Roman History for Latin Students: Ambush at Caudium, Livy Ab Urbe Condita Book 9.1–12.328 [New ed.] 1433163063, 9781433163067

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Roman History for Latin Students

AMBUSH AT CAUDIUM, LIVY AB URBE CONDITA BOOK 9.1–12.328

E D ITE D BY

STEVEN M. CER UT T I

Roman History for Latin Students

This book is part of the Peter Lang Humanities list. Every volume is peer reviewed and meets the highest quality standards for content and production.

PETER LANG

New York  Bern  Berlin Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw

Roman History for Latin Students Ambush at Caudium, Livy Ab Urbe Condita Book 9.1–12.328 Edited by Steven M. Cerutti

PETER LANG

New York  Bern  Berlin Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Livy, author. | Cerutti, Steven M., editor. Title: Roman History for Latin Students: Ambush at Caudium, Livy Ab Urbe Condita Book 9.1–12.328 / edited by Steven M. Cerutti. Other titles: Ab urbe condita. Liber 9 | Ambush at Caudium, Livy Ab urbe condita book 9.1–12.328 Description: New York: Peter Lang, 2019. Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2019024019 | ISBN 978-1-4331-6306-7 (hardback: alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4331-6307-4 (ebook pdf) | ISBN 978-1-4331-6308-1 (epub) ISBN 978-1-4331-6309-8 (mobi) Subjects: LCSH: Livy. Ab urbe condita. Liber 9. Caudine Forks, Battle of, Italy, 321 B.C. | Rome—History, Military. Classification: LCC DG237.4 .C3 321 B.C..L58 2019 | DDC 937/.03—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024019 DOI 10.3726/b14819

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

© 2019 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006 www.peterlang.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited.

For Mom In Loving Memory of Pat White 1934–2017 requiescat in pace

Among the myriad events of human history that would give one cause for awe must unquestionably be what happened at this time. —Cassius Dio (8.10) on the Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks

Cover Illustration: denarius minted in Rome circa 137 b.c. by Ti. Veturius, a member of the same gens as the Roman consul featured in this story, probably a direct descendant. The reverse type pictured here shows the formal ritual of accepting an oath as practiced amongst the southern Italian societies of which the Samnites were one. It depicts a youth kneeling left, clutching a pig as two warriors touch the animal ceremonially with their swords, ROMA above.

CONTENTS

Preface   xi Acknowledgments   xiii List of Abbreviations   xv Introduction   1 Text. Ab Urbe Condita: Book 9.1–12.328   13 Commentary   27 Appendix I: Glossary of Political and Military Offices and Proper Names and Places   95 Appendix II: Glossary of Grammatical Terms and Rhetorical and Poetical Devices   101 Vocabulary   107

PREFACE

I first heard the story of the Caudine Forks the year I taught at the Intercollegiate Center for Classical Studies in Rome. A young assistant professor just out of graduate school, I was one of three visiting faculty on the staff of James L. Franklin Jr., then acting Mellon Professor-In-Charge, now Professor Emeritus at Indiana University. It was spring semester and we were taking the students on a tour of Campania, using the storied Villa Vergiliana, on the northwest corner of the Bay of Naples, as our piede a terra. We had just left the amphitheatre at Santa Maria Capua Vetere, and were headed east to Benevento and Trajan’s Arch. As our Gran Turismo conveyed us ever higher into the Apennines along narrow switchback roads on that drear March morning, Jim leaned over the back of his seat and said to me, “You know, it was right around here that it happened.” “What’s that?” I said. “The Caudine Forks,” Jim Franklin said, and then proceeded to tell me the story you are about to read. “Check out Livy,” he said. “Book Nine.” That night after dinner, I rummaged the Villa’s library and among its modest holdings I came across a well-used Oxford Latin text containing book 9 of Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita. I ran some copies, conscripted some students, and every evening for the rest of our stay there we read Livy’s account of how, in 321 b.c., the Samnites ambushed the four consular legions of T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus in a narrow pass in the southern Apennine Mountains at a place Livy calls the Furculae Caudinum.

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Many years and the better part of an academic career later—a career spent of winter weeks and springtide afternoons guiding my third-semester Latin students ever so gently through their First Catilinarian or Second Philippic—I would unexpectedly re-visit Livy’s Furculae Caudinae. While updating the syllabus for my Age of Augustus seminar and re-thinking the prose selection to accompany the usual component of Horace and Vergil, Livy’s account of the ambush at Caudium surprisingly came to mind from so many years ago. I recalled with no small mirth my little impromptu reading group so hastily and heartily got together, and those lazy, drizzling Villa nights; how accessible Livy’s Latin had seemed even then. But went I in search of a good student edition and commentary, I found only the odd scholarly tome that in no way addressed the grammatical needs of the intermediate student. So I set about filling that void. The product of that endeavor and my industry is the volume you have before you. I hope it will help you, and future students of Latin literature, enjoy reading this story as much as I have over the years. Steven M. Cerutti Mother’s Day Greenville, North Carolina

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This edition and commentary was written for one simple, albeit ambitious goal: to make this compelling story accessible to students of Latin as early as their second year. For this reason, I am especially indebted to my third-semester Latin students who suffered through early drafts of this commentary and offered invaluable insights into what information should be included that, after twenty-five years of teaching Latin, still eluded even me. Therefore, I shall forever remain obligated to Andrea Tilley, Katherine Estes, Jeffrey “B. J.” Totum, Ashton Pierce, Drew Kanz-O’Shea, and Taylor Lilly, who wrestled with all the frustrations that a first draft must offer and whose input made all subsequent drafts more effective teaching instruments. I also would like to acknowledge Stephen P. Oakley’s excellent commentary on Book 9 of Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita, whose influence informs nearly every page of this work. Penultimately, I would be poor in thanks indeed were I not to include in this number L.R., who understood that those who write by the pound revise by the ounce that they might know a hawk from a handsaw. Finally, thanks to Woodford Reserve Bourbon Whisky for saving my life by making the bloody stuff so expensive. To these and their efforts much of the accuracy of this commentary is owed; whatever missteps have found their way into the following pages must end at my door, behind which the menace of the years will find me bloodied but unbowed.

ABBREVIATIONS

A. General abl. ablative acc. accusative adj. adjective adv. adverb cf. confer (“compare”) comp. comparative conj. conjunction correl. correlative dat. dative e.g. exempli gratia (“for the sake of example”) encl. enclitic esp. especially f. feminine gen. genitive i.e. id est (“that is”) impers. impersonal indecl. indeclinable inf. infinitive interrog. interrogative

leg. legal m. masculine n. neuter pass. passive pl. plural q.v. quod vide (“which see”) refl. reflexive rel. relative sc. scilicit (“supply from context”) sim. similar sing. singular spec. specifically subj. subjunctive subst. substantive superl. superlative s.v. sub voce (“under this heading”) usu. usually w. with > derives from

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B. Praenomina A. Aulus P. Publius Ap(p). Appius Q. Quintus C. Gaius Ser. Servius Cn. Gnaeus Sex. Sextus D. Decimus Sp. Spurius L. Lucius T. Titus M. Marcus Ti. Tiberius M’. Manius

INTRODUCTION

I can think of no better way to introduce this edition than to quote the following passage from Stephen P. Oakley’s authoritative commentary on Book 9 of Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita, where he makes the following striking observation: For the historian of the Samnite Wars these chapters are perhaps the most difficult in books 6–10. For the student of Livy’s narrative artistry they are perhaps the most impressive, containing a narrative that is emotionally charged and ultimately tragic, and that provokes thought on important questions such as the cause of the Roman disaster, the correct response to a major defeat, and the rightness of the Roman vengeance.1

Thus Livy delivers the goods: the Roman army trapped and cornered through deceit and treachery, blinded by the hubris of its own Roman arrogance; the Samnites, too, blinded by the hubris of their refusal to acknowledge any authority as greater than their own. Stalemate. It is a tale at times tragic, at times ironic—if not absurd—and in the end, being a tale told by Livy, it is also, of course, a highly moralistic one. The capture and ambush of the four consular legions of T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus2 at the Caudine Forks in 321 b.c. set in motion a series of events that would lead to the defeat and subjugation of the Samnite people, and establish the hegemony of Rome throughout Italy. No student of Latin literature or Roman history will read this account and come away unmoved by, or the lesser for it.

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Rome and the Samnite Wars The Samnites lived in the Apennine Mountains south of Rome, east of Capua, and north of Lucania, and were one of Rome’s most formidable enemies during its emergence as a republic. For half a century the two were at nearly continual warfare; thus it suits most historians, and understandably so, to organize this period of Rome’s early history around the mileposts of the First Samnite War (343–341 b.c.), the Second Samnite War (326–304 b.c.), and the Third Samnite War (298–290 b.c.). Situated in central Campania, the small but geographically strategic hamlet of Capua often found itself caught-up in the tangle of every local dust up and regional squabble as it struggled and strove to make alliances where it may. The First Samnite War was, in fact, the result of Rome’s efforts to protect Capua—and, more importantly, Roman interests tied up with Capua—from Samnite aggression. But the conflict would grow from a series of skirmishes and fisticuffs into a free-for-all that would spread across the entire peninsula, eventually dragging the Etruscans, Umbrians, Picenti, and even the Senone Gauls into the fray. Our story deals with an important event that occurred during the Second Samnite War, and marked a turning point in Roman resolve and determination to crush the Samnite insurgency.

A Brief Life of Livy Titus Livius was born between the years 64–59 b.c., placing his death, at age 76, between 12–17 a.d. His family home was at Patavium (Padua), in the northern province of Cisalpine Gaul. About Livy’s life we are sure of little—about his family history, we can be sure of even less. In the words of P. G. Walsh, Livy was “the most nebulous figure of all the greater historians of the ancient world.”3 Lack of any record of advancement on the cursus honorum suggests that neither Livy nor his family achieved senatorial stripe. Livy’s education was probably based on the study of philosophy and rhetoric, for he wrote several philosophical dialogues, none of which survive. All that we have is what endures of the Ab Urbe Condita, his annalistic history of Rome whose incomplete collection of extant volumes reveals very little about the man who wrote them.4 Toward the end of his life Livy retired to Patavium, where he died shortly before the emperor Augustus.5 The widely held view is that Livy spent most of his adult life in Rome.6 He would have moved there shortly after the Battle of Actium in 31 b.c.—when Octavian, Julius Caesar’s grandnephew and heir, adopted the name Augustus to become Rome’s first emperor—and no later than Augustus’ failed “moral” legislation of 28 b.c. Livy’s decision to move to Rome was no doubt a practical one: only in the capital could he access the tabularia that would inform the annales of his history.7 Even having done that, his task would be daunting thanks to the paucity of Roman records, and at some point Livy apparently became so frustrated that he considered abandoning the project altogether.8



Introduction

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Livy’s family, if not of the senatorial class, apparently did not lack some small measure of entree to the cachet enjoyed by those who sported the latus clavus along the broader boulevards of the capital. Not long after arriving in Rome, Livy’s rising star came to eclipse the Julio-centric orbits of those satellites who would put him in the same room as the princeps, although he would never penetrate the inner sanc­ tum of Rome’s literary illuminati. He was a member neither of Maecenas’ patronage, which counted Vergil, Horace, and Ovid among its clientele, nor that of Messalla, which included Tibullus, Lygdamus, and Sulpicia. But did he even need, much less want to be in that number? To the contrary, there is much to suggest that toward playing the part of the “court historian” his affections did in no way tend—especially if Livy possessed sufficient means to permit him to pursue his literary goals free from the imperial generosities on which his contemporaries ungenerously relied. Moreover, unlike Vergil and Horace, whose families were devastated by the proscriptions and confiscations of the Second Triumvirate, Livy was still a teenager when Calpurnia awaked from a feverish kip in March of 44 b.c. and besought her husband not go to the senate that day. Perhaps Livy felt relieved not to be obligated to the Julian Medici, thereby steering clear of any pressure to infect his history with the same status quo ante bellum whoopla that pervaded the iambs and dactyls of Vergil and Horace. Indeed, not being blackened by the brush of the proscriptions might very well explain why Rome’s young and future historian célèlebre was able to win Augustus’ friendship on his own merits. According to Tacitus (Ann. 4.34), the two were on intimate terms, an assertion supported by the fact that Livy was entrusted with the education of the young and future emperor Claudius (Suet. Claud. 41.1). Yet even if Livy wished to remain isolate of Augustus’ patronage and his jingoistic propaganda, that doesn’t mean he didn’t sport a little jingo of his own, and he needed no Medici to provide him a canvas on which to spread it. That being said, Livy does make it clear in his praefatio that he certainly did embrace many of the same moral and pro patria ideologies espoused by the emperor. And nowhere in his Ab Urbe Condita are these patriotic values better seen on parade than in the story that occupies this present edition.

Summary of Events Livy closes Book 8 at the end of 322 b.c., with the decisive Roman victory over the Samnites in Apulia, and the Samnites’ failure to negotiate a formal peace with their Roman conquerors. Book 9 opens with the events of the following year, which begins with the Samnite reaction to the Romans’ arrogant refusal to grant their embassy the peace they sought at the end of Book 8. With his opening sentence, Livy informs his audience that the new year (321 b.c.) brings with it the Pax Caudina (sequitur hunc annum nobilis clade Romana Caudina pax), the unfortunate result of an infamous (nobilis) defeat inflicted upon four Roman le-

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gions led by the consuls T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus, after the Samnite army traps them in a place Livy calls the Furculae Caudinae, a narrow pass in the southern Apennines near Caudium. While this event is sometimes referred to as the “Battle of the Caudine Forks,” no actual battle took place. Outside of a brief flurry of needless violence visited by the Samnites upon some of the more obstinate Romans, not a single pilum was thrown in anger, and neither side took casualties. At least not physical ones. There remained, however, the emotional scars the Romans would endure thanks to the humiliating terms of the peace dictated by the young Samnite commander, Gaius Pontius. But humiliation has its price, and the Samnites would pay dearly for inflicting it. If Rome was ever the sleeping giant, the Samnites awakened him at Caudium. Livy wastes no time introducing Pontius, son of the wise and wizened Herennius Pontius. Upon learning that the Samnite legates who went north to seek peace with Rome have returned cloaked in diplomatic failure, Pontius addresses his warriors in a hortative tirade in which he bemoans the Samnites’ frustration with Roman subjugation. The Samnite people have had more than enough of Roman saevitia et superbia, and he means to cure the Romans of their brutality and arrogance. Roman superbia is intoleranda, and Pontius declares that he will tolerate this intolerable arrogance no longer. He concludes by declaring that his people should take heart because, thanks to the hubris of Roman oppression, the gods now champion the Samnite cause and support their renewal of the war. Intent on using the Romans’ own superbia against them, Pontius leads his army to a secluded region near Caudium to winkle out the Roman legionnaires that are presently reconnoitering in the vicinity. And it is a reconnaissance in force. Four legiones conscripti—close to twenty thousand infantry and twelve hundred cavalry—are advancing their Roman standards deep into Samnite country, with the consuls Calvinus and Postumius, both seasoned impe­ ratores (the two shared the consulship in 334 b.c.), at the head of this formidable host.9 Upon learning that the Roman army is encamped at nearby Calatia, due east of Capua, Pontius dispatches ten of his soldiers disguised as local shepherds to graze their flocks near the Roman camp.10 Each “shepherd” is instructed to disinform the Roman commanders that the Samnite army is at that very moment besieging Luceria, an ally of Rome on the Adriatic side of the southern Apennine range. The Romans are easily taken in by this fiction as, according to Livy, it was a rumor already circulating among the rank and file. In fact, Pontius knows that the Romans, driven by the hubris of their own superbia, need little impetus to send them dashing off in all directions for a chance to inflict upon the Samnites another dose of their saevitia as well. But where there’s hubris, there’s always plenty of hubris to go around, as Pontius soon will learn. The consuls, confronted with this disinformation, now have a crucial decision to make as to which route to take to Luceria. Livy writes, duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patens apertaque sed quanto tutior tanto fere longior, altera per Furculas Caudinas, brevior. Two roads lead to Luceria; the first is a coastal one, offering a safer journey through friendly territory, but also one that will take considerably longer to traverse, skirting the Apennine mountains as it favors the



Introduction

5

Adriatic littoral; the second is a more direct route, shorter and faster, but one that will take the Roman army into the mountains and through the Caudine Pass. Believing Luceria to be in imminent danger of falling to this fictitious Samnite assault, the consuls do what Pontius hopes they will do: they choose the quicker route through the mountains and unwittingly lead their precious legions not into the position of being liberators of Luceria, but rather into the predicament of needing liberators of their own. Livy provides a detailed description of the Caudine Pass, but its geographical accuracy has been called into question and no certain location has ever been established.11 As Livy describes it, an advancing army will be forced by the constraints of the topography to enter the pass through a narrow opening at one side and exit through a similarly constricted one on the other. The Roman army enters this double bottleneck on the north-west side, traversing a widening plain flanked by towering cliffs. Upon reaching the opposite, south-east end of the pass, they find the second bottleneck deliberately blocked by a felling of trees strewn with large boulders. Realizing that they have just marched their legions into a mousetrap, the consuls attempt a hasty withdrawal the way they had come, but upon returning to the north-west entrance, they find the Samnites have now blocked it as well. As Samnite soldiers slowly reveal themselves in arms and high feather on the peaks and ridges surrounding the Caudine plain below, the consuls come to grasp fully the ugly truth of their situation: they have quite hastily and unwisely led the entire standing army of Rome into what can only be described as a textbook military fandango.12 Pontius has got the drop on them; the jig is up. It is lonely at the top, however, and uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. Pontius, upon realizing that his bold plan has in fact succeeded and all eyes now look to him, knows not what to do with this tiger he has caught by the tail. Seeking advice from one whose experience with tigers such as these far outmatches his own, he sends a messenger to his father, Herennius, informing him of the situation and seeking his counsel. Herennius responds that Pontius should let the Romans go free and unscathed. Understandably unsatisfied with this response, he sends the messenger back. When the messenger returns a second time, his father’s advice is now to slaughter all the captured Romans to a man. With there being such inconsistency between the two responses, Pontius summons his father to the camp. Old Herennius arrives and tells Pontius the same thing: he has but two choices: either (1) let them all go free and unscathed (thereby securing a potential future ally in Rome), or (2) slaughter the ensnared legionnaires to the man (thereby ensuring that there will be no chance of a Roman retaliation for many generations); there is, he says, no third option. When the son catechizes the father as to what would be the result if a middle course of action were taken, and the Romans were set free unharmed but with new and stricter laws imposed on them, Herennius sagely responds: “That sentiment is the kind that neither produces friends nor removes enemies.” The old man further warns his son not to take any action that will needlessly provoke the anger of the Romans, as they know not how to suffer defeat.13 So, the father.

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Not so much, the son. Pontius, it seems, has ideas of his own. Rejecting his father’s advice, he chooses what he thinks is a middle course of action, and in so doing makes a catastrophic miscalculation. When the captured consuls Calvinus and Postumius, in what can only be described as a state of denial, lead a desperate envoy to Pontius demanding their right to either a pax aequa (an honorable peace on equal terms in the form of a sponsio), or else an outright fight on open ground, both demands are summarily rejected. Instead, Pontius has some demands of his own. The terms of the new sponsio are to be thus: the Romans are to quit Samnite lands forever; they will withdraw all Roman colonies from Samnite territory;14 they will surrender 600 equites to be held by the Samnites as hostages to guarantee the new peace; they will surrender all their weapons and the trappings of their offices. Then it gets personal. Pontius means to cure the Romans of their saevitia et superbia by inflicting a little of his own. Before he agrees to release them, Pontius makes a final, fatal demand: the Romans must strip to their bare tunics and crawl under the yoke of the vanquished.15 It may be lonely at the top, but it is hell at the bottom. When word of their fate reaches the Roman army down in the Caudine Pass, panic grips the rank and file. Since any recourse to fight or make flight has been denied them, they have no choice but to pitch tents and await the indignity of the yoke. Things look bleak for the future of Roman hegemony until, at last and at length, all are somewhat buoyed by the highly emotional and rhetorical speech of senior legate L. Lentulus: if capitulation to the yoke is the only way to save the army, then capitulate they must. By doing this (and only this), Lentulus explains, will they save the legions of Rome, and by saving the legions of Rome, they save Rome herself. He appeals to both the memory of his father and the future of his fatherland. It is a remarkable piece of oratory and a rhetorical tour-de-force. Rhetorical tour-de-forces notwithstanding, commeth the hour for the Romans to strip, fall to their knees, and crawl under the yoke. Only after this ultimate indignation are they released by their Samnite captors to scuttle off into the gloaming. In shame and tears and only the tunics on their backs the Roman legionnaires leave the Caudine Pass in a halting, jerking frieze of jutting elbows and bended knees as evening’s blue shadows grow longer. With night nipping at their unsandalled heels they crawl to Capua town where they are well-received by their ally, though in their shame, they refuse to enter the city. The Capuans supply the infantry with new kit and the equites with fresh horses. That same night the army presses on to Rome. Rumor, however, ever fleet of foot, has already reached the capital with news of the debacle and Rome is now in a public state of mourning. The soldiers therefore decide to steal into the city under cover of darkness, the better to avoid the disgrace of facing their fellow citizens and furious senators. After the Romans depart, the Capuans hold a special concilium where concerns are voiced about the severity of the Roman defeat and humiliation at the hands of the Samnites, who seem to many to have won a great and decisive victory. Once again, things look grim for the future of Roman hegemony until Aulus Calavius rises to speak and some very pro Roman words ring the air. In his speech, ironically, Calavius



Introduction

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echoes many of the caveats expressed by Herennius to his son: the Romans know not how to suffer defeat; it is dangerous to underestimate their resolve; they will soon return in force and destroy the Samnites. Meanwhile, next day in the Roman senate the furious senators meet. On the docket are what punitive measures should be taken toward Calvinus and Postumius for leading the state’s legions so recklessly into an obvious trap, thus entangling Rome in a shameful sponsio with the Samnites. Postumius delivers a moving speech, explaining why he chose the action that he took, and assumes full responsibility for its consequences: the Roman people are not bound by his actions; let him and his consular colleague be shackled and surrendered to the Samnites as Fetial Law requires. Postumius proves himself a gifted orator and an adept rhetorician; the senators lean toward leniency, so greatly moved are they by his words and candor. All candor aside, for the newly-elected tribunes of the plebs. For them, Postumius’ speech comes a day late and, as it were, a denarius short. After more haranguing on both sides a decision is reached: Postumius and his colleague Calvinus are to be cashiered along with everyone else who formally signed on to the dishonorable sponsio at Caudium. In accordance with Fetial Law they are to be shackled and surrendered to the Samnites as sponsors of a new peace they hope will release them from this shameful one. The story ends where it began, at Caudium. Only now the Roman delegation stands before Pontius with Postumius and the other legates who swore to the sponsio in shackles. The Romans offer Postumius and the others as sponsors of a new sponsio and as ransom for the 600 equites currently being held as hostages. But as the Romans attempt to close the deal, Postumius suddenly declares that he is no longer a Roman citizen, but a Samnite, and attacks his own fetial, in effect nullifying the entire peace process. Seeing this as another example of his enemy’s superbia, Pontius delivers an excoriating condemnation of Roman diplomacy that echoes his words at the beginning of the story. Yet his words, fiery and echoing though they be, the young Samnite commander realizes hold but an empty threat; the Samnites now understand that the war the Romans will soon revisit upon them will be one that the Romans have, in fact, already won. The final clause of the saga is unambiguous, and in the arrangement of its syntax Livy literally allows the Romans to have the last word (Samnites simul rebellasse et vicisse crederent Romanum). At the heart of this story is the Roman concept of shame (pudor), particularly in the context of military surrender (deditio). It was a long-standing Roman tradition never to admit defeat in war. As Livy instructs his readers through Lentulus: Foeda atque ignominiosa deditio est. Surrender is vile and ignominious.16 It is a sentiment worthy of a Roman Ode (indeed, Horace and Livy were contemporaries). As Appian observes (Iberica 13.79), the only terms of surrender ever deemed utterable to the Roman way of thinking were those that might gargle up an enemy’s throat crushed by the heel of a Roman jackboot. In the collected sententiae of Publilius Syrus (404, Friedrich ed.) one finds: Non novit virtus calamitati cedere. Courage knows not how to yield to calamity.

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Nor, for that matter, did the Romans know how to yield to the Samnites. It had always been Roman tradition to impose peace rather than to seek it (pacem dare not pacem petere).17 Perhaps Seneca put it best (De Providentia 2.6): Etiam si cecidit de genu pugnat. Even if he falls, he fights from his knees. But at Caudium they didn’t fight from their knees, they crawled away on them. Given the end game they were facing, there was no other choice for the Romans but to endure the ordeal of the yoke, and return to fight another day. And on that day, and that day would come soon, the Roman legions would return to Caudium with their terrible, swift swords unlimbered, and reprisal would run its red course.

Livy’s Storytelling Style Livy’s history abounds with accounts of critical battles and intense personal struggles and triumphs meant to be illustrative of the unshakable Roman spirit. Livy’s overarching mission in the Ab Urbe Condita is to portray the relentless self-advancement of Roman ideals through the exploits of extraordinary individuals, from the arrival of Aeneas, to the establishment of a republic that will become an empire to rule the world. These individuals are archetypal in nature, paradigms of the highest moral conduct. Indeed, in the praefatio to his work, Livy apologizes for seemingly adding another brick to the pile that is recorded Roman history; yet he goes on to state that if he hopes to accomplish anything that will set him apart from his antecedents, it is that his account will focus on the actions and achievements of the individual who, persevering through all that death and danger dare, forged the pages of Roman history. Livy’s account of the Roman disaster at the Caudine Forks is an example of just such a saga. A set-piece, it can be plucked from the pages of Livy’s encyclopedic work and read and enjoyed and analyzed on its own. And when one does this it becomes clear that the work has been carefully crafted as a literary endeavor, a cautionary tale, rather than as something intended to stand on the measure of its historical accuracy or significance in the larger context of the Samnite Wars.

Ring Composition and Literary Structure As a set-piece, the story exhibits clear evidence of a deliberate literary structure, a ring composition that can be seen on many levels. What follows is a basic, rudimentary outline for the benefit of the student new to the subject. Certainly, to the framework presented below, many more recurrent patterns of imagery and echoes of key words and phrases can be added, and students are encouraged to seek them out as they work their way through the text. The first ring (A1—A2): Livy begins the story with a speech delivered by a fiery C. Pontius, after the Samnite embassy, sent to Rome at the end of Book 8, has returned (redierunt) having been rejected by the Romans (9.1.4–23) even though the Samnites



Introduction

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are prepared to surrender one of their own citizens responsible for breaking the peace. Livy ends the story with a parallel scene: a second fiery speech by Pontius before his tribunal at Caudium directed at the Roman embassy offering the surrender of Postumius for agreeing to the shameful peace struck at the Caudine Forks (9.11.292–319). Like the Samnites at the beginning of the story, the Romans return (redierunt) to their camp having failed to strike a deal. We can call these two parallel scenes that frame the ring as: the surrender of a Samnite citizen and the rejection of the Samnite embassy explained in a speech by Pontius (a1), and the surrender of a Roman citizen and the rejection of the Roman embassy, explained as well through a speech by Pontius (a2). The scene that follows Pontius’ speech (9.2.24–29), describes the mobilization of Samnite forces to intercept the Roman army at Calatia, and the disguising of Samnite soldiers as local shepherds in order to trick the Romans into believing that the Samnite army is on the point of overtaking the town of Luceria. Likewise, the scene that precedes Pontius’ rejection of the embassy at the end of the story entails the mobilization of Roman forces, along with a change of identity, when Postumius declares himself to be no longer a Roman but a Samnite citizen, and then physically attacks the Roman fetial, thereby nullifying the peace process, an action that Pontius interprets as an example of Roman trickery and cites as reason for rejecting the envoy (9.10.281–291). We can call these two scenes b1 and b2 respectively: mobilization of military forces and changes of identity. The third corresponding ring is found at 9.3.66–87 (c1) and at 9.8.202–9.272 (c2). In c1, there is debate in the Samnite camp between Pontius and his father Herennius concerning what course of action to take regarding the trapped Roman legions; in c2, we have debate in the Roman senate concerning what course of action to take in order to disentangle the Roman state from the disgraceful peace struck at Caudium. The final ring (d1—d2) juxtaposes the patriotic speech of L. Lentulus (9.4.99–117), in which the senior legate sways the Romany army into finding hope in capitulation after their entrapment within the Caudine Forks, with the speech made by A. Calavius (9.6.173–181) in the concilium of Capua. Both Lentulus’ speech (d1) and Calavius’ speech (d2) are pro Roman, and serve to reverse what appears to be the majority opinion (both among the Romans and the Capuans), that the possibility of Roman hegemony is now in jeopardy thanks to the disgrace of the Roman army at Caudium. The centerpiece of the story (e) is, as one would expect, the actual sending of the Roman army under the yoke of the vanquished (9.5.148–151). Livy’s account of the event is extraordinarily brief and all but devoid of detail, an astonishingly flat denouement given that it is this event that propels the entire story. Incredibly, the account of the Romans passing under the yoke is a mere 41 words and consists of only two sentences, each of nearly equal length: the first describes the Romans as they pass under the yoke (20 words), the second describes the Samnites’ reaction to the Romans passing under the yoke (21 words). This can only have been a deliberate construct of Livy, as e also occupies lines 148–151, dividing the story into nearly equal halves (if you do not include the lines of the coda [f], see below). As the centerpiece of the story, the yoke literally and figuratively joins the two halves of the ring structure together.

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The argument for ring composition is further supported by the final paragraph (9.12.320–328), which acts as a coda (f), standing outside the ring structure of the narrative, and reinforcing a sense of finality and conclusion. While it adds nothing new to the saga, it delivers the moral of the story by providing a lens through which Livy invites his audience to view the certain and indisputable outcome of these events from the Samnites’ perspective: the final conquest of Rome over the Samnites is a foregone conclusion. For the beginning student a basic understanding of ring composition within the story can be represented by the following outline: A1 (9.1.4–23) The Samnites return to camp (redierunt, 9.1.4), their attempt at striking a peace (and surrender of a citizen responsible for the breaking of the peace) with the Romans having failed. B1 (9.2.24–29) Samnite military mobilization and change of identity (ten Samnite soldiers disguise themselves as shepherds in order to deceive the Romans). C1 (9.3.66–87) Debate among the Samnites. D1 (9.4.99–114) The pro Roman speech of L. Lentulus. E Centerpiece (9.5.148–151): the Roman legions pass under the yoke. D2 (9.6.173–181) The pro Roman speech of A. Calavius. C2 (9.8.202–9.272) Debate among the Roman senators. B2 (9.10.281–291) Roman military mobilization and change of identity (Postumius declares himself a Samnite citizen in order to deceive the Samnites). A2 (9.11.292–319) The Romans return to their camp (redierunt, 9.11.319) after their failed embassy to the Samnites (and attempted surrender of a citizen responsible for the breaking of the peace has been rejected) to change the terms of the sponsio struck under duress at the Caudine Forks. F Coda (9.12.320–328): the Samnites realize that they have misplayed the entire affair, and that the war the Romans are going to renew against them is one that the Romans have already won.

How to Use This Book Several features of this edition will, I trust, prove especially useful to both student and teacher alike. Appendix I contains a glossary of proper names, places, and political and military offices (consul, praetor, tribune, etc.), so that space in the commentary need not be taken up with lengthy explanations and identifications of the numerous historical figures, their titles and official duties, and geographical locations. Entries for all proper names and places are also indexed to their appearance in the Latin text, so readers do not have to consult two different resources. Moreover, whenever a rhetorical device or figure of speech is identified and discussed in the commentary, its name appears in small capitals (e.g., anaphora, hendiadys, chiasmus, etc.), indicating that a definition of



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the term can be found in the glossary of Appendix II. There is also a complete vocabulary at the end of the volume. All dates are to be considered b.c. unless otherwise noted. At 328 lines of Latin prose, this story is a convenient length for a semester’s read at a pace that will allow ample time for the instructor to review specific grammar points as they arise. The commentary divides the story into 29 units each covering between approximately 3 to 40-plus lines of text, a reasonable range offering the instructor a wide range of flexibility when assigning homework for students at the intermediate level.

Text and Edition The textual tradition for Livy’s account of this story is for the most part sound. Where textual problems have presented themselves, I have followed the suggestions of those editors and philologists whose addenda and/or corrigenda presented the least amount of difficulty for the student. I have numbered the lines of the text consecutively (1–328). All references in the commentary to the text of Book 9 list the book, chapter, and line numbers of this edition. The text, its line numbering, capitalization and punctuation, are my own. For references to all other books of Livy, the convention of this edition follows the standard format of citation by the book, chapter, and line number following that of the 1913 OCT (Walters and Conway eds.) edition.

Notes 1. Oakley (A Commentary on Livy, Books VI–X, Volume III, Book IX), p. 3. 2. While the cognomen Albinus is part of Sp. Postumius’ historical name, Livy never uses it, referring to him always as Sp. Postumius. Therefore, to avoid confusion, that is how he shall be referred to throughout the commentary. 3. Walsh (Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods), p. 1. 4. The complete title would have been Historiarum ab urbe condita libri and would fill 142 volumes. But only a small portion of these has survived. We have Books 1–10; Books 11–20 and 46–142 have been entirely lost, and all books after 45 exist only as summaries written between the first and fourth centuries a.c. 5. As confirmed by a tomb inscription discovered in Padua (CIL 5.2975, Dessau 2919). 6. For the argument that he remained at Patavium for most of his life, see Syme (Tacitus), p. 137. 7. It is worth noting that Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Greek historian who also wrote a history of Rome, settled in Rome around this time, no doubt for similar reasons. 8. See Pliny, Ep. 3.5.16. One must bear in mind, for example, that there existed no prose literature written in the Latin language until after the Second Punic War, about the turn of the second century before Christ. 9. That is, each consul commanded two consular legions. Conscripted or “drafted” legionnaires characterized the main body of the Roman army at this early date. It would not be until over two centuries later that the Marian reforms of 107 b.c. transformed the Roman army from a conscripted citizen militia to a volunteer, mercenary army of highly trained

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12.

13.

1 4. 15.

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and disciplined professional soldiers. It would be under a more gradual transformation that the Roman army abandoned the hoplite tactics of their Greek predecessors and instituted the more adaptable maniples. Calatia lay six miles southeast of Capua, six miles west of ad Novas, and fifteen miles west of Caudium. To this day, the exact location of the Caudine Forks is a matter of dispute. The valley between Arienzo and Arpaia is the traditional location of the Caudine Forks, and most scholars agree that it is the most likely site of the Samnite entrapment (see Oakley 2005, pp. 54–60 for other possibilities and bibliography on the topography). Oakley (A Commentary on Livy, Books VI–X, Volume III, Book IX), p.16 states that “L’s description of the terrain of the Caudine Forks is imaginary, however he has exaggerated its difficulties in such a way as to help absolve the Romans from their defeat.” He goes on to point out that “L’s exaggerated description of the terrain helps explain the failure of the Roman attempts to join battle and break out (9.3.1–4, 4.1) and hence supports the notion that the Roman troops were, in a sense, undefeated.” See also Lipovsky (1981), pp. 142–143. In this Livy is perhaps following Ennius (Annales 513 [493], Skutch 1985): Qui vincit non est victor nisi victus fatetur (“He who conquers is not the victor unless the conquered acknowledges it”). The very frequency of the phrase victum se fateri (or confiteri, cf. Cic. Tusc. 3.14; Livy, 3.28.10; 4.10.3; 30, 35, 11; 36, 45, 6; Lucan 3.234), more than implies that to the Roman psychology only the admission of defeat by the conquered made victory complete. As a result of the treaty Rome would lose her colonies at Fregellae and Cales. For a description of the yoke (iugum) see Livy 3.28.11: tribus hastis iugum fit humi fixis dua­ bus superque eas transversa una deligata; also Paul. Fest 92: sub quo victi transiebant. Hoc modo fiebant: fixis duabus hasitis super eas ligabatur tertia; sub his victos distinctos transire cogebant. On the subject of pudor and the Roman psyche, see Barton (Roman Honor: The Fire in the Bones), esp. 137 and note 5. See Klingner (“Vergil und die Idee des Fiedens”), esp. p. 616.

Bibliography Barton, C. A. Roman Honor: The Fire in the Bones. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. Klingner, F. “Vergil und die Idee des Fiedens.” In Römische Geistewelt: Essays zur lateinischen Literatur, 614–644. Stuttgart: Reclam Verlagshaus, 1979. Mellor, R. The Roman Historians. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. Oakley, S. P. A Commentary on Livy, Books VI–X, Volume III, Book IX. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958. Walsh, P. G. Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

TEXT AB URBE CONDITA Book 9.1–12.328

I The New Year Begins Badly 9.1.1–3 1  Sequitur hunc annum nobilis clade Romana Caudina pax, T. Veturio Calvino, Sp. Postumio consulibus. Samnites eo anno imperatorem C. Pontium Herenni filium habuerunt, patre longe prudentissimo natum, primum ipsum bellatorem ducemque.

II Pontius’ Speech 9.1.4–23 Is, ubi legati qui ad dedendas res missi erant pace infecta redierunt, “ne nihil actum” inquit, “hac legatione censeatis, expiatum est quidquid ex foedere rupto irarum in nos 5 caelestium fuit. Satis scio, quibuscumque dis cordi fuit subigi nos ad necessitatem dedendi res quae ab nobis ex foedere repetitae fuerant, iis non fuisse cordi tam superbe ab Romanis foederis expiationem spretam. Quid enim ultra fieri ad placandos deos mitigandosque homines potuit quam quod nos fecimus? Res hostium in praeda captas, quae belli iure nostrae videbantur, remisimus; auctores belli, quia vivos non potuimus, 10 perfunctos iam fato dedidimus; bona eorum, ne quid ex contagione noxae remaneret

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penes nos, Romam portavimus. Quid ultra tibi, Romane, quid foederi, quid dis arbitris foederis debeo? Quem tibi tuarum irarum, quem meorum suppliciorum iudicem feram? Neminem, neque populum neque privatum, fugio. Quod si nihil cum potentiore iuris 15 humani relinquitur inopi, at ego ad deos vindices intolerandae superbiae confugiam et precabor, ut iras suas vertant in eos quibus non suae redditae res, non alienatae accumulatae satis sint; quorum saevitiam non mors noxiorum, non deditio exanimatorum corporum, non bona sequentia domini deditionem exsatient placarique nequeant, nisi hauriendum sanguinem laniandaque viscera nostra praebuerimus. Iustum est bellum, 20 Samnites, quibus necessarium, et pia arma, quibus nulla nisi in armis relinquitur spes. Proinde, cum rerum humanarum maximum momentum sit quam propitiis rem, quam adversis agant dis, pro certo habete priora bella adversus deos magis quam homines gessisse, hoc quod instat ducibus ipsis dis gesturos.”

III The Samnites Set the Trap 9.2.24–29 25

2  Haec non laeta magis quam vera vaticinatus, exercitu educto circa Caudium castra quam potest occultissime locat. Inde ad Calatiam, ubi iam consules Romanos castraque esse audiebat, milites decem pastorum habitu mittit pecoraque diversos alium alibi haud procul Romanis pascere iubet praesidiis; ubi inciderint in praedatores, ut idem omnibus sermo constet legiones Samnitium in Apulia esse, Luceriam omnibus copiis circumsedere, nec procul abesse quin vi capiant.

IV Rumors in the Roman Camp 9.2.30–33 30

Iam is rumor ante de industria vulgatus venerat ad Romanos, sed fidem auxere captivi eo maxime quod sermo inter omnes congruebat. Haud erat dubium quin Lucerinis opem Romanus ferret, bonis ac fidelibus sociis, simul ne Apulia omnis ad praesentem terrorem deficeret: ea modo, qua irent, consultatio fuit.

V Livy’s Description of the Caudine Forks 9.2.34–40 35

Duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patens apertaque sed quanto tutior tanto fere longior, altera per Furculas Caudinas, brevior; sed



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ita natus locus est: saltus duo alti angusti silvosique sunt montibus circa perpetuis inter se iuncti. Iacet inter eos satis patens clausus in medio campus herbidus aquosusque, per quem medium iter est; sed antequam venias ad eum, intrandae primae angustiae sunt et aut eadem qua te insinuaveris retro via repetenda aut, si ire porro pergas, per alium saltum artiorem impeditioremque evadendum. 40

VI Into the Caudine Pass 9.2.41–45 In eum campum via alia per cavam rupem Romani demisso agmine cum ad alias angustias protinus pergerent, saeptas deiectu arborum saxorumque ingentium obiacente mole invenere. Cum fraus hostilis apparuisset, praesidium etiam in summo saltu conspicitur. Citati inde retro, qua venerant, pergunt repetere viam; eam quoque clausam sua obice armisque inveniunt. 45

VII The Roman Reaction 9.2.46–3.65 Sistunt inde gradum sine ullius imperio stuporque omnium animos ac velut torpor quidam insolitus membra tenet, intuentesque alii alios, cum alterum quisque compotem magis mentis ac consilii ducerent, diu immobiles silent; deinde, ubi praetoria consulum erigi videre et expedire quosdam utilia operi, quamquam ludibrio fore munientes perditis rebus ac spe omni adempta cernebant, tamen, ne culpam malis adderent, pro se quisque nec hortante ullo nec imperante ad muniendum versi castra propter aquam vallo circumdant, sua ipsi opera laboremque irritum, praeterquam quod hostes superbe increpabant, cum miserabili confessione eludentes. Ad consules maestos, ne advocantes quidem in consilium, quando nec consilio nec auxilio locus esset, sua sponte legati ac tribuni convenient militesque ad praetorium versi opem, quam vix di immortales ferre poterant, ab ducibus exposcunt. 3  Querentes magis quam consultantes nox oppressit, cum pro ingenio quisque fremerent: alius “per obices viarum;” alius “per adversa montium, per silvas, qua ferri arma poterunt, eamus, modo ad hostem pervenire liceat quem per annos iam prope triginta vincimus, omnia aequa et plana erunt Romano in perfidum Samnitem pugnanti;” alius “quo aut qua eamus? Num montes moliri sede sua paramus? Dum haec imminebunt iuga, qua tu ad hostem venies? Armati, inermes, fortes, ignavi, pariter omnes capti atque victi sumus; ne ferrum quidem ad bene moriendum oblaturus est hostis; sedens bellum conficiet.” His in vicem sermonibus qua cibi qua quietis immemor nox traducta est.

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VIII Pontius Seeks the Counsel of His Father Herennius 9.3.66–75 Ne Samnitibus quidem consilium in tam laetis suppetebat rebus; itaque universi Herennium Pontium, patrem imperatoris, per litteras consulendum censent. Iam is gravis annis non militaribus solum sed civilibus quoque abscesserat muneribus; in corpore tamen adfecto vigebat vis animi consiliique. Is ubi accepit ad Furculas Caudinas inter 70 duos saltus clausos esse exercitus Romanos, consultus ab nuntio filii censuit omnes inde quam primum inviolatos dimittendos. Quae ubi spreta sententia est iterumque eodem remeante nuntio consulebatur, censuit ad unum omnes interficiendos. Quae ubi tam discordia inter se velut ex ancipiti oraculo responsa data sunt, quamquam filius ipse in primis iam animum quoque patris consenuisse in adfecto corpore rebatur, tamen consensu 75 omnium victus est ut ipsum in consilium acciret.

IX The Arrival of Herennius 9.3.76–87 Nec gravatus senex plaustro in castra dicitur advectus vocatusque in consilium ita ferme locutus esse, ut nihil sententiae suae mutaret, causas tantum adiceret: priore se consilio, quod optimum duceret, cum potentissimo populo per ingens beneficium perpetuam firmare pacem amicitiamque; altero consilio in multas aetates, quibus amissis 80 duobus exercitibus haud facile receptura vires Romana res esset, bellum differre; tertium nullum consilium esse. Cum filius aliique princepes percontando exsequerentur, quid si media via consilii caperetur, ut et dimitterentur incolumes et leges iis iure belli victis imponerentur, “ista quidem sententia,” inquit “ea est, quae neque amicos parat nec inimicos tollit. Servate modo quos ignominia irritaveritis: ea est Romana gens, quae 85 victa quiescere nesciat; vivet semper in pectoribus illorum quidquid istuc praesens necessitas inusserit neque eos ante multiplices poenas expetitas a vobis quiescere sinet.” Neutra sententia accepta Herennius domum e castris est avectus.

X Pontius Will Send the Romans Under the Yoke of the Vanquished 9.4.88–98 4  Et in castris Romanis cum frustra multi conatus ad erumpendum capti essent et iam omnium rerum inopia esset, victi necessitate legatos mittunt, qui primum pacem 90 aequam peterent; si pacem non impetrarent, uti provocarent ad pugnam. Tum Pontius



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debellatum esse respondit et, quoniam ne victi quidem ac capti fortunam fateri scirent, inermes cum singulis vestimentis sub iugum missurum; alias condiciones pacis aequas victis ac victoribus fore: si agro Samnitium decederetur, coloniae abducerentur, suis inde legibus Romanum ac Samnitem aequo foedere victurum; his condicionibus paratum se esse foedus cum consulibus ferire; si quid eorum displiceat, legatos redire ad se vetuit. 95 Haec cum legatio renuntiaretur, tantus gemitus omnium subito exortus est tantaque maestitia incessit ut non gravius accepturi viderentur, si nuntiaretur omnibus eo loco mortem oppetendam essse.

XI The Speech of L. Lentulus 9.4.99–119 Cum diu silentium fuisset nec consules aut pro foedere tam turpi aut contra foedus tam necessarium hiscere possent, tum L. Lentulus, qui princeps legatorum virtute atque honoribus erat: “Patrem meum” inquit, “consules, saepe audivi memorantem se in Capitolio unum non fuisse auctorem senatui redimendae auro a Gallis civitatis, quando nec fossa valloque ab ignavissimo ad opera ac muniendum hoste clausi essent et erumpere, si non sine magno periculo, tamen sine certa pernicie possent. Quod si, illis ut decurrere ex Capitolio armatis in hostem licuit, quo saepe modo obsessi in obsidentes eruperunt, ita nobis aequo aut iniquo loco dimicandi tantummodo cum hoste copia esset, non mihi paterni animi indoles in consilio dando deesset. Equidem mortem pro patria praeclaram esse fateor et me vel devovere pro populo Romano legionibusque vel in medios me immittere hostes paratus sum; sed hic patriam video, hic quidquid Romanarum legionum est, quae nisi pro se ipsis ad mortem ruere volunt, quid habent quod morte sua servent? ‘Tecta urbis,’ dicat aliquis, ‘et moenia et eam turbam a qua urbs incolitur.’ Immo hercule produntur ea omnia deleto hoc exercitu, non servantur. Quis enim ea tuebitur? Imbellis videlicet atque inermis multitudo. Tam hercule quam a Gallorum impetu defendit. An a Veiis exercitum Camillumque ducem implorabunt? Hic omnes spes opesque sunt, quas servando patriam servamus, dedendo ad necem patriam deserimus ac prodimus. ‘At foeda atque ignominiosa deditio est.’ Sed ea caritas patriae est ut tam ignominia eam quam morte nostra, si opus sit, servemus. Subeatur ergo ista, quantacumque est, indignitas et pareatur necessitate, quam ne di quidem superant. Ite, consules, redimite armis civitatem, quam auro maiores vestri redemerunt.”

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XII The Consuls Appeal to Pontius 9.5.120–130 5  Consules profecti ad Pontium in colloquium, cum de foedere victor agitaret, 120 negarunt iniussu populi foedus fieri posse nec sine fetialibus caerimoniaque alia sollemni.

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Itaque non, ut vulgo credunt Claudiusque etiam scribit, foedere pax Caudina sed per sponsionem facta est. Quid enim aut sponsoribus in foedere opus esset aut obsidibus, ubi precatione res transigitur, per quem populum fiat quo minus legibus dictis stetur, ut eum 125 ita Iuppiter feriat quemadmodum a fetialibus porcus feriatur? Spoponderunt consules, legati, quaestores, tribuni militum, nominaque omnium qui spoponderunt exstant, ubi, si ex foedere acta res esset, praeterquam duorum fetialium non exstarent; et propter necessariam foederis dilationem obsides etiam sescenti equites imperati, qui capite luerent, si pacto non staretur. Tempus inde statutum tradendis obsidibus exercituque 130 inermi mittendo.

XIII The Consuls Return to Camp With Dire News 9.5.131–140 Redintegravit luctum in castris consulum adventus, ut vix ab iis abstinerent manus, quorum temeritate in eum locum deducti essent, quorum ignavia foedius inde quam venissent abituri: illis non ducem locorum, non exploratorem fuisse; beluarum modo caecos in foveam missos. Alii alios intueri; contemplari arma mox tradenda et 135 inermes futuras dextras obnoxiaque corpora hosti; proponere sibimet ipsi ante oculos iugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos et per armatos inermium iter, inde foedi agminis miserabilem viam per sociorum urbes, reditum in patriam ad parentes, quo saepe ipsi maioresque eorum triumphantes venissent: se solos sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acie victos; sibi non stringere licuisse gladios, non manum cum hoste conferre; sibi 140 nequiquam arma, nequiquam vires, nequiquam animos datos.

XIV The Romans Are Ordered to Strip and Disarm 9.5.141–147 Haec frementibus hora fatalis ignominiae advenit, omnia tristiora experiundo factura quam quae praeceperant animis. Iam primum cum singulis vestimentis inermes extra vallum exire iussi; et primi traditi obsides atque in custodiam abducti. Tum a consulibus abire lictores iussi paludamentaque detracta; id tantam inter ipsos qui paulo 145 ante eos exsecrantes dedendos lacerandosque censuerant miserationem fecit, ut suae quisque condicionis oblitus ab illa deformatione tantae maiestatis velut ab nefando spectaculo averteret oculos.



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XV Under the Yoke of the Vanquished 9.5.148–151 Primi consules prope seminudi sub iugum missi; tum ut quisque gradu proximus erat, ita ignominiae obiectus; tum deinceps singulae legiones. Circumstabant armati hostes, exprobrantes eludentesque; gladii etiam plerisque intentati, et vulnerati quidam 150 necatique, si vultus eorum indignitate rerum acrior victorem offendisset.

XVI March of Shame to Capua 9.6.152–156 6  Ita traducti sub iugum et, quod paene gravius erat, per hostium oculos, cum e saltu evasissent, etsi velut ab inferis extracti tum primum lucem aspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deforme intuentibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit. Itaque cum ante noctem Capuam pervenire possent, incerti de fide sociorum et quod pudor praepediebat 155 circa viam haud procul Capua omnium egena corpora humi prostraverunt.

XVII Reception at Capua 9.6.157–164 Quod ubi est Capuam nuntiatum, evicit miseratio iusta sociorum superbiam ingenitam Campanis. Confestim insignia sua consulibus, fasces lictoribus, arma, equos, vestimenta, commeatus militibus benigne mittunt; et venientibus Capuam cunctus senatus populusque obviam egressus iustis omnibus hospitalibus privatisque et publicis fungitur 160 officiis. Neque illis sociorum comitas vultusque benigni et adloquia non modo sermonem elicere, sed ne ut oculos quidem attollerent aut consolantes amicos contra intuerentur efficere poterant: adeo super maerorem pudor quidam fugere colloquia et coetus hominum cogebat.

XVIII Departure From Capua for Rome 9.6.165–172 Postero die cum iuvenes nobiles missi a Capua ut proficiscentes ad finem 165 Campanum prosequerentur revertissent vocatique in curiam percontantibus maioribus

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natu multo sibi maestiores et abiectiores animi visos referent: adeo silens ac prope mutum agmen incessisse; iacere indolem illam Romanam ablatosque cum armis animos; non dare salutem, non salutantibus responsum, non hiscere quemquam prae metu potuisse, 170 tamquam ferentibus adhuc cervicibus iugum sub quod missi essent; habere Samnites victoriam non praeclaram solum sed etiam perpetuam, cepisse enim eos non Romam, sicut ante Gallos, sed—quod multo bellicosius fuerit—Romanam virtutem ferociamque.

XIX At Capua the Future of Roman Hegemony Is Open for Debate 9.7.173–181 7  Cum haec dicerentur audirenturque et deploratum paene Romanum nomen in concilio sociorum fidelium esset, dicitur A. Calavius, Ovi filius, clarus genere factisque, 175 tum etiam aetate verendus, longe aliter se habere rem dixisse: silentium illud obstinatum fixosque in terram oculos et surdas ad omnia solacia aures et pudorem intuendae lucis ingentem molem irarum ex alto animo cientis indicia esse; aut Romana se ignorare ingenia aut silentium illud Samnitibus flebiles brevi clamores gemitusque excitaturum, Caudinaeque pacis aliquanto Samnitibus quam Romanis tristiorem memoriam fore; 180 quippe suos quemque eorum animos habiturum, ubicumque congressuri sint; saltus Caudinos non ubique Samnitibus fore.

XX At Rome Confusing Reports and Public Mourning 9.7.182–193 Iam et Romae sua infamis clades erat. Obsessos primum audierunt; tristior deinde ignominiosae pacis magis quam periculi nuntius fuit. Ad famam obsidionis dilectus haberi coeptus erat; dimissus deinde auxiliorum apparatus, postquam deditionem tam 185 foede factam acceperunt extemploque sine ulla publica auctoritate consensum in omnem formam luctus est; tabernae circa forum clausae iustitiumque in foro sua sponte coeptum prius quam indictum; lati clavi, anuli aurei positi: paene maestior exercitu ipso civitas esse, nec ducibus solum atque auctoribus sponsoribusque pacis irasci sed innoxios etiam milites odisse et negare urbe tectisve accipiendos. Quam concitationem animorum fregit 190 adventus exercitus etiam iratis miserabilis. Non enim tamquam in patriam revertentes ex insperato incolumes sed captorum habitu vultuque ingressi sero in urbem ita se in suis quisque tectis abdiderunt, ut postero atque insequentibus diebus nemo eorum forum aut publicum aspicere vellet.



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XXI The New Year Approaches Appointed Dictators Fail to Hold Elections 9.7.194–201 Consules in privato abditi nihil pro magistratu agere nisi quod expressum senatus consulto est ut dictatorem dicerent comitiorum causa. Q. Fabium Ambustum dixerunt et 195 P. Aelium Paetum magistrum equitum; quibis vitio creatis suffecti M. Aemilius Papus dictator, L. Valerius Flaccus magister equitum. Nec per eos comitia habita et quia taedebat populum omnium magistratuum eius anni, res ad interregnum rediit. Interreges Q. Fabius Maximus, M. Valerius Corvus. Is consules creavit Q. Publilium Philonem tertium et L. Papirium Cursorem iterum haud dubio consensu civitatis, quod nulli ea 200 tempestate duces clariores essent.

XXII Sp. Postumius Addresses the Senate 9.8.202–222 8  Quo creati sunt die, eo—sic enim placuerat patribus—magistratum inierunt sollemnibusque senatus consultis perfectis de pace Caudina rettulerunt et Publilius, penes quem facses erant, “dic, Sp. Postumi” inquit. Qui ubi surrexit, eodem illo vultu quo sub iugum missus erat, “haud sum ignarus” inquit, “consules, ignominiae non honoris causa me primum excitatum iussumque dicere, non tamquam senatorem sed tamquam reum qua infelicis belli qua ignominiosae pacis. Ego tamen, quando neque de noxa nostra neque de poena rettulistis, omissa defensione, quae non difficillima esset apud haud ignaros fortunarum humanarum necessitatiumque, sententiam de eo de quo rettulistis paucis peragam. Quae sententia testis erit mihine an legionibus vestris pepercerim, cum me seu turpi seu necessaria sponsione obstrinxi; qua tamen, quando iniussu populi facta est, non tenetur populus Romanus, nec quicquam ex ea praeterquam corpora nostra debentur Samnitibus. Dedamur per fatiales nudi vinctique; exsolvamus religione populum, si qua obligavimus, ne quid divini humanive obstet quo minus iustum piumque de integro ineatur bellum. Interea consules exercitum scribere, armare, educere placet, nec prius ingredi hostium fines quam omnia iusta in deditionem nostrum perfecta erunt. Vos, di immortales, precor quaesoque, si vobis non fuit cordi Sp. Postumium et T. Veturium consules cum Samnitibus prospere bellum gerere, at vos satis habeatis vidisse nos sub iugum missos, vidisse sponsione infami obligatos, videre nudos vinctosque hostibus deditos, omnem iram hostium nostris capitibus excipientes; novos consules legionesque Romanas ita cum Samnite gerere bellum velitis, ut omnia ante nos consules bella gesta sunt.”

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XXIII Rebuttal of the Tribunes 9.8.223–231 Quae ubi dixit, tanta simul admiratio miseratioque viri incessit homines ut modo vix crederent illum eundem esse Sp. Postumium qui auctor tam foedae pacis fuisset, 225 modo miserarentur quod vir talis etiam praecipuum apud hostes supplicium passurus esset ob iram diremptae pacis. Cum omnes laudibus modo prosequentes virum in sententiam eius pedibus irent, temptata paulisper intercessio est ab L. Livio et Q. Maelio, tribunis plebis, qui neque exsolvi religione populum aiebant deditione sua, nisi omnia Samnitibus, qualia apud Caudium fuissent, restituerentur; neque se pro eo quod 230 spondendo pacem servassent exercitum populi Romani poenam ullam meritos esse; neque ad extremum, cum sacrosancti essent, dedi hostibus violarive posse.

XXIV Postumius Responds to the Tribunes’ Veto 9.9.232–272

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9  Tum Postumius “interea dedite” inquit, “profanos nos, quos salva religione potestis; dedetis deinde et istos sacrosanctos cum primum magistratu abierint, sed, si me audiatis, priusquam dedantur, hic in comitio virgis caesos, hanc iam ut intercalatae poenae usuram habeant. Nam quod deditione nostra negant exsolvi religione populum, id istos magis ne dedantur quam quia ita se res habeat dicere, quis adeo iuris fetialium expers est qui ignoret? Neque ego infitias eo, patres conscripti, tam sponsiones quam foedera sancta esse apud eos homines apud quos iuxta divinas religiones fides humana colitur; sed iniussu populi nego quicquam sanciri posse quod populum teneat. An, si eadem superbia, qua sponsionem istam expresserunt nobis Samnites, coegissent nos verba legitima dedentium urbes nuncupare, deditum populum Romanum vos tribuni diceretis et hanc urbem, templa, delubra, fines, aquas Samnitium esse? Omitto deditionem, quoniam de sponsione agitur; quid tandem, si spopondissemus urbem hanc relicturum populum Romanum? si incensurum? si magistratus, si senatum, si leges non habiturum? si sub regibus futurum? Di meliora, inquis. Atqui non indignitas rerum sponsionis vinculum levat; si quid est in quod obligari populus possit, in omnia potest. Et ne illud quidem, quod quosdam forsitan moveat, refert, consul an dictator an praetor spoponderit. Et hoc ipsi etiam Samnites iudicaverunt, quibus non fuit satis consules spondere, sed legatos, quaestores, tribunos militum spondere coegerunt. “Nec a me nunc quisquam quaesiverit quid ita spoponderim, cum id nec consulis ius esset nec illis spondere pacem, quae mei non erat arbitrii pro vobis qui nihil mandaveratis, possem. Nihil ad Caudium, patres conscripti, humanis consiliis gestum est: di immortales et vestris et hostium imperatoribus mentem ademerunt. Nec nos in bello satis cavimus et illi male partam victoriam male perdiderunt, dum vix locis quibus



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vicerant credunt, dum quacumque condicione arma viris in arma natis auferre festinant. An, si sana mens fuisset, difficile illis fuit, dum senes ab domo ad consultandum accersunt, mittere Romam legatos? Cum senatu, cum populo de pace ac foedere agere? Tridui iter expeditus erat; interea in indutiis res fuisset, donec ab Roma legati aut victoriam illis certam aut pacem adferrent. Ea demum sponsio esset quam populi iussu spopondissimus. Sed neque vos tulissetis nec nos spopondissimus; nec fas fuit alium rerum exitum esse quam ut illi velut somnio laetiore quam quod mentes eorum capere possent nequiquam eluderentur, et nostrum exercitum eadem quae impedierat fortuna expediret, vanam victoriam vanior irritam faceret pax, sponsio interponeretur quae neminem praeter sponsorem obligaret. Quid enim vobiscum, patres conscripti, quid cum populo Romano actum est? Quis vos appellare potest, quis se a vobis dicere deceptum? Hostis an civis? Hosti nihil spopondistis, civem neminem spondere pro vobis iussistis. Nihil ergo vobis nec nobiscum est quibus nihil mandastis, nec cum Samnitibus cum quibus nihil egestis. Samnitibus sponsores nos sumus, rei satis locupletes in id quod nostrum est, in id quod praestare possumus, corpora nostra et animos; in haec saeviant, in haec ferrum, in haec iras acuant. Quod ad tribunos attinet, consulite utrum praesens deditio eorum fieri possit an in diem differatur; nos interim, T. Veturi, vosque ceteri vilia haec capita luendae sponsioni feramus, et nostro supplicio liberemus Romana arma.”

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XXV Postumius’ Speech Falls on Deaf Ears 9.10.273–280 10  Movit patres conscriptos, cum causa tum auctor, nec ceteros solum sed tribunos etiam plebei, ut se in senatus dicerent fore potestate. Magistratu inde se extemplo abdicaverunt traditique fetialibus cum ceteris Caudium ducendi. Hoc senatus consulto 275 facto lux quaedam adfuisisse civitati visa est. Postumius in ore erat; eum laudibus ad caelum ferebant, devotioni P. Deci consulis, aliis claris facinoribus aequabant: emersisse civitatem ex obnoxia pace illius consilio et opera; ipsum se cruciatibus et hostium irae offerre piaculaque pro populo Romano dare. Arma cuncti spectant et bellum: en umquam futurum ut congredi armatis cum Samnite liceat. 280

XXVI Postumius Is Surrendered to the Samnites 9.10.281–291 In civitate ira odioque ardente dilectus prope omnium voluntariorum fuit. Rescriptae ex eodem milite novae legiones ductusque ad Caudium exercitus. Praegressi fetiales ubi ad portam venere, vestem detrahi pacis sponsoribus iubent, manus post tergum vinciri. Cum apparitor verecundia maiestatis Postumi laxe vinciret, “Quin tu”

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inquit, “adducis lorum, ut iusta fiat deditio!” Tum, ubi in coetum Samnitium et ad tribunal ventum Ponti est, A. Cornelius Arvina fetialis ita verba fecit. “Quandoque hisce homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus ictum iri spoponderunt atque ob eam rem noxam nocuerunt, ob eam rem quo populus Romanus scelere impio sit solutus hosce homines vobis dedo.” Haec dicenti fetiali Postumius genū femur quanta maxime poterat 290 vi perculit et clara voce ait se Samnitem civem esse, illum legatum fetialem a se contra ius gentium violatum: eo iustius bellum gesturos. 285

XXVII Pontius Denounces the Roman Embassy 9.11.292–310

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11  Tum Pontius “nec ego istam deditionem accipiam,” inquit, “nec Samnites ratam habebunt. Quin tu, Sp. Postumi, si deos esse censes, aut omnia irrita facis aut pacto stas? Samniti populo omnes quos in potestate habuit aut pro iis pax debetur. Sed quid ego te appello, qui te captum victori cum qua potes fide restituis? Populum Romanum appello; quem si sponsionis ad Furculas Caudinas factae paenitet, restituat legiones intra saltum quo saeptae fuerunt. Nemo quemquam deceperit; omnia pro infecto sint; recipiant arma quae per pactionem tradiderunt; redeant in castra sua; quidquid pridie habuerunt quam in colloquium est ventum habeant; tum bellum et fortia consilia placeant, tum sponsio et pax repudietur. Ea fortuna, iis locis quae ante pacis mentionem habuimus geramus bellum; nec populus Romanus consulum sponsionem nec nos fidem populi Romani accusemus. Numquamne causa defiet cur victi pacto non stetis? Obsides Porsinnae dedistis: furto eos subduxistis. Auro civitatem a Gallis redemistis: inter accipiendum aurum caesi sunt. Pacem nobiscum pepigistis ut legiones vobis captas restitueremus: eam pacem irritam facitis. Et semper aliquam fraudi speciem iuris imponitis. Non probat populus Romanus ignominiosa pace legiones servatas? Pacem sibi habeat, legiones captas victori restituat; hoc fide, hoc foederibus, hoc fetialibus caerimoniis dignum erat. Ut tu quidem quod petisti per pactionem habeas, tot cives incolumes, ego pacem quam hos tibi remittendo pactus sum non habeam, hoc tu, A. Corneli, hoc vos, fetiales, iuris gentibus dicitis?”

XXVIII Pontius Rejects the Roman Embassy 9.11.311–319 “Ego vero istos quos dedi simulatis nec accipio nec dedi arbitror, nec moror quo minus in civitatem obligatam sponsione commissa iratis omnibus dis, quorum eluditur numen, redeant. Gerite bellum, quando Sp. Postumius modo legatum fetialem genu perculit. Ita di credent Samnitem civem Postumium, non civem Romanum esse et a



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Samnite legatum Romanum violatum: eo vobis iustum in nos factum esse bellum. Haec 315 ludibria religionum non pudere in lucem proferre et vix pueris dignas ambages senes ac consulares fallendae fidei exquirire! I, lictor, deme vincula Romanis; moratus sit nemo quo minus ubi visum fuerit abeant!” Et illi quidem, forsitan et publica, sua certe liberata fide ab Caudio in castra Romana inviolati redierunt.

XXIX The Samnites Have Underestimated Their Enemy 9.12.320–328 12  Samnitibus pro superba pace infestissimum cernentibus renatum bellum, 320 omniaque quae deinde evenerunt non in animis solum sed prope in oculis esse; et sero ac nequiquam laudare senis Ponti utraque consilia, inter quae se media via lapsos victoriae possessionem pace incerta mutasse; et beneficii et maleficii occasione amissa pugnaturos cum eis quos potuerint in perpetuum vel inimicos tollere vel amicos facere. Adeoque nullodum certamine inclinatis viribus post Caudinam pacem animi mutaverant, ut 325 clariorem inter Romanos deditio Postumium quam Pontium incruenta victoria inter Samnites faceret, et geri posse bellum Romani pro victoria certa haberent, Samnites simul rebellasse et vicisse crederent Romanum.

COMMENTARY

I The New Year Begins Badly 9.1.1–3 9.1.1–2. sequitur…consulibus: Livy begins Book 9 and the new year (321), a heartbeat after the closing events of Book 8. sequitur hunc annum…Caudina pax: a common construction of Livy when initiating a new year, often attaching an adjective or modifying phrase to illustrate why a particular year was notable (or not). In this case, the adjective nobilis. clade Romana: ablative (cause), construe with nobilis. For similar constructions see Livy 6.1.1, 8.12.4 8.22.1. hunc annum: the adverbial accusative (duration of time); note how the demonstrative pronoun anticipates eo anno in the next sentence (see note below). sequitur: note the present tense, for vividness: “The Caudine peace, well known for the Roman military disaster, follows for the duration of this year.” The fallout following the disgrace at the Caudine Forks lasted only for the year 321. It was resolved with the defeat of the Samnites at Luceria in the following year (320). T. Veturio Calvino, Sp. Postumio consulibus: an ablative absolute in asyndeton: “with Titus Veturius Calvinus [and] Spurius Postumius as consuls.” consulibus: ablative in apposition to T. Veturio, Sp. Postumio. The standard formula for Roman dating. Both men had served together as consuls in 334 (8.16). This was the first time since the passing of the Lex Genucia of 342 (G. Rotondi, Leges Publicae Populi Romani [Georg Olms

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1962], 224 and 226), allowing consular colleagues to serve a second term together after a period of ten years, that a pair returned to office. 9.1.2–3. Samnites…ducemque: C. Pontius, the Samnite commander and his father Herennius. imperatorem…filium…natum…bellatorem ducemque: all five accusatives are in apposition to Pontium, object of habuerunt. “The Samnites had in that year Gaius Pontius, son of Herennius, as their war-time commander…” eo anno: ablative of point of time. patre longe prudentissimo: ablative of description (or source) with natum (> nascor), “born of a father, a man by far the most wise.” longe: construe with prudentissimo, “by far the most prudent man…” (for the adverb in this context cf. 1.49.9, 3.25.5, 8.29.9, 21.4.8 and 40.4.4). This observation of Herennius’ sagacity, however, should not be overlooked as simply a stock phrase, as his advice will soon play a pivotal role in the story. Note how Livy contrasts the father’s reserved wisdom with the son’s hasty belligerence. bellatorem ducemque: an example of hendiadys that further underscores Pontius’ aggressive nature; bellator occurs only five times in Livy, and only in books 1–9 (cf. 1.59.9, 5.20.6, 7.26.13, 8.8.17).

II Pontius’ Speech 9.1.4–23 9.1.4–6. is…fuit: although Livy does not state that Pontius is addressing the Samnite army, the reference at 9.1.3 (bellatorem ducemque), the description of the mobilization of the army immediately after his speech (9.2.24–28), and the powerful rhetorical nature of the speech puts the reader in mind of a military hortatio. is: i.e., Pontius. legati…redierunt: the Samnite embassy sent to Rome at the end of Book 8 (8.39), after their defeat in Apulia; they brought with them the corpse of Papius Brutulus, the Samnite noble who had broken the treaty of 341 (for the treaty see 8.2.4, and for the violation, 8.22.7–23.1) that caused the resumption of the war. ad dedendas res: “for the purpose of conducting a formal surrender,” i.e., the surrender of Brutulus who, rather than having to undergo the humiliation of being surrendered to the Romans, committed suicide. pace infecta: ablative absolute, “with the peace having failed.” The exact phrase is repeated from 8.37.2 (infecta pace) when the Samnites’ attempt to seek peace with Rome is rejected by the Romans at the end of Book 8. Continuity of language is part of Livy’s ability as an historian and storyteller to keep his narrative compelling from year to year. ne…censeatis: a negative purpose clause. nihil actum: (sc. esse) an indirect statement dependent on censeatis. hac legatione: ablative (means). expiatum est: the main verb of the sentence, subject is the quidquid clause. irarum…caelestium: genitives modifying quidquid (note how the hyperbaton of the two genitives brackets the prepositional phrase in nos). “Whatever of heavenly outrages there were (fuit) against us (in nos) due to the treaty having been broken (ex foedere rupto) has been atoned for (expiatum est).”



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9.1.6–8. scio…non fuisse…expiationem spretam: Pontius addresses the offence caused by the Romans’ refusal of their suit for peace at the end of Book 8. quibus­ cumque dis cordi fuit: double dative construction governing an indirect statement (see note below). dis: dative, construe with quibuscumque. subigi nos: an accusative and infinitive clause, dependent on the preceding quibuscumque clause, “to whichever gods (felt) in their heart that we be compelled…” subigi: passive infinitive (> subi­ gere). ad necessitatem dedendi res: “as required by the terms of surrender.” quae… repetitae fuerant: antecedent of the relative clause is res, object of dedendi. ab nobis: agency with repetitae fuerant. iis: dative, antecedent is dis of the quibuscumque clause (note the parallel construction: dis cordi fuit :: iis non fuisse cordi). ab Romanis: agency with fuisse…expiationem spretam. tam superbe: thanks to the arrogance of the Roman rejection of their attempted deditio at the end of Book 8, the gods are on the Samnite side. 9.1.8–9. quid…fecimus: Pontius’ hortatio proceeds. quid: interrogative pronoun, subject of potuit. fieri: complementary infinitive; note how fieri and potuit bracket the pair of gerundive clauses (see note below). ultra…quam: the adverbial construction with the interrogative, “For what more…than…” ad placandos deos mitigandosque homines: “for the purpose of placating gods and mollifying men.” nos: note the emphatic inclusion of the pronoun. 9.1.9–12. res hostium…remisimus; auctores belli…dedidimus; bona eorum…por­ tavimus: Pontius enumerates the lengths the Samnite embassy took to satisfy the Romans. The sentence is impressive in its structure. A periodic tricolon of three independent clauses, united in asyndeton, parallel in structure. Each sentence begins with the direct object of the main clause, res (1A), auctores (2A), bona (3A) followed by a genitive, hostium (1A), belli (2A), eorum (3A) and separated from their verbs, remisi­ mus (1C), dedimus (2C), and portavimus (3C) by a series of anaphoric adjectival or adverbial clauses, quae (1B), quia (2B) and quid (3B). Periodicity of verb placement runs throughout: captas (1A), videbantur (1B), remisimus (1C), potuimis (2B), dedimus (2C), and portavimus (3C). There is slight variatio in the last sentence with the placement of remaneret (3B) before the prepositional phrase penes nos, whose placement after the verb adds emphasis to the iniuria felt by Pontius (and also balances nostrae at 1B). belli iure: “by the right of war.” nostrae: nominative feminine, predicate complement of quae (1B) whose antecedent is res (1A). auctores belli: Pontius is referring to Papius Brutulus, who broke the treaty of 341 (see 9.1.4–6 above). The plural auctores (as also vivos at 2B, perfunctos at 2C, and eorum at 3A) are examples of the generalizing plural, often used (as today) for sarcastic effect when referring only to a single individual. quia vivos non potuimus: understand the ellipsis of a complementary infinitive, most likely dare (given dedimus at 2C). perfunctos…dedimus: the reference is again to Brutulus; the participle is concessive and with iam fato stands in stark contrast to vivos, 2B, “(whom) we gave (even though) he was already dead.” ne quid…remaneret: a negative purpose clause. quid: = aliquid (so also after si, nisi, and num). noxae: genitive dependent on (ali)quid, “lest anything of guilt…” Romam: the terminal accusa-

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tive with portavimus, “to Rome.” res hostium…remisimus :: bona eorum…Romam portavimus: the first is a reference to the booty that the Samnites took by raiding Roman colonies; the second is a specific reference to the personal possessions (bona) of Brutulus (eorum, in keeping with Livy’s use of the generalizing plural auctores). 9.1.12–13. quid…debeo: the first of two rhetorical questions linked through their anaphoric structure. quid ultra: echoes quid enim ultra at 9.1.8, introducing a tricolon (quid…quid…quid) that organizes the first of the two rhetorical questions. Ro­ mane: vocative. tibi…foederi…dis: the three datives are indirect objects with debeo (with arbitris in apposition to dis), “what more (ultra) to you, to the treaty, to the gods as witnesses of the treaty do I owe?” 9.1.13. quem…feram: a dicolon marshaled by the anaphora of quem…quem, and the periodic placement of feram mirrors that of the previous question. quem tibi: echoing quid ultra tibi of the previous sentence (9.1.12), just as 9.1.8 (quid enim ultra) anticipates 9.1.12. tuarum irarum…meorum suppliciorum: genitives dependent upon iudicem, direct object of feram. feram: a deliberative subjunctive. 9.1.14. neminem…fugio: a defensive statement by Pontius. neque…neque: the anaphora connects the alliterative pairing of the antithetical populum and privatum, the two accusatives in apposition to neminem, direct object of fugio. po­ pulum…privatum: the distinction is between the people as a whole versus a single individual. 9.1.14–17. quod si…satis sint: Pontius characterizes the Romans in terms of their ira and superbia in contrast to the inopia and supplicium of the Samnite people, specific words repeated from earlier in the speech. quod si…at ego: “but if…yet I for my part…” nihil: subject of relinquitur. cum: the preposition with the comparative adjective potentiore (ablative), used here as a substantive. iuris humani: genitive, modifying inopi, dative (reference) with relinquitur, “But if nothing of human rights (iuris humani) is left to the weak (inopi) [when engaging] with one more powerful (po­ tentiore)…” The contrast is between the power of the Romans and the weakness of the Samnites (potentiore :: inopi). ad deos: construe with confugiam et precabor. vindices: in apposition to deos. intolerandae superbiae: the gerundive construction modifies vindices. confugiam et precabor: by using first person future verbs, Pontius shows the immediacy of the Samnite plight. ut iras suas vertant: a purpose clause, dependent on confugiam et precabor, the subject is an understood di (antecedent supplied by the preceding ad deos vindices). in eos quibus: note how one of the primary uses of the demonstrative pronoun is to act as the antecedent of a relative pronoun. quibus: dative, antecedent is eos (i.e. the Romans). satis sint: subjunctive because the quibus clause is a noun clause of characteristic, “…against the type of people to whom the return of their own possessions [as well as] the appropriation of those of others is not enough.” The reference is to the Samnites’ returning not only the booty they seized from battles won against the Romans (suae redditae res), but the grim offering of the corpse of Papius Brutulus and his possessions (alienatae accumulatae).



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9.1.17–19. quorum saevitiam…praebuerimus: the second half of this sentence is a comment on the first half, a tricolon of expanding clauses rhetorically organized by the anaphora of non…non…non. The main elements of the quorum clause are: mors…deditio…bona…saevitiam deditionem…non exsatient placarique nequeant. quo­ rum…nequeant: a second relative clause parallel to the preceding quibus clause, antecedent of both is eos (9.1.16). Each element of the tricolon begins with the anaphora non, followed by a nominative modified by a genitive (mors noxiorum :: de­ ditio exanimatorum coporum :: bona sequentia…domini). Note how the entire tricolon references the death of Brutulus (a), the handing over of his dead body (b), and the surrender of his personal possessions (c), but only the first two using the generalizing plural in place of the singular (see note on 9.1.10–13 above) noxiorum (a), exanima­ torum corporum (b), but the singular domini (c) for which obviously Papius Brutulus is only indicated. saevitiam: direct object of exsatient placarique nequeant. Note the hyperbaton of some eleven words that separates the two and the asyndeton Livy uses throughout the elements of the tricolon of the quorum clause. deditionem: object of the participle sequentia (> sequor). nisi…praebuerimus: the protasis, which usually precedes the apodosis, here follows. hauriendum…laniandaque: gerundives agreeing with sanguinem and viscera nostra respectively. In closing his hortatio, Pontius resorts to hyperbole to make his point that the Samnite people have done everything possible to try to make peace with the Romans and now war is justified. 9.1.19–20. iustum…spes: Pontius arrives at the heart of his grievance. quibus… quibus: a dicolon of parallel dative (possession) relative clauses that justify the statement iustum est bellum and pia [sunt] arma. nulla…res: note how the hyperbaton of the adjective and the noun brackets the nisi clause. 9.1.21–23. proinde…gesturos: the gods, Pontius concludes, are on the side of the Samnites. proinde: “therefore”; the adverb signals the summing up of an argument. cum rerum humanorum maximum momentum sit: a causal clause. rerum humanorum: genitive, construe with momentum. maximum: note the superlative with momentum, a strong statement. quam propitiis rem…quam adversis agant dis: “whether what business (quam…rem) men undertake with the gods helping, what [business they undertake] with the gods against them…” propitiis…adversiis…dis: two ablative absolutes (see note on ducibus ipsis dis below). agant: subject is an understood homines, antecedent is rerum humanarum. Note the contrast (propitiis :: adver­ sis). pro certo habete: “you have it with certainty that…” Note the use of habere here in its secondary meaning of “to have” or “hold” something as an opinion, and thus governs an indirect statement. priora bella: accusative neuter, object of gessisse (sc. vos), an indirect statement with habete. adversus: the preposition, construe with both deos and homines. magis quam: “rather than…” hoc quod instat…gesturos: (sc. esse) a second indirect statement dependent upon habete. hoc: sc. bellum. ducibus ipsis dis: ablative absolute, “with the gods themselves as leaders.” gesturos: the subject is the understood vos from the first indirect statement; the direct object is the quod clause that precedes it, anticipated by the demonstrative pronoun hoc.

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III The Samnites Set the Trap 9.2.24–29 9.2.24–25. haec…locat: Pontius sets his plan in motion. haec non laeta magis quam vera vaticinatus: “having predicted these things no more because they were encouraging than for the fact that they were true…” exercitu educto: ablative absolute, “with his army having been lead forth…” circa Caudium: construe with locat rather than educto. castra…locat: note the shift to the present tense in the main clause: “he makes camp in the vicinity of Caudium…” Caudium was the eponymous region of Apulia that was home to the Samnites Caudini. It lay on the Via Appia eleven miles west of Beneventum and fifteen miles east of Calatia, where the legions of Calvinus and Postumius are encamped (see following note). quam potest occultissime: quam + the superlative adverb, “as secretly as he is able.” Note how Livy builds the suspense in this brief sentence. We know that the Samnites are on the move, that they are highly motivated, and that they have a plan that involves stealth (quam…occultissime). 9.2.25–29. inde…capiant: the plan to deceive the Romans is now disclosed. A long sentence, but the structure is bipartite and relatively simple. inde: “next,” “then.” ad Calatiam…milites decem mittit: Calatia was a small hamlet (hence ad + the accusative instead of the terminal accusative typically used with larger cities like Rome) that lay six miles southeast of Capua, six miles west of ad Novas, and fifteen miles west of Caudium. ubi iam consules Romanos castraque esse audiebat: Livy interrupts the main clause again to maintain suspense while he describes the disposition of the Roman army. Note how Livy keeps the perspective of the narrative from the Samnites’ point of view, something that will soon change once the Roman army enters the forks. iam: construe with esse, the verb of the indirect statement dependent on audiebat. By using the imperfect rather than the perfect (“was hearing,” rather than “heard”) Livy implies that Pontius was receiving a series of reconnaissance reports about the Romans over a period of time. consules Romanos castraque: note the hendiadys: “the Roman consuls and their camps” = “the camps of the Roman consuls.” milites: direct object of mittit and iubet, the two main verbs of this bipartite sentence, both present imperfect. decem: construe with milites. pastorum habitu: ablative (description) with objective genitive, “in the disguise of shepherds.” pecoraque…(milites) decem pascere iubet: the second main clause, connected by the enclitic conjunction –que. pecora: direct object of the infinitive pascere, dependent on iubet. Understand milites as the object of iubet, a double accusative construction with verbs of “ordering,” “commanding,” etc. diversos: modifying an understood milites decem from the previous clause. alium alibi: construe with diversos, “scattered, one in one place, another in another.” haud procul Romanis…praesidiis: “not very far from the Roman camps.” The omission of the preposition is not uncommon in Livy (cf. 8.8.19, 32.13; 9.32.5; 10.37.2. ubi inciderint in praedatores: (sc. pastores as subject) the ubi clause functions much as a relative clause of characteristic explaining the mission of the ten



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Samnite pastores, hence the subjunctives inciderint, constet, and capiant. The use of the word praedatores (“plunderers,” i.e., Roman soldiers encamped at Calatia foraging for food and supplies in the area) shows that Livy is still keeping the perspective from the point of view of the Samnites. ut idem…sermo constet: “so that the same story would agree among all of them.” omnibus: an ablative of reference. legiones… esse, Luceriam…circumsedere…nec procul abesse: three indirect statements dependent on the ut…constet clause. The tale (sermo) that the Samnite pastores are circulating is that the Samnite legions are in Apulia, that they are besieging Luceria, and that they are on the point of taking the city by force. Luceriam omnibus copiis circumsedere: note how Luceriam and the infinitive circumsedere bracket the ablative phrase (means) omnibus copiis, just as the Samnites are “allegedly” surrounding the city. quin vi capiant: quin usually after verbs of doubting: “…but that they would capture it by force.” The construction with haud procul abesse is a common idiom used by Livy in several variants (cf. 5.4.14; 25.1.10, and 44.19.9). Translate: “…that they are not far off from capturing it by force.” vi: the use of vis here is significant: the Samnites were no doubt aware that the Romans knew the difference between taking a town by violence or by capitulation and surrender. A town taken as a result of surrender (deditio, traditio) often included pre-conditions that protected the inhabitants from plunder and slaughter (cf. 6.38.10: inviolatum integrumque quia non vi captum sed traditum per condiciones fuerat regarding the capture of Sutrium in 389; also 6.29.7: id non vi sed per deditionem receptum est; 9.22.11: Saticula Romanus per deditionem, Plistica per vim Samnis potitur). A town captured through a forecful assault (vis) did not enjoy such guarantee of protection. This knowledge no doubt played a role in the overall psychology of the Samnite scheme, and explains the fact that each of the ten pastores were specifically ordered to give the exact same information to the Romans (idem omnibus sermo; cf. quod sermo inter omnes congruebat below).

IV Rumors in the Roman Camp 9.2.30–33 9.2.30–31. iam is rumor…congruebat: Livy shifts perspective to the Roman point of view. iam: signals the shift. is rumor…vulgatus: a participial phrase, “this rumor already circulating…” ante de industra: “deliberately beforehand,” construe with vulgatus. auxere: = auxerunt, the syncopated form of the third person plural perfect. captivi: (i.e., the pastores, subject of auxere) not so much “taken captive” as “taken into custody.” fidem: i.e., the Romans’ belief in the rumor. eo maxime quod: the pronoun eo (ablative of degree of difference) sets up the quod (causal) clause, “by so great a degree because…” sermo inter omnes congruebat: cf. ut idem omnibus sermo constet above. That all the pastores told the same story was the compelling factor in the Romans’ belief that Luceria was going to be stormed by vis.

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9.2.31–33. haud erat dubium…consultatio fuit: note the nearly journalistic style Livy uses in this sentence, an example of parataxis. haud erat dubium quin: “there was little hesitation but that…” Lucernis: dative, indirect object of ferret. opem: military aid. Romanus: sc. exercitus or sim. bonis ac fidelibus sociis: dative, in apposition to Lucernis, “allies of good faith,” an example of hendiadys. A phrase often found in Livy (cf. 22.37.4; 24.48.5; 29.17.2 37.53.9; 39.26.12, and 42.6.8), and elsewhere (cf. Plaut. Mil. 889; Pers. 67; Cic. Caecil. 12; Font. 32; Sall. Iug. 77.3). simul ne… deficeret: a negative purpose clause, “at the same time in order that all Apulia not defect in the face of the imminent threat.” ad praesentem terrorem: for the expression elsewhere in Livy, cf. 30.11.11; 34.4.1 (with instans). ea modo…consultatio fuit: “this was the only consideration.” qua irent: “by what way they should go.”

V Livy’s Description of the Caudine Forks 9.2.34–40 9.2.34–35. duae ad Luceriam…brevioir: the exact location of the Caudine Forks remains a matter of debate among scholars to this day. duae…viae: note how the hyperbaton of the adjective and its noun brackets the entire clause. ferebant: used here intransitively “led.” altera…altera: “one way…the other way…” The subject and verb of both are an understood via erat. Note how the relative lengths of these two clauses mimic the relative disparity between the lengths of the two roads that lead to Luceria. superi maris: (i.e., the Adriatic Sea) genitive, dependent on oram, object of the preposition praeter. patens apertaque…sed: a nearly redundant phrase, translate as a hendiadys, “wide open.” The rhetorical device perhaps emphasizing that the route was safer. quanto tutior tanto fere longior: the correlatives quanto…tanto are ablatives of degree of difference with the comparative adjectives: “by as much as it was safer, by that much it was nearly as long.” altera per Furculas Caudinas, brevior: (sc. via erat). Note the brevity of this second clause describing the shorter route (brevior) through the fateful Caudine Forks, a mere five words. Livy maintains parallel structure by the periodic bracketing of altera…longior :: altera…brevior. 9.2.35–36. sed ita natus locus est: “but thus is the place by nature.” Note the shift to the present tense, where Livy will stay for the entire description. By omitting any mention of deliberation among the Roman leadership, Livy may be hinting at the reckless haste that led the Romans into the trap. 9.2.36–37. saltus…iuncti: the narrow defiles leading into the mountain pass at either end. duo alti angusti silvosique: a string of adjectives modifying saltus, the subject of the sentence. alti: here “deep” as often of the sea in Vergil. sunt: construe with iuncti. Note how Livy uses the hyperbaton between the two parts of the verb to bracket the ablative phrase montibus…perpetuis (means) which in turn brackets



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the adverb circa, another example of hyperbaton. inter se: construe with iuncti sunt, “joined to each other.” 9.2.37–38. iacet…est: the terrain between the two narrow passes. inter eos: antecedent is saltus from the previous sentence. satis: used here adverbially with patens, “sufficiently wide,” or “rather spacious.” clausus…campus: note how the participle and campus (subject of iacet) bracket the prepositional phrase in medio. herbidus aquosusque: (for this expression cf. 29.31.9; also Pliny Nat. 18.164). per quem: antecedent is campus. medium iter est: picking up on in medio, “through which middle ground lies the road.” 9.2.38–40. sed…venias…pergas…evadendum: Livy ends his description of the topography of the valley with a shift from the third person indicative to the second person singular potential subjunctive, a common device employed by Livy to make the description more vivid by involving the reader more intimately in the narrative. ad eum: antecedent is campus. intrandae…sunt: the future passive periphrastic construction, expressing an imperative action (so also with repetenda and evadendum below); note how the hyperbaton between intrandae and sunt brackets primae an­ gustiae just as the two narrow defiles bracket the campus in between them. primae angustiae: i.e. the first of the two defiles. eadem…via: note how the hyperbaton between the demonstrative adjective and its noun brackets the relative clause qua te insinuaveris. retro…repetenda: the tautology achieved by the use of the adverb retro with a verb compounded by re- adds a pleonastic emphasis (cf., e.g. 2.45.7, 23.36.6). ire: translate as complementary infinitive, another example of pleonasm as semantically pergas could stand alone (cf. pergerent [9.2.42], pergunt [9.2.44] below). porro pergas, per: note how the tautology of per- is enhanced by the alliteration of “p.” artiorem impeditioremque: the comparandum of the comparative adjectives is an understood quam primis angustiis, i.e. the first saltus by which one entered the campus of the Furculae Caudinae.

VI Into the Caudine Pass 9.2.41–45 9.2.41–45. in eum campum…inveniunt: the Romans quickly realize that they have been lured into a deadly trap. in eum campum: the use of the demonstrative pronoun picks up on iacet…campus (9.2.37) from the previous sentence (see note on demisso agmine below). via alia: ablative (means), “by one way or another.” per cavam rupem: here not “hollow” but rather referring to the fact that the rocky cliffs of the valley surround the campus on all sides, creating a “hollow” between them. demisso agmine: ablative absolute, “with the troops having been lead down,” construe with in eum campum (see note above). cum: the conjunction (temporal) should begin the clause but has been postponed by Livy probably to avoid strict

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with the next clause, which also begins with a temporal cum clause. ad alias angustias: i.e., the opposite defile. protinus pergerent: (for the alliteration cf. porro pergas, note on 9.2.39 above). saeptas: the passive participle (> saepire), antecedent is angustias. invenere: = invenerunt, the syncopated form (subject is an understood Romani); note the periodicity of each of the clauses in this and the following description. deiectu: ablative (means). arborum: (genitive) construe with deiectu. obiacente mole: ablative absolute (means). saxorumque ingentium: genitive, construe with obiacente mole. cum…apparuisset: temporal. fraus: here “ambush” (cf. 9.31.16, 10.34.6, 21.34.1, 22.28.5–8, 31.36.3; also Tac. ann. 13.40.1). hostilis: = hostium. etiam: “now, too…” The word adds significant dramatic effect: at the moment the Romans realize they have walked into a trap, the Samnite army reveals itself. praesidium: subject of conspicitur. The choice of this noun is no doubt deliberate (> sedere) as it is in keeping with the nature of an ambush (sitting, waiting), rather than a more general term such as exercitus. Livy uses this same word of the Romans at 9.2.27, when speaking of the Roman bivouac at Calatia. conspicitur: note the use of the passive voice, which adds to the accretive nature of the way in which the Romans realize their situation. in summo saltu: either the phrase means “on a high position (overlooking) the defile,” or “at the far end of the defile.” citati: (sc. Romani) the participle. qua: the adverb (sc. via), “by what way…” repetere: complementary infinitive with pergunt, here necessary given viam, its object. eam… clausam: the antecedent is viam. sua obice armisque: both are ablatives (means) with clausam (armis is metonymy for “armed men”). parallelism

VII The Roman Reaction 9.2.46–3.65 9.2.46–48. sistunt…silent: the Roman soldiers realize that they have been marched into a trap. sistunt…gradum: lit. “they stop their march.” inde: picking up on inde of the previous sentence (9.2.46), “then…then…” sine…imperio: note how the hyperbaton between the preposition and its object brackets the genitive ullius. insolitus: construe with quidam (antecedent is both stupor and torpor). animos…membra: objects of tenet, the verb of both stupor and torpor. For the notion of stupor and torpor rendering an individual powerless to move (see 3.47.6, 6.40.1; cf. also, 22.53.6, and Vergil Aen. 1.520). intuentesque alii alios: “each man gazing at another.” cum… ducerent: the clause is causal and factitive, with ducere here meaning not “to lead” but “to reckon” or “consider,” a secondary use of the verb. alterum quisque: “each one considering the other…” compotem magis mentis ac consilii: “…more in control of his wits and purpose (than himself).” 9.2.48–53. deinde…eludentes: following the example of their commanders, the Roman soldiers take up their entrenching tools and attempt to set in. ubi…operi: a



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temporal clause, “when…” videre: = viderunt, the syncopated form. erigi…expedire: infinitives in an indirect statement dependent on videre. consulum: genitive, modifying praetoria (the plural is used here because each consul had his own tent). quosdam: subject of expedire. operi: dative, construe with utilia, “tools for the work at hand.” quamquam…cernebant: concessive, anticipating the tamen clause, “although…” ludibrio: dative of reference, construe with fore (= futurum esse) infinitive of the indirect statement dependent upon cernebant. munientes: accusative, construe with ludibrio fore, “they perceived that digging in would be ridiculous.” perditis rebus ac spe omni adempta: ablative absolutes, “with their situation in ruins and with all hope removed.” tamen: the resolution of the quamquam clause, “nevertheless…” ne…ad­ derent: a negative purpose clause, interrupting the tamen clause. malis: dative, “so that they not add personal fault to their misfortunes.” pro se quisque: “each man on his own behalf.” nec hortante ullo nec imperante: two ablative absolutes, active (sc. eos or sim. as direct objects). ad muniendum: ad + the gerundive denoting purpose, construe with the participle versi. castra…circumdant: note how the verb and its object bracket the two adverbial modifiers. propter aquam: “near the water.” Certainly not a river is meant, so one is left to imagine some sort of stagnant, standing body of water, a bog, or swamp. vallo: ablative (means). praeterquam quod: “despite the fact that.” Note how Livy postpones these two words, which should introduce the clause. ipsi: construe with hostes, a hyperbaton of some five words. sua…opera laboremque irritum: (sc. esse) indirect statement dependent on crepebant (although it agrees only with laborem, construe irritum [esse] also with opera, the two accusatives an example of hendiadys, “the labor of their work,” or, “the work of their labor.” cum miserabili confessione: “with miserable candor,” construe with eludentes (note the irony of the expression). eludentes: i.e., the Samnites. 9.2.53–54. ad consules…quando…locus esset: Livy now turns his attention from the disposition of the rank and file to focus on the consuls and their tribunes and legates introduced by a dependent clause governed by quando, postponed by eight words. ad consules: construe with locus esset, the main verb of the clause, here used impersonally, “seeing that there was no opportunity for the consuls…” ne…quidem: “not even,” a grammatical construction that brackets a word or phrase for emphasis. advocantes: in apposition to consules. nec consilio nec auxilio: datives of purpose, construe also with locus esset. 9.2.54–56. sua sponte…exposcent: the main clause, in which Livy contrasts the inaction of the consuls with the action of their subordinates. sua sponte: “of their own accord.” The fact that the consuls themselves do not call a consilium given their dire circumstances is a remarkable lapse of command. militesque: a collective term, in apposition to legati ac tribuni. Note how the hyperbaton between milites and its participle versi brackets the prepositional phrase ad praetorium. opem: object of ex­ poscunt, the main verb of the sentence. quam: antecedent is opem. ab ducibus: i.e., the consuls, construe with exposcunt. quam…poterant: for the expression elsewhere in Livy cf. 4.12.7 and 4.43.11.

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9.3.57–61. querentes…paramus: note how Livy begins and ends this section with nox repeated as subject (see note on nox traducta est below at 9.3.65). querentes magis quam consultantes: (sc. milites) “complaining more than consulting.” The two active participles are substantives functioning as the direct object of oppres­ sit. nox oppressit: a vivid phrase that conveys the emotion of the moment. cum: (temporal) “as…” The conjunction with the imperfect subjunctive (fremerent) describes action that is taking place at the same time as the main verb. pro ingenio quisque: “each man in accordance with his own nature…” alius…alius…alius: a tricolon of direct statements, “one…another…another…” Each pronoun is the subject of a direct quote (sc. ait, or sim.). per obices viarum: (sc. eamus) see note below. viarum…montium: genitive plural (objective) in parallel constructions. ferri: the passive infinitive (> ferre) complementing poterunt. arma: subject of po­ terunt. eamus: an independent hortatory subjunctive, the main verb of the preceding direct quotes introduced by the anaphora of alius per…alius per…per. modo: = si modo, “if only.” liceat: an impersonal verb, subjunctive, the subject is the accusative and infinitive clause pervenire (sc. nos). quem: antecedent is hostem. per an­ nos iam prope triginta: “now for nearly thirty years.” vincimus: the present tense indicates that the Romans and the Samnites have been at continual warfare going on thirty years now, and for all that time the Romans have been “conquering.” A boastful statement, as there no doubt were Roman defeats, Samnite victories, not to mention an interval of peace from 341–328 b.c. Romano…pugnanti: dative of interest (or possession) with erunt (note how the hyperbaton between the adjective and the participle brackets the prepositional phrase in…Samnitem), “for the Roman fighting against the faithless Samnite all (places) will be flat and level.” quo aut qua eamus: the deliberative subjunctive, “where or by what way are we to go?” num: introduces a question that expects a negative answer. montes: object of moliri, complementary infinitive of paramus. sede sua: ablative (separation) “from their seat.” 9.3.61–64. dum…conficiet: the deliberating over options already beyond their reach continues futilely through the night. dum: “as long as…” haec…iuga: note how the hyperbaton between the demonstrative pronoun (haec) and its noun (iuga) brackets the verb of the dum clause. qua…venies: “how will you come at the enemy?” ar­ mati, inermes, fortes, ignavi: two dicola of antithetical adjectives in asyndeton, “(whether) armed (or) unarmed, brave (or) cowardly.” pariter omnes…sumus: “just the same we are all captive and conquered.” ne…quidem: note how the construction brackets ferrum, the direct object of oblaturus est, the future perfect active, subject is hostis (i.e., the Samnites), placed in first position for emphasis, underlining the Romans’ realization that they are, or will soon be inermes, and therefore at the mercy of the Samnites, who are anything but unarmed. ad bene moriendum: i.e., an honorable death in battle, well documented by ancient Greek and Roman authors (cf. Soph. Aj. 479–80, El. 1319–21; Eur. Or. 1151–2; Cic. Quinct. 49, Phil. 9.11). sedens: (sc. hostis) note the irony.



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9.3.64–65. his…traducta est: Livy brings this scene to a close. his…sermonibus: a strict ablative of attendant circumstance, “during” or “in the midst of these comments…” in vicem: adverbial, expressing reciprocation, “one after the other,” “in turn.” Construe with his…sermonibus, which brackets it. qua…qua: “both…and…” cibi…quietis: genitives, dependent on immemor, which modifies nox, the subject of traducta est. immemor: while the adjective agrees with nox, it was the army that spent the night unmindful of food or sleep, not the night. This is an example of hypallage, or transferred epithet. nox oppressit…nox traducta est: note how Livy ends the scene as he began it, an example of ring composition that underscores how the Roman army is surrounded not only by the geography of the Caudine Forks, but also by the Samnite army.

VIII Pontius Seeks the Counsel of His Father Herennius 9.3.66–75 9.3.66. ne Samnitibus quidem…suppetebat rebus: Livy switches point of view to the Samnites, who are equally stunned by the turn of events—albeit for different reasons. ne…quidem: note how Livy uses this construction to bracket Samnitibus, a signal that (1) he is switching perspective to the viewpoint of the Samnites; and (2) that, despite the fact that they have the upper hand, the Samnites are at the same stalemate position as the Romans. Samnitibus: dative, construe with suppetebat. 9.3.66–67. itaque…censent: Herennius, Pontius’ father, mentioned in the opening lines of the book (9.1.2), is now consulted, first by messenger, then summoned to the site of the ambush. universi: (subject of censent) as a substantive it is a telling word: the Samnites are of one mind, if not of what to do with the captured Roman legions, at least from whom to seek advice. imperatoris: (i.e., Pontius) genitive, modifying patrem, in apposition to Herennium Pontium. per litteras: rather than have Herennius appear in person at the start of the Samnites’ deliberation, Livy suspends the confrontation between father and son by first having Pontius solicit his father’s counsel by post (cf. how Appian [Samn. 4.6–13] treats this scene in a much different, less dramatic fashion). consulendum: (sc. esse) the future passive periphrastic infinitive, an indirect statement dependent on censent. 9.3.67–68. iam…muneribus: due to his advanced years, Herennius is not physically up to making the journey—another literary device to juxtapose the advanced age and sagacity of the father with the youth and recklessness of the son. iam is gravis annis: iam is often used to show the infirmity of old age (cf. e.g., 2.19.6, 5.12, 10.13.6; see also Cic. Cat. 2.20; Verg. Aen. 2.435–6, 6.304, 7.46; Suet. Aug. 29.3). annis: ablative (means or cause) with the adjective gravis, “burdened with years.” non…solum sed… quoque: note how the correlative construction brackets the adjectives militaribus and civilibus, the two aspects of Herennius’ public service from which old age has

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forced him to withdraw. Both agree with and are resolved by the periodic placement of muneribus. 9.3.68–69. in corpore…consiliique: while old age has caused Herennius to withdraw from military and civic duties, the strength and vigor of his mind remains intact. tamen: note how Livy brackets the adverb, which should introduce the clause, between the hyperbaton of corpore and adfecto. vigebat vis: in the singular, of an individual holding or known for holding public office, vis should be translated as “political weight” (note the alliteration between the verb and its subject). animi consiliique: genitives dependent upon vis, an example of hendiadys. 9.3.69–71. is…dimittendos: the first of two alternatives that Herennius offers his son as to what action he should take with the captured Roman army. accepit: the verb of the ubi clause; “to grasp” or “understand,” governing the following indirect statement (clausos esse exercitius Romanos). consultus ab nuntio filii: agency with consul­ tus: “having been consulted by the messenger of his son…” omnes…inviolatos dimi­ tendos: a second indirect statement governed by censuit, the verb of the main clause. inde: “from that place,” i.e., the Caudine Forks. quam primum: “as soon as possible.” Note how the first accusative plural of the indirect statement (omnes) brackets the adverbial phrase (inde quam primum). dimittendos: (sc. esse) the reference is to the Roman army. Note the use of the future passive periphrastic throughout the Herennius episode denoting imperative action. 9.3.71–72. quae…interficiendos: the second alternative offered by Herennius. quae: the connecting relative pronoun (= et ea) which precedes its antecedent senten­ tia and the conjunction ubi (temporal) which should begin the clause. sententia: i.e., Herennius’ first advice that the Romans be freed. iterum eodem remeante nuntio: ablative absolute, “with this same messenger returning a second time…” consuleba­ tur: the subject is an understood Herennius, so also for censuit. ad unum: “to a man.” interficiendos: (sc. esse) the reference is to the Roman army. 9.3.72–75. quae ubi…acciret: Pontius, unsatisfied with either option his father has returned by messenger, sends for the old man in order to discuss in person what course of action to take. quae ubi tam discordia: the connecting relative pronoun (= et ea) anticipating discordia (picking up on quae ubi → sententia that began the preceding sentence). discordia inter se: the reflexive pronoun here is in reference to the two contradictory sententiae of Herennius. velut…responsa sunt: the adverb introduces a simile likening Herennius’ two responses (either to let the Roman army go unharmed or slaughter them all) to the riddling, ambiguous (ancipiti) responses of an oracle. quamquam filius ipse in primis…tamen: very emphatic, “although the son himself was among the very first…nevertheless…” consenuisse: the perfect infinitive (> consenescere), indirect statement dependent on rebatur. in adfecto corpore: picking up on in corpore tamen adfecto from 9.3.68–69. tamen consensu omnium victus est: “nevertheless he was overcome by the consensus of everybody…” ut…acciret: a result clause. ipsum: i.e., Herennius.



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IX The Arrival of Herennius 9.3.76–87 9.3.76–77. nec gravatus senex…adiceret: Herennius arrives at the Samnite camp overlooking the trapped Roman army in the ravine below. nec: construe with gravatus (> gravari), “and not unwillingly,” (i.e., despite his advanced years), an example of litotes. plaustro: ablative (means) with advectus. Note the chiasmus of in castra… advectus vocatusque in consilium. dicitur: subject is senex; a common use of the passive form of this verb used by Livy when he wants to distance himself from his sources, especially when a speech is coming, something that could not possibly be a record of fact (cf. e.g., 1.55.5, 2.36.7–8, 7.6.1, 8.6.1 and 6.9, 9.29.10). advectus vocatusque… locutus esse: the first two are passive participles followed by a complementary infinitive with dicitur: “the old man, having been carried into camp and called into council, is said to have spoken…” ita ferme locutus esse: “so resolutely that…” The ita anticipates the following ut clause. ut…adiceret: a bipartite result clause, arranged paratactically in asyndeton. sententiae suae: i.e., Herennius’ earlier advice, genitive modifying nihil, object of mutaret. causas: i.e., his reasons behind his two senten­ tiae. tantum: the adverb, “but.” 9.3.77–79. priore se consilio…pacem amicitiamque: Herennius’ response comes in two indirect statements; in the first we learn that Herennius feels that his initial option—releasing the Roman army unharmed—is the wisest choice. priore…consilio: ablative (specification), in reference to his two conflicting sententiae, “as pertaining to his first opinion…” i.e., the benefits of letting the Roman army go unharmed. se: accusative (i.e., the Samnites), subject of firmare (9.3.79), the verb of the indirect statement se…perpetuam firmare pacem amicitiamque. Note the hyperbaton between se (subject) and perpetuam firmare pacem amicitiamque (predicate) of the indirect statement. pacem amicitiamque: hendiadys for “friendly peace,” or “peace on friendly terms.” quod optimum duceret: antecedent is consilio, “which he considered to be the best.” cum: the preposition, whose object is populo (note how the hyperbaton between the preposition and its object brackets the superlative adjective potentissi­ mo). per ingens beneficium: “through an enormous act of kindness.” 9.3.79–80. altero consilio…bellum differre: ablative (specification) regarding Herennius’ second opinion (sententia), that his son Pontius slaughter the Roman legions (note how this ablative phrase appears at the head of its clause in parallel construction to priore consilio). in multas aetates: “for many generations,” construe with bellum differre, the main clause of the second indirect statement (i.e., it would take many generations to rebuild the Roman legions were the Samnites to annihilate them now). quibus amissis duobus exercitibus: ablative absolute (causal), “because with the two armies having been lost.” haud facile: “not easily.” receptura…esset: the verb of the quibus clause, which separates in multas aetates from bellum differre (note how the future active periphrastic construction brackets both subject, Romana res,

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and direct object, vires. Romana res: i.e., the res publica Romana, “the Roman State.” bellum differre: the subject is an understood se (i.e., the Samnites). 9.3.80–81. tertium nullum consilium esse: the final part of the indirect statement, shutting down any chance of there being a third option forthcoming. 9.3.81–83. cum filius…imponerentur: Pontius, clearly unsatisfied by the two options offered by his father, proposes his own third alternative. cum: the conjunction (temporal), “when.” percontando exsequerentur: “were pursuing him through inquiry…” The gerund (ablative of means) with verbs of inquiry (exsequi) is an idiom quite common in Livy (cf. 6.14.13, 22.3.2, 25.29.10, 35.28.4). quid si…caperetur: “what if…” i.e., “what (would happen) if a middle course of action were taken?” ut…imponerentur: a bipartite result clause connected by the anaphora of et… et (“both…and”). Pontius is obviously torn between letting the Roman army go unharmed (dimitterentur incolumes), and exacting some sort of punishment from them as a vanquished foe (victis) under what he considers to be the rules of war (leges…iure bel­ li). It is understandably an enticing option and one that the young Pontius ultimately cannot resist, despite his father’s advice and logic. iis…victis: i.e., the Roman army, dative with imponerentur (note how the hyperbaton between the pronoun and the participle brackets the ablative iure and the genitive belli modifying it). 9.3.83–84. ista quidem sententia…tollit: Herennius’ response to his son’s proposal is emphatic, condescending. Note the contrast of the son’s questions in the subjunctive with the father’s statements in the indicative, imperative, and finally the future. ista: the demonstrative pronoun (anticipating ea est, which in turn sets up the relative clause introduced by quae), frequently carries with it a sense of antagonism or contempt, as indeed it does here, rendered even more emphatic by the adverb quidem. in­ quit: the subject is Herennius. parat…tollit: use of the indicative in a relative clause indicates something that is a fact about its antecedent, i.e., the sententia of Pontius. 9.3.84–85. servate…nesciat: Herennius continues his rather scornful treatment of his son’s proposed “middle course” by shifting now to the imperative mood. modo: in urgent commands the adverb carries the force of “just be sure to…” quos…irritaveri­ tis: “whom you will have provoked with disgrace.” ignominia: ablative (means). ea est Romana gens: note again how emphatic Herennius is being. As in the previous statement, the pronoun (ea) anticipates the quae clause. quae…nesciat: a relative clause of characteristic, hence the subjunctive; “this is the Roman race, which does not know how to be still (despite being) conquered.” victa: the participle, modifying gens, is concessive. 9.3.85–86. vivet…sinet: Herennius issues his final opinion. The pair of future verbs lends an almost oracular quality to his words, and their bookend placement lends further rhetorical emphasis; Herennius is sure to make his position clear before leaving. semper: the adverb seems almost redundant given the force of the future tense of the verb. illorum: i.e., the Romans. istuc: the adverb, “there, in that place” i.e., in pecto­ ribus. quidquid…inusserit: “whatever the present necessity will have branded there



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(istuc).” The clause is the subject of both vivet and sinet. eos: direct object of sinet and the subject of quiescere, an objective infinitive repeated from the previous sentence in near strict parallel composition. ante: the preposition, governing the entire participial phrase multiplices poenas expetitas. a vobis: “from you,” construe with expetitas. 9.3.87. neutra…est avectus: his counsel given, but not accepted, Herennius departs. neutra sententia accepta: ablative absolute. domum: terminal accusative with est avectus.

X Pontius Will Send the Romans Under the Yoke of the Vanquished 9.4.88–98 9.4.88–90. et in castris…provocarent ad pugnam: leaving the Samnite camp (e castris) and returning to the Roman one (in castris). Repetition of castris from the end of the previous sentence and the beginning of this one effectively brings about the change of scene. cum: governing both capti essent (see note below) and inopia esset. multi: construe with conatus (here the noun, not the participle), the subject of capti essent (see note below). ad erumpendum: purpose. capti essent: the verb should be understood as “undertaken,” but the pun is no accident. Note how the subject conatus brackets ad erumpendum, “after many attempts at breaking out were undertaken in vain…” necessitate: ablative (means) with victi. legatos mittunt: (sc. Romani) the main clause of the sentence. qui…peterent: a relative clause of characteristic (purpose), antecedent is legatos. si pacem non impetrarent: the alternative if the embassy’s first (primum) course of action, to seek a pax aequa, fails. uti provocarent ad pugnam: an indirect command, dependent upon an understood verb or expression of “ordering” implied after legatos mittunt. 9.4.90–93. tum Pontius…fore: Pontius’ response shows his hatred of Roman su­ perbia, but also reveals some superbia of his own. debellatum esse: indirect statement with respondit; the subject, an understood bellum, is contained within the verb itself. et: connects the first part of the indirect statement with the second, which is suspended by the interruption of the quoniam clause. quoniam: “since.” It is an important clause, as it conveys the reason why Pontius decides to make the humiliation of the Roman army part of the terms of its release. ne…quidem: note how the adverbial construction always brackets the word or words that the author wants to emphasize. ac: connects the two passive participles victi and capti. fortunam: direct object of fateri, complementary infinitive of scirent, the main verb of the quoniam clause. fateri scirent: with a complementary infinitive translate scirent as “know how to admit…” cum: the preposition. sub iugum: i.e., under the yoke of the vanquished. Making those who must pass under the yoke of the vanquished do so cum singulis vestimen­

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tis was a common form of humiliation imposed upon prisoners (cf. 6.10.4, 21.12.5, 23.15.3, 31.17.3). missurum: (sc. esse) the resumption of the second half of the indirect statement with the future active infinitive, the object is inermes (sc. Romanos), the subject is an understood Pontium. The indirect statement is interrupted by the quoniam clause. alias…fore: the third indirect statement dependent on respondit. ali­ as condiciones…aequas: beyond the humiliation of having to crawl under the yoke cum singulis vestimentis, the other conditions of the peace would be equal to both the conquered and the conquerors. pacis: genitive, construe with condiciones (note how the hyperbaton between condiciones and the adjective aequas brackets the genitive). The use of the adjective aequas here (with condiciones) is ironic; what is being imposed upon them is anything but a condicio pacis aequa. victis ac victoribus: datives, construe with aequas. fore: = futurum esse, the verb of the third indirect statement dependent on respondit. 9.4.92–99. si agro…victurum: the aliae condiciones Pontius has just mentioned (indirect statement dependent upon the original verb respondit from 9.4.91). si agro… decederetur: the first condition, “if there is a withdrawal from the territory of the Samnites…” agro: ablative (separation). decederetur: an example of the impersonal passive. (si) coloniae abducerentur: the second stipulation, that the Roman colonies are removed. suis…victurum: the apodosis that resolves the two preceding protases: if the Romans agree to the following two stipulations, then “the Roman and Samnite will live together in accordance with their own laws under an equitable treaty.” suis…legibus…aequo foedere: two parallel ablative constructions (attendant circumstance); note how the hyperbaton of suis…legibus brackets the adverb inde, which signals that this is the apodosis and resolution of the demands of the peace. Livy also uses chiasmus: suis…legibus…Romanum ac Samnitem aequo foedere (abl. acc. :: acc. abl.) victurum: (sc. esse) the main verb of the apodosis, and the future active infinitive (> vivere) because the apodosis is still governed by respondit (9.4.91) and therefore we are still in indirect statement; the subject is compound: Romanum ac Samnitem (note the use of the generalizing singular). 9.4.94–95. his condicionibus…vetuit: the last part of Pontius’ demand, still in indirect statement: if the Romans are not prepared to accept these terms, the Samnite commander will entertain no more audiences with embassies from the Romans. his condicionibus: ablative of specification, or attendant circumstance, “under these conditions…” paratum se esse foedus cum consulibus ferire: the indirect statement continues, “that he (se) was prepared (paratum esse) to strike (ferire) a treaty (foedus) with the consuls (cum consulibus).” 9.4.95. si quid…vetuit: Pontius makes sure that the Romans understand that his terms are non-negotiable. It is a present general condition with the present imperfect subjunctive and an indefinite subject in the protasis, and present imperfect indicative in the apodosis. quid: = aliquid (as also after nisi, num and ne); the subject of displiceat. eorum: genitive, construe with quid; while the antecedent is Pontius’ condiciones, the pronoun is so far removed from the noun that Livy uses eorum (instead



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of earum), a collective neuter form, “if anything of these things…” legatos redire: an objective infinitive clause with vetuit. ad se: i.e., Pontius. 9.4.96–98. haec…oppetendam esse: the initial reaction of the Romans to this curt reply by Pontius is not good; Livy paints a very dramatic and emotional fallout in the Roman camp. haec: as usual in Livy the pronoun anticipates its antecedent, in this case legatio. cum: the conjunction (temporal), although it follows haec, should be translated first: “when (the news of) this embassy was made known…” tantus gemi­ tus…exortus est tantaque maestitia incessit: the main clause of the sentence. om­ nium: genitive, construe with gemitus. ut non…viderentur: a negative result clause, anticipated by tantus…tantaque in the main clause. gravius: the comparative adverb, construe with accepturi (here anticipating a conditional clause of comparison). accepturi: (sc. esse) complementary future active infinitive with viderentur, “with the result that they did not seem to be ready to accept (the news)…” si…oppetendum esse: a conditional clause of comparison, “than if…” nuntiaretur: sc. legatio. omni­ bus: dative, either indirect object of nuntiaretur, or dative of agent with the future passive periphrastic (see note below). eo loco: “in that place,” i.e., the Caudine Pass. mortem oppetendam esse: the future passive periphrastic used here in the indirect statement governed by nuntiaretur.

XI The Speech of L. Lentulus 9.4.99–119 9.4.99–100. cum diu silentium…possent: silence descends upon the Roman army. cum: temporal, “after…” silentium: the first subject of the cum clause. Silence is a dramatic device used by Livy elsewhere, as at 7.10.1 (diu…silentium fuit…) and 3.47.6, 6.40.1, 7.7.21, 9.38.13, 40.12.2. nec: = neque, “and…not”; it connects silen­ tium fuisset with consules…hiscere possent. consules: the second subject of the cum clause. aut…aut: the correlatives contrast pro foedere and contra foedus, modifying his­ cere, the complementary infinitive of possent. tam turpi…tam necessarium: construe with pro foedere and contra foedus, respectively (note the anaphora of the adverb tam). hiscere: the use of this inchoative paints a vivid picture of the impotence of the consuls. 9.4.100–101. L. Lentulus…erat: L. Lentulus (cos. 327) addresses the army. qui… erat: relative clause modifying Lentulus. tum: “then…” the adverb often introduces direct speech (cf. 9.9.232, 9.10.285, 9.11.292). princeps legatorum: “first among the senior officers…” virtute atque honoribus: ablatives of description, construe with princeps. The phrase is possibly a hendiadys, but the difference between virtus and honores was a clear distinction in the Roman mind as the juxtaposition of one’s private life and personal character (virtus) with one’s public career as a holder of public offices (honores).

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9.4.101–104. patrem meum…pernicie possent: Lentulus will argue that the Romans must submit to Pontius’ terms because the alternative means the destruction of the entire Roman army, tantamount to the destruction of Rome itself. patrem meum: L. Lentulus’ father was among those senators on the besieged Capitoline Hill in 390 b.c. He played a key role in swaying the other senators to strike a deal with the Gauls so they would quit the city. audivi: the main verb of the sentence. memo­ rantem: antecedent of the participle is patrem. se…unum…non fuisse auctorem: indirect statement governed by memorantem: “Many were the times (saepe) I heard (audivi) my father (patrem meum) recountimg (memorantem) that…” se: (i.e., Lentulus’ father) accusative subject of the indirect statement: “that he alone had not been the responsible party for…” in Capitolio: “on the Capitoline Hill.” senatui: dative of agent with the following gerundive construction. redimendae…civitatis: genitive, construe with auctorem, “responsible party for the ransoming of the city by the senate…” auro: ablative (means). a Gallis: “from the Gauls,” construe with red­ imendae…civitatis, which brackets the prepositional phrase. quando nec fossa val­ loque: (= neque…neque) two ablatives (means), construe with clausi essent, “when neither by trench nor by earthwork…” ab ignavissimo…hoste: agency, construe with clausi essent; note how the object of the preposition, anticipated by the superlative adjective, is suspended by a hyperbaton of four words that comprise the idiomatic phrase ad opera ac muniendum (an example of hendiadys), construe with ignavissimo: “most inept for the purpose of the work of fortifying…” clausi essent: subject is an understood Romani. erumpere: complementary infinitive with possent, whose periodic placement separates it from the infinitive by a hyperbaton of nine words. si… sine magno periculo…tamen sine certa pernicie: note the strict parallel structure. 9.4.104–107. quod si…in consilio dando deesset: an example of the rhetorical device hypophora. quod si: “but if…” the protasis is suspended by the insertion of the ut clause, and resumes with the quo…modo clause (see note below). illis: (i.e., Lentulus’ father and the others trapped by the Gauls on the Capitoline Hill) the demonstrative pronoun precedes the conjunction ut, which should begin the clause, anticipating armatis, dative with licuit. ut decurrere…licuit: “just as it was permitted to them bearing arms to rush down,” anticipating the following noun result clause introduced by ita (see note). decurrere: objective infinitive, governed by the impersonal verb licuit (the structure is: ut licuit illis armatis decurrere ex capitolio in hostem). quo saepe modo: construe quo modo together and saepe with erumperunt, “in this manner often…” obsessi in obsidentes: note 1) the juxtaposition of the passive and active participles of obsedere; and 2) the parallelism with the phrase armatis in hostem from the preceding ut clause. ita…esset: a noun result clause that resolves the preceding ut clause. nobis: dative (reference), in juxtaposition to illis armatis, construe with copia esset (see note below). aequo aut iniquo loco: ablatives (attendant circumstance), “either on favorable or unfavorable ground.” dimicandi: gerund, construe with copia (see note). cum hoste: prepositional phrase, construe with dimicandi. ita nobis…copia esset: “…so for us…there is opportunity for fighting.” mihi…deesset:



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the main clause, or apodosis. mihi: dative with the compound verb deesset. paterni animi: genitive, construe with indoles, the subject of deesset. in consilio dando: the gerundive construction, “in giving counsel.” 9.4.107–109. equidem…paratus sum: that it is noble to die for one’s country can be traced to Homer (cf. Il. 15.494–497) and Tyrtaeus (fr. 10.1–2, 13–32; fr. 12.23–44), as well as Roman authors of a later period (cf. Cic. Sest. 23, 29; Tusc. 1.116–117; Fin. 3.64; Phil. 14.38); among Livy’s contemporaries is the poet Horace, whose Second Roman Ode (Carm. 3.2.13) famously boasts: dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. equidem: note the emphatic placement of this adverb. mortem…praeclaram esse: note how the subject, subject complement, and verb of the indirect statement (governed by fateor) brackets the prepositional phrase pro patria. et me vel devovere…vel…me immittere: the two infinitives are complementary with paratus sum. devovere pro populo Romano legionibusque: the Roman devotio was a drastic measure carried out by a single soldier who spontaneously sacrificed himself in order to rally a demoralized army in the face of a superior enemy. The famous devotio of Publius Decius Mus is recorded by Livy at 8.6–11 in the year of his consulship (340) when Decius devoted himself at Veseris against the Latins. in medios…hostes: note how the hyperbaton between the adjective and the object of the preposition brackets me immittere, word order mimicking the actual entanglement of a single horseman charging at the enemy lines and being engulfed by the enemy soldiers. 9.4.109–111. sed hic…servent: although the consuls and the legions are trapped far away from the actual city of Rome, they constitute the fatherland (patria) itself. hic… hic: the adverb, “here,” “in this place.” quidquid Romanarum legionum: i.e., the fate of the entire Roman army is at stake. quae: (= et ea) the connecting relative pronoun, nominative antecedent is legionum. nisi…volunt…quid habent…quod… servent: the subject of all three verbs is the connecting relative quae, which precedes the conjunction and stands outside its clause. pro se ipsis: emphatic, “on their own behalf for themselves.” ad mortem: construe with ruere, the complementary infinitive of volunt. quid habent quod: “what do they have which…” servent: present imperfect subjunctive, verb of the apodosis of this mixed condition. morte sua: ablative (means). 9.4.111–112. tecta…incolitur: the antecedent of this sentence is the question quid habent quod morte sua servent that ends the preceding sentence (an example of occupatio or prolepsis). While Lentulus is personifying the army’s castra as urbs Roma, he is also answering the hypothetical question with a hypothetical answer voiced by an imaginary third party (dicat aliquis). The tone is sarcastic. eam turbam…a qua: note how the demonstrative pronoun anticipates the relative clause. urbs: the repetition of this noun at the beginning and end of this sentence—is rhetorically deliberate. 9.4.112. immo hercule…non servantur: having invoked the image of Rome so vividly, Lentulus now defines victory: the preservation of the army = the preservation of Rome. They must meet the Samnites’ terms no matter what those terms are; they must save the Roman army at all costs despite their honor. ea omnia: i.e., tecta, moe­

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nia, and turbam. deleto hoc exercitu: an ablative absolute expressing means or cause with produntur (note the emphatic addition of the demonstrative pronoun bracketed by the participle and the noun). non servantur: in contrast to produntur, emphatic in its brevity. Note: this is the first of four times Lentulus will use this verb in his short speech; the other word repeated four times, and often coupled with servare, is patria. 9.4.112–113. quis enim ea tuebitur: the question is rhetorical. ea: accusative, neuter, antecedents are tecta, moenia and turbam from the previous sentence. 9.4.113. imbellis…multitudo: a sarcastic response to his own question. videlicet: the adverb here signals high irony. imbellis…atque inermis multitudo: (sc. tuebitur) from the previous sentence. 9.4.113–114. tam…defendit: the Romans’ ransoming of their city from the Gauls in 390 proved a continuing source of shame for generations to come. tam hercule quam: Livy uses the tam…quam construction, usually written as one word (tamquam), to bracket and therefore emphasize the adverb hercule, which continues the ironic tone of videlicet from the previous sentence, an example of tmesis. Gallorum: note how the genitive is bracketed by the hyperbaton between the preposition a and its object impetu. defendit: the subject is an understood imbellis atque inermis multitudo from the previous sentence. 9.4.114. an…implorabunt: a rhetorical question. a Veiis: “from Veii.” Camillum­ que ducem: “and another Camillus as leader.” The reference is to L. Furius Camillus, dictator in 390 (see below). ducem: in apposition to Camillum. implorabunt: the plural here because through the words of Lentulus, Livy is recalling the story he tells at 5.46.4–11 and 5.49.1–7, how in 390 the Romans who had fled Rome in the face of the Gallic invasion summoned Camillus, in exile at Ardea, to come to their aid. 9.4.114–116. hic…prodimus: the four consular legions comprise the salvation of Rome and must be preserved at any cost, even if it includes humiliation at the hands of their enemy. hic: the adverb. spes opesque sunt: a common pairing across Latin literature (cf. Plaut. Amph. 1053, Capt. 445, Rud. 1145; Ter. Ad. 331–2, Phorm. 470; Cic. Cat. 3.16, Dict. 2.44; Sall. Iug. 114.4; Sen. Epist. 48.8). quas servando patriam servamus: antecedent of quas is spes opesque. servando: ablative (means) of the gerund, taking quas as its object. dedendo ad necem patriam: note the parallel word order with the preceding quas clause, including the repetition of patriam. 9.4.116. at foeda…deditio est: another example of occupatio. at: “but” introducing a strong argumentative tone. foeda atque ignominiosa deditio est: equating surrender (deditio) with foeda and ignominiosa is strong enough, but Livy also is aware of the pun he has just made with the adjective (foedus) “foul,” “disgraceful,” and the noun (foedus,) “treaty.” 9.4.116–117. sed ea…servemus: an answer for the imaginary antagonist. ea cari­ tas patriae…ut: the demonstrative pronoun ea anticipates the result clause (ut… servemus), “this love for our fatherland (is such) that…” tam…quam: = tamquam, an example of tmesis, which brackets ignominia, ablative, in parallel construction



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with morte (see note following). eam: = patriam, object of servemus (see below). morte nostra: ablative (means), construe with servemus. si opus sit: “if there be need.” servemus: hortatory subjunctive, “let us preserve.” 9.4.117–118. subeatur…superant: the consuls should take whatever measures necessary to save the Roman army and thereby the State. subeatur ergo: the subject is indignitas: “it should/must be undertaken.” quantacumque est: “however great it is.” The clause anticipates its own antecedent, indignitas. pareatur: in parallel construction with subeatur, another present imperfect hortatory subjunctive whose subject is indignitas (see note on subeatur above). necessitate: ablative (cause), construe with both subeatur and pareatur. quam…superant: antecedent is necessitate. ne… quidem: “not…even.” Note how this adverbial compound construction brackets the word (or words) it modifies. di: nominative plural of deus, subject of superant. 9.4.119. ite, consules…redemerunt: Lentulus summons the memory of the Romans’ ransoming the city from the Gauls in 390 as a model for how the consuls should behave now. consules: the vocative case. armis: ablative (means). civitatem: note how Lentulus is using civitas (the city Rome) when he actually is speaking about the army (legiones) in its present difficulties. quam…redemerunt: antecedent is civitatem. auro: ablative (means).

XII The Consuls Appeal to Pontius 9.5.120–130 9.5.120–121. consules…sollemni: Calvinus and Postumius meet with Pontius to discuss the terms of their surrender. consules: subject of the main clause (see note on negarunt below). profecti: (> proficiscor), antecedent of the participle is consules. in colloquium: the prepositional phrase carries the semantic feature of purpose. cum: (concessive) “although…” victor: see note on 9.5.151. de foedere…agitaret: use of the frequentative underscores how strongly Pontius wants to dictate terms to the Roman army. negarunt: note the emphatic placement of the main verb and also the chiastic structure of foedere…agitaret :: negarunt…foedus. iniussu: the noun occurs in the ablative only (cause) “without the order” (construe with fieri, complementary infinitive of posse). populi: genitive, modifying iniussu, “without any order of the people.” foedus fieri posse: indirect statement governed by negarunt. nec sine fetialibus caerimoniaque: the preposition governs both fetialibus and caerimonia. alia sollemni: both adjectives are ablative, singular, feminine, and modify caerimonia. 9.5.122–123. itaque…facta est: Livy reveals an important source. itaque non: the adverbs closely join this sentence to the preceding one; construe both with facta est, the main verb of the sentence. ut vulgo credunt Claudiusque etiam scribit: the historian is Quintus Claudius Quadrigatus, about whom more is known than any other

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source of Livy. Writing during the time of Sulla, his history (surviving only in fragments) extended from the early Romulan foundation myths to at least 82 b.c. (Vell. 2.9.6). foedere…sed per sponsionem: the ablative and the prepositional phrase share the same semantic feature (means or instrument); the variatio of coupling an instrumental ablative and the preposition per + the accusative is not uncommon in Livy (see note on per se ipis above at 9.4.110; cf. also 6.29.7, 37.7; 7.30.17, 32.12; 8.2.13). The distinction between a foedus and a sponsio, insofar as Livy explains it, is that the former (foedus) is a formal treaty with fetiales performing the proper sacrifices and rituals, its terms and conditions are reviewed and ratified by the Roman senate; and the latter (sponsio) is a less formal “gentleman’s agreement” struck in the field and ratified by the exchange of hostages. This will become an important distinction later in the story. pax Caudina: the first time Livy has repeated the phrase since the opening sentence of the book (9.1.1). 9.5.123–125. quid…feriatur: a rhetorical question to clarify the distinction between a foedus and a sponsio (cf. the formulaic expression given in Book 1.24.3–9). quid enim…opus esset: idiomatic, “for what need would there have been…” aut… aut: “either…or…” The correlative construction joins sponsoribus and obsidibus, datives with the expression opus esset. in foedere: anticipates the following ubi clause, “in a treaty where…” precatione: ablative (means), and loosely the antecedent of the ut clause (see note). res: i.e., the treaty. per quem populum: the prepositional phrase is expressing agency (note how the use of the relative pronoun anticipates the eum of the ut clause). fiat quo minus…stetur: the verbs are impersonal, “through which nation it happens (with the result) that it is not established…” quo: ablative of degree of difference with the comparative adverb minus (> minime): lit. “whereby the less” (often published as quominus). legibus dictis: ablative absolute (means). ut…feriatur: technically a result clause, it finds its antecedent in the preceding precatione, “namely that…” eum: antecedent is populum. ita…quemadmodum: “in such a way as…” a fetialibus: agency with the passive feriatur (note the emphatic repetition of the verb). 9.5.125–127. spoponderunt…non exstarunt: Livy offers further insight into the difference between a foedus and a sponsio. spoponderunt: Livy emphatically places the verb first in the main clause, and again in parallel position in the following qui clause (note the parallel repetition of spoponderunt…spoponderunt…exstant…ex­ starent). consules, legati, quaestores, tribuni militum nominaque omnium qui spo­ ponderunt exstant: Livy is careful to enumerate that, from the consuls down to the military tribunes, the nomina of everybody who stood as guarantors of the sponsio are a matter of public record (extstant). ubi: “whereas…” si…acta res essent: the protasis of a mixed condition. praeterquam…non exstarent: the subject of the apodosis is an understood nomina from the main clause, upon which the genitives duorum fetialum depend. 9.5.127–129. et propter necessariam…non staretur: the unfortunate issue of the 600 equites whose lives would guarantee that the Romans keep the terms of the



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sponsio. propter…dilationem: note how the hyperbaton between the object of the preposition (dilationem) and the adjective that modifies it (necessariam) brackets the genitive (foederis). imperati: nominative, antecedent is equites. obsides…sescenti: in apposition to equites. qui…luerent: a relative clause of characteristic. capite: ablative (means), metonomy for one’s life. si…non staretur: an impersonal clause, “if it were not upheld…” pacto: dative (reference), “in respect to the terms.” 9.5.129–130. tempus…mittendo: the inevitable result of Pontius’ terms comes to a quick and punishing end for the Romans statutum: (sc. est) the subject is tempus, “a time was then set for…” tradendis obsidibus exercituque inermi mittendo: two parallel gerundive constructions, both in the dative with statutum est (note how in the second pair the noun and the gerundive bracket the adjective inermi).

XIII The Consuls Return to Camp With Dire News 9.5.131–140 9.5.131–133. redintegravit…abituri: the consuls return to the camp with news of the humiliation that awaits them. redintegravit…adventus: note Livy’s compact style in constructing clauses, where the sentence begins with the main clause, the verb emphatically in first position and the subject in last, an example of periodicity: both verb and subject bracket the direct object (luctum) and the two modifiers, first the prepositional phrase (in castris) modifying the verb (redintegravit), and the genitive (consulum) modifying the subject (adventus). ut…manus: an adverbial result clause. ab iis: “from those men,” i.e., the consuls (note how the demonstrative pronoun anticipates the following two quorum clauses (see notes). abstinerent: sc. milites. manus: object of abstinerent. quorum…deducti essent: antecedent is ab iis (i.e., the consuls). temeritate: ablative (cause), construe with quorum, “by whose rashness…” quorum…abituri: note how the second quorum clause, joined to the first in asyndeton, maintains strict parallel structure with the first. ignavia: ablative, in parallel placement within the second quorum clause to temeritate in the first. foedi­ us: the comparative adverb, construe with abituri (see note). inde: in contrast to in eum locum. quam venissent: the comparandum clause dependent on foedius. abituri: (sc. essent) the future active periphrastic. 9.5.133–134. illis…missos: indirect statement, governed loosely by the phrase re­ dintegravit luctum. illis: dative (possession) with fuisse. non ducem locorum, non ex­ ploratorem: “they did not have a guide as scout for the territory.” An example of hendiadys. beluarum: genitive, construe with foveam. modo: “only.” caecos: i.e., the Roman army, subject of missos: (sc. esse). 9.5.134–138. alii alios intueri; contemplari…hosti; proponere…venissent: the tricolon of infinitives in this sentence is not part of the indirect statement (alii is

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nominative plural masculine), rather the infinitives are historical, often used by Livy to convey immediacy, here in order to highlight the pathos of the Roman army as events swiftly unfold. The semantics of the verbs emphasize what the Romans see (intueri) and think (contemplari, proponere sibimet ante oculos), adding to the vividness of the historical infinitives. alii alios intueri: the first of the historical infinitive clauses; idiomatic, “each man looks at another,” or, “they look at one another.” con­ templari…hosti: the second of the historical infinitive clauses, it has as its object a tricolon of phrases each of which displays variatio: (1) arma modified by the gerundive tradenda; (2) dextras modified by the future participle futuras governing the adjective inermes as subject complement; and, (3) corpora, modified by the adjective obnoxia. hosti: dative, construe with obnoxia, “no longer a threat to the enemy.” pro­ ponere…venissent: the third of the historical infinitive clauses. et…et…et: proponere governs two tricola of direct objects: iugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos in strict parallel construction (repeating noun + modifier), followed by inermium iter…miserabilem viam…reditum in patriam ad parentes (repeating this time modifier + noun twice with variatio in the third member). sibimet: the enclitic –met adds emphasis to the reflexive pronoun (dative). ipsi: nominative (see note on alii above at 9.5.134 and ipsi at 9.5.138 below); note how the phrase sibimet ipsi is grammatically and idiomatically similar to alii alios (see note above). ante oculos: construe closely with sibimet and proponere. iugum: note how the first object of proponere is the yoke of the enemy (hostile) under which they are soon to crawl, and that the two words bracket the tight idiomatic construction of sibimet ipsi ante oculos. ludibria victo­ ris et vultus superbos: the second and third objects of proponere are references to the inescapable humiliation that the Roman army will suffer as they pass under the yoke of the vanquished. The sentence is replete with references to the visual senses, beginning with intueri (9.5.134). Livy opens for his reader the imagination of the Roman soldiers as they visualize (proponere ante oculos) the humiliation of passing under the yoke, followed by the long journey home. per armatos inermium iter: note how Livy juxtaposes armatos and inermium. inde…viam: “next,” or “after that.” foedi: the adjective, genitive, modifying agminis. Note the distinction between agmen and acies; the former is used of an army marching in a column; the latter is an army in a battle-line formation. miserabilem viam: an echo of inermium iter. per sociorum urbes: foreshadowing the Roman army’s encounter with the Capuans on their way to Rome (see below, 9.6.154–164). reditum: the sixth and final object of proponere. in patriam ad parentes: another allusion to “father and fatherland.” quo…venissent: quo = “where.” ipsi: i.e., the Roman army. maioresque eorum: another reference to the achievements of their ancestors juxtaposed with the disgrace of their present situation. triumphantes: translate predicatively. 9.5.138–140. se…datos: the first in a tricolon of indirect statements, each introduced by an anaphora of the reflexive pronoun (se…sibi…sibi). For the governing verb see note on haec…frementibus below (9.5.141). Note how Livy maintains strict parallel periodicity in each of the three members (se…victos :: sibi…non stringere



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licuisse…conferre :: sibi…datos). se…victos: the subject of the indirect statement (se) and its verb (victos) bracket the tricolon of prepositional phrases (sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acie), the entire clause infused with rhetorical electricity and poetical style by the alliterative anaphora of the prepositions sine…sine…sine and their objects (see following note). vulnere…ferro…acie: only the object of the first prepositional phrase in the tricolon can be translated literally (“without a wound”), while in the second and the third Livy employs the poetical device of metonymy: sine ferro (lit. “without steel” = “without a sword”); sine acie (lit. “without a battle line” = “without a battle”). victos: sc. esse. sibi…conferre: the second clause of the indirect statement. sibi. dative, construe with the impersonal verb licuisse. non…non: the anaphora lends structure to the two parallel clauses, construe the first with licuisse. stringere: objective infinitive, the subject is sibi, direct object is gladios, “for them it was not allowed to draw swords.” manum cum hoste conferre: (sc. sibi licuisset) note how the periodic ending of the second half of the sentence completes the chiasmus of stringere…gladios :: manum…conferre. sibi…datos: the third indirect statement. sibi: dative, indirect object of datos. Note the emphatic placement of the pronoun repeated from the previous two clauses (se…sibi…sibi…). nequiquam…nequiquam…nequi­ quam: the anaphoric tricolon of adverbs lends an ironic negative weight to the ending of this section, and underscores the hopelessness of the Roman army as they prepare to pass under the yoke. arma…vires…animos: the accusative subjects of datos (esse), “weapons…strength…spirit.” datos: sc. esse.

XIV The Romans Are Ordered to Strip and Disarm 9.5.141–147 9.5.141–142. haec…animis: the fateful hour arrives. haec: direct object of the active participle frementibus (temporal), “while.” The antecedent of haec is the tricolon of indirect statements that closed the preceding paragraph. frementibus: (sc. militibus) dative with the compound verb advenit; the participle governs the indirect statement of the previous sentence (see note 9.5.138–140 above). hora fatalis: construe with dative ignominiae, “the hour fated for disgrace.” omnia tristiora: accusative neuter, object and object complement of factura (see note below). experiundo: gerund (ablative), expressing cause (note how tristiora and factura bracket the gerund). factura: the future active participle (> facere), antecedent is hora; the verb governs a factitive predicate, “about to make all things more miserable.” quam: “than,” the conjunction introduces a clause of comparison, anticipated by the comparative adjective tristiora. quae…animis: the comparandum of the comparison. animis: dative with the compound verb praeceperunt, “imagining…” 9.5.142–143. iam…abducti: here begins a description of the sequence of events leading up to the passing under the yoke. The first in the series: the army, including

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the consuls, are stripped of their uniforms and weapons and sent outside the ramparts they themselves had built at the beginning of the episode. iam primum: “at first.” cum: the preposition, taking singulis vestimentis as its object. inermes: nominative (substantive). exire: complementary infinitive of iussi (sc. sunt). et primi…abducti: the next in the series of humiliations. primi: translate adverbially, “at once.” There are several things going on here syntactically and stylistically. Livy is echoing iam primum from the preceding clause, and both primi and primum anticipate the adverb tum that begins the following sentence; note also how primum and iussi bracket the two prepositional phrases, which in turn bracket the subject, inermes; so also in the second clause primi and obsides bracket the verb traditi. atque: connects traditi (sc. sunt) and abducti (sc. sunt). The almost pleonastic coupling of these verbs shows a logical series of events (“handed over” and “led away”), and the use of the passive voice underlines the impotence of the Roman soldiers and their leaders. 9.5.143–144. tum…detracta: focus is now on the consuls losing the trappings of their office. A Roman magistrate, especially one holding the supreme office of consul, should appear dignified before his people. The lictors and the paludamentum were two very important insignia of the highest offices of the republic, and losing these was just as great a disgrace to the State as the army losing its standards in battle. tum: establishes this next humiliation in sequence with the last, introduced by the repetition of primum…primi. a consulibus: “away from the consuls,” construe with abire, complementary infinitive with iussi (sc. sunt); note how the infinitive and the verb bracket the subject lictores. paludamentaque detracta: (sc. sunt) nominative, neuter, in parallel construction to lictores. The paludamentum originally may have been a term applied to a purple cloak worn by officers of various ranks in the military, but by the end of the first century b.c. it was used exclusively of the cloak worn over the cuirass by magistrates with imperium. detracta: (sc. sunt). 9.5.144–147. id…oculos: the stripping of the consuls’ trappings of office leaves the Roman army gobstruck, and of a more forgiving demeanor toward their consuls than before. id: i.e., the events of the preceding sentence and the subject of fecit. tantam inter eos…miserationem fecit: the predicate of the main clause of the sentence, interrupted by the qui clause (see note); tantam modifies miserationem (separated from it by a hyperbaton of ten words) and anticipates the ut clause (see note below). ipsos: the Roman army, object of the preposition inter (note how the pronoun anticipates the following relative clause). qui…censuerant: the relative clause contains an indirect statement governed by censuerant. paulo ante: “a little before.” exsecrantes: nominative, modifying qui. eos…dedendos lacerandosque: the indirect statement in the future passive periphrastic (sc. esse with each gerund). ut…avertet oculos: the sentence ends with a result clause anticipated by tantam. suae quisque condicio­ nis oblitus: note the synchesis (gen. nom. gen. nom.). suae…condicionis: genitive, construe with the participle oblitus, “each man forgetful of his own condition…” ab illa deformatione…ab nefando spectaculo: note the parallel structure of the two prepositional phrases, balanced by the adverb velut (construe both with avertet).



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XV Under the Yoke of the Vanquished 9.5.148–151 9.5.148–149. primi…legiones: the centerpiece of Livy’s saga is the Roman army passing under the yoke; it occurs nearly exactly at mid-point in the story and consists of a tricolon of short, staccato clauses, joined by asyndeton and each introduced by sequential adjectives and adverbs: primi…tum…tum dienceps. Given all that has led up to this dreaded event, and all that will follow it, Livy’s economy of language and lack of embellishment is remarkable. Livy devotes only two sentences to the description, each of virtually equal length: the first describes the Romans (20 words); and the second describes the Samnites (21 words). But remarkable as it may be, this is one of the trademarks of Livy’s storytelling style: at one moment he sets the scene in long, periodic sentences; at another, a few terse, abrupt clauses will reflect the immediacy of the action. missi: the sequence of events starts as the consuls pass grimly under the yoke. consules: nominative, modified by primi…seminudi. prope seminudi: i.e., stripped down to a single undergarment, probably their tunics. missi: sc. erant. tum… objectus: the next in the sequence, their subordinates by rank. ut…ita: “just as… so…” gradu: ablative of degree of difference, construe with proximus: “as each man was next in terms of rank.” ignominiae: dative, construe with obiectus (sc. erat). It is interesting to note that Livy has substituted the noun ignominia for the prepositional phrase sub iugum, a metaphorical use of the word in place of the prepositional phrase to avoid repetition. legiones: and last, the rank and file of the legions. deinceps: differentiates this tum from the previous one. singulae: while the sense of the adjective is already implied with deinceps, this pleonastic touch adds weight to the number of men who have to pass, single file, under the yoke; Livy manages to describe this scene with only four words, such economy an example of understatement. 9.5.149–150. circumstabant…eludentesque: in the second half of the scene, Livy shifts perspective to the Samnite soldiers who are aggressively chiding the Romans on. The change is also felt by the shift from passive participles used of the Romans, to active ones used of the Samnites. circumstabant armati hostes: note the emphatic placement of the verb followed by its subject hostes which together bracket the adjective armati. exprobantes eludentesque: Livy balances the second half of the sentence with two active participles creating chiasmus. 9.5.150–151. gladii…offendisset: the Samnites’ mocking aggression turns suddenly and arbitrarily violent, a surprising turn of events given the trouble which Pontius took at the beginning of the story to sift the consequences of either doing violence to the Romans or setting them free; it is quite puzzling indeed that the Samnites are now killing Romans willy-nilly, for no apparent reason other than their repugnance at the expressions on the Romans’ faces. gladii…intentati: sc. erant. plerisque: (i.e., the Romans) dative (> plerusque), construe with intentati, “threatening at them…” vulnerati…necatique: sc. erant (i.e., the Romans). Note

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the use of the passive voice without any mention as to agency: there is no need, as only one side (the Samnites’) is armed. si…offendisset: another dangling apodosis of a truncated condition that supplies the reason why the Samnites would attack one Roman and not another. Again, that physical violence of any kind was visited upon the Roman troops by the Samnites at the behest of Pontius is remarkable, given all the arguing and deliberation that took place at the beginning of the book. vultus: the subject of offendisset. eorum: genitive, modifying vultus (i.e., the Romans). indignitate: ablative of comparison with acrior (modifying vultus). rerum: genitive, construe with indignitate. Note how the two nominatives (vultus :: acrior) bracket the two genitives (eorum :: rerum) which in turn bracket the ablative (indignitate), an example of ring composition: “if the expression of those more bitter than the indignity of their state of affairs had offended the victor.” victorem: i.e., Pontius (for the term see note above at 9.5.120); aside from this one mention, Pontius is all but absent from this climactic event in the story.

XVI March of Shame to Capua 9.6.152–156 9.6.152–154. ita traducti…tristior fuit: after the humiliation of the yoke, scrabbling naked beneath the bar amidst the whoops and weapons of their enemy, the Roman army exits the Caudine Pass in utter shame and disgrace. traducti: the participle (sc. Romani or exercitus, etc.). et: connects the prepositional phrases sub iugum and per oculos. gravius: the comparative adverb, “more burdensome.” hostium: genitive, bracketed by the hyperbaton between the preposition per and its object oculos. quod…erat: “and that which was nearly more burdensome…” The antecedent of the quod clause is the prepositional phrase per hostium oculos. cum: the conjunction, “when…” etsi…tamen: “although…nevertheless.” velut ab inferis extracti: “just as if having been raised from the dead…” the simile adds a poetic touch of pathos. tum primum: “then, for the first time…” construe with aspicere. lucem: direct object of as­ picere, the complementary infinitive of visi sunt. aspicere visi sunt: the construction is poetic, the stuff of dreams. Vergil often uses this construction in the Aeneid (the verb videre in the passive voice), whenever the hero Aeneas enters the world of dreams (cf. Aen. 2.270–295; 3.147–171; 4.554–559; 8.26–67). ita: construe with deforme. deforme: construe with agmen (note how the hyperbaton between the adjective and the noun brackets the participle intuentibus that governs them). intuentibus: (i.e., the Romans) dative of the deponent participle (> intueri), the object is agmen. lucem…lux…morte: note the juxtaposition; for the Romans, looking on the light of day was the equivalent of being alive (cf. Pliny Nat. 11.52: oculi, pars corporis pretiosis­ sima et quae lucis usu vitam distinguat a morte). Here, Livy is using lux metaphorically for life, but it is a bitter irony that for the Roman army emerging from the Caudine



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Pass under the disgraceful terms of their surrender, this life is worse than death. omni morte: “than any death,” ablative of comparison with tristior. 9.6.154–156. itaque…prostraverunt: Livy describes the hesitant manner in which the Roman army approaches Capua. cum…possent: concessive, “although…” Ca­ puam: the terminal accusative, construe with pervenire, complementary infinitive of possent. incerti: (sc. Romani) see note on Campanis below. sociorum: (i.e., the Capuans); genitive, construe with de fide. quod: the conjunction (causal), “because…” circa viam: “along the roadside,” construe with prostraverunt, the main verb of the sentence. Capua: ablative of separation with haud procul, “not far from Capua.” om­ nium: genitive, construe with egena corpora, the direct object of prostraverunt. The skeleton of the sentence is incerti…prostraverunt…corpora. humi: the adverb.

XVII Reception at Capua 9.6.157–164 9.6.157–158. quod…Campanis: news has reached Capua that the humiliated Roman legions are huddled along the roadside in the vicinity of the city. quod: (= et id) the connecting relative pronoun, subject of est nuntiatum. ubi: although in post-positive position, it introduces the temporal clause. Capuam: “at Capua,” the terminal accusative. evicit: the verb of the main clause. miseratio: subject of evicit. sociorum: construe with iusta: “the allies’ justifiable sense of pity.” superbiam ingeni­ tam: the direct object of evicit. Campanis: dative, construe with ingenitam: “arrogance innate in the Campanians.” Capua would never be forgiven for its defection to the Carthaginians after the battle of Cannae and the Roman defeat in 216 b.c. Even though this would be a century after the events at the Caudine Forks, Roman jealousy of the prosperity of Campania ran deep in Roman thought (cf. 4.52.6, 7.36.6, 23.5.1, 25.18.2; Cic. Leg. Agr. 2.95, Red. Sen. 17, Pis. 24; Gell. 1.24.2; Auson. 24.60). 9.6.158–159. confestim…mittunt: the Capuans respond immediately to the Romans who are in need of much supply. confestim…benigne: note the emphatic placement of the two adverbs, which bracket the series of seven accusatives and the three datives, direct objects and indirect objects respectively of mittunt (the subject is an understood cives Capuae or sim.). The Capuans did not hesitate (confestim) to supply the Romans, and in fact did it happily (benigne). consulibis…lictoribus…militibus: note how the three dative indirect objects follow periodically the direct objects and are sequenced in order of military rank (see following). insignia sua consulibus: insignia were extremely important symbols of the power of magistrates, as we saw above at 9.5.143–144 (tum a consulibus abire lictores iussi paludamentaque detracta). fasces lictoribus: lictors were ceremonial magistrates who attended consuls in Rome whenever they ventured out among the populace, or whenever they led an army on campaign; fasces were bundles of bound wooden rods symbolic of the unity of the Roman republic. Whenever the consuls

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were on campaign at the head of any army, they were granted imperium (“command”) which included the power of life or death over their soldiers. In this case, then, an axe head would be installed in the fasces as symbols of this aspect of the consuls’ imperium. arma, equos, vestimenta, commeatus militibus: while the consuls and the lictors are returned the symbols of their positions, the rank and file, depending on their status and function, are issued more practical kit: weapons (arma), horses (if equites), uniforms and armor (vestimenta) and supplies of food (commeatus). 9.6.159–160. et…officiis: as the Romans draw near Capua the entire town turns out to meet them. venientibus: dative (i.e., the Romans); construe with the adverb obviam as well as the ablative objects of fungitur (see note below). Capuam: terminal accusative with venientibus. cunctus senatus populusque: the subject of the participle egressus. iustis omnibus hospitalibus privatisque et publicis…officiis: ablative objects with fungitur, “they performed all well-deserved acts of hospitality and duties both private and public.” 9.6.161–163. neque…poterant: the Capuans are stunned by the aspect of the dejected and humiliated Roman army. illis: (i.e., the Romans) ablative of separation, construe with elicere, complementary infinitive of poterant. sociorum: (i.e., the Capuans) genitive, construe with comitas vultusque benigni et adloquia, the tripartite subject of po­ terant. adloquia: “encouragement.” sermonem: “conversation,” direct object of elicere. non modo…ne…quidem: “not only…but not even…” Note how the construction ne… quidem brackets the conjunction ut and oculos, the direct object of attollerent, the first of the two verbs in the ut clause (the skeleton of the ut clause is: ut [Romani] oculos…attole­ rent aut consolantes amicos contra intuerentur). consolantes: construe with amicos. amicos contra intuerentur: “look their friends directly in the face.” efficere: the second complementary infinitive with poterunt, governing the ut clause, “to bring it about that…” 9.6.163–164. adeo…cogebat: shame has whelmed the Roman army, a result of the humiliation inflicted upon them at the Caudine Forks. adeo: the adverb signals a summation: “to such an extent…” super maerorem: “beyond their grief,” construe with pudor. pudor quidam: the subject of cogebat: “a certain feeling of humiliation.” fugere: objective infinitive with cogebat; the subject of fugere is an understood Romanos. conlo­ quia et coetus: objects of fugere. hominum: genitive, construe with conloquia et coetus.

XVIII Departure From Capua for Rome 9.6.165–172 9.6.165–167. postero die…referent: without spending even a single night refitting at Capua, the Roman army is escorted to the northern limits of Campania and the border of Latium, the region of Italy that is home to Rome. postero die: ablative of time (specific), “on the following day…” cum: temporal. iuvenes nobiles: (i.e., the



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Capuan escorts) nominative, subject of revertissent, the verb of the cum clause which is interrupted by the ut clause (see note). a Capua: “from Capua,” construe with missi. ut…prosequerentur: a purpose clause dependent on the participle missi, separating the subject of the cum clause (iuvenes) from its verb (revertissent). proficiscentes… prosequerentur: note how the participle (antecedent is iuvenes) and the verb bracket the phrase ad finem Campanum (along with the alliterative tautology of pro…pro that prefixes each verb). vocatique: a second passive participle in parallel construction to missi, subject is iuvenes. in curiam: “into the senate house,” construe with vocati. Upon returning from escorting the Roman legions north, the members of the envoy are called into the senate and questioned by the elders. percontantibus maioribus: ablative absolute. natu: ablative of specification, construe with maioribus, “older in respect to age.” multo: “by much,” the ablative of degree of difference, construe with the comparative adjectives maestiores et abiectiores. sibi: (i.e., the nobiles iuvenes) dative, construe with visos. maestiores et abiectiores visos: (sc. esse) an indirect statement governed by referrent. The antecedent of the comparative adjectives is an understood Romanos. referrent: “they reported…” the subject is iuvenes. 9.6.167–168. adeo…incessisse: the next part of the report of the Capuan envoy, delivered in indirect statement. adeo: construe with silens ac prope mutum. agmen: subject of incessisse (> incedere). 9.6.168. iacere…animos: the second clause of the indirect statement. indolem il­ lam Romanam: subject of iacere, “that (well known) Roman spirit…” iacere: here intransitive, “lay low.” Some mss. read tacere instead of iacere, which if adopted would continue the image of the profound silence of the Roman agmen (silens ac prope mu­ tum) as it marched grimly Romeward. ablatosque…animos: (sc. esse) note how the hyperbaton between the participle and the noun brackets the prepositional phrase cum armis, “and that their spirits had been stripped from them along with their weapons.” An example of zeugma. 9.6.168–170. non dare…missi essent: the third clause of the indirect statement. non dare…non…reddere…non hiscere: note how the anaphoric repetition of non… non…non establishes nearly parallel structure of the tricolon of complementary infinitives governed by potuisse. salutem: object of dare. salutantibus: dative (indirect object of reddere). responsum: direct object of reddere. non hiscere: at 9.4.100, Livy used this same verb to describe the dumbstruck consuls once the Samnite trap was sprung; here reason for the reticence of the army is not surprise, however, but shame. quemquam: subject of non potuisse, “not a single one of them was able…” prae metu: “because of shame.” tamquam: “as if,” construe with ferentibus…cervicibus, an ablative absolute. iugum: accusative, direct object of ferentibus. adhuc: “as yet.” quod missi essent: (sc. Romani) antecedent is iugum. 9.6.170–172. habere…ferociamque: the fourth clause of the indirect statement. Samnites: subject of habere. victoriam: direct object of habere. non praeclaram solum…sed etiam perpetuam: the correlative construction governs the two adjectives that modify victoriam. cepisse: a second clause, joined to the first by asyndeton,

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the subject is eos. sicut ante Gallos: “just as the Gauls had before.” The reference is to the Gauls’ sacking Rome in 390. quod: neuter nominative, subject of fuerit. multo: ablative of degree of difference with the comparative adverb bellicosius. cepisse enim: here the particle, always in post-positive position in its clause, is explanatory, “for they had taken…” Romanam virtutem ferociamque: i.e., what the Samnites had taken (cepisse) was not Rome itself (non Romam) as the Gauls had done before (sicut ante Gallos) but something that was by far even more an act of war (quod multo bellicosius fuerit), Roman pride and courage (Romanam virtutem ferociamque).

XIX At Capua the Future of Roman Hegemony Is Open for Debate 9.7.173–181 9.7.173–175. cum haec…dixisse: Aulus Calavius stands up and takes the discussion in the opposite direction. cum haec dicerentur et audirenturque et deploratum… Romanum nomen…esset: a temporal clause. haec: subject of dicerentur and audiren­ tur. dicerentur audirenturque: the pleonastic use of these verbs conveys a vivid picture of the heated volley of a political debate. paene: an important word, as it shows that Calavius spoke up just in time. deploratum…esset: note how the participle and esset bracket the subject (Romanum nomen), the prepositional phrase (in concilio), and the genitives modifying it (sociorum fidelium). dicitur: the main verb of the sentence (for the passive form and its idiomatic usage see note above at 9.3.76). A. Calavius: the subject of dicitur; Calavius now rises to speak on behalf of the Romans. Ovi filius: “son of Ovius,” in apposition to Calavius, a common, formulaic expression when identifying an individual. clarus genere factisque: the phrase modifies Calavius, “famous for his birth and his achievements”; the adjective clarus patterns with the ablative, as does dignus. tum etiam: construe with aetate verendus (see notes following). aetate: ablative of cause with verendus. verendus: the gerundive (> vereri), modifying Calavius, “at that time (tum) even (etiam) at his age (aetate) a man to be respected (verendus).” dixisse: complementary infinitive with dicitur, “Aulus Calavius is said to have said that…” an example of tautology. se habere rem: indirect statement governed by dixisse. longe aliter: adverbial, construe with habere, “…that he (se) considered (habere) the situation (rem) quite differently (longe aliter).” 9.7.175–181. silentium…fore: Calavius characterizes for the senate what the embassy that accompanied the Romans to the border of Campania saw in four separate indirect statement clauses, each ending periodically with a form of esse. (1) 175–177. silentium…esse: the first indirect statement clause has four subjects in the accusative case. silentium illud obstinatum: “that obstinate silence,” the reference is to 9.6.167–168 (silens ac prope mutum agmen incessisse). fixosque…oculos: the second subject (note how the hyperbaton between the adjective and the noun brackets the prepositional phrase in terram). surdas…aures: the third subject (note



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again the bracketing of the prepositional phrase by the hyperbaton between the adjective and noun). pudorem: the fourth subject of the first indirect statement clause. intuendae lucis: a gerundive phrase, construe with pudorem: “the shame of having to look at the light (of day).” ingentem molem: accusative, direct object of the participle cientis (see below). irarum: genitive, construe with ingentem molem, lit. “a huge mass of anger(s).” ex alto animo: “from the depths of one’s heart,” construe with cientis. cientis: genitive, of the active participle (> ciere); construe with indicia. indicia: neuter accusative, translate predicatively with esse (the skeleton of the sentence is silentium…oculos…aures… pudorem…esse indicia cientis molem irarum). “Their silence, downcast eyes, and deafened ears are indicative not of a broken spirit but rather of one churning up a great mass of anger.” (2) 177–179. aut Romana…fore: the second indirect statement clause. aut…aut: the pair of correlative conjunctions does not, as it usually does, juxtapose clauses of equal viability (“either option A or option B”), rather it emphasizes the possibility of only one option (“either I don’t know what I’m talking about, or this is our only option…”). Romana…ingenia: note how the hyperbaton of adjective and noun brackets the subject and verb. se ignorare: the subject and verb of the first aut clause. silentium illud: the subject of the second aut clause (note the repetition of the phrase from 9.7.175). Samnitibus: ablative (separation) or dative (reference), with excita­ turum (see note below). flebiles…clamores gemitusque: direct objects of excitaturum. brevi: the adverb, “soon,” “in a short time.” Note how the adverb is bracketed by the hyperbaton between flebiles and clamores gemitusque. excitaturum: (sc. esse) the verb of the second aut clause. Caudinaeque pacis: genitive, construe with memoriam. aliquanto: the adverb here modifies the comparative adjective tristiorem. Samnitibus quam Romanis: two datives of possession with fore (= futurum esse), construe quam with tristiorem. tristiorem memoriam: the subject of fore, “the Samnites (Samnitibus) will have (fore) a somewhat (aliquanto) gloomier memory (tristiorem memoriam) of the Caudine peace (Caudinaeque pacis) than will the Romans (quam Romanis).” (3) 180. quippe…congressuri sint: the third clause in indirect statement. quippe: the adverb, “to be sure,” “of course,” “it goes without saying,” etc. suos…animos: the direct object of habiturum (sc. esse); note how the hyperbaton between the possessive adjective (suos) and its noun (animos) brackets the subject (quemque) of habiturum (esse). quemque eorum: “each one of them,” i.e., the Roman and the Samnite people. ubicumque congressuri sint: plural because of eorum and suos animos, subjunctive because the ubicumque clause is embedded in the indirect statement governed by dixisse (9.6.175). (4) 180–181. saltus…fore: the fourth and final clause of the indirect statement governed by dixisse. saltus Caudinos: subject of fore, an example of synecdoche, or the mention of a part for the whole in reference to the Caudine Forks. non ubique: ironic, picking up on the preceding ubicumque clause. Samnitibus: a dative of possession with fore (= futuros esse) in parallel construction syntactically with the phrase Sam­ nitibus quam Romanis in the previous clause.

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XX At Rome Confusing Reports and Public Mourning 9.7.182–193 9.7.182. iam et Romae sua infamis clades erat: the Roman disaster at the Caudine Forks becomes its own infamy as news of it reaches the capital ahead of the army. iam et: i.e., the news has already reached Rome. Romae: “at Rome,” the locative case. sua…clades: the use of the possessive adjective further reinforces the fact that the sense of defeat felt by the Roman army is shared by the city itself (note: this is the first time Livy has repeated clades since the opening sentence of the book). 9.7.182. obsessos…audierunt: the first in a series of short clauses that describes how the news of the Roman disgrace reached the city incrementally. At first, word on the street is that the legions had come under siege, not a particularly disgraceful situation, but by using only three words to convey this, Livy is obviously showing that the first reports were short on details. primum: “at first,” answered by deinde in the following clause. ob­ sessos: (> obsidere), sc. exercitus Romanos (or sim.) + esse, an indirect statement governed by audierunt (for the form, see note following). audierunt: = audiverunt, the syncopated form of the third person, plural, perfect (subject is an understood populi Romani). 9.7.182–183. tristior…fuit: as the reports come in, the clauses get longer, the specific details become clearer if also more grim. tristior: note the emphatic position of the comparative adjective modifying nuntius in nearly last position in the sentence, an example of bookend word order creating a hyperbaton of six words that brackets the entire clause excluding the verb (fuit), which arrives periodically at the end (maintaining strict parallel composition with the preceding clause and the following two sentences). deinde: the adverb shows continuance from the previous clause (primum) but with new information added: “but then…” ignominiosae pacis… periculi: construe the pair of genitives with nuntius. magis quam: “more…than”; understand magis with ignominiosae pacis and quam with periculi, two entirely different ideas: “an announcement gloomier more (because it was news) of a disgraceful peace than (because it was news) that they were in danger.” 9.7.183–184. ad famam…coeptus erat: as the facts of the reports change, so must the Roman preparations. ad famam: “on report…” obsidionis: genitive, modifying famam (the reference is to obssessos at the beginning of the paragraph). dilectus: subject of coeptus erat, the main verb of the clause. haberi: complementary infinitive of coeptus erat. 9.7.184–186. dimissus…luctus est: and as the awful truth about the Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks is ultimately revealed, preparations for lifting the blockade (a false report circulating by rumor) are scrapped. deinde: “but then…” As above (9.7.182) the adverb shows continuance from the previous clause but with the addition of new information. dimissus: (sc. erat) the subject is apparatus; the reference is to the levy of troops (dilectus) mentioned in the previous clause. auxiliorum: the



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auxiliary troops being levied to rescue the Roman army from the fictitious siege (note how the participle and the noun bracket the genitive). postquam…acceperunt: “after they understood that…” Note how the subordinating conjunction (postquam) and its verb (acceperunt) form a hyperbaton that brackets the indirect statement (deditionem…factam [esse]) which in turn brackets the adverbial phrase (tam foede). extemploque: the enclitic connector (–que) joins this clause with the one preceding the postquam clause (demissus [erat] deinde auxiliorum apparatus). sine ulla publica auc­ toritate: i.e., without any form of legal authorization. consensum…est: an impersonal construction (> consentire). luctus: genitive (objective), construe with consensum. 9.7.186–187. tabernae…indictum: as the people, both private citizens and public officials, come to understand the exact disposition of the Roman army—which has yet to arrive—the city shuts down. tabernae circa forum: the reference is to the many small, wooden mercantile booths and stalls erected around the forum. clausae: sc. erant. iustitium…coeptum prius quam indictum: sc. erat with both passive participles. The imposition of a iustitium was usually associated with the unexpected death of a prominent public figure (most famously imposed following the assassination of Julius Caesar), and the mourning that followed forced the closing of all public businesses. Such a period of public mourning was often imposed by governmental decree (indictum) but it was not uncommon for the closing of shops to begin (coeptum) spontaneously (sua sponte) whenever particularly bad news paralyzed the city, in this case prius quam indictum. 9.7.187. lati…positi: the city’s public mourning continues. lati clavi: the latus cla­ vus, the broad purple stripe worn on the toga, was the official insignia of senatorial rank. anuli aurei: a gold ring was the symbol of equestrian rank, worn by members of the nobiles, most of whom were probably both equites and senators. positi: (sc. erant) construe with both lati clavi and annuli aurei: “the broad purple stripe (of senators) and the gold rings (of the equites) were put away.” 9.7.187–189. paene…esse, nec…accipiendos: a coda of clauses with historical infinitives (esse…irasci…odisse…negare), in apposition to the preceding list detailing the citizens’ anger at the incompetence of the Roman army, which mounts even as the army has yet to reach the city. So great is the anger of the citizens, not only at the consuls but also at the soldiers themselves, that they actually entertain the notion of barring the Roman army from even entering the city. maestior…civitas: note how the comparative adjective and its noun bracket the ablative of comparison (exercitu ipso). esse: (= erat). nec…solum…sed…etiam: the correlative construction is juxtaposing the datives (ducibus…atque auctoribus sponsoribusque), objects of irasci, with the accusative (innoxios…milites), object of odisse. accipiendos: (sc. esse) an indirect statement governed by negare. urbe tective: ablatives of place; the enclitic –ve indicates that negare should be understood as deliberative: “…and they (entertained the notion of) denying them a reception in the city and at their homes.” tecti: lit. “covers” (i.e., “roofs” = “houses”), an example of synecdoche. 9.7.189–190. quam…miserabilis: the anger of the citizens is broken by the advent of the disgraced Roman army. quam: (= et eam) the connecting relative pronoun,

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which anticipates concitationem. animorum: genitive, modifying concitationem, the direct object of fregit. For the expression concitationem animorum cf. 23.7.8 (concitatio occurs elsewhere in Livy only at 44.28.10). adventus: subject of fregit. exercitus: genitive, construe with adventus. Note how both genitives (animorum…exercitus) follow their nouns in strict parallel order. miserabilis: nominative, modifying adventus; translate predicatively. etiam: construe the adverb with the adjective directly following it. iratis: dative (recalling irasci at 9.7.188), construe with miserabilis: “the advent of the army…(a thing) evoking pity even for those angry (at it).” 9.7.190–193. non…vellet: as Livy describes the Roman army’s return to the city, he expands upon the adjective miserabilis from the preceding sentence. non…re­ vertentes :: sed…ingressi: the structure of the sentence juxtaposes the first participle (revertentes) with the second (ingressi). The subject of both, as well as the sentence, is the singular pronoun quisque (see note below). enim: the particle is explanatory. tamquam: construe with revertentes. in patriam: i.e., “home”; construe with rever­tentes. ex insperato: “unexpectedly.” incolumes: nominative, translate predicatively in apposition to the understood subject milites. captorum: genitive, modifying habitu vultuque, ablatives of description. sero: the adverb, “late in the day.” in urbem: construe with ingressi. ita…ut: “in such a way…that.” The adverb ita usually anticipates an ut clause of result. se: accusative, direct object of abdiderunt. in suis…tectis: note how the possessive adjective and noun bracket quisque, the subject of the sentence (for tectis see note on 9.7.192 above). quisque: although singular, the pronoun can take plural adjectives and participles in apposition to it (revertentes…incolumes…ingressi…) as well as a plural verb (abdiderunt). abdiderunt: the act of shutting themselves in their houses and refusing to fulfill their public duties, the consuls are in effect abdicating their offices. ut…vellet: a result clause, anticipated by the adverb ita (see note above). postero atque inse­ quentibus diebus: ablative of time (specific): “with the result that on the next (day) and on following days…” nemo eorum: the modified subject of the ut clause: “not a man of them…” forum aut publicum: “the forum or the people”; an example of hendiadys, either “the people in the forum,” or “the forum of the people.” aspicere: complementary infinitive with vellet.

XXI The New Year Approaches Appointed Dictators Fail to Hold Elections 9.7.194–201 9.7.194–195. consules…causa: after being compelled by a senatorial decree Calvinus and Postumius appoint dictators to preside over the election of new magistrates for the year 320 b.c. consules…abditi: echoing abdiderunt from the previous sentence (note how the noun and its participle bracket the prepositional phrase in privato).



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consules: subject of agere, the main verb of the sentence and another example of Livy’s fondness for the historical infinitive. in privato: “in their private homes.” Note the contrast with the pairing of forum aut publicum from the preceding sentence and the following pro magistratu (see note). abditi: see note on abdiderunt above (9.7.192). nihil: object of agere. pro magistratu: “by virtue of the authority of their office as magistrates”; (cf. 8.36.1; also the phrase pro imperio at 8.2.11). nisi quod: construe with agere: “the consuls did nothing except that which…” expressum…est: “was ordained,” the verb of the quod clause. senatus: genitive, construe with consulto, ablative (means) with expressum est. senatus consulto: a senatus consultum was an official decree of the senate formally expressing their sanction in advance of any actions deemed necessary by appointed dictators when the State faced extraordinary challenges. ut…dicerent: the content of the senatus consultum: “that they should appoint a dictator.” The subject is an understood consules from the main clause. comitiorum causa: causa in the ablative with the genitive: “for the sake of the elections.” 9.7.195–197. Q. Fabium Ambustum…equitum: the first dictator is appointed along with his master of horse. dixerunt: (sc. consules) “appointed;” the verb here is factitive and one must supply an understood dictatorem as object complement. P. Aelium Paetum magistrum equitum: the object and object complement of dixerunt, a second factitive clause connected to the first by et. quibus…equitum: due to some problem (vitium) unexplained by Livy in their appointment (see note below), the first dictator and magister equitum are forced to abdicate their offices. quibus…creatis: an ablative absolute (cause). quibus: (= et eis), the connecting relative pronoun. vitio: ablative (means) with the passive participle creatis (note how the pronoun and participle bracket the noun). suffecti: (sc. sunt) the main verb of the clause. M. Aemilius Papus…L. Valerius Flaccus: the compound singular subject of suffecti (sunt). dicta­ tor…magister equitum: the first in apposition to M. Aemilius Papus, the latter in apposition to L. Valerius Flaccus. 9.7.197–198. nec…rediit: the second dictator and his magister equitum are unable to accomplish the elections for the year 320. Due to public frustration toward all of the magistrates of 321, a pair of interreges are appointed. nec: “and…not.” per eos: (agency) “through them” (i.e., M. Aemilius Papus and Valerius Flaccus); construe with the phrase comitia habita. comitia habita: (sc. sunt): “and through them the elections were not held.” et quia taedebat populum omnium magistratuum eius anni: an impersonal construction taking the accusative of object (populum) and the genitive of cause (omnium magistratuum): “…and as it disgusted the people (because of) all the magistrates of that year…” res: (sc. publica) “the State.” 9.7.199–201. is consules…clariores essent: this chapter of the story concludes with the interreges electing the consuls for the year 320. is: i.e., the latter, M. Valerius Corvus. consules creavit Q. Publium Philonem et L. Papirium Cursorem: Cursor, under the power of his office as interrex, conducted the election of the consuls for the next year. The sentence is factitive, with the names of the consuls as the direct object of creavit and consules as the object complement. tertium…iterum: “for the

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third time…for the second time”; Philo held the consulship previously in 339 and 327, Cursor held it previously in 326, hence the following clarification of the city’s approval. haud dubio consensus civitatis: “hardly with the consensus of the city in doubt.” quod…essent: a causal clause, perhaps with a touch of sarcasm by Livy. ea tempestate: ablative of time specific: “at that time.” Note how the phrase is bracketed by nulli…duces clariores essent.

XXII Sp. Postumius Addresses the Senate 9.8.202–222 9.8.202–204. quo…inquit: on the day of their election, Q. Publius Philo and L. Papirius Cursor immediately take up the incident at the Caudine Forks. quo: (= et eo) the connecting relative pronoun, construe with die (note how the pronoun and noun bracket the verb of the quo clause). creati sunt: (i.e., “elected”) the subject is an understood consules. It was normal procedure for consuls designate to wait until January to take office. But given the extraordinary state of affairs surrounding Calvinus and Postumius, the new consuls took office as soon as they were elected. eo: ablative, anticipated by the quo…die clause. sic enim placuerat patribus: an impersonal aside. magistratum inierunt: (sc. consules); the first of three main clauses: “the consuls entered office.” sollemnibusque…perfectis: ablative absolute (i.e., the sacred rituals regularly performed by the consuls at the beginning of their consular year. de pace Caudina rettulerunt: the standard, formulaic construction when bringing a matter before the senate (cf. 7.42.6, 8.13.10, 14.1 [bis]; also Cic. Sest. 68). rettulerunt: the subject is an understood consules. Publilius: i.e., Quintus Publilius Philo. penes quem fasces erant: “in whose possession were the fasces.” According to Roman custom, only the consul in possession of the fasces could summon the senate, while the consul who did not hold the fasces presided over it. Possession of the fasces alternated between the two consuls on a monthly basis (Suet. Iul. 20.1). For the fasces and what they represented as insignia of the office of the consul, see note on 9.6.157–161 above. dic, Sp(uri) Postumi: the imperative, followed by the vocative case; “speak, Spurius Postumius!” It was conventional practice to use both the praenomen as well as the nomen when addressing someone in the senate. inquit: a defective verb that occurs only in the first, second, and third persons singular: “he said.” The debate that follows is broken down into this and the following two chapters. In this chapter, Livy records Postumius in direct speech (oratio recta). In the following chapter (XXIII), Livy gives us the response of the senate and, more importantly, the rebuttal of the tribunes of the plebs in indirect statement (oratio obliqua) followed by (chapter XXIV) Postumius’ answer to the tribunes. 9.8.204–207. qui ubi surrexit…ignominiosae pacis: Postumius begins with a brief exordium, in which he humbles himself before his audience to win their benevolen­



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tia. qui: (=et is) the connecting relative pronoun. ubi: although the conjunction falls in post-positive position in the sentence it should be translated first; “and when he rose…” surrexit: there were three ways a member of the senate could make his opinion, or sententia, known to the full body (cf. 27.34.7): (1) a brief utterance made while seated, accompanied by a nod to the party or parties acquiesced to [verbo ad­ sentiebatur]; (2) by rising and walking over to stand beside or behind the party or parties acquiesced to [pedibus in sententiam ibat]; (3) by standing up and making a speech [stantem coegit in sententiam dicere]. The verbs surgere, consurgere, and exsurgere are regularly used by Livy, as here (surrexit) to describe a senator rising to offer his sententia; likewise adsidere and residere are regularly used of one returning to his seat (cf. also Cic. Sex. Rosc. 59, Att. 1.14.2; Sall. Cat. 31.7, 53.1; Plin. Epist. 4.9.18, 9.13.9; for stare used of one taking part in a debate cf. Cic. Marc. 33). eodem…vultu: ablative of description. quo…missus erat: antecedent of the relative clause is vultu, anticipated by the emphatic doubling of demonstrative pronouns (eodem illo): “with that very same expression with which he was sent under the yoke.” consules: the vocative; Postumius is addressing both the presiding consuls. ignominiae non honoris: construe both genitives with causa (ablative), “for the sake of my disgrace, not my honor.” me…dicere: indirect statement governed by haud sum ignarus. primum excitatum iussumque: the adjective and both participles modify me. Under normal conditions, to speak first in the senate was to claim a position of honor, and to speak last, of dishonor (cf. Suet. Claud. 9.2). Postumius, who is well aware (haud sum ignarus) that he has been called out first (me primum excitatum), and is under pressure to speak (iussum­ que dicere), that it is not for the sake of the honor he has brought upon himself and the people of Rome (non honoris causa), but because of the disgrace (ignominiae). non tamquam senatorem sed tamquam reum: in apposition to me: “not as a senator but as a defendant…” reus: unsuccessful commanders were often held personally responsible for their losses on the battlefield and formally charged when they returned to Rome. qua…qua: “both…and…” The correlatives contrast the two genitive phrases that follow each respectively. infelicis belli: “of an unpopular war…” ignominiosae pacis: “of a disgraceful peace.” Note the tautology of ignominiae…ignominiosae. 9.8.207–210. ego tamen…peragam: his exordium over, Postumius launches into the body of his argument, or the dictio sententiae. ego tamen…sententiam… peragam: the skeleton of the main clause. Note how Livy begins the sentence emphatically with the personal pronoun (ego), and then suspends the verb (peragam) until final position, a remarkable periodic hyperbaton of twenty-nine words. The resolution of ego is interrupted first by the quando clause and then the relative clause (quae… necessitatiumque) that modifies the ablative absolute omissa defensione (see note below). quando…rettulistis: causal. neque de noxa nostra neque de poena: understand nostra with both ablatives. Through the anaphora of neque…neque, Livy establishes parallelism within the quando clause. The grammatical construction of the quando clause (de + abl. + referre) echoes de pace Caudina rettulerunt at 9.8.203 above. omissa defensione: ablative absolute (means): “by not putting up a defense.” quae… neces­

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sitatiumque: antecedent is defensione. difficillima: the superlative adjective, “very difficult.” apud haud ignaros: a repetition of haud sum ignarus at 9.8.205. fortunarum humanarum necessitatiumque: construe with ignaros; an example of hendiadys: “of human fortunes and necessities” = “of the necessities of human fortunes.” sententiam: object of peragam. de eo de quo…rettulistis: “concerning that which you brought (to the attention of this court).” The repetition of de…de is pleonastic, but redundancy is often a very effective rhetorical device. The same construction is used at 9.8.203 (de pace rettulerunt) and at 9.8.207–208 (neque de noxa nostra neque de poena). paucis: sc. verbis. 9.8.210–211. quae sententia…obstrinxi: Postumius explains why he surrendered to the Samnites and entered into a pax ignominiosa. quae: (= et ea) the connecting relative pronoun, whose antecedent is sententiam from the preceding sentence, but which also anticipates sententia in its own clause. sententia testis erit: the main clause of the sentence, it sets up the following alternative questions. mihine an le­ gionibus vestris: datives with pepercerim (> parcere): “my response (sententia) will bear witness (testis erit) as to whether or not I acted sparingly (pepercerim) toward myself (mihine) or (an) toward your legions (legionibus vestris).” cum: temporal, “when.” me: direct object of obstrinxi (> obstringere): “when I bound myself…” seu…seu: “either… or.” The correlatives juxtapose the two adjectives turpi and necessaria, both modifying in their respective contexts sponsione, but the placement of necessaria in last position and next to sponsione adds rhetorical weight to the adjective. Postumius felt he had no choice but to drag Rome into a pax ignominiosa. Livy’s readers would, of course, recall Lentulus’ speech (9.4.101–119) and his insistence on agreeing to whatever terms the Samnites demanded in order to save the army. sponsione: ablative (means), construe with me obstrinxi. obstrinxi: is here used figuratively, and by so doing Livy begins building the metaphorical image of how Postumius is aware that the pax he struck on Pontius’ terms has “bound” the Romans, their hands now figuratively tied (at the end of the story, it will be Postumius’ hands that will literally be bound). See notes below on tenetur (9.8.212), vinctique (9.8.213), exsolvamus (9.8.213), religione (9.8.213), obligavimus (9.8.214), obligatos (9.8.219) and vinctosque deditos (9.8.219–220). 9.8.211–213. qua…debentur Samnitibus: Postumius addresses whether or not the treaty (sponsio) was disgraceful (turpis) or necessary (necessaria). qua: ablative (means), construe with tenetur; antecedent is sponsione (see note below). quando… facta est: the causal clause interrupts the qua clause, but modifies it. The subject is an understood sponsio. iniussu: ablative (attendant circumstance), modifying facta est: “because it was struck without the consent of the people.” qua tamen…non tenetur populus Romanus: “by which, however, the Roman people are not bound.” nec: “nor.” quicquam: (= quiquam), nominative, subject of debentur. ex ea: (sc. sponsione): “as a result of that treaty.” praeterquam corpora nostra: “except for our bodies,” i.e., “except for our lives,” an example of metonymy. Postumius is at great pains to point out that no Roman citizen is exposed to any danger because of his actions at the Caudine Forks. Even the soldiers that served under them at Caudium are exempt from



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blame; the consuls alone are responsible. Samnitibus: dative with debentur: “are owed to the Samnites,” i.e., if the Roman senate and the people do not honor the terms of the sponsio. 9.8.213. dedamur…vinctique: Postumius builds on his sententia that he and Calvinus alone are responsible for the position in which the Roman people now find themselves, and his address to the senate takes on the tone of a military hortatio. deda­ mur: the hortatory subjunctive appears at the head of its clause, indicating a shift in the emotional pitch of his argument. “Let us be given over,” i.e., he and Calvinus. per fetiales: (agency) “by the fetials.” nudi vinctique: (sc. nos) the image is eerily reminiscent of the Roman legions passing under the yoke at Caudium. Postumius is demanding that the senate strip and bind him and Calvinus, hand them over to the Samnites in order to nullify the pax ignominiosa. 9.8.213–215. exsolvamus…bellum: Postumius’ hortatio becomes more aggressive. exsolvamus: a second hortatory subjunctive emphatically at the head of its clause. re­ ligione: ablative (separation), note the pun: Livy using it for its religious connotation of ceremonial necessity, while its root meaning is of being “bound.” populum: direct object of exsolvamus. si qua: = si aliqua (the indefinite pronoun, when immediately following si, nisi, num, and ne). qua: ablative, antecedent is religione. obligavimus: sc. populum as direct object. ne quid: = ne aliquid (see note on si qua above), a negative purpose clause. divini humanive: genitives, connected by the enclitic -ve (“or”), construe with quid, the subject of obstet. quo…ineatur: quo is the ablative of degree of difference with the comparative adverb minus (> minime) modifying ineatur: “by which the less a just and righteous war may be entered into…” iustum piumque: construe with bellum, the subject of ineatur. de integro: “afresh,” “anew.” 9.8.215–216. interea…perfecta erunt: Postumius assumes responsibility for putting the State in such a humiliating and compromised position. consules: subject of the infinitives scribere, armare, educere, objective infinitive clauses governed by the impersonal placet. exercitum: direct object of scribere, armare, educere. Note the word order: in every accusative + infinitive clause the subject of the infinitive precedes the direct object, if any; the tricolon of infinitives sums up the three steps necessary to conduct an army into the field. nec: (= neque) “and not…” ingredi: infinitive (> ingredior), governed by placet. hostium: genitive, modifying fines, the direct object of ingredi (the subject of the infinitive is again consules from the previous clause). prius…quam: “sooner…than.” omnia iusta: “all things required by law.” The “law” here is the spon­ sio struck at the Caudine Forks. Postumius feels the Roman army should retaliate, and in force (the enrolling of new troops to augment the standing legions), but they should not take action (ingredi hostium fines) until (prius…quam) all legal obligations (omnia iusta) that were drawn out in the terms of the surrender (in deditionem) have been fulfilled (perfecta erunt). 9.8.216–220. vos…excipientes: in closing, Postumius invokes the gods. si vobis non fuit cordi: “if it was not in your heart that…” the double dative construction governs the following indirect statement. Postumius here is echoing the very words used by

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Pontius at the opening of the book (see note on quibuscumque dis cordi fuit at 9.1.6 above). Sp. Postumium et T. Veturium: subjects of the indirect statement. con­ sules: in apposition to Sp. Postumium et T. Veturium. cum Samnitibus: prepositional phrase, construe with bellum gerere. at: after a negative clause the conjunction sometimes introduces a clause of qualification, as here (while emphasizing vos): at vos satis habeatis: the clause governs a tricolon of indirect statements, as habere often does: “all the same you should hold (consider) it enough that…” vidisse: the governing infinitive of the first indirect statement; the subject is an understood vos, and the verb in turn governs its own indirect statement: “…that you saw that…” nos…missos: (sc. esse) the accusative + infinitive of the first indirect statement governed by vidisse. Note how the subject (nos) and the infinitive (missos [esse]) bracket the prepositional phrase sub iugum. vidisse: note the emphatic repetition of the infinitive in the second indirect statement, first again in its clause, and governing another embedded indirect statement. obligatos: (sc. esse) the verb of the second indirect statement dependent on the second repeated vidisse (the subject is an understood nos from the previous indirect statement). sponsione infami: ablative, construe with obligatos (esse). videre: the third indirect statement in the tricolon; one should note the shift in tense, from the perfect (vidisse) describing the gods as witnesses. omnem iram: direct object of ex­ cipientes. hostium: genitive, construe with iram. nostris capitibus: ablative, construe with excipientes: “taking on our heads all the resentment of the enemy.” 9.8.220–222. novos…gesta sunt: Postumius concludes with a final invocation. no­ vos consules: (i.e., Q. Publius Philo and L. Papirius Cursor). legionesque Romanas: both pairs of accusatives are the subject of gerere, complementary infinitive with velitis (in parallel construction to habeatis at 9.8.218 above). cum Samnitibus: construe with gerere bellum. ita…ut: the adverb anticipates the result clause: “in such a way… that.” omnia…bella gesta sunt: note how the subject and verb of the ut clause bracket the prepositional phrase ante nos consules.

XXIII Rebuttal of the Tribunes 9.8.223–231 9.8.223–226. quae ubi dixit…ob diremptae pacis: at first Postumius’ speech is well received by the senate. quae: (= et ea) the connecting relative pronoun, direct object of dixit: “and when he had said these things…” tanta…ut: the qualitative adjective anticipates a result clause: “so great…that.” simul: the adverb serves to juxtapose admiratio with miseratio, the two nouns that tanta modifies. viri: i.e., Postumius. homines: object of incessit: “so great a (feeling of) admiration along with (simul) pity (for) the man (viri) overtook (incessit) the senators (homines) that (ut)…” modo vix crederent…modo: “at one moment (modo) they could scarcely believe that…at the next moment (modo) they…” illum eundem esse Sp. Postumi­



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um: the indirect statement governed by crederent: “that this man (illum) was (esse) the same (eundem) Spurius Postumius.” Note how the intensive pronoun eundem (> idem) anticipates the following relative clause. qui…fuisset: antecedent of the relative clause is Sp. Postumium. auctor: the predicate nominative complement of qui…fuisset (i.e., the one responsible for negotiating the disgraceful terms of the surrender). tam: construe with foedae pacis. modo miserarentur: continuing the correlative construction begun at modo vix crederentur: “at one moment…at the next moment.” quod: the adverbial accusative, construe loosely as the object of miserarentur: “they were full of pity at the fact that…” vir: subject of the adverbial quod clause. ob iram: cause. diremptae pacis: construe with iram: “on account of the anger (aroused by) the shameful peace.” 9.8.226–227. cum omnes…irent: this tri-partite sentence begins with an adverbial cum clause (temporal). omnes: i.e., the other senators. laudibus modo: construe closely with laudibus: “with only praise…” The entire phrase modifies the following participle (see note). prosequentes: antecedent of the participle is omnes. virum: (i.e., Postumius) the object of prosequentes: “supporting the man.” in sententiam eius: construe with either the participle (prosequentes) or the expression pedibus irent (see note following): “in support of his testimony.” eius: i.e., Postumius. pedibus: ablative (means) with irent; one of the three ways a senator could show his support for the sententia of another senator (see note on surrexit at 9.8.204 above). 9.8.227–228. temptata…deditione sua: the main clause. temptata…intercessio est: note how the passive participle and the verb of the perfect passive periphrastic verb bracket not only the subject (intercessio), but the adverb paulisper. ab L. Livio et Q. Maelio: agency with temptata est. tribunis: ablative in apposition to L. Livio et Q. Maelio. plebis: genitive, construe with tribunis. Livy has structured the sentence to soften the fact that the tribunes of the plebs are attempting to veto Postumius’ dictio sententiae, no doubt because of the overwhelming support the ex-consul had just received from his fellow senators. Livy accomplishes this, in part, by casting the sentence in the passive voice and attributing the action to the two tribunes, instead of portraying them as the subject; add to that the inclusion of the adverb paulisper in the rhetorically powerful post-positive position immediately following temptata. 9.8.228–231. qui…posse: the third part of this sentence is a relative clause containing a tricolon of parallel indirect statements arranged through the anaphora of neque…neque…neque. qui: nominative, antecedent is tribunis (i.e., L. Livius and Q. Maelius). aibant: the main verb of the qui clause, governing the following three indirect statements; the verb is plural although presumably only one of the tribunes would have spoken for the both of them. neque exsolvi…populum: the first indirect statement. exsolvi: (> exsolvere). religione: ablative (separation), construe with ex­ solvi. deditione sua: ablative (means), “by their own surrender.” Apparently L. Livius and Q. Maelius were with Postumius at Caudium and had been members of the embassy that had acted as guarantors of the sponsio, and then subsequently been elected to the office of tribune of the plebs upon returning (see the note on 9.9.248–249 be-

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low). nisi omnia Samnitibus…restituerentur: “unless all things were to be restored to the Samnites.” qualia apud Caudium fuissent: the clause modifies omnia: “…such as they had at Caudium.” Samnitibus: the dative is serving both as indirect object with resituerentur and dative of possession with fuissent. 9.8.229–230: neque…meritos esse: the second indirect statement. se: accusative (i.e., L. Livius and Q. Maelius), the subject of meritos esse. pro eo quod spondendo pacem servassent exercitum populi Romani: “on account of that (pro eo) in respect to which (quod) through promising peace (spondondo pacem) they had saved the army (exercitum) of the Roman people (populi Romani). quod: the adverb. pacem: the direct object of the gerund spondendo, in the ablative (means). servassent: = servavis­ sent (the syncopated form of the perfect subjunctive), the subject is an understood tribuni. poenam ullam: direct object of meritos esse (> mereri). 9.8.231: neque…dedi…violarive posse: the third indirect statement. ad extremum: “finally,” or “at last.” cum: “because.” sacrosancti essent: because the tribune of the plebs, as representatives of the people, had the power to veto patrician legislation, they were protected by law against any form of physical violation or abuse that might arise due to the unpopularity of their decisions. dedi: passive infinitive (> dedere); the first of two complementary infinitives governed by posse, the main verb of the third indirect statement. hostibus: (i.e., the Samnites), dative, indirect object with the passive infinitive dedi. violarive: the second complementary infinitive (passive) with posse, connected by the enclitic conjunction –ve (“or”). posse: the subject is an understood se from the previous clause.

XXIV Postumius Responds to the Tribunes’ Veto 9.9.232–272 9.9.232–233. tum Postumius…potestis: Postumius’ response to the intercessio of the tribunes is twice as long as his original address to the senate. tum: construe with inquit. interea dedite: “meanwhile surrender…” the second person plural imperative is directed at the senate, not at the tribunes. profanos: translate predicatively as an appositive to nos, the direct object of dedite. The reference is to the phrase cum sa­ crosancti essent (9.8.231), i.e., that the consuls, unlike the tribunes of the plebs, are not sacrosancti and therefore could be surrendered. quos…potestis: antecedent is nos. salva religione: ablative absolute, “with the agreement remaining intact”; the reference is to the actual sponsio with the Samnites. potestis: (sc. dedere as complementary infinitive), the subject is again the two tribunes, the direct object is the relative pronoun quos, which introduced the clause. 9.9.233–235. dedetis…habeant: Postumius makes clear his contempt for the tribunes. dedetis: note the shift from the imperative (dedite) to the future, which often



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has the force of an imperative. deinde: note how the alliterative effect lends force to Postumius’ response. istos sacrosanctos: (i.e., the tribunes of the plebs) this particular demonstrative pronoun often carries pejorative weight (as here). cum: “after,” or “as soon as.” primum: the adverb. magistratu: ablative (separation) with abierent. sed: connects istos sacrosanctos with caesos (see note below). si me audiatis: an aside to his fellow senators: “if you would hear me out,” i.e., “if you would take my advice.” This idiom is quite common in Cicero (cf., Att. 1.11.1; Brut. 280; Leg Agr. 2.71; De Or. 1.68; Rep. 1.32; Nat. 2.74). hic: the adverb: “here,” construe with in comitio. vir­ gis: ablative (means) with caesos (> caedere). caesos: (i.e., the tribunes) in parallel construction to sacrosanctos. ut: should precede hanc iam to introduce the clause (purpose). hanc: placed outside its clause for emphasis, as it anticipates usuram, the object of habeant (subject is an understood tribuni plebis). iam: an important word for the point Postumius is making, hence its placement immediately following hanc and preceding ut: “now,” “at this very moment.” intercalatae poenae: genitive, construe with usuram: “let them have (habeant) now (iam) this (hanc) as interest (usuram) of a punishment postponed (intercalatae poenae).” hanc…usuram: note how the hyperbaton of demonstrative pronoun and noun brackets the genitive phrase intercalatae poenae. Because the tribunes were deferring the punishment due them for their part in the sponsio with the Samnites by hiding behind their sacrosanct status as tribunes, they should receive a second punishment, and a corporeal one. 9.9.235–237. nam quod…ignoret: Postumius counters the argument raised by the tribunes that the Roman people cannot be freed of their obligation to the sponsio by merely the surrender of the consuls. nam quod: the particle nam is explanatory: “for as to the fact that…” deditione nostra: ablative (means), construe with the passive infinitive exsolvi. negant: the subject is an understood tribuni plebis. religione: ablative (separation) with exsolvi. populum: subject of exsolvi: “for as to the fact that they deny that the people would be freed from their oath by means of our surrender…” id: direct object of dicere (see note below) and in apposition to the preceding quod clause. istos: (i.e., the tribunes), accusative, the subject of dicere, an indirect statement dependent on ignoret (see note below). magis ne dedantur quam quia: a negative purpose clause: lit. “more (magis) in order that they not be surrendered (ne dedantur) rather than because (quam quia) the situation (res) finds itself (se habeat) in such a state (ita).” quis adeo iuris fetialum expers est: the main clause of the sentence: “who (quis) is so (adeo) ignorant (expers) of the law of the fetials (iuris fetialium)…” qui ignoret: with the adverb adeo one would expect an ut clause of result, but instead Livy gives us a relative clause of characteristic, which in turn governs the preceding indirect statement (id istos…dicere). 9.9.237–239. neque…colitur: Postumius does not deny that treaties and guarantees are sacred things to be upheld by all who guarantee them. neque ego infitias eo: note the emphatic placement of the pronoun ego; lit., “and I am not entering (a state of) denial that…” eo: the first person, singular (> ire); neque infitias ire is an example of litotes (cf., 10.10.8, 31.31.9). tam sponsiones quam foedera: the accusative subjects

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of the indirect statement: “as much informal treaties as formal ones…” The equivocation between sponsiones and foedera is the difference between the level (or lack thereof) of religious ceremony and formal witnessing of the agreement between the two parties. sancta esse: the verb of the indirect statement (> sancire), by attraction it agrees with the neuter accusative foedera, but its subjects are both sponsiones and foedera. apud eos hominess apud quos: note the emphatic repetition of the preposition (apud) while the demonstrative pronoun (eos) anticipates the relative clause (quos…colitur): “among those men among whom…” divinas religiones: “obligation due to the gods.” The modified accusative is the object of the preposition iuxta. fides humana: the subject of colitur. 9.9.239. sed…teneat: that having been said, Postumius provides the following clarification. nego: the verb governs the following indirect statement. iniussu: ablative (attendant circumstance), construe with sanciri (see note below). quicquam: neuter accusative, subject of the indirect statement. sanciri: passive complementary infinitive governed by posse, the main verb of the indirect statement. quod…teneat: antecedent is quicquam. populi…populum: note the emphasis on the Roman people’s interests. 9.9.239–242. an…esse: Postumius addresses the tribunes directly, posing a hypothetical question that turns the tribunes’ argument against them. an si…: “What? So if…” The protasis of a mixed contrary to fact condition that begins with a particle (an) that often introduces irony and sarcasm in Livy (cf. 9.9.239, 27.13.7, 38.46.2). eadem super­ bia: ablative (means), construe with coegissent, the main verb of the protasis (see note below); note how the demonstrative pronoun eadem anticipates the following relative clause and how the qua clause separates eadem superbia from its verb by a hyperbaton of six words. qua: ablative, antecedent is eadem superbia: “by that same arrogance by which…” sponsionem istam: direct object of expresserunt. nobis: ablative (separation), construe with expresserunt: “by which the Samnites had extorted from us.” coegissent: the main verb of the protasis, the subject is an understood Samnites to be supplied from the qua clause. nos…nuncupare: the predicate, an objective infinitive clause (indirect command) governed by coegissent. verba legitima: “the correct words,” the object of nuncupare (for which, cf. Cic. Dom. 129; Varr. Ling. 6.53; Ov. Fast. 2.527–528; Sen. Contr. 9.2.10). dedentium: genitive of the active participle, governing urbes as its object: “the correct words of those surrendering their cities.” The phrase is brimming with sarcasm. deditum…esse: note how the passive participle (in contrast to dedentium of the protasis) is separated from esse by a hyperbaton of 13 words; it also introduces the apodosis, or main clause, and while it agrees with populum Romanum, the subject of the first of two indirect statements governed by diceretis, it is also the infinitive of the second indirect statement as well (see note following). et hanc urbem, templa, delubra, fines, aquas…esse: the second indirect statement (connected to the first by et) governed by diceretis (for the list, cf. Cic. Leg. 3.7, urbis templa, vias, aquas); while deditum agrees with populum Romanum, by proximity, it must also be understood as the verb with urbem, templa, delubra, fines, and aquas (note how deditum…esse brackets both indirect



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statements). If by aquas Livy means Postumius to be referring to Rome’s “water supply” he can only be referring to the construction of the Aqua Appia, Rome’s first aqueduct, completed in 312 b.c. some nine years on. tribuni: nominative, in apposition to vos: “you tribunes…” coegissent…diceretur: mixed condition, translate: “if the Samnites had forced us (then)…would you (now) be saying that…” Samnitium: genitive (possession), construe with esse. 9.9.242–243. omitto…agitur: Postumius discards the notion that he as consul was responsible for the surrender of a Roman army (something quite retrograde to the Roman ambition of this period), saying rather what happened at the Caudine Forks was simply an agreement made through a guarantee. While his argument may seem merely semantic, it is a necessary thing for the senate to hear. omitto deditionem: the brevity of this denial underscores Postumius’ feeling of contempt for the mere idea of having to give it voice: “as for the idea that it was an act of surrender, I dismiss this out of hand…” quoniam…agitur: the impersonal passive use of the verb: “because what is going on (in this hearing) concerns a guarantee.” 9.9.243–245. quid tandem, si…futurum: the six parallel si clauses (the protases of unresolved past contrary to fact conditions) share four future active participles; the random structure gives spontaneity to Postumius’ emotionally charged rebuttal. quid tandem: Postumius’ exasperation is still directed at the tribunes: “what, at last!” spopondissimus: the perfect subjunctive, indicating the protasis of a past contrary to fact condition. urbem hanc: the direct object of the future active participle relicturum (sc. esse), the verb of the indirect statement dependent on spopondissimus. populum Romanum: the subject of relicturum (esse), the indirect statement dependent on spo­ pondissimus. si incensurum: the second future perfect active participle in indirect statement dependent upon spopondissimus; the subject is still an understood populum Romanum, the direct object is an understood urbem hanc both from the previous indirect statement clause. si magistratus, si senatum, si leges non habiturum: (sc. esse) in the next three si clauses, Livy changes the future active participle from relicturum (esse) to non habiturum (esse), and offers three new direct objects (magistratus, sena­ tum, leges); popuum Romanum is still the subject. si sub regibus futurum: in the sixth and final protasis Livy shifts from transitive active verbs to the intransitive active futurum (sc. esse), the subject is still populum Romanum. It is the mention of kings (sub regibus) that brings about a reaction from the senate, prompting the following exclamation by Postumius. 9.9.243–245. di meliora, inquis: Postumius has carefully been constructing an image of terror and revulsion for his audience, one that is meant to recall the Gallic sacking of Rome in 391 b.c. di meliora: the vocative plural + the exclamatory adverbial accusative: “oh gods! may there be better things.” inquis: the second person plural of this verb is not extant in classical Latin. 9.9.245–246. atqui…levat: the indignity of the terms of the sponsio do not lessen the force of the guarantee that the Romans swore to uphold at the Caudine Forks. atqui: the concessive conjunction answers inquis from the previous sentence and continues

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the tone of frustration that informs Postumius’ argument. non: note the emphatic placement of the adverb, separated from its verb by a hyperbaton that brackets subject and direct object. rerum sponsionis: the subject and direct object in turn bracket the pair of genitives, the first of which (rerum) modifies the subject (indigni­ tas) while the second (sponsionis) modifies the direct object (vinculum). 9.9.246. si quid est…potest: Postumius continues to argue that when the Roman people enter into a formal agreement, they should keep it. si quid est: (= si aliquid est) “if there is anything…” in quod: obligare is most often coupled with the preposition in + the accusative in contexts where it means “to bind legally.” 9.9.246–248. et ne illud quidem…spoponderit: it makes no difference whether the consuls or the praetors or even the dictators appointed for that year were guarantors of the sponsio. ne…quidem: the construction brackets the word or words it emphasizes: “not even this…” quod: the subject of its clause, anticipated by illud. quosdam: the direct object of moveat. forsitan moveat: the adverb indicates that the subjunctive should be translated as potential: “not even that (ne illud quidem) which (quod) perhaps (forsitan) might move (moveat) certain men (quosdam).” refert: the main verb of the sentence (the subject is illud): “not even this makes a difference…” an…an: the two correlatives organize the tripartite subject of the singular spoponderit, and the clause functions in apposition to illud. 9.9.248–249. et hoc…spondere coegerunt: Postumius explains that even the Samnites understand that a sponsio made by the Romans binds only those magistrates who swear personally as sponsiores. Therefore at Caudium, they were not satisfied with the word of the consuls, insisting instead on including other, lesser magistrates as spon­ siores in an effort to bind the entire populus. et hoc: the direct object of iudicaverunt: “even this…” ipsi etiam Samnites: nominative (note emphatic pronoun): “the very Samnites themselves…” iudicaverunt: “had come to the conclusion.” quibus non fuit satis: the dative of interest (or reference) with esse (antecedent is Samnites, anticipated by the demonstrative pronoun ipsi): “for whom it was not enough that…” consules spondere: an objective infinitive clause, dependent on non fuit satis. sed legatos, quaestores, tribunos militum spondere: an indirect command, governed by coegerunt. 9.9.250–252. nec a me…possem: Postumius continues to explain why he struck the deal. nec…nec…nec: the three are not in parallel construction. The first nec negates quaesiverit, an independent jussive subjunctive: “and let not…” The second two link esset and possem as correlatives: “neither…nor…” a me: “from me,” or “of me,” construe with quaesiverit. nunc: “at this juncture.” quid ita spoponderim: an indirect question, governed by quaesiverit: “and let no one at this juncture inquire of me why I conducted the sponsio in such fashion.” cum: “seeing that.” id: i.e., the quid ita spoponderim clause. consulis ius: “the right,” or “duty of a consul.” illis: dative (i.e., the Samnites), construe with the phrase spondere pacem. spondere: complementary infinitive governed by possem, separated from it by a hyperbaton of eleven words. pacem: direct object of spondere. quae: antecedent is pacem. mei…arbitrii: genitive



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of characteristic with erat: “which was not (within the scope) of my purview.” Note how the possessive adjective (mei) and its noun (arbitrii) bracket the verb (non erat), an example of hyperbaton. pro vobis: “on your behalf.” Note how Livy contrasts the responsibilities of Postumius (mei) with the interests of the Roman people (vobis). qui non mandaveratis: the antecedent is vobis: “on behalf of you who had given (me) no mandate.” possem: the governing verb (see note above). 9.9.252–253: nihil…gestum est: Postumius shifts the blame from himself to that of divine intervention. nihil: the subject of the main clause. ad Caudium: “at Caudium.” patres conscripti: (see note on 9.8.202 above). humanis consiliis: ablative (instrument) with gestum est: “through human intentions.” 9.9.253. di immortales…ademerunt: Postumius contrasts consilia humana with con­ silia divina. Juxtaposing the will of the gods versus that of humans is a conventional feature of classical oratory (cf., e.g., Vell. 1.42.2, 2.60.2, 5.49.5, 44.40.3; see also Cic. Cat. 2.29 and 3.18). di immortales: subject of ademerunt (in parallel construction to nihil…gestum est in the preceding clause). et vestris et…imperatoribus: ablative of separation with ademerunt: “from you and from your commanders.” hostium: genitive, modifying imperatoribus (note how the genitive is bracketed by the pair of ablatives). mentem: direct object of ademerunt. Postumius attributes what happened at the Caudine Forks to a divine intervention that robbed the Romans and the Samnites of their right minds. 9.9.253–255. nec nos…auferre festinant: Postumius gives more detail about the divine intervention. nec nos…cavimus et illi…perdiderunt: Postumius juxtaposes the decisions he and Calvinus (nos) made at Caudium with those made by the Samnites (illi). nec…satis cavimus: “we did not take sufficient precautions…” male partam vic­ toriam male perdiderunt: (note the chiasmus) the first male modifies partam (> pa­ rere) modifying victoriam; the second male modifies perdiderunt: “a badly hatched victory they badly squandered.” dum…credunt: “during the time in which they scarcely trusted the ground…” locis: dative object of credunt. quibus vicerant: antecedent is locis: “on which they were victorious.” dum…festinant: a second dum clause in parallel construction to the previous one. viris in arma natis: note the bracketing and synchesis, “from men born to bear arms.” quacumque condicione: “by whatever means possible…” quicumque carries an indefinite sense that often involves the ellipsis of a verb, usually some form of posse (cf. Cic. Att. 8.11; Livy, 22.58.5, 35.13.9, 40.13.1). auferre: complementary infinitive with festinant. 9.9.256–257. an si…legatos: what would have happened at the Caudine Forks had the situation been different on both sides. an: the conjunction here proposes the apodosis of a past contrary to fact condition in the form of an alternative question. si sana mens fuisset: the protasis of a past contrary to fact condition (sc. illis from the following clause, dative of possession): “if they had been in their right senses….” illis: construe dative with difficile: “would it have been difficult for them (an…difficile illis fuit) to send an embassy (mittere legatos) to Rome (Romam)?” This is a construction in Livy not without parallel (cf. 7.30.14: an, si sana mens fuisset, difficle illis fuit, dum

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cf. also Verg. Aen. 2.54: si mens non laeva fuit…). dum senes…accersunt: although the subject and verb are plural, the clause refers only to the summoning of Herennius, another example of the “generalizing plural” (see note on 9.1.9–13 above). ab domo: “from home.” ad consultandum: “for the purpose of consulting…” mittere: subjective infinitive with the phrase difficile fuit. Romam: terminal accusative: “to Rome.” lega­ tos: direct object of mittere. 9.9.257. cum…agere: the argument, based on the rhetorical question introduced by an in the previous sentence, continues. cum senatu, cum populo: two parallel prepositional phrases, construe with agere. de pace et foedere: an example of hendiadys: “concerning the peace (as a result) of a formal agreement.” agere: another subjective infinitive with the construction difficile fuit from the preceding sentence, and in parallel construction with mittere legatos. 9.9.258. tridui…erat: Postumius imagines how short a time it would have taken a Samnite embassy to reach Rome (thereby begging the question why Pontius had not followed such protocol). tridui: genitive of period of time, construe with iter. expedi­ tus: the adjective used substantively: “the march was a journey of three days.” It will have been a forced march indeed, as the distance from Caudium to Rome is at least 200 kilometers by the most direct route. 9.9.258–259. interea…adferrent: Postumius insists that the situation as it stands is not the product of his own mismanagement, but that of the Samnite commander. in­ terea in indutiis res fuisset: “meanwhile, the matter (res) would have been (fuisset) in a state of suspension (in indutiis).” donec: “until.” ab Roma: construe with legati: “an embassy from Rome.” aut victoriam illis certam aut pacem: “either certain victory or peace.” illis: (i.e., the Samnites) dative of interest with adferrent, the verb of legati. Note how the first alternative (victoriam…certam) brackets illis. Although Postumius is referencing the Samnites, Livy reveals how the Augustan ideal of pax was viewed only as the outcome of the successful waging of war (victoria). 9.9.259–260. ea demum sponsio…spopondissimus: Postumius sums up. ea de­ mum sponsio esset quam: independent potential subjunctive clause: “this, in the end, would have been the guarantee that…” The demonstrative pronoun agrees with sponsio, and anticipates the following quam clause. Note how the pronoun and noun bracket the adverb demum which signals the summation of the argument. popu­ li: genitive, modifying iussu. iussu: ablative (attendant circumstance). sed neque… spopondissimus: Postumius claims that even if the Samnites had sent an embassy to Rome, its terms would never have been approved by the tribunes or the consuls. neque…nec: the correlatives juxtapose tulissetis and spopondissimus (note how each verb is emphatically supplied with its respective personal pronoun, both in parallel construction, a model of Livian periodicity). 9.9.260–264. nec fas fuit…obligaret: or even by the gods themselves. nec fas fuit: “nor was it the will of the gods that…” alium…exitum esse quam: an accusative + infinitive clause dependent on the governing phrase fas fuit. rerum: genitive plural,



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picking up on the phrase interea in indutiis res fuisset at 9.9.258: “any other outcome of affairs than…” ut…eluderentur, et….expediret…faceret…interponerentur: a compound result clause serving as the comparandum introduced by alium…quam. illi: (i.e., the Samnites) the subject of eluderentur. velut somnio laetiore: ablative (means), construe with eluderentur (see note below). somnio: i.e., dreams. quam… possent: the comparandum clause anticipated by the comparative adjective laeti­ ore. quod: direct object of capere, complementary infinitive of possent. mentes: subject of possent. eorum: i.e., the Samnites. nequiquam: construe with capere possent. eluderentur: note this is the same verb Livy used of the Samnites at 9.5.150, when they mocked the Romans as they passed under the yoke. et nostrum exercitum…ex­ pediret: the second clause of the ut clause. eadem…fortuna: nominative, the subject of expediret. Note how the demonstrative pronoun and its noun both bracket as well as anticipate the quae impedirat clause. quae: nominative, antecedent is eadem… fortuna: “and that the same luck (et…eadem…fortuna) freed our army (nostrum exer­ citum…expediret) which trapped it (quae imperdierat).” vanam…faceret pax: the third clause governed by ut. vanior…pax: the subject of the clause; note how the comparative adjective (vanior) and its noun (pax) bracket irritam, the object complement of this factitive clause. vanam victoriam vanior: a common idiomatic use of adjectives in Livy (cf., 2.33.10, 35.6, 57.1, 6.11.1, 6.17.7, 6.23.3, 7.11.11, 8.29.10, 33.44.7); note also the alliteration as well as the chiasmus achieved by Livy’s placement of the positive and comparative forms of the adjective in relation to their nouns (vanam victoriam :: vanior…pax). sponsio interponerentur: the forth result clause governed by ut. quae…obligaret: antecedent of the clause is sponsio. neminem: direct object of obligaret. sponsorem: object of the preposition praeter. 9.9.264–265. quid enim…actum est: the first in a series of short, rhetorical questions aimed at the elder patricians of the senate. quid enim vobiscum…quid cum populo Romano: note the parallel structure. actum est: the subject is the two parallel quid clauses. 9.9.265. quis…deceptum: Postumius now directly addresses the patres conscritpi. quis vos appellare potest: “who is able to appeal (to) you.” Perhaps Livy is allowing Postumius’ question to anticipate Pontius’ reaction to the Roman embassy at 9.11.292 ff. quis…dicere: sc. potest. se…deceptum: (sc. esse) an indirect statement governed by dicere, the complementary infinitive of an understood potest. a vobis: agency with deceptum (esse). 9.9.266. hosti…iussistis: because of the nature of the sponsio, the roman people have pledged nothing, are in no way bound by what he and Calvinus did at the Caudine Forks. hosti: dative, indirect object. nihil: direct object of spopondistis (subject is an understood vos, i.e., the senate). civem neminem spondere: an objective infinitive clause governed by iussistis. pro vobis: note how the prepositional phrase is bracketed between the infinitive (spondere) and its governing verb (iussistis). 9.9.267–268. nihil…egestis: Postumius continues. ergo: another signal that Postumius is drawing his rebuttal to a close. nihil…vobis nec nobiscum est: the pairing

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of the dative of possession (vobis) with esse and a prepositional phrase with cum + the ablative (nobis) is a common idiomatic construction dating back to Plautus (Men. 648 [nihil mihi tecum est] cf. also Cic. Att. 12.17.1 [mihi enim ante aedilitatem meam nihil erat cum Cornificio], also Cael. 33; Ov. Met. 1.456). quibus nihil mandastis: antecedent is nobis. nec cum Samnitibus: construe with est, in parallel construction with nobiscum. cum quibus nihil egistis: antecedent of quibus is Samnitibus. Note how periodic Livy’s style remains as Postumius wraps up. 9.9.268–269. Samnitibus…in animos: the Samnites have in the Roman people reliable co-sponsors of the sponsio struck at Caudium. Samnitibus: dative (reference or interest). sponsores nos sumus: “we are guarantors (along with) the Samnites.” rei satis locupletes in id quod nostrum est: in apposition to nos. rei satis locupletes: the adjective is used here substantively: “of the matter (rei) sufficiently competent (satis locupletes) in (taking responsibility of) that which is ours (in id quod nostrum est).” in id quod praestare possumus: a second clause in parallel construction and similar periodic arrangement to the previous. praestare: complementary infinitive with possumus. corpora nostra et animos: in apposition to the two id quod clauses: “our hearts and minds.” 9.9.269–270. in haec…acuant: the Samnites can trust in the Roman people and the oath sworn at Caudium. in haec: i.e., corpora nostra et animos. The tricolon of clauses share two independent subjunctives (subject is an understood Samnites); this polarizing rhetorical flourish is enhanced by the anaphora of in haec. in haec ferrum: (sc. acuant) a metaphorical use of both verb and direct object suggesting the sharpening of steel (ferrum is often metonymy for “sword”). 9.9.270–271. quod…differatur: the surrender of the tribunes and what such an act might accomplish. quod ad tribunos attinet: “as for what pertains to the (matter concerning the) tribunes…” The construction quod ad…attinet is common in Livy, occurring most often in oratory and usually when the speaker is summing up or changing topic (cf., e.g., 6.6.10, 15.4, 23.10, 26.7, 8.2.3, 13.14, 10.45.6, 23.25.3, 48.3). con­ sulite: imperative. utrum…an: “you must decide whether…or…” praesens deditio eorum: “the immediate surrender of them,” (i.e., L. Livius and Q. Maelius, the tribunes of the plebs). fieri: complementary infinitive with possit: “is able to take place.” an in diem differatur: (sc. deditio eorum): “or whether (their surrender) should be put off until another time (in diem).” 9.9.271–272. nos…arma: a final plea for the senators to uphold the pledge he made at the Caudine Forks: his surrender and that of Calvinus. interim: “meanwhile.” T. Veturi: the vocative case; Postumius is addressing his consular colleague, who has remained curiously (or understandably) silent during this crucial moment before the senate. nos…vosque ceteri…feramus et…liberemus: an independent hortatory subjunctive clause; although feramus and liberemus are first person plural, Postumius is careful to include the rest of the senate (vosque ceteri). vilia haec capita: direct object of feramus: “let us offer these our cowardly heads….” Caput is often used as metonymy for the person as a whole, but here Postumius seems to



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be suggesting, and quite literally, that his life and the life of Calvinus, along with the lives L. Livius and Q. Maelius, ought to be sacrificed for the cause of bringing the fight back to the Samnites (see following note) luendae sponsioni: the dative with the gerundive should be construed with feramus and not with vilia haec capita (the normal construction of the gerundive + a noun in the genitive): “let us offer these our cowardly heads to the agreement (sponsioni) for the purpose of dissolving it (luendae); i.e., the capitulation and surrender of the two consuls would serve the purpose of nullifying the disgraceful terms of the sponsio. nostro supplicio: ablative (means or instrument) with liberemus. Romana arma: direct object of liberemus. feramus: the verb serves to continue the metaphor of conducting a sacrifice (c.f., e.g., Verg. Aen. 4.217–218, 6.213).

XXV Postumius’ Speech Falls on Deaf Ears 9.10.273–280 9.10.273–274. movit…potestate: the senators, and in particular the patres conscripti, are moved by Postumius’ words. movit patres conscriptos: a common coupling in Livy (as at 6.26.2, 7.31.6, 41.8.6, 23.28.1, 39.7.9). cum causa tum auctor: the pairing of nominatives forms the compound subject of movit, arranged paratactically around the correlative construction of cum…tum: “both the cause and its author…” nec ceteros solum sed tribunos etiam plebei: a second correlative construction, arranging a second bipartite direct object group governed by movit: “moves…not only the others, but even the tribunes of the plebs.” Note how both pairs of correlatives (nec…solum and sed…etiam) bracket their respective nouns. ut…dicerent: a result clause, construe with movit. The subject is an understood tribuni plebei. se…fore: an indirect statement dependent on dicerent. se: i.e., the tribuni plebei. fore: = futurum esse. in senatus…potestate: lit. “that they (se) would be (fore = futurum esse) under the power (in potestate) of the senate (senatus).” 9.10.274–275. magistratu…ducendi: Postumius and Veturius Calvinus abdicate their magisterial powers. magistratu: ablative (separation), construe with abdica­ verunt. inde: “next…” the adverb implies the swift turning of events following Po­ stumius’ speech. se: direct object of abdicaverunt. The antecedent of the pronoun, and subject of the verb, is an understood tribuni plebei. traditique: sc. sunt. traditi… ducendi: note how the participle and the gerundive bracket the remaining elements of the sentence, another example of Livian periodicity. fetialibus: dative, construe with traditi. cum ceteris: construe the prepositional phrase (a parallel adverbial construction with the dative fetialibus) with ducendi. Caudium: “to Caudium.” 9.10.275–276. hoc…visa est: the senate issues a senatus consultum. hoc senatus con­ sulto facto: an ablative absolute: “with this senatus consultum having been enacted…” senatus: genitive. lux quaedam…visa est: the language of dreams (visa est) and met-

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(quaedam). lux: “the light of day.” quaedam: for quidam used in conjunction with metaphor, cf. 6.31.2; also Cic. Phil. 1.4. and 10.12 (ut…lux venisse quaedam et spes salutis videretur). adfuisse: complementary infinitive with visa est. civitati: dative with the compound verb adfuisse. aphor

10.276. Postumius…erat: an example of understatement. in ore: lit. “on the mouth,” i.e., to be continually talked about. The idiom in ore esse is quite common (cf. e.g., Enn. Scen. 123; Ter. Ad. 95; [Cic.] Her. 2.12; Cic. Fin. 2.67, Tusc. 1.116; Tac. Hist. 2.73). 9.10.276–277. eum…aequabant: Postumius has won praise for his capitulation to fetial law which requires him to be surrendered to the Samnites in order to nullify the sponsio he struck at the Caudine Forks. eum: i.e., Postumius. ad caelum…fere­ bant: the expression is found also at 4.41.9, 7.36.5 (cf. also Cic. Orat. 174; Verg. Aen. 1.625). ferebant: the subject is an understood Romani or senatores (or sim.). laudibus: ablative (means). devotioni: dative with aequabant. P. Deci: genitive, construe with devotioni (for the devotio of Publius Decius see note on 9.4.108–109 above). consulis: genitive, in apposition to P. Deci. aliis claris facinoribus: a second dative phrase, parallel to devotioni, also governed by aequabant. For facinus in a positive sense (with and without the coupling of clarus and praeclarus) see 8.24.9; Plaut. Pseud. 590–591; Cic. Att. 7.31.1, Her. 4.68; Sall. Cat. 53.2, Iug. 5.4.56; Sen. Herc. 247; Tac. Ann. 12.31.4, Hist. 3.23.2. 9.10.277–278. emersisse…opera: two indirect statements governed by the expressions in ore and eum laudibus ad caelum ferebant, etc. emersisse civitatem: note the emphatic placement of the infinitive and its subject. ex obnoxia pace: i.e., the sponsio struck at Caudium (for the expression, cf. 6.28.7). illius: (i.e., Postumius) genitive, construe with consilio et opera (ablatives of cause). 9.10.278–279. ipsum…dare: the second indirect statement beginning with the subject (ipsum) of the two infinitives (offerre…dare). se: direct object of the first infinitive (offerre). cruciatibus…irae: two datives, indirect objects with offerre (hendiadys: “to the angry tortures of the enemy”). hostium: genitive, construe with both cruciatibus and irae. piaculaque: the second direct object of dare, first in its clause in near parallel construction with se (sc. se from the previous clause as piacula stands in apposition to the pronoun: “he gave himself as an offering on behalf of the Roman people”). 9.10.279–280. arma…liceat: the last sentence of this chapter defines the anticipation the Romans are feeling as they approach their confrontation with the Samnites. arma… et bellum: note how the two direct objects of spectant bracket the subject and verb of the clause. arma…armatis: note the emphatic repetition. cuncti: nominative, the adjective used here substantively as the subject of spectant. en umquam: conversational interjection “at what time at last,” “when at long last…” futurum: (sc. esse): “would it ever come to pass…” ut…liceat: a result clause. congredi: objective infinitive (> congredior) of liceat. armatis: (sc. Romanis or sim.); dative with liceat and the subject of congredi, the “for…to…” construction. cum Samnite: construe with congredi.



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XXVI Postumius Is Surrendered to Pontius 9.10.281–291 9.10.281. in civitate…fuit: Livy describes the atmosphere in Rome as the envoy to the Samnites is readied. in civitate…ardente: note how the noun (civitate) and the participle (ardente) of the ablative absolute bracket ira odioque, two ablatives of cause. dilectus: nominative. Usually the term dilectus indicates a draft or levy; that Livy specifies the dilectus was made up entirely of volunteers (omnium voluntariorum) creates an oxymoron that captues the enthusiasm with which the Romans embraced this mission (for dilectus in Livy, cf. 5.16.5, 28.45.13). 9.10.282. rescriptae…exercitus: the nature of the soldiers involved in the dilectus as they march to Caudium. rescriptae: (sc. erant) for rescribere used in the sense of “to re-enlist” cf. Caes. Gall. 1.42.6. ex eodem milite: “from this same military body…” (i.e., the dilectus). novae legiones: subject of rescriptae (erant). ductusque…exercitus: note how the verb and its noun bracket the prepositional phrase ad Caudium. For the expression cf. 10.17.9. 9.10.282–284. praegressi fetiales…vinciri: the role of the fetials as the Roman army approaches the gates of Caudium. praegressi: the participle, modifying fetiales. ubi: the conjunction should begin the sentence; translate: “when the fetials, marching ahead (praegressi), came to the gate (ad portam venere)…” venere: = venerunt, the syncopated form of the verb (subject is fetiales). sponsoribus: (i.e., Postumius and the others in shackles) ablative (separation) with detrahi. pacis: genitive (objective) construe with sponsoribis. manus…vinciri: note how the accusative (manus) and objective infinitive (vinciri), bracket the prepositional phrase post tergum. 9.10.284–285. cum apparitor…deditio: Postumius insists that he be bound, and bound tightly and properly. cum: “because.” apparitor: a touch of Livian irony. Usually used of officials who proceeded magistrates, such as lictors, here Livy is using apparitor to indicate the fetials, who are marching before the shamed ex-consul in place of his usual lictors. It is interesting that Livy focuses solely on Postumius, with no mention of Calvinus in this final scene. verecundia: ablative (cause). maiestatis Postumi: genitive, construe with verecundia. laxe: adverb, modifying vinciret. vin­ ciret: an echo of vinciri at the end of the previous sentence (sc. manus post tergum as the predicate). quin tu…adducis lorum: “on the contrary, you should draw tight the knot…” A quin clause often introduces an emotional outburst, nearly the semantic equivalent of an imperative (cf. 1.45.6, 8.32.6, 9.11.293, 9.18.11, 40.14.8 and 15.1; see also Verg. Aen. 4.99). ut…iusta fiat deditio: a purpose clause, following the logic of the demand made by the quin…adducis clause. 9.10.285–286. tum…fecit: before the tribunal of Pontius. ventum…est: the impersonal passive construction: “it was come,” i.e., “they came.” in coetum Samnitium et ad tribunal…Ponti: the two prepositional phrases would be in strict parallel

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word order (prep. + acc. gen. :: prep. + acc. gen.) were it not for the interruption of the second phrase by using ventum…est to postpone the genitive Ponti. A. Cornelius Arvina: the subject of the main clause introduced by tum, the first word in the sentence (see note above). fetialis: nominative, in apposition to Arvina. ita verba fecit: “he said.” 9.10.286–289. quandoque…dedo: the second to last speech of the story; Postumius makes a sudden and extraordinary declaration. quandoque: the conjunction introducing a subordinate clause (causal): “since,” “because,” “whereas.” hisce homines… hosce homines: (= hi homines…hos homines) the archaic forms lend historical weight to Postumius’ final, humiliating words. homines: subject of the quandoque clause. iniussu: ablative (concessive), construe with ictum iri (for formula see note below): “despite the reluctance of the Roman people…” populi Romani: genitive, construe with iniussu. Quiritium: genitive plural, qualifying populi Romani. The term references the historical followers of Quirinus, an alternate name for Romulus, and was used by military commanders as a form of address to rouse disheartened troops in the field. foedus ictum iri: an indirect statement, governed by spoponderunt (see note). ictum iri: the future passive perfect comprised of the perfect passive participle (> icere) and the passive infinitive (> ire), not a common construction. spoponderunt: the subject is hisce homines (see note above); the verb governs the indirect statement foedus ictum iri, the first of two verbs of the quandoque clause. atque: connects spoponderunt and nocuerunt. ob eam rem: “on account of this situation…” the demonstrative pronoun eam indicates that this phrase refers to the quandoque clause (note how Arvina repeats this phrase for emphasis; the second time, however, the reference is to the phrase noxam nocuerunt. quo…sit solutus: “to the end that the Roman people be released from this unholy crime.” Arvina, in his role as pater patratus (i.e., appointed by the senate as “father” of a deputation to a foreign power) is purposefully keeping his language religiously formulaic (cf. 1.24.6, where the term Qurites is also invoked). scelere impio: ablative (separation), construe with sit solutus. hosce homines: object of dedo (on the archaic form of the demonstrative see note above). vobis: dative, indirect object of dedo. dedo: note the periodic placement of the main verb. 9.10.289–291. haec…gesturos: Postumius reacts to Arvina’s words and makes a bizarre declaration with an equally bizarre gesture. haec: object of the participle dicenti (see note following). dicenti fetiali: ablative absolute (active), construe with perculit. genu: ablative (means). femur: object of perculit. quanta…vi: ablative (means), construe with perculit: “with as much violence as he was especially (maxime) able.” In the singular, the noun vis refers to physical violence, often of a criminal nature. For vis in the plural, meaning “force” see note on 9.12.325 below. clara voce: ablative (means), construe with ait. se Samnitem civem esse: an indirect statement governed by ait. se: i.e., Postumius. For the legal precedent for the changing of citizenship as a result of a surrender (deditio) or exchange arranged by the fetial priest (pater patratus), cf. Cic. Caecin. 98. illum legatum…violatum: (sc. esse) a second indirect statement governed by ait. illum legatum fetialem: “the fetial embassy,” i.e., the Roman envoy delivering



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Postumius to the Samnites (for fetiales as legati cf. 1.36.6, 4.58.1). a se: (agency) i.e., Postumius’ violent action against the fetial. contra ius gentium: “against the law of nations.” The fetial, in his role as negotiator of the ius gentium, enjoyed sacrosanct bodily protection (i.e., diplomatic immunity); Postumius is saying that by striking the fetial he (as a newly self-proclaimed Samnite citizen) has violated the entire process, thereby preventing the Romans from finalizing a disgraceful peace with the Samnites and allowing them to renew their war with them, as the final clause makes clear (see note following). eo: ablative of degree of difference with the comparative adverb (iustius). The comparative adverb suggests, with a touch of Livian irony, that the Romans felt that the war they had been fighting against the Samnites was far from just given the trickery of the Samnites that trapped them in the Caudine Forks. gesturos: (sc. esse) the subject is an understood Romanos; bellum is direct object.

XXVII Pontius Denounces the Roman Embassy 9.11.292–310 9.11.292–293. tum Pontius…habebunt: Pontius rejects Postumius’ offer out of hand. tum: construe with inquit (see note on 9.4.100–107). nec…nec: “neither… nor…” Livy uses the correlatives to construct two parallel and periodic clauses (subj. obj. verb :: subj. obj. verb). But there is variatio in the second member, not entirely parallel to the first in its construction. habebunt: used here in its secondary sense as a verb that governs an indirect statement (ratam esse deditionem). istam: anticipates the fact that deditionem is to be supplied in the second clause as the accusative subject of the indirect statement. 9.11.293. quin tu…stas: Pontius addresses Postumius directly. quin tu: “Why don’t you…” (see note on 9.10.284 above). Here, the quin clause is best translated as a negative imperative, coupled with the emphatic use of the personal pronoun (tu) in primary position. Sp. Postumi: = Spuri Postumi (vocative). si deos esse censes: the compact protasis of the condition contains an indirect statement: “if (si) you believe (censes) that the gods exist (deos esse).” For the cynical sentiment, cf. Livy’s contemporary, the elegist Ovid: Esse deos, i, crede: fidem iurata fefellit (Am. 3.3.1): “That the gods exist (esse deos), go ahead (i), believe (crede) it (if you like): though having sworn her oath (iurata), she has betrayed (fefellit) her fidelity (fidem).” aut…aut: “either… or…” Pontius puts two alternative questions to Postumius, each governed by the cynical quin. aut omnia irrita facis: the first question is factitive: “why don’t you either (aut) render (facis) everything (omnia) null and void (irrata).” aut pacto stas: “or stand by the agreement” (stare + the ablative pacto). 9.11.294. Samniti…debetur: the Samnite people have a right to all those (hostages) whom it held in its power, or instead the right to make peace with Rome. Samniti populo: dative, construe with debetur. omnes: construe with Samniti populo (some-

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times the adjective does not agree with a noun according to strict grammatical form, but according to sense). quos in potestate habuit: note how the verb (habuit) and its object (quos) bracket the prepositional phrase (in potestate). quos: antecedent is omnes. habuit: the subject of the clause is an understood Samnis populus. pro iis: antecedent is omnes. debetur: the compound subject is omnes…aut…pax; the verb is singular by its proximity to pax: “to the Samnite people (Samniti populo) is owed (debetur) all those (omnes) whom (quos) it held (habuit) in its power (in potestate) or (aut) in place of these (pro iis) a state of peace (pax).” 9.11.294–295. sed quid ego…restituis: this rhetorical question is an example of praeteritio. quid: the interrogative adverb. ego te appello: “why do I appeal to you?” When first and second person pronouns are used in the same sentence by Livy they are often juxtaposed (cf., 2.12.10, 23.9.2 and 15.14); such juxtaposition of pronouns is also often found in Roman drama in the interest of the spectators (cf., Plaut. Cist. 46; Epid. 246; Pers.118–119). qui…restituis: antecedent is te. qui te captum: the economy achieved by the piling up of pronouns also maintains parallel structure between the relative clause and the main clause. captum: accusative singular in apposition to te, direct object of restituis. victori: dative, construe with restituis: “you who (qui) return (restituis) yourself (te) to your victor (victori) as his captive (captum)…” cum qua potes fide: “with whatever honor you are able.” cum qua: (= quacumque) an example of tmesis. potes: here in its root meaning of having the power; the original expression was a combination of the adjective potis or pote + a form of esse and did not necessarily pattern with a complementary infinitive. 9.11.295. populum Romanum appello: Pontius answers his own rhetorical question posed in the previous sentence, but his response is a bitter echo of Postumius’ own words at 9.9.265 when addressing the Roman senate in his own defense. 9.11.296–297. quem…fuerunt: Pontius enumerates the things he knows will not happen (adynata). What follows are six short such clauses arranged paratactically. quem: the connecting relative pronoun (= et eum). antecedent is populum Romanum. sponsionis…factae: note how the noun and its participle bracket the prepositional phrase ad Furculas Caudinas. paenitet: an impersonal verb that takes an accusative object (quem) and a genitive of cause (sponsionis…factae): “if (si) it repents (paenitet) him (quem) of the treaty made (sponsionis…factae) at the Caudine Forks (ad Furculas Caudinas)…” restituat: the first in a series of hortatory/jussive subjunctives used to express the adynata; the subject is an understood populus Romanus. legiones: accusative, object of restituat. intra saltum: construe with restituat: “let them replace their legions within the defiles (of the Caudine Forks).” quo: the adverb: “where…” saeptae fuerunt: sc. legiones. 9.11.297. nemo…sint: the adynata continue: deceperit: another hortatory subjunctive: “let no one deceive another.” omnia pro infecto sint: Pontius’ sarcastic and outrageous exclamations of adynata continue. pro infecto: the adjective refers to the incident at the Caudine Forks: “let all things be as if it had not taken place.” For



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this use of pro in Livy, cf. 2.7.3, 7.6.8,12.4.25, 21.9.1 and 40.2. sint: another hortatory subjunctive. 9.11.297–298. recipiant…tradiderunt: the adynata continue. recipiant: another hortatory/jussive subjunctive (sc. legiones). arma: object of recipiant. quae per pac­ tionem tradiderunt: antecedent of quae is arma (a specific reference to the weapons confiscated from the Roman legions). 9.11.298. redeant in castra sua: the adynata continue. redeant: another hortatory/ jussive subjunctive (sc. legiones). Note the alliterative effects as Livy begins this clause emphatically with the verb (recipiant…redeant…). in castra sua: i.e., the Romans’ encampment efforts while trapped inside the Caudine Forks. 9.11.298–299. quidquid…habeant: the sixth and final adynaton. The clause is the object of habeant (see note below). pridie…quam: “on the day previous than (that on which)…” in colloquium est ventum: an impersonal construction, lit.: “into the conference it was undergone,” i.e., “whatever they had on the day before they went into the conference.” habeant: the final hortatory subjunctive clause (sc. legiones): “let them have…” 9.11.299–300. tum…repudietur: Pontius sums up with a terse, bipartite clause. tum…tum: the emphatic repetition of the adverb (“then…then…”) sets up a pair of compound subjects each of which can be read as an example of hendiadys. bellum et fortia consilia: “the brave counsels of war.” For the phrase fortia consilia cf. 26.31.6; also Cic. Sest. 51; Tac. hist. 3.67.1. placeant: a hortatory subjunctive, the subject is the preceding bellum et fortia consilia. sponsio et pax: another example of hendiadys, in parallel construction to bellum et fortia consilia: “the guarantee of peace.” repudie­ tur: (understand a phrase such as a Romanis or sim. to supply agency with the passive verb) a second hortatory subjunctive in parallel construction to placeant (note that because each verb is governed by a compound subject, placeant can be plural while repudietur is singular, an example of variatio). 9.11.300–301. ea fortuna…bellum…accusemus: Pontius continues his summation. ea fortuna: ablative absolute, construe with geramus bellum (see note), antecedent is the entire contents of Pontius’ speech up to this point, particularly from the adynata forward. iis locis: a second ablative absolute, in paratactic and parallel construction with ea fortuna (note how the demonstrative pronoun ea anticipates iis, further locking the pair of ablative absolutes into parallel construction). Could they turn back the clock, and with the Samnites having had the good fortune (ea fortuna) to have successfully trapped the Romans in the Caudine Forks, that were they to do battle then, but under those circumstances and in that locale, the Samnites would, of course, have been victorious. quae: neuter accusative, direct object of habuimus; the antecedent is collective, the two ablative absolutes (ea fortuna, iis locis). ante: the preposition, construe with mentionem. pacis: genitive, construe with mentionem; note how the preposition (ante) and its object (mentionem) bracket the genitive (pacis). nec…accusemus: Pontius attempts to show some restraint, but he is in high rhe-

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torical feather (note how this and the next ten clauses end periodically with their governing verb). nec populus Romanus…nec nos…accusemus: the anaphora of nec…nec sets up two parallel clauses, though not without some variatio and an ellipsis. The clauses are parallel in that the subject of the first nec clause (populus Romanus) and the subject of the second nec clause (nos) appear in first position, each followed by their direct objects (sponsionem and fidem) but in the case of sponsionem, it is preceded by its genitive modifier (consulum), whereas in the case of fidem, the genitive modifier (populi) follows its noun, thus creating a chiasmus (gen. acc. :: acc. gen.). The ellipsis occurs in the absence of a verb for populus Romanus, the subject of the first nec clause, which must be supplied by the reader from the verb of the second nec clause (accusemus), and in a form that agrees with populus Romanus (accuset). 9.11.302. numquamne…stetis: Pontius poses to the Roman embassy a highly rhetorical, highly sarcastic question. numquamne: the addition of the enclitic particle –ne signals that this is a question, and emphasizes numquam. causa defiet cur victi pacto non stetis: “will an excuse (causa) never fail (numquam…defiet) as to why (cur) you, though conquered (victi) will not adhere (stetis) to an agreement (pacto).” causa: nominative, subject of defiet. victi: nominative, modifying an understood vos, and subject of stetis. pacto: ablative, construe with stetis. 9.11.302–303. obsides…subduxisitis: what follows is a tricolon of historical ex­ empla of broken political promises made by the Romans, beginning in 508 b.c., then moving to 390 b.c., and finally culminating in their current attempt to wiggle out of the agreement that they made at the Caudine Forks in 321. Pontius cites historical exempla to remind the Romans of their inability to abide by the terms of treaties they have struck in the past. The first is with the Etruscans in 508 b.c., and recounted by Livy at 2.13.6–11. The second is with the Gauls when the they sacked Rome in 390 b.c., and is recorded by Livy at 5.48–49 (see note following). obsides: accusative, object of dedistis. Porsinnae: dative, indirect object of with dedistis. furto: the adverb. eos: antecedent is obsides. subduxistis: taken together with the adverb furto, the verb subducere is an example of tautology. But Pontius fails to mention that in the above-mentioned episode, Cloelia was returned to Porsinna (2.13.9). 9.11.303–304. auro…caesi sunt: the second half of the historical exempla Pontius is hoping will call to attention Rome’s’ record of reneging on past treaties. But Pontius is expanding somewhat fictitiously with the facts here as well. While it is true that Camillus used a legal technicality to get out of paying the Gauls the ransom the Romans initially promised (5.49.2), by all accounts he certainly gave no order that the Gauls be slaughtered inter accipiendum aurum. auro: ablative (means or instrument), construe with redemistis. civitatem: direct object of redemistis. a Gallis: “from the Gauls.” inter accipiendum aurum: “while the gold was being accepted,” by the Gauls. caesi sunt: “they were cut down.” 9.11.304–305. pacem…facitis: Pontius, in the third member of the tricolon of historical exempla, brings his argument to a close by recounting the Romans’ most recent example of going back on their word, namely at the Caudine Forks. pacem:



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direct object of pepigistis (> pangere). nobiscum: (= cum nobis) note how the prepositional phrase is bracketed by the object and the verb. ut: an adverbial result clause. legiones: object of restitueremus. captas: the perfect passive participle, modifying le­ giones (note how noun and participle bracket the dative indirect object vobis). eam pacem: note the emphatic use of the demonstrative pronoun and the repetition of the noun pacem at the head of its clause. irritam: the participle is functioning as the object complement of this factitive clause governed by facitis. 9.11.305. et semper…imponitis: the Romans, Pontius claims, break treaties by conveniently pretending to be adhering to the law, but only as it suits them. semper: note the emphatic placement of this important adverb. aliquam…speciem: direct object of imponitis; note how the adjective and noun bracket fraudi, the dative indirect object of imponitis. iuris: genitive, construe with speciem. 9.11.305–306. non probat…servatas: Pontius continues to find fault with how Rome conducts its foreign policy, especially as it pertains to the honoring of its treaties. non probat: note the emphatic shift of the placement of the verb from last position to first in the clause, a marked departure from the periodic style of the previous eleven clauses (the effect of the shift in placement of the verb indicates that this is a rhetorical question, forceful, if ironic, even in tone). populus Romanus: subject of probat. legiones servatas: (sc. esse) indirect statement governed by probat. ignominio­ sa pace: ablative (means) with servatas (esse). 9.11.306–307. pacem…erat: more adynata. pacem: note the emphatic placement of the direct object. sibi: dative: “have as its own”; antecedent is populus Romanus from the previous sentence. Here the phrase sibi habeat carries a derogatory tone. habeat…restituat: two hortatory subjunctives. legiones captas: direct object of resti­ tuat. victori: dative indirect object, construe with restituat. Note the parallel structure of the two clauses (acc. dat. verb :: acc. dat. verb). 9.11.307. hoc…dignum erat: Pontius turns up the rhetoric. hoc fide, hoc foederi­ bus, hoc fetialibus caerimoniis: a tricolon of ablatives, patterning with the adjective dignum, and introduced with alliterative anaphora (hoc…hoc…hoc). Note the variatio in the third member of the tricolon. 9.11.307–310. ut…dicitis: Pontius gives his closing summation. ut tu quidem: a bipartite adverbial (result) clause, construe quidem (restrictive) with tu, in anticipation of the contrast with the pronoun ego, the subject of the second member of the ut clause: “that you, for your part…” quod petisti: the relative clause is the object of ha­ beas. per pactionem: (means or instrument) construe with habeas; note how the quod clause and the verb (habeas) bracket the prepositional phrase. tot cives incolumes: in apposition to quod petisti. ego pacem: note the juxtaposition of the nominative pronoun with the accusative, in parallel position, and stark contrast, to the tu quod of the ut clause. ego pacem quam hos tibi remittendo pactus sum non habeo: “that the peace (pacem) which (quam) I contracted (pactus sum) by returning (remittendo) those men (hos) to you (tibi) I should not have (non habeam).” hos: accusative, an-

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is cives incolumes. remittendo: ablative (means or cause) of the gerund. habeam: (sc. ut) in parallel construction to habeas in the first part of the ut clause. Note how quam and pactus sum bracket hos tibi remittendo. hoc tu…hoc vos…dicitis: the main clause. Note the parallel structure with the repetition of the accusative + the nominative of the pronoun. hoc: accusative neuter, antecedent is the bipartite ut clause. A. Corneli: (i.e., the fetial A. Cornelius Arvina, see note on 9.10.286 above) the vocative singular, antecedent is tu. fetiales: vocative, antecedent is vos. iuris: genitive, construe with hoc…hoc: “this (interpretation) of law…” gentibus: dative, construe with dicitis. tecedent

XXVIII Pontius Rejects the Roman Embassy 9.11.311–319 9.11.311–313. ego…redeant: Pontius rejects Postumius’ surrender, as well as the purpose of the Roman embassy. ego: note the emphatic first person pronoun. vero: the adverb following immediately after the pronoun strengthens its placement. quos dedi simulatis: “whom you pretend have been surrendered…” quos: antecedent is istos. dedi: the passive infinitive (> dedere) in indirect statement governed by simulatis. simulatis: second person; Pontius is addressing the entire embassy. nec accipio nec dedi arbitror: the object of both verbs is istos: “those men (istos) I neither accept (nec accipio) nor do I believe that they have been surrendered (nec dedi arbitror).” (Note the echo of 9.11.292: nec ego istam deditionem accipiam). nec moror…redeant: “nor do I stand in the way (nec moror) whereby the less (quo minus) they might be able to return (redeant) to a state (in civitatem) already bound (obligatam) by a sworn guarantee (sponsione commissa), despite all the gods being angry (iratis omnibus dis) whose (quo­ rum) authority (numen) is being treated as a mockery (eluditur).” quo minus: often written as one word (quominus), quo is the ablative of degree of difference with the comparative adverb minus (> minime). in civitatem obligatam: i.e., obligated to the terms of the sponsio made with the Samnites at the Caudine Forks. sponsione com­ missa: ablative absolute (means or cause), construe with obligatam. iratis omnibus dis: ablative absolute (concessive). quorum: antecedent is dis. 9.11.313–314. gerite…perculit: Pontius reverts to the imperative mood. quando: (causal) “since,” or “because.” modo: “just now.” legatum fetialem: direct object of perculit. genu: ablative (means or instrument). Livy uses nearly the same vocabulary here as he used at 9.10.289–291. 9.11.314–315. ita…bellum: Pontius calls the Roman ruse for what it is: Postumius, by declaring himself a Samnite and then attacking the fetial Arvina, has, in effect, handed his countrymen the right (ius belli) to declare war on the Samnites. ita di credent: “the gods will believe that…” As he believed at the beginning of the story (9.1.4–9), Pontius still assumes the gods share his views concerning the arrogance of



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the Romans. Samnitem civem Postumium, non civem Romanum esse: the first pair of four indirect statements governed by credent, connected by asyndeton (note the chiasmus: Samnitem civem…civem Romanum). a Samnite: (i.e., by Postumius) agency with violatum (sc. esse). eo: the adverb, “therefore,” “for that reason,” i.e., because Postumius attacked Arvina immediately upon declaring himself a Samnite. vobis iustum…esse bellum: the fourth indirect statement clause governed by credent (cf. Pontius’ words at 9.1.19–20: iustum est bellum, Samnites, quibus necessarium). vobis: dative, construe with iustum. in nos: note how the prepositional phrase is bracketed by iustum and factum esse. factum esse: the infinitive of the final indirect statement: “that for this reason (eo) as far as you’re concerned (vobis) a justifiable war (iustum… bellum) has been waged (factum esse) against us (in nos).” 9.11.315–317. haec ludibria…exquirire: the exclamation betrays Pontius’ frustration. haec ludibria: object of proferre, the phrase serves as the first accusative + infinitive subject of non pudere, the exclamatory infinitive. religionum: genitive, construe with ludibria. in lucem: construe with proferre. et: connects the two accusative + infinitive phrases that serve as the subjects of non pudere: (1) (vos) proferre ludibria in lucem and (2) (vos) senes ac consulares exquirire ambages. pueris: ablative, construe with the adjective dignas. ambages: object of equirire. senes ac consulares: in apposition to an understood vos, also an example of hendiadys: “old consular men.” fallendae fidei: a gerundive construction in either the dative or the genitive singular (note how senes ac consulares and the infinitive exquirire bracket the phrase): “does it not shame you (non pudere) to bring forth (proferre) these mockeries (haec ludibria) of religious beliefs (religionum) into the light of day (in lucem) and (et) though you are old consular men (senes ac consularis) to seek out (exquirire) circumlocutions (ambages) for evading your oath (fallendae fidei) fit (dignas) for children (pueris)!” 9.11.317. i, lictor…Romanis: Pontius moves from the exclamatory infinitive to the imperative. i: imperative (> ire). lictor: vocative. deme: imperative (> demere). vin­ cula: object of deme. Romanis: ablative (separation): “go (i) lictor (lictor), remove (deme) the manacles (vincula) from the Romans (Romanis)!” 9.11.317–318. moratus sit…abeant: Pontius moves from the imperative to the subjunctive. moratus sit: the hortatory subjunctive. nemo: subject of moratus sit. quo minus: “whereby the less” (see note on 9.11.318 above). ubi visum fuerit: “when the opportunity presents itself.” abeant: a second hortatory subjunctive in parallel construction to moratus sit (the subject is an understood Romani). 9.11.318–319. et illi…redierunt: the closing paragraph of the story. et illi quidem: i.e., the Roman embassy. For the pairing of et…quidem bracketing a noun or pronoun, Livy often uses it to add contrast to what has just been mentioned before (cf. 1.12.10, 2.43.5, 7.39.4, 8.16.7, 8.40.17, 27.34.2, 30.36.9). The obvious contrast here is that the guarantors who arrived in chains are leaving not only freed of their manacles, but of the sponsio they swore at the Caudine Forks. This is significant: it will allow the Romans resume their war with the Samnites. forsitan et publica, sua certe liberata fide: (ablative absolute) the contrasting adverbs forsitan…certe juxtapose the

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difference between (1) releasing the Romans from their public obligations regarding their oath (publica…fide), with (2) their private sense of obligation (sua fide). ab Cau­ dio in castra Romana: construe with redierunt. inviolati: i.e., not physically harmed in any way (note how illi and inviolati bracket everything but the verb of the sentence, which occurs periodically for emphasis). The Romans return to their camp freed from the sponsio they swore at the Caudine Forks: “and these guarantors indeed (et illi quidem), with perhaps even (et) their public obligation (forsitan et publica… fide), but certainly their own private obligation (sua certe…fide) having been liberated (liberata), from Caudium (ab Caudio) back to the Roman camp (in castra Romana) unharmed (inviolati) returned (redierunt).

XXIX The Samnites Have Underestimated Their Enemy 9.12.320–328 9.12.320–321. Samnitibus…esse: a grim realization settles upon the Samnites. Samnitibus…cernentibus: ablative absolute: “with the Samnites realizing that…” The participle cernentibus governs the following indirect statements (see note on se below). pro superba pace: “in place of their arrogant peace,” i.e., the terms of the release of the Roman army from the Caudine Forks. infestissimum…renatum bel­ lum…(esse): indirect statements governed by cernentibus. quae deinde evenerunt: the relative clause modifies omniaque. non in animis solum sed prope in oculis: “not only (non…solum) in their imagination (in animis) but nearly (sed prope) before their very eyes (in oculis).” 9.12.321–323. et sero…mutasse: indirect statements governed by cernentibus. sero ac nequiquam: “too late and (thus) to no avail…” laudare: infinitive in indirect statement governed by cernentibus. utraque consilia: direct object of laudare: “the alternative advice…” senis Ponti: “of the elder Pontius” (i.e., Herennius). inter quae: antecedent of the relative pronoun is consilia. se: accusative, subject of all six infinitives of the indirect statement governed by cernentibus. se…lapsos: note how the reflexive pronoun and the passive participle bracket the adverbial phrase media via. media via: i.e., between the consilia of Pontius and that of his father Herennius. Livy repeats media via here to recall the phrase from 9.1.81–82 (quid si media via consilii ca­ peretur). victoriae: genitive, construe with possessionem. possessionem: direct object of mutasse, infinitive in the indirect discourse going back to cernentibus at 9.12.320. pace incerta: ablative, construe with mutasse: “that they had exchanged their possession of victory for an uncertain peace.” 9.12.323–324. et…facere: the last installment of the indirect statement governed by cernentibus. et…et: “both…and…” the dual conjunctions connect the final infinitives in indirect discourse, while at the same time juxtaposing the two genitives beneficii and maleficii, modifying occasione. occasione amissa: ablative absolute. pu­



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gnaturos: (sc. esse) the future perfect active infinitive of the indirect statement governed by cernentibus at 9.12.320 (the subject is an understood se from 9.12.322 above). cum eis: construe with pugnaturos. quos potuerint: (sc. Samnites) antecedent is the demonstrative pronoun eis. in perpetuum: “permanently.” vel inimicos tollere vel amicos facere: two complementary infinitives of potuerint and their objects arranged paratactically and in parallel word order. 9.12.324–328. adeoque…Romanum: Livy brings the story to a close on an ominous note for the Samnites. adeoque…ut: “and to such extent…that…” the adverb anticipates the ut clause (result). nullodem certamine: ablative (means), construe with inclinatis. inclinatis viribus: ablative absolute (concessive): “although their strength having been reduced by means of not a single battle (nullodem certamine).” viribus: (see note on 9.10.315 above). post Caudinam pacem: “following the Caudine peace.” This is the fifth and last time this phrase occurs in the story; its use in the first sentence and here in the last is another example of ring composition at work in the structure of Livy’s account. animi mutaverunt: the intransitive use of the verb: “their minds had changed…” ut…faceret…haberent: a result clause anticipated by adeo­ que, which appears at the beginning of the sentence, separated from the adverbial clause by a hyperbaton of nine words. The ut clause contains two parallel factitive clauses followed by two parallel indirect statements. clariorem inter Romanos deditio Postumium quam Pontium incruenta victoria inter Samnites faceret: the word order of the first two factitive clauses is: deditio faceret Postumium clariorem in­ ter Romanos quam incruenta victoria (faceret) Pontium inter Samnites. clariorem: “more distinguished.” The comparative adjective is the object complement of Postumium, which anticipates the quam clause that governs the second factitive clause of the ut clause, or the comparandum. deditio: the subject of the first factitive clause (sc. faceret from the second clause). quam: “than…” A clause of comparison anticipated by the comparative adjective clariorem. incruenta victoria: “bloodless victory,” subject of the quam clause. Pontium: the object of faceret, in parallel construction to Postumium from the previous clause. inter Samnites: = inter Romanos. et geri pos­ se bellum Romani…haberent, Samnites rebellasse et vicisse crederent Romanum: the second two clauses of the ut clause, a pair of indirect statements which, like the previous pair of factitive clauses of the ut clause contrasts the differing viewpoints and standings of the Roman and Samnite commanders and their armies. geri: complementary infinitive of posse, the infinitive in indirect discourse governed by haberent (see note). Romani: subject of haberent. haberent: the verb in its secondary meaning of “to have” or “hold” something as an opinion (see note on 9.1.21–23 above). et geri posse bellum Romani pro victoria certa haberent: lit.: “and the Romans considered (the fact) that war was able to be waged (geri posse) as equal to an assured victory (pro victoria certe).” Samnites…crederent: “the Samnites realized that…” simul: construe with the two infinitives of the indirect statement. rebellasse et vicisse: the two infinitives governed by crederent in the second and final indirect statement, and that they are perfect infintives is significant. Romanum: (sc. exercitum) the subject of

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rebellasse and vicisse: “the Samnites believed that the Romans had at one and the same time (simul) restarted the war (rebellasse) and had already won it (vicisse).” Finally, it should not be lost on the reader that Livy produces the rhetorical flourish (it could not be coincidence) by closing the saga with Romanum, giving the Romans, in effect, the last word.

Bibliography Rotondi, G. Leges Publicae Populi Romani. Milan: Società Editrice Libraria, 1912.

APPENDIX I GLOSSARY OF POLITICAL AND MILITARY OFFICES AND PROPER NAMES AND PLACES

Political and Military Offices Aedile: the magistracy between quaestor and praetor, the office originated as two members elected from the plebs in order to assist the tribunes. Of the five curule magistracies (quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul, censor) the office of aedile was not required in order to embark upon a political career in the strict sense of the cursus honorum (s.v.). While the duties of the office of the aedile varied, they generally centered around the maintenance of public works (temples, buildings, streets, aqueducts, etc.), or the mounting of public spectacles (theatrical performances, gladiatorial contests, chariot races). This latter responsibility of the aedile would become significant, as it was traditionally the personal burden of the aedile to assume the expense of putting on such public displays in the hope of currying favor with the voting mob and help secure election to subsequent higher office. Therefore, those with political ambitions often spent lavishly, even if it meant going into deep personal debt, in the hopes that their popularity would yield political dividends down the road. This was not always the case, however, and led to the financial ruin and organized hostility toward the state of many notable families especially during the late republic. Consul: the highest elected public office of the State under the cursus honorum (except for the extraordinary office of dictator), it was originally strictly a military commission but gradually evolved over time to include the duties of a civic commander-in-chief while maintaining the powers of the supreme executive in the government. Each year

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two consuls were elected from a field of candidates all of whom had held the prerequisite offices of the cursus honorum (s.v.). Curule Magistrate: a curule magistrate was any elected official whose office gained him entry into the ranks of the senate. The five main curule magistracies under the republic were, in the ascending order of the offices of the cursus honorum: quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul, censor. Cursus Honorum: the technical term used by Romans of the republic and early empire that describes the succession of public offices that all Romans with political aspirations traditionally followed. These included the following: quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul, and censor. Dictator: the office of dictator was added to the Roman constitution soon after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings in 509 b.c. The dictatorship was not an elected office but the result of an appointment by a consul and ratified by the senate through a senatus consultum, or formal decree. The nomination had to be confirmed by the lex curiata. The dictator held office for six months and was only appointed when a serious threat faced the government. Its employment died out after the third century b.c. with two very notable exceptions during the republic’s last 100 years, first by Sulla between 82 and 79 b.c., and then by Julius Caesar between 49 and 44 b.c. A dictator was assigned twenty-four lictors, twice that allowed for a consul. Fetial: a representative of the priestly diplomatic arm of the Roman republican government who held the status of a high priest and whose responsibility was to preside over the formalities of declaring war and establishing treaties of peace, and other actions of diplomacy. There were twenty and together formed their own collegium that dated back to the time of the Etruscan kings. Like all priestly collegia, their role in matters of war and peace was ceremonial and advisory. Interrex: under the rule of the Etruscan kings, before their expulsion in 509 b.c. and the formation of the republic, the interrex was appointed by the senate with limited and temporary authority in the event of the death of a king. Under the republic, in the event of the death or resignation of both consuls, interreges were appointed by each of the senatorial decuriae for a period of five days each to hold elections, with the exception of the first. An interrex had to be both patrician and a senator, carried out all the functions of the office of consul, and was assigned twelve lictors. Legatus: the office of legatus varied widely depending on the period and the region, but in general legates were of senatorial rank, assigned to a commander or governor in a foreign territory or province and generally used in a military capacity as lieutenants or as military ambassadors. Lictor: the lictor was not an elected office, and was originally of Etruscan origin. Responsibilities involved accompanying high-ranking curule magistrates in public and



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on campaign, and accompanying all magistrates with imperium in and out of the city. The lictors walked in single file while carrying the fasces, bundles of rods symbolic of the power of the magistrate (on campaign an axe head would be installed among the rods as a symbol of the magistrate’s power of life and death over his soldiers). Traditionally, a praetor was assigned a detail of six lictors, twelve preceded a consul, and a dictator was allowed twenty-four. Magister Equitum: the “master of the knights” was a powerful office but was only commissioned when the political landscape called for the appointing of a dictator by the senate. When this was necessary, the dictator then would choose a magister equitum to act as his second-in-command. Praetor: a senior magistracy in the cursus honorum, second only to the office of consul. During the republic there were generally eight praetors elected annually. One of their primary responsibilities was to preside over the eight standing law courts that met on a rotating basis in and around the temples in the Forum Romanum. Praetors could also serve in the capacity of a pro-praetor as a provincial governor. Quaestor: the lowest of the curule magistrates, it was the first required office of the cursus honorum. A quaestor would normally be assigned by lot to a higher-ranking magistrate, usually a military one stationed on post outside of Rome, under whose supervision he would serve out his term and gain experience. Many quaestors were assigned to accompany and serve under pro-magistrates in their foreign provinces. Tribune: the office of the tribune was not strictly considered part of the cursus honorum, as it was available only to men of plebeian birth. In the early days of the republic (such as the setting of this story) it was strictly a military appointment, but as time went on the office morphed into three very different forms: 1) the tribunus militum, an officer who preserved the military essence of the office; 2) the tribunus aerarius, whose duties and responsibilities remain to this day very much a mystery, but who seems to have served in an oversight capacity over the collection of war tax revenues and the disbursement of salary to soldiers; and, 3) the tribunus plebis, a branch of the office of tribune that would become, by the end of the republic, one of the most powerful political offices in the state, as the holders of this office possessed tribunicia potestas empowering the tribunus plebis not only to submit his own legislation, but also (and more importantly) to veto that of other legislators. It was this veto power that was most often abused by demagogues of the end the first century b.c.

Proper Names and Places (Indexed to the Text) P. Aelius Paetus: (196) master of horse in 321 b.c., appointed to the dictator Q. Fabius Ambustus (s.v.).

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M. Aemilius Papus: (196) appointed dictator in 321 b.c. to hold elections after the consuls T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus abdicated their offices following the disaster at the Caudine Forks. Apulia: (28, 32) the region of south-eastern Italy located in the “heel” of the “boot” and extending from Mons Garganus to Calabria. It was notoriously an unhealthy area of the peninsula, although its arid soil was very fertile. The Apuli spoke Oscan and the region was largely Hellenized by the end of the fourth century b.c. It became loyal to Rome during this same period and remained loyal through the invasion of Pyrrhus in 275 b.c. A. Calavius, Ovi filius: (174) a member of the senate of Capua who spoke in defense of the defeated Roman legions following the episode at the Caudine Forks. A. Cornelius Arvina: (286) dictator of the year 322 b.c., held the position of fetial for the year 320 and was responsible for delivering in shackles those Roman magistrates who had pledged peace at Caudium in 321, especially the consul Postumius. Calatia: (25) The town between Capua and Beneventum where the Roman army first encountered Pontius’ Samnites posing as shepherds. Capua: (155, 157, 159, 165) a city in Campania between Pompeii and Rome. In mythology, it’s founder is Capys, the companion of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. 10.145), while archaeological evidence suggests that the city is Etruscan in origin and it pre-dates 600 b.c. The city changed sides several times during the social conflicts of the fourth and third centuries b.c. but continued to prosper and grow in wealth and influence. According to Florus (1.16.6) by 218 b.c. it rivaled Carthage and Rome in terms of its luxuriousness and sense of national pride. During the Samnite wars, Capua remained loyal to Rome but capitulated to Hannibal in 216 b.c., for which rebellion Rome recaptured the city and delivered brutal punishment, putting many magistrates and leading citizens to death, imposing serious political sanctions, and confiscating its territory for Roman colonists. It would not be until after 90 b.c. that Capua would once again retain her municipal rights and privileges (Cic. Sest. 10). It thrived under the Roman republic as the center for the production of professional gladiators, and was the site of the famous gladiator revolt led by Spartacus in 73 b.c. Caudium: (179, 275, 282) a town in south-central Italy that was home to the Caudini Samnites and was the stronghold of C. Pontius, where he held his tribunal. It is the setting for the opening and final scenes of the story of the Caudine Forks as told by Livy. L. Cornelius Lentulus: (100) a former consul (327 b.c.) he was the senior legate who received the Samnite terms at the Caudine Forks. He argued persuasively for their acceptance in order to save the Roman legions from destruction (9.4.108–128) and



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prevailed. He would go on to be appointed dictator in 320 b.c. to bring about victory over the Samnites and the liberation of Luceria and his family adopted as a result the surname Caudini. P. Decius Mus: (277) consul of 347, 344, and 340 b.c. In 340 he was renowned for sacrificing his life by carrying out a devotio at Veseris in Campania in a decisive battle against the Latins in order to raise the morale of his troops and those of his consular colleague T. Manlius Torquatus who ultimately carried the day (8.5–12). The battle is also noteworthy in the annals of Roman history because Torquatus ordered his own son put to death for engaging the enemy in single combat against his orders. Q. Fabius Ambustus: (195) appointed dictator in 321 b.c. to hold elections after the consuls T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus abdicated their offices following the disaster at the Caudine Forks. He failed, however, to hold the elections when he was found to have been elected illegally. Q. Fabius Maximus: (199) appointed to the office of interrex for the year 320 b.c. along with M. Valerius Corvus (s.v.). Furculae Caudinae: (35, 69, 296) the “Caudine Forks,” a mountain pass in south-central Italy where under command of C. Pontius (s.v.) the Samnites trapped the consular legions of T. Veteruius Calvinus (s.v.) and Sp. Postumius Albinus (s.v.). While Livy gives a very detailed description (9.2.34–40), the exact location has never been established. L. Furius Camillus: (114) censor of 403 b.c., he went on to hold the office of military tribune with consular power in 401, 398, 394, 386, 384, and 381 b.c. Herennius Pontius: (66, 87) the father of C. Pontius (s.v.), the young Samnite commander. Although Herennius counseled his son that he must either let the Roman legions trapped inside the Caudine Forks go unharmed, or slaughter them to the man, his son refused his advice and in so doing brought about the destruction of his own people through Roman retaliation the next year. L. Livius: (227) a military legate or envoy in 321 b.c. under L. Cornelius Lentulus (s.v.), and tribune of the plebs for 320 b.c. For his role in pledging himself in favor of the sponsio at Caudium, he abdicated his office and was handed over to the Samnites in chains, along with tribunes Q. Maelius and Ti. Numicius (s.v.). Luceria: (28, 31, 34) a town on the Adriatic coast and in 321 b.c. allied to Rome (9.2.26–32). Q. Maelius: (227) a tribune of the plebs for 320 b.c., and a Military Legate or Envoy in 321 under L. Cornelius Lentulus (s.v.). For his role in pledging himself in favor of

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the sponsio at Caudium, he abdicated his office and was handed over to the Samnites in chains, along with tribunes L. Livius and Ti. Numicius (s.v.). Ti. Numicius: a tribune of the plebs for 320 b.c., and a military legate or envoy in 321 under L. Cornelius Lentulus (s.v.). For his role in pledging himself in favor of the sponsio at Caudium, he abdicated his office and was handed over to the Samnites in chains, along with tribunes L. Livius and Q. Maelius (s.v.). L. Papirius Cursor: (200) mentioned by Livy (15.9) as both consul of 320 b.c. as well as master of horse for the dictator T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus in that same year. C. Pontius: (2, 67, 90, 120, 286, 292, 322) the Samnite commander at Caudium and son of Herennius (s.v.). He was responsible for the decision, having disregarded his father’s advice, of making the Romans pass under the yoke after trapping them at the Caudine Forks. Sp. Postumius Albinus: (2. 204, 217, 224, 232, 276, 284, 289, 292, 313, 314, 326) consul of 321 b.c. who, along with his consular colleague T. Veturius Calvinus (s.v.) allowed himself and his army to be tricked by the Samnites into an ambush within the confines of the Caudine Forks. L. Valerius Flaccus: (197) the master of horse appointed to serve under M. Aemilius Papus, elected dictator following the abdication of T. Veturius Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus, the consuls of 321 b.c., following the disastrous peace struck under Roman duress at the Caudine Forks. M. Valerius Corvus: (199) appointed to the office of interrex for the year 320 b.c. along with Q. Fabius Maximus (s.v.). T. Veturius Calvinus: (217, 271) consul of 321 b.c. who, along with his consular colleague Sp. Postumius Albinus (s.v.) allowed himself and his army to be tricked by the Samnites into an ambush within the confines of the Caudine Forks.

APPENDIX II GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS AND RHETORICAL AND POETICAL DEVICES

Adynata: the highly rhetorical device of delivering a list of things, events, actions, occurrences, etc., that both the speaker and the audience realize are impossibilities that could not ever come true: “When pigs have wings,” or “Until the cows come home;” (ex. restituat legiones intra saltum quo saepae fuerunt. Nemo quemquam deceperit; omnia pro infecto sint; recipient arma quae per pactionem tradiderunt; redeant in castra sua; quidquid pridie habuerunt quam in colloquium est ventum habeant [9.11.297–299]). Alliteration: the device of beginning several grammatically parallel constructions, clauses, phrases or words, etc., with the same letter or sound (ex. neminem…neque… neque [9.1.14]). Anaphora: similar to alliteration, but more word-specific; it is the repetition of a single word (with the same or different inflection) introducing a series of parallel clauses or phrases, thereby linking them as consecutive units (ex. non mors…non deditio…non bona [9.1.17–18]. Anticipation: the use of certain words or phrases (adverbs, pronouns, etc.) that raise the readers’ expectation of a specific noun or particular grammatical constructions, dependent clauses, etc. (ex. quamquam…tamen [9.2.49–50]; quae…sententia [9.3.71]). Antecedent: a word that acts as the referent of another word later in the sentence, usually to introduce a dependent clause (ex. in eos → quibus [9.1.16]).

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Antithesis: the juxtaposition of contrasting terms or grammatical units for rhetorical effect (ex. ab nobis…ab Romanis [9.1.7–8]). Apodosis (see also bipartite construction): the conclusion, or main clause, of a conditional sentence; it usually follows the protasis, but can also precede it for emphasis. Apposition: a noun used to describe another noun, usually standing next to it and set off by commas, is said to be “in apposition” (ex. C. Pontium…imperatorem…filium… natum…bellatorem ducemque [9.1.2–3]). Asyndeton: the arrangement of two or more words, phrases, or clauses, joined without conjunctions or connectors (e.g., et, atque, sed, etc.) but typically punctuated by editors with a comma or semicolon. For example, a dicolon or tricolon (s.v.) of words or clauses in asyndeton would be arranged one after the other in sequence, without anything to connect them besides punctuation (ex. T. Veturio Calvino, Sp. Postumio Consulibus [9.1.1–2]. Note: consulibus is understood to be in apposition to both proper nouns joined in asyndeton. Bipartite construction: simply, any construction consisting of two parts, ranging from words or phrases to entire clauses and sentences. When one or more elements of the two members are arranged in parallel construction (s.v.), Livy may be using the device either to show a close relationship between the two or to underscore an antithesis between them (ex. ad Calatiam Pontius milites decem mittit pecoraque haud procul Romanis pascere iubet praesidiis [9.2.25–27]). Bracketing (see also hyperbaton): the insertion of a word or phrase between two elements of a separate grammatical construction that syntactically belong together (cf. ne…quidem). Usually the two words forming the bracket (e.g., a noun and an adjective or participle), are modified or in some way explained by the word or words enclosed by them (ex. nobilis →clade Romana← Caudina pax [9.1.1]). Chiasmus: like anaphora and hyperbaton, chiasmus serves to bring antitheses into sharper focus. In short, it is the reversal of the order of words or phrases, in corresponding pairs; the arrangement is cross-like (a b :: b a). Chiasmus can occur with parts of speech, case endings, and, of course, ideas (ex. arma…tradenda et inermes futuras dextras [9.5.134–135]). Comparandum: a clause containing the second part, or resolution, of a comparison, achieved either by a dependent clause introduced by quam, or with an ablative of comparison. Often Livy will omit the comparandum because in context it is already strongly implied (ex. per alium saltum artiorem impeditioremque [sc. quam primis angustiis, 9.2.39–40]). Connecting relative pronoun: a relative pronoun that stands at the beginning of a new sentence and serves to connect it to the one preceding it (ex. quae = et ea [9.3.72]), or anticipates a noun that is yet to come.



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Dicolon: the arrangement, or grouping, of two words, phrases, or clauses, often coupled with anaphora and other parallel elements (ex. quem tibi tuarum irarum, quem meorum suppliciorum iudicem feram? [9.1.13]). Ellipsis: suppression of a word or words necessary for grammatical completeness, but often the words to be supplied are either present in another clause, or are so apparent to the reader as to be left out (ex. quid si media via consilii caperetur [9.3.81–82]). Exordium: the introduction, or opening statement, of a judicial or senatorial speech, designed to win the benevolentia (good will) of the audience. Factitive: a sentence or clause whose verb requires two accusatives to complete the sense, an object and an object complement (ex. dixerunt et P. Aelium Paetum magistum equitum [9.7.195–196]). Hendiadys: an expression composed of two elements, generally nouns, joined by a conjunction (et, ac, atque, -que, etc.), where the sense strictly demands a single modified noun: “law and order” = “the order of law,” or “Rainy Days and Mondays” = “Rainy Mondays,” or “We Were Soldiers Once and Young” = “Once We Were Young Soldiers” (ex. bellatorem ducemque [9.1.3]). Hortatio: in the military sense, the speech delivered to the Roman troops before going into battle. It often began by invocation to the gods and ancestry and contained as many reasons for justifying the action as it did the revelation of tactical elements. Hyperbaton (see bracketing, periodicity): (1) the separation of a noun and its modifier, usually in order to bracket other words which semantically impact those two words and the whole construction is to be construed together; (2) in a broader sense, the suspension of any word syntactically necessary to complete a clause or phrase. Hyperbole: overstatement—i.e., the use of exaggerated terms (e.g., the use of “infinite” for “great” or “the best of men” when simply an average person is meant). Hypollage (or transferred epithet): a change in the relation of words by which an adjective agrees in case, number, and gender with a noun to which it does not logically apply (ex. immemor nox [9.3.64–65]). Hypophora: the putting forward of possible objections and then immediately refuting them. Inchoative: a verb that contains the letters “sc” and describes an action that is in process and ongoing (ex. hiscere [9.4.100]). Litotes: the assertion of a fact or truth by the negation of its opposite: “the customer is never wrong” instead of “the customer is always right.”

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Metaphor: an implied comparison (ex. lux = “life” [9.6.154]). Metonymy (similar to synecdoche): the substitution of one word for another related to the first word (ex. in haec ferrum…acuant [9.9.269–270]). Occupatio (or procatalepsis): in Livy, this rhetorical device takes two forms; 1) an objection is an imagined answer to a question asked by the speaker; 2) it takes the form of a question arising from a statement made by the speaker himself. Oxymoron (oxymoronic, etc.): a statement or phrase containing an element or degree of self-contradiction (ex. dilectus prope omnium voluntariorum [9.10.281]): “a draft made up almost entirely of volunteers.” Parallelism: in effect, the opposite of antithesis, it involves the symmetrical arrangement of a series of related or repeated words, phrases, or clauses (ex. is ubi…consultus ab nuntio…censuit omnes…dimittendos :: quae ubi…nuntio consulebatur, censuit…omnes interficiendos [9.3.69–72]). Parataxis: the opposite of hypotaxis, it is the arrangement of sentences into syntactically coordinate clauses without subordination. Periodicity: it involves the suspension until final position of a word that is syntactically necessary to complete the grammar of the sentence (usually the verb, or another main element that completes the sentence, ex. haec non laeta magis quam vera vatici­ natus, exercitu educto circa Caudium castra quam potest occultissime locat [9.2.24–25]). Periphrastic: simply put, any verb form that takes more than one word to form (e.g., temptata…est [9.8.227]). Personification (also referred to as transferred epithet): the attribution of adjectives to inanimate nouns (or concepts) that are normally used with animate nouns (ex. pro superba pace [9.12.320]). Pleonastic: using more words, expressions, or redundancies to paint a vivid picture (ex. dicerentur audirenturque [9.7.173]). Poeticism: in prose, the use of phrases or idioms usually found in poetry (ex. fraus hostilis [9.2.43]). Praeteritio: the rhetorical device by which a speaker addresses a particular topic by stating that he will not talk about it, and then goes on to talk about it. “Let me not mention how my adversary…” or “I won’t waste your time with how my adversary…” etc. Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it should naturally occur: “see the eagle, how high it flies,” for “see how high the eagle flies.”



Appendix II



105

Protasis: the dependent, or “if” clause, of a conditional sentence that anticipates the resolution in the apodosis (s.v.), or main clause. Ring composition: the structuring of a sentence, clause, paragraph, or entire work (poem, speech, historical account) in which words, phrases, or even ideas that occur at the beginning, recur at the end, and similarly words, phrases or ideas that occur in second place at the beginning recur second to last, and so forth. Simile: simply, a stated comparison introduced by “like” or “as” (ex. velut ex ancipiti oraculo response data sunt [9.3.73]). Substantive (substantively): the use of an adjective in place of a noun: “the good, the bad, and the ugly” for “the good (man) the bad (man) and the ugly (man).” Synchesis: the opposite of chiasmus, it is the interlocking word order (a b a b) in which the elements of one pair alternate with those of another (ex. quas servando patriam servamus [9.4.115]). Syncopation: the omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word, usually a verb (ex. auxere = auxerunt [9.2.30]). Synecdoche (see also metonymy): the use of a part for the whole or the whole for a part, “boots on the ground” (ex. tecta urbis…et moenia et…turbam [9.4.111]). Syntax (syntactic): pertaining to the grammatical function that a word plays in its own clause, sentence, etc. Tautology: a deliberate redundancy employed for its rhetorical or alliterative effects (ex. aut eadem qua te insinuaveris retro via repetenda aut, si ire porro pergas [9.2.39]). Tmesis: the separation of a compound word into its original parts (ex. tam hercule quam = tamquam [9.4.113]; cum qua = quacumque [9.11.295]). Transferred epithet (also referred to as personification): the attribution of adjectives to inanimate nouns (or concepts) that are normally used with animate nouns (ex. pro superba pace [9.12.320]). Tricolon: the arrangement, or grouping, of three words, phrases, or clauses, often coupled by anaphora. Tripartite construction: simply, any construction consisting of three parallel parts, ranging from a string of words and phrases, to clauses and sentences. It is one of Livy’s favorite rhetorical devices and one of the most readily appreciable stylistic features of Latin rhetoric and oratory. Understatement: the use of a few words or brief clauses to describe monumental events.

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Variatio: any deviation from verbal or structural expectation for the sake of avoiding predictable symmetry or repetition (ex. foedere sed per sponsionem [9.5.122–123]). Zeugma (also known as syllepsis): a rhetorical device through which a single verb governs two or more objects in semantically different ways: “he held a glass of wine and the door for his wife,” or “he carried a briefcase and a bad cold,” or “he had five bucks and a bad attitude.”

VOCABULARY

A a, ab (prep. w. abl.): from, away from, out of; (w. notions of time) after; (w. abl. of person usu. agency). abdico, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to forbid (oft. by an unfavorable omen). abdo, ~ere, ~didi, abditus-a-um: to put away, set side (oft. reflex w. se) to remove oneself, go away; (w. weapons) to bury (i.e. into someone or something). abduco, ~ere, ~uxi, ~uctus-a-um: to lead away, carry off; to take prisoner (arrest). abeo, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), ~iturus-a-um: to go away, leave; depart; (of magistrates) to leave office. abiectus, ~a, ~um: downcast, low, distressed, abject. abscedo, ~ere, abscessi, abscessus-a-um: to withdraw, give way, go off; (of things) to disappear.

abstineo, ~ere, ~tinui: to keep back, stay away; (refl. w. se) to keep oneself (from), refrain, abstain. ac (conj.): and. accedo, ~accedere, ~accessi, ~acce­ surus-a-um: to approach, draw near; to assent, agree, approve; accept. accerso, ~ere, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to summon, call for, send for, invite. accio, ~ire, ~civi, ~citus-a-um: to summon, send for; invite. accipio, ~ere, cepi, ~ceptus-a-um: to accept; receive; (of the senses) to perceive, realize (w. acc & inf.). accumulo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to increase; (w. pecunia) to accumulate, amass. accuso, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to accuse, call to account; make complaint against. acer, acris, acre (adj.): sharp, violent, fierce, severe.

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acies, aciei, f: (milit.) an army in the formation of attack or battle array (as opp. to agmen, or marching formation, s.v.). actum, ~i, n: deed, act or action. acuo, ~ere, ~ui, ~utus-a-um: to sharpen, whet, make sharp; to stimulate, spur on. ad (prep. w. acc.): to, toward; (w. gerundives) for the purpose of (implying strong obligation). addo, ~ere, ~didi, ~ditus-a-um: to add to, attach, join; to place upon; (introducing a supplementary thought) add to this, consider in addition, etc. adduco, ~ere, ~duxi, ~ductus-a-um: to lead or bring to; (w. lorum) to tighten. adeo (adv.): to such a degree, to such an extent; so far, as far; (of time) so long as…so long till; (adeo…ut) to such a degree…that. adfero, adferre, attuli, adlatus-a-um: to bring. adficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to handle, use; to treat, affect; (milit.) to attack, afflict, oppress. adhuc (adv.): to this point, this far; (of time) until now, as yet. adicio, ~ere, adieci, adiectus-a-um: to add to, to increase, confer in addition. adimo, ~imere, ~emi, ~emptus-a-um: to remove (something) from somebody; to remove oneself (from a situation, entanglement, etc.). adloquium, ~i, n: an exhortation, encouragement; (pl.) solace. admiratio, ~ionis, f: admiration; wonder. adsum, ~esse, ~fui, ~futurus-a-um: to be present, attend; (of an assembly) to convene, meet. adveho, ~ere, ~vexi, ~vectus-a-um: to bring, convey (to a destination). advenio, ~ire, ~veni, ~ventus-a-um: to come to, reach, arrive. adventus, ~us, m: an arrival, approach.

adversus (adv. & prep w. acc.): opposite to; in the face of; in opposition towards. adversus, ~a, ~um (adj.): turned toward, facing; (as subst.) the face or front (of a hill or mountain), uphill slope. advoco, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to act as an advocate, speak on one’s behalf; to call, summon, invite; (leg.) to call as a witness. aequo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make someone or something (acc.) equal to someone or something (dat.); (w. foedus, etc.) to be or to put someone on equal terms. aequus, ~a, ~um: even, fair; (milit.) on equal terms (cf. pax aequa). aetas, aetatis, f: one’s age; the time of one’s life; an era, space of time, generation. agito, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um (frequenta­ tive of agere): to urge (for), be agitated (about). agmen, agminis, n: (milit.) an army on the march; in rank and file (as opp. to acies, s.v.). ago, ~ere, egi, actus-a-um: to do, act, drive; (milit.), to lead an army, take command of an action; (impers. pass.) to be going on. ager, ~gri, m: a field, open land, open country. ait (aiebant, etc. > aio, to say): he says. alibi (adv.): elsewhere, somewhere else; at another place. alieno, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to alienate, estrange, set at variance. aliquam (adv.): in some degree, somewhat; moderately. aliquanto (adv.): in some little degree; somewhat; rather. aliquis, ~quid (indef. pron.): someone, anyone; (neut.) something, anything. aliter (adv.): otherwise, differently (w. atque, ac, quam or ut) other than, different from.



VOCABULARY

alius, ~a, ~um (adj. & pron.): another, other; different. alter, ~era, ~erum: one, another; the one… the other. altus, ~a, ~um (adj.): high, tall, lofty; deep, profound. ambages, (~is), f: (only abl. sing.): a roundabout way (of saying or doing something), a means of going around; (fig. of speech) circumlocution. amicitia, ~ae, f: friendship; a friend or circle of friends (sing. or pl.). amicus, ~a, ~um (adj.): friendly, kind, favorable. amitto, ~ere, ~isi, ~issus-a-um: to send away, part with; to lose. an (conj.): or, whether; (an…an) whether… or. anceps, ancipitis (adj.): two-headed; (meton.) double-edged, two-sided; (fig.) two-faced, indecisive. angustiae, ~arum, f: (the sing. is very rare) a narrow place; mountain pass; defile. angustus, ~a, ~um (adj.): tight, narrow. animus, ~i, m: the mind; (fig.) the spirit, heart, soul. annulus, ~i, m: a ring, a seal-ring, signet-ring. annus, ~i, m: a year; the period of a year. ante (adv. and prep.): before, in front of, previously; (prep. w. acc.) before, in front of. antequam (adv.): before. apertus, ~a, ~um (adj.): open, broad, wide. apparatus, ~us, m: a military preparation, a readying of the troops, weapons, stores, transportation, etc. appareo, ~ere, ~ui, ~iturus-a-um: to appear, become visible. apparitor, ~oris, m: a public servant; lector; deputy; secretary. appello, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to name, call; to address, appeal to, recognize.

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apud (prep. w. acc. denoting position or relationship): with, by, near; at (the house of), in (the army of); before, in the presence or power of (a general, magistrate, etc.). aqua, ~ae, f: water. aquosus, ~a, ~um: moist, watery, well-watered. arbitrium, ~i, n: (leg.) judgment, opinion; (of an individ. or magistr.) will, power, purview, authority. arbitror, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to think, have an opinion, believe, consider. arbor, ~oris, f: a tree. ardens, ~entis (adj.): ardent, burning; (fig.) impassioned. arma, ~orum, n (pl. only): arms, weapons, any implements of war. armo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to arm, equip with weapons. artus, ~a, ~um (adj.): tight, narrow, confined. aspicio, ~ere, aspexi, aspectus-a-um: to look at, look upon, behold; (fig.) to observe, weigh, consider. at (conj.): but; on the other hand. atque (conj.): and. atqui (conj.): and yet, and in any case; but yet, but somehow, but in any case; however, on the other hand. attineo, ~ere, ~ui: (trans.) to hold fast, detain, delay; (intr.) to stretch, reach; (fig.) to belong to, relate to, be of consequence. attollo, ~ere: to rise, raise up, lift up. auctor, ~oris, m: the responsible party; (w. pacis) one who backs a treaty; a promoter, organizer. audio, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), ~itus-a-um: to hear, listen to. aufero, auferre, abstuli, ablatus-a-um: to carry away, carry off; (pass.) to disappear.

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augeo, ~ere, auxi, auctus-a-um: to increase, augment. auris, ~is, f: the ear. aurum, ~i, n: gold. aut (conj.): or; aut..aut: either…or. auxilium, ~ii, n: help, assistance, aid; (esp. milit.) reserve troops. aveho, ~ere, avexi, avectus-a-um: to carry away, carry off, take away. averto, ~ere, ~ti, aversus-a-um: to turn away, avert, turn off, remove.

B bellator, ~oris, m: a warrior, soldier; one who wages warfare. bellicosus, ~a, ~um: warlike, hostile, given to fighting. bellum, ~i, n: war. belua, ~ae, f: a wild beast. bene (adv.): well; in good state, shape. beneficium, ~ii n: a benefit, service; any act of kindness. benigne (adv.): in a friendly manner. bonus, ~a, ~um (adj.): good; (neut. pl. as subst.) goods, possessions. brevi (adv): in a little while, ere long, soon. brevis, ~e (adj.): brief; short; (of streams) narrow, shallow, etc.

C caecus ~a, ~um (adj.): blind. caedo, ~ere, cecidi, caesus-a-um: to cut, cut down; (of trees) to fell; (of men) to strike, whip, or scourge (as a public punishment); to kill. caelestis, ~e (adj.): of heaven, from the heavens; celestial. caelum, ~i, n: the sky, air, temperature; (fig.) the heavens (oft. in context with the seat of the gods).

caerimonia, ~ae, f: a religious ceremony, sacred rite. Campanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): of or pertaining to Campania, the region of Italy south of Latium. campus, ~i m: plain, field, open country; a level surface. capio, ~ere, cepi, captus-a-um: to seize, capture; take in hand, grasp. captivus, ~a, ~um (adj.): taken captive; (as subst.) a prisoner. caput, ~itis, n: the human head; (fig. of people in pl.) the chief personalities, leaders, those responsible, etc.; (met.) one’s head (i.e. life). caritas, ~tatis, f: affection (for), dearness (to). castrum, ~i, n: fortress; (usu. in plur.) cas­ tra, ~orum: military camp. Caudinus, ~a, ~um (adj.): of Caudium. Caudine. Caudium, ~ii, n: Caudium was the eponymous region of Apulia where the particular tribe of the Samnites Caudini lived. causa, ~ae, f: cause, reason; an excuse; (oft. in abl. w. gen.) for the sake of; for the cause of. caveo, ~ere, cavi, cautus-a-um: to be on one’s guard, take precaution; to beware; (w. acc.) to guard against. cavus, ~a, ~um (adj.): hollow, excavated; (as subst.) an opening, hole. censeo, ~ere, censui, census-a-um: to assess, decide, estimate, value. cerno, ~ere, crevi, certus-a-um: to discern, perceive; to comprehend, understand. certamem, ~inis, n: a struggle, strife, dispute; any decisive contest; (milit.) a battle. certe (adv.): really, actually, assuredly, certainly. certum, ~i, n: a thing which is certain, resolved, reliable.



VOCABULARY

certus, ~a, ~um (adj.): certain, reliable, fixed, resolved, settled. cervix, ~icis, f: the neck, the joint where the neck meets the head. ceterus, ~a, ~um (adj.): the other, the rest; (as subst. pl.) the others, everybody else. cibus, ~i, m: food, nourishment. cieo, ~ere, ~civi, ~citus-a-um: to cause to go, to move; put in motion; (fig.) to rouse, disturb. circa (adv.): on either side, around (prep. w. acc.): about, around, on the side of. circumdo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to place around, surround. circumsedeo, ~ere, ~sedi, ~sessus-a-um: to besiege, surround. circumsto, ~are, ~steti: to stand around; surround; threaten; besiege. cito, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to put in quick motion, rouse, excite. civilis, ~e (adj.): of or pertaining to citizens; civil; civic. civis, ~is, m: a citizen. civitas, ~tatis, f: city, the state, a community of citizens; society. clades, ~is, f: disaster, defeat. clamor, ~oris, m: a loud call, shout, uproar, cry. clarus, ~a, ~um (adj.): clear, open, patent; (of individuals) distinguished, famous, known. claudo, ~ere, ~clausi, ~clausus-a-um: to shut in, enclose. clavus, ~i, m: (w. latus) the broad purple stripe denoting senatorial rank. coeo, coire, coivi (ii), coetus-a-um: to go together, come together, assemble. coepi, coepisse, coeptus-a-um: (w. inf.) to begin, undertake. coetus, ~us, m: an assemblage, crowd, company, host. cogo, ~ere, coegi, coactus-a-um: to bring together, summon, convene.

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colloquium, ~i, n: a conference, parley. colo, ~ere, ~ui, cultus-a-um: to tend, cultivate; (fig.) to honor, guard, protect. colonia, ~ae, f: a colony, town, settlement. comitas, ~tatis, f: courtesy, kindness, friendliness. comitia, ~orum, n: (pl. of comitium) the Roman people in formal assembly. comitium, ~i, n: a place of meeting or assembly; (in Rome) particularly a round open space attached to the senate house (curia) and adjoining the Forum Romanum in which the Comitia Curiata were held. commeatus, ~us, m: provisions, supplies. committo, ~ere, ~misi, ~missus-a-um: to bring together, combine. compos, ~otis (adj): master of, in command of, in control of. conatus, ~us, m: an attempt, undertaking, effort, endeavor. concilium, ~ii, n: a meeting, assembly, council. concitatio, ~ionis, f: (w. animus) an agitation (of the mind or spirit); a tumult, sedition. condicio, ~ionis, f: a condition, agreement, terms (of a treaty, surrender, etc.). confero, conferre, contuli, collatus-a-um: to bestow, apply; (refl. w. se) to devote oneself (to something or someone). confessio, ~onis, f: acknowledgment, candor, confession. confestim (adv): immediately, forthwith, without delay; suddenly. conficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to prepare, make ready, bring about, complete; (perf. pass.) overcome, weakened, worn out. confugio, ~ere, confugi: to take cover, run for safety, flee. congredior, ~i, ~gressus-a-um: to meet, come into contact; (milt.) to meet on the battlefield.

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congruo, ~ere, ~ui: to coincide, correspond, agree. conor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to try, undertake, make an effort; (w. compl. inf.) to attempt, try (to do something, etc.). conscribo, ~ere, ~scripsi, ~scriptus-a-um: to enroll, enlist; (milit.) to draft; (pl. pass. part. w. patres) Conscript Fathers (a term of respect when addressing the senate). consenesco, ~ere, consenui: to grow old, become feeble with age. consensus, ~us, m: an agreement in action or sentiment; a conspiracy, collusion. consentio, ~ire, consensi, consensus-a-um: to agree, be of the same mind; come to a decision. consilium, ~i, n: debate, discussion; plan of action, decision; advice, suggestion; (meton.) a deliberative body, council of state. consolor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to console, comfort, cheer up. conspicio, ~icere, ~exi, ~ectus-a-um: to catch sight of, to see; (pass.) to be seen, noticed; (fig.) to perceive mentally, discern. consto, ~are, ~iti: to stand together; remain motionless, still. consul, ~is, m: the highest ranking political office in Rome, shared by two men elected annually (also usu. commander of the Roman army on campaign). consularis, ~e (adj.): of consular rank; a man having held or holding the office of Consul. consulo, ~ere, consului, consultus-a-um: to deliberate, take counsel, decide; to consult, take under consideration. consultatio, ~ionis, f: a deliberation, consultation, consideration.

consulto, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to deliberate, debate; form a plan, make a decision, decide (oft. w. utrum). consultus, ~a, ~um (adj.): well-considered, deliberated upon. contagio, ~ionis, f: a touch, physical contact; (fig.) contagion, pollution. contemplor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to contemplate, gaze at, view, survey. contra (adv. & prep. w. acc): before, against, in front of, facing. convenio, ~ire, ~veni, ~ventus-a-um: to convene, assemble, come together; come in a body. copia, ~ae, f: (sing.) abundance, plenty; (pl.) troops, military forces; (fig.) means, opportunity. cor, cordis, n: the heart. corpus, ~oris, n: the body. credo, ~ere, ~didi, ~ditus-a-um: (usu. w. acc. & inf.) to trust, believe, rely. creo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to create, produce, bring forth; (polit.) to elect to public office. crucio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to torment, torture, afflict. culpa, ~ae, f: a fault, error, failure; willful negligence. cum (prep. w. abl.): with, together with, along with; (conj. temporal) when, while; (causative) since, because; (adversative) though, although; (correl.) cum…tum: not only…as well as, on the one hand…on the other hand, both…and. cunctus, ~a, ~um (adj.): whole, entire, all together; the whole of, all. cur (interrog. adv.): why. curia, ~ae, f: the senate house in the Roman Forum; any official place used for convening the senate or any body of deliberation. custodia, ~ae, f: custody, guard, protection; (as subst.) a guard, watch, sentinel.



VOCABULARY

D de (prep. w. abl.): from, about, concerning. debello, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to fight out to completion, to fight to the end, to end a war. debeo, ~ere, ~ui, ~itus-a-um: (w. inf.) to be under obligation to do something. decedo, ~ere, decessi, decessus-a-um: to withdraw, yield, give way; (fig.) to depart. decem (indecl. adj.): ten. decipio, ~ere, ~cepi, ~ceptus-a-um: to catch, trap, ensnare (w. trickery). decurro, ~ere, ~cucurri, ~cursus-a-um: to run, run down, run through, hasten away. deditio, ~ionis, f: giving up, a surrender, capitulation. dedo, ~ere, ~didi, deditus-a-um: to give up, surrender. deduco, ~ere, ~duxi, ~ductus-a-um: to conduct, bring; (milit.) to lead out. defendo, ~ere, ~fensi, ~fensus-a-um: to defend. defensio, ~ionis, f: a defense. deficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to fail, be lacking, be insufficient. defiet (rare, archaic passive for deficior): to fail, be wanting. deformatio, ~ionis, f: a deforming, defacing, disfiguring. deformis, ~e (adj.): deformed, disgraceful. deiectus, ~us, m: a throwing down; (w. arborum) a felling. deinceps (adv.): one after another, in order, successively. deinde (adv.): then, next, next in order; afterwards. deleo, ~ere, ~evi, ~etus-a-um: to delete, abolish, destroy, wipe out. delubrum, ~i, n: shrine, temple, sanctuary. demitto, ~ere, ~misi, ~missus-a-um: (milit.) to send down, lead down. demo, ~ere, dempsi, demptus-a-um: to remove, take off.

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demum (adv.): (signaling the end of an argu­ ment) at last, at length, finally. deploro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to deplore, lament; to give up for lost, abandon, resign. desero, ~ere, ~rui, ~ertus-a-um: to desert, abandon, forsake, leave, give up. desum, deesse, defui: (w. dat. of person, situation, etc.) to fail (in respect of), be lacking (to), fall short (of). detraho, ~ere, ~traxi, ~tractus-a-um: to take away, remove, deprive; to cause the loss (of something). devotio, ~ionis, f: a self-sacrifice in battle, a personal offering of oneself in order to rouse a dispirited army in the face of an enemy more powerful. devoveo, ~ere, ~vovi, ~votus-a-um: (refl. w. se) to devote oneself (to death) in battle in order to rouse an otherwise demoralized army. dextra, ~ae, f: the right hand. dico, ~ere, dixi, dictus-a-um: to speak, pronounce; (indirect statement w. acc. + inf.) say, tell; (polit.) to appoint, designate. dictator, ~oris, m: a dictator, the chief magistrate (only appointed by the senate in times of great danger to the state, usu. for a limited period of six months). dictio, ~ionis, f: a formal statement; (w. sententiae) an address to the senate or a court. dies, diei, m & f: day. differo, differre, distuli, dilatus-a-um: to carry apart, scatter, disperse, spread around. difficilis, ~e (adj.): difficult, hard. dignus, ~a, ~um (adj.): worthy, deserving of (w. abl.). dilatio, ~ionis, f: a postponement, putting off, delay. dilectus, ~us, m: (milit.) a levy of troops, an emergency draft or recruitment of auxiliaries.

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dimico, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to fight, contend; to struggle. dimitto, ~ere, ~misi, ~missus-a-um: to send forth, send out; to scatter; to send away, release. dirimo, ~ere, diremi, diremptus-a-um: to take apart, separate, divide, cut off. discordia, ~ae, f: discord. displiceo, ~ere, ~ui, displicitus-a-um: (w. dat.) to displease, be unsatisfactory (to someone or something). diu (adv.): long, for a long time. diversus, ~a, ~um (adj.): different ways, diverse, opposite, contrary. divinus, ~a, ~um (adj.): divine, of god or the gods. do, dare, dedi, datus-a-um: to give, bestow, grant, endow; to gift someone (w. dat.) with something (acc.). dominus, ~i, m: a master, owner; (derog.) a tyrant, despot. domus, ~us, f: home, a house, a dwelling. donec (conj.): until, as long as, while. dubius, ~a, ~um (adj.): moving two ways, of two opinions; dubious. duco, ~ere, duxi, ductus-a-um: to lead, command; (fig.) to deduce, calculate, reckon, regard. duo, ~ae, ~o (adj.): two. (gen. duorum, duar­ um, oft. duum; nom. pl. masc. duo; acc. masc. duo & duos). dum (conj.): while, at the same time, during the time in which, where. dux, ~ducis, m: leader; (milit.) commander.

E e, ex (prep. w. abl.): out of, from; after; according to. educo, ~ere, eduxi, eductus-a-um: to lead or bring out; (esp. in milit.) to lead forth troops (into the field).

efficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to work out, bring about, effect, cause. egenus, ~a, ~um (adj.): needy, deprived, destitute; (w. abl. or gen. of persons & things) to be in want or deprived of. egeo, ~ere, ~ui: (w. abl.) to be without, be lacking (of), be in want (of). ego, mei (pers. pron.): I, me, etc. egredior, ~i, egressus-a-um: to go forth, march out. egressus, ~us, m: a going out. elicio, ~ere, elicui: to draw out, elicit, lure away. eludo, ~dere, elusi, elusus-a-um: to mock, jeer; to deceive, trick, betray, elude; (w. double acc.) to obtain (something) by trickery from (someone); (w. acc. + abl.) to trick (someone) out of (something); to avoid or escape. emergo, ~ere, emersi, emerssus-a-um: to emerge, come out; (refl. w. se) to extricate oneself, raise oneself up. en (interj. w. questions usu. w. umquam): at any time at all? ever? enim (explanatory particle, usu. post-positive in sentence word order): for, for instance, namely, that is to say. eo, ire, ivi (ii), iturus-a-um: to go, proceed; leave. eo (adv.): therefore, on that account, for that reason. eques, ~itis, m: a horseman, rider; a member of the “equestrian order” or “knight;” (polit.) the class between the senate and the plebs. equidem (emphatic particle stressing single words): I for my part; you, indeed, etc.; in truth, to be sure, verily. equus, ~i, m: a horse. ergo (particle): accordingly, therefore, then. erigo, ~igere, ~exi, ~ectus-a-um: (of things) to erect, raise up; (refl. or pass.) to raise oneself, rise up.



VOCABULARY

erumpo, erumpere, erupi, eruptus-a-um: to break out of; (milit.) to make an escape, make a break for it. et (conj.): and; (as adv.) even, also; et…et: both…and. etiam (adv.): now, also, in addition to; yet, as yet, even yet, even now; furthermore, likewise. etsi (conj. introducing a concession): though, although, albeit; even if. evado, ~ere, evasi, evasus-a-um: to get away, avoid notice, evade, escape. evenio, ~ire, eveni, eventus-a-um: to come out, come forth; (fig.) to come to pass, happen. evinco, ~ere, evici, evictus-a-um: to overcome, vanquish, defeat. exanimo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to be dead, not living; (fig.) to terrify, dishearten, rob of one’s senses, stun. excipio, ~ere, ~cepi, ~ceptus-a-um: to receive, take on oneself. excito, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: (of the senses) to rouse, stir; (of the spirit) to stimulate, to inspire. exeo, ~ire, ~ii, ~itus-a-um: to go out, go forth; depart; (milit.) march away. exercitus, ~us, m: the regular army, military force; (distinct from cavalry or auxiliary forces). exitus, ~us, m: an outcome, conclusion. exorior, ~iri, exortus-a-um: to rise up, spring up, arise. expedio, ~ire, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to get out, make ready, prepare. expeditus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unfettered, unhindered; free to travel lightly, unencumbered; (as subst.) a determined journey (as opp. to a leisurely one); a forced march (usu. w. gen. of time). experior, ~iri, expertus-a-um: to try, experience, endure.

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expers, ~tis (adj.): to be ignorant (of), having no part in, not sharing in; to be excluded (from). expeto, ~ere, expetivi (ii), expetitus-a-um: to seek after, desire; to try to obtain. expiatio, ~ionis, f : atonement, expiation. expio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to expiate, atone for. explorator, ~oris, m: an explorer; spy, scout. exposo, ~ere, expoposci: to beg, ask earnestly, request, implore, demand. exprimo, ~ere, expressi, expressus-a-um: to get (something) from (someone) against their will, to extort; to express, make, produce. exprobro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to reproach, upbraid, find fault with; to insult, charge. exquiro, ~ere, ~quisivi, ~quisitus-a-um: question, seek out, investigate. exsatio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to satisfy, sate. exsecror, ~ari, ~secratus-a-um: to utter curses, curse, abhor. exsequor, ~i, ~secutus-a-um: to follow utterly, follow to the grave; accompany; (fig.) to go through thoroughly, describe in detail. exsolvo, ~ere, ~solvi, ~solutus-a-um: to loose, set loose, release, set free. exsto, ~are, exstiti: to emerge, stand out, exist (in a given manner or capacity). extemplo (adv.): immediately, right away, without delay. extra (adv. & prep. w. acc.): on the outside, outside of, beyond; without. extraho, ~ere, ~axi, ~actus-a-um: to drag off, pull away; extract. extremus, ~a, ~um (adj.): occurring at the end, last, final, extreme; (ad extremum) finally, at last.

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F facile (adv.): easily. facilis, ~e (adj.): easy, ready to hand. facinus, ~oris, n: a deed or action (in a pos. or neg. sense). facio, ~ere, feci, factus-a-um: to make, do, execute, construct, produce. facsis, ~is, m: (pl.) a bundle of rods or sticks symbolizing the power of the consul or ruling magistrate and carried before him (in peacetime); with an axe installed to indicate a consul’s or magistrate’s power of life or death over his troops (in wartime). fallo, ~ere, fefelli, falsus-a-um: to deceive, make false, betray. fama, ~ae, f: reputation, public opinion; rumor, story. fas, n: (only in nom. & acc. sing.) divine law, justice, right, that which is proper; (w. est + acc. & inf.) it is lawful, it is proper (for someone to do something). fatalis, ~e, (adj.): of fate, ordained by destiny, decreed; dangerous, deadly, fatal. fateor, ~eri, fassus-a-um: to confess, admit, acknowledge, declare. fatum, ~i, n: fate; lethal fate; death. femur, ~oris, n: the thigh, upper part of the leg. fere (adv.): quite, entirely, altogether. ferio, ~ire: to strike, hit, beat; slay, kill. ferme (adv.): closely, quite, nearly, fully, altogether. fero, ferre, tuli, latus-a-um: to carry, bear, endure; (fig.) to undergo, suffer. ferocia, ~ae, f: fierceness, wildness; courage, spirit, intrepidity. ferrum, ~i, n: iron, any iron tool or implement; (fig.) a weapon, sword. festino, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to hasten, make haste, hurry. fetialis, ~e, (adj., usu. as subst. m. [sc. sacerdos]): a priest of a diplomatic

nature who performs sacrifices (spec. in the context of making war and conducting treaties). fides, ~ei, f: faith, confidence; a matter of trust, treaty, agreement; honesty. filius, ~i, m: a son. finis, ~is, m: end, limit; (of countries, territo­ ries, etc.) the border, boundary. fio, fieri (a pass. form of facere): to come into being, become, be turned into, be made. firmo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make firm, strengthen, fortify; (fig.) to strengthen in resolution, encourage, rally on. fixus, ~a, ~um (adj.): fixed, immovable; (fig.) established, settled. flebilis, ~e (adj.): tearful, weepy; lamentable, deplorable. foede (adv): cruelly, foully, horribly. foedus, ~eris, n: a formal agreement between states; a treaty, alliance, compact. foedus, ~a, ~um (adj.): foul, filthy, repulsive, disgraceful; destructive. forma, ~ae, f: form, shape, appearance; nature, manner. forsitan (adv.): perhaps. fortis, ~e (adj.): strong, brave. fortuna, ~ae, f: fortune, good luck, success; fate; chance. forum, ~i, n: a public market-place, forum, public square; (in Rome) the Forum Romanum. fossa, ~ae, f: a ditch, trench, furrow. fovea, ~ae, f: a pit. foveo, ~ere, fovi, fotus-a-um: to foster, cherish, keep safe, support, aid. frango, ~ere, fregi, fractus-a-um: to break. fraus, fraudis, f: an ambush; any act of deception or cheating, fraudulence; a crime. fremo, ~ere, ~ui: to complain loudly, grumble about, murmur at.



VOCABULARY

frustra (adv.): in vain, to no effect. fungor, ~i, functus-a-um: (w. abl.) to administer, busy oneself (with), execute, perform, do. furto (adv.): secretly, by trickery or stealth.

G gemitus, ~us, m: a groan, sigh; any sound of loud lamentation. gens, gentis, f: family name (nomen, as opp. to the praenomen or the cognomen: e.g. Gaius Julius Caesar), tribe; (pl.) foreigners, foreign nations. genu, ~us, n: (abl. sing. genū) the knee. genus, ~eris, n: type, style. gero, ~ere, gessi, gessus-a-um: to carry on, perform; (w. bellum) to wage war. gladius, ~i, m: the Roman sword. gradus, ~us, m: a step, pace, march; (milit.) military rank. gravis, ~e (adj.): heavy, ponderous; (of people) burdened (with old age, sickness, etc.); venerable, serious, severe; distinguished, important. gravius (comp. adv.): more seriously, gravely, seriously. gravo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make heavy, burden, weigh down, oppress. gravor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to be burdened, bear with reluctance, do unwillingly.

H habeo, ~ere, ~ui, habitus-a-um: to have, hold, possess; (fig.) to hold (as an opin­ ion), to consider, to think (oft. followed by an indirect statement). habitus, ~us, m: clothing, dress, costume; appearance; a costume (i.e., a disguise). haud (adv.): not at all, by no means; (w. procul) not far from (w. abl.).

117

haurio, ~ire, hausi, haustus-a-um: to draw, draw off, draw out, draw up; to drink, drink up; to gather, gather up. herbidus, ~a, ~um (adj.): grassy, full of grass. hercule (interj.): by Hercules; assuredly, indeed. hic, haec, hoc (demonst. pron.): this, this one; hic…hic: this one…that one, the one…the other. hic (adv.): here, in this place, at this point. hisco, ~ere (inchoative of hio): to grow open, gape, yawn; (lit.) to open one’s mouth; (fig.) to make an utterance, speak. homo, ~inis, m: a human being, man, person. honos (honor), ~oris, m: honor, reputation, praise, distinction, respect; public office. hora, ~ae, f: an hour; the time of day; time. hortor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to encourage, urge, exhort. hospitalis, ~e (adj.): hospitable; of a guest or host. hostilis, ~e (adj.): hostile; (as subst.) the enemy, foe. hostis, ~is, m & f: an enemy, foe; (oft.) a stranger, foreigner. humanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): human, of man. humi (adv.): on the ground, to the ground, fixed on the ground, grounded.

I iam (adv.): now, already. iacio, ~ere, ieci, iactus-a-um: to throw, cast, fling, hurl; to lay, set, establish. ico, ~ere, ~ici, ictus-a-um: to strike; (perf. pass. w. foedus + iri) to make a treaty, strike an agreement. idem, eadem, idem (intensive pron. & adj. usu. referring to a person or thing previously mentioned): this or that same

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(man, woman, thing, etc.), often anticipating a subsequent adjectival relative clause. ignarus, ~a, ~um (adj.): ignorant, unacquainted with, not aware of. ignavia, ~ae, f: cowardice, laziness, sloth. ignavus, ~a, ~um (adj.): cowardly, without spirit, listless. ignominia, ~ae, f: disgrace, dishonor. ignominiosus, ~a, ~um (adj.): disgraceful, shameful. ignoro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to not know, be ignorant of; to misunderstand. ille, ~illa, ~illud (demonst. pron.): this, that; (as subst.): that man, that woman, etc. imbellis, ~e (adj.): unwarlike, unfit for war; peaceful. immemor, ~oris (adj.): unmindful, not thinking, negligent; forgetful. immineo, ~ere: to tower over, overhang, hang down over. immitto, ~ere, ~misi, ~missus-a-um: to send in, introduce, admit; to incite, cause to attack. immo (adv.): no indeed, by no means. immobilis, ~e (adj.): immovable, hard hearted. immortalis, ~e (adj.): immortal. impedio, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), ~itus-a-um: to impede, obstruct. impeditus, ~a, ~um (adj.): hindered, obstructed, impeded; embarrassed, burdened. imperator, ~oris, m: a commander, general; one endowed with imperium. imperium, ~i, n: a command, order; the politically granted power to command an army. impero, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to order, command. impetro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to obtain by request or application (w. a or ab + the person or source).

impetus, ~us, m: attack, assault; violence or violent behavior. impius, ~a, ~um (adj.): ungodly, irreverent; impious; unpatriotic. imploro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to implore, call for help, entreat (w. tears), beg for. impono, ~ere, ~posui, ~positus-a-um: to impose, place upon; to establish, set up, constitute. in (prep. w. acc. & abl.): (w. acc.) into, upon, against; (w. abl.) on, onto, among, in the case of. incedo, ~ere, incessi, incessus-a-um: to go forth, march out, proceed; to advance; (of ideas, feelings, etc.) to befall, occur to. incendo, ~ere, ~cendi, ~census-a-um: to burn, set fire to; (fig.) to incite, arouse. incertus, ~a, ~um (adj.): not fixed, unsettled, uncertain (of things); undecided, doubtful (of persons). incido, ~ere, ~cidi: to happen upon, come into contact with, visit. inclinatus, ~a, ~um (adj.): inclined, disposed, prone to (see following). inclino, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to turn, incline, bend; (fig.) to decline, be reduced. incolo, ~ere, ~lui: to be at home, dwell, inhabit. incolumis, ~e (adj.): safe, sound, unimpaired, unharmed. increpo, ~are, ~ui, ~itus-a-um: to speak angrily, chide. incruentus, ~a, ~um (adj.): without bloodshed, bloodless. inde (adv.): from that place, thence; (of time) from that time; (of source or cause) therefore, thence. indicium, ~i, n: evidence, proof. indico, ~ere, ~dixi, ~dictus-a-um: to declare publicly, make a public announcement, proclamation.



VOCABULARY

indignitas, ~tatis, f: indignity, indignation, resentment; unworthiness, shamefulness. indoles, ~is, f: an inborn quality, spirit, character, natural talent, nature. industria, ~ae, f: activity, diligence, industry, zeal; (w. de ) diligently. indutiae, ~arum, f: (pl. only) a truce, suspension of hostilities (oft. w. the preposition in). ineo, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), ~itus-a-um: to go into, enter into; (magistratum inierunt) to enter into public office. inermis, ~is (adj.): unarmed, without weapons, defenseless. infamis, ~e (adj.): shameful, disgraceful. infectus, ~a, ~um (adj.): undone, not done; (as subst.) a work left undone, never undertaken in the first place. infelicis, ~e (adj.): unfaithful. inferus, ~a, ~um (adj.): below, beneath; (w. mare) the Tuscan Sea; (met.) of the Underworld. infestus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unsafe, infested. inficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to stain, infect, spoil, corrupt. infitiae, ~arum, f: denial (in acc. pl. only w. ire). ingenitus, ~a, ~um (adj.): innate, inborn. ingenium, ~ii, n: natural temperament, constitution, character, personality; an innate quality or ability. ingens, ~ntis (adj.): vast, huge, enormous. ingredior, ~i, ~gressus-a-um: to advance, go forth, march, proceed. inimicus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unfriendly, hostile. iniussū (abl. m. sing. only): without the command or consent (of someone or something). iniquus, ~a, ~um (adj.): uneven, illmatched; hurtful, injurious.

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innoxius, ~a, ~um (adj.): harmless; not blameworthy, not guilty; uninjured, unhurt, unharmed. inopia, ~ae, f: poverty, need, want, lack. inops, ~opis (adj.): without resources, helpless, weak. inqam, inquis, inquit (defect. verb, cf. ait): I say, you say, he/she says. insequor, ~i, ~secutus-a-um: to follow, follow after, follow closely. insignis, ~e (adj.): distinguished, remarkable, notable, prominent. insinuo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make a way; (refl. w. se) to make one’s way, insinuate oneself. insolitus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unaccustomed, unfamiliar, strange. insperatus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unhoped-for, unexpected, unforeseen. insto, ~are, institi, instaturus-a-um: to stand upon, take a position (against); to draw close, approach. integer, ~gra, ~grum (adj.): whole, in an undiminished state; (of places) not affected by war. intento, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to threaten, take aim at, wield in hostility. inter (prep. w. acc.): between, amongst, amid. intercalo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to proclaim an insertion in the calendar, intercalate; to insert; (w. poena) to put off, postpone. intercessio, ~ionis, f: an intervention; (polit.) a protest, veto. interea (adv.): meanwhile, in the meantime; nevertheless, however. interficio, ~ere, ~feci, ~fectus-a-um: to kill. interim (adv.): meanwhile. interpono, ~ere, interposui, interposi­ tus-a-um: to interpose, place in-between.

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interregnum, ~i, n: during the republic, an interval of vacancy in the consulate (usu. between the death or departure of the consuls and the choice of their succes­ sors), when an interrex was appointed by the senate. interrex, ~regis, m: during the republic in the absence of a consul a temporary king or chief magistrate, interrex. intolerandus, ~a, ~um (adj.): intolerable. intra (adv. & prep. w. acc.): on the inside (of), within. intro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to go into, enter; to go or come between; to penetrate, pierce. intueor, ~eri, ~itus-a-um: to look at, look upon, observe closely, watch over. inuro, ~ere, ~ussi, ~ussus-a-um: to burn, burn into; (fig.) to brand, mark. invenio, ~ire, ~veni, ~ventus-a-um: to come upon, find, discover; (fig.) to discover, find out, invent. inviolatus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unhurt, inviolate. ipse, ~a, ~um (demonstr. pron.): himself, herself, itself; (as subst.) he, she, it. ira, ~ae, f: anger, rage, ire. irascor, irasci, iratus-a-um: to grow angry, become angry. iri (pass. inf. of ire). irrito, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to incite, provoke, irritate, make angry. irritus ~a, ~um (adj.): null and void, of no effect, worthless; (as subst.) a thing of no value. is, ea, id (demonstr. pron.): this, that; (as subst.) he, she, it. iste, ista, istud (demonstr. pronoun): this, that; (as subst.) that man, etc. (oft. derogatory). istic, istaec, istuc (demonstr. pron.): this or that (which is at hand); this or that (of yours). istuc (adv.): there, in that place.

ita (adv.): so, thus, in this way, as follows. itaque (adv.): thus, accordingly. iter, itineris, n: a road, path, trail, way. iterum (adv.): again, a second time, once more. iubeo, ~ere, ~ui, iussus-a-um: to order, command. iudex, ~icis, m: a judge; (pl.) the jury of a public trial. iudico, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to judge, decide; to pass judgment, condemn. iugum, ~i, n: a yoke, collar; a ridge of mountains. iungo, ~ere, iunxi, iunctus-a-um: to join together, attach, fasten, yoke, harness. Iuppiter, Iovis, m: Jupiter, king of the gods. ius, iuris, n: an oath, that which is binding; justice; the law; (w. gen.) the right, duty, obligation (of). iussum, ~i, n: an order, command. iustitium, ~i, n: a public mourning; an order of the government mandating the suspension of the courts and businesses due to the death of a prominent citizen; a legal holiday. iustius (comp. adv.): more justly. iustus, ~a, ~um (adj.): just, righteous, in accordance with the law. iuvenis, ~is (adj.): young, youthful; (as subst.) a young man, youth. iuxta (adv. and prep. w. acc.): near to, at hand, hard by, close to; (in terms of order or equation) next to, second to, on an equal footing with, etc.

L labor, ~oris, m: work, toil, physical exertion. labor, ~i, lapsus-a-um: to slip, glide, fall. lacero, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to tear or rip to pieces, lacerate.



VOCABULARY

laetus, ~a, ~um (adj.): happy, rejoicing; content. lanio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to tear or rip to pieces. latus, ~a, ~um (adj.): broad, wide, flat, open. laudo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to praise, laud. laus, laudis f: praise; bestowal of approval. laxe (adv.): widely, spaciously; freely, without restraint. lector, ~oris, m: a lector, an official attendant upon a curule magistrate (usu. a consul). legatio, ~ionis, f: an embassy, the office of an ambassador. legatus, ~i, m: (milit.) a senior officer, lieutenant, second in command; (polit.) an ambassador, legate. legio, ~ionis, f: a body of soldiers; a legion (counting 10 cohorts of foot soldiers and 300 cavalry, in all between 4000 to 6000 men). legitimus, ~a, ~um (adj.): legal, enforced by law, legitimate. levo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to lift up, elevate, raise; to relieve, release, free. lex, legis, f: a law; the law. libero, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to free, set free, liberate. libertas, ~tatis, f: liberty, freedom. licet, licere, licui, licitum est: (impers. verb): it is lawful, permitted (usu. w. inf.). littera, ~ae, f: (usu. in plur.) a letter, written correspondence. loco, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to put in place, locate; to set, establish, found. locuples, ~etis (adj.): rich (in land), opulent, wealthy; (as subst. oft. a technical term) one who is wealthy enough to carry out obligations of the state with his own personal resources.

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locus, ~i, m: a place, location; (fig.) an opportunity. longe (adv.): by far; a long way off, far off; at or from a distance. loquor, ~i, locutus-a-um: to speak, talk, say, tell. lorum, ~i, n: a leather thong, strap. luctus, ~us, m: sorrow, grief, mourning. ludibrium, ~i, n: a mockery, something that is or can be interpreted as an object of mockery; derision. luo, ~ere, ~ui: to loose, set free; (fig.) to pay, atone for. lux, lucis, f: light, light of day, sunshine.

M maeror, ~oris, m: mourning, sadness, grief; lamentation. maestitia, ~ae, f: sadness, sorrow, dejection. maestus, ~a, ~um (adj.): dejected, full of shame, shamed, despondent. magis (comp. adv.): more, in a higher degree, completely. magister, magistri, m: a chief, commander, leader: (w. equitum) Master of the Horse. magistratus, ~us, m: a magisterial office, any of the several civil and curule magistracies. magnus, ~a, ~um (adj.): large, great, powerful; (comp.) maior, maius: greater, older; (pl. as subst.) maiores: elders, ancestors. maiestas, ~tatis, f: greatness, grandeur; (of state office) sovereign power; (as a crime) high treason. male (adv.): badly. maleficium, ~i, n: an evil deed, misdeed, wickedness; offence, crime. malum, ~i, n: misfortune, calamity. mando, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to put in hand, give an order, command.

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manus, ~us, f: the hand; a military force, an army. mare, ~is, n: the sea, seawater; (w. superus) the Adriatic Sea. maxime (adv.): greatly, in the highest degree, especially. medius, ~a, ~um (adj.): in the middle, in the midst. membrum, ~i, n: (of the body) a limb, member. memoria, ~ae, f: memory, recollection, remembrance. memoro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-m: to remember, recall, call to mind. mens, mentis, f: the mind, disposition, feeling, the heart. mentio, ~ionis, f: a calling to mind, mention, the act of naming. mereor, ~eri, ~itus-a-um: to deserve, merit, be worthy of or entitled to. meritus, ~a, ~um (adj.): deserving, worthy. metus, ~us, m: fear, dread, anxiety, apprehension, foreboding. miles, ~itis, m: a soldier. militaris, ~e (adj.): of a soldier, of the military. minus, ~oris (comp. adj.): less. miserabilis, ~e (adj.): evoking pity; miserable, pitiable, pathetic. miseratio, ~onis, f: pity, compassion, sympathy. misereor, ~eri, ~itus-a-um: to feel or show pity; take pity on; (3rd pers. impers.) that there should be pity for. mitigo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to mitigate, pacify, soften, tame. mitto, ~ere, misi, missus-a-um: to send off, dispatch. modo (adv.): at first, just now; but, but only; (correl.) modo…modo: at one moment…at another moment; non modo…sed (etiam): not only, but also. moenia, ~ium, n: (pl. only) defensive walls, ramparts, bulwarks; city walls.

moles, ~is, f: a huge mass, weight, pile, load; any massive structure. molior, ~iri, molitus-a-um: to cause to remove, displace; to make an exertion, exert oneself, struggle, strive. momentum, ~i, n: motion; a movement; any expenditure of strength, exertion; (of time) a short time, brief interval; an instant. mons, montis, m: a mountain or range of mountains. morior, ~i, mortuus-a-um: to die. moror, ~ari, moratus-a-um: (intr.) to delay, tarry, wait; (tr.) to cause (someone or something) to delay, stand in the way of, impede, hinder, obstruct (w. quo minus or quominus). mors, mortis, f: death. moveo, ~ere, ~i, motus-a-um: to move, set in motion. mox (adv.): soon. multiplex, ~icis, (adj.): of many parts; (of terrain) with many twists and turns, winding; full of concealed places. multitudo, ~inis, f: a multitude, crowd, throng; (as subst.) the common people. multus, ~a, ~um (adj.): many. munio, ~ire, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to fortify, defend; to secure, entrench. munus, ~eris, n: a service, duty, function. muto, ~are, ~avi, ~tatus-a-um: (trans.) to change, alter, move, remove; (intr.) to undergo change (for the better or worse). mutus, ~a, ~um (adj.): speechless, dumb, silent; (of place or time) still, quiet.

N nam (explanatory particle): for. nascor, nati, natus-a-um: to be born, (m. abl. sing. only) in respect to age, birth, years.



VOCABULARY

ne (adv.): not; (conj.) that…not, in order that…not, lest. nec or neque (conj.): nor, and...not; neque (nec)...neque (nec) neither...nor. necessarius, ~a, ~um (adj.): necessary, unavoidable, inevitable. necessitas, ~tatis, f: necessity, need, want; inevitability; fate, destiny. neco, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to kill, slay, slaughter, murder. nefandus, ~a, ~um (adj.): not to be spoken of, unmentionable; (subst.) impiety. nego, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to deny, say no, refuse. nemo, neminis, m & f: no one, nobody; (as adj.) no, not any. nequeo, ~ire, ~ivi: not to be able, to be unable. nequiquam (adv.): in vain, to no avail or purpose, fruitlessly. nescio, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), ~itus-a-um: to not know, be ignorant; to be unwilling or reluctant. neuter, neutra, neutrum (adj. & pron.): neither of two, neither one nor the other. nex, necis, f: violent death, murder, slaughter. nihil (nil), n (indecl.): nothing; (as adv.) not, not at all, by no means. nisi (conj.): if not, unless. nobilis, ~e: famous, well known; notorious; infamous. noceo, ~ere, nocui, nocitus-a-um: to do harm, inflict injury; to be guilty of a crime. nomen, ~inis, n: name, appellation. non (adv.): not. nos, nostrum (pers. pron.): we, us, etc. noster, nostra, nostrum (poss. adj.): our, our own, of us. novus, ~a, ~um (adj.): new, young, not old; recent. nox, noctis, f: night, nightfall.

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noxa, ~ae, f: hurt, harm, injury; an injurious act, crime. noxius, ~a, ~um (adj.): hurtful, harmful, noxious. nudus, ~a, ~um (adj.): nude, unclothed, naked, exposed, stripped; destitute. nullusdum, ~adum, ~umdum (adj.): not any, not at all. nullus, ~a, ~um (adj.): none, not any. num (adv. of time): now; (interrog. particle introducing a direct question expecting a negative answer) do (you, he, she, etc.) really (think, expect, etc.)? numen, numenis, n: a nod, command; (fig.) the nod of Jupiter, god’s will, divine authority. numquam (adv.): never, at no time; (emph.) by no means. nunc (adv.): now, at this time, at this point, at this juncture. nuncupo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to call by name; to vow, proclaim formally. nuntio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to announce, declare, report, inform, give intelligence. nuntius, ~a, ~um (adj.): that announces, informing; (usu. as subst.) a message or a messenger, someone or something that announces.

O ob (prep. w. acc.): on account of, for, for reason of, because of; (w. verbs of motion) to, toward; (w. verbs of rest) before, in front of against. obex, ~icis, m. & f: a barrier, wall, impediment, blockade. obiacio, ~ere, ~eci, ~ectus-a-um: to throw in the way of, obstruct, block. obligo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to bind, oblige, put under legal obligation; to make liable.

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obliviscor, ~i, ~itus-a-um: to forget. obnoxious, ~a, ~um (adj.): liable, guilty; submissive, obedient, servile. obses, obsidis, m.& f: a hostage. obsideo, ~ere, obsedi, obsessus-a-um: to besiege, lay siege to, blockade. obsidio, ~ionis, f: a siege, blockade; (fig.) an imminent danger, extreme peril. obstino, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to resolve, determine, persist. obsto, ~are, obstiti: to stand before, block, oppose. obstringo, ~ere, obstrinxi, obstrictus-a-um: to shut in, confine, block, barricade; (w. reflex. pron.) to bind oneself. obviam (adv.): in the way of, blocking; (w. ire) to go to meet. occasio, ~ionis, f: opportunity, occasion. occultissime (superl. adv.): most hidden, most secretly. oculus, ~i, m: an eye, the eye. odium, ~i, n: hatred, ill-will, hostility; a grudge. odi, odisse, osus-a-um: (defect.) to hate, dislike. offendo, ~ere, offendi, offesnsus-a-um: to hit, strike against; (pass.) to receive an injury, suffer damage, be defeated. offero, ~erre, obtuli, oblatus-a-um: to bring to bear, carry before, present, offer, show. officium, ~i, n: duty. omitto, ~ere, omisi, omissus-a-um: to leave out, omit, not mention; (of a defense in court)to dismiss out of hand, to decide not to formally address or plead. omnis, omne (adj.): (sing) every; (pl.) all. opera, ~ae, f: service, effort, exertion. ops, opis, f: (sing.) aid, help, support, assistance; (pl.) resources, might, power. oppeto, ~ere, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to go to meet; to suffer, endure. opprimo, ~ere, oppressi, oppressus-a-um: to press upon, weigh down on, crush, overwhelm.

optimus, ~a, ~um (superl. adj.): best (> bo­ nus ~a, ~um). opus, operis, n: work, labor, toil; (opus est + inf.) there is need (to do something). ora, ~ae, f: a border, edge; sea coast; river bank. oraculum, ~i n: a divine pronouncement, oracle. os, oris, n: the mouth, the organ of speech; the face.

P paciscor, ~i, pactus-a-um: to agree together; (w. pax) to make peace, strike a pact or an agreement. pactio, ~ionis, f: a pact, treaty, agreement. pactum, ~i, n: a pact, treaty, agreement, arrangement. paene (adv.): nearly, almost. paeniteo, ~ere, ~ui: (oft. impers.) it repents, causes sorrow (w. acc. of obj. and gen. of cause). paludamentum, ~i, n: a military cloak (usu. of a consul). pango, ~ere, pepigi, pactus-a-um: to fix, settle upon, reach an agreement; (w. pax) to offer terms of peace. parco, ~ere, peperci, parsus-a-um: (w. dat.) to spare, act sparingly or be deferential (to), show moderation (to). parens, parentis, m & f: a parent, father or mother. pareo, ~ere, ~ui: (w. abl.) to obey, submit (to). pario, ~ere, peperi, partus-a-um: to bring forth, produce; give birth to. pariter (adv.): equally, all the same, in the same manner; (of time) at the same time, together. paro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make ready, prepare (w. inf.).



VOCABULARY

pasco, ~ere, pavi, pastus-a-um: to feed, nourish, supply with food. pastor, ~oris, m: a shepherd, herdsman. pateo, ~ere, ~ui: to lie open; (of a road or space) to offer unimpeded passage; (fig.) to be obvious or evident. pater, ~tris, m: father; (pl.) elders, statesmen. paternus, ~a, ~um (adj.): paternal, belonging to one’s father; ancestral. patior, ~i, passus-a-um: to bear, endure, suffer through. patria, ~ae, f: the fatherland, one’s country. paucus, ~a, ~um (adj.): a few, not many. paulisper (adv.): for a little while, for a short time, in short increments; little by little. paulus, ~a, ~um (adj.): small, little. pax, pacis, f: peace. pectus, ~oris, n: the breast, breast-bone, the chest; (fig.) the soul, heart, spirit, mind. pecus, pecoris, n: a flock, herd, livestock. penes (prep. w. acc): on the part of; so far as concerns; (w. fasces) in whose possession (there is was, etc.). per (prep. w. acc.): through, over; among; (of time) throughout, during; (expressing means) by way of, through. perago, ~ere, ~egi, ~actus-a-um: to thrust through, pierce; (fig.) to explain, set forth; to carry out, go through with. percello, ~ere, perculi, perculsus-a-um: to strike, hit. percontor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to ask, question, inquire, interrogate. perdo, ~ere, ~didi, ~ditus-a-um: to destroy, ruin, waste, lose. perficio, ~ere, ~eci, ~fectus-a-um: to achieve, carry out; perpetrate, execute. perfidus, ~a, ~um (adj.): dishonest, perfidious. perfungor, ~gi, perfunctus-a-um: to carry through, do one’s part; (in perf. oft. w. iam fato) to be dead.

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pergo, ~ere, perrexi, perrectus-a-um: to go on, proceed, press on. periculum, ~i, n: danger. pernicies, (gen. uncertain, ~ii once): disaster, destruction, death, ruin, calamity. perpetuus, ~a, ~um (adj.): having an unbroken extent or expanse; throughout the whole of anything measured from end to end; entire. pervenio, ~ire, ~veni, ~ventus-a-um: to reach, arrive (at a place, situation, etc.); to attain (a position, advantage). pes, pedis, m: foot; (pl. abl.) on foot, by foot; (milit.) marching. peto, ~ere, ~ivi (ii), petitus-a-um: to seek, aim for; (milit.) attack. piaculum, ~i, n: a means of appeasing, an offering; expiation, atonement, sacrifice. pius, ~a, ~um (adj.): just, faithful, pious; (of wars) justly waged; (of weapons) used in a righteous cause. placeo, ~ere, ~cui, placitus-a-um: (impers.) to be pleasing to (oft. w. dat.). placo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to placate, soothe, appease, assuage. planus, ~a, ~um (adj.): flat, even, broad, wide. plaustrum, ~i, n: a wagon, cart. plebes, ~ei (or plebs, ~is), f: the common people; the multitude; the lower class. plerusque, ~aque, ~umque (adj.): the greater part, most, the majority; a considerable part. poena, ~ae, f: punishment. pono, ~ere, posui, positus-a-um: to put, place, set; to set aside, put away. populus, ~i, m: a people, nation; people; the whole body of a nation; population. porcus, ~i, m: a domesticated swine, pig, hog. porro (adv.): forward, onward, farther. Porsinna, ~ae, m: a king of Etruria.

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porta, ~ae, f: a city gate; a passage, entrance; a door. porto, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to carry. possessio, ~ionis f: a taking possession of, the act of seizing; (milit.) occupation. possum, posse, potui: (w. compl. inf.); to be able (to do something). post (prep. w. acc. & adv.): after, behind; (adv.) afterwards. posterus-a-um (adj.): the following, coming after (usu. w. some from of dies). postquam (conj.): after that, after, as soon as, when; since, because. potens, ~tentis (adj.): able, strong, powerful, mighty. prae (prep. w. abl. & adv.): before, in front of; (of hindrance) because of, due to. praebeo, ~ere, ~ui, ~itus-a-um: to offer, hold forth, furnish, supply. praecipio, ~ere, ~cepi, ~ceptus-a-um: to take beforehand, anticipate. praecipuus, ~a, ~um (adj.): taken before others; special, excellent, outstanding. praeclarus, ~a, ~um (adj.): very bright, brilliant, excellent, distinguished. praeda, ~ae f: war booty, spoils, plunder. praedator, ~oris, m: a plunderer, pillager. praegredio, ~i, ~gressus-a-um: to go before, go in advance, precede. praepedio, ~ire, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to shackle, fetter, entangle; to hinder, obstruct, impede; to embarrass. praesens, ~entis (adj.): present, at hand, in person; immediate, at once, instant. praesidium, ~i n: a garrison, a defense, a guard; of an occupied place, an entrenchment. praesto, ~are, ~iti, ~itus-a-um: to stand out, excel, be superior; to rise to the occasion. praeter (prep. w. acc.): along, past, before, in front of. praeterquam (adv.): beyond, besides, except, other than.

praetor, ~oris, m: the curule Roman magistracy second only to the office of consul; one of usually eight judges who presides over the various public courts. praetorium, ~i, n: (milit.) the general’s tent. precatio, ~ionis, f: a prayer, the act of praying. precor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to ask, beg, entreat, pray. pridie (adv.): on the day before, the previous day. primum (adv): first, at first, in the first place. primus, ~a, ~um (superl. adj. > prior): first; (w. gen.) the first part (of something). princeps, principis (adj.): first in time, order, etc.; (as subst.) a leader. prius (adv.): before, sooner, previously. priusquam (adv.): before, sooner than, earlier than. privatus, ~a, ~um (adj.): private, not public, apart from the State; (as subst.) a private citizen; one’s private home. pro (prep. w. abl.): for, on behalf of, in support of; in in place of, instead of. probo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to approve, esteem, make good; (w. acc. + inf. ind. stat.) to prove credible, demonstrate. procul (adv.): at a distance, far off, away; (w. haud) not very far away, close to, nearby. prodo, ~ere, prodidi, proditus-a-um: to put forth, offer over, give up, betray. profanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): profane, unholy, common. profero, proferre, protuli, prolatus-a-um: to bring forth, make public, publish, make known. proficiscor, ~i, profectus-a-um: to set forth, set out, start a journey; to march out, depart. proinde (adv.): hence, therefore, accordingly. prope (adv.): near, hard by; (of time, space) close to.



VOCABULARY

propitious, ~a, ~um (adj.): propitious, favorable, well-disposed, kind. propono, ~ere, ~posui, ~positus-a-um: to put forth, place before; (reflex. w. dat.) to hold up to oneself (as a model). propter (prep. w. acc.): near, close by; on account of, because of. prosequor, ~i, ~secutus-a-um: to follow, chase after, pursue; (fig.) to honor, distinguish, support. prospere (adv.): prosperously, successfully, favorably; with good outcome. prosterno, ~ere, prostravi, prostra­ tus-a-um: to throw to the ground, overthrow, subvert, ruin, destroy. protinus (adv.): without delay, forthwith, immediately, uninterruptedly. provoco, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to call forth, call out; (leg.) to go before a higher tribunal, make an appeal. proximus, ~a, ~um (adj.): (of place) nearest, next; (of periods of time) immediately preceding, last. prudens, ~entis (adj.): prudent, skilled, experienced, practiced. publicus, ~a, ~um (adj.): public, belonging to the people; (as subst.) the public, the people of Rome. pudor, ~oris, n: shame, public humiliation. puer, ~i, m: a boy, youth. pugna, ~ae, f: a fight, battle, etc. pugno, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to fight.

Q qua (adv.): by what way, by what means, how; (as correl.) qua…qua: both…and. quaero, ~ere, quaesivi (ii), quaesitus-a-um: to search for, inquire, ask for, seek, hunt for. quaestor, ~oris, m: the lowest-ranking elected magistrate in the Roman government under the republic and early

127

empire, often assigned as a deputy to a higher magistrate. qualis, ~e (interrog. adj.): of what sort, what quality. quam (conj. w. adj. or adv.): how; (w. comp. adj. or adv. introd. a comparison) than; (w. superl. adj. or adv.) as…as possible. quamquam (conj.): although. quando (conj.): since, because; (interrog. adv.) when? at what time? quandoque (adv. and conj.): since, because, whereas, seeing that (in a causal sense). quantus, ~a, ~um (interrog. adj.): how much, how great. quantuscumque, ~acumque, ~umcumque (rel. adj.): of whatever size, however great (or small). quemadmodum (= ad quem modum): (inter­ rog. & rel. adj.) as, in the manner in which. queror, ~i, questus-a-um: to express grief, lament, complain. qui, quae, quod (rel. pron. & demonst. adj.): who, which, what; that (man, woman, thing). quia (conj.): because. quicquam (see quisquam). quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque (indef. rel. pron.): whoever, whatever. quid (interrog. adv.): why? in regard to what? to what end? to what extent? quidam, quaedam, quodam (indef. rel. pron.): (as subst.) a certain person (man, woman, thing, etc.); (indef. pron.): somebody, anybody. quidem (adv.): assuredly, certainly, in fact, indeed; (restr.) at least, in fact, certainly; (introd. an ex.) for instance, for example; (particle usu. emphas. the word it follows) in fact, to be sure, indeed; ne… quidem: not…even (always brackets the word or words it modifies). quidquid (adv.): whatever, to whatever extent, by how much.

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quies, quietis, f: rest, repose, inaction; the act of lying still; sleep. quiesco, ~ere, ~evi, ~etus-a-um: to grow quiet, become still. quin (interrog. conj.): (in exhortation) why not?; (in neg. exhortation) nay rather, to the contrary you had better; (corrobo­ rative) indeed, but of course, without question, verily. quippe (adv. & conj.): (adv.): of course, obviously, as you see, by all means; (conj.) since, for in fact. Quiris, Quritis, m: after the Romans and Sabines were united the people were called Quirites, after Quirinus, an alternate name for Romulus. quis, quid (interrog. pron.): who? what? quisquam, quicquam (indef. pron.): anyone, anything. quisque, quidque (pron, & adj.): each, every. quo (interrog. & rel. adv.): to what place, where; (conj.) by what means, on account of which, whereby, in order that. quod (adv. and conj.): (adv.) in respect of which, as to the fact that, wherein; (conj.) since, because. quoniam (conj.): since, because. quoque (adv.): also, even.

R ratus, ~a, ~um (adj.): thought out, ratified, determined, fixed. rebello, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to wage war again, retaliate. recipio, ~ere, ~cepi, ~ceptus-a-um: to receive, take back, carry back; regain, recover. redeo, ~ire, ~ii, ~itus-a-um: to go back, turn back, turn around, return; (polit.) to render back a judgment or decision. redimo, ~ere, ~emi, ~emptus-a-um: to buy back, ransom (for a price).

redintegro, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to make whole again, renew, restore; (milit.) to recruit. redo, ~ere, ~didi, ~ditus-a-um: to give back, return, restore, represent. refero, referre, rettuli, relatus-a-um: to bring back, carry back; (w. de) to bring (a matter) before a court or the senate; to raise a question (about); (third pers. oft. impers.) to matter, make a difference. religio, ~ionis, f: a bond or formal agreement sealed by a religious oath; a sense of reverence for the divine. relinquo, ~ere, reliqui, relictus-a-um: to leave, leave behind. remaneo, ~ere, ~mansi: to remain, stay behind. remeo, ~are, ~avi: to go back, turn back, return. remitto, ~ere, ~misi, ~missus-a-um: to let go back, release, send back. renascor, ~asci, ~atus-a-um: to renew, start again. renuntio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to bring back word, report, announce. reor, ~eri, ratus-a-um: to reckon, calculate, believe, think, consider. repeto, ~ere, ~ivi (ii), ~itus-a-um: to repeat; to retrace (one’s steps); to undertake again. repudio, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to repudiate, reject, disdain. res, rei, f: thing, affair, incident, matter, issue; (pl.) achievements, exploits. rescribo, ~bere, rescripsi, rescriptus-a-um: to write back, to reply in writing; (milit.) to enroll, enlist. respondeo, ~ere, ~di, ~sus-a-um: to respond, answer. restituo, ~uere, ~ui, ~utus-a-um: to bring back, return; to restore, set up again, reconstruct.



VOCABULARY

retro (adv.): back, backward; (prep. w. acc.) behind, to the rear of. reus, ~i, m: an accused party; the defendant (or plaintiff) involved in a lawsuit or any legal dispute; one charged with a crime. reverto, ~ere, ~ti, reversus-a-um: to turn back, revert. rex, regis, m: king, ruler. Roma, ~ae, f: the city Rome. Romanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): Roman; (oft. as subst.) a Roman. rumor, ~oris, m: rumor, gossip. rumpo, rumpere, rupi, ruptus-a-um: to break or rupture; to burst through barriers. ruo, ~ere, ~i: to rush forth; to break free; (of structures) to fall down, crumble. rupes, ~is, f: a steep rocky cliff; a crag.

S sacrosanctus, ~a, ~um (adj.): sacred; protected by religious sanction; inviolate. saepe (adv.): often; frequently. saepio, ~ire, saepsi, saeptus-a-um: to hedge in; surround with a wall, fence, etc. saevio, ~ire, ~ii, ~itus-a-um: to rage, be furious, go wild. saevitia, ~ae, f: fury, fierceness, severity; violence, savagery; cruelty. saltus, ~us, m: a narrow passage through a forest or mountain; a defile; rough woodland country, usually used for pasturing livestock in the mountains. salus, ~utis, f: health, rigor. saluto, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to salute. salvus, ~a, ~um (adj.): in good health, unharmed; (abl. w. religione) with the treaty inviolate. Samnis, ~itis (adj.): of or pertaining to the Samnite people; (as subst.) a Samnite; (pl.) the Samnites, the Samnite people.

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sancio, ~ire, sanxi, sanctus-a-um: (of a law or treaty) to make sacred, sanctify, render inviolable. sanctus, ~a, ~um (adj.): sacred, holy, pure. sanguis, sanguinis, m: blood; (fig.) bloodshed, slaughter. sanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): (of the body) sound, healthy, whole, well; (of the mind) in one’s proper senses. satis (indecl. adj.) n: enough, sufficient, satisfactory; (adv.) sufficiently, amply. saxum, ~i, n: a large stone, rock, boulder. scelus, sceleris, n: a crime, heinous act; sin; wickedness. scio, ~ire, ~ivi, ~itus-a-um: to know, understand, perceive, have knowledge of; (w. compl. inf.) to know how (to do something). scribo, ~ere, scripsi, scriptus-a-um: to write, compose; describe in writing; (milit. w. exercitum) to enroll the an army. se (3rd pers. refl. pr.): himself, herself, itself; (pl.) themselves, etc. sed (conj.): but. sedes, sedis f: the seat; the place or position occupied by anything. seminudus, ~a, ~um (adj.): half-naked, semi-nude. semper (adv.): always. senator, ~oris, m: a member of the senate. senatus, ~us, m: Roman council of elders, council of state; republican Rome’s ruling and advisory body. senex, ~is, m: an old man; an elder. sententia, ~ae f: one’s thought or opinion; a vote given in the senate or any assembly; testimony given before the senate or a court. sequor, ~qui, secutus-a-um: to follow (esp. in the process of time or sequence of events). sermo, ~onis, m: anything one says; a conversation; an informal address or speech; gossip.

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sero (adv.): at a late hour. servo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to watch out for, watch over; observe; guard; to serve (as a soldier) one’s country. sescenti, ~ae, ~a (adj.): six hundred. seu (conj.): or if; (introd. each of two or more cond.) whether…or. si (conj.): if (introd. a clause w. either the indic. or subj.). sic (adv.): thus or so; in this manner. sicut (conj.): in the same way as; (w. correl. or other adv.) just as…so. sileo, ~ere, ~ui: to be or grow silent; make no noise; (w. de) to say nothing (about). silens (silentis) (adj): silent. silentium, ~i, n: silence; the absence of sound; the act of abstaining from speech. silva, ~ae, f: a forest, woodland, the woods. silvosus, ~a, ~um (adj.): woodsy, full of trees. simul (adv.): together; at the same time; jointly. simul atque (conj.): as soon as. simulo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to pretend; make false pretense of (oft. w. acc + inf. ind. statement). sine (prep. w. abl.): without. singuli, ~ae, ~e (adj.): one at a time, separate, individual. sino, ~sinere, sivi (ii), situs-a-um: to allow, permit (oft. w. inf.). sisto, ~ere, sistiti, status-a-um: to cause to stand still; (milit. w. gradum) to come to a halt. socium, ~i, n: an ally. solacium, ~i, n: solace, a comforting, relief. sollemnis, ~e (adj.): solemn, established, religious, festive. solus-a-um (adj.): on one’s own; alone; (adv.) only. solutus, ~a, ~um (adj.): unbound, free, unfettered, released, at ease. somnium, ~i, n: sleepiness

species, ~ei, f: a sight, appearance, spectacle. spectaculum, ~i, n: a spectacle, something to see, a sight. specto, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to watch, observe; (milit.) to inspect, surveil. sperno, ~ere, sprevi, spretus-a-um: to spurn, reject. spes, spei f: hope. spondeo, ~ere, spopondi, sponsus-a-um: to enter into an agreement (sponsio), promise solemnly, bind oneself (to a treaty, terms, etc.). spons, ~ontis, f: free will; (in the abl. w. sua) of one’s own accord, spontaneously. sponsio, ~ionis, f: a solemn promise, covenant, guarantee; a legally-binding contract. sponsor, ~oris, m: one who vouches, a bondsman, one who offers surety. statuo, ~ere, ~ui, ~tutus-a-um: to cause to stand, set up, fix in place, establish, strengthen. sto, ~are, steti, status-a-um: to stand, remain standing; (w. abl.) to adhere (to a policy, agreement, etc.). stringo, ~ere, strinxi, strictus-a-um: to draw (a sword); to compress, press together. stupor, ~oris, m: stupor, numbness, dullness. sub (prep. w. acc. & abl.): beneath, below, under, near, at the foot of. subduco, ~ere, ~duxi, ~ductus-a-um: to carry off or remove by stealth or in secret; to steal, hide. subeo, ~ire, ~ii, ~itus-a-um: to go under, pass under, come under. subigo, ~ere, ~egi, ~actus-a-um: to compel, force. subito (adv.): suddenly, without warning, at once. sufficio, ~ere, suffeci, suffectus-a-um: to put under; (of public offices) to appoint a vacancy, choose as a subordinate.



VOCABULARY

sum, esse, fui, futurus-a-um: to be, exist, live; to be situated, placed, etc. summus, ~a, ~um (adj.): the highest, greatest, supreme. super (adv. & prep. w. acc. & abl.): above, on top of, over, upon. superbe (adv.): haughtily, proudly; arrogantly. superbia, ~ae, f: arrogance, haughtiness, pride. superbus, ~a, ~um (adj.): arrogant, haughty, vain, insolent. supero, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to excel, surpass, outdo. superus, ~a, ~um (adj.): on high; (w. mare) the Tuscan Sea. suppeto, ~ere, suppetivi (ii): (of people) to be available; (of something) to present itself when needed or required (w. dat.). supplicium, ~i, n: an act of supplication, kneeling, bowing down to. surdus, ~a, ~um (adj.): deaf. surgo, ~ere, surrexi: to rise up, rise up against, revolt. suus, ~a, ~um (poss. adj.): of oneself, one’s own; his own, her own, it’s own, etc.

T taberna, ~ae, f: public shop, booth, place of business. taedet, ~ere (impers.): it is tiresome, it offends, it is disgusting (w. accusative of object and genitive of cause). talis, ~e (adj.): such, of such a kind or quality. tam (adv.): so, so much; tam…quam (correl. conj.): so much…as. tamen (adv.): however, nevertheless, notwithstanding (after a concessive or conditional particle or conjunction).

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tamquam (adv.): as much as, just as, like as, as if, so to speak. tandem (adv.): at length, at last, in the end, finally. tantummodo (adv.): only, merely. tantus, ~a, ~um (adj.): so great, such great; tantum (adv.): but, only. tectum, ~i, n: cover, protection; (pl.) rooftops, houses. temeritas, temeritatis, f: rashness, haste, thoughtlessness. tempestas, tempestatis, f: weather; season; a point or period of time. tempto, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to attempt, try; to test, make test of, try out. tempus, ~oris, n: time, interval, period, occasion. teneo, ~ere, ~ui, tentus-a-um: to hold, have, keep, grasp. tergum, ~i, n: the back, one’s backside. terra, ~ae, f: the earth, ground, land, dirt terror, ~oris, m: great fear, dread, terror, alarm, panic. tertius, ~a, ~um (adj.): the third; tertium (adv.): for the third time. testis, ~is, m & f: a witness, one who attests. tollo, ~ere, sustuli, sublatus-a-um: to lift up, raise, elevate; (milit.) to take up the march, break camp. torpor, ~oris, m: numbness, stupefaction, torpor, sluggishness. tot (indecl. adj.): so many; tot…tot (correl.): so many…as many. trado, ~ere, tradidi, traditus-a-um: to give up, hand over. traduco, ~ere, traduxi, traductus-a-um: to lead across; (temporal) to pass (the night, etc.). transigo, ~ere, ~egi, ~actus-a-um: (intr.) to reach an agreement, make a transaction; (trans). to pierce through, transfix.

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tribunal, ~alis, n: a raised platform for the seats of magistrates; a judge’s seat; tribunal. tribunus, ~i, m: the office of the Tribune. triduum, ~i, n: a three day period. triginta (indecl num.): thirty. tristis, ~e (adj.): sad, downcast, crestfallen; mournful, gloomy; dejected. triumpho, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to march in triumph, celebrate a triumph; (fig.) to rejoice, celebrate. tu, tui (pers. pron.): you (sing.) tueor, tueri, tutus-a-um: to look after, take care of, protect. tum (adv.): then, at that time; tum…tum (correl.): now…now; at one time…at another; sometimes…sometimes. turba, ~ae, f: a crowd, throng, mob. turpis, ~e (adj.): ugly, foul, filthy; shameful, disgraceful, base. tutus, ~a, ~um (adj.): safe, secure, unharmed.

U ubi (interrog. adv.): where?; (rel. adj.) where, when, as soon as. ubique (adv.): in any place, anywhere, everywhere, in all places. ullus, ~a, ~um (adj.): some, any; (subst.) someone, anyone, somebody. ultra, (adv.): further, more, besides, in addition. umquam (adv.): at any time, ever. universus, ~a, ~um (adj.): all together, all in one, collective, entire, whole; (pl. as subst.) all the men, everybody. unus, ~a, ~um (adj. num.): one. urbs, urbis, f: city, town, village. usura, ~ae, f: payment for the use of money, interest; usury. ut/uti (conj. w. ind. & subj.): (w. ind.): when, as; (w. subj.): so that, in order that, that.

uter, ~tra, ~trum (adj.): (interrog.) which of two; (in a decision between two things) the alternate; (indef.) whichever. utilis, ~e (adj.): useful, beneficial, advantageous; (as subst. in neut. pl.) tools. utrum (adv.): whether (introducing a direct question or a series or alternate questions).

V vallum, ~i, n: a wall, rampart, fortification. vanus, ~a, ~um (adj.): empty, void, vacant. vaticinor, ~ari, ~atus-a-um: to foretell, predict, prophesize. Veii, ~orum m. pl: an ancient Etruscan town north of Rome, an enemy state captured by Camillus in 396 b.c. vel (conj.): or; vel…vel: either…or; (adv.) even. velut (adv.): even as, just as, like. venio, ~ire, ~ivi (ii), venturus-a-um: to come. verbum, ~i, n: a word; (pl.) talk, conversation. verecundia, ~ae, f: a feeling of shame; awe (in the face of the greatness of others). verendus, ~a, ~um (adj.): to be feared (> vereor). vereor, ~eri, ~itus-a-um: to fear, respect, be in awe of. vero (adv.): truly, in truth, verily. verto, ~ere, verti, versus-a-um: to turn, turn back, change direction. verus, ~a, ~um (adj.): true. vester, vestra, vestrum (poss. adj.): yours (pl.); of you (all). vestimentum, ~i, n: clothing, dress, garment. vestis, ~is, f: clothing, attire, garment. veto, ~are, ~ui, ~itus-a-um: to forbid, prohibit, not to allow, veto. via, ~ae, f: road, way, path, passage.



VOCABULARY

vicis, ~is, f: change, alternation, turn; in vicem: (adv.) in turn, alternately, one after the other, each in turn. victor, ~oris, m: a conqueror, victor. victoria, ~ae f: victory (in war). videlicet (adv.): it is evident, obviously, plainly; (with high irony) of course, I’m sure, etc. video, ~ere, vidi, visus-a-um: to see, watch, notice, discern, perceive; (in the pass. in formal decisions) to seem right, be decided, be adjudged. vigeo, ~ere, ~ui: to be vigorous, thrive; to be strong. vilis, ~e (adj.): of little value, cheap; (of people) cowardly, base, vile. vincio, ~ire, vinxi, vinctus-a-um: to bind, fetter, put in chains or bonds. vinco, ~ere, vici, victus-a-um: to conquer, vanquish. vinculum, ~n: a means of bonding, fettering; (pl.) bonds, fetters, chains. vindex, ~icis, m & f: a defender, protector, liberator; an avenger, punisher. violo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to treat with violence, to injure bodily; (w. certain political offices) to dishonor, maltreat. vir, ~i m: a man, adult male; (pl.) human beings; (milit.) a soldier, (milit. pl.) infantry, foot-soldiers. virga, ~ae, f: a slender branch, a stick; a carved slender wand (oft. used for pun­ ishing by public scourging).

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virtus, virtutis, f: manliness, manhood; (fig.) honor, strength, courage. vis, ~is, f: (sing.) physical violence; (pl.) physical strength, force. viscus, ~eris (usu. pl. viscera, ~um) n: the inner parts of the body, the guts, internal organs, viscera. vitium, ~i, n: a fault, defect, moral failing (esp. in character); (orac.) a blemish in the auspices. vivo, ~ere, vixi, victurus-a-um: to live. vivus, ~a, ~um (adj.): alive, living, vital. vix (adv.) with difficulty; hardly, scarcely, barely. voco, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to call, summon (leg.) to appeal, challenge, retort. volo, velle, volui: to want or wish (w. compl. inf.). voluntarius, ~a, ~um (adj.): voluntarily, of free will; (pl. as subst.) volunteers. vos, vestrum (pers. pron.): you (pl.). vox, vocis f: a voice, sound, utterance. vulgo (adv.): commonly, generally, universally. vulgo, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to spread a report, broadcast a rumor. vulnero, ~are, ~avi, ~atus-a-um: to wound, hurt, injure, maim. vulnus, ~eris n: a wound; a blow, strike, or cut. vultus, ~us, m: the face, looks, countenance, visage; (fig.) an air, expression.

In the first twelve chapters of Book 9 of his Ab Urbe Condita, Livy tells the story of how, in 321 B.C., a young and untested Samnite commander named C. Pontius traps four Roman legions in the narrow mountain pass in the southern Apennines called the Caudine Forks. Stunned at his own success, he seeks the counsel of his father, who tells him that he must either let them go unscathed or slaughter them all to the man; there is no third option. For Pontius, however, turnabout is fairer play: long bristling under the jackboot of Roman saevitia et superbia, he decides to take this opportunity to inflict a little of his own. He frees the Romans, yes, but only after humiliating them by making them strip to their undertunics and crawl beneath the yoke of the vanquished. What Pontius fails to realize is that the Romans will never suffer such indignation without answering with absolute reprisal. So, by his own foolish act of saevitia et superbia, Pontius guarantees the very outcome he was trying to avert: the destruction of his people and the ultimate hegemony of Rome throughout peninsular Italy. This gripping story of Roman honor and fortitude under fire, at a time when Rome’s hegemony on the Italian peninsula was far from a foregone conclusion, is presented in Roman History for Latin Students: Ambush at Caudium, Livy Ab Urbe Condita Book 9.1–12.328 for the first time in a student-friendly edition, complete with Latin text (328 lines), a full vocabulary, and a comprehensive apparatus of notes on grammatical matters and rhetorical terms.

Steven M. Cerutti was born in New York City and received his Ph.D. from Duke University in classical studies. He is a Fulbright fellow and a fellow of the American Numismatic Society. He has taught at Duke University and The Intercollegiate Center for Classical Studies in Rome.

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