithynia: T he s carcity o f e vidence makes t he s ituat ion h ere l ess c lear. F or t he g eneral c ontext o f t he t ardy a ppearance o f k nights r eference may b e made t o t he p receding d iscussion. 3 . L ycia-Pamphylia: T he h igh i ncidence among t he e questrian o fficers o f d escendants o f n ew c itizens ( 14 o ut o f 2 3) i s s triki ng . T he e xplanation t hat R . S yme ( Hal f mann 1 982: 6 50) h as o ffered f or t he p resence o f L ycia i n t he c uria t o we s eems e quall y v alid f or t he m ilitiae e questres: " In A sia M inor t here i s o ne p eople t hat s tands a part f rom o thers - t he L ycians. But t hey h ellenise a t a n e arly d ate a nd a bove a ll, t hey a re a ristocratic, o r s hall I s ay a risto-democratic b ecause t hese a re p eople t hat l ive i n c ities. A s t he g eographer S trabo s ays a bout t hem:

2 04

om pp6vwc x at e atz n tr o‘ aow re‘ , g overnment l iked t hem . H ere i s g eniality."

T herefore, I t hink, t he R oman t herefore t he q uestion o f c on-

-N L A rruntius Aquila ( 1), o f X anthus, c a. a . 5 0, i s t he f irst a ttested k night f rom L ycia. L . A rruntius H ermakotas was a t eacher a t t he i mperial c ourt ( AE 1 981, 8 11) a nd was g ranted t he c itizenship b efore 3 7, h is p atronus b eing L . A rruntius ( cos. 2 2 BC ) o r h is s on ( cos. a . 6 ). A quila was i n t urn t he p resumable p atron o f t he f ather o f N L A rruntius C laudianus ( 2), w ho o btained t he c itizenship u nder C laudius. T he l atter h eld t he t res m ilit iae, w as d ecorated d uring D omitian 's c ampaign a gainst t he D acians, h eld s everal p rocuratelae, was a dlected t o t he s enate: h e p roudly c alls h imself t he f irst s enator o f L ycia ( P co0 E eVOUQ ] n (X1TOQ O UVXXT ITLX6C) . A s t he c hart s hows, i n t he s econd c entury m ainly h eld b y d escendants o f n ew c itizens.

t he

m ilitiae

were

4 . C i Ii cia: T he s light u rbanization o f t his r egion a nd t he s carcity o f s ources d ue t o i nsufficiently s ystematic e xcavation p erhaps e xplain why o nly o ne o fficer f rom t his p rovince i s a ttested . L . Aurelius Tarr(n)ten(i)us D emetrius ( 1), m id-third c entury, was a n ewcomer t o t he o rdo e quester. A l ocal magis trate, b enefactor, a nd a rchiereus o f t he i mperial c ult, h e was w orthy o f t he h onour. 5 . Galatia: T he c olonists f rom A ntiochia a d P isidiam h ad d omin ated t he m ilitiae d uring t he f irst c entury . I n t he s econd t his w as d one b y t he d escendants o f n ew c itizens w ho b ecame e questrian o fficers ( 1, 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 ?). 6 . S yria: F or t he f irst c entury o nly t hree o fficers a re k nown, a ll f rom c olonist e nvironments; t he s econd c entury a lso p roduces t hree c ases. W ith H adrian b egins t he f ew s alient f eatures o f

i nflux o f S yria:

d escendants

o f

n ew c itizens.

A

P almyra p rovides, a fter t he A ugustan c olony o f B erytus, t he h ighest n umber o f o fficers ( 1, 2 , 3 , 8 , 1 4, 2 0, 2 5, 2 7, 3 1?). P almyra , a n o asis b etween S yria a nd B abylonia, d ominated t he c aravan r oads a nd t he t ransit-trade, a nd e njoyed a p eriod o f e conom ic f lowering d uring t he s econd c entury: a n i deal b reedingg round f or t he o rdo e quester! F rom H adrian, who p roclai med P almyra a c ivitas l ibera, d ates t he t own 's f irst r epresentation i n t he m il i tiae. T he r enowned P al myreni s agittarii ( 3, 2 5) a nd t heir d esert e xperience w ith t heir c amels ( 8) were a lso i mport ant. T he s ubstantial c oncentration u nder S epti mius S everus o f n ewc omers t o t he m ilitiae n o d oubt h as s ome c onnection w ith t he S yrian p rincesses ( see 9 , 1 5).

2 05

T he S yrians s how a k ind o f e thnic p ride. When t hey s et u p i ns criptions o utside t heir h ome p rovince, t hey p ractical l y n ever f ail t o mention t heir o rigo ( 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 6, 1 7, 2 6, 2 9?; s ee a lso D evijver 1 976-1980 : 143-6; D evijver 1 984a: 5 90-1). 7 . I udaea: P resumably r eligious c onsiderations w ere m ainly r esponsible f or t he J ews' h atred o f R ome; a t t he s ame t i me t he J ews were s uspect i n R ome 's e yes: h ence n ot a s ingle s enator, a nd o nly o ne e questrian o fficer! [ T . F lavius] I uncus ( 1) d isp lays a b rilliant c ursus, e xclusively i n t he E ast. R elated b y m arriage t o t he s enatorial A emilii I unci f rom T ripolis i n S yria, a nd mentioned i n a n i nscription a t E phesus i n h onour o f Q . P ompeius F alco ( proconsul A siae a . 1 23-124), h e was p robably a t ypical h ellenised J ew w ho p referred l ife i n t he d iaspora ! 8 . A rabia: T he m eagre e vidence - v irtually a ll t hird-century c an b e a scribed t o t he f act t hat A rabia o nly b ecame a p rovince q uite l ate ( AD 1 11) a nd t hat i ts p eripheral l ocation k ept i t o utside t he mainstream o f e vents. T he c areer o f C . F urius S abinus Aquila T i mesitheus ( 4), h owever, i s f or a ll t hat q uite a c onspicuous o ne. 9 . Egypt: E gypt h as a l ways o ccupied a s pecial p lace i n t he M editerranean w orld, a nd t his w as a lso t he c ase u nder t he Empire . T he p hilhellene H adrian s eems t o h ave e li m inated a nti-Egyptian b ias - i f o nly t emporarily - f or t heir n umber i n t he m ilitiae i s c oncentrated i n h is r eign. Y et t he p icture must b e n uanced . I t w as p ri marily t he h ellenised A lexandrian e lite t hat a ttained t he o rdo e quester. U sually t hey h eld p restigious p osts i n t he a dm inistrative, c ultural a nd r eligious s ectors a nd w anted t o c ap t heir n ewly-won R oman p restige w ith a m il i tia, p referably i n E gypt i tself o r i n a n eighbouring E astern p rovince . H adrian w as a ble t o i ncorporate t his e lite i nto t he e questrian o rder b ecause a n umber o f n ew c itizens h ad b een c reated i n t he f irst c entury e ither b y t he emperors ( 5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 1 0, 1 1, 1 4) o r b y a p raef ectus Aegypti ( 10, 1 1, 1 3). A gain o ne n otes t he g raduality o f t he p rocess. 1 0 . C appadocia-Armenia/Assyria/Mesopotamia : T hese r egions p rod uce n o e questrian o fficers, o n t he o ne h and b ecause t hey a re i nsufficiently h ellenised, o n t he o ther d ue t o t heir p eripheral l ocation. c )

M ilitiae e questres a nd o rdo s enatorius

R ecent r esearch i nto t he O rientales a nd t he o rdo s enatorius h as s ubstantially e nlarged o ur k nowledge ( Halfmann 1 979, 1 982; B owers ock 1 982, 1 982a; R eynolds 1 982), a nd f or t he g eneral c ontext t he r eader i s r eferred t o t hese d etailed s tudies. Iw ill c onfine m yself h ere t o t he m ilitiae e questres a s a s tep t oward t he u ltim ate g oal o f a ny e questrian f amily: e ntry i nto t he c uria! T o o btain a n a ccurate p icture I t hink i t i s j ustified t o d evote a ttention t o t he r ise o f t he c olonist m ilieus a nd t o t he g roup o f t he n ew c itizens. T he f ollowing a rrangement w ill a lso s erve t o

2 06

i llustrate a chieved. 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

t he

g radual

way

i n

which

s ocial

p romotion

was

E questrian o fficers a dlecti i n amplissimum o rdinem S ons a nd g randsons o f e questrian o fficers i n t he s enate S enators d escendant o f e questrian o fficers - s till l ater g enerations R elations b et ween e questrians a nd s enators: f riends hips, marriages

A SIA : 1 . S ardes/Ephesus: T i. I ulius C elsus P olemaeanus i nter a edilicios a d ivo V espasiano ( a . 7 0) 2 . E phesus: Cn. P ompeius H er mippus ( 65), o ne s on a s enator, n ot t he o ther

( 51),

a dlectus

m id-second c entury;

A lexandria T roas: T . I unius Montanus ( 57), A ugustan p eriod; h omonymous c os. s uff. a . 8 1, g randson P hocaea: T . F lavius V arus Calvisianus H er mocrates ( 42), a et. T raiani; F lavius R ufinianus, c os . s uff. u nder C ommodus, w as p resumably a g randson E phesus: P . V edius Antoninus ( 74), e arly s econd c entury; M . C laudius P . V edius A ntoninus P haedrus S abinianus, q uaestor C ypri, p resumably a g randson 3 . L aodicea: L . A ntonius Z eno ( 9), a et. C laudi i/ Neroni s ; M . A ntonius Z eno, c os. ( suff. a . 1 48), a nd h is h omonymous s on, c os. ( suff. a . 1 68/70), p robably o f t he s ame f am ily C os: C . S tertinius Xenophon ( 72), T i. C laudius C leonymes ( 26), T i. C laudius P hilinus ( 30), a et. C laudii; a p otential d escendant i s C laudius X enophon, l eg . A ug. p r. p r. B ritan — n iae I nferioris ( a. 2 23) E phesus ( ?): N L I ulius S ura ( 56), c a. a . 2 09-11; p erhaps r elated t o t he S urae, s enators ( PIR 2 I V I5 94, I 1 0 0? 4 . E phesus: C . V ibius S alutaris ( 77), a et. D omitiani; a f riend o f L . N onius C alpurnius T orquatus A sprenas, p roconsul A siae, a nd o f M . A rruntius C laudianus o f X anthus, L ycia ( 2), t he f irst s enator f rom t hat p rovince E phesus: T i. C laudius F rontonianus ( 28), h is d aughter, T iberia C laudia F rontoniana, t he c onsular F lavius C litosthenes .

a et. S ev. A lex.; w as t he w ife o f

PONTUS-BITH 'YNIA : 1 . A pamea: [ .Ca?]tilius L ongus ( 5), i nter p raetorios a b I mp . V espasiano A ug .

2 07

a et.

N eronis;

a dlectus

2 . P rusias a d H ypium: L . D omitius P roclus ( 3), i nter a . 172 00; r elated t o N L D omitius V alerianus ( cos. s uff. a . 2 38/39)? L YC IA-PANPHYL I A : 1 . X anthus: M . A rruntius C laudianus ( 2), a et. D omitiani; a dl ectus i n amplissi mum o rdinem i nter a edilicios; h e c alls h imself t he f irst s enator f rom L ycia S ide?: N L A urelius T uesianus S c . i nter p raetorios

( 4),

X anthus: T i. C laudius T elemachus s elf o r h is s on w as s enator

i neunte

M s.;

( 9),

a .

c a.

a dlectus

1 85;

h e h i m-

2 . Oenoanda: C . I ulius D emosthenes ( 15), a et. T raiani; p erhaps m aternal g randfather o f T i. C laudius A grippinus, c os. s uff. a . 1 60 ( Patara) O ther m embers o f t his g ens w ere: -T ib . C laudius Agrippinus ( 6), Is" P atara - I ulius Antoninus ( 14), a et. H adriani, C enoanda 3 . Perge: L . C laudius P ropinquianus Ape 11i nus ( 7), IIs .; C laudius A pel 1i nus, l eg. A ug . p r. p r. B r it anniae I nferioris ( sub S evero A lexandro) w as p erhaps a d escendant A ttaleia: C repereii o r p ater s enatorum

( 10,

1): y lvouc

o vvx 7 tr ut ixot i-

a ffinis

4 . T he f amily t ies o f t he Arruntii ( 1, 2 ), t he Claudii ( 6, 7 , 8 , 9 ), t he Crepereii ( 10, 1 1), t he l ulii ( 14, 1 5), t he Marcii, w ith m embers o f t he o rdo s enator i us h ave b een s et o ut a bove. T he g ens Marcia o f L ycfi— ( galbura ? ) i s a f ine e xample: T . Marcius T itianus ( 17) was a p ri mms p ilus b is u nder T rajan, a n e ques R omanus w ho o pted f or a c areer a s c enturio e x e quite R omano . H is . s on T . Marcius D eiotarianus ( 16) was j ust t ribunus l egionis, b ut h is d aughter, Marcia T lepolemis, w as a rchiereia t er a nd m ater s tirpis s enatorum ! GALATIA : 1 . Aniiochia: t he g ens Car i stania ( 13-17) p roduced t wo a dlecti i mmediately a fter t he m ilitiae e questres: -C . -C .

Car i stanius F ronto ( 13), 7 3-74) Car ist an iu s 1u i anus ( Dom itian)

a dlectus ( 15),

i nter

t ribunicios

a dlectus,

s c.

( a .

p raetor

2 . Ancyra: P . A elius S empronius L ycinus ( 1), a et. S ept. S ev.; P . A elius S empronius Metrophanes, s enator, p robably a s on 3 . Antiochia: C . A nicius Caesianus ( 10), I p arte I s.; r elated t o A nicius Maxi mus, p rocos . P onti e t B ithyniae ( inter a . 9 8-109)

2 08

P ompeiopolis?: C [Ialu[d]ius S everus ( 6), a nte a . 1 33/134; p resumably r elated t o C n. C laudius, c os. I ( ord. a . 1 73) 4 . A gain we e ncounter a n etwork o f r elations: t he g ens Caristan ia was r elated b y marriage t o t he g ens S ergia, t he g ens Anicia t o t he g ens F lavonia S YRIA : 1 . B erytus: q uaestor A siae

N L S entius P roculus ( 19), ( adlected b y V espasian?)

a fter

E mesa: C . I ulius A vitus A lexianus ( 15), s imus v ir ( ca. a . 1 93) S yria?:

L .

D idius Mar i nus ( 9),

t res

a dlectus,

c larissimus v ir

3 . H eliopolis: P . S tatilius I ustus S entianus r elated t o t he S tatilii, s enators f rom H eliopolis

m ilitiae

c laris-

( a . 2 33)

( 23),

n o

d oubt

4 . Two c onspicuous m arriages: C . I ulius A vitus A lexianus ( 15), d escendant o f o r r elated t o t he r oyal h ouse o f Emesa, married I ulia Maesa, t he s ister o f I ulia D omna, w ife o f S ept i mius S everus. H is g randsons were t he Emperors E lagabalus ( Varius A vitus) a nd S everus A lexander ( Gessius B asianus A lexianus). L . D idius Marinus ( 9) wed, u nder S epti mius S everus, C ornificia, a d aughter o f t he l ate Emperor Marcus A urelius. I UDAEA : 4 . [ T . F lavius] I uncus h ad a b rilliant c areer i n t he E ast; h e w as a h ellenised J ew a nd w as married t o t he d aughter o r s ister o f L . A emilius I uncus ( cos. a . 1 27) o f T ripolis i n S yria ARABIA : 4 . C . F urius S abinius Aquila T i mesitheus ( 4) a lso h ad a n o uts tanding c areer. H e e njoyed t he f avour o f t he S yrian p rincesses. H is d aughter married t he y oung Emperor G ordianus ( III) a nd t he f ather i mmediately b ecame p raefectus p raetorio . ***

T he f irst s enators f rom t he E ast who r ose f rom t he r anks o f t he e questrian o fficers a re a ll t o b e s ituated u nder V espasian/ D om itian . T he d ichotomy b etween i mmigrants-colonists a nd n ew c itizens o r t heir d escendants, w hich w as n oticeable i n t he m ilit iae e questres, c an a lso b e o bserved among t he h om ines n ovi. T he o ld-established G reek o r n ow-hellenised p oleis p roduce t he f irst s enators f rom t he m ilieu o f t he n ew c itizens, t he l ocal a ristoc racy: Sardes/Ephesus ( Asia), Xanthus ( Lycia): T i. I ulius Celsus Polemaeanus, N L A rruntius C laudianus . I n o ther a reas t he c olonist f amilies c o me f irst: Apa mea ( Pontus-Bithynia): [ .Cä?]tilius L ongus; Ant i ochia ( Ga l at ia ): C . Car i stanius F ronto

2 09

a nd

l ulianus;

B erytus

( Syria):

N L

S entius P roculus .

A dlection t o t he s enate i s " a q uestion o f c ongeniality. I t i s n ot a q uestion o f l egal p rescriptions o r l egal f avours g iven t o a ny c lass o f R oman c itizen. I t i s t he t ype o f p erson" ( R . S yme i n: H alfmann 1 982 : 6 50) . T he R omans c learly p referred t he p ath o f g radual i ty. A s i s a pparent f rom t he s urvey, i t i s a bove a ll t he s ons a nd g randsons, a nd s ometimes a m ore d istant g eneration, t hat r each t he o rdo s enatorius . T he amical t ies b etween k nights a nd s enators, s ometimes s ealed b y m arriage, c learly f ostered t he r ise o f c ertain f amilies.

d )

T he c ursus a s e questrian o fficer

- t he m ilitiae e questres

A f ew c onspicuous f acts c an b e r egistered h ere, whose a ppearance w as n ot a l ways p arallel a nd s ynchronous a nd w hich must b e f urther n uanced p er p rovince . 1 )

T he

e arliest

c areers

( before V espasian)

T he m ilieu o f t he c olonists-veterans p roduced t he f irst e quest rian o fficers, most w ith a w ell-filled c areer, " viri m ilitares" , w ho t herefore f ulfilled t he r equirements o f A ugustus ' c olonisat ion p olicy i n t he E ast. T hus t he A ugustan c olonies A lexandria T roas ( Asia) a nd A ntiochia P isidiae ( Galatia) s upply 6 t o 8a nd 1 2 o fficers, r espectively; s ee a lso t he A ugustan c oloniae A pamea ( Pontus-Bithynia) a nd B erytus ( Syria). T he v iri m il it ares f rom t hese c olonies t raversed t he R oman Empire a nd were d eployed i n t he E ast a s well a s i n t he West. T hey were s urely b ilingual. O fficers f rom i A ntiochia P isidiae o ften s erved i n aD anubian a nd i n a n E astern p rovince . T he Caristanii h ad a f amily t radition o f s orts: t hree members ( 14, 1 5, 1 7) s erved i n t he E ast i n l egio X II F ulminata . T he m ilieu o f t he n ew c itizens p roduced o fficers e ven a t t his e arly s tage, a lbeit l i mited t o t he s trongly h ellenised p oleis o f A sia a nd X anthus i n L ycia. T hese o fficers a pparently h ave a w holly d ifferent p rofile t han t he c olonists. T hey b elong t o a l ocal e lite a nd mostly h old o nly t he r ather a dministrative l egionary t ribunate, t hereby r emaining i n t he E astern p rovinces. Two o fficers, b oth t ribunus l egionis, a ccompanied t he Emperor C laudius o n h is e xpeditio B ritannica, C . S tertinius X enophon ( 77) a s t he i mperial p hysician a nd T i. C laudius B albi Il us ( 23) p erhaps a s a n a strologer ( ?). A lthough d ecorated b y t he emperor, t hey m anifestly e ntertained n o m ilitary ambitions. T heir f urther c areers i n t he emperor's s ervice w ere p urely a dministrative . T he s ame p rofile c an b e d rawn o f t he c ursus o f t he f irst e questrian o fficer f rom X anthus ( Lycia), N L A rruntius Aquila, s on o f a n ew c itizen . H e was t ribunus l egionis i n E gypt a nd t hen p rocurator i n P amphylia .

2 10

2 )

T he s ystem o f

t he m ilitiae e questres

T he k nights f rom Asia who h old t he t res m il i tiae d uring t he s econd c entury a re, t o j udge b y t heir n ames, d escendants o f I talian i mmigrants. F requently t hey a re d eployed i n b oth t he e astern a nd w estern s ectors o f t he Empire . D escendants o f a utoc hthonous n ew c itizens s eem t o a ppear i n t he t res m ilitiae o nly f rom S ept i mius S everus. I n t he g roup t hat p erformed o nly t wo m ilitiae, h owever, t hey a re a lready p resent i n t he s econd c ent ury. T heir o perational r ange i s o ften c onfined t o t he o riental p rovinces. T his i s m ostly t he c ase w ith t he s ubstantial g roup t hat c ontented i tself w ith t he r ather a dministrative l egionary t ribunate a nd t hat b elonged t o t he l ocal e lite: 8 o f 1 0 o fficers s erve i n a n earby E astern p rovince ( Cappadocia, A rabia, E gypt). T he o fficers f rom P ontus-Bithynia a ttain t he m ilitiae r ather l ate - mostly t hird c entury. T he e xplanation h as a lready b een s ugg ested . T he l imited n umber o f o fficers d oes n ot p ermit a g eneral p icture . T he t wo o fficers who h eld t he t hree m i 1i tiae ( 9, 1 2) a nd whose g arrison l ocations a re k nown r emained e xclusively i n t he E ast. T hree o f w hom o nly o ne o r t wo r anks a re k nown ( 1, 2 , 3 ) s erved i n t he West, e ven a s f ar d istant a s B ritannia ( 2, 3 ) . A c onspicuous f eature o f t he o fficers f rom L ycia-Pamphylia w ho h eld t he t hree m ilitiae ( 2, 5 , 1 0, 1 1) i s t hat e ither d uring t heir m ilitary s ervice o r i n t heir s ubsequent c areer t hey s aw s ervice i n t he E ast a nd i n o ne o f t he D anube p rovinces. T he o ther o fficers w ith o ne o r t wo m ilitiae u sually s tayed i n t he E ast, s urely t hose who h eld o nly t he l egionary t ribunate. T his w as a lso t he c ase w ith t he s ingle k nown o fficer f rom C ilicia: t ribunus l egionis i n S yria . T he v ast majority o f t he m ilitiae f rom Galatia c omes f rom t he A ugustan c olony A ntiochia P isidiae, a nd i s t o b e s ituated i n t he e arly p eriod. T he r emaining c areers a re mostly c onfined t o t he E ast. T he l anguage o f t he i nscriptions i s worth n oting: o f 2 1 o fficers, t hree ( 3,5, 8 ) u se o nly G reek. T he e arliest a ttested o fficers f rom S yria who went t hrough t he t res m ilitiae c ome f rom t he c olony B erytus ( 19, 2 8). T hey s erve o n t he D anube a nd i n t he E ast. T he d escendants o f n ew c itizens a re e ncountered i n t he t res m ilitiae i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury ( 8, 1 5, 2 7, 3 0). O f o nly o ne a re a ll t hree g arrison l ocations known: T ib.' Cl audius Phi... ( 8, Ant. P ius), o f P almyra, h eld t he t hree p osts i n S yria; h e b ecame p raef. a lae I U lpiae d ro medariorum P al myrenorum: who b ut a P al myrene w ith d esert e xperience c ould c ommand t his u nit? O n t he o ther h and w e f ind t hat t he S yrians who were o nly p raef. c oh. o r t rib. l eg . w ere m uch more m obile t han t he o ther O rientals a nd o ften s aw m ore d uty o n t he D anube a nd i n t he West. W hen t hey s et u p a n i nscript ion o utside S yria t hey v irtually a l ways mention t heir S yrian o rigo ! T he s ingle k nown o fficer f rom I udaea w as a h ellenised J ew w hose t res m ilitiae, l ike h is p rocuratelae, w ere a ll e xercised i n t he E ast.

2 11

T he meagre e vidence, f urthermore a l most e xclusively f rom t he t hird c entury, d oes n ot s uffice t o d raw a p icture f or o fficers f rom t he p rovince o f A rabia . F inally, E gypt! T he E gyptian o fficers, mostly members o f t he A lexandrian e lite, c ertainly e ntertained n o m ilitary a spirations. T heir r ise, moreover, s eems r estricted t o t he p eriod o f t he p hilhellene H adrian . P ractically a ll c ontented t hemselves w ith a s ingle m ilitia which was o ften h eld i n E gypt i tself o r i n a n earby p rovince; o nly o ne o fficer ( 3) c ommanded a c ohort o n t he D anube, a nd t hat was t he c ohors I C ommagenorum , a u nit o f S yrians! O nly o ne o fficer ( 13) e xercised a ll t hree m ilitiae a nd b ecame p rocurator c entenarius, p resumably w ithout e ver s etting f oot o utside E gypt! T he c areer i n t he m i 1i tiae o f many o fficers c annot b e r econs tructed b ecause t hey o ften f ail t o p rovide t he n ecessary i nform ation b y s ummarising t heir c ursus i n s uch s tereotyped a bbreviat ions a s & IC ) c mpaTctwv, l ! mb x0 % .tapx (Sw. F or t he o fficers f rom A sia a nd E gypt t hese f ormulae h ave b een e xamined i n d etail. I t i s c lear t hat t hese were u sed a s a m ark o f d istinction b y t hose k nights w ho l ooked f arther t han j ust t he l ocal c uria o r b oule t o s erve i n t he i mperial a dministration. T he d e f acto d ivision i n t he t hird c entury o f t he e questrian o rder i nto a m ilitary a nd a c ivil f action i s t hus p resaged ! ***

T he n otion " Orientales" i s, i t s eems t o me, a c omplex o ne. T he e volution must b e t raced p er i ndividual p rovince, w hich i s n ot a lways f easible d ue t o t he meagre e vidence. B ut i t i s a t l east e vident t hat t he d evelopment was n ot p arallel a nd s ynchronous t hroughout t he Empire. R ome p referred a g radual a pproach. T he m ilieus o f v eterans, c olonists, I talian i mmigrants p rovided t he f irst wave. T he n ative l ocal e lite, w ith i ts e ugeneia a nd p aideia made t angible i n e uergesia, f ollowed l ater. T he l atter . h ad t o b e s ufficiently h ellenised - f or w hich t he p olis-framework f urnished t he r equired i nfrastructure - t o b e a ble t o p artake o f t he R oman o rdines: e quester a s w ell a s s enatorius! T he n egative p icture t hat J uvenal d raws o f t hem ( VII 1 3-16) i s s urely a t ravesty o f t he r eal s ituation: H oc s atius q uam s i d icas s ub i udice " Vide" q uod n on v idisti, f aciant e quites A siani q uamquam e t C appadoces f aciant e quitesque B ithyni a ltera q uos n udo t raducit G allia t ab .

2 12

4 .

B I BLI OGRAPHY

T his b ibliography a ssembles a bove a ll t he l iterature c oncerning t he e questrian o fficers f rom t he E ast t hat h as a ppeared s ince t he p ublication o f t he P rosopographia M ilitiarum E questrium . A ICEINGER,

1 979

F asti Macedoniae . D ie R eichsbeamt en d er r ömischen Macedonia d er P rinzipatsepoche . A rheolo ki V est nik 3 0: 6 03-91.

1 969

F asti H ispanienses. S enatorische R eichsbeamte u nd O ffiziere i n d en s panischen P rovinzen d es r ömischen R eiches v on Augustus b is D ioklet ian . W iesbaden.

1 969a

D ie Generalität d es r ö mischen H eeres. Bonner J ahrbücher 1 69: 2 33-246.

1 979

R öm ische S oz1algeschichte. b aden . 1 979'.

1 979a

Z um Cursus H onorum d es Aurelius T uesianus. Z eitschrift f ür P apyrol ogie u nd E pigraphik 3 4: 2 47-71.

AMELING , W .

1 985

D ie I nschriften v on P rusias ad H ypium . I nschriften G riechischer S tädte a us K leinasien 2 7 . B onn .

BALLAND,

1 981

F ouilles d e Xanthos. V II: I ns criptions d ' poque i mp riale d u L 6t8on . P aris.

1 977

A pam e d e S yrie, a rch ologie e t h istoire . I . Des o r i gi n es ä l a Utrarchie . I n H . T emporini ( ed.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er Römis chen Welt. 1 1.8: 1 03-34. B erl in-New York ( W . d e G ruyter).

1 982

L ista d egli s trateghi d ell' H er mop olites. Z eitschrift f ür P apyrolog ie u nd E pigraphik 4 7: 2 11-32 .

ALFÖLDY ,

A .

G .

A .

BALTY , J . a nd J . C h.

BASTIANINI,

G .

W ies-

B IRLEY ,

A .R.

1 981

T he ' Fasti' f ord.

B IRLEY ,

E .

1 949

T he Equestrian Officers o f t he R oman A rmy . D urham U niversity J ourn al: 8 -19 = Roman B ritain a nd t he R oman A r my. Col l ected Papers,

2 13

o f Roman B ritain.

Ox-

1 961 2 : 1 33-53. B IRLEY ,

E .

1 951

T he O rigins o f E questrian O fficers: P rosopographical Method. D urham U niversity J ournal: 1 54-71 = R oman B ritain a nd t he R oTan A r my. C oll ected P apers, 1 961': 1 54:7-1 .

1 961

R oman B ritain a nd t he R oman A rmy. C ollected P apers, K endal. Th i-c i e d.).

1 966

A lae a nd C ohortes M illiariae. I n C orolla m emoriae E rich S woboda d ed icata . Römische For s chunlen i n N iederösterreich 5 : 5 4-67.

1 985

D ie I nschriften v on I asos. I ns chriften G rieschischer S tädte a us K leinasien 2 8.2.Bonn.

1 966

A ugustus a nd t he G reek World . f ord.

1 982

R oman S enators f rom t he N ear E ast: S yria, J udaea, A rabia , M esopotamia . I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio. I. T ituli 5 : 6 51-68 .

1 982a

N o S enators f rom Cyprus. I n E pig rafia e O rdine S enatorio. I I. T ituli 5 : 6 69-70.

1 983

R oman A rabia. C ambridge. Massac husetts . L ondon ( Harvard U nivers ity P ress).

G .P .

1 979

T he C urator R ei p ublicae: a R eappraisal. C hiron 9 :

G .

1 982

I talia : R egio I ( Campania, e sclusa l a z ona d i Capua e C ates), I ( Apu lia e t C alabria), II ( Lucania e t B ruttii). I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio . I. T ituli 5 : 1 01-63.

B LUMEL,

W .

B CMERSOCK ,

B URTON,

C i&D I DECA ,

G .W .

Ox-

T owards 4 65-487 .

CASTRITIUS, a nd C LAUSS,

H . M .

1 980

D ie R ömischen S teininschriften d es O denwaldes u nd s einer Rand la nds chaften . I n W . Wackerfuss ( ed.) B eiträge z ur E rforschung d es O denw aldes u nd s einer R andlandschaften: 1 93-222 . B reuberg-Neustadt.

C HASTAGNOL,

A .

1 980

L es h omines n ovi e ntr6s a u snat s ous l e r g ne d e D omitien. I n

2 14

F estschrift F . V ittinghoff: 8 1. K öln-Wien . CORSTEN,

T h.

2 69-

1 985

D ie I nschriften v on K ios. s chriften G riechischer S tädte K leinasien. 2 9. B onn.

1 985a

D ie F amilie d er Catilii i n B ithyn ien. Epi lraphica Anatol i ca 6 :127-31.

DAVIES, R .W .

1 977

C ohors I Cugernoru m. 3 85-92.

D E B LO IS,

1 984

T he T hird Century C risis G reek E lite i n t he Roman H istoria 3 3: 3 58-377.

1 981

A p ropos d 'un p r fet d e Commage .ne. Z eitschrift f ür Papyrololie u nd E pigraphik 4 3:97-109.

1 982

U terque o rdo. L es r apports e ntre 1'o rd r e s enatori al e t l 'ordre & luestre s ous l es J ulio-Claudiens. I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio. I . T ituli 4 : 7 3-104.

1 983

N otables municipaux e t o rdre q uest re ä l ' poque d es d erni res g uerres c iviles. I n Les " Bourg eoisies" municipales I taliennes a ux I Ie e t I er s i cles a y. 3 .-C . P aris-Naples: 2 79-98.

1 968

D ie Aufgabe e ines Off i z i er s im r öm ischen H eer. K ommentar z u A emil ius Macer, D ig. XLIX , XVI, 1 2.2. I n S tudia H ellenistica 1 6: 2 3-37. L euven.

1 970

S u tone, C laude, 2 5 e t l es m ilices ' c luestres. A ncient S ociety 1 : 6 98 1.

1 973

S ome O bservations o n G reek T erminol ogy f or t he M ilitiae E questres i n t he L iterary, E pigraphical a nd P apyrological S ources. I n Z etesis. A lbum amicorum E . d e S trycker: 5 496 5 . A ntwerpen-Utrecht.

1 974

T he Ro man A r my i n Egypt. With S pecial R eference t o t he ' Militiae E questres'. I n H . T emporini ( ed.)

DEMOUG IN,

D EVIJVER,

L .

S .

H .

2 15

Chiron

I na us

7 :

a nd t he Empire.

A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömis chen We 1t . II. 1: 45 2-92. B erl i n-NT eT v— V ork ( W . d e G ruy t er). D EV IJ VER,

H .

1 974a

D e l eeftijd v an d e ri dderof f icieren t ijdens h et V roeg-Romeinse K eizerr i j k ( 27 v . Chr. - 2 68 n . C hr.). H andel i ngen v an d e K on i nk Il ike Z uidnederlandse Maatschappij v oor T aal-en L etterkunde e n G eschiedenis 2 8 : 8 3-147.

1 975

D e A egypto e t E xercitu R omano s ive P rosopographia M il iti ar um E ques triu m q uae a b A ugus t o a d G a 11i enum s eu s tatione s eu o r i gine a d A eg yptum per t i nebant. S tudi a H el l enistica 2 2. L euven .

1 976-80

P rosopographia Mil it i a rum E quest r i um q uae f uerunt a b A ugusto a d W rrrenum . T . I: L i t terae A - I ( 1976). T .I I : L i t terae L -V ( 1977) T .I II : I ndices g enerales ( 1980). S ymbolae F acul t at i s L itterarum e t P hi l osophiae L ovan ie ns is . S er. A /3 . L euven ( Universitaire P ers) .

1 981

E ine n eue L esung d es P apyrus I FAO , II, 1. C eler, S ot i onis fiIi us, p raefectus cohor t i s I F l a v i ae C ilicum e qui t atae. A nagennesis 1 : 2 05-18.

1 981a

E ine n eue I nschrift a us K loster n euburg u nd d as a frikanische V er s etzungsschema f ür R itterof fi ziere . Z eitschrift f ür Papyrololie u nd E pigraphik 4 3: 1 11-124.

1 982

C ohortes C ii i cum i n t he S ervice o f R ome . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 4 7: 1 73-83.

1 983

E in B leigewicht m it A goranomenins chri f t aus Metropolis. T i b . C laudius P o 11i o ( ?): 1 , 7 z i zt ,x6c C I : Kb X gt .ktapeCa ,c . Zeitschr if t f ür P apyrologie u nd — T .—p TiTjp —I T T-k — TöT 2 70-74.

1 984

Z ur p olitischen T ät i gkeit d er m uniz ipalen A ristokratie d es g riechi schen O s t ens i n d er K ai s erzeit. H i s toria 3 3: 2 53-55 .

2 16

D EVIJVER,

H .

D EVIJVER , H . a nd V AN WINTERGHEM , F .

D EVREKER,

DOBSON,

J .

B .

DORUTIU- KDILÄ ,

DRIJVERS,

H .J.W .

E .

c e-

1 984a

L 'armee r omaine e n Maur6tanie s arienne . L atomus 4 3: 5 84-595 .

1 985

E in n euer B and d er ' Prosopographia M ilitiarum Equestriu m ' Zeits chrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigrap hik 5 9: 2 05-223.

1 986

L a ' Prosopographia M ilitiarum E ques trium '. Contribution ä l 'histoire s ociale e t & onomique d u P rincipat. I n Anci ent Econo my. Na mur ( forthcom ing.) .

1 984

D er ' campus' d er r ömischen S tädte i n I talia u nd i m Westen. Z eits chrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pig raphik 5 4: 1 95-206 .

1 985

N eue B elege z um ' campus' d er r ömis chen S tädte i n I talia u nd im Westen . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrolog ie u nd E pigraphik 6 0: 1 47-158 .

1 980

L 'adlectio i n s enatum ' d e s ien . L atomus 3 9: 7 0-87 .

1 972

L egionary Centurion o r E questrian O fficer? A Comparison o f P ay a nd P rospects. Ancient S ociety 3 : 1 93-207.

1 978

D ie P ri mipilares. E ntwicklung u nd B edeutung, L aufbahnen u nd P ersönl ichkeiten e ines r ömischen O ffizi ersranges. B eihefte d er B onner J ahrbücher. B and 3 7. Köln-Bonn.

1 977

M . Arruntius C laudianus p raefectus c lassis e t r ipae D anuvii. S tudii C lasice 1 7: 8 9-100.

1 977a

D er n ieder mösische L i mes u nter D omitian z u e iner I nschrift a us E phesos. I n S tudien z u d en M ilit ärgrenzen R oms. I. V orträge d es 1 0 . I nt. L i meskongresses i n d er G ermania I nferior. B eihefte d er B onner J ahrbücher. 3 8: 2 89-96 .

1 977

H atra, Pal myra u nd Edessa. D ie S tädte d er s yrisch-mesopotamischen Wüste i n p olitischer, k ulturges chichtlicher u nd r eligionsgeschi chtlicher B eleuchtung . I n H . T er n-

2 17

V espa-

p orini ( ed) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömischen Welt. 1.8: 7 999 06 . Berl i n-Ne w York (W. de G ruyter). E CK,

W .

1 981

M iscellanea P rosopographica . Z eits chrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigrap hik 4 2: 2 46-48.

1 982

J ahres- u nd P rovinzialfasten d er s enatorischen S tatthalter v on 6 9/70 b is 1 38/139. C hiron 1 2: 2 81-363.

1 982a

D ie F istulae a quariae d er S tadt R om . Z um E influss d es s ozialen S tatus a uf a dministratives H andeln . I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio. I . T ituli 4 : 1 97-225 .

1 983

J ahres- u nd P rovinzialfasten d er s enatorischen S tatthalter v on 6 9/70 b is 1 38/139 . C hiron 1 3: 1 47-237 .

1 978

I rodalom - Besprechungen: H . D EVIJVER , P rosopographia m ilitiarum e questrium . I . 1 976. A lba R egia 1 6: 3 57-8.

1 981

M ilestones o f P ontus, Galatia, P hrygia a nd L ycia . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 4 3: 1 49-74.

1 983

R ecruitment i n A sia M inor f or t he l egio I I I I S cythica. I n S . M itchell ( ed .) A r mies a nd F rontiers i n R oman a nd B yzantine A natolia: 4 5-56 . O xford. ( BAR , I nternational S eries 1 56).

1 983

D ie I nschriften v on P ar i on. s chriften G riechischer S tädte K leinasien 2 5 . Bonn.

GASPERINI, L . a nd P AC I, G .

1 982

A scesa a l s enato e r apporti c on i t erritori d 'ori gine: I tali a: R egio V ( Picenum). I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio. I. T ituli 5 : 2 01-44.

H AGEDORN,

1 984

V ernasius F acundus, p raefectus A eg ypti. Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 5 4: 8 7-90 .

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I na us

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1 982

D ie S enatoren a us d en K leinasiatis chen P rovinzen d es r ö mischen R eiches v om 1 . b is 3 . J ahrhundert ( Asia , Pontus-Bithynia, L yciaP amphyl i a, Galatia, Cappadocia, C ilicia). I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enatorio . I. T ituli 5 : 6 03-50.

1 982a

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1 980

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1 980

Z ur E ntwicklung d es S tadtbildes i n K ilikien . I n H . T e mporini ( ed.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömi s chen Welt. 1 1.7.2: 1 262- -g 3. B erlin-New Y ork ( W . d e G ruyter).

1 980

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1 980

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1 983

R öm ische B ürgerrechtspolitik u nd r öm ische N eubürger i n d er P rovinz A sia . F reiburg ( Breis 7 ), ( Hochs chulsamm lung P hilosophie. G eschi chte B d. 5 ).

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d e R ome

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1 977

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1 983

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1 985

T he c onstruction o f a v exillation f rom t he a r my o f S yria a nd t he o rigin o f a lae m illiariae. Z eits chrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigrap hik 6 1: 1 81-5.

1 977

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1 982

T estimonianze s ui p refetti d i Mesop otam ia . S tudia e t d ocumenta h ist oriae e t i uris 4 8 : 1 67-238 .

A .D.

1 980

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1 983

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1 985

A p ropos d e l 'inscription d e T . M ucius C lemens. Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd Epi lraphik 6 0: 2 75-6.

1 981

T he M ilitary D ecorations o f t he R oman A rmy . L ondon ( Batsfor-E q .

1 978

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1 978a

E in Z eugnis f ür T i. C laudius B arb illus a us Smyrna . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd Epi lraphik 3 1: 1 86-7.

1 980

P opulation a nd t he L and i n R oman G alatia . I n H . Te mporini ( ed.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömis chen Welt. 1 1.7.2: 1 053-10-g i. B erlin-New York ( W . d e G ruyter).

1 980

C appadocia a nd A rmenia M inor: H ist orical S etting o f t he'Li mes'. I n H . T emporini ( ed.) Aufstieg u nd N iedergang d er Rö mischen We l t. II. 7.2: 1I6 7 7 1 26 1 : — BeT:Ti FT N—e —w Y ork ( W . d e G ruyter).

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T .B.

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A .

T .B.

( 1)

( 2)

2 21

d er R öm ischen Welt. 1.7 .2: 1 2301 261. B erlin-New Y ork ( W . d e G ruyt er ) . N ELSON, C .A .

1 979

S tatus d eclarations i n R oman E gypt. A merican S tudies i n P apyrology 1 9: 6 8-73.

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1 966/74

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P almyreni s ag itt ar ii q ui s un t i n D acia S uper i ore, S tudi i i C ercet ar i d e Is tor i e V eche j Arheologie 3 0: 1 05-9.

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OVERBECK ,

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1 982

D ie I nschriften v on S myrna. T ei 1 I . G rabschriften, p os t u me E hr ungen, G rabepigramme . I nschriften G reichischer S tädte a us K le i nasien 2 3 . B onn.

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L es p rocurateurs & luestres s ous H aut-Empire r omain . P aris.

1 960

L es c arr i res p rocurator i ennes 6 questres s ous l e H aut-Empire r om a in . P aris.

1 978

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1 979

L a c arr i e ! r e d e C . I ul i us A vitus A lex i anus, g ra nd-p r e d e d eux Emp ereurs . R evue d es E tudes L at i nes 5 7: 2 98-314.

2 22

l e

P FLAUM ,

P ISO ,

H .-G .

I .

P ISO , I . a nd ROGOZEA,

QUASS,

ROBERT,

J .

L .

ROBERT , L . a nd J . ROBERT,

J .

ROSSNER,

LMIN,

S ALLER,

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1 985

Z ur E ntstehung d er P ronvinz D acia P orolissensis. I n E . Weber a nd G . D obesch ( eds). Rö mische Geschi chte, A ltertumskunde u nd E pigrap hik . Festschrift Artur Betz: 4 71-81. W ien.

1 985

E in A polloheiligtum i n d er N ähe v on T ibiscum . Z eitschrift f i lj P apyrol ogie u nd E pigraphik 5 8 : 2 11-18 .

1 982

Z ur p olitischen T ätigkeit d er m uniz ipalen A ristokratie d es g riechis chen Ostens i n d er Kaiserzeit. H istoria 3 1: 1 88-213.

1 982

S enators o riginating i n t he P rovinc es o f Egypt a nd o f C rete a nd C yrene . I n Epi lrafia e Ordine S enatorio . I I. T ituli 5 : 6 71-83.

1 981

U ne e pigramme s atirique d 'Automedon e t A th nes a u d ebut d e l 'Empire. A nthologie P alatine X I 3 19. R evue d es E tudes G recques 9 4: 3 38-61.

P .

F .

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1 982

a nd L .

M .

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1 954

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I I. P aris

1 979

B ulletin E pigraphique. R evue d es E tudes G recques 9 2: 5 23 n o 5 82.

1 974

A siarchen u nd S tudii C lasice

1 979

K atalog d er a ntiken I nschriften d es M useums v on I znik ( Nikaia) I . I nschriften G riechischer S tädte a us K leinasien 9 . B onn.

1 981

K atalog d er a ntiken I nschriften d es M useums v on I znik ( Nikaia) I.1. I nschriften G riechischer S tädte a us K leinasien 1 0.1. B onn.

1 980

P romotion a nd p atronage t rian Careers. J ournal S tudies 7 0: 4 4-63.

2 23

A rch i ere is Asias. 1 6: 1 01-42.

i n E queso f R oman

S ALLER ,

R .P.

1 982

P ersonal P atronage u nder t he E arly Empire . C ambridge ( Cambridge U niv ersity P ress). D ie Herkunft d er s enatorischen T ineii. Z eitschrift f ür Papyrolog ie u nd E pigraphik 6 3 : 1 99-202 . L aurens Lauinas. Quel ques r em arques ä p ropos d 'un s acerdoce e questre ä R ome. L atomus 4 3: 5 173 3.

S ALOM IES,

0 .

1 985

S AULNIER ,

CHR .

1 984

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1 984

T . I M ucius C lemens, c ommander o f t he a rmy o f Agrippa I I: a n e pigraphic al n ote. Z eitschrift f ür P apyrol ogie u nd E pigraphik 5 6: 2 40-2 .

1 985

T . Mucius C lemens: A S upplementary N ote . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 5 8: 2 96.

S HERK,

R .K.

1 980

R oman G alatia: T he G overnors f rom 2 5 B .C . t o A .D. 1 14. I n H . T empor ini ( ed.) Aufstieg u nd N iedergang d er Römi s chen Welt. II . 7 .2: 9 54-1052. B erlin-New York ( W . d e G ruyter).

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1 982

B eiträge z ur N amengebung d er S enat oren . I n E pigrafia e O rdine S enat orio . I . T ituli 4 : 4 11-432.

1 975

T he R ise o f E thnic U nits i n t he Raman Imperi al Ar my. I n H . Temporini ( ed.) Aufstieg u nd N ied ergang d er R ömischen W elt. I. 3 :. 2 02-31. Berl i n-New York ( W . de G ruyter).

1 976

C itizen Cohorts i n t he Roman I mper ial A rmy . N ew D ata o n t he C ohorts A pula, C ampana a nd II Campestris. T ransactions a nd P roceedings o f t he American P hilological A ssociation 1 06:339-48.

1 977

T he Roman A r my i n A rabia. I n H . T emporini ( ed,) Aufstieg u nd N ied erganl d er R ömischen Welt. I. 8 : 6 87-730 . B erlin-New York ( W . d e

S PEIDEL,

M .P.

G ruyter). 1 983

T he Roman A r my i n A sia M inor. R ec ent E pigraphical D iscoveries a nd R esearch . I n S . M itchell ( ed.)

2 24

A rm ies a nd F rontiers i n R oman a nd B yzantine Anatolia: 7 -34. Oxford ( BAR I nternational S eries 1 56). S PEIDEL, M .P.

1 984

S UCEVEANU,

A .

1 979

S ULLIVAN,

R .D.

1 977

T he D ynasty o f Emesa. I n H . T emporini ( ed.) Aufstieg u nd N ied ergang d er R ömischen Welt. I. 8 : 1 98-219 . B erlin-New Y ork ( W . d e G ruyter).

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J .

1 955

T he J unior O fficers o f t he Roman A rmy i n t he R epublican P eriod. A S tudy on Soci al S tructure= H elsinki-W iesbaden.

1 982

S u llo

THCMASSON,

B .E.

P almyrenian I rregulars a t Koptos. B ulletin o f t he American S ociety o f P apyrologists 2 1:221-4. D in n ou d espre c ariera l ui Marcus A rruntius C laudianus. S tudii C ercetäri d e I storie V eche j A rh eologie 3 0: 4 7-61.

s tato

t ores ' . I n S enator i o .

W ILKES,

J .J.

d ei I legati censiEp iLrafia e Or d in e 3 05-18.

1 984

L atercul i P r ae sid u m. Göteborg ( Editiones R adii G othoburgi). V ol.

1 983

R omans, D acians a nd S ar matians i n t he F irst a nd E arly S econd Cent uries. I n B . Hart l ey and J . Wacher ( eds.) Ro me and her N orthern P rovinces. P apers p r es ented t o S heppard F rere: 2 55-89. G loucester ( Alan S ut -i -J F ).

P rof. D r. H . D evijver U niversiteit A ntwerpen ( UFSIA) K atholieke U niversiteit L euven

2 25

1 0.

UMM

EL-JI MAL

I N

THE

FI RS T

TH REE

CENTURI ES

AD

B . D e V ries G rand R apids I n r ecent e xcavations t wo major d iscoveries h ave g reatl y e nhanced o ur u nderstanding o f Umm el-Jimal's h istory i n t he t hird c entury. I n 1 981 we d iscovered t hat t he b adly r uined a rea n ortheast o f t he g reat r eservoir was a c astellum c onstructed i n t he r eign o f D iocletian . I n 1 984 we d iscovered a n u nwelled t own o n t he s outh-east s ide o f t he welled c ity t hat h ad a n E arly R oman f oundat ion a nd a L ate R oman d estruction . c e t he b asis o f a rc haeological e vidence e vents may b e r econstructed a s f ollows: t his E arly Roman t own was f ounded i n t he N abataean a grarian s ettlement o f t he n orth a nd p rosp ered u ntil i ts d estruction i n t he t hird c entury. M eanwhile, t he R oman a uthorities b egan c onstruction o f t he l ater c ity i n t he s econd c entury. A fter t he e arly t own was r uined i t b ecame a c onvenient q uarry f or t he D iocletianic c astellum a nd t he b uildings c onstructed i n i ts p rotective s hadow . H ow d oes t his s hift f rom N abat aean r ural t own t o g arrisoned, r omanised c ity f it i nto t he l arger e vents o n t he e astern f rontier? T he b est w orking h ypothesis i s t hat t he t own, k nown t o h ave b een f riendly w ith Queen Z enobia 's e nemy J adhi ma, f ell d uring h er i nvasion o f n orthern A rabia .

I .

' A .

T he A rchaeological

T he L ate R oman-Byzantine C ity,

E vidence

c A D 2 50-700.

Umm e l-Ji mal h as a l ways h ad a r eputation a s a N abataean c aravan c ity. H .C . B utler u sed t he n umerous i nscriptions a nd a f ew a rchitectural f ragments t o c onclude t hat i t was " an i mportant c entre o f N abataean c ivilisation a s e arly a s . t he f irst c entury B C - AD" ( 1913: 1 54). N elson G lueck a ssumed i t w as a l ink o n t he c aravan r oute f rom c entral A rabia t o B ostra a nd D amascus ( 1951: 1 -34). H owever, i mportant N abataean B yzantine 5 6). T he

t he e xcavations o f t he Umm e l-Ji mal P roject h ad t his n egative r esult: t here was n o f irst-second c entury c ity b eneath t he s till s tanding f ourth-sixth c entury c ity ( De V ries 1 981: 5 3-72; 1 982: 9 7-116; 1 985: 2 49o nly p urely f irst-second c entury d eposit w as a t hick

2 27

F ig.

1 0.1

U mm e l-Jimal

i n

2 28

t he

t hird c entury.

a sh l ayer o n which t he l ater R oman E ast Gate was f ounded. I n a ddition, t he p ottery f rom t he f irst-second c entury, w hether f rom t his l ayer o r f rom l ayers i n which l ater p ottery was a lso p res ent, w as e ither t ypically Roman o r a l ocal H auran p roduct. N abataean f ine ware was a l most n on-existent. T he e arliest s tructures, t he west, s outh a nd e ast c ity walls, t he a queduct e ntering t he n orth o f t he c ity a nd t he P raetorium were f ounded i n t he l ate s econd c entury o r ( more p robably) i n t he t hird c entury. T he B arracks a nd a t l east o ne h ouse ( no . X IV) w ere c onstructed i n t he f ifth c entury, b ut most o f t he l arge d omestic c omplexes a nd a ll t he c hurches w ere c onstructed i n t he p rosperous s ixth c entury w hen Umm e l-Ji mal w as " the p re-Islamic C hristian A rabic C ity p ar e xcellence" ( Butler 1 913: 1 50). Umm e l-Ji mal o f t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies h ad t herefore b ecome a n e nigmatic l ost c ity w hose p resence was s o w ell a ttested b y t he n umerous N abataean i nscriptions a nd t he a bundant p ottery m ixed i n with l ater s herds. T his s ituation c ould l ead o ne t o c onclude t hat o f t he N abataean t own " nothing r emains e xcept s cattered s herds a nd a f ew i nscriptions" ( Knaupf 1 984: 5 78) o r t o i nsist o n i ts s ignificance i n s pite o f t he s carcity o f s tratig raphic e vidence: " Mais l ' i mportance d e l a v ille p re-byzantine n e p eut e n a ucune maniere e tre d ecele p ar l es s euls i ndices a rcheologiques a ctuel 1ement v isible" ( Sartre 1 985: 1 94). H appily, two i mportant d iscoveries i n t he 1 981 a nd 1 984 e xcavat ion s easons h ave p ut a n e nd t o t he mystery: T he N abataean t own w as d iscovered n ext t o, n ot u nder, t he B yzantine c ity . T his t own d isappeared a l most t otally b ecause i ts masonry p rovided t he b uilding materials f or t he f ortification o f t he s till s tanding c ity l ate i n t he t hird c entury a nd e arly f ourth c entury. T he c entrepiece o f t hese l ate R oman f ortifications was a T etrarchic c astellum.

B .

T he N abataean T own,

c AD 5 0-270 .

I n t he 1 984 e xcavation s eason t wo t eams were a ssigned t o s tudy t he a rea s outh-east o f t he walled c ity, o ne t o e xcavate t he c emeteries a nd t he o ther t o s tudy t he a gricultural s ystem b ased . o n t he Wadi Abu e l-Ku' ( Fig. 1 0.1). T ombs T .1, W .1 a nd W .2 p roved t o b e p art o f a n e xtensive c emetery made u p o f s i mple s haft g raves ( Pl. 1 0.1a) i ndicated o n t he s urface b y ac ircle o r r ectangle o f f ield s tones ( Pl. 1 0 .1b) . T hese t ombs w ere p robably a lso m arked w ith t he s i mple G reek i nscribed t omb s tones t hat a re n ow v isible a s c orbels a nd s tairway t reads i n t he h ouses o f t he B yzantine c ity. T he t hree t ombs e xcavated dated f rom t he ey- l y a nd l ate Roman p eriods ( the f irst t o t he t hird c enturies A D) .1 P ottery f rom t he t wo l arge r eservoirs o n t he Wadi A bu e l-Ku ', e xcavated i n t renches T .2-7 i ndicated a c onstruction d ate a t t he t ransition f rom e arly t o l ate R oman t ypes i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury . S trikingly, t he r emains o f b oth t he c emetery a nd t he a gricultural s ystem w ere e arlier i n d ate t han t he walled c ity o f Umm e l-Ji mal.

2 29

a

b

C

e f

P l.

1 0.1

a ) A rea T :1 E arly R oman s haft t omb s howing c apstones i n s itu; b ) A rea T :1 r ing o f s tones marking s haft t omb; CT A rea R :2 p re-excavation p hoto; d ) A rea R :5 p ree xcavation p hoto; e ) F loor o f t he a edes w ith t he h ole f or s upporting t he s tandard; 0 T he N abataean v ersion o f t he G adhi ma b ilingual. 2 30

I n o rder t o g o f rom t he walled c ity t o t he A rea T r eservoirs e xcavators h ad t o c ross a n a rea o f m oonscape r ubble o f u ndressed l ichen c overed b asalt b oulders ( Pl. 1 0.1c a nd d ; s ee a lso t he f oreground i n ap hoto o f Umm e l Ji mal p ublished b y B utler 1 913: 1 49, i ll. 1 30). S cattered t hroughout t his f our h undred b y f ive h undred metre w ilderness a re a h alf d ozen s mall b lack m ounds t hat a re e xtremely r ich i n s urface p ottery. T he a rea a nd t he b lack m ounds a re c learly v isible i n t he b ottom l eft h and c orner o f t he a erial p hoto o f Umm e l-Ji mal p ublished b y D avid K ennedy ( 1982: 3 39, P late XLVIII ( a)). A s ystematic s urface s urvey y ielded t hese r esults: Well o ver 9 0% o f t he s herds w ere R oman, w ith o ver h alf o f t hose E arly R oman ; l ess t han 5 9 6 w ere E arly B yzantine a nd l ess t han 1 % L ate B yzantine . C areful e xamination o f t he s urface r ubble a lso r evealed a maze o f w alls t hroughout t he a rea . I n o rder t o g et a s tratigraphic p rofile f ive s oundings w ere d ug ( Fig . 1 0.1, R . 1 -5). T hese r evealed a r oadway, t wo h ouses a nd a g arden wall. O ne h ouse a nd t he g arden wall were f ounded o n t op o f E arly Roman ( first c entury AD) p its. T he r oadway a nd a ll t hree s tructures w ere b uilt a t t he s ame t i me a s t he r eservoirs ( m id-second c entury A D). B oth h ouses h ad a major r emodel li ng e arly i n t he t hird c entury, s uffered c ollapse a t t he e nd o f t he c entury a nd w ere g radually a bandoned e arly i n t he f ourth c entury . T he a rea a ppears t o c ontain a s mall u nwalled t own t hat r eceived i ts f irst s ettlers s ome t i me i n t he f irst c entury A D b ut e njoyed i ts m ajor c onstruction p hase i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury . B etween c AD 1 50 a nd 2 70 t he t own was a d ensely b uilt a gglomerate o f s i mple h ouses. I t may h ave b een a l ink o n t he Wadi S irhan c aravan r oute ( a l arge s tructure t wo h undred metres e ast o f t he s ite, d ue f or e xcavation i n t he n ext s eason, may p rove t o b e a c aravanserai), b ut i t c ertainly e njoyed c onsiderable a griculture o n t he s lopes o f t he Wadi A bu e l-Ku '. I ts wealthier r esidents w ere b uried i n t he e laborate mausolea a lready mapped b y B utler i n 1 905 ( 1913: 1 48). T he p oorer m ajority w ere b uried i n t he s i mple s haft g raves t o t he s outh o f t he c ity . T he r eason t hat t he t own i s s o b adly d estroyed i s t hat i t a ppears t o h ave b een s ystematically q uarried a fter i ts d estruction l ate i n t he t hird c entury. T he b lack mounds, a m ixture o f a shy s oil a nd b asalt c hips, may h ave b een t he a reas i n which masons were r eshaping t he b locks f rom t he n earby d is mantled b uildings. T he p resence o f t he s mall q uantity o f E arly B yzantine p ottery may i ndicate t hat t his q uarrying a ctivity c ontinued i nto t he f ourth c entury . T his e xplanation f its i n p lausibly w ith t he f act t hat t he T etrarchic c astellum w hich w as b eing c onstructed a t t his t i me c ontains a g reat d eal o f r eused m asonry .

C .

T he T etrarchic C astellum ,

c AD 3 00-412 .

T he b adly r uined a rea b etween t he c ity 's l arge r eservoir a nd i ts N ortheast G ate, e xcavated i ntensively i n 1 981 a nd 1 984, p roved t o b e ac astellum c onstructed c 3 00 a nd u sed a s a f ort u ntil t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury ( when i t w as r eplaced b y t he m uch s meller

2 31

B arracks). T he c astellum i s a q uadriburgium ( Fig . 1 0.2) w ith w alls v arying f rom 12 t o 9 5 m i n l ength a nd 1 .90 m t hick . I t i s g enerally t ypical o f L ate R oman f ortifications ( Lander 1 980: 1 051-60; S . J ohnson 1 983: 3 1-54). I ts v ery s mall c orner t owers a re s i milar t o t hose a t e d-Diyatheh ( Butler 1 913: 3 40-1; V illen euve 1 986). I ts e xterior walls a re l ined w ith r ooms, i nterr upted b y a t l east o ne a scensus p er s ide ( for a d iscussion o f r ampart a ccess s tairs s ee A . J ohnson 1 983: 6 50 . I ts i nterior i s b uilt u p w ith b arrack b locks e xcept f or a n o pen a rea t hat may h ave c ontained a p rincipia b uilding, o f which t he f loor o f t he a edes w ith t he h ole f or t he m ilitary u nits' s tandard ( Pl. 1 0 .1e) s till s urvives . T he c astellum h ad g ates i n a ll f our w alls, w ith t he e ast g ate s erving a s t he N ortheast G ate o f t he c ity . T he c astellum a ppears t o h ave b een f itted i nto t he a lready e xisti ng a rchitecture o f t he c ity. F rom t he C ommodus i nscription ( Littmann 1 913a: 1 31-2, n o.232) mentioning a n o pus v alli w e c an a ssume t hat t he c ity w alls w e d ated t o t he L ate R oman p eriod h ad a lready b een c onstructed. T his means t hat t he e ast wall o f t he c astellum was a ligned w ith a nd p atched i nto t he c ity wall. T he t rapezoidal p lan may i n t his c ase n ot b e a matter o f s trategic d esign ( Kennedy 1 982: 1 28), b ut r ather t he r esult o f "squeezing" t he s tructure i n b etween t he c ity w all a nd t he l arge w ater r eserv oir. I f t his i s t rue t he r eservoir a nd t he a queduct f eeding i t w ere b uilt i n t he p eriod b etween Marcus A urelius a nd D iocletian, p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he c astellum .

2 32

D .

A R elative C hronology,

T own a nd C ity 2

TO WN

A .D .

C ITY

N ABATAEAN S ETTLEM ENT

c o. 5 0-135

1 00

C ONSTRUCT ION O F N AB . R OMAN T OWN c a . 135-160 -C OMMODUS G A TE 1 7 7180 LFE O F T HE

N AB .-

2 00

P RAETOR IUM A QUEDUCT & R ESERVO IR

ROMAN T OWN c a . 160- 2 70 -- D ESTRUCT ION c a . 2 70 — Q UARRY ING O F M ASONRY c a .270-350

3 00

—

C ASTELLUM

c o .300

E ARLY B YZANT INE C I TY A BANDONED

4 00

B ARRACKS

4 12

5 00 L ATE B YZANT INE C ITY ) 00

U MAY Y AD C ITY 7 00 A BANDONED

I.

Umm e l-Jimal

7 50

i n R oman H istory

W ith t he a rchaeological d iscoveries j ust d escribed i t i s n ow p ossible t o c orrelate t he s tratigraphic e vidence w ith t he i ns criptional materials f rom Umm e l-Ji ma( a nd t he H auran r egion.

A .

N abataean B eginnings

T he s cantiness o f A D would i ndicate

t he t own 's r emains p rior a f oundation d ate i n t he

233

t o t he s econd c entury s econ d p h a s e o f N aba,

t aean i nfluence i n t he r egion ( late i n t he f irst c entury AD) r ather t han t he f irst p hase ( during t he r eign o f Maliku I ) . T hat t he p opulation o f Umm e l-Ji mal w as u nder N abataean p olitical a nd c ultural i nfluence i s c lear n ot o nly f rom t he n umerous N abataean i nscriptions a t t he s ite i tself, b ut a lso f rom i ts l ocation i n t he a rea o f t he h ighest c oncentration o f N abataean i nscriptions i n t he H auran r egion . T his r egion c omprises t he o val s ection o f t he s outhern H auran b ordered b y B ostra, S alkhad a nd I mtan o n t he n orth a nd Umm e l-Quttayn, Umm e l-Jimal a nd U nnn es-Surab o n t he s outh, a n a rea t hat a ppears t o h ave B ostra a s i ts c ultural c entre ( Starcky 1 985 : 1 74, f ig .1, 1 78). T hough m ost o f t he i nscriptions i n t his r egion a re f unerary a nd w ithout d ates, s everal d edicatory i nscriptions r efer t o R abbel I ( AD 7 0/71-106). B ecause t he c losest o f t hese i s a t Umm e l-Quttayn ( Littmann 1 913b: 3 0, n o .33) i t i s s afe t o i nfer t hat t he s ettlement o f Umm e l-Ji mal t ook p lace o r h ad a lready t aken p lace d uring t he r eign o f t his k ing . T he o rthographic s tyle o f t he n umerous f unerary i nscriptions a t Umm e l-Jimal a lso f its i nto t his p eriod . L ittmann d ated o ne t omb l intel i nscription t o t he e arly s econd c entury AD; ( 1913b: 3 6f, n o.40); F awzi Z ayedine d ates a n ewly f ound t omb i nscription t o t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury ( publication f orthcoming) . T he c onstruction o f l arge water c atchment a nd i rrigation d evices p arallels t he c ontemporary a gricultural d evelopment o f t he N abat aean N egev . T he i mplication o f t his i s t hat t he p rimary e conom ic motive f or t he s ettlement w as n ot t he e xpansion o f N abataean t rade r outes, b ut i n f act t he d ecline o f t hat t rade a nd t he t ransition t o a griculture t hat f ollowed ( Bowersock 1 971: 2 28, n .59). G iving a griculture a s t he p rimary e conomic m otive f or t he s ettlement d oes n ot, o f c ourse, e xclude a r ole i n t he c aravan t rade f rom t he Wadi S irhan. T here a re t races o f r oads c oming i nto t he N abataean t own, a nd a l arge s tructure j ust n orth o f t he t own ( to b e e xcavated i n t he n ext s eason) may p rove t o b e a c aravanserai o r f ort. W ith t he s ettlement o f t he s ite t his l ate i n N abataean h istory i t i s b est t o s ee i t n ot a s a p roduct o f N abataean c olonisation f rom t he s outh, b ut r ather a s t he r esult o f t he e xpansion o f N abataean i nfluence f rom B ostra . T he f act t hat D ushara A ara w as w orshipped a t Umm e l Ji mal ( Li t t mann 1 913b: 3 4, n o. 3 8) c onfir ms t his c onnection, f or A ara i s n ot o nly t he g od o f R abbel I, b ut h as h is c ult c entre s pecifically a t B ostra ( Milik 1 958: 2 32-5; S tarcky 1 985: 1 78). ( This r ather e xclusive a ssociation o f t he H auranite D ushara w ith B ostra h as b ecome m ore c lear s ince J acquel ine D entzer's d emonstration ( 1979: 3 25-32) t hat t he t emple a t S i', a ttributed t o D ushara b y H .C . B utler, a ctually w as a p art o f t he B aal S hamin c ult c entre). H ence, t he p icture o ne g ets i s n ot o f c olonisation, b ut o f t he s ettlement o f l ocal t ribes u nder t he p olitical c ontrol a nd w ith t he e ncouragement o f t he N abataean a uthorities a t B ostra . A t l east t wo s uch t ribes a re mentioned i n i nscriptions, t he R awah ( Littmann 1 913b: 4 1, n o.43; M ilik 1 958: 2 28f) a nd t he S alam ( M ilik 1 958: 2 32). A member o f t he l atter t ribe made a d edica-

2 34

e as t c hu r ch

n r inpi -

0 0 N J -0

l , _f

I I

1 1

U E 1

Tri

0

1 1 — . 1

;

I 1;

0

1

C ASTELLUM

;

0

F ig.

1 0.2

C astellum a t Umm e l-Jimal.

2 35

t ion t o " Dushara, t he g od o f R abbel" n ear S uweidah i n AD 7 5/6. J .T . M ilik s uggests t hat t he N abataean p olitical p resence i n t he a rea w as b ased o n a n a lliance w ith t his l ocally w idespread t ribe o f t he S alam ( 1958: 2 31). U nun e l-Jimal was i n t he g eographic s phere o f t hat t ribe. A nother i ndicator t hat t he r esidents o f Umm e l-Jimal were n ot n ative N abataeans, b ut r ather N abataeanised A rabs, i s t he l ack o f d istinctive N abataean p ottery f ound i n t he e arly R oman s tratum o f t he t own . T his p aucity i s p arallel t o t hat a t S i' a nd i n g reat c ontrast t o i ts a bundance a t B ostra . J .-M . D entzer h as c oncluded t hat t his c ontrast i s i ndicative o f a n ative N abataean s ettlement a t B ostra a nd a n a bsence o f s uch s ettlement a t S i' ( G lueck 1 951: 1 3, 1 7, J .- M . D entzer 1 985: 1 51ff). T he s ame c onclusion w ould a pply t o Umm e l-Jimel.

B .

A T own

i n t he P rovince o f A rabia

T he i ncorporation o f t he a rea i nto t he Empire a nd t he c ons truction o f t he V ia N ova i n t he e arly d ecades o f t he s econd c entury, c reated c onditions t hat t riggered t he b uilding s purt d uring t he m iddle d ecades, t o b e f ollowed b y u ninterrupted h abit ation u ntil t he m id-third c entury . Umm e l-Jimal h as n umerous i nscriptions f rom t his p eriod, m ostly p reserved b y t heir i nclusion i n t he c onstruction o f t he l ater B yzantine c ity . H owever, o nly t wo o f t hese a re c learly d ateable a nd i ndicative o f t he i mperial p resence a t t he s ame t ime. O ne o f t hese i s t he C ommodus i nscription ( Littmann 1 913a: 1 31f, n o . 2 32) m entioning t he c onstruction o f a w all. I f i t i s i n f act f rom t he g ate i n which B utler f ound i t, i t c ould r efer t o t he c onstruction o f t he wall o f t he l ater c ity n ext t o t he N abataean t own i n AD 1 77-80 . T he o ther i s a f ragment o f ad edication t o G ordian II, A D 2 38-44 ( Littmann 1 913a: 1 56, n o .271) . A l arge n umber o f t ombstones, w ritten i n G reek, h ave s urvived b ecause t hey w ere t aken f rom t he c emeteries o f t he t own t o s erve a s r eady-made c orbels a nd s tairway t reads i n t he B yzantine c ity . T hese p rovide a r epresentative s ample o f t he s emitic n ames o f t he o rdinary p eople o f t he t own b uried i n t he s i mple s haft t ombs r inged w ith c ircles o f s tones. O f t he m ausoleum t ype t ombs b uilt i n t he c ountryside t hree h ave d ated m emorial i nscriptions . T he d ates s pan t hree d ecades i n t he l ife o f t he t own: A D 1 95, 2 08 a nd 2 23 ( Li t tmann 1 913a: 1 57f, n os.274, 2 75 a nd 2 76). M . S artre h as d ated t his c orpus o f f unerary i nscriptions t o t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies, a nd c oncludes f rom t hem t hat Umm e l-Jimal w as a n i mportant t own, w ith a s izeable p opulation ( Sartre 1 985: 1 95) . I nterestingly t he c onclusions o f S artre 's s tudy o f t hese i nscript ions r esulted i n ad escription t hat f its t he n ewly d iscovered t own p erfectly ( though h e h ad n o k now ledge o f i ts d iscovery) . H e c oncluded t hat, i n s pite o f t he s izeable p opulation, Umm e l-Jimal w as a v illage w ithout s trategic s tatus " belonging t o t he t errit ory o f B ostra a s t he i nscriptions p rove: a bsence o f R oman

2 36

o fficials, e xtreme r arity o f s oldiers, a bsence o f a ny municipal m agistrate" ( Sartre 1 985: 1 95, n .19). F rom t he s tudy o f t he n ames o n t he t ombstones h e c oncluded t hat t he e xtent o f H ellenis ation w as v ery s mall c ompared t o t hat o f c ities i n t he L eja . A t l east 8 59 6 o f t he n ames a re s emitic a nd l ess t han 1 59 6 G raecoR oman . T his i ndicates t hat m ost o f t he p opulation w as i ndigenous w ith l ittle c ontact w ith t he R oman o ccupiers a nd f ew f oreign r esidents ( Sartre 1 985: 1 95-200). J ust a s t he p redominant u se o f G reek i n t hese i nscriptions was merely a v eneer o ver t he p revailing u se o f A rabic a s t he s poken l anugage, s o t he R oman p rovincial a dministration was merely a n umbrella u n . g Ier which l ocal t ribal p olitics s et t he p attern o f e veryday l ife .'

C . T he c entury

d estruction o f

t he

t own

o f

Umm e l-Ji ma!,

l ate

t hird

T he c omparatively p eaceful e xistence o f t he t own c ame t o a n e nd w ith t he c omplex o f t roubles b rought t o t he E astern f rontier b y t he P ersian i nvasions, t he R oman-Pal myrene c ounter-attack a nd t he f amous P al myrene r ebellion ( A lföldi 1 939: 1 73-80) . T hese e vents m ark t he e nd o f t he e ra u shered i n b y t he N abataean e xpansion t o t he n orth a nd p erpetuated b y t he R oman a dministration o f P rovinc ia A rabia; a nd t hey u sher i n a n ew e ra marked b y t he t ribal a lliances l ed b y t he T anUkhids ( Bowersock 1 983: 1 31-47; S hahid 1 984: 3 68-74). W hile t here i s n o d irect e vidence l inking Umm e l Ji mal t o t he P ersian i nvasion, t here i s a c onnection w ith t he c onflict b etween P almyra a nd t he T anT ikhid confederacy, t he f amous b ilingual i ns cription c ommemorating F ihr, t he t utor o f Gadhi ma, t he k ing o f t he T ant ikh ( Littmann 1 9I3b : 3 7-40, n o .41) . T his i nscription ( Pl. 1 0.1f a nd g ), i mportant f or t he l ate s urvival o f N abataean w riti ng ( Starcky 1 985: 1 76) h as r ecently b een much d iscussed a s k ey e vidence i n t he e vents o f t he P al myrene r ebellion . B owersock a rgues t hat t he f ortification o f t he n orthern p art o f t he p rovince i n t he 2 60 's ( Pf l aum 1 952: 3 22ff) was d irected a s m uch a gainst P al myra a s a gainst t he P ersian t hreat. T he l ocal . t ribes, t hreatened b y P al myra 's g rowing m ilitary p ower a nd t he H ellenising t endencies, r allied t o t he c onfederation o f t he T anU khids a s t he c hampions o f b oth t he Roman s tatus q uo a nd t he A rabiC t ribal c ulture ( Bowersock 1 983: 1 31-5 ; P eters 1 978: 3 24f) . E vidence f or Umm e l-Ji mal's d irect i nvolvement i n a ll t his r em ains c ircumstantial. T he f act t hat t he t eacher o f G adhi ma w as b uried t here d oes n ot make t he t own a n a ccomplice a gainst P almyra . H owever, I . S hahid makes a s trong h ypothetical c ase f or j ust t hat: " The l atter [ Zenobia], a ccording t o t he A rabic t radit ion v anquished J adima, a nd i f T hainatha [ he e quates i t w ith Umm e l-Jimal, f ollowing B utler] was i ndeed a T anT ikhid l ocality, i t w ould c ertainly h ave c eased t o e xist a s a T anr ikhid s tronghold i n t he s hort p eriod o f P al myrene s upremacy d uring t he r eign o f Z enobia" ( Shahid 1 984: 4 16). T he a rchaeological e vidence s upports t he d rastic d ecline o f t he t own a t t his t i me, i f n ot i ts

2 37

a ctual d estruction b y Z enobia i n c onjunction w ith t he s trike a t B ostra ( Seyrig 1 941: 4 6). I t i s s afe t o a ssume t hat t he q uarryi ng o f t he t own t o p rovide b uilding material f or t he a djacent c ity t ook p lace d uring t he d ecades f ollowing A D 2 70 . W hat h appened t o t he i nhabitants o f t he t own? T he a vailable e vidence i ndicates a d iscontinuity o f p opulation i n t he t ransit ion f rom t own t o c ity. N ot o nly w as t he Gadhi ma i nscription a l ast u sage o f a lready A rabised N abataean, b ut N abataean i nscript ions b ecame merely d ecorative e lements i n t he l ater B yzantine h ouses ( Starcky 1 985: 1 76). T he f lagrant r euse o f t he t own 's t ombstones a s a nonymous b uilding b locks i ndicates a s erious b reak i n a ncestral m emory . T he t ribal n ames R awah a nd S alam d isappear f rom i nscriptions, whereas t he n ame B anu ' Amr o ccurs o n t he A rabic i nscription ( Li t tmann 1 913c: 1 ) i n t he D ouble C hurch ( Knaupf 1 984: 5 83 0. K naupf c oncludes t hat t he " pre-Arabic A rabs" l ost t heir i dentity a nd b ecame a bsorbed i nto t he n ew A rabic p opulation c reated b y t he s ettlement o f t he B anu ' Amr a t U mm e l-Ji mal.

D .

T he T etrarchic F ortification o f

t he c ity o f UM

e l-Jimal

T he l acuna i n i nscriptional e vidence f or f ortification a ctivity b etween t he 2 60 's a nd t he B urgus i nscription o f A D 3 71 a t Umm e i J ima! ( Li t t mann 1 913a: 1 32ff, n o.233) c ould h ave l ed t o t he c onc lusion t hat t he i nvasion o f P al myra w as f ollowed b y a p eriod o f i nstability l asting a c entury ( Peters 1 978: 3 24) . H owever, w ork d one i n t he n ow t runcated p rovince o f A rabia a nd t he n ew p rovince o f P alaestina T ertia i ndicates t he c ontrary, t he s erious r efortif ication o f t he f rontier. T he e xistence o f t he T etrarchic c ast ellum a t Umm e l Ji mal a dds a l ink i n t hat c hain. A T etrarchic m ilestone ( Parker 1 986) t wo a nd a h alf km e ast o f t he c astellum 's E ast Gate, o n t he way t o U nun e l-Quttayn, a dds i nscriptional e vidence t o R ome 's r enewed m ilitary p resence. T he r enewed s ec urity o f t he f ort p rovided t he s table c onditions i n which t he c ity o f U n nm e l-Ji mal c ould g row t o t he f lourishing B yzantine c ity i t b ecame o ver t he n ext t hree c enturies. N otes 1 . T he t er minology i s b ased o n s cheme: E arly R oman ( ER ) L ate R oman ( LR ) E arly B yzantine ( EB ) L ate B yzantine ( LB) -

t he

f ollowing

c hronological

6 3 BC - A D 1 35 A D 1 35 - 3 25 A D 3 25 - 4 91 A D 4 91 - 6 40

2 . Ih ave c alled t he e arlier s ettlement " town" a nd t he l ater, w alled s ettlement " city" a s a m eans o f k eeping t he t wo d istinct. T his d istinction d oes r eflect d ifferences i n s ize, e laborateness a nd e xtent o f m ilitary d efences . H owever, n either s ettlement w as a c ity i n t he t echnical H ellenistic s ense; b oth s ettlements r emained u nchartered r ural-tribal c ommuni t ies d ependent o n t he m etropolis o f B ostra.

2 38

3 . T he s tudy o f t ribal a nd c lan n ames may l ead t o s omewhat d ifferent c onclusions o n t he p rocesses o f s edentarisation a nd H ellenisation ( MacAdam 1 986) t han t hose r eached f rom t he s tudy o f p ersonal n ames. B ibliography A LFÖLD I, A .

1 939

T he C risis o f t he Empire ( AD 2 497 0). Cambridge A ncient H istory X II: 1 65-231. N ew Y ork ( The MacMillan C ompany).

B OWERSOCK,

1 971

A R eport o n P rovincia A rabia. T he J ournal o f R oman S tudies 6 1: 2 194 2.

1 983

R oman A rabia . C ambridge, v ard U niversity P ress).

H .C .

1 913

A rchitecture . S yria. P ublications o f t he P rinceton U niversity A rc haeological E xpedition t o S yria. D iv . I, S ect. A , p art 3 . Umm I djD jimäl. L eyden ( E .J. B rill).

D ENTZER,

J .

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A p ropos d u t emple d it d e a S i. S yria 5 6: 3 25-32.

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J .-M .

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Cram ique e t e nvironnement n aturel: l a c 6ramique n abat enne d e B osra. I n A . H adidi ( ed.) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rcheology o f J ordan I: 1 49-153 . Amman ( Department o f A ntiquities o f J ordan).

1 981

T he U nnn e l Ji mal P roject 1 972-77. B ulletin o f t he American S chools o f O riental R esearch 2 44: 5 3-77 .

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T he Umm e l-Ji mal P roject 1 972-77. A nnual o f t he D epart ment o f A ntiq uities o f J ordan, X XVI: 9 7-116 .

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U rbanisation i n t he B asalt R egion o f N orth J ordan i n L ate A ntiquity: T he Case o f Umm e l-Ji mal. I n A . H adidi ( ed .) S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I: 2 495 6 . Amman ( Department o f A ntiquit ies o f J ordan).

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E astern S yria a nd t he S outhern H auran . Explorations i n Eastern P alestine I V, P art I . A nnual o f t he

B UTLER ,

D E V RIES,

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B .

2 39

Mass

( Har-

" Dusar s"

American S chools o f R esearch 2 5-28: 1 -34.

Ori ental

J OHNSON, A .

1 983

R oman F orts. P ress).

J OHNSON,

S .

1 983

L ate R oman F ortifications. N ew J ers ey ( Barnes &Noble Books).

K ENNEDY ,

D .L.

1 982

A rcheological E xplorations o n t he R oman F rontier i n N orth-East J ord an . O xford ( BAR, I nternational S eries 1 34).

N ew Y ork

( St

Martin 's

K NAUPF,

E .A .

1 984

Umm e l-Jimal: A n A rab T own i n L ate A ntiquity . R evue B iblique 9 1: 5 788 6.

L ANDER ,

J .

1 980

T ypology a nd L ate R oman F ortificat ions: T he C ase o f t he ' D iocletiani c T ype '. R oman F rontier S tudies X II 1 979: 1 051-60. Oxford ( BAR, I nternational S eries 7 1).

1 913a

G reek a nd L atin I nscriptions. S yria . Publications o f t he P rinceton U niversity A rcheological E xpedition t o S yria, D iv. I II, S ect. A , p art 3 , Umm I dj-Dji mäl: 1 31-223 . L eyden ( E .g. B rill).

1 913b

N abataean I nscri ptions. S yria. P ublications o f t he P r i nceto W-U niv ersity A rcheological E xpedition t o S yria, D iv. I V, S ect. A , I dj D jimal: 3 4-56.

1 913c

A rabic I nscripti ons. S yria. P ublications o f t he P r i ncetJ riUniv ersity A rcheological E xpedition t o S yria . D iv. I V, S ect. D , Umm I djD jimal: 1 -3.

H .

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S tudies i n t he H istory o f t he R oman P rovince o f A rabia. O xford ( NAT: I nternational S eries).

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1 958

N ouvelles i nscriptions S yria 3 5: 2 27-35.

1 980

L a T ribu d anie d e

L ITTMANN,

MACADAM ,

M ILIK,

E .

2 40

d es B ani l ' poque

N abat ennes.

' Amrat e n J org recque e t r o-

m aine. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquitiesof J ordan 2 4: 4 1-54. P ARKER ,

P ETERS,

P FLAUM ,

S .T.

F .E.

H .-G .

S ARTRE, M .

1 986

A T etrarchic M ilestone f rom Roman A rabia . Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 6 2: 2 56-8 .

1 977

T he Nabataeans i n t he Ha wran. J ournal o f t he American O riental S ociety 9 8: 2 63-77.

1 978

R omans a nd Bedouin i n S outhern S yria . J ournal o f Near Eastern S tudies 3 7: 3 15-26.

1 952

L a f ortification d e l a v ille d ' Adraha d 'Arabia ( 259-60 ä 2 74-75) d 'apr s d es i nscriptions r - c emment d &ouvertes. S yria 2 9: 3 07-30.

1 982

T ribus e t c lans dans l e a ntique . S yria 5 9: 7 7-91.

1 985

L e p euplement e t l e d 6veloppement d u H auran a ntique ä l a l umi re d es i nscriptions g recques e t l atine . I n D entzer ( ed.) H auran I . P aris ( Libraire Ori ent al i st e Paul G euthner).

S EYRIG ,

H .

1 941

L es 2 2:

S HAHID,

I .

1 984

B yzantium a nd t he Arabs i n t he F ourth C entury . ' Washington ( 1 27 0e -iä7 7 t on Oaks).

1 985

L es i nscriptions n abat ennes e t l 'histoire d e l a S yria d u S ud e t d u N ord d e l a J ordan ie . I n J .- M. D entzer ( ed.) Hau ran I . Paris ( Libraire Or i ent al i st e Paul G eunther).

S TA IZCKY ,

J .

V ILLENEUVE,

F .

1 986

i nscriptions d e 4 4-8.

Ha wran

B ostra. S yria

A dh-Diyatheh: v illage e t c astel l um d u L i mes ä l 'est d u J ebel D ruze. I n P .W .M . F reeman a nd D .L . Kennedy ( eds.) T he D efence o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine E ast. Oxford (T I ATZ , — I nt ernational S eries).

2 41

I I.

THE

EV OLUTI ON I N

OF THE ARABI A

ROMAN

FRONTI ER

J ohn _Eadie M ichigan A lthough v ery l ittle i s k nown a bout t he A rabian g arris on i n t he f irst f ew d ecades f ollowing a nnexation, most s cholars h ave a ssessed t he d ecision t o i ncorporate N abataea a nd t he e volution o f t he Roman f rontier i n m ilitary t er ms. C iting t he p ali mpsest o f f orts a nd s tations a long t he V ia N ova, f ew o f which h ave b een e xcavated o r s ystematically s urveyed, t hey b elieve t hat T rajan, a s p art o f h is ' grand s trategy ' i n t he E ast, c onverted t he f ormer N abataean k ingdom i nto a c onvent ional m ilitary z one . T his p aper o ffers a n a lternative i nterpretation o f T rajan 's motives a nd o bjectives, b ased o n a r e-examination o f e xisting N abataean i nfras tructure, t he a rchaeological e vidence o f Roman m ilit arisation, a nd t he s ignificance o f e conomic d evelopm ent p rojects T ra jan/Hadrian s ponsored e lsewhere i n t he E ast.

T he R oman f rontier i n P rovincia A rabia w as n ot, b efore t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury a t l east, a c onventional m ilitary z one. T he i nvasion f orce i n A D 1 06, c onsisting o f l egio II C yrenaica b acked b y Egyptian a nd S yrian a uxiliary u nits, was d oubtless o f s ufficient s ize t o o vercome a ny N abataean r esistance, b ut t here i s n o r eason t o b elieve t hat a p ermanent g arrison o f c omparable s trength was r equired t o p acify A rabia P etraea o r t o o versee t he . construction o f t he V ia N ova T raiana, t he o nly c learly a ttested a rtefact o f t he a nnexation . T he R omans, a fter a ll, h ad l ittle t o f ear f rom a N abataean p opulation t hat h ad r emained, u nder a s uccession o f k ings, r emarkably s upportive o f t heir a ctivities a nd o bjectives i n t he r egion . Whether t he a nnexation w as p rompted b y t he d eath o f R abbel I f rom n atural c auses o r, a s I h ave s uggested e lsewhere, b y t he N abataean r uler's e xpansionist s chemes i n t he t l aurän, i s u ncertain ( Eadie 1 985). S peculation c oncerning Cornelius P al ma 's motives, o r t he c ontents o f t he m andata h e may h ave r eceived o n t aking u p h is o ffice, i s n ot i n a ny e vent a n a dequate s ubstitute f or h ard i nfor mation o n t he t ransition f rom N abataean t o R oman management d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury . T he a vailable e vidence o f R oman m ilitarisation h as b een a dmirably a ssembled b y S peidel, K ennedy, S artre, a nd B owersock - t o men-

2 43

t ion o nly t he m ost r ecent c ommentators - a nd t he p oints o n w hich t here i s s ubstantial a greement c an b e b riefly s ummarised ( Speidel 1 977; K ennedy 1 980 ; S artre 1 982 ; B owersock 1 983).

1 .

T he l egio II C yrenaica, b efore 1 06 p art o f t he E gyptian g arrison, p articipated i n t he i nitial t akeover. A fter a b rief p eriod o f s ervice i n E gypt c irca 1 19, d uring w hich l egio V I F errata s ubstituted, t he T hird C yrenaica r eturned t o A rabia a nd r emained t he o nly l egion i n t he p rovincial g arrison u ntil t he t hird c entury ( Kennedy 1 980 f or t he e vidence a nd d iscussion o f p roposed i nterpretations).

2 .

F rom P . M ich. 4 66 i t i s c lear t hat b y 1 07 t he p rovince ( i.e. A rabia P etraea) h ad b een ' pacified ' a nd t hat R oman u nits w ere employed i n p eaceful p ursuits ( Speidel 1 977 :691) .

3 .

T he most i mportant o f t hese p ursuits, o f c ourse, was t he s upervision o f t he c onstruction o f t he V ia N ova T raiana, w hich p resumably w as b egun i n t he m onths i mmediately f ollowi ng t he i nvasion . T he f irst s tretch o f t he h ighway, b etween P etra a nd Medaba, w as c ompleted b y A D 11; t he r oute f urther n orth, t o B ostra, a nd t he s outhern f inial f rom P etra t o A ila p robably were f inished o ff b y A D 1 14 ( milestones: S artre 1 982: 7 8; c f E adie 1 985: 4 21f n . 3 3).

4 .

I n AD 1 11 c oins a dvertising t he a nnexation ( Arabia A dquis ita) w ere i ssued, a nd a t t hat t ime, i f n ot b efore, C laudius S everus w as i nstalled a s t he f irst g overnor o f t he p rovince ( Negev 1 971: 1 15ff f or p rovincial c oins w ith t he l egend A rabia A dquisita).

A lthough w e c annot e xplain s atisfactorily t he d ecision t o d elay t he a nnouncement o f t he a nnexation u ntil A D 11, i t i s c lear t hat t he R omans q uickly g ained c ontrol a nd were a ble w ithin a f ew y ears t o c omplete, a pparently w ithout s erious i nterruptions, t he. c onstruction o f t he g reat h ighway f rom B ostra t o A ila . A t t his p oint, h owever, t he e vidence e vaporates a nd w ith i t t he m odern c onsensus c oncerning t he e volution o f t he f rontier i n A rabia . A lthough t he a ctivities o f s ome m embers o f t he l egio II C yrenaica a re a ttested e pigraphically l ater i n t he s econd c ent ury, f rom t he r eign o f Marcus A urelius o nwards, t he t wo a uxilia ry u nits k nown t o h ave p articipated i n t he a nnexation, t he c ohortes I H ispanorum a nd I T hebaeorum , d isappear w ithout a t race ( Sartre 1 982: 1 8ff; B owersock 1 983: 9 5ff; c f E adie 1 985: 4 15 t roops o perating i n t he 1 : l ejäz a nd t he Wadi i rhän). N o d iploma h as y et b een f ound i n t he p rovince, a nd n othing i n t he a rchaeolog ical a ssemblages r eveals t he d istribution o f t roops o r p ermits u s t o t race, w ith c hronological p recision, c hanges i n R oman s trategy . Moreover, t he f ew c amps t hat h ave b een s ystematically, i f n ot f ully, e xcavated - Umm a l-Ji mäl, L ejj ün, U drub - h ave y ielded l ittle, i f a ny i nfor mation a bout t he a r my oir t he e volut ion o f t he f rontier b efore t he r eign o f D iocletian .'

2 44

F ig.

1.1

S tationes o n

t he V ia N ova T raiana.

An e sti mate o f t he s ize a nd c omposition o f t he i nitial g arrison w ill b e p ossible o nly when we a re a ble t o i dentify t he c astella a nd s tatior i.e s c onstructed a nd o ccupied u nder T rajan a nd h is s uccessors. A t p resent, h owever, we d o n ot p ossess s ecure e pig raphic d ates f or a ny o f t he m ilitary i nstallations b efore t he r eign o f' ept . j mius S everus, a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat s uch e vidence w ill b e d iscovered t hrough t he e xcavations i n p rogress. 2 N or h ave t he r ecent s urveys o f c amps a long o r n ear t he V ia N ova b y P arker, G raf, M iller, a nd MacDonald - e xtending t he work o f B rünnow a nd v on Damaszewski, F rank, A lt, S tein, G lueck a nd o thers - p roduced c onclusive e vidence c oncerning d ates o f c onstruction ( Parker 1 976; G raf 1 979, 1 983; M iller 1 979; MacDonald 1 983).

2 45

E ven u nder o pti mum c onditions s urveys o f c omplex s ites, o ccupied o ver s everal c enturies, c annot r econstruct f rom a n a ssemblage o f s urface s herds a nd m iscel l aneous small o bjects a r eliable p ros pectus o f h abitation h orizons. T he a bsence o f a p recise c eramic c hronology f or t he t ransition p eriod ( i.e. f rom t he l ast d ecade o f t he f irst c entury t o t he m iddle o f t he s econd) m akes t he t ask i n A rabia e ven more p roblematic .3 S ites n ot i dentified i n t he i tineraria o r t he l iterary a ccounts p ose s pecial p roblems . T he most r ecent e xample i s Umm U btr ilah, t he l arge h illside e nclosure ( 520m x 2 50m) d iscovered b y M acDonald ( 1984) i n t he Wadi e l H as . I n s upport o f h is c onc lusion t hat Umm U btulah was a N abataean a nd/or R oman c amp, M acDonald a dduces t wo c eramic s amples c ollected f rom t he e nclosed a rea . S herds i n t he f irst s ample, f rom t he u pper h alf o f t he s ite, a re e xclusively o f E arly B ronze A ge manufacture; t hose i n t he s econd, f rom t he l ower h alf, r ange f rom E arly B ronze t o L ate O ttoman . O f t he 1 77 s herds i n t he l atter s ample, 6 0 a re s aid t o b e N abataean, 3 8 N abataean/Early R oman, a nd 1 8 ( or 1 9) B yzantine . U nfortunately, MacDonald h as n ot d istinguished i mported a nd i ndig enous wares i n t he s ample - a n a ll t oo c ommon p ractice - a nd t herefore h as n ot p rovided a ny c lue t o t he o rigin o r d ate o f t he 3 8 s herds a ssigned t o t he t ransition ( Nabataean/Early R oman) p eriod . Were t hese wares p roduced i n l ocal k ilns a fter t he a nnexation o r w ere t hey m anufactured e lsewhere a nd t hen u sed t o t ransport c ommodities i nto N abataea o r t he n ew p rovince? O n t he e vidence p rovided i t i s i mpossible t o s ay. I n s pite o f t hese u ncertainties, MacDonald b elieves t hat Umm U btt ilah " probably was a ssociated w ith a l ine o f N abataean a nd/or R oman f ortresses a nd watchtowers a long t he s outh s ide o f t he Wadi e l H asä" ( MacDonald 1 984: 1 83). H e may b e r ight, b ut a s trong c ase c an b e made, u sing h is e vidence, t hat t he s ite w as o ccupied b y t he N abataeans b efore 1 06, was a bandoned s ometi me a fter t he a nnexation, a nd t hen was r e-established a s a f ort d uring t he B yzantine p eriod. I ndeed, I s uggest t hat i t was s tandard R oman . p ractice d uring t he s econd c entury n ot t o o ccupy e xisting N abat aean f orts s outh o f t he Wadi Wijib a nd t o l i mit c onstruction o f n ew m ilitary i nstallations t o t he p ath o f t he V ia N ova . Umm U btülah i s s i mply t he most r ecent i llustration o f t he p athet ically i nadequate d ata b ase f or t he f irst h alf-century o f R oman r ule i n A rabia. S urface s urveys i n t he s outhern s ector o f t he p rovince h ave p roduced s i milarly ambiguous r esults. T he s ix p osts a long t he V ia N ova i n t his r egion a re S adaqa ( Zadagatta o r Z odocatha), t i umayma -( Ä 7 u-a ra) , Quweira ( ancient n ame u nknown), K hirbet a l-Khälde ( Praesidio), K hirbet a l-Kithära ( K ithara?), a nd ' Aqaba ( Aila) ( Parker 1 976; G raf 1 979, 1 983) . T hough i t i s o ften a ssumed t hat a ll s ix were c onstructed b et ween AD 1 11 a nd 1 14, w hen t he V ia N ova i n t he s outh p robably was c ompleted, o nly Z adagatta, A uara, a nd P raesidio a re a ttested i n i tineraria a nd m ay b e c onsidered p robable s ites o f T rajanic m ilitary i nstallat ions. 4 P tolemy omits P raesidio f rom h is l ist o f s ettlements i n A rabia P etraea ( Geog. V .15.5; 1 6.4), b ut a p resumptive c ase f or i ts i nclusion among t he s econd-century s tationes c an b e m ade o n

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a rchaeological g rounds. T here a re i n f act t hree m ilitary s tructures a t P raesidio, t wo s eparate f orts a nd a watchtower ( Graf 1 983: 6 5 f or a b rief d escription o f K hirbet a l-KhUlde). N othing c an b e s aid a bout t he l atter, b ut t he h omogenous c oncent ration o f N abataean p ottery w ithin t he s maller f ort s uggests t hat i t i s N abataean, c onstructed p erhaps t o monitor c aravan t raffic t hrough t he Wadi Y utm . T he l arger f ort, s ituated s ome 3 0m t o t he n orth, i s c ertainly R oman a nd may b e T rajanic, o r s o o ne m ay i nfer f rom t he e vidence r ecently p rovided b y a J ordanian c rew e ngaged i n t he c onstruction o f p ower l ines i n t he r egion. I n w hat must b e c onsidered t he f irst e xcavation o f a R oman f ort i n t he k l ism ä -, o ne o f t heir b ulldozers u nearthed a l arge q uantity o f d istinctly R oman t iles i n t he w estern s ector o f t he i nterior! W hen t he o ther s ites w ere c onstructed i s more p roblematic. We k now t hat t here was a f ort a t A ila i n t he l ate t hird c entury, w hen t he l egio X F retensis w as t ransferred f rom J erusalem , b ut i t i s i mpo is sible t o s ay w hether t he t own w as a m ilitary p ost u nder T rajan. T he e xisting f orts a t K ithara a nd Q uweira h ave a lso b een d ated t o t he t hird o r f ourth c entury b ut o ne c annot r ule o ut a n e arlier c onstruction. 6 T he c eramic e vidence a ssembled i n r ecent s urveys i s n ot c onclusive . P arker r eports t hat h e d id n ot f ind p ottery e arlier t han L ate R oman II-IV ( AD 2 35-324 o n S auer's c hronology) a t Q uweira, b ut among t he 7 5 " saved" s herds i n h is 4 a mple f rom K ith -d ra a re 3 L R I -II ( AD 1 35-235) a nd 9 LR

A t t l umayma-Auara, which P arker d id n ot i nspect, t he h abitation h orizons a re h appily s omewhat b etter d efined . C reated b y a p rince o f t he r oyal h ouse c irca 1 00 BC a nd f rom t he b eginning p art o f t he N abataean s egmentary s tate, k l umayma was t he o nly s ettlement o f a ny c onsequence i n t he n orthern t l ismU . S ituated s ome 1 5km f rom t he a l-Sher äe scarpment, t he t own e arly o n b ecame a c entre f or t ranshumants a nd t raders e n r oute f rom t he s outhern A rabian p eninsula t o P etra. F rom t he n umber o f c astella a nd w atchtowers i n t he r egion b etween t he t own a nd t he e scarpment, i t i s c lear t hat t he N abataean r ulers c onsidered t he a rea i mportant e nough t o merit a s ignificant i nvestment i n m ilitary c onstruction ( Eadie 1 984 f or a p reli minary r eport o n I l umayma a nd i ts e nvir ons). T he R omans e vidently c oncurred i n t he N abataean a ssessment a nd m ade t he t own o ne o f t he s tationes o n t he s outhern s tretch o f t he V ia N ova. T he R oman h ighway d escends t he e scarpment a t t he s pring o f ' Ain a l-QanU . , p arallels t he N abataean a queduct t hat c arried water f rom t he s pring t o t he t own, • and t hen p asses n ear t he N abataean c astella e n r oute t o t l umayma. I n o ther words, i n c onstructing t he V ia N ova T raj a n's e ngineers s eem t o h ave f ollowed t he p ath ör a rr ex isting Nabataean r oute t hat h ad b een p rotected b y a s eries o f f orts a nd w atchtowers. T hey a pparently d id n ot, h owever, a ttempt • t o r enovate t he m ilitary s tructures a nd m ay e ven h ave d ismantled t hem . I n c ontrast w ith U umayma i tself - w here masses o f N abataean, R oman, a nd B yzantine s herds h ave b een c ollected - t he s urface s amples f rom t he c astella i n t he r eg ion b et ween t he t own a nd t he e scarpment p oint t o o ccupation

2 47

o nly d uring t he N abataean a nd B yzantine p eriods. Whether T rajan's e ngineers c onstructed t he l arge f ort ( 204m x 1 47m) a t l j umayma, s ituated o n t he p eri meter o f t he t own a nd n ot s uperi mp osed o n e xisting N abataean s tructures, i s u ncertain . A ll t hat w e c an s ay a t p resent i s t hat i t w ould h ave a ccommodated a c ohors a nd was t he l argest R oman m ilitary i nstallation b y f ar i n t he H ism (Eadie 1984: 219f). A part f rom t he V ia N ova a nd t he m ilitary p osts t he R oman i nvestm ent i n t he s outhern s ector w as n egligible . T hey d id n ot a ttempt i n 1 06-111, o r f or t hat matter l ater o n, t o e stablish g arrisons a t a ny o f t he n umerous N abataean s ites ( temples, d ams, watcht owers) e ast o f t he V ia N ova t hat G raf a nd J obling h ave s urveyed ( Graf 1 979, 1 983; J obling 1 984). N othing i n t he l iterary o r a rchaeological r ecord, m oreover, i ndicates t hat t he V ia N ova w as i ntended t o s erve a s a l inear s ystem o f d efence, d esigned t o p rotect n ot o nly t he n ew p rovince b ut P alestine a s w ell. N or i s t here a ny t race o f a s ystem o f d efence-in-depth. R oman p atrols i n t he l j ej -d z a nd t he Wadi S irt iUn a re t he f irst a ttested d uring t he r eign o f Marcus A urelius, a nd e ven t hen i t was e vidently n ot t hought n ecessary t o e stablish p ermanent g arrisons b eyond t he V ia N ova . T he a ssumption t hat t here w as a t hreat f rom d esert t ribes b efore t he f ourth c entury i s s i mply u nwarranted .8 T he Roman d ecision t o c oncentrate t heir c apital i nvest ments i n t he n orthern c ities, a nd t o i ncorporate w ithin t he p rovince o nly t he n arrow s trip o f t erritory w est o f t he V ia N ova i n t he s outh, d oes n ot m ean t hat t hey f ailed t o a ppreciate t he e conomic s ignif icance o f t he g reat h ighway t o A ila . T he V ia N ova w as s omething m ore t han a n a ll-weather r oad f or t he t ransport o f m en a nd m ateri el. I t was i n f act a p aved v ersion o f t he F rankincense R oad f rom s outhern A rabia t hat h ad p roduced s ubstantial r evenues f or t he N abataeans t h ough c ustoms l evied a t L euke K ome o n c aravans h eaded f or P etra. T hat t he R omans a nnexed A rabia i n o rder t o g ain c ontrol o f t his s ource o f r evenues i s u nlikely, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat t hey were u naware o f i ts e xistence o r w ould h ave m issed t his o pportunity t o m eet s ome o f t he c osts o f a nnexation . I n a p rovince t hat d id n ot p ossess s ignificant n atural r esources a nd was s o t hinly p opulated t hat c apitation t axes w ould n ot h ave y ielded g reat s ums, t he p rospect o f e asy a nd a ssured p rofits f rom a t ax o n c aravan t raffic must h ave b een w elcomed. T he c urious n otion t hat t he R oman emperors a nd t heir r epresentat ives w ere d isinterested i n t rade, a nd t herefore w ould n ot h ave t aken s teps t o manipulate t raders a nd t rade r outes t o t heir b enefit, r uns c ounter t o e verything w e k now o f R oman b ehaviour i n t he E ast u nder T rajan a nd H adrian . T heir a ttempts t o c ontrol a nd r edirect t rade c an b e d ocumented t hroughout t he r egion : i n E gypt, w here T rajan d redged t he P tolemaic c anal l inking t he N ile a nd t he p ort o f C lysma a nd H adrian b uilt a n ew r oad ( Via H adriana) f rom A ntinopolis o n t he N ile t o t he R ed S ea; i n S yria, w here R oman e ncouragement a nd s upervision o f t he t rade r oute b etween P almyra a nd t he P ersian G ulf a ssured s ubstantial r evenues b oth f or t heir P almyrene f riends a nd t heir own t reasury .1 0 S omething more t han

2 48

a n a ttempt t o m onitor s eaborne a ccess t o t he Empire w as i nvolved ; a s t he c onsistent p attern o f 2 5 9 6 a d v alorem c ustoms d uties i ndic ates, t he Romans e agerly h arvested t he p rofits f rom t he E astW est t rade. I f t here was a " grand s trategy" i n t he E ast, I s uggest t hat i t was b ased o n a c lear-eyed a nalysis o f c osts a nd b enefits r ather t han q uestions o f g eo-political s ecurity . I t i s t i me t o j ettison t he n otion t hat R oman b ehaviour i n t he E ast i s e xplicable p rimarily i n t erms o f m ilitary s trategy a nd t o c onsider, i n o ur a ssessments o f motivation a nd p olicies, t he l ong-term p olitical a nd e conomic o bjectives o f R oman a dministrat ion . I f we a re t o e xplain R oman b ehaviour i n A rabia d uring t he s econd c entury, we must l ook b eyond t he motives a ttributed t o T rajan i n t he l iterary a ccounts o f t he a nnexation, b eyond t he q uestion o f t he c omposition o f t he i nitial g arrison, a nd a bove a ll b eyond t he b orders o f t he p rovince, wherever t hey may b e t raced . A r egional a pproach, o ne t hat t akes i nto a ccount t he p olitical a nd e conomic i nfrastructure o f t he E ast, w ill b e r eq uired i f we a re t o a ssess t he s ignificance o f t he a nnexation a nd t o e xplain t he e volution o f t he R oman f rontier i n P rovincia A rabia. N otes 1 . I t r emains t o b e s een whether d ata p rovided b y A . K illick 's r ecently c ompleted e xcavations i n U drub w ill s upport h is e arlier s uggestion ( 1983: 1 25) t hat " the f ortress was o riginally T rajanic." T he m ilitary i nstallations a t t he o ther t wo s ites a re c learly D iocletianic o r l ater. 2 . K ennedy ( 1982: 1 24 0 d ates t he e arliest o f t hese t exts, a n i nscription o n b asalt f rom t he f ort a t Q asr e l-Uweinid, t o t he g overnorship o f L . M arius P erpetuus, A D 2 00-202 . 3 . A lthough i t i s b ased e ntirely o n t he p ottery f rom a s ingle s ite, T ell t l esbUn, t he c eramic c hronology p roposed b y J . S auer ( 1973) h as n ot b een s uperseded . 4 . A ll t hree a ppear i n t he P eutinger T able ( cf. 2 73 0 a nd i n t he N otitia D ignitatum ( Or. X XXIV) .

B owersock

1 983:

5 . A ila a ppears i n t he P eutinger T able, b ut o nly t he N otitia D ignifatum ( Or. XXXIV .30) p rovides i nfor mation c oncerning t he g arrison. 6 . N either f ort, i t s hould b e n oted, c an b e N otitia D ignitatum l ist f or P alaestina .

i dentified

i n

t he

7 . O nly a t 5 adaqa a nd K hirbet a l-Kh d lde a re a f ew N abataean s herds i ncluded i n h is p redominantly l ater R oman/Byzantine s amples . G raf's d emonstration ( 1983: 6 51 0 t hat t he watchtower o n t he h ill o verlooking Q uweira w as N abataean a nd t hat N abataean s herds c an b e f ound o n t he n orth s lope o f K ithUra d oes n ot p rove t hat a N abataean m ilitary i nstallation e xisted o n t he s ite o f t he l ater

f orts.

2 49

8 . T he p eacekeeping r ole p layed b y H egra-Mad 5 71 i n l i1 : 1, f irst u nder Malichus II ( Eadie 1 985 : 4 12ff) a nd t hen u nder t he s heiks o f t he T hamudic C onfederacy ( Graf 1 978: 2 0) s hould n ot b e u ndere stimated. 9 . T he emporium o f L euke K ome ( 'Aynunah?), a ccording t o t he a uthor o f t he P eriplus o f t he R ed S ea X IX , was c onnected b y r oad w ith P etra . A ssuming t hat t he ' centurion ' i n L euke K ome v igouro usly c ollected t he 2 5% a d v alorem t ax, t he v olume o f c aravan t raffic d uring t he f irst c entury A D ( cf. S trabo G eog. XVI.2.20, 4 .23; P liny H N X I I .32 .63ff) m ust h ave p roduced s ubstantial r even ues. Whether t hese p rofits were d eposited i n t he N abataean o r R oman t reasury, h owever, i s u ncertain. I am p ersuaded t hat t he N abataeans r emained i n c harge u ntil 1 06, b ut B . I saac h as r ecentl y p roposed a n a lternative r eading o f t he e vidence ( 1980). A part f rom t his f amous a nd o ften d iscussed p assage i n t he P eriplus, l ittle i s k nown a bout l evies o n g oods t ransported f rom t he p eninsula t o P etra. P liny ( HN X II.32.65) r emarks t hat t olls w ere c ollected " here a nd t here" 77 aliubi . .aliubi) b y t ribes a nd v illages b ut d oes n ot i ndicate whether t he k ing o r l ocal s heiks a uthorised a nd r eceived t hese t axes. 1 0 . O n t he c onstruction p rojects o f T rajan a nd H adrian i n E gypt s ee R aschke ( 1978 : 6 49); t he e pigraphical e vidence o f i ncreasing R oman i nvolvement i n t he c aravan t rade f rom t he P ersian G ulf t o P almyra h as b een a ssessed r ecently b y M atthews ( 1984 : 1 66ff) . B ibliography B OWERSCCK, E ADIE,

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l j umayma 1 983: t he r egional s urvey . A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiq uities o f J ordan 2 8: 2 11-24.

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A rtifacts o f a nnexation: T rajan 's g rand s trategy a nd A rabia. I n J . E adie a nd J . Ober ( eds) T he C raft o f t he A ncient H istorian : E ssays i n H onor o f C hester G . S tarr: 4 07-23. L anham , M aryland .

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A p reliminary r eport o n a s urvey o f N abataean-Roman m ilitary s ites i n s outhern J ordan. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f 2 3: 1 21-7.

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T rade r outes t o A rabia a nd t he R oman a r my. I n W .S. H anson a nd L .J.F . K eppie ( eds) R oman F rontier S tudies X II, 1 979: 8 89-901. O xford ( BAR , I nternational S eries 7 1) .

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L egio V I F errata: t he a nnexation a nd e arly g arrison o f A rabia . H arv ard S tudies i n C lassical P hilology 8 4: 2 83-309.

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A rchaeological E xplorations o n t he R oman F rontier i n N orth E ast J ord an . O xford ( BAR , I nternational S eries 1 34).

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U drub - t he f rontier o f a n empire: 1 980 a nd 1 981 s easons, a p rel i mina ry r eport. L evant 1 5 : 10-31.

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Umm U btu r dh: a N abataean a nd/or R oman m ilitary s ite a long t he n orth s ide o f t he Wadi e l I J as. i n S outhern J ordan. Annual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan 2 8 : 1 83-9.

I VACDONALD, B ., ROLLEFSON, G .O ., BANNING , E .B., B YRD, B .G . & D ' ANNIBLE, C .

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T he t ax l aw o f P al myra: e vidence f or e conomic h istory i n a c ity o f t he R oman E ast. J ournal o f R oman S tudies 7 4: 1 57-80 .

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N ew s tudies o n R oman c ommece w ith t he E ast. I n H . T empor i n i a nd W . H aase ( eds) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömischen Welt: 1.9.2, 6 041 378 . B erlin-New Y ork .

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1 982

T rois e tudes s ur l 'Arabie r omaine e t b yzantine . B russels ( Collection L atomus 1 78).

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12.

THE

PR OVI N CE

OF

CI LI CI A

AND

ITS

ORI GI NS

P . F reeman S heffield T he p ublication o f W illiam V . H arris ' War a nd I mperiali sm i n Republican Rome ( Oxford 1 9171. - a nd i ts main h ypothesis t hat R ome 's o verseas e xpansion i n t he y ears o f t he m iddle R epublic was n ot r eluctantly u ndertaken n or u nplanned h as h elped t o f oster f resh d iscussion a mongst h istorians a s t o t he way Rome d erived much o f h er Mediterranean Empire. A s a r esult o f t his t wo b asic s chools o f t hought c an n ow b e d iscerned i n what h as n ow c ome t o b e k nown a s t he Badian-Harris c ontrov ersy. CM t he o ne s ide t here a re t hose who would a ccept H arris ' e xplanation, w ith v arying d egrees o f q ualification, a nd o n t he o ther, t hose who would maint ain t he t raditional v iew e xemplified i n t he p ublicat ions o f E rnst B adian. T he c entral i ssue a t s take i n t his c ontroversy r emains t he q uestion a s t o whether o r n ot Rome was p urposely s hy o f a nnexing o verseas t errit ory . H arris maintains t hat Rome was n ever r eluctant t o d o s o when t he c onditions b est s uited h er; B adian, t hat Rome r emained e ither u ninterested i n, f rightened o f o r u nable t o c ontemplate f oreign a cquisitions u ntil a t l east t he l ate s econd c entury BC . I n t his p aper, w hich f or ms p art o f a l arger s tudy, t he a im i s t o i ndicate t hat b oth s ides o f t his d ebate a re b ased l argely o n a m isconception . I n a ttempting t o s how t his t he c ase o f p rovincia C ilicia w ill b e t aken t o s how h ow t he misconception f irst a rose a nd h ow i t h as b een m aintained . N ot u nsurprisingly, t he b asic material t o s upport t his f resh i nterpretation h as l ong b een a vaila ble t o s cholars, b ut h as b een, i t might b e s aid, ' m isread. S tudents o f R oman h istory h ave l ong b een a ccustomed t o d iscuss t he g rowth o f t he Empire i n t erms o f t he a ppropriation o f f oreign t erritory, u sually t hrough w arfare . I n d escribing t his p henomen on, t hey o ften employ t he t erm ' annexation '. T raditionally, i nvestigation o f t he n ature o f R oman i mperial i sm h as t ended t o c oncentrate o n t he q uestion a s t o w hether t he S tate s aw e xpansion i n t he f orm o f a nnexation a s d esirable, e xpedient, p roblematic o r i nadvertent. S uch t hinking a ccepts w ithout q uestion t hat t he S enate a nd t he P eople o f R ome c oud b oth r ecognise a nd u nderstand t he c oncept o f a nnexation, a nd t hat t hey c ould d istinguish c learl y b etween a nnexed a nd n on-annexed t erritory. H owever t he p re-

2 53

s umption o f s o c lear a n u nderstanding o f t he c onditions o f Empire i s n ot c orroborated b y t he a ncient e vidence a nd I m yself, i n t he c ourse o f a s tudy o n t he t reatment b y t he R oman S tate o f i ts s ubject p eoples u nder t he l ate R epublic a nd e arly Empire, h ave b ecome i ncreasingly d issatisfied a t t he w ay i n w hich t he p rocess o f a nnexation h as b een p resented - a s c omprehensive, s ystematic, r egular, a nd e ven p redeter mined. ' A bove a ll, i n m y o pinion, s cholars s till t end t o a ssume t hat w e k now e xactly h ow p eripheral t erritory p assed f rom t he n on-annexed t o t he a nnexed s tate; t hat t ransition b eing a ccepted a s ' annexation ' b ut b eing u sed s o l oosely a s t o b e b ereft o f meaning . D efinitions a re d ifficult t o e stablish, b ut f or p urposes o f t his d iscussion o ne m ay t ake t hat p roposed b y H arris a s b eing r epresentative o f c onventional w isdom a s t o w hat c onstituted a n a nnexation; ..the f eatures o f a n a nnexed p rovince a re, b esides t axation, s ubordination o f a d efined a rea t o c ontinuing s eries o f d esignated magistrates ( of c onsular o r p raet orian r ank) a nd t he p gesence when n ecessary o f R oman t roops... ( 1978: 1 33) S im ilar o pinions c an b e f ound s cattered t hroughout a n umber o f r ecent p ublications ( e .g . E bel 1 976: 7 6; B runt 1 978: 1 73; L intott 1 981; B raund 1 984: 1 88) a s s cholars h ave a dvanced a nd a ccepted a ny c ombination o f t hese f eatures t o i ndicate t hat a n a nnexation h ad t aken p lace. B rief mention m ight b e made o f o ther c riteria, r anging f rom t he l oss o f i ndependence i n t he f reedom t o c onduct f oreign a ffairs t hrough t o t he i ntroduction o f n ew d ating s ystems i n d ependant c ommunities ( however, s ee F reeman f orthcoming). R ecent r esearch h as a lso c onceded t hat t oo s trong a d istinction o ught n ot t o b e made b etween t he " provinces" a nd b arbaricum . T he E mpire w as n ever c onterminous w ith ' occupied z ones ' ( Brunt 1 978 ; H arris 1 978: 1 35; L intott 1 981; N orth 1 981; B raund 1 984: 1 87; B eard a nd C rawford 1 985: 7 2f.). H owever a n umber o f s cholars s till c ontinue t o t reat a nnexation f or t he most p art i n t erms o f ' direct a dministration ' a nd ' regular g overnors'. T he p urpose o f t his p aper i s, b y m eans o f a c lose e xamination o f t he h istory o f a p articular p rovince, t o e stablish t o w hat e xtent t he c oncept o f a nnexation c an o r c annot b e u sed i n a R oman c ontext. I n l ight o f t hese c omments t hen, a p recise d ate f or t he ( first) a nnexa 0on o f C ilicia h as a l ways r emained d ifficult t o e stab lish.' A s ummary o f t he p attern o f t enure a nd a ctivities u ndert aken b y t he k nown ( and p ostulated) g overnors o f C ilicia i n t he p eriod u nder r eview c an b e r apidly made ( et T able 1 2.1). Whilst t here i s n o k nown l ex p rovincia f or C ilicia o f a s ort w hich w ould s atisfy s ome a s p roof o f i ts f ormal a nnexation, t he s ignificance o f t he l ex p rovincia h as a nyway p ossibly b een o verstated i n t he p ast ( Hoyos 1 973; E bel 1 976: 7 6f; L intott 1 981: 5 8 0. I t h as o ften s truck m e t hat m any o f t he s o-called ' provincial o rganisat ions ' c annot r eally b e d ifferentiated f rom o ther s orts o f p ostb ellum s ettlements w hich d id n ot h appen t o r esult i n t he a ppeara nce o f a n ew p rovince . S uch s ettlements m ight d efine t he r elat ionship b etween R ome a nd t he v anquished o pponent a nd i ts a llies ( and i n t he c ase o f k ingdoms, i ts c onstituent c ommunities e tc.)

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a s well a s t he r eparations, b ased o n t he d egree o f g uilt o r c omplicity, t o b e p aid, b ut n o more. T erritory, p eoples a nd c ommunities i n a ll i nstances would b e l eft t o manage t heir own a ffairs, a nd o ften w ith a f ar g reater d egree o f a utonomy t han w e m ight n or mally e xpect. I n t his c ontext t hen, while i t i s well k nown t hat P ompey r e-settled l arge n umbers o f p irates i n a n umber o f C ilician c ommunities, t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat h e a ltered o r r egulated t he a ffairs o f t hese c ities i n a ny o ther w ay.' I t i s p ossible t hat s ome o f t he p rovisions m ade i n C ilicia w ere i ncluded i n P ompey 's ' Eastern S ettlement', p resented t o t he S enate f or f inal r atification i n 6 2 BC ( Magie 1 950: 3 51f; B roughton 1 952: 1 76; 1 81). E ven t hen, t here i s a t endency t o o verstate t he p urpose o f P ompey 's p roposals. N ormally c haracteri sed a s t he l egislation i ntended t o t urn t hose a reas c oncerned i nto f ull p rovinces, t hey may, p erhaps, b e b etter s een a s P omp ey's s ettling o f t he a ffairs i n many, i f n ot a ll, t he c ommuni ties a nd d istricts d isturbed b y h is p rosecution o f t he w ar w ith M ithridates. T hey were i n e ffect t he c onfir mation o f t he p ostb ellum s ettlement, t he f inal s tage o f t he t idying u p o f h is p rovincia ( in t he w ider s ense) r ather t han s ome s ort o f o rganisat ional m aster-plan . I n t he a bsence o f d efinitive e vidence i t h as o ften b een a ccepted t hat C ilicia was a nnexed b y M . A ntonius i n t he v ery l ate s econd c entury B C . T his i s b ecause h e w as t he f irst R oman m agistrate t o h ave b een a ppointed t o i t a s a p rovincia a nd b ecause t he s ettlem ent p resu mably f ollowing h is s ettlement must h ave e stablished s ome s ort o f b asis f or i ts p ermanent a dministration ( on A ntonius ' c ommand, s ee B roughton 1 946; o n C ilicia 's a nnexation a t t his t ime; M ommsen 1 889 . i: 1 33; C obban 1 935 : 4 3; S tevenson 1 939: 2 6; J ashemski 1 950: 6 7f.). U nfortunately, t here i s n o e vidence t o i ndicate what f or m t his a dministration m ight h ave t aken. T he p ublication o f a n ew t ext c omplementing t he s o-called l ex d e P iratis f rom D elphi h as b een employed t o r eaffirm t he t raditional v iew ( the D elphic t ext: S EG I II 3 78: Colin 1 924; t he n ew C nidos t ext: H assall, C rawford a nd R eynolds 1 974. B oth t exts h ave b een r epublished i n S herk 1 984: n o. 5 5). T he e ditors o f t he C nidos t ext d ated i t t o e ither l ate 1 01 o r e arly 1 00 BC a nd e xpressed t he o pinion t hat i t w as e vidence f or t he ' annexation o f t he a rea o f C ilicia b y N L A ntonius a nd i ts o rganisation a s a p rovince ' ( p . 2 09). A s a c onsequence, t he d ate o f 1 01/100 BC f or t he a nnexation h as c ome e ven more s trongly i nto f avour ( Harris 1 978: 1 52f; K eaveney 1 982a: 5 4 n 19). H owever, t his s till l eaves a n umber o f p roblems. T he n ew t ext d oes n ot s how i f t he a ssumed a nnexation c ommenced a t t he t i me A ntonius ' c ommand was c reated, o r a t t he e nd o f h is p eriod o f t enure . C ilicia i s n ot m entioned a s a p rovince, a lthough A sia a nd M acedonia a re, a nd t he e xtant s ections r eveal n othing o f i ts e xtent o r f or m . I ndeed t he n ew t ext d oes l ittle t o o vercome t he l ong-noted o bjection t hat t he e arliest r eferences t o A ntonius' p rovincia d o n ot a ctually s pecify C ilicia p roper. A more p laus ible i nterpretation o f t his t ext, a long w ith i ts D elphic c ount erpart, would b e a s a d eclaration o f i ntent a nd e xplanation o n t he p art o f t he S enate i n i ts d ealings, b oth n ow a nd i f n ecessary

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i n t he f uture, w ith t he t hreat o f M editerranean p iracy o riginat ing o ut o f C ilicia ( Sher win- White 1 976; 1 984: 9 7f). T he t wo i nscriptions b ecome j ustifications t o t he r elevant p owers i n t he i mmediate a rea o f R ome 's a ctions, p ossibly a fter A ntonius h ad b een a ppointed a nd h ad a rrived i n t he r egion. N otice was t hus s erved t o t he k ings o f C yprus, E gypt, C yrene a nd S yria ( cf. S herk 1 984: 5 9 1 .9; 6 3 I II. 1 .40; s ee a lso S umner 1 978) a nd p resumably t o an umber o f o ther p rominent c entres i n t he E astern Mediterr anean . I t r emains d ebatable h ow l ong a nd h ow f ar t his n otice w as m eant t o a pply. A c ase m ight b e made f or a ssociating i t w ith S ulla's a ppoint ment t o C ilicia i n t he l ater 9 0s, s ince h e w as o riginally d espatched t o d eal w ith t he C ilician p irates . T he l ex c ould, t herefore, h ave b een u sed a s t he l egal p recedent f or t his a ppointment. A s econd s chool o f t hought, w hilst r ecognising t he p art p layed b y A ntonius a nd l ater g overnors, a nd a ccepting i n p art t hat s ome s ort o f s ettlement, i f n ot a nnexation, m ight h ave o ccurred i n t hat p eriod, w ould s till c redit P ompey w ith t he f inal w ord o n t he a nnexation o f C ilicia . S yme ( 1939a), a cknowledging t he i nfluence o f J ones ( 1937), i n what h as r emained t o a l arge e xtent t he d efinitive s tudy o f C ilicia i n t he R epublic, p referred s uch a s cenario; t hat i s, f or mal a nnexation s ome t i me i n t he 6 0s BC . I n s upport o f t his v iew, a nd a s a n a ttempt t o r econcile i t w ith C ilicia's e arlier e xistence a s a p rovincia i n t he n on-specific s ense o f t he w ord, i t w as a rgued t hat P ompey r ecognised t hat t he p osition n ow h ad t o b e f ormalised: C ilicia h ad t o b eco r pe a p erman ent, f ully i ntegrated p rovince o f t he R oman Empire .' T he e xact d ate a nd s et o f c ircumstances b ehind t his d ecision r emain d iffic ult t o e stablish . P ompey w as t wice i nvolved i n C ilician a ffairs, f irst d uring h is c ommand a gainst t he Mediterranean p irates ( the l ex Gabinia) a nd c ul minating i n a ctions o ff C ilicia, a nd t hen a lmost i mmediately, b y h is a ssumption o f L ucullus' c ommand f or t he p rosecution o f t he war a gainst M ithridates o f P ontus ( for f ull r eferences, s ee B roughton 1 950: 1 46ff; 1 55ff). I n s uch c ircumstances i t i s n ot s urprising t hat v arious o pinions h ave b een e xpressed a s t o when a nd why P ompey s hould h ave d ecided f inally t o a nnex t he r egion . S yme ( 1939a: 3 00) p referred t o p lace h is d ecision i n 6 4, a s p art o f h is E astern S ettlement, whilst J ones ( 1937: 2 07) p ut i t a t t he e nd o f t he Mediterranean c ommand. 6 L iebmann Frankfort ( 1967; 1 968), p ossibly r ecognising t he d ifficulties i nvolved r econciling b oth v iews w ith t he s ources . , a ttempted a c ompromise b y a rguing t hat i t w as p ossible t o t race a p rogressive d evelopment i n t he u se a nd m eaning o f t he w ord p rovincia a s a pplied t o C ilicia. I nitially, a t l east, i t m eant a c ommand w ithout a d istinct t erritorial d efinition. T his l asted u ntil a bout t he t i me o f Cornelius D olabel l a ( see T able 1 2.1), when i t c ame t o mean more o f a ' commandement m i 1i taire d ans u ne r egion d eter minee ' ( 1968: 4 53). I n i ts f inal g uise, i t c ame t o r efer t o a f ull, r egular R oman p rovince. P ompey, i t w as a rgued, w as t he man w ho c ompleted t his i ntegration, a lthough i t c ould b e s aid t o h ave b egun a s f ar b ack a s S ervilius V atia . A ccording t o a t hird, l ess w idely h eld a nd m ore d iverse v iew , t he a nnexation w as t he w ork o f a ny o ne o f t he g overnors i n t he p eriod

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b etween A ntonius a nd P ompey. R amsay f or e xample ( 1899: 1 03) a llotted i t t o C ornelius D olabella o n t he g rounds t hat w e l earn f or t he f irst t i me s omething o f t he r egion 's f inancial c ondition ( cf Cic . Verr. I. i . 4 4; C owles 1 917: 1 1 0. S herwin- White ( 1976: 1 0) s uggested a s i milar d ate, a lthough f or s lightly d ifferent r easons . O thers h ave a ttempted t o c onnect i t w ith t he w ider anging c ampaigns o f e rvilius V atia ( Badian 1 959: 2 85 ; 1 967: 3 3; M itford 1 980: 1 235 0. S ulla h as a lso b een c redited w ith a c ont ribution ( Badian 1 958: 2 88; Magie 1 950: 2 85; 1 163-4 a ssociated i t w ith b oth S ulla a nd M urena). I f t here i s o ne a spect o f t he e arly h istory o f R oman C ilicia w here a ll p arties a re i n a greement, t hen i t i s w ith r espect t o t he v ariable e xtent o f t he p rovince . V irtually a ll t hose w ho h ave w ritten i n d etail a bout t he r egion h ave b een f orced t o c oncede t he d ifficulty o f t his p oint ( Syme 1 939a: Magie 1 950: 2 85 ; 162; 165; L evick 1 967: 2 4 e tc.). T he f act t hat t here i s s ome d iffere nce ( and e ven c onfusion) b etween a ncient w riters a s t o what c onstituted t he p rovince h as n ot h elped t he s ituation ( et f or e xample, B roughton 1 933) . A s a r esult t hen, e stablishing p recise b orders f or t he c ommand h as n ever b een e asy . I t i s o nly r elativel y l ate o n t hat we c an p inpoint t hese w ith a ny d egree o f a ccura cy . E fforts t o r esolve t his d ilemma h ave n or mally r evolved a round t he q uestion o f t he i ndeterminate n ature o f t he ( Roman) c oncept o f p rovincia c ompared t o what i s a ssumed t o b e t he more s pecific m eaning o f p rovince ( et t he e xplanations i n R amsay 1 899 : 1 03; S yme 1 939a: 3 03; 3 05) . T he p oint o f c ontention b etween s uch o pinions i s h ow l ong t he p rovincia i n i ts p urest s ense c ontinued b efore, a s a ll would a ccept, i t metamorphised i nto t hat o f t he p rovince . I n S yme 's o pinion, b y a bout t he t i me o f t he m id-Clst B C , t he p rovince e xtended a s f ar a s; ..the s outhern marches o f B ithynia, t aking i n D oryl aeum a nd M idaeum , t hence s outh-eastwards, f ronting i n t urn Galatia, C appadocia, a nd Commagene, t o Mount Amanus a nd t he b oundary w ith S yria: i t embraced t he r egions k nown a s M ilyas, P amphylia, P isidia, t he t hree d ioceses o f P hrygia-towards-Pisidia, P hrygia P aroreios, L ycaonia, C ilicia T racheia a nd C ilicia P edias ( 1939a: 3 02). T he i mpression t o b e f ormed f rom t he s ources i s t hat t he p rovinc ia c onsisted s i mply o f t hose a reas a nd d istricts i n which t he a rmy h ad, a nd c ould, o perate. T hese o perations m ight i n t he e arlier y ears b e e ither e astwards, westwards o r n orthwards, o r a ny c ombination o f t hem . W ith t i me, movement e astwards h ad t o c ome t o a h alt a s t he p rovincia c ame i nto c ontact w ith t hose a reas w here t he A sian p rovincia h ad p reviously e xtended. T his s ituation h ad b een r eached b y t he t i me t he t ransfer o f t he P hrygian d ioceses f rom t he A sian c ommand t o t he C ilician was p ossible ( et S yme 1 939a: 3 01). S i milarly i n t he e ast, t he c reat ion o f t he S yrian p rovincia d efined a g eneral s phere o f a ctivity w hich e ventually h ad t he e ffect o f l i miting C ilicia 's e ast ward e xpansion . B y t he t ime o f C icero 's g overnorship, t he S yrian c ommand h ad e xtended a s f ar a s t he r egion o f C yrrhestica, ' which

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i s t he p art o f S yria n earest my p rovince ' ( Cic. a d A tt. V . 1 8). A t t he s ame t i me C icero w as a lso l eft s ome s cope f or a ctivities i n t his a rea; n amely i n t he Amanus M ountains. H is c ampaigns h ere c ould h ave b een b ased o n t he f act t hat t hey h ad n ot p reviously b een c lai med b y o r i ncluded i n a ny o ther p rovince; S yria h aving o nly r eached a s f ar a s t he a forementioned Cyrrhestica . B ut t his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he C ilician p rovincia c ould n ot e xpand e lsew here . T here was s till s cope f or g rowth n orthwards. C appadocia e vidently b ecame p art o f t he p rovincia, a s e videnced i n C icero 's d efence o f t he k ingdom o f A riobarzanes ( ad F am . X V . 2 ). T his a ction, was i n t he l ong r un, p er mitted b y t he S enate 's r ecognit ion o f t he monarch a s a f riend o f R ome. F or t he moment, i t h ad t he e ffect o f n ominally a ttaching C appadocia t o t he C ilician p rovincia . A p recedent h ad b een e stablished f or f uture g overnors o f C ilicia. I n a s i milar way t hen, w e m ight e nvisage t he s ame s orts o f e vents o ccuring u nder t he v arious e arlier g overnors. S uch i ndividuals c ould b e c alled u pon o r b e e xpected t o r eact t o t he c onditons o f t he t i me a nd, u nless r estricted b y t he p ossible o verlap w ith a djacent p rovinciae c ould r ange a s a nd w here t hey c ould r easonably j ustify . I n l ight o f t he a bove i t i s e vident t hat t he d ebate s o f ar h as t ended t o f ocus o n a ttempts t o d ate t he a nnexation t o a p artic ular y ear, t o a p articular o fficial a nd t o ap articular s et o f c ircumstances . Much t i me a nd e ffort h as b een s pent l ooking f or t he m oment w hen C ilicia c ould b e s aid t o b e n o l onger u nattached o r i ndependent . Whilst e ach o f t he t hree main h ypotheses c an b e s aid t o h ave i ts own merits, t hey a ll t end t o u tilise o nly p art o f t he t otal e vidence a vailable, b uilding i t i nto a n a nachronist ic f ramework o f w hat a nnexation i s t hought t o h ave i nvolved . A s s uch d iscussion h as r eached s omething o f a n i mpasse . I f w e c annot c onfidently r econcile t he p roposed s olutions, t hen h ow m ay t he p roblem b e r esolved ? A n a lternative e xplanation m ay b e a dvanced i f we c an a ccept t hat t he i dea o f a nnexation a s a p rogressive p henomenon, c losely d efinable i n l egal t er ms c an b e d ispensed w ith. T he t wo m ost s triking f eatures i n t he c areer-pattern o f t he k nown g overnors o f C ilicia a re t hat b y f ar a nd away t he m ajority o f t hem were o f c onsular o r p roconsular s tatus a nd t hat i t w as c ommon f or t hem t o b e i nvolved i n s ome way o r a nother i n d irect m ilitarS , e ngagements ( see T able 1 2 .1) . V irtually a ll t he p re-Pomp eian g overnors m ay b e i ncluded i n t his g eneralisation, a s w ell a s s ome o f t he l ater o nes. A lthough t he l atter f eature m ight b e e xplained a s a c onsequence o f a n a nnexation, whenever i t m ight h ave t aken p lace, t he f ormer c an b e u sed t o e mphasise t he i mport ance o f a ffairs i n C ilicia t o t he R oman S enate. I f i t h ad b een f ormally a nnexed, t hen w e m ight r easonably e xpect t he i ncreasing f requency o f p raetorian g overnors, p articularly i f P ompey w as m eant t o h ave c arried o ut a . p ermanent s ettlement i n t he r egion ( Sherw in-White 1 976: 7 ) . Y et c onsulars w ere s till b eing d espatche d t o i t f or a c onsiderable t i me a fter 6 2. T his would s eem t o s uggest t hat t he b asic c onditions w hich n ecessitated t he a ppointm ent o f D olabella a s t he f irst C ilician p roconsul ( if n ot

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L entulus, c f T able 1 2.1 n 22), h ad n ot r adically a ltered, e ven i f t he e xtent o f t he t heatre o f o perations h ad. T he d espatch o f s o m any men o f c onsular a uthority s uggests major, a nd c ontinuing, p roblems i n t he a rea w hich n ecessitated t he p resence o f c onsular a rm ies ( et B runt 1 971: 4 49; T able X IV). T raditional w isdom w ould m aintain t hat t his o ccurred b ecause t he g overnor was t here a nd t hat t he g overnor was t here b ecause t he a rea h ad b een a nnexed. H owever, i f w e t urn t his w isdom a bout, w e c an c learly d iscern, i n a n umber o f i nstances, s hort-ter m p urposes f or t he c ommand o f C ilicia , which c ould v ery e asily b e i nterpreted a s i ndependent o f a n a nnexation i n i ts s trictest s ense; p urposes t hat d o n ot h ave t o b e c oncommitant w ith i t e ither. Why a nd what t his may h ave b een i s b est i nvestigated b y a s ystematic r e-examination o f t he v arious a ctivities o f t he k nown p re-Pompeian g overnors . T he c learest c ase i s t he a ppoint ment o f M . A ntonius a nd h is i mmediate s uccessors, e ach d espatched w ith t he o bjective o f b ringing C ilician p iracy i n t he E astern M editerranean u nder s ome s ort o f c ontrol. A lthough modern o pinion h as t ended t o a dopt a s lightly j aundiced v iew o f Antonius' a chievement ( ie. B roughton 1 938: 5 19; L evick 1 967: 2 2) i t would a ppear t hat, i n t he s hort t erm a t l east, h e a ccomplished t he t ask h e was s et. H e was a cc laimed i mperator a nd a ccorded a t riumph i n R ome u pon h is r eturn ( Broughton 1 946). O n t he b asis o f c urrent e vidence i t i s p ermissi ble t o s peculate t hat i t w as c onsidered a t t he t i me u nnecessary t o c ontinue t he c ommand u nder a s uccessor ( see n .9 b elow ), a nd s o i t w as a llowed t o l apse . W ithin a f ew y ears h owever, t he p roblem w as a gain s ufficently t roublesome t o w arrant t he d espatch o f S ulla ( Badian 1 959: 2 84f; K eaveney 1 984: 3 7f; c f n 19). H is p ractical c ontribution h owever was c ut s hort b y h is i ntervention i n o ther a ffairs i n t he v icinity, a ffairs w hich t ook o n a g reater s ignific ance t han t he p roblems p osed b y t he p irates. T his w as o f c ourse t he t hreat p osed b y M ithridates o f P ontus. ° O n t he b asis o f t he p rovincial f asti, i t would a ppear t hat t he p roblem o f C ilicia t hen d ecreased i n i mportance, o r e lse was m omentarily f orgotten . C ertainly w e h ear o f n o o ther m agistrates u ntil p ossibly L entulus ( see T able Ä 2.1 a nd n .22) a nd c ertainly t he p roconsul Cornelius D olabella. T he p recise r easons f or t he a ppointment o f t hese t wo m en h ave n ot s urvived, a lthough t hat o f D olabella h as, n ot u nreasonably, b een c onnected w ith t he c hronic p roblem .of mariti me b anditry i n t his r egion ( Cic. V err. I i 8 9; M agie 1 950: 2 86; B adian 1 959: 2 85 e tc) . T he s ame m ight b e t rue o f L entulus . Dolabel l a was c ertainly i n c ommand o f R oman t roops, q uite p ossibly more t han A ntonius a nd S ulla h ad b een ( Brunt 1 971: 4 28; 4 34ff). V erres, i n t he meanti me, was meant t o b e l evying f inancial a nd o ther s upport f or t his c ampaign f rom s ome o f t he c ities i n t he l ocality ( Cic. V err. I I i 4 1-102; ii 1 77-178; C ow les 1 917: I lff), b ut t his c ould b e s een a s t he r allying o f s upport a nd t he ( over z ealous ? ) p ursuit o f l ocal a ssistance r ather t han a n i ndication o f d irect R oman c ontrol. T he o bjective o f t his c ommand was p erhaps t o b reak o nce a nd f or a ll t he a llia nce k nown t o h ave e xisted b etween M ithridates a nd t he p irates o f C ilicia . U sing Appian ( Mithr. 6 3) a nd P lutarch ( Lucull. I. 5 ) O P rmerod

o bserved

t hat:

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..before t he d eath o f S ulla, a s cheme o f o perations w as d rafted, which t hough t wice i nterrupted b y f resh o utbreaks o f war w ith Mithridates, a i med a t t he p enet ration o f t he w hole o f t his d istrict a nd t he s ubjugat ion o f t he t ribes o n b oth s ides o f t he T aurus ( 1966: 3 52). I f t his was t o b e D olabella's t ask, t hat h e d id n ot c omplete i t, a s C icero i nti mates ( Cic. V err. I I i7 3) would e xplain why t he d espatch o f S ervilius V atia was t hought n ecesary i mmediately a fterwards . Y et e ven h e, f or a ll h is s uccesses ( Ormerod 1 922) s eems n ot t o h ave s ettled t he matter. We l earn o f c omplaints i n R ome a t a bout t his t i me c oncerning t he c ontinuing t hreat p osed b y t he p irates ( Florus I . x li. 6 ff; S allust H ist. I. 4 7. 7 ; c f M agie 1 950: 2 49-250; 1 126 n 44). A s a c onsequence o f t his, L . C etavius, y et a nother c onsular, may h ave h ad t o b e s ent o ut ( Sallust H ist. I I. 9 8. 1 0; Magie 1 950: 2 94). H is p remature d eath i n t he s ame y ear ( 74 BC ) would o bviously h ave n ecessitated t he a ppointment o f a s ubstitute t o c ontinue t he j ob. A s i s w ell k nown, L ucullus was t o b e t hat r eplacement, a lthough h e c learly h ad h is s ights o n g reater t hings ( Plut. L ucull. V I; Magie 1 950: 176 n 31). T he o utbreak o f t he T hird M ithridatic War meant t hat a s b efore, a ffairs i n C ilicia b ecame s ubsumed i n a g reater i mmed iacy . T his s ituation c ontinued u nder P ompey. H owever, t he a ppointment o f Marcius R ex i mmediately p rior t o P ompey 's p romot ion i n 6 7 BC m ight b e t aken a s i ndicative o f p roblems i n C ilicia . L ucullus i s k nown n ot t o h ave e ntered h is o riginal p rovince a t a ny t i me d uring h is c ommand i n t he E ast ( Magie 1 950 : 2 94). I f a p roblem d id e xist, i t c annot h ave b een t hat o f t he u sual r eason o f C ilician p iracy . A fter a ll, P ompey i s t hought t o h ave s ubdued t his, i f n ot p ermanently, t hen a t l east f or t he f oreseeable f uture. Magie ( 1950: 2 97) s peculated t hat R ex 's a ppointment was c ut s hort b y P ompey 's f inal v ictory a gainst t he p irates o ff C oracesium , a v ictory w hich was a chieved a fter R ex 's n om ination b ut b efore h is a rrival i n t he a rea. " A lthough b est r emembered f or h is v isit t o A ntioch ( Downey 1 937) R ex a lso d em anded a t riumph o n h is r eturn t o R ome, p resumably a s a c ons equence o f h is e fforts w hilst i n C ilicia . U nfortunately, w e a re n ot t old t he c ircumstances o f h is e xertions.'' I t may a lso b e s peculated t hat R ex 's a ppointment w as m eant a s t he f irst s tep i n t he s ystematic d emolition o f L ucullus' M ithridatic p rovincia. F ollow ing P ompey 's p eriod o f t enure ( see T able 1 2 .1) i t i s w idely a ssumed t hat a P ompeian would h ave b een a ppointed t o g overn t he p rovince a lthough t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or h is i dentity ( Syme 1 939a: 3 01). I t i s a ssumed t oo, t hat a c onsul Ks trength a rmy w as l eft t here f or t he m oment ( Brunt 1 971: 4 58) . " T he i rregularities i n t he f asti i n f act s erve t o c onfirm t he i dea t hat i n t he p eriod 1 02-64 BC t he C ilician p rovincia may b e e xp lained s i mply i n t er ms o f a n umber o f d istinct, s hort-term m ilitary c ommands. T hat i n t he l ater y ears t hese r an i nto o ne a nother, f or ming what a t f irst s ight a ppears t o b e ac onsistent p attern o f r egular g overnors, h as d istracted a ccurate i nterpretat ion a nd l ed t o t he a ssumption o f a n o rganised a nnexation. H owe ver, t here i s n o n eed t o t hink i n t hese t erms. O n s ome o ccasions

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s pecific c o mmands c ould b e e stablished ( like t hose o f M . A ntonius, D olabella, V atia a nd P ompey), w hile o n o thers e xisting c ommands c oud b e a dapted t o m eet o ther c ontingencies ( e .g . S ulla, O ppius, M urena , L ucullus a nd u lti mately P ompey; Magie 1 950: 165 n 14). R oman t roops were s ent t o, a nd k ept i n, t he r egion f or c ertain s pecific t asks. H owever what were meant t o b e o nly a d h oc a ppoint ments, i ntended t o f ulfill l i mited o bjectives, may h ave h ad t o b e e xtended, i n s cope o r d uration, o r b oth. S uch o ccasions m ight r ange f rom t he u nexpected d evelopment o f e vents ( in p articular w ith r egard t o r elations w ith M ithridates, a s c learly s hown b y S allust's r eporting o f Cotta 's s peech t o t he S enate i n 7 4 BC ; H ist. I. 4 7. 7 ) t hrough t o t he f ailure o f a ppointees f or v arious r easons t o c omplete t he d esignated t ask. H ere, t he p ri mary c oncern i n t he p eriod r emained t he d angers p osed b y C ilician p iracy . C onversely, a s a nd w hen m atters d evelo ped e lsewhere i n A sia M inor, s o t he g arrison r etained i n C ilicia w as f requently p ermitted t o d i minish, b oth i n q uality a nd s ize ( Brunt 1 971: 4 58; c f n .17). C ontinuity o f s hort-term o bjectives, a s o pposed t o w hat m ight b e c alled s i mple, s traightforward p ost-annexation a dministration i s n ot s o e asy t o d emonstrate f or t he p ost-Pompeian p eriod, t hanks t o t he p aucity o f t he e vidence; b ut i t r emains p ossible . W hilst t here i s a l acuna i n t he l ist f or t he p eriod 6 2-57 BC , i t s hould b e n oted t hat a s p art o f h is c onsulship o f 5 8, Gabinius o rigina lly s elected C ilicia a s h is p rovince, b ut s hortly a fterwards e xchanged i t f or S yria ( Cic. D om . 2 3; P is. 4 9; S est. 5 5; P rov. C ons. 3 ; P lut. C ic. XXX). L ess t han s even y ears l ater, C icero c ould t alk o f t he ' terrible b rigandage o f C i 1i cia ' ( ad A tt. V I. 4 ; a d F am . XV . 4 ) a nd t hat Amanus was a ' mountain r ange f ull o f e nem ies o f Rome f rom t i me i mmemorial a s w ere t he i nhabitants o f P indenissium ' ( ad A tt. V . 2 0). T he p rovincia i s t hen k nown t o h ave b een h eld c ontinously f rom 5 7 d own t o 4 4 BC . Governors, u sually o f p roconsular s tatus, h ave b een i dentified, a lthough t here i s l ittle e vidence f or t heir s pecific a ctivities . U nfortunately, i n t hese s ame y ears, a ffairs i n C ilicia, a s w ith o ther p arts o f t he Empire, b ecome a l most h opelessly e ntangled w ith t he e vents o f t he C ivil Wars, a s c an b e s een i n t he a ppointment o f D omitius C alvinus ( Cäes. B ell. A lex . 3 4) a nd t he s truggle b etween C assius a nd D olabella i n 4 3 B C —( 5r o X LVII. 2 7. 5 ff; c f S yme 1 939a: 3 18ff). H owever, t he most s triking f eature o f t he C ilician p rovincia r emains t he i rregular t enure o f i ts g overnors a nd t he f requency w ith w hich t hey b ecame i nvolved i n d irect m ilitary c lashes . T able 1 s hows t hat L entulus S pinther ( C IL 12 p .763 n o .372 ; C ic . a d F am . I . 9 . 2 ; a d Att. V . 2 1. 4 ), Appius C laudius ( CIL I ' p .763 n o.380; I LS 4 041; C ic. a d F am . II. 1 ; 2 ) a nd C icero h i mself ( ad F am . I. 1 0 . 3 e tc.) were a cclai med i mperator b y t heir t roops w hilst g overnors i n C ilicia; i ncontrovertible p roof o f t heir i nvolvement i n t he m ilitary f unction o f t heir p rovincia. A gain, i t m ight b e a rgued t hat e ach o f t hem t ook t he o pportunity t o e xploit t heir p eriod o f o ffice t o g ain h i mself p restige a nd g lory. H owever, e ven a c ursory r eading o f C icero 's c orrespondence o f t his t ime

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r eveals t hat h e a t l east w as g reatly c oncerned b y r elations w ith t he P arthians a nd h ow t hey w ere d eveloping . T his s ituation c ould w ell h ave i nfluenced t he d ecision t o a llocate t he p rovincia t hat y ear. S i milar h eightened t ension m ight e xplain t he d espatch o f Ampius B albus a nd L entulus S pinther. Ampius B albus ' g overnorship w ould f it c onveniently w ith t he d eteriorating s ituation f ollowing G abinius ' a pparently u nprovoked a ttack b eyond S yria i n 5 7 BC ( Keaveney 1 982b) . F urthermore, i t s hould n ot r equire m uch e mphas ising t hat o nly t wo y ears p rior t o C icero 's g overnorship, C rassus ' e xpedition h ad m et i ts d isastrous e nd . R elations b etween t he t wo e mpires, n ot s urprisingly, t hen d eteriorated r apidly . C icero's c oncern a bout t he t hreat t o C ilicia a nd A sia Minor i n g eneral was a pparent e ven b efore h e l eft R ome i n May 5 1 ( ad F am V III. 5 ; X V . 3 ; a d A tt. V . 9 ; 1 1; 1 4; 1 6; 1 8 e tc.). 1 ' F rom t his i t m ight b e i nferred t hat h is a ppointment w as d etermined o n t he g rounds t hat i t was n ecessary f or t he s ecurity o f t he r egion t o h ave a c ontinued p resence i n i t i n o rder t o c ounter-act a ny t hreat f rom t he e ast. A s a lready s uggested, t his n eed m ight h ave b een t here s ince t he t i me o f B albus, b ut I f eel t hat w e c an s till c haracterise t he d ecision t o s end i n a g overnor a s h aving b een made f or s hort-term motives a nd t hat t he p resence o f t he ' garrison ' was i ndependent o f t he p rovince . C icero 's p redecessor i n t he c ommand, A ppius C laudius P ulcher, was i n c harge o f aR oman f orce . S ome e lements o f t his h e d isbanded; o thers m utinied . We c ould b e c ontent t o a ccept t hat t his w as l itle m ore t han a n ormal p rovincial g arrison, k ept i n r esidence. H owever t hat A ppius was p roclaimed i mperator s hows t hat h e w as a s a ctive, a ccording t o t he s trictest s ense o f t he t erm p rovincia, a s h is p redecessors h ad b een. T hat t he t hreat t o t he p rovince d uring C icero 's p eriod o f o ffice w as n ot e ntirely d ispelled b y h is own a chievements i s v isible i n h is r ather a gitated l etters c ompiaining a bout t he S enate 's l etha rgy i n n ominating h is r eplacement ( ad F am . I. i l; 1 2; 1 9; V III. 1 0; XV . 9 ; 1 2; a d A tt. V I. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 e tc.). 1 ' Why t he S enate s hould h ave b een s o s low c annot b e f ully i nvestigated h ere, b ut w e d o h ear o f p roblems i n t he S enate. A f ulsome r epetition o f C icero's own a chievements may n ot h ave h elped t he s ituation e ither. 1 5 A s i s well k nown, i n h is a l most i ndecent h aste t o v acate t he p rovince, C icero l eft h is q uaestor C oelius t o f ill t he v acancy a lthough h e a ccepted t hat t his m ay n ot h ave teen t he b est s olution ( ad F am . I I. 1 5; a d A tt. I II. 6 ; V I. 6 ). " A s i t w as, C oelius w as s ucceeded f irst b y t he c onsular P . S estius, a nd t hen b y t he C aesarians, D omitius C älvinus ( whose e xact s tatus i s n ot k nown), Marcius P hilippus, Q . Cornificius, L . V olcatius T ullus a nd Q . M arcius C rispus ( Syme 1 939b) . L ittle c an b e s aid c oncerni ng t heir r elations w ith t he C ilician c ommand o r w hy t his s hould h ave c ontinued t o e xist. U nder P . S estius a t l east, t he p rovince i s r eported t o h ave b een q uiet ( Plut. B rutus I V . 3 ). T he s ame s eems t o h ave b een t rue u nder D omitius Calvinus ( Caes. B ell. A lex . 6 5), a lthough h is a ctivities e lsewhere i n t he r egion m ight w ell e xplain why i t h ad t o c ontinue a t t his t i me. T he n ecessity o f maintaining t he p rovincia a t t his t i me was p ossibly c ondit ioned a nd e ven d ictated b y t he d isintegration o f t he E mpire i nto

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p ersonal f iefdoms. T he r ival w ar-lords n eeded t o r etain c ontrol o f a s l arge a t erritorial p rovincia a s p ossible i n o rder t o r etain a ccess t o ( and a gain c ontrol o f) t he v arious a rmies maint ained i n t he p rovinces ( and which were k ept t here i n t he f irst i nstance f or o ther r easons). E qually, t here w as t o b e t he a bility t o h ave a ccess t o p otential r ecruiting g rounds; b oth f or c itizen u nits a nd f or a uxiliary l evies. T hus C aesar, t hrough D omitius, h eld o nto t his p otential i n C ilicia. D omitius, a nd p ossibly C aesar t oo, a re k nown t o h ave c alled o n t he r esources o f l ocal a ssistance, a fter t he l egionary e lement i n C ilicia h ad b een c alled u pon ( Caes. B ell. A lex. 1 ; 2 5; 2 6; 6 4). P ompey w ithdrew t he o ne C ilician l egion f or u se a t t he B attle o f P harsalus ( Goes. B ell. C iv. I II. 8 8). T his s ituation m ight well e xplain t he e xist ence o f a t l east o ne c ohors C ilicum s erving u nder A ugustus, b eing a u nit r ecruited u nder C aesar a nd r etained b y t he P rinceps ( Devijver 1 982: 1 77; 1 83). A t t he s ame t i me, o nce t he p rovincia h ad b een d enuded o f i ts ( legionary) t roops f or s ervice e lsewhere i f s o t he p rovincia d isappears. T his s cenario i s p erhaps r eflecte d i n t he o ther wise p uzzling s tatement o f t he f irst c entury AD g eographer S trabo, w hen h e w rote t hat: ..the R omans t hought t hat i t w as b etter f or t he r egion t o b e r uled b y k ings t han t o b e u nder t he R oman p ref ects s ent t o a dminister j ustice, who were n ot l ikely a lways t o b e p resent o r t o h ave a rmed f orces w ith t hem ( X IV . 5 . 6 ( C671)). T he e xplanation t hat t his w ithdrawal r epresented a r ealisation o n t he p art o f t he R oman a uthorities t hat t hey c ould n ever s uccessf ully m anage t his a rea b ecause o f t he c onstant p roblem o f b anditr y h ere i s u nconvincing ( Syme 1 939b: 2 71). I t i s d ifficult t o i magine t hat Rome would a void s uch a n i ssue. S he h ad n ot i n t he p ast. I nstead o f t his, a b etter e xplanation i s t o e nvisage t he p roblems o f C ilicia l osing o ut t o t hose o f o ther a reas. I n t he c ontext o f t he i nternecine s truggles o f t he l ate C lst B C , C ilicia w as n ot t hat i mportant. T roops who h ad b een r etained h ere f or s pecfic r easons, were n ow c alled u pon t o meet a more i mmediate p roblem . O nce t he g arrison h ad b een r emoved f or s ervice e lsew here, s o t he p rovincia c ould s i mply l apse. T he a bsence o f a g arrison meant t hat n o c ommander, o r g overnor, h ad t o b e s ent o ut; t he p rovincia w as t hus a llowed t o b ecome a d ead l etter. I ts d ecline-in i mportance p ermitted A ntony, t hen h olding t his p art o f t he Empire a s h is p rovincia, t o l et c ontrol o f t he r egion p ass i nto Cleopatra 's h ands. R ome would o bviously r etain more t han a p assing i nterest i n i ts f uture ( Syme 1 939a: 3 24ff; M itford 1 980 : 1 240 0. A t t he s ame t i me , t his i nterest c ould b e n ominally g uarde d b y t he c ommander i n S yria, s ignifically, a p rovince w hose g arrison h ad n ot b een p ermitted t o t otally d i minish t oo much i n t hese d ifficult y ears. T he r easons w hy t his d id n ot o ccur s hould b e o bvious. W hile t he e xistence o f t he p henomenon k nown a s a nnexation .c annot b e d enied, t he p resentation o f i t a s a s ystematic p rocess m ay b e q uestioned . T his p aper h as a ttempted t o i dentify a nd r esolve w hat a ppears t o b e a c ontradiction i n t he v iews o f t hose who

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w ould a ccept a b roader c oncept o f t he R oman Empire, b ut who w ould s till e nvisage a r egular s ystem o f t erritorial a nnexation . S uch a n a ttitude w ould i mply a h ierarchy o f Empire, w ith o n o ne l evel, t he Empire a s t he p rovinces a nd o n t he o ther, k ingdoms, c ommunit ies a nd p eoples i n c ontact w ith t he Empire. A t t he s ame t i me, t he s cenario o ffered h ere a ccords q uite w ell w ith a w ider d efinit ion o f t he I mperium R omanum . F or i n my o pinion, f or a b etter u nderstanding o f t he p rocess o f i mperial i ntegration, o ne s hould l ook c losely a t e ach p rovince i n t urn, a t t he p attern o f t enure a nd t he c ircumstances a ssociated w ith i ts c reation a nd c ontinua nce i n o rder t o t race i ts emergence . A s s uch, t he e mergence o f a ny p rovince c an o nly h ave b een g radual. W ith t he e xamples o f C ilicia i n m ind, i t i s p ossible o n t he b asis o f t his a pproach t o w itness a c ontinuity o f p urpose i n t he a ppointment o f magistrates t o t his p rovincia . A t t he s ame t i me t his a ppointment s hould b e s een a s i ndependent o f a ny c onsiderations o f t he p rovince, a s c ommunities a nd p eoples. S trategic s ecurity was t he p rimary c oncern . Whilst t he g eographical e xtent o f t he p rovincia m ight h ave o nly l ater h ave b ecome ' established ' o r ' fixed ', i t's b asic r aison d 'etre r emained l ittle a ltered t hroughout t he p eriod u nder c onsideration . T he n eed t o d efine t he e xtent o r l i mits o f t his p rovincia w ere n ot s o m uch c onnected w ith a ny p rovincial o rganis ation(s) a s w ith t he emergence o f a djacent p rovinciae, i ncluding t hose o f A sia , a nd e specially S yria . T his was i n o rder t o a void p ossible o verlaps a nd c onflicts o f i nterest b et ween r espective g overnors. S uch a n e xplanation would, a s ac onsequence, t end t o g rant t he c oncept o f p rovincia i n i ts s trict s ense, a m uch l onger c urrency t han i t i s c urrently a llowed . T his t hinking i s n ot t oo d ifferent f rom t hat o f t hose who would c hampion a ' graduated ' meaning t o t he w ord ( e .g . L iebmann Frankfort 1 967; 1 968) b ut s uits much m ore c losely t he a vailable e vidence, emphasising t he a d h oc, s hortt erm n ature o f t he S enate 's d ecision t o p rolong t he c ommand . T he p rovincia was i nitially c reated t o c ounter t he p roblems p osed b y C ilician p iracy a nd was r e-activated a s a nd when c ircumstances d ictated . B ecause o f t he t hreat o f M ithridates i n l ater y ears, a n a rmy w as m aintained h ere ( or, t o a rgue f rom a R oman p erspect ive, h ad t o b e m aintained h ere) i n o rder t o c ounter t his p ossib ility . A t a bout t he s ame t i me, t he q uestion o f i nternal b anditr y, l ater s upplemented b y d eteriorating r elations w ith t he P art hians s erved t o p erpetuate t his a rrangement. T he r etention o f t his c ommand was l ater e xploited b y t he war-lords o f t he l ate R epublic . I t i s t he f act t hat a ny a rmy ( or a r mies) was i n t he r egion f or s o l ong h as b een m isconstrued a s i ndicating t he a nnexa tion a nd c reation o f a ' full' p rovince, w hen t here i s i n f act n o d istinction b etween t he t wo; b etween t he i nitial p rovincia a nd t he f ull p rovince. I nstead, t he emergence o f what we n ow c all t he p rovince c an b e d escribed a s i nvoluntary; t his b eing a c onc ept a nd a ppellation, c onditioned b y m odern e xperiences. I t c ame i nto b eing s i mply a s ap erpetuation o f t he p rovincia a nd n ot b y a ny c onscious d eliberation o r i ntent. I ndeed a c ase m ight b e m ade f or a rguing t hat t he R oman a uthorities, a t t he t i me, w ere n ever aware o f t he p rovince a s i t i s u nderstood t oday, whilst i n l ater h istory ( i.e. u nder t he l ater P rincipate) we c ome t o s ee a

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c oncept o f p rovincial i dentity b egin t o emerge, s uch a d evelopm ent c omes o nly a s a r esult o f t he l ong p erpetuance o f p rovinc iae. T he p resence o r a bsence o f t he a r my a nd s o b y a ssociation, a g overnor, would n ot h ave a ffected t he o utward a ppearance o f t he p rovincia . I n b oth c ases, t he l ife i n t he r egion would h ave c ontinued a s b efore t he a ppearance o f R ome. I f t his was t he c ase, t hen t here i s n o n eed t o a ttempt a q uantification o f t he p rocess o f a nnexation; t he p rovincia ( and t he p rovince) o nly e xisted a s l ong a s t he n eed f or t he c ommand d id . W ith t he a rmy 's w ithdrawal, t he n eed t o s end a d uly i nvested o fficial a lso d isa ppeared . B ut t his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he r egion was d e-annexed; i t r emained w ithin t he R oman s phere . T he o ne o bvious e lement o f a R oman p resence - n amely t he f inancial e xactions l evied t o o ffs et t he c ost o f maintaining a n a r my o f a t l east two l egions i n t he r egion - would h ave r emained, a lbeit i n a nother g uise, a nd t ransferred t o o ther r ecipients ( in t his c ase, C leopatra) . T he w ider v alidity o f t he model o ffered h ere c an o nly r eally b e a ssessed b y i ts a pplication t o o ther p rovinces; p articularly t hose t hat c ame i nto b eing i n t he l ater R epublic . T he e xample o f G allia C omata, p ost-Caesar c omes most r eadily t o m ind; v iz, t he q uestion a s t o i ts s tatus a t t he t i me C aesar c rossed t he R ubicon . I n a n e xample l ike t his, a long w ith t hose o f S pain a nd s ome o f t he D anubian p rovinces a mong o thers, w e c an s ee t he s ame k ind o f o n-going a ctions a nd c ommitments e xpanding a nd p erpetuating t hems elves a nd t heir r espective p rovinciae . Warfare, a nd c ontinuous w arfare a t t hat, r equires a r mies i n t he f ield; a r mies r equire g enerals a nd i t i s t his b asic f act w hich e xplains w hy p rovinces e merge . I ndeed i t s hould b e s aid t hat v irtually a ll t he r ecogn ised p rovinces b egan a s m ilitary c ommands a nd w here a rmies, o r a s t hey a re o ften i nappropriately c alled i n t his c ontext, g arris ons ( with a ll t heir i nference o f p er manence) were n ecessary. S uch c ommands were t he r esponses t o d irect t hreats, i magined t hreats, t o p erceptions o f d anger a nd t he n eed t o c omplete t asks a nd c ampaigns w hich h ad b een c ommenced b ut n ot y et c ompleted . A s a f inal p oint. I f o ne was t o a scribe a d ate o f a nnexation t o o r f or C ilicia a t a ny t i me, o ne w ould h ave t o c hoose t he o ccasion o f A ntonius' a ppointment i n 1 02 BC , b ut n ot o n t he g rounds o f a nything t hat h e m ight h ave a chieved o r e stablished . R ather, t he c riterion h as t o b e t hat f rom t his t i me o nwards t he S enate f elt t hat i t c ould i ntervene i n t he a ffairs o f t he r egion a nd t hat t his i ntereference c ould b e l egiti mately j ustified. A lthough t erritorial p ossessions d id n ot r esult, f rom t his d ate o nwar p, R ome m ight c lai m t hat t he r egion w as n ow w ithin h er i mperium . "

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T able 1 2.1: T he ( known) Governors o f C ilicia t he R oman R epublic

i n

t he p eriod o f

T his t able i s c omposed f rom a c ombination o f modern s ources a nd i s i ntended t o i nclude t hose i ndividuals who h ave, i n r ecent t imes, b een a ssociated d irectly w ith t he C ilician p rovincia . T he f ollow ing a uthorities h ave b een employed; S = S yme 1 939a; J J ashemski 1 950; M = Magie 1 950; B = B roughton 1 952; where a ll r eferences, o ther t han t hose t o M . Antonius, b eing f rom v ol. I). Y ear 1 02-101

9 6-95

8 8

N ame

S tatus

N L A ntonius ( N L 2 83, 1 161-3:

J . 6 7,

L . C ornelius S ulla l 9 ( N L 2 85, 1 163 n 1 4; Q . O ppius 2° ( M . 1 164 n 1 4;

J .

5 72,

1 47; B .

L .

8 3-81

L . C ornelius L entulus 22 ( N L 1 166 n 1 6; J . 6 8, 1 47)

8 0-79

C h . C ornelius D olabella ( S . 3 04; M . 2 85f., 1 166 n 1 6;

7 8-74

P . S ervillius V atia ( Isauricus) p rocos. ( S . 3 0, 3 04; M .287ff, 1 167ff, J . 6 9, 1 47; 9 4, 9 9, 1 05)

7 4

L . C etavius ( S . 3 04, M . 2 94;

7 4-67

6 8-66

6 6-62

5 7-56

5 6-54

L icinius Murena 2 I

p rocos . 4 3)

8 4

J .

p ropraet.

6 8,

p r.procos.

6 9,

p rocos. J . 6 8, 1 47;

( J .= P ropr) B .80, 8 4) I mperator B . 8 7, 9 0,

p rocos. 1 47; B . 1 04)

L . L icinius L ucullus ( S . 3 04; M . 2 94ff, 1 176f; 1 23, 1 29, 1 33, 1 39)

c os" p rocos . J . 6 9, 1 48; B . 1 01,

Q . Märcius R ex ( S . 3 04; M . 2 97, 1 46, 1 54)

p rocos. n 3 9-40; J .

1 178-79

C h . P ompeius Magnus ( S . 3 04; M . 3 51ff, 1 63f, 1 69, 1 76) T . Ampius B albus 23 ( N L 1 247 n 2 9; S yne

I mperator 5 76)

p ropraetor 1 47; B . 1 8)

J . 6 8,

6 8,

p r.procos. 1 47; B . 5 68,

6 8,

1 220ff;

1 955.

B .

t riumph 1 55, 1 59,

p rocos. 1 30; B . S upp.4-5)

P . C ornelius L entulus S pinther p rocos. ( S . 3 04; M . 3 83, 3 86, 1 247 n 3 0f; J . 2 18, 2 44)

2 66

18,

t riumph 1 48; B . 1 37,

6 9,

p rocos . J . 6 9, 1 48;

1 11,

6 9,

I mperator 1 48; B . 2 10,

5 3-52

5 1-50

5 0

4 9

4 8-47

4 7-46

4 6

4 5-44

4 4

A p. C laudius P ulcher ( S . 3 04; M . 3 87f, 1 248

n 3 4;

N L T ullius C icero ( S. 3 04; M . 390f, 1 249f; C . Cbelius C aldus ( NL 1 254 n .67; J . 7 0, P . S estius ( J. 7 1, 1 48;

p rocos. J . 6 9, 1 48;

p rocos. J . 7 0, 1 48; B .

1 48;

B .

I mperator B .229-237)

2 43,

I mperator 2 51)

p roquaest. 2 50) p rocos.

B .

2 64)

C n. D omitius C alvinus ( S. 3 18-319; M . 4 08-9,

4 13,

1 262f;

J . 7 1,

Q . Märcius P hilippus p rocos. ( S . 3 06-24; M . 4 16, 1 270 n 4 0, 1 272 n 4 4; B . 2 89) Q . Cbrnificius ( S . 3 20, 3 24; M .

1 48;

J .

B . 2 77)

7 1,

1 270 n 4 0;

J .

q uaest. p ropraet. 7 1, 1 48; B . 2 97)

L . V olcatius T ullus ( S . 3 21, 3 24; M . 1 270 n 4 0;

J .

p ropraet. 7 1, 1 48; B .

Q . Märcius C rispus 24 ( S . 3 21-22, 3 24; J . 7 2, L . C oelius T a(mphilus) ( J. 7 2, 1 48)

3 11,

1 48;

3 31)

p rocos. 1 48) o r

T a(rphinus) 25

N otes 1 . I s hould l ike t o t ake t his o pportunity t o t hank D r D avid K ennedy a nd e specially D r 3 .F . D r i nkwater f or t heir c omments o n e arlier d rafts o f t his p aper a nd which h ave s aved m e f rom i nnume rable e rrors. N aturally e nough h owever, t hey a re n ot r esponsi ble f or a ny o f t he v iews o r e rrors e xpressed h ere. T hese must r emain f orever m ine . T he b roader s tudy r eferred t o was o riginally meant t o b e a n e xamination i nto t he v arious ways t hat c onquered t erritory was t reated a nd a bsorbed b y t he R oman S tate . T his a pproach was t o a c onsiderable d egree c onditioned b y a l argely u ncritical a ccepta nce o f c urrent w isdom o n h ow p rovinces w ere a cquired . I n a s f ew w ords a s p ossible; t his t ransition, f rom p rovincia t o p rovince i s f requently p ortrayed a s s traightfor ward. F oreign t erritory i s a cquired b y t he S tate ( usually a s a n o utcome o f warfare), t he p rovincia i s d uly o rganised a nd b ecomes a p rovince a s i ndicated b y t he l ex p rovincia . ' Regular ' g overnors a re t hen d espatched t o i t a nd t he c ommerical e xploitation o f i t c ommences. A nd s o t he E mpire c ontinues t o e xpand. Whilst i n many r espects t his i s a h ighly s i mplistic s ummary, i t d oes s erve t o emphasise o ne i mpor-

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t ant p oint; n amely t hat a t ransition f rom p rovincia t o p rovince c an b e d iscerned a nd t hat t his t ransition c an b e measured. 2 . H arris ( 1978: 1 33) o ffers t hree e xamples, a ll t aken f rom t he s econd c entury AD w riter, A ppian, t o s upport t his d efinition. T aken a t f ace v alue h owever, t hese may n ot b e a s i nformative a s f irst i magined; b oth S ic. 2 .2 a nd I ber. 3 8 a re i n f act g enerali sed o bservations, m ade w ith h indsight, a s t o t he d evelopments i n S icily a nd S pain r espectively - e vents w hich a ctually t ook l onger t o d evelop t han h e w ould h ave u s b elieve . S i milarly, i t c ould b e a rgued t hat h e a ttributes a s econd c entury p erspective t o t hem . F or w hilst t he a rguments p resented i n t his p aper r elate o nly t o t he a cquisition o f a p rovince i n t he l ater R epublic, t here i s e vidence t o s how t hat t he p rocess o f a cquisition a nd d evelopment i n l ater y ears ( e.g. u nder t he P rincipate) s hows marked d iffere nces . S uch a c hange i n R oman p erceptions c annot h ave f ailed t o h ave o ccurred g iven t he t hree h undred o dd y ears o f managing o verseas t erritories. N evertheless, A ppian 's a ccounts a lso o mit t o mention why g overnors h ad t o b e s ent o ut i n t he f irst p lace; t hat i s b ecause m ilitary a ffairs i n e ither r egion h ad n ot y et b een s ettled, i rrespective o f t he s ignificance o f t he e vents A ppian c oncentrates o n. I n o rder t o s i mplify h is a ccount the p resence o f t hose o fficials who b ear a r esemblance t o t he o ffic ials h e r ecognised a s g overnors - A ppian h as g eneralised t he p icture . A s s uch t hen Appian 's e vidence d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount t he f ull c ircumstances t o t he c reation a nd c ontinuance o f t he p rovince. 3 . S herk ( 1984: 6 5 n 8) o bserves t hat ' The s tatus o f C ilicia a t t his p eriod i s s till c ontroversial. Was i t a r egular o rganised a nd a dministered p rovince, o r m erely a f ield c ommand? ' S ee a lso M agie ( 1950: 1 162). 4 . P ompey i s k nown t o h ave s ettled s ome o f t he p irates a t M ällus, A dana a nd E piphaneia ( Appian M ithr. 9 6) a s w ell a s a t S oli ( renamed P ompeiopol i s; S trabo V III. 7 . 5 ( C388); X IV . 3 . 3 ( CA65); 5 . 8 ( C671) . T hat I GR II. 8 69 f rom P ompeiopolis h onours P ompey n eed n ot b e e vidence f or h is a ltering o r r emodelling i ts c onstitution i n a ny way. 5 . S yme ( 1939a) t raced t his a s; u nder M . A ntonius ' this p rovinc ia u surped a t o nce t he t itle o f C ilicia a nd b efore l ong a cquired t erritory a nd p er manence ' ( p299); f ollowed b y, a fter S ulla 's r eorganisation o f A sia M inor ' the p rovince o f C ilicia e xtended ' ( p300); a nd c ul minated i n ' Pompeius m ade a s ettlement w hich a imed s o i t m ay b e p resumed a t s ome p ermanence ' ( p3Q0). 6 . L each ( 1978: 7 3); S eager ( 1978: 3 8) a nd G reenhalgh ( 1980: 1 58) a ll a ssociated i t w ith t he e vents i mmediately a fter t he p irate c ommand. F rank ( 1914: 3 18) a nd L evick ( 1967: 2 3) r emain a mbiguous. 7 . W ith s ome o f t he a forementioned c riteria which h ave b een a ccepted a s i ndicative o f a nnexation, Ammianus M arcellinus' s tatement t hat o f I sauria a nd C ilicia; ' These t wo p rovinces

2 68

c rowded w ith b ands o f b rigands, w ere l ong a go d uring t he w ar w ith t he p irates, s ent u nder t he y oke b y t he p roconsul S ervilius a nd m ade t o p ay t ribute ' ( XIV . 8 . 4 ) h as, r ather s urprisingly, n ot b een widely u tilised. T he a uthor J ustin ( Epit. XXXIX . 5 ) p laces t he a nnexation a fter t hat o f C yrene, w ith C rete a nd C ilicia ' being s ubdued i n t he w ar a gainst t he p irates '. H owever a n umber o f p roblems p ersist a nd a s r ecognised b y M agie ( 1950 : 163). T he i nclusion o f C rete w ith C ilicia s uggests t he c ommand o f M . A ntonius i n 6 7 BC , a lthough h e d id n ot s ubdue C rete, n or o perate o ff C ilicia. Meanwhile, t he a nnexation o f C yrene h as b een v ariously d ated; f rom 9 6 t o 7 4 t o 6 7. 8 . T he a ncient s ources a re n ot a ltogether u nani mous i n t heir a ttribution o f S ulla 's i nitial c ommand a nd w hich h as l ed t o s ome d oubts a s t o whether o r n ot h e was a ctually o riginally s ent t o C ilicia ( Magie 1 950 : 162-3). 9 . I t r emains u nclear h ow t he p roponents o f a n A ntonian d ate f or t he c reation o f t he p rovince i nterpret t his l acuna. A s i milar g ap e xists u p t o t he m id 8 0s. Two p ossible e xplanations m ight b e a dvanced t o meet t his p roblem; t hat t here w ere g overnors ( as i mplied b y, f or i nstance, F rank 1 914: 2 73; B roughton 1 938: 5 20) b ut who b y a m isfortune o f c hance a re n o l onger k nown; o r t hat t he b reaks a re r eal, w ith t here b eing n o r egular g overnors a t t his t ime . T he q uestion i s u nresolved, a lthough f or t he p urposes o f t his d iscussion, I h ave a ssumed t hat t here i s t he b reak ( Magie 1 950: 1 162). I t may b e e xplained b y a c ombination o f S herwinW hite's ( 1976; 1 984) a rguments a s t o t he t ransient n ature o f t he p rovincia a t t his t i me, a nd b y t he f act t hat we c an s ee o n o ccasion, g overnors o f A sia ( and t heir a ppointees) b eing d eputed t o l ook a fter a ffairs i n s outhern A sia M inor a s a nd .w hen c ondit ions d ictated; e .g. s o S ul L a a nd Murena i n 8 4 e tc. T he s uggest ion t hat Murena m ight h ave b een a g overnor o f C ilicia r emains u nproven w hilst t he p ossibility t hat O ppius w as a lso a g overnor h as b een c onclusively d ismissed b y Magie ( 1950: 1 163) a nd L iebmann Frankfort ( cf. T able 1 2.1 , n u 2 1,22). B runt ( 1971: 4 34) a rgued t hat i n 8 8 B C t here w ere n o R oman l egions i n C ilicia ( and A sia), a nd t hat a c ontinuous l egionary p resence o nly c ommenced f rom 7 8 ( 449, T able X IV). 1 0 . For R ex 's d elay i n a rriving i n C ilicia; t his was d ue t o (0 a l ate d eparture f rom R ome ( Suet. Caes. 8 ) f ollowed b y ( ii) a v isit t o G reece ( ILS 8 68; c f. Magie 1 950. 2 97; 1 178 n 39). 1. S allust ( Cat. XXX . 3 ) r eveals t hat a s l ate a s 6 3 BC R ex was w aiting o utside R ome i n t he e xpectation o f c elebrating a t riumph w ith h is l egions when h e was o rdered t o F aesulae. R eceived w isdom n or mally c onnects t his w ith h is C ilician t our o f d uty r ather t han h is a ctivities i n S yria . 1 2 . Ih esitate t o s uggest t hat t he b reak i s d eliberate . I t m ight b e a rgued t hat t he p roblem o f C ilicia h ad b een s ufficiently r esolved n ot t o n ecessitate a n a utomatic r e-appointment: S yme ( 1939a: 3 01) b riefly d iscussed t he f easibility o f S yria a nd C ilicia b eing c ombined a t t his t i me i nto o ne l arge p rovincia,

2 69

a lthough o n t he b alance c ame o ut a gainst t he p ossibility. S ee a lso B runt 1 971: 4 58 . C icero a d F rat. I . 2 . 7 would s eem t o b e d ecisive. 1 3 . C icero ( ad F am . I. 1 2) may c ontain a n o blique r eference t o h is f eeling t hat h e h ad ' rescued ' C ilicia. H is meaning h ere i s a mbiguous . I t m ight r efer t o w hat h e c onsidered t o b e h is e xemp lary g ood management o f t he p rovince a nd i ts a ffairs, b ut e quall y, t o h is h aving s aved i t f rom t he t hreat o f t he P arthians. 1 4 . T his c oncern e xisted r ight f rom t he v ery o utset o f h is a rrival i n t he p rovince ( July 3 1st, 5 1 BC ) a nd h is a ttempts t o t hwart a ny c hange o f a p rorogation o f h is c ommand s how ( e.g . a d F am . I. 7 ; I II. 8 ; V III. 1 0; a d A tt. V . 1 ; 2 ; V I. 2 e tc.). 1 5 . R equests S enate f or h onours: a d F am . I. 1 2; XV. 4 ; 1 0 a ward o f a s upplicatio; a d F am . XV . 57VIII. 1 1 e tc. A s a nother p ossible r eason f or t he S enates d elay: a d F am . V III. 5 c f. a d F am . V III. 8 . 1 6 . C icero was e ventually p er mitted, b y s enatorial d ecree, t o n om inate h is ' replacement' ( ad. Att. V I. 4 ). Coelius i s n or mally t hought t o h ave s tayed o n a f ull y ear, l argely o n t he g rounds t hat C icero a llocated h im o ne y ear's f unds ( ad A . V II. 1 ; B roughton 1 952: 2 261). H owever C icero a lso s tates t hat h is s taff, i ncluding C oelius, was p rofligate i n i ts s pending ( ibid. V II. 1 .). T herefore C icero 's g rant may h ave b een a s um - a n o vergenerous o ne a t t hat - meant t o t ide Coelius o ver f or l ess t han a y ear. C icero 's c oncern t o g et b ack t o R ome was o ccasioned n ot o nly b y a d esire t o r eturn t o t he c entre o f p olitical l ife, b ut a lso b ecause o f h is f ear t hat a n i mminent P arthian i nvasion m ight i nvolve h is c ommand b eing l engthened ( ad A tt. V I. 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 , 5 ; a d F am . V III. 1 0). A s i t t urned o ut t his t hreat d id n ot m aterialise ' Tad A tt. V I. 6 ). 1 7. S o f or i nstance; R ufus t aking o ut r einforcements i n 6 4 ( Suet. Caes. 8 ); P ompey ( Caes. B ell. C iv. II. 4 ); f or C icero 's c omplaints; s ee a d F am . II. 3 ; 6 ; V III. 5 ; XV . 1 ; 2 ; a d A tt. V . 4 . 2 ; V . 1 5; 1 8; V I. 5 ; i n g eneral, s ee B runt, 1 971. 4 60-1; 4 72. 1 8. O f c ourse o ne m ight b e e ven m ore p erverse a nd a rgue t hat t he r egion b ecame p art o f t he Empire a s f ar b ack a s 1 88 BC a nd a s a c onsequence o f t he T reaty o f A pamea ( Sherwin-White 1 984. 2 2ff; t he R omans c laimed ( as a c onsequence o f t he p eace t reaty) n o m ore t han a p ractical s upremacy a t t his t ime i n A natol i a ... ' ( p.26)). 1 9. B roughton ( 1952: 1 8) a ttributed t his t o t he y ear 9 2 o n t he b asis o f V elleius I. 1 5. 3 . H owever B adian ( 1959) a rgued f or 9 6-95 BC o n t he e vidence o f P lutarch S ulla 5 . More r ecently S herw in-White ( 1977b) u sing n umismatic e vidence p resented a c ase f or c onsidering S ulla 's p eriod o f t enure a s 9 4 BC . Keaveney ( 1982b), e ven m ore r ecently h as a ttempted t o r e-affirm t he c ase f or a d ate o f 9 6-95 .

2 70

2 0 . A ccepted b y B roughton ( 1952: 4 2) a s p roconsul i n C ilicia, M agie ( 1950: 1 164 0 a nd L iebmann Frankfort ( 1968) h ave a rgued t hat h e was i n f act a " legatus d e Cassius, g ouverneur d e l a p rovince d 'Asie" ( p451) a nd t hus n ot a g overnor o f C ilicia . 2 1. N ormal l y a ssociated w ith t he p rovince o f A sia ( Magie 1 950: 2 40; 2 42-245; 2 85; B roughton 1 952: 6 1; 6 4; K eaveney 1 982a: 1 15; 1 96; 1 984: 1 18) h as s uggested t hat Murena w as i n f act a g overnor o f C ilicia, p ost-Sulla . On t he b asis o f t he e vidence a dduced h owever, I r emain u nconvinced. T he s ignificant p oint h ere h owe ver, i s t hat Murena, i f p roconsul i n A sia a fter S ulla 's r eturn t o R ome, s hould i ntervene i n t he r egion o f C ilicia . 2 2 . A ccepted b y J ashemski, Magie ( 1950: 1 166. n 16) r emained s ceptical. B roughton ( 1952: 6 8) a ttributed h im a s c onsul i n A sia f or 8 2 BC . 2 3. Magie ( 1950: 1 247 n 29) s uggested t hat B albus was i nitially g overnor o f A sia, 5 8/57 B C a nd t hat h e was s ubsequently t ransferr ed t o C ilicia. S yme ( 1955: 1 30) a nd a ccepted b y B roughton ( Suppl. 4 -5) a rgued t hat" — .. t his was a rranged when S yria was s ubstituted f or Gabinius' o riginal p rovince o f C ilicia..." ( Broughton: i bid.) 2 4 . N ot a ccepted b y Magie ( 1950: 1 270 n 40) n or B roughton ( 1952: 3 09; 3 29 ; 3 47) w ho a ssociates h im w ith f irst B ithynia a nd P ontus ( 45) a nd s ubsequently S yria ( 44-43). S yme ( 1939a: 3 21) o ffers t he v ery t entative s uggestion t hat h e c ould h ave b een g overnor o f C ilicia, a lthough d oes n ot i nclude h im i n t he f inal f asti l ist ( 324). 2 5.

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2 75

O xford . C lassi-

1 3. CAPPAD OCI A AND THE EASTERN LI MES: ASPE CTS OF ROMANIS ATI ON AT AMASEI A I N CAPPAD OCI A D . F rench A nkara T his paper a dopts a s i ts g eneral t heme t he d ifficult p roblem o f g auging t he r elationship b etween a p rovinc ial p opulation a nd i ts p rovince i n t he g uise o f i mperi al g overnment. U sing a s a c ase e xample t he c ity o f Anaseia i n Cappadocia w ith which t here i s s ufficient e pigraphic d ata t o work f rom, t his r elationship i s e xam ined a t t wo p ossible p oints o f c ontact: t he e vid ence f or t he r elationship f rom r eligious d edications i n o rder t o a ssess t he e xtent o f Roman i mperial r elig ious p ractices a nd i nfluences; a nd f rom ' military ' i nscriptions, where we m ight o bserve p atterns o f r ec ruitment a nd c ommunity s ervice t o t he a rmy . Accepting t his e vidence a t f ace-value, t he c onclusions t o b e d rawn f rom i t may c ome a s a s urprise a nd r un c ontrary t o a ccepted w isdom . Whilst t his may b e t o a l arge degree a r eflection o f t he ( current) p overty o f r elevant e vidence ( i.e. f rom a rchaeology a nd i ts a ssoc iated s ciences a nd p apyrology e tc .) a nd t he p ossibili ty t hat t he a vailable d ata c annot b e u sed t o a ddress t he q uestions r aised, t his p aper s erves t o q uestion t he c lose a ssociation w hich i s o ften made b etween i mperial g overnment a nd t he p rovincials. T he s ubject i s v astly i nteresting: t he r elationship b etween p rovincials ( specifically o f A sia M inor) a nd t he p rovince i .e. t he i mperial g overnment. R amsay ( 1941) s ought t o t race t he i nteract ion ( 1) i n t he f ield o f f amily n et works ( i.e. t he r eact ion o f w ealthy f amilies t o R oman o rganisation, i nstitutions a nd o ffices, a nd t o s tatus), ( 2) i n t he f ield o f p rosopography ( i.e. t he i ntroduction o f R oman n ames), ( 3) i n t he f ield o f r eligion ( i.e . t he i ntroduct i on o r a daptation - o r n ot - o f Roman f eatures), ( 4) i n t he f ield o f m ilitary s ervice ( i.e . r ecruitment i nto, a nd s ervice i n, t he R oman a rmy), ( 5) i n t he f ield o f t axat ion, ( 6) i n t he f ield o f e conomic a nd t echnological i nfluence ( i.e . t he i ntroduction - o r n ot - o f R oman p ractices). A nd s o o n . I n t his c ontext R amsay c ited R oman r oads a nd t heir i nfluence o n p rovincial l ife .

2 77

M acMullen ( 1963) p resents a n o utline o f t he r eceived a ssumptions a nd h ypotheses t o w hich o ne i s a ttempting t o b ring s uitable d ata ( Appendix 1 ). C ertainly t he t opic i s v ast a nd t he p ossibilities a re e normous. Ih ave c hosen t wo p ilot s ubjects . T hough I h ave n o d oubts o n t he c hoice o f s ubject, I am c oncerned t hat t he e vidence b e v alid - i n o ther words, t hat t he s election o f e vidence b e a ppropriate a nd s uitable t o t est t he s ubject u nder d iscussion . S pecifically I r efer t o Amaseia a nd i ts t erritory, w hich f or s ome 2 00 y ears l ay w ithin t he p rovince o f C appadocia. T he c ity was i ncluded i n t he P ontic k ingdom u ntil t he d eath o f M ithradates V I E upator a nd t he s ettlement o f P ompey i n t he s ame y ear ( 63 BC ). I t was G reek a nd s aw i tself a s p art o f P ontus a nd o f t he P ontic c ommunity . G eographically a nd i n t erms o f p lant-geography, i t w as - a nd i s - p art o f t he B lack S ea z one which i n C lassical t erms i s c alled P ontus. Amaseia l ay a t t he e xtreme w estern e dge o f C appadocia, c 3 40 k m w est f rom t he l imes a t S atala . T he c ity, h owever, was a t t he c entre o f a r oad-network ( Ramsay u sed t he t erm r oad-knot f or s uch c entres e .g . Apameia i n P hrygia). L and c ommunications b etween C onstant i nopol i s, A ncyra a nd t he l i mes w ere r elatively e asy. One r oute c ame t o Amaseia. I t was t hen p ossible t o g o o n t o S atala t hrough N eocaesareia o r t o Mel it ene t hrough S ebasteia . A nother r oute t o S ebasteia a nd S atala went t hrough A ncyra . C ity-and-frontier a nd c ity-and-province I h ave k ept s eparate, a t d ifferent l evels o f i nteraction. T he o ne c oncerns a ctivity i n t he m ilitary s phere, t he o ther c oncerns a ctivity i n t he s ocial, e conom ic a nd a dministrative s pheres . F urther, I h ave i n m ind t he d istinction b etween a f rontier c ity a nd a p rovincial c ity - t hus, f or e xample, t he d istinction b etween M elitene, o n t he o ne h and, a nd C omana C appadocicae, o n t he o ther. W hat e ffect t hen, p rovincial c ity?

i f a ny,

d oes

t he

f rontier

h ave o n

t he

l ife o f

a

I want t o l ook a t t his q uestion i n t wo a reas, b oth d ependent o n e pigraphic ( and r elated) s ources. I h ave c hosen Amaseia a s a s ource o f s uitable d ata. T he e pigraphic c orpus o f t his c ity n umbers a bout 2 50 t exts o f t he i mperial p eriod .

A .

E vidence

f rom r eligious d edications:

F rom t he a vailable e pigraphic a nd n umismatic e vidence f rom A maseia a nd i ts t erritory I h ave c ollected t he d ivinities t o w hom r eference o r d edication w as m ade e .g . Z eus ( variously d escribed), A pollo ( again v ariously d escribed), D emeter a nd s o o n, i ndividua lly n amed o r i n c ombination w ith o ne o r more o ther d eities ( Appendix 2 ) . T here a re 1 8 d edicatory i nscriptions: o nly o ne i s i n L atin, t he r est a re i n G reek . T here i s o ne d edication t o t he T heos I psistos, o ne t o Z eus Omanis ( surely a n I ranian e pithet), o ne t o Z eus S arapis a nd s o o n. F ive o ut o f t he 1 7 d edicants

2 78

p ossess R oman o r s emi-Roman n ames. T he s ole L atin i nscription p ossesses a p articular i mportance s ince i t i s a d edication b y a m ilitary u nit: a n o ffering t o I ovi O pt i mo Maxi mo. P erhaps i n p assage o r i n h ibernation t he u nit l eft b ehind a f avoured d edicat ion; i t i s, n evertheless, u nique. V eteran i nscriptions ( of w hich t here a re s ix i n Amaseia a nd i ts r egion) d o n ot u nder mine t his b asic p osition: w henever t hey make v otive d edications, t hese a re t o l ocal o r l ocalised d eities. I t may b e o f s ignificance t hat o ut o f a t otal o f 4 44 Amaseian p ersonal n ames, 1 23 a re "Roman" i .e. v ariations w ith o ne, t wo o r t hree e lements, o f which o ne o r more a re d emonstrably R oman. T his b reakdown i ncludes A urelius n ames . I t i s i nteresting t hat i n 1 7 c ases o ut o f 6 0, t he c ognomen o r t hird n ame i s G reek: C ornelius M ithridates i s o ne e xamp r e— t Appendix 3 ). S ome o f t he d edications a re d ated b y t he e ra o f Amaseia ( 3/2 BC ): a ll f all c lose t o , o r w ithin, t he s econd c entury A D . B .

Military

i nscriptions:

N ot a ll a re i n L atin. T here a re 3 f unerary t exts i n which t he w ord v eteranus o nly i s u sed; a ll a re i n G reek ( Appendix 4 ). On t he o ne L atin t ext, t here i s mention o f a r ank: s ignifer. T here a re 5 c omplete f unerary t exts. A ll g ive a r ank, a nd a ll n ame a l egion. M ilitary u nits a re n amed o n 7 i nscriptions, b oth v otive a nd f unerary . O f t hese s even, 3 w ere w ritten i n G reek , o ne i s b iling ual ( Appendix 5 ). T here i s o ne d edication e rected b y a n i ndividual u nit, a n a la . I s ee n o r eason t o t hink t hat t he i ndividual u nit n amed i n t his t ext i s o ther t han a u nit i n p assage. S uch m ilitary movements h ave a w ell-established c ontext i n A sia M inor e pigraphy: t he p rovincials p ut u p l oud a nd b itter c omplaints a gainst s oldiers i n t ransit a nd a gainst m ilitary m isbehaviour. O f t he s ix r emaining i nscriptions, f ive m ention l egions, a nd t hus b ring u s t o t he q uestion o f r ecruitment. T hree n ame t he L egio V M äcedonica, o ne t he L egio V I F errata, o ne t he L egio X II F ul min ata. O f t hese f ive i nscriptions, o nly o ne n ames a l egion - t he X II F ulminata - s tationed o n t he C appadocian f rontier: t here i s n o i ndication t hat t he v eteran n amed i n t his d ocument was a n ative o f Amaseia a lthough i t i s p ossible . O n t he a vailable e pigraphic e vidence - I s tress a vailable n either C appadocia i n g eneral n or Amaseia i n p articular, f ed l arge n umbers o f r ecruits t o t he t wo e stablished C appadocian l egions, t he XV a t S atala a nd t he X II a t Melitene. T he e pig raphic e vidence, a s i t e xists, w ill n ot s upport a ny s uch h ypot hesis. I ndeed i t i s r egrettable t hat i n s ome p ublished work, v eteran t ombstones h ave b een u sed t o s trengthen t heories o n t he l ocation a nd d isposition o f l egionary a nd a uxiliary u nits. I n

2 79

r elation t o Amaseia, t he u se o f e pigraphic material i n e arlier l iterature h as, o n t wo o ccasions a t l east, b een s omewhat s implist ic. O n a c ontrary v iew , t he v eteran t ombstones f rom Amaseia a nd i ts t erritory may p oint t o a s pecialised r ecruitment, p erhaps l ocali sed b oth t emporally a nd s patially: s pecifically t he V Macedoni ca s tationed i n t he s econd c entury AD f irst a t T roes mis i n T hrace a nd t hen ( AD 1 67) a t P otaissa i n D acia a fter t he P ar t hian W ars. S u t i rnary: I t i s, o f c ourse, s elf-evident t hat t he r elationship b etween s tate a nd c ity, b etween r ulers a nd r uled, i s d ifficult t o i nvesti gate - f or s everal r easons b ut p rincipally, I b elieve, b ecause i t i s n ecessary, b efore a ll e lse, t o c larify t he n otion , H ow d id t he r uled p erceive t heir r ulers? T he d egree o f i mitation o r a daptation d epends, u ndoubtedly, o n t he d egree o f w illingness ( or r esistance) t o i mitate o r t o a dopt, o n t he a cceptance ( or n ot) o f t he o bjects ( e.g. n ames, r oles, s tatus, t echnology) t o b e i mit ated o r t o b e a dopted. T he q uestion i n g eneral - I would n ot s ay p arallel q uestion m ust b e a ddressed b y a ny s tudent w ho r esearches i nto t he i sations o f c ultural a ssimilation e .g . a cculturisation, H ittitis ation, P hrygianisation, R omanisation, o r w hat y ou w ill, o f A sia M inor o r, a lternatively, o f A natolian s ocieties o r c ommunities . Is ee n othing i n t he e pigraphic e vidence f rom Amaseia t hat t he p resence o f t he f rontier l ine i n E astern C appadocia s ignificantly m ade i tself f elt o n t his c ity o f Western C appadocia . F irstly, i n t he f ield o f r eligious i nfluence: d espite t he p res ence o f v eterans I s ee n o marked d ivergence f rom t he n ormal G reek p ractices - w hich I d efine b y r eference t o c ults a nd v enera tions o f o ther G reek c ities i n A sia M inor. S econdly, i n t he m ilitary s phere: t here i s n ot m uch t o s ay. Amaseia was p erhaps n ot u nlike t hose o ther c ities t hat l ay o n t ransit r outes - t hey r eceived t he a ttentions o f p assing a rmies, u nits, s oldiers a nd i ndividuals a ssociated w ith t hese . T here i s t he w ell : k nown e vidence o f P liny ( Ep . X .77 a nd 7 8) t o s upport t he t hesis. O f t his k nown f riction, t hen, b etween m ilitary t ransients a nd l ocal c ommunities t hese i s n o e pigraphic e vidence f rom Amaseia . H ence i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess t he b alance b etween f inancial g ain a nd d epredation/material l oss t o a c ity s uch a s Amaseia. T he f inancial g ain i s a ssumed b y s everal w riters e .g. G ren ( 1941). I would n ow s ay t hat o n p resent e vidence t he p oint i s d ifficult t o d emonstrate . F or l ogistic s upport t o t he l imes a nd c onsequent e conom ic b enefit t o t he c ity I k now o f n o e pigraphic e vidence a t Amaseia which m ay

2 80

b e u sed a s i llustration a lthough i t i s s elf-evident t hat t he s oldiers o n t he l i mes r equire t o b e f ed, h oused a nd e quipped . I n s ome ways, b ut n ot n ecessarily i n a ll, t here h as t o b e a n e conom ic h interland f or t he f rontier ( Appendix 6 ): Ih ave s een v ery l ittle e vidence f or i t i n C appadocia a s a w hole, n one w hatsoever a t Amaseia. O f c ourse, I c ould b e - p robably am - q uite w rong. I t may b e t hat we d o n ot h ave t he r ight k ind o f d ata t o t est t he c hosen h ypotheses. T o p ut t he p oint a nother way, among t he many d efic iencies i n t he e vidence f or C appadocia, f oremost, p erhaps, c omes t he p aucity o f r elevant d ocuments e .g. p apyri, a nd o f material s ources e .g . a rchaeobotanical a nd a rchaeozoological. I n a w ord, w e l ack t he a rchaeology o f t he f rontier. A ppendix 1 : i t eamullen's C omments ( a) S oldiers wander a round a t l oose e nds, i nfesting t he r oads. T hey h ave b ecome, i n a w ell-worn f igure o f s peech, n ot t he w atchd ogs o f t he f lock b ut " like wolves, n ever c lear o f o ffenses." T he d esertion o f c ities i n Z osimus ' t i me i s a ttributed p artly t o t he p resence o f s uch men. T here i s, i n s um, n o i solated p eriod o f u nrest a nd p illage, i n t he y ears r oughly f rom Maximinus T hrax t o D iocletian, b ut r ather a d evelopment r eaching o ver s ome c ent uries . I t was more t han a n uisance i n P liny 's d ay, a nd v ery h orrible i n T heodosius'. A s t o i ts e xtent, t he e astern empire h as a m onopoly o n t he e vidence b ut c ertainly n ot o n t he d epredat ions o f t he s oldiers t hemselves. ( 1963: 8 9). ( b) ' Against t he j udgement o n t he a rmy s uggested i n t he p rec eding p ages, E rik G ren p rotested t wenty y ears a go. O nly t he n egative s ide o f t he a rmy 's e conomic r ole was emphasised, h e s aid; a nd h e m ight h ave e choed t he w ish o f a n e arlier s cholar f or a ny l ight a t a ll u pon t hat r ole. I t h as n ever r eceived much a ttention, p artly f or t he l ack o f material. G ren 's own t reatm ent, t hough k indly h andled i n r eviews, h as i ts l i mits, g eog raphic , a s h e d eals w ith t he n ortheastern empire o nly, a nd l ogical: f or h aving a ssembled a mountain o f e vidence - " Ah q ue c e c or a l ongue h aleine" - s howing t he p resence, movements, a nd l arge n umbers o f t roops i n A sia M inor, h e l apses i nto t hose " must-have-beens" a nd p robabilities s o c ommon i n t reat ments o f a ncient e conomic h istory, a nd s upposes t hat t he a rmy " must" h ave a ccounted f or t he r eviving v igor o f c ities n ot o nly i n t he i mmed iate n eighborhood b ut e ven h undreds o f m iles away . H is w ork i s i nteresting a nd i mportant, y et i t s uffers f rom a f ailure t o p roduce a ny e vidence j oining t he f irst a nd l ast members o f h is s yllogism : t here were s oldiers, a nd t here was p rosperity; b ut w as t here a c onnection?' ( 1963: 8 9-90) . ( c) ' A ll t his ( but n ot v ery m uch more; c ivilian l ife i n f rontier a reas h as r eceived t oo l ittle a ttention) l ends a rchaeological s upport t o t he e vidence o f p apyri, s howing s oldiers a s c ustomers o f g enerally s mall n eighborhood e nterprises . S urprisingly, D ura, w hich t ells s o f ull a s tory a bout t he a rmy a nd c ivilians, r eturns a v ery o bscure a nswer t o t he q uestion, was t he g arrison 's

2 81

p resence e conomically s timulating? F or t he 2 50 's w e f ind t here e ither a " business s lump" o r a " war b oom ," d epending o n t wo o pposed a nd e qually i nconclusive l ines o f r easoning . ' ( 1963: 9 5). ( d) ' Soldiers a lso s pread L atin, n ot o nly b y making i t t he o fficial a r my s peech which a ll r ecruits must l earn, n o matter w hat t heir b ackground, b ut a lso b y s i mply l iving, marrying, b uying, d rinking, a nd walking a bout i n g arrisoned a reas. T he e nclave o f L atinity, a nd o f R oman c ivilisation g enerally - i ts m odes o f b urial, c ostume, n ames, a rchitecture - f ormed b y t he l arger c amps w ithin a n a lien c ontext, h as b een t raced o n b oth t he n orthern a nd e astern b orders. ' ( 1963: 9 6). ( e)

' Troops . —. p icked u p

l ocal

f or ms o f worship. '

( 1963: 9 6)

A ppendix 2 : R eligious D edications G reek: A rtem is a nd A ppollo a nd L eto 0 5 B a 4ekent S t.Pont. 3 ,1.146a

L .

D emeter a nd K ore 1 9 9 orum S t.Pont.

S ilvanus

3 ,1.189

I ulius

S everus

A D

1 44/5

E ther a lexikhalazos 0 5 A gIlönü u npubl. 0 5 Amasya

S t.Pont.

0 5 E raslan

u npubl.

3 ,1.114a

Z eus: D isabeites a lexikakos 0 5 ç ayirsu u npubl. E pikarpios 1 9 ç orum S t.Pont. • S arapis 0 5 G öl

3 ,1.189

J erphanion 2 1 n o.30

S ilvanus

p riest

A D

1 44/5

1 914-21:

S tratios 0 5 ç atalkaya

S t.Pont.

3 ,1.152

0 5 Y ass

ml

S t.Pont.

3 ,1.141

0 5 Y assi al

S t.Pont.

3 ,1.140

Onanis 1 9 S eyfe

u npubl.

T heos: E pikoos ( ?) 1 9 y )rum r eg. u npubl.

P tolemaeos

A D 9 8/9

T .

A urelius

Z myrnes

2 82

I ulianus

W hIoxenos E pikoos 0 5 A gilönü u npubl.

A ntonius

I psistos 0 5 Y assi al

S tratonikos

Meter T heon 1 9 9 )rum N ymphal 0 5 Amasya

u npubl.

S t.Pont.

r eg.

3 ,1.189

S t.Pont.

[ -]

S ilvanus

3 ,1.96

A D

1 44/45

L . I (ulius) C ornelianus C eler

L atin: IG e l A mg(ustus) 0 5 Amasya

S t.Pont.

A la I F lavia B ritannica 0 0 c .R .

3 ,1.104

A ppendix 3 : Cornelius I f ithridates

Kop(vnXi , (e ) 8 6 Lin

M LepL-

-

C umea-

E Y 7 OV

VOV IL

( D C VO -

n o LT I 1P a V E a T n GE V

T C L p oß / 61E 1 L

A D

B ean 1 953: 1 67 n o.1; B ull. 1 955: O lshausen a nd B iller 1 98 .-4 77 88 .

A ppendix 4 :

V eteran

2 26

a nd

1 69/170 2 31;

S EC

1 3.530;

I nscriptions

G reek: 0 5 A licik

T i.

0 5

C .

B Ec klica

0 5 G üm 4

[ -]

S ulpicius I ulius

G ermanus

L ucianus

S everus

S t.Pont.

3 ,1.169

S t.Pont.

3 ,1.24

g erphanion 1 914-21: 1 6 n o.24

2 83

A ppendix 5 :

U nit

I nscriptions

G reek/Latin 0 5 ç ay.roZu

L .

I ulius M aximus

s ig.vet.

l eg. V M [ac.] A E 1 914: 1 35

G reek: 0 5 Amasya

T ib. C laudius C rescens b en.leg.

l eg. V M ac. u npubl.

0 5 c ay

C .

v et.

l eg. X II u npubl.

v et.

l eg. V I F err. S t.Pont.3,1.157b

I ulius A lexander

0 5 E sentepe

Pi

F ulm .

L atin: 0 5 Amasya

L .

0 5 Amasya

A la I F lavia A ug. B ritannica 0 0 c .R .

0 5 Amasya

L .

Appendix 6 :

P etronius H erculanus s trat.leg.

l eg. V M ac. u npubT .

S t.Pont.3,1.104

S empronius M acedo d ec.

E conom ic H interland o f

a la C laudia n ova S t.Pont.3,1.105

t he C äppadocian F rontier

A rchaeozoological e vidence f rom a R oman m ilitary c ontext h as b een f ound i n t he f ourth c entury AD f ort a t P a nik Ö reni, o n t he w est b ank o f t he E uphrates, c 8 0 k m n orth o f m odern Malatya : E special n ote may b e made o f t he u se o f T ower V I a s a m eat s tore. A t t he t i me o f t he f ort's a bandonment t he t ower was f illed w ith h anging b utchered s ides o f p ork o r b acon. H arper 1 977: 4 55 A C appadocian h orse P Dura .

5 6

W elles e t a l.

i s m entioned

i n

t he D ura

l ine 3 E c[um C alppado[cem . 1 1 959: 2 19 n o.56c; F ink

1 971:

S pecialised h orse-breeding i s m entioned g alense ( ed. M iller 1 916) 5 77: m ansio e qui

r ecords:

A ndvailis

i bi

e st

v illa

c urules

2 84

i n

4 03: t he

P ampati,

AD 2 08 n o.99. I tinerarium B urdi-

u nde

v eniunt

M änsio A ndavilis N igde . A ndabilis

i s p robably A ndaval H ani, 6 km n orth-east o f s urvived a s t he f ormer n ame o f A ktal v illage .

B ibliography B EAN,

G .E.

1 953

I nscriptions 1 7: 1 67-78.

F INK,

R .O .

1 971

R oman M ilitary Records o n P apyrus. C leveland.

GREN,

E .

1 941

K leinasian u nd d er O stbalkan i n d er w ir tschaftlichen E nt wick Iu nl d er r öm ischen k aiserzeit. U ppsala a nd L eipzig.

H ARPER , R .P.

1 977

Two E xcavations o n t he E uphrates F rontier 1 968-74: Pa nik Öreni ( Eastern T urkey) 1 968-71 a nd D ibsi F araj ( Northern S yria) 1 972-74: 4 53-460 . I n S tudien z u d en M i 1i t ärgrenzen Roms I I. Köln a nd B onn.

D E J ERPHANI ON, G .

1 914-21

I nscriptions de Cappadoce e t d u P ont. i f langes d e L 'Universit S t.J oseph 7 : 1 -22.

MACMULLEN,

R .

1 963

S oldier a nd C ivilian i n t he L ater R oman Empire . C ambridge, Mass.

OLSHAUSEN, B ILLER, J .

E .

1 984

H istorische - g eographische A spekte d er Geschichte d es p ontischen R eiches P t 1 . Wiesbaden ( tAVO Beih. B 2 9/1).

1 984

R ituals a nd Po wer. T he Ro man I mperial Cult -Tn— A sia M T 1-7 )i. Camb ridge.

RAMSAY, W .M .

1 941

T he S ocial B asis o f Roman P ower A sia M inor. A berdeen .

W ELLES, C . B ., F INK, R .O . a nd G ILLIAM , J .F.

1 959

T he E xcavations a t Dura-Europos V .i: T he P archments a nd P apyri. N ew H aven, Conn.

P RICE,

S .R.F.

a nd

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f rom P ontus. B elleten

i n

14.

AS PECTS OF A ROMAN ARMY IN WAR ACCORDI N G TO THE BELLU M JUDAI CU M OF JOSEPHUS 1 V brdechai G ichon T el A viv

T he d etailed e ye-w itness a ccount o f F lavius J osephus o f t he a r mies o f V espasian a nd T itus p rovides u s w ith a n i nvaluable, a nd r are, i nsight i nto t he f unctioning o f a R oman a r my i n t he f ield. T he p resent a nalysis s eeks t o s hed l ight o n v arious a spects o f i ts s trengths, weakn esses a nd p rofessionalism a nd l i mitations . B y means o f t wo t ables I s hall s how f inally t he o rder o f march i n h ostile t errain a s may b e d educed f rom J osephus' o bservation o f V espasian 's march i nto G alilee . F rom t he w ritings o f C aesar a nd h is e ntourage t o t he B ellum I udaicum o f F lavius J osephus n o c omprehensive e ye w itness a ccount o f t he R oman a rmy i n a ction h as s urvived . T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat t here were, among o thers, p ersonal m otives t o J osephus' w ritings, a s well a s p olitical a i ms. B es ides, w hen w riting i n R ome a nd u nder t he p atronage o f t he i mperial f a mily, h e must h ave f elt f rom t i me t o t i me n o l ess r estrained t o e xpress h i mself f reely t han F avorinus, who, when r eproached f or h aving y ielded t o H adrian i n a greement, a nswered t hat h e c ould h ardly a rgue w ith a p erson " quia h abet t riginta l egiones" . ( SHA H adr X V .13) J osephus ' a ccounts must t herefore b e r ead w ith d ue c riticis m . T his must n ecessarily b e most s evere when d ealing w ith h is o pinions o f p olitical m otives a nd o f t he c haracter o f d efinite p ersons, a nd t o a c ertain e xtent w hen d ealing w ith t he n arrative o f t heir d eeds. O n t he o ther h and, d escriptions o f r eal ms, o f g eographical s ettings, o f i nstitutions a nd t heir f unctioning, o f t he c ourse o f e vents a nd h istorical d evelopmentl, h ave b een l argely s ustained b y a ll o utside e vidence a vailable .' J osephus ' c ompetence a s a r ecorder o f r es m i Iit ar i a R omana i s e nhanced b y h is s tudy o f m ilitary m atters a nd t he R oman a rmy f rom b efore t he war. A lthough h e d oes n ot m ention t hese f acts i mplic itly, t hey must b e t aken t o b e a xiomatic. H ow o ther wise would J osephus h ave b een c hosen t o c ommand i n G alilee, t he d istrict o f i mmediate c onfrontation w ith t he R omans a nd b een a ble t o g o a bout h is t ask w ith n o l ittle c ompetence? ( Vita X lVff; B ell I ud. 1.20.4-21.1 ( 568-85) . Moreover, h ow c ould h e h ave t ried t o o rganize a nd e xercise h is a rmed f orces o n R oman l ines, a nd what

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i s m ore w ithout s lavishly 1.20.7 ( 577-82)).

a nd

i ndiscriminate

c opying

( Bell

I ud .

I t i s p ossible t hat d uring h is a pprenticeship w ith t he E ssenes h e s tudied t he m i 1i tary manuals o f t his a nd s i milar s ects, s uch a s t he m anual o f " The S croll o f t he War o f t he S ons o f L ight a gainst t he S ons o f D arkness" ( Yadin 1 955) . A ll r elevant l iterature o n t he R oman a rmy, t hat was n ot a vailable i n J erusalem, c ould h ave b een a cquired b y J osephus d uring h is s tay i n R ome t hree t o f our y ears p rior t o a ttaining c ommand i n G alilee ( Vita 1-III, Y adin 1 955). F or t he s ake o f c ompleteness o ne n eeds t o m ention t he w ell-known f act t hat J osephus s erved a s t he c ommander-in-chief o f t he G alilean f orces t hroughout t he c ampaign i n t hat d istrict, u ntil h is c apture o n t he f all o f J otapata . L ater, f irst a s a p rivil eged p risoner a nd t hen a s a f reed man, h e w as a ble t o f ollow t he w ar f rom t he R oman h eadquarters . S ince h is s ervices f or p arley a nd t he l ike w ere f requently d rawn u pon, h e w as o ften p resent u p f ront o r n ear t o t he a ctual s cene o f f ighting . T herefore, J osephus o ffers u s a u nique o pportunity t o o bserve a n a verage R oman a rmy i n a ction i n F lavian t i mes, a nd t here i s v ery l ittle c omparable m aterial e xtant f or t he l ater p eriod, u p t o t he w ritings o f Amm ianus M ärcellinus. I . T he R oman A rme A ccording t o t he B ellum I udaicum B elow a re my c omments o n t he f ollowing s ubjects t ouching o n a l ate f irst c entury R oman a rmy a ccording t o t he B ellum I udaicum o f J osephus: 1 . T he A rmy o n t he March; 2 . F unctioning o f t he V ang uard; 3 . T he T rain; 4 . T he Melee; 5 . R eserves; 6 . T he P lace o f t he Commander; 7 . C amps; 8 . B ody A rmour; 9 . C avalry; 1 0. T raining a nd D iscipline; 1 1. T he A chilles' H eel o f t he R oman A rmy. Q uotations f rom t he B el l um I udaicum w ill b e made, i f n ot i ndic ated o therwise, a ccording t o t he e dition a nd t ranslation o f T hackerey ( 1927). I . T he Army o n

t he March

A ll t hose d ealing w ith t he s ubject r ecall t he t wo d etailed d escriptions o f aR oman a rmy o n t he m arch t hrough h ostile t errit ory - t hat o f V espasian t o s ubdue G alilee i n A pril-May 6 7 ( Bell. I ud . 11.6.2 ( 115-126), a nd t hat o f T itus o n h is march o n J erus alem i n e arly 7 0 ( Bell. I ud. V .2.1 ( 47-49)). 2 I t c ould b e t hat b oth a r mies marched i n t he a geless d ivision o f t hree: A dvance G uard, M ain B ody ( The " Gros") a nd t he R ear G uard . T he t ask o f a dvance g uard, a ny a dvance g uard, i s t o e nsure t he u ninterfered march o f t he main b ody t owards i ts o bjective. I ts c omposition h as t o b e s uch a s t o s ecure t he p assage f rom h arass

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• a nd a mbush, t o o vercome o pposition o f s econdary e nemy f orces, t o s tem a nd p in d own a major e nemy s ufficiently l ong f or t he main b ody t o d eploy s o a s t o e nter t he e nsuing b attle i n t he most a dvantageous w ay, a nd f inally t o r emove p hysical o bstacles f rom t he p ath o f t he a rmy d uring i ts a dvance . I n t he V espasian o rder o f march t he l ight a r med a uxilia a nd t he a rchers were , s ent i n a dvance - t hes9 a re , l ezor ssi _ s v erbis J osephi. ( "To w I l ex ) y e 1 P 1 Ä0U1 TWV e ntKoupwv K al TOgOTUI n poayelv ? KeXe wev " ( Bell. l ud. 11.6.1-2 ( 111; 1 15))). T itus' " vanguard c onsisted o f t he c ontingents o f t he k in u w ith t he w hole b ody o f a uxiliaries" ( = 0 1 1 3 aotÄlKoi K ai ' n ay TO C RA I I MX1KOV) ( Bell. I ud. V .2.1 ( 47)). S ince V espasian 's e nemies were t he J ewish i ns urgents a nd t he t heatre o f war mountainous, t he c omposition o f h is v anguard s eems r easonable . T he l ight a rmed t roops, i ncluding a rchers, s lingers a nd j avelin men, were eminently s uited f or s creening , s couting, o ccupying d efiles e tc . a nd f or s kirmish w ith t he l ight-armed J ews. T he a dvance g uard, u p t o 1 5,000 m en, w as a w ell b alanced p ortion o ut o f t he 6 0,000 marching c ombatants . T he a llocation o f a ll t he a uxilia a nd a ll t he a llied c ontingents t o T itus ' v anguard would m ean n ot l ess t han h alf o f h is f orces, w hich i s u nacceptable . T o g ive J osephus h is d ue: i n t he o rigin al h e s ays " npolovT1 T iTw n ponyov — . 0 1 ß ao lÄ tKoi e tc." w hich d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply a v anguard b ut t he f ormation o f a n a dditional b ody o f t roops, i n a dvance o f t he g ros ( see b elow.) . T he v anguard i s n ot e xplicitly m entioned, p erhaps b ecause i t w as f ormed f rom t he r anks o f t he f ormer. A nother p ossibility i s t hat w e h ave t o t ake J osephus' s tatement n ot l iterally, a nd t o i mply t hat h is i ntention was t o s tress t hat ( a) t he v anguard was a s pecially s trong o ne, a nd ( b) t hat t he v anguard was a s pecially s trong o ne a nd c omposed o f a llies a nd a uxiliaries. I n b oth c ases t he r eason was t actical - t o p revent e ntanglement o f t he l egions a nd t he s iege t rain, p rior t o t he c ommencement o f t he s iege p roper, b y a ssigning t he f ull c omplement o r major p ortions o f t he o ther f orces t o d eal w ith w hatever i nterference t he J ews may h ave p lanned . E ven i f w e a dhere t o t he a lternative c omposition o f T itus' a dv ance g uard we g et t he i mpression t hat h e, a s w ell a s V espasian, h ad a dopted a d ivision o f t heir marching c olumn, n ot i nto t hree b ut i nto f our d ivisions, making t he "Monoloi " a nd t he c astramens ores, t ogether w ith t he c ommander-in-chief, h is b odyguard, t he l egionary c avalry, t he s iege t rain a nd t he s enior c ommanders i nto a s econd d ivision, p receding t he l egions w ith t heir t rains a nd t he r earguard ( see ' 3. T he T rain ' b elow a nd n ote). I n u niting a ll t he a bove i n o ne c olumn, t he c ommander-in-chief w as s ufficiently r emoved f rom t he a dvanced g uard t o t ake a ny n ecessary s tep d emanded e ither b y t he a dvance g uard 's i ntellig ence o r b y i ts a ctions. H e . k ept w ith h im a n a dditional b ody o f h eavy t roops t o r einforce t he f ormer, a nd t he most v aluable c raftsmen, t o b e employed o nly w ith h is p ersonal p ermission . We n ote i n p assing t hat a ll r outine r oad c learing a nd o bstacle r emoving was b eing d one b y t he a dvance g uard i tself . A lso, w ith

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t he c ommander-in-chief moved h is ' order g roup ', s o c alled i n m odern p arlance b ecause i t c omprised t he s enior o fficers, w ho, i f n ecessary, would c ollect a round h im f or c onsultation a nd o rders, w hile t he t roops marched a s n owadays u nder t he c ommand o f more j unior o fficers. J osephus mentions o nly o ne c enturio f or t he l ot, b ut a lready R einach w as aware t hat t here m ust h ave b een o ne f or e ach u nit, r espective f ormation ( Thackeray 1 927: 6 12-13) . T o f acilitate t he p assage o f o rders b y t he g eneral o r t o u ndert ake i mmediate a nd s pecific r econnaissance t asks b y h is c ommand, t he e quites l egionum marched i n t he s econd d ivision . 2 .

F unctioning o f

t he V anguard

M uch o f t he e fficient f unctioning o f t he a dvance g uard d epends u pon i ts c ommander whose i nitiative h as t o i mplement a nd a ugment t he s tanding o rders a nd t he b attle d rill i nstilled i nto t he t roops. 3 T he J ewish War h as o ne c lear e xample o f t he p erfect f unctioning o f t he a dvance g uard ( pr i mum a gmen). D uring t he c ampaign o f C estius G allus, t he l egatus S yriae, who t ried i n v ain i n 6 6 t o q uench t he R evolt i n i ts i nitial s tage, t he a r my w as ambushed i n t he h ill c ountry n ear G abao o n t he r oad t o J erusalem . T he J ews l et t he a dvance g uard p ass u nmolested a nd t hen a ssaulted t he main b ody w ith s uch i mpetus f rom t he s urrounding s lopes, t hat a ccording t o J osephus 5 15 R omans w ere k illed d uring t his e ncount er a gainst o nly 1 5 J ews, a nd t he whole f orce was i n d anger o f a nnihilation ( Bell. l ud. 11.10.8 ( 518-20)). W hat s aved t he Roman a rmy was t he p rompt a ction o f t he a dvance g uard, t hat w heeled a round a nd h astened t o t he r elief o f t he m ain c olumn . A r eaction l ike t his h as b een f ar f rom c ommon, t hrougho ut h istory . A f amous i nstance o f n ot r allying t o t he s uccour o f t he main b ody i s t hat o f Marshal G rouchy a t Waterloo . I t i s i nteresting t hat J osephus d oes n ot mention, e ither i n t he a ccount o f t he marching o rder o f V espasian o r i n t hat o f T itus, t he d etachment o f f lankguards. N either a re t hese m entioned b y P olybius, J ulius C aesar o r Ammianus ( B . Gall. 1.17, 1 9; B . C iv. 11.75 e tc.; Amm . Marc. XXIV .1 e tc; P olybius V 1.40 .1-2 07— F rom t he a ccount o f V egetius ( on marches, V egetius E pitome R ei M ilitaris 1 11.6) we g ather t hat t he a dvance g uards ' d uties i nc luded t he e xploration o f t he f lanks, a s well a s t he t emporary o ccupation o f p oints o f p otential d anger, s o a s t o s ecure t he p assage o f t he main b ody . H owever, t hese d uties d o n ot c ompletel y c over t hose o f r egular f lankguards m arching o n t he f lanks o f t he t roops a nd s ecuring t hese p ermanently . W e h ave n o m eans f or d eciding w hether t he o rdinary o rder o f m arch o f a R oman a rmy t hrough e nemy c ountry d id e xclude f lank p rotect ion, a nd t hus l aid i tself o pen f rom t ime t o t i me t o n ear-disast ers, a nd d isasters s uch a s e xperienced b y C estius G allus i n 6 6 ( Bell.

I ud.

1.19.2

( 517-22);

A nother e xplanation c ould b e, d etachment o f f lankguards w as

c f. G ichon

1 981).

t hat i n a ll s urviving s ources t he c onsidered a s elf e vident r outine,

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n ot n ecessary e ven t o m ention . T his s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase w ith a nother v ery i mportant d etail, t he e cheloning i n d epth o f t he a dvance g uard i tself. B y c hance mention o f C aesar o nly, we h ear o f t he e xistence o f a b ody o f t roops c alled p ri mi a ntec ursores which may i mply t he d ivision o f t he v anguard i nto a " head" a nd " main b ody" ( ante c ursores), a s u sually d one u ntil o ur d ays ( Kromayer a nd V eith 1 928:421). H owever, n either J osephus n or a ny o ther o f o ur a uthorities mentions t his d ivision. T hey m ay h ave t hought i t s elf e vident. A ssuredly t his i s a n a rgument e x s ilentio a nd t he p roblem n eeds f urther a ttention . 3 . The T rain A nother p roblem o f t he c omposition o f t he marching o rder o f a n a rmy i n e ne my t erritory i s t he p ositioning o f t he h eavy e quipm ent, t he a rtillery a nd t he t rain. Q uick a nd a gile movement d emanded m oving a s l ightly a s p ossible . Y et t o r elegate p art o r a ll o f t he h eavy e quipment a nd t he r est o f t he a bove t o a n i ndependent c olumn t hat a dvanced i n a n ecessarily l eisurely p ace d emanded a v ery s trong p rotective f orce . C estius G al Iu s, who was much p ressed b y t he l ack o f t i me, c hose t his way, b ut u nderesti mated t he p rotection n ecessary f or t he i ndependent c olumn o f t he t rain i n h is r ear. T hus a ll t he e quipm ent a nd s tores t o b e u sed f or t he c apture o f J erusalem f ell i nto t he h ands o f t he J ews w ho c aptured i t i n a f ierce e ngagement ( Bell. I ud. 1 1.19.2 ( 517-522)). T he s olution a dopted b y V espasian a nd T itus, b oth u nder n o s pec ial p ressure b y t i me, w as t o i nclude t he h eavy e quipment w ithin t he c olumns o f t he t roops. B ut t o m ake i t l ess u nwieldy a nd more e asily d efensible, t he h eavy t rain was b roken u p. P art o f i t m oved w ith t he s econd c olumn, t he h eadquarters a nd a ttached u nits, p art o f i t w ith e ach l egion ( above). T hough d oubtless m uch s lower, t he p recious machines, s tores, e quipment e tc., d id a rrive s afely a t t heir d estination . T his a rrangement, w hich r esembles t he o ne d escribed b y P olybius ( V1.40.1-20) u nder t he n ame o f 2 g _men p i l atum, h ad i ts d rawbacks t oo . T his we l earn f rom C aesar's b attle w ith t he N ervii o n t he S ambre . T hese d ecided t o a ttack t he c olumns o f t he l egionary t rains t hat marched b ehind e ach l egion a nd t hus p ierce t he R oman a rmy o n t he march a t i ts weakest l inks. Consequently C aesar c oncentrated a ll o f t he i mpedi menta t otius e xercitus i n o ne c olumn b ehind t he f irst s ix l egions w ith w hom h e w ished t o f ight t he e nvisaged b attle, a nd h a o tt he c oncentrated t rain b rought u p b y t he r emaining t wo l egions.' W e a re r eminded o f t he t ruism , a t t i mes o verlooked: t hen a s n ow , t here d o n ot e xist f ixed s olutions f or t actical p roblems. T he c ommander h as t o d ecide o n t he w ays a nd m eans m ost a ppropriate t o t he s ituation. T he f act t hat t he more c ompetent o f t he R oman f ield c ommanders w ere a ble a nd d id c hoose t heir t actics w ithout u ndue a dherence t o

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p recedent a nd " text b ook" s olutions i s a pparent a nd w ill b e a pparent a lso f rom t he f ollowing .

f rom t he a bove

4 . T he Melee A ccording t o o ur a uthorities, t he R oman a r mies d eployed f or a ction i n d iverse s et f or mations, t he a cies. B ut w hatever t he i nitial d eployment, t here o ften c ame a s tage where b oth s ides c losed i n u pon e ach o ther i n d ense o rder a nd i n c onsiderable d epth f or t he h and-to-hand f ighting - t he m elee . I t i s t his c ritical s tage which i s u sually d ismissed b y modern w riters i n a r ather p erfunctory a nd c avalier way s uch a s: " Einz elkampf m it S chwert u nd L anze" ( cf. N ischer, i n K romayer a nd V eith 1 928: 5 60). Y et we would l ike t o g lean more i nfor mation f or t his s tage o f t he b attle, w here t he m ettle, t he p rowess, t he e fficiency, t he morale a nd t he s pirit o f t he f ighting m an i s p ut t o t he s upreme t est. H ere we a re h elped b y g osephus. I s hall c ite p arts o f j ust o ne p assage: B ell. l ud. V I.1.7 ( 75) D raw ing t heir s words, t hey c losed w ith e ach o ther, a nd i n t he melee i t was i mpossible t o t ell o n which s ide e ither p arty was f ighting, t he m en were a ll j umbled t ogether a nd i ntermingled a nd t heir s houts, owing t o t he t errific d in, f alling c onfusedly o n t he e ar. T here w as g reat s laughter o n e ither s ide . . . Room f or f light o r p ursuit t here was n one . . . T hose i n f ront h ad e ither t o k ill o r b e k illed . . . f or t hose i n r ear i n e ither a rmy p ressed t heir c omrades f orward. W e f ind t hat t he mechanism o f t he t hrust i n t he melee owes n o l ess t o t he p ush o f t he r ear r anks t han t o t he h and-to-hand f ighting o f t he f irst r ank, o r a t b est, f irst r anks. While o n t heir own, e ven t he b est men i n t he f ront l ine a re a pt t o waver a nd b reak - t he p sychology o f t hose i n r elative s afety i n t he r ear b reeds b oth t rue o r f alse b oldness a nd t he u rge t o a dvance . B y p ushing b odily f orward, t hey s ustain t he p erseverance o f t he f irst r ankers a nd s et i nto t he p lace o f t he f alling a nd f allen. T hus te f irst l ine i s b eing f ed b y n ew , r elatively f resh, c ombat ants.' T heoretically t he d eeper t he c olumn, t he g reater t he t hrust, t he b etter t he c hances t o b reak y our e nemy . B ut b esides s undry o ther d rawbacks o ne c ompact m ass • has t he t endency t o b e s ucked i nto t he b attle w ithout t he a bility o f t he c ommander t o d irect i ts a ctivit y, o nce c ommitted . V espasian, i n t he b attle o f t he b reach a t g otapata, b uilt h is f orces w ith j ust t his i n m ind a nd f ormed s eparate b odies t o e nter b attle o n9 a fter t he o ther, a ccording t o h is a d h oc j udgement a nd d ecision." T he t heory b ehind t his p raxis w as e xpressed o n a nother o ccasion b y T itus: " small f orces a re e asily m anoeuvered a nd b rought u p t o e ach o thers s upport ( äy6pcia e 1 0 5 N t y oÄiolf 01 1 . 1L ) y c K ai

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T 6 , 000at ( 478)).

p i hol

K ai

n pooauüvElv

E &UTOlf;

B ell.

l ud.

1 11.10.2

T ime p ermits o ne t o mention o nly i n p assing t hat s mall u nits c apable o f i ndependent t actical a ction n ecessitated t he a vaila bility o f s ufficient s ubaltern c ommanders. J osephus was v ery m uch aware o f t his w hen h e d eclared t hat t he f amous R oman d iscip line " as d ue t o t he a bundance (T r Ä r jeouf ) o f t heir o fficers" ( Bell. l ud. 1 1.20.7 ( 577)). T o t he s ame c onclusion c ame C assius D io i n d ealing w ith t he B ar K ochba War. I n B ook LXIX .13 h e a sserted t hat J ulius S everus won h is v ictory: X f iect T wv O TPUT1WTWV K ai T WV U f i ipX ONO = "t hanks t o t he n umber o f h is s oldiers a nd u nder-officers. 7 5 . R eserves A n i mportant f actor i n b ringing a bout t he d ecision i n b attle h as p roved t o b e, s ince c lassical d ays, t he e xistence o f a s izable r eserve ( subsidium). T his i s b orne o ut most c learly b y t he J erusalem c ampaign o f T itus. D uring t he f irst d ay o f t he s iege, t he X th L egion was s urprised b y J ohn o f G ischala while c onstructing i ts c amp o n t he s lope o f t he Mount o f O lives. O nly T itus' a rrival i n t he n ick o f t i me w ith t he r eserve s aved t he l egion f rom r out ( Bell. I ud. V .2.4 ( 81-84)). L ater t he d eployment o f t he r eserves e nabled t he X th L egion t o c onstruct i ts c amp ( ibid. ( 97)) w ithout u ndue i nterf erence. T he r eserves t urned t he t ables o nce m ore d uring t he g reat J ewish s ally f rom t he t hird w all o n t he b esiegers, d uring which n ot o nly t he s iege works a nd e ngines were s everely mauled b ut t he R oman f orces g ot i nto d ire s traits. ( Bell. I ud. V .6.5 ( 287)). T hen, i n t he f ighting a round t he A ntonia f ortress t he J ews were p revented f rom c apturing t he R oman c amp b y T itus a nd t he r eserves ( Bell. I ud. V .11.6 ( 487)). R eserves a re i n f act o ne o f t he main means i n t he h and o f t he c ommander t o i nfluence t he b attle a nd t o i nfluence i ts o utcome o nce h e h as made h is d ispositions a nd c ommenced b attle a ccording t o p lan . H aving employed h is r eserves - h e h ad s hot t his ( prov erbia 0 l ast b olt, a nd h e c ould d o n ot much more t han K utusov, w ho , a ccording t o T olstoi, s at o n a g arden b ench d uring t he B attle o f B orodino, a r0 r eceived h is a djutants ' r eports, w ithout m oving f rom h is p lace .° D uring m uch o f t he s iege o f J erusalem , T itus c hose t o d irect a nd h ead p ersonally h is g eneral r eserves . I t i s o f s pecial i nterest t hat h e b uilt t his f orce f rom c hosen t roops p icked b y h i mself f rom t he w hole o f h is a rmy, i nfantry a nd c avalry . J osephus c alls t hese t roops b riXcKTot. T hey a re n ot t o b e c onfused w ith t he b odyguards, t he mounted l ancers - " X , oyxo c b6po l . " , who w ill h ave b een i ncluded a s s eems t o b e d educeable f rom t he p hrase: " the c ommander-in-chief h aving a s e scort " e tÄÄOUI 6 T{ACKTOUf K ai T OW

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Ä oyxo c l x 5pouf" ( Be!. I ud. V .2.1 ( 47)) 9 . T he c omposition o f t emp orary t ask f orces f or d efinite t asks h as a l ways b een i ncluded i n t he p owers o f s enior c ommanders. J osephus c ites e xamples f or t his t oo. B ut t he p er mission, o r d e f acto a ssumed a uthority, t o c reate a m ore p ermanent f ormation s uch a s t he e lite g niAcKTol c hosen a s a p ermanent r eserve a t t he p ersonal d isposition o f t he c ommanderi n-chief, i s ap henomenon t o b e mentioned. I t u sually was w ith t his t ool t hat T itus d ecided t o i nterfere p ersonally i n t he b attle w henever h e t hought i t n ecessary . 6 . T he P lace o f

t he C ommander

T he t i mely a ppearance o f T itus a t t he p oint o f c risis, a s b el aboured i ncessantly b y J ospehus, m ight h ave t o b e t aken c um g rano s alis. A lbeit b asically much o f t he s uccess i n b attle i s d ue t o t he s ometi mes u ncanny s ixth s ense o f t he c ommander t o b e p resent o r t o i ntervene w ith h is r eserves a t t he c risis p oint. S avants h ave d iscerned i n t he c onduct o f war, c raft, s cience a nd a rt. S urely o ne o f t he i nnate t raits o f a g ood c ommander i s t o b e a t t he r ight t i me i n t he r ight p lace . I n a ntiquity a nd u p t o a nd i ncluding t he 1 8th c entury i t s eemed u sually i ncumbent o n t he c ommander-in-chief t o l ead h is f orces p ersonally i nto b attle. T his c reated a n a dditional p roblem f or h is p resence a t t he s pot o f c risis. T he more s o, i f a s i n a n a verage R oman a r my, s uch a s t he o ne employed i n t he B ellum I udaicum o f t he F lavians, t he c ommander-in-chief w ould e ither l ead a ll t he a r my i nto b attle e n b loc, o r l ead t he t roops h e c hose t o l ead a nd c o-ordinate a t t he s ame t i me t he o verall d irect ion o f t he b attle . B oth t hese p ositions m ight b e r ather r emoved f rom t he a ctual p oint o f c risis a s i t d eveloped d uring t he f ighti ng I n c onsequence o f t he a bove g eneral o bservations, w e r eiterate t hat a n i mportant p art o f t he R oman c ommanders' s kill was t o d ecide u nder t hese c onditions, t he t i me a nd t he s ector o f t heir p ersonal p articipation i n t he f ighting . S ince n o major b attles i n t he o pen f ield, i nvolving a ll o f t he a rmy, w ere b eing f ought i n t he F lavian B ellum I udaicum , V espasian a nd T itus h ad t o d eal w ith t he p roblem o f t heir s tation i n b attle, i n s iege-warfare . B oth w isely c hose t o c onduct t he a ssaults f rom a n a ppropriate c ommand a lly whenever t he n ecessity a rose w hich w e h ave m entioned b efore . A t a dopted b y T itus, a nd V espasian w ill

s iege works p rior t o major p ost a nd t o i nterfer p ersona t t he h ead o f t he r eserves l east t his was t he p rocedure h ave a cted l ikewise .

B oth V espasian a nd T itus d eemed o n t he o ther h and t he c omplicat ions o f t he b reaking i nto b uilt-up a reas, s uch a s t o d emand t heir p ersonal p resence. A t J otapata, T itus was d eputizing f or h is f ather a nd t ook p ersonal c ommand o f t he l ast a ssault, a nd a ctually mounted t he walls f irst (gnnof e nißaivc1 ; B ell. l ud.

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11.7.34 ( 324)). A t G amala, V espasian c ommanded t he f irst p enet ration ( below). F or t he f inal a ssault, T itus t ook c ommand ( below ) w hile V espasian d irected h is s upport f rom t he r ear ( Be!!. l ud . I V .1.10 ( 73-74)) . A gain a t J erusalem T itus e ntered t he c ity b etween t he t hird a nd t he s econd wall a t t he h ead o f t he t ask f orce a ssembled f or t hat p urpose, s o a s t o d irect t his c ritical s tage o f f ighting a nd t o r ender moral f orce a nd i ncentive t o h is t roops. O n t he o ther h and T itus d ecided t hat t he c onfused f ighting f or p assage f rom t he c aptured f ortress A ntonia t o t he T emple Mount d emanded h is a bstention f rom t he a ssumption o f p ersonal c ommand o f t he p enetrating f orces. H e d ecided c orrectly t hat a t t hat s tage e verything h inged o n a c ontinuous s ustaining o f t he a ssault a nd o n a j udicious f eeding o f t he t roops i nto t he b attle, s o a s t o k eep u p t he n ecessary t hrust i n s ufficient d epth, y et t o p revent c ounter-effective b unching-up a nd s ubsequent waste o f l ife, w hile e nsuring a t t he s ame t i me mutual s upport o f t he p enetrating s pearheads a nd t he u mbrella o f b ow a nd a rtillery s hot f rom a ppropriate r ear p ositions ( Bell. I ud . V I.2 .5 ( 133ff)) . C onsequently h e c hose a n a dequate c ommand p ost o n o ne o f t he t owers o f t he A ntonia, w ith a s g ood a f ield o f v iew o ver a ll o f t he b attlefields a s p ossible . 7 . Camps T he p roperties a nd a dvantages o f t he c astra a re manifold. J osephus a nd V egetius, e ach i n h is own way, h ave emphasized i ts i mportance a s a mainstay o f R oman m ilitary d iscipline a nd r outine, a s well a s a s afeguard a gainst s urprise ( Bell I ud . II. ( 76-93); E pitoma R ei M ilitaris XXI). T he n arrative o f t he B ellum I udaicum a ffords u s w ith a n a dditional t actical u se o f t he c amp, o f major v alue, t hat i s: t he c astra a s f ortified b ase i n t he i mmediate r ear o f t he b attlefield, w ith t he p urpose o f a ccommodat ing a nd p rotecting b eaten t roops i n n eed o f r ecuperation a nd r eorganisation, o r f or w ithstanding t he p ursuing e nemy u ntil r elieved. A fter t he s uccessful s ortie o f S i mon b ar-Giora f rom J erusalem f rom n ear p resent-day J affa G ate " the R omans . . . d espairing b eat a r etreat t o t heir c amps; while t he J ews h otly p ursuing . . a nd f lushed w ith s uccess, p ressed o n w ith u ncontrolled i mpetuosi ty r ight u p t o t he e ntrenchment, a nd f inally g rappled w ith t he s entries" ( Bell. I ud. V .l1.5 ( 480)). T he R omans were s aved f rom a nnihilation b y f inding r efuge i n t he c astra a nd h olding o ut t here, u ntil r elieved b y a major c avalry c harge o n t he J ewish f lank l ed b y T itus. I t i s, h owever, q uestionable i f t he J ews would n ot h ave p oured i nto t he c amp o n t he h eels o f t he f ugitive R omans, b efore t he a rrival o f T itus, h ad t hey n ot b een h eld u p b y t he c amp g uards. I ncidentally, we l earn [ I q uote W illiamson 's ( 1970 :317) t ranslat ion]: " There i s a n a rmed p icket, p eriodically r elieved, which

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o ccupies

a p osition

f ront o f e very R oman c amp ." ( T 64if t aTiv i r pö TOU OTPUT07 1 UOU, B ell. I ud. V .11.5 ( 482)). O nly t he e xistence o f a g uard l ike t his w as a ble t o e nsure t he s afe r etreat t o a nd o ccupation o f a b ase c amp i n f ace o f a c losely p ursuing f oe . T o m ake s ure t hat t his f orce d id n ot q uit i ts p ost a nd g et i nvolved i n t he f ighting, J osephus q uotes t he R oman m ilitary l aw , t hat a ny s oldier b elonging t o i t w hosoe ver " quits h is p ost u nder • a ny p retext w hatsoever, d ies" ( ibid .) . 6 1a60X 1 1I

i n

¶GT c x li Vf l

A f urther m eans t o r epel t he p ursuing e nemy, a nd i n o ur c ase b arG iora's m en, w ere t he q uick-firing l ight a rtillery p ieces, k ept i n t he c astra f or i ts p rotection, a nd b ecause o f t his, n ot e mp loyed w ith t he r est o f t he o rdinance i n t he s iege p roper. S ince t here i s n early n ever a s urplus i n a ny m ajor e ncounter e ither i n t roops o r i n a rtillery, we c an s ense t he s pecial a ttention a nd c are t he R omans g ave t o t he s afeguard o f t heir c astra a nd t he i mportance w hich t hey a ccorded t o i t. 8 . B ody A rmour T he B ellum I udaicum i ncludes i mportant i nformation p ertaining t o t he u se o f i nfantry a nd a rtillery, a s w ell a s t o t he n ature o f t he a uxilia a nd t he e xpert u se o f c ombined a r ms. Is hall r eleg ate a ll t hese t o a s eparate p aper a nd mention h ere o nly t he i mportance o f b ody a rmour. T he b ody a r mour worn b y a l arge p ortion o f t he R oman t roops a fforded t he R omans w ith a g reat a dvantage o ver m ost o f t heir a dversaries d uring t he g reater p art o f t he P rincipate . T he R omans were v ery much aware o f t his f act. When h aranguing h is t roops i n f ront o f T arichaeae, T itus e xclai med: " . . .C onsid er a gain t hat y ou w ill c ontend i n f ull a r mour a gainst men t hat h ave s carcely a ny" ( Bell. I ud. 1 11.9.7 ( 447)). A n e lucidating d escription o f t his a dvantage i s a fforded b y t he r epulse o f t he f irst R oman a ttempt o n J otapata . A J ewish s urprise a ttack d id i ndeed r epulse t he R omans. B ut " they k illed n o more t han s even, b ecause t he R omans r etreated i n g ood o rder a nd t heir b odies b eing c ompletely p rotected, r eceived o nly s uperf icial wounds . . . " ( Bell I ud. 1 11.6 .1 ( 113)). E ven i n a much a dverse s ituation, s uch a s t he r epeated s ingleh anded a ssault o f t he c entürio I ulianus a nd h is p enetration i nto t he d epth o f t he J ewish r anks o pposite t he A ntonia, h e c ould b e s ubdued o nly a fter s lipping a nd f alling. E ven p rostrate, h e r emained f or a c onsiderable t i me p rotected b y h is a rmour ( Bell. I ud . V I. 1 .8 ( 81-87)). D oubtless t he k nowledge o f t heir b etter p rotection must h ave a fforded t he a verage R oman s oldier a f eeling o f s uperiority a nd h igh

m orale .

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9 .

E quites

R eading t he J osephan a ccount o f t he B el l um I udaicum, o ne i s n ot a t a ll s ure i n o ne 's m ind w ho w as t he q ueen o f t he b attlefield i n t hese c ampaigns, w ho b ore t he b runt o f t he b attles a nd w ho p layed t he d ecisive p art. A s i n t he p ictorial e vidence f rom T rajan 's C olumn, t he mounted t roops w ere e mployed i n t he m ountains a s w ell a s i n t he p lains, i n woodland a s well a s i n o pen c ountry ( Dzur 1 941: 2 1, 2 7, 2 8, 3 1, 1 06, 1 07 e tc.). Much l ike modern a rmour, t hey h ad d eveloped i nto a n o ften d ecisive a ll-round w eapon . T hey f ormed a n i ntegral p art o f a ll t ask f orces m entioned i n t hat w ar, a nd c ollaborated a dmirably w ith a ll o ther t roops i n a v ariety o f t actical m issions. F ollowing a re s ome e xamples. A t Gamala i n t he G olan o n t he 1 0th o f N ov. 6 7: " Titus s elected 2 00 c avalry a nd a b ody o f i nfantry a nd q uietly e ntered t he t own ." E ntrance w as made t hrough t he n ewly-made b reach . What a stonishes u s i s t hat h orsemen w ere a lso e mployed i n t his m ost d ifficult o f o perations, i n b uilt-up a rea f ighting, t he more d angerous a nd c onfusing i n t he e xtremely c ramped s pace o f a n e astern t ownlet a nd t he m ore s o i n a h ill s ettlement b uilt i n t erraces o n a s teep s lope. I n J erusalem t his may h ave b een t he c ase t oo, s ince J osephus n arrates t hat o n t he 3 0th o f May, 7 0 )T itus e ntered t he N ew T own b etween t he s econd a nd t hird wall ) t hrough t he b reach " with a t housand l egionaries a nd h is b riXEKTot" ( Bell. I ud. V .8.1 ( 331)). T he l atter were c omposed i n l arge p art o f c avalry, a s w e h ad a lready o ccasion t o n ote . I n t he e ngagement a t B eth N i mra i n P erea, s ometime a fter G amala, t he c avalry men were d irected t o r ide a fter, a nd w ith, t he f ugit ive J ews i nto t he t own. A s a matter o f f act, i n t his s pecial i nstance t hey were r epulsed, b ut t his r emarkable manoeuvre i s m ore p roof f or t heir t raining f or b uilt-up-area c ombat. I n t he s ame b attle w e h ave a g ood e xample f or t he w ell-functioni ng c o-operation b etween c avalry a nd i nfantry t hat b rought v ictory t o t he R omans. T he R oman f orces c onsisted o f 5 00 h orse a nd 3 000 f oot, c ommanded b y t he t ribunus P lacidus. T hey w ere m et u nder t he walls o f B eth N i mra ( Bethenabris) b y G adarene a nd l ocal i nsurgents ( Bell. I ud. I V .7.4 ( 421-436)). I n t he e nsuing e ncounter, t he R omans w ere d riven o ff . P lacidus, h owever, p roved h i mself o nce more c apable, a s i n p revious e nc ounters, t o make g ood u se o f a ny d eveloping t actical s ituation, a nd c onducted, a s a t Mount T abor i n N ov. 6 7 ( Bell. l ud. I V .1.8 ( 57)), a s ham r etreat, s o a s t o d raw t he J ews away f rom t heir s tronghold . H aving s ucceeded i n t his, t he h orsemen w heeled a round a nd " rode r ound t hem a nd p elted t hem w ith t heir j avelins" . B y d oing s o, t hey n ot o nly c aused t he J ews c asualties, b ut k ept t hem b unched u p a nd p inned d own - e asy p rey f or t he well-ar med a nd well-armoured R oman i nfantry w hich a ttacked t hem i n o rderly b attle a rray.

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U nder t he i nfantry a ttack, t he J ewish c rowd b roke a nd t ried t o r ush f or t he t own. T here was i nsufficient c avalry t o b ar t he z one o f r etreat, s o P lacidus a pplied a wel 1 -thought-out mano euvre: h aving h is s quadrons r iding a nd p ressing t he J ews f rom t heir f lank s o a s t o h ead t hem o ff f rom t heir b ase. T hus, o nly p art o f t he f ugitives s ucceeded i n r e-entering B eth N imra . H owe ver, P lacidus a ssaulted t he w alls i mmediately, a nd a fter a d rawn o ut s truggle, c aptured t he p lace b y n ightfall. T rue t o t he l ong-standing m ilitary maxi m o f e xploitation o f v ictory b y f ollowing i t u p w ith q uick, a ppropriate a ction t o a chieve t he g oal o f y our m ission - i n t his i nstance t he d es truction o f t he P erean i nsurgents, P lacidus t ook t he c alculated r isk a nd c ommenced a n ightly p ursuit. H e k new t hat h e was o perat ing i n h ostile c ountry, d ensely p opulated a nd n ot d evoid o f n atural o bstacles. Y et b y k eeping u p p ressure, h e i ncreased t he t error o f t he f ugitives a nd p ushed t he c onfused masses o f t he e nemy t o t he b anks o f t he f looded J ordan. T here, p ossibly w ith a pproaching d aylight, h e d eployed h is f orces o n a s b road a f ront a s p ossible, a nd while t he i nfantry g ave t he h orsemen s upport w ith b ow, j avelin a nd p ossibly a lso s ling, t he c avalry c harged a nd c harged a gain f rom d ifferent p oints, a nd d rove t he s urvivors i nto t he r iver. I n s ieges, a s t o b e e xpected, c avalry a re employed i nter a lia, f or s creening d uties s o a s t o c ut o ff a nd i solate t he b esieged p lace . T hus a t J otapata ( Bell. I ud. 11.7.3 ( 144)), a t G ischala ( Bell. I ud. I V .2.3 ( 102)), a t Mount G erizi m ( Bell. I ud . 1 11.7.32 ( 310)) a nd a t J erusalem ( Bell. I ud. V .11.1 ( 446)). A n u ncommon p henomenon w as t he f requent u se o f d ismounted c avalry a s f oot s oldiers. F or w hat h e h oped t o b e t he f inal a ssault u pon J otapata , V espasian " ordered t he b ravest o f h is c avalry t o d ism ount ( Too! L IL ) y evvaloTö r roui TWV I Tu riwv ä noßf iaai T wv i rnwv) a nd m arshalled t hem i n t hree d ivisions o pposite t he r uined p ortions o f t he walls, p rotected b y a rmour f rom h ead t o f oot a nd w ith l ances c ouched, t hey w ere t he f irst t o e nter t he t own t he m oment t he g angways were l aid" ( Bell. I ud. 1 11.7.24 ( 254)). I t i s q uite i mpossible t o e xecute a manoeuvre l ike t hat w ithout t horough t raining i n a dvance a nd a cquaintance o f t he t roops w ith i t. O therw ise i t w ould h ave m eant c ourting c ertain d isaster. B ut we d o h ave f urther mentions o f h orsemen f rom a lae - i .e. ikat i r r rEC ov s erving o n f oot i n t he f irst l ine. T herefore, we s hould n ot b e s urprised t o f ind o n t he 2 0th o f J uly, 7 0, t wo t roopers f rom t he s quadrons w ith t he g uards i n t he f ortress A ntonia o pposite t he T emple Mount, j oining i n t he l ocal s pont aneous i nitiative t o p enetrate i nto t he h oly p recinct. T ruly t he l ate f irst c entury c avalry w ere o f m ilitary m en .

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t he m ost v ersatile b ody

1 0. T raining a nd D iscipline L et u s n ow o bserve t he c auses o f t he R oman s uccess. J osephus ' v erdict o f c easeless t raining a nd i ron d iscipline f oreshadows V egetius: a rmorum e xercitio, d isciplina c astrorun u suque m ilit iae ( Epi t oma R ei M ilitares I .1; L ang p . 5 : 1 4). S ays J osephus: I am c iting o nly a f ew s entences f rom h is f ull e xcursus ..they n ever h ave a t ruce f rom t raining, n ever wait f or emergencies t o a rise — . t heir p eace m anoeuvres a re n o l ess s trenuous t han v eritable w arfare . E ach s oldier d aily t hrows a ll h is e nergy i nto h is d rill, a s t hough h e w ere i n a ction — . i t w ould n ot b e w rong t o d escribe t heir manoeuvres a s b loodless c ombats a nd t heir c ombats a s s anguinary m anoeuvres ( Bell. I ud. 11.5.1 ( 72-76)). T itus e choes t he s ame s enti ments w hen h e d eclares t hat " if a lone o f a ll n ations w e e xercise o urselves i n p eacetime i t i s w ith t his v ery o bject t hat i n w artime w e n eed n ot c ontrast o ur n umbers w ith t hose o f o ur o pponents" ( Bell. l ud . 11.10.2 ( 475)). A gain, d uring t he s iege o f J erusalem , h e d eclares t hat " Pw i laiouf .. K ai 5 16aKTöv c i dvn TO 7 TO X EL IC 1V " (Bel 1 . I ud . I V .(38)). B ut t he s ecret o f t he s uccess o wing t o t he t raining l ay n ot o nly i n p eaceti me e xercises b ut i n t wo f urther f acts: t he c onstant d rilling a lso i n war a nd t he a daptation o f t he t raining t o t he s pecial t asks a head . O n p reparing t he i nvestment o f J erusalem , V espasian w as t roubled b y " the s trength o f i ts d efences, b oth n atural a nd a rtificial . . a nd t he s pirit a nd d aring o f i ts d efenders . . — S o h e t rained h is s oldiers l ike a thletes b efore t he c ontest" ( Bell. l ud . I V .2 .1 ( 90)). T his o bservation s eems t o me o f major i mportance: i t meant a m eticulously c hosen r aining p rogramme a dapted f or t he p urpose o f c apturing J erusalem . " O ne o f t he g eneral a ims o f t he t raining w as t o f oster t he f eeling o f. s elf-reliance a nd s ecurity o f e ach f ighting man, a nd h is b elief i n v ictory - w hich w ere i mportant i ngredients i n b uilding h is morale, o ne o f t he m ost i mportant i ngredients i n t he a ctual a chievement o f v ictory . A nother o f t he c hief a i ms o f t he R oman m ilitary t raining was t o t each t he s oldier t he i mmediate a nd f aultless e xecution o f t he t actical manoeuvres o f t he i ndividual a nd t he u nit a nd t heir i mmediate c hange a ccording t o t he c hanging s ituation o n t he b attle f ield. J osephus e xplains a ll

t his

i n

t he

f ollowing p assage:

B y t heir m ilitary e xercises ( L IEÄgTalf T wv 6 T rXwv) t he R omans i nstil i n t heir s oldiers f ortitude n ot o nly o f b ody b ut a lso o f s oul . . . s o c ompact a re t heir r anks, s o a lert t heir m ovements i n w heeling t o r ight o r l eft,

2 99

s o q uick t heir e ars f or o rders, t heir e yes f or s ignals, t heir h ands t o a ct u pon t hem ( Bell. I ud. 11.5.7 ( 1021 05)). I t hink t hat t he R oman m ethod o f t actical e xercise i s a kin t o o ur b attle d rill a s t aught f or i nstance i n t he B ritish A rmy i n W orld W ar 1. V egetius s eems t o h ave c alled i t " armatura" ( Epitome R ei M ilitaris 1 .13; L ang, p p. 1 6-17), a nd h e s tates: " in omnibus T p r hi os elis d rill a rma e na tura ble sdm e t l he ios Rom p u ag n n s are q uas q u iam inc s et te in ro cs t" ive ( ily bi d .)t o a dopt n ecessary f ormation o r manoeuvre s udden t hreats a nd t he l ike .

t o o vercome d angers,

t he

r esistance,

O ne o f t hese manoeuvres w as t he t estudo, w ell-known t o a ll o f u s . T he t estudo was a dopted i n s uch d iverse s ituations a s t he a pproach t o t he f oot o f t he walls o f J erusalem ( Bell. l ud . 1.19.5 ( 537)) o r t he c harge t hrough t he b reach a t J otapata ( Bell. I ud. 11.7.27 ( 270)) a nd o nce more d uring t he a ssault u pon t he A ntonia. B ut t he b est e xample, where t he i mmediate a nd s mooth a daptation o f t his manoeuvre s aved t he d ay, w as a t G amala ( Bell I ud. I V .1.8 ( 54)). V espasian, h aving l ed t he c harge t hrough t he b reach o n t he l ast d ays o f O ct. 6 7, p enetrated a t t he h ead o f a s mall f orce s teeply u ptown t owards t he n arrow r idge t op, t hrough t he t erraced r ows o f h ouses . S uddenly h e f ound h i mself c ompletely c ut o ff f rom t he r est o f t he a ssault t roops a nd s avagely a ttacked f rom a ll a round . T o r etreat s afely h e a dopted - a s " by i nspiration", ( i xn rcp g yeouf y cvö lxvof : B ell. I ud. I V .1.5 ( 33)) a ccording t o J osephus - t he t estudo, " linked h is c omrades t ogether, w ith s hields e nveloping b oth b ody a nd a r mour . . . h e r etreated s tep b y s tep, n ot t urning h is b ack, u ntil h e was o utside t he walls" ( Bell. I ud . I V.1.5 ( 333 5)). T he b eauty o f t his m anoeuvre w as t hat i t w as n ot c onceived f or a s ituation l ike t his, b ut a ccording t o what J osephus c al l ed " ins piration", V espasian h ad t he i dea t o a pply i t t here a nd t hen, a nd t hus s aved t he s ituation. B ut h ad t he R oman s oldiers w ith h im n ot b een d rilled t o a ssume t his f ormation a utomatically a nd q uickly w ithout a h itch, n othing would h ave c ome o ut o f t hat i nspired b rain wave . M ere a cts o f v alour, i f c arried o ut i n e xcess o r c ontradiction t o o rders a nd r egulations, w ere n ot o nly f rowned u pon, b ut s everely p unished . J osephus s tated t hat " the m ilitary l aw p unished w ith d eath t he v ery s lightest b reach o f d iscipline . . " a mong R omans e ven a v ictory w ithout o rders g iven, i s h eld d ishonourable" ( Bell. I ud. V .3.4 ( 124-125)). C ommenting u pon t he J ewish b ravery a nd a udacity, f requently s eemi ng t o t he Romans t o b order o n i njudicious r ecklessness, V espasian v oices b efore G amala t he f ollowing s enti ments, which h e a nd T itus r epeated s everal t i mes i n s lightly d ifferent v ersions:

3 00

" Incautiousness i n w ar a nd i mpetuosity a re a lien t o u s R omans w ho o we a ll o ur s uccess t o s kill a nd d iscipline" ( Bell. I ud. I V .2.1 ( 85)). 1 1.

T he A chilles ' h eel

o f

t he R oman A rmy

" Skill a nd d iscipline" ( twpcipia r 6get) a re e xpressing v ery m uch t he s a me s enti ment a s t hat c ontained i n t he s tatement o f J ulius C aesar, t hat h e w as s aved f rom c omplete d efeat a nd won, d uring t he s urprise a ttack o f t he N ervii, b y t wo f actors, t he f irst b eing " scientia a tque u sus m il i tum" ( B . G all 1.20). T his p assage may b e t ranslated i n d ifferent ways, b ut I r ead i t a s " skill a nd t raining", o r m ore p robably a s, " skill a nd e xperience o f t he s oldiers" . T he i mportance o f e xperience i n a ctual f ighting c an h ardly b e o verestimated, e specially w hen b eing c onfronted w ith s urprise o r u northodox e nemy a ction. T he main d anger i nherent i n t roops t aught t o f ight r ather l ike a utomatons, a ccording t o f ixed d rill a nd c ommand, i s t heir l oss o f i nitiative, i mprovisation a nd s elf r eliance w hen c onfronted w ith t he u nexpected, t he u nknown, o r t he f oiling o f t heir p lanned a ction . I t i s v ery h ard t o k now w here e xactly t o d raw t he l ine, s o t hat d iscipline does n ot d eaden i nitiative. E xperience i n b attle, e specially u nder s easoned l eaders, h as o ften b een t he p ractical s olution t o p revent t his f rom h appening . I n t he n arrative o f t he B ellum I udaicum, J osephus was r ather s tressing t he emphasis o n d iscipline a nd t raining a s t he p anacea f or m ilitary s uccess. T his must b e e xplained b y h is p ersonal e xperience o f t he e xcess o f u ndisciplined i nitiative, c urrent i n t he r anks o f t he J ews w ho were mostly v ery much emotionally m otivated v olunteers. B ut J osephus was n ot o blivious t o t he d rawbacks o f i ron-fisted r outine a nd s chemat is at i on. W ith a ll h is p repossessions i n f avour o f t he R oman a r my, h e c ould n ot e scape t he f act t hat t he R omans, w hen s uddenly c onfronted w ith t he u nforeseen, w ere a pt t o l ese t heir w its a nd c onsequently t o p anic . O bserving o n t he s hameful R oman d efeat d uring t he f irst J ewish s ally f rom J erusalem , h e s tates: " . . .m en h abituated t o d iscip le a nd p roficient i n f ighting i n o rdered r anks a nd b y word o f c ommand, when s uddenly c onfronted w ith d isorderly warfare, a re p eculierly l iable t o b e t hrown i nto c onfusion" ( Bell. I ud. V .2.4 ( 79)).

1

F urthermore, s elf-esteem i s a pt t o b reed o ver e sti mation o f o neself, a nd i f t his e uphoria o f i nvincibility i s b eing p roven w rong, t he t roops c oncerned may f all i nto u tter d espair. T his h appened more t han o nce t o t he R omans d uring t he B el l um I udaicum . T hus a t J otapata t he R omans " stupefied b y t heir o ppon ents ' a udacity, d id l ittle t o s ave t he s iegeworks, h aving b een

3 01

s o s ure t hat v ictory w as a lready i n t heir g rasp" ( 111.7 .20 ( 228)) a nd a gain a t J erusalem: " The R omans w ith t heir e arthworks d em olished were i n d eep d ejection . . . a nd many d espaired o f c arrying t he t own b y o rdinary a ppliances" ( Bell. l ud. V .11.6 ( 490)), o r when o ne o f t he s iege t owers s uddenly c ollapsed " . .. t he s oldiers b ehaved l ike men b eset b y p anic f right" ( Bell. I ud. V .1.6 ( 29)). I t t ook g enerals o f t he c alibre o f V espasian a nd T itus t o o verc ome t hese d rawbacks. A l esser l eader, C estius G allus, w as r outed b y t he s ame e nemy o nly o ne y ear b efore, when u nforeseen a nd u northodox c onditions a rose . I I. L et m e c onclude g eneralship.

t his

V espasian 's

p aper

w ith

S trategy

s ome o bservations

o n V espasian 's

S ince t he d ays o f F abius, Roman g enerals h ad, a t t imes, c hosen t he s trategy o f a ttrition o ver t hat o f a nnihilation. Besides o ther c onsiderations, t hey k new t hat t he l atter was o ften m ore e asily a chieved i f f ollowing t he f ormer, p rovided t i me was o n t heir s ide. V espasian t oo, c hose a ttrition. H e v igorously w ithstood t he p leas a nd p ressure o f h is s ub-commanders a nd s taff t o t ry a nd b ring t he war t o a q uick e nd a fter t he Galilee c ampaign b y a h ead-on a ssault o n J erusalem . Y et, e ven i f h e h ad b een o therwise i ndifferent t o t he d angers o f f ighting i n t he J udean mountains, t he s hameful d efeat o f C estius G allus m ust h ave made h im v ery m uch a ware o f t his f act. N or w as h e l acking i n i ntelligence a bout t he f act t hat t he m ajority o f t he J ewish f orces h ad c oncentrated u pon J erusalem, i mpatient f or t rying t heir a rms o nce more w ith t he R omans i n t he m ountains . H e k new , h owever, t oo, a bout t he i nternal s edition a nd s trife o f t he n on-unified, a nd o ften i nter-opposed, J ewish f orces o f r esista nce. H e t herefore a ppreciated t hat t i me w as o n h is s ide. T he J ews w ould c ontinue t o w eaken e ach o ther a nd u se u p t heir, b y n ecessi ty, l i mited r esources, s ince, b y r educing G alilee a nd Gaulani tis, a s well a s t he s ea s hore a nd P erea, h e h ad s hut t hem o ff f rom o utside h elp . E very r esponsible R oman c ommander k new t he d ifficulties e ncount ered b y t he i mperial a uthorities i n f inding s ufficient s uitable m anpower t o f ill t he r anks o f i ts a rmed f orces. N either i mperial o utcries s uch a s " redde l egiones" n or t he a ctual s uccess o f a d ilectus i n p roducing s ufficient n ew r ecruits, c ould s h9gten t he l engthy p eriod o f t raining n eeded t o t rain r eplacements. ' M any n eed p ata

i ncidents r ecorded p rove V espasian's c onciousness o f t he t o h usband h is f orces a nd e specially h is l egionaries. J otai s o nce more a g ood e xample: " . ..Vespasian o rdering h is

3 02

.

t roops t o c ease f ighting . . . c ounted o n o btaining a f ar e asier v ictory i f ...h e r enewed h is a ttack u pon a n e xhausted e nemy" ( Bell. l ud. 11.7.11 ( 178-180)). L ater " he o rdered h is l egiona ries t o s hun t hese a ttacks a nd n ot t o b e d rawn i nto a n e ngagement w ith men who were b ent u pon d eath . . . " ( ibid. 7 .11(208)). T he a doption o f t hese m easures, n ot o ut o f h esitation o r n arrown ess o f v ision b ut a s a w ell-defined s trategy, i mplies a n a bovea verage c ommander, b ecause h e i s d eliberately t aking u pon h imself a lso t he p sychological a nd p hysical s train e ntailed i n t he l engthening o f t he war. T he l onger t he war, t he g reater t he s train a nd f rictions f or a ll c oncerned . ". . d ie S chwierigkeiten h äufen s ich u nd b ringen e ine F riktion h ervor, d ie s ich n iemand r ichtig v orstellt d er d en K rieg n icht g esehen h at" ( von C lausew itz 1 911: 6 0). V espasian

t ook

t he

r isks

i nvolved a nd

s ucceeded .

T his p aper, h owever, d oes n ot a ttempt t o s tamp V espasian o r T itus a s o utstandingly g reat c aptains o f w ar b ecause o f t heir p erforma nce d uring t he B ellum J udaicum . T his w as a fter a ll a c ontest b etween s uperbly t rained, w ell-led, s easoned t roops, a gainst a t b est r oughly t rained a nd p oorly e quipped men, who l acked u nified c ommand a nd a n o verall well d efined s trategy o f war, while p art o f t heir h ereditary l eaders hip a nd c ountrymen e ither k ept p assive o r e ven c ollaborated w ith t he R omans. Yet t he c ombination o f s tubborn d efence, f requent d isregard o f p ersonal s afety a nd i mpetuous v alour, w ith t he d ifficulties o ffered b y t he t heatre o f war, p osed i n t hemselves a s evere c hallenge t o t he R oman c ommander a nd h is a r my. T herefore t he g enerally s uccessful c onduct o f t his w ar a nd t he f inal t riumph o f t he R oman a rms p rove t he g eneral s oundness o f t heir c onduct, t he a ptness o f t he a r my a nd t he c ompetent l eadership o f i ts • c ommanders.

A ddendum - E xcursus o n t he March o f V espasian i nto G alilee F ollow ing i s a s chematic r epresentation o f V espasian 's m arch i nto Galilee a ccording t o J osephus ( Bell. I ud. 11.6.1 ( 115-126)). T he a lternative d ivision i n e ither t hree o r f our c olumns i s i ndic ated . T he r elative s ize o f e ach f ormation, u nit o r g roup i s n ot g iven a ccording t o t heir c orrect e xtent. T he s ize o f e ach c olumn may b e g auged f rom i ts l ength s upplied i n metres o n t he r ight h and s ide o f t his d iagram ( cf. T ables 1 4.1, 1 4.2). One m ajor p roblem i s t he a bsence o f m ention o f t he f orces o f t he a llied k ings, t hat were i ncluded i n t he a dvance g uard o f T itus ( Bell. l ud. V .2.1 ( 47)). Ih ave a dopted t he s ame a rrangement f or V espasian's o rder o f m arch, t hough p art o f t hem may f easibly h ave b een a llocated t o t he r earguard o r d etached f or g arrison d uties a nd t he l ike i n t he r ear. I n t he t er minology u sed b y J osephus

3 03

T able

1 4 .1

V espasian 's

March

I I

a uxiliary c avalry

X X T T

l ight

a rmed

i nto G alilee

i nfantry

A

a rchers

I X X . . .

* *. m ( . 7 e u c m > m
2 , I ;po t ( i var cao -64 z . ) 7 € a in c fw 7 poo ,3aX e i v i c u c c 7n 49 ( ip9a-a y . o r n -o ) O eös o A vo (4 , evo s • T i p T r öX tv T O I ‘ J S C r TpaT t ö jTaS 8 1 . 1 1 1 7 70g 1 )Ta i l , i s i a eXe c iv i t ä ' r ob . Y . , Eo tn jpov ( i v e i c t iX e c re , r a t T i n ) > . Z EOUr ip0 1 ) c a . ) ß ouX : r iO gr ra a ür ip / 1 E 74 T ObTO X as E i l l T C 7 1 1 ) a TpaT tor r i i )v i c o 3Xv c r e i i . o b ro )9 y ob ' ) ö> covc jpoc 7 T T OÜTO LV &T N -O ff l i er ) C UT E T t VÖ S ' a/ 1 . x* a i r rOv 1 i n roo -xoµ gyou a i r r c i i My r y e a i r ri ) U i c ry 2 v evTaKoo-i o vv K a i r evT r j i covTa / . 1 , 6vous E üp c ora i c ov 0 TpaT I , C OT C4 , AV E ! ) T OD ( 1 , XX C OU I C I V3 1 . 1VOU T ; 1V 7 6X tv g ( f in 7 ( iv rwv ( l i covör r c ov "i c a l ' 7 T C ;06 1 ) T O C TOUTO IS o Tpa T t o ' Y ra g x ( a;" r pös ' 1 4 ) 1 ) t i ve i , i 9 e tav T ( 7 ) l ) o Tpa T t o . Y r i Z n i T ObTO € 170 ; 1 1 . — Xi p l i . 3 09 , 1 7 -311 , 5 R . S t .

e a t p i ; c r e t v ,

3 97

B ut t he E uropeans, w ho a lone o f h is a rmy h ad t he a bilit y t o d o a nything, were s o a ngry t hat n ot o ne o f t hem w ould a ny l onger o bey h im , a nd t he o thers, S yrians, w ho w ere c ompelled t o make t he a ssault i n t heir p lace, w ere m iserably d estroyed . T hus H eaven, t hat s aved t he c ity, f irst c aused S everus t o r ecall t he s oldiers when t hey c ould h ave e ntered t he p lace, a nd i n t urn c aused t he s oldiers t o h inder h im f rom c apturing i t w hen h e l ater w ished t o d o s o. S everus, i n f act, f ound h i mself s o e mbarrassed b y t he s ituation t hat, when o ne o f h is a ssociates p romised, i f h e would g ive h im o nly f ive h undred a nd f ifty o f t he E uropean s oldiers, t o d estroy t he c ity w ithout a ny r isk t o t he o ther t roops, h e s aid: " And w here am I t o g et s o m any s oldiers?" referring t o t he s oldiers' d isobedience. ( trans. t aken f rom t he L CL e dition). I n e ssence, P rofessor S peidel's p roposal i s t hat ' Europaean ' i s t o b e u nderstood n ot a s t raditionally t ranslated, ' from E urope ', b ut a s ' from ( Dura) E uropos', t he f ortress c ity o n t he M iddle E uphrates . A s e vidence, h e c ites t he G reek o f t he p assage, c ontending t hat t he t ranslation ' the o thers, S yrians ' - i n c ont rast t o t he E uropaeans e arlier i n t he s entence - i s n ot t he n atural o ne, a nd t hat i t s hould b e r endered a s ' the o ther S yrians ' t o c ontrast i t w ith, r ather, t he S yrians f rom ( Dura) E uropos . I n s upport, h e n otes t he e pigraphic e vidence t hat t he c itizens o f D ura E uropos c alled t hemselves ' Europaeans ' a nd, r ee xam ining a mutilated t ext o f, p robably, G eta f rom t he D ura P raetorium , p roposes t o r estore i t t o s how e ven t he g arrison o f D ura d escribing t hemselves a s ' Europaeans'. H e c an, moreover, c ite o ther c lear e xamples o f g arrisons n aming t hemselves, o r b eing k nown, b y t heir p lace o f g arrison - D io, f or e xample, c alls t he l egionnaries o f I P arthica a t A lbanum , A lbanioi ( LXXIX . 1 3 . 4 ; 3 4. 2 ; LXXX . 2 . 3 ; 4 . 3 ). A round t hese p oints h e g oes o n t o a rgue t hat t he g arrison o f D ura E uropos were r egarded a s t he c rack s oldiers o f t he S yrian a rmy, a cclimatised t o t he c onditions a nd t errain a nd f amiliar w ith t heir o pponents a round H atra .I I n s hort t hese w ere t he ' Europaeans', w ith o nly 5 50 o f whom t he e mperor's l ieutenant t hought h e c ould s eize t he c ity . O n t he s pecific q uestion o f t he i dentity o f t he ' Europaeans ' a t H atra a nd t he i nterpretation o f D io, I am d oubtful o f t he v alidi ty o f P rofessor S peidel's a rguments. F irst, t hat t he s oldiers a t D ura, l ike t he c itizens o f t he c ity, m ight b e r eferred t o c ollectively a s ' Europaeans' - whether o r n ot o ne i s whokly c onvinced b y t he r estorations t o a n e xtensively m utilated t ext i s n ot i mplausible .3 O ne s hould p ause, h owever, t o n ote t hat o n t he o ther o ccasions o n which D io r efers t o a l egion, h e i dentif ies t hem b y t heir n umber, a nd s ometi mes, n ame, n ot b y t heir p lace o f g arrison a lone ( e.g. LXXX . 7 . 1 -3). T he p ossible e xcept ions a re h is n aming o f T rajan 's t wo n ew l egions, I T raiana a nd XXX U lpia, a s I A egyptia a nd XXX G ermenica ( LV . 2 4. 4 ). B oth a re, h owever, b eing i dentified b y t heir n umber a nd p rovince o f g arrison . T hat h e c alls t he I P arthica t he ' Alban l egion ' o r s ome s uch, a nd d oes t his w ithout n ame o r n umber f or t hat l egion

3 98

F ig.

2 2.1

H atra a nd

t he

v icinity

3 99

i n

t he

S everan

p eriod.

a lone, c an b e e asily e xplained: i t w as t he o ne l egion w ith w hose a ctivities a nd p ersonnel t he R oman a ristocracy w ould h ave c ontinu ous k nowledge a nd d ealings . F or A lbanum , o nly 1 3 m iles f rom t he c apital, a c ity w ith c lose a nd a ncient l inks t o R ome, i t w as e asy a nd n atural t o d escribe t he s oldiers t here a s ' A lban '. S ince D io m akes s uch a d esignation f or n o o ther l egion o r u nit, i t makes i t u nlikely t hat h e would h ave e ver c onsidered i dentifying t he p robably m ixed g arrison o f D ura a s ' Europaeans '. Moreover, t his t erm , i f u nexplain 0 i n t he o riginal t ext o f D io , w ould h ave b een h ighly m isleading .' S peidel's p roposed t ranslation o f t he k ey p assage i n D io i s p roblematic . A t b est, t he t ext c ould, i ndeed, r ead ' (the) o ther S yrians ' b ut t he t ranslation a dopted w ould d epend o n o nes u nders tanding o f ' Europaeans'. 5 I t i s a rguable, h owever, t hat t he t ext s hould r ather b e t ranslated a s ' (the) o thers, S yrians i nd eed'. 6 I n s hort, t his c annot b e t aken a s a n i ndependent p iece o f e vidence i n s upport o f S peidel's m ain a rgument. M ore g enera lly, e ven w ithout t he i mplications o f t he e vidence o f D io ( LXXVI. 1 2. 3 ; c f LXXII. 2 5. 1 ). F ronto ( Preamble 1 0, 1 2 a nd 1 3; E p . 1 9) a nd T acitus ( Ann . X III, 3 5) c oncerning t he r elative e ffectiveness o f t he S yrian a r my, o ne i s n ot s urprised b y t he r emarks o f D io i n t his c ontext. D uring t he p receding f ive y ears, t he S yrian a rmy, e nthusiastic i n s upport o f N iger, h ad b een f irst d riven b ack a t P erinthus, d efeated a t C yzicus a nd N icaea, f orced t o r etreat a cross A sia M inor, p ushed o ut o f t he T auric p asses a nd t hen c rushed a t I ssus w ith t he l oss, s ays D io, o f 2 0,000 men ( Cass. D io LXXV . 8 . 1 ; B irley 1 971: c h.XII). I t may t hen - o r l ater, a fter L ugdunum - h ave b een p urged o f o pponents o f S everus; i t was c ertainly s plit b y t he d ivision o f S yria a nd p robably a t l east p artly r e-deployed b y t he r eorganisation o f t he e astern f rontier ( Kennedy 1 986). W hatever s uccess i t h ad p articipated i n u nder S everus' l eadership a fter 1 94, i t would h ave b een e xtrao rdinary i f i t h ad n ot r emained s omewhat d emoral i sed, p erhaps d efeatist. F inally, a s n oted a bove, t here i s t he q uestion o f t he 5 50 E urop aeans . T he f igure, n ot a c onventional r ound n umber, i s, p res umably, t he n ominal s trength o f a c ohort. I t d oes n ot a ccord, h owever, w ith t he f igures we h ave ( Welles ( Fink) 1 959: 3 0ff) f or t he s trength o f t he c ohors XX P al myrenorum . O n t he o ther h and, i t i s t he s trength mentioned b y V egetius (pitoma r ei m ilitaris I. 6 ( 355)) a s t hat o f t he c ohort o f t he a ntiqua l egio. E ric B irley s uggested s ome y ears a go t hat t he c hange i n c ohort s ize m ay h ave b een t he work o f Marcus A urelius, i nitially o nly w ith h is n ew l egions I I a nd II I talica, b ut l ater e xtended t o e lsew here o n t he D anube ( Birley 1 969: 6 8 0. A lthough c ertainly n ot a p oint t o b e p ressed, t his s uggestion o f B irley 's would i ndicate t hat we a re most l ikely d ealing w ith a l egionary r ather t han a uxiliary c ohort. ( b) N ext, we must t urn t o a c onsideration o f t he k nown a nd l ikely e vents a t H atra a nd t he f orces i nvolved. A ccording t o D io, who g ives u s t he f ullest a ccount, t he e vents i n q uestion o ccurred i n t he c ourse o f S everus' s econd a ttempt o n t he c ity,

4 00

m otivated b y h is f rustration a t h aving b een b aulked t here a lone a fter t he s pectacular m ilitary s uccesses o f r ecent y ears . C learly p restige w as i nvolved a part f rom t he p ossible s trategic c onsidera tions; a nd o ne would p resume c are w as t aken t o s elect a nd m uster a f orce f or t he r enewed i nvestment. A s i nterpreted b y S peidel t hese f orces would h ave b een q uite modest i n s ize a nd l argely, p erhaps e ntirely, S yrian. A t i ts p eak, h owever, i n t he e arly t hird c entury, w ith t he c ohors XX P al myrenorum ( mil 1i ar i a) a nd t wo o r t hree l egionary v exillations t he g arrison o f , D ura p robably d id n ot e xceed 3 000 ( Welles ( Gilliam) 1 959: 2 4f 0'. E ven i f a ll o f t hese were p resent a t H atra, t he r est o f t he f orce t here c annot h ave b een s o v ery much l arger i f t hey c ould n ot a chieve w hat t he f ormer a lone c ould, o r e ven w hat t he i nvolvement o f t he f ormer made p ossible. I s t here i n f act a ny j ustification f or b elieving i n a r elatively s mall f orce a nd, a re t here g rounds f or b elieving t hat w estern t roops w ere n ot p resent - f or t hat i s t he i nescapable i mplication i f t he o nly f orces a vailable t o S everus w ere S yrians, w hether f rom D ura o r e lsewhere? I n p ractice, t he l ocation o f H atra, t he p roblems o f f orage, s upplies a nd water would work a gainst t he u se o f a s ubstantial a rmy . ( Cass. D io LXVIII. 3 1; c f Amm . Marc. XXV . 8 . 5 -7). P erh aps t herefore n ot a ll o f t he f orces r eturning f rom C tesiphon w ere employed e ven d uring t he f irst a ssault which i s p resented a s h aving o ccurred a s S everus r eturned f rom B abylonia . O n t he o ther h and, t his was t he emperor's s econd a ttempt a nd h is p restige s tood t o s uffer; m oreover, h is own e xperience a nd t hat o f T rajan b efore h im s howed t he n eed n ot t o u nderestimate t heir A rab o ppon ents ( Cass. D io LXVIII. 3 1. 1 -4); f inally, t here were s ome 4 m iles o f ad ouble c ity wall t o b e i nvested ( Bradford 1 957: 7 1-5; S tein 1 941: 2 99-316; D rijveor s 1 977: 8 04f; G regory a nd K ennedy 1 985 : 5 7 e t s eq a nd 3 96-9) ° . D io i n f act s peaks o f s upplies c ollected a nd t he u se o f many s iege e ngines ( LXXVI. 1 1.1). I n s hort, o ne would e xpect e ven w ithout t he e ntire a r my a nd a fter s ending away s ome e ncumbering b aggage a nd t hose u nits p erhaps u nsuited t o u se i n a s iege, t hat a l argg, c arefully c hosen a nd p repared f orce would h ave b een employed . S upplies n eed n ot h ave b een a p roblem i f a s hort s ieg w as a nticipated a nd g iven t hat i t m ay s till h ave b een w inter, " n or n eed water s hortage h ave l im ited t he s cale o f t he u ndertaking u nduly. T he s iege w q . r aised a fter o nly t wenty d ays a nd h aving a l most s ucceeded " d espite a v igorous r esistance a nd s etbacks. I n o ther words, i n a nticipation o f a w ell p repared t hen r apid s uccess, S everus c ould h ave m anaged t he l ogistical p roblems o f a f orce w hose v ery s ize w ould e nable h im t o make a q uick a ll-out a ssault. W hat o f t he ' Europaeans' who, s ays D io, were a lone c apable o f t aking t he c ity? C li matic c onditions n eed n ot a rgue a gainst t he p rom inent i nvolvement o f western s oldiers. A s we h ave s een t he s iege t ook p lace i n w inter w hile t he a rmy a s a w hole h ad b een o n c ampaign l ong e nough t o h ave b ecome a ccli matised f or b etter o r w orse ( SHA S ev. XVI. 1 ) whatever t heir o rigin. A lthough n ot s pecifically a ttested, i t i s p robable t hat t he g arrison o f t he i mportant f rontier f ortress o f D ura was p resent. T hey may a lso h ave b een r ather more h ardened t o g eneral c onditions a nd t o

4 01

w arfare t han t he b ulk o f t he S yrian a rmy, t hough a fter t he r ecent w ars t hat i s d ebatable . T hey w ere g eographically c lose t o H atra b ut a ctual r outes b etween t he t wo w ere a nything b ut d irect g iven t he e xtensive s alt marshes w hich i ntervened ( Gregory a nd K ennedy 1 985 : 5 1ff). I n s hort, i t i s n ot e asy t o s ee w hy t hat r elatively m odest f orce s hould b e r egarded a s p eculiarly a ble t o p erfor m a t ask b eyond a nyone e lse a nd b e i dentified a s D io 's e lite ' Europ aeans ' a t H atra. O n t he o ther h and, i t i s n ot d ifficult t o s ee w hy t roops f rom t he West m ight b e meant. B oth e vidence a nd p robability p oint t o c areful p reparations. We a re e xplicitly t old i n f act t hat amongst h is s iege e ngines w ere t hose d esigned b y t hat s ame P riscus whose machines u sed b y t he B yzantines h ad c aused s uch h avoc amongst S everus ' b esieging a rmy i n 1 93-5 ( Cass. D io . LXXV . 1 1; LXXVI. 1 1). A longside t his s pecific e xpertise o ne w ould h ave e xpected S everus t o e mploy t hose u nits b est s uited t o t he t ask i n h and a nd i n p articular t hose w ith a ctual e xperience - " those who a lone o f h is a rmy h ad t he a bility t o d o a nything." T he e xpeditionary a rmy i n L ower M esopotamia i n t he p revious y ear h ad o f c ourse g ained s ome e xperience: B abylon a nd S eleucia h ad b een u ndefended b ut C tesiphon h ad r esisted ( Cass. D io LXXVI. 9 . 3 -4 . S HA S ev. XVI. 1 -3). About t he c apture o f C tesiphon we c an s ay n o more o ther t han t o c ite s ome n egative e vidence: i f c orrectly i dentified, t he R oman a ssault o n C tesiphon d epicted o n P anel II o f t he A rch o f S everus i n R ome, s hows n one o f t he s iege e ngines which a ppear i n P anels I I a nd I V ( see f urther b elow) ( Rubin 1 975: 4 25-31; c f B rilliant 1 967: p is 6 6-95) . M oreover, b y f ar t he most i mportant s iege i n l iving memory w as t hat o f B yzant ium u ndertaken b y t he Moesian a rmies u nder Marius M aximus a nd l asting o ver t wo y ears ( 193-5) ( Cass. D io LXXV . 1 0-14; I LS 2 935). I f t hese s oldiers w ere p resent i n S yria t hen t here, i f a nywhere, w ere t he men w ith t he e xperience ( et n .5). I I. T he

I dentity o f

t he Roman T roops a t H atra

W hat e vidence i s t here f or a Moesian c ontingent i n t he S econd P arthian War; i ndeed f or w estern d etachments i n g eneral? A ccomp anying t he emperor we would e xpect t o f ind t he g reater p art o f t he P raetorian G uard, t he e quites s ingulares, a nd n ow o f c ourse, I P arthica f rom A lbanum ( Cass. D io L XXXVIII. 3 4 .4-5 ; 3 7 .3). D io h imself mentions a p raetorian t ribune a t H atra ( LXXVI. 1 0. 2 ) a nd a d edication a t R ome f rom c 200 " for t he s afety a nd r eturn" o f t he i mperial f amily a nd t he p raetorian c ohorts c onfir ms t he G uard's . p resence. ( CIL V I 7 38 Murphy 1 945: 2 3). L ikewise a nother d edication o f 2 00 c oncerns t he e quites s ingulares: p ro r editus ( sic) e orum a b e xpeditione P arthica. ( CIL V I 2 25; c f S peidel 1 965 : 9] . A nother t ext r ecords v exillations o f t he f our G erman l egions u nder t he l egate C laudius G allus w ho w as d ecorated i n t he " Most F ortunate S econd P arthian E xpedition." ( AE 1 957: 1 23). T hen we h ave t he c areer o f C . J ulius Corinthianus, d ecor ated b y " the Most S acred Emperors" while i n c harge o f D acian v exillations i n a P arthi K . war, which may b e t his o ne ( CIL I II: 193 = Murphy 1 945: 2 2) 1' . F or P annonia a nd p ossibly o f t his p eriod we h ave a n e ques o f X IV G emina k illed i n a P arthian war ( ILS 2 307 = Murphy 1 945: 7 2-rand t he t ombstone o f a s oldier o f I A diutr i x, b uried a t Z eugma o n t he E uphrates ( Wagner 1 976:

4 02

1 32 0. F inally, f rom A frica c ame a d etachment o f II A ugusta ( AE 1 895: 2 04 = Murphy 1 945: 2 3). We h ave n o s pecific e vidence f or t roops f rom e ither Moesias b ut i t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat w ith v exillations f rom a s d istant a s G er many a nd A frica, a nd p ossible d etachments f rom P annonia a nd D acia, t hat t he Moesias, t he 0 ,osest p rovinces o f a ll, d id n ot c ontribute. T hey u sually d id. " A fter t he s iege o f B yzantium Märius Maximus c ommanded t he s ame Moesian a rmy a t L ugdunum . H e w as a ppointed t o g overn G allia B elgica s oon a fter ( ILS 2 935; c f B irley 1 971: 3 08 e t s eq .), b ut i t i s e ntirely p lausible t hat h is a r my g roup was k ept t ogether u nder o ther l eadership a nd p articipated i n t he S econd P arthian War. P rofessor S peidel r aised o ne f urther p oint i n f avour o f r ejecting t he more o bvious i nterpretation o f ' Europaean ', n amely t hat while f ourth c entury w riters c ertainly s peak o f E uropean s oldiers a nd a r mies, t he p ractices o f D io 's t i me would h ave l ed h im t o s peak n ot o f ' European ' a pd ' Oriental' b ut o f ' German ', ' Pannonian', ' Illyrian ' a nd s o o n .1 4 We c annot, h owever, b e s ure t hat w e a re n ot h ere d ealing w ith X iphilinus ' s i mplification o f w hatever t erm (s) D io a ctually w rote . B esides, r ather t han s peak o f e ven t he ' Ger mans a nd I llyrians' would n ot D io h ave f ound ' Europaean ' a u seful s horthand? a nd i t h e was t hinking o f t he M oesians i n p articular, i t would h ave b een e specially a ppropriate t o c ontemporary p erceptions w hich s aw ' Europe ' a s b eing t hat a rea o f l and o ne s ees l ooking w estwards f rom t he B osphorus ( a p oint i n f act made b y P rofessor S peidel) . T o s ummarise. L ogically o ne would e xpect S everus t o h ave h ad w ith h im a t H atra a s ubstantial f orce w ith which r apidly t o i nvest a nd s eize , a major c ity, w ell-fortified a nd w ith v igorous d efenders. E ven w ithout t he p robable l ow morale o f h is S yrian t roops o ne would e xpect h im t o h ave made c onsiderable u se o f t roops f rom t he West, v ictors i n a r ecent s uccession o f g reat b attles a nd, more i mportantly, i ncluding t he Mbesian t roops w ho h ad c onducted t he c elebrated t wo y ear s iege o f B yzantium . A nd t hat s urely i s what D io-Xiphilinus t ells u s: t he E uropaean s oldiers, d isgruntled - p resumably b y w hat t hey may h ave s een a s a p ointless s iege k eeping t hem f rom t heir h omes a nd f rom e njoying t he f ruits o f a l most 6 y ears o f war - a nd n ow e nraged b y t he e xecutions o f t he p raetorian t ribune J ulius C rispus a nd o f t he c harismatic a nd p opular g eneral L aetus, f inally mutinied when S everus f ailed t o e xploit t he b reach t hey h ad made i n t he o uter w all. D enied t heir i nvolvement, S everus was o bliged t o u se S yrian i s oldiers w ho l acked b oth t he n ecessary e xpertise a nd t he e lan. I II.

T he

' Failure'

a t H atra a nd

i ts O utcome

I n a n o ther wise a stonishingly s uccessful m ilitary c areer, S everus ' t wo s ieges o f H atra a ppear a s f ailures. T hat i s h ow D io p resents t hem a nd h ow t hey a re u sually r egarded t oday ( Magie 1 955: 6 74f; S tark 1 966: 2 56; B irley 1 971: 2 04f; G raham 1 973: 2 75,, A ngelli B ertinelli 1 976: 3 4f; [ cf C ampbel l *]). I ndeed, B rilliant h as a rgued t hat S everus d eliberately e xcluded t hem f rom h is P arthian War p ropaganda a nd f inds n o p lace f or t he H atran c ampaigns i n t he r elief p anels o f S everus' A rch. ( 1967: c h X III).

4 03

B ut w as i t a f ailure? R ubin h as r ecently a rgued t hat i t w as n ot a nd makes a g ood c ase a gainst i dentifying t he C tesiphon c ampaign i n P anel I V, p referring t o s ee t hat a s H at r a a nd p utting C tesiphon i n P anel I II ( 1975: 4 25-31). H e g oes o n t o make a v aluable p oint i n p roposing t o s ee S epti mius S everus - r ather t han S everus A lexander - a s t he emperor u nder w hom R ome a rrived a t a c loser u nderstanding w ith H atra, e ven i f aR oman g arrison d id n ot a rrive u ntil r ather l ater. I f o ne l ooks a t D io 's a ccount o f S everus ' B ritish c ampaign a f ew y ears l ater o ne g ets a s imilar i mpression o f s pirited r esistance a nd c onsiderable R oman l osses ( LXX .13). While S everus m ight w ell h ave h ad v ery d ifferent p lans f or B ritain t o t hose i mplemented b y C äracalla a nd Geta, t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he o utcome o f t heir c ampaigns w as s tability a nd p e e o n t he n orthern B ritish f rontier f or s ome t hree g enerations. " B ritain a nd H atra, l ike m ost o f S everus' c ampaigns a nd b attles, g ive t he i mpression o f ' hard-pounding ' victory w as b loody b ut o verwhelming, w hile e ven t he a ttrition o f t he B ritish a nd H atran f ighting a pparently p aid d ividends. S everus t ook v ictory t itles f or h is B ritish war, t here i s n o g ood r eason why h e s hould h ave w ished t o p ass o ver t he s pirited e ndeavours o f h is a rmies b efore a s ingularly d iffic ult c ity t o b esiege, " t he more s o i f e ven ' failure ' p roduced a v aluable d iplomatic s ett l ement. 17 A fter a ll, h ow l ikely was H atran c ommerce t o p rosper i n t he f ace o f h ostile a nd m ajor R oman f orces a long t he J ebel S injar o nly 7 0 m iles away? M ajor g arris ons were l ocated t here, i ncluding t he l egion I P arthica ( Speidel a nd R eynolds 1 985) a t S ingara. We n ow h ave t he g rowing b ody o f e vidence i n s upport o f Roman g arrisons d ownstream o f D ura f ar b eyond what we h ave o nce b elieved. T he e xcavator o f K ifrin ( [Invernizzi*]; c f. K ennedy 1 986a), d ownstream o f A natha ( Kennedy 1 986b), r egards t hat a s t he work o f S epti mius S everus, i n p art h is e vidence r esting o n h is p lausible i dentification o f t he s ite w ith t he B eccufrayn o f t he D ura p apyri. B eccufrayn a ppears t here a s e arly a s 2 19 ( P .Dura 1 00). I n t he a fter math o f a t raumatic a nd n early s uccessful s iege o f t heir c ity, t he i nhabitants, w hose p rosperity r ested o n c ommerce, w ould h ave b een w ise t o a ccommod ate t hemselves t o t he r ealities o f R oman p ower w hich n ow c losel y e ncircled t hem . S uch a n a ccommodation w ould h ave g one f ar t o a llow S everus t o p resent h is m i l itary f ailure a t H atra a s a d iplomatic s uccess. N otes I am g rateful t o P rof. A .R . B irley, P rof. E . B irley, M r D .B . C ampbell, Mr P .W .M . F reeman, M r M . H assall, D r H .I. MacAdam, D r M . Roxan a nd P rof. Z . R ubin f or c ommenting o n e arlier d rafts o f t his p aper. N one a re r esponsible f or, n or n ecessarily a gree, w ith w hat i s h ere p resented . 1 . I n a n e arlier work ( Speidel 1 978: 8 f) h ad a lready d iscussed t he e vidence f rom t he D ura p apyri w hich a ppears t o s how t hat, f or a t i me a t l east i n t he e arly t hird c entury, t he e quiteS s ingu lares o f t he g overnor o f S yria C oele were r egistered o n t he s trength o f t he c ohors XX P alymyrenorum . S ince t he u nit was

4 04

l ocated s uggest

f ar t hat

2 . A ll u rcga[

f rom t he s eat o f t he g overnor, i t would i t was r egarded a s s pecial i n s ome w ay . t hat s urvives i s: [ 1 / d evoti n um[inil maiestatique

1 / / e ius.

An[ -

s eem

t o

1 /

3 . O ne m ight n ote, h owever, t hat i n t he r elevant p apyri a nd p archments d own t o 1 80 ( P . D ura 1 5, 1 7, 1 8, 1 9, 2 4 a nd 2 5) t he i nhabitants a re E uropaioi; f rom s oon a fter 2 00 t he e thnic h as b ecome D urenos o r D urene ( P . D ura 2 7, 2 9, 3 2 a nd 3 8). I n t he s ame way, i n a ll b ut o ne a ttestation, t he n ame o f t he c ity, h itherto E uropos, i n t he t hird c entury b ecomes D ura. I n t he p ublication o f t he p apyri n o a cceptable e xplanation c ould b e f ound f or t he c hange i n s tyle. T he s uggestion t hat i t may h ave b een a d eliberate move b y t he R oman a uthorities t o c ut t he c ity o ff f rom i ts G reco-Macedonian p ast, i s a t v ariance w ith t he a pparent c onferment o n t he c ity o f municipal s tatus a nd a b oule ( Welles 1 959: 5 , 7 ). I ndeed, o ne o f t he e ditors, Welles ( 1959: 7 ), n otes t hat ' in 1 80 we f ind a c onsiderable r evival o f G recoM acedonian i nstitutions'. 4 . I f D io d id e ver i ntend t he t erm t o m ean ' of ( Dura-) E uropos ', i t w ould s eem t hat X iphilinus w as amongst t he f irst t o m isinterp ret i t a s ' of E urope '. 5 . I am g rateful t o D rs. J .H . Molyneaux, J . R oy a nd R .I. W inton f or t heir v ery h elpful d iscussion o f t he t ext o f D io, D r. M olyneaux o bserved t hat o ne m ight t ake t he e arlier p art o f t he s entence t o mean n ot j ust ' The E uropaeans. — ', b ut e ven ' Those o f t he E uropaeans. — '. I t i s n ot a n a rgument t o b e p ressed b ut i t w ould a ccord w ith t he s uggestion b elow t hat i t w as a p articular s ection - t he Moesians - amongst t he E uropaean t roops who were e specially s killed i n s iege warfare . 6 . I am g lad t o b e a ble t o a ttribute t his p oint t o P rof. Z . R ubin w ith whom I was a ble t o d iscuss a d raft o f t his p aper i n t he c ourse o f t he C olloquium . 7 .

T he a rea o f

p hic

e vidence .

t he m ilitary c amp

i nside

t he walls o f D ura may

h ave b een a bout 8 ha. - i .e. b roadly i n h ar mony w ith t he e pigra-

8 . A t Masada t he c ircumvallation r an f or s ome 4 000 y ards a nd, i n R ichmond 's e sti mation ( 1962: 1 52), i nvolved t he s ervices o f o ne l egion a nd s ome 2 500 a uxiliaries. A t J erusalem i n 7 0, T itus c onstructed a c ircumvallation o f a bout 4 1 m iles w ith 1 3 f orts o n i t. N o f orts/camps a re a ttested a round H atra b ut t he c ircumv allation - Roman o r S asanian i s u nknown - i s c lear a nd l arger t han a t J erusalem ( Stein e sti mated i t a t 5 1 m iles) w hich i nvolved 4 l egions p lus a l arge f orce o f a uxiliaries ( Joseph, B ell. I ud. V . 4 7 a nd 5 08). F or a b allista r ecovered i n r ecent e xcavations i nside H atra, s ee n ow B aatz 1 978: 3 -9 . 9 . O ne c an c ompare t he a ccount o f t he s iege o f Masada ( Joseph . B ell. I ud . 11.275 e t s eq .) w ith i ts c onsiderable s upply p roblems

4 05

a nd much l onger t ime s pan . R ichmond ( 1962: 1 53) s uggests t hat t he c ircumvallation a nd f orts m ight ' reasonably ' h ave t aken a w eek t o c omplete. 1 0 . A ccording t o t he H istoria A ugusta ( Sev. X VI.1), t he f irst s iege o ccurred i n w inter. T he d ate o f t he s econd s iege i s u nknown, b ut i t would make s ense f or i t t oo t o h ave b een t i med f or w inter o r s pring t o a void t he w orst o f t he s ummer c onditions w hile m ini mising t he p roblems o f water s upply. F or what h is a ccount i s worth ( cf. R ubin 1 975: 4 19), H erodian ( III. 9 . 6 ) s peaks o f t he s oldiers d istressed b y t he h eat. S ince S everus i s n ot f irmly e ncountered a gain u ntil h is a rrival i n E gypt i n t he l atter p art o f 1 99, t he s econd s iege c ould o f c ourse h ave t aken p lace a t a ny p oint b etween w inter 1 98/9 a nd t hen ( see n ow L ewis 1 979: 2 53 0. 1. T he p oint i s w orth emphasising . D espite t he d ifficulties o f t errain a nd c onditions, S everus' f orces d id a ctually a chieve a b reakthrough r emarkably s wiftly - i n l ess t han 2 0 d ays. A lthough i t was n ot e xploited a nd a s ubsequent a ssault b y p art o f h is f orce w as u nsuccessful, t he n ear d isaster f or t he c ity w ould n ot h ave b een l ost o n i ts i nhabitants. 1 2 . Murphy ( 1945: 2 2) p roposed a S everan d ate o n t he b asis o f t he l anguage o f t he t ext d escribing t he i mperial f amily a s s acrat issim i i mper(atores); Maxfield ( 1981: 1 78) u ses t he s ame c rit erion t o o pt f or t he P arthian War o f Marcus a nd V erus . 1 3 . P arker 1 928: 1 35-40 ( Nero); L epper 1 948: 1 75f ( Trajan); B irley 1 966: 1 65 ( Marcus); Whittaker 1 969: 4 36f, n .2 ( Caracalla); 1 03, n .4 ( Severus A lexander); S prengling 1 953: ( Gordian I II); K ennedy a nd MacAdam 1 985 : 1 00-4 f or v exillations ( ?) o f t he f our M oesian l egions i n t he E ast p robably u nder t he T etrarchs. C f W agner 1 976: 1 32f. 1 4 . B MC , 1 5 . 1 984:

S ee f or e xample I II: 4 97-504. B ut s ee 2 42ff.

n ow

t he

t he a r my g roups

i mplications

o f

o n

t he c oins o f H adrian: .

t he p roposal

o f H assall

1 6 . Margaret R oxan h as p ointed o ut t o m e t hat t he s iege o f H atra i s o ne -o f t he p ossible o ccasions when a t welfth i mperatorial a cclamation may h ave b een v oted t o, b ut n ot a ccepted b y, S everus. C f. B oyce 1 949 a nd s ee n ow RMD 7 3, n o.l. 1 7 .

E .g. S al way

1 981:

2 42; c f. B reeze

4 06

1 982:

1 44.

B ibliography A NGELI M .G .

B ERTINELLI,

1 976

I r omani o ltre l 'Eufrate n e! I I s ecolo d .C . ( le p rovince d i A ssir ia, d i Mesopotamia e d i O sroene). I n H . T emporini a nd W . H aase ( eds.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömi schen Welt I. 9 : 3 -45 . B erlin-New Y ork.

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R ecent f inds o f a ncient a rtillery. B ritannia I X : 1 -17.

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T he N orthern F rontier B ritain . L ondon

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H atra, P al myra u nd E dessa. I n H . T emporini a nd W . Haase ( eds.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömis chen Welt 7 99-906.

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S eptim ius S everus a nd h is g enerals, A .D . 1 93-7. I n M .R .D . F oot ( ed.) W ar a nd S ociety: 2 55-75; 3 36-45 . L ondon.

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S ir Aurel S tein's L i mes R eport. O xfo i7d —T BAR , I nternational S er i es 2 72).

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KENNEDY , MACADAM ,

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L atin i nscriptions f rom t he A zraq O asis, J ordan. Z eitschri f t f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik 6 0: 9 71 07.

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" Europaeans" - S yrian e lite t roops a t D ura-Europos . a nd H atra . I n M .P . S peidel R oman A rmy S tudies I : 3 019 , Amsterdam .

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r each

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O xford .

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E uphrates .

Masada, S tudies

Augusti.

A rmies.

S apor

L ondon .

B onn

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1 941

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WELLES, C .B., F INK, R .O . a nd G ILLIAM , J .F.

1 959

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4 09

am E uphrat/Zeugma .

W ies-

23.

LEGI ONS

IN

THE

EAST

FROM

AUGUSTUS

TO

TRAJ AN 1

Lawrence K eppie G lasgow Our k nowledge o f t he d ispositions a nd movements o f t he Roman l egions i n t he East d uring t he f irst c entury AD r elies h eavily o n t he l iterary t estimony o f T acitus a nd J osephus; e pigraphic e vidence a dds l ittle. T here a re l arge a reas o f i gnorance: f or e xample o n d ispositions b efore t he d eath o f Augustus, d uring t he f our d ecades b etween Ger man i cus' t ravels a nd Corbu 1o 's c ampaigns, a nad d uring most o f t he F lavian e ra. A r ecently p ubl ished i nscription f rom A ntioch, i ndicating a g arrison o f f our r ather t han t hree l egions i n S yria i n t he m iddle r eign o f V espasian, o nly emphasises h ow l ittle we k now f or c ertain, a nd h ow much h as i n t he p ast b een o ver-confidently i nferred. I n a ny s urvey o f t he m ovements a nd d ispositions o f R oman l egions i n t he e astern p rovinces i n t he c entury a fter A ctium i t q uickly b ecomes a pparent t hat o ur k nowledge i s e xtremely p atchy. S ome h istorical p eriods c an b e p recisely d ocumented w ith t he a id o f T acitus a nd J osephus; o thers r emain o bscure. Where l iterary r eferences f ail u s, i nscriptions c an s ometi mes-provide i nteresti ng d etails, t hough r arely e nough t o r econstruct a ny l ogically c onvincing s equence o f e vents. T here h ave b een s everal r ecent d iscussions o f l egionary d ispositions i n t he e astern p rovinces ( Wagner 1 977; R ey-Coquais 1 978; S peidel 1 983; G racey 1 983). My a im h ere w ill b e t o l ook c ritically a t o ur k nowledge, t o s ee w hat c an b e k nown a nd what h as i n t he p ast b een p erhaps o ver-confid ently i nferred . W e k now more a bout l egions i n t he E ast i n t he d ecade b efore t he d efeat o f A ntony t han we d o d uring t he t en o r t wenty y ears t hat f ollowed ( Keppie 1 984a: 1 25ff). A ntony's t i me-served v eterans w ere g iven l and i n c olonies, mostly ( it s eems) o utside I taly, a long t he c oast o f A frica, i n G reece, A sia M inor a nd S yria . S ome o f A ntony 's l egions w ere a ccepted i ntact i nto O ctavian 's v ictori ous a r my; o thers were d isbanded ( Keppie 1 984a: 1 34ff). When O ctavian t urned t o t he r econstitution o f t he g arrisons o f t he e astern p rovinces, h e u tilised s ome o f t hese A ntonian l egions, a long w ith a n umber o f f or mations f rom h is own a rmy. I t s hould b e emphasised t hat w e d o n ot k now h ow many l egions w ere l eft n ow t o b e t he g arrisons o f S yria, E gypt a nd p rovinces o f A sia M inor, o r w here a ny o f t hem w ere l ocated . Major c oncentrations o f t he a vailable f orces c an b e p resumed, f or e xample i n 2 0 BC when

4 11

T iberius e ntered A rmenia, a nd i n A D 2w hen G aius C aesar j ourneyed t o t he E uphrates; b ut w e d o n ot k now w hich l egions w ere i nvolved . T he e arliest c lues t o t he i dentity o f l egions i n t he E ast a fter A ctium may c ome f rom t he v eteran c olonies e stablished t here i n t he m iddle y ears o f A ugustus' r eign; I am t hinking h ere o f t he P isidian g roup o f c olonies o f 2 5 BC a nd l ater ( Levick 1 967), a nd t he f oundations o f Agrippa i n t he E ast i n 1 5-14 BC . I t was n ormal p ractice, o nce t he c ivil wars were o ver, t o c hoose s ites f or c olonies i n t he p rovinces where t he p articipating l egions w ere s erving, o r a t a ny r ate a t n o g reat d istance ( Mann 1 983). I f t his a ssertion h olds g ood f or t he c lutch o f P isidian c olonies, t hen t he t wo l egions which s ent men t o A ntiochia ( legions V G allica a nd p robably V II) s hould b e s een a s among t he g arrisons o f s ome e astern p rovince a t t hat t i me; i t would b e e asiest t o t hink t hat t he p rovince was G alatia i tself, where a l egionary g arrison h as b een p ostulated a t v arious t i mes d uring A ugustus' r eign ( Syme 1 934: 1 43ff; M itchell 1 976) 2 . L egion V G allica i s a lmost c ertainly t he l ater V Macedonica . I n 1 5-14 BC A gr i ppa r einforced a n A ntonian c olony a t B erytus i n t he p rovince o f S yria ( Strabo XVI.2.19; R einhold 1 933: 1 10). T here i s a n e pitaph o f a v eteran o f V III Gall i ca ( CIL I II 1 4165 6 ) . C laudian c oinage a t B erytus r eports t wo l egions a s c olonising t he t own: V a nd V III. L ater ( 3rd c entury) c oinage f rom H eliopolis ( Ba 'albe—k ) h onours t wo l egions, n amed a s V Maced onica a nd V III A ugusta ( Eckhel 1 794:335); i t i s t empting t o r egard V a nd V III a s h aving c olonised b oth t owns u nder A ugustus . B oth Vi j lacedonica a nd V III Augusta ( which i s p resumably t o b e e quated w ith V III G al 1i ca - t he v eteran may h ave b een s ettled b efore l egion V III a cquired i ts n ew e pithet) f ought w ith O ctavian b efore A ctium ; a fter t hat b attle t heir v eterans would h ave r ec eived l and i n I taly r ather t han t he e astern p rovinces, s o t hat t heir a ppearance a t S yrian c olonies b elongs b est i n 1 5-14 BC . O n t his e vidence i t i s t empting t o s ee V Macedonica a nd V III A ugusta a s p art o f t he g arrison o f S yria o r a n eighbouring p rovince i n. 1 5-14 BC . I t i s r ather p erplexing t hat n o c olonists a re y et r eported f rom a ny o f t he l egions w e k now w ere i n S yria l ater. S oon a fter, we g ain o ur f irst s pecific l iterary r eference t o g arrisons i n t he E ast. S trabo n otes t hat t he p rovince o f E gypt h ad t hree l egions, t esti mony which may b e t hought t o r eflect d ispositions i n t he f inal d ecade o f t he i st c entury BC , o r a l ittle e arlier ( XVII.1.12; XVII.1.30). U nfortunately S trabo p rovides n o d ata o n t he g arrisons o f o ther e astern p rovinces. F or E gypt, S trabo h elpfully i dentifies t wo o f t he c amps: o ne l egion w as ' near ' A lexandria, p resumably a t N icopolis; a nother a t t he b ase o f t he D elta, a t B abylon ( Old C airo); t he t hird was s omewhere ' up c ountry '. M ichael S peidel h as r ecently s hown g ood r eason t o s uppose t hat i t w as a t T hebes, t he o ld c apital o f U pper E gypt d uring t he N ew K ingdom ( Speidel 1 982: 1 20) . I n 4 BC t he S yrian g arrison i s g iven a s t hree l egions b y J osephus, who r eports t hat o ne was p laced t emporarily a t J erus alem i n t he t roubled t i mes f ollowing H erod 's d eath ( AJ X VII.10 .1

4 12

( 251); 1 0.9 ( 286); B J 1 1.3.1. ( 40). Whether t his s hould b e r egarded a s t he r egular t otal f or S yria, o r o ne t emporarily r educed b y t he a bsence o f t roops f ighting t he H omonadenses, c annot b e k nown f or s ure . I n AD 7 f ive l egions c ame t o t he a id o f T iberius a t S iscia e x t ransmarinis p rovinciis ( Vell. P at. 1.112.4); i t i s a r easonable i nference t hat s ome a t l east c ame f rom e ast o f t he A egean. F urther t ransfers may b elong i n t he a ftermath o f t he V arus d isast er which s aw a g eneral s hift o f m ilitary f orces westwards. A s l egions V Macedonica, V II, a nd V III A ugusta a re n ot f ound i n t he E ast l ater, w e s hould s uppose t hat t hey m oved w est i n A D 6 -9, a t t he l atest ( Syme 1 933: 3 0-1) . I h ave d eliberately a voided n aming p articular l egions a s members o f t he e astern g arrisons where we h ave n o s pecific e vidence o f t heir p resence u nder A ugustus, b ut i t may b e h elpful t o n ote t hose w hich, t hough n ot d ocumented i n t he c ontemporary r ecord, w e c an p lace t here w ith r easonable c onfidence: I II G allica, V I F errata a nd X II F ul minata ( which were o ld Antonian l egions r et ained i n t he E ast a fter A ctium); X F retensis ( which s erved w ith O ctavian i n t he c ivil w ars); II C yrenaica ( of u ncertain l ineage) a nd XXII D eiotariana, which was s eemingly f or med o ut o f t he m ilitary f orces o f t he k ingdom o f Galatia, p resumably i n 2 5BC , a nd n amed a fter t he f ormer k ing D eiotarus, who d ied i n 4 0 BC ( Keppie f orth.). L egion XXII was i n E gypt b y 8 BC ( BGU I V 1 105), s o t hat i t i s v ery p robably o ne o f t he t hree l egions a lluded t o b y S trabo. B y AD 1 l egion I II Cyrenaica a lso l ay i n E gypt, p erhaps i n t he T hebaid ( AE 1 910: 2 07; R i t ter 1i ng 1 925: 1 506). W ould t hat w e h ad s i milar r ecords f or t he g arrison o f S yria ! O ur n ext i nsights i nto l egionary d ispositions i n t he E ast c ome f rom T acitus. I n A D 1 7 G ermanicus w as d espatched b y T iberius t o o versee t he a nnexation o f Cappadocia a nd C ommagene. I n 1 8 h e t ravelled t o A rtaxata i n e astern A rmenia . We m ight s uppose t hat h e was a ccompanied b y o ne o r more l egions, b ut i n f act h e was l ater t o t ax Calpurnius P iso, a ppointed b y T iberius t o t he g ove rnship o f S yria, w ith n eglecting a n o rder t o s end l egions t o s upport h im ( Ann . 1.56) P iso a nd G ermanicus c ame f ace t o f ace i n . t he c amp o f X F retensis a t C yrrhus, 1 00km n orth-east o f A ntioch ( Ann . 1 1.57); r ather l ater D omitius Celer, a n o fficer o n P iso 's s taff, r e-entering t he p rovince a fter t he d eath o f G ermanicus, l anded a t L aodicea, w ith t he i ntention o f moving q uickly t o t he b ase o f V I F errata, which l ay w ithin s triking d istance ( Ann. 1.79). C learly V I F errata l ay s ome w ay s outh o f A ntioch, b ut w e a re n ot t old p recisely where. H .M .D . P arker p laced i t a t A pamea ( 1928: 1 28), b ut t he well-known s ite a t Raphanaea c ould b e more l ikely ( Fig. 2 3.1). F urther e vidence o n t he a ctivities o f t he l egions a t t he t i me o f Ger manicus ' e xpedition may c ome f rom P almyra, w here a l egate o f X F retensis e rected s tatues t o T iberi us, D rusus a nd G e vnanicus a t a d ate n ecessarily b efore 1 9 ( Seyr ig 1 932: 2 67; E JL 2 69). T hus, e ven t hough t he l egion was a t C yrrhus i n 1 8, i ts l egate d id n ot c onfine h is a ctivities t o t hat i mmediate a rea . T he most p robable e xplanation i s t hat t he l egate

4 13

X X I I

G

Cyrrhus

s r v l R aphanaea?

•

A lexandr ia

I I

XX I I

F ig .

2 3 .1

w as t ravelling f rontier.

B aby lon L egions

w ith

o n

t he

e astern

G ermanicus

o n

f rontier:

h is

t our

A D

o f

1 7-18 .

t he

e astern

I n h is r eview o f t he m ilitary f orces o f t he Empire g iven u nder A D . 2 3 T acitus r eports t hat S yria h ad f our l egions, a nd E gypt t wo (Ann.IV.3). I t i s u sually a ssumed t hat o ne l egion h ad s i mply m oved f rom E gypt t o S yria l ate i n A ugustus ' r eign i n r esponse t o a , g reater n eed t here, b ut we d o n ot k now t he d ate o r t he c irc umstances. S ometi me u nder T iberius t he t wo r emaining E gyptian l egions c ame t ogether a t N icopolis ( Dobson 1 982). I n S yria i tself; a s we h ave s een, o ne l egion l ay a t Cyrrhus, a nother n ot t oo d istant f rom L aodicea; w e d o n ot k now w here t he o thers w ere s tationed . T he p ossibility o f t wo l egions b eing b rigaded t og ether s hould n ot b e r uled o ut. P arker's a ccount o f d ispositions a t t his t i me i s m isleading. H e p laces V I F errata a t A pamea ( Tacitus d oes n ot i dentify i ts p recise b ase rand X II F ul minata a t R aphanaea, o n t he a uthority o f J osephus w ho t ells u s t hat i t w as t here c . AD 6 6-69. A ccording t o P arker, ' this ( Tiberian) d istrib ution r emained u nchanged t ill t he r eign o f N ero ' ( 1928: 1 28). M ore c orrectly i t c ould b e s aid t hat t he l iterary s ources f all s ilent o n t he d etails o f l egionary d ispositions d uring t he f our d ecades b et ween G ermanicus' v isit a nd t he a rrival o f C orbulo i n A D 5 5.

4 14

T he a nnexation o f C ommagene i n 1 8 c ould h ave b rought a l egion o r l egions t o t he E uphrates b arrier f orthwith ( McElderry 1 909). C ertainly P hilo w riting u nder C aligula i mplies t hat i n A D 4 0 m uch o f t he S yrian a r my l ay o n t he E uphrates ( Leg. 2 07). I t h as b een s upposed b y s ome s cholars t hat X F retensis moved f orward u nder T iberius f rom Cyrrhus t o s ome p oint o n t he r iver, where i t c ert ainly was b ased i n AD 6 6 ( Joseph. B J V II.1.3. ( 13)), b ut w e a re n ot t old t his d irectly . I n A D 4 9 T acitus mentions t he e stablishm ent o f a R oman e ncampment o n t he E uphrates a t Z eugma ( Ann. X II.12), b ut w hether t his was t he e arliest u se o f a s ite l ater t o b ecome a p ermanent l egionary f ortress i s n ot c lear. M y i nclinat ion i s t o s uppose t hat l egionary f orces l ay o n t he E uphrates f rom a n e arly ( i.e . T iberian) d ate, b ut o ur i gnorance p revents u s n am ing a ny p articular l egions p laced t here, o r d eter mining h ow m uch o f t he r iver's l ength w as p ut u nder s urveillance . T hat t he S yrian g arrison r emained a t f our l egions t hroughout t his r ather b lank p eriod c an b e d educed f rom P hilo who s ays t hat i n 4 0/41 Caligula o rdered t he g overnor o f S yria, P . P etronius, t o m ove a gainst J erusalem w ith h alf h is a r my; J osephus g ives t wo l egions a s t he f orce t hat a ccompanied h im ( Philo, L eg. 2 07; J oseph . A J XVIII 8 .2. ( 262)); c ontra B J I I.10.1 ( 86) which g ives h is a r my a s t hree l egions). F our l egions were s ettled t ogether i n aC laudian c olony a t P tolemais, i n AD 5 2-54 ( Pliny H N V .75); t heir n umerals, a ppearing o n l ocal c oinage, h ave b een r ead a s II, V I, X , a nd X II. U nless I h ave m issed s ome e pigraphic a ttest ations, t his n umismatic r ecord i s t he e arliest c onfirmation t hat II a nd X II d id i n f act l ie s pecifically i n S yria ( Ritterling 1 925: 1 519, 1 706); w e g enerally t ake t his f or g ranted b ecause o f t heir l ater p resence . W ith t he a rrival o f Corbulo we b egin t o o btain f rom T acitus a d etailed r ecord o f t he movement o f f orces i n t he E ast ( Ann . X III. 6 ff; 3 5ff; X IV . 2 3ff; XV .Iff; 2 4ff; S chur 1 923; S herk 1 980; M itford 1 980). E ven b efore h is a ppoint ment we l earn o f a f ir m r esponse t o P arthian a ctivities. L egions were o rdered t o move c loser t o A r menia; c lient k ings i n J udaea a nd C ommagene were i nstructed t o mobilise t heir f orces a nd t ake t he o ffensive, a nd b ridges were t hrown a cross t he E uphrates i n p reparation f or a n a ttack o n P arthia i tself. T he g arrison o f S yria, s till a t f our l egions, w as s plit t o g ive C orbulo t wo l egions, s oon a ugmented b y a t hird, t ransferred we a re t old f rom G ermany. F rom t he l ater n arrative w e c an i nfer t hat t he t wo l egions w ere II G allica a nd V I F errata ( Ann. X III.38); t he l egion a rriving a llegedly f rom G ermany i s i dentifiable a s I V S cythica, w hich s eems t o h ave c ome r ather f rom Moesia . D u§an j— h as r ecently a rgued t hat T acitus w as c orrect, a nd t hat t he l egion d id c ome f rom G er many; b ut h is a rguments d o n ot s eem c ompel l ing ( 1978: 4 70-75). L ater, d uring t he march o n A rtaxata, C orbulo 's a rmy w as r einforced b y a v exilla tion f rom X F retensis. O n t he d eath o f Q uadratus i n 6 0 C orbulo w as a ppointed g overnor o f S yria; p resumably a ll f ive l egions c ame u nder h is c ontrol. A n i nteresting s idelight t o t he c ampaigns i s p rovided b y t he N eron ian v eteran s ettlement a t T arentum i n AD 6 0 ( lac. A nn. X IV .27).

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V eterans d espatched t here i ncluded men f rom I V S cythica, V I F errata a nd X II F ul minata ( Keppie 1 984b); we c ould s uppose t hat C orbulo r eleased men i ncapacitated a nd o ver-age, w ith a ctive c ampaigning s eemingly a t a n e nd . W hen i n 6 2 T iridates t hreatened A rmenia, C orbulo s ent t wo l egions t o s upport T igranes, a nd p laced ' the r est' o n t he b ank o f t he E uphrates. On t he a rrival o f P aetus t o a ssume i ndependent c ommand i n C appadocia, t he f orces w ere s plit s o t hat I V S cythica a nd X II F ul minata - v ery p robably t he t wo s ent p reviously t o s upport T igranes a nd n ow l ying i n w inter q uarters i n e xtrema C appadocia - were a ssigned t o h i m; t hey were t o b e j oined b y V M acedonica n ow o n i ts way f rom Moesia. T he o ther t hree, I IT G allica, V I F errata a nd X F retensis ( which h ad p reviously m arched w ith C orbulo a cross A rmenia i n A D 5 8-59) w ere r etained b y h im i n S yria . P erhaps t he c hoice was d eliberate, t o g ive a ll t he l egions s ome h ard e xperience o f a ctive c ampaigning ( Ann . XV .6). T he movement o f P aetus e astwards was matched b y b risk a nd c onspic uous a ctivity o n t he p art o f Corbulo, f ort-building o n t he E uphrates b ank t o h old t he P arthians' a ttention; C orbulo e ven c rossed t he r iver a nd e stablished a l egion i n a c amp b eyond i t ( Ann . XV .9). A s i s well k nown, P aetus was e ventually s hut u p i n R handeia w ith I V a nd X II, a nd f orced t o s urrender, w hile C orbulo w ith v exillations f rom II, V I a nd X m arched t o r elieve h im . T he s trong R oman r esponse t o P aetus ' d iscomfiture l ed t o t he d espatch o f a nother l egion, XV Apollinaris, f rom P annonia ( Ann. XV .25). C orbulo n ow t ransferred t he d efeated l egions, I V a nd X II, t o S yria, p referring t o t ake t he o ffensive w ith h is own l egions II a nd V I, which h ad c omprised t he o riginal f orce i n A rmenia i n 5 8 . A dded t o t hem were XV, V Macedonica a nd v exillations s ummoned f rom P annonia a nd D al matia, a nd f rom E gypt. Y ou may w onder w hy I h ave s pent s o l ong i n r ehearsing t hese w ell k nown e vents. I n f act I h ave d one s o p recisely b ecause t hey a re k nown; t he d etailed T acitean a ccount p rovides i nformation o n m ovements a nd t ransfers we c ould n ot o ther wise h ave g uessed a t. . I t i s worth n oticing t he i ntelligent u se made b y Corbulo o f t he f orces a vailable. W ith t he c lose o f t he c ampaigning, a nd t he a ccord r eached b etween C orbulo a nd k ing V ologaeses o f P arthia, t he c urtain d rops f or t hree y ears, u ntil t he s cene i s b rightly i lluminated o nce m ore b y t he n ai-r ative o f J osephus. We m ight e asily h ave s upposed t hat t he l egions f rom t he D anube p rovinces ( IV S cythica, V M acedonica a nd XV Apol 1i naris), were s ent b ack, b ut a ll t hree e vidently r emained . P resumably s ome l egions were w ith C orbulo i n C appad ocia, t o watch A r menia a nd e nsure t hat T iridates d id make t he i ntended v isit t o R ome t o r eceive h is c rown ( Fig . 2 3 .2) . I n f act e pigraphic e vidence r eveals II G allica e ngaged o n s ome u nspecif ied b ut e vidently s ubstantial b uilding work ( sometimes i dentif ied a s a T ropaeum) i nside A rmenia i n 6 4-65 ( C IL II 6 741-43; I LS 2 32); a n i nscription r eferring t o V I F errata, q uae [ hibernavl-T T i n A rm[e]nia [ maiore s u]b [ C]n D omitio [ CorbuTZT I ]e , ( ILS 9 108), m ight p erhaps b e a ssigned t o t his p eriod, t hough i t c ould e qually b elong i n 5 5-59 . C orbulo - t he G eneral D ouglas MacArthur o f t he

4 16

F ig .

2 3 .2

L egions

o n

t he

e astern

f rontier:

AD 6 3-64.

N eronian m ilitary s cene - r emained i n t he E ast u ntil N ero t o G reece i n 6 6/67, when h e c ommitted s uicide .

c alled b y

O ther p rojects w ere a foot t o u tilise t he e nlarged f orces a vaila ble i n t he E ast. I t s eems c lear t hat N ero p lanned t o employ t he b attle-hardened t roops i n c ampaigns w hich h e p robably i ntended t o l ead i n p erson, a fter t he c ompletion o f h is G reek t our. A t l east t wo s uch p rojects a re r eported, t o t he C aspian G ates a nd a gainst t he E thiopians ( Dio LXII.8.1; P liny H N V I.40, 1 81). I n O ctober 6 6 t he g overnor o f S yria C . C estius G allus moved f rom A ntioch a gainst t he J ewish r ebels a t J erusalem, w ith X II F ul min ata a nd a 2 000-strong d etachment d rawn f rom ' (each o f 7? -) T t - o ther l egions' ( BJ I I. 1 8.9 ( 500)). I f X II F uln ninata l ay a t R aphanaea, i t would b e a c onvenient c ore f or h is t ask-force, t o b e p icked u p e n r oute. T he a r my i ncluded a v exillation f rom V I F errata ( BJ 1 1.19.7 ( 544)). I n a d isastrous r etreat Cestius was ambushed i n t he B eth-Horon P ass, a nd t he e agle o f X II F uln ninata w as c aptured ( Schürer 1 973: 4 85ff; G ichon 1 981). I n r esponse N ero a ppointed a r eplacement g overnor o f S yria f rom h is e ntourage i n G reece, T . F lavius V espasianus ( see N icols 1 978 w here h is a ppointment t o S yria r ather t han J udaea i s emphasised).

4 17

T hough w e a re r epeatedly t old t hat V espasian w as a t ried s oldier a nd b rilliant m ilitary man, w e m ust r emember t hat h e h ad s een n o m ilitary s ervice o r a ction s ince c ommanding a l egion i n B ritain 2 3 y ears e arlier; h is p osition among N ero 's i nner c ircle a nd u ndistinguished l ineage were t wo i mportant f actors i n s ecuring t he a ppointment. V espasian p roceeded o verland t o A ntioch, s endi ng h is e lder s on T itus, a lso w ith N ero i n G reece, t o A lexandria b y s ea ( as J osephus r eports) t o c ollect o ne o f t he l egions, X V A pollinaris, e vidently s tationed t here ( BJ 11.1.8 ( 8)) . When w e l ast h eard o f t his l egion i t was w ith C orbulo i n A r menia i n 6 3; w e a re b ound t o w onder w hen i t w as t ransferred t o E gypt, a nd w hy . I n a r ecent a rticle B rian W . J ones h as a rgued t hat T itus was d espatched t o c ollect l egion X V n ot f rom A lexandria i n E gypt b ut f rom a nother A lexandria, t hat i s A lexandria-ad-Issum i n n orthern S yria ( Jones 1 984). T his i s n ot a f resh t heory; i t was p roposed l ong a go b y Mommsen a nd t aken u p b y o ther s cholars . I dentifying T itus ' d estination a s n orthern S yria r ather t han E gypt m ight s eem t o h ave s everal a dvantages: f irstly t hat T itus w as b eing s ent t o a t own w ithin V espasian 's own p rovince, n ot t o E gypt f rom w hich a s a s enator we c ould t hink h im e xcluded . S econdly T itus a rrived s peedily a t P tolemais, w here V espasian w as b y n ow c oncentrating h is a rmy, w ith n o h int i n J osephus o f a l ong a nd d ifficult j ourn ey f rom E gypt t hrough o r p ast r ebel t erritory. T hirdly J ones a rgues t hat E gypt h ad n o n eed o f a n i ncreased g arrison i n 6 6; i n t wo e arlier r eferences t o i ts g arrison i n 6 6 J osephus n otes t he n ormal two l egions t here ( BJ 1.16.4 ( 387), 1 8.8 ( 494)). T hese a rguments a re s uperficially a ttractive, b ut t hey s eem t o m e m isplaced . L ong a go Mommsen 's t heory was f orcefully r efuted b y S chur i n h is monograph o n N ero 's(Drientpolitik ( 1923: 9 9ff). I t i s t hus s urprising t o f ind t he c ontroversy r esurfacing. J osephus ' r eaders would a utomatically a ssume t hat t he b etter k nown t own w as meant, u nless o f c ourse J osephus h imself i s g uilty o f a g eographical b lunder. More i mportant a re t wo p oints: f irstly, V espasian h i mself t ravelled e ast o verland, t hrough A sia . M inor, a pproaching Antioch f rom t he n orth ( Joseph, B J 11.1.3 (8); b ut n ote B J V II 3 .3 ( 46) which i ndicates a t l east a p artial s ea j ourney). T his i tinerary would t ake h im t hrough S yrian A lexandria, which l ay j ust 4 0 kms n orth-west o f A ntioch. T here w as n o n eed t o d espatch T itus b y a n a lternative r oute t o c ollect t he l egion. T itus b rought i t t o h im a t P tolemais b y f orced m arches a fter V espasian h ad t ravelled s outh f rom A ntioch . T itus c ould h ardly h ave t aken s o l ong t o a rrive i f h e was a t n earby S yrian A lexandria; h e would h ave g ot t here b efore V espasian a rrived i n t he p rovince. T he t i me-factor i tself a rgues f or a l onger j ourney i .e. f rom E gypt. S econdly, i t i s n ot s o o dd t o f ind X V i n E gypt. J osephus n otes t hat e arlier i n 6 6 t he t wo l egions p ermanently a t A lexandria h ad b een r einforced b y t he a rrival o f 2 000 s oldiers f rom A frica ( BJ 1.18.8 ( 494); t his f orce c ould b e s een a s a v exillation o f I II A ugusta . I n a ddition T acitus t ells o f t he a la S iliana, f ormerly o f t he A frican g arrison, w hich h ad b een s ent t o E gypt a s p art o f a m i 1i tary b uild-up t here, b ut o n n ews o f V index 's r evolt was

4 18

d espatched t o I taly ( Hist. 1 .70). I n t he s ummer o f 6 8, G alba a t R ome t ook s pecial c are t o c osset v exi 1l at i ons f rom t he R hine l egions, n ewly r i -turned t o R ome f rom A lexandria ( Tac . H ist. 1 .31; S uet. Galba 2 0).' I t s eems c lear t herefore t hat t roops were b eing a ssembled a t A lexandria i n 6 6. D espite t he g eographical d istances, i t m ust b e v ery p robable t hat we a re l ooking a t t he m ilitary b uild-up f or N ero's C aspian c ampaigns . T his w ill b ecome c ertain i f w e i dentif y t hese v exillations f rom R hineland l egions a s among t he d et achments p resent a t R ome f rom B ritain, Ger many a nd I1l yricum q uos i dem N ero e lectos p raemissosque a d c laustra C aspiarum r evocavera F r i' — ac . H ist. 1 -X 17- We k now t hat N ero was a lso c ontemp lating a war a gainst t he E thiopians, t hough s ome modern s cholars d o n ot t reat t he p roject v ery s eriously. About 6 2 s ome p raetor ians h ad b een s ent o n a r econnaissance u p t he N ile ( Sen. Q . Nat. V I.8.3-5; D io LXIII.8.2; P liny H N V I.181), which a rgues f or s ome h igh-level p lanning a t R ome. N evertheless, i t i s d ifficult t o s uppose t hat t he E thiopian p roject r equired l arge n umbers o f t roops, a nd i t may b e p referable t o c onsider A lexandria a s t he j umping o ff p oint f or a ll N ero 's p rojected j ourneyings i n t he E ast. A fter a v oyage u p t he N ile, h e may h ave p lanned t o p rog ress n orthwards t hrough S yria a nd J udaea, t o t he u pper E uphrates a nd b eyond . I nterestingly a t t he c lose o f t he J ewish War i n 7 0, T itus made s uch a j ourney i n r everse, f rom t he E uphrates t o A lexandria, a ccompanied b y l egions V a nd X V . T itus t ook s hip f or I taly, a nd t he l egions ( by what s eems a r ather e xtended r oute) e mbarked f or t heir f ormer s tations o n t he D anube ( Joseph . B J V II 1 .3 ( 19), 5 .3 ( 116)). T he p reparations f or t he C aspian c ampaign i ncluded t he f ormation o f an ew l egion a t R ome, o r a t l east w ithin I taly; i t was g iven t he n ame I I talica . I ts c reation i s n ormally p laced i n 6 6 o r 6 7 ( Parker 1 928 : 9 8; K olendo 1 977) . T he e arlier d ate i s p referable, g iven o ur k nowledge o f N ero 's own t i metable. A ccording t o T acitus, t he c ore o f t he C aspian e xpedition w as t o b e X IV G emina, t he most f amous l egion o f t he g eneration, f rom i ts l eading r ole i n t he v ictory o ver B oudica; i t was w ithdrawn f rom B ritain, a nd s ent o n a l engthy march a cross t he Empire. A t t he b eginning o f . 69 i t l ay s omewhere i n D almatia o r P annonia, n ot t oo f ar f rom t he f rontiers o f I taly ( Tac. H ist. 1.32, 6 6). T hat i t was f elt n ecessary t o s ummon s uch s ubstantial f orces f rom s o f ar may b e s een h s ac onsequence o f t he o utbreak o f t he J ewish R evolt, w hich d iverted t o J udaea m uch o f t he i ntended e xpeditionary f orce . I t i s l ikely t hat N ero 's d eter mination t o p ersevere i n A lexander 's f ootsteps l ed t o t he a ssembly o f a n ew t ask f orce f rom f resh s ources. T here i s n o n eed h ere f or a d etailed a ccount o f t he J ewish war. V espasian t ook l egions V , X a nd XV a s h is c ampaign a rmy: l egion X F retensis c ame s outh f rom t he E uphrates ( we a re n ot t old i ts e xact l ocation t here); w e l ast h eard o f V Macedonica i n P ontus i n 6 2. T he whereabouts o f t he r emaining e astern l egions a re u nclear, e xcept t hat t he d isgraced X II F ul minata l ay a t, o r was n ow s ent t o, Raphanaea ( Fig. 2 3.3). T he c ontinued p resence o f a

4 19

V I *4 4

I t a i Zc up1 a I V? X I I Raphana e a

J ü daea V 10 X

F ig . 2 3.3

L egions o n t he e astern f rontier: AD 6 9.

l egion o r l egions i n C appadocia c annot b e r uled o ut - p erhaps f or a while I II Gallica s till l ay t here, t hough e vidently n ot V I F errata, a s t he l atter c ontributed t o C estius G allus ' t ask-force i n 6 6 . We k now n othing a bout t he l ocation o f I V S cythica a t t his t i me ( but s ee b elow). P rofessor I saac h as k indly d rawn my a ttention t o e pigraphic r ecords o f l egion V Mäcedonica f rom Emmaus ( Amwas), w here i t i s r eported b y T acitus t o h ave e stablished a b ase i n 6 8-70 ( Joseph. B J I V 8 .1 ( 445), V .1.6 ( 42); L andau 1 976). E vidently t he l egion h ad b ecome s ufficiently e nsconsed t o h ave e stablished a s tonem ason's workshop. A t l east t wo o f t he e pitaphs a re o f s erving s oldiers who d ied a t Emmaus s ometi me i n t he l ater i st c entury A D . T he s ojourn o f t he l egion a t Emmaus i n 6 8-70 i s t he o nly p lausi ble c ontext. I n t he w inter o f 6 7/68 II G allica was ( temporaril y) t ransferred t o Moesia ( Tac. H ist. 1.74), a nd i n t he s ummer o f 6 9 V I F errata f or med t he c ore o f t he e xpeditionary f orce d espatched west wards w ith Mucianus ( Tac. H ist. 1 1.83; 11.46; S yme 1 977). W hen T itus moved a gainst J erusalem i n e arnest a t t he b eginning o f 7 0, h is f orce c onsisted o f _ V , _ X , a nd XV t ogether w ith X II F ulm inata, a s w ell a s 1 000-strong v exillations f rom e ach o f t he t wo

4 20

l egions i n E gypt, a nd 3 000 t roops ' from t he E uphrates' ( Joseph. B J V .1.6 ( 44)). T he l atter a re b est s een a s l egionary v exillat ions, f rom I V S cythica a nd p erhaps V I F errata, d epending o n w hether t he l atter h ad y et r eturned t o t he E ast. I t i s h ard t o s uppose t hat I V S cythica a lone c ould h ave p rovided 3 000 men a nd y et r emained v iable . I t h ad a lready ( we may p resume) p rovided a v exillation o f a t l east 1 000 m en ( perhaps e ven 2 000) t o Mucianus ' t ask-force. I n t he a ftermath o f t he R evolt, X F retensis b ecame t he p ermanent g arrison a t J erusalem ( Joseph. B J V II.1.3. ( 17)), a nd X II was ' banished ' t o Melitene i n Cappadocia ( Joseph. B J s o r e-establishing a l egionary g arrison t here . O n a ny r eckoning t he g arrisons o n t he E uphrates b arrier s tood i n n eed o f r einf orcement. T itus h i mself t ravelled n orth w ith V a nd XV t o Z eugma, f or a m eeting w ith t he P arthian K ing V ologaeies, b efore a s outhwards j ourney t o A lexandria . I n t he c ourse o f 7 0 t he g arrisons o f S yria were r econstituted: l egion I V S cythica h ad s eemingly r emained i n t he p rovince t hroughout. A dded t o i t were II Gallica ( which h ad f ought f or t he F lavians a t t he S econd B attle o f C remona) a nd V I F errata w hich h ad s et o ff f or I taly w ith Mucianus. I n p artial r eplacem ent f or V a nd XV ( which h ad b y n ow r eturned t o E urope), t here a rrived XV I F lavia, which we c an r easonably r ecognise a s a r ef ormed V itellian f ormation, X VI G allica . I t h as g enerally b een a ssumed t hat X VI p assed a l most i mmediately i nto C appadocia w here i t f ormed w ith X II t he t wo-legion g arrison o f t hat n ewly c reated c onsular p rovince. A s XVI i s f ound l ater a t S atala ( see n ow M itford 1 974), i t h as b een s upposed t hat t he l egion t ook u p s tation t here i n 7 1/72 when t he s urrounding a rea ( Lesser A rmenia) w as a nnexed, t hough s ome s cholarly v oices a dvoc ated c aution i n a ccepting t his s cenario t oo q uickly ( e.g. B osw orth 1 976; D abrowa 1 982). I n f act t he t raditional r econs truction h as b een r ecently c hallenged b y t he p ublication o f a n i nscription o f AD 7 5 f rom t he v icinity o f A ntioch, a pparently a m ilestone, which r ecords work b y a f orce c onsisting o f f our l egions a nd 2 0 a uxiliary c ohorts, t ogether ( it may b e) w ith l ocal l abour ( van B erchem 1 983; 1 985). T he f our l egions a re n amed a s II Gallica, I V S cythica, V I F errata a nd XVI F lavia. T he workf orce s eems t o r epresent, o r h ave b een d rawn f rom, t he e ntire m ilitäry g arrison o f S yria . T he i nscription i s p recisely d ated t o A pril-June 7 5, l ong a fter XVI i s s upposed t o h ave b ecome s ettled i n Cappadocia. I t c ould b e o bjected t hat t he A ntioch i nscription merely r ecords w ork b y a rbeitsvexillationen, s o t hat i t c annot p rovide p roof o f t he f ull-ti me p resence o f XVI i n S yria . On t his r eckoning we s hould h ave t o p ostulate t hat a d etachment o f XVI was s ent s outh f rom S atala f or r oad-i mprovem ents n ear A ntioch, a t a t i me when t here was much t o d o i n C appadocia i tself. Ip refer t o t ake t he A ntioch i nscription a t i ts f ace-value, i n o ur c urrent s tate o f i mperfect k nowledge ( Fig . 2 3.4).

4 21

F ig . 2 3.4

L egions o n

t he e astern f rontier: AD 7 5.

I n p assing i t c an b e n oted t hat t here i s n o p olitical h indrance t o t he s upposition t hat S yria h ad f our l egions a t t his t i me; o ther p rovinces, i ncluding B ritain, were p er mitted a l egionary g arrison o f t hat magnitude i n t he F lavian p eriod . T he i mportant c orollary t o a l arger t han e xpected S yrian g arrison i n t he m iddle o f V espasian 's r eign i s t hat C appadocia must h ave b een a p raetor ian p rovince w ith a s ingle l egion, f or a t l east t he f irst h alf o f V espasian's r eign ( cf. S peidel 1 983) - t hat i s u nless we s uppose t hat a nother l egion, a s y et u nidentified, l ay i n C appadoc ia f or a f ew y ears b efore XVI a rrived t here. More p robably we h ave t o c onclude t hat t he a ddition o f l egions t o C appadocia c ame i n t wo d istinct s tages, t hough when h istorians t urned l ater t o r ecord t he c hange i n t he p rovince 's s tatus, t his h ad b een l ong f orgotten ( Suet. V esp. V III; T ac. H ist. 1.81). We h ave l ong k nown o f r oad b uilding a ctivity west o f S atala i n e arly 7 6 ( CIL II 3 06; I LS 8 904), s o i t c ould b e e asy t o s uppose t hat XVI was t ransferred t o Cappadocia s oon a fter t he c ompletion o f r oad b uilding a t A ntioch . S ome u ncertainty s urrounds t he r ank o f t he e arliest l egates o f Cappadocia u nder t he F lavians ( Sherk 1 980); o n t he t esti mony o f S uetonius ( Vesp. V III), t he p rovince was a lready c onsular b efore V espasian 's d eath .

4 22

T he a nnexation o f Commagene ( for a s econd t i me) i n AD 7 2 was a nother n ecessary s tage i n t he t ightening o f c ontrol o ver t he U pper E uphrates, which h ad b een b egun w ith t he a bsorption o f e astern P ontus u nder N ero. T he g overnor o f S yria, C aesennius P aetus, moved a gainst K ing A ntiochus w ith l egion V I F errata ( Joseph . 1 3 1 V II.7.1 ( 225) ) . I t would b e n atural t o t hink t hat t he l egion c ame f rom a n earby b ase o n t he E uphrates, p erhaps a t Z eugma, a nd t hat s ubsequently i t f ormed t he g arrison o f t he n ewly e stablished f ortress a t S amosata ( Parker 1 928 : 1 49). A c ommemorative i nscription a t A ini o n t he E uphrates b ank m idway b etween S amosata a nd Z eugma r eports h ydraulic a ctivities i n 7 3 b y t wo l egions, whose n ames h ave n ot b een r ead. N earby i s a s culptured r elief o f t he r iver g od E uphrates, a nd t he l egend II [ GALL(ica)] ( AE 1 903: 2 55-6; I GLS I 6 5-6; I LS 8 903 = NM / 9 3; W agner 1 977; E vans 1 981: 2 15ff; AE 1 981: 8 5i T .— I f t he t wo i ns criptions a re i ndeed c ontemporary, i t c ould b e t hat II G allica w as s tationed a t e ither S amosata o r Z eugma a t t his t i me . O n t he e vidence p resented a bove, we m ight t hink o f I II Gallica a nd V I F errata a s t he l egions o f S yria c urrently o ccupying t he t wo m ost n ortherly b ases o n t he E uphrates, a nd s o t o b e i dentified a s t he t wo l egions a t w ork o n t he E uphrates b ank a t A ini. H owever, Wagner a dopts a q uite d ifferent s cenario. H e a rgues t hat t he l egion a t Z eugma i n t his p eriod must b e I V S cythica, i n f act t hat i t a rrived t here n ot l ater t han 6 6: s uch a n i mportant c rossing p oint o n t he r iver c ould n ot b e l eft u nguarded, a nd i n t he t roubled p eriod f rom 6 8 t o 7 0 I V S cythica was t he o nly l egion o n h and t o g uard i t ( Wagner 1 976; 1 977). Wagner t herefore p laces II Gallica a t S amosata, a nd ( by e li mination) V I F errata a t R aphanaea . A t R aphanaea V I F errata would l ater h ave b een well p laced t o h ave a r ole i n t he t ake-over o f A rabia ( where i t i s a ttested i n AD 1 19; s ee F ig. 2 3.6), a nd t o b e t ransferred t o J udaea s ometi me i n H adrian 's r eign ( Kennedy 1 980). I n f act a n i nscription a t R aphanaea, n ot c losely d atable w ithin t he m id/late i st c entury AD, n ames a t ribune i n t he V I F errata ( I GLS 1 400; c f P ME I 1 25). T his v ersion o f e vents i s r eflected i n F ig. 2 3.4. 4 N evertheless i t may b e s uspected t hat f uture d iscoveries w ill . serve t o s harpen o ur k nowledge o f t hese d ispositions a nd make t he o verall p icture o f movements a nd t ransfers more c omplex t han i t a lready s eems a t p resent. F or e xample, t he r oad-building a ctivit y o f .T rajan i D s re e ast o f P al myra i n 7 5 ( Bowersock 1 973: 1 33) m ight c oncentrate o ur a ttention o n t he p ossibility o f a l egionary p resence o n t he l ower E uphrates a t S ura a t t his t i me, i f n ot e arlier. W ith t he l oss o f T acitus' H istories a nd t he e nding o f J osephus' a ccount, w e a re t hrown b ack o n t he e pigraphic e vidence . H ere w e m ust s truggle t o a ccommodate f ragments o f t he t otal p icture, s ome i mportant a nd s ome n ot. Certainly w e c an p roduce maps ( see F ig. 2 3.5) s howing t he l egionary d ispositions i n t he F lavian e ra: o ne l egion ( X F retensis) i n J udaea, t wo i n E gypt ( III C yrenaica a nd XXII D eiotari7 a770T— t hree i n S yria ( III Gal 1i ca, I V S cythica a nd V I F errata), a nd t wo i n Cappadocia ( XII F ul minata a nd XVI

4 23

XV I S a ta la X I I Me l i tene • I I G .? S a mosa ta ? IV •

e ugm

V i? Raphanaea

0 J erusa le m

I I 3 0 (I I

am

F ig . 2 3.5

L egions o n t he e astern f rontier: AD 7 9.

F lavia), w ith a s trong l egionary p resence a lso m aintained i n t he C aucasian k ingdoms t o t he n orth-east ( ILS 8 795; A E 1 951: 2 63 3 69; S EG XV 1 958: 8 36; c f. T orelli 1 968: 1 7Off; B osworth 1 977; D abrowe 1 980). T he c hanges i n l egionary d ispositions r esulting f rom T rajanic i nitiatives i n t he E ast h ave b een f ully d iscussed i n r ecent y ears. T he a cquisition o f A rabia s aw a l egion p osted t o B ostra ; i t must s urely b e a ccepted n ow t hat t his was I II C yrenaica, w hatever o ther f orces w ere b riefly p resent i n t he f ollowing t wo d ecades ' ( Speidel 1 977; K ennedy 1 980). T rajan 's c ampaigns f rom 13 o nwards b rought s ubstantial e xtra f orces t o t he E ast, f irstly t o s ecure A rmenia a nd t hen t o t hrust i nto P arthia ( Mitford 1 980) . T hese c onquests were a ll g iven u p b y H adrian, b ut s ome i nformat ion o n t he i ntended g arrisons o f t he n ew p rovinces may d erive f rom t he massive c ommemorative s lab r ecording u nspecified b uildi ng work b y I V S cythica a t A rtaxata i n 1 16 ( AE 1 968: 5 71; R eynolds 1 9717- 1 41, p l. X ). I n t he a ftermath o f t he H adrianic w ithdrawal ( Fig. 2 3.6), t he l egions o f t he e astern p rovinces s ettled t o a d isposition o f f orces w hich f or t he m ost p art w as t o e ndure f or a l most a c entury .

4 24

S a ta lx a . V X I I Me l i tene S amosa ta XV• I F V

•

Z eugm I I G . • Raphanaea

B cetra • g ? Tr .? a l J erusa lem X0

F ig .

2 3.6

L egions

o n

t he

e astern

f rontier:

A D

19 .

N otes 1 . I am g rateful t o P rofessor B .H . e arly d raft o f t his p aper.

I saac

f or h is c omments o n a n

2 . A t l east o ne e pitaph a t A ntiochia, o f a s erving s oldier o f l egion V II, c ould b e t hought o f a s r ecording t he s on o f a c olon ist ( C IL II 6 827). L egion V II may a lso h ave p rovided s ettlers f or I conium u nder A ugustus; n otice h owever t hat t he v eteran a ttested t here i s P . Mestrius P .f. Maecia ( I GRR I II 1 476). T he f inal ' word r eports h is v oting-tribe, a nd i s n ot a n a bbreviated c ognomen, a s r epeatedly a ssumed i n t he modern l iterature . 3 . T he a rgument t hat J osephus h as n o d etailed a ccount o f T itus ' p resumably d ifficult n orthwards j ourney f rom A lexandria i n 6 6 i s n ot t oo i mportant. A t t hat t i me J osephus was p reoccupied i n G alilee; h e was n ot a s y et t aking a c lose i nterest i n h is h ero 's m ovements. ( Contrast t he a ccount a t B J I V 1 1.5 ( 685ff)). 4 . T he o nly e vidence p ossibly c ontrary t o t his r econstruction d erives f rom t he Y ounger P liny who s erved a s a t ribune o f I II G allica i n c . AD 8 0 ( Ep. 1 .10.2). H e f ormed a f riendship w ith a p hilosopher E uphrates whom Mc E lderry ( 1909: 5 3, f ollowed b y

4 25

G racey 1 983) c lai med w as a n ative o f a t own n ear R aphanaea . B ut E uphrates c ame most p robably f rom T yre ( Philost. V S 1 .7; 1 .25) . B ibliography BOSWORTH,

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4 29

Mucianus.

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UD RUH

AND

THE

SOUTHE RN

FR ON TI ER

A .C . K illick Ramsey E xcavations a nd s urvey c onducted i n t he U druh r egion o f s outhern J ordan b etween 1 980 a nd 1 985 h ave y ielded a w ealth o f i nfor mation a bout t he d efensive f rontier t o t he e ast o f P etra. An i ntroduction t o t he t ypes o f s ites i s p resented a s a p recursor t o a n i ntended f ull p ublication with dates b ased o n t he s tratigraphy f rom t he excavations a t Udruh. This p reli minary a nalysis p resents n ewly l ocated s ites which i nclude r oads a nd walls, f orts a nd s ettlements, a nd watch t owers which s uggest a complex f rontier d efence. A t emporary camp i s t he f irst i dentified e xample o n t he e astern f ront ier.

I ntroduction I am a t a v ery p reparatory s tage i n t he a nalysis o f a mass o f d ata r esulting f rom f ive f ield s easons a t t he s ite o f U druh i n s outhern J ordan . T he mass o f f inds a nd f ield r ecords - s till i n t ransit - awaits d etailed a nalysis, f rom which m ore f irmly e stab lished d ates f or my work s houid emerge . T he f indings t herefore t hat I am g oing t o p resent a re n ot t he whole p icture b ut a n i ntroduction t o t he k ind o f material r emains which we h ave b een f inding a nd s ome s uggestions a s t o t heir i mportance i n a ny a nalys is o f t he d efence o f s outhern J ordan i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods. U druh/Udhru l ) l ies 1 20 kms n orth o f t he Red S ea p ort o f Aqaba, 2 0 k ms n orth-west o f Ma'an a nd 1 2kms e ast o f P etra a t a h eight o f a round 1 300m a bove s ea l evel. I t h as a ttracted s ettlement t hroughout a ntiquity b ecause o f i ts g eographic l ocation a nd t he p erennial s pring ( the s trongest i n t he a rea) which i s u sed t o i rrigate t he b road p lain which s tretches o ut i nto t he d esert t o t he e ast. I n t he N abataean p eriod i t was a n i mportant c aravan s top f or t rade c oming f rom A ila w hich d id n ot w ish t o n egotiate t he s teep r oute d own t o Wadi Musa a nd P etra, b ut w ished t o p roc eed d irectly n orth t o D amascus. I n t he Roman a nd B yzantine p eriods i t was a s trongly d efended f rontier t own a nd p robable m ilitary g arrison ( Appendix O ne). T he n orth a nd s outh walls a re 2 46m a nd 2 48m l ong w ith s ix p rojecting t owers w hile t he west a nd e ast walls a re 1 77m a nd 2 07m l ong w ith f our p rojecting t owers. E ach c orner h as a h orse-shoe s haped p rojecting t ower. Outside

4 31

the south-west corner tower is a Byzantine church and within the town is an Ot t oman f or t ( P l • 24.1 ). A long stretch of the south wall has been exposed by excavation standing up to 7m high (Pl. 24.2). There is no archaeological evidence yet to suggest a foundation date for the original walls after the Trajanic era. The towers were rebuilt and restructured up to the end of the sixth century AD. Several construction phases in the gateway area can serve to illustrate the continued use of the fortifications up to the end of the Byzantine period. Since the sixth century AD when the illustrated tower was rebuilt the fortifications have not been significantly altered. Similar continuity of use of the fortifications can be seen in the block­ ing of the opposite gateway on the north wall of the town where there is a well constructed 3m high blocking wall (Pl. 24.3). The threshold of the original gateway is still in situ and is heavily g r o o v e d wit h w he e l t r a ck s • Hi n g e s o cke tsandace nt ra l bolt hole are evidence of two large wooden gates in the earliest period. The area encircled by the modern roads from Shobek to Ma'an to Ail to Wadi Musa was surveyed at the same time as the excavation of the main site of Udruh. Apart from a handful of known sites this area had never been the subject of detailed archaeological reconnaissance. The definite remains of three roads are illust­ r ated (Fi g • 2 4 • 1 ) t o g e t h e r w i t h c le a r w a ll r em a i n s • To a v o id a palimpsest of little dots, not marked on the map are the two hundred sites which have been-round in this area of approximately 800 sq kms. In considering the frontier defensive system in our survey area I distinguish three types of monuments which we have found: 1. Roads and walls; 2. Forts and settlements; 3. Watch­ towers. l.

Roads and Walls

The accurate location of the Via Nova Traiana was a problem for­ historians in their analysis()fthe Udruh frontier sector. I .consider the problem of which of several roads is the Via Nova Traiana essentially irrelevant to the discussion of a defensive system for which a network of horizontal and vertical support roads is a basic element. However, milestones close to Jerba (Pl. 24.4), 2km north of Udruh, do confirm the line of a Roman road, which is probably the Via Nova Traiana, and there is an inscription in Greek on a wayside altar set up by a traveller who was g r a t e f u l t o ha ve r e a ch e d P e t r a a t t h i s s p ot ( 8 � o 1, , '1:o L ,

e�

ya,r, 11, O.AAoOa.?CT]' ev8a. er,(; Il-e1:pa.Y [ • • •] µ r, o, Ka"t'ayoµevo L ,, e-G xa.pLO'troV ouv £01,0,: BrUnnow and von Domaszewski 1904: 463). The most extensive limestone quarries in Jordan discovered in 1980, are located between the milestones and Udruh, and they may well b e t h e qu a r r i e s me n t io n e d i n t h e p a p y r u s f r om Ka r a n is (Bowersock 1983: 81) as being worked in AD 107 perhaps i·n connec­ tion with the Via Nova Traiana. While only three definite road sectors are illustrated (Fig. 24 ·• 1 ), t he r e is s u f f i ci e n t e v id e n c e f r om t h e lo c a t io n of new 432

P l.

2 4.1

A erial p hotograph o f U druh, l ooking t o t he s outh-east. ( Courtesy o f D r R . C leave, W idescreen P ictorial A rchive)

o

1 -_ . 2 33 -

F ig.

2 4.1

T he s urvey a rea i s l i mited t o w ithin t he modern r oad l ine . T he b ox ( top l eft) marks t he s ize o f e ach o f t he a erial p hotographs u sed i n t he f ield.

4 33

P l.

2 4.2

E xternal v iew o f t he t own wall o f U druh, w ith b locked n orth g ate a nd p rojecting i nterval t ower.

P l.

2 4.3

E xcavations w ithin t op r ight.

t he

t own,

4 34

n orth g ate b locking o n

t he

P l.

2 4.4

P l.

M ilestones a nd a way-side a ltar. d istance.

2 4.5

C ontinuous

wall/road

4 35

t o

t he

U druh v isible

s outh o f U druh .

i n t he

t owers a nd f orts t o c onfir m t wo n orth-south r oads c rossing o ur s urvey a rea. O ne r uns f rom S adaqa t hrough A il a nd f ollows t he e dge o f t he e scapment w ith a b ranch r oad d own t o P etra a nd t hen u p t o N egl a nd b eyond, while t he o ther, which i s c learer, r uns t hrough A il u p t o U druh a nd o n t o D a 'janiya. Mention must a lso b e made o f a p ossible r oad U druh-Negl. A t l east t hree r oads r un e ast-west a cross t he c entral s urvey a rea j oining t hese n orths outh r outes. While a m yriad o f s maller s upply r oads w hich m ust h ave j oined t owers a nd s mall f armsteads c an b e s uggested, t hese w ere p erhaps n ever more t han c onsolidated d irt t racks, a nd t heref ore w ould n ot b e e xpected t o s urvive t he r avages o f t ime . P articularly p roblematic i n i dentifying R oman r oads i n t he a rea a re t he l ong s tretches o f c ontinuous w alling o r p ossible p loughed u p r oads ( Pls. 2 4 .5 a nd 6 ) . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he major w all l ine which r uns o n d own b eyond S adaqa i s o f I slamic d ate, b ut i n c ertain s ectors c eramics i ndicate a R oman c onstruction. S everal s tretches o f wall s eem t o l ink t owers i n v antage p osit ions o n t he h illside. When I am a ble t o a nalyse t he material f rom t hese s ites a djacent t o t he walling, we w ill b e a ble t o d istinguish which o f t hese s tructures c an b e c onsidered a s R oman r oads o r p erhaps e ven R oman walls. T he manpower r equired t o c onstruct t hese walls a nd t he t owers ( which s eem o ften t o b e a ssociated) s uggest t hat t hey were d el i berate d efensive s tructures. I t i s p ossible t hat a nalysis o f t hese s everal w alls a nd r oads m ight s how t heir i ntegral p osition i n t he o verall d efensive s trategy o f t he r egion . I t i s c ertainly t oo e arly t o s uggest t hat a ny o f t hese w alls f orm a f ixed d efensive f rontier i n t he R oman o r B yzantine p eriods a s e lsewhere i n t he Empire, b ut l ooking a t t hese i llustrations i t i s p erhaps worth m entioning t he F ossatum A fricae i n N umidia w hich i s g enerally a greed t o b e o f H adrianic f oundation ( AD 1 17-38). T he F ossatum A fricae c onsists o f a s hallow o bstacle d itch 2 .3-3.4m d eep a nd a wall 2 -2.5m h igh which h as b een i dentified o ver a d istance o f 7 50 kms a long t he e dge o f t he S ahara i n modern . A lgeria . G ichon p ointed o ut i n 1 963 ( :201) t hat a r elatively shallow d itch a nd l ow wall c ould s uffice t o d iscourage d esert r aiders whose t actics r ely o n s peed a nd s urprise. L iterary r ecords a lso a ttest t o t he f act t hat t he F ossatum A fricae was s uccessful a s a f rontier b arrier, s ince a s l ate a s AD 5 34 J ustinian o rdered t he F ossatum t o b e c onsolidated a nd manned ( Luttwj .k 1 976: 1 73). 2 .

F orts a nd

s ettlements

T he s econd t ype o f monument I d istinguished i n t he f rontier s ystem was f orts a nd s ettlements. T he main s ite o f U druh h as a lready b een b riefly d escribed b ut j ust 2 km t o t he s outh-west, a round t he b ase o f t he h ighest h ill i n t he a rea, i s a r ectangular e nclosure t hat c ould b e a c onstruction c amp f or U druh o r e ven a n a rmy marching c amp o r p ractice c amp ( Pl. 2 4.7). T he c laviculae g ateways - t hat i s t o s ay t he c urved h orn-like e xtensions o f t he r ampart which p rojected o utside o f t he e ntrance s o a s t o c ompel a ttackers t o e xpose t heir u nshielded s ide t o t he d efenders - a re

4 36

P l.

2 4.6

Continuous St ructure.

wall

t o

t he

P l.

2 4.7

T el Abara. T he l ines t he t op o f t he h ill.

s outh

o f

4 37

o f

Udruh

w ith

t he c amp c an b e

a djacent

s een a round

c ommon o n marching c amps i n B ritain w here t hey a re F lavian d evice ( AD 6 9-96). T he e nclosure a lso c onnected w ith a wall o r r oad r unning t o U druh ( Pl. a t p resent r esearching o ther f ort p arallels i n t he M äsada's R oman c amps).

i nvariably a s eems t o b e 2 4.8). I am Empire ( e.g.

T he l ine o f t he r oad c an b e t raced p ositively t o t he s outh w here a t A bu D anna t he n ext n ew f ort i s i dentified c lose t o t he s pring s ource ( Pl. 2 4 .9). I ts w alls w ere c onstructed f rom w ell d rafted a shlars a nd i t s eems t o b e o f r egular c onstruction. I t d oes n ot h ave c lear s ight l ines b ut i t i s r inged b y a n etwork o f t owers o n t he h illtops. T he n ext f ort t o t he s outh i n o ur s urvey a rea i s A il, o f which, s adly, l ittle s urvives. Moving n orth o n t he A in M usa r oad a nother n ew f ort i s l ocated a t J ebel e l B eitan where t he i dentification a s a f ort i s l ess s ecure a nd p erhaps t he s ite s hould r ather b e c alled a f ortlet o r a watch t ower. T he d istinction b etween a f ort a nd a f ortified f armstead ( and i ndeed s ometi mes a l arge watch-tower) was d ifficult t o make a t m any s ites a s ( Pl. 2 4.10) i n t he f oothills t o t he n orth-west o f U druh w here a r egular s quare walled s tructure c ould v ery e asily b e d escribed a s e ither a f ort o r a f ortified f ar mstead. T he p roblem o f a rchaeological t erminology f or t hese monuments c ould r eflect t he w ell a ttested e conomic c hanges o f t he a rmy d uring t he B yzantine p eriod i nto more o f a l ocally r ecruited a griculturally d ependent m ilitia . T here i s n o p roblem o f t erminology w ith i dentifying s ettlements a nd i rrigation s chemes . I n t he n orthern a rea o f t he s urvey t here a re n umerous l arge u nwalled s ettlements, a s f or e xample a t J erba . A n a erial p hotograph i s e ffective i n s howing t he s ize o f t he s ettlement, t he p osition o f a w atch t ower, t he e xtent o f i rrigat ion, a nd t he s igns o f a ncient c ultivation o n -t he e dge o f t he d esert. A l arge t own ( P1 2 4.11) i s s ituated f urther t o t he west i n t he h ills a bove a p erennial s pring which was o verflowing a t t he e nd o f J uly . A w all o r r oad r uns e ast d own o ver t he h illside , u ntil i t meets t he r oad r unning n orth f rom Udruh. I t i s . s urrounded b y h illsides which were t illed a nd t erraced i n a ntiq uity . T he c eramics a t t he s ite s uggest t hat a part f rom u se b y b eduin w ho h ave d ismantled s ome o f t he e arlier w alls t o c onstruct a nimal e nclosures, t he s ite i s l ittle c hanged s ince i ts B yzantine s ettlers d eparted . O n t he d esert s ide o f t he s urvey a rea s everal B yzantine t owns a nd a gricultural s ystems w ere l ocated . T he o ne a t J ebel a l T ahuna i s p articularly e xtensive w ith a c ontinuous r ampart o ver f our kms l ong a nd s tanding u p t o 2 .5m h igh . I t e ncloses a f arming a rea, a l arge t own a rea, a water c istern a nd a c omplex water c atchment s ystem c onnected t o a d am ( Pl. 2 4.12 - i n t he f oreground a nd o n t he f ar l eft). A g eological f ault o r a nticline o n t he e dge o f t he d esert was well r ecognised b y t he B yzantine s ettlers who b uilt t heir d am t here ( Pl. 2 4.13). T he u nderground water d rains d own f rom t he h ills t o t he w est u ntil i t r eaches t his i mpermeable g eological b arrier. T oday t he water i s e xploited b y p umping

4 38

P l.

2 4.8

A erial p hotograph ( 1.5 x 1 k ilometre) o f T ell Abara w hich i s t he r ectangular s tructure i n t he c entre o f t he p hotograph.

P l.

2 4.9

T he f ort a t Abu D anna.

4 39

u ndergound r eservoirs a nd t o Ma 'an. 3 .

i t

i s p iped

1 0 kms

t o t he s outh-east,

Watch-towers

W atch-towers a re t he t hird t ype o f m onument d istinguished i n t he f rontier s ystem . T owers a re t he m ost p rolific d efensive monument i n t he s urvey a rea w ith o ver 6 0 t owers f ound, s ome w ith s tanding w alls u p t o 3m h igh. T he t ower i n P l. 2 4.14 i s n ot v ery h igh t oday b ut i t c an s till b e c learly s een w ith t he n aked e ye s everal k ilometres away o n t he p lateau . T he v ast majority o f t he t owers a re i deally s ited w ith a c lear v iew n ot o nly t o t he n ext t ower i n t he c hain b ut, more i mportantly i t s eems, t o t he n ext b ut o ne t ower i n t he c hain. Where p ossible t he t owers h ave b een s o c onstructed a s t o g et a c lear v iew o f t he f ort a t U druh. U druh l ies o n t he p lateau c lose t o t he d esert a nd t he g eography o f t his a rea w ith t he h ills g radually d escending e astwards t o t he d esert i s i deal f or a d efensive t ower s ystem . U sing a g eographic model ( mainly f or e ase o f d escription) f our v ertical c hains o f t owers c an b e d istinguished, w ith a h andful o f e xceptions . T he western c hain r uns a long t he t op o f t he e scarpm ent a bove Wadi Musa, t he s econd c hain r uns f urther t o t he e ast i n t he i ntermediate f oothills, w hile t he t hird c hain r uns a long t he b ase o f t hose f oothills o n t he e dge o f t he a gricultural p lateau . T he f ourth c hain i s l ocated o n t hat s eries o f h ills b eside t he R oman r oad which r uns t hrough U druh. I n t hat l ast c hain o n t he e dge o f t he d esert t he p resence o f a s pring a ppears t o b e a n i mportant f actor i n a t owers' s iting a nd c onsequently, a s w ith t he t ower a t J erba, i t i s f requently c ombined w ith a n e xtensive c ontemporary s ettlement. T he h andful o f e xceptions t o t his model a re when f urther t owers h ave b een e stablished b etween t wo o f t he v ertical c hains t o p ermit h orizontal c ommunication a t t hat p oint. T his i s most f requent where g eographic f actors a ffect t he s ight l ines b et ween t he t wo c hains o f t owers. A n a dditional c hain b ut l ess c ertain c an b e s uggested l ying i n t he d esert t o t he f ar e ast o f t he s urvey a rea. A s was mentioned a bove t he d istinction b et ween f ort, f ortified f armstead o r watch-tower i s n ot e asy i n t he f ield ( Pl. 2 4.10). P erhaps t his i s t o b e e xpected w hen o ne c onsiders t hat t he b uilde rs were p robably t he s ame f or a ll t hree t ypes o f monument. I t s eems t hat t he t hree d istinctive f unctions were n ot a s c learly s eparate a nd d efined i n a ntiquity a s we would l ike t o make t hem t oday . A dditional s tructures o n t he t ower s ite e ither p re-dating o r p ost-dating t he u se o f t he watch-tower c an n ot o nly e rase o r d isguise a t ower c ompletely b ut t he s urface a rtifacts a ssociated w ith t he a dditional s tructures c an s uggest a f alse d ate f or t he u se o f t he watch-tower. While watch-towers o f v arious p eriods c an s urround a s ettlement s ite ( Pl. 2 4.11) i t i s f requently i mpossible o n t he b asis o f s urface a rchitecture o r a rtifacts t o s uggest t hat a t ower e xisted o n t he s ame s pot b efore t he e xtens ive s ettlement.

4 40

P l.

2 4.10

F ort o r f ortified w est o f U druh.

P l.

2 4.11

f armstead

L arge

i n

s ettlement

4 41

t he h ills

s ite.

t o

t he n orth-

P l.

2 4.12

J ebel

P l.

a l

T ahuna w ith

2 4.13

a c istern

D am a t J ebel

4 42

i n

t he

a l T ahuna.

f oregroudd .

P l. 2 4.14

P l.

2 4.15

T ower

E xcavations s tructures.

i n t he h ills

i n

1 9 8 5

4 43

on

t o t he west o f Udruh.

Tell

Udr uh.

I r on

I I

1 985 w as t he f irst t i me t hat o ur l i mited f inances p ermitted u s t o e xcavate o ne t o wer which was c alled b y B runnow a nd v on D omaszewski - T ell U druh - a nd l ies j ust t o t he e ast o f t he main s ite o f U druh. E xcavations, a lthough r estricted b y a modern c emetery, e xposed a t wo-storied t ower s tructure o f R oman f oundat ion b uilt o n t op o f a n I ron I I s ettlement ( Pl. 2 4.13) where t he h ousing u nits a re c lear. I t h as n ot y et b een p ossible t o e xamine t he p ottery a nd s mall f inds i n a ny d etail b ut i t i s c lear f rom t he S m b y 3 0m t rench t hat w e h ave a n I ron I s ettlement t erraced o n t he h illside - i t i s s i milar t o T awi I an b oth i n t he s ize o f t he h ousing u nits a nd t he method o f wall c onstruction ( waterr olled s mooth s tones w ith m ud f ill) . I nterestingly, b ut I am n ot s ure y et h ow s ignificant - t he s uperstructure o n t he s tone w all f oundations f ormed a t hick a sh d eposit ( up t o a metre t hick) w ith l arge p ieces o f b urnt w ood i n s itu . Conclusion T hree t ypes o f Roman a nd B yzantine d efensive s ites h ave b een d istinguished i n t he s urvey a rea a nd I h ave p resented h ere a n i ntroduction t o t hose t ypes a nd, I h ope, t o t heir i mportance i n a ny u nderstanding o f t he d efences o f t his r egion. O ur f indings c learly s how t hat t he monuments i n t he U druh r egion w ere t hose o f a f rontier d efence-in-depth. T his s upports t he l ater v iew o f P rofessor B owersock ( 1976, a fter 1 971) w ho c onsiders t he A rabian f rontier n ot a s a s trictly d emarcated l ine b ut r ather w ith t he t erm ' limes ' t o d esignate t he e ntire f rontier r egion . T his v iew a nd o ur f indings a re a t v ariance w ith D r P arker who w rites ( 1985 : 7 6) o f a f ixed f rontier w ith t he V ia N ova T raiana i tself s erving a s t he f ortified f rontier i n t he p re-Diocletianic e ra - t his c learly d oes n ot a pply t o t he U druh s ector o f t he A rabian f ront ier. On t he o ther h and i t would b e n ice t o i nterpret t he m arching c amp a t T ell A bara a nd a ssociated walls - a nd t owers w ith t he o ther f ixed f rontiers i n t he Empire, b ut I b elieve t hat w hen w e c omplete t he d etailed a nalysis o f t he s everal w alls a nd r oads i n t he a rea w e w ill s ee t heir i ntegral p osition w ithin t he o ver. a ll d efensive s trategy f or t he a rea a s a whole a nd n ot a s a s ingle f ixed b arrier.

A ppendix C ee H istorical r eferences t o U druh/Udhruh ( Roman a nd B yzantine) 2 nd c entury A D . 6th c entury A D

7 th c entury A D

e l Apoü

-

ä öapa .

-

P tolemy, G eog. V .16.4. R ebuilding b y J abala i bn H arith ( Hamza a l I sfahani, B eirut e d. 1 961: 1 00). S teven o f B yzantium X VIII.18 . B eersheba e dict ( C ler mont-Ganneau, 1 906: 4 12). A D 6 30, U druh s ends d elegation t o P rophet ( Yaqut a l H amawi) . A D 6 58, U druh i s ac onference c ent re f or Muawiya i bn a bi S ofian a nd

4 44

8 th c entury A l )

2 6(P0A)

1 0th c entury A D

P ublications o n 1 982 1 983

1 983 1 983 1 986

K halif A li i bn a bi T a ub ( alT abari, 1 .3341). A D 7 19, C hurch mosaic d epiction ( Revue B i b1i que 1 938 a nd L i b er A nnuus 1 985). U druh i s t he h ome o f a monk F ather Mousa i bn a l-Haki m ( ZDMG L I: 4 54). N umerous f urther r eferences i n I sl am ic h istorians/geographers.

A ppendix Two t he s urvey/excavations a t U druh

U druh, 1 980 a nd 1 981 s easons. A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan XXVI: 4 15-6 . U druh - 1 980, 1 981, 1 982 s easons, a p reli minary r eport. A nnual o f t he D epart ment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan X XVII: 2 31-44 . U druh, T he F rontier o f a n Empire . L evant X V : 10-31. L iber A nnuus X XXIII: 4 10-11. U druh - e ine a ntike S tatte v or d en T oren P etras. I n M . L indner ( ed.) P etra n eue A usgrabungen u nd E ntd eckungen . B ad W indshei m — ( Delp V erlag) .

F orthcom ing 1 986 U druh 1 986 U druh 1 986 U druh

1 983 . L iber A nnuus. 1 985 . A rchiv f ür O rientsforchung . a nd t he N abataeans. I llustrated L ondon N ews.

U druh A D 6 00-60: B ilad e sh S ham c onference, Amman U niversity, 1 985. U druh a nd t he N abataean T rade R oute: C aravan C ities c onference, P etra, 1 985. I n P reparation: T he S urvey i n t he U druh r egion . F inal r eport o n t he work a t U druh

1 980-1985 .

B ibliography B OWERSCCK ,

G .W .

B RÜNNOW , R .E. a nd V ON D CMASZEWSKI, A .

1 971

A R eport o n A rabia P rovincia . J ourn al o f R oman S tudies 6 1: 2 19-42 .

1 976

L imes A rabicus. H arvard S tudies C lassical P hilology 8 0 : 2 19-29 .

1 983

R oman A rabia . C ambridge, v ard U niversity P ress).

1 904

D ie P rovincia TTTubner).

4 4 . 5

A rabia.

Mass

i n

( Har-

S trassburg

G ICHON, M .

L UTTWAK,

P ARKER ,

E .N.

S .T.

1 963

R oman f rontier c ities i n t he N egev . I n Quintus Con lressus I nternat ionalis L i mitis Romani S tudios orum : 1 97-207. Z agreb.

1 976

T he G rand S trategy o f t he R oman E mpire : F rom t he F irst C entury AD t o t he Third. Balti more ( John H opkins U niversity P ress).

1 985

R eview o f G .W . B owersock, R oman A rabia . B ulletin o f t he American S chools o f O riental R esearch 2 58: 7 5-7.

4 46

25.

DI D

HADRI AN

ABAND ON

ARABI A?

J ames L ander S urrey While a ncient s ources a re e xplicit a bout t he f act t hat H adrian w ithdrew R ome 's d irect c ontrol f rom c ertain o f t he a reas which T rajan h ad c onquered a nd a nnexed i n t he E ast a nd b eyond t he D anube, t here i s n o s tatement t hat H adrian a bandoned n ewly-conquered A rabia i n t he s ame w ay . T he e vidence i s c ontradictory, s ome i ndicating t hat A rabia d id i ndeed c ontinue t o f unction a s a p rov ince o f t he Empire, y et o ther e vidence s uggests t hat H adrian c hose n ot t o c ontrol t he r egion d irectly w ith R oman a r ms, a nd A rabia may h ave e ffectively r emained b eyond Roman m ilitary o ccupation a nd a dministration u ntil t he r eign o f S epti mius S everus. T he t itle o f t his p aper, ' Did H adrian A bandon A rabia? ', i s i n t he f orm o f a q uestion f or t wo r easons. F irst, c ircumstances h ave l im ited m/ a ccess t o c urrent r esearch, s o Ic ome t o t his C ol l oq uium more t o l earn t han t o i nfor m . S econd, t he q uestion-for m a cknow ledges t he f act t hat b y f ocusing o n a n arrow t i me-span a nd a r emote, b arely i nvestigated a rea, o ne s o r educes t he r elevant e vidence a s t o make a ny s ort o f h ypothesis p lausible i f o ne i s w illing t o a rgue f rom n egative e vidence. N o s uch h ypothesis, t herefore, i s s eriously o ffered, a nd I r emain k eenly aware t hat w e c annot l ean t oo h eavily o n t he f act t hat c ertain f or ms o f e vidence a re a t p resent m issing o r ambiguous. H aving s aid t hat, t he q uestion n evertheless i nterested m e w hen I . was t rying t o d iscover w hy t here a ppeared t o b e n o R oman f ortific ations a long t he A rabian f rontier which c ould b e a ssigned t o t hat g reat b uilder o f f rontier f ortifications, t he Emperor H adr ian ( 1!7-138) . T he t ype o f f ortifications w hich h e c onstructed i n B ritain, a long t he R hine a nd D anube,and i n N orth A frica, a re q uite a bsent i n A rabia, e specially w here o ne m ight h ave e xpected t hem , a long t he a ncient t rade r oute t o Aqaba, t he r oute c losely f ollowed b y T rajan 's V ia N ova. S ince e arly i n t his c entury, t he f orts a long t he V ia N ova h ave b een k nown i n p ublication, a nd i t h as b een a ssumed t hat t he R omans b uilt a nd c ontinuously o ccupied a t l east s ome o f t hem f rom t he t i me o f T rajan u ntil t he A rab C onquest ( Brünnow a nd v on D omaszewski 1 904-09: p assi m). I n r ecent y ears t he s urfacep ottery s urvey c onducted b y D r T homas P arker h as b een i nterpreted

4 47

t o s uggest c ontinuous

t hat f rom

t he o ccupation o f s ome o f t hese s ites w as t he t i me o f T rajan ( Parker 1 979: 2 19-22).

i ndeed

H owever, t here i s n o d irect e pigraphic e vidence t o c onfir m t hat a ny o f t hese f orts a long t he V ia N ova was b uilt o r o ccupied b y t he R omans u ntil t he t i me o f S eptimius S everus. T his f act i s n ot o verpowering i n v iew o f t he l ack o f e vidence, b ut o ne c an a dd t hat t ypologically t here i s n othing t o c onnect t he d esign o f a ny o f t hese f orts w ith t he d esigns o f T rajanic a nd H adrianic f ortif ications o n o ther f rontiers ( Lander 1 984: 1 5-20, 4 9-66). I n s hort, t here i s n o d irect e vidence t hat t he R omans a dded t heir o wn c onstructions t o t he N abataean l ine o f f ortifications a long t his a ncient r oute, u ntil S everus' r eign. Whether b efore t he S everan p eriod t he R omans made u se o f t hese N abataean s ites i s, o f c ourse, a nother q uestion. A t p resent, t he p ottery e vidence g ives n o d ependable a nswer, p artly b ecause t he c hronological c ategories a re n ot y et s ufficiently r efined t o d istinguish i mmed iately p re-annexation a nd T rajanic p ottery f rom H adrianic p ottery ( Parker 1 979: 2 19-22), a nd p artly b ecause p ottery f ound a round t hese f orts ( whoever b uilt t hem) m ight a s e asily h ave b een d eposited b y T rajanic r oad-builders a s b y H adrianic o ccupationf orces, a nd t he d eposition c ould a lso b e a scribed t o t he n ormal t raffic o f merchants a nd c aravaneers: f or, h owever much t he t rade r outes t hrough t he S inai a nd P al myra may h ave d eveloped d uring t his p eriod, t he l and r oute f rom Aqaba t o t he c ities o f S yria w ould s urely c ontinue t o r eceive c onsiderable u se . I f o ne a l l ows f or t he moment t hat f ort-typology a rgues a gainst a ny T rajanic o r H adrianic f ort-constructions a long t he V ia N ova, t hat n o e pigraphic e vidence h as y et b een f ound t o c ontradict t his, a nd t hat t he p ottery e vidence i s n ot c onvincing e ither w ay, o ne c an a dd t hat t here i s a lso a l ack o f e vidence r egarding t he f orces w hich w ould g arrison s uch a l ine o f f ortifications . L eavi ng a side a s i rrelevant t he d ebate o ver which l egionary a nd a uxiliary f orces were i nvolved i n t he i nitial a nnexation o f t he p rovince b y T rajan, t he e vidence r egarding t he o ccupation f orces i s, i n e ffect, m issing f or t he r eign o f H adrian . P rof. S peidel's s tudies s hed t he m ost l ight o n t he p roblem , y et i n t he a bsence o f r elevant m ilitary d iplomas o r a ny o ther h istorical o r e pigraphic i nformation, h is a rgument f or t he c omposition o f o ccupation f orces i n t he e arly d ecades f ollowing t he a nnexation a nd c omplet ion o f t he V ia N ova i s e ntirely i n n egative f or m, w ith s uggestions a GJUT 7 1 777iia r egiments w hich m ight h ave e nded u p i n A rabia a fter l eaving a k nown l ocation, o r which p erhaps l eft A rabia t o e nd u p i n a k nown l ocation, b ut n ever k nown t o b e l ocated p ermanently i n A rabia u ntil t he r eign o f S everus ( Speidel 1 977: 6 99-717). R egarding t he main l egion o f t he p rovince, t he II C yrenaica, K ennedy h as woven t ogether a dmittedly t hin e vid ence t o a rgue r ather c onvincingly t hat t he l egion w as p ulled o ut o f A rabia e arly i n H adrian's r eign, a nyway b y 1 19; t hough h is a rgument f or i ts r eplacement b y t he V I F errata a nd i ts l ater r eturn b et ween 1 23 a nd 1 26 i s b ased o n e ven t hinner e vidence ( Kennedy 1 980b). W e h ave, o f c ourse, n o r eason t o d oubt t hat t he II C yrenaica was f ir mly e nsconced i n B ostra f rom e arly i n t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius, b ut w e m ight w onder w hy t he e vidence f or

4 48

.

t his 4 ).

emplacement

o nly

t hen

b ecomes

a bundant

( Speidel

1 977:

6 91-

W hatever t he s ituation u p i n B ostra, r egarding t he V ia N ova f urther s outh o nly n egative e vidence h as b een o ffered s o f ar f or t he n otion t hat H adrian may h ave s uspended t he m ilitary o ccupat ion o f t his z one. I s t here a ny p ositive e vidence f or s uch a s a bandonment? F irst o f a ll, i t must b e s aid t hat t here i s a bundant e vidence t hat H adrian d id n ot a bandon A rabia a s a p rovince. H e d id, o f c ourse, c ompletely a bandon o ther o f T rajan 's r ecent a nnexations, t hose e ast o f t he E uphrates; a nd h e a pparently c onsidered f or a t ime d oing t he s ame w ith D acia ( SHA H adr. V .3-4; X I.1; XXI.10-12; E utropius B rev., V III.6.2). B ut t he a ncient s ources s ay n othing s im ilar a bout A rabia, a nd we k now t hat g overnors were a ppointed b y H adrian a nd t hat c oins were i ssued d uring h is r eign t estifying t o A rabia's s tatus a s a R oman p rovince. H owever, whi l e t he a ppointment o f g overnors a nd t he d eclarations o f c oins a re e vid ence o f c ontinuing p rovincial s tatus f or s omething c alled ' Arabia', t his i s n ot p roof o f t he c ontinued Roman m il i tary o ccupation o f t he l ine o f f orts a long t he V ia N ova . H adrianic c oinage, w hile s howing A rabia t o b e a p rovince, r aises s ome q uestion a bout i ts m ilitary s tatus. H adrianic i ssues r ef erring t o A rabia may b e d ivided i nto t wo c ategories: t hose i ssued i n t he f irst t wo y ears o f H adrian 's r eign a nd t hose i ssued i n t he l ast t hree o r f our y ears o f h is r eign . T here a re n o c oinr eferences t o A rabia i n t he i ntervening f ifteen o r s o y ears, t hough t his f act i s n ot a s s ignificant a s i t f irst a ppears s ince m uch t he s ame t hing c ould b e s aid w ith r egard t o o ther p rovinces ( Kindler 1 983: 4 4; Mattingly 1 966: II, CLXXI-CLXXV). On t he r everse o f t he c oins i ssued s ometime b etween 17 a nd 19, A rabia i s d epicted h olding a s mall c hild i n e ach a rm ( Kindler 1 983: 1 02). What t his d ivision r epresents i s u nclear t o m e . I n t he l ast f our y ears o f h is r eign H adrian i ssued f our i nteresti ng s eries o f c oins which r elate t o t he p rovinces, a nd A rabia f igures s ignificantly i n s ome b ut n ot o thers. T here i s o ne . s eries o f ' Adventus ' c oins i n w hich A rabia a ppears among a l arge n umber o f o ther p rovinces; a nd, o f c ourse, we k now t hat H adrian d id i ndeed t ravel i n A rabia, a t l east t o a c ouple o f i ts n orthern t owns, ' i n t he w inter o f 1 29/130 ( Mattingly 1 966: 11.489; S HA H adr. X IV .4; K raeling 1 938: 3 90-1, n o.3). T here i s a nother c oin s eries, c alled t he ' Provincia ' t ypes, a nd A rabia i s m issing, b ut s o a re a t l east f our o ther k nown p rovinces, t hough we h ave n o e xplanation f or t hese omissions ( Mattingly i bid .: C LXXII-CLXXV). T hen t here a re t wo s eemingly p arallel i ssues, c alled b y Mattingly t he ' Exercitus' a nd t he ' Restitutor' t ypes. E ach s eparately r elates t o t welve p rovinces, a nd t hough a f ew p rovinces a re m issing f rom b oth s eries, o nly o ne i s l isted i n b oth. T his i s H ispania, H adrian 's h ome p rovince. I t i s t hought b y Mattingly t hat t he ' Exercitus' s eries r elates t o ' armed p rovinces' a nd t he ' Restitutor ' t o ' fully p acified ' p rovinces ( Ibid.: CLXXIV, 4 985 04, 5 18-25). A rabia a ppears i n t he l atter s eries - a nd o ne o f

4 49

s everal p ossible e xplanations f or t his i s t hat n ot a t t his p articular t i me s eriously e ngaged f rontiers o f t he p rovince .

t he R oman a rmy w as i n maintaining t he

R egarding t he g overnors, t hree o r p ossibly f our c an b e a scribed t o t he r eign o f H adrian ( Sartre 1 982: 7 7-120). T he f act t hat m uch o f t he l ittle e vidence w e h ave a bout t hese m en p laces t heir a ctivities i n P etra r ather t han i n B ostra h as l ed t o d ebate a bout w hich c ity s erved a s c apital a t t his t i me ( Yadin 1 971: 2 40, 2 489 ; B owersock 1 971: 2 31; 1 983: 7 8) . P etra e ven p rovided t he t omb o f o ne o f t he g overnors ( Brünnow a nd v on D omaszewski 1 904: I , 3 82). Yet t his h as n o r eal b earing o n t he q uestion o f t he m ilit ary o ccupation o f t he V ia N ova. A n i nscription f rom B ostra, w hich may h ave s ome b earing, i s d ated b y S peidel t o s ometi me b efore 1 98, a nd r elates t o t he e quites s ingulares p osted t here . S peidel h as p ointed o ut t hat ' it i s n oteworthy t hat t he s ingu lares a re h ere c alled t he g uard " of t he A rabian a rmy" r ather t han t he g uard o f t he g overnor. T his i s n owhere e lse t he c ase...' ( Speidel 1 977: 7 03-4; c f. S peidel 1 978: 8 , 1 2, 1 16). S ince t he i nscription may n ot b e H adrianic a t a ll, o ne h esitiates t o m ake much o f i t f or t he p resent q uestion, b ut s ince w e s eem t o h ave g overnors t hroughout t he p eriod t o which t he i nscription m ight b e a ssigned, o ne c annot h elp wondering why t he n ormal d esignation was n ot u sed. A nd why i s t he a rmy d escribed a s ' Arabian ' r ather t han b y i ts l egionary n ame? I f H adrian d id n ot maintain a p er manent m ilitary o ccupation o f t he f orts a long t he V ia N ova, w hat a rrangements d id h e make? We k now o f two i mportant c hanges i n t he d efence o f s outhern S yria d uring H adrian 's r eign . F irst, l egio V I F errata was r elocated t o t he J ezreel V alley s ometi me b efore t he J ewish R evolt o f 1 32-135 ( Keppie 1 973: 8 62-4); a nd we k now t hat n ew r oads were b uilt l inking l egionary b ases a t J ezreel a nd J erusalem - w ith t he n orthe rn s tretch o f t he V ia N ova . R ecently, a fter e xamining t his n ew r oad c onstruction a nd l ocal c oin s eries i n n orthern P alestine, I saac a nd R oll c oncluded t hat ' after 17 t he s trengthening o f t he . g arrison i n t he n orth o f J udaea was c ombined w ith t he h anding o ver o f l ocal a dministration t o n on-Jewish e lements ' ( Isaac a nd R oll 1 979: 6 4). F urther s outh, n o n ew r oad c onstruction was c arried o ut b y H adrian a long t he V ia N ova, t hough, o f c ourse, t here may s i mply h ave b een n o n eed t o a dd t o o r r epair t he work d one b y T rajan 's r oad-builders ( Thomsen 1 917: 8 9-90). L egio I II Cyrenaica i s n ot d efinitely a ttested i n B ostra u ntil e arly i n t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius ( Speidel 1 977: 7 03-11), w hich a lso h appens t o b e t he t i me when B ostra b egan a t l ast t o i ssue c ity-coinage u nder R oman r ule ( K indler 1 983: 2 7) . Whether o r n ot II C yrenaica was y et i n B ostra d uring H adrian's r eign, t he t wo l egions i n n orthern P alestine, w ith t heir n ew r oadc onnections t o t he V ia N ova, c ould i f n ecessary b ring f orce t o b ear t o a ssert R ome 's a uthority a long t he r oute t o A qaba. I n t hat a rea, d ay-to-day s ecurity c ould b e m aintained w ithout h aving o rdinary a uxiliary u nits s tationed a long t he r oute. • Native f orces - a n ' Arabian a r my' p erhaps - c ould h ave p rovided s uch p rotection, a s t hey h ad b efore T rajan a nnexed t he p rovince a nd a s

4 50

t hey would d o a gain t o s ome d egree i n t he L ate R oman a nd B yzant ine e ras. H adrian m ight well h ave p referred t o a llow A rab f orces t o p atrol t he r egion a round t he V ia N ova, n ot o nly t o c onserve Roman f orces, a s h e was wont t o d o, b ut a lso t o f ollow t he e xample o f C ato, w hom H adrian h imself a pparently w ould q uote t o t he e ffect t hat s ubject p eoples who c ould n ot b e h eld d own s hould b e m ade i ndependent ( SHA H adr. V .3). H adrian p referred t o o ffer f riendship t o'toparchs a nd k ings' ( SHA . H adr. X III.8). I t i s n ot s urprising t hat H adrian, w hile c onserving h is m ilitary f orces, would n ot h owever c hoose t o a bandon a ll o f A rabia a s a p rovince . C ertain N abataean c ities were b oth v aluable a nd c ont rollable, a nd were a lso l ess d angerous i nside t he empire t han o ut. T he p rovince a lso c ould c ontinue t o s erve t he p urpose o f b reaking u p t he f ormal a ssociation o f c ities k nown a s t he D ecap olis, o f w hich A rabia h ad r eceived a s hare ( Bowersock 1 983: 9 2; c f. S HA H adr. X IV .1). T hat H adrian p reserved t he p rovince i n s ome f or m i n o rder t o a void h ostile r epercussions i n R ome i s p ossible, i f d oubtful: i t i s h ard t o i magine a ' , lobby ' f or A rabia l ike t hat which a pparently e xisted f or D acia.' Y et e ven i n D acia H adrian a pparently a bandoned t he e astern t hird o f T rajan's c onquests, p referring t o e stablish g ood r elations w ith l ocal r ulers i n Wallachia a nd s outhern Moldavia ( Cataniciu 1 978: 2 73-5). T he i mportant G reek a nd N abataean i nscription f rom R uwwafa i n t he H ejaz, d ating t o Marcus A urelius' r eign, g ives e vidence t hat a g overnor o f A rabia a t t hat t i me h ad a s o ne o f h is f unctions t he t ask o f r estoring p eace among warring f actions w ithin a c onfederation o f A rab t ribes. T his a ction, t aken o nly t hirty y ears a fter H adrian 's r eign, was h ardly a ltruistic, b ut s hows t he i mportance which t he R omans a ttached t o maintaining s tability w ithin t his c onfederation ( Bowersock 1 983: 9 6-7). S uch a p olicy c ould well h ave b een employed b y H adrian . T o s ummarise: i t s eems p ossible t hat t he r eason w hy n o H adrianic f ort-types a ppear a long t he V ia N ova, why n o i nscriptions a ttest s uch c onstructions, w hy n o d iplomas o r o ther e vidence g ive c er— t ain i ndication o f t he p resence o f a uxiliary u nits i n t he a rea d uring H adrian 's r eign, why e pigraphic a nd c oin e vidence f or t he p resence o f II C yrenaica i n B ostra b ecomes d efinite o nly i n t he r eign f ollowing H adrian 's, a nd why A rabia d oes n ot f igure among t he ' armed p rovinces ' c ommemorated i n H adrianic c oinage - p ossibl y t h? r eason f or a ll t his i s a s i mple g ap i n o ur d ata, o r i t m ight b e a g ap i n t he p olicy o f m ilitary c ontrol. T he r eign i n w hich s ome R oman f orts a re c ertainly c onstructed a long t he V ia N ova a nd i n s trategic l ocations n orth a nd e ast o f t hat l ine, a nd i n which i nscriptions g ive s olid p roof o f t he p resence o f R oman a uxiliary u nits, i s t he r eign o f S ept i mius S everus ( Kennedy 1 980a). T he f ort-typology makes a l ot more s ense a s w ell ( Lander 1 984:

1 14-49). N otes

1 . Two c urrent e xcavations o f f ortifications a long t he V ia N ova c ould p rove o ther wise, b ut T homas P arker's work a t L ejjun i s e xpected t o s how t hat t he f ortress i s t horoughly T etrarchic, a nd

4 51

Ih ave n o d irect i nfor mation a bout A .C . K i 11i ck 's e xcavation a t U druh ( generally t hought t o b e a ' sister' s ite t o L ejjun), t hough B owersock ( 1983: 1 06, n . 4 5) s tates t hat t he p reli minary r eports b y K illick g ive e vidence o f a T rajanic d ate o f c onstruction . I f s o, t he e xtent o f t he c onstruction must y et b e a scertained, a nd c ertainly t he s ite must h ave b een h eavily r econstructed i n t he T etrarchic p eriod . [ See K illick*] 2 . T hough p robably u nrelated, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat o ne o f f our c onsulars e xecuted i n R ome o n c harges o f c onspiracy a t t he v ery b eginning o f H adrian 's r eign w as A . C ornelius P al ma, t he ' conqueror o f A rabia ' ( Dio LXIX .5 a nd S HA H adr. V II.1-3). B ibliography 1 971

A r eport o n A rabia P rovincia . J ourn al o f R oman S tudies 6 1: 2 19-42 .

1 983

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i n t he L ondon

26. EMB ASSI ES AS EVI DEN CE FOR THE MOVE MENT OF MI LI T ARY INTELLI GEN CE BET WEEN THE ROMAN AND SAS ANI AN EMPI RES A .D. L ee Cambridge

A lthough t he a vailability o f military i ntelligence a bout t he e nemy i s a n important f actor i n any p ower's d efence o f i ts i nterests, t he r ole o f s uch i nformation i n t he r elations o f t he Roman Empire with i ts n eighb ours h as been n eglected. This n eglect i s p erhaps a ttributable t o t he d ifficulties o f e stablishing t he e xistence and movement o f s uch i nformation i n t he abs ence o f a ny o bvious d ocumentary e vidence, s uch a s i ntelligence r eports. L ess d irect approaches t o t his p roblem a re, h owever, a vailable, a nd t his p aper a i ms t o d emonstrate o ne s uch a pproach, i n t he c ontext o f R omanS asanian r elations. T he movement o f m ilitary i ntelligence i n b oth d irect ions b etween t he t wo empires c an b e s hown b y a n e xami nation o f c ertain embassies s ent i n t he f ourth a nd s ixth c enturies. T he a im o f t hese embassies was t o f orestall a ggression b y t he o ther empire, a nd s o t heir d espatch i s p redicated o n t he r eceipt o f p rior i nformat ion concerning t he e nemy 's p lans. The movement o f m ilitary i ntelligence i n a ntiquity c an t herefore s omet imes b e t raced b y l ooking f or t he r esponses s uch i nformation p rovoked. I n c onsidering t he d efence o f t he R oman Empire 's e astern f ront ier,.it i s n atural t hat h istorians s hould p articularly d irect t heir a ttention t owards t he r ole o f f ortifications a nd m ilitary i nstallations, f or a nalySis o f which a bundant material r emains a re a vailable . I n f ocusing o n t he a rchaeological e vidence, h owe ver, i t i s p ossible t o n eglect a nother d i mension o f d efence w hich c an p lay a c rucial p art i n a ny p ower's a bility t o p rotect i ts i nterests - n amely, t he r ole o f m ilitary i ntelligence . A dv ance k nowledge o f e nemy a ggression, s uch a s i nformation c oncerni ng t he marshalling o f t roops a nd s upplies, c an a ssist i mmeasura bly i n t he e ffective u se o f a rmed f orces a nd d efences t o m eet a n i mm inent

i nvasion.

T he r ole o f s uch i nformation i n t he r elations o f t he R oman Empire W ith n eighbouring p eoples h as, h owever, r eceived s cant a ttention,

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w hile a r ecent a rticle w hich d oes r ecognise t he n eed t o c onsider i ts r ole c oncludes t hat v ery l ittle s uch i nformation w as a vaila ble t o R oman d ecision-makers ( M illar 1 982: 1 5-20) . A ll t his i s p erhaps a r eflection o f t he f act t hat i nformation o f t his n ature i s a n e lusive p henomenon, t races o f w hich a re n ot a t f irst s ight r eadily a pparent i n a ncient t esti mony . C ertainly n o d ocumentary e vidence o f o bvious r elevance, s uch a s i ntelligence r eports, h as s urvived . B ut while d irect w ays o f d ealing w ith t he s ubject m ay s eem u nproductive, e nquiries f rom m ore o blique a ngles h ave g reate r p otential a nd i t i s t he p urpose o f t his s hort p aper t o s uggest o ne s uch i ndirect l ine o f a pproach, i n t he c ontext o f R omanS asanian r elations. T he l ine o f a pproach i n q uestion f ocuses o n t he e xchange o f e mbassies b etween t he t wo empires. T he u nofficial f unction o f e mbassies a s i nstruments f or t he g athering o f i nforTation was c learly r ecognised b y b oth t he R omans a nd S asanians,' b ut i t i s n ot t his a spect o f embassies w ith which I am h ere c oncerned. R ather i t i s t he way i n which t he v ery d espatch o f c ertain emb assies i mplies t hat t here w as movement o f i nformation b etween t he t wo empires. T he a ncient s ources w hich r ecord t he d espatch o f t he embassies u sually d o n ot s tate e xplicitly t hat t here w as s uch movement o f i nformation. B ut when t hey i ndicate t hat a n e mbassy was s ent i n o rder t o d issuade t he r uler o f t he o ther e mpire f rom l aunching a n i nvasion, i t i s a pparent t hat t he emb assy i s a r esponse - a r esponse t o a dvance k nowledge o f t he i mm inent a ttack . T hus p rior m ovement o f i nformation i s i mplicit i n t he d espatch o f t he embassy . F our c ases - t wo f rom t he f ourth c entury a nd t wo f rom t he s ixth - d emonstrate t his. I b egin w ith a n i ncident c oncerning which s urviving a ncient t estimony p rovides o nly t he b roadest o utlines . T his s carcity o f d etail h as r esulted i n u ncertainty a bout t he o bjectives b ehind t he Emperor C onstantine 's d ecision d uring t he w inter o f 3 36/7 t o b egin p reparations f or a c ampaign a gainst P ersia ( Euseb., VC I V.56; Anon. V al. 6 .35; B arcelö 1 981: 8 0f). 2 B ut whatever h is . o bjectives, t he a rrival i n Constantinople o f aP ersian embassy w hose p urpose was t o d issuade Constantine f rom h is i ntended c ampaign i ndicates t hat t he P ersians h ad s omehow l earned o f R oman p reparations ( Euseb., VC I V .57 [ chapter h eading]; L ibanius, O r. L IX .71f; F estus, B rev:— XXVI). C onstantine d ismissed t he P ersian p lea b ut h is d eath i n May 3 37 p revented i mplementation o f t he p lan. T he Emperor J ulian l ikewise f ound i t i mpossible t o k eep k nowledge o f h is p reparations t o i nvade P ersia f rom r eaching s urrounding p eoples. E arly i n 3 63 h e r eceived e nvoys f rom p luri mae g entes, a ll o ffering h elp o n t he f orthcoming e xpedition . J ulian 's c ourt eous r efusal o f a ll s uch -o ffers ( Amm . Marc. XXIII.2.1) s hows t hat t he o ffers h ad b een made o n t he i nitiative o f t he n eighbouri ng p eoples t hemselves. K nowledge o f R oman p reparations f or a n i nvasion o f P ersia must t herefore h ave b een w idespread. T his k now ledge u ndoubtedly e xtended a s f ar a s C tesiphon, f or l ate i n 3 62 a message a rrived i n A ntioch r equesting t he r eception o f 4 P ersian embassy s o t hat d ifferences c ould b e s ettled p eacefully .'

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J ulian s howed n o h esitation i n r ejecting t his p roposal. B ut h e w ent f urther a nd s ent b ack h is own message: T here was n o n eed f or ambassadors - S apor w ould s oon s ee h im i n p erson ( Libanius, O r. XV111.164). C learly, J ulian s aw n o p oint i n t rying t o p ret end t hat n othing was a foot. G iven t he s cale o f p reparations f or h is c ampaign, i t would h ave b een s urprising i ndeed i f t he P ers ians h ad n ot h ad s ome s ort o f f orewarning o f R oman p lans. I n b oth t hese c ases, t herefore, t he s ending o f a n embassy b y t he P ersians i mplies p rior movement o f i nfor mation t o t hem a bout Raman p reparations. Two f urther c ases f rom t he s ixth c entury r einforce t his p oint. I n 5 32 t he Emperor J ustinian h ad c oncluded a p eace t reaty w ith t he n ew P ersian monarch C hosroes, t hereby f reeing t roops f rom t he E ast f or t he R oman c ampaigns i n A frica a nd t hen I taly. B y t he e nd o f t he 5 30s, h owever, C hosroes h ad a pparently d ecided t hat h e c ould t ake a dvantage o f t he c ommitment o f R oman f orces e lsewhere t o r eassert S asanian a scendancy v is-à-vis t he R oman Empire . A lt hough a P ersian a ttempt i n 5 39 t o c ontrive a p retext f or war, t hrough i nstigating a d ispute o ver A rab g razing l ands b etween t he e mpires ( Procop., Wars I.1), p rovided a n i ndication o f P ersian i nclinations, P rocopius s tates t hat a t t he e nd o f 5 39 t he Romans s till d id n ot b elieve t hat t he P ersians would g o s o f ar a s t o b reak t he p eace t reaty o f 5 32 ( Procop., Wars 1.3.57). 4 B ut a t s ome p oint d uring t he w inter o f 5 39-40, J ustinian c learly r ec eived a dditional i nformation which i ndicated t o h im t hat a P ersian i nvasion was a r eal p ossibility. T his i s t he o nly c onc lusion t hat c an b e d rawn f rom h is d espatch o f A nastasius o f D ara t o t he P ersian c ourt b efore t he s pring o f 5 40. A nastasius c arried a l etter f rom J ustinian t o t he P ersian k ing i n w hich t he Emperor e ndeavoured t o d issuade C hosroes f rom p roceeding w ith h is i nvasion ( Procop. Wars 1.4.14-26). I t i s n ot n ecessary t o a ccept t hat t he a ctual t ext 2 f t he l etter which P rocopius p urports t o p rovide i s g enuine: t he embassy c learly was s ent a nd i ts p urpose w as u nequivocal. A nastasius ' m ission f ailed a nd t he e arly 5 40s s aw r enewed warfare b etween t he t wo empires. E ventually t his c onflict s ubsided i nto m anoeuvrings o ver t he C aucasian p rincipalities u ntil a t l ength a n ew p eace a greement w as r eached i n 5 61. T his p eace l asted f or a d ecade u ntil t he n ew R oman Emperor J ustin I d ecided t hat h e h ad m ore t o g ain b y d isregarding i t t han b y c ontinuing t o a dhere t o i t. A t t his p oint, a P ersian e nvoy S ebochthes a rrived i n C ons tantinople . H is o stensible p urpose was t o r equest t he n ext R oman p ayment s pecified b y t he t reaty o f 5 61, b ut a ccording t o M enander P rotector t he embassy was s ent b ecause C hosroes " was a fraid t hat, o n a ccount o f t he major [ Roman] p reparations, [ Justin] m ight mount a n i nvasion" ( fr.36 Müller). Menanderts a ccount o f S ebochthes ' a ssiduous e fforts t o d issuade J ustin f rom a ggression a gainst P ersia s upports t his i nterpretation . I n t hese ways, t herefore, t he d espatch o f e mbassies c an s ometimes b e u sed t o d educe t he m ovement o f i nformation i n b oth d irections b etween t he t wo empires. 6 T here i s, h owever, a p ossible o bjec-

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t ion t o t his l ine o f a pproach w hich d emands c onsideration . T he o bjection i s t his: i s i t n ot p ossible t hat a ll t he embassies d iscussed a bove were s ent w ith s ome o ther p urpose i n m ind? O n r eaching R oman o r P ersian t erritory, t hey b ecame aware o f e nemy m ilitary p reparations a nd s o, i n a ddition t o f ulfilling t heir o riginal a i m, t hey a lso t ried t o d issuade t he r uler i n q uestion f rom embarking o n a c ampaign a gainst t heir own e mpire . I f t his w ere t he c ase, t hen t he d eduction o f p rior i nformation-movement f rom t he d espatch o f t he embassy w ould b e r endered i nvalid . A c onsideration o f t his p ossibility m ust b egin w ith t he P ersian e mbassy o f 3 62. I t was t he p ractice o f b oth t he R omans a nd t he P ersians t o s end a head a message s tating t he g eneral p urpose o f a n embassy a nd r equesting i ts r eception, b efore t he embassy a ctually e ntered t he t erritory o f t he o ther p ower ( Hel m 1 932: 4 10f; C hristensen 1 944: 4 14 0. I t i s a pparent f rom L ibanius' a ccount o f t he embassy o f 3 62 t hat i t was a t t he p oint o f t hese i nitial f ormalities t hat t he p urpose o f t he embassy emerged a nd t hat J ulian r efused t o r eceive i t; i n o ther words, t he embassy n ever l eft P ersian t erritory. H ence i t c annot h ave b een a c ase o f t heir s etting o ut f or s ome o ther r eason a nd t hen d iscovering R oman m ilitary p reparations o nce t hey e ntered t he R oman Empire . P rior i nformation-movement was t herefore g enuine i n t his c ase, a nd t he f act t hat t his was s o i n 3 62 must c reate a s tronger l ikelihood t hat t he o ther i nstances a re a lso g enuine . H owever t here i s a lso a more g eneral r eason f or a ccepting t hese o ther i nstances a s g enuine, a nd i t d erives f rom a n u nderstanding o f t he p owers o f R oman a nd P ersian embassies. T he p ossibility t hat t he embassies o nly l earned o f R oman o r P ersian p reparations a fter e ntering e nemy t erritory a nd t hen d ecided t o t ry t o d iss uade t he o ther r uler f rom i mplementing h is p lans a ssumes t hat e mbassies w ere f ree t o e xpand t heir b riefs a t w ill. T he h istory o f R oman-Sasanian d iplomacy s hows u nmistakably t hat n o s uch f reed om e xisted . Ambassadors f rom e ither e mpire w ho i nitiated d isc ussion o r a ctions f or which t hey h ad n o a uthorisation f rom t heir . s overeign i ncurred c onsiderable d ispleasure o n t heir r eturn h ome, a s i s a pparent f rom a n umber o f i ncidents. M enander P rotector ( fr.15, 1 6 ( Müller)) r ecounts h ow J ohn Camentiolus w as s ent t o P ersia t o a nnounce J ustin I's a ccession a nd t o d iscuss t he d ispute o ver t he C aucasian r egion o f S uania . A lthough J ohn h ad n o a uthority t o d o s o, Chosroes p ersuaded h im t o s end s ubordinates t o S uania b earing a g reeting t o t heir k ing . A s Chosroes e xpected, h owever, t he S uani d id n ot r eceive J ohn 's e nvoys f avourably a nd i nstead e xpressed a s trong d esire n ot t o c ome u nder R oman r ule . T his o utcome g reatly s trengthened P ersian c laims t o r etain t his t erritory. I n a ddition t o t his b lunder, J ohn a pparently a greed t hat a P ersian e nvoy s hould g o t o C onstant inople t o d iscuss S uania, i n s pite o f t he f act t hat t he P ersians w ould n ow h ave a moral a dvantage i n a ny s uch n egotiations. J ustin was u nderstandably f urious w ith J ohn o n h is r eturn, f or h is f ailure t o a dhere t o h is i nstructions h ad s eriously j eopardi sed t he R oman p osition i n t he C aucasus.

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S im ilarly, d uring t he r eign o f J ustin I e arlier i n t he s ame c entury, d iscussions b etween R oman a nd P ersian e nvoys h ad t aken p lace w ith a v iew t o f ormally e nding t he w ar i nitiated b y C ävades i n 5 02 . T hese n egotiations, h owever, f inally b roke d own . O ne o f t he c ontributing f actors was a d emand b y t he P ersian e nvoy S eoses t hat t he R omans h and o ver t o t hem t he C aucasian p rincipality o f L azica ( Procop., Wars I .11). A ccording t o P rocopius, h owever, S eoses h ad h ad n o a uthority t o i ntroduce t he s ubject o f L azica i nto t he d iscussions a nd t his f act was u sed s ubsequently b y S eoses ' e nemies a s p art o f a s uccessful a ttempt t o h ave h im r emoved f rom o ffice ( Wars 1 .11.3 0. T hat P rocopius i s n ot s i mply t ransposing a p urely R oman p ractice i nto a P ersian c ontext i s s uggested b y a n i ndependent o riental s ource, t he K itab a t-Taj o r B ook o f t he C rown ( an A rabic work p rese4ving i mportant n otices f rom t he S asanian p eriod) ( Pellat 1 954)! T his w ork i ncludes a n a ccount o f t he r igorous p rocedure b y which p rospective P ersian e nvoys a pparently w ere t ested . T hey w ere s ent o n v arious p relimi nary m issions, f irst w ithin P ersia a nd t hen f urther a field, d uring which t heir c onduct was c losely o bserved b y r oyal s pies. T he p oint o f t hese t ests was t o c onfirm t heir l oyalty t o S asanian i nterests a nd t o e nsure t hat t hey a dhered t o t heir i nstructions ( Pellat 1 954: 1 41 0. T he p ractice o f f irm a dherence t o i nstructions b y b oth R oman a nd P ersian embassies t herefore makes i t u nlikely t hat t he embassies d iscussed i n t his p aper would h ave t ried t o p ersuade t he o ther e mpire a gainst a ggression u nless t his h ad b een p art o f t heir a uthorised b rief. I ndeed e nvoys would want t o h ave h ad o fficial s anction f or s uch a n a ttempt s ince a r equest f or p eaceful s ettlem ent o f d ifferences c ould e asily b e i nterpreted b y t he o ther p ower a s a n i ndication o f weakness, s o e ncouraging t hat p ower t owards a more a ggressive s tance. T his, a t a ny r ate, was t he o utcome o f a n a bortive a ttempt b y t he p raetoriän p refect i n t he E ast, S trategius M usonianus, t o r each a p eace s ettlement w ith t he P ersian monarch S apor i n t he m id-350s . H e h ad l earned t hat S apor w as e ngaged i n f ierce f ighting w ith i nvaders o n t he d istant f rontiers o f h is empire a nd s o c oncluded t hat t he P ersian k ing w ould b e amenable t o o vertures c oncerning a f ormal p eace ( Amm . M arc . XVI.9.3-4). H owever b y t he t i me S apor was i nformed o f M usonianus ' i nitiative, h e h ad b rought h is war t o a s uccessful c onclusion a nd i nterpreted R oman e agerness f or p eace a s i ndicat ive o f p roblems e lsewhere i n t heir empire. H e t herefore r es ponded w ith d emands f or t he r eturn o f c ertain t erritory a nd w ith t hreats o f war. T he R oman Emperor C onstantius I r ejected t he P ersian d emands a nd c lai med t hat Musonianus h ad a cted w ithout i mperial a uthority ( Amm . Marc . X VII.5). P erhaps S apor w ould h ave a ttacked t he R oman empire a gain a nyway, b ut i n t he a ctual d evelo pment o f e vents, M usonianus ' p eace i nitiative h elped t o e ncoura ge P ersian a ggression. Ambassadors c ould t herefore b e t aking c onsiderable r isks i n s uggesting a d esire f or p eace o n t he p art o f t heir s overeigg . T hey c an o nly n ormally h ave d one s o w ith o fficial a pproval,' w hich i n t urn p resupposes f irm k nowledge o f e nemy i ntentions b efore t he embassy s et o ut.

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I t t herefore r emains r easonable t o c onclude t hat t he d espatch o f t he embassies c onsidered i n t his p aper, f or t he p urposes t hey w ere s eeking t o a chieve, i s p redicated o n t he p rior movement o f i nformation a bout t he o ther empire 's p lans . H ow s uch m ovement o f i nformation o ccugred i s a c omplex q uestion which h as n ot b een c onsidered h ere,' b ut t he method o f a pproach a dopted i n t his p aper h as e stablished t hat i nformation o f s ignificance d id p ass b etween t he t wo empires. T he movement o f m ilitary i ntelligence i n a ntiquity may h ave l eft l ittle i n t he w ay o f d irect e vidence, b ut i t i s s till s ometi mes p ossible t o t race i t t hrough t he r esponses i t p rovoked . N otes 1 . T his i s t he i mplication o f t he r igid c ontrols u sually p laced o n t he movement o f embassies w ithin b oth empires. F or t he R omans, s ee P rocopius, Wars V III.15.20; f or t he P ersians, s ee M enander P rotector f r.55 -( M i T ir ler) a nd C hristensen 1 944: 4 14f. 2 . B arnes ( 1985: 1 26-36), f or e xample, h as a rgued t hat C onstant ine s aw t he f orthcoming i nvasion a s ac rusade o n b ehalf o f t he P ersian C hristians. 3 . T he d ate i s e stablished f rom L ibanius, who r emarks o n t he r ecent r equest f or r eception o f t he P ersian embassy i n a s peech d elivered o n N ew Y ear's D ay 3 63 ( Or. X II.76). N orman A ustin ( 1979: 9 3), f or e xample, h as m issed t he s ignificance o f t his e mbassy w hen h e r emarks t hat " it i s s urprising t hat S apor d id n ot h ear o f t hem [ viz . J ulian 's p reparations]" . 4 . P rocopius' s tatement i n B uildings I I.10.1 t hat C hosroes' a ttack i n 5 40 was t otally u nexpected may r efer t o i gnorance o n t he p art o f t he i nhabitants o f S yria, b ut, g iven t he t opos o f P ersian t reachery which h e s tresses i n t his p assage, i s more l ikely t o b e a c ase o f r hetorical e xaggeration . 5 . O n t he l iterary c onventions s ee Cameron 1 985: 1 48f.

g overning

l etters

i n P rocopius,

6 . O ne m ight a dd t o t hese f our c ases a t l east t wo o thers, w here t he i nformation, h owever, d id n ot c oncern m ilitary p reparations. A ccording t o J oshua S tylites ( Chron. XXIII), Cavades l earned o f A nasta ius ' p reoccupation w ith t he I saurian r ebellion i n t he e arly 4 90s a nd s ent a n embassy d emanding money. S i milarly, C hosroes I s ent a n embassy t o C onstantinople i n t he m id-530s w ith a d emand f or a s hare o f t he b ooty f rom B elisarius' c ampaign i n A frica ( Procop., Wars 1 .26.1-4), i ndicating t hat t he P ersians k new o f R oman s uccess a gainst t he V andals. 7 . I am g rateful t o J ohn Matthews f or f irst d irecting m y a ttent ion t o t his work. F or i ts v alue a s a s ource f or t he h istory o f S asanian P ersia,

s ee C hristensen

1 944:

7 2 .

8 . I ndeed o ne c ommentator ( War mington 1 977: 5 15) h as r emarked t hat " the i dea t hat M usonianus, a n o fficial o f t he h ighest e xper-

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i ence s ince t he t ime o f C onstantine, w ould h ave a cted o n h is own i nitiative u nder a n emperor l ike C onstant i us i s a bsurd. H is m ethod o f a pproach n o d oubt was c hosen s o t hat i t c ould b e d iso wned i f n ecessary" . 9 .

I am c urrently e ngaged

i n

r esearch o n

t his

s ubject.

B ibliography

A USTIN,

N .J.E.

1 979

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1 981

R oms a uswärtige B eziehungen u nter d er c onstantinischen D ynastie lT ÖT I 3 63). Regensburg.

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H ELM ,

1 932

U ntersuchungen ü ber d en a uswärtigen d iplomatischen V erkehr d es r ömis chen Re i ches i m Z eitalter d er S pätantike . A rchiv f ür U rkundenf orschung 1 2: 3 75-436.

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E mperors, f rontiers a nd f oreign r elations, 1 4 BC t o AD 3 78. B rit annia 1 3: 1 -23.

P ELLAT, C h.(trans.)

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WARM INGTON,

1 977

O bjectives a nd s trategy i n t he P ersian War o f C onstant iu s I I. I n J . F itz ( ed.) L i mes, A kten d es X I I nternationalen L i meskongresses: 5 09-20 . B udapest.

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27.

GEN ERALS, FEDERATES AND BUCCELARII IN ROMAN ARMI ES AR OUND AD 400 J .H.W .G . L iebeschuetz N ottingham

I n t his p aper i t w ill b e a rgued t hat i n R oman a rmies i n t he l ast d ecades o f t he f ourth c entury a n important r ole was p layed b y f ederates who were i n n o s ense c ontingents p rovided b y a n a llied p eople, whether f rom w ithin o r w ithout t he f rontiers, b ut were r aised b y R oman c ommanders b y i ndividual r ecruitment o f n onRomans, wherever t hey m ight b e f ound, who e nlisted n ot f or t he t er m o f s ervice o f a r egular s oldier b ut o nly f or a s l ong a s t hey might b e n eeded. I t w ill b e s uggested t hat t he t ies b etween s uch u nits a nd t heir c ommander were v ery c lose, w ith t he r esult t hat t he p osition o f a l ate Roman g eneral a Gainas o r S tilicho was q uite d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he i mperial g enerals o f e arlier p eriods. I t w ill b e a rgued t hat ' private s oldiers ' o r b uccelarii c ame i nto e xistence a s a c ons equence o f t his k ind o f r ecruiting . I n l iterary a ccounts o f c ampaigns a fter 3 78, a s f or i ns 4nce T heodosius ' e xpedition a gainst t he u surper Maxi mus i n 3 88' o r a gainst E ugeni u s i n 3 93 ( Zos. I V.57; J ohn Ant. F rg. 1 87 ( FHG .IV.609)), t he e astern a r my i s d ivided i nto u nits o f t wo k inds, R oman a nd b arbarian . T his d istinction a ppears i n a ccounts o f e very c ampaign f or w hich w e h ave l iterary e vidence ( Gainas i n 3 96: T heodoret H E . V .32.1; S ocr. H E V I.6 ( text u ncertain), c f S oz . V III.4.1. T ribigild 's r evolt i n 3 98: Z os. V .13.2; 1 7.1; 1 8.10). T he d ivision d oes n ot m ean t hat s ome u nits w ere c omposed o f R oman c itizens w hile o thers w ere o f b arbarians . T here i s g ood e vidence t hat R oman u nits t oo i ncluded a h igh p roportion o f s oldiers o f n on-Roman o rigin .' T he d ifference a ppears t o b e o ne b etween r egular u nits a nd . u nits t hat w ere n ot p art o f t he r egular a rmy . A t a ny r ate t he d istinction i s made s o c onsistently t hat i t mu m c orrespond t o a f or mal d ivision w ithin R oman a r my u nits.' L ate R oman c ampaigning a rmies m ust h ave b een m ade u p o f r egular u nits t ogether w ith a uxiliaries, e ntirely o r a l most e nt irely r ecruited f rom b arbarians, t hat d id n ot c ount a s r egular u nits. W e h ave a l ate R oman a rmy r egister, t he f amous N otitia D ignitatum ( Seeck 1 876; C lemente 1 968). T his d ocument s eems t o r epresent t he d isposition o f t he a r my o f t he E astern Empire a round 3 94, w hile t he l ists o f t he West a ppear t o h ave b een b rought u p t o

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d ate u ntil a round 4 20 ( Jones 1 964: II, 3 47-80; Mann 1 976: 1 -8; D emougeot 1 975: 1 079-1134) . T he N otitia d istinguishes b etween a n umber o f d ifferent c lasses o f u nits b ut i t s hows n o s ign o f a d istinction b et ween r egular u nits a nd f oreign i rregulars. T rue t here i s a n i mportant c lass o f c rack i nfantry u nits which b ear t he t itle o f a uxilia p alatina, a nd t here i s g ood r eason t o s uppose t hat t hese u nits w ere o riginally r ecruited f rom b arbari ans, a nd t hat t hey c ontinued t o i nclude a h igh p roportion o f m en o f b arbarian o rigin ( Hoff man 1 969: 1 30-173). B ut t he s erving s oldiers a ppear t o h ave b een R oman c itizens - t o j udge b y t he f act t hat t he majority b ore t he n ame o f F lavius ( Hoffman 1 969: 7 6-78). S o t hey would p robably n ot h ave b een c lassified s i mply a s b arbarians. O n t he o ther h and t he l ists o f t he N otitia d o n ot a ppear t o i nclude a ll u nits making u p t he c ampaigning a r mies. C ertain t ribal u nits mentioned i n t he l iterary s ources s eem t o b e m issing. 4 Most s trikingly t he G oths w ho f igure s o p rom inently i n t he n arrative o f T heodosius ' c ampaign a gainst E ugenius i n w hich t hey a re s aid t o h ave l ost 1 0,000 d ead ( Jord. G et. 1 45; 2 0,000 G oths, c f Z os. I V .58; S ocr. H E V .25; V II.10), a re r epresented b y n o m ore t han t wo r egi ments ( N . V .20 : U isi; T eruingi), t hat i s a t m ost 2 ,000 men ( Jones 1 964: 6 80-2). I t i s l ikely t hat t he b ulk o f t he G oths w ere e nrolled i n b arbarian r egi ments w hich h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n t he N otitia . P resumably t hey w ere s ent h ome a nd d isbanded a fter t he c ampaign . A nother i ndication t hat t he l ists a re i ncomplete i s t hat t he W estern f ield a rmy h as b een g iven v ery f ew c avalry u nits ( Hoffman 1 969: 1 93ff). T he p roportion o f c avalry i n t he Western f ield a rm ies i s l ikely t o h ave b een a s h igh a s i n t he E ast, t hat i s a pproximately o ne t hird . S o p resumably o n c ampaign t he a rmy w as a ccompanied b y a c onsiderable n umber o f c avalry u nits. A h igh p roportion o f c avalry i s l ikely t o h ave b een r ecruited f rom b arbarians. 5 I n 3 98-9 i n t he E ast t he b arbarians o f T ribigild ( Zos. V .15.5; 1 6.1) a nd Gainas ( Synesius D e P rov. I.1 ( 1260 BC )) c ertainly i ncluded a h igh p roportion o f c avalry. Against R adag aisus i n 4 04-6 S tilicho employed a l ot o f H uns a nd A lans a s a llied c avalry i n a ddition t o 3 0 u nits o f r egular R oman t roops ( Zos. V .26). B ut i f a llied c avalry h as b een omitted, t he r eason i s l ikely t o b e t hat a llied u nits ( foederati) i n g eneral d id n ot q ualify f or i nclusion i n t he N otitia . F ailure t o m ention f oederati w ould b e q uite n atural i f t hey w ere n ot p art o f t he p er manent e stablishment, b ut h ad o nly b een e nrolled f or a p articular c ampaign . I t a ppears t o b e a f act t hat a t t his p eriod t he s tanding a r my was n ot l arge e nough t o d eal w ith emergencies a s t hey a rose, s o t hat major wars l ike S tilicho's o perations a gainst A laric i n 3 97 ( C laud . I V C ons . H on . 4 85ff o f AD 3 98; c f Cameron 1 976: 3 75: s ome G er man o ffers o f r ecruits r ejected I . Cons. S til. 2 34-5), o r 4 01-2 ( B . G et. 4 01-3, 4 63-6; c f 1 05-6), o r a gainst R adagaisus i n 4 05-6- 7Cod. T heod. V II.13.16-17 ( 406); H un a nd A lan f ederates: Z os. V .26), were p receded b y d esperate r ecruiting c ampaigns. We a lso k now t hat S tilicho made a greements w ith A laric w ith a v iew t o h aving A laric's Goths a s a llies i n c ampaigns which h e was p lanning a gainst t he g overnment o f t he e astern Empire ( Zos. V .27; 2 9), a nd

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a gainst t he u surper C onstantine i n G aul ( Zos. V .31). T he employm ent o f b arbarian a llies f or t he d uration h ad o bvious f inancial a dvantages. I t e nabled t he g overnment t o manage w ith a much s maller, p er manent r my, a s t he e astern g overnment a t a ny r ate s eems t o h ave d one - a nd t o s ave t he c ost o f t he r etirement b enefit which was owed t o r egulars a fter t wenty o r m ore y ears o f s ervice ( Jones 1 964: 6 35 0. T hat a llied p eoples b eyond t he f rontiers o r c lient k ings p rovided u nits t o a ssist t he i mperial a rmy o n c ampaign g oes b ack t o t he e arly d ays o f t he R oman Empire a nd c ontinued i nto t he L ate Empire . F or i nstance a l arge c ontingent o f H uns, u nder t heir k ing U ldin, h elped t o d efeat R adagaisus i n 4 06 ( Oros. V II.37.12; M arc . Comes s .a. 4 06; c f J ones 1 964: 1 11.38 n . 6 1). I t was a n i nnovation - a nd a d isastrous o ne - t hat u nits were n ow a lso b eing p rovided b y a llies who were p er manently s tationed w ithin t he b orders o f t he Empire, whether b y a greement, o r b ecause t he Empire was n o l onger s trong e nough t o k eep t hem o ut ( Jones 1 964: 1 99-200). A laric's V isigoths a re, o r a t l east s eem t o b e7 a c onspicuous e xample o f t his k ind o f a lly . B ut o ften b arbarian a llies o r f ederates mentioned i n t he s ources d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een p rovided b y t he r ulers, o r i ndeed a ny c ollective o rganisation, o f t heir n ative p eople . T hese f ederates a ppear t o b e s i mply i ndividually e nlisted m ercenaries o f b arbari an o rigin. T hey may h ave i ncluded a v ery h igh p roportion o f G oths, b ecause a l arge n umber o f Goths were a vailable, e ager t o b e e nrolled b oth w ithin t he Empire a nd o n t he f ar s ide o f t he D anube, b ut t hey may w ell h ave i ncluded o thers a s w ell. A f ragm ent o f O lympiodorus w hich t ells u s t hat t he t itle o f ' federates ' w as f irst g iven t o m ixed u nits i n t he r eign o f H onorius ( O lymp. F rg . V II.4 [ R . B lockley]) a ppears t o r efer t o t he o rigin o f t his n ew t ype o f f ederate u nit. U nfortunately o ur s ources which a re v ery i nadequate f or t his p eriod w ill n ot a l l ow u s t o i dentify i ndividual u nits i n t he way P rocopius' H istories e nable u s t o i dentify f ederate u nits i n t he a r my o f J ustinian ( Jones 1 964 .: 6 64ff; H alden 1 979; 1 984; M iller 1 912: 1 14ff; T eal! 1 965: 2 943 22). B ut i f we c annot i dentify u nits we h ave n umerous r eferences t o b arbarian t roops t hat a re c ontrasted w ith R oman t roops, a nd w hich d o n ot a ppear t o h ave h ad l inks w ith a ny o rganised b ody o f t ribesmen, whether w ithin t he Empire o r o utside i t. What c oh esion s uch b odies o f men p ossessed a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f t heir s erving u nder t he s ame c ommander i n t he R oman a rmy . B arbarian c ontingents o f t his k ind p layed a k ey r ole i n t wo i mportant e pisodes: t he f all o f S tilicho a nd t he G ainas r evolt. I n t he c ase o f S tilicho, i t i s c lear t hat t he b arbarian u nits w ere r ecognisably a d istinct d ivision o f h is a rmy, w ith d istinct l eaders, a nd p olitical a ttitudes d ifferent f rom t hose o f R oman u nits. N umerically t hey were o f a s trength c omparable b ut n ot o verwhelm ingly s uperior t o t hat o f t he R oman u nits ( Zos. V .33). T heir f amilies w ere q uartered i n a n umber o f c ities, a nd e videntl y i dentifiable a s f amilies o f f ederate s oldiers ( Zos. V .34.2;

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3 5.5). T heir t otal s trength i s g iven a s 3 0,000. A fter t he e xecution o f S tilicho a nd t he massacre o f t heir f amilies t hese m en j oined A laric 's G oths. T hey e vidently h ad n owhere e lse t o g o ( Zos . V .35.6; 1 7.1; 1 8.10; 1 9.1). G ainas ' f orces a re c onsistently d escribed a s b arbarians a nd c ont rasted w ith t he R oman f orces o f L eo ( Zos. V .14.3; 1 7.1; 1 8.6; 1 8.10 ; 1 9 .2; 2 1.9) . U nlike t he f orce o f t he m utinous G oth T ribig ild, which was r ecruited f rom G reutungi s ettled i n P hrygia, ( C laud . I n E utr. 1.196; Z os. I V .38-39; C hron. M inor I . p .233 [ Mommsen]T- c f A lbert 1 984: 8 9f) G ainas ' G oths a ppear t o h ave b een r ecruited a g iong f ellow G oths f rom t he e ast o f t he D anube o utside t he Empire . B ut t here i s n o s uggestion t hat t hey w ere s upplied u nder t reaty b y a l ocal r uler. T he t erritory was u nder t he g overnment o f U ldin, K ing o f t he H uns. I t i s l ikely t hat t he G oths p resented t hemselves i ndividually, h aving t heir f amilies w ith t hem ( Synesius D e P rov. IL O a t Gainas' i nstigation, a nd w ere e nrolled b y h im u nder o fficers t hat h e a ppointed . T hey w ere n umerous, s ince t he 7 ,000 r eported k illed i nside Constantinople a re s aid t o h ave b een o nly a f ifth o f t he whole f orce ( Zos. V .19.4; S ynesius D e P rov. 1 1.2). I n t he c ase o f b oth b arbarian a rmies i t i s c lear t hat t he c ommänder-in-chief h i mself t ook a c onsiderable p art i n r ecruiti ng.' G ainas i s s aid t o h ave i nvited G oths i nto t he Empire t o e nrol ( cf n .8). S tilicho p receded t he e xpedition t o G reece a gainst A laric, a nd t he d efence o f I taly a gainst A laric 's f irst i nvasion w ith e xpeditions t o t he n orthern f rontier w hich c ul min ated i n l arge-scale r ecruiting o f b arbarians i nto t he R oman a rmy ( cf a bove) . We owe o ur i nformation t o t he p oems o f C laudian, a nd C laudian's a ccount o f r ecruiting i n 3 96, v ague a s i t i s, would f it r ecruitment i nto Roman u nits r ather t han i nto b arbarian u nits. 1 0 T here i s h owever n o r eason w hy b oth k inds o f r ecruiting s hould n ot h ave g one o n a t t he s ame t i me. Certainly S tilicho m ust h ave r ecruited c avalry . T he N oti it ii a i ncludes a l arge n umber o f i nfantry u nits r aised b y H onorius, " b ut - n ot c ounting u nits. s tationed i n A frica - o nly t wo u nits o f c avalry ( Not. D ign. _ Or. V I.59, 6 0) . P resumably t he c avalry u nits w ere e nrolled a s f edera tes. N ot a ll t he r ecruiting w ill h ave b een d one b y S tilicho p ersonally . O utstanding among h is b arbarian o fficers w as S arus s ometimes d escribed a s ' king ' ( Marc. C omes. s .a. 4 06; J ord. 3 21) s ometi mes a s d ux o f t he G oths ( Oros. V II.37 .12), w ho h ad a l arge f o rce who s tood i n a s pecial r elationship t o h im p ersonally ( see b elow). A n o fficer d id n ot h ave t o b e c ommander-in-chief t o b uild a f ederate f orce w ith a s trong s ense o f l oyalty t o h i mself, o r a t l east t o o btain t he l eadership o f a c oherent b ody o f m en . T ribig ild t he Goth who l ed a f orce o f mutinous G reutungi t hrough s outh-western A sia M inor i n 3 99 i s a c ase i n p oint. H is o fficial p osition s eems t o h ave b een c ommander o f a ll t he b arbarian t roops [ federates] s tationed i n P hrygia, w ith t he r ank o f c omes m ilit aris ( Zos. V .13.2; S oc. H E V I.6.5; P hilost. X I.8). T hese i nc luded a n umber o f G reutungi w ith w ives a nd f amilies s ettled o n l and n ear N acoleia .1 2 T hey w ere a l most c ertainly s urvivors o f a

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b and o f b arbarians t hat h ad b een d efeated b y t he g eneral P romotus w hen a ttempting t o c ross i nto t he Empire i n 3 86 ( Zos. I V .38). T ribigild was a k insman o f G ainas, a nd t herefore d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een o ne o f t he G reutungi h i mself. 1 3 A t a ny r ate h e d id n ot l ive i n P hrygia b ut i n Constantinople. I t i s n ot a t a ll c lear w hat f actors o ther t han h is r ank a s t heir c ommander i nduced t he G reutungi t o t rust h im t o t he e xtent o f f ollowing h im i nto m utiny a nd r ebellion . B y f ar t he m ost l ikely e xplanation i s t hat t he G oths h ad t aken p art i n E utropius ' c ampaign a gainst t he H uns, a nd t hat T ribigild h ad l ed t hem ( Albert 1 984). I f t hat was s o, t he c ommon m otive o f l eader a nd m en w as a g rievance o ver i nadeq uate r ewards f or t heir c ontribution t o v ictory . I f a t t he s tart T ribigild's b and was mainly made u p o f G reutungi, i t c ertainly d id n ot r emain l i mited t o members o f t hat t ribe. I t g rew a nd g athered s trength b y a bsorbing l arge n umbers o f s laves a nd p erh aps o ther p rovincials ( Zos. V .13) . T ribigild d ied s oon a fter h e h ad s ubmitted t o t he c ommand o f G ainas ( Philost. X I.8), a nd i t i s l ikely t hat h is f orce j oined u p w ith t hat o f G ainas i n T hrace a nd w as d estroyed t ogether w ith i t ( Zos. V .18.9). S arus, who w as m entioned e arlier, w as a nother b arbarian o fficer t o make p rogress t owards c reating a p rivate a r my w ithout, h owe ver, s ucceeding i n t he e nd . S arus w as o f n oble b irth a nd h eroic q ualities a nd c haracter ( PLRE 1.978 s .v . S arus) . H e c ommanded a l arge f orce u nder S tilicho i n t he b attle a gainst Radagai s us ( O ros. V I 1 .37.12; Marc. Co mes s .a. 4 06). A t t he t i me o f S tilicho's d eath h e h ad a p owerful f ollowing o f b arbarians. W ith m ore l uck h e m ight h ave b ecome a nother S tilicho - o r a nother A laric. 1 4 I n t he e vent h is f ollowing b ecame r educed t o 2 00-300 ( Zos. V I.13.2; O lympiod. F rg. 6 [ R . B lockley]). H e was e ventua lly a ssassinated . J ones ( 1964: 11.62) s uggested t hat S arus a nd h is f ollowers were p art o f A laric 's G oths w ho h ad d eserted t heir l eader a fter t he B attle o f V erona. I t i s j ust a s l ikely t hat h e h ad a ssembled h is men h i mself. C ertainly i t s eems t hat t he v arious u nits o f f ederates i n J ustinian 's a r mies were c losely l inked t o t heir r espp Oive c ommanding o fficers, a nd h ad p robably b een r aised b y t hem . F ederates w ho s erved t he Empire w ithout a g uarantee o f p ermanent e mployment were i n a weak p osition. T here was a p ossibility o f t heir u nits b ecoming p art o f t he r egular a rmy 1 6 o r t hey m ight b e u sed t o f ill u p r egular u nits ( Hoffman 1 969: 5 03). B ut t heir f utur must h ave d epended v ery l argely o n t he s upport o f t he g eneral who h ad e nrolled t hem . T he way i n which t he t roops d epended f or r ewards o f s ervice o n t heir g eneral, a nd t he p ressu re which t hey c onsequently e xerted o n h im w as w ell u nderstood b y A ugustine when h e w rote t o B onifatius, c o r es A fricae, a nd a g eneral w ith h is own f ollowing o f f ederate -s '', t o s et a l i mit t o t he a cquisitiveness o f h is t roops. C lose b onds were f ormed b etween c ommander a nd m en, w ith t he t roops a nxious t hat t heir g eneral s hould k eep, o r i f p ossible, i ncrease h is r ank i n t he i mperial s ervice, a nd t hus t o e nhance h is a bility t o l ook a fter t heir i nterests. 1 8 I n c onsequence a c ommander l ike S tilicho o r G ainas, o r B onifatius o r A etius, c ould b e d eposed a gainst h is w ill o nly b y a ssassination o r b attle . Iw ould s uggest t hat t his

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r ather t han t he c ommend s tructure o f t he Western a r my i s b asic r eason why t he magister m ilitum i n t he West b ecame v irtual r uler o f t he Empire .

t he t he

I t i s i n t he c ontext o f t he i ndividual r ecruitment o f f oederati t hat I would e xplain t he d evelopment o f t he i nstitution o f t he b ucellarii. B ucellarii w ere a p articular k ind o f a rmed r etaine r. T he word i tself, ' biscuit-men ', i s o bviously a n ickname . I t i s d erived f rom b ucellatum t he b iscuit i ssued t o s oldiers o n t wo d ays o ut o f t hree. E ventually i t b ecame a t echnical t erm f or a rmed f ollowers o f a p articular s tatus. I t w as n ot y et s o i n o ur p eriod, a nd i t i s l ikely t hat men d escribed i n t he s ources b y w ords l ike amici o r a rmigeri o r c lientes s ometi mes r epresent t he s tatus w hich i n t he t i me o f J ustinian would r egularly h ave b een d escribed a s b ucellarii ( Diesner 1 972: 3 22 0. T he e arliest m ilitary u se o f t he w ord o ccurs i n t he t itle o f t he c om ites c atafractarii b ucellarii i uniores, t he m ost s enior o f t he c avalry r egi ments u nder t he magister m i 1i tum p er O rientem .(Not. D ign . O r. V II.25; c f H offman 1 969: 2 73f) 7—Ä- f ragment o f O lympiod orus i nfor ms u s t hat i t was i n t he r eign o f H onorius t hat t he n ame c eased t o b e g iven e xclusively t o R oman s oldiers ( i.e. r egulars?) a nd c ame t o b e u sed t o d escribe c ertain G oths ( Frg. V II.4 [ R . B lockley]). T his s eems t o h ave b een t he b eginning o f t he u se o f t he t er m b ucellarii t o d escribe a b ody o f s oldiers e njoyng s o c lose a r elationship t o t heir c ommander t hat t hey a ppear t o b e m embers o f a p rivate f orce r ather t han o f t he i mperi al a rmy . Most o f t he e vidence a bout b ucellarii i s m uch l ater, f ragments o f t he c ode o f E uric w ho r uled V isigothic S pain A D 4 668 5 ( Zeumer 1 902 = C ode o f E uric F rg. 3 10; T hompson 1 969: 1 87f; C laude 1 971: 4 6ff), P rocopius ' H istories o f t he Wars o f J ustinian ( Jones 1 964: I II. 2 06f; L ecrevain 1 980: 2 67-83; H aldon 1 984: 1 01ff), a nd p apyri o f t he s ixth c entury o r l ater ( Maspero 1 912: 6 ff; Gascou 1 976: 1 43-56). B ucellarii a re k nown t o h ave b een k ept n ot o nly b y m ilitary o fficers b ut a lso b y s ome h igh c ivil o fficials a nd e ven b y p rivate i ndividuals. I 9 T he i nstitution h as b een e xplained a s a n e xample o f G erman i nf luence, t he a doption o n t he p art o f p owerful R omans o f a f ollowi ng o f a r med c ompanions o f t he k ind d escribed b y T acitus i n h is a ccount o f t he h ousehold o f a G er man n oble. 2° B ucellarii h ave a lso b een s een a s e vidence o f d eveloping i feudalisation ', t hat i s t he u surpation o f p rerogatives o f t he s tate b y p owerful l anded m agnates ( Patlagean 1 977: -2 89f 0. T here i s s omething i n t hese e xplanations. T here c an b e n o a rgument t hat t he r esemblance o f t he b ucellariate t o a G erman n oble 's a rmed f ollowing h elped i ts i ntroduction a t a t i me when s o many o fficers were G erman. S i mil arly t he b ucellarii o f g reat l andowners l ike t he A pions o bv iously s trengthened t he l andowners r elative t o t he a gents o f t he i mperial g overnment. N evertheless n either ' German i nfluence ' n or ' feudalisation ' a ccounts f or t he a dmittedly s canty e vidence we h ave a bout t he o rigin o f t he i nstitution . T hat t he a rmed r etaine rs were k nown b y a L atin n ame e ven i n a G ermanic k ingdom s hows t hat t his p recise t ype o f f ollowing must b e o f R oman o rigin. T his i s c onfirmed b y O lympiodorus' s tatement t hat t he n ame was

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g iven t o Romans b efore i t was g iven t o G oths. O lympiodorus a nd t he N otitia s uggest t hat t he n ame b ucellarii was f irst a pplied t o s oldiers. T his s uggests t hat t he i nstitution s tarted i n t he i mperial a r my r ather t han o n g reat e states. T his d eduction i s c onfirmed b y t he f act t hat e lsewhere t han i n E gypt t he i ndivid uals k nown t o h ave h ad a rmed f ollowings a cquired t hem a s a c onsequence o f t heir b eing, o r h aving b een m illtary c ommanders, a nd n ot s i mply men o f g reat l anded wealth. A n e xception, R ufinus t he p raetorian p refect o f t he E ast, A D 3 92-5, who i s a ctually t he e arliest k nown c ase o f a n i ndividual w ith a n a rmed f ollow ing, was o f c ourse a c ivilian ( Claud. I n R uf. 1.76). B ut h is f ollowing w as n ot a n e xpression o f l ocal l anded p ower - a fter a ll R ufinus was i n C onstantinople while h is a ncestral p roperty w as i n G aul. I t was a b odyguard ' f or t he man w ho w as r uling t he E ast while t he Emperor T heodosius was c ampaigning a gainst a u surper i n t he West. B ucellarii d id b ecome a t hreat t o t he i mperial a dministration ( Cod . I ust. I I.10 o f 4 68), b ut t his d oes n ot mean t hat t hey o riginated a s b odies o f p rivate r etainers. O n t he c ontrary, t he 6 th c entury p apyrus e vidence a s i nterpreted b y J . Gascou ( 1976: 1 43-56) s uggests t hat t he b ucellarii o f t he A pion f amily a nd o ther g reat h ouses o f E gypt were e nrolled a t t he i nstigation o f t he i mperial g overnment. T he b ucellarii o f t he A pions were p art o f t he h ousehold o f t hese g reat men a nd were maintained b y t hem . B ut i t s eems t hat t hey w ere e nrolled o n t he i nstructions o f t he g overnment ( Gascou 1 976: 1 46f o n P . Oxy. 1 56), a nd t hat t heir p ayment was a nnon4 4 a nd t herefore p resumably c ounted a gainst t he e state 's t ax T hey w ere employed f or l ocal p olice d uties l ike k eeping o rder i n t he h ippodrome, a lso f or t ax-collecting . I n m ilitary emergencies t he b ucellarii o f t he v arious h ouses w ere c oncentrated a nd p ut a t t he d isposal o f t he D uke o f t he T hebaid ( Gascou 1 976: 1 50). T his a rrangement m ight b e c alled ' privatisation ' o f p art o f t he a dmini stration o f t he d efence f orces. T he h ead o f t he h ouse a nd t herefore t he p atron o f t he b ucellarii m ight n ot b e a n o ffice h older h i mself. O n o ne o ccasion i t was a w oman . B ut t he Apion f amily p roduced many h olders o f h igh i mp erial o ffice ( PLRE I I. s .v. A pion 1 -2; S trategius 8 ; 4 s temma 2 7), a nd t here i s n o r eason why t he f amily 's f orce o f a r med r etainers m ight n ot h ave o riginated when o ne o f t he A pions h eld h igh m ilitary o ffice . T he r elationship b etween a b ucellarius a nd h is ' lord ' was o ne o f p atron a nd c lient. 24 I t would t herefore n ot h ave b een l i mited t o t he d uration o f ap articular p eriod o f o ffice-holding, o r e ven t he l ifetime o f a s ingle g eneration o f ' patron ' o r b ucellarius, b ut would c ontinue f rom f ather t s on u nless i t was d eliberately e nded b y t he p arties c oncerned, L5 o r b y t he i mperial g overnment. 26 O ne m ight a sk why t he g overnment h elped t o b uild u p t his p otent ially d angerous i nstitution. T he g overnment's p olicy c an b e q uite p lausibly e xplained a s a r esponse t o r ecruiting p roblems o f t he l ate 4 th c entury a nd a fter. A s we h ave s een t his was a t i me

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w hen t he a r my h ad t o b e e xpanded i n a h urry b efore major c amp aigns, a nd w hen t he c ommander-in-chief h i mself l ed e xpeditions t o t he f rontier f or r ecruiting p urposes b efore r isking c onfrontat ion w ith a major f oe . T his w as t he t i me w hen a t a l ower l evel a l eader l ike S arus t he G oth m ight b uild u p a b and o f d ependent f ederates. T hese men must h ave f aced a s erious p roblem, i f a s I h ave a rgued, t hey r ecruited f or c ampaigns r ather t han f or a l ifetime o f m il i tary s ervice: t hey c ould n ot o ffer t heir men a c ertain f uture . N ow t he i nstitution o f t he b ucellariate, b ecause i t e stablished a f ormal r elationship o f p atron a nd c lient b etween c ommander a nd men, g ave t he l atter t he a ssurance t hat i t w ould b e a p owerful man 's r esponsibility t o p rovide f or t hem, w ithout i mposing a n e xpensive o bligation o n t he s tate . I am n ot s uggesti ng t hat when S tilicho f or i nstance r ecruited G er mans t hey a ll b ecame h is b ucellarii b ut t hat p erhaps t he most v aluable a nd m ost i nfluential among t hem d id. I n t his way Gainas, o r S tilicho, o r B onifatius o r A etius ( the o nly o ne w hose f ollowers a re a ctually d escribed a s b ucellarii) c ould p rovide t hemselves w ith a c ore o f l oyal a nd r eliable men a round whom t hey c ould b uild u p a much l arger m ilitary f ollowing .

N otes 1 . T ribal u nits. Ambros. E p. 4 0.22; P acat. P an 1 2.39.2; B arbari ans i n R oman u nits: Z os. I V .31, 4 5.3. 2 . S ee H offmann 1 969 : 8 1-3 o n e vidence o f C oncordia s arcophagi; i bid 1 37ff. o n t he G ermans r ecruited i nto a uxilia i n c ontrast w ith c itizens i nto l egions; i bid 2 99 o n G er mans i n t he s cholae. B ut a fter 3 78 Germans were r ecruited i nto a ll k inds o f R oman u nits: Z os. I V . 3 1. 3 . Most c learly i n t he n arrative o f t he f all o f S tilicho: Z os V . 3 1; 3 3-5. 4 . E .g . A r menians a nd I berians o f T hemistius O r. X VI. 2 07 a o f AD 3 83; XV . 1 89d o f AD 3 81 a nd XVIII 2 19 o f AD 3 84,, a lso i n S tilicho 's a rmy i n AD 3 95: s ee H offmann 1 969: i, 1 91 n .268. 4 , E .g. A r menians a nd I berians o f T hemistius O r. XVI.207a o f AD 3 83; XV.189d o f AD 3 81 a nd XVIII.219 o f AD 3 84, a lso i n S tilicho's a r my i n AD 3 95: s ee H offmann 1 969: ii , 1 91 n . 2 68. 5 . C avalry c ould o nly b e r ecruited i n c ertain r egions o f t he E mpire, e specially i n t he B alkans a nd N orth A frica, a nd a lso f rom b arbarians a cross t he b order, e .g . t he c omites o f Amm . Marc . X VIII.9.4; c f H offmann 1 969: 2 43ff. 6 . A t t he e xpense o f r egular s ubsidies t o b arbarians, a nd o f h aving t o l eave o ne f rontier u ndefended when c ampaigning o n a nother, c f C roke 1 977: 3 47 .-67. S ee a lso i nadequate d efence o f M esopotam ia i n e arly 6 th c entury: J osh.Styl. C hron. 5 3, 8 1. 7 .

Iw ould a rgue

t he

f ederates a ssembled b y R oman o fficers d iscussed b elow .

t hat A laric 's G oths

4 70

s hared c haracteristics

w ith

8 . Z os. V .219: Gainas t ried t o l ead h is men b ack t o t heir ( or o nly h is) h omeland . R ecruiting : S oc . H E V I.6 xat z av v ô r 6Tewv Z e tvoc I x G c i T y rou X 6 )pa‘ g eTs i ceµ*w r iz- S oz . V III.8.1 z ob‘

A

s t e p .o 0 51 .ouc c t 6Tr p 1 " 8%-e wv I would t ake 1 984: 1 11-2.

t his

t o

g x TÜJV b e

1 6( c oy

o utside

V0 116 311 6 CGp wp ,a ,Gov‘ µs^csxggi l fa iro

t he Empire,

o therwise A lbert

9 . G enerals were d eprived o f t he r ight t o i ssue p robatoria b y Z eno . S ee J ones 1 964: 6 68 o n C od . I ust. X II.35.17 o f AD 4 72. 1 0 . C laud. I V Cons. H on. 4 85; p roiecta p elle G elonus m ilitat ..in L atios r itus t ransistis A lani. T he r ecruiting o f 4 01, B .Get 4 00-3 h as n o a llusions t o R omanisation a nd t he A lans a re d escribed a s e xterna a uxilia, B .Get. 5 80-1. 1. S ee H offman 1 969: 3 58-67 ( summed u p p .365); 1 5 u nits b efore 3 98 , 1 0 p ossibly 1 4 a fter 3 98, a nd, i n H offman 's v iew, b ut n ot n ecessarily, b efore 4 06 . T he c hronology r emains u ncertain . 1 2 . P hilos. X I. 8 . T hey s erved a s c avalry: C laud. I n E utr. 1.176 " Geticae d ux i mprobus a lae" . G ainas ' f orce t oo i ncluded m uch c avalry: S ynesius D e P rov. 2 .1 ( 1260). 1 3. S ocr. H E V I.6; S oz. V III. 4 .2. A lbert ( 1984: 8 9) a rgues t hat T ribigild must h ave b een o ne o f t he G reutungi, o therwise h e w ould h ave l acked a uthority t o l ead t he r evolt. I would a rgue t hat h is a uthority c ame n ot f rom b eing a f el l ow t ribesman b ut f rom h is R oman r ank . 1 4 . I f h e h ad n ot s uffered a s etback i n Gaul i n 4 07 ( Zos. V I 2 .4-5), o r i f h e h ad b een a ppointed s uccessor t o S tilicho i n 4 08 ( Zos. V . 3 6.2). 1 5 . B enjamin 1 892 a nd H aldon 1 979; a nd 1 984 a ssume t hat f oedera ti o f J ustinian w ere r ecruited b y t heir c ommanders; Maspero 1 912 a nd J ones 1 964: 6 64f, a rgued t hat t hey were i ndividually r ec ruited a nd a ssigned R oman o fficers l ike o ther r egular u nits. 1 6 .

J ones 1 964: II, 3 8 n .62 o n O ros. V II. 4 0.7, p erhaps a lso p ost-Theodosian Western a uxilia n amed a fter b arbarians: A ttecoti, Marcomanni, B risigaui, M auri; c f J ones 1 964: II, 3 55 . . t he

1 7 . A ug . E p. 2 20.6. H e c learly h ad a f ollowing e ven t hough w ord b ucellarii i s n ot u sed .

t he

1 8 . H ence t he b arbarians' e agerness f or R oman c ommands. Z os. V .13.1, 1 7.4 ( Gainas). C laud. I n E utr. I. 1 78ff; 3 17-21 g ifts a nd t itle; c f m agister m ilitum r ejected . ( Tribigild); b ut Z os. V . 5 .4, C laud. B . Get. 5 35 f f; Z os V . 3 1, 4 8.3 ( A laric). 1 9 .

N ov. T heod.

I.XV.2 o f AD 4 44: V alerian d ecurion, c f Emesa;

C od . I ust. I X .12.10 o f AD 4 68 t he E ast g enerally; o n b ucellarii o f t he A pions i n E gypt.

s ee a lso b elow

2 0 . Ger m . X III, b ut b ucellarii ( at l east t heir ' other w ere d ependents r ather t han c ompanions o f t heir c hief.

4 71

r ank

I )

2 1. S t i1i cho: Z os V .34, b ut a t l east n ot d isplayed d uring t he c onsulate i n 4 00 ( C laud. C ons. S til. II 2 20-3; B oni f at i us: A ug. E p . 2 20.6; A etius: J ohn o f A ntioch F rg. 2 01.4-5; A spar: Malalas 3 71; B el i sarius: P rocop. BG 11.1.18-20. 2 2 . N ot mentioned 1.400).

i n a ccount

o f

a ssassination

( Claud.

I n R uf.

2 3 . G ascou 1 976 o n P . O xy. 1 56 a nd P . W ilk. C hrest. 4 71. I t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat B elisarius h ad u ndertaken t o p ay 7 ,000 b ucellarii ( Procop. Goth. II. 1 . 1 8-20) f or t he r est o f t heir l ives. P resumably t heir a nnona c ame f rom t axation . B elisarius g ave t hem p resents i n a ddition . 2 4 . L eges V isigothorum 2 16 c f 2 17. 1 0 q ui b ucellarius; c f a lso C laud. I n Ruf. 1.76. 2 5 . f rg .

O r p erhaps o nly b y 3 10.

t he b ucellarius,

i n p atrocinio e st

.

L eges V isigothorum 1 8

2 6 . B y a g eneral l aw l ike C od. I ust. X II.10 o f A D 4 68 which p resumably o rders t he d isarming a nd n ot t he d ismissing o f a rmed r etainers, o r b y r edistributing t he b ucellarii a s a fter t he d isgrace o f B elisarius ( Procop. H ist. A rc. I V .17). T he c ommand o f B onifatius 3 ( including b ucellarii?) p assed t o h is s on-in-law , S ebastianus 3 ( Hyd . L em . 9 9). A etius married h is w idow a nd i nherited p roperty ( John o f A nt. f rg. 2 01-3), a nd p erhaps a lso h is m ilitary f ollowing . A etius ' b ucellarii p assed t o t he Emperor V alentinian I II ( John A nt. f rg. 2 01.5). B ibliography A LBERT, G .

1 984

G oten

1 892

D e I ustiniani i mp . A etate t iones M ilitares. B erlin .

CAMERON, A .D.

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E vidence f or t he i nvasion o f T hrace i n 4 22. G reek, R oman a nd B yzantine S tudies X VIII: 3 47-67 .

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L a N otitia D ignitatum e t l 'histoire d e 1' Empi r e d ' Occident a u d ebut d u V e s iècle. L atomus XXXIV: 1 079134.

B ENJAM IN,

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GASOOU,

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R ecruitment a nd C onscription i n t he B yzantine A r my 5 56-950. V ienna ( Sitzungsbericht Oest. A kad. 3 57).

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L es s oldats p riv s a u B as-Empire. M élanges d ' Ar c h ol o li e et d 'Histoire d e l 'e cole F rancaise -C l eR ome X : 2 67-83.

M ANN,

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W hat was t he N otitia D ignitatum f or? I n R . G oodburn a nd P . B artholo mew ( eds.) A spects o f t he N otitia D ignitatum : 1 -8. Oxford ( BAR, I nternational S eries 1 5).

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O rganisation m i 1it a ir e d e B yzantine . P aris.

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potöspazot e t o TpaTtimat dans l 'Arm e B yzantine a u V Ie s iècle. B yzantinische Z eitschrift XXI: 9 71 09.

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D as H eer J ustinians n ach P rokop u nd A gathias. P hilologus 7 1: 1 01-38 .

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L atomus

A

28. CAPTI VES, REFU GEES AND EXI LES: STU D Y OF CR OS S- F R ON TI E R CI VI LI AN MOV E MEN TS AND CONT ACTS BET WEEN ROME AND PERSI A FR OM VALERI AN TO JOVI AN 1 Samuel N .C . L ieu Warw ick G l ee o f t he more d istressing a spects o f t he s ocial l ife o f Mesopotamia a nd a djacent S yria i n L ate Antiquity was t he l arge s cale f orcible r emoval o f c ivilian p opulat ions f rom t heir n ative c ities b y v ictorious a r mies, e specially f rom t he Roman t o d istant p arts o f t he P ersian Empire . T heir p light i s o ccasionally mentioned i n o ur l iterary s ources, e specially i n t he w ritings o f P ersian Christians. The a im o f t his p aper i s t o l ocate a nd a ssemble s ome o f t his v ery s cattered and d iverse material a nd t o a ssess t he s ocial i mpact o f s uch i nvolu ntary movements o f c ivilian p opulations o n Mesopotam ian communities, e specially o n t he r ole p layed b y c hurch l eaders i n t he amelioration o f t he s uffering o f t he v icti ms a s well a s t he i nterchange o f i deas a nd b eliefs b rought a bout b y s uch movements o f p opulation b etween t he two Empires. T he p aper will a lso c ast s ide-way g lances a t s uch r elated g roups a s r efugees, s pies, t raitors, exiles, b ishops, h oly men/physicians a nd r edundant a cademics who made t heir way a cross t he f rontier t o t he P ersian Empire.

I .

I ntroduction

W e l ive i n a n a ge which t akes f or g ranted t hat a ny major a r med c onflict would i nvolve c ivilian c asualties a nd s ocial d islocat ion . * The l ast g lobal c onflagration w itnessed t he w idespread m altreatment o f P oW a nd c ivilian i nternees, t he f light o f r efug ees f rom t he war z one a nd t he f orcible e xpatriation a nd r epatr iation o f v ery l arge n umbers o f u nwanted n ationals. M esopotamia a nd a djacent S yria t oo, was a war z one b et ween R ome a nd P ersia f or a p ro-longed p eriod a nd i t i s a ppropriate t herefore, i n a c onference d evoted t o t he m ilitary h istory o f t he e astern f ront ier i n t he Roman a nd B yzantine p eriods, t o r emind o urselves o f t he p light o f t he c ivilians o f t he l osing s ide i n t his p rotracted a nd i ntermittent c onflict - i n o ther words, t he p rice t he c ivili ans h ad t o p ay f or t he i neffective d efence ( 32 t he f rontier. T he s ubject o f c aptives a nd r efugees h as a ttracted v ery l ittle a ttent ion b ecause most modern s cholars working o n t he Mesopotamian

4 75

r egion a re e ither m ilitary h istorians o r e xperts o n E astern C hrist i an W , t o whom t he s ubject w ill h ave l ittle a ppeal o r r elevance. T he m aterial i s a lso e xtremely d iverse a nd s cattered a mong s ources i n a n umber o f l anguages a nd, t o t he b est o f my k now ledge, t here i s n o a vailable o verall s urvey o f t he s ubject f rom b oth t he R oman a nd t he P ersian p erspectives . My main a im i n t his p aper, t herefore, i s t o p resent t he e vidence w hich I h ave a ssembled i n t he h ope t hat o ther s cholars c an make a dditions t o w hat I h ave f ound. T o f acilitate e ase o f r eference, I h ave a rranged t he material i n a more o r l ess c hronological s equence a nd I h ave made u se o f t his o pportunity t o t ake s ide-way g lances a t s ome o ther a spects o f c ross-frontier c ivilian movements s uch a s i tinerant h oly-men, s pies a nd s emi-voluntary e xiles, v iz. t raitors a nd t hose f leeing f rom p olitical o r r eligious p ersecut ion . O n t he o ther h and, I h ave o nly mentioned merchants i n p assing i n t his s urvey. T he r ole t hey p layed i n c ultural e xc hange a nd t he d iffusion o f r eligions l ike Manichaeism i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies I h ave a lready d ealt w ith a t s ome l ength e lsewhere ( cf. L ieu 1 985 : 6 9-78). I h ave a lso c oncentrated m y a ttention t o t he p eriod b etween t he c apture o f V alerian a nd t he r eign o f J ovian p artly b ecause t he t reaty o f 3 63 w ith P ersia w as a major l and mark, b oth f rom t he p olitical a nd h uman p erspect ives, f or t he h istory o f Mesopotamia a nd a lso b ecause t he m ateri al, which I o nce t hought was v ery s canty, t urns o ut t o b e v ery s ubstantial a nd a f ull s tudy o f t he s ubject t o H eraclius, w hich I h ad o riginally i ntended, w ill c onstitute a s ubstantial monograph . I I. T he D eportations u nder S hapur

I

T he f orcible movement o f c onquered p eoples was a c ustomary f eat ure o f w arfare i n t he A ncient N ear E ast. T he B abylonian E xile o f t he J ewish p eople i s o ne o f t he b est k nown e xamples o f mass d eportation . T he A chaemenid k ings o f P ersia n ot i nfrequently m oved t heir s ubjects i n c ontingents o f v arying n umbers t o n ew o r r efounded c ities w ithin t heir empire . I n t he w ars b etween R ome a nd P arthia, we h ear o f d efeated s oldiers, s uch a s t he 1 0,000 . R omans c aptured a t Carrhae, b eing t aken f or r esettlement i n Persia ( Plut. C rass 3 1.8, e d. Z iegler), b ut l arge s cale i nvolu ntary movements o f c ivilians s eem r are . T he A chaemenid p ractice h owever, was r evived b y t he S assanians. I n h is t hree g reat c ampaigns, S hapur I c aptured a nd p illaged a c onsiderable n umber o f R oman c ities i n Mesopotamia, S yria a nd C appadocia a nd b rought h ofe a v ery l arge h aul o f R oman c aptives. Among t he 3 7 c ities c aptured i n h is s econd c ampaign i n 2 56 was D ura E uropos ( SKZ, G k.,line 1 7, p .311) a nd we may d educe f rom t he f act t hat t he c ity h ad n o s ignificant p opulation a fter i ts f all ( Amm . Marc. XXIII.5.8) t hat t hose i nhabitants w ho s urvived t he f ierce f ighti ng were d eported . O f g reater s ignificance f or o ur s ubject i s t he c apture o f A ntioch i n S yria o n more t han o ne o ccasion b y S hapur. H e w as a ided i n t he f irst ( ?) a ttack b y Mar j ades, a f ormer c ounc illor o f t he c ity w ho h ad.gone o ver t o t he P ersian s ide b ecause h e w as w anted b y h is c olleagues f or t he embezzlement o f f unds s et a side f or t he s taging o f h orse-races ( Orac . S ib . X III.89-102, S HA T yr. T rig. 2 a nd Malalas, c hron. X II: 2 95, 2 0-296, 1 0 CSHB). A s t wo o f h er l eading c itizens would l ater r ecord, o ne o f t hese

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r aids t ook t he c itizen b ody s o u nprepared t hat m ost o f t hem w ere e njoying a c omic s how when o ne o f t he a ctors r ealized, t o h er h orror, t hat s ome P ersian a rchers h ad o ccupied t he c itadel a nd t hat t hey were n ot e xtra t heatrical p rops ( Lib . O r. XXIV .38 a nd Ann . Marc . XXIII.5.3. S ee a lso E unapius, V it. S oph. V I.5). T he P ersians s et f ire t o many o f t he c ity 's b uildings a nd o nly t he e nchanting s uburb D aphne s eems t o h ave e scaped t he t orch ( Lib. O r. LX .2 =C hrysosotom d e S . B aby l a X IX , PG 5 0.563). A ccording t o Z osi mus ( 1.27.2), t he P ersians massacred s ome o f t he i nhabit ants a nd c arried t he r est i nto c aptivity. I t i s h ard t o b elieve t hat t he c ity was e mptied o f i ts p opulation . S ome o f t he b etter i nformed c itizens h ad a pparently made a r un f or t he c ountryside w hen t hey h eard o f t he a pproach o f S hapur a nd Mariades. T he l atter was l ater e xecuted b y S hapur who p robably h ad l ittle r espect f or t raitors. I t a ppears t hat f ar f rom b eing a d etested t raitor, Mariades h ad c onsiderable l ocal s upport i n Antioch ( anon . c ont. D io, f rag. 1 , F HG I V: 1 92). H e would h ave c ertainly c ontinued t o p lay h is own p olitical g ame i f l eft a live . B esides Antioch, a nother i mportant R oman c ity, N isibis, f ell t o S hapur i n e ither h is s econd o r t hird c ampaign. T hough t he c apt ure o f t his k ey f rontier c ity i s n ot c elebrated i n t he R es G estae D ivi S aporis, i t i s mentioned i n t wo A rab s ources a nd s trongly h inted a t b y r eferences t o i ts s ubsequent r ecapture f rom t he P ersians b y C denathus o f P al myra ( SHA G allieni 1 0 .3 a nd 1 2 .1 a nd T yr. T rig. 1 5.3). According t o o ne o f t hese A rab s ources, t he A nnales o f E utychius ( ed. P ococke, p p.379-83. S ee a lso T abari/ N öldeke, p p.31-32.), a fter t he P ersians h ad f ound t heir way i nto t he c ity t hrough a f issure i n i ts walls, t hey s lew a ll t he a bleb odied men a nd l ed t he r est away a s p risoners. T he t hird c ampaign o f S hapur, l aunched c . 2 60, was u ndoubtedly t he most s uccessful i n t er ms o f d epth o f p enetration i nto t he R oman Empire a nd t he n umber o t c aptives t aken. T he d efeat o f V alerian w ho l ed a n a rmy o f 7 0,000 men a gainst S hapur w ould h ave y ielded a l arge n umber o f P oW . A s t he R es Gestae ( Gk.,lines 2 42 6, p .313) c learly i ndicates: A g reat b attle t ook p lace b eyond C arrhae a nd E dessa b etween u s a nd C aesar V alerian a nd w e t ook h im p risoner w ith o ur own h ands a s well a s t he o ther c ommanders o f t he a rmy, t he P raetorian P refect, s enators a nd o ffic ials. A ll t hese we t ook p risoner a nd d eported t o P ersis. A nd, a fter l isting t he n ames o f t he t hirty-six c ities a nd t heir s urround i ng t erritories c onquered f rom t he R omans, t he i nscript ion g oes o n t o s ay ( lines 3 4-35, p .315): W e l ed away i nto c aptivity men f rom t he Empire o f t he R omans, n on-Iranians, a nd s ettled t hem i nto o ur Empire o f I ranians, i n P ersia, i n P arthia, i n S usiana a nd i n A ssuristan a nd i n e very o ther n ation w here o ur o wn a nd o ur f ather's a nd o ur f orefather 's f ounda t ions w ere .

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T his d istribution o f R oman p risoners among a n umber o f c ities i n t he E ranshahr i s c onfirmed b y a N estorian c hronicle i n A rabic c ommonly r eferred t o a s t he C hronicle o f S e 'ert, c ompiled s hortly a fter 1 036 ( cf. D ecret 1 979: 9 7-9). A t t he e nd o f t he a ccount o f S hapur's v ictory o ver V alerian, t he Chronicle s ays ( 2, PO 4 , p p. 2 20-2!) S hapur l eft t he t erritories o f t he Romans, t aking w ith h im p risoners whom h e s ettled i n t he c ountries o f I raq ( i.e. A ssuristan), S usiana ( Al Ahwaz), P ersia a nd i n t he t owns h is f ather h ad f ounded. H e a lso f ounded t hree t owns a nd g ave t hem n ames d erived f rom h is own n ame . One was i n t he l and o f Mai s an ( i.e. Mesene) a nd w as c alled S od S hapur ( i.e. S adhsabur o r D air M ihraq). T he s econd i n P ersia which i s s till c alled S hapur t od ay ( i.e. B ishapur i n F ars). H e r ebuilt Gundeshapur w hich h ad f allen i nto d isrepair a nd n amed i t AntiS hapur ( probably a c orruption o f A ntijok-i-Shapur, i .e . t he ' Greater A ntioch o f S hapur'), a word h alf-Greek a nd h alf-Persian, meaning: ' You a re S hapur's e qual(?)'. H e c onstructed a t hird t own o n t he b anks o f t he T igris c alled Mar w H abor which i s ' Akbora a nd i ts e nvirons ( i.e . B uzurg S abur) . T hese t owns were p opulated b y h is p risoners who were p rovided w ith l ands a nd h ome t o t ill. T he c onditions u nder w hich t he R oman d eportees h ad t o m ake t heir l ong a nd a rduous j ourneys t o t hese d ifferent p arts o f t he P ersian Empire a re n ot well d ocumented. A ccording t o Z onaras ( XII.23, p .594,15-19, CSHB), t he p risoners t aken f rom Antioch a nd f rom c ities i n C i 1i cia a nd Caesarea i n Cappadocia were g iven t he m inimum amount o f f ood n eeded t o s upport l ife a nd were h erded l ike c attle t o watering p laces d aily b y t heir g uards t o a void h aving t o t ransport water f or t hem e n r oute. T he r easons f or d eporting s uch l arge n umbers o f p risoners t o P ersia a re n ot d ifficult t o f ind. T he f ounding o f n ew c ities a nd t he r estora. t ion o f o lder u rban c entres were i mportant a spects o f t he s ociop olitical s ystem o f t he S assanians; t he c aptive Romans, many o f w hom were s killed a rtists, b uilders, metal-workers, h ydraulic e ngineers, s cholars a nd d octors, would h ave p rovided t he p rof essional a nd a rtisan c ore n eeded f or s uch u rban d evelopments. S ome o f t he c ities f ounded b y b oth S hapur a nd h is f ather A rdashir w ere i r i marginal b ut f ertile t erritories l ike S usiana a nd Mesene w ith n o s trong u rban t radition a nd t he n ew f oundations would h ave f acilitated t he e conomic e xploitation o f s uch l ands. T he r egion o f S usiana i n p articular h ad a ttracted t he a ttention o f P ersian m onarchs b ack i n A chaemenid t i mes a s b oth Cambyses a nd D arius h ad s ettled t here captives f ro m Egypt a nd G reece (H erodotus V I.119.1). A n umber o f major c onstruction p rojects were a lso c arried o ut o n t he t hree main r ivers o f t he r egion . T he d ams a nd b ridges, s till i mpressive i n t heir r uins, t estify t o t he s ize a nd s cope o f t he p rojects a s well a s t heir u nmistak a ble R oman d esign a nd workmanship ( cf. F iey 1 970b: 6 0, n .83). Gundeshapur ( "The A rms o f S hapur"), t he c hief c entre f or t he r esettlement o f R oman d eportees, was b uilt o n t he p lan o f aR oman m ilitary c amp a nd i ts

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e arliest i nhabitants m ight w ell h ave b een mainly e x-legionnaires w ho were t aken p risoner a fter t he b attle n ear E dessa a nd C arrhae w hich s aw t he d estruction o f a Roman a r my o f 7 0,000 u nder t he c ommand o f V alerian ( cf. Ghirshman 1 962: 1 35 a nd F iey 1 969: 2 289 ). A bout t he s ame t i me a s h is v ictory o ver V alerian, S hapur b uilt f or h i mself a n ew r oyal c ity a t B ishapur, ' the b eautiful ( city o f) S hapur' i n h is n ative p rovince o f F ars ( i.e. P ersis). T his i mportant f oundation, a ppropriately n ick-named t he S assanian ' Versailles' b y Ghirshman ( 1962: 1 39), o ne o f i ts g reatest e xcav ators, was b uilt o n a s quare G reek H ippodamian r ather t han a c ircular P arthian p attern. I ts e laborate d eco, e specially i ts m osaics, r eveals v ery c lear R oman workmanship b oth i n t echnique, i n p resentation a nd i n c hoice o f s ubject matter. T hough t he m osaicists were a ble t o a dapt d etails t o l ocal I ranian t astes, t he s ubjects o f t he mosaics were t aken f rom s tandard r epertory o f t he mosaics o f A ntioch a nd N orth A frica. T heir c reators were u nlikely t o h ave b een e xpatriate R oman master-craftsmen who h ad b een a ttracted b y t he l ure o f h igher p ay a nd t he p restige o f a r oyal p roject t o c ome a ll t he way t o t he h eartland o f I ran. T he m osaics a nd much o f t he c onstruction work a t B ishapur were a l most c ertainly t he work o f i nvoluntary Roman e xiles, d eported f rom i mportant u rban c entres s uch a s Antioch where t here were f louri shing s chools o f m osaicists i n t he m iddle a nd l ate Empire . T he P ersian Empire s eemed t o h ave s uffered f rom a g enuine manp ower s hortage . B y t his o ne d oes n ot i mply a f alling b irth-rate b ut t hat t he s ize o f t he p opulation was i nadequate t o meet t he e xpansive d esigns o f t he E arly S assanians. I n t he c onflict b etween Rome a nd S hapur I, t he d ifficulty which t he l atter e ncountered i n b uilding u p a f orce l arge e nough t o make a major a ssault o n t he Roman f rontier i n 3 44 was n oted b y t he r hetor L ibanius

( Or.

L IX .100-1):

When t he P ersians g rew t ired o f t he Emperor's i nroads a nd were worn o ut b y t he l ength o f t he war, t hey made n ecessity a n i nspiration i n t heir p redicament, f or d eath i s n ot a b urden t o t hose who d o n ot d evote t heir l ives t o p leasure. W illing t o s uffer i n what t hey u ndertook t hey r aised l evies amongst t he men f rom y outh u pwards, n ot e ven g ranting f ree a nd u niversal e xemption t o t he v ery y oung, a nd, what i s more, t hey r ounded u p t he w omen t o a ct a s b aggage-carriers f or t he a rmy. O f t he v arious n eighbouring b arbarian p eoples s ome were p ersuaded b y f orce o f e ntreaty t o s hare t he d angers o f t he P ersian u ndertaking, while o thers were c oerced i nto e nrolling f or m ilitary s ervice, a nd t o t hese t hey o ffered a q uantity o f g old, a h oard p reserved s ince a ncient t i mes, a nd t hen f or t he f irst t i me t o b e e xp ended i n p ayments t o t he mercenary f orces. When t hey h ad e xhaustively s crutinized t he whole c ountryside i n t his way, t hey l eft t he t owns d eserted a nd h erded t he w hole p opulace t ogether i n a c rowd a nd, p ractising

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t heir m ilitary s kills o n t he way, r iver ( i.e. t he T igris).

t hey s et o ut

f or

t he

S ix y ears l ater, t he a r my h e t ook t o b esiege N isibis f or t he t hird t i me c onsisted n ot o nly o f a ble-bodied f ighting men b ut a lso mere b oys a nd o ld men a s w ell a s t hrongs o f women - f ar m ore t han were r equired t o a ssist i n t he war. J ulian, t he f uture e mperor, b elieved t hat t hey w ere c olonists w hom S hapur i ntended t o p lant i n t he c onquered c ities ( Jul., O r. I ,27A). One d oubts i f S hapur c ould a fford t o f eed a nd s ustain s uch a l arge n umber o f i dle mouths o n a n e xpedition . I t i s more p robable t hat t hey w ere t here t o u ndertake t asks which c ould r elease more t roops f or t he f ront l ine . S i milarly, t he u se o f R oman c aptives i n c onstruction w orks w ould h ave a llowed S hapur I t o maintain a l arger s tanding a rmy i n t he s ame way t hat A llied P oW were f orcibly employed t o u ndertake a v ariety o f c onstruction a nd p roduction work i n t he F ar E ast b y t heir c aptors d uring World War I. T he c apture o f a r eigning Roman emperor i n b attle was a major p ropaganda c oup f or t he S assanians a nd o ne which t hey s kilfully e xploited i n t heir i mperial a rt - w itness t he e xquisite c ameo n ow i n t he B ibliotheque N ationale d epicting V alerian b eing h eld c aptive b y S hapur a nd t he more massive s ubmission s cene o n t he f amous r ock r eliefs a t N aqsh-i-Rustam . T he l atter a s well a s s im ilar d epictions s howing t he s ubmission o f P hilip t he A rab m ight h ave g iven r ise t o t he s arcastic r emark o f L actantius i n h is p olemical t reatise D e Mortibus P ersecutorum ( 5 .3, e d . C reed. S ee a lso O rosius, Adv. P ag. V II.22.4) t hat V alerian was u sed a s a f oot-stool f or t he v ictorious S hapur t o mount a nd d ismount h is c arriage o r c harger. H is s on a nd c o-emperor Gallienus made n o e ffort t o s ecure h is r elease; u nlike P hilip t he A rab who, two d ecades a go, p aid a s um o f h alf a m illion d enarii f or t hose R oman t roops t aken p risoner b y S hapur i n h is i nitial s uccesses a gainst G ordian I II ( SKZ, Gk., l ine 9 , p .309). Our R oman s ources a re u nanimous o ver t he i gnominy s uffered b y V alerian i n h is c aptivity b ut much more d ivided o ver t he e xact manner o f h is d eath. S ome a llege t hat h e d ied o f o ld a ge b ut s ome, l ike L actantius, t hat h e d ied t he d eath o f Marsyas. T he A rab h istorian a l-Tabari, while a dmitting t hat o pinions d iffer o n t he h istory o f V alerian a fter h i .s c apture, t ells u s t hat h e was t aken b y S hapur a long w ith a l arge n umber o f R oman c aptives t o G undeshapur w here h e was f orced a long w ith o ther p risoners t o h elp b uild a massive d am o ver t he r iver S Ostar. I ts r uins, s till i mpressive, maintains i ts R oman o rigin i n i ts p resent d ay n ame o f B and- i -Qaysar ( the d am o f C aesar). S hapur was s upposed t o h ave a greed t o h is b eing f reed o n t he co mpletion o f t he d am b ut d id n ot a bide b y h is word. ' According t o s ome', s ays a l-Tabari ( Tabari/Nöldeke, p p.32-33), ' he ( sc. S hapur) t ook a l ot o f money f rom h im a nd c ut o ff h is n ose, b efore l etting h im g o; a ccording t o o thers h e f inally k illed h im .' G hirshman i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he e xiled emperor was h oused i n a p alace a t B ishapur a djacent t o t hat o f S hapur's own. T he t wo n iches which h ave b een e xcavated a re a dorned w ith v ery l ow r el iefs s howing h orsemen c harging a nd s tanding f igures. T he s cenes

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c ontaining t he h orsemen h ave l ed Ghirshman ( 1962: 1 48-9) t o s urm ise t hat t hey i llustrated t he c ampaigns o f S hapur I a gainst t he R omans a nd t hat t his s econd p alace was b uilt f or t he d efeated V alerian . H is p hysical t reat ment c ould n ot h ave b een t oo o utrag eous i f S hapur h ad t aken t he t rouble t o h ouse h im i n s uch magnif icence; b ut t he c onstant r eminder o f h is g reat d efeat w ould h ave u ndoubtedly b een a n i nsidious f or m o f mental t orture. N o wonder t he N estorian Chronicle o f S e 'ert ( 2, PO 4 , p .223)says t hat h e d ied o f d epression. When Gallienus, h is s on, h ad h eard o f h is f ather's d eath, h e r edeemed t he c orpse w ith a l arge r ansom a nd c ame t o amicable t erms w ith S hapur. M any o f t he c aptives t aken f rom c ities i n S yria a nd Cappadocia a nd C ilicia would h ave b een Christians a s Christianity was a lr eady well e stablished i n b oth t he c ities a nd t he c ountryside o f t hese r egions. Among t hose d eported f rom A ntioch was D emetrianus, t he b ishop o f t he c ity a nd i t was e vident t hat h e was a ccompanied b y a l arge n umber o f h is f lock. S ome f or m o f Christianity h ad a lready made i ts p resence f elt i n Mesopotamia a nd I ran u nder t he t olerant A rsacids. T he n ewly d iscovered C ologne Mani C odex s hows t hat a t l east o ne J udaeo-Christian s ect, t he E lchasaites, was w ell e stablished i n t he marshy a reas s outh o f S eleucia-Ctesiphon a nd a ttracted f ollowers f rom t he R oyal Twin-C ity ( cf. L ieu 1 985: 2 6-37). T he v arious s trands o f t eaching which c ame t ogether i n t he c os mogonic t eaching o f Mani p oint t o t he p resence o f t he f ollowers o f Marcion a nd Bardaisan a nd o f s ome o ther Gnostic t eachers i n t he a rea ( cf. L ieu 1 985: 3 7-53). T he i nflux o f a l arge n umber o f R oman Christians a dded t o t his d iverse s cene a m ore h ierarchically o rganized c hurch w ith i ts H ellenized d oct rines. T he C hristians, a ccording t o t he N estorian C hronicle o f S e'ert ( 2, PO 4, p .221), p rospered i n t heir l and o f e xile: T he Christians a lso multiplied i n P ersia, b uilding c hurches and monasteries. Their n u mber i ncluded p riests who h ad b een t aken p risoner a t A ntioch. T hey c olonised Gundeshapur a nd e lected Azdoc o f Antioch a s t heir b ishop, b ecause D emetrius ( i.e. D emetrianus), t he P atriarch o f Antioch, h ad f allen i ll a nd d ied o f s orrow . ( Cf. P eeters 1 924: 2 94-8 a nd 3 08-14 a nd D ecret 1 979: 1 10-11.) T he f act t hat t he p riests were a ble t o i mmediately e lect a s ucce s sor t o D emetrianus s uggests t hat t he c hurch was well o rganised a nd t he n umber o f c lergy was s ufficiently l arge t o make p ossible t he e lection o f a P atriarch. S ome Christian c aptives m ight h ave e ven b reathed a s igh o f r elief a s t he t hreat o f p ersec ution which h ad h aunted t hem i n t he R oman Empire u nder V alerian d id n ot a ccompany t hem i n t heir e xile ( cf. E us., V ita C onst. 1.53, p .63,10-16, GCS). T hey were r elieved t oo o f t he b urdens ome t axation which h ad c reated s o much h ardship i n t he R oman Empire . A s c olonists, t hey c ould a cquire l and a t r educed o r n one xistent p rices ( cf. Chron. S eert. 2 , PO 4 , p .223) a nd t hey s oon p rospered e conomically. T heir s uperior s kills g ave t hem a c lear e dge o ver a utochthonus c ompetition ( cf. D ecret 1 979: 10). B eing t he most o rganized a nd c ohesive o f a ll t he s ocial g roupings

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w ithin t he e xiled R oman c ommunity, t he C hristians w ere u ndoubtedl y p rominent a nd a s t hey r ose i n s tatus s o d id t he c hurch. F or t hose p agan Roman c aptives who d id n ot w ish t o ' go n ative', t he c hurch would h ave b een a n i ndelible l ink w ith t heir l and o f o rigin. N ot s urprisingly, t he n umber o f C hristians m ultiplied i n . the e xiled c ommunity u nder t he b enevolent a nd g enuinely t olerant r ule o f S hapur I . A ccording t o t he N estorian C hronicle o f S e 'ert ( 2, PO 4 , p .222. C f. F iey 1 970b: 5 7 a nd Kawerau 1 983: 1 7 ), t hey w ere n umerous e nough t o b uild t wo c hurches a t R ev-Ardashir, l ater t he s eat o f t he metropolitan o f F ars, o ne f or t he " Romans" a nd t he o ther f or t he ' Karamanians ' ( i.e. Kamarania, a P ersian p rov ince o n t he I ndian Ocean) a nd t he d ivine r ites were c elebrated b oth i n G reek a nd S yriac . T hough S yriac would b ecome d ominant i n t he l ife o f t he C hristian c hurch i n P ersia, a s eparate G reek s peaking e cclesiastical h ierarchy s urvived well i nto t he f ifth c entury t o g ive r ise t o s ome c oncern a t t he S ynod o f C tesiphon i n 4 10 ( cf. Chabot 1 902: 2 71-2, c anon 2 1, c ited i n B rock 1 978: 1 69). M anichaeism which p reached t he Gospel o f Mani, t he Apostle o f J esus Christ, would h ave a lso f ound r eady h earers among t he e xiled c ommunities a nd o ne o f t he e arliest m issionaries o f t he s ect t o Roman P alestine was Akouas ( i.e. Mar Z aku) who was s aid t o h ave b een a ' veteranus' which may i mply t hat h e was a f ormer P oW who h ad b een c onverted while i n P ersia b ut t he e pithet may m erely i ndicate h is s enior s tanding i n t he Manichaean h ierarchy ( Epiphanius P anarion LXVI.1.2, GCS. C f. L ieu 1 985 : 68-9). T he v ariety o f C hristians w ithin t he P ersian Empire s eems t o h ave b een u nderstood b y S assanian a uthorities a s w e f ind t hem c ategori zed i n t he i nscription o f K irdir, t he Chief Mobed, o n t he K a'ba o f Z oroaster i nto n 'cl'y ( Nazoreans, i .e. n ative S yriac C hrist ians = S yr. n sry'), k Istyd'n ( Christians, i .e. d eported Christ ians o f G reek o rigin, p erhaps i ncluding Marcionites = S yr. k rystyn'), mktky ( 'purifiers', i .e. J udaeo-Christian b aptists = S yr. mnqd') a nd z ndyky ( Heretics, i .e. Manichaeans) ( KKZ, l ine 1 0, p .343. Cf. B rock 1 978: 1 67 a nd S undermann 1 977: 2 42T T he Christians i n P ersia would l ater l ook b ack o n t he t olerant r eign o f S hapur I w ith c onsiderable n ostalgia . S ome m ight h ave e ven h eld t he v iew t hat S hapur a ctually i ssued s ome s ort o f f ormal e dict o f t oleration a nd l ater, t he Christians i n P ersian c ontrolled A rmenia, when p ersecuted u nder Y ezdegird I ( 438-57), m ade r eference t o i t t hrough t he mouth o f t heir e nvoys t o t he S hahan hah ( Elishe V ardan e tc ., t rans. T homson 1 982: 9 7): W e r emind y ou o f t he t i me o f S hapuh, k ing o f k ings, w ho w as t he f ather o f y our g randfather Y azkert a nd t o w hom God g ave A rmenia i n s ubjection u nder t he s ame r eligion a s t hat b y which we s till l ive t oday. Our f athers a nd g reat-grandfathers r endered h im s ervice a nd l oyally f ulfilled a ll h is c ommands, o ften r eceiving g enerous p resents f rom h im . F rom t hose t i mes u ntil ( your s uccess ion) t o y our a ncestral t hrone we h ave p erformed t he s ame s ervice, b ut p erhaps more s o f or y ou t han f or y our p redecessors.

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T he p oint was u nderscored b y t he s ame A rmenian s ource t his t i me t hrough t he words o f t he l etter o f t he c hief Magian p riest i n w hich h e a dvised t he S hahanshah a gainst p ersisting w ith t he p olicy o f p ersecution ( ibid .: 19-20): I h ad h eard f rom o ur a ncestors t hat i n t he d ays o f S hapuh, k ing o f k ings, when t hat d octrine o f y ours b egan t o i ncrease a nd s pread a nd f ill t he whole o f P ersia, a nd e ven r each t he e ast b eyond, t hose who were t he t eachers o f o ur r eligion e njoined t he k ing t o p revent t he r eligion o f magi s m f rom b eing c ompletely e xterminated f rom t he l and. S o h e g ave a s trict o rder t hat Christianity s hould b e s ilenced a nd b rought t o a h alt. Y et t he more h e w ished t o r estrain a nd p revent t hem t he more t hey i ncreased a nd e xpanded, r eaching e ven t he l and o f t he Kushans, a nd t o t he s outh s preadi ng a s f ar a s I ndia. T hey were s o f earless a nd a udacious i n P ersia t hat i n e very c ity o f t he l and t hey b uilt c hurches which s urp assed i n s plendor t he r oyal p alace. T hey a lso b uilt w hat a re c alled martyria a nd d ecorated t hem i n t he s ame f ashion a s t he c hurches; a nd i n e very u ninhabited s pot t hey c onstructed h er mitages. A lthough n o a ssistance f rom a nywhere was a pparent, t hey i ncreased a nd multip lied a nd g rew i n material p rosperity. We h ad n o i dea o f t he c auses o f t heir wealth, b ut t his much we t ruly u nderstood - t hat t he whole world w as f ollowing t heir t eachings. T he s ame l etter g oes o n t o s ay t hat S hapur a t f irst p ersecuted C hristians b ut l ater r ealized t he f olly o f h is e ndeavour a nd d ecreed f reedom o f worship f or Z oroastrians, J ews, C hristians a nd M anichaeans a like ( ibid.: 1 11-12. Cf. Chaumont 1 964 : 183-5). T he f low o f Roman d eportees i nto t he P ersian Empire p robabty s lowed d own i n t he r eigns o f S hapur's i mmediate s uccessors. T heir m ilitary a chievements were h ardly s pectacular. T he l ast d ecades o f t he t hird c entury s aw t he c onsolidation a nd t he s ocial a dv ancement o f t he e xile c ommunities i n P ersia a s t he p olicy o f t oleration was f ollowed b y H ormizd ( 270-71) a nd p robably B ahram I ( 271-4). D uring t he r eign o f t he l atter, h owever, u nder t he g uidance o f t he c hief Mobed K irdir, Z oroastrianism s teadily g ained i nfluence a t c ourt. T he e xecution o f Mani, t he l eader o f a G nostic Christian s ect b y B ahram I I ( 274?-93) i n 2 76 a t t he i nstigation o f K irdir, o ccasioned a p ersecution which, t hough c hiefly a i med a t Mani's f ollowers, a dversely a ffected t he C hrist ians b ecause many Manichaeans masqueraded a s C hristans a nd t he S assanian a uthorities were n ot a l ways a ble t o d istinguish b etween M anichaeans a nd t he more o rthodox C hristians ( Chron . S eert. 9 , PO 4 , p p.237-38. C f. D ecret 1 979: 1 25-31). Among t ne f irst Christ ian v icti ms o f t his p ersecution was Candida, a f avoured c onc ubine o f B ahram I, who a ccording t o t he C hronicle o f S e 'ert ( 9, p .238), was o f R oman o rigin. T he S yriac a ccount o f h er martyrdom s ays s he ' belonged t o t hose d eported f rom Roman t erritory; s he

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h ad b een t aken c aptive f or ( or b y) t he P ersian k ing, . — '(2, e d. a nd t rans. B rock 1 978: 1 73 a nd 1 78). More p robably h er p arents w ere c aptives a nd t hey b rought h er u p a s a C hristian i n o ne o f t he n ew S assanian f oundations i n which t he c aptives h ad b een s ettled . H er b eauty w as s uch t hat B ahram f ell d eeply i n l ove w ith h er a nd was w illing t o make h er h is c hief c oncubine . A t t his t he o ther w ives g rew j ealous a nd a ccused h er f or h er d evotion t o C hristianity b efore t he S hahanshah . B ahram s ummoned h er a nd t ried t o e ntice h er a way f rom h er f aith b y p romise o f making h er Q ueen b ut s he s tood h er g round a nd s uffered martyrdom i n a m ost g rotesq ue manner ( ibid.: 1 78-81). T he h arem o f t he S hahanshah o r t he h ouseholds o f P ersian g rand ees, would h ave b een a p rivileged d estination f or s ome f emale c aptives. A f ar w orse f ate awaited a g roup o f 2 ,000 maidens who w ere among a v ery l arge h orde o f Romans t aken b y Chosroes A nushirvan f rom D ara a nd Apamea i n 5 73. T he S hahanshah i ntended t hem a s a t ribute t o t he T urks. T hey p referred s elf-martyrdom b y t hrowing t hemselves i nto a r iver t han t o h ave t heir v irtues s ullied b y i nfidels a nd b arbarians. T he f act t hat t hey h ad c ommitted s uicide, which was s inful, d id n ot d eter t he s tory o f t heir c orporate a ct o f s elf-sacrifice t o b e r ecounted b y J ohn o f E phesus ( Hist. E ccl. V I. 7 , CSCO 1 05, p p.293,19 - 2 96,27) a nd i n t he N estorian Chronicle o f S e 'ert ( 3, PO 4, p p.224-25) where t he i ncident i s w rongly d ated t o t he r eign o f S hapur I when t here was l ittle c ontact b etween t he P ersians a nd t he T urks. A s ource o f c onsiderable i nterest a nd i mportance t o o ur k nowledge o f t he s ubsequent f ate o f Roman c aptives a s well a s t he s ocial a nd e conomic h istory o f n ew u rban c entres f ounded f or t hem i s t he a ccount i n S yriac o f t he martyrdom o f P usai, ' the c hief c raftsman ' o f t he S hahanshah a t K arka d e L edan. T his P usai w as s aid t o h ave b een t he s on o f a p risoner whom S hapur, t he s on o f H or mizd ( i.e . S hapur I I), h ad l ed o ut o f t he Roman Empire ( AMS I I, p .208). G iven t he d ate o f h is martyrdom ( 341?) a nd t hat h e was b y t hen well e stablished i n h is c areer, h e was p robably b orn i n P ersia t o p arents who were t aken f rom t he R oman Empire b y S hapur: I . T hat h e h ad a n I ranian n ame ( Pousik o r P ossi, c f. J usti 1 895: 2 56b) i s a lso s uggestive o f t he f act t hat h e was b orn i n P ersia. T he f amily w as o riginally s ettled i n Weh-Shapur i n F ars, o ne o f t he many c ities f ounded f or t he d eportees b y S hapur I w hich b ore h is n ame. P usai t ook a P ersian w ife f rom t hat c ity, i nstructed h er i n t he C hristian f aith a nd a lso h ad t heir c hildren b aptised . S ome t i me i n t he 3 30 's, S hapur I f ounded a n ew r oyal c ity c alled K arka d e L edan i n B et H uzaie ( i.e . H uzistan o r S usiana) a nd t here h e s ettled p risoners t aken f rom a n umber o f f rontier r egions o f t he Roman Empire s uch a s t he s urrounding c ountry o f S ingara, N isibis, B ezabde a nd o f A r menia ( Narratio d e S i meone 2 5, P S 2 , c ol. 8 32. C f. F iey 1 970a a nd B rock 1 982: 4 ). T o t his n ew f oundat ion h e a lso t ransferred a n umber o f f amilies f rom o ther p arts o f t he E ranshahr i n t he h ope o f c reating a b etter s ocial m ix, t hus a voiding t he v arious g roups o f n ew a rrivals d eveloping i nto g hettoes. T he r esult was t he r apid e xpansion o f C hristianity a mong t he n ew s ettlers f or w hich S hapur h ad n ot b argained. P usai t ogether w ith h is w ife a nd c hildren a nd h is b rothers a nd s isters

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a nd h is h ousehold w ere among t hose c hosen f rom B eh-Shapur t o b e r esettled a t K arka d e L edan ( AMS I, p .209) . P usai w as a n e xpert w eaver a nd embroiderer, a much v alued s pecialist i n t he p rod uction o f s ilk a nd b rocade ( ibid.: 2 09). H is h agiographer s ays t hat h e b elonged t o t hat a ssembly o f a rtisans w hom t he S hahanshah h ad p icked f rom d eportees a nd h is own s ubjects a nd which was d ivided i nto v arious s ubsections ( tagma) w ith t heir workshop s ituated n ext t o t he i mperial p alace ( AMS I, p p.209-10. C f. P igulevskaja 1 963: 1 59-61). P usai's work much i mpressed t he S hahanshah who s howered h im w ith g ifts a nd h onours a nd i n d ue c ourse p romoted h im t o t he r ank o f ' Chief C raftsman ( rs ' wmn ', o r g rwgbr, c f. Martyrium S i meonis 4 4, P S 2 , c o1.773,25) o f t he o ther p rovinces ( or p laces) o f h is Empire '. A f ew d ays a fter h e r ec eived t his p ost, h e was o rdered t o i nspect t he a rtisans i n t he c ity o f S hapur w hich was c alled R ama i n A ramaic ( =Sad-Shapur i n M esene which was a lso c alled R ai ma i n A ramaic a nd f ounded, a s we h ave s een, b y S hapur I f or R oman c aptives) ( AMS I, p .210). I n t he meanti me t he r elationship b etween t he C hristian C hurch a nd t he S assanian s tate which h ad e xperienced s ome v icissitudes u nder B ahram I was n ow b ecoming s everely s trained . Most o f t he R oman c aptives were S yriac s peakers a nd s o were many i nhabitants o f P ersian Mesopotamia a nd a djacent I ran . T he S assanian k ings h ad n o d oubt h oped t hat g iven t i me t he b ny s byt', a s t he d eportees a nd t heir d escendants were c ollectively c alled i n S yriac, would g radually a ssi milate a nd f ind a s uitable n iche f or t hemselves i n t he h ighly c osmopolitan P ersian Empire . T he g rowing s trength o f C hristianity among t he b ny s byt' was n ot s een b y t he S assanians a s a major o bstacle t o t heir p olicy o f s ettling t hese h ighly s killed a nd e conomically p roductive R oman p risoners p ermanently i n t he E ranshahr a s Christianity was p ersecuted i n t he Roman Empire . T he conversion o f Constant i ne a nd t he i nexorable C hristianization o f t he Empire h ad i ntroduced a n ew r eligious d imension t o R omano-Persian r elations. T he C hristians i n t he R oman Empire h ad p robably maintained l inks w ith t heir c oreligionists i n P ersia a nd i t was n ot u nexpected t o f ind a b ishop f rom P ersia a ttending t he C ouncil o f N icaea ( Patrum N icaenorum n omina, e d. Gelzer e t a l., p .22 ( 82), p .64 ( 82) a nd , p.103 ( 82). Cf. Duchesne 1 9127— ii , 1 13). Constant i ne was u ndoubtedly aware o f t he s teady g rowth o f C hristianity i n P ersia w hen h e p ut h i mself f or ward a s i ts i ntercessor a nd p atron ( Eus. V ita ' Const. I V .8, p p.120,31 - 1 21,2, GCS. S ee a lso I V .43.3, p .135,22-23). S uch meddl i ng i n t he i nternal a ffairs o f t he S assanian Empire c ould n ot b ut c ast a d oubt o ver t he l oyalty o f a ll t he Christians i n P ersia, b e t hey o f Roman o r I ranian d es cent. S ome h alf-hearted a ttempts a t f orced c onversion were made b y t he S assanian g overnment w ith t he e ncouragement o f t he Magian c lergy a nd, a ccording t o C hristian w riters, a lso J ewish l eaders. T his merely r evived t he t radition o f martyrdom which t he C hristi ans h ad b rought w ith t hem f rom t he R oman Empire. T he n ews o f C onstantine's p reparation f or war a gainst t he P ersia must h ave h eld o ut h opes o f d el i verance t o s ome P ersian Christians ( cf. B arnes 1 985: 1 33-6). ' Aphrahat', t he b est k nown o f t he Christian w riters i n P ersia a t t hat t i me e xpressed i n o ne o f h is h omilies

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( Dem . V .1, P S I , c o1.184,11-16, c ited i n B rock 1 982: 8 ) h is d esire t o s ee t he o ne who was r esponsible f or t he p rosperity o f G od's p eople ( i.e. Constantine) v ictorious o ver " a p roud man, p uffed u p w ith v anity ( i.e. S hapur I I)". T he s uspicion t hat w idespread d isloyal s ympathies e xisted among t he C hristians s eems c onfirmed when S i meon B ar S abba'e, t he n inth Cathol i cos a nd h imself t he s on o f r oyal s ilk-dyers ( Martyrium S i meonis 7 , P S 2 , c o1.728,14-17), r efused t o c ollect a s pecial war-tax f rom t he C hristian c ommunity a fter war h ad b roken o ut b etween t he t wo Empires ( Narratio d e S i meone 4 -5, P S 2 , c ols. 7 89,9 798,4). F or t his a ct o f d isobedience h e a nd many o f h is f ollowers s uffered m artyrdom . T hey were met o n t heir way t o t heir p lace o f e xecution b y P usai, t he n ewly p romoted " Chief c raftsman" o f t he S hahanshah . H e t ook p ity o n t he s uffering o f a n a ged p riest f rom S eleucia a nd w as h i mself a rrested a nd s uffered martyrdom d espite p ersonal a ppeal f rom S hapur h i mself t o a bjure h is f aith WAS I, p p .210-32 a nd Martyrium S i meonis 4 4, P S 2 , c ols. 7 73,23 - 7 78,6. S ee a lso S ozomenus HE 1 1.11.1-2, p .65,15-24, GCS a nd B rock 1 982: 1 4). T he a cta o f t he martyrdom o f P usai s hows b eyond d oubt t hat t he R oman c aptives h ad made c onsiderable a dvance s ocially w ithin t he P ersian Empire a nd were making s ignificant c ontributions t o t he s tate e conomy a nd were r ewarded f or i t. T he i mperial workers a t K arka d e L edan a ppear t o h ave b een o rganized i nto s ome s ort o f a dm inistrative u nit d ivided i nto v arious g uilds. T he s ituation o f t heir p lace o f work n ext t o t he p alace a lso a ttests t o t he i mportance g iven t o t heir work ( cf. P igulevskaja 1 953: 1 60-1). T he f act t hat P usai was o rdered t o i nspect e stablish ments i n o ther c ities i ndicates t hat t he o rganization a t Karka d e L edan w as n ot u nique a nd t hat i n o ther P ersian c ities Christian a rtis ans, mainly o f Roman d escent, were p laying t heir p art i n t he material i mprovement o f t he c ommunities i n which t hey were s ettled . H owever, i n t he s trictly h ierarchical S assanian s ociet y, t he a rtisans b elonged t o t he b ottom r ank o f t he I ranian s ocial o rder n o matter h ow r ich t hey b ecame ( cf. C hristensen 1 936: 9 3). T he S assanian k ings a nd n obles were p robably n ot d ispleased t o f oster t he e conomic g rowth o f a n on-Iranian c lass w hich

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p olitical

p osition .

O ne member o f t he ' captivity ' who f ound f avour w ith S hapur I was B ar S aba. On h is a rrival i n P ersian Mesopotamia, h e l earned S yriac.at S eleucia-Ctesiphon a nd l ater a dded P ersian t o h is r epertoire o f l anguages ( Chron. S eert., 4 0, PO 5 , p p.253-54). H e w as p robably v ery y oung when h e was d eported. H e b ecame a n a scetic while a y oung man a nd more i mpor t antly, h e a cquired f ame a s a h ealer a nd won t he f avour o f S hapur b y h ealing o ne o f t he c oncubines o f t he S hahanshah. B ut matters b ecame more c omplic ated when t he k ing 's s ister S iraran w as h ealed b y h im a nd b ecame a d evout Christian. S hapur was a lar med a nd, f earing t hat h e w ould h ave t o p ut h er t o d eath, h e g ave h er i n marriage t o t he p rovincial g overnor ( Marzban) o f Mery i n K horasan i n Central A sia . S he t ook h er f aith w ith h er a nd a ccording t o t he N estorian C hronicle o f S e'ert ( 40,P0 5 , p .256), i t f ound many f ollowers among t he i nhabitants o f Mery who s till c onsidered t hemselves G reeks a s t he c ity was r efounded b y A lexander t he G reat. T hey

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t hen s et a bout d estroying t he i dols t hey worshipped a nd b uilt a c hurch. B ut, s ince t hey h ad n o i dea what s uch a b uilding s hould l ook l ike, t hey h ad t o b ase i t o n t he p lan o f t he r oyal p alace. B ar S aba was l ater p er mitted t o v isit h er a nd c onsecrated t he c hurch . H e b ecame t he b ishop o f Mery a nd h is d isciples p layed a n a ctive p art i n t he e vangelization o f t he I ranian p rovinces o f C entral A sia. T hough s he r emained s teadfast i n h er Christian f aith, S iraran was u nable, o r more p robably, n ot a llowed t o p ass o n h er f aith t o h er s on who was b rought u p a Magian, b ut s he made c ertain b efore h er d eath t hat h e was t o b e h ighly s ympathetic t o t he c ause o f t he C hristians. T he s tory o f B ar S aba i s p laced a fter t he a ccount o f J ulian t he A postate i n t he Chronicle o f S e 'ert ( 40, PO 5 , p p.253-58) a nd a s t he h usband o f S iraran i s s aid t o h ave b een w ith t he S hahanshah w hen J ovian s urrendered N isibis, t he S hapur o f t he s tory must h ave b een S hapur I ( cf. V ööbus 1 958: 2 65). G iven h is r eputation a s a p ersecutor o f t he Christians, t he manner i n which B ar S aba w as a ble t o w in o ver h is s ister t o Christianity a nd t he s ubseq uent s pread o f C hristianity i n K horasan i s s triking. T he m issionary w ork m ight h ave b egun i n e argest o nly a fter t he d eath o f S hapur c . 3 79 ( cf. F iey 1 974: 2 83-4).' I II. Roman D eportations

( from t he T etrarchy

t o J ulian)

T he R omans a lso o ccasionally d eported p opulations f rom c aptured P ersian c ities o r d efeated a r mies a lthough t hey h ad f ar f ewer o pportuni t ies t o d o s o i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies. We l earn f rom a p assing r eference i n t he a nonymous p anegyric t o Constant i us I t hat D iocletian d eported p risoners o f war f rom A sia t o c olonies i n T hrace ( Pan. L at. I V/8.21.1, e d. Gal l et i er). T hese were p robably P oW c aptured a fter Galerius' v ictory o ver N arses i n 2 97/8. T he s ame d estination awaited t hose t aken p ris oner b y Constant i us I I o n o ne o f h is r egular r aids a cross t he f rontier i n t he e arly y ears o f h is r eign. T he r hetor L ibanius, i n h is p anegyric o n t he emperor, s peaks o f t he c omplement o f a l arge a nd i mportant P ersian c ity b eing c aught a s i n a n et a nd t ransferred w ith a ll i ts h ouseholds t o T hrace ( Lib. O r. L IX .838 4). T he s ceptical among t he r hetor's a udience was r eminded o f t he p arade o f p risoners ( through N icomedia ? ) which l asted f or t wo d ays. U nlike t he S assanians, t he R omans h ad n o c oherent p lan o f s ettlement f or t hese p risoners a nd d id n ot s eem t o h ave a ny e conomic a im i n t heir d eportation b eyond u sing t hem a s c heap f arm-labourers. T he main o bjective o f t he d eportation was c learl y p ropagandist. A s L ibanius s ays, t he d eportees would s erve a s a memorial t o C onstantius ' v ictory a nd a lso g ave h im t he o pport unity t o e xercise h is magnani mity a nd c ompassion ( ibid. 8 5 . C f. A thanasius H ist. A rian. a d Mon.16, p .194, e d. B right.). B oth t he p light o f t hose t aken c aptive a nd t he c ompassion s hown t o t hem b y c ivilians o n t he o ther s ide o f t he f rontier w ith whom t hey would h ave s hared t he s ame a nxieties a re h ighlighted b y a n e pisode i n a Christian p olemical f iction a i med a t d iscrediting t he Manichaeans. T he A cta A rchelai a ttributed t o H egemonius was c omposed i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury a nd a lleges t o

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b e t he r ecord o f t wo d ebates h eld b etween t he P ersian h eresiarch M ani a nd A rchelaus, t he b ishop o f aR oman f rontier c ity c alled C harchar ( Carrhae?) . T he A cta b egins b y e xtolling t he v irtues o f a l eading c itizen o f Charchar c alled Marcellus a nd o ne o f h is m ost s ignificant a cts o f p hilanthropy was o ccasioned b y t he p light o f t he c aptives who h ad b een b rought t o h is c ity b y i ts g arrison . T he p rologue o f t he A cta ( 1.4-6, p p. 1 ,14 - 2 ,10, GCS) s ays t hat o n a c ertain o ccasion, t he b ishop A rchelaus was o ffered a l arge b ody o f c aptives t otalling s ome 7 ,700 s ouls a nd t heir c aptors d emanded a n e normous s um f or t heir r elease . H e h astened t o Marcellus a nd p ut b efore h im t he m agnitude o f b oth t he p light o f t he p risoners a nd t he r ansom n eeded. B eing a model o f p iety, M arcellus i mmediately r aised t he n ecessary money b ut i nstead o f h anding t he s um o ver a s r ansom money h e d istributed i t a s g ifts o f p iety ( pietatis p retia) among t he s oldiery w ithout c onsiderat ion o f n umber o r r ank. T he s oldiers were g reatly s urprised b y t his e xhibition o f Christian p hilanthropy. Many o f t hem were c onverted t o C hristianity a nd t hrew away t heir b elt o f m ilitary s ervice a r emark w hich d emonstrates t he s till ambivalent C hrist ian a ttitude t owards m ilitary s ervice, a nd w ithdrew t o t heir c amp, t aking o nly a p roportion o f t he r ansom t hey h ad d emanded a nd o thers made t heir d eparture w ithout s o much a s what t hey r equired f or i ncidental e xpenses. M arcellus t hen s ummoned o ne o f t he p risoners b y t he n ame o f C ortynius a nd d iscovered f rom h im t hat t he c ontingent c ame f rom a c ommunity w hich p ractised a p rimitive f orm o f monotheism . O nce a y ear t hey w ent b eyond t he b ounds o f t he c ity t o o ffer u p s upplic ations t o t heir o ne g od f or a dequate r ains f or t heir f ields. T hey c elebrated t heir r ites i n t heir a ccustomed manner b y f asting a nd a s n ight f ell t hey a ll f ell a sleep b ecause o f t he t iredness i nduced b y t heir h unger. T hey were f ound b y t heir e nemies, i .e. t he R omans, w ho m istook t hem t o b e ( Persian?) s oldiers p reparing f or a n ambush. T hey i mmediately f ell u pon t hem i n t he d ark a nd s lew o ne t housand t hree h undred men a nd wounded a nother f ive h undred . A t d ay b reak t hey r ounded u p t he s urvivors a nd c arried . t hem o ff a s p risoners ( 11.1-5, p .2,11-33). T he wanton manner i n which t he c aptives were t reated b y t heir c aptors e n r oute i s w orth c iting i n f ull a s t heir e xperience w ould h ave b een t rue o f m any s haring t he s ame f ate: F or t hey d rove u s b efore t heir h orses, s purring u s o n b y b lows f rom t heir s pears, a nd i mpelling u s f orward b y m aking t he h orses' h eads p ress u pon u s. A nd t hose who h ad s ufficient p owers o f e ndurance d id i ndeed h old o ut; b ut v ery many f ell d own b efore t he f ace o f t heir c ruel m asters, a nd b reathed o ut t heir l ife t here; a nd m others, w ith a rms w earied, a nd u tterly p owerless w ith t heir b urdens, a nd d istracted b y t he t hreats o f t hose b ehind t hem , s uffered t he l ittle o nes t hat w ere h anging o n t heir b reasts t o f all t o t he g round; while a ll t hose o n whom o ld a ge h ad c ome were s inking, o ne a fter t he o ther, t o t he e arth, o vercome w ith t heir t oils, a nd e xhausted b y want o f f ood. T he p roud s oldiers n evert heless e njoyed t his b loody s pectacle o f m en c ontinual-

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l y p erishing, a s i f i t h ad b een a k ind o f e ntertainm ent, while t hey s aw s ome s tretched o n t he s oil i n h opeless p rostration, a nd b eheld o thers, worn o ut b y t he f ierce f ires o f t hirst a nd w ith t he b ands o f t heir t ongues u tterly p arched, l ose t he p ower o f s peech, a nd w itnessed o thers w ith e yes e ver g lancing b ackwards, g roaning o ver t he f ate o f t heir d ying l ittle o nes, w hile t hese, a gain, were c onstantly a ppealing t o t heir m ost u nhappy m others w ith t heir c ries, a nd t he mothers t hemselves, d riven f rantic b y t he s everities o f t he r obbers, r esponded w ith t heir l amentations, which i nd eed was t he o nly t hing t hey c ould d o f reely. A nd t hose o f t hem w hose h earts w ere most t enderly b ound u p w ith t heir o ffspring c hose v oluntarily t o meet t he s ame p remature f ate o f d eath w ith t heir c hildren; while t hose, o n t he o ther h and, who h ad s ome c apacity o f e ndurance were c arried o ff p risoners h ere w ith u s. T hus, a fter t he l apse o f t hree d ays, d uring which t i me w e h ad n ever b een a llowed t o t ake a ny r est, e ven i n t he n ight, we were c onveyed t o t his p lace, i n which what h as n ow t aken p lace a fter t hese o ccurrences i s b etter k nown t o y ourself. ( 2.5-8, p p.2,34 - 3 ,18, t rans. S alm ond, ANCL). Märcellus was g reatly moved b y what h e h ad h eard a nd a t o nce o rganized f or t he f eeding o f t he f reed p ensioners. H e f easted t hem f or f ifteen d ays a nd h elped t hem b y s o d oing t o f orget t heir r ecent s uffering. T he wounded were d uly c ared f or a nd a rrangem ents were made f or t hose f it e nough t o t ravel t o r eturn t o t heir n ative c ity . W ith t he a ssistance o f h is own e ntourage, Marcellus s aw t o t he p roper b urial o f t he b odies o f t hose who p erished o n t he march, wherever p ossible t he s tatus o f t he d eceased was d iscovered a nd a s uitable s epulchre f ound ( ibid. 3 .1-4, p p.3,194 ,6). N either t he manifest f ictional c haracter o f t he whole Acta n or t he p ietistic t one o f t he e pisode n eed d istract u s f rom t he h istorical v alue o f t he d escription o f t he p light o f t he c aptives c ared f or b y Märcellus. Small-scale b ut s udden c ross b order r aids w ere c ommon i n t he p eriod b et ween t he d eath o f S hapur I i n 2 70 a nd t he r ise o f h is n amesake i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury . T he f rontier c ould n ot b e d efended i n s trength a long i ts e ntire c ourse a nd c oncentration o n c ertain k ey p oints would l eave o ther p laces u nguarded. A n i ncident a l most i dentical t o t he o ne d escribed b y Cortynius t ook p lace o n t he Rhine f rontier i n 3 67/8 when a p rince o f t he A lamanni made h is way i nto Mainz ( Mbgontiacum ) a nd f ound t he c ity u ndefended a s t he p opulation was c elebrating a Christian f estival ( Amm . Marc. XXVII.10.1). H e h ad n o d ifficulty i n c arrying o ff men a nd women o f e very a ge a nd c lass a s well a s a n e normous h aul o f t heir p ossessions. T he s ame f ate n early b efell t he c itizens o f B atnae i n 3 54 w hen t he P ersian s atrap N ohodares s ucceeded t o m ake a s ecret a pproach t o t he c ity v ia t he more r emote p arts o f O shroene a nd was p oised t o s eize h is p rey a t t he t i me w hen i ts c itizens w ould h ave b een p re-occupied b y t he f amous S eptember f air. F ortunately f or t he B atneans, h is

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p lan was b etrayed b y P ersian d eserters a nd t he g arrison was a lerted, f orcing t he P ersian a r my a ssault ( Amm . Marc. X IV .3.1-4).

n earby R oman t o a bort t he

T he p art p layed b y t he l eading C hristian l ayman a nd t he b ishop i n t he f ictional c ity o f Carchar i n r elieving t he p light o f t he p risoners p oints t o t he f act t hat i n t he f rontier c ommunities s uch e xamples o f p hilanthropy were e xpected o f t he Christian l eaders o n b oth s ides o f t he b order. We h ave more t han o ne e xample o f b ishops i nterceding o n b ehalf o f t he b esieged i n M esopotamian r egion ( Amm. Marc. XX.7.7 a nd P rocop. P ers . _ 1.6.17). E ven monks a nd h ermits s aw i t a s t heir d uty t o p r o t e ct r efugees a nd a lleviate t heir s uffering. When t he P ersian a r my a pproached Amida u nder K awad i n 5 02, s ome H ephthalite mercenaries c ame a cross a h oly man b y t he n ame o f J acob i n t he e nvirons o f t he c ity . T hey were s o a stounded b y t he s ight o f h im c loseted i n a man-made c age t hat t hey were u nable t o d raw t heir b ows a nd s hoot h im a s t hey h ad w ished. Kawad was w illing t o o ffer t he h oly man a l arge s um o f money i n o rder t hat h e w ould d eliver h is m en f rom t heir s tupor. H e r efused t he money a nd i n r eturn o f r eleasing t he H epthalites f rom t heir s tate o f i naction h e a sked t o b e g iven t he s afety o f t hose who s hould c ome t o h im a s f ugit ives o f war ( Procop. P ers. 1 .7.4-11). T his was d uly g ranted t o h im i n w riting. B y t hen monasteries h ad a lso b ecome c entres o f r efuge i n t i mes o f b order c onflicts a nd t here a re s everal s tories i n t he L ives o f E astern S aints o f J ohn o f E phesus which s peak o f t he p rotection o ffered b y h oly men a gainst b arbarian i nroads ( see e .g . PO 1 7, p p.81-82 a nd 1 15-16). T he Emperor J ulian, a fter t aking A natha w ithout a f ight i n 3 63 s ent i ts p opulation w ith t heir moveable p ossessions t o C halcis i n S yria which was p robably l ess i nhospitable t han T hrace ( Amm . M arc . XXIV.1.9). A S yriac c hronicle o f a much l ater d ate ( Chron. P s.- D ionysianum , a n. 6 74, CSC ,0 9 1, p p.179,24 - 1 80,2) a sserts t hat a fter h e h ad d evastated t he e ntire r egion f rom N isibis ( sic.) t o C tesiphon i n B et A ramaye, J ulian c arried o ff l arge n umbers o f c aptives a nd r elocated t hem a t MI . S nsu(?) which was p robably a mountain i n t he v icinity o f Mel i tene i n A r menia. H e a lso r etained t he s ervices o f P usaeus, t he P ersian c ommander o f t he g arrison a t A natha who was g iven t he r ank o f t ribune a fter t esting h im f or h is t rust worthiness. T his P usaeus l ater r ose t o t he h igh p osition o f d ux o f E gypt. H is n ame s uggests h e was o f I raniah s tock b ut t his d id n ot s eem t o h ave a dversely a ffected h is s ubsequent c areer i n Roman s ervice ( Amm . Marc. XXIV.1.7 a nd Z os. 1 11.14.4). H e m ight well h ave b een a Christian o r h ave b ecome . o ne s hortly a fter t he r eign o f J ulian which would h ave i mproved h is p rospects u nder J ovian a nd V alentinian . T he P ersian c aptives p assed t hrough A ntioch o n t heir way t o t heir n ew h omes a s s ome o f t hem were met b y L ibanius who l earned f rom t hem t he l atest n ews a bout J ulian's p rogress d own t he E uphrates a nd t he c ities which h ad f allen t o h im . T heir n umbers were p robably q uite l arge a s t he r hetor h ad t o a pologise t o h is f riend Modestus ( Lib . E p. 1 367, 6 ) t hat h e was t ardy i n h is c orrespondence b ec ause h e was k ept b usy b y t hese d eportees.

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I V.

S pies,

E xiles,

H oly M i en e tc.

A runianus ( XXIV .1.10), o ur main s ource f or t he s iege o f A natha g oes o n t o t ell u s t hat among t hose c aptured was a n a ged R oman v eteran, n early a h undred y ears o ld, who h ad b een l eft b ehind b ecause o f i llness ( or wounds) i n P ersian t erritory b y t he v ict orious e xpeditionary f orce o f Galerius. H e h ad g one n ative i n t hat h e h ad a dopted t he P ersian c ustom o f p olygamy a nd h ad r aised u p a l arge f amily. H ad h e b een y ounger, s uch a p erson would h ave b een a n i deal c andidate f or t he P ersian i ntelligence s ervice . I n f act o ne Gallic e x-deserter t urned s py was c aptured b y t he R oman f orces u nder t he c ommand o f U rsicinus i n 3 59 o n t heir march t o N isibis ( Amm . Marc. XVI11.6.16). A f ormer c avalry t rooper, h e h ad d eserted t o t he P ersians f or f ear o f p unishment f or a b reach o f m ilitary d iscipline. A fter c onvincing t he P ersians o f h is t rustworthiness, h e s ettled d own i n P ersian t erritory a nd o ften c arried o ut a cts o f e spionage i n R oman t erritory a nd b rought b ack a ccurate a nd u seful i nformation . H e w as a cting a s a s cout w ith a P ersian r econnaissance-cum-pi 1l age u nit when h e was c aught. T hough h e c hanged s ides o nce more a nd i nformed o n t he a ctivities o f t he P ersians, h e was n evertheless e xecuted. T he u sefulness a nd c redibility o f a d ouble-agent must u lti mately b e l i mited . A rab t ribesmen who i nhabited t he d esert r egions a long t he f ront ier were u ndoubtedly t he most i mportant g atherers o f m ilitary i ntelligence a nd w ere r egularly employed f or r econnaissance work b y b oth s ides. H owever, t heir e ffectiveness was p robably l i mited t o t he f rontier z ones a nd f or a cts o f e spionage which r equired d eep p enetration i nto e nemy t erritory, t he merchants were f ar m ore e ffective . A s t hey were i nvariably p olylingual b y n ature o f t heir p rofession, merchants were i deal a s s pies, g uides a nd e nvoys ( see e .g. P rocop. P ers. 1.2.3 a nd P eeters 1 950: 8 6-7). T his was p robably w hy i n t he n egotiations i n 2 98 t he S hahanshah N arses was t aken a back when D iocletian's e nvoy, D iodorus, l aid d own a s o ne o f t he c onditions f or p eace t he r estriction o f a ll e xchange b et ween t he two Empires t o t he c ity o f N isibis ( Petrus P atricius, f rag. 1 4, F HG I V, p .189). B y c ontrolling t he f low o f m erchants, Rome c ould d rastically r educe t he e ffectiveness o f t heir a bility t o s py o n t he d efences a long t he l ength o f t he f rontier ( cf. F elix 1 985: 1 27). T hat s uch r estrictions were a imed a t c urbing e spionage i s well e xplained i n t he e xordium o f t he e dict o f H onorius a nd T heodosius I I p romulgated i n 4 08/9 ( CodeX 3 ustinianus I V, 6 3, p r., e d. Krueger): M erchants who a re s ubject t o o ur a uthority o r t hat o f t he K ing o f P ersia s hould n ot h old f airs o utside t hose p laces which w ere a greed u pon a t t he t i me o f t he t reaty w ith t he a foresaid n ation (he . N isibis, C allinicum a nd A rtaxata) l est t he s ecrets o f a nother k ingdom s hould b e s crutinized c ontrary t o t he a greement. L ike merchants, C hristian a scetics a nd p agan p hilosophers s eem t o h ave e njoyed t he f reedom o f t he f rontier, e specially i f t hey w ere i n p ossession o f h ealing p owers . A t l east, we h ear more o f t heir c ross-frontier e xploits t han o ther g roups o f c ivilians. O ne

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s ource which d eserves s ome a ttention i s t he a cta o f t he d eacon C yriacus who i s s aid t o h ave f lourished u nder D iocletian ( Acta S anctorum XVI J an., 1 11.10-15, p p.7-8. C f. L ieu 1 985: 9 9). H e a chieved p rominence t hrough e xorcising A rtemita t he d aughter o f D iocletian a nd b ecame a p rotegee o f t he empress. T his s ubsequentl y r eached t he e ars o f S hapur ( sic.) who i nvited h im t o c ome t o P ersia where h e c ured t he S hahanshah's d aughter J obia o f d emon p ossession a fter a t iring v erbal d uel w ith t he d emon. T hat t wo m ajor p ersecutors o f Christianity b ecame p atrons i n t urn o f C yriacus i n t his p ia f raus i s n ot w ithout s ignificance . I t s hows t he r espect w ith w hich t he s killed C hristian p hysicians w ere h eld i n b oth Empires, e specially i n P ersia . When Mani, t he B abylonian g nostic, f ell o ut o f f avour a t t he c ourt o f B ahram I, i t was t o h is p ast s ervices a s a n e xorcist a nd h ealer t hat h e made h is l ast d esperate a ppeal: I h ave d one y ou ( i.e. B ahram) n o e vil. A l ways I h ave d one g ood t o y ou a nd y our f amily . A nd many a nd n umero us were y our s ervants whom I h ave ( freed) o f d emons a nd w itches. A nd many were t hose whom I h ave c aused t o r ise f rom t heir i llness. A nd many were t hose whom I h ave a verted t he n umerous k inds o f f ever. A nd many w ere t hose who c ame u nto d eath a nd I h ave r eceived t hem . ( M3/V/38-46, t rans. A smussen 1 975: 5 4-5). A s we h ave a lready n oted, o ne C hristian member o f t he ' captivity' w ho won t he p atronage o f S hapur I w as B ar S aba w ho w as a s killed p hysician. P ersian C hristians a lso s eemed t o h ave f ound r eady a cceptance b y t heir co-religionists o n t he o ther s ide o f t he f rontier, e specially i n t i mes o f p eace. P articularly well-documented a re t he p eregrinations o f a b ishop c alled M illes who i s s aid t o h ave t ravelled f rom S usiana t o J erusalem a nd A lexandria o n a t our o f f amous monasteries a nd while p assing t hrough A diabene h e s ent J acob, t he c elebrated b ishop o f N isibis, a g ift o f s ilk i n a id o f t he b uilding o f a n ew c hurch i n t hat f rontier c ity ( AMO I , p .72, c f. L ightfoot 1 981: 2 28 a nd 2 45). P ersia, o r more p recisely t he f rontier r egion, o ffered a sylum t o t he p ro-Nicaean c lergy a nd m onks e xpelled f rom E dessa b y t he A rians u nder V alens, e specially w hen t he l atter v isited t he c ity c . 3 72 ( Chron. J ac. E dess., CSCO 5 , p .298, c f. S egal 1 970: 9 1). Many o f t hem s eemed t o h ave s ettled j ust a cross t he b order i n A diabene n ear modern Mosul ( cf. F iey 1 970b: 5 9-60). Mercifully t his c ross-frontier e xile d id n ot l ast l ong a nd s ome o f t hem were a ble t o r eturn t o t heir c hurches a fter t he d eath o f t he p ro-Arian V alens i n 3 78 ( Chron . a non . 8 46, CSC° 3 , p .203, 1 2-13 a nd T homas Margiensis, L ib.Sup. s eu H ist. M onast., V ol.I, p .330, 1 -8, e d. B udge. C f. L ightfoot 1 981: 27 77 P agan p hilosophers t oo, s eem n ot t o h ave i mpenetrable b arrier t o t heir wanderings.

f ound t he f rontier a n T he most f amous o f a ll

t hese i tinerant s ages i n t his p eriod i s u ndoubtedly Metrodorus w hose s o-called ' lies ' ( mendacia) were s een b y s ome a s t he c ause o f war b et ween Rome a nd P ersia i n 3 37. A ccording t o t he o nly a ccount o f h is a dventures p reserved f or u s b y C edrenus ( Vol.I,

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p .516,15-517,15 CSHB), h e was b orn i n P ersia, p robably t o R oman p arents a s h is G reek n ame s uggests, a nd t ravelled t o I ndia i n t he p ursuit o f w isdom where h e won t he r espect o f t he B rahmins t hrough h is a scesticism . H e a lso t aught t hem h ow t o c onstruct wa t er-m ills a nd b athing p laces, u ntil t hen u nknown t o t hem, - t hus e xploiting t hose s ame s kills which h ad s erved t he e xiled Roman c ommunity well i n P ersia. Taking a dvantage o f h is p osition a s a h oly man, h e e ntered t he s hrines t here a nd s tole a l arge q uantity o f j ewels. T hese h e l ater p resented, o r was f orced t o p resent b y a n a lert Roman c ustoms o fficial, t o Constantine a s t hough t hey w ere h is own p roperty. H e a lso t old a n amazed Constantine t hat h e h ad s ent o thers o verland b ut t hey h ad b een c onfiscated b y t he P ersians. Consequently t he Roman emperor w rote i ndignantly t o S hapur d emanding t heir r eturn a nd when t he l atter r efused t o r eply, war w as d eclared. P hilosophers were s ometi mes employed b y R oman g overnment a s m emb ers o f d iplomatic d elegations t o P ersia b ecause o f t heir e loq uence a nd mental a gility. I n t he f rantic e fforts t o a void a n o utbreak o f w ar i n 3 57 R ome s ent a d elegation t o C tesiphon i n t he h ope o f e ffecting a l ast m inute c hange o f m ind b y t he S hahanshah . Among t he d elegates w ere t wo n oted men o f l etters, E ustathius a nd S pectatus. A ccording t o E unapius ( Vit. S oph. V I.5.2-10, e d. G iangrande), t he p agan b iographer o f f amous s ophists, S hapur was s o g reatly t aken b y t he e loquence o f E ustathius t hat h e a ccorded h im t he h onour o f h is t able a nd would h ave r enounced h is d iadem a nd p ut o n t he p hilosopher's g arb, s ave f or t he i ntervention o f t he Magians who a sserted t hat E ustathius was a f raud . ( See a lso B asil, hE.. 1, p .4 e d. D eferrari). S pectatus, t he s ecretary o f t he m ission, t old h is f riend L ibanius ( Ep. 3 31,4-5) t hat t hey were a sked s ome h ard q uestions b y S hapur a bout t he i nequitable a rrangement o f t he f rontier a nd h e h ad t o employ e very b it o f w it t o a nswer t hem . A lthough S hapur c learly e njoyed t he c ompany o f s uch c ultivated men, h is m ind was s et o n war a nd t he embassy a chieved n othing e xcept p roving t o t he S assanian monarch t he c ultural s uperiority o f t he G raeco Romans a nd m ight h ave e ven f ired h is d esire t o t ransport more c aptives t o I ran i n h is c oming w ar. T he myth o f t he P ersian K ing a s a p atron o f l earning was l ater r evived b y C hosroes A nushirvan a nd i t was t o h is c ourt t hat t he l ast g reat t eachers o f t he Academy a t A thens t ravelled i n s earch o f t he " philosopher k ing" a fter t hey h ad b een made r ed undant b y t he c losure o f t heir s chools a t t he o rder o f J ustinian ( c.53j). T hey t oo w ere w ell t reated b ut were g reatly d isappointe d t o d iscover t hat t he S hahanshah was more i nterested i n t he t rappings o f c ulture t han r eal l earning. N evertheless Chosroes t ook p ity o f t heir p light a nd a rranged f or t heir r eturn t o B yzant ium , w ith p robably p erhaps a n a dequate p ension, t o l ive t he r est o f t heir l ives u nmolested b y Christian o fficials ( Agathias 1.28.1

31.4).

T he p resence o f l arge b odies o f f rontier t roops was n evertheless a d isincentive t o c ross-border t ravelling . I n a nother f amous p ia f raus, t he D octrina A ddai, which t ook i ts f inal f orm p robably i n t he f ifth c entury, we a re t old t hat o rientals who d esired t o w itness t he marvels p erformed b y t he A postle A ddai i n E dessa h ad

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t o d isguise t hemselves a s merchants i n o rder t o c ross i nto R oman t erritory ( p .74, e d . H oward). Malchus, a h oly man whom J erome met a t a v illage o utside Antioch ( c. 3 74), t old t he f uture a scetic a nd b iblical s cholar t hat h e w as o riginally a n ative o f N isibis. W hen h e was c oerced b y h is p arents t o marry, h e, p referring a l ife o f c hastitiy, f led b oth h ome a nd p arents. H owever, h e was n ot a ble t o g o e ast b ecause o f t he p roxi mity o f P ersia a nd t he R oman f rontier g arrison . P resumably h e was a fraid o f b eing t aken f or a s py o r d eserter. H e t herefore h eaded west a nd e ventually j oined a monastic c ommunity i n t he d esert o f C halcis ( Hieron., V ita Malchi 3 , PL 2 3.56-57). A s t he t wo r ival s uper-powers o f R ome a nd P ersia l ay a djacent t o e ach o ther, f light a cross t he f rontier p rovided o ne o f t he f ew e scape r outes f or t hose n eeding a sylum f rom t he f orces o f l aw o r p olitical o ppression o r r eligious p ersecution . T he p rice o f s uch a sylum f or t he more i mportant s elf-i mposed p olitical e xiles was o ften t reachery. We h ave s een t he h elp g iven t o S hapur I b y M äriades i n t he c apture o f h is n ative c ity o f A ntioch. I n t he o pposite d irection c ame H or misdas ( Hor mizd), a n a rrogant y oung S assanian p rince who was i mprisoned e ither b y Adarnases, t he h ighly u npopular s uccessor o f H ormizd o r b y t he n obles who o vert hrew A darnases. H ormisdas ' w ife managed t o s muggle a m etal f ile t o h im i nside a f ish a nd a fter c utting h is c hains h e s ucceeded i n r eaching t he R oman Empire t hrough a s eries o f f ast h orses a t p rea rranged p oints ( Ioh. Ant., f rag. 1 78, F HG I V, p .605). H e was g iven a sylum b y e ither L icinius o r C onstantine i n 3 24 . H e s erved i n t he e ntourage o f Constant i us I I b ut h is p otential a s a r ival p ro-Roman c andidate f or t he P ersian t hrone . was n ot f ulfilled u ntil t he r eign o f J ulian who i ntended t o p lace h im o n t he P ers ian t hrone ( Lib., E p. 1 402,3). H e a cted a s a g uide f or t he i nvasion f orce o f J ulian a nd i nduced t he g arrison o f Anatha t o s urrender b ut was r eviled a s a t raitor b y t he i nhabitants o f P irisabora ( Amm . Marc. XXIV .1.8 a nd 2 ,11). A fter t he f ailure o f t he P ersian e xpedition we h ear n o more o f h im b ut h is s on c ontinu ed i n t he s ervice o f t he Romans a nd s eems t o h ave r eached t he r ank o f c omes r ei m i Iit ar is ( orientis) c .379 ( cf. J ones e t a l. 1 971: 4 43-4.)7 Much b etter u se, h owever, was made b y t he P ersians o f A ntoninus, a p opular R oman o fficer who h ad r un i nto s evere f inancial d iffic ulties. B ut i nstead o f merely making a d ash f or t he b order t o a void h is d ebtors, h e made e laborate p reparations f or h is t ransf er o f l oyalty. H e u ndertook a d etailed s tudy o f t he R oman m ilitary d isposition a long t he f rontier a nd t hen p urchased a s mall e state n ear t he b order f rom where h e c ould v isit t he a rea w ithout a rousing s uspicion . F rom t here h e a lso s ent messengers w ho were g ood swi mmers t o e stablish c ontact w ith t he P ersian c ommander o f t he a djacent r egion p resumably t o e stablish h is c redentials a s a t raitor o f c onsiderable worth a nd n ot a mere d eserter o r d ouble a gent. P erhaps h e w as a lso d etermined t o make t he b est d eal o ut o f h is t reachery i n material t erms. H is p repara tion was c ertainly n ot wasted. A fter h e h ad f inally made h is e scape w ith h is f amily a nd h is p ossessions, h e was i mmediately t aken t o S hapur's w inter q uarters ( at C tesiphon?) where h e was

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r eceived w ith o pen a rms a nd a ccorded t he h ighest h onour. H e p ut h is g reat k nowledge o f t he f rontier d efences a t t he d isposal o f t he P ersian monarch a nd i t was u ndoubtedly t his i nformation w hich f inally p ersuaded S hapur t o p ut b ehind h im t he e arlier l osses a t t he t hree f rontiers s ieges a t N isibis a nd t he i ndecisive b attle o f S ingara ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.5.1-7). H e g uided S hapur t o Amida w hen t heir way t o t he S yria was f ound t o b e b arred b y t he E uphrates b eing i n s pate a nd t he b ridges d is mantled ( Amm . Marc. X VIII.7.9). S hapur p aused b riefly e n r oute t o c apture t he t wo R oman f ortr esses o f Reman a nd B usan ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.10.1) a nd among t he p risoners t aken was t he w ife o f C raugasius a l eading c itizen o f N isibis. S he h ad p robably b een s ent b y h er h usband a long w ith t heir d aughter a nd p ossessions t o t he a pparent s afety o f t hese l ess e xposed t owns when P ersian p lunderers f irst a ppeared a t p laces l ike Castra Maurorum a nd S isara ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.16.9). S hapur a lready k new o f t he g reat l ove which h er h usband h ad f or h er a nd h e a ssured h er t hat h er h onour would n ot b e s ullied a nd t hat s he would b e r eunited w ith h er h usband. H e r ealized h er v alue a s a h ostage a nd h er r ansom, h e o pined, would b e t he b et rayal o f N isibis b y h er h usband ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.10.3). T he s ame p rotection was a lso a ccorded t o s ome n uns s o t hat t hey c ould c ontinue i n t heir r eligious d uties u ni mpaired . S hapur's t reatment o f t hese C hristian a scetics was c ertainly i n marked c ontrast t o w hat h e h ad meted o ut t o t heir c o-religionis' :s i n P ersia. A s A r rnüanus h as n oted, S hapur was v ery a nxious t o i mprove h is i mage b efore h is r ecently c onquered s ubjects who h ad a g reat d eal t o f ear b ecause o f h is p revious r eputation o f c ruelty ( Amm. Marc. X VIII.10.4). On t he w hole, f emale c aptives c ould e xpect f ar w orse t reatment i n t he h ands o f v ictorious P ersians a nd when A ntioch f ell t o Chosroes A nushirvan i n 5 40, a g roup o f well-born Antioc hene l adies p referred mass s uicide t o a ccepting t he f ate w hich awaited t hem i n c aptivity ( Procop. P ers. 1 1.8.35). V .

T he D eportations u nder

S hapur

1 1

Am ida was t aken b y S hapur a fter o ne o f t he f iercest c ontested s ieges i n t he whole c ampaign l asting 7 3 d ays. T he R oman c ommand ers who h ad p ut u p s uch a s tiff r esistance were b rutally e xec uted a nd o ther o fficers l ed i nto c aptivity ( Amm . Marc. X IX .9.23 ). T he P ersians a lso d iligently s ought o ut t hose R oman s oldiers w ho h ad b een r ecruited f rom t he r egions b eycnd t he T igris ( Transt igritani, i .e. t he r egions l ost t o Rome b y N arses i n 2 98) a nd m assacred t hem t o a man w ithout d istinctio2. T hey were c learly s een a s t raitors a nd d eserving o f t he most s evere p enalty. A s t he P ersians p repared t o w ithdraw w ith t heir p risoners a nd b ooty, t he w ife o f C raugasius was b eginning t o r esign h erself t o b eing d eported t o s ome d istant l and where s he would p robably b e m ade a c oncubine o f s ome Persian g randee a nd n ever s eeing h er h usband a gain. I n a l ast d esperate e ffort a t r eunion, s he s ent h er s lave w ith s ome t oken o f t heir l ove t o N isibis t o b eg C raugas ius t o j oin h er. T he s lave, o n a rrival a t N isibis, g ave a s h is s tory t hat h e h ad b een s eparated f rom h is m istress who was p ro-

4 9 5

b ably n ow d ead a nd l ater made h is e scape f rom a p rison c amp. H e w as r eadmitted u nder R oman l egal p ractice o f p ostli minium . T his i s a r ight a ccorded t o R oman c itizens who h ad b een c aught b y a n e nemy a s a p risoner o f war, a nd h ad b ecome a s lave t o t he e nemy, t o r egain h is f reedom a nd h is f ull r ights u pon h is r eturn t o R oman s oil. I n t his c ase h e was o nce more made a s lave o f C raugasius. T he f act t hat s uch a l ow ly p erson w as a ccorded t his p rivilege i mplies t hat t he p ractice o f p ost 1i minium was w ides pread i n a r egion where c aptivity was a c onstant r eality. H e a pprised h is master o f t he r eal f ate o f h is w ife . C raugasius s ent t he s lave b ack t o h er w ith t he r equest f or a s afe p assage t hrough t he P ersian l ines b ut t he s udden d eparture o f t he s lave c aused s uspicion t o b e c ast o n C raugasius. T he l atter, p retending t o a ttend a wedding h eld i n a v illa a s hort d istance f rom N isibis, m ade g ood h is e scape t o t he P ersians w ho w ere e xpecting h im . H e t oo was well r eceived b y S hapur b ut, a s a t raitor, h e was o nly s econdary i n i mportance t o A ntoninus a s h e was a s i mple m inded p erson ( Amm . Marc. X IX .9.6-8). I n t he e nd h is e xpertise o n N isibis was n ot n eeded a s t he c ity f ell t o S hapur w ithout a s truggle. T he n ext y ear S hapur r ecrossed t he T igris a nd l aid s iege t o S ingara which was i n a n e xposed p osition b ut p rotected b y t he d esert. A fter a ttacking i t f or a f ew d ays, t he P ersians g ained e ntry a fter t he c ollapse o f o ne o f t he t owers. A ccording t o Ammianus ( XX .6.7), p ractically t he whole p opulation was t aken a live a nd t ransported t o P ersia . R oman m ilitary p ersonnel w ere l ed o ff i nto c aptivity, a s a t Amida, w ith t heir h ands t ied b ehind t heir b acks which w ould h ave a dded e normously t o t he h ardship o f t heir j ourney ( Amm. Marc. XX .6.8). S hapur t hen, a voiding N isibis, made f or B ezabde, t he c hief c ity o f Z abdicene w hich was m uch more h eavily d efended. O n t he t hird d ay o f t he s iege, a C hristian b ishop f rom t he c ity t ried t o n egotiate u nder t ruce f or a P ersian w ithdrawal b ut t o n o a vail. S hortly a fterwards t he P ersian s iege e ngines b egan a n a ttack o n t he w eakest p art o f t he w alls, w hich i mmediately r aised t he s uspicion t hat t he b ishop h ad b etrayed t he c ity ( Amm . Marc. XX .7.9). T he e ventual f all o f t he c ity was f ollowed b y a f earful massacre o f t he c itizens a nd u nrestrained p illage. T he P ersians, s ays Ammianus ( XX .7.15) r eturned t o t heir c amp l aden w ith p lunder a nd l ed away a g reat t hrong o f c aptives. T he e ventual f ate o f s ome o f t hese p risoners i s k nown t o u s t hrough a h agiographical s ource k nown a s t he " Testi mony o f t he C aptives" a nd s ome i nteresting material c an a lso b e g leaned f rom t he A cta o f Mär S aba a lthough t his l ast w ork i s f ull o f h istoric al i naccuracies, s uch a s d ating t he f ormation o f t he S assanian p rovince o f B et ' Arabaye t o t he r eign o f J ulian, i tself p laced b efore ( !) t he c apture o f B ezabde ( AMS I I, p .226). T he " Testim ony" c onfir ms t he s laughter o f many o f t he m ilitary p ersonnel a nd g ives t he n umber o f p risoners t aken a s r oughly 9 ,000 . Among t hem were t he b ishop H eliodorus a s well a s a n umber o f o ther p riests a nd l ike s o m any o ther c aptives t hey w ere made t o t ravel, p resumably o n f oot, t o B et H uzaie ( Huzistan) a ccompanied b y t he P ersian a r my. T he b ishop s uccumbed t o i llness e n r oute a nd

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b efore h e d ied, h e c onsecrated o ne o f t he o ther p riests a s b ishop a nd made h im t he h ead o f t he whole c ompany o f p risoners a nd h anded h im t he a ltar h e h ad t aken w ith h im . T he b ishop w as v ery m uch t he l eader o f t he c aptive c ommunity a nd p layed a d ominant r ole i n maintaining i ts morale o n t he l ong t rek s outh. T hose B ezabdeans who were n ot C hristians when t aken c aptive would p robably h ave b ecome s o i n t he c ourse o f t he march. T he " Testim ony" s ays t hat t he c aptives b egan t o c ome t ogether a s o ne c ong regation a nd r ecite p sal ms a s t hough i n c hoirs ( AMS I, p .317) . T o t he u sual h ardship o f s uch j ourneys was n ow a dded t he d anger o f r eligious p ersecution. A ccompanying t he a r my was t he C hief M bbed A darfarr who h ad a lready a chieved n otoriety a s a p ersecutor o f C hristians. H e w as g reatly a larmed b y t he g rowing s trength o f C hristianity among t he c aptives a nd h e a ccused t he C hristians b efore S hapur c lai ming t hat t heir h ymn s inging w as a d aily f orm o f c ursing h is majesty . A ccording t o t he A cta o f Mar S aba, o ne o f t he p risoners, b y t he n ame o f A nastasius e ven h ad t he e ffrontery t o c onvert t he s on o f a P ersian p rovincial g overnor t o C hristiani ty ( AMS I V, p p.227-28. Cf. L abourt 1 904: 7 9). S hapur c alled f or a h alt a t a p lace i n B et D araie ( on t he e ast b ank o f t he T igris b elow S eleucia-Ctesiphon) . T here t he C hief Mnbed a nd o ne o f t he P ersian c ommanders r ounded u p t he C hristian l eaders: t he b ishop, t he c hoir master, t he p riests, t he D eacons, t he monks a nd o ther l ay f ollowers t o t he n umber o f t hree h undred . T hey w ere l ed t o a h ill n ear a p rosperous v illage a nd t here g iven t he c hoice o f e ither t he " religion o f t he Emperor" a nd d eath b y t he sword o r t he " religion o f S hapur, t he K ing o f K ings" a nd b eing a llowed t o s ettle i n t his f ertile l and . T he C hristians p referred martyrdom a nd were a ll p ut t o t he s word. O ne d eacon who was o nly wounded a rranged f or t he b urial o f t he c orpses b ut h e t oo l ater b ecame a m artyr w hen h e t ried t o p roselytise i n t he n eighbouring v illage . S oon a fter wards, t he h ostiie v illage was v isited b y ap lague o f r ats w hich b urrowed i nto t he b anks o f i ts c anals a nd d eprived i t o f i ts w ater-supply ( ) WS I, p p .318-24). I n 3 63, t he c itizens o f N isibis, were s tunned b y t he s ight o f a P ersian b anner f loating o ver o ne o f t he t owers o f t heir c ity t he s ame t owers which h ad e arlier d efied t hree d etermined a ttacks b y t he P ersians ( 337/8, 3 46 a nd 3 50). J ovian, d esperate t o e xtract t he r emnants o f J ulian 's e xpeditionary f orce f rom P ersian t erritory, was f orced t o h and o ver o n t he n egotiating t able t he f ive t rans-Tigritanian p rovinces c eded t o R ome b y N arses a nd t he f ortresses o f S ingara a nd N isibis, t he l atter f or a p eriod o f 1 20 y ears ( cf. Amm . Marc. XXV .7.5-11 a nd P s. J os. S tyl., C hron. 7 , e d . Wright, p p. 8 ,19 - 9 ,1). When t he c itizens r ealized t hat t hey, who h ad f ought s o v aliantly a s t he " Shield o f t he Empire" a nd f or s o l ong, h ad b een b etrayed b y a n ew C hristian emperor i n w hom t hey h ad p laced s o m uch h ope a fter t he d ark r eign o f J ulian, t hey w ere g rief s tricken ( cf. T urcan 1 966: 8 76-81 a nd L ieu 1 986: 8 7-98). T hey p leaded d esperately w ith t he emperor i n p erson o n h is a rrival b ut h e w as u nwilling, s o h e s aid, t o i ncur t he g uilt o f p erjury. When o ne o f t he c itizens i mpl i ed b y a b old r emark t hat J ovian 's n ewly g ained s overeignty was n ot a ccepted a t N isibis f or t his a ct o f t reachery, t he emperor f inally l ost h is

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p atience a nd o rdered t hat a ll c itizens must l eave t he c ity w ithin t hree d ays. T he e nsuing e xodus f rom t he c ity i s v ividly a nd p oignantly d escribed b y Ammianus who was a n e ye-witness t o t he e vent: A ccordingly, m en w ere a ppointed t o c ompel o bedience t o t his o rder, w ith t hreats o f d eath t o e veryone who d elayed h is d eparture; a nd t he whole c ity was a s cene o f mourning a nd l amentation, a nd i n e very q uarter n othi ng was h eard b ut o ne u niversal wail, matrons t earing t heir h air w hen a bout t o b e d riven f rom t heir h omes, i n w hich t hey h ad b een b orn a nd b rought u p, t he mother w ho h ad l ost h er c hildren, o r t he w ife h er h usband, a bout t o b e t orn f rom t he p lace r endered s acred b y t heir s hades, c linging t o t heir d oorposts, embracing t heir t hresholds, a nd p ouring f orth f loods o f t ears. E very r oad w as c rowded, e ach p erson s traggling away a s h e c ould . Many, t oo, l oaded t hemselves w ith a s m uch o f t heir p roperty a s t hey t hought t hey c ould c arry while l eaving b ehind t hem a bundant a nd c ostly f urniture, f or t his t hey c ould n ot r emove f or want o f b easts o f b urden . ( Amm . Marc. XXV .8.5-6, t rans. Y onge, p p.3994 00). T he a brupt a nd i nvoluntary d eparture f rom o ne 's a ncestral h ome w as u ndeniably t raumatic, y et t he c itizens o f N isibis s hould c ount t hemselves f ortunate i n t hat t he a greement b etween S hapur a nd J ovian p rovided f or t he w ithdrawal o f t he c itizens o f N isibis t o a nother p art o f R oman t erritory a nd t hus s aving t hem f rom t he m ore c ruel f ate o f d eportation . A ccording t o Melalas ( Chron . X II, p p.336, 2 1-337,2, C SHB) a s ettlement was s et u p a t Amida f or t he r efugees f rom N isibis. N ot a ll t he c itizens l eft w ith t he r et reating R oman a rmy . O ne a scetic b y t he n ame o f E phrem w ho w ould l ater b ecome o ne o f t he m ost d istinguished t heologians a nd S yriac m en-of-letters, r emained b ehind t o w itness t he t ransfer o f t he . c ity t o P ersian s overeignty a nd was i mpressed b y t he d eference which S hapur s howed t o t he c itizens who h ad s o v aliantly d efied h is e arlier a ttacks a nd t o t he C hristian s hrines ( Ephr" H ymni c . J ul. I, 2 2-23, CSCO , 1 74, p .82,9-20). H owever, S hapur c ertainly h ad n o i ntention o f l eaving s uch a k ey f rontier c ity i n t he h ands o f t hose R omans who h ad c hosen t o r emain . H e h ad made k nown h is d esire t o p opulate c onquered R oman c ities w i t h I ranian c olonists e ven b efore 3 50 ( Jul., O r. I .27A/B). Accordingly h e moved 1 2,000 p eople, many o f n oble b irth, f rom t he c hief c ities o f I ran l ike I stachar a nd I sfahan t o N isibis . E phrem m ight h ave l eft b efore t he a rrival o f t he n ew c olonists a s h e f ound h is way, l ike s o many o f t he r efugees f rom N isibis, t o Amida where h e h ad r elatives ( Hist. S . E phr. 1 0, e d. L amy). T hence h e moved o n t o E dessa a nd a lthough h e l ater b ecame a l egend i n h is own t i me t hrough h is e xemplary a sceticism a nd h is p rolific l iterary o utput, h e w as a l ways r egarded b y t he E dessenes a s a n o utsider a nd h is s tudents were n ick-named " the S chool o f t he P ersians" b ecause many o f t hem w ould h ave b een r efugees f rom

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t he E ast ( cf. B arhadbesaba, Causa F und. S chol., PO 4 , p .381,5-8). A fter h is d eath, E phrem was b uried w ithout p omp a t t he c emetery o utside E dessa which was r eserved f or s trangers ( Hist. S . E phr. 4 2, e d. L amy). V I.

E pilogue

T he g ri m s aga o f d eportation a nd d islocation o f c ivilian l ife i n t he f rontier c ommunities c ontinued a s l ong a s a s tate o f h ostili ty e xisted b et ween t he t wo Empires. I n h is c ampaign o f 5 02-6, K awad p lundered t he c ity o f T heodosiopol i s i n A r menia, a fter i t w as h anded o ver t o h im b y a r ebel R oman c ommander, a nd a ccording t o t he Chronicle o f p seudo-Joshua t he S tylite ( 48, e d. Wright, p .45,7-8), h e l aid waste t o a ll t he v illages i n t he r egion o f t he n orth, a nd t he f ugitives t hat w ere l eft h e c arried o ff t o c apitiv ity ( cf. P eeters 1 924: 3 06). T he s ame s ource t ells u s t hat K awad t ook away a ll t he i nhabitants o f Amida whom h is t roops c ould f ind, e xcept t he o ld a nd t he mai med a nd t hose who h id t hemselves ( ibid . 5 3, p .51,3-4). A c ity was c onstructed t o s ettle t he c aptives a t t he b oundary o f F ars a nd H uzistan c alled t he " Better Am ida o f Kawad." O f g reater s ignificance was t he c onstruction a fter 5 40 o f a " city o f c aptivity" s outh o f C tesiphon b y C hosroes A nushirvan t o which h e g ave t he n ame o f t he " Better Antioch o f C hosroes" . I n i t h e s ettled a l arge n umber o f c aptives f rom A ntioch which h e p lundered i n 5 40 ( cf. T abari/Nöldeke, p .165, n .4). H e c onstructed f or t hem a b ath a nd a h ippodrome a nd p rov ided t hem w ith o ther memories o f h ome s uch a s c harioteers a nd m usicians. I t h ad t he p rivilege o f a f ree c ity a nd was s ubordin ate o nly t o t he S hahanshah. I f a ny Roman who was a c aptive e lsewhere s ucceeded i n e scaping t o i t a nd i f h e was c alled a k insman ( suggenes) b y a nyone o f t hose who l ived t here, h e c ould n ot b e t aken away, e ven i f h e was e nslaved t o a P ersian o f n ote ( Procop . P ers. 1.14 .1-4). T he c ity w as a n e ntirely t ransplanted R oman c ommunity a nd was more c ommonly c alled Rumaghan ( Roman c ity) b y t he P ersians a nd l ater a l Rumiya b y t he A rabs. Much o f t he b uilding material a nd t he d ecorations were e ither p lundered o r i mported f rom S yria . T he c ity was s aid t o h ave b een modelled s o c losely o n A ntioch t hat e ach c aptive c ould r ecognize h is own h ouse ( Tabari/Nöldeke, p .I65, c f. Christensen 1 936: 3 81-2. S ee a lso T heoph. S im . V .6.10). T he p opulation o f t his Antioch i n P ersia r ose t o 3 0,000 b y t he e nd o f t he c entury, swollen b y c aptives t aken b y Chosroes i n h is wars i n t he 5 70's, e specially a fter t he c apture o f D ara i n 5 73 i n w hich c ampaign h e was s aid t o h ave b agged o ver a q uarter o f a m illion p risoners ( Ioh. E ph. H ist. E ccl.. V I.19, CSCO 1 05, p .314,25-27). T his g ilded c age c ould n ot c ompletely, h owever, s atisfy t he a spirations o f t he c aptives i t h eld a nd i n t he l ast y ears o f Chosroes, t he i nhabi t ants s muggled a message t o t he Emperor T iberius I p ointing o ut t hat t here were t hirty t housand members o f " the c aptivity" i n t he c ity g uarded b y o nly f ive h undred P ersian t roops a nd a s pontan eous u prising c ould e asily b e a chieved i f a R oman g eneral w ould s how h i mself o utside i ts walls ( Ioh. E ph. H ist. E ccl. V I.19, p .315,17-22. C f. F iey 1 967: 4 15 a nd i dem 1 970b: 6 1-2). T he c all w as i gnored b y t he R omans u ntil t he c ivil war b etween C hosroes I a nd B ahram i n 5 91 when a R oman a ssisted P ersian a rmy u nder t he

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c ommand o f Mebodes a pproached t he c ity a nd made k nown t o i ts i nhabitants t hrough a l etter w ritten i n G reek t hat h e h ad c ome t o r escue t hem f rom t he i nterior o f P ersia w here t hey h ad g rown o ld ( Theoph. S im . V .7.1). T he l etter d uly a chieved i ts a im a nd t he e nemy g arrison was o verpowered a nd h anded o ver t o Mebodes who h ad t hem e xecuted a long w ith a n umber o f J ewish s upporters o f B ahram . T he l iberation o f A ntioch i n P ersia b y Mebodes m ight h ave o ccas ioned t he r eturn o f s ome o f t he Roman e xiles b ut t he p olicy o f d eportation was r enewed w ith v igour b y C hosroes I i n h is war o f v engeance f or t he murder o f Maurice . T he c aptured i nhabitants o f E dessa w ere t ransported t o S egistan a nd K horasan ( Bar H ebraeus, H ist. E ccl. I, c o1.125, e ds. Abbeloos a nd L amy) a nd f inally i n 6 10, a l arge p art o f t he p opulation o f P alestine a nd J erusalem t ogether w ith t he r elic o f t he T rue C ross were t aken i nto c aptiv ity a t t he P ersian c apital ( Chron. a n. 1 234, 9 3, CSCO 8 1, p p.226,25 - 2 27,3). I n t his t rade o f h uman m isery, Rome a ppears t o h ave s uffered a n umerical d eficit. T he n umber o f P ersian c aptives f orcibly s ettled o n Roman s oil was a mere t rifle c ompared t o t he v ery l arge l osses t o t he P ersians. T he e ventual f ate o f t he P ersian c aptives f orcibly s ettled o n Roman s oil i s a lso o bscure. S ince n one o f t hem s eems t o h ave b ecome a s aint o r martyr, we a re d eprived o f t he h agiographical s ources s o e ssential t o o ur k nowl edge o f t he s ubsequent h istory o f t he R oman d eportees i n P ersia . On t he o ther h and, t he S assanians c learly b elieved t hat t he e xpenses i nvolved i n t ransporting s uch l arge c ontingents o f p ris oners, a lbeit o n a m ini mum d iet, t o d istant p arts o f t he E rans hahr a nd t he c ost o f t he n ew u rban f oundations n eeded t o h ouse t hem were worthwhile i n t erms o f t he e ventual c ontribution s uch h ighly s killed a rtisans a nd s ophisticated u rban dwellers would m ake t o t he s tate e conomy a nd t o t he q uality o f u rban c ulture. H ence t he p olicy was f ollowed b y n early a ll t he S assanians who w ere s uccessful i n t heir w ars a gainst R ome. O ne i mportant c onseq uence o f t his l arge i nflux o f R omans i nto t he h eartland o f I ran i s t he e stablishment o f a more H ellenized f orm o f C hristianity i n Persia a nd t he c oncomitant p roblems which e nsued i n c hurch a nd s tate r elations. E qually s ignificant i s t he i mportation b y t he c aptives o f G reek c ulture i nto P ersian h eld Mesopotamia. T his e nforced c aptivity o f a n a lien c ulture which was a dmired b y t he P ersian monarchs h eralded a l ong p rocess o f a ssi milation a nd a daptation which would l ater c ome t o f ull f l owering u nder t he A rabs. H owever, t he f act t hat A ristotle a nd G alen were t aught i n t he a cademies o f B aghdad when t hese a uthors were l ittle k nown i n m edieval E urope s hould n ot c ause u s t o f orget • the h uman s uffering o f t he R oman c aptives which made p ossible t his i mportant c ultural i nterchange. N otes

1 . I would l ike t o a cknowledge t he f inancial h elp which I h ave r eceived f rom t he N uffield F oundation, t he B ritish A cademy a nd R esearch a nd I nnovation F und o f War wick University t owards t he

5 00

r esearch f or t his a rticle a nd t he a dvice a nd a ssistance o f D r. C hristopher L ightfoot, D r. S ebastian B rock, M r. M ichael D odgeon, N W. J ames J ordan a nd my w ife D r. J udith L ieu . 2 . E xceptions a re t he a rticles a nd m onographs o f J . N L F iey ( see B ibliography) a nd t he d ated b ut s till u seful s tudy o f P . P eeters ( 1924). W ithout t he l ist o f r elevant s ources c ited i n t hese w orks, my t ask would h ave b een H erculean . S ome u seful material i s a lso c ited a nd d iscussed i n L ightfoot 1 981: 2 28-61, e sp . 2 289 , 2 45-6 a nd 2 60-1). 3 . T he s ame a uthor i n a n e arlier p ublication r edated t he s tory t o t he r eign o f S hapur I .

( 1970b:

5 2-3)

L ist o f A bbreviations A lm

Marc .

Ammianus Märcellinus. A cta S anctorum Martyrum O rientalium e t O ccid entatlium e tc., e d. S . E . A ssemanus, 2 v ols. ( Rome, 1 7487 7

AMS

A cta Martyrum e t S anctorum, e d. P . B edjan, 7 v ols. ( Paris, 1 890-97).

A NCL

A nte-Nicene 1 864 f f.)

C hron.

S eert

C hristian

L ibrary,

( Edinburgh

C hronica S eertensis, e d. a nd t rans. A . S her, H istoire n estorienne i n& Lite, PO 4 1 908 : 2 113 13, 5 1 909: 2 17-344, 7 1 910: 9 3-203 a nd 1 3 1 919: 4 33-640.

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C orpus S criptorum Christianorum O rientali um ( E7 FT Z., L ouvain e tc. 1 903 f f.)

C SHB

C orpus S criptorum H istoriae B yzantinae, v ols. ( Bonn, 1 828-78)

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F ragmenta H i s tor i corum G raecorum, M üller, 5 v ols. 7Paris, 1 841-70 r .

C .

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D ie g riechischen c hristlichen S chriftsteller d er e rsten d rei J ahrhunderte ( Leipzig 1 8971 941; B erlin a nd L eipzig, 1 953; B erlin 1 954 f f.)

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M .L . C haumont, L 'inscription d e K artir ä l a " Ka'bah d e Z oroastre" ( texte, t raduction, c ommentaire). J ournal A siatique 2 48 ( 1960: 3 39-80.

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P atrologiae c ursus c ompletus, L atina, e d. J .P . M igne, 1 62 1 857-66).

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P atrologiae c ursus c ompletus, s eries L atina, e d . J . P. Mi gne, et a l., 221 vol s. ( Paris,1844-64) a nd 5 . i . T ip 1 7-( 1958-74)

PO

P atrologia O rientalis, N au ( Paris, 1 907 f f.)

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P atrologia 1 926).

S KZ

( Inscription o f S hapur a t t he K a 'ba o f Z oroa ster), Res Gestae D iv i S aporis, e d. a nd t rans. A . Mar i cq, S yria 3 5 1 958: 2 45-60 .

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( Paris,

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JB.

CHAUMONT, M . L.

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M änichaean L iterature. D el mar, N ew Y ork ( Scholars' F acsi miles a nd R ep rints).

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C onstantine a nd P ersia . J ournal 7 5 : 1 26-36.

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A martyr a t t he S asanid C ourt u nder V ahran II : Candida. Analecta B ollandiana 9 6/2: 1 67-81.

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C hristians i n t he S asanian Empire: A c ase o f d ivided l oyalties. I n S . M ews ( ed), R eligion a nd N ational I dentity, S tudies i n C hurch H istory 1 8 : 1 -19. O xford ( B 5 777 1- B lackw ell).

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S ynodicon o rientale o ü r ecueil d e S ynodes n estoriens C7- N otices e t E xtraits d e l a B ibliotheque N ation ale e t a utres b iblio t he nues p ublies p ar 1 'Acad mie d es I nscipt i ons e t B el l es-Lettres, V ol.37). P arls -T impriMerie N ationale) .

1 964

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t he Christians o f o f R oman S tudies

L es S assanides e t l a c hristianisat ion d e l 'Empire i ranien a u I IIe s iècle d e n otre e re, R evue d e l ' H istoire d es R eligions 1 65: 1 652 02.

5 02

CHRISTENSEN,

A .

1 936

L 'Iran s ous l es S assanides. C openh agen ( Levin & Munksgaard).

1 979

L es c onsequences s ur l e c hristiani sme e n P erse d e l 'affrontement d es e mpires r omain e t s assanide. D e S hapur l er ä Y azdgard l er. R echerc hes A ugustiniennes 1 4: 9 1-152 .

1 912

T he E arly H istory o f T he Church, V ol.2, L ondon ( MacM illan a n2- Z 5 J )7-

F ELIX , W .

1 985

A ntike l iterarische Quellen z ur A ussenpolitik d es S asanidenstaates . V ienna ( Sitzungsberichte d er O sterreichische A kademie d er W iss enschaften, P hi 1 . - H i s t. K lasse, 4 56 B and) ( Ver l ag d er O ster r e i chi s chen A kademie d er W issenschaf t en) .

F IEY ,

1 967

T opographie c hr6tienne d e Mahoz . L ' Orient S yrien 1 2: 3 97-420 .

1 969

L 'Elam , l a p remi re d es m& tropoles e ccl6siastiques s yriennes o r i ent ales. Mel t o V . Kas 1i k ( Liban): 2 21-267.

1 970a

L 'Elam , l a p remi re d es m 6tropoles e ccl siastiques s yriennes o rientale ( suite). P arole d e 1' Or i ent I , K aslik ( Lib7T 1)T- T 2S7- 5 3.

1 970b

J alons p our u ne h istoire d e l ' gl ise e n I raq , C SCO 3 10, S ubsidia 3 6 L ouvain - ( 3- r tariat d u Corpu .s S OD ).

1 974

L es c ommunautes s yriaques e n I ran d es p remiers s i cles ä 1 552. Acta I ranica 3 , H ommages u niversel I II: 2 79-97.

1 962

I ran, P ar t hians a nd S assanians. L ondon ( T hames a nd H udson-7

1 971

T he P rosopography o f t he L ater R oman Empi r e ( 260-395 T— Vo 1 . 1 , C ambridge TCambr i dge U ni v ersity P ress).

1 895

I ranisches N amenbuch. Marburg. ( N. G . E lwert 'sche V erlagsbuchandlung).

D ECRET,

F .

D UCHESNE,

L .

J .M .

GHIRSHMAN,

R .

J ONES, A .H.M .

J UST',

F .

e t a l

5 03

KAWERAU,

P .

1 983

O stkirchengeschichte I , D as C hrist entum i n A sien u nd A frika b is z um A uftreten d er P ortugiesen i m I ndis chen Ozean. L ouvain ( CSCO 4 51, S ubsidia 7 0, S ecr tariat 7 11 1— Corpus SOD ).

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J .

1 904

L e c hristianis me d ans ! 'Em ire P erse . P ar is -T r ibrai ri e V ictor L ec offre).

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M anichaeism i n t he Later Roman Empire a nd Medieval C hina, A H istor ical S urvey. Manchester, 17T7 r 7= c hester U niversity P ress).

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T he _ Emperor J ulian: P anegyric a nd P olem ic ( with c ontributions b y M . M organ a nd J .M . L ieu). L iverpool ( Liverpool University P ress). F orthcom ing.

L IGHTFOOT, C .S.

1 981

T he E astern F rontier o f t he R oman E mpire w ith s pecial r eference t o t he r eign o f C onstantius I. O xford TU i Tpubl. D .Phil. d i s s.)—

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S . D emetrianus 6 ‘ , / gue d 'Antioch?. A nalecta B ollandiana 4 2: 2 88-314 .

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L e t r fonds o riental d e l 'hagiog raphie B yzantine, S ubsidia H agiog raphica 2 6. B russels ( Soci6t6 d es B ollandistes).

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L es v illes d e l '6tat i ranien a ux . e po u es P arthe e t S assanide. P aris M outon a nd Co.).—

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E dessa t he B lessed C ity. T57 7 .7d U niversity P resTr .

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P arthisch ' bs wdg'n " Die Täufer". A cta A ntigua A cademiae S cientiarum H ungaricae 2 5 :237-42.

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1 982

E lishe, H istory o f V ardan a nd t he A rmenian War. Cambr i dge, Mass. ( Harvard U niversity P ress).

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S .N.C .

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P IGULEVSKAJA ,

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S UNDERMANN,

W .

5 04

Oxford

d e N isibe e t l 'opinion ( 363 ap. J .C.) I n R . ( ed.) W langes d 'arch o-

l ogie e t d 'histoire o f f erts ä A ndr P i a niol, V o 1 .2 , Pa r i s, S .E.V.P.E.N.): 8 75-90. 1 958

A H istory o f Asceticis m i n t he S yrian Orient, Vo 1. 1, CSCO 1 84, S ubsidia 1 4. L ouvain ( Secretariat d u Corpus SCO ).

29.

URBANI S M IN HELLENI STI C, AND ROMAN MES OP OTAMI A

PARTHI AN

S amuel N .C . L ieu Warw ick T his i s a r esearch p roject which h as b een j ointly f unded b y t he N uffield F oundation a nd t he U niversity o f Warwick . T he p roject a i ms t o c ollect t ogether a nd t ranslate s ources i n C lassical l anguages o n t he d evelopment o f c ities a nd c ity l ife i n t he Mesopotamian r egion f rom t he d eath o f A lexander t o H eraclius. E nglish t ranslations h ave a lso b een made o f S yriac, A rmenian a nd A rabic s ources f rom F rench, L atin a nd G erman t ranslations. I n s ome c ases, d irect t ranslations h ave b een made f rom S yriac . T he p roject ( 1)

i s

s ub-divided a s

f ollows:

T he G eographical b ackground ( includes t ranslation o f a ll k nown C lassical t he g eography o f Mesopotamia) .

s ources o n

( 2)

T he H ellenistic f oundations ( includes a l isting o f t he r elevant s ources, w ith t ranslations, o n ac ity b y c ity b asis. N B n ot i ncluding C uneiform s ources).

( 3)

T he

( 4)

T he R oman P eriod

P arthian P eriod ( includes a s urvey o f H ellenistic s ites i n b oth R oman a nd P arthian h eld Mesopotamia. T he s ource c ollection e xcludes d ocuments f rom D ura E uropos).

a .

T he c ity a s a c entre o f d efence ( includes m aterial o n t he r elationship b etween s oldier/ c ivilian a nd o n t he d eportation o f R oman c ivilians t o n ew u rban f oundations i n t he S assanian Empire).

b .

T he c ity a s a c entre f or t he d iffusion o f C hristianity ( translated s ources i nclude L ife o f Mari t he Apostle a nd p arts o f T heodoretus ' H istoria

c .

T he c ity a s a c entre f or r eligious c onflict: C hristiani ty v s. P aganism, Z oroastrianism, Manichaeism a nd J udaism , a s well a s t he c onflict b et ween Monophysite a nd C halcedonian a nd N estorian C hristianity . ( Sources

5 07

t ranslated i nclude T heodoret, L ife o f A braames; E phrem , H y, c . J ulianum ; i dem , C ärmina N isibena - t he s ections n ot i n NPNF, T he L ife o f R abbula, T he Martyrdom o f S imeon B ar S abbae, T he T esti mony o f t he P risoners o f B ezabde, T he L ife o f Mar A ba C atholicos, T he L ife o f A braham K idunaia e tc .) ( 5)

S ources o n R omano-Persian r elations f rom S everus A lexander t o J ovian - a G reenidge a nd C lay s tyle s ource b ook w ith t ranslations o f C lassical s ources a nd t ranslations o f O rient al s ources l ike T abari a nd t he C hronicle o f S eert f rom G erman a nd F rench.

T he b ulk o f t he t ranslation work i s d etails o f t he p roject p lease c ontact:

n ow

f inished.

D r S .N.C . L ieu T he J oint S chool o f C lassics U niversity o f W arw ick C oventry C V4 7 AL U K

5 08

F or

more

30.

TI LLI

- A ON

LATE RO MAN EQUI TES TH E TI GRI S?* C .S.

FORT

L ightfoot L ondon

T illi i s s ituated a t t he c onfluence o f t he R iver T igris a nd t he Bohtan S u i n s outh-east Turkey. V isited b y o nly a h andful o f European t ravellers, i t has n ever b een p roperly s urveyed o r p hotographed . While t he s ite i tself h as b een i gnored b y s cholars, d iscussion h as c entred u pon t he s ignificance o f i ts f ormer n ame, T ell F äl n, which h as b een a ssociated w ith t he l ate R oman u nit o f e quites P afenses. T he p resent p aper o ffers a d escription o f t he impress ive s tanding r emains a nd a n umber o f small f inds f rom t he s ite . I t a lso d iscusses t he l iterary e vidence f or t he s ite 's r ole and importance i n t he h istory o f t he f ourth c entury l i mes. I t c oncludes t hat T illi s hould b e r ecognised a s a s trategic f ortress o n t he f rontier d uring t he r eign o f Constantius I I ( 337-361). I nterest i n f rontier s tudies h as g rown e normously s ince t he t erm L imesforschung was f irst c oined. Our k nowledge, t oo, h as i nc reased g reatly i n b oth s cope a nd d etail, a lthough t he material a t o ur d isposal h as b ecome c orrespondingly more u nwieldy a nd we h ave, p erhaps, l ost a c ertain c larity o f p urpose i n t he p ursuit o f v arious a spects o f t he s ubject. T he i nherent p roblems r emain m anifold a nd c omplex, a nd t his i s p articularly t rue w ith r egard t o t he l ate Roman p eriod where t extual, e pigraphic a nd o ften a rchaeological e vidence i s l acking i n t he s ame q uantities a s f or t he e arlier i mperial c enturies. I n h is i ntroduction t o A rmies a nd F rontiers i n R oman a nd B yzant ine Anatolia, S tephen M itchell 7 1 983: 1 ) r emarked o n t he f act t hat t he E ast h as b een s eriously n eglected b y c omparison w ith o ther f rontiers o f t he Roman Empire. A r ecent major s tudy o f l ate R oman f ortifications ( Johnson 1 983) p erpetuates t his t radit ional b ias i n f avour o f t he western p rovinces a nd, a part f rom o ne o r t wo n otable e xceptions ( Kettenhofen 1 982; B owersock 1 983), l ittle h as c hanged s ince t he Swansea C olloquium . I n a rchaeology s ome p rogress h as b een made, b ut work a t s ites a long t he E uphrates h as i n g eneral p roved a d isappoint ment. A t T itle t he B ritish I nstitute h as f ailed t o s ubstantiate i ts c lai m t o a n a uxiliary f ort ( Crow a nd F rench 1 980: 9 05), n ow d escribed a s a

5 09

F ig.

3 0.1

S ketch m ap o f

t he T igris

5 10

V alley

i n

s outh-east

T urkey.

' Roman c amp' ( French, Moore a nd R ussell 1 982: 1 74), while t he a ttention o f t he T urkish e xcavators a t S amosata h as c oncentrated o n t he i mposing t ell ( Mellink 1 985: 5 54), a t t he f oot o f which t he R oman l egionary f ortress a nd f rontier t own l ie n eglected ( Hellenkemper 1 977: 4 64, p l. 5 1). S ome s erious l osses h ave a lso o ccurred, n otably i n t he E uphrates g orge b elow S amosata where c onstruction work o n t he A tatürk D am P roject h as s adly d estroyed m uch o f t he l i mes r oad v isited b y D avid F rench i n 1 981 ( 1983: 9 1, p ls. 7 .2a/b)r---F or t he l ate R oman f rontier i n t he T igris v alley, h owever, t here i s e ven l ess t o s how . N o-one h as b een a ble t o c arry o ut t he s ame s ort o f p ioneering s urvey work a s t hat d one b y T i mothy M itford f or t he U pper E uphrates l i mes ( Mitford 1 977; 1 980a; 1 980b). T he s ites a nd p hysical g eography o f R oman Mesopotamia a nd t he b orderl ands c onjoining A rmenia a nd P ersia a re s till p oorly k nown . T he d ifficulties f acing a s cholar w ishing t o s tudy t he p olitical a nd m ilitary h istory o f t he r egion i n t he c rucial y ears o f t he f ourth c entury a re d aunting. I n a ddition t o t he main G reek a nd L atin t exts, h e must c onsult a v ariety o f more o bscure works, i ncluding t hose i n S yriac, A rmenian a nd A rabic . H e must, t oo, d raw a s much a s p ossible o n t he m eagre e pigraphic e vidence, i ncluding t he l ess f am iliar o riental material ( cf. F rye 1 984: 2 88-90; S hahid 1 984: 2 -4). I deally h e s hould a lso b e a n umismatist a nd f ield a rchaeol ogist, a ble t o g ive a n i nstant i dentification t o c oin a nd s urface s herd a like. H e would f urther b enefit f rom s ome e xpert ise i n s urveying a nd d istinguishing b etween a muddle o f d iffere nt c onstruction p eriods. L ast b ut n ot l east, t he s cholar h as e ven t oday t o b e a f airly i ntrepid t raveller, f or h is f ield o f i nterest l ies i n a r emote a nd i naccessible c orner o f t he M iddle E ast where modern p olitical b orders a nd a ge-old r egional c onf licts make f or a n u nsettled a tmosphere . I t i s my p urpose h ere t o p resent a s hort a ccount o f o ne s ite o n t he T igris t hat may h old s ome s ignificance f or t he f ourth c entury f rontier b et ween R ome a nd P ersia. I t i s a p lace t hat h as b een n eglected b y t ravellers a nd s cholars a like f or many y ears. I nd eed, t he r uins t here h ave n ever b een p hotographed, s urveyed o r p roperly d escribed, a nd I w ill s how t hat o nly a h andful o f E uropeans h ave v isited t he s ite i n t he l ast h undred a nd f ifty y ears. M y own v isit i n S eptember 1 985 was n ecessarily b rief a nd c ursory, s ince I went t here merely a s a w ell-informed ' tourist '. W ithout a v alid p ermit f rom t he T urkish a uthorities I was c areful n ot t o m ake a ny n otes, p lans o r d rawings while a t t he s ite, a nd I r es tricted myself t o a modest n umber o f p hotographs. Ih ad h oped t o o btain p er mission t o c arry o ut a more d etailed s urvey n ext s ummer, b ut t his h as n ot b een f orthcoming . S o f or t he p resent w e m ust r ely o n my p ersonal r ecollections a nd i ndifferent p hotog raphy i n o rder t o g ain a n i mpression o f t he l ocation a nd p hysic al

r emains.

T he s ite i s k nown t o i ts p resent i nhabitants a s T illi. I t l ies a t t he c onfluence o f t he B ohtan S u a nd T igris R iver, s ome 3 7 k ilometres s outh-west o f S iirt b y r oad a nd t rack ( Fig. 3 0.1). T he n ame i s n ot t o b e m istaken f or T illo, t he s ite o f a n 1 8th

5 11

c entury mystic 's t omb a nd a n i mportant Musli m z iyaret 1 2 k ilom etres n orth-east o f S iirt ( Sinclair f orthcoming) . N or i s i t t o b e c onfused w ith s ome more d istant p laces - T ille o n t he west b ank o f t he E uphrates ( French, Moore a nd R ussell 1 982: 1 61, f ig.1) o r, f urther n orth, T illo i n t he K urdish T aurus ( Mitford 1 980b : 9 20, 9 22, f ig. 6 1.1). A nother s ite c alled T i! h as b een i dentified n ear P ertek i n t he A rsanias V alley ( Howard-Johnston 1 983: 2 54-5, f ig.15 .2), while n ot f ar f rom E rzincan i n t he U pper E uphrates r egion i s l ocated t he a ncient A rmenian t own o f T hil, m entioned b y Agat'ange . tos ( 1786.Thomson 1 976: 3 27) a nd Movs s X orenac'i ( 11.91; 11.2 a nd 3 8.Thomson 1 978: 2 49, 2 55, 2 99). T his i s t he p lace t hat A insworth m istook f or T illi a nd s o w rongly a ttributed t o t he s ite a t t he mouth o f t he B ohtan S u v arious e pisodes f rom e arly A r menian h istory ( 1842: 3 55-6; c f. T aylor 1 865: 3 2; A dontz 1 970: 2 73). E n r oute t o t he s ite o f T illi o ne l eaves t he B ohtan V alley a nd c rosses t he B itlis çayI b y t he i mpressive N asraddin k öprüsi l , s tanding o n t he o ld h ighway b etween S iirt a nd R edwan ( Macdonald K inneir 1 818: 4 13; c f. K iepert 1 858). T he b ridge h as b een h eavi ly r estored i n r ecent t . i mes b ut i s t hought t o d ate f rom t he 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c egtury ( liter 1 974: 3 3, p l. X IV, 1 ; c f. L ehmannH aupt 1 910: 3 36). 1 T illi i tself i s s ituated o n t he l eft o r n orth b ank o f t he T igris w here t he r iver c ommences i ts s weep s outhwards t hrough t he mountains t o C izre . I t c omprises a mound o f r oughly t riangular s hape a nd a v illage o f h ouses a nd o ut-buildings s et a t i rregular i ntervals a cross i ts b roader n orthern p art. T he mound i s f lanked t o t he west b y t he T igris a nd t o t he e ast b y t he B ohtan, which j oin b elow i ts s outhern a pex where s tands a s mall m odern c emetery ( Lehmann-Haupt 1 910: 3 42). T he mound o ccupies, p erhaps, 1 .2 h ectares a nd r ises s ome 1 5 t o 2 0 metres a bove t he l evel o f t he r iver p lain ( Pl. 3 0.1). A l arge a rtificial mound i s m entioned i n A insworth 's a ccount o f h is j ourney u p t he T igris t o S iirt i n 1 840 ( A insworth 1 842: 3 556 ). H e was n ot, h owever, t he f irst v isitor t o T illi, t hen k nown . a s T hil o r T il, f or C olonel S hiel h ad p receded h im while t ravelling i n t he o pposite d irection t owards C izre i n 1 836. H e r efers t o t he s ite a s a v illage w ith ' a s mall f ort o n a h ill. — ' ( Shiel 1 838: 7 9-80). 2 D uring h is r emarkable s ojourn i n t he r egion i n 1 861, C onsul T aylor a lso t ook t he o pportunity t o v isit t he s ite . H e p royides a more d etailed a nd i ntriguing d escription o f T illi w hich, h e s tates, i s s ituated o n a mound i n t he a ngle f ormed b y t he j unction o f t he t wo r ivers; t he v illage i s ' built o f t he s tone p rocured f rom s ome o ld m assive b uildings i n t he c entce o f t he t umulus, p ortions o f which a re s een p rotruding f rom t he g round a ll r ound i ts b ase a nd f or s ome way u p t he s lope ' ( Taylor 1 865: 3 0). When L ehmann-Haupt v isited T illi i n 1 899, i ts h ouses h ad b een d emolished a nd t he s ite h ad t aken o n t he a ppearance o f a r uined c astle. H e d escribes i t a s a p romontory t hat h ad b een s trongly f ortified i n t he p ast, b ut h e d id n ot r egard t he walls a s b eing o f g reat a ntiquity a lthough h e a ssumed t hat t hey s tood o n a ncient f oundations ( Lehmann-Haupt 1 910: 3 42). H e b elieved t hat t he w alls s erved p rimarily a s p rotection a gainst e rosion o f t he mound b y t he r iver f loods; h e makes s pecial mention o f t he

5 '2

f rom t he

b0

• • • • • • • • I

o

513 .

s outh-east.

d efences a gainst t he T igris which, h e s tates, h ad s uffered f rom n eglect a nd l ay i n l arge f ragments a long t he b ank . T oday t he r uins a re p robably l ess e xtensive t han t hey w ere a t t he t i me o f t hese t ravellers. Man a nd r iver h ave u ndoubtedly c ontinu ed t o g naw away a t t hem d uring t he i ntervening d ecades. N o t race s urvives o f a ny walls o n t he e ast s ide o f t he mound o verl ooking t he B ohtan S u, b ut t hose t o t he west b eside t he T igris s till f orm a s ubstantial a nd i mpressive g roup o f r emains. A t t he n orth-west c orner o f t he mound l ie t he f ootings o f a l arge r ounded t ower, a pproxi mately 1 0-12 metres i n d iameter, f aced w ith r oughly-shaped a shlar a nd c ontaining a t hick mortared r ubble c ore . F rom i t a s tretch o f wall r uns s outhward p arallel t o t he r iver-bank b ut s et b ack f rom t he e dge o f t he mound, g iving t he i mpression t hat f or merly, a s n ow, t here was a p ath l eading u p i nto t he s ettlement. T he t ower, t hen, may h ave s erved p artly t o p rotect a r ecessed g ateway i nto t he f ortified e nclosure o n t op o f t he mound. A t t he p oint where t he l ine o f wall e nds a nd t he p ath t urns s harply away f rom t he r iver t here c ommences a nother s tretch o f f ortifications s tanding o n t he v ery e dge o f t he mound. A h ollow s quare t ower i s v isible p rojecting f rom t his wall, b uilt o f a shlar b onded t ogether w ith a t riple t ile c ourse. S outh o f t he t ower l ies a whole p ile o f c ollapsed masonry, s ome o f which h as f allen i nto t he r iver i tself. T he n ature o f t he s tructures h ere i s u ncertain b ut, a s L ehmann-Haupt n oted, t hey d o n ot s eem t o b e v ery a ncient. O ne e lement i n t his j umble i s a f ree-standi ng wall t hat f or ms a l i mb s ticking o ut f rom t he mound a t a n o blique a ngle. I t may, p ossibly, h ave b een a c oncealed p assagew ay d own t o t he r iver's e dge, u sed i n t i mes o f d anger t o o btain w ater s afely f rom t he T igris. T here i s, I was t old, n o s pring o r w ell a t T illi; t he p resent i nhabitants d raw t heir water f rom t he B ohtan S u, whose b anks p rovide g enerally e asier a ccess f rom t he v illage . Another f eature t hat a ttracts o ne's a ttention a t t his s pot i s a r ubble c ore, a pparently c ombining masonry a nd t ile c ourses, s tanding i n m id-stream . F rom a bove i t c learly h as t he a ppearance o f a b ridge p ier w ith a s harply-angled t ail p ointing d ownstream ( cf. Whitby 1 985: 1 32-3, f ig. 4 ). N o-one h as e ver m entioned a b ridge o ver t he T igris a t t his s pot, b ut i t i s s ignif icant t hat S hiel f ound i t n ecessary t o p roceed a m ile u pstream i n o rder t o f ord t he r iver b efore r eturning a long t he s outh b ank ( Shie1.1838: 8 0). I mmediately o pposite t he p ier t here i s a l arge s olid s tructure p rojecting f rom t he mound d own t o t he water's e dge . T his may, t herefore, b e i nterpreted a s t he b ridge a butment. I ts s outh-facing s ide i s c onstructed mainly o f s mall l i mestone b locks s et i n u neven r ows, b ut n ear t he t op o f what s urvives i t c hanges i nto a c learly-defined b and o f b lack b asalt. T he s tructure h as g aping c racks r unning d own i t f rom t op t o b ottom, r em inding o ne o f L ehmann-Haupt's ' malerische K lippen' ( 1910: 3 42). F rom h ere, a s o ne a dvances f urther t owards t he s outhern t ip o f t he p romontory, t he r emains b ecome l ess s pectacular. O ne f ragment ( Pl. 3 0.2) s hows t he c ombination o f t ile c ourses w ith r ows o f p oor masonry, p artly r obbed away, b ut a nother r eveals a s olid b ank o f b rickwork e nclosed w ithin a mass o f mortared r ubble ( Pl.

3 0.3).

5 14

P l.

3 0.2

Wall

f ragment:

P l.

3 0.3

r ough a shlar w ith b rick b onding-courses.

B rickwork

s et

5 15

i n a r ubble c ore.

A n umber o f c onclusions c an b e d rawn f rom my o bservations. F irstly, t he s tructures a re c learly d efensive i n n ature, c onfirmi ng t he i mpression f ormed b y S hiel a nd L ehmann-Haupt t hat T illi w as a f ortified s ite. I ts i rregular s hape e xploits t o t he f ull t he d efensive q ualities o f i ts p osition o n a h eadland b etween t he t wo r ivers, a nd i n t his r espect i t r esembles n umerous l ate R oman f ortifications ( Johnson 1 983: 4 0). I n t he E ast o ne may c ompare t he m id-fourth c entury f ort a t P agnik Öreni o n t he Upper E uphrates ( Harper 1 977: 4 53, f ig. 1 ), a nd o ne may a lso r efer t o Amm ianus ' d escription o f t he l egionary f ortress o f B ezabde ( XX.7.1.) o r t hat o f C ircesiun n p rovided b y P rocopius ( Bell. 1.5.2-3). A s econd e lement i n T illi's g round-plan t hat e choes l ate R oman p ractice i s t he ( possible) r ecessing o f a g ate o r p ostern b ehind t he l arge r ounded t ower ( cf. J ohnson 1 983: 4 5-7). I t a lso b rings t o m ind r eferences i n Ammianus t o t he d ifficult a pproaches t o g ateways a t c ertain Mesopotamian s trongholds, s uch a s Amida ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.8.11) a nd V irta ( XX .7.17). L ikewise t he p resence o f a s ecret p assageway d own t o t he T igris i s r egarded b y Ammianus a s a c ommon f eature o f s uch r iverside f ortif ications ( XIX .5.4). T hat o f Amida, t o which h e a ttributes a p erilous e pisode i n t he s iege o f 3 59 ( XIX .5.4-6), i s n o l onger v isible, b ut e xamples c an s till b e s een, a lthough o f u ncertain d ate, a t t wo o ther s ites a long t he T igris. T hese r ock-cut s tairw ays a re a t E gil, t he A r menian c astle o f Ang! t o t he n orth-west o f Amida, a nd a t C epha w here t he h eight o f t he c liffs m akes f or a s pectacular d escent f rom t he c itadel t o t he w ater's e dge ( Taylor 1 865: 3 3, 3 5). T he c onfiguration o f t he t wo d iscernible t owers - o ne r ound, t he o ther s quare - c annot p rovide a b asis f or d ating t he f ortificat ions a t T illi. E ven w ithin t he r elatively l i mited s phere o f t he l ate R oman p eriod t owers c ome i n s uch a b ewildering a rray o f s hapes a nd s izes t hat s ome s cholars h ave d espaired o f d ating t hem o n t ypological g rounds ( von P etrikovits 1 971: 2 03); a nd r ecent a ttempts a t c lassification ( Lander 1 984: 2 55) a re o f l ittle u se f or t he major r iver s ectors o f t he e astern l i mes where s o f ew s ites h ave b een e xcavated t hat n o f ir m t ypology c an b e e sta. blished. T he t owers, h owever, d isplay t wo f eatures t hat a re worthy o f c omment. T he s olid c ore o f t he r ounded t ower i ndicates i ts u se a s a n emplacement f or a rtillery, w hich w as t he l ate R oman d efens ive weapon p ar e xcellence ( Lightfoot 1 981: 5 1-4; L ander 1 984: 2 58-9). I n t he h ollow s quare t ower, a s well a s i n o ther f ragm ents o f wall, we h ave a lso s een t hat b rick b onding-courses were i nserted i nto t he a shlar f acing ( Pl. 3 0.2), a .construction t echn ique t hat b ecame i ncreasingly p opular f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird c entury o nwards ( Johnson 1 983: 3 5).' A t Amida s ome s tretches o f t he c urtain wall c ontain s i milar f our-layer t ile c ourses, a lthough t hey p robably s hould n ot b e a scribed t o t he f ourth c entury p hase o f c onstruction ( Lightfoot 1 981: 1 11, n . 5 8). T he more s ubstantial mass o f b rickwork, v isible s outhern t ip o f t he mound a t T illi ( Pl. 3 0.3), c an

5 16

t owards t he l ikewise b e

c ompared w ith a nother t ype o f c onstruction f requently e mployed b y R oman m ilitary a rchitects ( Johnson 1 983: 3 5-6). F or e xample, t he t owers a t t he main g ate o f N eocaesarea/Dibsi F araj a re e ncased i n a n ew f acing o f b rickwork t hat, a ccording t o t he e xcavator ( Harper 1 975: 3 26, f ig. 3 b), p ost-dates 4 53. B rick, h owever, c ontinued t o b e u sed i n t he U pper T igris r egion a t a much l ater d ate . A f ew l ocal e xamples w ill s uffice; t he r ound a rches o f t he N asraddin B ridge, mentioned a bove, a re b uilt o f b rick ( liter 1 974: 4 2-3; p l. X III, 2 ), a s i s t he m inaret o f t he U lu Camii a t S iirt, d ated t o t he e arly 1 2th c entury ( Sinclair f orthcoming) . A t C epha/Hisn Keyf, o n t he n orth b ank o f t he T igris a nd o verlooked b y t he c liff-top c itadel, s tands t he e legant b rick t ürbe o f Z eynel B ey ( Gabriel 1 940: 8 0-1, f ig.65; S özen 1 981: 1 48-52, i llus.114-5), while o n t he Garzan S u, a t ributary o f t he T igris e ast o f B at man, a s tronghold n amed a s Z ercel K ale b oasts a main g ate c lad i n b rick b ut o f u ncertain d ate ( Taylor 1 865:28; c f. Whitby 1 983: 2 11). 4 T his u se o f f ired c lay i n a n a rea which s eem ingly a bounds i n s uitable r ock f or q uarrying may i n p art b e e xplained b y a d esire f or c ertain t ypes o f d ecoration, e specially w ith t he i nfluence o f P ersian b rickwork a t i ts h eyday u nder t he S eljuks ( Talbot R ice 1 975: 5 7-62). Y et i t must a lso h ave h ad a f unctional p urpose f or i t t o b e u sed a s t he s tructural b asis o f f ortifications a nd b ridges. T he p robable a nswer i s t hat b rick i s more r esistant t han s tone t o n atural d isasters s uch a s e arthq uakes a nd f loods a nd t o man-made a ttacks, b oth o f t he s apper a nd o f t he b attering-ram . F inally, t he d eliberate c ontrast i n t he c olour o f t he a shlar c ourses i n t he r iverside b astion r ecalls, i n a v ery d egraded f orm , t he u se o f l i mestone a nd b asalt t o p roduce a ttractive a nd s triking d ecorative p atterns i n t he b uildings a nd f ortifications 9 f Amida/Diyarbakir a nd C izre b elonging t o t he O ttoman

p eriod.'

I n a ddition t o t he s tanding r emains, t he v illage muhtar a t T illi p roduced a n a ssortment o f s mall f inds, s aid t o h ave b een d ug o ut o f g raves i n a n a ncient c emetery t o t he n orth o f t he mound. T hese i ncluded a n a nonymous b ronze f ollis o f t he 1 1th c entury ( cf. G rierson 1 982: 2 04-9, p ls. 5 6-7) a nd a m iniature p erfume f lask w ith d eep f acet-cuts o n t he b ody, t ypical o f mediaeval I slamic g lass ware ( cf. L oudmer 1 985: 2 54; A kat, F iratli a nd . Kocaba 1 984: 4 0, 7 1, i llus. 1 65a,b). B ut t he most i nteresting f inds f rom o ur p oint o f v iew were t wo Roman b ronze c oins. B oth w ere .i n a g ood s tate o f p reservation, w ith t he o bverse a nd r everse d esigns c learly v isible, a lthough t he l egends a nd m intm arks p roved t oo d ifficult t o d ecipher o n t he s pot.' T he o bverse o f t he l arger c oin d epicted t he b ust o f a n emperor, r adiate a nd c uirassed, f acing t o t he r ight; t he l egend f or med a c ontinuous b and o f l ettering a bove h is h ead, a nd t he r everse h ad a s cene c ontaining t wo f ull-length f igures. T he t ype p robably b elongs t o t he l arge s eries 0 4 ' radiates ' m inted d uring t he l ast q uarter o f t he t hird c entury. T he s econd c oin was smaller, w ith t he b ust o f a c lean-shaven emperor, a lso f acing t o t he r ight a nd wearing a j ewelled d iadem ; o n t he r everse s tood t wo m ilitary f igures h oldi ng s pears a nd s tandards. T his c oin I t entatively i dentify a s b elonging t o o ne o f t he C onstantinian d ynasty, a lthough i t c ould p ossibly b e a ttributed t o o ne o f t he l ater f ourth c entury

5 17

r ulers. 8 While t he c hance f ind o f a s mall n umber o f c oins c annot b e t aken a s c onclusive p roof o f o ccupation, t he f act t hat t hese t wo c oins f all w ithin a c ertain t i me-span a nd were e vidently a ssociated w ith l ocal b urials g ives o ne r oom t o s uspect a R oman p resence a t t he s ite. T urning a side f rom t he p hysical r emains o ne a rrives a t a s ubject w hich h as e xcited more i nterest a nd d ebate amongst s cholars t hat o f t he s ite's a ncient n ame. Iw ill s ummarize. A rab g eog raphers c onsistently r efer t o T illi b y t he n ame o f T ell F A-fn ( Hartmann 1 897: 6 5-6; L e S trange 1 905: 1 13), t he s ignificance o f w hich was f irst n oticed b y S achau o ver a c entury a go ( 1884: 5 44). H e d erived i t f rom t he n ame P afenses, which a ppears i n t he N otitia D ignitatum a s a t itle f or a u nit o f e quites s agittarii i ndigenae u nder t he command o f t he d ux Mesopota mi ae ( Or. XXXVI.26). 9 T he i dentification o f s ite a nd u nit f ound wi-E l e a cceptance u ntil i t w as q uestioned b y H onigmann f ifty y ears a fter S achau ( Honigmann 1 934: 4 76; c f. 1 936: 1 013). H e p referred t o l ocate t he e quites P afenses a t a nother p lace c alled F afi i n t he T ur Abdin e ast o f Mardin. H is v iews h ave b een f ollowed wholeh eartedly b y D i 1l emann, who d escribes F aft a s ' un s ite t r s a ncien', h aving a massive s tone N A / 11 a nd a n umber o f v ery l arge t owers ( Di 1l emann 1 962: 2 30-1). 1 ' I h ave n ot s een t his s ite m yself, s o I f eel r eluctant t o c omment o n D illemann 's c lai ms f or i t. I t i s n oteworthy, h owever, t hat t he f ortifications a re s aid t o b e o f ' undressed s tones l aid d ry ' a nd t hat D i 1l emann e quates t his a nd o ther c haracteristics o f F aft w ith t he s tronghold o f B töc t ç d escribed b y T heophylact S i mocatta ( II.18). I ndeed, t here i s n o a pparent r eason f or t he a ssi milation o f t he s ixth c entury B yzantine f ort t o t he s tation o f t he f ourth c entury e quites P afenses. On t he o ther h and, n o o bjection i s r aised t o t he s upposition t hat t he t itle P afenses d erives f rom a p lacen ame . T he N otitia p rovides s everal i nstances o f s uch a p ractice, t he most c onclusive e xample b eing t hat o f t he e quites s agittarii i ndigenae Medianenses, which c ontinued t o b e s tationed a t Mediavq . i n t he l ate f ourth c entury l ist f or O srhoene ( Or. XXXV.22). " • T he e quites P afenses a re g rouped t ogether w ith t wo o ther u nits b earing s i milar e pithets, t he e quites A rabanenses ( Or. XXXVI.25) a nd t he e quites T hibithenses ( Or. X XXVI.27), a nd I would s uggest t hat a ll t hree p robably o btained t hese t itles f rom t he n ames o f t heir f ormer g arrison-posts, h aving b een w ithdrawn t o n ew f orts w est o f N isibis a s a c onsequence o f t he s urrender o f e astern M esopotamia t o t he P ersians i n 3 63 ( cf. L ightfoot 1 981: 2 98-9). I f t his i s t he c ase, t hen i t a rgues s trongly a gainst H onigmann a nd D illemann, f or F afi c learly r emained w ithin R oman t erritory a fter t he t reaty o f J ovian. S o t he d ebate c ontinues; b ut o ne m ust emphasise t hat f rom S achau o nwards n o-one h as u ntil n ow h ad r ecourse t o t he e vidence a t t he s ite o f T illi/Tell F-J fUn . H ence I f eel j ustified i n h aving p resented s o d etailed a d escription o f t he r uins a nd f inds, e ven t hough t hey r est o n h astily-gathered i nformation. T illi s tands o n t he b order b etween t he t wo A rmenian p rincipalit ies o f A rzanene a nd Corduene a nd b elongs s ecurely w ithin t he a rea c overed b y t he r egiones T ranstigritanae, w hich were c eded t o

5 18

R ome b y t he t reaty o f 2 98 ( Peter t he P atrician f r. 1 4=FHG I V: 1 89). T here w as a s trong t radition amongst a ncient g eographers ( Strabo, Geog. X I.14.8; XVI.1.21; P liny H N V I.31.127-8; P tol. G eog . V .12.3) which a scribed t he p rincipal s ource o f t he T igris t o t he r egion c alled T hospitis, a n ame t hat c learly d erives f rom t he a ncient U rart i an t er m f or V an ( Hübschmann 1 904: 3 40). One c lause i n t he t reaty o f 2 98 s tipulates t hat t he T igris s hould a ct a s t he f rontier b etween t he R oman a nd P ersian Empires ( Peter t he P atrican f r. 1 4 = F HG I V: 1 89; c f. J ulian O r. 1 .22 a -c; Amm . M arc . XVI11.5.3), a nd i t s eems p robable t hat t hose who d rew u p t he t erms o f t he t reaty a lso r egarded t he B itlis-Bohtan S u a s t he p rimary b ranch o f t he T igris ( cf. Amm . Marc. XXIII.6.15; P hilos torgius HE 1 11.7). Certainly t he S yriac L ife o f J acob t he E gyptian Recluse, which p rovides v aluable d etails a bout t he f ourth c entury f rontier, r emarks t hat R oman c ontrol s tretched e astwards f rom Amida a cross S ophanene a nd A rzanene ' up t o t he b orders o f Corduene ' ( Nau 1 915-7: 7 ; c f. Wright 1 872: 1 136). T illi i s, t herefore, l ocated a t a p oint t hat i s v ery i mportant f or t he p eriod b et ween 2 98 a nd 3 63. I n t he l atter y ear J ovian r elinquished b oth A rzanene a nd Corduene, t ogether w ith N isibis a nd t he e astern s ector o f Mesopotamia ( Amm . Marc. XXV .7.9). T illi may, i ndeed, h ave c ounted among t he f ifteen u nnamed c astella t hat a re mentioned b y Ammianus a nd, a s we h ave s een, t he t reaty o f 3 63 would p resent t he most l ikely o ccasion f or t he t ransfer o f t he e quites P afenses t o t heir n ew f ortress a t a p lace r ecorded i n t he N otitia a s A ssara ( Or. XXXV1.26). lz T he a ccummulated weight o f e vidence f avours o ur a cceptance o f t he v iew t hat f or a b rief p eriod i n i ts h istory T illi b ecame a R oman f rontier p ost ( Fig . 3 0.2). I t was c hosen b ecause o f i ts l ocation o n two i mportant r outes, o ne p roviding a l ink b et ween A rzanene a nd Corduene t o t he s outh-east o n t he P ersian s ide o f t he f ront ier, t he o ther s tretching n orthwards t hrough t he s trategic B itlis P ass t o c entral A r menia ( cf. L ynch 1 901: 1 48). I t i s, t herefore, f itting t hat T illi s hould h ave b een g arrisoned b y a u nit o f t he l aterculum maius ( cf. v an B erchem 1 952: 1 1-17), b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat t he e quites f ort was a D iocletianic f oundat ion o r t hat i t f ormed p art o f t he i nitial r eorganisation o f t he M esopotamian p rovinces i mmediately a fter 2 98 . A rmenian s ources . i mply t hat t he r egiones T ranstigr;tanae r emained e xempt f rom d irect R oman m ilitary i ntervention u ntil a fter t he d ea t h o f K ing T iridates I V ( the Great). F or t hey r ecord h ow d uring t he t roubled y ears o f t he 3 30s t he v i t axa o f A rzanene, Bakur, a ttempted t o t ransfer h is a llegiance t o t he P ersians. I t i s f urther s tated t hat Roman t roops were s ummoned t o h elp i n s uppressing t he r evolt ( Faustos 11.9 = F HG V : 2 17-8; Movs - s X orenac'i 1 11.4-6 = T hom . son 1 978: 2 57-9; c f. a lso J ulian O r. I , 1 8d-19a; B arnes 1 985: 1 32). T he e pisode may, t herefore, h ave p rompted t he c onstruction o f a n umber o f f orts t o s afeguard t he r egiones a gainst f uture i nsurrection a nd P ersian i nfiltration. I t c ertainly a ccords w ell w ith i nformation s ui c plizd b y o ur S yriac s ource, t he L ife o f J acob. I t d escribes h ow C onstantius b uilt, i n addition t o Amida, two maj or f ortr sses i n eastern M esopotamia, Cepha a nd ( possibly) B ezabde o n t he b orders o f B eth ' Arabaye, t o p rotect t he f rontier z one a gainst P ersian r a As ( Nau

5 19

F ig.

3 0.2

S ketch m ap o f R oman M esopotam ia.

5 20

1 915-7: 7 ; c f. a lso F estus B rev. XXVI. H is t esti mony i s c onf irmed i n p art b y Ammianus who c redits t he f ortification o f b oth Am ida a nd C onstantina t o C onstantius while h e was s till a C aesar ( h in t . Marc. XVIII.9.1). I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat o ther f orts, e specially o nes f or t he n ew-style e quites f ormations, w ere e stablished a t t he s ame t i me a s t hese l egionary b ases. D uring t he n ext t wo d ecades t he P ersians c ontinued t heir a ttacks o n R oman t erritory, b oth l arge-scale e xpeditions a nd m inor b order r aids. B ut, d espite t he a dverse o pinions o f h is d etractors ( Libanius O r. XVIII 2 06-8; Amm . Marc. XX .11.32; XX1.16.15; c f. W armington 1 977: 5 17-8), Constant i us s ucceeded i n k eeping t he T igris f rontier i ntact, a f eat t hat w as much b etter a ppreciated b y l ocals s uch a s E phraem ( Hymni c ontra I ulianum 1.19-20; I V,15) a nd S abinus o f N isibis ( Amm . Marc. XXV.9.3). I t was o nly i n t he l ast y ears o f C onstantius ' r eign t hat t he P ersian k ing S apor was a ble t o a chieve a ny t angible s uccess i n h is c ampaigns a gainst t he p rincipal Roman f ortresses. B y 3 59 Corduene h ad f allen s ubject t o P ersian c ontrol ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.9.20), a nd t he c apture o f B ezabde i n t he f ollowing y ear g reatly e nhanced S apor's a bility t o e xert p ressure o n t he o ther r egiones a nd o n A r menia i tself ( cf. L ightfoot 1 983: 1 89-90). T he A rmenian s ources a ccurately r eflect t his s ituation i n t hat t hey s peak o f a r esurgence o f p ro-Persian s ympathies amongst t he n oble f amilies o f A rmenia ( Faustos I V .16; 1 8 = F HG V :254-5; c f. a lso Movs e -s X orenac 'i II.15=Thomson 1 978: 2 67-95-77 tertainly t hey o ffered l ittle r esistance t o t he P ersian o ccupation o f t he k ingdom a fter t he d eath o f J ulian ( Amm . Marc. ) O V.7.12; XXVII.12.1-3). T he l oss o f s trongholds s uch a s T illi w ould h ave f urther w eakened t he R oman p osition i n t he s ensitive b orderlands b etween R ome, P ersia a nd A rmenia . F aced w ith r ebellion i n t he West a nd t he r enewed t hreat o f P ersian a ttack i n t he E ast, Constantius u rgently n eeded t o c ons erve a nd c oncentrate h is f orces. T his was h is main o bjective t hroughout t he c ritical s u mmer months o f 3 61 ( Amm. Marc. X XI.13.1). I t i s p ossible, t herefore, t hat s ome a uxiliary f orts i n t he more v ulnerable a nd r emote a reas o f t he f rontier were e vacuated,' o thers may e ven h ave b een c aptured b y t he P ersians ( A run . Marc. XX.7.17). Certainly we h ave e vidence f or t he p resence o f t he P ersian k ing a nd a rmy n ear t he T igris f rontier b oth i n 3 61 ( Amm . Marc. XXI.13.2) a nd l ater i n 3 63 d uring t he e arly s tages o f J ulian's e xpedition ( Amm . Marc. XXI11.3.4; Z os. 11.12; c f. Malalas X III.19 = PG 9 7: 4 93). I n a ccepting t he a ssociation o f t he n ame P afenses w ith t he f ortified s ite o f T illi, o ne c an l i mit t he p eriod o f r esidence b y t he i mperial t roops t o a maxi mum o f s ixty-five y ears. I ndeed, i t i s l ikely t hat t he f ort was o ccupied b y t he e quites f or a much s horter t ime, p erhaps a s l ittle a s t he q uarter o f a c entury o f Constant ius ' r eign a s Augustus. I t may h ave b een r estored b riefly a s a B yzantine o utpost w hen A rzanene was c eded t o t he Emperor Maurice i n 5 91 ( Whitby 1 983: 2 12). T illi's p art i n s ubsequent e vents r emains u nknown, a nd i t i s n ot m y i ntention t o d iscuss t he l ater c hequered h istory o f t he r egion. 1 4 B ut, a s we h ave s een, t he s tanding r emains a re s ufficient t o i ndicate a l ong p eriod o f o ccupation a nd would amply r eward p roper i nvestigation . I gnor-

5 21

a nce o f t hese r uins h as l ed s cholars t o d ismiss o r d isregard t he s ite . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he d escription p resented h ere g oes s ome way t o r edressing t he b alance. F or T illi d eserves t o b e r ecognised a s a n i mportant p art o f t he a rchaeological r ecord f or t he l ate R oman l i mes o n t he T igris. Acknow ledgements I am i ndebted t o D r D avid F rench a nd t he B ritish I nstitute o f A rchaeology a t Ankara who, b y t heir i nvitation t o a ttend t he e xcavations a t T ille d uring t he 1 985 s eason, p rovided m e w ith t he o pportunity t o v isit t he more r emote d istricts o f S iirt p rovince . I would a lso l ike t o e xpress my t hanks t o c olleagues a t t he B ritish Museum who h elped i n v arious ways, e specially D on B ailey, S ue B ird, L ucilla B urn a nd A ndrew B urnett. F inally, m y t hanks t o m y w ife Müsemma, who a ccompanied m e o n t he t rip a nd p rovided much n eeded moral s upport a nd p ractical a ssistance, a nd t o t he muhtar a nd v illagers o f T illi, who t urned o ut t o welcome me w ith g enuine w armth a nd f riendship . My p articipation a t t he S heffield C olloq uium was a ided b y t he k ind p er mission o f t he D irector a nd T rustees o f t he B ritish Museum . N otes L V iews o f t he b ridge b efore r estoration ( Ilter 1 974: p ls. II,1 a nd X III,2). l iter m istakenly s ays t hat i t s pans t he B ohtan S u ( 1974: 3 7). 2 . L ayard a lso p assed b y T illi ( Tilleh) o n h is s econd e xpedition t o N ineveh i n 1 849 . H e d oes n ot d escribe t he s ite b eyond s aying t hat t he Kurdish a ga l ived i n a ' s mall mud f ort' ( Layard 1 853: 4 9-50). 3 . I n t he West t here a re n umerous e xamples amongst t he S axon S hore f orts a nd Gallic t owns - B urgh Castle ( Johnson 1 979: 3 7, 3 9-40, f ig. 2 3), R ichborough ( ib. 4 9, f ig. 3 1), L ympne ( ib. 5 4, f ig . 3 5), a nd P ortchester ( ib. 6 0); N antes a nd V annes ( ib. 7 9), B rest ( ib. 8 0), Rouen ( ib. 8 S77 a nd g vreux ( Varoqueaux 1 984: 3 90, 3 95, f igs. 5 a nd 7 ). -4 . B rick i s a lso f requently e ncountered i n t he C hristian i ngs o f t he T ur Abdin ( Bell 1 910: 2 35-6, f ig. 1 57).

b uild-

5 . A t D iyarbakir t he Kasim P adisah Cami i ( Sözen 1 981: 9 1-4, i llus. 5 4-6), t he Melek A hmed P a+ ; . Camii, d ated 1 591 ( Gabriel 1 940: 2 00, p l. L XXIV ,1), a nd t he D eliler H ani ( Gabriel 1 940 : 2 023 , p l. LXXIV,2). A t C izre t he c itadel walls a nd p alace ( Bell 1 911: 2 97), a nd f urther e ast t he b ridge a t H o pp, d ated 1 671 (ulpan 1 975: 1 75-6, i llus. 1 06/1 p l.CXXIX). 6 . F or p urposes o f c omparison I h ave d eliberately c hosen c oint ypes m inted a t Antioch, n ot o nly t he n earest m int t o o ur s ite b ut a lso t he p rincipal i mperial r esidence a nd m ilitary h eadq uarters i n t he E ast f or most o f t he p eriod i n q uestion .

5 22

7 . S ee, e specially, t he T etrarchic r adiate f ractions o f t he CONCORDIA M ILITVM r everse t ype, c .296-299 ( Sutherland 1 967: 6 212 n os. 6 0b, 6 2b a nd p 1.15, 6 0a). 8 . S ee t he b ronze c oinage o f Constantine a nd h is t hree s ons o f t he GLORIA EXERC ITVS r everse t ype, 3 30-347 ( Bruun 1 966: 6 93 n os. 8 5-6, 6 97 n o. 1 08; Kent 1 981: 5 15 n os. 4 1, 4 9, 5 1 a nd p l. 2 6). 9 . E rnst H erzfeld a lso l inked t he t wo n ames t ogether ( Sarre a nd H erzfeld 1 911: 1 48 n . 2 ). B öcking h ad p reviously s uggested t he e mendation o f P afenses t o S afenses ( 1839: 4 13 n . 1 7). T he l ocat ion o f S apha h as b een t he s ubject o f much d iscussion ( Markwart 1 930: 4 48-9), b ut i t may b e e quated w ith T hi Is aphata ( Lightfoot 1 981: 3 05), a p lace n ear t he P ersian f rontier o n t he r oute o f J ovian's r etreat t o N isibis ( Amm . Marc. XXV .8.16). 1 0 . D escriptions o f t he s ite, p rovided b y v isitors e arly t his c entury, s trongly s uggest s ome s ort o f h ill-top r efuge ( Pognon 1 907: 4 3; B ell 1 913: 6 3). T hey d o, h owever, r efer t o a t ower t amb w ith a n i llegible G reek i nscription a nd a n e ntablature o f f igural r eliefs ( Pognon 1 907: 1 6, 4 3, n . 1 ; B ell 1 913: 6 1-3, p ls. I -II, f igs. 1 a nd 3 ). 1. P lace-name t itles a re a lso f ound, f or o f c omitatenses ( Poulter 1 983/4: 1 25-6).

e xample,

amongst u nits

1 2. w ith

T he p lace-name may b e emended t o Massara a nd s o i dentified t he m aT46 .pwv o f T heophylact S i mocatta ( 11.18.7) a nd t he x 6 . , cmpov Macodp c ov o f t he N otitia E piscopatum ( 1.931). I ts l ocat ion h as b een s ought o n t he T ur Abdin t o t he n orth-east o f Mardin ( Sachau 1 881: 6 7; D illemann 1 961: 2 30, f ig. I I). 1 3. O ne may c ompare t he e vacuation o f C arrhae d uring i nvasion i n 3 59 ( Amm . Marc. XVIII.7.3).

t he P ersian

1 4. I n t he 1 0th c entury Mu l 5addasi d escribes T illi/Tell Fd -f ä n a s a p rosperous market t own o f c lay-built h ouses a nd a c overed b azaar ( Le S trange 1 905: 1 13). B ibliography ADONTZ,

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3 1.

SOME

NOTES ON THE UMAYYAD OCCUPATI ON NORTH- EAS T JORD AN

OF

H enry I nnes MhcAdam B eirut/Sheffield T he a vailable a rchaeological a nd a rchitectural e vid ence, a s well a s w ritten s ources f rom a l ater p eriod, a ttest a s trong Umayyad p resence i n t he J ordanian H awrän a nd t he Azraq D epression. T he g reat " palaces" s uch a s Qua ayr Amra, Kharäna a nd Mashata h ave b een s een a s r ural r etreats f or Umayyad p rinces i ndulging i n o utdoor a nd i ndoor s ports, o r a s r ustic v illas s urr ounded b y Umayyad a grarian e states . N either o f t hese i nterpretations i s s atisfactory, a nd n either e xplains t he r emarkable a bsence o f Umayyad m ilitary f ortificat ions i n t he s ame r egions. I t i s s uggested i n t his p aper t hat t he Umayyad m ilitary c ontrol o f n orth-east J ordan u tilised t he s ame methods employed b y t heir p redecessors, t he Ghassänids, K indites a nd L akhmids n amely t he f ederation o f l ocal t ribal g roups a s a uxili aries. T he b edouin e ncampments o f t hese t ribal f orces e xplains why R omano-Byzantine m ilitary f ortifications were n ot r eactivated, a nd why n ew o nes were n ot c ons tructed . I t a lso g ives s upport t o n ew v iews o n t he r ole a nd f unction o f t he d esert " palaces" . I .

I ntroduction

I n a r ecent a rticle w ith t he e vocative t itle " La D olce V ita i n e arly I slamic S yria: T he E vidence o f L ater Umayyad P alaces", . Robert H illenbrand ( 1982) r eviewed t he v arious t heories r egarding t he o rigin a nd p urpose o f t heUmayyad "palaces" i n G reater S yria a l-Shäh l) . H illenbrand p oints o ut t hat i t w as f ashionable e arly ' t his c entury t o v iew t hese s tructures, p articularly t he o nes i n n orth-eastern J ordan, a s p leasure-domes f or h unting-happy b edouin p rinces w ho p referred l ife o n t he d esert e dge t o t he s tricter mores o f D amascus. T his r omanticised v iew w as c hallenge d m ore r ecently b y a n emphasis o n e conomics. O leg G rabar ( 1963) a mong o thers h as b een a p roponent o f t he i dea t hat h ydrological t echniques d eveloped i n t he l ate R oman p eriod - e specially i n J ordan - l ed t o t he c reation o f v ast a gricultural s ettlements w hich were s i mply i ncorporated i nto t he I slamic s tate. T hese L evantine l atifundia l ed t he Umayyad r egi me t o c onstruct t he p alatial c omplexes n earby, a ll o f w hich u sed t he a bundant w ater f or t he e laborate b aths which a re a c ommon a rchitectural f eature .

5 31

W ithout t hat:

r ejecting

e ither

o f

t hese

v iews,

H illenbrand

s uggests

...t he Umayyads were a ttracted t o t he d esert f or a v ariety o f r easons: a n i nstinctive h ankering a fter a s em i-nomadic l ife, a d esire t o v isit t he a gricultural e states which t hey h ad t aken o ver o r c reated, a nd f inally a d esire t o d evelop a s ybaritic a nd o stentat iously r oyal l ife-style f ree f rom t he moral a nd s pat ial c onstraints i nseparable f rom c ity l ife ( 1982:4).

H illenbrand t hen g oes o n t o e xplore t he r ich l iterary s ources f or t he e arly I slamic p eriod, a nd t o e xamine t he most r ecent p ublicat ions o f a rchitectural a nalyses a t t hree f amous s ites: Qusayr ' Amra a nd Mashat r ä i n J ordan, a nd Khirbit Mafjar i n I srael. T he l ife a nd t i mes o f t hat merry monarch Wal Td I ( Caliph 7 43/744) a re a lso s crutinized i n s ome d etail, a nd t hen s et a gainst t he b ackground o f t hese e nigmatic s tructures. H illenbrand 's s urvey o f t he p eriod i s c ertainly e ntertaining, b ut h ardly e nlightening . T here i s a l most n o a ttempt t o i nvestigate t he h istory a nd a rc haeology o f n orth-east J ordan f or t he p eriod i mmediately p recedi ng t he I slamic c onquest f or c lues t o e xplain t he Umayyad f ascin ation w ith t he a rea. I t i s p recisely my i ntention t o s urvey b riefly what i s n ow k nown o f t his a rea i n l ate a ntiquity, a nd t o c oncentrate p articularly o n t he m ilitary a spect o f t he p reI slamic s ites. P erhaps t his would s erve a s a more s olid b asis u pon which t o c onstruct t heories o f why a nd h ow t he Umayyad o ccupation o f t his r egion, b rief t hough i t was, l eft s uch a m emorable l egacy. A s t his p aper a ppears i n t he P roceedings o f a c olloquium d edicated t o t he D efence o f t he Roman a nd B yzantine E ast, i t may a lso b e worth while t o p reface my r emarks w ith a b rief r eview o f t he C onquest a nd h ow i t a ffected t he t wo a reas o f n orth-east J ordan u nder c onsideration: t he H awran a nd t he A zraq d epression. I I.

Conquest a nd Consolidation

I t i s c ommonly h eld t hat t he c onsolidation o f m ilitary s trength i n t he n ewly-conquered B iläd a l-Sham was t o b e f ocused o n t he w ell-established a nd s trategic s ite o f J hbiya o n t he e astern e dge o f t he Golan.' T his s eems t o h ave b een a n i mmediate - a nd p erh aps ef iotional - d ecision, b ut i t was s hortly a bandoned f or more p ractical c onsiderations. F . M . D onner ( 1981: 2 45 a nd n . 1 6) h as p ointed o ut t hat J abiya was s truck b y t he ' Amwä . s p lague i n A H 1 8/AD 6 39. T he s ubsequent h eavy l oss o f p opulation n o d oubt c ontributed t o t he d ecision t o a bandon 3 abiya - a nd p erhaps a lso R am la i n P alestine - a nd t o l ook t o e stablished S yrian c ities ( Damascus, H or ns, A leppo) a s more s ecure b ases o f o perations i nland, a nd t o P alestinian a nd P hoenician c oastal p orts ( Gaza, C aesarea, A cre, T yre, t ine r eprisals b y s ea

S idon , T ripoli) f or d efence ( Shaban 1 971: I , 4 0-2).

a gainst

B yzan-

A s ystem o f m ilitary d istricts ( sing . j und) was e stablished w hich s imply r einforced o r r enewed a d efensive p olicy p erhaps i nitiated

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