Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali, Parts i and ii: A Study in the Development of Urbanism in the Sahel; Part i: Archaeological and Historical Background and the Excavations at Jenne-jeno, Part ii: The Regional Survey and Conclusions 9781407389455, 9781407389462, 9780860541035, 9781407352428

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Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali A Study in the Development of Urbanism in the Sahel Part i : Archaeological and Historical Background and the Excavations at Jenne-jeno Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology BAR International Series 89(i) 1980

2

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP,'England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I. A., D . Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I.A. B. A. R. S89 (I), 1980: "Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali" Part I © Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh, 1980. Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology General Editor: John Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., F. S. A. Dept. Archaeology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ England Manuscripts should be submitted to Dr. Alexander in the first instance Also available: B. A. R. S75, 1980: "The Niger Delta, Aspects of its Pre­historic Economy and Culture" by Nwanna Nzewunwa. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389455 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389462 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541035 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407352428 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541035 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

PREFACE

Wes t A fr ica r e ma ins o ne o f t he u nderexp lored d o ma ins o f a rchaeo logy. L ack o f c on tro l led e xcava t ions a nd r eg iona l r esearch p rogram mes i s p ar t icul ar ly g lar ing i n t he i n ter ior r eg ions , i nc lud ing modern Ma l i , N iger , U pper V o l ta , a nd much o f Maur i tan ia , wh ich t oge ther c o mpr ise t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he r eg ion k nown a s t he Wes tern S udan . Wi th in t h is r eg ion , s ome o f t he mos t b r i l l ian t e ven ts i n Wes t A fr ican h is tory t ook p lace : t he l ong-d is tance e xchange n e tworks o f t he " Go lden T rade o f t he Moors" , t he wax ing a nd wan ing o f t he g rea t emp ires o f G hana , Ma l i , a nd S ongha i .

A l mos t n o th ing i s k nown i n d e-

t a i l c oncern ing t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o r s et t le men t o f t he Wes tern S udan d ur ing t he h is tor ica l p er iod ( f ro m c . A .D. 8 00 t o t he p resen t ) , wh i le i gnorance o f t he p reh is tory o f t h is r eg ion i s e ven more p rofound .

E spec ia l ly f rus tra t ing

i s t he v ir tua l ly c o mp lete l ack o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta f ro m t he t wo mi l lenn ia i m med ia te ly p reced ing t he e ar lies t h is tor ica l d ocu men ta t ion .

I ti s w ide ly

r ecogn ized t ha t t hese " s i len t mi l lenn ia" mus t h ave w i tnessed t he ma jor c hanges i n s ubs is tence e cono my , t echno logy , a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion t ha t n ecessar i ly p receded empire f orma t ion . T he c hrono log y a nd c ircums tances o f t hese c hanges , wh ich i nc lude mos t n o tab ly p lan t d omes t ica t ion , i n troduct ion o f i ron t echno logy , a nd t he emergence o f u rban is m , r e ma in a lmos t e n t ire ly e specu la t ive . I n o f a n t o

r esponse t o t h is l amen table s i tua t ion , we u nder took a s even- mon th p ro ject e xp lora tory e xcava t ion a nd r eg iona l s urvey i n t he I n land N iger D el ta o f Ma l i , a rea wh ich s ee med t o u s mos t l i ke ly t o p rov ide a rchaeo log ica l d a ta r e levan t a l l t hree i ssues . T he t wo p ar ts o f t h is monograph f ocus o n r epor t ing a nd

i n terpret ing t he r esu l ts o f t he 1 977 r esearch p rogram me , wh ich i ncluded e xcava t ions a t t he s i te o f J ennejeno a nd a r eg iona l s urvey c onducted w i th in a1 ,100 k i lo metre-square a rea t o t he n or th a nd wes t o f t he s i te . Par t id ea ls l argely w i th r epor t ing t he r esu l ts o f t he e xp lora tory e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t a t J ennejeno f ro m J anuary t o l a te-Apr i l 1 977. I t s f orma t i s b ipar t i te ; t he f i rs t s ec t ion d ea ls w i th b ackground ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing h is tor ica l d ocumen ta t ion f or J enne a nd p r ior a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n Ma l i ; i ti s i n troduced b y a n e ssay o n t he g enera l s ta te o f I ron A ge a rchaeo logy i n Wes t A fr ica .

S ect ion

Ip resen ts a l l i n forma t ion d irec t ly r e levan t t o t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno . We h ave t r ied t o d i f feren tia te c lear ly t he f acts o f t he e xcava ted ma ter ia l f ro m t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t hese ma ter ia ls . Ac ons iderable amoun t o f p r i mary d a ta i s e i ther i nc luded i n o r a ppended t o t he v o lume s o t ha t t he r eader may a ssess t he e x ten t t o wh ich o ur i n terpre ta t ions a bou t t he s equence o f e ven ts r epresen ted i n t he d epos i ts a nd t he c eramic c hrono logy may b e a ccep ted . T he c o mpu ter p r in tou ts o f p o t tery d a ta a re n o t i nc luded , b u t t hey a re a va i lable s hou ld a nyone w ish t o c onsu l t t he m .

Pa r t i r epor ts t he r esu l ts o f as e t t lemen t a nd g eo morpho log ica l s urvey i n t he v ic in i ty o f J enne .

T he f irs t s ec t ion p resen ts e v idence f or r eg iona l

h ierarch ies o f s e t t le men ts e lsewhere i n Wes t A fr ica .

T he ma in b ody o f Pa r t

i r econs tructs t he g eo morpho log y o f t he J enne r eg ion a nd i n terpre ts s e t t lemen t p re ferences p as t a nd p resen t w i th r e ference t o t hose g eo morpho log ica l f ea tures .

A c ons idera t ion o f t he a pp l icabi l i ty o f a na lyt ica l t echn iques d eve loped

b y g eographers p rov ides t he f ramework f or a ssess ing t he q ua l i ty o f t hese d a ta .

The l as t c hap ter o f Par t i a ssesses t he s ign i f icance o f t he e xcava t ions

a nd t he r eg iona l s urvey f or a rchaeolog ica l a nd h is tor ica l i n terpre ta t ions o f t he d eve lop men t o f t he Wes tern S udan .

Many o f t he a ch ieve men ts o f t he

e xcava t ions , e spec ia l ly t he c on tro l led s tra t igraph ic n a ture o f t he e xcava t ions , a n i n terna l ly c ons is ten t s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes , d irec t b o tan ica l e v idence f or d o mes t ica ted r ice , e v idence o f e ar ly i ron t echno logy , a we l l-documen ted p o t tery s equence , a nd e v idence i nd ica t ing r ap id t own g row th i n t he f i rs t mi l lenn ium A .D. a re u nusua l i n Wes t A fr ican p reh is tor ic r esearch .

T he

s urvey r esu l ts s upp le men t t he e xcava t ion r esu l ts c oncern ing t he e ar ly g row th o f J ennejeno a nd t he t rade h ierarch ies t o wh ich t he t own b elonged . T hese r esu l ts r evea l as e t t le men t o rgan iza t ion i n many ways q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t ha t f am i l iar t o a rchaeo log is ts work ing i n a na logous f l oodp la in r eg ions . Af ina l n o te s hou ld b e i nc luded o n t he o r thography o f J enne .

T he s pe l l ing

" D jenn& was i n troduced b y t he French d ur ing t he c o lon ia l .per iod , b u t Ma l ians t oday p re fer t o om it t he i n i t ia l ' D ' a nd t o d rop t he a ccen t a igue o ver t he f ina l l e t ter .

O ther s pe l l ings i n t h is monograph f o l low t he c onven tions i n L ev tzion ,

Anc ien t G hana a nd Ma l i ( 1973 ) a nd i n A jayi a nd C rowder , A H is tory o f Wes t A fr ica ( 1969 ).

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

Th is monograph c ou ld n ever h ave b een f in ished w i thou t t he h elp , e ncouragemen t a nd p a t ience o f n umerous p eop le .

We a re p ar t icu lar ly g ra tefu l t o Dr .

A lpha Ou mar K onare , n ow M in is ter o f C u l ture i n Ma l i , who g ran ted o f f ic ia l p er m iss ion f or t he r esearch , a nd who a lso p ersona l ly a cco mpan ied u s t o J enne t o h e lp i naugura te t he 1 977 f i e ld s eason . T he a ss is tance o f M . H ama B ocou m o f J enne a nd M . A l i Tamboura o f B amako was a lso i ns trumen ta l t o t he s uccess o f t he r esearch p rogram.

A dd i t iona l ly , t he C o m mandan t d u C ercle d e J enne

l en t h is s uppor t t o t he p ro ject . I n B amako , Mr . a nd Mrs . A lan G i lber t g enerous ly e x tended t heir h osp it a l i ty a nd p rov ided a s erene e nv ironmen t f or b ad ly n eeded r es t a nd r ecrea t ion b e tween f i e ld t r ips .

U .S. Peace C orps v o lun teers Karo l S toker , Dan Ba lzer in i ,

a nd Kr is ten C lark s pen t t hree weeks i n J une 1 977 c od ing p o tsherds , wh ich c ons iderably s peeded u p t he p o t tery a na lys is , a nd a ss is t ing w i th t he f i e ld s urvey. We b o th owe a s pecia l d ebt o f g ra t i tude t o o ur a dv isors —Pro fessors B r ian Fagan , A lber t S pau ld ing , a nd Merr ick P osnansky , a nd Drs . J ohn A lexander a nd Barbara V oorh ies —for t he ir p a t ience a nd e ncourage men t . T h is monograph h as b ene f i t ted g rea t ly f ro m o ur c onversa t ions w i th t he m .

I ndeed , i t was

Professor P osnansky who f irs t s ugges ted t he J enne r eg ion a s af ocus f or i nv es t iga t ions .

Dr . J ohn A lexander v ery k ind ly l en t e xcava t ion

e qu ip men t

a nd t o t he med ica l i n for ma t ion a nd p rescr ip t ions s upp l ied b y t he l a te Dr . Hawtry May mus t b e c red i ted o ur g ood h ea l th t hroughou t t he f i e ld s eason . Thanks a re a lso e x tended t o t hose who a na lysed ma ter ia l f ro m J ennejeno a nd p roduced s pec ia l is t r epor ts ; ( f auna l );

Dr . G . H owes ( f ish ) ;

P rofessor J . H ar lan ( f lora l ) ;

Dr . R . K le in

P . J acobberger ( so i ls a nd f ired c lay ).

who h e lped e i ther i n p repara t ion f or t he f i e ld o r a f ter o ur r e turn were ;

O thers Dr .

D . Brokensha , Dr . R . M. A . B edaux , Dr . P . F ar ias , Mr . A . T . G rove , P rofessor J . H u inziga , Dr . B . R i ley , Dr . D . R obinson , S . C ra ig , P . Hus ton , R . L opez , a nd t he Museum o f C u l ture H is tory a t t he U n ivers i ty o f C a l i forn ia , L os Ange les . Fund ing f or t he 1 977 r esearch p ro jec t was g enerous ly p rov ided b y t he N a t iona l S cience F ounda t ion ( D isser ta t ion Improve men t G ran t-BNS 7 702157 , a warded t o S KM ) , t he Un ivers i ty o f C a l i forn ia ( Pa ten t Fund G ran t f or D issert a t ion R esearch , a warded t o SK M ) , t he Amer ican A ssoc ia t ion o f Un ivers i ty Wo man ( Gradua te F e l lowsh ip , a warded t o SK M ) , a nd t he C row ther-Benyon Fund o f C ambr idge U n ivers i ty ( research g ran t a warded t o RJ M ).

The Depar t-

men t o f An thropo log y , U n ivers i ty o f C a l i forn ia a t S an ta Barbara , i s t o b e t hanked f or p rov id ing f unds f or c o mpu ter u se .

We a re e x tre me ly g ra te fu l t o

S ue Cunn ingha m , who t yped a p re l im inary d ra f t o f t he manuscr ip t , a nd t o Marce l la Wadde l l , who t yped t he f ina l d ra f t .

C aro l ine Sm i t ter r edrew F igures

4 6-50 i n A ppend ix I o f Pa r t ia nd F igures 4 .1 a nd 5 .9 i n P ar t i .

P ar t i TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS L is t o f Maps L is t o f F igures L is t o f T ables 1

I NTRODUCTION S ECTION I :

THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND H ISTOR ICAL BACKGROUND

C hap ter 1

P ro lego mena :

The S ta te o f I ron Age Archaeo logy

i n Wes t A fr ica .

3

N o tes f or C hap ter 1

2 4

C hap ter 2

I ron Age R esearch i n Ma l i

2 7

C hap ter 3

J enne i n H is tory

4 1

S ECTION I :

THE 1 977 EXCAVAT IONS AT J ENNE-JENO

C hap ter 4

S i te Descr ip t ion a nd G eograph ic S e t t ing

6 3

C hap ter 5

R esearch Des ign a nd Excava t ions Me thods

7 1

C hap ter 6

I n troduc t ion t o R esearch R esu l ts

7 4

C hapter 7

S tra t igraphy a nd C hrono logy

7 7

C hap ter 8

F ea tures , H ouses a nd Funerary U rns

9 7

C hap ter 9

C u l tura l Ma ter ia ls

1 12

C hap ter 1 0

O rgan ic R e ma ins

1 71

C hap ter 1 1

S um mary o f t he O ccupa t ion P hases Def ined a t

APPEND IX I APPENDIX I

J ennejeno

1 88

RAD IOCARBON DATES FRO M J ENNE-JENO

1 94

POTTERY I LLUSTRATIONS AND TABLE TO ACCO MPANY CHAPTER 9

1 99

APPENDIX I I

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES I N MAL I

2 64

APPEND IX I V

SPECIAL IST REPORTS ON FAUNAL RE MA INS

PLATES

An i ma l b one - R . G . K le in

2 72

F ish b one - G . H owes

2 79 2 81

L IST OF MAPS Page 1 .1

S i tes men t ioned i n C hap ter 1

2 .1

D is tr ibu t ion o f t umu l i i n Ma l i

3 .1

S i tes men t ioned i n The C hrono log y o f Wr i t ten D ocumen ta t ion

4 2

3 .2

J enne a nd t he Emp ires o f G hana a nd Ma l i

5 4

3 .3

T he J enne r eg ion

5 6

4 .1

T he I n land N iger De l ta o f Wes t A fr ica

6 4

4 .2

F ea tures i n t he V ic in i ty o f J ennejeno

6 5

4 .3

J ennejeno :

6 8

t opography a nd s ur face f ea tures

4 3 2

L IST OF F IGURES F igure 1.1

Page P ercen tages o f i den ti f ied g ra in i mpress ions p er p hase a t T ich i t t

1 .2

8

Radiocarbon c hronology f or t he p reh is tory o f t he Lake C had a rea o f N iger ia

2 .1

2 3

S tructura l c o mpar ison o f a n e ar then t u mu lus a nd a h ypogeu m

3 6

C l i ma t ic a nd h ydro log ica l c yc les o f J enne

7 0

7 .1

S ect ions :

7 8

7 .2

Excava ted l eve ls :

7 .3

S ect ions :

7 .4

Excava ted l evels :

7 .5

S ections :

7 .6

Excava ted l eve ls :

7 .7

C hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip o f e xcava t ion u n i ts M1 a nd M2

7 .8

S u m mary o f r ela t ive c hanges i n r ela t ive f requency o f s ix

4 .1

M1 M1

7 9

M2

8 4 M2

8 5

J F1

9 0

J F1

8 9 9 3

a t tr ibu tes o f J ennejeno p ot tery

9 4

8 .1

S urface f ea tures i n t he a rea o f J F1

9 8

8 .2

J F1 e xcava ted t hrough

8 .3

F unerary J ar 6

8 .4

J F1 e xcava ted t hrough L eve l 4

1 03

8 .5

H ouse 2 wa ll a nd wa l l c ol lapse i n M1

1 05

8 .6

M2 S ur face f ea tures

1 07

L eve l 3

1 00 1 02

8 .7

P lan o f M2 a f ter c o mp lete e xposure o f H ouses 3 a nd 4

1 09

8 .8

P lan o f H ouse 7 i n M2

11

9 .1

S u m mary o f t he ma jor c lasses o f r im p rof i les i den t i f ied f or J ennejeno p ot tery

1 19

9 .2

P ieces o f s lag p er l eve l

1 66

1 0.1

N on-human b one :

1 0.2

I den t if iable b one :

weigh t o f i den t if iable a nd u n iden t if iable

c o mponen ts

1 74 weigh t o f ma m ma l a nd f i sh c o mponen ts

1 75

L IST OF TABLES TABLE

P age

1 .1

D irec t e v idence f or p lan t c u l t igens i n Wes t A fr ica

1 .2

C u l t igens o r ig ina t ing i n Wes t A fr ica a ccording t o v ar ious

1.3

R ad iocarbon d a tes a ssocia ted w i th e ar ly i ron u se a nd

a u thors

6 7

manufacture i n Wes t A fr ica

1 1

2 .1

Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m I ron Age s i tes i n Ma l i

2 8

2.2

Tu mu lus b ur ia ls e xcava ted i n s ub-Saharan Ma l i

3 3

2 .3

Funerary u rns e xcava ted i n t he I n land N iger De l ta

3 8

7 .1

D escr ip t ion o f e xcava ted l eve ls i n Mound 1

8 0

7.2

T en ta t ive r econs truct ion o f Mound 1 d epos i t ion s equence

8 2 8 6

7 .3

D escr ip t ion o f e xcava ted l eve ls i n Mound 2

7 .4

T en ta t ive r econs truct ion o f Mound 2 d epos i t ion s equence

8 8

7.5

D escr ip t ion o f e xcava ted l eve ls i n J ar F ie ld 1

9 1

7 .6

S u m mary o f c hrono log ica l r ela t ionsh ips o f ma jor d epos it i ona l e ven ts i n Mound 1 a nd Mound 2

7.7

o ccupa t ion p hases o f J ennejeno 8 .1

9 5

S u m mary o f e xcava ted l eve ls a ss igned t o e ach o f f our

R econs tructed s equence o f b ur ia ls i n J ar F ie ld 1

9 6 1 04

9 .1

U nrestr icted s i mp le r i ms

1 30

9 .2

U nres tr icted s i mp le r i ms —pot l ids

1 31

9 .3 9 .4

U nres tr icted e ver ted r i ms U nres tr icted t h ickened r i ms

1 32 1 33

9 .5

R estr ic ted s i mp le r i ms

1 34

9 .6

R es tr icted c ar ina ted r i ms

1 35

9 .7

R estr icted l ong-necked r i ms —bo t t les

1 36

9 .8

R es tr icted T-r ims

1 37

9 .9

R es tr icted s l igh t ly e ver ted r i ms

1 38

9 .10

R es tr ic ted e ver ted r i ms

1 39

9 .11

R es tr ic ted t h ickened r i ms

1 40

9 .12-26 T ables i l lus tra t ing c on t ingency t able a na lys is o f a ssocia t ion 9 .27 R esu l ts o f l og l inear a na lysis o f t he p o t tery f ro m ma jor o ccupa t ion p hases i n Mound 1 9 .28

1 51 1 53

R esu l ts o f l og l inear a na lys is o f t he p o t tery f ro m ma jor o ccupa t ion p hases i n Mound 2

1 54

9 .29

I n terpre ta t ion o f t he l og l inear a na lys is

1 55

9 .30

P o t tery o b jec ts a ssocia ted w i th t erraco t ta s ta tue t te i n Mound 2

1 58

9 .31

Z oo morph ic a nd a n thropo morph ic c lay f igur ines

1 59

9 .32

S p ind le whor ls

1 59

9 .33

C lay b eads

1 60

TABLE

Page

9 .34

M iscel laneous c lay o b jects

1 60

9 .35

S tone B eads

1 63

9 .36

G lass b eads

1 64

9 .37

C opper o b jec ts

1 65

9 .38

I den t i f iable i ron o b jec ts

1 67

9 .39

U n iden t if iable i ron o b jec ts

1 68

1 0 .1

B o tan ica l r e ma ins f ro m J ennejeno

1 72

1 0 .2

F auna l r e ma ins f ro m J ennejeno

1 76

1 0 .3

F ish r e ma ins f ro m J ennejeno

1 78

1 0.4

B ur ia l c on tex ts a nd c ond i t ion o f h u man r e ma ins f ro m J ennejeno

1 79

1 0 .5

Ag ing c r i ter ia a nd r esu l ts o f a na lys is

1 81

1 0.6

S ex ing c r i ter ia a nd r esu l ts o f a na lys is

1 82

1 0 .7

C orre la t ion o f b ur ia l t ype w i th a ge a nd s ex

1 83

1 0 .8

A t tr i t ion o n mo lar s er ies

1 84

1 0 .9

P a tholog ica l

1 86

1 1.1

O ccurrence o f ma jor c lasses o f a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins a t J ennejeno

c ond i t ions a nd a no ma l ies

1 93

S ECTION I

THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND H ISTOR ICAL BACKGROUND

I

CHAPTER 1 PROLEGO MENA ;

THE S TATE OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RESEARCH

I N WEST AFR ICA , WITH EMPHAS IS ON THE S AVANNA AND S AHEL REG IONS I N THE PER IOD C . 1 000 B . C. TO A .D. 1 500

Th is c hap ter o u t l ines s o me o f t he i ssues wh ich d om ina te a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n Wes t A fr ica t oday , a nd i den t i f ies s evera l o f t he c a tegor ies o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich h ave b een mos t f requen t ly r ecovered a nd s tud ied . T he c hrono log ica l s cope o f t h is a nd s ubsequen t c hap ters i s g enera l ly c on f ined t o t he p er iod o f i ron-us ing c u l tures , b o th p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic , b u t s ince many I ron A ge d eve lop men ts f ind t he ir r oo ts i n t he L a te S tone Age , ac a teg or ica l b oundary b e tween t he t wo i s d i f f icu l t t o ma in ta in . Th is c hap ter 's g eograph ica l s cope i s l im ited t o t he c onven t iona l b oundar ies o f Wes t A fr ica—i .e ., t ha t p ar t o f t he A fr ican c on t inen t wh ich i s b ounded o n t he s ou th a nd wes t b y t he A t lan t ic O cean , o n t he n or th b y t he S ahara , a nd o n t he e as t b y t he e as tern f ron t ier o f N iger ia .

Un for tuna te ly , i ft he l ack o f c lear-

c u t g eograph ica l b arr iers o r e thn ic b oundar ies t o t he n or th a nd e as t makes t h is d iv is ion s ee m a rbi trary a nd a r t i f ic ia l t oday, i ti s e ven l ess u se fu l f or t he s tudy o f t he p as t , where a rchaeo log ica l a nd h is tor ica l e v idence may b e f ound l ink ing d eser t a nd s avanna a s we l l a s t he N iger a nd t he N i le .

A l though

mos t o f t he e v idence c ons idered i n t h is monograph w i l l b e d rawn f ro m w i th in t he c onven t iona l a rea o f Wes t A fr ica , r e ference w i l l b e made t o r esearch f ro m t he S ahara , o r C had a nd C ameroon when n ecessary. To a l arge e x ten t , t he p oss ibi l i ty o f l ong d is tance move men t u nh indered b y g eograph ica l b arr iers p rov ides t he r a t iona le f or t he d iscuss ion wh ich f o l lows .

I n t he a bsence o f s u f f ic ien t d a ta f or a n o u t l ine o f c u l tura l d eve lop-

men t i n Wes t A fr ica d e l inea t ing r eg iona l s pheres o f c u l tura l i n f luence , a l l p o in ts a re p o ten t ia l ly i n terre la ted i n s pace .

F or t h is r eason , d a ta r ecovered

f ro m e xcava t ions i n mos t p ar ts o f Wes t A fr ica h as b een i n terpre ted w i th r e ference t o r esu l ts f ro m o ther e xcava t ions many h undreds , i fn o t t housands , o f mi les r e moved . t rends ;

T he emphas is h ere i s o n g enera l i ssues a nd g enera l

ad e ta i led t rea t men t o f p r ior r esearch i n Ma l i , f ocus ing s peci f ica l ly

o n t he I n land N iger D e l ta r eg ion , i s t he s ub jec t o f C hap ter 2 . F ood P roduc t ion I ti s o ne measure o f t he p auc i ty o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i n Wes t A fr ica t ha t ad iscuss ion o f t he b eg inn ings o f f ood p roduc t ion i s h igh ly r e levan t t o a monograph o n I ron Age a rchaeo log y. S o l i t t le d irect a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or d o mes t ica ted c rops h as c o me t o l igh t i n Wes t A fr ica , d esp i te t wo d ecades o f s us ta ined i n teres t i n t he p roble m , t ha t t he c hrono logy o f f ood p roduct ion i n t he s ub-con t inen t r e ma ins a l mos t e n t ire ly s pecu la t ive .

3

d z , 2 5

0

3 0

T ASS IL i 0

N 'A J AR

2

F EZZAN

- 5 00

1° H OGGAR • 2 3

• 3 4

9

.

A DRAR. • ••• D ES : A IR IF ORAS •

•• •l t '' 3 5 2 7

•

••

1 5

3 e .

A

3 7

r 9

: 1 . 4 • 21 • •

2 8

•

•' 3. 8 *

A

.

L AKE

1 8 . 1 7 ; 6°

K P , . •

2 6

I NM 3 1

• 20

B ORNU° 7

"

- 1 000

• 2 2 L AKE C HAD

•

• • •?1

b unt ie

3 : 9 '

" ) •( v , 6

5

e ,

•

- 1 500 K M .

3

M AP 1 .1

S ites m entioned i n C hapter 1

K EY O • A

S ites m entioned i n F ood P roduction s ection S ites m entioned i n U se a nd O r igins o f I ron s ection S ites m entioned i n H istorical a nd S urvey S ections

1 . M eniet 2 . A mekni 3 . A drar B ous 4 . T ichitt 5 . K intampo-K6 6 . N iani 7 . D aima 8 . T aru9a I 9 . Smu t ' ) D ukiya 1 0.Koumb i S aleh 1.Wassu 1 2.Kamabai 1 3.Yagala

1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9, 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

K epeb li T ieba la R im B egho A muow i D o-D immi N ok D ou loum i K oro T oro A kjoujt;chariot L ixus a rt M ogador Y e lwa

4

2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4, 3 5. 3 6. 3 7. 3 8. 3 9.

S inthiou B ara K odiam C arthage L eptis M agna I fe B enin I gbo U kwu T egdaoust S enegamb ian mialiths A ze lick M arandet N ew B uipe B e

I t was i n 1 959 t ha t Murdock s owed t he s eeds o f c on troversy b y a rgu ing t ha t t he d o mes t ica t ion o f s o me t wen ty-f ive f ood a nd f i ber p lan ts , i nclud ing b u lrush mi l le t ( Penn ise tum t ypho ideum ) , s orghu m ( Sorghu m v u lgare ) , f on io ( D ig i tar ia e x i l is ) , a nd A fr ican r ice ( Oryza g laberr i ma ) , h ad b een i n i t ia ted i ndependen t o f e x terna l i n f luences i n t he u pper N iger a rea a bou t 5 000 B .C. ( Murdock 1 959 ).

T h is was n o t an ew h ypo thes is :

C heva l ier h ad t wo d eacdes

e ar l ier p resen ted a s im i lar t heory , a rgu ing t ha t , d ur ing a we t ter p er iod s o me t i me i n t he p as t , s orghum , A fr ican r ice , b u lrush mi l le t , E leus ine , E ch inocloa , Pan icu m , c o t ton , a nd j u jube were a l l o r ig ina l ly d o mes t ica ted a t t he e dge o f t he S ahara ( Cheva l ier 1 938 ).

I n t he 1 950s , P or tbres a rgued s trong ly

f or t he d o mes t ica t ion o f A fr ican r ice i n t he I n land N iger D e l ta p r ior t o 1 500 B .C. ( Por t res 1 950 , 1 970 ).

A l l t hree a u thors t heor ized i n av acuu m , w i thou t

as hred o f r e levan t a rchaeo log ica l o r p a leobo tan ica l e v idence a va i lab le f ro m t he d es igna ted " nuclear" a reas .

An u mber o f s er ious o b ject ions , p ar t icu lar ly

i n r esponse t o Murdock 's h ypo thes is , were r a ised b y b o tan is ts a nd a rchaeo log is ts ( Wr ig ley 1 960 ;

Baker 1 962 ;

C lark 1 962 ) .

Munson ( 1976:188 ) h as

a ccura te ly p oin ted o u t t ha t t hese c oun ter-argu men ts a l l s hared o ne b as ic w eakness w i th Murdock 's p os i t ion :

t hey were a l l b ased p r i mar i ly o n modern

b o tan ica l d is tr ibu t ions a nd t o al esser e x ten t o n e thnograph ic ma ter ia l r a ther t han o n d irect a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , wh ich r e ma ined v ir tua l ly n on-ex is ten t u n t i l r ecen t y ears . D esp i te a n i ncreasing a wareness o f t he i mpor tance o f f l o ta t ion a nd s creen ing t echn iques f or t he r ecovery o f e cono m ic i n forma t ion f ro m Wes t A fr ican s i tes , d irec t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or f ood p roduct ion r e ma ins d is tress ing ly s carce . B y d irect a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i s mean t " the r ecovery f ro m d a table a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts o f t he a ctua l r e ma ins o f s eed , f ru i t , r oo t , o r t ree c rpps , t he ir p o l len , o r i mpress ions o f t he m i n s uch ma ter ia l a s p o t tery" ( Shaw 1 976: 12 ) . 1 The t o ta l amoun t o f d irec t e v idence f ro m Wes t A fr ica a nd t he Wes tern S ahara p r ior t o t he s econd mi l lenn ium A .D. i s p resen ted i n T ab le 1 .1 The s i ze o f t he g ap b e tween b o tan ica l t heory a nd a rchaeo log ica l r ea l i ty may b e s een b y c o mpar ing T able 1 .1 w i th T able 1 .2 , wh ich o u t l ines t he c rops b e l ieved b y v ar ious a u thors t o h ave b een i ndependen t ly d o mes t ica ted i n Wes t A fr ica . T h is c o mpar ison r evea ls t ha t d irec t e v idence f or c u l t igens o f p u ta t ive Wes t A fr ican o r ig in i s l im i ted t o t hree s pec ies ( Penn ise tum s p ., E lae is g u ineens is , a nd V igna u ngu icu la ta ) o u t o f ap oss ible 2 0 o r more.

I n c ase o f E lae is

g u ineens is a nd V igna u ngu icu la ta a t K in tampo , c u l t iva t ion was a ssumed a nd c ou ld n ot b e d e mons tra ted b y morpho log ica l d i f ferences ( Fl igh t 1 976). S orghu m b ico lor ( r ecovered f ro m Da i ma a nd N ian i ) was p robably a n i n troduc t ion f ro m Eas t A fr ica , where i ta ppears t o h ave b een d o mes t ica ted o r ig ina l ly ( de We t a nd H ar lan 3 971;

H ar lan a nd S te m ler 1 976) .

T he T ich i t t s equence a lone i n Wes t A fr ica a l lows a r easonable a nd we l ld ocumen ted r econs truc t ion o f t he p rocess c u lmina t ing i n t he d o mes t ica t ion o f as tap le c erea l c rop. F igure 1 .1 i l lus tra tes h ow t he u se o f s evera l w i ld g rasses a t T iche t t g radua l ly g ave way t o i ncreas ing r el iance o n Pe nn ise tum , wh ich i n t he f ina l p hases o f t he t housand-year s equence c ons t i tu ted o ver 8 0% o f t he e v idence r ecovered .

5

Tab le 1 .1

D irect e v idence f or p lan t c u l t igens i n Wes t A fr ica p r ior t o t he s econd mi l lenn ium A .D.

S i te Amekn i

Da te

G enus , S pec ies

6 100-4850 B . C.

P enn isetu m s p . ( 2 p ol len g ra ins )2

Men iet

Adrar B ous

mid-4th mi l lenn iu m

c u lt iva ted g rass

B .C.

( po l len )3

4 000 B . C.

Brach iar ia ( s ing le p ot tery impression )4

Adrar B ous

2 000 B .C.

S orghu m ( s ing le p ot tery impression )5

* T ich i t t

1 000-900 B .C.

Penn isetum s p.

K in ta mpo ( K6)

1 400-1250 B .C.

E lae is g u inens is 7

K in ta mpo ( K6)

1 400-1250 B . C.

V igna u ngu icu la ta

*N ian i

A . D. 7 00-900

S orghu m b ico lor

* D ia ma

A .D. 8 00-900

S orghu m b ico lor

6

* i ndica tes t ha t p lan t r e ma ins were d ef in i tely i den ti f ied a s c u l t igens

6

C O Co CL . -/5 UD 0 0 -1- t .0 5 01 Ö • • -k r i o 7 V " C : 7 1 NJ

D 0

= S 2 )

" 1 : 2

A mm n d

. 0 C D I CZ C D

'Ma i • ,= 3 I -1

( -0CD 40 C Y 1 -1 C D

4 0

0

•

• •

•

•

• •

•

•

e

•

•

l b

•

O RYZA G LABERRIMA ( African r ice)

•

•

•

P ENNISETUM A MERICANUM ( bulrush m illet)

•

•

•

D IGITARIA E XILIS ( fonio)

•

•

•

B RACHIARIA D EFLEXA ( Guinea m illet)

•

•

V OANDZEIA S UBTERRANEA ( Bambara n ut)

•

•

K ERSTINGIELLA G EOCARPA ( Groundnut)

•

P OLYGALA B UTYRACEA ( B lack b eniseed)

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

E LAEIS G UINEENSIS ( O il

•

•

e

•

•

•

B UTYROSPERMUM P ARADOXUM ( Shea b utter t ree)

•

•

•

•

•

•

D IOSCOREA C AYENENSIS ( Ye llow y am)

•

•

I

•

0

e

D IOSCOREA R OTUNDATA ( White y am)

•

•

s everal

•

•

C OLA S PP.

•

C EIBA P ENTANDRA ( Kapok)

•

P ARKIA F ILICOIDEA ( Locust b ean)

•

B LIGHEA S APIDA ( Akee)

•

A FROMOMUM M ALIGUETA ( Grains o f p aradise)

•

R APHEA S PP .

e •

•

•

• •

p alm )

C OFFEE S PP. ( Kola)

( Raff ia)

V IGNA U NGUICULATA ( Cowpea) •

•

•

S PHENOSTYLIS S TENOCARPA ( Yampea) D IGITARIA I BURUA ( B lack f onio)

0

•

•

•

•

C OLEUS D AZO ( Hausa p otato)

•

A BELMOSCHUS E SCULENTIS ( Okra)

•

T ELFAIRIA O CCIDENTALIS ( a g ourd)

5 00 -

P enn ise tum s p .

P an icum t u rg idum

( 9 5 )

P an i cum f a e tum

A k j in je ir

B ra ch ia r ia d e f lexa

( N )

C en ch ru s b i f lo ru s

P HASE

( 1 36 )

1 000 -

A r r iane

( 1 9 1 )

C hebka

( 1 2 1 )

N aghez

( 3 2 )

Nkha l

Goungou

-

-

( 68 )

5 0%

J

K h im iya 1 500 —

F IGURE 1 .1 P ercentages o f i dentified g rain i mpressions p er p hase a t T ichitt. ( P. M unson, ' Archaeo logical d ata o n t he o rigins o f c ultivation i n t he s outhweste rn S ahara a nd t heir i mp lications f or W est A frica', i n T he O rigins o f A frican P lant D omestication, e dit ed b y J .R.Har lan, J .M.J.de W et, a nd A .Stem ler, 1 976:193)

8

In addition to providing valuable information on the chronology of plant domestication in the southern Sahara, data from the Tichitt excavations have also suggested that the mechanism triggering the domestication process was climatic change, resulting in population pressure. Munson interprets the data as follows: ...in the Tichitt area, there were two well-documented episodes of environmental, deterioration. Prior to the first of these, ..• the peoples of the Akreijit phase had apparently established an equilibrium at a hunting-fishing-limited collecting level of subsistence. It was only during the period following, beginning around (?) 2000 B.C. with a reduction in rainfall and the resultant near-disappearance of the Tichitt lakes, that a new element of subsistence was added: the people adopted herding of cattle and goats, With a return to moister conditions around 1500 B.C., a new ·quilibrium was estab­ lished, ...and the population stabilised at a higher density. By about 1100 B. C., however, the lakes began drying up once again, thus reducing (and eventually eliminating) the fish potential. Hence a new dis-equilibrium resulted, and if the people were to maintain themselves, a new food source had to be substituted for the fish. The solution was the adoption of cultivation of seed plants. (Munson 1976: 199) In the absence of documented archaeological sequences from other regions, it is difficult to assess the applicability of the Tichitt model to the rest of West Africa. There is, however, a general agreement among many authors at present that the increasing desiccation of the Sahara which commenced£· 4000 B.P . had a dramatic influence on available resources in the Sahe 1, where competition for fishing and grazing rights along perennial rivers and shrinking lakes must have increased. Also affected was the savanna, which sustained an influx of pastoral refugees from the north (Clark 1976: 96-7; David 1976: 258; Shaw 1977: 114). This increased competition for increasingly limited resources (because the forest to the south was not receding as quickly as the desert was expanding) led to intense exploitation and, ultimately, deliberate conservation of favoured food plants.8 P otentially, this process of domesti­ cation could have been carried out at different intensitites, depending on local perception of resource limitations. Future research may reveal areas of West Africa where plant cultivation substantially preceded 1500 B.C., but based on present knowledge and the persuasive evidence available for the critical role of climatic change in the economy of prehistoric West Africa, we are content to echo Munson in stating that: "I do not now find it at all sur­ prising that cultivation proper does not seem to have begun much earlier than 1000 B.C." (Munson 1976: 198). As we shall see in the next section, that places the development of food production very close in time to the beginnings of iron use in parts of West Africa, and we may therefore expect that a great deal of data relevant to the question of plant domestication will be forthcoming from early Iron Age contexts. The Use of Iron in West Africa The radiocarbon chronology for early iron use in West Africa is extremely incomplete, as a glance at Table 1. 3 will show. For a number of years, the 9

earliest reliable dates for the use and working of iron have continued to come from the area of the 'Nok culture' in central Nigeria. After some initial confusion over very early dates for iron objecta recovered from alluvial deposits at the type site (Shaw 1969: 226), the iron-smelting site of Taruga and the occupation site of Samun Dukiya have. produced a convincing series of dates clustering between the fifth and third centuries b.c. (lower case letters are used to indicate uncalibrated C14 dates): The lack of early dates from other regions of WesJ, Africa in many cases reflects a pauc�ty of research rather than a late acceptance of iron. In a few areas, however, the excavation and subsequent radio carbon dating of stratified sites h·ave revealed sequences which indicate a .genuinely late introduction of iron. In Bornu (Northeastern Nigeria, North Cameroon and the Chari Basin of chad, for example, several sites have been excavated which contained material clearly spanning the transition from Late Stone Age to Iron Age (Wulsin 19 32; Cannan 19 76; David 19 76). The dates from Daima (I-29 43, I-2371, I-2370) and Douloumi P.1964) comb_i ne to indicate that iron 1 was not in use in these areas until the fifth or sixth century A.D. (Posnansky and McIntosh 1976: 164). Although a number of earlier dates are available for 'Sao' sites in the Chari-Logone B_asin, we will not consider them here, since in no case have the stratigraphic or archaeological contexts from which the samples were recovered been satisfactorily represented. Excavators in Sierra Leone and Liberia have similarly concluded, on the basis of excavations at several stratified rock shelter sites, that the use of iron was not accepted in those areas before the mid-first millennium A .D. (Atherton 197 2; Gabel 19 76). Although further work is required to test the reliability of these results, it nevertheless does not seem too early to con­ clude that iron was accepted into use with varying degrees of alacrity in dif­ ferent parts of West Africa. In the ca,se of Daima, for example, it is difficult to believe that the lateness of iron use was merely due to i gnorance of the metal's existence, .since Taruga, a major iron smelting site, is located less than five hundred miles away. In view of this type of evidence, it should be clear that the diffusion of iron use in W@st Afriqa will not be satisfactorily explained by the use of an 'advancing front' model, although this model is employed on an implicit basis in much of the literature (e.g. Willett 1971: 356). Trigger urges: We must reject the simplisti� assumption that a study of diffusion merely involves tracin� the geographical spread of traits through time. Traits do not exist independently of one another, but are parts of cultural systems. lo understand why a trait d�fuses, it is nec­ essary to analyse the recipient culture 'and determrne the factors that have led to the trait being accepted (Trigger 196 9: 27). It is probable, in our opinion, that future research will reveal two pat­ terns for the accep tance of iron in West Africa: 1. There will be areas, such as that or the 'Nok culture', where early evidence for iron is associated with industrial activity (furnaces, slag, etc.). For these sites, two major prerequisites for the early production of iron would rlogically be access to a source of high quality ore, lO and the presence of cra{t specialization, possibly already manifested in a caste system. 2. At other • sites, the earliest iron 10

Table 1 .3 :

Rad iocarbon d a tes a ssocia ted w i th e ar l ies t i ron u se a nd manuf acture i n West A fr ica

S ITE ( l is ted b y c oun try)

DATE

LAB n o.

SOURCE; CO M MENT

Mauretan ia K ou mbi S a leh

S a-77

a .d .1 210± 1 20

Fagan 1 965

Dak-156

a .d .

9 69+114

Ca lvocoress i a nd

Dak-157

a .d .

8 28+125

David 1 979

G if-1292

a .d .

7 50±100

Wi l let t 1 971

K 1-293

a .d .

8 60+

Wi l lett 1 971

Kod ia m

Dak-41

a .d .

5 94+126

Dak-54

a .d .

7 38+125

S in t io B ara

Dak-155

a .d.

5 87 ±120

D iop 1 977

Dak-192

a .d .1050 + 120

D iop 1 977

Nda lane

Dak-107

a .d .

G u inea N ian i

6 5

S enega l

7 93+199

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

G a mbia Wassu

Dak-2

a .d .

7 50+110

Mauny 1 967b

1 -3846

a .d .

3 40+100

Wi l le tt 1 971, Neol i thic

1 -3558

a .d.

6 90± 9 5

Wi l le t t 1 971, i ron

1 -3845

a .d.

7 60 ± 9 5

Wi l let t 1 971, i ron

1 -3404

a .d .1070+100

S ierra L eone Ka maba i

Yaga la

Wi l let t 1 971 , i ron f irst o ccurs a bove t h is l eve l

L iber ia K epebl i

G x-3308

a .d.1085+155

G x-2957

a .d.

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

9 90+200

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Ma l i T ieba la

G i f-383

a .d .

5 10±120

Fagan 1 968

G i f-384

a .d .

5 50±120

Fagan 1 968

N -1260

a .d .

4 40+220

Posnansky a nd

U pper Vo l ta R im I I

McIn tosh 1 976 G hana * Han i-Begho

N -2140

a .d.

1 80+

7 5

N -1801

a .d . 4 40± 7 0

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Amouwi

Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

1

S ITE ( l is ted b y c oun try )

LAB n o.

*A ba m

B ln-1730

DATE a .d .

3 20+

SOURCE, CO M MENT C a lvocoress i a nd

3 0

Dav id 1 979 N iger * Do-D i m mi

Dak-148

a .d .

2 03 ±100

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Dak-147

9 74±120b.c.

9

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Dak-145

6 78+120b.c .

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

I n Ta laylen

G i f-4170

2 60+

9 0b.c.

C a lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979

G i f-4171

6 0+

9 0b.c .

G i f-4172

1 40+

9 0b.c.

C a lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979

T egue f n 'Agar

C a lvocoress i a nd David 1 979

N iger ia Y elwa

* Taruga

N -361

a .d .

1 00+115

S haw 1 969

N-362

a .d .

4 60+115

S haw 1 969

N -364

a .d .

2 00 ±110

S haw 1 969

N-363

a .d .

7 00 ±105

S haw 1 969

1 -2960

4 40±140b.c.

S haw 1 969

1 -3400

3 00 + 100b.c.

Wi l lett 1 971

1 -1459

2 80 ±120b.c.

S haw 1 969

B M-532

9 2 + 126 b .c.

Ca lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979

BM-533

3 19 ± 1 16 b .c .

Ca lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979

BM-534

1 71 + 116 b .c.

Ca lvocoress i a nd

BM-938

5 91 + 7 4b .c.

BM-940

5 38± 8 4b .c .

BM-941

5 91 + 104 b .c.

Ca lvocoress i a nd

BM-942

3 41 ± 133b. c .

Dav id 1 979 Ca lvocoressi a nd

Dav id 1 979 C a lvocoressi a nd Dav id 1 979 Ca lvocoressi a nd Dav id 1 979

Dav id 1 979 S a mun Duk iya

1 -4913

2 10± 9 5b .c .

Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

N ok

Y-474

a .d .

2 00 ± 5 0

S haw 1 969: t erm inus

Da i ma

1 -2943

a .d .

6 30±190

S haw 1 969

1 -2371

a .d .

4 50+670

1 -2370

a .d . 4 80+ 2 "

S haw 1 969

1 -2369

a .d .

9 80+

9 0

S haw 1 969

1 -2368

. a .d .

8 10+

9 0

S haw 1 969

a n te q ue m f or i ron

1 2

S haw 1 969

S ITE ( l is ted b y c oun try)

LAB n o.

DATE

SOURCE , CO M MENT

C a meroon Dou lou m i Tsanaga I

P 1764

a .d .

5 38± 5 0

F ligh t 1 973

P 1763

a .d .

8 76 + 4 7

F ligh t 1 973

G i f-2232

a .d .

2 30+

9 0

Ca lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979 , s tone workshop w i th i ron p resen t , n o o ther d eta i ls p rov ided

Chad * Kora T oro

Hv-4694

a .d .

3 80+

5 0

Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Hv-3804

1 0+

6 0b.c.

Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

Hv-2751

a .d. 4 40± 7 5

Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976

* i ndica tes d a tes a ssocia ted w i th e v idence f or i ron work ing ; d a tes a re a ssocia ted w i th i ron a r t ifac ts o n ly

1 3

o therwise ,

a r t i facts a re f ound i n c on tex ts l ack ing a ny i nd ica t ion o f l oca l i ron p roduct ion . I n t h is c ase , a va i labi l i ty o f a t trac t ive t rade i t e ms wh ich might b e e xchanged f or f in ished i ron o b jects , a s we l l a s t he d egree t o wh ich i ron i s p erce ived t o b e d es irable , may b e f actors r e levan t t o i ron 's a ccep tance . Or ig ins o f I ron i n Wes t A fr ica T he o r ig ins o f i ron-work ing a nd u se i n Wes t A fr ica h ave b een t he s ub ject o f c on t inuous s pecu la t ion f or n ear ly t wo d ecades . Three ma jor h ypo theses h ave b een s e t f or th : N or th A fr ica ;

i ndependen t i nven t ion i n Wes t A fr ica ;

s pread f ro m Meroe ( Sudan ) .

t heory a re C . A . a nd L . M. D iop .

s pread f rom

T he c h ief a dvoca tes o f t he f irs t

Based o n t he v ery e ar ly d a tes o f t he t h ird

a nd s econd mi l lenn ia B .C . wh ich h ad b een o bta ined f or i ron a t t he s i te o f N ok , b o th p os tu la te t ha t i ron-work ing o r ig ina ted i n Wes t A fr ica c . 2 500 B .C . a nd t hence s pread t o Egyp t , s ou thwes t A s ia a nd E urope ( L. M. D iop 1 968 ; C . A . D iop 1 976) .

Mos t o ther a u thor i t ies a gree t ha t p roble ms o f s econdary

d epos i t ion i n t he c ourse o f a l luv ia t ion a ccoun t f or t he e x tre me ly e ar ly d a tes o t N ok , wh ich were a l l o bta ined o n n on-cu l tura l ma ter ia ls .

I ti s g enera l ly

a ccep ted t ha t o n ly o ne d a te f ro m N ok h as a ny r e levance t o t he c u l tura l ma ter ia l i n t he a l luv ia l g rave ls ;

t ha t d a te ( a .d . 2 00 + 5 0 ) was o b ta ined o n wood f ro m

c lays wh ich o ver l ie t he y ounges t a l luv ia l d epos i t , t hereby p rov id ing a t er m inus a n te Q ue rn f or t he c u l tura l ma ter ia l b e low ( Shaw 1 969 :226 , S haw 1 978 :78 ) . One o f t he ma jor o bs tac les t o at heory o f i ndependen t d iscovery o f i ron i n Wes t A fr ica h as b een t he a pparen t l ack o f a ny me ta l lurg ica l t rad i t ion p rec ed ing t he u se o f i ron i n t he s ub-con t inen t .

I n t he t wo r eg ions o f t he w or ld

where i ron was u nques t ionably d iscovered i ndependen t ly —sou thwes t A s ia a nd C h ina—the u se o f i ron was s ubsequen t t o 2 000+ y ears o f c opper a nd b ronze p roduc t ion .

The r ecen t d iscovery o f c opper mines a nd c opper a nd b ronze

* ar t i fac ts a t Ak jou jt i n wes t Maur i tan ia , f ir m ly d a ted t o t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies b .c . ( La mber t 1 971 ) , h as c aused a t l eas t o ne a u thor t o r econs ider t he c ase f or a u toch thonous i nven t ion ( Dav ies 1 966:471).

More r ecen t ly ,

c opper sme l t ing f urnaces n ear A ze l ik , N iger h ave a lso b een d a ted t o t h is s a me t ime p er iod ( Ca lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979:9-10 ). T o u s , h owever , a bso lu te ly n o c ase c an b e made f or t he d iscovery o f i ron-work ing a s ac onsequence o f c opper sme l t ing a t Ak jou jt o r A ze l ik . The p roduct ion o f workable i ron f ro m o re i s f ar more c o mp lex t han o b ta in ing au sab le sme l t o f c opper .

I ndeed , t he s lagg ing o f i ron o res t o r e move i m-

p ur i t ies a nd p roduce a f orgeab le b loo m wou ld h ave b een a ma jor o bs tacle t o me ta l lurg ica l ly u nsoph is t ica ted c opper workers ( s ee H odges 1 964 ; F orbes 1 950 ).11 The a ppearance o f t he a r ti facts f ro m A jkou jt s ugges ts a n e x tre mely p r im i t ive t echno logy b ased o n o ne-p iece mo ld ing a nd c o ld-ha m mer ing o f u na l loyed c opper .

Pr ior t o r ece iv ing r ad iocarbon d a tes f or t he Maure tan ian

s i tes , t hese c haracter is t ics l ed L a mber t t o i n fer l inks w i th t he e ar ly me ta lwork ing c u l tures o f s ou thern Europe ( La mber t 1 965b :436 ) . T he p r im i t ive c haracter is t ics o f t he i ndus try a t Ak jou jt , c o mbined w i th t he r ecovery o f wha t i s a l mos t c er ta in ly a Pun ic f i bu la o f b ronze ( cp . L amber t 1 971:p l . 5 (4 ) a nd C in tas 1 976:p l . 8 0( 10 ) ) a nd e arr ings o f u nques t ionab ly Pun ic s ty le 1 2 mak e i tr easonab le t o s uppose t ha t c opper me ta l lurgy was i n troduced i n to t he wes tern S ahara t hrough c on tac t w i th ( bu t n o t t he d irect t u te lage o f ) t he Car thag in ians .

E xcava t ions a t t he C ar thag in ian c en tres o f L ixus a nd 1 4

Mogador o n t he A t lan t ic c oas t o f Morocco h ave d e mons tra ted t ha t t he s i tes were e s tabl ished i n t he s even th o f s ix th c en tur ies B .C. ( Harden 1 962 ; Mosca t i 1 968 :123 ) . We may p resu me t ha t t he l oca t ion o f u rban c en tres i n t hese p laces i nd ica tes s o me k ind o f e xchange a ct iv i ty i n land .

The s i t ing o f n u merous r ock

a r t d ep ic t ions o f c har io ts i n t he wes tern S ahara h as s ugges ted t o s o me t he r ou te wh ich l inked t he c oas t t o t he i n ter ior ( Mauny 1 947). A l though t he wes t Maur i tan ian r ou te mus t b e c ons idered a p oss ib i l i ty f or t he i n troduct ion o f i ron a s we l l a s c opper , a no ther r ou te b y wh ich P h oen ician meta l lurg ica l k now ledge may h ave d i ffused s ou thwards i s o u t l ined b y t he d ist r ibu t ion o f c har io t e ngrav ings a nd p a in t ings i n t he c en tra l S ahara . The o ccurrence o f t h is r ock a r t i n t he F ezzan , Tass i l i n -A j jer , H oggar a nd Adrar d es I f oras h as b een w e l l s um mar ized b y Huard ( 1 966) a nd L aw ( 1 967 ). L i terary e v idence f ro m H erodotus a nd t he n or th-sou th d is tr ibu t ion o f t he c har io t a rt c o mbine t o s uppor t t he c onc lus ion t ha t i t was p oss ib le t o c ross t he S ahara w i th h orses i n t he f i f th c en tury B .C . a long t he r ou te o f t he r ock a r t .

Law ( 1967: 1 82 ) i ns is ts , h owever , t ha t t he r egu lar t rans-Saharan t ra f f ic

i n ferred b y s o me a u thors s ee ms i nad m issible .

I n v iew o f t he e ar ly c o lon i-

z a t ion o f t he Nor th A fr ican c oas t b y i ron-us ing P hoen ic ians ( Car thage was e s tabl ished i n t he l a te n in th c en tury B .C ., L ept is Magna i n t he s even th c en tury B .C .) , a nd t he ir p ropens i ty f or t rade , ar ou te o f i ron d i ffus ion f ro m N or th A fr ica v ia t he c en tra l S ahara i s r egarded a s h igh ly p robable b y an u mb er o f a u thors ( Mauny 1 952b , S haw 1 969 ; C a lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979 :10 ).

C onnah 1 969 ;

Wi l le t t 1 971;

I ndeed , t he a ccu mu la t ing e v idence p oin ts

q u i te c onv inc ing ly t o C ar thag in ian i nsp ira t ion f or a l l me ta l lurg ica l p ract ices i n Wes t A fr ica .

1 3

The Meroi t ic h ypo thes is , f i rs t p opu lar ized b y Arke l l ( 1955 ) i n A H is tory o f t he S udan t o 1 821, s aw a n e n t ire c o mp lex o f g enera l t ra i ts , i nclud ing d iv ine k ingsh ip , b r ick a rch i tec ture , a nd i ron work ing , d i f fus ing wes t a cross t he s ubS aharan s avanna a f ter t he f a l l o f Meroe .

S h inn ie ( 1967:14 ) a rgued a ga ins t

a ny d irect ' c iv i l is ing ' i n f luence f ro m Meroe , b u t f e l t t ha t " the i dea o f Meroe a s as ource o f t he k nowledge o f i ron smel t ing h as much t o c o m mend i t " . T he p resence o f l arge s lag h eaps a t Meroe , t he r esu l t o f i ron-s me l t ing o n a n i ndus tr ia l s ca le , h as p ersuaded o ther a u thors t ha t k now ledge o f i ron me ta l lurgy mus t h ave s pread wes t f ro m t ha t s ource ( Dav ies 1 967; H uard 1 966) .

1 4

Mauny 1 967b , ;

D esp i te T r igger 's ( 1969 ) e legan t a rgu men t t ha t t he a rchaeo lo-

g ica l e v idence d oes n ot p oin t t o t he e s tabl ish men t o f a Mero i t ic i ndus try b efore t he f our th c en tury B .C., t hereby p os t-da t ing i ron-s me l t ing a t Taruga , t he Meroi t ic h ypo thes is p ers is ted .

T yleco te 's ( 1975 ) r ecen t work o n t he t ech-

n o log ica l a spec ts o f t he sme l t ing f urnaces a t Taruga a nd Meroe f ur ther c o mp ro m ises t h is t heory , h owever .

A f ter c o mpar ing t he t ypes o f f urnaces

e xcava ted a t t hese t wo s i tes , a s we l l a s t he r ad iocarbon d a tes o b ta ined o n c harcoa l a ssoc ia ted w i th s lag i n t he f urnaces , T ylecote c onc ludes : The N ok C u l ture s i te a t Taruga i n N iger ia h as d e mons tra ted a n E ar ly I ron Age t rad i t ion o f n on-s lagtapping f urnaces b e long ing t o t he l as t f ew c en tur ies B .C., a nd Meroe i n t he S udan h as s hown t ha t mos t o f t he i ron mak ing t here b e longs t o t he f irs t a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D., a nd t ha t t h is ma ter ia l r epresen ts R o man-type s lagtapping f urnaces . I ti s n ow s ugges ted t ha t t he N iger ian i ron t rad i t ion s te ms f ro m N or th A fr ica , p robab ly C ar thage , wh i le Mero i t ic i ron mak ing was i n f luenced b y t he Ro man o ccupa t ion o f Egyp t ( Tyleco te 1 975 :1). 1 5

1 5

H is tor ica l Archaeo logy A s we h ave s een i n t he p reced ing t wo s ec t ions o f t h is c hap ter , t he d a ta a va i lable f or t he p er iod emco mpass ing t he t rans i t ion t o f ood p roduct ion i n t he La te S tone Age a nd t he a dopt ion o f i ron i n t he Ear ly I ron Age i s e x tre me ly l im i ted .

I n many a reas o f Wes t A fr ica , a l mos t n oth ing i s k nown o f d eve lop-

men ts i n ma ter ia l c u l ture , e cono my a nd t echno log y d ur ing t he t wo mi l lenn ia f ro m c . 1 000 B .C. t o A .D. 1 000 .

T here a re s o me i nd ica t ions o f d eve lop men t

— the a r t is t ic r ef ine men t o f I f e , t he s oph isca ted b ronze me ta l lurgy o f I gbo U kwu , a nd t he ' mega l i th ic p henomenon ' i n t he S enegambia a l l a ppeared i n t he l as t h a l f o f t he f irs t mi l lenn ium A .D. ( W i l le t t 1 966 , 1 967 , 1 969 , 1 970 ; a nd Th i l mans 1 968 ;

S haw 1 970 , 1 975 , 1 978 ;

E yo 1 974 ) .

C iss6 *

Ye t , o n t he who le ,

t he r econs truct ion o f t he c u l ture h is tory o f Wes t A fr ica d ur ing t h is p er iod h as b arely c o m menced .

Far more i n forma t ion i s a va i lable f or t he s econd m i l len-

n iu m A .D., where i n teres t i n t he l oca t ion a nd r econna issance o f h is tor ica l ly d ocu men ted u rban c en tres a nd e n trepo ts h as b een p ar t icu lar ly h igh .

J us t a s

S ch l ie mann s earched f or T roy , s o h ave Wes t A fr ican r esearchers s ough t t o l oca te t he c i t ies f ro m wh ich k ings o nce r u led t he g rea t emp ires o f G hana a nd Ma l i a nd t he e n trepo ts wh ich c on tro l led t he " golden t rade o f t he Moors" . Da ta r ecovered f ro m t hese e xcava t ions w i l l h ave ma jor r e levance t o t he r es earch d escr ibed l a ter i n t h is d isser ta t ion , s ince J enne was i n t i ma te ly i nvolved i n t he g o ld t rade , wh ich i t sel f e xer ted c ons iderab le i n f luence o n t he r ise a nd f a l l o f t he S udan ic Emp ires . T he ma jor e xcava t ions wh ich h ave b een u nder taken a t h istor ica l s i tes a re c ons idered i nd iv idua l ly b e low , s ave t hose l oca ted i n t he R epub l ic o f Ma l i , wh ich w i l l b e e xa m ined i n C hap ter 2 .

One i mpor tan t h is tor ica l s i te , B en in ,

i s om i t ted f ro m t he d iscuss ion b e low s ince i t was n o t s i tua ted a long t he g o ld r ou tes a nd d oes n o t , t here fore , h ave a p r ior i r e levance t o t he J enne e xcava t ions . Th is d oes n o t d i min ish t he i mpor tance o f t he e xcava t ions a t B en in C i ty ( Connah 1 975 ). K oumbi S a leh .

T h is s i te , c ons is t ing o f o ver 8 00 s quare metres o f s tone

b u i ld ing f ounda t ions a nd more t han t wice t ha t a rea o f c e me ter ies , i s w ide ly c ons idered t o h ave b een t he c ap i ta l c i ty o f t he e ar ly med ieva l Emp ire o f G hana . The r ise o f t h is emp ire c anno t y et b e d a ted ;

we k now o n ly t ha t Arab c hron i-

c lers wr i t ing b e fore A .D. 9 00 wro te o f G hana a s ap ower fu l k ingdo m i nvo lved i n g o ld t rad ing .

I fp lace n ames h ave r e ma ined c ons tan t o ver t he p as t m i l len-

n iu m , a l-Bakr i 's i n for ma t ion t ha t t he n ame o f t he c oun try r u led b y " the G hana" ( Ghana = k ing 's t i t le ) was Awker wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he k ingdo m was s i tua ted i n as ec t ion o f s ou theas t Maur i tan ia wh ich i s c a l led A oukar t oday ( Cuoq 1 975 : 9 8 ).

T h is i s p rec ise ly t he r eg ion i n wh ich we f ind K ou mbi S a leh , whose s tone

b u i ld ings , t o mbs , a nd t u mu l i ma tch a l-Bakr i 's d escr ip t ion o f G hana 's c ap i ta l q u i te we l l ( Mauny 1 951a :465 ). T he s i te o f Kou mb i S a leh h as f ascina ted h is tor ians a nd a rchaeo log is ts s ince 1 914 , when B onne l d e Mezieres f irs t i den t i f ied i ta s t he med ieva l c ap it a l o f G hana a nd p roceeded t o s ink t wen tytwo p i ts i n to v ar ious a spec ts o f t he r u ins ( Bonne l d e Mezieres 1 920 ).

Mauny r epor ts t ha t n one o f t he ma ter ia l

e xcava ted i n 1 914 , n or t he s i te p lan , c an b e l oca ted t oday ( Mauny 1 961:73 ). , E xcava t ion b y aF rench a d min is tra tor , Lazar t igues , f o l lowed i n 1 939 , b u t t he r esu l ts were n ever p ubl ished a nd t he ma ter ia l r ecovered i s l os t a lso .

1 6

Archaeo log ica l e xcava t ion u nder taken b y Tho massey i n 1 949 a nd 1 950 c oncen tra ted o n s evera l s tone h ouses wh ich were c lear ly v is ible o n t he s urf ace o f t he s i te ( Thomassey a nd Mauny 1 951, 1 956 ).

The g rea ter p ar t o f

t he g round f l oors o f f i ve c on t inguous , mu t t i-s torey b u i ld ings was e xposed i n t he c ourse o f t hese e xcava t ions , a l low ing f u l l a pprec ia t ion o f Maghrebien i n f luence o n t he a rch i tec ture a t K ou mbi S a leh .

T he s ur face u pon wh ich t he

h ouses h ad b een b u i l t was p aved w i th s tone s labs a nd was 3 .40 me tres b e low t he p resen t g round s ur face .

Ap i t s unk b e low t he p ave men t l eve l s howed

d epos i ts c on t inu ing d own a no ther 2 .50 me tres , w i th n o e nd i n s igh t ( Tho massey a nd Mauny 1 956:122 ) .

N o e xp lora t ion o f t he l ower o ccupa t ion l eve ls a t K ou mbi

S a leh h as b een u nder taken , a l though e xcava t ion c ou ld u ndoub ted ly p rov ide d a ta r elevan t t o t he d a t ing o f t he e ar ly emp ire o f G hana . Ac harcoa l s amp le f ro m t he u pper l eve ls

was r ad io me tr ica l ly d a ted t o

a .d . 1 210 + 1 50 ( repor ted i n F agan 1 965 ) , ar esu l t wh ich a ccords we l l w i th t he h is tor ica l d es truc tion o f much o f G hana 's c ap i ta l b y S ound ia ta , k ing o f Ma l i , i n a pprox i ma te ly A .D. 1 240 ( Mauny 1 951a : 4 72 ).

Two f ur ther d a tes

o f a .d . 9 69 + 1 14 a nd a .d . 8 28 + 1 25 h ave r ecen t ly b een r epor ted ( Ca lvocoressi a nd Dav id 1 971: 1 4 ) b u t t he ir p roven ience i s n o t men t ioned .

N o th ing f ur ther

i s k nown o f t he c hronology o f t h is s i te wh ich was c lear ly o ccup ied o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime .

A s ys te ma t ic c ons idera t ion o f t he a r t i facts r ecovered d ur ing

Tho massey 's e xcava t ions h as n o t a ppeared i n p r in t .

K oumb i S a leh r e ma ins

o ne o f t he mos t p ro m is ing s i tes f or d a ta o n e ar ly t rade i n t he Wes tern S udan . N ian i .

The Po l ish t ea m who c onduc ted e xcava t ions a t t he s i te o f N ian i i n

1 965 a nd 1 968 c la im t o h ave l oca ted t he med ieva l c ap i ta l o f t he Emp ire o f Ma l i ( F i lopow iak 1 966 , 1 969 , 1 977;

F i lopowiak e t a l . 1 968 ;

N iane 1 970 ) .

Because

h is tor ica l s ources ( especia l ly I bn Ba t tu ta ) a re n o tbr ious ly v ague o n t he p rec ise l oca t ion o f t he c i ty , s pecu la t ion o n t h is i ssue h as b een p rofuse .

I den t i f ica t ion

o f N ian i w i th t he o ld c ap i ta l o f Ma l i was f i rs t made b y t he F rench a dm in is tra tor , V ida l , who v is i ted t he s i te i n 1 922 a nd s ubsequen t ly s en t o u t ay oung a d jo in t n a med G a i l lard t o e xcava te .

A l though G a i l lard f ound N ian i 's l oca t ion s u i table

f or t he d eve lop men t o f a ma jor u rban c en tre f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f d efense , a gr icu l tura l p o ten t ia l a nd c o m mun ica t ion , t he f a i lure o f h is e xcava t ions t o r evea l a ny i nscr ip t ions g ave h im s er ious d oubts a bou t t he i den t i f ica t ion o f N ian i w i th med ieva l Ma l i ( Ga i l lard 1 923 ) . S tone s labs w i th K oran ic f or mu las , o r i nscr ibed t o mbs s te lae s hou ld h ave b een a h a l l mark o f med ieva l Ma l i , wh ich was a Mus l im c i ty .

An umber o f a u thors f ee l s trong ly t ha t t he r ea l

c ap i ta l was l oca ted w e l l t o t he n or theas t o f N ian i , e i ther n ear t he f ork o f t he N iger-Sankaran i c on f luence , o r e ven f ar ther d owns trea m b e tween B a mako a nd S egou ( Ga i l lard 1 923 :632 ;

Mon tra t 1 958 ;

Hunw ick 1 973 ).

The ma t ter was f ar f ro m b e ing r eso lved when F i l iopowiak e t a l .

c o m menced

e xcava t ing a t N ian i . D espi te F i l ipow iak 's a rgu men ts t o t he c on trary , t here i s al ack o f s ubs tan t ive e v idence f or t he i den t i f ica t ion o f N ian i w i th med ieva l Ma l i .

T he c i ty o f Ma l i was t he c en tre o f a wea l thy t rade-or ien ted emp ire .

I t was h ere t ha t Mansa Musa l i ved , t he k ing o f Ma l i whose f ree-spend ing p i lgr i mage t o Mecca i n 1 324 d epressed t he v a lue o f g o ld i n C a iro f or t we lve y ears a f terwards ( Dav idson 1 966:83 ). Where a re t he i nd ica t ions o f f or mer w ea l th i n N ian i?

A f ter e xcava t ing a n a rea o f o ver 7 00 s quare me tres ,

F i l ipowiak h as n o t r ecovered a ny i t e ms , o ther t han g lass b eads , i mpor ted f ro m t he Arab wor ld , a ny j ewe lry f ash ioned i n p recious me ta l , o r e ven o ne 1 7

i nscr ibed s te le f ro m t he g rave o f a me mber o f t he wea l thy e l i te .

T he h ouse

f ounda t ions i n t he " Roya l Quar ter" ( Fi lfpowiak 1 977 ) a t N ian i a re s tone c ircles a pprox i ma te ly f our metres i n d iame ter .

N o th ing s o f ar b rough t t o l i gh t a t

N ian i s ugges ts t he r oya l c ap i ta l o f g o ld , s i lver a nd s i lk d escr ibed b y I bn Ba t tu ta , who v is i ted t he c i ty i n t he f our teen th c en tury.

P oss ibly f u ture e xca-

v a t ions may f i l l i n t hese g aps , a l though mos t o f t he v isua l ly p ro m inen t o ccup a t ion a nd c eme tery a reas h ave b een t es ted . The N ian i e xcava t ion h as b een p ub l ished more c onsc ien t ious ly t han much o f t he f i eldwork a cco mp l ished e lsewhere i n Wes t A fr ica .

T he e xcava t ion

r epor t c on ta ins p rof i le d rawings , as i te map t o s ca le , ar ud i men tary d esc r ip t ion o f t he p o t tery r e tr ieved f ro m v ar ious e xcava t ion l eve ls , a nd a s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes wh ich c lus ter c onv inc ing ly f ro m t he s ix th t o t en th c en tur ies a .d .

A s s uch , F i l ipowiak 's r epor t c ons t i tu tes o ne o f t he b e t ter-es tab l ished

s equences f or a n h is tor ica l s i te i n f rancophone Wes t A fr ica . T egdaous t . One o f t he f i rs t S udanese t owns t o r eceive men t ion b y A rab a u thors was Awdaghus t , ad eser t p or t-o f-trade l oca ted a long t he wes t S aharan t rade r ou te wh ich r an b e tween S ou thern Morocco a nd t he A drar r eg ion o f Maure tan ia .

Awdaghus t was a pparen t ly b e t ter k nown t o t he Arabs a t a n

e ar l ier d a te t han t he c i ty o f G hana , a l though b o th were r ough ly c on te mporaneous . An u mber o f Arab c hron ic lers g ive r easonab ly d e ta i led d escr ip t ions o f t he t own ( recoun ted i n D . R ober t 1 970a ; R ober t , R ober t a nd D ev isse 1 970 ) . T he r u ins a t T egdaous t c over a l mos t t h ir ty a cres a nd a re s i tua ted o n as andy b ay a t t he f oo t o f ar ocky massi f , ag eograph ica l s e t t ing wh ich ma tches t he Arab d escr ip t ions . S ince 1 960 , T egdaous t h as b een t he f ocus o f o ne o f t he l onges t e xcava t ion p rograms i n Wes t A fr ica ;

f i e ld r esearch was u nder taken f or s evera l mon ths

o f e ach y ear b e tween 1 960-1972 w i th t he s peci f ic g oa l o f i l lu mina t ing t he med ieva l h is tory o f s ub-Saharan Wes tern S udan ( S . a nd D . R ober t 1 972 ) . F our s tra t i f ied med ieva l a nd p re- med ieva l o ccupa t ion l eve ls h ave b een i den t if ied , i n a dd i t ion t o s truc tures b e long ing t o ar ecen t ( pos t-1600 ) p hase o f o ccup a t ion :

ap re-urban l evel w i thou t v is ib le b u i ld ings b u t n umerous h ear ths ;

t he e ar ly med ieva l t own w i th s tone h ouses o f med i terranean t ype o rgan ized a round a c our tyard ;

t he midd le med ieva l t own w h ich was b ui l t u s ing t he wa l ls

a nd f ounda t ions o f t he o ld t own , w i th a s h if t i n b u i ld ing t echno logy f rom s tone t o mud b r ick ;

t he l a te med ieva l t own wh ich was a pparen t ly e n t ire ly r ebu i lt

i n s tone , w i th n ew r oad c ourses a nd h ouse p lans d i f feren t f ro m t he midd le med ieva l l eve l .

I n teres t ing ly , we l l t ypes c hanged d ur ing t he t hree med ieva l

p hases , r ef lec t ing a n i ncreas ing wa ter p rob le m ( D . R ober t 1 970a ) .

E xcava t ion

o f t he c e me tery a rea t wo k i lo me tres n or theas t o f t he r es iden t ia l s ect ion r ev ea led f our d i f feren t t ypes o f b ur ia l , t hree o f t hem s tra ti f ied .

Un for tuna tely ,

t he l ack o f g rave g oods p resen ts a ma jor o bs tac le t o t he c hronolog ica l c orrel a t ion o f b ur ia l p ract ices w i th t he f our o ccupa t ion p hases . Ad e ta i led r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions , a s we l l a s a na lyses o f t he p o t tery a nd o ther a r t i facts r ecovered h ave n o t y e t a ppeared i n p r in t , a l though b oth a re i n p repara t ion ( Rober t , R ober t a nd D ev isse 1 970 : 2 ) .

A s er ies o f r ad io-

c arbon d a tes h as b een o bta ined f or T egdaous t wh ich c lus ters b e tween a .d . 8 00-1300 , a l though o ccupa t ion c on t inued u n t i l t he s even teen th c en tury ( D iop 1 976: 1 82 ;

C a lvocoress i a nd Dav id 1 979 : 2 4-5 ).

1 8

Th is i s c ons is ten t w i th o ur

k now ledge o f Awdaghus t f ro m Arab c hron icles .

T he R ober ts a re c arefu l t o

s ta te , h owever , t ha t ap os i t ive i den ti f ica t ion o f T egdaous t w i th Awdaghus t h as n o t b een a ch ieved .

The s ubs tan t ia l amoun ts o f impor ted p o t tery , o i l

l a mps , a nd g lass wh ich were f ound a t Tegdaous t c er ta in ly s ugges t t ha t t he s i te was af l our is ing t own o f s o me wea l th , a c t ive ly i nvo lved w i th t rade t o t he n or th , f ro m A . D. 8 00-1300 .

I fT egdaous t was n o t Awdaghus t , i t was p re-

s umably v ery s im i lar t o i t . B egho .

L oca ted o n t he s avanna-fores t marg in o f wes tern G hana , t he t own

o f B egho i s s trong ly l i nked i n t he t rad i t ions o f t he A kan a nd t he Mande w i th a n e ar ly D yu la s e t t le men t wh ich was t he c o l lec t ing p o in t f or t he g o ld o f t he f ores t ( O l iver a nd Fagan 1 976: 1 78 ).

I t s i mpor tance a s at rade t own was k nown t o t he

Du tch i n t he s even teen th c en tury .

F ro m B egho ( a lso k nown a s B i 'u , B eeo ,

B i tu o r N soko ) , g o ld , k o la , a nd o ther f ores t p roducts were t ranspor ted t o J enne , t he n or thern- mos t e n trepo t o f t he s avanna t rade r ou te . I n 1 970 , ar esearch p ro jec t f ocus ing o n B egho was i n i t ia ted w i th t he s peci f ic g oa l o f i nves t iga t ing a rchaeo log ica l a spec ts o f t he b eg inn ings o f l ongd is tance t rade b e tween t he m idd le N iger r eg ion a nd G hana ( Posnansky 1 973a :1) Excava t ion t ook p lace a t B egho d ur ing o ne o r t wo s easons o f e very y ear f ro m 1 970-1976. i n l eng th :

F our q uar ters h ave b een l oca ted , e ach b e tween 5 00-1000 me tres i n B rong ( i nd igenous ) q uar ter , Dwin four ( ar t isans ) q uar ter , Kra mo

( s trangers ' ) q uar ter , a nd N yarko q uar ter ( na med a f ter i t s l egendary f ounder ). Excava t ion h as b een mos t e x tens ive i n t he Brong q uar ter , where f our d i f feren t o ccupa t ions c ou ld b e i den t if ied ( Posnansky 1 972 : 3 ) .

A s er ies o f f i ve r ad io-

c arbon d a tes f ro m t h is q uar ter c lus ters b e tween a .d . 1 430 + 1 00 a nd 1 710 1 00 ( Po snansky 1 976: A ppend ix 3 ) .

The Kramo q uar ter r evea led o n ly a

s ing le s even teen th c en tury o ccupa t ion wh ich was p oor i n i mpor ted g oods . Dw in four q uar ter i s a pparen t ly a p t ly n a med , a s n ear ly f ive h undred f rag men ts o f c lay c rucibles c on ta in ing a l loyed c opper were f ound t hroughou t t he mound a ssoc ia ted w i th wood a sh , s lag , a nd f urnace wa l l ing .

Two s tra ta were d is-

c erned , t he u pper c on ta in ing smok ing p ipes , impor ted g lass , c arne l ian b eads a nd a f ragmen t o f European e ar thenware ; ( Anquandah 1 975a ) .

t he l ower l evel h ad n o smok ing p ipes

C ross land h as p roduced a d e ta i led a na lys is o f t he p o t tery

r ecovered f ro m t he B rong q uar ter e xcava t ions ( Cross land 1 973 ) ;

d e ta i led

i n for ma t ion o n t he e xcava t ions a nd t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f B egho i s a n t ic ipa ted . A zel ick a nd Marande t . On ly s hor t n o t ice n eed b e g iven t o t hese t wo s i tes , where e xcava t ions l ed b y H . L ho te h ave n ever b een p ubl ished i n d eta i l . B oth s i tes a re s i tua ted i n t he A ir r eg ion o f N iger , a nd a rchaeo log ica l r econna issance o f b o th was u nder taken b y Lho te i n 1 970 i n t he h ope o f d e f in i t ive ly l oca t ing t he c opper m ine o f T akedda v is i ted b y I bn Ba t tu ta i n 1 353.

T here h as b een

amp le r oo m f or s pecu la t ion o n t he s i te o f t he med ieva l min ing t own , s ince f our t owns b ear ing t he n ame o f T egu idda c an b e f ound i n A ir t oday.

Var ious

r esearchers h ave e xp lored t he r u ins a t t hese d i f feren t T egu iddas a nd c la i med " the ir" Tegu idda t o b e t he t rue s i te o f med ieva l Takedda ( see L hote 1 972 : 4 32 ). Ano ther p o ten t ia l Takedda was f ound a t A ze l ick where Brou in d escr ibed a s i te c overed w i th c opper f ragmen ts ( Brou in 1 950 ).

Brou in 's h ypo thes is was

s uppor ted b y t he d iscovery o f a n a ncien t mine s ha f t t h ir teen k i lo me tres f ro m A ze l ick ( Lo mbard a nd Mauny 1 954 ). Lhote , h owever , r epor ts t ha t i n tens ive s urvey b e tween 1 957-1963 b y t he Bureau o f Mines i n t he r eg ion o f A ze l ick r evea led n o a nc ien t c opper works , n or a ny c opper o res w i th a c opper c on ten t 1 9

e xceed ing 1 .5% ( Lho te 1 972 : 4 45 ).

L ho te 's e xcava t ions a t A ze l ick ( t h ir ty

t es t p i ts ) s howed n o h ouse f ounda t ions o r s lag , wh ich c on trad icts I bn B a t tu ta 's d escr ip t ion o f t he r ed s tone h ouses a nd c opper sme l t ing a c t iv it ies o f T akedda . A r ad iocarbon d a te o f 150 + 1 00 a .d . p laces t he A ze l ick r u ins i n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , b u t a s ide f ro m t ha t , L ho te f inds t he i den t i f ica t ion o f A ze l ick w i th Takedda a " f ig men t o f Mauny 's i mag ina t ion" ( Lho te 1 972 : 4 48 , S .K . M.'s t ransla t ion ). A bundan t e v idence o f c opper work ing was d iscovered a t Marande t , h owever ( Mauny 1 953 ) .

L hote r ecovered 4 0 ,000 c rucib les , a s we l l a s p o t tery

s lag , mou lds , a nd s evera l c lay f urnaces ( Lho te 1 972 : 4 49-51 , 4 70 ) .

S ure ly ,

L ho te s ays , t h is s i te i s t he Mara .nda men t ioned b y s ix Arab wr i ters b etween A .D . 8 72-1154 wh ich was s i tua ted o n t he t rade r ou te f ro m G ao t o Eg yp t . T hree r ad iocarbon d a tes h ave b een o b ta ined o n c harcoa l f ro m t he e xcava t ions : a .d . 9 00 + 1 00 , 6 40 + 1 00 , 5 50 ± 1 00 ( Po snansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976: 1 83 ) . The l a t ter t wo a re f ro m t he l owes t " workshop" l eve l a nd a ppreciably p re-da te Arab i n f luence i n Wes t A fr ican t rade .

Th is i s , p erhaps , a n i nd ica t ion o f t he

i nd igenous t rade s ys te m u pon wh ich A rab t rade was s uper i mposed .

I f , a s

t he d a tes s ugges t , t he ma jor i ty o f t he sme l t ing a c t iv i ty a t Marande t p re-da ted A rab f am i l iar i ty w i th t he t own , t he s i lence o f A rab c hron ic lers o n t he s ub jec t o f af l our is ing me ta l i ndus try a t Maranda wou ld b e e xp la ined . S pec trograph ic a na lys is h as s hown t ha t t he c rucibles a t Marande t c ont a ined c opper ( Cas tro 1 974 ) . a t Marande t a re u nknown .

The s ource a nd d es t ina t ion o f t he c opper sme l ted

R eg iona l S urveys a nd E s tabl ished S equences T he f ounda t ion o f o ur u nders tand ing o f t he c u l tura l d eve lop men t o f I ron A ge Wes t A fr ica mus t n ecessar i ly c ons is t o f s tra t igraph ic e xcava t ions o f mu l t i-co mponen t o ccupa t ion s i tes , r e l iab le s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m mean ing fu l c on tex ts , a nd s ys te ma t ic a na lyses o f e xcava ted a r ti facts .

F ew

a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ions i n Wes t A fr ica h ave r esu l ted i n p ubl ished r epor ts f u l f i l l ing a l l t hree d a ta r equ ire men ts . P ar t o f t he p roble m i s t ha t r esearch h as t ended t o b e p ar t icu lar is t ic ; e xcava t ion h as o f ten b een u nder taken f or t he p urpose o f i nves t iga t ing a s peci f ic p heno menon , s uch a s t umu lus b ur ia l , mega l i th ic a rch i tecture , o r a r t s tyles , o r as pec i f ic , ( o f ten h is tor ica l ) s i te . S ince c hrono log ica l p lace men t o f v ar ious p henomena a nd s i tes h as b een a ma jor g oa l o f s uch p ar t icu lar is t ic r esearch , many r ad iocarbon d a tes h ave b een o bta ined wh ich a re n o t s uppor ted b y c are fu l r epor t ing o f t he e xcava t ions a nd d e ta i led d escr ip t ions o f a l l t he c lasses o f a r t i fac ts r ecovered . I ncreas ing ly , t he f ocus o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n Wes t A fr ica i s s h f t ing f ro m t he p ar t icu lar t o t he r eg iona l , p ar t ly i n r esponse t o a n i ncreased n eed f or s a lvage a rchaeo logy i n a reas t hrea tened b y s ta te wa ter p ro jec ts . T he i m med ia te r esu l t o f t h is s h i f t t o r eg iona l s urvey h as b een a g row ing c oncern w i th t ypo log ica l a na lys is a nd s er ia t ion , whereby a n a r t ifact s equence d escr ibed a nd r ad io metr ica l ly d a ted a t o ne o r more we l l-excava ted s i tes may b e u sed t o i n terpre t o ther s i tes w i th in t he r eg ion , a t wh ich o n ly s ur face c o ll ect ion o r l im i ted t es t e xcava t ion may b e p oss ible .

The mos t s uccessfu l

e xamp le o f t h is a pproach t o ar eg iona l s urvey p rogra m i s t he Vo l ta B as in R esearch P ro ject ( VBRP) i n wh ich f or ty-two s i tes were e xcava ted b e tween 1 963-1968

i n t he a rea d es t ined t o b e f l ooded b y L ake V o l ta ( Ca lvocoress i 2 0

a nd York 1 971; 1 966;

f or i n ter im p ro jec t r epor ts s ee :

Ma t thewson 1 965 ;

C a lvocoress i 1 969 ).

S h inn ie 1 965 ;

Y ork 1 965 ,

T he k ey t o t he r eg iona l s e-

q uence o bta ined was t he s tra t i f ied s i te o f N ew Bu ipe ( York 1 973 ) , where t hree d iscre te o ccupa t ion p hases , s epara ted b y p er iods o f a bandonmen t , were r ecogn ized a nd C 14 d a ted : 2 90 b .c .;

P hase 1 ( K in tampo N eo l i th ic ) was d a ted t o 9 15 ±

P hase 2 ( I ron A ge ) was d epos i ted a bou t am i l lenn ium l a ter , a s

i nd ica ted b y d a tes o f a .d . 7 80

1 00 a nd 7 90 + 1 00 ;

c lus ter b e tween a .d . 1 445 + 1 00 a nd 1 640 + 9 0 .

f i ve d a tes f or P hase 3

O ther more c on t inuous a nd

s a t is factory r ad iocarbon d a te s er ies e x is t i n Wes t A fr ica , s uch a s t ha t f ro m B ornu , d iscussed b e low .

I n t he N ew Bu ipe e xcava t ion r epor t , Y ork a cknow-

l edges t he s ource o f h is mode l a nd h is g oa ls f or c eramic a na lys is : An e xamp le o f vha t t h is k ind o f a na lys is c an a ch ieve i fg iven f u l l r e in i s t he w ork o f P h i l l ips , F ord a nd G ri f f in ( 1 951) i n t he l ower M iss iss ipp i Va l ley b e tween 1 940 a nd 1 947.

B y s er ia t ing t he s ur face

c o l lect ions o f p o t tery f ro m 3 8 1 s i tes a nd s tra t i f ied c o l lec t ions a t e igh t k ey p o in ts , t hey were a b le t o c ons truct a r e la t ive c hrono logy w i th in wh ich e very o ne o f t hese s i tes , s ca t tered o ver 2 00 mi les o f t he l ower M iss iss ipp i Va l ley , h as i t s p lace ( York 1 973 : 9 5 ). S even ma jor " wares" , wh ich a re p o t tery t ypes d e f ined b y t he p resence o f t hree o f f our d is t inct a t tr ibu tes , h ave b een i den t i f ied a t N ew Bu ipe.

T he

u t i l i ty o f t hese wares l i es i n t he ir r es tr icted t e mpora l d ura t ion , b racketed b y t he d a tes f ro m N ew B u ipe , a nd i n t he g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f t he wares o n o ther s i tes i n t he G on ja r eg ion ( York 1 970 ; Ma t thewson a nd F l igh t 1 972 ; Ma thewson 1 974 ). S evera l " po ten t ia l wares" wh ich c an b e c ons ist en t ly d e f ined b y t wo o r more a t tr ibu tes , b u t wh ich h ave n o t b een d escr ibed a t o ther s i tes i n t he r eg ion were a lso r ecogn ized a t N ew Bu ipe. T he r esu l ts o f t he VBRP p resen t ag ood e xa mp le o f h ow s ys te ma t ic c era m ic a na lys is , w i th a n emphas is o n s er ia t ion , c an p rov ide a p re l im inary f ra mework f or t he l a ter p reh is tor ic c hrono logy o f a n e n t ire r eg ion . Ano ther i mpor tan t r eg iona l a rchaeo log ica l p rogra m f ocused o n t he a rea s chedu led t o b e f looded b y t he n ew Ka in ji r eservo ir i n n or thwes tern N iger ia . L as t minu te f und ing i mposed s evere t ime r es tr ict ions o n t he amoun t a nd t ype o f e xcava t ion a nd s ur face c ol lect ion wh ich c ou ld b e a cco mp l ished ( Bre tern i tz 1 975 : 1 49 ) .

I n t he o ne e xcava t ion s eason a va i lable , e xped i t ions f ro m t he

U n iversi ty o f C olorado a nd t he U n ivers i ty o f I badan s a mp led e igh teen d i f feren t s i tes ( Bre tern i tz 1 968 ;

H ar t le 1 970 ).

T he ma jor r esu l ts s o f ar p resen ted

f ro m t he I badan e f for ts a re t wo c o mp le men tary g roups o f r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he s i tes o f B aha Mound ( f our d a tes c lus ter ing b e tween a .d . 8 70 + 1 25 a nd 9 40 _ 4 - 15 , a nd o ne d a te o f 1 30 ± 1 05 b .c. —Har t le 1 970 ) a nd Ye lwa ( f our d a tes r ang ing b etween a .d . 1 00-700 - P r iddy 1 970 ). C lear ly , t hese t wo s i tes c ou ld p rov ide t he f ounda t ion f or a n E ar ly I ron Age s equence f or n or thern N ig iera a long t he N iger . T he f ina l r epor t o f t he C o lorad io e xped i t ion h as a lready a ppeared ( Bre tern i tz 1 975 ) . A ma jor emphas is was o n t he a na lys is o f t he p o t tery r ecovered f ro m s ix ( ou t o f t wen ty-seven ) s amp les e xcava ted a t t hree d i f feren t s i tes .

Pro f i les a re p resen ted f or e ach o f t he s ix e xcava t ion u n i ts ;

r e la t ive

p ercen tages o f f ive p o t tery " types" a re p lo t ted a ccord ing t o t he ir f requency o f o ccurrence w i th in e ach u n i for m ( 20 c en t i me tres ) e xcava t ion l eve l . f i ve r ecogn ized t ypes a ppear t o b e a rb i trary a nd i nadequa tely d ef ined .

2 1

The N o

a na lys is o f t e mpora l v ar ia t ion i n v esse l s hape o r d ecora t ive t echn ique i s a t te mp ted , n or a re t he r aw d a ta p resen ted s o t ha t t he r eader may u nder take t he t ask f or h imse l f .

D esp i te s evera l s hor tco m ings i n t he a na lys is , t wo

n o t iceable c hrono log ica l t rends emerged f or t he t ypes d ef ined i n t he r epor t : m ica-te mpered p o t tery o ccurred o n ly i n t he u pper l eve ls o f t he s ix p i ts ; a nd u ndecora ted wares p redo m ina ted i n l ower l eve ls .

T he ma in p er iod o f

o ccupa t ion a t t he t hree s i tes a ppears t o h ave b een b e tween A .D. 1 600-1900 , b ased o n f inds o f t obacco p ipes , European e ar thenware a nd a r ad iocarbon d a te f ro m o ne s i te .

S o f ar , t hen , t he r esu l ts o f t he Ka in ji p ro ject h ave p ro-

v ided t en ta t ive i den t i f ica t ion o f t wo c hrono log ica l ly s ign i f ican t c o mponen ts o f ap o t tery s equence f or l a te I ron Age/H is tor ica l s i tes a long t he midd le N iger . A t t he t ime o f t h is wr i t ing , t he l onges t a nd mos t r e l iably e s tabl ished c hrono log ica l s equence i n Wes t A fr ica i s f ro m t he B ornu p rov ince o f n or the as tern N iger ia .

The d a ta wh ich a re t he f ounda t ion o f t h is s equence c o me

f ro m a ma jor s tra t if ied s equence a t Da i ma , t es t e xcava t ion a t s ix o ther s i tes , s ur face e xamina t ion o f s even ty s i tes a nd a t o ta l o f t wen ty r adiocarbon d a tes f ro m s ix e xcava ted s i tes ( Connah 1 966 , 1 970 , 1 971, 1 976).

T he r ad iocarbon

c hrono logy f or Bornu i s r eproduced b e low ( F ig . 1 .2 ) . S evera l i mpor tan t t rends i n t he ma ter ia l c u l ture f ro m t he I ron A ge l eve ls a t Da i ma may b e men t ioned :

f ine f abr ic p o t tery i s r ep laced b y a n i ncreas ing

p ropor tion o f c oarse ware i n u pper l eve ls ;

c arved r ou le t t ing a nd t w is ted

c ord r ou le t t ing a re " d is t inct ive ly l a te" p o t tery d ecora t ions ;

as h i f t i n t erra-

c o t ta a n i ma l f igur ines f ro m c ows t o s heep o ccurs i n t he m idd le I ron A ge l eve ls ; g rave g oods o ocur more f requen t ly i n t he m idd le t o l a te I ron Age l eve ls , o f ten c ons is t ing o f t rade o b jec ts s uch a s s tone a nd g lass b eads , g lass b racel e ts a nd b ronze .

On ly g enera l s ta te men ts s uch a s t hese c an b e made a bou t

c hrono log ica l c hange a t Da i ma p end ing a d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t he e xcava t ions a nd t he a r t i fac ts r ecovered ( curren t ly . i n p ress - C onnah , p ers . c omm .). T e l l s i tes s im i lar t o Da i ma h ave b een f ound o n t he a l luv ia l p la ins a long t he Benue-Kebbi c on f luence i n n or th C ameroon , where N . Dav id h as b een i nvo lved i n s i te s urvey s ince 1 968 .

Th ir ty-n ine I ron Age mounds h ave b een

mapped i n t h is r eg ion , a nd e xcava t ions h ave b een u nder taken a t t he s i tes o f Nassarao , D ou lou m i a nd B e .

A l l t hree s i tes h ad s tra ti f ied d epos i ts u p t o

s even me tres d eep , w i th in wh ich t wo ma jor p hases c ou ld b e r ecogn ized : r ound h u ts w i th b ea ten e ar th f loors were s tra ti f ied b e low f l oors o f t esse l la ted p o tsherds ( Dav id 1 968b ; 1 970 ; 1 976: 2 35-6 ). A g ood s equence o f s ix r ad ioc arbon d a tes r ang ing f ro m a .d . 8 44 + 3 3 t o a .d . 1 692 + 3 9 was o b ta ined f ro m B e , a nd a c o mp le men tary s er ies o f t hree d a tes b e tween a .d . 5 38 + 5 0 a nd 8 76 + 4 7 was r epor ted f or t he n earby mound o f D ou lou m i ( Fl igh t 1 973a : 5 49-50 ). B ecause t he B enue-Kebb i r ad iocarbon c hrono logy o ver laps t he I ron A ge s eq unnce i n B ornu , i tw i l l b e p oss ible , u pon f u l l p ub l ica t ion o f t he e xcava t ions b y C onnah a nd Dav id , t o a t te mp t f or t he f i rs t t ime a d eta i led c o mpar ison o f I ron Age c u l tura l d eve lop men t i n t wo a d jacen t r eg ions o f Wes t A fr ica . Ar ev iew o f s urvey work i n t he B ornu-nor th C ameroon r eg ion wou ld b e i nco mp le te w i thou t men t ion o f t he L ebeu fs ' work i n t he C har i-Logone b as in s ou th o f Lake C had , where more s i tes h ave b een mapped t han i n a ny o ther r eg ion o f c o mparable s ize i n Wes t A fr ica .

I n 1 969 , t he n umber o f mapped

s i tes s tood a t 7 01, o f wh ich 6 37 were i den ti f ied w i th t he " Sao" c u l ture a s

2 2

" 7

y ears 568 h a lf -l i f e

C1 .:

B ornu

3 8

K

S hama

D a Ima

8

Y au

C a lendar y ears

AD 1 440

a d ' 1 5 00

7

1 0 00

N -477 1 033 H18 1 I 2361

-

. 7 12 368

/

N479

/

N -479 N 4 76

_

5 35

5 00 I 2 9 4 )

I2 370

_

A060

1 2 3 7 1

5 00

— N 7 92

6 00

/ -

t2 372 i 29 15

-

N -796 N - M

1 000

1 250 '

N7 9$ N -794

-

1 5 00

1 3 35 ._

2 000 b c

2 520 BC p 4 -3 3

F IGURE 1 .2 Ar adiocarbon c hronology f or t he p rehistory o f t he L ake C had a rea o f N igeria. T he c orrection t o c alendar y ears o n t he h and s ide o f t he d iagram i s b ased o n R .M. C lark, ' A c alibration c urve f or r adiocarbon d ates', A ntiquity X LIX ( 1975):251-266. K =Kursakata, D G=Birnin G azargamo. T he d uration o f t he D aima s equence i s s haded. ( G. C onnah, ' The D aima s equence a nd t he p rehistoric c hronology o f t he L ake C had r egion o f N igeria', J ournal o f A frican H istory 1 7:327)

2 3

d ef ined b y L ebeu f ( 1969 ). The ma ter ia l c u l ture a ssoc ia ted w i th " Sao" o ccup a t ion i s c haracter ized b y b ur ia l i n d ouble u rns , a nd a v ar ie ty o f e x traord inar i ly d is t inc t ive a nd b izarre t erraco t ta f igur ines ( Lebeu f a nd Masson-De tourbe t 1 950 ) . I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t , d esp i te t he e nor mous e f for t e xpended b y r esearchers i n t he C har i-Logon b as in , t he s ta te o f a rchaeo log ica l k now ledge o f t ha t r eg ion i s u nsa t is fac tory. a nd L ebeu f 1 948 ;

N u merous s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted a nd p ubl ished ( Gr iau le 1 950 ;

1 951;

L ebeu f 1 922 ;

1 966 ) b u t p ro f i le d rawings a nd

p roven ience d a ta o n a r ti facts wh ich m igh t i nd ica te a n a pprec ia t ion o f t he s truct ura l c o mp lex i t ies a f fec t ing s i te i n terpre ta t ion h ave c ons is ten t ly f a i led t o a ppear .

The mos t s a t is factory e xcava t ion r epor t f ro m t he a rea r e ma ins t he

e xce l len t p ub l ica t ion o f Wu ls in ( 1 932 ).

Mos t a u thors a gree t ha t p rev ious

c oncep t ions o f t he S ao p heno menon r equ ire d ras t ic mod i f ica t ion i n t he l i gh t o f r ecen t r ad iocarbon d a tes a nd e xcava t ions i n t he a d jacen t a reas o f B ornu a nd t he B enue-Kebbi c on f luence . S um mary The p o in t a t wh ich a s yn thes is o f t he ma jor c u l tura l d eve lop men ts i n Wes t A fr ican p reh is tory c an b e a t te mp ted s t i l l l i es s evera l y ears i n t he f u ture . I th as b een emphas ized t ha t a n u nders tand ing o f t he s ub-con t inen t 's p reh is tory w i l l mos t e f f icien t ly b e a ch ieved t hrough t he o rgan iza t ion o f n u merous r eg iona l r esearch p rogra ms , e ach o f wh ich i s c omm i t ted t o u nder tak ing s tra t igraph ic e xcava t ion a t mu l t i-co mponen t s i tes , o bta in ing r e l iab le s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes , a nd p roducing s ys te ma t ic d escr ip t ions o f e xcava ted a r ti facts .

T he

g aps wh ich c haracter ize o ur p resen t k now ledge o f Wes t A fr ica 's p as t a re t he mse lves a r t i facts o f r esearch s tra teg ies wh ich h ave t ended t o b e p ar t ic u lar is t ic , f ocus ing o n p ar t icu lar s i tes ( or k inds o f s i tes ) , o r o n p ar t icu lar c lasses o f a r ti facts .

A s ar esu l t , l i t t le d a ta i s a va i lable f or c rucia l t ime

p er iods ( e .g ., La te S tone Age/Ear ly I ron Age ) , i mpor tan t p rocesses ( t he d o mes t ica t ion o f p lan ts , t he emergence o f u rban is m ) , o r ma jor c lasses o f a r t i facts ( e .g ., E ar ly a nd M idd le I ron Age p o t tery a nywhere i n Wes t A fr ica ).

NOTES 1

I nd irec t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , c o mpr is ing a l l t hose a r ti fac ts a nd t echno log ica l t ra i ts d iscovered i n a n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t wh ich s ugg es t t he p resence o f af ood-produc t ing e cono my , i s n o t c overed h ere , d ue t o i t s h igh ly v ar iable r e l iabi l i ty. A s i te-by-s i te a ppra isa l o f c la i ms f or a gr icu l ture b ased o n i nd irect e v idence wou ld b e n ecessary t o d o j ust i ce t o t h is c lass o f d a ta .

2

C amps ( 1969 ) c la i ms t he p o l len c o mes f ro m a c u l t igen ;

S haw ( 1 976 : 1 12 )

c au t ions t ha t p o l len i den f icia t ion o f G ram inae a re n o tor ious ly d i f f icu l t i n t h is r espec t .

L iv ings tone ( 1978 ) o bserves t ha t :

" one e ncoun ters

f ro m t ime t o t ime t en ta t ive i den t i f ica t ions o f ( A fr ican ) c rop p lan ts b y t heir p o l len i n t he a rchaeo logy l i tera ture .

Where t hese d ea l w i th g rasses

o ther t han ma ize , t hey s hou ld b e t rea ted w i th s o me th ing b e tween s kep t icis m a nd i ncredu li ty" .

2 4

3

Hugo t ( 1 968 : 4 85 ) i n terpre ted t h is a s p o l len f ro m a c u l t iva ted g rass o n a ccoun t o f i t s l arge s ize .

S haw ( 1 976: 13 ) r epor ts t ha t w i ld g rasses

h ave s ubsequen t ly b een f ound i n t he S ahara w i th a s l arge o r l arger p ol len g ra ins . 4

N ow t hough t t o b e w i ld ( Shaw 1 977: 1 02 ).

5

A t f irs t t hough t t o b e c u l t iva ted , l a tes t o p in ion i s' t ha t i ti s w i ld ( Shaw 1 977: 9 9 ).

6

Penn ise tum a nd Brach iar ia d e f lexa a re b o th p resen t i n sma l l amoun ts i n t he e ar l ier N aghez p hase , b u t a n a rgu men t f or c u l t iva t ion o f e i ther g rass a t t ha t t ime h as n o t b een a dvanced .

7

N e i ther o f t hese s pecies c ou ld b e i den t i f ied a s c u l t igens .

The r ecovery

o f E lae is a nd Canar iu m s chwe in fur th i i a t K 6 t akes o n an ew s ign i f icance , h owever , i n t he l i gh t o f A . Sm i th 's r ecen t work a t B osumpra c ave . Excava t ions i n 1 973/4 r evea led t ha t C anar ium was p resen t a lone i n t he l eve ls b e tween 10-80 cm , b ecame mixed w i th E lae is b e tween 8 0-50 cm , a nd d isappeared a bove 5 0 cm , w i th E lae is c on t inu ing a lone u n t i l 1 0 cm . Smi th ( 1 975 ) c onc luded : " I t a ppears t ha t t he f or mer i nhab i tan ts o f t he c ave were u s ing t he f ru i ts o f C anar ium b e fore 3 000 B .C., t hen l a ter t urned t o E lae is a s ab e t ter s ource o f f ood .

I t may we l l b e t ha t t he o i l was t he impor tan t

i ngred ien t b e ing s ough t , a s E lae is i s a ma jor s ource o f t h is c o m mod i ty i n Wes t A fr ica t oday.

Th is a pparen t t rans i t ion f ro m t he u se o f

C anar ium t o E lae is s ugges ts t he p oss ib i l i ty o f i n tens ive u se o f t he o i l p a lm a s af ood s ource , i fn o t d irec t c u l t iva t ion o f t he p lan t" . 8

Th is t heory t ends t o f ocus o n t he S ahe l r eg iop , where s tap le c erea l c rops s uch a s Penn ise tu rn amer icanum , D ig i tar ia e x i l is , Oryza g laberr i ma a nd B rach iar ia d ef lexa were p resumably e ar ly d o mes t ica tes , a l though impe tus f or t he c u l t iva t ion o f s avanna/ fores t e co tone c u l t igens , s uch a s D ioscorea s p ., E lae is g u ineens is a nd V igna u ngu icu la ta i s i mp l ic i t . F l igh t , h owever , s ugges ts t ha t S aharan d es icca t ion h ad l i t t le e f fect o n t he s ou th , a nd t ha t ag ame t heore t ica l f ra mework p rov ides a n e xp lana t ion f or e ar ly d o mes t ica t ion i n t he s avanna/ fores t e co tone .

H e a rgues t ha t

t he d ivers i ty o f t he f ores t-savanna mosa ic made p oss ib le a n e cono m ic s tra teg y o f b o th y am a nd c erea l c u l t iva t ion wh ich a i med t o a ch ieve max imu m y ie ld w i th m in imum r isk .

F l igh t g oes o n t o s ugges t t ha t t he y a m-

c erea l c o mbina t ion may b e t he p r imary f or m o f a gr icu l ture i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica ( Fl igh t 1 976: 2 19 ) , a n i n teres t ing b u t h igh ly s pecu la t ive p ropos i t ion . 9

There i s s o me q ues t ion a bou t t he v a l id i ty o f t he a ssoc ia t ion b e tween t he d a ted c harcoa l s amp les a nd t he i ron-s me l t ing f urnaces a t Do D im m i . A l though t he e xcava tors i nd ica ted a r e l iable a ssoc ia t ion when s ub m i t t ing t he s amp les , t hey e xpressed d oubts when t he t wo v ery e ar ly d a tes were r ece ived ( R. J . McIn tosh - p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ). t he D o D im m i d a tes ,

I n r econs ider ing

Ca lvocoress i a nd Dav id ( 1979 : 1 0 ) a sser t t ha t t he

t h ird d a te ( 6 78 ± 1 20 b .c . ) , wh ich was r un o n c harcoa l a ssocia ted w i th i ron a nd s lag i n o ne o f ag roup o f s ha f t f urnaces , i s ' unques t ionably ' a ssoc ia ted w i th i ron sme l t ing .

2 5

1 0

Ana lys is o f a n o re s a mp le f ro m T aruga h as s hown i tt o b e v ery r ich i n i ron ( Tylecote 1 975 : 7 ) .

1 1

I ndependen t e xper i men ta t ion w i th i ron migh t h ave b een p oss ible i n a reas l i ke t he C asamance Bas in o f s ou thern S enega l where a v ery p ure f or m o f i ron o re o ccurs i n s wampy a reas .

T h is " bog o re" , c rea ted t hrough t he

p recip i ta t ion o f i ron m inera ls o u t o f b og wa ter , i s o f ten o f s u f f icien t p ur i ty t ha t i tc an b e r educed t o c rude i ron i n t he p resence o f c arbon . T here i s s o me e v idence t ha t t he i nhabi tan ts o f t he C asamence were work ing b og i ron b e tween A .D. 2 00-700 , a l though t h is was n o t n ecessar i ly a n a u toch tonous d evelop men t ( L inares d e S ap ir 1 971). 1 2

The e arr ing r ecovered f ro m t he Ak jou jt r eg ion i s s tyl is t ica l ly a l mos t i den t ica l t o t he e arr ings f ound a t Tayad ir t , where t he ir Pun ic o r ig ins were r ead i ly i den t i f ied ( cp . Lamber t 1 971 a nd L amber t a nd S ouv i l le 1 970 ) .

1 3

Ap oss ib le e xcep t ion t o t h is s ta te men t i s t he r ecen t d iscovery o f e longa ted c opper sme l t ing f urnaces n ear A ze l ik ( N iger ) wh ich h ave b een d a ted t o 1 360 + ? b .c. a nd 9 50 + 1 00 b .c . D e ta i ls o f t he e xcava t ion a nd s a t isf actory r epor t ing o f t he d a tes t he mse lves h ave n o t y e t a ppeared i n p r in t . I n d iscuss ing t he t wo d a tes , Dav id a nd C a lvocoress i ( 1 979: 9 ) c o m men t : " These d a tes , c a l ibra ted t o 1 662 + ? a nd 1 175 + 1 17 B . C. a re r emarkably e ar ly.

I fc on f irmed , t hey wou ld i mp ly e i ther L ibyan-

Egyp t ian ( ra ther t han P hoen ic ian ) i n f luence o r , improbably , i ndep enden t i nven t ion o f me ta l lurgy i n t he S ahara" . 1 4

Dav ies a nd Huard t heor ized t ha t , a l though t he t echn ique o f i ron-s me l t ing p rotab ly d i f fused f ro m Meroe , i ron a r t i facts c ou ld h ave b een o bta ined i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica f ro m n or thern Pun ic c en tres , p resu mably t hrough t rade .

1 5

The e x ten t t o wh ich T ylecote 's c onc lus ions w i l l r equ ire r econs idera t ion i n t he l i gh t o f r ecen t s ix th a nd f i f th c en tury B .C . r ad iocarbon d a tes f or s lag h eaps a t Meroe ( Sh inn ie 1 977) mus t b e a ssessed when f u l l d e ta i ls o f t he e xcava t ions wh ich p roduced t he d a tes a re f or thco m ing .

2 6

CHAP TER 2 I RON AGE RESEARCH I N MALI , WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE I NLAND N IGER DELTA

The R epubl ic o f Ma l i i s av as t c oun try s tre tch ing 4 64 ,873 s quare mi les , a n a rea e qu iva len t t o t ha t o f t he c o mbined s ou thwes tern s ta tes o f Ca l iforn ia , N evada , U tah a nd A r izona .

Wi th in t h is e nor mous a rea f ewer t han f or ty I ron

Age s i tes h ave b een s ub jec ted t o s er ious e xcava t ion , at er m wh ich i s u sed h ere t o d is t ingu ish p rofess iona l e xcava t ions f ro m t he e ar l ier t reasureh un t ing o f c o lon ia l a dm in is tra tors ( a c o mp le te l i s t o f s i tes a t wh ich a ny k ind o f a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion h as b een u nder taken i s p rov ided i n A ppend ix I I ).

At o ta l o f t h ir ty-three r ad iocarbon d a tes i s c urren t ly a va i lable f or Ma l i

( exclud ing t he J ennejeno r esu lts , s ee T able 2 .1),

s o me o f wh ich r e ma in

u npubl ished , a nd mos t o f wh ich l ack t horough p ub l ica t ion o f t he e xcava t ions wh ich p roduced t he m .

P r ior t o 1 972 , n o s ec t ion d rawn t o s ca le o f e xcava t ions

a t a Ma l ian s i te h ad a ppeared i n p r in t .

A lso c onsp icuous b y i t s a bsence was

a ny d iscuss ion o f s tra t igraphy , o r a ny r igorous t rea t men t o f p o t tery a nd o ther a r ti fac ts .

O f Ma l i , R . Mauny l a men ted i n 1 961, " ... n ous a vons l e s en t i men t

d 'e tre e ncore a u d ebu t d e P ere p ionn iere a u p o in t d e v ue a rcheo log ique" ( Mauny 1 961: 9 5 ). o f i t s t ru th .

A l mos t t wo d ecades l a ter , t ha t s ta te men th as l os t n one

The o verwhe lm ing ma jor i ty o f a rchaeo log ica l work a t I ron Age

s i tes i n Ma l i h as c ons is ted o f e i ther u nsys te ma t ic s ur face s urvey o r e xcavat i on l ack ing v er t ica l o r h or izon ta l c on tro l o f a ny k ind ( See Append ix I I ). T here i s n o e s tab l ished s tra t igraph ic s equence f or t he I ron Age a nywhere i n Ma l i , a nd t he l ack o f d a ta wh ich h ave b een s ys te ma t ica l ly r ecorded a nd r eproduced i n p r in t makes c o mpar ison o f a r t i facts f ro m d i f feren t s i tes v irt ua lly imposs ible . T o al arge e x ten t , t h is s te ms f ro m t he h is tor ica l ly d irected g oa ls o f a rchaeolog ica l r esearch i n t he Wes tern S udan , wh ich , a s we s ha l l s ee b e low , h ave c aused r esearch t o f ocus o n t he a rchaeo log ica l i den ti f ica t ion o f med ieva l c i t ies a nd e n trepo ts , a s wel l a s o n t he r e tr ieva l o f h is tor ica l ly d a ted f oss i les d irec teurs .

I t mus t b e r eca l led , h owever , t ha t mos t a rchaeo log ica l work

i n Ma l i was a cco mp l ished i n t he 1 940s a nd 1 950s , we l l b e fore r ad iocarbon d a t ing b ecame c o m mon .

T he r ecovery o f a r t i fac ts whose d a te o f i n troduct ion

was h is tor ica l ly a t tes ted p rov ided t he o n ly way t o p lace s i tes i n t ime .

I n

p ar t icu lar , a rchaeo log is ts s ing led o u t t obacco p ipes ( pos t-1600 A .D. Dage t a nd L igers 1 962 ) , e name l led c era m ics a nd p a in ted wares ( un fa i l ing ly a ssu med t o b e i mpor ts f ro m t he Maghreb ) , a nd s p ind le whor ls ( A.D. 8 00 t er m inus a q uo - Mauny 1 961: 5 9 ) f or s pecia l t rea t men t .

C e me ter ies a nd

h is tor ica l ly d ocu men ted t owns a nd e n trepo ts were p r i me e xcava t ion t arge ts b ecause t hey were t he s i tes mos t l i ke ly t o y ie ld t hese f oss i les d irec teurs a nd e xot ics .

S uch a l im i ted r esearch s tra tegy d id n o t r equ ire c are fu l s tra t i-

g raph ic c on tro l o r me t icu lous a na lys is o f t o ta l a r ti fact a sse mblages .

2 7

Table 2 .1:

Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m I ron Age s i tes i n Ma l i

Da te S i te Dogo Doupwi l

Es-Souk Fa manbougou

G a l ia

Kouga

L ab No .

( uncorrec ted )

Publica t ions

Hv-3874

a .d . 1 420+100

L ie egang

9 75a : 2 7-8

G rN-7943

a .d . 1 150+ 4 5

Bedaux 1 979; n .d .

GrN-8118

a .d . 1 300+ 4 5

Bedaux 1 979 ; n .d .

G rN-8552

a .d . 1 370+ 2 5

B edaux 1 979 ; n .d .

GrN-7944

a .d . 1 100+ 4 5

Bedaux 1 979 ; n .d .

G x-3767

a .d . 1 480+100

B edaux 1 979 ; n .d .

G rN-8553

a .d . 1 275+ 4 5

Bedaux 1 979 ; n .d .

G x-3768

a .d . 1 405+

Bedaux 1 979 ; n .d .

Dak-15

a .d . 1 055+119

F l igh t 1 973a : 5 45

9 5

Hv-6421

a .d . 1 030+ 4 0

L iesegang 1 975 : 2 7-8

Hv-6422

a .d .

6 15+

7 5

L iesegang 1 975 : 2 7-8

Hv-6423

a .d .

6 30+

6 0

L iesegang 1 975 : 2 7-8

G rN-7945

a .d . 1 150+

8 0

Bedaux , 1 979 , n .d .

G rN-8555

a .d . 1 020+

5 0

Bedaux , 1 979 , n .d .

G rN-8554

a .d .

9 45+ 4 0

Bedaux , 1 979 , n .d .

S a-76

a .d . 1 000+150

Mauny 1 961: 1 09-110 ; Mauny 1 964 ;

S evare ( probe 1 )

Ngo m i ( probe 2 )

T e l lern Caves ( Sanga )

( Nokara )

T ieba la

Fagan 1 965

Wa-103

a .d . 1 015+110

Bar th n .d .

Wa-110

a .d .

9 60+

7 0

Bar th n .d .

MI-84

a .d . 1 325+

5 0

Bedaux , p ers . c o m m.

MI-87

a .d . 1 305+ 7 0

Bedaux , p ers . c o m m.

G x-0231

3 90+115 b .c.

B edaux 1 972 , 1 974 ;

G x-0470

a .d . 1 055+

9 5

Wi l le t t 1 971: 3 68-9 ; Hu inziga e t a l . 1 967 t

G x-0752

a .d . 1 095+

5 5

G x-0469

a .d . 1 170+

9 5

Gx-0232

a .d . 1 295 + 125

1

G x-0233

a .d. 1 270+

9 5

1

G x-0795

a .d . 1 560+

8 5

1 1

G x-0753

a .d. 1 750+

9 0

1

G x-2877

modern

G x-1051

a .d . 1 750+

G i f-383

a .d .

1

8 0

5 10+120

1

Mauny 1 967b:536; Fagan 1 969

G i f-384

a .d.

5 50+120

Mauny 1 967b:536; Fagan 1 969

Yaye

S a-61

a .d . 1 470+150

De l ibr ias e t a l . 1 964 : 2 43 ;

2 8

Mauny 1 970 : 3 07

I n an u mber o f c ases , r e mo teness o f s i te l oca t ion o pera ted h and i n h and w i th r es tr ic ted me thods a nd g oa ls t o f ur ther l im i t t he amoun t a nd k ind o f a rchaeolog ica l d a ta o bta ined i n t he c ourse o f i nves t iga t ion .

F or e xa mp le ,

many o f t he S udan ic c i t ies d escr ibed i n t he med ieva l c hron ic les were l oca ted i n t he d eser t .

T he e xcava t ion o f u rban s i tes p oses f orm idable p rob le ms

u nder o p t ima l c ond i t ions , b u t t he l og is t ics o f ad eser t o pera t ion mi l i ta ted a ga ins t a l l b u t t he mos t c ursory o f s urveys a t t hese s i tes .

F oot r econna issance

a nd t he o dd s ondage s u f f iced a t t he S aharan c en tres o f T eghaza , E s-Souk , G ao a nd T i mbuk tu . Teghaza , a s t he p r inc ipa l s ource o f S aharan s a l t d ur ing t he M idd le Ages , a nd T i mbuk tu , t he l arges t med ieva l s a l t marke t i n Wes t A fr ica , a re p o tent ia l ly o f g rea t impor tance f or a c o mpara t ive s tudy o f p o t tery t ypes a nd l uxury g oods wh ich were p assed a long t he S aharan t rade r ou tes a nd marke ted a t t he ma jor e n trepots , i nc lud ing J enne .

Un for tuna tely , t he o n ly a rchaeo log ica l

d escr ip t ions a va i lable f or t hese t wo s i tes f ocus a l mos t e xc lus ive ly o n a rch it ec tura l f ea tures , i nc lud ing c i ty p lan a nd mosques , a nd o n c e me tery l oca t ion ( Monod 1 938 : 2 89-296 ;

Monod 1 940 : 2 49-50 ; Mauny 1 952b ;899-918 ).

T he

u rban s i te o f T eghaza i s c o mposed o f t hree ma jor p ar ts : al arge s a l t p an a nd t wo t e l ls . The s tone b u i ld ings v is ible o n t he l arger o f t he t wo t e l ls h ave p ro mp ted a n e s t ima te o f max i mu m p opu la t ion o n t ha t t e l l o f b e tween 1 ,200-1 , 8 00 ( Mauny 1 961: 1 16-7;

4 74-6;

4 85-7).

On s evera l o ccas ions ,

a rchaeo log ica l a t te mps h ave b een made t o t race t he s tone wa l ls a t T eghaza d own t o t he ir f ounda t ions ;

i n 1 938 , B essac s topped a t ad ep th o f f i ve metres

w i thou t r each ing f ounda t ions ( Monod 1 938 ,

1 940 ;

B essac 1 951;

Mauny 1 961:

1 16) . N o d ocumen ted e xcava t ion h as b een a t te mp ted a t T i mbuk tu ;

a l though

ma jor f ea tures , s uch a s t he t hree a nc ien t mosques — the D jinguereber , t he S ankore , a nd S id i Yahya—have b een mapped ( Mauny 1 952b ) .

R e ma ins o f t he

Modougon ( or Mande ) p a lace , t he Moroccan q uar ter a nd t he c i ty wa l ls n eed t o b e r ecorded b y p roper a rchaeo log ica l s urvey.

The o n ly a r t ifact d escr ip t ions

t ha t e x is t f or e i ther T eghaza o r T i mbuk tu c oncern t he p a in ted p o t tery s herds ( presu mably f ro m F es ) f ound a t T eghaza ( Terrasse 1 938 ) , a nd t he n umerous meu les d orman tes n o ted i n T i mbuk tu ( Pouss ibe t 1 969 , L ho te 1 970 ) . Es-Souk , t he p resumed s i te o f Tade mekka , e ar ly c ap i ta l o f t he s ou thern Tuareg ( Ma in ly 1 961: 1 17-8 ;

b u t c p . L ho te 1 951: 6 5-9 ) , a nd G ao h ave n o t

f ared much b et ter a rchaeo log ica l ly , a l though i n teres t i n t he m h as r e ma ined u nd i min ished .

Aga in , d escr ip t ion h as b een l arge ly l im i ted t o a rch i tec ture

( Mauny 1 951b ;

Mauny 1 961: 1 17 ) , a l though s evera l p i ts were s unk a t E s-Souk .

T he r esu l ts o f t hese e xcava t ions r e ma in u npubl ished . Sma l l-sca le e xcava t ions a t G ao l oca ted t he m irhab o f a mosque , p ossibly t ha t b u i l t i n 1 324 b y t he i l lust r ious k ing o f Ma l i , Mansa Musa , a nd s evera l i nscr ibed t o mb s te lae ( Mauny 1 951b ).

These Anda lus ian-s tyle f unerary s te lae h ave b een d a ted b y e p igraphers

t o t he e ar ly 1 2 th-13 th c en tur ies ; o f G ao-Sane ( Cha mbon 1 941;

a l l r ecord r oya l g raves a t t he r oya l c e me tery

S auvage t 1 950 ;

V ire 1 958 ;

Far ias 1 974a ).

More r ecen t r esearch h as c on t inued t o f ocus o n t he S ane mus l im c e metery ( F l igh t 1 972 , 1 974 , 1 975b , 1 978a ) , where s ur face f ea tures h ave b een mapped a nd more s te lae l oca ted .

S ys te ma t ic i nves t iga t ion o f t he n earby med ieva l

o ccupa t ion mound a t G ao r e ma ins t o b e u nder taken ;

2 9

c er ta in ly , t h is h abi ta t ion

•

a rea mer i ts t he f ur ther i nves t iga t ion t ha t F ligh t i n tends , a s t he c i ty o f G ao h as t he l onges t r ecorded h is tory o f a ny p lace n ame i n Wes t A fr ica ( F l igh t 1 975b : 8 1 ) .

Mos t a u thor i t ies a gree t ha t t he Kawkaw o f e ar ly Arab a u thors

( e .g . a l-Ya 'Kubi , C . 8 72 A . D.) was n one o ther t han Gao , wh ich was , a t t he t ime o f Arab e xpans ion , a lready " le p lus g rand r oyau me d u S oudan" ( Mauny 1 948 : 6 ).

I ti s h igh ly l i kely t ha t f u ture a rchaeo log ica l d a ta f ro m G ao , w hose

i n f luence t hroughou t h is tory was o r ien ted a long t he Eas t- Wes t a x is o f t he s ahe l-Sudan ic s avanna b e l t a nd t he N iger R iver , w i l l h ave g rea t r elevance f or t he i n terpre ta t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta f rom J ennejeno . D esp i te t he p opu lar i ty o f med ieva l c i t ies a s f oc i f or l im i ted a rchaeo log ica l r esearch , v ery l i t t le e xcava t ion h ad b een u nder taken a t o r n ear J enne p r ior t o t he f i e ldwork d escr ibed i n t h is monograph .

I n 1 938 , V ie i l lard s unk t es t

p i ts ( o f u nknown s ize , n umber , a nd l oca t ion ) i n to J ennejeno " sans a u tre r ö 'su l ta t q ue l a t rouva i l le d e q ue lques p er les d e p ierre , d e f ragmen ts d e p enden t i fs a nc iens , d e f rag men ts d e f er imposs ible a i den t i f ier" ( unpub. d ocu men t r ep or ted i n Mauny 1 961: 1 02 ).

P oss ibly , V ie i l lard 's f a i lu tre t o f ind a nyth ing

more s ubs tan t ia l a t J ennejeno d iscouraged f ur ther e xcava t ions a t t he s i te u n t i l 1 977.

The o n ly o ther d irec t i nves t iga t ion o f t he J enne a rea was c arr ied

o u t b y Monod a nd Mauny d ur ing t he ir l ong t enures a t t he I ns t i tu te Franca is d 'A fr ique N o ire . The ir b r ie f v is i ts t o J enne r esu l ted i n u npubl ished s ur face c o l lec t ions o f u ncer ta in p roven ience a nd w i thou t c on tex t , wh ich a re n ow h oused i n t he I FAN museum i n Dakar . O ther c hance s ur face d iscover ies n ear J enne i nc lude a n umber o f w e l lk nown t erraco t ta s ta tue t tes i n aw ide-eyed , p rogna th ic s ty le ( Ve i l lard 1 940 ; Monod 1 943 ) whose g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion a lso embraces Mop t i ( Mauny 1 949 ;

Masson-De tourbe t 1 953 ;

1 966;

Ma lzy 1 967;

S zumowsk i 1 955 ;

E vrard 1 977 ).

L igers 1 957 ;

Hase lberger

T hese s ta tue t tes h ave c la i med a g rea t

n umber o f p ages i n p r in t , a nd a n impor tan t n ew w ork p resen ts a ma jor morp ho log ica l a nd s tyl is t ic a na lys is ( Evrard 1 977). I t mus t b e p oin ted o u t , • h owever , t ha t p r ior t o 1 977 n o t erraco t ta s ta tue t te h ad b een f ound i n ad a table , s ecure a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t .

S pecu la t ion h as r anged f ro m wha t t he ir d epo-

s i t ion c on tex t migh t h ave b een—e .g ., o n t op o f f unerary u rns ( Mauny 1 949 ; L igers 1 957) , i ns ide u rns ( Szu mowsk i 1 955 ; ( Desp lagnes 1 907: 4 7 ;

Bar le t 1 949;

Bar th n .d .) , i ns ide h ouses

Hase lberger 1 966) — to t he s ign i f icance

o f t he p or traya l o f p ersona l t ra i ts , s uch a s r epresen ta t ion o f t he b ody a t b ur ia l ( Ma lzy 1 967: 1 8 ;

S arr 1 972: 6 ) , a r t i f ic ia l e longa t ion o f t he h ead

( L igers 1 957 ) , o r t r iba l s car i f ica t ion ( Monod 1 943 ;

L igers 1 957).

I deas o n

t he c u l tura l c on tex t o f t he s ta tuet tes h ave i ncluded a nces tor r epresen ta t ion ( L igers 1 957 ) a nd a c u l t o f s erpen ts o r sm i ths ( Masson-De tourbe t 1 953 ; L igers 1 961;

S arr 1 972 ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o e ar ly S udan ic c i t ies , f unerary s i tes h ave b een p referen t ia l ly s elec ted f or a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion i n Ma l i .

T h is i s s carce ly s urpr is ing .

Knowledge o f p reh is tor ic b ur ia l p rac t ices h as u sua l ly p receded t he i nves t iga t ion o f o ther , more p rosa ic a spec ts o f c u l ture h is tory .

Th is i s e xp la ined b y t he

v isua l ly p ro m inen t n a ture o f many f unerary s i tes , s uch a s mega l i ths a nd t umu l i , a s we l l a s b y t he t endency f or e ar l ier p eop les t o " take i tw i th t he m" i n t he f or m o f g rave g oods .

I ti s n o c o inc idence t ha t a rchaeolog ica l n o menc la ture

f or t he s oph is t ica ted b ronze- a nd i ron-us ing c u l tures o f Europe r e ma ins b ased

3 0

b ased o n n or ma t ive t ypes o f b ur ia l p rac t ices ( e .g ., Tumu lus , U rn f ie ld ) , a s we l l a s o n a r t i fac ts r ecovered l as t c en tury f ro m c e meter ies l i ke Ha l ls ta t t a nd La ' Me .

N o t u n like n ine teen th c en tury European e xcava tors , a rchaeo lo-

g is ts i n t he Wes tern S udan h ave t ended t o f avour h igh ly v is ib le a nd ma ter ia l ly r eward ing f unerary monu men ts f or i nves t iga t ion .

Frequen t ly , t hese f unerary

monu men ts h ave b een t umu l i o f v ar ious k inds . A t p resen t , t hree ma jor z ones o f t umu l i c an b e i den t i f ied i n Ma l i .

As

Map 2 .1 i nd ica tes , t hese t hree z ones e nc irc le t he I n land N iger D e l ta , b u t t u mu l i a re r are ly f ound w i th in t he a l luv ia l z one i t se l f .

T h is i s a n i n teres t ing

p a t tern t o wh ich we s ha l l r e turn l a ter . The t u mu l i wh ich d o t t he S ahara b y t he t housands a re v ir tua l ly a lways made o f s tone . T hey v ary i n s hape f ro m r ound o r o va l h eaps o f sma l l b ou lders c a l led b as inas , t o f la ttopped c yl inders o f c arefu l ly f i t ted s tone k nown a s c houche ts ( Reygasse 1 950 ;

Mauny 1 961).

D eep b ur ia l i n t he s and ,

t opped b y as tone c a irn , was n ecessary i n t he d eser t t o p reven t c orpses f ro m b eing s cavenged b y h yenas ( Mauny 1 971; 7 7).

A s ide f ro m t he p ro tec t ive

f unc t ion o f t he c a irn , t he s ize o f t he t u mu lus a ppears t o s igna l t he s ocia l s ta tus o f t he d eceased . Mounds e rec ted o ver c h ie fs ' g raves , f or i ns tance , may b e u p t o f i f ty me tres i n c ircu m ference a nd f our me tres i n h e igh t ( Mauny 1 971: 7 7).

T he ma jor i ty o f t he S aharan monu men ts d a te f ro m t he f irs t

mi l lenn iu m B .C. t o t he e nd o f t he f irs t m i l lenn ium A .D., a l though mod i f ied t u mu l i , o r ien ted E as t- Wes t w i th s tones e rected a t t he h ead a nd f ee t i n a ccord ance w i th Mus l im t rad i t ion , i nd ica te t ha t t he c us to m d id n o t d isappear w i th t he a dven t o f I s la m ( Reygasse 1 950 : 7 1) . S ou th o f t he r ocky d eser t r eg ions , s tone t umu l i a re r ep laced b y e ar then mounds .

I n teres t ing ly , t he l ake a rea t o t he s ou th o f T i mbuk tu , where t he

S ahara p roper t er m ina tes , h as a h igh d ens i ty o f e ar then t u mu l i w i th o u ter l ayers f ired t o r ock h ardness b y many sma l l f ires d ug i n to t he mound s ur face . T h is i s p recise ly t he a rea , b e tween t he s ix teen th a nd s even teen th p ara l le ls o f l a t i tude , t ha t wou ld h ave b een c a l led i n more i ngenuous a rchaeo log ica l t imes a c lass ic S aharan-Sahe l t rans i t ion z one .

N o t s urpr is ing ly , S aharan

f ea tures s uch a s s tone b as inas h ave b een l oca ted a t t he b ase o f a t l eas t o ne e ar then t u mu lus i n t he l ake r eg ion ( Kouga ) , a nd o s tr ich e gg b eads h ave b een r ecovered f ro m a no ther ( Goubo ).

Even t oday , d eser t i n f luences p assed o n

b y t he mob i le Tuareg r e ma in v ery much i n e v idence s ou th o f T i mbuk tu . The l arge t u mu l i a lso f unct ionas s ta tus i nd ica tors i n a manner s im i lar t o t he S aharan c a irns , i f we c an b e l ieve a l-Bakr i , who d escr ibed i n A . D. 1 067 t he b u i ld ing o f s uch a t umu lus i n a nc ien t G hana .

A l-Bakr i r ecoun ts

h ow , u pon a k ing 's d ea th , h is s ub jec ts b u i l t ad o med wooden s he lter a nd p laced t he c orpse o n ab ed b enea th t he d o me , w i th o rnamen ts , f ood , d ishes , a nd w eapons l a id t o t he s ide . T hey t hen c overed t he f unerary c ha mber w i th ma ts , e n to mbing a l ive a n umber o f t he p a lace s ervan ts , a nd p roceeded t o t hrow e ar th o n i tu n t i l i tr ese mbled a h i l l . S uch a s equence o f e ven ts q u i te c lose ly r ese mbles t he b ur ia l r i tes wh ich a pparen t ly t ook p lace a t t he t umu lus o f K o iG ourey ( Desp lagnes 1 903 - s ee T able 2 .2 f or d escr ip t ion ) .

A l-Bakr i 's r epor t

i nd ica tes t ha t t umu lus b ur ia l was s t i l l i n u se j us t p r ior t o t he i n troduc t ion o f I s lam , a n i n ference s uppor ted b y ar ad iocarbon d a te o f 1 000 + 1 50 a .d . ( uncorrec ted ) f or K ouga t u mu lus , b u t h ow f ar b ack i n t ime t he p rac t ice e x tends i n q u i te u nknown . 3 1

s tone t umu l i _

e arthen t umu l i

I I" hYPogea"

M AP 2 .1

D istribution o f t umu li

3 2

i n M a li

V S

_C W• . L A 4 -1 . 1- • •- 17

3 i n ( C C 1 . 1

= -C 0 4 -, 4 -, C O 1 . _ , : V ,

f= « 3

W V ) 0 i n .-

0 r e l S 4 -, • -= v ) 03 .Z , C 0 4 ., G J

CV

-0

= C O

f t ) 4. 1

‘. , 4, _ , e

W o . 4 L ,,

C U

C

C U

e t , c r , 4 -1 4A S . . CD I =

v i

l 'n

-

3

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-0 5

C

i m i S . . W CL 5 J 0

0f r 3

C U

C L / . --

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o a ) 1 -) 3 W le I A

s e

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C D U • t c s

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3-

• >, "C 5 - c r 1 5 ( 1 1 : 1 L

7 4-

t i l

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•- 0 LL 1 .0 • -4 -

0. C U 0- c 0 0 C O 4 -3 C U i n -0 -C 0 4 -, -0 o . - C 3 3 m

-D C

›e r •

G J

s .- i z r ) 3 .

C )

. v e 'n

C

C> C D

= 0 4-

E 4-

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4

Ec i ' )

0 C

W 4 -, t c 3

S -

W -C : 7 ( A i c s • : 1-

0 E

o

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>

14 -,

«C I

•

C

3• I

i n • . 0 t / 1 0 t r , 0. r e , M S

( V L -

"0 •

C l i

50 W 4 ., = t r ,

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•

-0

0 . , • C

1 - S C V .0 .C 1

a C )

s . "

( 1 : 1 1/ 1 4 / 0 0 ., . -- 1: , C l i C ) z eV v ,

Cv

-=

> ,

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s . 4-)

t r , 4 -,

r u 0

c

( )

G J

-= U

1 t ) t o 14 -

« 3 5 . G J

C D CT,-C D 3C G J C V) . - ( C

v i s - c

1 : 0• v, I . -

1 5-18m x c .35m

1 ,

0 c o S . .

. • C U >, 4 -,

1

>, L C n v •ß ‚ C C U ✓ • . 3 u t e l C U C " IZ 0 G J O. C . f_ S - G 9 E

S .

4-

f V I

v , =

W > C U

• • t r 7

C . .

0 3 1 . • •

v , C •1 CD Cr t

a ) 0

Cr M D

t n 9 -. 1

G J =

CI r . I

9 0-

u " ,

t n W ' . . . C rö al . r 0 C I

i n

• , . = E

c 0 9 a l

=

v ,

C

. 1

C li

S . ..

Q )

C I ) 0

C I J -J

C V CM

W -1

L3

. 1 tp CT •1

CD t x3 C T 3 •e

=

). . . ,

ra

C

in

Z

c Z

f t ,

S . -

> ,

C U

. r . . . .

L I J

4 --

>,

-0

r o

s - c u m s.c

CI.

e— I G . , v l

i n

a ,

. . . . , 0 J

( C S , --

i n t .0 . . . . . 0 -,

-0

O

C U L

Q,

-0

W C C . .0 al

C, .1 C D •• W . .. .

(, )

C I) S 7 0 CD

= . 1,

' •.

c r

. .

L iesegapg 1 975

r c t

•

. ,

C

C 14 d ate o f

V I

-• • .• • • -IL

C

o

m

o

o b z

.0 =

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C -1

03 =

r e C D

C , o o .

> , 2

4 -,

3 3

2

( 2 ) C 1 . O . 0

• V I " 0 0 0 P I

• • c u > f p

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I n d ry s avanna a reas t o t he s ou theas t o f t he l ake r eg ion , b ur ia l u nder sma l ler e ar then mounds i s r epor ted . D esp lagnes s ta tes : " En e f fe t , l ' e mp lo i d e t umu lus c o m me monu men t f unera ire a e t5 d 'un u sage c ons tan t a ux t e mps p reis la m iques c hez p resque t ou tes l es p opu la t ions d es p la ines n iger ienn .es e t s oudana ises" ( 1 907: 5 3-54 ) . U rvoy mapped o ver e igh ty t umu l i l oca ted a long p resen t o r a nc ien t d is tr ibu tar ies o f t he N iger b e tween S oko lo a nd N ia funke b e tween a pprox i ma te ly 1 50N , 60W a nd 1 6 0 ,40W) ( Mauny 1 961: 9 7 ).

I th as

b een s ugges ted , h owever , t ha t i n a t l eas t s o me i ns tances U rvoy c on fused f unerary t u mu l i w i th h abi ta t ion mounds o n t he f lood-p la in ( Szumowsk i 1 957a : 2 27).

Desp lagnes n o ted f unerary t u mu l i i n t he l acus tr ine d is tr ic t , a nd a t t he

wes tern f ron t ier o f t he i nunda ted p la in , a s we l l a s o n h igh g round ( Desp lagnes 1 903: 1 51-2 ;

1 907: 5 5 ).

We k now l i t t le more a bou t t he g eograph ica l s e t t ing

o f t hese monu men ts o r o f t he s ign i f icance o f l oca l g roup ings o f t u mu l i ( e .g ., why s o me a re s ing le a nd o thers a rranged a s as em i-circle o f sma l ler mounds a round a p r inc ipa l t umu lus ) .

Mauny h as i n ferred t ha t mos t l arge t u mu l i

were b u i l t b e fore A .D . 1 240 ;

we a re s t i l l v ery u ncer ta in a bou t t he c hrono logy

o f t he ir c ons truct ion a nd whe ther t hey r ef lect l oca l p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l d eve lopmen ts o r c o m merc ia l t i es w i th t he Med i terranean a s Desp lagnes b e l ieved ( Desp lagnes 1 903 : 1 53-5 , 1 69-71;

Mauny 1 961: 9 2-5 ;

1 978 : 2 80 , 3 21).

Once we p ass f ro m t he S ahe l a nd d ry s avanna r eg ions i n to t he wooded s avanna b eg inn ing j us t n or th o f 1 30 l a t i tude , we e ncoun ter a no ther ma jor z one o f t u mu l i wh ich , u n t i l t h is p o in t , h ave b een c a tegor ized o n t he b as is o f t he ir s ub-sur face c haracter is t ics ; ( 1961: 1 27 ).

t hese a re t he " hypogea" d escr ibed b y Mauny

" Hypogeu m" ( any u nderground c ha mber ) , h as b eco me r es tr icted

i n A fr ica t o c er ta in t ypes o f r ock-cu t t o mbs .

The " hypogea" o f t he Wes tern

S udan a re d o med b ur ia l c ha mbers s evera l me tres l ong , c u t o u t o f b lock l a ter i te , a ccess t o wh ich i s p rov ided b y av er t ica l s ha f t s l igh t ly l ess t han o ne s quare me tre i n a rea .

T he t o mbs a re c overed w i th sma l l s tone t umu l i s im i lar i f

n o t i den t ica l i n f orm t o t he b as inas o f t he S ahara a nd i tc an b e c onv inc ing ly a rgued t ha t t he d i f ferences b e tween t he " hypogea" a nd o ther t umu lus b ur ia ls t o t he n or th a re s uper f icia l . The t u mu lus s hown i n F ig . 2 .1 c ons is ts o f f our ma in c o mponen ts r evea led b y e xcava t ion : 1 . af unerary c hamber ; 2 . ad o med r oo f o f wood a nd s traw ; 3 . av er t ica l s ha f t e x tending f ro m t he mound s ur face t o t he f unerary c ha mber ; a nd 4 . at umu lus , t he c lay s ur face o f wh ich i s f ired t o e x tre me h ardness . These f our c o mponen ts a re a lso p resen t i n " hypogea" , a l though t hey a re t rans la ted i n to o ther ma ter ia ls .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f " hypogea" o n t he l a ter i t ic

h ardpan a reas o f G u inea-Conakry , s ou thern Ma l i , U pper V o l ta a nd p ar ts o f n or thern G hana ( Dav ies 1 967: 2 93 ) e xp la ins t he a l tered f ea tures o f t he t umu lus b ur ia ls o f t he wooded s avanna .

I n t h is r eg ion , h ardpan may e x tend t o ad ep th

o f s evera l me tres , w i th o n ly t he t h innes t o f s o i l c over ( Morgan a nd P ugh 1 969 : 1 94 ) .

Under t hese c ircums tances , a n e ar then t umu lus i s q u i te o u t o f t he

q ues t ion , a nd t he r equ is i te f unerary c hamber w i th a p ro tec t ive d o med r oo f i s e f f ic ien t ly p rov ided b y d igg ing i n to t he l a ter i te i t sel f . Excava ted " hypogea" h ave c on ta ined i ron a nd s o c ou ld d a te a nyt i me f ro m t he b eg inn ing t o t he e nd o f t he f irs t mi l lenn ium A .D., a t wh ich p o in t t hey were p rogress ive ly a bandoned i n f avour o f I s la m ic r i tes ( Mauny 1 961: 1 29 ) . A r ad iocarbon d a te o f 1 420 ± 1 00 a .d . ( Hv-3874 ) f or a " hypogeum" s ou theas t o f Bamako may b e t aken a s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t s o me o f t he t o mbs were s t i l l 3 5

i n u se a t t ha t d a te ( L iesegang 1 975a : 2 7-8 ) .

On t he o ther h and , t h is d a te

was o b ta ined o nb one , wh ich h as a t endency t o y ie ld y oung d a tes . b ecause i ti s a n i so la ted d a te , i ts hou ld b e v iewed w i th c au t ion .

0

3 0 m• H ypogeum n ear T ienra ( from A ns 1 950:65)

T umulus o f E l-Oualedji ( from M auny 1 961:96)

F igure 2 .1

S tructural

A dd i t iona l ly ,

c omparison o f e arthen t umulus a nd a h ypogeum

T he a bove t rea tmen t o f t umu lus d is tr ibu t ions ( see Map 2 .1) imp l ies t he e x is tence o f aw idespread I ron Age t umu lus t rad i t ion i n Ma l i .

S uch a t rad i t ion

may o r may n o t a pproach t he r ea l i ty o f t he I ron A ge s i tua t ion i n t he Wes tern S udan . D is tr ibu t ion maps c an b e d ecep t ive a t t he b es t o f t imes , a nd t h is p ar t icu lar map i s b ased o n a mere h and fu l o f e xcava t ions . Ag rea t d ea l more r esearch i s r equ ired b efore w e k now t he p ercen tage o f v is ib le t umu l i wh ich a ctua l ly h ad a f unerary f unct ion . S imi lar ly , t he sma l ler s ou thern t u mu l i a re d i f f icu l t t o f ind i n t he h eav ier v ege ta t ion o f t he w ooded s avanna . P erhaps t he mos t p oor ly u nders tood r eg ion i n a l l Ma l i i s t he S ahe l ian s ec to .r e nco mpass ing t he I n land N iger De l ta , wh ich r e ma ins u nshaded o n Map 2 .1 I n t h is a rea , sma l l e ar then t umu l i l ack ing af i red s ur face wou ld h ave b een r avaged b y i n tense w ind a nd wa ter e rosion . T here fore , e x tens ive , c are fu l i nves t iga t ion i s n ecessary b e fore we c an s ta te whe ther t umu l i w ere p laced o ver t o mbs i n t he I n land D e l ta .

I t migh t b e n o ted h ere t ha t ap robable

f unerary t u mu lus w i th s ubs id iary e ar then mounds a rranged a round i t was l oca ted n ear J enne d ur ing t he 1 977 r eg iona l s urvey i n t he w es tern I n land D el ta ( v ide i n fra , P ar t i : C hap . 5 ) .

H owever , t he ma jor mode o f p re-is lam ic

f unerary p ract ice i n t h is a rea a ppears t o h ave b een i n termen t i n l arge u rns .

3 6

The n u mber o f b ur ia l u rns e xcava ted i n t he I n land D e l ta i s e x tre me ly sma l l ( see Table 2 .3 ) , h owever , a s e ar ly a s 1 907 Desp lagnes n o ted :

" Sur

l es b ords d u N iger , d ans l es r u ines d 'anc iens v i l lages , o n v o i t f reque m men t d e c es g rands c anar is r en fer man t d e f ragmen ts d 'osse men ts h uma ins" ( Desp lagnes 1 907: 4 7 ) .

S ubsequen t ly , an umber o f a rchaeo log is ts h ave c o m-

men ted o n e rod ing b ur ia l u rns n ear Mop t i ( Froben ius 1 929 : 9 5-99 ;

R . G u i ta t

-r epor ted i n Monod 1 955 : 3 3 ), J enne ( V ie i l lard - r epor ted i n Monod 1 955 : 3 2 ) , a nd i m med ia te ly u ps trea m f ro m K e- Macina ( Mauny a nd Dage t -r epor ted i n Monod 1 955 : 3 3 ) .

A l l b ur ia l u rns wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted f ro m a reas

s ub jec t t o s easona l i nunda t ion i n t he r eg ion o f t he I n land N iger D e l ta a re s im i lar i n f or m a nd b ur ia l r i tua l .

The u rns t he mse lves a re l arge ( >40 cm

h igh ) , o vo id t o s l igh t ly g lobu lar i n s hape , w i th w ide n ecks a nd mou ths a nd t h ick wa l ls .

O f ten , t hey a re d ecora ted w i th i nd is t inc t c ord r ou le t t ing

( re ferred t o a s b araka le b y S zu mowsk i ) .

T he c orpse was p laced i n t he b o t to m

o f t he j ar , wh ich was c overed w i th a l i d o r a n i nver ted p o t .

G rave g oods

a re r are . Im med ia te ly t o t he wes t o f t he I n land D el ta , an umber o f u rn b ur ia ls h ave b een e xcava ted wh ich d i f fer s ubs tan t ia l ly i nb ur ia l r i tua l f ro m t he g roup d escr ibed a bove .

I ti s p erhaps s ign i f ican t t ha t n o b ur ia l o f t h is s econd t ype

h as b een f ound i n t he a l luv ia l z one .

B ecause t hese t o mbs a re marked b y a

sma l l e ar then t umu lus , t hey h ave b een i ncluded i n T able 2 .2 . T he b ur ia ls c ons is t o f s evera l sma l l p o ts l ess t han 3 5 c en t i me tres i n h e igh t wh ich a re c lus tered a round a c en tra l b ur ia l u rn c on ta in ing b urned h uman b one .

The

ma jor i ty o f t he p o ts h ave s evere ly c ons tr ic ted n ecks , f lar ing r i ms , a nd a re s l ipped r a ther t han c ord-rou le t ted .

T he sma l l p o ts c on ta in v arying amoun ts

o f g rave g oods , i nclud ing i ron , c opper a nd s i lver j ewe lry , g r ind ing s tones a nd b eads .

The d epos i ts s urround ing t he u rns a re i n e very c ase a shy a nd

f u l l o f b urned a n i ma l b ones a nd c erea l o f fer ings .

Bur ia ls o f t h is t ype h ave

b een f ound a t Bango , F e toko le , S evaralode , P ehe a nd T ougou ( see map A pp . I I ). A t p resen t , t he g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ions o f t hese t wo k inds o f u rn b ur ia ls , a s we l l a s p o t t ypes a nd b ur ia l r i tua l , a re c lear ly d i f feren t ia ted .

The p resence

o f c lay p ipes a t t he B ango s i te , i nd ica t ing t ha t i n ter men t p os t-da ted t he i n trod uc t ion o f t obacco i n C . 1 600 A .D ., a nd t he r ad iocarbon r esu l ts f or t he b ur ia l u rns a t Doupwi l ( 15 th c en tury A . D.) s ugges t t ha t t he t wo b ur ia l t rad i t ions were n o t w ide ly s epara ted i n t ime a nd may h ave b een a t l eas t p ar t ly c on te mp oraneous . I ti s h igh ly p robable t ha t t he u rn b ur ia ls o f b o th g roups f a l l e n t irely w i th in t he l a ter I ron Age . A t l eas t t wo o ther b ur ia l p rac t ices a re r ecorded f ro m t he I n land De l ta : p i t g raves w i th t uyeres , a nd f l exed i nhuma t ion . f ro m S egoubougou ( S zu mowsk i 1 957a : 2 53 ).

F lexed i nhuma t ion i s k nown

P i t g raves w i th t uyeres e x tend ing

a bove g round l eve l ( "pour f a ire c orrespondre l e mor t a vec l e monde v ivan t S zu mowsk i 1 956a : 3 3 ) h ave b een l oca ted a t Nan taka a nd Fa to ma

e x ter ieure"

n o . 4( Szumowsk i 1 954 , 1 956a ) , a l though n o e xcava t ion was u nder taken b ecause t he t o mbs were a ssumed t o b e o f f a ir ly r ecen t d a te . Desp lagnes wro te a t t he t urn o f t he c en tury t ha t t uyeres were s t i l l u sed b y t he " Koron-go i" f i sher men o f t he N iger a nd B a ut R ivers f or t he p our ing o f l i ba t ions a nd o ffer ings t o t he d ead .

A t J enne , t he u se o f t uyeres i s v ery much i n e v idence a t t he p resen t

Mus l im c e me tery , where t hey a re e rec ted a s s te lae . 3 7

The q ues t ion o f h ow

T ABLE 2 .3.

S ite F atoma

F unerary u rns e xcavated f rom t he I n land N iger D e lta

E xcavator a nd P ub lication d ate S zumowski 1 954

D escription # 1 -2g lobu lar p ots c ontained h uman b one. N o g rave g oods. I ron f ound i n a ssociated o ccupation a rea. # 3 -s evera l l arge o void u rns, e ach c overed b y a n i nverted p ot. N o g rave g oods; s ke leta l r em ains i n b ottom . B arakale a nd g eometr ic d ecoration.

K am i

S zumowsk i 1 955

# 1 -l arge o void f unerary u rn 4 0 c m h igh. B arakali d ecoration. H uman r emains a t b ottom ; 2c opper r ings. # 2 -l arge u rn 6 2 c m h igh, b arakali. H uman r emains a t b ottom , n o g rave g oods. # 3 -s mall g lobu lar u rn 2 6 c m h igh c ontaining h uman b one . N o g rave g oods.

D oupw il

B edaux 1 976

l arge u rn c overed w ith i nverted p ot, c ontained 1 s ke leton i n f orced c ontracted p osture . I ron b race let a nd a nk le r ing.

T emouna

M onod 1 955

# 1 -o void u rn 6 8 c m h igh w ith h uman s ke leton i n p oor c ondit ion, n o g rave g oods. # 2 -l arge o void u rn 8 2 c m h igh w ith l id. S ke leton a t b ottom; n o g rave g oods.

S oy6

B ar let 1 949

C overed u rn 6 0 c m h igh w ith r emains o f i nfant. B ones b roken b efore i nterment. N o g rave g oods.

G alia

B edaux 1 976

1 3 l arge b uria l u rns e xcavated. D etails n ot g iven.

D iondor i

S arr 1 972

S everal l arge f unerary u rns e xcavated: t wine-decorated a nd c overed e ither w ith l id o r s mall i nverted p ot . N o g rave g oods. I nfant b ur ia ls i n s maller p ots.

3 8

l ong t uyAres h ave b een u sed i nb ur ia l p rac t ice h as n o t b een r eso lved , d esp i te t he a sser t ion b y S zumowsk i t ha t l arge u rn b ur ia l , sma l l u rn b ur ia l , a nd t uy re b ur ia l may b e p laced i n a scend ing c hrono log ica l o rder . ( Szu mowsk i 1 957a : 2 53 ) .

We h ave s earched h is r epor ts i n v a in f or s tra t igraph ic o r a ny

o ther k ind o f e v idence t ha t wou ld s uppor t t h is c on ten t ion . A t c e me tery s i tes , a s we l l a s a t t he v ery f ew o ccupa t ion a reas t ha t h ave b een e xcava ted i n t he I n land N iger D e l ta , emphas is o n ' pre t ty ' , u nusua l , o r i mpor ted a r t ifacts h as b een p ar t icu lar ly marked i n e xcava t ion r epor ts . N orma l ly , e xcava ted d a ta were r ecorded o n ly i ft hey f e l l i n to o ne o r more o f t hese t hree c a tegor ies o r were f oss i les d irec teurs .

P o t tery was p ho tographed

o n ly i fi t was i n tac t ( c f . S zu mowsk i 1 954 , 1 955 , 1 956a ).

An u mber o f

S zumowsk i 's p ubl ished r epor ts d o , h owever , h ave e xce l len t d raw ings o f t he mos t o rna te ly d ecora ted s herds r ecovered i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ion . U n for tuna te ly , l ack o f d e ta i l o n p roven ience o r s tra t igraphy makes e ven a p re l im inary a ssess men t o f c hange t hrough t ime q u i te i mposs ible .

Pr ior t o

1 978 , t he d a ta a va i lab le a l lowed o n ly t he f o l low ing g enera l s ta te men ts t o b e made a bou t t he I ron A ge a rchaeo logy o f t he I n land N iger D el ta :

I ta ppears

t ha t many o f t he l arge mounds wh ich r ise a bove f l oodp la in i n t h is r eg ion a re i n f ac t t e l ls , c o mposed e n t ire ly o f o ccupa t iona l d ebr is .

The mounds v ary

w ide ly i n s ize , f ro m 1 50 me tres t o a l mos t ak i lo me tre i n d iame ter , a nd mos t s how s ur face i nd ica t ions o f d iscre te h abi ta t ion a nd c e me tery a reas .

N one

o f t he mounds e xcava ted h as y ie lded a N eo l i th ic c o mponen t , a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty mus t b e c ons idered t ha t t e l l a ccu mu la t ion i n t he I n land De l ta i s ac o mp lete ly I ron Age p heno menon .

The p resence o f smok ing p ipes i n u pper l eve ls a t s o me

s i tes i nd ica tes a bandonmen t a f ter A .D. 1 600 .

H owever , i n t he a bsence o f

p ipes , f ew , i fa ny , s ta te men ts c an b e made a bou t t he c hrono logy o f ap ar t icu lar mound . Ex tens ive a rchaeo log ica l r esearch , s uppor ted b y ar e l iab le s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes , h as b een a cco mp l ished i n o h ly o ne r eg ion o f Ma l i , t he Band iagara h igh lands l oca ted e as t o f t he I n land D e l ta . H ere , at eam o f i nv es t iga tors f ro m t he I ns t i tu te o f Hu man B io logy i n U trech t h as c ondut ted s evera l f i e ld s easons o f e xcava t ion b e tween 1 964-1971 i n t he ' Te l le rn ' c aves , wh ich were u sed p r i mar i ly f or b ur ia l .

A ma jor c ons idera t ion o f t he T e l lern

p ro ject h as b een t he r ecovery a nd measure men t o f h u man s ke le ta l ma ter ia l i n o rder t o d e ter m ine t he g enet ic r e la t ionsh ip o f t he T e l lern p eop le t o p resen td ay g roups i n t he a rea ( Hu inziga e t a l . 1 967 ).

Ag ood s er ies o f r ad iocarbon

d a tes f or t he s ke le ta l ma ter ia l a nd a ssocia ted c u l tura l r e ma ins h as b een f or thc om ing , w i th a f ir m c lus ter o f d a tes i n t he e leven th t o f our teen th c en tur ies A .D. ( W i l le t t 1 971: 3 68-9 ;

Bedaux 1 972 : 1 51).

The c u l tura l ma ter ia l r e-

c overed i s s t i l l u nder a na lys is , a nd t he b u lk o f i t , I nc lud ing p o t tery , b eads , a nd me ta l a r t i facts , r e ma ins t o b e p ubl ished . ( Bazu in-S ira 1 968 ;

P re l im inary r epor ts , h owever ,

B edaux 1 974 ) i nd ica te t ha t t here a re marked s im i lar i t ies

i n t he p o t tery s hapes a nd d ecora t ive r eper to ire r ecorded f ro m t he Band iagara a nd t he 1 977 J ennejeno e xcava t ions . A more r es tr icted a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion was c onducted b y t he U trech t r esearchers i n t he I n land N iger D e l ta d ur ing a t wo- mon th p er iod i n 1 975 .

Aga in , a ma jor g oa l o f t he r esearch was t he e f f ic ien t r ecovery o f

s ke le ta l ma ter ia l ( Bedaux 1 976b : 1 ) .

Much o f t he work a t t he t wo mounds

3 9

s elec ted f or i nves t iga t ion , T oguere G a lia a nd T oguere D oupwi l , f ocussed o n c lean ing s tra t igraph ic s ect ions a lready e xposed b y l oca l q uarrying f or mud b r ick o r b y r iver d owncu t t ing .

A lso o f i n teres t was t he r e tr ieva l o f n umerous

f unerary u rns v is ible i n t hese s ec t ions .

D esp i te t he n ecessar i ly l im i ted

g oa ls o f t he r esearch a t D oupwi l a nd G a l ia , Roger Bedaux h as a pparen t ly wrung e very a va i lable b i t o f i n for ma t ion f ro m t he d epos i ts t o p roduce o ne o f t he more c o mp le te s i te r epor ts f ro m Wes t A fr ica .

Thus f ar , as er ies o f

1

t en r ad iocarbon d a tes i s a va i lable f or t he t wo mounds .

T hree o f t hese d a tes

h ave b een r e jec ted b y t he e xcava tor a s t oo o ld ( Bedaux 1 979 : 3 4 ) ;

t he r e ma in ing

s even d a tes i nd ica te t ha t b o th s i tes were o ccup ied f ro m t he t wel f th t o t he s ix teen th c en tur ies A . D. Th is g enera l s urvey o f t he s ta te o f I ron Age r esearch i n Ma l i d e mons tra tes t ha t a ma jor l acuna e x is ts i n o ur k now ledge o f t ha t p er iod .

Pr ior r esearch

emphas is o n h is tor ica l s i tes h as r esu l ted i n ac o mple te l ack o f d a ta o n t he ' s i len t mi l lenn ia ' ( 1000 B .C. - A .D. 1 000 ) wh ich p receded t he r ise o f emp ires c en tred o n t he I n land N iger D e l ta .

An a dd i t iona l p roble m i s t he e x tre me b ias

man i fes ted i n t he s e lect ion f or i nves t iga t ion o f h igh ly v is ible t e l ls a nd f unerary t u mu l i a long t he N iger a nd Ban ! R iver . T h is h as p roduced a marked g eog raph ica l c lus ter ing o f a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv i ty w i th in Ma l i ( c lear ly v is ib le o n t he map a cco mpanying A pp . I I ) a nd h as e nsured t ha t o ur k nowledge o f t he I ron Age c u l tures o f Ma l i i s r es tr ic ted t o o n ly c er ta in k inds o f s i tes w i th in c er ta in sma l l a reas . The u l t i ma te o bs tac le t o a n u nders tand ing o f Ma l i 's l a ter p reh is tory i s t he f act t ha t r e la t ive ly f ew i nves t iga tors h ave b een i ncl ined t o e xcav a te ( preferr ing s ur face c o l lec t ion ) a nd v ery f ew o f t hose s o i ncl ined h ave d isp layed a ny a pprec ia t ion o f h or izon ta l o r v er t ica l c on tro l wh i le e xcava t ing . T hus , ab as ic f ramework f or t he l a ter p reh is tory o f Ma l i r e ma ins v ery much o u t o f r each . T here i s n o e s tab l ished s equence o f I ron Age ma ter ia l a nywhere i n Ma l i , a nd a l l p re-A.D . 1 000 r ad iocarbon d a tes o bta ined u p t o t h is p oin t h ave b een e i ther s ing le , i so la ted d a tes , o r u npubl ished , o r b o th .

NOTES 1

B edaux , R . M. A ., T . S . C ons tandse- Wes ter mann , L . Hacquebord , A . G . Lange , a nd J . D . v an d er Waa ls , 1 978 . g igues d ans l e D e l ta I n ter ieure d u N iger" .

" Recherches a rcheo lo-

Pa laeoh is tor ia XX : 9 1-220 .

T h is p ub l ica t ion a ppeared i n e ar ly 1 980 a nd b ecame a va i lable t o u s i m med ia te ly b e fore g o ing t o p ress .

There fore , o ur d iscuss ions i n t h is

monograph o f B edaux e t a l .'s r esearch a re b ased o n t he ma ter ia ls c i ted i n t he b ibl iography.

4 0

CHAPTER 3 J ENNE I N H ISTORY

As we h ave s hown , a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n t he I n land N iger De l ta p r ior t o 1 977 o f fers f ew i ns igh ts i n to t he n a ture o r c hrono logy o f t he d evelopmen t o f t he J enne r eg ion .

We t urn n ow t o t he h is tor ica l s ources f or t he

Wes tern S udan i n as earch f or f ur ther i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he o r ig ins o f t he c i ty , t he r easons f or i t s g row th , a nd i t s f unct ion w i th in t he e x tens ive t rade n e tworks o f t he s econd mi l lenn ium A .D. T he a va i lable wr i t ten s ources i nclude :

t he s cho lar ly c o mpend ia o f med ieva l a rab g eographers a nd h is tor ians

b ased i n N or th A fr ica , S pa in , a nd t he N ear Eas t , l oca l h is tor ies ( t a yr ikhs ) wr i t ten i n A rab ic b y n a t ive A fr ican s cho lars , European a ccoun ts , European c ar tography , a nd i nd igenous o ra l t rad i t ions . Th is c hap ter b eg ins w i th a s ec t ion d evo ted t o t he c hrono logy o f wr i t ten d ocumen ta t ion ; s ources mak ing s peci f ic men t ion o f J enne a re o u t l ined a nd t he t ype o f i n for ma t ion t hey o f fer a bou t t he c i ty i s d iscussed .

Prepara t ion o f t h is s ec t ion was g rea t ly f ac i l i ta ted

b y a n e xce l len t r ecen t s um mary o f t he European s ources , i nc lud ing c ar tog raph ic o nes ( L . Pr uss in 1 973 ).

As econd s ect ion o f fers a n h is tor ica l s ke tch

o f ma jor e ven ts k nown t o h ave a f fec ted t he J enne r eg ion , i nc lud ing p o l i t ica l d eve lop men ts . T he f ina l s ec t ion c ons iders d ocumen ta t ion r e levan t t o t he q ues t ion o f J enne 's o r ig ins .

Par t icu lar a t ten t ion i s p a id t o t he c on f l ic t b e tween

h is tor ica l r econs truct ion a nd o ra l t rad i t iona l c oncern ing t he d a te o f J enne 's f ound ing . The C hrono logy o f Wr i t ten D ocumen ta t ion ( Map 3 .1) The e ar l ies t d e ta i ls o n t he Wes tern S udan a re p rov ided b y A rab g eographers a nd h is tor ians , n one o f who m , i t mus t b e s a id a t t he o u tse t , men t ions J enne b y n a me .

Fro m t he works p roduced b e tween t he e igh th a nd f i f teen th c en tur ies

A .D., a f a ir ly d e ta i led p ic ture emerges o f ma jor p o l i t ica l , e thn ic , a nd r e l ig ious d iv is ions i n t he S ahara a nd o f i mpor tan t e n trepo ts a nd o ases a long t he import an t t rade r ou tes f ro m N or th A fr ica t o t he s ou thern t rans-Saharan t rade t er m in i o f Awdaghus t , Wä la ta , G hana , a nd Tad mekka . p assed a long t hese t rade n e tworks a re e numera ted :

T he c o m mod i t ies

s i lk , s a fran , wood p ine ,

c owr ies , g lass b eads , r es in , s a l t , a nd c opper b race le ts a nd r ings were e xp or ted f ro m N or th A fr ica b y Arab merchan ts who e xchanged t he m a t t he s ou thern S aharan t erm in i f or g o ld , s laves , i vory , e bony , e lephan ts , a nd g oa tsk in b rough t f ro m t he B i lad a l-Sudan ( Land o f t he B lacks ) b y n a t ive merc han ts ( a l-Zuhr i , i n C uoq 1 975 : 1 15 ;

Yaku t , i n C uoq 1 975 : 1 82 ).

The t rans-

f er o f c o m merc ia l c on tro l f ro m Arab o r Berber h ands t o b lack h ands i n t he s ou thern S ahara i s r e f lec ted i n t he A rab s ources b y ad ec l ine i n t he amoun t o f t he p rec is ion o f d e ta i l g iven f or t rade r ou tes a nd c o m mercia l c en tres s ou th o f t he S ahara .

I bn H awqa l 's S aharan i t inerary , f or e xamp le , i n q u i te a ccura te

w i th r espec t t o t rave l t ime b etween S i ji l masa , Awdaghus t , a nd G hana , b u t t rave l t imes b e tween t he S ahel/nor thern s avanna c en tres o f Kugha , S ama ,

4 1

• r -

4 2

( 1 )

c r 0

K EY T O M AP 3 .1

S ources o f g old 1 ,4,4 1, 1 14 14 1 . 0 0 .4 ,4 0

•••••

M ajor t rans-Saharan t rade r outes-XXIV c enturies A .D.

•

S outhern l imit

o f S ahara

•

S outhern l imit o f S ahe l

( or S aharan S ahe l)

( or S udanic S ahe l)

I bn B attuta's i tinerary a s r econstructed b y H unw ick N avigab le N iger/Bani N on-navigab le N iger/Bani

4 3

Kuza m , a nd Kawkaw a re e nor mous ly e xagerra ted ( I bn Hawqa l , i n C uoq 1 975 : 7 3 ) .

R epor ts o n t owns n ear o r o n t he ' N i le ' ( i .e ., e i ther t he N iger o r S enega l

R ivers ) a re a l mos t i nvar iab ly v ague , i fn o t d ownr igh t c on trad ictory. I n g enera l , t he q ua l i ty o f A rab k now ledge a ppears t o d ecrease r ap id ly w i th d ist ance s ou th o f t he s ou thern S aharan e n trepo ts a nd c i t ies .

Th is i s s carcely

s urpr is ing i n v iew o f t he f act t ha t mos t A rab c omp i lers n ever l e f t t he ir n a t ive l ands o f S pa in , I f r iqiya , Eg yp t , o r S yr ia a nd d epended l arge ly o n s econd- o r t h ird-hand r epor ts f ro m merchan ts o r t rave l lers f or t he ir i n for ma t ion .

The

s ou thern f ron t ier o f A rab k now ledge o f t he Wes tern S udan s ee ms t o b e t he S enega l a nd N iger R ivers , wh ich t he A rabs b e l ieved t o b e b u t o ne r iver , t he N i le , u l t i ma tely f l owing p as t C a iro a nd i n to t he Med i terranean .

S ou th o f t he

r iver , t he Arabs k new o n ly t ha t ap agan t r ibe o f b lacks , t he Lam lam , l i ved . B eyond t he L am lam l ay u n inhab i tab le d eser t . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o k now h ow much o f t he v ague r epor tage o f s ub-Saharan Wes tern S udan b y Arab a u thors s te ms f ro m g enu ine i gnorance a nd c on fus ion ( possib ly c rea ted i n p ar t b y d e l ibera te o bfusca t ion o n t he p ar t o f b lack t raders s eek ing t o c oncea l t he t rade r ou tes t o t he g o ld f i e lds ) , a nd h ow much i s a f unc t ion o f s e lec t ive r epor t ing .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he t owns o f b lack . A fr ica

h e ld l i t t le f asc ina t ion f or t he A rab a u thors , mos t o f who m wrote f or r oya l p a trons who p ossessed l arge n umbers o f b lack s laves .

S ince many b lack

s oc ie t ies were p agan , A rab a u thors may h ave a vo ided d e ta i led t rea tmin t o f t he m .

I n t he i n troduct ion t o I bn Hawqa l 's S ura t a l-Ard , we f ind a n e xamp le

o f t h is a t t i tude : " I h ave n o t d escr ibed t he c oun tr ies o f t he b lacks i n t he Wes t ..because t he c haracter is t ics o r o rgan ized s ta tes , s uch a s r e l ig ious , c u l tura l a nd l ega l i ns t i tu t ions a nd s tabi l ized g overnmen ta l i ns t i tu t ions , a re u t ter ly l ack ing among t he m" ( t rans la ted i n Tr im ingham 1 962 : 2 ) .

Wha tever t he r ea-

s on , t he p a t tern o f v ague a nd c on fused r epor tage f or s ub-Saharan r eg ions i s s u f f ic ien t ly c ons is ten t i n t he A rab s ources t ha t w e may c onclude t ha t t he ir f a i lure t o men t ion J enne c anno t b e a ssu med t o mean t ha t t he t own was n o t y et i n e x is tence . An o table e xcep t ion t o t h is l ine o f r eason ing mus t b e men t ioned , h owever : u n l ike o ther A rab a u thors o f t h is p er iod , I bn Ba t tu ta a ctua l ly t rave l led t hrough t he Wes tern S udan ( i n A .D. 1 352-3 ) t o t he c ap i ta l o f t he k ingdo m o f Ma l i a nd t hus p rov ides n u merous d e ta i ls o n t he t owns t hrough wh ich h e p assed . A l though h e v is i ted Wa la ta , T i mbuk tu , a nd G ao i n h is t rave ls , I bn B a t tu ta makes n o men t ion o f J enne .

Mus t we c onclude t hen t ha t J enne e i ther d id n o t

y e t e x is t o r was u n i mpor tan t a t t h is t ime?

N o t n ecessar i ly.

As e xce l len t

a s many o f I bn B a t tu ta 's d escr ip t ion 's a re , t here a re l arge g aps i n h is n arrat ive where in a j ourney o f many d ays ' d ura t ion r ece ived o n ly a p aragraph 's n o t ice . H is mon thlong s tay i n G ao ( wh ich h e c a l ls t he ' mos t b eau t i fu l c i ty i n t he S udan , a nd t he l arges t a nd r iches t a lso ' ) mer i ts o n ly s even s en tences ( l bn Ba t tu ta , i n C uoq 1 975 : 3 16 ).

E i ther h is d a i ly j ourna l o r h is me mory

was v ery s e lec t ive , a l though p ar t o f t he p roble m mus t s ure ly b e , a s Mauny e t a l . ( 1966 ) h ave p o in ted o u t , t ha t I bn Ba t tu ta 's n o tes f ro m t wen ty-four y ears o f wor ld t rave l were d ic ta ted t o ap rofess iona l . w r i ter i n F es who p roduced as yn thes is i n o n ly t hree mon ths ' t ime . I bn Ba t tu ta 's a ccoun t o f h is t r ip b o th t o a nd f ro m Ma l i i s p ar t icu lar ly s parce i n d e ta i l ; a s ar esu l t , h is i t inerary h as b een t he s ub jec t o f s ubs tan t ia l d eba te .

Delafosse ( 1924 ) a rgued t ha t I bn Ba t tu ta e n tered t he I n land N iger 4 4

De l ta a f ter c ross ing t he N iger s ou thwes t o f J enne , f ro m whence h e t rave l led t o S 6gou a nd o n t o Ma l i .

I ft h is were t rue , Ba t tu ta 's f a i lure t o men t ion J enne

wou ld s trong ly s ugges t t ha t t he t own c ame t o p lay a c r i t ica l r o le i n r iver ine t ranspor t i n t he u pper I n land D e l ta o n ly a f ter t he mid-14th c en tury .

H owever ,

b o th Mei l lassoux ( 1 972 ) a nd H unwick ( 1 973 ) o f fer i n terpre ta t ions o f I bn Ba t tu ta 's i t inerary t ha t k eep h im we l l t o t he n or th o f t he I n land D el ta .

We i ncl ine t o

s uppor t Hunwick 's r econs truct ion , wh ich emphas izes t he i mpor tan t p o in t t ha t n ei ther o n h is j ourney f ro m Wa la ta t o Ma l i n or e n r ou te f ro m Ma l i t o T i mbuk tu d id I bn Ba t tu ta men t ion c ross ing t he N iger R iver .

I f Hunw ick 's i n terpre ta t ion

o f t he t rave l ler 's s ou thward i t inerary i s c orrec t , I bn Ba t tu ta a pproached t he N iger R iver f ro m t he n or th a t ap o in t we l l t o t he s ou thwes t o f J enne , b u t n ever c rossed t he N iger o r t rave l led i n t he D e l ta .

H is r e turn f ro m Ma l i wou ld h ave

t aken h i m we l l t o t he n or th o f t he N iger , v ia Me ma , u n t i l h e r eached t he N iger a ga in a t T i mbuk tu , f ro m whence h e t rave l led b y p irogue ( f la t-bo t to med b oa t ) d owns tream t o G ao .

G iven t ha t I bn Ba t tu ta t rave l led o ver land , p robably t o

t he n or th o f t he I n land D e l ta , i ti s n o t p ar t icu lar ly s ign i f ican t t ha t h e d oes n o t men t ion J enne , s ince we wou ld n ecessar i ly e xpect h im t o d o s o o n ly i f h e t rave l led t hrough t he I n land N iger D e l ta b y b oa t , wh ich h e c lear ly d id n o t . A l though i ti h i t ia l ly a ppears p uzzl ing t ha t I bn Ba t tu ta s hou ld h ave t rave l led o ver land r a ther t han t ak ing a dvan tage o f t he e f f ic ien t r iver ine t ranspor t , e spec ia l ly b e tween K ou l ikoro a nd T i mbuk tu , i t may we l l b e t ha t h is j ourney , i n t he c o mpany o f a merchan t , mere ly r e f lec ted t he s easona l s hi f t i n r ou tes a s t he wa ter l eve l b eca me t oo l ow f or s uccessfu l c o m merc ia l t ranspor t a long t he M idd le N iger .

T he f l ood s eason ( m id-Ju ly t o D ece mber ) o f fers max i mum

n av igab i l i ty a long t he U pper a nd M idd le N iger ( Champaud 1 961: 2 59 ).

I bn

Ba t tu ta t rave l led f rom Ma l i t o T i mbuk tu i n l a te F ebruary/ear ly March (Cuoq 1 975 : 2 89 , f ootno te 1 ) .

C la i ms t o t he e f fec t t ha t I bn Ba t tu ta 's o ver land i t inerary

p roves t ha t t he M idd le N iger h ad n o t y e t d eveloped b y t he mid-14th c en tury a s a n impor tan t t ranspor t a x is s hou ld b e r econs idered . I n g enera l , f ac tors o f s e lect ive r epor t ing a nd t he n or thern p erspect ive o f Arab a u thors ( f ocuss ing o n o ver land t rade r ou tes t o t he n or th o f t he N iger , p ar t icu lar ly t rans-Saharan r ou tes ) h e lp a ccoun t f or t heir f a i lu tre t o men t ion J enne .

We mus t wa i t u n t i l A .D. 1 493-6 f or men t ion o f J enne i n a n Arab

a rch iva l s ource .

A Moroccan , a l- Magh i l i , wro te a l ong e p is t le t o t he A sk ia

Moha m med , r u ler o f t he S onghay Emp ire , c oncern ing t he p roper c onduc t o f a Mus li m r u ler a nd h is s ub jec ts . a l- Magh i l i wr i tes :

On t he t op ic o f p reven t ing p ubl ic n udi ty ,

" t he r u ler mus t o bserve h is s ub jec ts d ay a nd n igh t , i n

p ub l ic a nd i n p r iva te .

T h is i s n o t s pying u pon Mus l im f o l lowers , b u t g uarding

t he many f ro m t he e v i l f ew , p ar t icu lar ly when t he o f fense i s a s w idespread a s a t T i mbuk tu , J enne , a nd o ther p laces" ( Cuoq 1 975 : 4 30 - t rans la ted f ro m t he French b y R . J . M .) .

I n teres t ing a s t h is may b e , i tt e l ls t he r eader l i t t le

a bou t t he h is tory o f t he t own .

F ro m i t we migh t g uarded ly s ur m ise t ha t J enne

was l arge a nd i ts p opu la t ion u rbane e nough t o h arbour s uch e v i l o r a t l eas t l arge e nough t ha t t he t rad i t iona l h abi ts o f t he i nhabi tan ts wou ld h ave a t t r acted a t ten t ion ( whereas t hey migh t n o t i n a sma l l , t rad i t iona l v i l lage ) .

I ta lso

a ppears t ha t t he t rad i t iona l t i e b e tween J enne a nd T i mbuk tu was f ixed i n t he mind o f a l- Magh i l i . The f i rs t European r e ference t o J enne a s ac i ty o ccurs i n al e t ter s en t f ro m Tua t ( A lger ia ) i n 1 447 b y t he I ta l ian merchan t , An ton io Ma l fan te .

4 5

T he

l e t ter , wr i t ten i n La t in , men t ions v ar ious c iv i ta tes b order ing t he l and o f t he B lacks , i nc lud ing C huch ia m ( Gao ) , Tha mbet ( T imbuk tu ) , G en ! ( Jenne ) , a nd Me l i ( Ma l i ) ( Crone 1 937: 8 7; 1 52-3 ) .

o r ig ina ll e t ter r eproduced i n La R onc i re 1 924 ;

A s Pruss in ( 1973 : 6 6-7 )p oin ts o u t , t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he t er m

c iv i ta te i s e x tre me ly ambiguous .

C iv i ta te may b e t rans la ted a s c i ty o r s ta te ,

a l though Ma l fan te 's c onno ta t ion o f t he t erm p resumab ly was c loses t t o t ha t o f t he 1 5th c en tury I ta l ian c i ty-s ta te .

A l though Ma l fan te g ives n o i n for ma t ion

o n t he l oca t ion o f G en ! ( La R onc iere f irs t p roposed t he e qua t ion o f G en i w i th J enne i n 1 924 : 1 48 ) , s evera l o ther d e ta i ls i n h is n arra t ive s ugges t t ha t h is i n for man t , a wea l thy merchan t who c la i med t o h ave l i ved i n T i mbuk tu f or t h ir ty y ears , was s peci f ica l ly d escr ibing t he I n land N iger D el ta when h e s poke t o Ma l fan te o f t he Land o f t he B lacks .

Ma l fan te r ecoun ts :

E very d ay h e ( t he i n for man t ) t e l ls me w onder fu l t h ings o f t hese p eop les ( t he B lacks ) : ...they a l l g o n aked , s ave f or a sma l l l o in-c lo th t o c over t he ir p r iva tes .

T hey h ave a n a bundance o f f lesh , mi lk , a nd r ice , b u t

n o c orn o r b ar ley.

T hrough t hese l ands f lows a v ery l arge r iver ,

wh ich a t c er ta in t imes o f t he y ear i nunda tes a l l t hese l ands .

T h is

r iver p asses b y t he g a tes o f T hambe t ...There a re many b oa ts o n i t , b y wh ich t hey c arry o n t rade

( Crone 1 937: 8 8 ).

The s easona l ly i nunda ted l and u ps tream o f T i mbuk tu wh ich p roduces a g rea t a bundance o f r ice c an o n ly b e t he I n land D e l ta . f acts f ro m Ma l fan te 's l e t ter :

T hus we l earn t wo i mpor tan t

t rade b y p irogue was c o m mon o n t he N iger b e-

t ween t he u pper I n land N iger De l ta a nd T i mbuk tu i n t he i n id-15 th c en tury ; a nd t he ma jor i ty o f t he p eop le i n t he I n land De l ta were n o t Mus l im— i .e ., t hey wen t n aked .

Ma l fan te 's i n forman t was , h owever , e i ther u nable o r u nwi l l ing

t o p rov ide h im w i th d e tai ls o f t he g o ld t rade .

I n r esponse t o Ma l fan te 's

f requen t i nqu ir ies a bou t t he l oca t ion o f t he S udanese g o ld f ields , h is i n for man t a lways r ep l ied :

" I was f our teen y ears i n t he l and o f t he B lacks a nd Ih ave

n ever h eard n or s een a nyone who c ou ld r ep ly f ro m d ef in i te k now ledge" ( Crone 1 937: 8 9 ).

I t may b e t ha t t he b lacks among who m t he Arab i n for man t l i ved

p ract iced a c onsc ious p o l icy o f c oncea l ing i n forma t ion o n t he g o ld s ources f ro m o u ts iders ;

i ti s a lso p oss ible , h owever , t ha t t he merchan t p erce ived

t he mo tive b eh ind Ma l fan te 's p robing q ues t ions c oncern ing t he g o ld t rade a nd p rov ided n o i n for ma t ion t ha t migh t e ncourage c o m mercia l c o mpe t i t ion . Ma l fan te 's miss ion i n Tua t was a pparen t ly t o r econno i ter a c o m mercia l r ou te t o t he i n ter ior o f Wes t A fr ica i n o rder t o s ecure g o ld a t i t s s ource f or I t a l ian i n teres ts b efore i tc ou ld r each P or tuguese merchan ts o n t he Gu inea c oas t ( Lev tzion 1 973 : 1 33) . Ma l fan te 's e xp l ic i t ly s ou thern , s ub-Saharan i n teres ts migh t h e lp e xp la in why h e men t ions J enne , whereas o ther , Arab wr i ters a va i l ing t he mse lves o f i n for man ts i n N or th A fr ica f a i l t o d o s o . Much g rea ter d e ta i lo n J enne i s a va i lable i n t wo e ar ly 1 6th c en tury P or tuguese a ccoun ts , t hose o f V . F ernandes ( 1506-7 ) a nd Pacheco P ere ira ( 1506-8 ) .

B o th t hese wr i ters were s eamen emp loyed b y K ing J oao I o f

P or tuga l t o e xp lore r iver ine r ou tes t o t he h ear t land o f t he g o ld t rade i n t he i n ter ior o f Wes t A fr ica .

F ernandes s pec i f ica l ly men t ions t he d es ire o f K ing

J oao t o r each t he c idades o f Ta mbucu tu ( T i mbuk tu ) a nd J yn i ( Jenne ) v ia t he S enega l R iver , wh ich h e c lear ly b e l ieved t o b e c onnec ted t o t he N iger .

D es-

p i te t he f act t ha t a l l F ernandes ' i n for ma t ion was s econd-hand , h is d escr ip t ion o f t he t rade n e twork l i nk ing J enne . t o T imbuk tu i s d e ta i led a nd a ccura te . 4 6

H e

men t ions t ha t s a l t f ro m T eghaza was c arr ied f ro m Wa la ta t o T i mbuk tu , a n e n trepot where a l l t he g o ld ( f ro m t he s ou th ) was e xchanged f or s a l t . The c ame ls a nd t he ir l oads o f s a l t a re s o ld f or 1 00 mi thka ls , s o met imes 1 25 .

T he c ame ls a re e a ten a t T i mbuk tu , b u t t he s a l t i s

l oaded o n to p irogues .

These p irogues a re t hen p o led u ps tream f or

1 4 d ays t o t he c i ty o f J yn i i n t he k ingdo m o f Me l ly .

J yn i i s al arge

t own o f s tone ( s ic ) a nd l ime , e nc ircled b y ac i ty wa l l . t he merchan ts f ro m t he g o ld m ines g a ther .

There a l l

T hese merchan ts a l l

b e long t o ap ar t icu lar r ace c a l led t he U ngaros ( Wangara ). a lone a re a l lowed t o a pproach t he g o ld mines .

T hey

When t he U ngaros

a rr ive a t J yn i , e ach merchan t i s a cco mpa ined b y 1 00-200 b lack s laves who t ranspor t s a l t f ro m J yn i o n t he ir h eads t o t he g o ld mines , a nd c arry g o ld b ack .

( Fernandes 1 938 : 8 5-87 - t rans la t ion f ro m t he

French b y S .K .M .) Presu mab ly , t he g o ld f i e lds r e ferred t o a re t hose o f t he Akan f ores t , s ince s a l t i n tended f or t he B our6 g o ld f i e lds wou ld l og ica l ly h ave c on t inued b y r iver u p t o K ou l ikoro( Mauny 1 961: 3 59-60 ) . Af ew more d e ta i ls o f t he c o m mod i t ies i n wh ich J enne t raded a re p rov ided b y Pacheco Pereira , who d escr ibes J any ( Jenne ) a s ac i ty " inhabi ted b y b lacks a nd s urrounded b y ap is6 wa l l , where t here i s ag rea t wea l th o f g o ld ; c opper a re p r ized t here , l i kew ise r ed a nd b lue c lo ths a nd s a l t"

t in a nd

( Pacheco

P ere ira 1 937: 8 0-81 - h owever , i n r eference t o t he word t aypa i n t he o r ig ina l Por tuguese , we h ave s ubs t i tu ted Mauny 's French t rans la t ion ' p is& f or K i mble 's Eng l ish t rans la t ion ' s tone ' —see P russ in 1 973 : 6 8 ) .

P ere ira a lso

men t ions t he i mpor tan t t rade c en tres l ink ing J enne w i th t heAkan g o ld f ie lds : B ee tuu ( Begho ) , Banbarranaa , a nd B ahaa a re t he t owns t o wh ich "merchan ts f ro m t he k ingdo m o f Mand ingua" ( i .e ., t he Wangara ) t rave l t o t rade f or g o ld ( Pe re ira 1 937: 8 9 ) . I ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t d ur ing l ess t han a c en tury o f P or tuguese n av iga t ion a long t he G u inea c oas t more was l earned a bou t t he s tructure o f t he g o ld t rade b e tween t he mines a nd t he n or thern S udanese e n trepo ts t han d ur ing s even c en tur ies o f A rab o bserva t ion f rom t he n or th . Another impor tan t s ource f or i n for ma t ion o n Wes t A fr ica i s L eo A fr icanus , who t rave l led e x tens ive ly i n t he i n ter ior i n b o th 1 511 a nd 1 512-1514 a nd p rov ided e yewi tness d escr ip t ions o f b o th T i mbuk tu a nd G ao . H owever , Mauny ( 1961: 4 7) s ugges ts t ha t A fr icanus ' d escr ip t ions o f J enne a nd t he c ap i ta l o f Ma l i Were p robab ly s econd-hand .

Had h e a c tua l ly t ravel led u ps tream f ro m

T i mbuk tu t o " the k ingdo m o f G h inea" a nd Ma l i , A fr icanus c ou ld n o t h ave c la i med , a s h e d oes t ha t t he N iger f lows wes tward a long t ha t r ou te ( A fr icanus 1 896: 1 25-8 ) . A fr icanus ' d is m issa l o f J enne a nd t he c ap i ta l o f Ma l i i s mere v i l lages i s c on trad ic ted b y t he d e ta i ls h e p rov ides o n t he t wo s e t t le men ts . H is d escr ip t ion o f t he c ap i ta l o f Ma l i a s c on ta in ing 6 000 o r s o f am i l ies ( upwards o f 2 0 ,000 i nhabi tan ts?) who a re r ich a nd h ave p len ty o f wares ( Bov i l l 1 968 : 1 48 ) i s s carce ly c ongruen t w i th h is c a tegor iza t ion o f t he c ap i ta l a s a" large a nd ample v i l lage" .

L ikew ise , A fr icanus ' s ta te men t t ha t t he c ap i ta l o f

G enn i was " a c er ta in g rea t v i l lage o ne ly" mus t n o t b e g iven u ndue emphas is . I n o ther d e ta i ls , A fr icanus ' d escr ip t ion o f J enne —bo th t he k ingdo m a nd t he c ap i ta l —ind ica tes a p ower fu l a nd wea l thy c o m mercia l c en tre : 4 7

Th is k ingdo m c a l led b y t he merchan ts o f o ur n a t ion G ehenoa , b y t he n a tura l i nhab i tan ts t hereo f G enn i , a nd b y t he P or tuga ls a nd o ther p eop le o f Europe G h inea , s tande th i n t he mids t b e tween G ua la ta o n t he n or th , T o mbu to o n t he e as t a nd t he k ingdo me o f Me l l i o n t he s ou th . I n l eng th i t c on ta ine th a l mos t f i ve h undred mi les a nd e x tended th t wo h undred a nd f i f t ie m i les a long t he r iver o f N iger . H ere i s n e i ther t owne n or c as t le , b u t ac er ta ine g rea t v i l lage o ne ly , where in t he p r ince o f G h inea t oge ther w i th h is p r ies ts , d oc tors , merchan ts a nd a l l t he p r incipa l men i n t he v i l lage i nhabi t .

T he wa l ls

o f t he ir h ouses a re b u i l t o f c ha lke , a nd t he r oofs a re c overed w i th s traw.

The i nhab i tan ts a re c lad i n b lacke o r b lue c ot ton , w herewi th

t hey c over t heir h eads a lso , b u t t he p r ies ts a nd d octors o f t he ir l aw g o a ppare l led i n wh i te c o t ton .

T h is r eg ion .. i s y eare ly

e nv ironed .. i n t he manner o f a n i s land ;

a l l wh ich t ime t he mer-

c han ts o f T o mbu to c onve igh t he ir merchand ize i n h i ther i n c er ta in C anoas ( Leo A fr icanus 1 896: 8 22 ) . A fr icanus a lso p rov ides s o me i n teres t ing d e ta i ls o n t he c o m mod i t ies e xchanged i n t he i n tense t rade a long t he M idd le N iger b e tween T i mbuk tu a nd J enne : J enne a bounds i n b ar ley , r ice , c a t t le , f i sh , a nd c o t ton .

The ir c ot ton

t hey s e l l u n to t he merchan ts o f E urope , f or b razen v esse ls , f or a r mour , a nd o ther s uch c o m mod i t ies .

T he ir c o in i s o f g o ld w i thou t

a ny s tamp o f i nscr ip t ion a t a l l ( quo ted i n B ov i l l 1 968 : 1 38 ) A t t h is p o in t , we mus t d igress b r ie f ly t o t he i mpor tan t i ssue o f t opony my. M ed ieva l wr i ters a nd c ar tographers u t i l ized a b ewi lder ing n u mber o f s pe l l ings —Q yna , G yn i , G enn i , G h inea , G enehoa , e tc ., — tha t a re s u f f icien t ly s im i lar t ha t i ti s o f ten u nc lear whe ther r e ference i s b e ing made t o ac i ty ( Jenne ) , ak ingdo m ( poss ibly J enne o r a nc ien t G hana ) , o r a n e n t ire r eg ion ( Gu inea — . t he l and o f t he B lacks ).

T o i n terpre t t hese r e ferences t rans la tors a nd h is-

t or ians h ave a t te mpted t o t race t he d er iva t ion o f v ar ious t er ms b ack t o t heir s ource a nd o r ig ina l mean ing .

Var ious a u thors c la i med t ha t t he g ener ic t er m

G u inea d er ives f ro m t he c i ty-name J enne ( e .g . a l-Sad i , Ta 'r ikh e s-Sudan , t rans . H oudas 1 964: 2 2 , f oo tno te 1 ) .

H owever , D e la fosse wr i tes :

" I d o n o t

b e l ieve t ha t t he n ame G u inge ( Genehoa , G h inea , G unn ia , G inn ia ) c o mes f ro m G ana ( nor f ro m J enne —Cwn i , G una , G enn i —as s o me a u thor i t ies h ave c la i med ) ; i t s o r ig ins s ee m t o me t o t race b ack t o t he Berber word g u inaou ( b lack )" ( quo ted i n P russ in 1 973 : 2 76 — trans la t ion mine ) .

Mauny a grees w i th t h is

a ssess men t , t rac ing t he B erber word t hrough i t s A rabic f or ms , Kanawa o r D janawa , wh ich European c ar tographers r o man ized t o G anuya o r G eneua e land o f t he b lacks ') a nd l a ter Europeans r epresen ted a s G uynbe , G u inou , o r Gu inbe . T he v ar iable o r thography o f t hese t er ms p lus s h i f ts i n t opony my t hrough t ime make f or c ons iderable c on fus ion . F le m ish a nd P or tuguese maps o f t he 1 5 th a nd 1 6th c en tur ies h ave a n a rea o n t he m v ar ious ly d es igna ted a s G ine , G u inea , G enoia , a nd G enna . t er m f or a l l o f B lack A fr ica .

These a pparen t ly a re a l l v ar ian ts o f ag ener ic Dur ing t he e ar ly 1 7th c en tury t he t erm G enehoa

b egan t o a ppear w i th t he t erm G u in ia o n European maps ( e .g ., t ha t b y J odocus H ond ius i n 1 606 —Pruss in 1 973 :76 a nd P la te 2 .2 ).

The f or mer t er m r e fers

t o b oth a c i ty a nd a k ingdo m o r r eg ion , whereas t he l a t ter i s a pparen t ly a 4 8

more g ener ic t erm f or t he who le o f Wes t A fr ica .

B y t he e nd o f t he 1 7th

c en tury , b o th t he c i ty a nd t he k ingdo m o f G enehoa ( Jenne ) were a lways i nd ic a ted i n a dd i t ion t o t he g ener ic t er m G u inea ( Pruss in 1 973: 7 6).

I t migh t b e

n o ted , h owever , t ha t t he c orrec t g eograph ica l l oca t ion o f t he c i ty o f J enne — e ., o n at r ibu tary l i nk ing t he N iger a nd Ban ! R ivers —d id n o t a ppear o n a ny map u n t i l t he French o ccupa t ion o f 1 893 ( Pruss in 1 973 : 7 6) .

The n o tab le

l ack o f d e ta i l c oncern ing t he i n ter ior o f Wes t A fr ica o n European maps a f ter A .D. 1 500 u ndoubted ly r e f lec ts Europe 's g row ing p reoccupa t ion w i th c oas ta l r econna issance a nd t he s lave t rade . I n g enera l , t he p er iod f ro m t he mid-16th t o t he e ar ly 1 9th c en tury i s v ir tua l ly d evo id o f a ny E uropean s ources o f fer ing p recise i n for ma t ion o n J enne 's l oca t ion , p hysica l d escr ip t ion , o r h is tor ica l , d eve lop men t .

Th is

g ap i n t he E uropean s ources i s f i l led b y t hree ma jor A fr ican s ources , a l l s peci f ica l ly c oncerned w i th t he Wes tern S udan a nd t he U pper N iger B end : Ta 'r ikh e s-Sudan , Ta 'r ikh a l-Fet tash , Tadhk ira t a n-N isyan . l oca l h is tor ies wr i t ten i n A rabic b y n a t ive s cho lars .

Ta 'r ikhs a re

O f t he t hree ma jor

c o mp i la t ions j ust men t ioned , t he Ta 'r ikh e s-Sudan , c o mp le ted b y a l-Sa 'd i i n c . A . D. 1 655 i s b y f ar t he r iches t i n d e ta i l c onoern ing J enne .

I n d iscuss ing

t he Ta ' r ikh , we k eep i n mind Tr im ingham 's ( 1962 : 5 ) warn ing : B ooks o f t h is t ype were a rranged a ccord i ng t o s ub jec t ma t ter a nd t o s o me e x ten t c hrono log ica l ly a s as er ies o f d isconnec ted f ac ts , a s uccess ion o f r u lers , wars , d ynas t ic i n tr igues , a nd r ebe l l ions ; a nd , b eing mode l led u pon t he f ew I s lam ic c hron icles wh ich f i l tered i n to t he S oudan , s how a l l t he d efec ts o f t he ir mode ls :

i nd iscr im inan t

i ncorpora t ion o f l egends a nd t rad i t ions , e u log ies o f t he r e ign ing d ynas t ies a nd d en igra t ion o f t he ir e ne m ies , a nd t as te f or b iograph ies a nd o b i tuar ies o f t he t u lama ' c lass t o wh ich t he c o mp i lers b e longed . Wi th t he Ta 'r ikh e s-Sudan i n p ar t icu lar , t here e x is ts t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t a lS a 'd i 's wr i t ings r e f lec t a n e x tre me ly f avourable b ias t owards J enne , where h e s erved a s an o tary a nd a n i mam o f t he S ankore mosque f or t en y ears . A l though a l-Sa 'd i 's s tyle i n d escr ib ing J enne i s ab i t f l or id ( "Th is c i ty i s l arge , f lour ish ing a nd p rosperous ; s he i s b lessed b y H eaven , a nd f avoured b y t he A lm igh ty" —a l-Sa 'd i 1 964 :22 , t rans la t ion SK M ) , t he r ole h e a ccords J enne i n t he l ong-d is tance t rade n e tworks n ever the less a grees we l l w i th F ernandes ' e ar l ier d escr ip t ion : J enne i s o ne o f t he g rea t marke ts o f t he Mus l i m wor ld .

There t he

s a l t merchan ts o f Teghaza mee t merchan ts c arrying g o ld f ro m t he mines o f B i tou ( Begho?).

.. Because o f t h is b lessed c i ty , c aravans

f l ock t o T i mbuk tu f ro m a l l p o in ts o f t he h or izon ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 964 : 2 2-3 , t rans la t ion S KM ). A ccord ing t o a l-Sa ‚d i , J enne was e ncirc led b y ar a mpar t wh ich a t o ne t ime h ad e leven g a tes , b u t i n t he 1 7th c en tury o n ly e igh t r e ma ined .

I ns ide t he

c i ty , t he s u l tan 's p a lace was s i tua ted o n t he e as tern s ide o f t he mosque ( a l-Sa i l : 1 i 1 964 : 2 3-4 ) .

A l-Sa 'd i ( 1 964 : 2 4-5 ) a lso d escr ibes J enne 's p roduct ive

a nd we l l-popu la ted h in ter land , a lbe i t w i th s o me d egree o f e xaggera t ion : L e t err i to ire d e D ienne e s t f er t i le e t p euple ; s 'y t i ennen t

t ous l es j ours d e l a s e ma ine .

d es marches n o mbreux On a ssure q u 'i l c on t ien t

7 , 0 77 v i l lages t rbs r aPproches l es u ns d es a u tres . 4 9

L e f a i t s u ivan t s u f f ira a d onner u ne Wee d e l a p rox im i te d e c es v i l lages l es u ns p ar r appor t a ux a u tres .

S i l e s u l tan , p ar e xa mple ,

ab eso in d e f a ire v en ir u n h abi tan t d 'un v i l lage s i tue d ans l e v ois inage d u Lac D ebo , l e messager

e nvo ie s e r end ä u ne d es r e mpar ts

e t , d e l ä , ic r ie l e message q u 'i l e s t c hargé d e t rans me t tre .

Les

g ens , d e v i l lage a v i l lage , r epe ten t c e t a ppe l , e t l e message s e t rouve p arven ir i m med ia te men t aP in teresse q u i s e r end a l a c onvoca t ion al u i a dresse . H e c la i ms t ha t t he t err i tory o f J enne e x tends f ro m Lake Debo i n t he n or th t o t he Vo l ta b end i n t he s ou th , a nd b orders o n t he Band iagara h igh lands t o t he e as t ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 964 : 2 5 ).

I ti s n o t c lear whe ther J enne 's t err i tory i s d e-

f ined b y p o l i t ica l s uzera in ty , e cono m ic d om ina t ion , o r s o me o ther means e n t ire ly. N e i ther t he T a 'r ikh a l-Fa t tash , wr i t ten o ver a p er iod o f t hree g enera t ions ( c o mp le ted C . 1 665 ) b y t he f am i ly o f Mah moud a l-Ka t i o f T i mbuk tu , n or t he a nony mous Tadhk ira t a n-N isyan , c over ing t he p er iod c . 1 590-1750 , p rovide a ny d escr ip t ion o f J enne ( a l though t he c i ty i s f requen t ly men t ioned ) o r h er c o m merce . Ra ther , t hese works a re c oncerned w i th d ynas t ic s uccess ion a nd s h i f ts i n p o l i t ica l p ower , w i th p ar t icu lar r eference t o t he Ask ia d ynas ty o f S onghay ( Ta ir ikh a l-Fa t tash ) a nd t he Moroccan p ashas ( Tadhk ira t a n-N isyan ) . D esp i te t he p auci ty o f a c tua l d escr ip t ion i n t he t hree t a 'r ikhs , t heir r e ferences t o J enne e s tabl ish t ha t t he c i ty was a f lour ish ing c o m merc ia l c en tre b y t he mid-17th c en tury a nd a p r i mary t arget f or c onques t b y a nyone s eek ing t o e s tabl ish h ege mony i n t he Wes tern S udan . T he f irs t European a c tua l ly t o v is i t J enne may h ave b een Mungo P a rk , a l though t he d e ta i ls o f h is 1 805 j ourney , wh ich e nded w i th Park 's d ea th a t Bussa , h ave b een l os t . I n 1 828 , R ene Ca i l l ie b eca me t he f irs t Wes tern e xp lorer t o r each J enne a nd s ubsequen t ly t o p rov ide a d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t he c i ty ( Ca i l l ie 1 968 ) .

C a i l l ie r epor ts t ha t J enne i s ac i ty a pprox i ma te ly

mi les i n c ircu m ference , s urrounded b y a n i l l-cons tructed wa l l c . t en f ee t h igh a nd f our teen i nches t h ick , p ierced b y s evera l sma l l g a teways ;

i th ouses

a p opu la t ion o f 8 ,000-10 ,000 Mand ingo , Fu lan i , B a mbara , a nd Moors ( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , V o l . I :4 59-60 ) .

B y f ar t he mos t i mpor tan t d e ta i ls i n Ca i l l ie 's a ccoun t

o f J enne c oncern t he c i ty 's r o le i n t he c o m merce a long t he M idd le N iger . We l earn t ha t i n 1 828 J enne i s n o l onger t he c en tra l p o in t i n t he g o ld t rade f ro m B oure , o wing t o awes tward r e-d irec t ion o f t he t rade a s ar esu l t o f wars b e tween t he Fu lan i o f t he I n land D el ta a nd t he Ba mbara o f S egou ( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , V ol I :4 65-6 ) : T he g o ld o f Bure c ircu la tes t hroughou t t he who le i n ter ior a nd f inds i t s way t o F rench a nd Eng l ish s et t le men ts o n t he c oas t ; wh i le J enne , wh ich was f ormer ly c ons idered a s t he c oun try mos t p len t i fu l ly s upp l ied w i th t h is p rec ious meta l , h as n one e xcep t ing wha t i s b rough t f ro m t h is r ich t rac t

( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , V o l I : 1 84 ) .

Owing t o h er p ro f i table t rade i n s tap les w i th T i mbuk tu , h owever , J enne c on t inues t o p rosper d esp i te t he d ec l ine i n t he g o ld t rade : T i mbuk tu , t hough o ne o f t he l arges t c i t ies Ih ave s een i n A fr ica , p ossesses n o o ther r esources b u t i t s t rade i n s a l t , t he s o i l b eing

5 0

t ota l ly u n f i t f or c u l t iva t ion .

T he i nhabi tan ts p rocur f ro m J enne

e veryth ing r equ is i te f or t he s upp ly o f t heir wan ts , s uch a s mi l let , r ice , v ege table b u t ter , h oney , c o t ton , S oudan c lo th , p reserved p rov is ions , c and les , s oap , a l lspice , o n ions , d r ied f ish , p is tach ios . B ousbehey a nd T oudeyn i ( Saharan t owns ) b e ing o n ly s upp l ied w i th t he g ra ins wh ich t he merchan ts o f T i mbuk tu r ece ive f ro m J enne wou ld o f c ourse b e r educed t o f am ine i ft he t rade b e tween t hese l a t ter t wo c i t ies s hou ld b e i n terrup ted

( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , Vo l . I : 5 7-9 ).

C a i l l iê g oes o n t o d escr ibe h ow a gr icu l ture p roduce , c lo th , d r ied f i sh , a nd s laves a re b u lked a t J enne , where t hey a re b rough t b y i nd iv idua l p roducers o r sma l l-vo lu me t raders ( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , V o l . I : 2 02-3 ;

V o l . I :4 35-9

s ugges ts t ha t c er ta in v i l lages s pec ia l ized i n p roducing p ar t icu lar c o m mod i t ies ). A t J enne , s tap les b ound f or T i mbuk tu a nd p o in ts n or th were l oaded o n to p irogues , o f wh ich t here was a l arge c o m merc ia l v ar ie ty measur ing 9 0-100 ' l ong b y 1 2-14 ' w ide , d rawing 6 -7 ' wa ter d ep th , a nd c apab le o f c arrying 6 0-80 t ons ( Ca i l l ie 1 968 , V o l . I : 5 9 ) . Through C a l I l ie 's a ccoun t , J enne a ppears a s ap rosperous c o m mercia l c en tre f or r eg iona l t rade b ased o n ah igh ly p roduct ive , d ivers i f ied , a nd we l lp opu la ted a gr icu l tura l h in ter land .

T he c i ty 's d ua l r o le a s b o th a n e n trepo t

i n t he l ong-d is tance g o ld a nd s a l t t rade a nd a ma jor p roduct ion a nd b u lk ing c en tre f or r eg iona l c o m merce i n s tap les i s r evea led .

We n ow s ee t ha t

a l-Sa 'd i ts c la im t ha t J enne i s t he c ause o f T i mbuk tu 's c o m mercia l s uccess was b y n o means i d le f la t tery. A f ter C a i l l ie , t here were n o f ur ther e yew i tness a ccoun ts o f J enne u n t i l t he a rr iva l o f F rench t roops i n 1 893.

F rench t ravel lers t o o ther p ar ts o f

Wes t A fr ica , s uch a s Anne Ra f fene l i n S enega l ( Ra f fene l 1 849 ) a nd H e inr ich B ar th i n t he C en tra l S udan ( Bar th 1 859 ) men t ion t he c i ty o n ly t angen t ia l ly. I n 1 887, a F rench m i l i tary e xped i t ion t rave l led b y s tea m v esse l t hrough t he I n land N iger De l ta a nd r epor ted o n t he d evas ta t ion wrough t b y t he f ana t ic T oucou leur marabou t , T id jan i . L t . C aron i nd ica ted ( Ga l l ien i 1 891:2 12-4 ) t ha t t he e n t ire wes tern D e l ta was v ir tua l ly d eser ted , i t s i nhab i tan ts e i ther k i l led o r e ns laved b y T id jan i .

C aron was t o ld t ha t J enne h ad o n ly 3 ,000

i nhabi tan ts , af igure t ha t may b e c o mpared w i th C a l l l ie 's e s t i ma te o f 8 -10 ,000 o n ly s ix ty y ears e ar l ier . French t roops u nder A rch inard c la i med t he c i ty f or F rance i n 1 893 ; t h is u shered i n as hor t p er iod o f i n tense French i n teres t i n J enne . F e l ix Dubo is c ap tured t he p opu lar i mag ina t ion i n 1 897 w i th h is d escr ip t ions o f J enne a nd T i mbuk tu . Dubo is was e n thra l led b y J enne a nd i t s i nhabi tan ts a nd r eckoned t ha t t he c i ty 's wa l led d e fenses , marke t n e tworks , a nd a gr icu l tura l wea l th made J enne a g rea ter c o m mercia l c i ty t han T i mbuk tu . H e c a l led J enne " the mother o f T i mbuk tu" ( 1897: 1 88 ) a nd s ugges ted t ha t t he l a t ter was f i rs t s e t t led b y S onghay f ro m J enne i n o rder t o t ap t he s a l t r esources o f t he d eser t ( 1897: 1 70 ) .

H owever , t he mos t n o table p roduc t o f t he p os t-conques t e ra was

C har les Mon te i l 's c lass ic Monograph ie d e D jenne ( 1903 ).

Mon te i l 's work

( ed i ted a nd r eissued i n 1 932 a s ab ook e n t i t led U ne C i te S oudana ise :

D jenne )

i s s t i l l t he mos t u se fu l a nd c o mprehens ive d escr ip t ion a va i lab le o f J enne 's p hys ica l a nd s oc ia l e nv ironmen t a nd h is tory.

5 1

S um mary o f H is tor ica l Docu men ta t ion I ti s i n many ways e x traord inary t ha t t he Wes tern wor ld r e ma ined s o c o mp le te ly i gnoran t o f J enne f or s o many c en tur ies .

I n s tr ik ing c on tras t t o

i t s s is ter-c i ty , T i mbuk tu , wh ich was we l l-known , t he s ources d iscussed a bove i nd ica te t ha t t he c i ty was a l mos t at o ta l u nknown b efore t he French c onques t i n 1 893 .

P ar t o f t he r eason f or J enne 's l as t ing o bscur i ty i s s urely ,

a s L . P russ in ( 1 973 : 7 7) s ugges ts , t ha t mos t E uropean a nd Arab t raders a nd e xp lorers a pproached t he Wes tern S udan f ro m t he n or th , f or wh ich T i mbuk tu was t he n a tura l t er m inus f ro m t he 1 4 th c en tury o nwards . T he mos t d e ta i led i n for ma t ion o n J enne i s f urn ished b y t hose f ew t rave l lers a nd merc han ts who e i ther a pproached J enne f ro m t he s ou th ( e .g ., C al l l i6 ) o r o bta ined i n for ma t ion a long t he G u inea C oas t ( e .g ., F ernandes a nd P acheco P ere ira ) f ro m D yu la ( Wangara ) t raders f or who m J enne was t he n or thern t erm inus o f t he t rans-savanna t rade r ou tes . " One c an o n ly c onclude t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f t he c i ty was l i nked c lose ly t o t he Wangara t rade , a nd t ha t t he c i ty was b et ter k nown t o t hose i n c on tac t w i th c oas ta l t rade a ct iv i t ies t han t o t hose v iew ing Wes t A fr ica a cross t he S ahara D eser t" ( Pruss in 1 973 : 7 7 ) . D esp i te t he p auc i ty o f h is tor ica l i n forma t ion a va i lable f or J enne p r ior t o t he 2 0 th c en tury , s evera l p o in ts c oncern ing h er c hrono log ica l d evelop men t a nd c o m mercia l f unct ion c an n ever the less b e made : 1 .

T rade b y p irogue a long t he N iger b e tween J enne a nd T i mbuk tu was

a lready i n tense b y t he mid-15 th c en tury , when Ma l fan te wrote .

We a re

i n teres ted t o k now h ow f ar b ack i n t ime t h is r iverr ine t rade c an b e d etected . Un for tuna te ly , e ar l ier s ources d o n o t s peak d irec t ly o f t rade v ia p irogue i n t he I n land D e l ta , a l though a l-Bakr i ( A.D. 1 068 ) , i n o u t l in ing i t inerar ies f ro m G hana t o Tad mekka , s ee ms t o b e d escr ib ing r iver ine t rade r ou tes i n t he l ower D e l ta ( a l-Bakr i , i n C uoq 1 975 : 1 05-7 ) . 2 . J enne i s i den t i f ied b y t he e ar ly 1 6th c en tu ry a s a ma jor e n trepo t o n t he s ou thern g o ld r ou tes . Aga in , e ar l ier s ources d o n o t r e fer d irec t ly t o J enne 's p ar t icipa t ion i n t he g o ld t rade . 3 .

A l though t here i s at endency f or t he wr i t ten s ources ( and 2 0 th c en tury

h is tor ians ) t o c oncen tra te o n t he i mpress ive l ong-d is tance t rade i n l uxury i t e ms s uch a s g o ld , s laves , c opper , c lo th , e tc ., C a i l l ib r evea ls a no ther r eas on f or J enne 's p re-e m inen t c o m mercia l s ta tus :

ap roduc t ive a gr icu l tura l

h in ter land c apable o f p rov is ion ing T i mbuk tu a nd o ther S aharan t rade c en tres w i th a gr icu l tura l s tap les . C issoko ( 1968 : 8 08 ) h as d escr ibed J enne a s " la mamel le n ourr iciere" f or t he B end o f t he N iger .

A l though J enne 's r o le i n

r eg iona l t rade i s n o t s peci f ica l ly i den t i f ied i n e ar l ier s ources , Ma l fan te 's c o m men ts o n t he d ie t o f t he " Ph i l is t ines" ( Tuareg ) n or th o f T i mbuk tu may b e s ign i f ican t :

" The ir s us tenence i s mi lk a nd f l esh , n o c orn o r b ar ley , b u t much

r ice" ( Crone 1 937: 8 7 —e mphas is o urs ) .

Iwou ld s ugges t t ha t t he n earest

a gr icu l tura l a rea c apab le o f p roducing l arge q uan t i t ies o f r ice f or e xpor t was t he u pper I n land N iger De l ta . One h undred y ears b efore Ma lfan te wro te , I bn B a t tu ta r epor ted t ha t Teghaza i mpor ted i t s g ra in f ro m t he s ou th . C arefu l ly r ead , t he a va i lable h is tor ica l s ources s ugges t t ha t t wo f ac tors were c r i t ica l t o J enne 's d eve lop men t :

h er s i tua t ion a t t he mos t s ou thwes ter ly

p o in t o f t he n av igable I n land N iger D e l ta ;

5 2

a nd h er e x traord inar i ly p roduct ive

h in ter land .

H owever , t he s ources p rov ide l i t t le s a t is fac tory i nd ica t ion a s

t o t he e ar ly c hrono logy o f t he c i ty 's d eve lop men t . H is tor ica l S ketch o f J enne

( Map 3 .2 )

A l though t he e ar ly c en tur ies o f J enne , p ar t icu lar ly t hose p r ior t o I s la miza t ion , r e ma in o bscure , ar easonably c onc ise s um mary o f p o l i t ica l e ven ts a f ter t he t h ir teen th c en tury c an b e r econs tructed f ro m t he v ar ious s ources a lready c i ted i n t h is c hap ter .

Av ery u se fu l c i ty h is tory h ad b een

p roduced i n J enne , u s ing i n for ma t ion f ro m t he t a 'r ikhs men t ioned e ar l ier . En t i t led " Sum mary o f t he H is tory o f J enne f ro m t he F ounda t ion o f t he C i ty t o t he French P ene tra t ion" , t h is a dm irab le d ocumen t was made a va i lable t o u s b y Mr . H ama B ocoum , d irector o f t he E co le S uper ieure d e J enne .

R eproduced

b e low i s t ha t p or t ion o f t he d ocumen t wh ich d ea ls w i th t he l as t s even c en tur ies o f J enne 's e x is tence ( t rans la ted f ro m F rench b y S .K . M.) : J enne i n C on tac t w i th t he Wes tern Wor ld a .

I s la m :

U nder t he i n f luence o f I s lam ised Marka merchan ts ,

K o i K ou mboro c onver ted t o I s lam i n A .D. 1 240 , b eco m ing t hus t he f irs t Mus l im c h ief o f J enne . s ta te.

f irs t mosque . b .

I s lam t hen b ecame t he r e l ig ion o f t he

K o i K ou mboro g ave u p h is p a lace i n o rder t o c ons truct t he

Ma l i :

T he o r ig ina l mosque was i n e x is tence u n t i l A .D. 1 810 .

H i ther to fore i ndependen t , J enne was u nable t o e scape t he

wave o f Ma l ian c onques t t ha t s pread a cross Wes t A fr ica .

Thus , t he

r eg ion was p ar t o f Ma l i i n 1 325 , a s were T i mbuk tu a nd G ao .

Bu t

t he Mand ing s overeign was o n ly r epresen ted t here ( Jenne ) b y ad ign i tary o f t he s econd e che lon who e n forced t he emperor 's d ec is ions a nd c o l lec ted t axes .

,

Fro m t h is c on tac t , J enne b ene f i t ted a nd d eve loped ow ing t o t he v is i ts o f l arge n u mbers o f f ore ign Mus l i m merchan ts .

I s la m ic

l aw was e xa l ted b y t hese merchan ts a nd Mand ing p i lgr i ms , a nd p agan is m was d ef in i t ive ly s upp lan ted w i th t he c onvers ion o f Ko i K oumboro a nd t he i nhabi tan ts o f J enne . c .

S onghay :

A t t he e nd o f t he f our teen th c en tury , t he p rosper i ty

o f Ma l i d ec l ined a s ar esu l t o f c iv i l wars t ha t e rup ted w i th t he d ea th o f Mansa S ou ley man .

J enne , a t t he h ead o f many v assa l t owns ,

c la i med h er i ndependence .

Bu t i n 1 468 , t he c i ty f e l l i n to t he h ands

o f S onn i A l i B er a f ter a s eige o f s even y ears , s even mon ths , a nd s even d ays . d .

The Moroccans :

I n 1 591, Moroccan t roops c o m manded b y

D jouder r ou ted t he S onghay a t T ond ibi ( 12 /4 / 1591). marked t he e nd o f ap ower fu l emp ire .

Th is v ictory

T he Moroccans t hen h eaded

f or J enne , t he c i ty t ha t was t he p r ide o f a l l t he emperors o f t he S udan . U pon a rr iva l , t he Moroccans s e t t led i n t he S ankorb q uar ter where t hey b u i l t t he ir p a lace i n a n e as tern a rch i tectura l s ty le .

T he ir

d escendan ts , t he Ar ma , b ear t he f am i ly n a me T oure. T he Moroccans e ngaged i n i do la try a nd c onsumed e nor mous q uant i t ies o f h ydro me l . The s ty le a nd o rgan iza t ion o f t he h ouses a nd t he p o t tery owe much t o t he Moroccans .

T hey a lso i n f luenced c lo th ing a nd , f ro m a mi l i tary 5 3

5 4

p o in t o f v iew , t he u se o f f i rear ms .

Bu t t he mos t impor tan t Moroccan

i n f luence i s i ncon tes tab ly t he " sacred we l l" c a l led t he " Nana Wangara" . The p asha r e igned t yrann ica l ly o ver h is s ub jec ts a nd n ever d rank r iver wa ter .

Thus , h e h ad a we l l d ug i n t he r es idence o f t he C rown

P r ince wh ich h e b ap t ised N ana Wangara a f ter h is f avour i te ( Nan d i s ign i f ies " favour i te" i n S onghay , a nd Wangara was h is r ea l n ame ). e .

The Fu lan i :

A f ter 1 810 , S eku Amadu c on tro l led t he Mac ina

a nd r ep laced t he Moroccans a t J enne who were a t t ha t t ime c o m manded b y A lka id B oubacar T ourg .

T he n umerous mosques t ha t h ad s prung

u p h ere a nd t here were t rans for med i n to c e me ter ies .

T he G rea t

Mosque ( o f J enne ) , j udged b y S eku Amadu t o b e i mpure a nd s o i led , was a bandoned a nd a n ew o ne b u i l t o n t he s i te o f t he p resen t p r imary s choo l ( f ro m 1 815-1906 ). T races o f t he mosque wa l l a re s t i l l v is ible i n t he s choo l c our tyard . T he p resen t mosque i n J enne was b u i l t b y t he French a dm in is tra t ion i n 1 906-7. f .

T he T uku lor :

I n 1 862 , J enne f e l l u nder t he d om ina t ion o f t he

Tuku lor , w i th Moussa F ofana a s t he r epresen ta t ive o f e l-Ha j j Omar a nd l a ter o f h is n ephew , T id jan i . I t was d ur ing t he p er iod o f T uku lor d om ina t ion t ha t J enne was t aken b y t he F rench t roops l ed b y C o lone l Arch inard o n 1 2 A pr i l , 1 893 , a f ter a n h ero ic s trugg le b y t he i nhab i tan ts , i n wh ich t he French l os t t wo o f f icers :

L espiaud a nd t he L t . Dugas t .

The ir g raves a re

s i tua ted o n a mound f acing t he D joboro q uar ter . Ora l Trad i t ion

( Map 3 .3 )

Un l ike o ra l t rad i t ions i n many o ther Mande-speak ing p ar ts o f Wes t A fr ica , J enne 's t rad i t ions a re f ragmen tary.

I n t he s ense o f v erba l ly-rela ted a nd

r e ta ined c hrono log ies o f e ven ts p assed o n f ro m o ne g enera t ion t o a no ther i n t he f or m o f m ins tre l e p ics ( l ike t hose r ec i ted b y B ambara g r io ts ) , o ra l t rad i t ions a re e ssen t ia l ly n on-ex is ten t a t J enne .

The c i ty h as n o t rue g r io ts

( McIn tosh 1 979 : 3 2 ) , a nd i th as n o u n i f ied , c oheren t t rad i t ion o f i t s p re-Is la m ic h is tory.

T h is i s u nders tandab le i n v iew o f t he "mu l t i-e thn ic , p o lyg lo t ,

h e terogeneous c harac ter" o f t he c i ty ( Pruss in 1 973 : 9 4 ).

S ix o r more d i f feren t

e thn ic g roups c o-ex is t i n J enne ( Bambara , B obo , N ono ( Marka ) , B ozo ( Sorogo ) , Fu lan i a nd S onghay ) w i thou t r e l inqu ish ing t he ir i nd iv idua l s ense o f e thn ic a nd h is tor ic i den t i ty.

A s n o g roup i s d om inan t , n o o ne g roup h as b eco me t he

g uard ian o f t he c i ty 's h is tory. An a dd i t iona l f ac tor wh ich u ndoub ted ly c o mpro m ised t he i n tegr i ty o f e ar l ier o ra l t rad i t ion was t he g row ing i n f luence o f I s lam a nd l i teracy i n J enne . Na t ive Mus l im s cho lars , s uch a s a l-Sa 'd i ,

t ranscr ibed s o me o f t he l oca l o ra l

t rad i t ions i n to Arabic , a l though t he p agan p as t was a lways d iscoun ted .

A s

l i teracy a nd I s la m s pread , t he v erba l t rans m iss ion o f t rad i t ion may h ave d im in ished i n f requency a nd i mpor tance , e spec ia l ly i ft he o ra l t rad i t ions were s ubver ted b y s ta te-approved , s tandard ized h is tor ies l i ke t hose c rea ted b y S eku Amadu i n t he 1 9 th c en tury ( Brown 1 969 : 4 -7).

J enne 's o ra l t rad i t ions

h ave c lear ly u ndergone a g ood d ea l o f c hrono log ica l t elescop ing a nd p o l i t ica l e d i t ing t hrough t he c en tur ies .

H owever , t he d eta i ls wh ich h ave s urv ived t hese

p rocesses p rov ide a n a l terna t ive t o s lav ish d ependence o n h is tor ica l d ocumen ta t ion f or i n forma t ion o n J enne 's o r ig ins a nd c hrono logy. 5 5

PAYS DE ME MA

PAKALA

? r efs San

M AP 3 .3 T he J enne r eg ion ( C.Monteil, t i ne C it'Soudana ise: D jenn 1 971:3)

5 6

Three s ources f urn ish t he b u lk o f wha t i s k nown o f J enne 's o ra l t rad i t ions : T a tr ikh e s-Sudan , Mon te i l 's Monograph ie d e D jen ti e , a nd D e la fosse 's Hau tS enega l-N iger .

I n 1 977 , we worked w i th f our i n for man ts i n t he c i ty t o o bta in

ab as ic o u t l ine o f t he e ar l ies t p er iods .

T hese were :

a l-Ha j j Amadou C isse

( A C,) , a l-Ha j j Ousman C isse ( 0. C .) , a l-Ha j j S eku B e la K o i ta ( S . B.) , H a ma B ocou m , d irec tor o f t he E co le S uper ieure d e J enne .

a nd

A l l b u t S eku Be la

h ad h ad s o me Wes tern e duca t ion a nd r ead b o th A rabic .a nd French .

The f irs t

t hree h ad s pen t s evera l s ears c o l lec t ing t he t rad i tons o f a l l e thn ic g roups i n t he c i ty , i n r ecogn i t ion o f t he f act t ha t t he o ld t rad i t ions were n o l onger b e ing ma in ta ined .

I n t he words o f Ous man C isse :

l i brary b urns" .

i n teres ted i n l earn ing t he o ra l t rad i t ions ; t own .

" Each t ime a n o ld man d ies , a

S eku B e la l a men ted t ha t t he y oung men o f J enne a re n o l onger t hey a re o n ly c oncerned w i th l eav ing

I n g enera l , t he i n forma t ion we c o l lec ted f ro m t hese i n for man ts a greed

we l l w i th t he o vera l l p a t tern o f o ra l t rad i t ions i n Mon tei l ( wh ich t wo o f t he i n for man ts h ad r ead ) , a l though d e ta i ls s o met i mes d i f fered .

These d eta i ls

w i l l b e men t ioned where a ppropr ia te . A l l a ccoun ts a gree t ha t J enne was f ounded i n t he 8 th c en tury A .D., t ha t t he c i ty was f irs t s i tua ted o n t he s i te o f Z oboro a nd s ubsequen t ly moved t o i ts p resen t l oca t ion .

T he Ta 'r ikh e s-Sudan p rov ides t he f o l low ing a ccoun t :

I n t he b eg inn ing , t he t own h ad b een b u i l t i n ap lace c a l led Z oboro ; l a ter i t was moved t o t he s po t where i ts t i l l e x is ts t oday .

T he f ormer

t own was s i tua ted n ear t he modern t own i n as ou ther ly d irec t ion . .. The t own was f ounded b y p agans i n t he mid-second c en tury A .H . ( mid-e igh th c en tury A .D .) . The i nhab i tan ts d id n o t c onver t t o I s la m u n t i l t owards t he e nd o f t he s ix th c en tury A .H . ( t we lf th c en tury A . D.) ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 964: 2 3 —trans la t ion S KM ). T he s i te o f Z oboro i s s t i l l we l l-known t o t he i nhab i tan ts o f J enne ;

i ti s a

mound s i tua ted t hree k i lo metres s ou theas t o f J enne a nd a lso k nown a s J ennej eno ( ' ancien t J enne ' i n S onghay ) , J enne-S ire , D joboro , D o-D joboro , a nd T ogguere D joboro .

T here i s d isagree men t , h owever , o ver wh ich c i ty i s

i nd ica ted b y t he e igh th c en tury A .D. f ound ing d a te :

J enne o r J ennejeno

( Zoboro )? Mon tei l ( 1 932: 3 3 ) b e l ieves t ha t t he e igh th c en tury d a te r efers t o Z oboro , whereas Tr im ingha m ( 1962: 3 1) s ee ms t o a ccep t i ta s t he f ounda t ion d a te f or J enne , a s d id o ur i n for man t , Ous man C isse . Ora l t rad i t ions c ol lec ted b y Mon tei l a nd D e la fosse a dd f l esh t o t he b are b ones o f a l-Sa 'd i 's r epor t .

A l l o ra l t rad i t ions a ppear t o b e u nan i mous i n

a f f ir m ing t ha t t he B ozo f i sher fo lk were t he e ar l ies t i nhab i tan ts o f t he r eg ion ( Mon te i l 1 932: 2 9 ;

D e la fosse 1 912 , V o l .

2 53-4 ) .

Un for tuna tely , t he B ozo

t he mse lves h ave f ew h is tor ica l t rad i t ions , a s i s f requen t ly t he c ase w i th a cepha lous s oc iet ies ( Vans ina 1 967). T he f ac t r e ma ins , h owever , t ha t t he B ozo a re s t i l l c ons idered b y a l l i nhabi tan ts o f t he a rea t o p ossess u n ique p owers o ver wa ter g en ies , b y r igh t o f b e ing t he o r ig ina l s et t lers i n t he r eg ion ( Sunds tro m 1 972: 4 9-70 ) .

Ora l t rad i t ion i s d iv ided o n t he i ssue o f whe ther t he B ozo ( Sorogo )

o f t he J enne r eg ion h ave a lways l i ved i n t he a rea , o r i ssued o u t o f ah o le , n a med D ia , i n t he Massina ( Mon te i l 1 903 : 9 4 ;

2 59-61;

D e la fosse 1 912: 2 53-4 ).

I n

1 977 , we were t o ld b y o ne i n for man t ( A.C.) t ha t t he B ozo h ave a lways b een i n t he J enne r eg ion b u t b y a no ther ( 0.C.) t ha t t he Bozo were r e la t ive ly r ecen t ( a l though t he f irs t ) m igran ts i n to t he a rea , wh ich h ad e ar l ier b een c overed b y p er manen t wa ter . 5 7

Z oboro was i n i t ia l ly a B ozo s e t t le men t ( Mon te i l 1 932 : 3 2 ;

D e la fosse

1 912 , V o l . I :2 68 ) . S on inke-speak ing N ono ( Marka ) e n tered t he u pper I n land N iger D e l ta f ro m t he n or thwes t v ia B ass ikounou a nd s uper i mposed t hemselves o n t he Bozo a u toch thones , a ccord ing t o t he t rad i t ions ( Mon te i l 1 932 : 3 1).

T he

N ono f ounded D ia , a' f amous me tropo l is ' f ro m whence N ono g roups s ubsequen t ly b udded o f f t o f ound n ew t owns , i nc lud ing S ansand ing , D iakha-sur-Ba f ing , a nd J enne .

T he D ia i mm igran ts s low ly moved i n to t he f l ood p la in , s e t t l ing i n t he

s ame v i l lages a s t he B ozo .

T hus , a t t he B ozo v i l lage o f Z oboro , aN ono

f act ion c o m manded b y Na manken i s e t t led d own a nd f ounded t he f irs t J enne ( Mon te i l 1 932: 3 2 ).

T he mos t c o m mon ly a ccep ted d er iva t ion o f t he n a me

J enne i s f ro m t he N ono " D janna" ( as J enne was o r ig ina l ly p ronounced ) mean ing " l i t t le D ia" a nd t hereby c o m me mora t ing t he t own f ro m whence t he N ono c ame ( Mon tei l 1 903: 2 63 , 2 86 ). T he d ura t ion o f N ono o ccupa t ion a t J ennejeno p r ior t o mov ing t he c i ty t o i t s p resen t s i te i s n o t s peci f ied i n t he o ra l t rad i t ions c o l lected b y Mon te i l a nd D e la fosse . b r ie f ly ;

D e la fosse h ypo thes ized t ha t t he Nono o ccup ied J ennejeno o n ly

o ur i nfor man t , Sau t B e la , r epor ted t ha t t he c i ty r e ma ined a t J enne-

j eno f or t hree h undred y ears . j eno 's a bandonmen t a re : 3 20-1;

V o l . I : 2 75 ;

Among t he v ar ious r easons c i ted f or J enne-

p opu la t ion p ressure ( De la fosse 1 912 , V o l . I :2 69-70 ,

0 .C.) , i ndefens ibi l i ty u nder a t tack ( S . B.) , a nd a t e tanus

e p ide m ic a f fec t ing a l l r ecen t ly-c ircumcised y oung men ( A .C.).

Mon te i l a nd

D e la fosse i mp ly t ha t t he move f ro m J ennejeno t o J enne h ad t aken p lace b efore t he c onvers ion t o I s lam o f t he 2 6th c h ie f o f J enne , K o i K o mboro , b e tween A .D . 1 200-1300 ( Mon te i l 1 903 : 2 85 ;

D e la fosse 1 912 , V o l . I :2 69-70 ) .

I n

a ctua l f ac t , a l l t ha t w e c an s ta te w i th c on f idence i s t ha t J ennejeno mus t h ave b een a bandoned b y a t l eas t A .D. 1 468 , a t wh ich t ime t he S onghay c onqueror S onn i A l i g arr isoned h is t roops t here d ur ing h is s e ige o f J enne ( a l-Sa td i 1 964 : 2 6 S evera l h is tor ians h ave f ound i td i f f icu l t t o a ccep t t he e igh th c en tury d a te c la imed f or t he c i ty b y o ra l t rad i t ion .

D e la fosse ( 1 912 , Vo l . I :2 69-70 ) f e l t

t ha t J enne mus t h ave b een f ounded C . A .D. 1 250 a s ad irec t c onsequence o f t he S on inke d ispersa l f o l low ing t he d es truct ion o f G hana i n C . 1 240 b y t he Mansa o f Ma l i .

T he N ono , h e a rgued , mus t h ave e n tered t he I n land De l ta i ng rea t

n umbers a t t h is t ime .

Mon te i l ( 1932 : 3 3 ) s ugges ted t ha t t h is a rgumen t was

t oo f l i msy a nd a rbi trary t o j us ti fy e n t ire ly i gnor ing t he o ra l t rad i t ions . L ev tzion ( 1973 : 1 59 ) d iscoun ts b o th o f a l-Sa 'd i 's d a tes ( s _ . A .D. 8 00 f or J enne 's f ounda t ion ; c . 1 200 f or c onvers ion t o I s la m ) a s "much t oo e ar ly" . H e a rgues t ha t J enne o wed h er e x is tence t o t wo t h ings : T i mbuk tu , a nd t he o pen ing o f t he Akan g o ld f i e lds ( usua l ly b e l ieved t o h ave o ccurred i n t he f ourt een th c en tury a l though t h is i s b y n o means p roven ).

T i mbuk tu was f ounded

o n ly i n t he e ar ly t we l f th c en tury a nd i ncreased s lowly i n p rosper i ty u n t i l i t b eca me v ery p ro m inen t i n t he f i f teen th c en tury .

L ev tzion r easons t ha t t he

" close c o m mercia l r e la t ions b e tween T i mbuk tu a nd J enne s ugges t t ha t t hese t wo impor tan t marke t t owns d eve loped s i mu l taneous ly ( Lev tzion 1 973 : 1 56) ; t hus , L ev tzion s uppor ts De la fosse 's d a te o f A .D. 1 250 f or t he f ound ing o f J enne . T r iaud p re fers t o s ee J enne a s a n a r t i fac t o f I s la m , f ounded n ear t he e nd o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury b y Mus l i ms i n c o-opera t ion w i th i nd igenes . misses t he o ra l t rad i t ions a s p ure f abr ica t ion ( Tr iaud 1 973 : 1 28 ) :

5 8

H e d is-

One h as t he i mpress ion t ha t t he i nhab i tan ts o f J enne , s u f fer ing f ro m t he l a te c rea t ion o f t heir t own , n eeded t o f abr ica te a h is tory t ha t g ave t he m more a ncien t o r ig ins . mid-e igh th c en tury A .D.

H ence , a l-Sa 'd i 's r epor t o f t he

Bu t mos t h is tor ians e s t i ma te t ha t t he

f ounda t ion o f t he t own o ccurred l a ter t han t h is d a te .

M . D e la fosse

p laces t he d a te c . 1 250 a nd a t tr ibu tes i tt o t he S on inke .

F or Pau l

Mar ty , t he c rea t ion o f t he t own a nd i t s c onvers ion t o I s lam s te m med f ro m Ma l inke i n f luence , wh ich i s q u i te p oss ible. Desp i te d ecades o f c o m men tary o n t he c hrono log y o f J enne 's o r ig ins , Mon tei l 's s ta te men t ( 1 932 : 3 6 ) t ha t " we k now n o th ing o f t he f irs t c en tur ies o f J enne ' was s t i l l a ppropr ia te t o t he s ta te o f k nowledge i n 1 977.

T he o ra l

t rad i t ion v s . h istor ica l r econs truct ion d eba te was c lear ly s ta le ma ted : a rcha eo log ica l r esearch o f fered t he mos t p romise f or r eso lu t ion o f t h is i ssue . T h is was o ne o f s evera l q ues t ions we s ough t t o a nswer t o e xcava t ing a t J ennej eno i n 1 977.

5 9

S ECT ION I

THE EXCAVATIONS AT J ENNE-JENO

6 1

CHAPTER 4 S ITE DESCR IPTION AND GEOGRAPH IC S ETTING

S i te Descr ip t ion The s i te o f J ennejeno i s al arge mound t ha t r ises u p t o 8 me tres a bove t he f loodp la in o f t he I n land N iger De l ta a pprox ima te ly t hree k i lo me tres s ou th•

e as t o f t he p resen t-day c i ty o f J enne ( 13° 5 3 ' 2 0" N , 4 ° 3 2 ' 2 5" W , — Map 4 .1) . The mound r es ts i n a n a bandoned c hanne l o f t he Ban i R iver ( Map 4 .2 ) wh ich n ow f l ows a pprox i ma tely f i ve k i lo me tres t o t he s ou theas t o f J ennejeno , a nd i s s urrounded b y f loodwa ters f ro m l a te S ep te mber t hrough J anuary.

A

f ea ture i mpor tan t t o t he l oca t ion o f t he s i te i s u ndoub ted ly t he S enuba , as eas ona l c hanne l i mmed ia te ly wes t o f J ennejeno wh ich r e ta ins wa ter t hroughou t t he d ry s eason .

Ad is tr ibu tary o f t he Ban i , t he H u tg ( par t o f t he S ou man Ban i ) ,

' h o lds wa ter a l l y ear l ong a nd l i es a bou t o ne k i lo me tre e as t o f t he s i te. To t he n or th a nd e as t o f J ennejeno a re t wo l arge s easona l p onds , r espec t ively t he S ako mbo a nd F aranko mbo . T he l eve l o f t he f loodp la in i s a pprox i ma tely o ne me tre l ower i n t hese p onds , wh ich may h ave b een c rea ted t hrough mudb r ick manu factur ing a ct iv i t ies , r esu l t ing i n t he r e mova l o f l arge amoun ts o f c lay f ro m t he f l oodp la in a d jacen t t o J ennejeno . Rough ly t eardrop-shaped , J ennejeno measures 7 60 me tres a long t he l onges t a x is ( N-S ) a nd 5 50 me tres E -W . To ta l s ur face a rea o f t he s i te i s a pprox i ma te ly 3 30 ,000 s quare me tres . Much o f t he mound 's s ur face i s c overed w i th a t h ick b lanke t o f p o tsherds t ha t l ends a d eep r edd ish h ue t o t he s i te when v iewed f ro m a d is tance .

A l though r ecen t a gr icu l tura l a ct iv i ties

h ave e rad ica ted s ur face f ea tures o ver a bou t 4 0% o f i t s a rea , l arge n u mbers o f mud b r ick h ouse f ounda t ions a nd c era m ic f unerary u rns a re v is ib le e lsewhere o n t he s ur face o f t he mound , p ar t icu lar ly where e ros ion h as b een a ct ive ( Map 4 .3 ) .

H ouse f ounda t ions a re r ound o r r ec t i l inear i n s hape a nd c ons tructed

o f e i ther r ec tangu lar o r c yl indr ica l mud b r ick ; f unerary u rns a re n o t iceab ly c oncen tra ted a long t he e as tern a spec t o f t he s i te .

C oncen tra t ions o f i ron

a nd s lag , p o t tery , a nd c a lcium n odu les a re p resen t , a l though i ti s d i f f icu l t t o k now i ft hese a re p roducts o f d i f feren t ia l e ros ion o r p as t a ct iv i t ies .

A

r ecen t Mus l im b ur ia l c an b e s een e rod ing f ro m t he s ur face i n t he s ou theas t s ector . Par ts o f ac i ty wa l l c ons tructed o f many r ows o f c yl indr ica l b r ick a re v is ible a t v ar ious p o in ts o n t he p er iphery o f t he mound ; e leven me tres w ide i n p ar ts .

t h is wa l l i s o ver

Two modes o f wa l l c ons truct ion were i den t if ied

f ro m t he f ew c o mp le te wa l l s ect ions wh ich r e ma in ; a n o u ter s he l l o f s evera l r ows o f mud b r icks was c ons tructed wh ich was t hen f i l led w i th mud r ubb le , o r as o l id wa l l o f r ows o f c yl indr ica l b r icks was b u i l t .

A t t he n or theas t e dge

o f t he s i te we h ave t en ta t ive ly i den t i f ied a b r ick-and-rubb le g a te t o t he c i ty wa l l measur ing 1 8 .2 me tres i n w id th a nd 1 2.3 me tres i n l eng th .

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J enne-jeno: t opography a nd s urface f eatures

6 6

A l though i ti s v ir tua l ly c er ta in t ha t t he s ur face o f J ennejeno h as b een s earched o ver many d ecades b y f ar mers , s hepherds , a nd c h i ldren s eek ing c ur ios s uch a s s p ind le whor ls , b eads , a nd c opper o rnamen ts , t here was r e la t ive ly l i t t le e v idence i n 1 977 o f s er ious d is turbance o f t he mound .

S evera l

r ecen t d is turbances b y t reasure s eekers were i n e v idence , b u t t hey were l im i ted i n a rea a nd v ery s uper fi cia l .

More s er ious a re t he d es truc t ive e f fec ts

o f r a in g u l lying a nd s trea m u ndercu t t ing , wh ich a re p ar t icu lar ly s tr ik ing a long t he wes tern e dge o f t he s i te .

S hee twa ter e ros ion a nd w ind d e f la t ion h ave t aken

t heir t o l l a s we l l . A s er ies o f f our , me tre-h igh , p er manen t c e men t p os ts h ad b een s e t i n to t he g round s ur face o f J ennejeno o n ar ough ly s ou theas t-nor thwes t a l ignmen t , a l though t he p os ts a re n o t i n as tra igh t l i ne . c ou ld n o t b e a scer ta ined . s ou theas t t o n or thwes t .

The p urpose o f t hese markers

We l abe l led t he m C e men t Markers 1 -4 , mov ing Ap ermanen t mark a t g round l eve l o f C e men t Marker

1 was u sed a s t he s i te d a tum , f or wh ich i tp roved i mposs ib le t o o b ta in a n e xact e leva t ion .

T he I n terna t iona l B ench Mark a t J enne n o ted a s a" po in t a s trono m ique"

( e leva t ion 2 78 me tres a bove s ea l eve l ) o n t he I ns t i tu te G bograph ique Na t iona l map ( San s hee t ) c ou ld n o t b e f ound i n 1 977.

U n t i l t ha t marker i s f ound , we

mus t b e c on ten t t o s ay t ha t t he s i te d a tum i s 2 78 + 5 me tres a bove s ea l eve l a t 1 30 5 3 ' 2 0" N , 40 3 2 ' 2 5" W. t o w i th in + 1 5 cm.

The s i te c on tour l i nes ( Map 4 .3 ) a re a ccura te

D a tu m p o in ts a t t he n or theas t c orner o f i nd iv idua l e xcava-

t i on u n its ( Mnd 1 , Mnd 2 , J F 1 , J F2 o n Map 4 .3 ) a re a ccura te t o w i th in t he n eares t c en t i me tre v er t ica l ly a nd t o +1 0 cm h or izon ta l ly ( da tum p o in ts were c ross-checked f ro m t wo a dd i t iona l a nd i ndependen t s ta t ions d ur ing l evel l ing ). G eo logy, G eography , C l i ma te The I n land N iger D e l ta i s al arge Qua ternary a l luv ia l b as in wh ich d irect ly o ver l ies a man t le o f P a laeozo ic s ands tones a nd g ran i t ic a nd g ne iss ic P reCambr ian b ase men t r ock ( Tr icar t 1 959 ).

I tb egan t o f or m s o me t i me i n t he

e ar ly t o mid-P l e is tocene when t he Ba r n R iver , wh ich f ormer ly f lowed f ar ther s ou th , was c ap tured b y t he N iger ( Grove a nd Warren 1 968 ) .

Annua l i nunda t ion

o f t he v as t a rea b e tween t he N iger a nd i t s n ew t r ibu tary o ccurred a s ac onseq uence o f t he e x tre me ly sma l l g rad ien t ( approx i ma te ly s ix c en t i me tres p er k i lo metre ) p roduced a s t he P r e-Cambr ian b ase men t p lanes o u t wes t o f S egou ( Kreuer 1 966 ).

T he d ivers i ty o f s o i l t ypes a nd l and for ms p resen t i n t he I n land

D e l ta i s s tagger ing ( s ee P ar t i : map 4 .1) . V ir tua l ly a l l o f t he v is ible f ea tures h ave b een c rea ted w i th in t he l as t 2 0 ,000 y ears ; t hey t es ti fy t o af a ir ly r ap id a l terna t ion o f d ry p er iods a ssocia ted w i th d une f or ma t ion a nd we t p er iods d ur ing wh ich t he migra t ing d is tr ibu tar ies c haracter is t ic o f a n a ct ive h ydrol og ica l s ys te m d issec ted a nd r eworked c on t inen ta l f ea tures a nd c rea ted l evee s ys te ms .

( A c o mprehens ive a nd u p-to-da te i n terpre ta t ion o f t he g eo morpho logy

o f t he I ND i s p resen ted i n P ar t iC hap ter 3 o f t h is monograph .) T he f i rs t g l i mpse o f t he l andscape o f t he I n land N iger d e l ta i m med ia te ly i nv i tes c o mpar ison w i th t he g rea t f l oodp la ins o f Mesopo ta m ia a nd Egyp t .

I n

a l l t hree , a n a r id c oun trys ide i s s l iced b y av as t r ibbon o f wa ter whose a nnua l s we l l ings d epos i t r ich a l luv ia l s ed i men ts , wh ich i n t urn s uppor t al ush s eas ona l f lora o f g rasses .

Wa ter , a l luv ia t ion , g rasses —" tr i log ie

g randes c iv i l iza t ions a n t iques" ( Ga l la is 1 967: 1 6). a ppearances , h owever , t he s im i lar i ty e nds .

6 7

-v oca tr ice

d es

A bove t he l eve l o f g enera l

T he f l oodp la ins o f t he N i le a nd

t he T igr is a nd Euphra tes a re a l l f ar more u n i form f ro m a t opograph ic a nd p edo log ic p o in t o f v iew , i n a dd i t ion t o r ece iv ing a f ar g rea ter a l luv ia l l oad t han t he I n land N iger D e l ta ( herea f ter a bbrev ia ted a s I ND ).

I ti s t he c lose ly

a d jacen t d ivers i ty o f l and for ms a nd s o i ls i n t he I ND wh ich p rov ides t he k ey t o i t s u n ique c haracter .

U s ing J ennejeno a s a n e xa mp le o f t h is d ivers i ty ,

i tc an b e s een ( Pa r t i : map 4 .1) t ha t w i th in o ne k i lo me tre o f t he s i te a re f ound t hree d i f feren t s o i ls —sands , bar ns , a nd c lays—and t hree d if feren t l and for ms —r iver

c hanne l , f l oodp la in , a nd l evee —wh ich a re c haracter ized b y p er manen t ,

s easona l , a nd n o i nunda t ion r espect ively.

A s m igh t b e e xpected , t he p re-

d om inan t p lan t s pec ies i n a ny g iven a rea r ef lec t micro topography a nd s o i l c ond i t ions .

The h igher a reas wh ich e scape s easona l i nunda t ion s uppor t a

N or th S udanese wooded s avanna v ege ta t ion .

On t he h igh s andy p la ins , t he

a rborea l s pecies P ark ia b ig lobosa ( Wes t A fr ican l ocus t b ean t ree ) , B u tyros per mum p ark i i ( Shea b u t ter t ree ) , a nd Tamar indus i nd ica ( Tar mar in t ree ) a re p reva len t .

Ancien t d unes a re c o lon ized b y s tands o f H yph ne t heba ica

a nd b ushes o f Maerua s enega lens is . L evees , w h ich p ossess a l arge c lay f ract ion , s uppor t A cacia s eya l . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f p lan t c o m mun i t ies o n t he f loodp la in i t se l f i s b a thy me tr ic: f lood ing a t a ny g iven l oca t ion .

d ependen t o n t he d ep th a nd d ura t ion o f

G rasses o verwhe l ming ly p redo m ina te o n t he

f l oodp la in , b eg inn ing w i th a t wo- metre h igh c ur ta in o f Andropogon g ayanus wh ich n ea t ly o u t l ines t he marg in o f i nunda t ion .

I n a reas r egu lar ly s ub merged

f or l ess t han t hree mon ths , V e t ivar ia n egr i tana i s f ound , wh ich y ie lds t o w i ld r ice —Oryza b ar th i i —where f l oods r e ma in f or t hree t o s ix mon ths ;

ad ense

c o lon iza t ion b y E ch inoch loa s tagn ina i s f ound i n d eep b as ins s ub merged f or l onger t han s ix mon ths o f t he y ear . T he r elevance o f t h is e x tre me e co log ica l d ivers i ty f or s tud ies o f p reh is tor ic s et t le men t i n t he I ND i s i l lus tra ted b y t he r ecen t work o f s evera l French g eographers who h ave s hown t ha t t he v ar ious e thn ic g roups p resen t ly o ccupying t h is r eg ion t end t o i nhabi t h igh ly s pec i f ic z ones o f t he r iver b ank o r f l oodp la ins a ccord ing t o t he p ar t icu lar d e mands o f t heir s ubs is tence s trat eg ies ( Ga l la is 1 967;

G a l loy e t a l . 1 973 ;

p ar t i , C hap ter 4 o f t h is monograph ) .

ad e ta i led s um mary i s p rov ided i n

F or a gr icu l tura l g roups i n p ar t icu lar ,

t h is p heno menon i s d irec t ly l i nked t o t he b a thy me tr ic d is tr ibu t ion o f v ege ta t ion z ones .

Ba mbara mi l le t f armers , f or e xamp le ,

r egu lar ly s et t le o n e leva ted

s andy d unes , wh i le N ono r ice c u l t iva tors a re o f ten f ound o n a r t i f ic ia l h i l locks c ons tructed o n t he f l oodp la in p rec ise ly where t he f l oodwa ters a t ta in t he a verage d ep th o f 2 -3 me tres t ha t i s o p t i ma l f or r ice a gr icu l ture ( Ga l la is 1 967: 1 10 ). T he l oca t ion o f s easona l Fu lan i p as tora l is t c amps i n t he I n land De l ta i s d irec t ly r e la ted t o t he a va i labi l i ty o f p as tureland , ar esource wh ich i s , a ga in , c on tro l led b y t he a nnua l r ise a nd f a l l o f t he f l oodwa ters . One o f t he c onclusions r eached b y Bar th i n d iscuss ing e co log ic r e la t ions h ips o f e thn ic g roups i n S wa t ,

( Nor th P ak is tan ) , i s p ar t icu lar ly r e levan t h ere :

" D i f feren t e thn ic g roups w i l l e s tab l ish t he mse lves i s s tab le c o-res idence i n a n a rea i ft hey e xp lo i t d i f feren t e co log ic n iches a nd e spec ia l ly i ft hey c an e s tabl ish s y mb io t ic e cono m ic r e la t ions" ( Bar th 1 956: 1 088 ).

C o-res idence

o f a gr icu l tra l is ts a nd f isher men o r a gr icu l tura l is ts a nd p as tora l is ts h as b een t he r u le r a ther t han t he e xcep t ion i n t he I ND f or a t l eas tt he p as t c en tury. T he r easons f or t h is p a t tern a re c lear : marke t f or h is d a iry p roduc ts .

t he p as tora l is t n eeds g ra in a nd a

The f isherman r equ ires t he r ice t ha t n u tr i t iona l ly

6 8

c o mple tes h is f ish-or ien ted d iet a nd a lso a marke t f or h is o i l a nd d r ied f ish ( Sunds tro m 1 972: 1 0 ). T he B ozo f isher fo lk o f t he I ND , f or e xamp le , a re e ssen t ia l ly d ependen t u pon , a nd a ux i l iary t o , a n a gr icu l tura l e cono my. I f t hey a re n o t i n a c tua l c o-res idence w i th a gr icu l tura l is ts , t he ir s easona l s e t t le men ts c orrespond v ery c lose ly w i th a n a gr icu l tura l l oca le ( Sunds tro m 1 972) .

T he a n t iqu i ty o f t h is p a t tern , p erhaps e ven t he n ecess i ty o f i t , i s

i l lus tra ted b y t he h is tory o f J enne , wh ich was a t i t s f ound ing a B ozo-Nono v i l lage ( Mon tei l 1 932 : 3 0 ). I ti s p robab le t ha t many r eg ions w i th in t he I ND c ou ld p o ten t ia l ly s uppor t h igh p opu la t ion d ens i t ies b y means o f ak ind o f p opu la t ion p ack ing w i th in a s y mbio t ic l a t t ice . One o f t he ma jor l imi t ing f actors f or h u man p opu la t ions i n t he I ND , h owever , i s c l i ma te .

F igure 4 .1 i l lus tra tes t he c l i ma t ic p a t tern o f t he J enne

a rea , where t he r ecess ion o f t he f loodwa ters ( more e cono m ica l ly t er med d 6crue i n F rench ) i s i m med ia te ly f o l lowed b y t hree mon ths o f l i t t le o r n o r a in a nd r is ing t e mpera tures .

May a nd J une a re t he h ardsh ip mon ths when g arden

g ru i ts a nd v ege tab les c anno t b e g rown a nd v i tam in C i s a t ap re m ium. An a dd i t iona l c ons tra in t o n b oth t he q ua l i ty a nd q uan t ity o f h uman l i fe i n t he d e l ta i s p rov ided b y t he n umerous d isease v ec tors wh ich t hr ive b o th s eas ona l ly a nd p ermanen t ly i n t he s ha l low a nd s lugg ish wa ters o f t he Ban i a nd i t s d is tr ibu tar ies .

Ma lar ia i s e nde m ic i n t he I n land D e l ta , a s t he r ela t ive ly

h igh h um id i ty c rea tes a f avourab le e nv ironmen t i n wh ich Anophe les f unes tus may f ree ly b reed i n s tand ing wa ters .

Mon te i l men t ions t ha t f ever a nnua l ly

s truck t he p opu la t ion o f J enne d ur ing t he r a iny s eason ( Mon te i l 1 932 : 1 0 ) . D ysen tery i s , o f c ourse , omn ipresent a long t he wa tercourse , a nd l oca l ized e p ide m ics d eve lop a nnua l ly d ur ing t he d ry s eason when t he c ons tr ic ted wa ter s ources a re r epea ted ly c on ta m ina ted .

F i lar ias is i s c aused b y ap aras i t ic

wor m — Wucherer ia b ancrof t i —wh ich i s mosqu i to-born a nd c an l ead t o v ery d eb i l i ta t ing e lephan t ias is .

A lso d ebi l i ta t ing a re t he wor ms o f t he g enus

S ch is toso ma wh ich i n fes t t he Ban i . T he d isab i l i ty r esu l t ing f ro m h os t ing t hese b lood f lukes o ver l ong p er iods o f t ime c an b e e x tre me ly s er ious a nd u l t i ma te ly f a ta l .

6 9

F IGURE 4 .1

C limatic a nd H ydrolog ica l

M ean A nnua l

C ycles o f J enne '

T emperature R anges i n J enn

4 00 a verage m aximum

3 50 3 0

2 5 ° a verage m ini t bum

2 0° 1 50 10 ° J LY ' AUG

S EP

I O C T 'NOV

D EC

( . l AN ' FEB

M AR

A PR

M AY

'J UN

F lood m aximum

R ainfall m aximum 25 m m.

J LY ' AUG

S EP

'O CT '

N OV' D EC '

J AN

F EB' M AR' A PR' M AY

J UN '

( from G allais 1 967:46,53,57)

7 0

CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH DES IGN AND EXCAVAT ION METHODS

Excava t ions w ere c arr ied o u t a t J ennejeno f ro m e ar ly F ebruary t o l a te A pr i l , 1 977 , a s t he i n i t ia l s tage o f at wo-par t p rogram o f a rchaeo log ica l r es earch d es igned t o p rov ide a p re l im inary f ramework f or i n terpre t ing t he p reh is tory o f t he wes tern I n land N iger D e l ta .

T he r esu l ts o f t he s econd s tage o f

r esearch , a n u nbiased s a mp le s urvey t o l oca te a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w i th in a 100 s quare k i lo me ter a rea t o t he n or th a nd wes t o f J enne , a re p resen ted i n Par t i o f t h is monograph . Owing t o t he l ack o f p r ior a rchaeo log ica l k nowledge o f t he I n land N iger D e l ta , t he o b ject ives o f b o th p hases o f t he r esearch were t he e s tab l ish men t o f ap re l im inary c hrono logy f or t he r eg ion a nd t he c are fu l d escr ip t ion o f i t s ma ter ia l c u l ture .

T he g oa l o f t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno ,

t hen , was t o e s tab l ish a s tra t igraph ic , c eram ic , a nd r adiocarbon c hrono log y f or t he s i te wh ich c ou ld t hen b e a pp l ied t o t he i nves t iga t ion o f o ther s i tes i n t he v ic in i ty o f J enne . O ther i ssues o f i n teres t i ncluded t he c hrono logy o f t echno log ica l a nd e cono m ic c hange , e .g . p lan t d o mes t ica t ion , t he i n troduc t ion o f i ron , a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty o f e ar ly u rban d eve lop men t i n t he I n land N iger De l ta . I n v iew o f t he k ind o f i n forma t ion we h oped t o e x tract f ro m t he s i te , v er t ica l e xcava t ion u n i ts measur ing t hree me tres o n as ide were u sed , a nd r igorous s tra t igraph ic c on tro l was ma in ta ined .

Our o r ig ina l i n ten t ion was t o

s e lect i n a n u nbiased manner t he a reas t o b e e xcava ted b y impos ing a t hreeb y-three me tre g r id o ver t he s ur face a nd u s ing a r ando m n umber t able t o p ick ap re-de term ined f ract ion o f t he g r ids .

I n o ur p rel im inary p lann ing , h owever ,

we d id n o t a n t icipa te t he d iscovery o f as i te a s v as t a s J ennejeno .

I t was

u l t i ma te ly p oss ible f or u s t o e xcava te f our sma l l t es t p i ts t o ta l l ing 3 7.5 s quare me tres o u t o f at o ta l s ur face a rea o f o ver 3 30 ,000 s quare me tres .

A r ando m

s a mple o f s uch sma l l a bso lu te s ize ( 4u n i ts ) wou ld i nvo lve s o l arge a s tandard e rror a s t o make t he r ando m iza t ion e xercise o f d ub ious v a lue.

We i ns tead

c oncen tra ted o n s e lec ting f or e xcava t ion a reas wh ich a ppeared , f ro m s ur face i ndica t ions , t o h ave e xcep t iona l p o ten t ia l f or p rov id ing i n for ma t ive s equences o f d epos i ts .

I n p ar t icu lar , w e a t te mp ted t o c hoose a reas wh ich s ee med t o

b e f unct iona l ly d is t inc t . p ar ts o f t he mound :

T he f our u n i ts were e xcava ted i n t hree d i f feren t

t hose c a l led Mound 1 a nd Mound 2 ( herea f ter r e ferred

t o a s M1 a nd M2 ) w ere d ug 1 10 me tres a par t i n a n a rea i den t i f ied a s r es iden t ia l b ecause o f t he n umerous mud b r ick h ouse f ounda t ions v is ib le o n t he s ur face , J ar f ie ld 1 ( JF1) s amp led a c e me tery a rea n ear t he s ou theas t p er iphery o f t he mound , a nd J ar f ie ld 2 ( JF2 ) was s unk a t t he v ery e dge o f t he mound i n a n a rea c o mposed o f ma ter ia l e roded f ro m h igher p o in ts o f t he s i te .

We f el t t ha t

e xcava t ion o f t hese f our u n i ts wou ld p er m i t ap re l im inary a ssess men t o f d i ff erences i n t he n a ture a nd d ep th o f t he d epos i ts a t v ar ious p o in ts o n t he mound . A lso , t he p oss ibi l i ty o f f unc t iona l v ar ia t ions i n ma ter ia l c u l ture c ou ld b e

7 1

t en ta t ive ly e va lua ted .

C lear ly , h owever , t he p oss ibi l i ty o f s a mp le b ias i s

s o g rea t i n t hese e xcava t ions t ha t e x tre me c au t ion mus t b e e xercised i n e x trapo la t ing f ro m t he e xcava ted d a ta t o u nexp lored a reas o f t he s i te . E xcava t ion me thods A l l f our p i ts were NS-E W i n o r ien ta t ion a nd measured 3 x 3 me tres , o r , i n t he c ase o f M2 , 3 .5 x 3 me tres .

E xcava t ion was a cco mp l ished w i th t rowe ls

when p oss ible a nd w i th t rad i t iona l A fr ican a gr icu l tura l h oes when t he d epos i ts were t oo c o mpac ted f or t rowe l l ing .

Our workmen were p ar t icu lar ly a dep t

w i th t hese s hor t-hand led h oes , a nd t hey e xh ib i ted r e markable s ens i t iv i ty t o m inu te c hanges i n s o i l t ex ture a nd d egree o f c ompac t ion . made t o e xcava te b y n a tura l l eve ls .

E very e f for t was

F ea tures s uch a s h ouse f loors a nd wa l ls ,

b ur ia ls , a nd f unerary u rns were e xcava ted a nd r ecorded s epara te ly f ro m a d jacen t l eve ls .

P o t tery a nd s lag were b agged s epara te ly f ro m b one ;

were b agged b y e xcava ted l eve l . F inds ;

a l l

A l l o ther a r t i fac ts were t rea ted a s S pec ia l

e xac t p roven ience was r ecorded , a nd e ach a r ti fac t was i nd iv idua l ly

b agged a f ter r ece iv ing a n umber a nd s pecia l t rea tmen t f or c onserva t ion , i f n ecessary.

D a ta o n e xcava ted p o t tery was r ecorded i n t he f ield ( see C hap ter

9 ) ; t he b ags o f r ecorded p o t tery were s ubsequen t ly b ur ied i n t he b ack f i l l o f M2. S lag was c oun ted f or e ach l eve l a nd d iscarded . We i n i t ia l ly a t te mp ted s creen ing w i th

a nd 1 /8 i nch mesh , b u t t he c o m-

p ac ted c lays wh ich p redo m ina te i n t he d epos i ts made t h is imprac t ica l ;

i t

t ook f ar t oo much t ime t o c rush t he c onso l ida ted ma tr ix manua l ly s o t ha t i t wou ld p ass t hrough t he s creen .

U n for tuna te ly , f l o ta t ion o n al arge s ca le

was n o t p oss ib le o w ing t o t he a bsence o f as u i tab le wa ter s ource i n t he v icin i ty o f t he s i te .

S tand ing wa ters o n t he a d jacen t f l oodp la in were c hoked w i th

g ram inaceous v ege ta t ion wh ich wou ld h ave q uc ik ly c on tam ina ted o ur c u l tura l a nd b o tan ica l s amp les . t o J enne f or f l o ta t ion .

I ns tead , s o i l s amp les w ere s porad ica l ly t aken b ack

C harcoa l s amp les f or r ad iocarbon d e ter m ina t ions were t aken o n ly f ro m s ubs tan t ia l c oncen tra t ions o f c harcoa l , many o f w h ich were i den f i t ied a s h ear ths . S a mp les were c o l lec ted w i th t weezers d irec t ly u pon e xposure a nd p laced i n to a d oub le e nve lope o f a lum in ium f o i l wh ich was t hen s ea led i n a p las t ic b ag . Pr oble ms S evera l o f t he p rob le ms e ncoun tered d ur ing e xcava t ion h ave b een a l luded t o a bove .

L ike mos t r esearchers i n t he a r id p ar ts o f A fr ica , we were c on-

s tra ined b y t he a va i labi l i ty o f wa ter .

Ac ruel t w is t a t J ennejeno was t he

a bundance o f s tand ing wa ter i n t he f l oodp la in s urrounding t he mound ;

u n for-

t una te ly , i t was s ha l low , muddy , c hoked b y v ege ta t ion , a nd a p o ten t ia l h aven f or s ch is tosomias is — in o ther words , q u i te u se less f or o ur n eeds . I n tense h ea t a nd a l im i ted wa ter s upp ly r es tr ic ted t he s cope o f a c t iv i ty a t J ennejeno . A l though t e mpera tures were q u i te c om for table f or e xcava t ion t hroughou t F ebruary , b y e ar ly A pr i l t e mpera tures were d a i ly r each ing 1 10120 Fahrenhe i t a nd h ea t e xhaus t ion was a c ons tan t d anger .

0

E qua l ly u np leasan t

were t he d us t s torms wh ich s wep t t he f l oodp la in d a i ly f ro m mid- March t o J une .

7 2

We a lso o pera ted u nder s evere t ime c ons tra in ts i mposed b y t he r ig id ly s easona l a va i labi l i ty o f l abour . E xcava t ion b egan a s t he h arves t was b e ing c o mp le ted i n l a te J anuary. A t t ha t t ime , y oung men f ro m s urround ing a reas b egan t o a rr ive i n J enne s eek ing emp loy men t a s b r ickmakers o r i n o ther c ra f ts d ur ing t he t hree- mon th p er iod o f a gr icu l tura l i nac t iv i ty.

A s t he f irs t s porad ic

r a ins f el l i n mid-Apr i l , o ur workers h ad t o l eave , o ne b y o ne , t o r e turn t o t he ir v i l lages a nd b eg in p repar ing t he s o i l f or p lan t ing .

A s we b egan t o l ose

o ur workers , d ec isions h ad t o b e made i n o rder t o a ssure t he c o mp le t ion o f a l l e xcava t ion u n i ts d own t o s ter i le s o i l a s we l l a s p roper b ack f i l l ing . M2 was t he mos t a f fected b y t h is ;

U n i t

we were f orced t o c u t d own t he s ca le o f

t he e xcava t ion u n i t t o I x 1 me tre a t ad ep th o f 2 .5 me tres a nd c o l lected n o p o t tery f ro m t he l owes t e xcava t ion l evel ( Leve l 1 8 ). I n a dd i t ion t o t ime c ons tra in ts , w e were a lso a cu te ly a f fec ted b y manpowers k i l l l im i ta t ions .

Two e xper ienced e xcava tors c ou ld n o t a dequa tely s uperv ise

more t han e igh t u n tra ined p eop le work ing i n t hree d i f feren t u n i ts a nd s t i l l e ns ure t he ma in tenance o f s tra t igraph ic c on tro l .

E xcava t ion was o f ten s lowed

b y t he h igh d egree o f c o mpac t ion i n l eve ls f ormed o f i ndura ted f l oodp la in c lays. J F1 was p ar t icu lar ly d i f f icu l t i n t h is r espec t f or t he r e ma ins o f f i ve i nhumed i nd iv idua ls h ad t o b e p a ins tak ing ly e x tr ica ted f ro m t he ir c e men tl ike ma tr ix .

' 7 3

CHAPTER 6 S U M MARY OF RESULTS

T he p urpose o f t h is b r ief c hap ter i s t o p rov ide a s u m mary o f t he r esu l ts ' o f t he 1 977 e xcava t ion s eason a t J ennejeno a nd t o i n troduce t he f ramework u sed i n t he o rder ing a nd a na lys is o f t he d a ta r ecovered . One o f t he g oa ls o f t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno was t he d e termina t ion o f t he d ep th a nd n a ture o f t he d epos i ts .

I n t he t wo c en tra l e xcava t ion u n i ts

( M1 a nd M2 ) , wel l-s tra ti f ied , c on t inuous c u l tura l d epos i ts e x tended t o ad ep th o f f i ve me tres a t wh ich p o in t s ter i le f l oodp la in a l luv iu m was e ncoun tered , c on f ir m ing o ur i n i t ia l i mpress ion t ha t J ennejeno i s at el l c o mposed o f o ccupa t ion d ebr is .

I n b o th u n i ts , i ron a nd s lag w ere p resen t i n t he e ar l ies t

l eve ls s tra t i f ied a bove a l luv iu m , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he o r ig ina l s e t t lers a t J ennej eno k new t he u se a nd manu fac ture o f i ron .

B oth M1 a nd M2 a ppear t o h ave

b een ' res iden t ia l a reas ' where d o mes t ic a ct iv i t ies t ook p lace.

T he ir f unct ion

i s s ugges ted , e spec ia l ly i n Ml, b y t he p resence o f l arge amoun ts o f d o mes t ic d ebr is ( an i ma l b ones , b roken p o t tery , e tc.) , c harcoa l a nd a sh c oncen tra t ions t ha t may h ave b een h ear ths , a nd mud b r ick a nd t au f ( coursed mud ) s tructura l r e ma ins . T he r es iden t ia l c haracter o f M2 i s l ess c er ta in , h owever ; s evera l mud b r ick h ouse f ounda t ions w ere u ncovered w i th in t he u pper 1 .5 metres o f M2 d epos i ts , b u t a ssocia ted d epos i ts f a i led t o r evea l t he a bundan t d o mes t ic r e fuse a nd h ear th d epos i ts s o c harac ter is t ic o f Ml.

The r ecovery o f s evera l

u nusua l c lasses o f a r t i facts ( i nc lud ing a t erraco t ta s ta tue t te a nd p o t tery w i th r a ised r e l ie f r epresen ta t ions o f h uman a nd a n ima l f igures ) f ro m d epos i ts i ns ide t he mud b r ick s truc tures may i nd ica te a r i tua l r a ther t han a d o mes t ic f unc t ion f or t he m. On t he s ou theas tern p er iphery o f t he mound , J F1 p rov ided i n for ma t ion o n a no ther f unct iona l ly d is t inc t a rea o f t he mound : t he c e metery . Bur ia l p ract ices f or b o th ma le a nd f e ma le a du l ts i ncluded i nhu ma t ion i n l arge f unerary u rns c overed w i th e i ther a p o t l id o r a n i nver ted c ar ina ted p o t , o r r egu lar i nh uma t ion o u ts ide o f u rns .

C u l tura l d epos i ts i n J F1 e x tended o n ly t o ad ep th

o f a pprox ima tely 1 .5 me tres .

A s econd e xcava t ion u n i t ( JF2 ) s unk o n t he

s ou theas tern p er iphery o f t he mound n ear J F1 b u t c loser t o t he a ctua l f l oodpla in p roved t o c ons is t o n ly o f e roded a nd r e-depos i ted ma ter ia l i n p oor c ond i t ion . A s econd g oa l o f t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno was t he e s tab l ish men t o f ag ross c hrono log y f or t he s i te b y means o f r adiocarbon d a t ing , s tra t igraph ic a na lys is , a nd p o t tery s er ia t ion .

E ach a spect o f t he e nqu iry was p ursued

i ndependen t ly , a nd t he c onclus ions o f e ach were t hen c o mpared .

S tra t igraph ic

a na lys is o f t he c en tra l e xcava t ion u n i ts ( M1 a nd M2 ) was c arr ied o u t b y R . J . M., who i den t i f ied t hree c orrespond ing s ets o f l eve ls ( or b ench l eve ls ) w i th in M1 a nd M2 b ased o n v ir tua l ly i den t ica l t ex ture a nd c o lour o f t he d epos i ts ; i tc an b e a rgued t ha t e ach p a ir o f l eve ls h ad b een l a id d own c on te mporaneous ly i n M i a nd M2 b y t he s a me d eposi t iona l p rocess o r e ven t . 7 4

The s tudy o f t he c era m ics f ro m J ennejeno ( d iscussed f u l ly b y S .K . M. i n C hap ter 9 ) r evea led t ha t t he p opu lar i ty o f c er ta in p o t tery a t tr ibu tes , i nc lud ing c ar ina ted f or m , c er ta in t ypes o f t wine d ecora t ion , p a in ted d ecora t ion , a nd s and p as te t e mper , e xh ibi ted c ons is ten t , u n i moda l c hange t hrough t ime , s uch t ha t a" ba t t lesh ip c urve" o r s o me s egmen t o f i t was f ormed when t he r e la t ive f requencies o f t hese a t tr ibu tes w ere p lo t ted t hrough t ime ( r epresen ted b y s tra t igraph ic o rder ing ) .

O f c ourse , t he r e l iabi l i ty o f t he p a t tern o f c hange

t hus o bta ined d epends h eav i ly o n t he amoun t o f s tra t igraph ic c on tro l ma in ta ined d ur ing e xcava t ion .

F or t h is r eason , M1 s erved a s t he s tandard f or t he c era-

mic s er ia t ion b ecause t he d egree o f c orrespondence b etween e xcava ted l eve ls a nd n a tura l s tra ta was h igh .

A t tr ibu tes wh ich p roved t o b e t ime s ensi t ive

i n M1 a lso e xh ibi ted b a t t lesh ip c urves f or t he p o t tery f ro m M2 a nd J F1.

The

c onclus ions a bou t c on te mporaneous b ench l eve ls i n M1 a nd M2 were c on f ir med b y t he r esu l ts o f p o t tery s er ia t ion :

The p o t tery f ro m e ach p a ir o f l eve ls

i den t i f ied a s c on te mporaneous o n t he b as is o f s tra t igraph ic a na lys is p roved t o h ave v ir tua l ly i den t ica l r e la t ive f requencies o f t ime-sens i t ive a t tr ibu tes . U s ing t h is me thod o f c o mpar ing r e la t ive

f requencies o f c er ta in p o t tery a t tr i-

b u tes , t he c hrono log ica l p os i t ion o f J F1 r e la t ive t o M1 a nd M2 was a lso a scer ta ined . T he i ndependen t c onclus ions d rawn b y S .K . M. a nd R .J .M . a bou t t he r e la t ive c hrono log y o f t he t hree ma jor e xcava t ion u n i ts were f ur ther c on f ir med b y a n e xce l len t s er ies o f n ine r ad iocarbon d a tes , wh ich a lso s erved t o a nchor t he r ela t ive c hrono log y i n c a lendar y ears .

I n d iscuss ing r ad iocarbon d a tes ,

t h is monograph f o l lows t he c onven t ion o f u s ing ' b .c . 'a nd ' a .d .' when s peak ing o f s i mp le , u nca l ibra ted d a tes , a nd ' B.C.' a nd ' A.D.' when d a tes a re e xpressed i n c a lendar y ears a f ter c a l ibra t ion . The J ennejeno r ad iocarbon d a tes s ugges t t ha t h abi ta t ion o f t he s i te b egan a round 2 50 B .C. a nd c on t inued t hrough t he t we lf th c en tury A .D. a t l eas t .

G radua l a bandonmen t o f t he s i te was p robab ly

i n p rogress s oon t herea f ter , a nd we k now f ro m h is tor ica l a ccoun ts t ha t J ennej eno was c o mp lete ly a bandoned b y 1 468 A .D. A r med w i th t h is c on f irma tory i n for ma t ion f ro m a l l t hree a spects o f t he i nves t iga t ion , af r a mework f or f ur ther a na lys is was a rbi trar i ly c rea ted b y d iv id ing t he d epos i ts i n to f our o ccupa t ion p hases .

T he d e f in i t ion o f e ach p hase

was b ased o n t he i den t i f ica t ion o f d iscre te s er ies o f r e la ted s tra t igraph ic e ven ts a s we l l a s o n t e mpora lly s ign i f ican t c hanges i n p o t tery a nd o ther c u l tura l c haracter is t ics .

F or e xa mp le , P hase I ( 250 B .C . -5 0 A .D.) i s d e f ined b y

t he a bsence o f p ermanen t mud a rch i tecture , a nd b y l arge r e la t ive f requencies o f f inely- made , s andte mpered p ot tery , a nd P hase I I ( c . A .D . 4 00-900 ) i s i den t i f ied b y t he f requen t o ccurrence o f c ar ina ted b owls a nd p a in ted d ecora t ion o n p o t tery .

T he c hrono log ica l o u t l ine i n c a lendar y ears f or t he f our p hases

i s l arge ly d er ived f ro m t he r ad iocarbon d a tes , a l though i t mus t b e n o ted t ha t t he s tandard d ev ia t ion f or mos t o f t he J ennejeno C 14 d a tes i s> 100 y ears , wh ich means t ha t t he p hase c hrono logy i s v ery a pprox i ma te i ndeed . T h is c hrono log y may b e a l tered b y f u ture e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno , a s may t he d ef in ing c haracter is t ics o f e ach o ccupa t ion p hase p resen t ly o u t l ined ; c urren t ly

t he

d ef ined o ccupa t ion p hases were c once ived mere ly t o f aci l i ta te t he

o rder ing , a na lysis , a nd d escr ip t ion o f t he d a ta r ecovered d ur ing t he 1 977 e xcava t ion s eason .

7 5

O ther r esearch g oa ls i nc luded t he c o l lec t ion o f d a ta p er t inen t t o t he q ues t ions o f l oca l c erea l d o mes t ica t ion a nd e ar ly u rban d eve lop men t i n t he I n land N iger De l ta .

A l though n o p lan t r e ma ins were r ecovered f rom Phase

Id epos i ts , d o mes t ica ted A fr ican r ice ( Oryza g laberr i ma ) was p resen t i n t he e ar l ies t P hase I l eve ls i n Ml. 4 0 +5 0 .

A ssocia ted c harcoa l y ie lded a d a te o f a .d.

T h is i s t he e ar l ies t a rchaeo log ica l o ccurrence o f A fr ican r ice y e t

k nown . T he p resence o f P hase I d epos i ts i n a l l t hree ma jor e xcava t ion u n i ts , s epara ted b y a max i mu m d is tance o f 4 00 me tres , s ugges ts t ha t J ennejeno b egan t o g row r ap id ly s oon a f ter t he i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te. t he r a te o f e xpans ion d ur ing

A l though

Phase Ia nd t he a ctua l a rea l e x ten t o f t he

mound a t t he b eg inn ing o f Phase I r e ma in t o b e c lar i f ied , p resen t e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t J ennejeno was a s i te o f c ons iderable d imens ions , p oss ibly e xceed ing t en h ec tares , b y A .D. 2 00 ( mid-Phase I ). O ccupa t ion o f t he s i te a ppears t o h ave b eco me i ncreas ing ly i n tens i f ied d ur ing Phase I I .

A n i n-

c reas ing n umber o f wa l l s tumps i s v is ible i n t he MI s ec t ions , a nd t he s tra t ig raphy i s n o t iceab ly more c o mp lex .

Wa l l s tumps t end t o b e a ssocia ted w i th

f a ir ly d eep d epos i ts , s ugges t ing t ha t o ccupa t ion o f ah ouse d ur ing Phase I I c ou ld s pan a n a pprec iab le t ime p er iod —poss ib ly t wo o r more c en tur ies .

The

a ppearance o f c rowded c e me ter ies ( JFI) i n Phase I I may b e f ur ther e v idence o f p opu la t ion g row th a nd i n tensi f ied s i te o ccupa t ion . T he r easons f or J ennejeno 's g row th d ur ing Phases I a nd I I a re n o t k nown .

T he r ecovery o f a n u nusua l g lass b ead f ro m P hase I d epos i ts a nd o f

c opper o b jec ts f ro m t he e ar l ies t P hase I I d epos i ts may p oss ibly t es t i fy t o t he s i te ' p ar t icipa t ion i n l ong-d is tance , p re-Arab t rade.

H owever , t he p resence

o f s tone b eads , s ands tone r ubbers , a nd i ron , n one o f wh ich i s l oca l ly a va i lab le i n t he I n land D e l ta , s ugges ts t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f r eg iona l t rade n e tworks w i th in t he D e l ta a nd i m med ia te ly a d jacen t a reas was a n i mpor tan t f ac tor i n t he e ar ly e xpans ion o f J ennejeno .

T hese r esu l ts h ave s ubs tan t ia l i mpl ica t ions

f or i n terpre ta t ions o f t he l a ter I ron Age i n Wes t A fr ica i n wh ich i ti s c o m mon ly a ssumed t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f u r b an is m i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica was u n ique ly ab y-product o f l ong-d is tance t rade e s tab l ished s ubsequen t t o Arab c on tac t .

7 6

CHAPTER 7 S TRATIGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY

C u l tura l d epos i ts i n a l l f our e xcava t ion u n i ts were s tra t if ied a bove s ter i le f l oodp la in a l luv ium , wh ich i s c o mposed o f l i gh t c lays .

A l l c u l tura l d epos i ts

were c on t inuous a nd l acked a ny e v idence o f s ter i le l ens ing wh ich m igh t i nd ic . a te t e mporary a bandonmen t o f t he s i te.

E ven a s we e xcava ted , i t was c lear

t ha t t here were s ign i f ican t d i f ferences i n t he d epos i t iona l h is tor ies o f e ach o f t he e xcava ted a reas ;

c are fu l c ons idera t ion o f t he s tra t igraphy p rov ides

s o me c lues t o t he d evelop men t o f t he s i te . Mound 1 ( M1) T he p i t l abel led M 1 i s l oca ted i n ac en tra l a rea o f J ennejeno n ear t he h ighes t p ar t o f t he s i te.

S ur face s ca t ter o ver M1 was modera te ly h eavy a nd

c ons is ted ma in ly o f p ot tery a nd s lag .

We were i n t ia l ly d rawn t o t he s peci f ic

l oca t ion o f M1 b y t he p resence o n t he s ur face o f s evera l s ands tone g r inders , ar are a r t ifac t t ype a t J ennejeno .

Based o n t h is s l im e v idence o f d o mes t ic

a ct iv i ty , we p roceeded t o s ink M1 i n to wha t we h oped was a ' res iden t ia l ' s ec tor .

T he P o in t o f O r ig in ( nor theas t c orner ) f or t he p i t was 3 .62 metres

a bove C e men t Marker 1 a nd 1 me tre wes t o f C e men t Marker 3 ( 2 77 me tres a t 3 33.5 0 f ro m magne t ic n or th f ro m C e men t Marker 1 ) . M1 was n o t t he f irs t e xcava t ion u n i t t o b e o pened , b u t i ti s d escr ibed f irs t b ecause i ts erved a s t he s tandard f or s tra t igraph ic a nd p o t tery a na lys is f or a l l e xcava t ion u n i ts . T he s tra t i f ica t ion i n t h is p i t was p ar t icu lar ly d e ta i led a nd c lear ;

t h ir ty l eve ls a nd t wo mud s tructures were r ecogn ized w i th in f ive

me tres o f c u l tura l d epos i ts .

C orrespondence b etween e xcava ted l eve ls a nd

s tra ta r ecogn ized i n s ec t ion was e spec ia l ly g ood i n t h is p i t ( Figures 7 .1 a nd 7 .2 ). Presen ted i n T ab le 7 .] i s ab r ie f d escr ip t ion o f t he e xcava ted l eve ls i n M1 t ha t i ncorpora tes s pecu la t ion o n t he d epos i t iona l p rocess o r e ven t wh ich r esu l ted i n t he a ccu mu la t ion o f ag iven l eve l . The f ive r ad iocarbon d a tes o bta ined f or M1 d epos i ts a re a lso n o ted ( a f u l l d iscuss ion o f t he n a ture a nd c on tex t o f t he s a mp les s ub m i t ted f or C 14 d a t ing i s c on ta ined i n A ppend ix I ) . Based o n s tra t igraph ic i n for ma t ion c o mbined w i th t he r esu l ts o f p ot tery s er ia t ion ( c f . C hap ter 9 ) , t he c orrec t c hrono log ica l o rder o f t he e ven ts o u tl ined i n Table 7 .1 c ou ld b e r econs tructed w i th a f a ir d egree o f c on f idence ; t h is i n forma t ion i s s um mar ized i n T able 7 .2 Mound 2 ( M2 ) The a rea o f M2 was s e lected f or e xcava t ion b ecause o f t he p resence o f t wo i n tersec t ing f ounda t ions o f mud b r ick e rod ing f ro m t he s ur face .

We were

i n teres ted t o s ink a no ther p i t i n to t he n or th-cen tra l ' res iden t ia l ' s ec tor a t s o me d is tance f ro m M 1 i n o rder t o e va lua te t he magn i tude o f d epos i t iona l 7 7

J enne 'j eno , M a l i

S ec t ions :M 1

s ec t ions , 1 977

. 7 : 7 • 7 1 • : • • • : • : , : • : • : • : .

‘ ` f

e » g e

n i :HE

7 8

J enni ej ena M a l i

t .

0 1

.. .

E xcava ted l e ve ls : M I

e xcava ted l eve ls ,

t . .

7 9

TABLE 7. l TABLE 7.1.' Description of Excavated Levels in Ml. (descriptions of :>Oil texture after Ahn 1970: 19-21). Level 1: Level 2: Level 3: level 4:

Level 5:

Debris accurrulated above House 2 and probably somewhat levelled by rain erosion and defla­ tion during the recent centuries after abandonment of Jenne-Jeno, resulting in surface carpet of sherds and slag. Grey-brown and loosely-compacted iight loam •

.

Identical to level 1 and combined with it for analysis.

Debris from the abandoned House 2: represents perhaps the slow collapse of walls left standing. Light-coloured, firm mud-wall collapse.

Mud-wall collapse deposited rapidly at the destruction of House 2. Cylindrical bricks can be seen in this loosely-compacted material. Brown or reddish-grey light loam with lioonite gravel and mud bricks. Radiocarbon date on charcoal taken from bottom of this level: a )

0 c t C )

+ I

N

0

-m C

" C D c o

9 3

c o

RI

ui c = m

1 I

a › ) .

( )

4 )

> ,

F IGURE 7 .8 S ummary o f c hanges i n r e lative f requency o f s ix t emporally s ignif icant a ttributes o f J ennej eno p ottery ( see C hapter 9 f or d etails)

3 , 4 H2 ,6 ,7

I V

5 1 0 1 1 2

r--

20

I

2 1 ,22 2 3 2 4

A

2 5 - 28 2 9 30

Q )

4 — ) C M r t 2 CL .

3 , H3 5 2 6 C M

IV

1 1

4 , H4 H T 8 ,3 1 0 , H8 1 3

r -

c m

2 3 4

C C t -D

I T I L

5 6

I 1

I

0

9 4

1 00 %

1 -

u noccup ied a nd p oss ibly u ndergo ing a c t ive e ros ion a t t hese t imes . o f P hase I I i s v ery t en ta t ively p laced a round A .D. 9 00 .

T he e nd

Ano ther p er iod o f

s low a ccumu la t ion marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ina l p hase o f o ccupa t ion i den t if i ed a t J ennejeno .

P hase I V ( M1 L eve ls 1 2-1 a nd M2 L eve ls 1 3-1) i s s ub-

s equen t ly r epresen ted i n M1 b y t he b u i ld ing , o ccupa t ion , a nd d es truct ion o f H ouse 2 , a s we l l a s b y l a ter a ccu mu la t ion . p ress ive amoun t o f c ons truct ion a ct iv i ty:

P hase I V i n M2 i nc ludes a n i mH ouses 7 ,

4 , and

3 were a l l b u i l t

a nd d es troyed w i th in a s hor t p er iod o f t ime , p oss ibly o n t he o rder o f l ess t han o ne h undred a nd f i f ty y ears a f ter t he e nd o f t he s low a ccumu la t ion a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he p hase .

I nspect ion o f t he r e la t ive f requencies o f p o t tery a t tr ibu tes

i nd ica tes t ha t t he r ubbish t i p a t t he t op o f M2 was f i l led i n a t a bou t t he s ame t ime t ha t H ouse 2 was o ccup ied i n Ml.

I tt here fore a ppears t ha t a c t ive d epo-

s i t ion c on t inued i n t he a rea o f p i t M1 l ong a f ter i th ad e nded a t M2.

Th is migh t

we l l b e i n terpre ted a s e v idence f or a s low a nd g radua l a bandonmen t o f J ennej eno s o me t ime p r ior t o A .D . 1 400 . T he who le s equence o f M1 a nd M2 e ven ts a s r econs tructed a bove i s o u tl i ned i n Tab le 7 .6 b e low : T able 7 .6

S um mary o f t he C hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip o f ma jor d epos i t iona l E ven ts a s R econs tructed f or Mound 1 a nd Mound 2 . MOUND 1

A .D. 1 400

MOUND 2

a bandonmen t a ccu mu la t ion d es troyed

a bandonmen t

o ccup ied

r ubbish t i p

H ouse 2

b u i l t s low a ccumu la t ion A .D. 9 00

d es troyed

H ouses 7 , 4 , 3 , b u i l t , d es troyed s low a ccumu la t ion e ros ion? a shy L eve l 1 4

H ouse 6

o ccup ied b u i l t

e ros ion?

s low a ccumu la t ion

s low a ccumu la t ion

s tructura l d ebr is

s truc tura l d ebr is

o ccupa t ion , n o p er ma-

o ccupa t ion , n o p erma-

n en t a rch i tec ture

n en t a rch i tecture

g rass f ir ing

g rass f i r ing

A .D. 4 00

A .D . 5 0

2 50 B . C.

T he p lace o f J F1 d epos i ts w i th in t h is c hrono log ica l s che me i s more d i f f ic u l t t o a ssess s ince t he p i t l i es a max i mu m d is tance o f f our h undred me tres f ro m M1 a nd M2 a nd n o s tra t igraph ic s imi lar i t ies b etween i ta nd t he o ther t wo p i ts were n o ted .

One r ad iocarbon d a te o f a .d . 130 J 8 0 was o bta ined o n h uman

b one f ro m Funerary J ar 6 ;

t h is d a te d oes f a l l w i th in t he e xpec ted c hrono log ica l

r ange o f P hase I I ( A .D. 4 00-900 ) when t wo s tandard d ev ia t ions a re c ons idered .

A ccord ing t o t he p o ttery c hrono logy d eve loped a nd s uccessfu l ly a pp l ied t o M1 a nd M2 , JF1 d eposi ts b egan t o a ccu mu la te d ur ing Phase I .

O ver o ne

me tre o f d eposi ts ( Leve ls 6 -4 ) a ppear t o h ave a ccu mu la ted s o me t i me b e tween C . A . D. 5 0-400 , b ased o n t he r e la t ive f requenc ies o f a t tr ibu tes o f t he p ot tery t aken f ro m t hese l eve ls . p ot tery

-h -v.a cter is t ic

The r e ma in ing metre o f JF1 d epos i ts c on ta ined

o f P hase I I o ccupa t ion .

P hase I V p ot tery was n o t i n

e v idence , a l though t h is d oes n ot n ecessar i ly mean t ha t n o d epos i ts e ver a ccumu la ted d ur ing Phase I V a t J F1;

i ti s impor tan t t o r eca l l t ha t , l y ing i n a

d ownslope a rea , J F1 h as b een p ar t icu lar ly s ub jec ted t o e ros ion a nd d ef la t ion . A s u m mary o f t he a ss igna t ion o f e xcava ted l eve ls i n to t he f our o ccupa t ion p hases d e fined a t J ennejeno i s p resen ted i n T able 7 .7 Table 7 .7

S u m mary o f t he E xcava ted L eve ls A ss igned t o Each o f F our O ccupa t ion Phases Def ined a t J ennejeno PHASE I

MOUND 1

l evels 3 0 -2 5

MOUND 2

JARFIELD 1

PHASE I

PHASE I I

PHASE I V

l eve ls

l evels

1e vels

2 4 -2 1

2 0 -1 3

1 2 -1

l eve l

l eve l

l evels

1e vels

1 8

1 7

1 6 -1 4

1 3 -1

l evels

l evels

6 -4

3-1

9 6

CHAPTER 8 FEATURES , HOUSES , AND FUNERARY URNS

J ARFIELD I ( FJ1) S ur face t hrough L eve l 1 A s men t ioned e ar l ier , J F1 was s unk i n t he mids t o f a sma l l c oncen tra t ion o f f unerary u rns ( a l terna t ive ly r eferred t o a s j ars ) o n t he s ou theas t p er iphery o f J ennejeno . i n F igure 8 .1;

T he d ens i ty o f s ur face f ea tures i n t he a rea o f J F1 i s i l lus tra ted t en f unerary u rns a nd n umerous s egmen ts o f mud b r ick

f ounda t ion were mapped w i th in a n a rea o f f or tytwo s quare me tres .

S evera l

mud b r icks v is ible o n t he s ur face i n t he s ou thwes t c orner o f J F1 were d es ign a ted H ouse 1 .

I tp roved e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t , h owever , t o t race t he f ounda t ion

f ar ther o r e ven t o o u t line t he e x ten t o f wa l l c o l lapse w i th in t he e xcava t ion u n i t . A l mos t t he e n t ire s ou thern h a l f o f J F1 d own t o ad ep th o f 2 50 m m was e xcava ted a s ' House 1 wa l l a nd wa l l c o l lapse ma ter ia l ' , a l though t h is d es igna t ion i s , i t mus t b e a dm i t ted , l i t t le more t han a ' bes t g uess" .

B ecause v ery l i t t le p o t tery

a nd n o f ea tures o f ad o mes t ic n a ture s uch a s h ear ths were f ound w i th in H ouse 1d epos i ts , t he f unct ion o f t h is s tructure r e ma ins e n igma t ic .

A l though i t i s

p ossible t ha t t he h ouse was r es iden t ia l i n f unct ion , ac e me tery s ee ms a n u n l ikely p lace t o l i ve .

More l i ke ly , t he s tructure h ad a f unerary o r r i tua l

f unc t ion , b u t t h is c anno t b e p roven . Funerary J ars 3 a nd 4 were v is ible o n t he s ur face , b u t a s t hey were a ct ua l ly embedded i n t he wes t s ect ion a nd t he s ou theas t c orner , r espec t ively , o f J F1, i t was n o t p ossib le t o e xcava te t he m .

P la te Is hows J ar 3 a s i t

u l t i ma tely l ooked i n s ec t ion a t t he e nd o f t he e xcava t ion .

L ike mos t f unerary

u rns , t h is o ne i s c overed b y a n i nver ted p o t , a l though k nobbed p o t l ids a re s o me t i mes u sed a s u rn c overs . F unerary J ars 1 a nd 2 were a lso v is ible o n t he s ur face o f J F1 a nd , u pon e xcava t ing t hrough L eve l 1t o ad ep th o f 1 50 m m , i tb ecame a pparen t t ha t t hey were a ssoc ia ted i n s o me way.

Numerous f ragmen ts f ro m t he r im o f

Funerary J ar 1 l ay a t t he s a me l eve l a s t he l arge s herds o f Funerary J ar 2 , wh ich was , i n f ac t , n o t f unerary a t a l l s ince i tc on ta ined n o s ke leta l r e ma ins . R econs truc ted , J ar 2 p roved t o b e ac ar ina ted p o t o f t he t ype o f ten u sed f or u rn c overs ( Append ix I :

F ig . 1 0 ).

I n v iew o f i t s p os i t ion a t t he s ame d ep th

a s t he r im f rag men ts o f Funerary J ar 1 , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t J ar 2 o nce c overed J ar 1 .

Funerary J ar 1 c on ta ined h u man r e ma ins i n e x tre me ly p oor c ond i t ion .

T hese a nd a l l o ther s kele ta l ma ter ia ls r ecovered f ro m J ennejeno a re d esc r ibed i n C hap ter 1 0 . J ar 5 was t he f ina l u rn v is ible o n t he s ur face o f J F1. a n i nver ted c ar ina ted p o t ( App . I :

I t was c overed b y

F ig . 1 3 ) a nd p roved t o c on ta in s ke le ta l

r e ma ins i n b roken , d isar t icu la ted , a nd g enera l ly p oor c ond i t ion .

9 7

I n e xcava t ing

0

u rn

o

0

' c-

c 3 C3

-

7

r ound 00 b r ick 0

3 e 1

o c )

b r ick wa l l o r f ounda t ion

F IGURE 8 .1

0

1

2m .

1

I

i

S urface f eatures i n t he a rea o f J F1.

9 8

J ar 5 ( App. I ; s tr ik ing ;

F ig . 2 3 ) , t he l a in ina ted n a ture o f t he s o i l i n t he u rn was v ery

f ine s i l ts a l terna ted w i th c oarse s ands i n a manner s ugges t ing

a eo l ian d eposi t ion . I t was o n ly i n t he b o t to m 3 50 m m o f t he u rn , i n t he a rea i m med ia tely s urround ing t he s kele ta l ma ter ia l , t ha t d epos i ts b ecame more c o mpac t a nd h o mogeneous .

T h is p a t tern i nd ica tes t ha t t he d eceased was

s hoved i n to t he b o t tom o f t he j ar a nd j us t b are ly c overed w i th e ar th ; a s t hen c overed b y al i d o r a n i nver ted p o t .

t he u rn

T hrough t ime , w ind-blown

d epos i ts s e t t led i n to t he u rn t hrough c racks a nd b reaks t ha t d eve loped i n t he c over . L eve ls 2 a nd 3 Three f ea tures a ppeared a s we e xcava ted t hrough l eve ls 2 a nd 3 t o a d ep th o f 4 50 m m . S ke leton 1 emerged i m med ia te ly t o t he s ou theas t o f Funerary J ar 1 a t ad ep th o f 2 10-270 m m b e low t he P o in t o f Or ig in ( nor theas t c orner ).

T he s ke le ton was c o mple te ly d isar t icu la ted ;

i ta ppeared t ha t b roken

f rag men ts o f l ong b ones h ad b een g a thered t oge ther a nd p urposefu l ly p laced a d jacen t t o J ar 1 .

T he a dd i t iona l d iscovery o f c ran ia l a nd max i l lary f rag-

men ts t o t he n or th o f J ar 1 a t 2 30 m m d ep th r e in forced o ur b e l ie f t ha t t he i n ter men t o f Funerary U rn 1 d is turbed a n e ar l ier i nhuma t ion , f ragmen ts o f wh ich were c arefu l ly g a thered t oge ther a nd r ep laced i n t he f i l l a round t he u rn . Ano ther d is turbed b ur ia l was e xposed i n L eve l 2 ;

a t ad ep th o f 3 50 m m

o n t he e as t s ide o f J F1, a n ew c oncen tra t ion o f b roken p o t tery a ppeared ( Po t tery C oncen tra t ion 2 i n F ig . 8 .2 ).

Among t he f ragmen ts was a l arge

p iece o f p la te u pon w h ich r es ted s evera l c ran ia l f rag men ts a nd a n umber o f t ee th .

T hese r e ma ins were l abe l led S keleton 2 .

R econs truct ion o f t he p o t tery

i n P o t tery C oncen tra t ion 2 s howed t ha t p ar ts o f ap o t l id a nd a f unerary u rn , a s we l l a s t he p la te , w ere r epresen ted .

I ti s p robab le t ha t t he u rn b ur ia l o f

S ke le ton 2 was d is turbed b y t he l a ter i n ter men t o f Funerary J ar 5 . At h ird p o t tery c oncen tra t ion b ecame v is ib le a t 2 30 m m d ep th .

Fur ther

e xcava t ion r evea led t ha t t he v ar ious b roken p o ts i n P o t tery C oncen tra t ion 3 were s i t t ing a top a no ther f unerary u rn ( Jar 6 ).

I ncluded i n t he p o t tery

c oncen tra t ion were t hree p o t l ids a nd t hree c ar ina ted p o ts o f t he t ype c o m mon ly u sed a s u rn c overs .

I n a dd i t ion t o t hese f ragmen tary p o ts , a n i n tact c ar ina ted

p o t was i nver ted o ver J ar 6 ( App. I ; F ig . 1 2 ) . J ar 6 p roved mos t i ns truct ive .

The f ur ther e xcava t ion o f

F irs t , t he u rn c on ta ined a d ouble b ur ia l .

A bou t midway t hrough t he u rn d epos i ts a t ad ep th o f C . 3 50 m m f ro m t he r im , ap ar t ia l ly a r t icu la ted s ke le ton ( Ske le ton 8 ) i n g ood c ond i t ion was u nc overed i n t he s ou thern h a l f o f t he j ar .

Around a nd b enea th S ke le ton 8 were

t he c o mp le te ly d isar t icu la ted a nd s evere ly d is turbed b ones o f S ke leton 7 , wh ich was i n p oor c ond i t ion .

I ti s q u i te c lear t ha t S ke le ton 8 was b ur ied

a t l eas t s evera l y ears a f ter S ke le ton 7 .

Ab one s amp le f ro m S kele ton 8 g ave

a n u nca l ibra ted C 14 d a te o f a .d . 1 130 + 1 80 . A lso o f i n teres t i n t he e xcava t ion o f Funerary J ar 6 was t he f ac t t ha t t he u rn i tsel f was t ouch ing t he wes t s ect ion o f J F1, p rov id ing a n o ppor tun i ty , u pon t he r e mova l o f J ar 6 f ro m t he p i t , t o s tudy t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f t he h o le d ug t o a cco m moda te t he u rn .

Pr ior t o t h is p o in t , Ih ad h ypo thes ized

t ha t t he p o t l ids a nd i nver ted p o ts o n t op o f f unerary u rns were l e f t e xposed

9 9

1

e xcava t ed

C; )

E

1

L r 2

1 00

a nd f unct ioned a s g rave markers . T h is s ee med t he mos t p laus ible e xp lana t ion f or t he f act t ha t s o many u rn c overs were f ound a skew a nd b roken a nd a lso f or i h ( ‘ r > v idence o f a eo l ian d epos i t ion i n J ar 5 a nd o ther u rns .

T h is t heory

was s ubs tan t ia ted b y t he d iscovery o f ac lear o u t l ine i n t he wes t s ec t ion o f t he d ark f i l l o f t he h o le d ug f or J ar 6 .

F igure 8 .3 s hows t he a ctua l p os i t ion

o f J ar 6 a ga ins t t he a rea o f f i l l i n s ec t ion .

I ti s c lear t ha t t he s ur face o f t he

g round a t t he t ime o f Funerary J ar 6 's i n termen t was j us t af ew c en t i me tres a bove t he r im o f t he u rn , a nd t ha t t he i nver ted p o t c over ing t he u rn was a bove g round .

W i thou t t h is 1 . sc ' s o f s o l id e v idence f or o ther u rns , h owever , i ti s

d i f f icu l t t o a ssume t ha t c overs w ere a lways l e f t e xposed , o r i ft hey were , t o k now h ow much o f t he c over was l e f t a bove g round .

T h is l a t ter q ues t ion

i s p ar t icu lar ly r e levan t t o u rns c overed b y v ery d eep p o ts , s uch a s J ar 3 ( c f .,

P la te I ) . O ther f ea tures o f i n teres t t ha t a ppeared d ur ing t he e xcava t ion o f L evels

2a nd 3 were :

F ea ture 1 , al i ne o f h ard-packed s o i l i n t he s ou thwes t c orner

o f . J F1 whose s ign i f icance i s u nknown ;

a nd F ea ture 2 , a n a rea s ou thwes t o f

F ea ture 1 c ons ist ing o f l oose , s andy s o i l much b lackened b y a sh a nd c harcoa l . Fea ture 2 i s s ha l low i n t he s ou thwes t c orner o f J F1 b u t r ap id ly d eepens a s i t c on t inues i n to t he s ou th s ec t ion o f t he p i t , s o t he s ize a nd n a ture o f t h is f ea ture c ou ld n ot b e a ssessed .

I n t he s ou theas t q uadran t o f t he p i t , t he c ran ia l

v au l t o f S ke le ton 3 a ppeared a t 4 40 m m d ep th . L eve l 4 J F1 b ecame i ncreas ing ly c rowded a s L eve l 4 was e xcava ted ( F ig . 8 .4) . A dd i t iona l u rns a s we l l a s i nhuma t ions o u ts ide u rns c ame t o l i gh t a s t he e xcava t ions p rogressed .

S ke le ton 3 , a n e as t-wes t e x tended i nhuma t ion whose

h ead a ppears t o h ave b een p ropped u p a ga ins t t he s ide o f t he g rave , was t he f irs t t o a ppear .

T ib iae , f i bu lae , a nd f ee t were m iss ing , p resumably b ecause

o f d is turbarce b y t he l a ter i nhuma t ion o f S kele ton 5 , as l igh t ly f l exed , n or thwes ts ou theas t f l exed b ur ia l i n t he s ou thwes t c orner o f t he p i t .

Ear l ier t han b o th

S ke le tons 3 a nd 5 , h owever , was S ke le ton 4 , whose t igh t ly f l exed k nees l ay d irec t ly u nder t he r igh t f e mur o f S ke le ton 3 .

S ke le ton 4 was p os i t ioned o n i t s

s ide , f acing e as t , w i th h ands c ush ion ing t he l e f t c heek ,

S ke leton 5 was i n a

s im i lar a t t i tude , f ac ing s ou thwes t . T hree more f unerary u rns a ppeared i n r ap id s uccess ion : 9 emerged a t d ep ths o f 6 30 , 6 30 , a nd 6 60 m m r espect ive ly.

J ars 7 , 8 , a nd T he u pper mos t

d epos i ts i n u rn 7 were l amina ted , w i th s ands a nd s i l ts a l terna t ing .

T h is

p heno menon , p robab ly t he r esu l t o f w ind d epos t t ion , h as a lready b een n oted w i th r egard t o J ar 5 . h o mogeneous .

A t 1 60 m m d ep th i n u rn 7 , d epos i ts b ecame h ard a nd

Ac oncen tra t ion o f b roken p o t tery , r econs tructed i n to a

' bo t t le" ( App . I :

F ig . 1 5 ) a nd a c ar ina ted p o t ( App . I :

c oun tered j us t b elow t h is d ep th .

F ig . 1 3 ) , was e n-

T h is was t he f irs t u rn t o c on ta in g rave g oods .

S ke le ton 1 0 , i n p oor c ond i t ion , l ay i n t he b o t to m 3 00 m m. J ar 8 was c overed b y ac ar ina ted p o t ( Ap p . I :

F ig . 1 3 ) a nd c on ta ined

a n a l mos t c o mp le te ly a r t icu la ted s ke le ton ( Ske le ton 1 1) i n e xce l len t c ond i t ion . J ar 9 , c apped b y ab roken l i d , was l e f t u nexcava ted a s i t was p ar t ia l ly embedded i n t he n or th s ec t ion o f t he p i t . N o f ea tures were i den t i f ied i n L eve ls 5 o r 6o f J F1.

1 01

0

0 -25

F IGURE 8 .3

0 5m .

F unerary J ar # 6 s uperimposed a gainst a rea o f f ill v isib le i n s ection.

1 02

. 0

' 7 5 ( 1 ) 0 0 Q. . • 4 * c r p

L

C Z

C3 T h ( 1 . )

c p C O

c p . ) L

c Y )

r y c o ( f )

L c ?

1 VJ

S equence o f e ven ts i n J F1 I f we may a ssume , g iven t he e v idence o f J ar 6 , t ha t t he t op o f t he f unerary u rns b ears a c lose r e la t ionsh ip t o t he g round s ur face a t t he t ime o f i n ter men t , t hen i ti s p oss ib le t o r econs truct t en ta t ively t he s equence o f b ur ia ls i n J F1. J ar 9 i s t he l owes t u rn a nd t hus p resumably t he e ar l ies t .

The g round s ur face

a t t he t ime o f i t s i n ter men t wou ld p robab ly h ave b een c . .700 m m b e low t he P o in t o f Or ig in o n t he p resen t s ur face .

I ft h is i s s o , J ar 9 was b ur ied i n t he

l a ter p ar t o f P hase I , a ccord ing t o t he p o tsherds r ecovered f ro m t he d epos i ts a t t ha t d ep th .

J ars 8 a nd 7 a lso a ppear t o b e l a te P hase I b ur ia ls .

T he r e ma in ing i nhu ma t ions a nd u rn b ur ia ls s ee m t o d a te t o P hase I I . Mov ing f ro m e ar ly t o l a te , t he r econs tructed o rder o f u rn b ur ia ls i s J ars 6 , 5 , 3 , 1( and 2 ) , a nd 4 . Fur ther more , s ince t he i n termen t o f J ar 5was t he p robable c ause o f t he d is turbance o f P o t tery C oncen tra t ion 2 ( or ig ina l ly a n u rn b ur ia l c on ta in ing S ke le ton 2 ) , t he b ur ia l o f J ar 5 mus t p os tda te t he i n ter men t o f S ke le ton 2 .

L ikewise , S ke le ton 1 mus t h ave b een i nhumed s o me-

t ime p r ior t o J ar 1 , wh ich d is turbed i t . The r e la t ive o rder o f t he i nhuma t ions o u ts ide u rns c an b e r econs tructed a s S ke le tons 4 , 3 , a nd 5 ( ear l ies t t o l a tes t ).

B ecause we h ave n o e v idence

c oncern ing t he d ep th o f t he h o les d ug f or e ach i nhuma t ion , h owever , we c anno t d iscuss t he o rder o f i nhuma t ions w i th r espec t t o u rn b ur ia ls .

We c an o n ly

s ta te t ha t a l l i nhuma t ions were p robab ly Phase I I e ven ts b ecause t hey c u t s o s ha l lowly i n to P hase I d epos i ts ( Leve l 4 ).

T able 8 .1 s u m mar izes t hese

c onclus ions : T able 8 .1

Recons tructed s equence o f b ur ia ls i n J F1

U rn b ur ia l

I nhuma t ions

PHASE I

PHASE I I

J ars

J ars

9 , 8 , 7

6 , ( Po t tery C onc. 2 ?) , 5 , 3 , 1 +2 , 4 S ke le tons 4 , 3 , 5 , ( 1?) - p lace men t r e la t ive t o u rn b ur ia ls u nknown

MOUND 1 ( M1) House 2 We e ncoun tered t he wa l l a nd wa l l c o l lapse ma ter ia l o f H ouse 2 a t ad ep th o f 2 90-320 m m ( under lying L eve l 4 ).

The o r ien ta t ion a nd e x ten t o f t he wa l l

s tu mp a re i l lus tra ted i n F igure 8 .5 C ons tructed o f c y lindr ica l mud b r ick , t he wa l l e x tended d iagona l ly a cross M1 f ro m s ou theas t t o n or thwes t . T o b o th s ides o f t he wa l l were a reas o f wa l l c o l lapse , w i th in wh ich t opp led a nd d iso r ien ted c yl indr ica l b r icks c ou ld b e c lear ly s een .

Al ens o f t h is wa l l c o l lapse

ma ter ia l ( = L evel 6 ) t o t he n or theas t o f H ouse 2 i s p ro m inen t i n t he n or th s ec t ion o f M1 ( P la te I ). H ouse 6 The c urv i l inear c oursed mud ( or t au f ) wa l l o f H ouse 6 a ppeared a t ad ep th o f 1 520-1580 m m . Ex trapo la t ing f ro m t he e xcava ted s egmen t o f t he wa l l , 1 04

0.5m 1

F IGURE 8 .5

1 . 0

H ouse 2 w a ll a nd w a ll c o llapse i n M l

1 05

e x terna l h ouse d iame ter wou ld h ave b enn b e tween 6 a nd 6 .5 metres .

T he

a bsence o f c o mpac ted wa l l c o l lapse d ebr is a round t he t auf wa l l i nd ica tes t ha t t he s upers truc ture may h ave b een c ons tructed o f o rgan ic ma ter ia ls s uch a s r eed o r g rass . S o me t i me a f ter t he o r ig ina l c ons truct ion o f t he t ad f ounda tion o f H ouse 6 , a n e x ter ior p ar t i t ion , a lso o f t ad , was a dded t o t he n or th ( P la te I I ). T h is was i den t i f ied b y o ur workmen a s p ar t o f ab a th ing a rea o n t he b as is o f i t s p os i t ion r e la t ive t o t he h ouse a nd t he c haracter is t ic g reen t i nge o f t he s o i l i ns ide t he e nc losure ( i .e ., wes t o f t he p ar t i t ion—Leve l 1 8 ) . o f p ar t i t ion was a r ubbish p i t ( Leve l 1 6 ).

E as t

N ear t he t op o f t he r ubbish p i t a t ad ep th o f 1 900 m m was a c overed c ar ina ted p o t ( App . I : F ig . 8 ) c on ta in ing t he r ema ins o f a n i n fan t a ged 1 6-24 mon ths. T h is p o t ( Jar 1 2 ) c an b e s een i n P la te I I a l though i ti s p art i a l ly o bscured b y t he e x ter ior t ad p ar t i t ion , wh ich d irec t ly o ver lay i t .

A

c harcoa l s amp le t aken f ro m t he a rea i m med ia te ly n or theas t o f t he r im o f t h is p o t y ie lded a n u nca l ibra ted r ad iocarbon d a te o f a .d . 5 20 ± 1 70 , wh ich p rov ides a n a pprox i ma te d a te f or t he d epos i t ion o f J ar 1 2 .

I ta lso s erves a s at erm inus

p os t q ue m f or t he c onstruc t ion o f t he e x ter ior p ar t i t ion o t H ouse 6 .

A s i ndica ted

i n C hap ter 7 , H ouse 6 was a pparen t ly i nhabi ted w i thou t i n terrup t ion f or a c ons iderab le p er iod o f t ime , a s e v idenced b y n umerous h ouse f loors a nd a s ubs tan t ia l d ep th o f d o mes t ic d epos i ts . N o o ther h ouses o r s pec i f ic f ea tures w ere i den t i f ied i n M1 MOUND 2 ( M2 ) S ur face t o 5 00 m m T he s ur face f ea tures t ha t i n i t ia l ly i nduced u s t o b eg in e xcava t ing a t M2 a re i l lus tra ted i n F igure 8 .6. T hey i nc lude p ar t o f ar ec t i linear h ouse c ons tructed o f i rregu lar c yl indr ica l b r ick ( House 3 ) , ac urv i l inear wa l l o f i rregu lar c yl indr ica l b r ick ( House 4 ) , ac urv i l inear wa l l o f v ery r egu lar c yl indr ica l b r ick H ouse 5 ) , a nd a l arge , g lobu lar p o t w i th a n u nusua l b lack p a in ted d es ign ( Jar 1 0—descr ibed more f u l ly i n C hap ter 9 u nder S pecia l P ot tery F inds ) . S ince o n ly af ew c en t i me tres o f t he wa l l o f H ouse 5 were s i tua ted w i th in t he e xcava t ion u n i t , l i t t le more c an b e s a id a bou t i th ere , o ther t han t ha t i ta ppears t o h ave b een t he mos t r ecen t ly c ons tructed o f t he t hree h ouses ( c f . F ig . 7 .4 ) a nd t ha t t he e x ter ior d iame ter o f H ouse 5 was a pprox i ma te ly t hree me tres . T he e xcava t ion o f H ouses 3 a nd 4 was e x treme ly d i f f icu l t ;

n o t o n ly was

t he s o i l h igh ly c o mpacted t hroughou t t he u pper M2 d epos i ts , b u t i t was a lmos t c omp le te ly h o mogeneous i n c o lour a nd t ex ture . A l though t he wa l l o f H ouse 4 p assed i n to t he wes t s ect ion o f M2 , t he mud b r ick wa l l was s carce ly v is ible a ga ins t t he o ther p a le-grey , c lay-r ich d epos i ts . We f e l t t ha t t h is h omogenei ty c ou ld b es t b e a ccoun ted f or b y i n terpre t ing a l l t hese u pper d epos i ts ( Leve ls 2 , 3 , 5—see F ig . 7 .4 ) a s wa l l c o l lapse ma ter ia l . V isua l ly , t he d epos i ts o f fered n o th ing t o s ubstan t ia te t his b e l ie f ; i den t if ied o n s igh t i n t he d epos i ts .

t opp led mud b r icks c ou ld n o t b e

Ra ther , i t was t he f ee l o f t he s o i l u nder

t he h oe , c om ing o u t i n c lods a bou t t he s ize o f mud b r icks , t ha t s ugges ted t h is i n terpre ta t ion .

E xposure o f t he M2 s ec t ions t o t he v io len t e ar ly s ummer

r a ins d ur ing J une u l t ima te ly p roved t he v a l id i ty o f t h is i n terpre ta t ion ; e ros ion e tched a way t he s o f ter ma tr ix f ro m t he mud b r ick o f t he wa l l c o l lapse . Wi thou t t he b ene f i t o f e ros ion wh i le e xcava t ing , h owever , i t was v ery d i f f icu l t t o 1 06

j ennejeno

MOUND 2

s ur face p o int o f o r ig in s

(

j ar t op

J ar 1 0 0

a

c y l indr ica l b r ick

f i f i re-ox id ized c lay 0

, e

F IGURE 8 .6

0 .5

1 . 0

M 2 s urface f eatures

1 07

1 . 5m .

d e ter m ine w i th c er ta in ty where t he mud b r ick f ounda t ions o f H ouses 3 a nd 4 e nded a nd t he e ar l ier wa l l c o l lapse ma ter ia l b egan .

G iven t h is u ncer ta in ty ,

i ti s h ard t o i n terpre t t he c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip o f t hese t wo h ouses . T he a va i lab le e v idence s ugges ts , h owever , t ha t H ouse 4 was b u i l t p r ior t o H ouse 3 . T he s ur face b r icks o f b o th h ouses were p a ins tak ing ly e xposed b y o ur work men .

I t was t hen p oss ible t o s ee t ha t o n ly t he p or t ion o f House 4 l y ing

w i th in H ouse 3 was i n tac t ;

s ca t tered o u ts ide t he r ec t i l inear wa l l were t op-

p led a nd d isor ien ted b r icks f ro m t he r ound h ouse ( Figure 8 .7).

The e x-

t er ior d iame ter o f H ouse 4 was b e tween 6 a nd 6 .5 me tres — large e nough , c er ta in ly , f or t he s tructure t o h ave f unct ioned a s ar es idence . Yet s evera l a spec ts o f H ouse 4 i nd ica te t ha t i t was u sed f or o ther t han r ou t ine d o mes t ic a ct iv i t ies .

F irs t t here i s t he c ur ious f act t ha t v ery l i t t le p o t tery o r o ther

d o mes t ic d ebr is s uch a s a n i ma l b one was r ecovered f ro m H ouse 4 o r a ssoc ia ted l eve ls .

On ly a f ew g r ind ing s tones s ugges ted p oss ib le r es idence i n H ouse 4 .

S econd ly , s evera l o f t he f ew p ieces o f p o t tery t ha t were f ound w i th in H ouse 4 d epos i ts were o f a n u nusua l t ype , s een n owhere e lse amongs t t he e xcava ted p o t tery f ro m J ennejeno .

T hese s herds were d ecora ted w i th v ar ious r e l ief

r epresen ta t ions , i nc lud ing a h ead less h u man f i gure , as nake , a nd a n a n tea ter ; t hey d o n o t a ppear t o b e n or ma l d o mes t ic h ousewares .

T h ird , t he wa l l o f

H ouse 4 c ou ld b e t raced t o ad ep th o f a l mos t 7 00 m m , mean ing t ha t i ts tood a t l eas t t ha t h igh when H ouse 3 was b u i l t p ar t ia l ly emco mpass ing i t . T ha t H ouse 4 was n o t e i ther t horough ly r azed o r p erm i t ted s low ly t o d ecay a nd e rode t o a sma l l wa l l s tump p r ior t o i n i t ia t ing n ew c ons truct ion o n t he s a me s po t i s r e markable .

These f acts , p lus t he s hor t t e mpora l s pan f or H ouse 4

i nd ica ted b y t he r e la t ive f requenc ies o f p o t tery a t tr ibu tes , s ugges t t ha t H ouse 4 may h ave b een p urpose ly f i l led i n s oon a f ter c ons truc t ion b y t umbl ing t he wa l ls t o ah eigh t o f a bou t a me tre .

The r ec t i l inear f ounda t ion o f H ouse 3

wou ld t hen h ave b een e rec ted o n t he n ew ly-leve l led a rea . b een d one i s n o t k nown .

Why t h is may h ave

House 3f ounda t ions were t raced t o ad ep th o f 2 30 m m b e low t he P o in t o f Or ig in . A s i n t he c ase o f H ouse 4 , l i t t le o ccupa t iona l d ebr is was f ound i n H ouse 3 o r a ssocia ted l eve ls ; i ta ppears t ha t n e i ther h ouse e ver s erved r ou t ine , d o mes t ic p urposes .

L ying im med ia te ly b enea th t he s ou th wa l l o f

H ouse 3 i n t he s ou theas t q uadran t o f t he e xcava t ion u n i t was t he c ran ium o f a n e x tended i nhuma t ion b ur ia l o r ien ted s ou thwes t-nor theas t ( dep th : 2 70 m m — top o f c ran ium ).

The s ke le ton ( no . 1 2 ) was i n v ery p oor c ond i t ion s uch t ha t

n o b one c ou ld b e l i f ted f or e xamina t ion .

One i n teres t ing p oin t i s t ha t t he r igh t

h umerus was miss ing a l though t he r igh t r ad ius a nd u lna were p resen t .

S ince

t he a rea o f t he r igh t u pper a r m was i m mea te ly a d jacen t t o t he s ou th wa l l o f H ouse 3 , i ti s p robab ly s a fe t o a ssu me t ha t b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies were r espons ible f or i t s d is turbance .

I ft h is i s s o , we may d iscoun t t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t H ouse

3 was c ons tructed a s a mor tuary e nc losure f or t h is b ur ia l . 5 00-1000 m m d ep th A t ad ep th o f 6 60 m m b e low t he P o in t o f Or ig in , we e ncoun tered t he t op o f at erraco t ta s ta tue t te c lose t o t he n or th s ect ion o f t he p i t .

C lus tered

t igh t ly a bou t t he s ta tuet te b e tween 6 65-850 m m d ep th were t wo c eramic v esse ls a nd t wo c era m ic o b jects o f u nknown f unc t ion ( P la te I V ) . T hese o b jec ts a re

1 08

F IGURE 8 .7

P lan o f M 2 a fter c omp l e te e xposure o f H ouses 3 a nd 4

j ennejeno

MOUND 2

l eve l 2 p o in t o f o r ig in

S ta tue t te i ns ide H ouse 4

r

% • d e

0

0 5

( ' ` d ep th i n mm )

1 09

1 0

1 5 m .

d escr ibed f u l ly i n C hap ter 9 u nder S pecia l P o t tery F inds .

The b ase o f t he

s ta tue t te r es ted a t ad ep th o f 8 75 m m . T he d iscovery o f t he c yl indr ica l-br ick wa l l o f H ouse 7 t h ir ty c en t ime tres t o t he e as t o f t he s ta tue t te a t ad ep th o f 8 80 m m ( Figure 8 .8 ) p rov ided a c lue t o t he c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip o f t he s ta tue t te t o Houses 4 a nd 7 .

T he

n or thern e nd o f t he wa l l o f H ouse 7 a ppeared t o h ave b een s l igh t ly c u t a way a s i f as ha l low p i t h ad b een d ug .

Th is c u t l ay d irec t ly a d jacen t t o t he s po t

where we h ad d iscovered t he s ta tue t te .

I f we h ave c orrec t ly i n terpre ted t h is

s udden c urve i n t he n or thern a spec t o f t he H ouse 7 wa l l a s al a ter c u t r a ther t han t he o r ig ina l s hape o f t he wa l l , t hen i tw ou ld a ppear t ha t t he s ta tue t te a nd a ssoc ia ted p ots were d epos i ted i n as ha l low p i t d ug i n to t he f loor o f H ouse 4 . B y c o incidence , t h is p i t g razed t he s ide o f t he e ar l ier wa l l o f H ouse 7 .

Thus

a l though t he s ta tue t te b ase r es ts a t t he s a me d ep th a s t he wa l l o f H ouse 7 , t hey a re , i n f act , n o t a ssoc ia ted .

We b e l ieve t ha t t he s ta tue t te was p laced

i n t he f loor o f H ouse 4 j us t p r ior t o t he d e l ibera te t opp l ing o f t he wa l ls o f t he h ouse a s d iscussed e ar l ier . a t ad ep th o f 7 65 m m ;

C harcoa l f ro m t h is wa l l c o l lapse was c o l lected

i ty ie lded a d a te o f a .d . 1 120 + 140 , wh ich we f ee l

c losely d a tes t he a c tua l p lace men t o f t he s ta tue t te i n t he g round . H ouse 7 i s ap uzzl ing s tructure.

One wa l l i s p ar t ly c urved , p ar t ly

s tra igh t , a nd c ons tructed o f c yl indr ica l mud b r ick .

Ano ther wa l l ( or p ossib ly

a n e x ter ior p ar t i t ion , o r e ven a no ther , s l igh t ly e ar l ier h ouse ) i s made o f t au f , wh i le s evera l r ec tangu lar b r icks were f ound i n t he wa l l c o l lapse i ns ide H ouse 7 .

L ike t he l a ter h ouses i n M2 " ( Houses 3 a nd 4 ) , H ouse 7 a nd a ssoc ia ted l eve ls

f a i led t o r evea l a ny c onv incing e v idence o f d o mes t ic a ct iv i t ies ; a nd n o b one was r ecovered .

l i t t le p o t tery

The f unc t ion o f H ouse 7 a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip ,

i fa ny , t o t he l a ter c ons truc t ion o f H ouse 4 a re u nknown .

When c o mpared w i th

t he d a te o f a .d . 1 120 ± 1 40 f ro m t he wa l l c o l lapse o f H ouse 4 , ar ad iocarbon d a te o f a .d . 1 030 ± 150 o b ta ined o n c harcoa l t aken f ro m t he v ery b o t to m o f t he l eve l u nder H ouse 7 ( dep th 1 200 m m ) s ugges ts t ha t H ouses 7 a nd 4 were b u i l t a nd r azed w i th in a r e la t ive ly s hor t s pan o f t ime . T h is c onc lus ion i s s uppor ted b y t he r e la t ive f requencies o f a t tr ibu tes o n t he p o t tery r ecovered f rom t hese l eve ls . The h ard , wh i te c lay o f ar ec tangu lar f ea ture i n i t ia l ly l abel led H ouse 8 was e ncoun tered a t ad ep th o f 1 010 m m i n t he n or theas t q uadran t o f M2 .

The

s ubsequen t d iscovery o f t he t igh t ly-f lexed , n or th-sou th o r ien ted b ur ia l o f S ke le ton 1 3 a t t he b o t to m o f t h is f ea ture ( dep th o f c ran ia l v au l t 1 200 mm ) f orced u s t o r econs ider i t s i n terpre ta t ion . We f ee l t ha t H ouse 8was i n f ac t ap i t d ug i n to t he s of t , d ark s o i l o f L vve l 1 a nd f i l led w i th c lay a f ter t he i n termen t o f S ke le ton 1 3. N o o ther f ea tures were i den t i f ied i n M2 .

1 10

0

e nrer. f l

wa l l c o l lapse

F IGURE 8 .8

0 : 5

P lan o f H ouse 7 i n M 2

11

1 . 0m .

CHAPTER 9 CULTURAL MATER IALS

POTTERY T he p r i mary c oncern o f t he f irs t a nd l arges t p ar t o f t h is c hap ter i s t he d escr ip t ion o f t he p o t tery e xcava ted f ro m t he t hree t es t p i ts a t J ennejeno a nd s ubsequen t ly r ecorded . C o mp le te d escr ip t ion o f a ny a sse mb lage , c eram ic o r o therwise , i s , o f c ourse , n e i ther p ract ica l o r d es irable f or o ur p urp oses . O ur g u ide i n d escr ip t ion h as b een t he s ta te men t b y S pau ld ing ( 1 976: 5 9 ) t ha t : " The g oa l o f d escr ip t ion i s t he e conom ica l p resen ta t ion o f t he e ssent ia l p roper t ies o f a n a sse mb lage . We a t te mp t t o p rov ide a d escr ip t ion t ha t i s b o th s imp ler t han t he a r t i facts t he mse lves a nd c omp le te w i th r espec t t o t he p roper ties a nd r e la t ionsh ips o f t he a sse mblage j udged t o b e c u l tura l ly s ign i f ic an t" . I nd iv idua l j udge men t o bv ious ly p lays a ma jor r o le i n t he i n i t ia l s e lect ion o f v ar iables t o b e r ecorded , a nd t he e x ten t t o w h ich a d escr ip t ion o f a n a sse mb lage a c tua l ly mee ts t he g oa l s e t f or th a bove i s c ondi t ioned f ro m t he s tar t b y h ow s uccess fu l ly t he i nves t iga tor c hooses h is v ar iab les . U n fort una te ly , i n a n a rea where p r ior k nowledge o f t he p reh is tor ic c eram ic a ssemb lage i s l ack ing , s uccess c an o n ly b e a ssessed i n r e trospect . The n a ture o f p o t tery s tud ies i s t ha t a t e ach s ubsequen t l eve l i n t he p rocedure o f a na lys is i n for ma t ion i s l os t a s ac onsequence o f d ec is ions made b y t he i nves t iga tor : t o s amp le o r n o t t o s amp le , t o r ecord o r n o t t o r ecord , t o t abu la te o r n o t t o t abu la te , t o c o mb ine o r n o t t o c o mbine.

D ec is ions wh ich s ee med o p t ima l a t

o ne l eve l t oo o f ten a re r egre t ted a t al a ter p o in t o f i ncreased w isdom . Every p o t tery s tudy i nev i tab ly h as i t s s hor tco m ings , a nd t he o n ly way t o c omba t t he s i tua t ion i s b y mee t ing i tw i th h ones ty. D esp i te t he many l essthano p t i ma l d ec is ions made i n t he c ourse o f t h is s tudy , an umber o f t he ma jor a spec ts o f t he a ssemblage n ever the less emerge , a nd many c u l tura l ly s ign i f ic an t p roper t ies a nd r ela t ionsh ips c an b e i den ti f ied .

B y t h is p rocess , ab ody

o f ' pr ior k nowledge ' i s c rea ted wh ich w i l l v as t ly i mprove o ur a bi l i ty t o e f fec t ive ly d escr ibe t he p o t tery e xcava ted i n t he f u ture f ro m Jenne-jeno a nd i t s e nv irons . T he d iscuss ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m J ennejeno b eg ins w i th a s ta temen t o n me thods o f d a ta c o l lec t ion a nd r ecord ing , a nd a s hor t a ppra isa l o f t he p roble ms e ncoun tered d ur ing t he e ar ly p hases o f t he s tudy. S hor tcom ings a t t he i n i t ia l l eve ls o f d a ta r e tr ieva l ( i .e. s amp l ing ) o r r ecord ing i nev i tably l im i t e i ther t he k inds o f q ues t ions t ha t may b e a sked o f t he d a ta o r t he d egree t o wh ich t he c onc lus ions o f a na lys is may b e a ccep ted w i th c on f idence . A f rank a ssess men t o f t hese s hor tco m ings i s impor tan t s o t ha t t he r eader may f or mu la te h is o wn o p in ions a s t o h ow s uccessfu l ly t he r esearcher h as worked w i th in , a nd d rawn c onclus ions a ppropr ia te t o , t he l im i ta t ions o f h is d a ta . F o l lowing t h is d iscussion o f me thods , t he d escr ip t ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m J ennejeno b eg ins w i th a d e f in i t ion o f t he t er ms u sed t o d escr ibe t he a sse mblage ;

12

i n o ther w ords , t he i nd iv idua l v ar iables r ecorded f or e ach p o tsherd a re d ef ined . Then t he a t tr ibu te v a lues f or e ach f orma l ( i .e ., p hys ica l ) v ar iable a re c o mb ined w i th t he n onforma l v ar iable o f p roven ience ( h ere , p i t a nd l eve l n umber ) , a nd t he r esu l ts a re p resen ted i n t he f orm o f p ercen tage f requency g raphs . I fi tc an b e s a fely a ssumed t ha t s tra t igraph ic o rder ing r epresen ts t he p assage o f t ime , t hen t hese g raphs may b e t aken t o d escr ibe t he p a t tern ing o f v ar ious a t tr ibu tes t hrough t ime . F or c er ta in a t tr ibu tes , t h is ' p a t tern t urns o u t t o b e o ne o f ac ons is ten t a nd u n i moda l c hange i n r e la t ive f requency t hrough t ime . R ecogn i t ion o f c lasses o f p o tsherds ( or o ther a r t ifac ts ) c haracter ized b y u n imoda l c hange t hrough t ime i s , o f c ourse , ad ef in i t ion o f s er ia t ion . B y d isc over ing t hose d iscre te a t tr ibu tes i n t erms o f wh ich we c an d e f ine " h is tor ica l" c lasses o f p o tsherds , we w i l l h ave a ch ieved a s imp le a nd e f f icien t s er ia t ion o f t he a sse mblage. T he f ina l p ar t o f t he d escr ip t ion c harac ter izes t he p o t tery f ro m t wo o f t he t hree t es t p i ts i n t er ms o f c o mb ina t ions o f d ecora t ive a nd s ur face t rea tmen t a t tr ibu tes e xh ibi ted b y r im s herds wh ich h ave b een g rouped a ccord ing t o r im s hape . T he s treng th o f a pparen t a ssoc ia t ion among a t tr ibu tes i s measured . T h is s econd p hase o f t he d escr ip t ion s hou Ld e nab le u s t o make p re l im inary s ta te men ts a bou t wh ich a t tr ibu te c o mb ina t ions were t he mos t c ons is ten t ly p referred a nd a voided b y t he J ennejeno p o t ters , t hus p rov id ing i ns igh t i n to t he g enera l p r incip les o f b ehav iour wh ich g u ided t he p roducers o f t he p ot tery c o l lected d ur ing e xcava t ion . Methods o f Da ta C o l lect ion a nd R ecord ing A l l s o i l was c are fu l ly s earched f or a r t ifac ts b efore b e ing p u t i n b ucke ts a nd emp t ied o n to t he t i p . A l l a r t i facts r ecogn ized were c o l lec ted , i nc lud ing p o tsherds . T he s herds were p laced i nb ags wh ich were l abe l led b y s tra t ig raph ic l eve l a nd p i t n umber a nd t ranspor ted t o t he ' base o f o pera t ions ' i n t he t own o f J enne . T here was o n ly o ne e xcep t ion t o t h is p rocedure: n o c eram ic ma ter ia l was c o llected f ro m L eve l 1 8 ( t he l owes t l eve l ) o f M2. T he r easons f or t h is d ec is ion , h av ing t o d o w i th e ar ly a rr iva l o f t he r a ins a nd t he a l mos t i m med ia te l oss o f o ur workers ( f armers a l l ) a s ac onsequence , h ave a lready b een o u t l ined i n C hap ter 5 . When f aced w i th t he o p t ion o f e i ther c on t inu ing t o c o l lec t p o t tery f ro m t he l owes t l eve l o f M2 ( t hereby i ncreas ing t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t we migh t n o t f ind t he e nd o f t he c u l tura l d epos i ts b y t he t ime o ur work men l e f t ) o r f ac i l i ta t ing r ap id e xcava t ion t hrough t o s ter i le b y a bandon ing p o t tery c o l lec t ion , t he s herds l os t t he v o te . Lack o f f unds f or t he r e mova l o f l arge q uan t i t ies o f p o t tery f or l a ter s tudy made i ti mpera t ive t ha t t he n ecessary d a ta f or c eram ic d escr ip t ion b e r ecorded i n t he f i e ld . The l im i ted n umber o f p ersonne l a va i lable f or t he r ecord ing t ask ( S . K. M. a nd R .J. M . f or t hree o f t he f our mon ths t ha t r ecord ing t ook p lace ) made t he c ons idera t ion o f e very s herd c o l lec ted o u t o f t he q ues t ion . I t was d ec ided t ha t a l l r im s herds f ro m a l l t hree t es t p i ts b e r ecorded a nd t ha t t he f o l lowing s amp le s cheme s hou ld b e a pp l ied t o t he r e ma in ing s herds : f or n onr im s herds f ro m Ml, a r ando m 5 0% ( approx i ma te ) s amp le was t aken b y emp ty ing e ach b ag o f s herds i n to a p i le o n t he f l oor , t hrough ly mix ing i tw i th t he h ands ( t o c oun teract a ny n a tura l s or t ing o f sma l l a nd l arge s herds wh ich may h ave t aken p lace i n t he b ag ) , a nd d iv id ing t he p i le a pprox ima te ly i n to h a lves w i th awooden b oard .

E ach o f t he t wo r esu l t ing p i les was f ur ther

m ixed b y h and a nd t hen d iv ided i n to h a lves i n t he s ame f ash ion .

13

Two o f t he

r esu l t ing f our p i les w ere r e-bagged a nd k ep t f or r ecord ing .

T h is p rocedure

was a lso u sed t o o bta in a 5 0% s amp le o f t he n on-r im s herds f ro m J F1.

A

2 5% s amp le o f t he n on-r im s herds f rom M2 was d ee med s u f f ic ien t f or o ur p urposes , wh ich c en tred o n c ross-check ing a ny p a t terns wh ich migh t emerge f ro m t he a na lys is a nd d escr ip t ion o f t he M1 c eram ics a ga ins t t he p o t tery f ro m f unc t iona l ly s im i lar a nd p rox ima te M2. T h is 2 5% r ando m s amp le was a ch ieved b y c arrying t he p rocedure d escr ibed a bove f or a 5 0% s amp le o ne s tep f ur ther : i ns tead o f c o mbin ing a nd b agg ing t wo p i les o u t o f t he f our t hus f ar c rea ted , t he t wo s e lec ted p i les ( e qua l l ing o ne-ha l f o f t he o r ig ina l b ag ) were e ach m ixed b y h and a nd d iv ided i n to h a lves . Two o f t he r esu l ting f our p i les ( t oge ther a pprox i ma te ly 2 5% o f t he o r ig ina l c o l lect ion o f n on-r im s herds ) were s e lec ted a nd b agged f or r ecord ing . T he r ecord ing p rocedure i t sel f was a lways p receded b y as or t o f t he c ont en ts o f t he b ag t o b e r ecorded i n to g roups o f s herds w i th s im i lar p as te : c oarse w i th g rog t e mper , med ium w i th g rog t e mper , med ium w i th s and t e mper , a nd f ine w i th s and t e mper . E ach p i le o f s herds w i th s im i lar p as te was t hen c are fu l ly s earched f or s herds wh ich c lear ly c ame f ro m t he s ame p o t . A l l s herds b e long ing t o t he s ame p o t were s e t a s ide , s ave o ne wh ich was r e ta ined i n t he p i le o f s herds t o b e r ecorded . Ac onscious e f for t was made t o e nsure t ha t e ach s herd r ecorded r epresen ted o ne p o t . T he a ctua l s amp le o f s herds t ha t f i na l ly r ece ived r ecord ing t rea tmen t , t hen , c ons is ted o f a l l t hose r im s herds f ro m t he o r ig ina l p opu la t ion o f e xcava ted r im s herds a nd a n u nb iased 5 0% ( 2 5% f or M2 ) s amp le o f t hose n on-r im s herds ( f ro m t he o r ig ina l p opu la t ion o f e xcava ted n on-r im s herds ) wh ich were n o t v is ibly d e tec table a s h av ing o nce b een p ar t o f t he s ame p o t . F or e ach s herd s e lec ted i n t he manner d escr ibed a bove , d a ta o n v a lues o f s ix teen v ar iables were r ecorded . T ha t i s t o s ay t ha t e ach s herd was d esc r ibed i n t erms o f an umber o f i t s f orma l a s we l l a s n onforma l p roper t ies . T he r ecorded o bserva t ion f or a ny g iven p o tsherd wou ld c ons is t o f v a lues f or t he f o l lowing :

p roven ience ( p i t , l eve l ) , f abr ic ( t ype o f p as te , c olour , p resence

o f ag rey c ore , p resence o r a bsence o f s ur face c o lour mo t t l ing ) , s ur face t rea t men t ( presence a nd c o lour o f s l ipp ing o n t he o u ter s herd s ur face , p resence a nd c o lour o f s l ipp ing o n t he i nner s herd s ur face , p resence o r a bsence o f b urn ish ing ) , d ecora t ion ( t wine r ou le t t ing , p a in t , p las t ic — i .e ., mo t i fs a ch ieved b y i mpress ing o r i ncis ing ) , r im p ro f i le ( i f r im s herd ) , s ize ( d iameter o f r im i fc a lcu lable , t h ickness ) , a nd p resence o r a bsence o f s ur face b lacken ing d ue t o c on tact w i th f i re . B y t he c o mp le t ion o f p ot tery d a ta r ecording , o ver 9 000 i nd iv idua l s herd o bserva t ions h ad b een r ecorded i n t h is f orma t . A t t ha t p o in t , a l l b ags o f r ecorded p otsherds w ere r e-depos i ted h a l f-way i n to t he b ack f i l l o f M2 . E va lua t ion o f C o l lec t ion a nd R ecord ing Methods C ons idera t ion o f t he p oss ibi l i ty o f u nwi t t ing i n troduc t ion o f s amp l ing b ias o r e rror w i l l n a tura l ly d om ina te t h is d iscuss ion .

B ecause t he r ecorded s amp le

o f r im s herds was i den t ica l t o t he p opu la t ion o f e xcava ted r im s herds ( a ssu m ing i nb o th c ases t ha t i ns tances o f mu l t ip le s herds f ro m a s ing le p o t a re c ons iderdd a s as ing le o bserva t ion ) , i ti s n o t p oss ible f or s amp l ing e rror t o a f fec t a ny c onclus ions wh ich may b e r eached a bou t t he r im s herds e xcava ted f ro m J enne j eno . However , t he me thods d escr ibed f or o b ta in ing 5 0% a nd 2 5% r andom

14

s amples o f n on-r im s herds may d ecrease , i n s o me u nknown f ash ion , t he p rec is ion o f r esu l ts o fb ody s herd a na lys is . C lear ly , t he mos t r el iable me thod o f t ak ing a 5 0% r ando m s amp le o f s herds wou ld b e t o n umber e ach s herd i n t he b ags f ro m a g iven l eve l a nd s e lect e xact ly o ne-ha lf o f t he m w i th t he a id o f ar andom n u mber t able . The s hu f f le-and-d iv ide method d escr ibed e ar l ier o bv ious ly d oes n ot a l low t he s e lec t ion o f e xac t ly 5 0% o f t he s herds i n e ach s tra tu m .

A t e very d iv id ing p o in t , e ach p i le o f s herds was p ar t i t ioned

i n to t wo p i les o f a pprox i ma tely t he s ame s ize ( i .e., v o lume ).

A l though h and

m ix ing o f p i les was c onscien t ious ly p ract iced b efore e ach p i le d iv is ion t o e nsure a n e qua l d is tr ibu t ion o f l arge a nd sma l l s herds t hroughou t t he p i le , t he p resence o f af ew q u i te l arge s herds c ou ld e as i ly make t wo p i les c on ta in ing s ubs tan t ia l ly d if feren t n umbers o f s herds a ppear a l mos t e qua l i n v o lume . B ecause t h is s i tua t ion o ccurred i n r e la t ive ly f ew b ags , a ny h idden s amp le b ias r esu l t ing f rom i tw i l l n o t a f fec t t he e n t ire s amp le i n ac ons is ten t f ash ion . T h is p rob le m wou ld mos t s er ious ly a f fect t he v a l id i ty o f a ny i n ferences made c oncern ing t he q uan t i ty o f n on-r im s herds p resen t i n t he o r ig ina l p opu la t ion o f s herds o f e ach s tra t igraph ic l eve l . U nder s uch a s amp l ing s che me , f or e xample , i t wou ld b e u nw ise t o p resume t ha t a" 50% r ando m s amp le" o f 5 0 s herds h ad b een d rawn f ro m a t o ta l p opu la t ion o f 1 00 s herds . C a lcu la t ions o f a t tr ibu te p ercen tage f requenc ies , o n t he o ther h and , s hou ld n o t b e s er ious ly a f fected b y t he s amp l ing s che me d escr ibed , a nd much o f t he p o t tery d escr ip t ion i s p resen ted i n t h is manner . Every e f for t was made t o i nsure t ha t e very b ag o f n on-r im s herds was s amp led i n ac ons is ten t f ash ion .

I ti s p oss ible t ha t we e rred o n t he s ide o f

t oo much c ons is tency ; a5 0% s amp le o f s herds was t aken e ven f rom l eve ls w i th a sma l l n umber o f b ody s herds . The sma l ler t he n umber o f s herds , t he h igher t he p robab i l i ty t ha t s herds w i th r are b u t s ign i f ican t a t tr ibu tes w i l l b e e i ther m iss ing o r o ver-represen ted i n t he s amp le . I n c ases where t he n umber o f b ody s herds i n al eve l was l ess t han 1 00 , i tp robably w ou ld h ave b een w iser t o r ecord a l l t he s herds . T ables o f t o ta l s herds , r im s herds a nd b ody s herds r ecorded p er l eve l i n e ach t es t p i t a re p rov ided (see A ppendix I ) s o t ha t t he r eader may d ec ide wh ich l eve ls a re mos t l i ke ly t o b e a f fected b y t h is p roble m .

A l though t he p roble m o f sma l l n umbers o f s herds was n o t

c o mpounded f or r im s herds b y s amp l ing , n ever the less t he i ncreased r isk o f s kewed a t tr ibu te f requenc ies a s ar esu l t o f sma l l s herd t o ta ls i s e qua l ly r ea l f or r i m-sherds . I n a dd i t ion t o s amp l ing c ons idera t ions , t he me thod o f r ecord ing p o t tery d a ta c an h ave a p ro found e f fec t o n t he a ccuracy a nd c omp le teness o f t he d esc r ip t ion wh ich c an b e p roduced f rom t he d a ta . One i ns tance i n p ar t icu lar r equ ires men t ion . A l though a l arge n umber o f v ar iab les were r ecorded f or e ach s herd , t he i mpor tance o f n o t ing t he p os i t ion o f d ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes , r a ther t han mere p resence o r a bsence , was n o t r ecogn ized u n t i l a f ter l eav ing t he f i e ld. T h is h as p ar t icu lar c onsequences f or t he a na lyses o f a t tr ibu te a ssocia t ion wh ich were u nder taken . I ti s f a ir ly c lear , f or e xamp le , t ha t t he J ennejeno p o t ters d ecora ted t he r ims o f c er ta in c lasses o f v essels ( e .g ., c ar ina ted b owls ) q u i te d i fferen t ly t han t he b od ies .

I n d escr ibing a r im s herd

l arge e nough t o i nc lude p ar t o f t he b ody o f t he v esse l , h owever , t he p resence , b u t n ot t he p os i t ion , o f d ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes was n o ted . T hus , f or o ne s herd , s evera l a t tr ibu tes were r ecorded , s o me o f wh ich o ccured e i ther o n ly o n t he

15

r im ( e .g ., a bove t he c ar ina t ion ) o r o n ly o n t he b ody , b u t t here i s n ow n o way o f k nowing wh ich a t tr ibu tes were r es tr icted t o c er ta in p ar ts o f t he v esse l. T h is s hor tco m ing i n r ecord ing h as l im i ted o ur a b i l i ty t o f u l ly d escr ibe t he p ot tery f ro m J ennejeno . K eep ing t he p o in ts d iscussed a bove i n m ind , we c an n ow t urn t o t he d esc r ip t ion i t sel f . De f in i t ion o f P o t tery Var iab les N on-forma l v ar iables . P roven ience.

Pr oven ience was d eno ted b y means o f t he e xcava t ion u n i t

n umber a nd t he n umber o f t he l eve l f ro m wh ich a s herd was r ecovered . N on-decora t ive f or ma l v ar iab les . Pas te .

P as te r e fers t o t ha t c o mb ina t ion o f c lay a nd n on-p las t ic i nclus ions

wh ich t ogether c ons t i tu te t he f abr ic o f ap iece o f f i red c lay . Fo l lowing t he u sage o f S hepard ( 1954 : 2 5 ) t hose c lasses o f n on-p las t ic i nc lus ions wh ich were d e l ibera te ly a dded t o t he c lay ( e .g ., c rushed p o t tery ) a re c a l led t e mper , a nd t hose whose p resence c anno t d e f in i te ly b e a t tr ibu ted t o h uman man ipu la t ion a re s i mp ly c a l led n on-p las t ic i nc lus ions .

Pas te was i den t i f ied i n t er ms o f

t he t ype o f n on-p las t ic i nclus ions wh ich c haracter ized i t a s we l l a s i n t er ms o f i t s t ex ture .

T hose t wo a spec ts o f p as te a re i nseparab le , s ince p aste t ex-

t ure i s p r i mar i ly i n f luenced b y t he amoun t , g ra in s ize , a nd s hape o f i t s n onp las t ic i nc lus ions ( Shepard 1 954 : 1 17 ). Two k inds o f n on-p las t ic i nc lus ions were r ecogn ized : p o tsherd ) t e mper a nd s and .

g rog ( crushed

I ti s n o t k nown whe ther s and o ccurred n a tura l ly

i n s o me o f t he c lay s ources u t i lized b y t he J ennejeno p o t ters o r whe ther i t was d e l ibera te ly a dded.

A s o ne m igh t e xpec t i n a n a l luv ia l a rea where wa ter

moves a t v ar iab le r a tes o f s peed d ur ing t he y ear , t he s and i n t he p as te i s v ar iab le i n s ize , r ang ing f ro m 1 /4 m m i n d ia me ter u p t o wa ter-ro l led p ebbles a pproach ing 5 m m d iame ter . On t he b as is o f v isua l i nspec t ion w i th a h and l ens , t he p as te t ex ture o f e ach p o tsherd was c lassi f ied a s c oarse , med ium o r f ine. C oarse t ex ture i s d escr ibed , u s ing Wen twor th 's s ize c lass if ica t ion f or s ed i men ts ( reproduced i n S hepard 1 954 : 18 ) , a s h av ing a l arge amoun t o f g rog t e mper whose d ia me ters r ange f ro m 1 .5 t o 4 .0 m m ( very c oarse a nd g ranu le s ize o n t he Wen twor th s ca le ).

Med ium t ex ture h as l arge amoun ts o f i nc lus ions ( usua l ly g rog , b u t

s o met imes s and ) r ang ing f ro m 1 /2 t o 2mm i n d iame ter ( med iu m t o c oarse o n t he Wen twor th s ca le ).

B o th c oarse a nd med ium t ex tured s herds a re f requen t ly

c haracter ized b y t he p resence o f i n frequen t wa ter-ro l led q uar tz p ebb les , measur ing u p t o 5m m i n d ia me ter . T h is l a t ter f ea ture i nd ica tes t ha t l i t t le i fa ny c are was t aken b y t he p o t ters t o r e move c oarse p ar t icles i n o rder t o i ncrease t he h o mogenei ty o f t he Hay.

Ac ursory h and s or t o f t he c lay may

h ave b een u nder taken , b u t s i f t ing s ure ly was n o t . F ine t ex ture s herds , o n t he o ther h and , n or ma l ly h ad n o i nc lus ions g rea ter t han 1 m m i n d iame ter . T he a c tua l n u mber o f i nc lus ions i n f ine p as te i s sma l l , a nd t he ma jor i ty o f t he m a re l ess t han

1/ 2

mm i n d ia me ter .

C lear ly , t he a ctua l v a lues f or p as te t ex ture f or m a c on t inuu m , a nd t he me thods o f v isua l i nspec t ion u sed t o j udge t ex ture p rov ided o n ly a g ross c a teg or iza t ion o f t h is v ar iab le. 16

C o lour .

L ike p as te t ex ture , p as te c o lour was j udged b y v isua l i nspec t ion

o f af resh b reak .

B ecause e f for ts t o p rocure a Munsel l c o lour c har t p r ior t o

l eav ing f or A fr ica were u nsuccessfu l , t he d e f in i t ion o f t he v ar ious c o lour c a teg or ies u sed c ou ld n o t b e f or ma l ly s tandard ized i n t he f i eld .

U pon r eturn ing

f ro m t he f i e ld , h owever , s herds i n t he s tudy c o l lect ion b rough t t o t he U .S . were v isua l ly c a tegor ized b y c o lour i n p recise ly t he s a me manner a cco mp l ished d ur ing r ecord ing .

T he f o l lowing t ab le p resen ts t he r änge o f Munse l l v a lues

f or s tudy c o l lec t ion s herds w i th in e ach c o lour c lass r ecogn ized i n t he f i e ld : F ie ld C o lour C a tegor ies

Munse l l C o lour C a tegor ies

Dark Orange

2 .5 YR 5 /6 ,

5 YR 5 /8

L igh t Orange

5

YR 6 /6 ,

5 YR 7 /6

YR 8 /4 ,

1 0 YR 7 /3

Bu f f

1 0

B lack C lear Orange

2 .5 Y 2 /0 , 7 .5 YR 7 /6 ,7

G rey Br igh t Orange/Rose

2 .5 Y 1 0 R

5 /0 ,2 6 /8 ,

5Y 3 /1 , 5Y 2 .5/ 1 7 .5 YR 6 /6 2 .5 Y 1 0 R

4 /0 , 1 0 YR 4 /0 5 /8

The p resence o r a bsence o f u neven c o lour ( such a s mo t t led p a tches o f g rey o r b lack ) d ue t o l oca l r educt ion d ur ing f ir ing was a lso n o ted , a s was t he p resence o r a bsence o f ag rey c ore. r e f lec t f ir ing c ond i t ions .

B o th t hese p heno mena d irec t ly

S ur face b lacken ing , c ons is t ing o f a n a ccumu la t ion

o f c arbon d ue t o d irec t c on tact w i th f ire , was a f our th c o lour v ar iab le r ecord ed f or e ach s herd . P os i t ion .

The o r ig ina l p os i t ion o f as herd o n ap o t was d es igna ted a s

r im , b ody , h and le , o r b ase .

S pecia l f ea tures o f b ody s herds , s uch a s c an -

n a t ions , were n o ted , a nd b ase s herds were d escr ibed a ccord ing t o t he ir f or m ( f la t , r ing , o r p o lypod ) . A l l r im s herds were d escr ibed i n t er ms o f t he ir s hape i n r ad ia l s ec t ion ( i .e ., r im p ro f i le ). O ver 3 0 d i f feren t r im p rof i les were r ecogn ized a t J ennej eno , a nd e ach was d rawn a nd n umbered s o t ha t s im i lar r i ms c ou ld b e d esc r ibed b y means o f an umber . who le p o ts were r ecovered .

F or s evera l o f t he r im p ro f i les , e xa mp les o f Vesse l s hape f or mos t r i ms i s c on jec tura l ,

h owever , a nd h as b een r econs tructed o n t he b as is o f r im a ng le whenever t he o r ig ina l p lace men t o f t he r im c ou ld b e a scer ta ined .

I den t i f ica t ion o f r im

a ng le p er m i ts v ar ious r im p ro f i les t o b e g rouped i n to l arger c lasses .

Two

ma jor c a tegor ies o f r im s hape ( vesse l s hape ) may b e d ef ined f o l lowing S hepard ( 1 954 : 2 30-1) :

Unres tr icted — those v essels f or wh ich a t angen t d rawn t o t he

r im i n p ro f i le i s v er t ica l o r i nc l ined o u tward , a nd f or wh ich t here i s n o p o in t o n t he v esse l c on tour marked b y ac ons tr ic t ion ;

R es tr icted —a t angen t d rawn

t o t he r im i n p rof i le i nc l ines i nward o r t here i s ap o in t i n t he v esse l c on tour marked b y ac ons tr ic t ion . These t wo ma jor c a tegor ies c an b e s upple men ted b y o ther c lassi f ica t ions f or t he p urposes o f d escr ibing t he J ennejeno a sse mblage a s f o l lows :

17

U nres tr icted

R es tr ic ted

S i mp le

S i mp le

N on-vessels ( po t l ids )

C ar ina ted f or ms

E ver ted R im

T -r i m med

Th ickened R im

B o t t les E ver ted r im T h ickened r im S l igh t ly e ver ted r im

T he v ar ious r im p ro f i les i den t i f ied a t J ennejeno h ave b een g rouped a ccord ing t o t h is c lass i f ica t ion s ys te m

a nd a re i l lus tra ted , w i th v esse l s hape

r econs truct ion when p oss ible , i n Append ix I .

F igure 9 .1 ( a , b , c ) p resen ts

ag raph ic s um mary o f t he ma jor c lasses o f r im p ro f i les i den ti f ied f or J ennej eno p o t tery. D iame ter .

I ft he a rc o n ar im s herd was s u f f ic ien t ly l arge t o p erm i t

d e ter m ina t ion o f t he d ia me ter o f t he p o t l i p , t h is was a t te mp ted .

T he l i p

s ur face o f ar im s herd was p laced i n c on tac t w i th a f la t p iece o f p aper o n wh ich a rcs o f c irc les o f v ar ious d iame ters h ad b een d rawn w i th a c o mpass . A f ter e nsur ing t ha t t he e n t ire l i p e dge was f lush w i th t he p aper , t he s herd was moved o n to t he v ar ious d rawn a rcs t o d e term ine wh ich p rov ided t he c loses t f i t t o t he a rc o f t he l i p.

T he d ia me ter o f t he c irc le d escr ibed b y t ha t

a rc was t hen r ecorded a s t he d ia me ter o f t he p o t a t t he l i p . T h ickness .

T h ickness was measured w i th s l id ing c a l ipers .

R im s herds

were measured a t t he p o in t f ar thes t f ro m t he l i p , s ince t he l i p was o f ten d e l ib era te ly t apered .

T h is c ho ice o f measure men t p roved p roble ma t ic o n ly f or

r im s herds f ro m c ar ina ted p o ts wh ich h ad b roken a t t he c ar ina t ion .

B ecause

t he a ng le o f c ar ina t ion i s o f ten t he t h ickes t p o in t i n t he p o t wa l l , measure men ts t aken a tt h a t p o in t c anno t b e u sed t o r epresen t b ody wa l l t h ickness f or t he o r ig ina l p o t . T o e nsure c ons is tency , b ody s herds a nd b ase s herds were a lways meas ured a t t he t h innes t p o in t . I n forma t ion o n mean s herd t h ickness a nd s tandard d ev ia t ion f or ma jor r im c lasses i s p rov ided i n A ppendix I ( Tab le G ). S ur face T rea t men t

( presence o r a bsence o f s l ip ).

S l ipping i s i nc luded

h ere a s an on-decora t ive v ar iab le d esp i te t he f act t ha t o n c er ta in c lasses o f p o t tery i ti s a pp l ied t o ar es tr ic ted a rea o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o f t he p o t ( i .e ., t he r im ) , where o ther d ecora t ive t echn iques a re a lso f ocussed .

I n

t hese c ases , s l ipp ing a ppears t o b e p ar t o f ad ecora t ive p ackage wh ich i nc luded g roov ing a nd p a in t ing .

H owever , s l ipp ing may a lso s erve a f unc t iona l p urpose ,

s ince i t " renders p ot tery l ess p er meab le , p ar t icu lar ly when we l l p o l ished" ( Shepard 1 954: 1 91).

The i nc lus ion o f s l ipp ing i n t he c lass o f n on-decora t ive

v ar iab les i s t o ac er ta in d egree a rb i trary , b u t t he u sage h ere f o l lows S hepard ( 1954 ) , who d oes n ot i nc lude i tw i th d ecora t ive t echn iques . T he p resence o f s l ipp ing was e as i ly r ecogn izab le b y i t s c o lour c on trast w i th t he p as te.

S l ipp ing o n e x ter ior s ur faces was r ecorded s epara te ly f ro m

t rea t men t o f t he i n ter ior s ur face o f s herd .

T he mos t c o m mon c o lour o f s l ip

was d ark r ed/orange , d escr ibed b y Munse l l v a lues 1 0 R4 /6 , 1 0 R 5 /6 , 1 0 R 18

1

-z .=-r.°°°°°.

U NRESTRICTED S IMPLE R IM

41 , 4 )

s z j P OTLID

_ __

U NRESTRICTED T HICKENED R IM

U NRESTRICTED E VERTED R IM

R ESTRICTED S IMPLE R IM

C D

F igure 9 .1a S ummary o f t he m ajor c lasses o f r im p rofiles i dentif ied f or J ennej eno p ottery. ( Not t o s cale)

19

R ESTRICTED C ARINATED R IM

, , , . . . . s _ _

1

1 1

.

; 1

S

B OTTLES

R ESTRICTED T -RIM A ND V ARIANT

F igure 9 .1b S ummary o f t he m ajor c lasses o f r im p rofiles i dentified f or J enne-jeno p ottery ( Not t o s cale)

1 20

R ESTRICTED E VERTED R IM

:1 11 •

0 l

%

d/ . .

a I

I I \

, "‚

. .

R ESTRICTED S LIGHTLY E VERTED R IM

i ‘ R ESTRICTED

' .

T HICKENED R IM

F igure 9 .1c S ummary o f t he m ajor c lasses o f r im p rof iles i dentif ied f or J enne-jeno p ott ery . ( Not t o s cale)

1G1

4 /8 a nd 2 .5 YR 4 /6. P resen t-day p o t ters i n J enne a ch ieve a s im i lar d ark r ed/orange c o lour b y u s ing i ron o x ide-s ta ined c lay n odu les i n s uspens ion a nd a pplying t he mix ture a s as l ip .

C er ta in ly t hese f err ic o x ide-s ta ined

n odu les wou ld h ave b een a va i lable t o t he J ennejeno p o t ters , a s t hey o ccur e verywhere o n t he f l oodp la in a nd a re f ound t hroughou t t he a rchaeo log ica l d epos i ts . A sma l l amoun t o f t he p o t tery was s l ipped w i th l i gh t o range ( Munse l l v a lue 2 .5 YR 6 /8 ). I n frequen t ly , a n e n t ire s herd s ur face wou ld b e c overed w i th wh i te o r b lack s l ip . A l though wh i te s l ip (o r p a in t ) was mos t l i ke ly c rea ted b y u s ing v ery p ure k ao l in i n s uspens ion , t here a re t wo e qua l ly p oss ib le e xp lana t ions f or t he b lack : e i ther b lack s l ip i s ar esu l t o f t he c o mp le te r educ t ion d ur ing f i r ing o f af err ic o x ide s l ip , o r b lack manganese p a in t may h ave b een a pp l ied a s as l ip . T he q ues t ion o f s e l f-s l ipped p o t tery i s a lways a d if f icu l t o ne f or t he a rchaeo log is t .

O bv ious ly , when a p o t i s s l ipped w i th t he s ame c lay f ro m

wh ich i t was made , t he r ecogn i t ion o f s l ipp ing w i th t he u na ided e ye i s s o met imes i mposs ib le ( Shepard 1 954 : 1 92 ). F or t he g rog-te mpered p o t tery a t J ennejeno , h owever , i t was p oss ible t o s ta te w i th c on f idence t ha t s el f-s l ip was n o t p resen t . H ad a c oa t o f c lay i n c o l lo ida l s uspens ion b een b rushed o ver t he p o t s ur face , i t wou ld h ave c overed t he l i gh t-co loured g rog p ar t icles a nd g iven t he s ur face a u n ifor m c o lour . Where g rog was c lear ly v is ib le o n as herd s ur face , t herefore , Ip resumed t ha t t he p o t was n o t s l ipped . B urn ish .

T he t er m b urn ish ing a pp l ies t o a ny mechan ica l method o f

f orcing s ur face c lay p ar t ic les i n to h or izon ta l a l ignmen t s uch t ha t t he s ur face r ef lec ts l i gh t . P erhaps t he b es t k nown me thod o f b urn ish ing i s p o l ish ing w i th a smoo th s tone , wh ich c an p roduce q u i te a h igh l us tre. Burn ish ing was p rac t iced b y t he J ennejeno p o t ters , b u t af a ir ly l ow l us tre was a ch ieved ; h igh g loss s herds a re r are .

T oday , p o t ters i n J enne a ch ieve a s im i lar l ow

l us tre b urn ish b y r ubbing s tr ings o f b aobab s eeds o ver s l ipped p o t tery. Pr esence o r a bsence o f a ny i nd ica t ions o f b urn ish ing was r ecorded f or e ach s herd i n t he J ennejeno a sse mblage . D ecora t ive f orma l v ar iables Twine d ecora t ion . B y f ar t he mos t c o m mon me thod o f d ecora t ing p o t tery ( or p erhaps p rov id ing a u sefu l ly r oughened s ur face ) was t w ine impress ion . E ssen t ia l ly , t h is me thod c ons is ted o f r o l l ing o ver o r p ress ing i n to t he wet s ur face o f t he c lay a t wis ted p iece o f t wine o r w oven f abr ic o f t wine . T he i mpress ions o n t he J ennejeno p o t tery a re t oo d eep t o h ave b een c rea ted i n l ea ther h ard c lay. n ized ( P la tes

S evera l d i f feren t k inds o f t wine i mpress ion were r ecog-

Va nd V I ).

C oarse woven ( Tw ine 1 ) T igh t ly woven l arge c hevron ( Twine 2 ) D ouble woven ( Tw ine 3 ) " Fishne t" woven ( Tw ine 4 ) R ou le t te ( Twine 6 ) I ncised o r a l terna te-zoned r ou le t te ( Tw ine 7 ) S o me i dea o f t he o r ig ina l t w ine u sed t o c rea te t he i mpress ion c an b e g a ined b y o bserv ing c lay i mpress ions o f t he t w ine d ecora ted s herd s ur faces ( P la teV I I )

1 22

Pa in t .

F ive c o lours o f p a in t were u sed b y t he J ennejeno p o t ters :

wh i te , magen ta , b lack , r ed , a nd y el low . b een a pp l ied p r ior t o f ir ing ;

A l l b u t t he l as t a ppear t o h ave

y e l low p a in t h as a c oarse , p as tel ike t ex ture

a nd was r ubbed i n to g rooves a nd t w ine i mpress ions a f ter f ir ing .

R ed p a in t

i s t he s ame c o lour a s d ark r ed/orange s l ip a nd was p resu mab ly c rea ted u s ing f err ic o x ide s ta ined

c lays mixed w i th wa ter .

Pa in ted d es igns , when f ound

o n J ennejeno p o t tery , a re n orma l ly g eo me tr ic o r l inear ( Append ix I , F igure 2 7 P las t ic .

Loose ly f o l lowing S hepard ( 1954 : 7 0 , 1 94-195 ) , p las t ic d ecora t ion

i s h ere u sed t o mean a ny d ecora t ive t echn ique wh ich e xp lo i ts t he p las t ic p rop er t ies o f c lay.

A t J ennejeno , p las t ic mo ti fs

i nclude g roov ing , c o mb i m-

p ress ion , s t ipp l ing , f inger i mpress ion , s tamp ing , s tabb ing , a nd c o mb d ragg ing . Techn ica l ly , t wine i mpress ion

i s ap las t ic t echn ique , b u t i t was s o c o m mon

a t J ennejeno t ha t i t was p laced i n ad escr ip t ive c lass o f i t s own . B y f ar t he mos t c o m mon o f t he p las t ic t echn iques , a s ide f ro m t wine impress ing , was g roov ing .

G rooves b e tween 1 a nd 2 m m w ide w i th a c on-

s is ten tl f s ect ion w ere i nc ised i n to we t c lay , p oss ibly w i th a p iece o f s traw , a s i s t he p ract ice i n J enne t oday.

T he smoo thness o f t he e dges o f t he g roove

i nd ica tes t ha t t he c lay was we t e nough a t t he t ime o f i nc is ion t o p er m i t smoo th ing a f terwards .

G rooves t end t o o ccur e i ther s ing ly o r i n l arge n umbers .

I n

t he l a t ter c ase , t he g rooves a re c lose ly s paced a nd p ara l le l t o o ne a nother . A s ing le g roove

i s f requen t ly u sed t o d iv ide z ones o f d ecora t ion—twine f ro m

p a in t , f or e xa mp le .

A l l o ther p las t ic mo t ifs a re r e la t ive ly r are .

The r eper toire o f p las t ic mo t i fs o n p o t tery f ro m J ennejeno i s i l lus tra ted i n Appendix I :

F igure 2 8 a nd P la te V I I I .

A t tr ibu te P a t tern ing t hrough t ime S ince o ne o f t he p r i mary g oa ls o f e xp lora tory e xcava t ion a t J ennejeno was t he e s tabl ishmen t o f ar e la t ive p o t tery c hrono logy f or t he s i te , a ma jor p ar t o f t he d escr ip t ion o f t he c eram ic a sse mb lage f ocuses o n t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f c hange t hrough t ime .

There a re a ny n umber o f ways o f a pproach ing

t h is p rob le m , s ince t he o n ly c r i ter ion r equ ired f or a c lass o f a r t i facts t o b e u sefu l a s ac hrono log ica l i nd ica tor i s t ha t i tb e c haracter ized b y c ons is ten t u n i moda l c hange t hrough t ime .

S uch c lasses c an b e d ef ined i n n umerous

ways —by v ar ious c o mbina t ions o f a t tr ibu tes , o r i n t er ms o f as ing le a t tr ibu te —as l ong a s t he f requency d is tr ibu t ion t hrough t ime o f t he d es igna ted c lass f or ms t he we l l-known ' ba t t lesh ip c urve ' o r s o me s egmen t o f i t . G raph ing p ercen tage f requencies o f i nd iv idua l a t tr ibu tes i s p oss ibly t he s i mp les t me thod o f s earch ing a n a sse mb lage f or l ba t t lesh ipp ing '. me thod u sed i n t h is s tudy , a nd i tp roved r e markab ly e f fec t ive .

I ti s t he

S ince t he

a t tr ibu te f requenc ies were g raphed a ga ins t t he a x is o f t ime ( represen ted b y s tra t igraph ic o rder ing ) , t he r e l iab i l i ty o f t he r esu l t ing p a t tern o f c hange t hrough t ime d epends h eav i ly o n t he amoun t o f s tra t igraph ic c on tro l wh ich was ma in ta ined d ur ing e xcava t ion .

F or t h is r eason , f requenc ies were g raphed

o n ly f or p o t tery f ro m M1 a nd M2 , where i t was f e l t t ha t ah igh l eve l o f s tra t ig raph ic c on tro l h ad b een a ch ieved . i s e ncouraged ;

( I ndependen t v er i f ica t ion o f t h is s ta te men t

s ee F igures 7 .1 - 7 .4 ) .

Frequencies f or t he p o t tery f ro m

e ach p i t were g raphed s epara te ly a nd t hen c o mpared .

1 23

T hose a t tr ibu tes whose

f requenc ies e xh ibi ted b a t t lesh ip c urves i n b oth c ases were c ons idered r eas onab ly t o d e f ine " h is tor ica l" c lasses o f p o t tery. When t he f requenc ies o f t he h is tor ica l c lasses s o e s tab l ished were t abu la ted f or J F1 , au n i moda l d is tr ibu t ion was a ga in r evea led ( d esp i te s o mewha t s haky s tra t igraph ic c on tro l ) , p rov id ing f ur ther c on f irma t ion t ha t t he o bserved p a t tern o f c hange was c hronol og ica l i n n a ture , t ha t i tc ross-cu t f unc t iona l ly d i f feren t a reas o f t he s i te , a nd t ha t i tc ou ld n o t b e a t tr ibu ted t o c hance f luc tua t ions I n a t tr ibu te o ccurrence . ( See C hap ter 7 , p p . 9 2-5 f or a d e mons tra t ion o f h ow t hese f requency g raphs were u sed t o e luc ida te t he s equence o f e ven ts a t J ennejeno . U s ing a c o mb ina t ion o f s tra t igraph ic , c eram ic , a nd r ad iocarbon e v idence , i t was a rgued t ha t s evera l l eve ls i n M1 a nd M2 h ad b een d epos i ted a t t he s ame t ime a nd f ormed b y t he s a me p rocesses . These c orrespond ing , o r b ench , l eve ls a re l i nked o n t he f requency g raphs p resen ted w i th t he d iscuss ion b e low , i n o rder t o f ac i l i ta te c o mpar ison o f M1 a nd M2 d a ta ). B e fore p roced ing w i th t he a ctua l r esu l ts , af ew words s hou ld b e i nc luded o n t he mechan ics o f t abu la t ion . I t was c lear t ha t t he u se o f ac o mpu ter wou ld g rea t ly a id i n t he e labora te s hu f f l ing a nd r ecomb in ing o f a t tr ibu tes i nvo lved i n t h is s tudy. A t t he s ame t ime , h owever , t he k eypunch ing o f o ver 9 000 c ards , e ach c od ing t he s ix teen v ar iab les c ons t i tu t ing o ne c o mp le te s e t o f o bserva t ions made o n o ne p o tsherd , s ee med a p roh ibi t ive ly t ime-consum ing o p t ion . T he d ec is ion was made t o p unch c ards f or r im s herds o n ly , wh ich mean t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f d a ta man ipu la t ion a nd a na lys is a nd u l t ima te ly d escr ip t ion o f t he a sse mblage wou ld t ake p lace i n r eference t o r im s herds o n ly. I n a dd i t ion t o t ime c ons idera t ions , t h is d ec is ion was a l og ica l o u tcome o f t he n ecess i ty o f k eep ing r im s herd a nd b ody s herd a na lyses s epara te . I t w i l l b e r eca l led t ha t t he b ody s herds r ecorded w ere o n ly a s amp le o f a l l e xcava ted b ody s herds , wh i le r ecorded r i msherds c ons t i tu te t he p opu la t ion o f a l l e xcava ted r ims . S ince t he t wo s e ts o f d a ta were s e lec ted i n d i f feren t manners , t he ir a na lys is a nd d escr ip t ion mus t b e d i f feren t ia ted . B ody s herd a na lys is was l im i ted t o t abu la t ion o f d ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes ( i .e ., o bserva t ions o f t wice r ou le t t ing , p a in t ing , a nd p las t ic d ecora t ion ). T h is was d one b y h and f ro m t he o r ig ina l d a ta s hee ts . Th is d ec is ion t o l im it b ody s herd d escr ip t ion t o t abu la t ion o f d ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes o r ig ina ted i n t he o bserva t ion , made wh i le r ecord ing s herd d a ta , t ha t b ody s herds t ended t o d i f fer a pprec iab ly f ro m r im s herds i n mode o f d ecora t ion .

D i f ferences

i n c o lour , p as te , t h ickness , a nd o ther n on-decora t ive a t tr ibu tes d id n o t a ppear t o v ary b e tween b ody a nd r im s herds , n or wou ld w e e xpec t t he m t o d o s o , o n a n i n tu i t ive l eve l . T here fore , f requencies o f n on-decora t ive a t tr ibu tes were c a lcu la ted f or r im s herds a lone ;

e ach f requency f or a g iven a t tr ibu te

i n ag iven l eve l i s e xpressed a s ap ercen tage o f t he n umber o f r im s herds r ecorded f or t ha t l eve l .

A l l r imsherd c a lcu la t ions were a cco mp l ished w i th

t he a id o f t he s or t ing a nd t abu la t ing c apaci t ies o f t he S ta t is t ica l Ana lysis S ys te ms p ackage ( Barr , G oodn igh t , S a l l , a nd H e lw ig 1 976) . R esu l ts :

N ondecora t ive a t tr ibu tes

F requency d a ta f or v a lues o f n ondecora t ive v ar iab les ( i .e ., p as te , c o lour , e x ter ior a nd i n ter ior s ur face t rea t men t , r im p ro f i le ) a re p resen ted ( Append ix I , F igures 2 9-35 ) i n t he f or m o f c umu la t ive g raphs ; t he x -ax is i s p ercen tage a nd t he y -ax is i s t ime , r epresen ted b y e xcava ted l eve ls o rdered a ccord ing 1 24

t o t he mos t r easonab le s equence o f d epos i t ion wh ich c ou ld b e r econs tructed t hrough s tra t igraph ic a na lys is .

Whenever a l evel w i th l ess t han t en s herds

c ou ld b e c o mbined w i th a n a ssoc ia ted l eve l f or p urposes o f a na lys is , t h is was d one t o c oun terac t t he e f fec ts o f sma l l s amp le s ize .

I f , h owever , t he t e m-

p ora l r e la t ionsh ip o f a sma l l l eve l t o a d jacen t l eve ls c ou ld n o t b e e s tab l ished w i th a ny d egree o f c on f idence , i t was c ons idered s epara te ly , d esp i te t he p oss ib le d is tor t ion i n f requenc ies r esu l t ing f ro m a sma l l n umber o f s herds . T o ta l n u mber o f s herds i n e ach l eve l s hou ld a lways b e k ep t i n mind when a ssess ing t he s ign i f icance i n c hanges i n f requency f ro m o ne l eve l t o a nother . Th is i f i forma t ion i s p rov ided i n A ppend ix I , T ables A a nd B . I nspec t ion o f t he c u mu la t ive f requency g raphs f or n on-decora t ive a t tr ibu tes ( Appendix I ,

F igures 2 9-35 ) r evea ls s evera l i n teres t ing p a t terns .

One a t tr i-

b u te , s and t e mpered p as te , o ccurs r are ly , i fa t a l l , i n u pper l eve ls o f b o th M1 a nd M2 , b u t b eco mes i ncreas ing ly f requen t b e low 2 .5 me tres ( Leve l 2 0 i n Ml , L eve l 1 5 i n M2 —see F igure 2 9 ).

As im i lar p a t tern i n e xh ibi ted b y

t he C lear O range a t tr ibu te o f p as te c o lour ( F igure 3 0 ).

The r e la t ive f re-

q uenc ies o f E x ter ior S ur face Trea t men t a t tr ibu tes d o n o t v ary c ons is ten t ly t hrough t ime ( Figure 3 1) .

C o mpar ison o f t he t wo g raphs f or I n ter ior S ur face

Trea t men t s hows a s l igh t t endency f or Dark Orange S l ip t o ' ba t t lesh ip ' , b u t i ti s s carce ly c onv inc ing ( F igure 3 2 ) . R ela t ive f requenc ies o f s ix ma jor c lasses o f r im p ro f i le were g raphed i nd iv idua l ly , r a ther t han c u mu la t ive ly , f or l eve ls c on ta in ing more t han t h ir ty r i msherds .

( A t o ta l b reakdown o f t he n umber o f v ar ious r im p ro f i les c on-

t a ined i n e ach l evel i s p rov ided i n A ppendix I , T ab le C f or M1 a nd i n Tab le Df or M2 ) .

B o th T -r i m med b owls a nd c ar ina ted v esse ls e xh ibi t u n i moda l

f requency d is tr ibu t ions wh ich a re o f s o me i n teres t ( Figures 3 4 a nd 3 5 ). Resu l ts :

D ecora t ive a t tr ibu tes

Throughou t t he s equence a t J ennejeno , t he d ecora t ion o f p o t tery b y means o f t w ine impress ions was v ery p opu lar ( App n d ix I , F igure 3 6 ).

A

g enera l u n i moda l t rend t owards i ncreased u se o f t wine i mpress ion w i th i nc reased t ime d ep th c an b e n oted :

i n M1 a nd M2 , 4 0-60% o f a l l s herds i n

a l mos t a l l u pper s tra ta were c haracter ized b y t wine d ecora t ion , wh i le t he p ercen tage o f t wine d ecora ted s herds c ons is ten t ly f a l ls b e tween 6 0-85% i n l eve ls l ower t han L eve l 1 2 i n b o th p i ts .

T h is t rend i s , h owever , e x tre mely

g enera l a nd o f l im i ted u sefu lness f or s er ia t ion p urposes a s t he r e la t ive f req uenc ies o f t wine i mpressed s herds f luc tua te c ons iderably b e tween a d jacen t l eve ls .

I nb road t erms , t hen , t w ine d ecora t ion r e ma ins s o c on t inua l ly p opu lar

o ver s uch a l ong p er iod o f t ime a t J ennejeno t ha t i tc anno t b e u sed t o d ef ine ac hrono log ica l ly s ign i f ican t c lass o f p ot tery.

On t he o ther h and , s evera l

o f t he v ar ious k inds o f woven t w ines a nd t w ine r ou le t tes u sed f or d ecora t ion ( P la tes V a nd V I ) p roved t o b e r e markab ly t ime s ens i t ive . I n p ar t icu lar , t he f requenc ies o f t he t wo r e la ted p a t terns o f woven t w ine ( Tw ines 1 a nd 2 ) e xh ibi ted a c lass ic b a t t lesh ip c urve t hrough t he M1 s equence ( Figure 3 7 ). The a ppearance o f t he s ame p a t tern a t M2 a nd J F1 ( Figure 3 8 ) a f f ir ms t ha t t h is a rrange men t i s s ys te ma t ica l ly r e la ted t o t he p assage o f t ime . B ecause Twine 7 i s f ound o n ly i n t he v ery e ar l ies t o ccupa t ion l eve ls a t J ennejeno , i tt oo c an s erve a s au se fu l c hrono log ica l marker .

Wi thou t ad oub t , t he t wo

c lasses o f p o t tery d e f ined b y t he p resence o f Twines 1 a nd 2 a nd Twine 7 ,

1 25

r espect ively , a re among t he mos t u se fu l a nd s ign i f ican t h is tor ica l c lasses r ecogn ized w i th in t he J ennejeno p o t tery a ssemb lage . T he p resence o f p a in ted d ecora t ion a lso p roved t o e xh ibi t c ons is ten t a nd u n i moda l c hange t hrough t ime ( Append ix I , F igure 3 9 ) w i th p eak f requencies o ccurr ing d ur ing o ccupa t ion p hase I I . R i ms were f ar more f requen t ly p a in ted t han b ody s herds . O f t he v ar ious p a in t c o lours u sed , wh i te , magen ta , r ed a nd y e l low were k nown a nd u sed t hroughou t t he s equence .

B lack p a in t i s n o t r e-

p resen ted d ur ing t he f irs t o ccupa t ion p hase ( Leve ls 3 0-25 i n M1) , b u t b lackp a in ted s herds a re s u f f ic ien t ly r are o vera l l t ha t t he ir a bsence may b e more a pparen t t han r ea l ( Tab les H € z Ji n A ppendix I ). G roov ing was t he mos t c o m mon t ype o f p las t ic d ecora t ion u sed a t J ennej eno , b u t n e i ther g roov ing , o r a ny o f t he o ther , r arer f orms o f p las t ic d ecora t ion a ppears t o h ave e n joyed a p ar t icu lar p er iod o f p opu lar i ty ( Tables Ia nd J , F igure 4 0 i n A ppend ix I ). I n s um mary , s even c lasses o f p o t tery f rom J ennejeno h ave b een r ecogn ized whose p ercen tage f requenc ies c hange i n ac ons is ten t a nd u n i moda l f ash ion t hrough t ime i nb o th M1 a nd M2.

E ach o f t hese c lasses i s d e f ined b y as ing le

a t tr ibu te , a nd o n ly t wo p a irs o f c lasses ( T-r i m med b ow ls a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls , Twine 1 -2 a nd Tw ine 7 ) o u t o f t he s even a re mu tua l ly e xc lus ive .

T he e x ten t

t o wh ich t hese s even c lasses c ons idered t oge ther c onst i tu te a s a t is factory i n i t ia l p o t tery c hrono logy f or J ennejeno i s i l lus tra ted i n F igure 7 .8 p . 9 4. P a t terns o f A t tr ibu te A ssoc ia t ion I n t he p reced ing s ec t ion , we h ave i nves t iga ted t he manner i n wh ich g iven a t tr ibu tes o f c er ta in f or ma l v ar iab les i n teracted w i th t he n on-forma l d i mens ion o f t ime .

A l though t h is e xerc ise h as a l lowed u s t o make c er ta in i n ferences

a bou t t he b ehav iour a nd p re ferences o f t he J ennejeno p o t ters t hrough t ime , we a re n ever the less a l ong way f ro m a n a dequa te d escr ip t ion o f t he p ot tery a sse mblage f ro m M1 a nd M2.

E qu ipped w i th t he i n forma t ion a lready p re-

s en ted i n g raph ic a nd t abu lar f orm , f or e xa mp le , i ti s p oss ible t o i n fer t ha t d ur ing Phase Ia t J ennejeno t wine impress ion was a n e x tre me ly p opu lar me thod o f d ecora t ing p o ts , a nd t ha t d ur ing t he s ame p er iod , Tw ine 4 was b y f ar t he p re ferred p a t tern o f r ou let te .

H owever , we a re u nab le a t t h is p o in t t o

a nswer more c o mp lex q ues t ions a bou t t he p o t tery a sse mb lage d ur ing P hase I . L eg i t i ma te q ues t ions o f t h is t ype migh t i nc lude : o f ten f ound o n t wine r ou le t ted p o ts? q uen t ly t w ine r ou le t ted t han o thers?

wha t k ind o f s l ip i s mos t

o r , a re c er ta in p o t s hapes more f reC lear ly , t h is p ot tery a na lys is mus t n ex t

i nves t iga te t he a ssoc ia t ion o f v ar ious a t tr ibu tes o f J ennejeno p o t tery a sse mb lage w i th t he g oa l o f r ecogn izing s ign i f ican t p a t terns o f a t tr ibu te a ssoc ia t ion . T he a ssumpt ion wh ich u nder l ies t h is q uest f or s ign i f ican t p a t terns o f a ssocia t ion i s t ha t h uman p ot t ing b ehav iour i s n on-rando m f ar more o f ten t han n o t .

Lack ing

a ny s pec ia l ized p o t t ing k now ledge wha tsoever , mos t o f u s wou ld b e v ery s urp r ized t o f ind a t tr ibu tes s uch a s f ine p as te a nd c oarse p as te r ando m ly d is tr ibu ted a ga ins t h ighf ired g laze a nd n o g laze i fa l l t he p o ts i n q ues t ion c a me f ro m t he s a me a sse mblage .

Y ears o f o bserv ing t he p o t tery o f o ur o wn c u l ture s tand

b eh ind o ur p resump t ion o f t he n on-rando mness o f p o t t ing b ehav iour . H ow d oes o ne g o a bou t l ook ing f or s ign i f ican t p a t terns o f a t tr ibu te a ssocia t ion?

S pau ld ing ( 1975 ) s ugges ts t ha t :

1 26

T he s teps r equ ired f or t h is k ind o f i nves t iga t ion , g iven a n a sse mb lage , i nc lude s e lec t ion o f s o me c lass o f a r t ifac ts a s t he s ub ject o f s tudy , s e lect ion o f a t tr ibu tes w i th wh ich t o w ork , o rgan iza t ion o f t hese a t tr ibu tes i n to s e ts o f mu tua l ly e xc lus ive a t tr ibu tes , l i s t ing i n s o me f or m a l l p oss ib le a t tr ibu te c o mbina t ions r esu l t ing f ro m t he i n tersec t ion o f t he d i mens ions r ecogn ized , c oun t ing t he n umber o f a r t i facts e xh ib i t ing e ach o f t he ' a t tr ibu te c o mb ina t ions , a nd f ina l ly s ub jec t ing t he r esu l t ing f requency d is tr ibu t ion t o s tat i s t ica l a ssocia t ion a na lys is . T he c lass o f a r t i fac ts u nder s tudy i s p o t tery ( s pec i f ica l ly , r im s herds ) ; t he s elec t ion o f a t tr ibu tes a s we ll a s t he ir o rgan iza t ion i n to s e ts ( ca l led v ar iab les ) was a cco mp l ished d ur ing t he r ecord ing o f p o tsherd d a ta .

T he

l i s t ing o f a l l p oss ible a t tr ibu te c o mb ina t ions i s p robably mos t e f f icien t ly a ch ieved b y u se o f ar ow-by-co lumn t ab le . B u t h ere we e ncoun ter t he v ex ing f ac t t ha t f or e ach s et o f t wo mu tua l ly e xc lus ive a t tri bu tes a dded t o t he l i s t o f r ecorded v ar iab les , t he n umber o f c e l ls i n t he r ow-by-co lumn t able o f a l l p oss ib le a t tr ibu te c ombina t ions i s i ncreased b y ap ower o f t wo . T hus , t he p oss ib le c o mb ina t ions o f t he a t tr ibu tes b lack a nd wh i te , l ong a nd s hor t e qua ls f our , b u t t he a dd i t iona l c ons idera t ion o f s and a nd g rog t e mper i ncreases t he n umber o f p oss ib le c o mb ina t ions t o e igh t . Were i t my i n ten t ion t o p roduce a r ow-by-co lumn t ab le f or a l l p oss ible c ombina t ions o f t wo a t tr ibu tes r ecorded f or e ach o f t he t h ir teen f orma l d i mens ions d iscr im ina ted f or t he Jenne -j eno p ot tery , t he r esu l t ing t ab le wou ld h ave 21 3 o r 8 192 c e l ls .

B y f ur ther c on-

s ider ing n onforma l v ar iables s uch a s p roven ience , t he c e l l t o ta l wou ld b e i ncreased t o 4 01,408 ( s even teen 8 192-ce l l t ab les a re r equ ired f or t he s even teen l eve ls o f M2 , a nd t h ir ty t ab les f or t he t h ir ty l eve ls o f M1).

E ven i fo n ly 0 .1%

o f t he t ota l p oss ible a t tr ibu te c o mbina t ions were a c tua l ly o bserved , a4 00-ce l l t ab le wou ld b e r equ ired t o a cco moda te t he d a ta . I n mos t c ases , s evera l t housand o bserva t ions a re n ecessary t o r ender s uch a t ab le e ven r e mo te ly mean ing fu l . T he o p t ions f or r educing t he n umber o f c e l ls i n af requency t able a re t wo : r educe t he n umber o f v ar iables u nder c ons idera t ion , o r r educe t he n umber o f a t tr ibu tes u nder s tudy b y c o l laps ing s evera l v a lues i n to o ne.

B o th o p t ions

c an p oten t ia l ly r esu l t i n al oss o f i mpor tan t i n forma t ion . An o bv ious e xamp le e as i ly i l lus tra tes t he r isks o f c o l laps ing d a ta : f i f ty p o t tery o bserva t ions a re r ecorded f ro m P i t 1 , l evel 1 ; t wen ty-f ive o f t hese a re sma l l , s l ipped p ots , t wen ty-f ive a re l arge , u ns l ipped p o ts . Th is i n forma t ion c an b e p resen ted e f f ic ien t ly i n af our-cel l f requency t ab le ( a ). Fro m P i t 2 , l eve l 1 , t wen tyf ive sma l l , u ns l ipped p o ts were f ound a long w i th t wen ty-f ive l arge , s l ipped p o ts ( b ). s l ipped ( a )

sma l l l arge

2 5 0

u ns l ipped 0

s l ipped ( b )

2 5

sma l l l arge

0 2 5

u ns l ipped 2 5 0

A l though t he t wo f our-ce l l t ables s trong ly s ugges t t ha t t he f our f orma l a t tr ib u tes c ons idered a re a ssoc ia ted w i th r espec t t o d i fferen t a reas o f t he s i te i n ah igh ly s ign i f ican t manner , t h is i n forma t ion i s l os t a s s oon a s we c o l lapse t hese t wo t ab les i n to o ne t able o f p ots f ro m l eve l 1( c ).

1 27

s l ipped

u ns l ipped

sma l l

2 5

2 5

( e ) l arge

2 5

2 5

S im i lar ly , i mpor tan t i n forma t ion o n p o t t ing b ehav iour migh t b e l os t t hrough ad ec is ion t o om i t f rom c ons idera t ion wha t i s i n f ac t ah igh ly s ign i f ican t v ar ia ble .

I n tu i t ion i s t he a rchaeo log is t 's ma jor weapon i n c o mba t t ing t h is p rob le m :

a f ter mon ths o fg az ing a t ap o t tery a sse mblage , r ecord ing d a ta a bou t i t , a nd man ipu la t ing a nd t abu la t ing t he r ecorded d a ta , t he ma jor b ehav ioura l ly s ign if i can t a t tr ibu tes o f t he a sse mblage c an b e r ecogn ized w i th s o me d egree o f c on f idence . B o th o f t he o p t ions d iscussed a bove were u sed i n t he J ennejeno a na lys is . I t was d ec ided , f or e xamp le , t o om i t t he c on t inuous v ar iab les o f r im d iame ter a nd s herd t h ickness , a nd a lso t o p ass o ver t he v ar iables o f s herd c o lour , p resence o f g rey c ore , a nd s ur face c o lour mo t t l ing , a l l o f wh ich migh t b e d e term ined b y w ind c ond i t ions d ur ing f ir ing . R a ther , t hose v ar iables w ere s e lec ted f or i nves t iga t ion whose p a t terned i n terac t ion migh t s hed l i gh t o n t he b as ic p o t t ing r u les o bserved b y t he p o t ters a t J ennejeno .

S ix d iscre te ,

f or ma l v ar iables w ere c hosen : o u ter s ur face t rea tmen t , i nner s ur face t rea tmen t , t w ine r ou le t t ing , p a in t d ecora t ion , p las t ic d ecora t ion , a nd r im s hape . B ecause o ne o f t he q ues t ions o f i n teres t i n t h is a na lys is was t he d eterm ina t ion o f whe ther s l ipp ing t rea tmen t a nd mode o f d ecora t ion v ar ied s ys tema t ica l ly w i th r im s hape , i t was d ec ided t ha t a n e f f ic ien t a nd u se fu l way o f l i s t ing a l l p ossib le c o mbina t ions r esu l t ing f ro m t he i n tersec t ion o f t hese v ar iables c ou ld b e a ch ieved a s f o l lows : t he p oss ible c o mbina t ions o f t he f i rs t f i ve v ar iab les c hosen were d isp layed i n a3 2-ce l l ( 25)r ow-by-co lumn t ab le , a nd o ne 3 2-ce l l t able was c ons truc ted f or e ach o f e leven ma jor c lassss o f r im s hape.

T he

n u mber o f o bserved c o mbina t ions o f t he f irs t f i ve v ar iables were t hen c oun ted f or e ach r im c lass a nd r ecorded i n t he a ppr ipr ia te c e l l o n t he a ppropr ia te 3 2-ce l l t able . T hus , i ti s p oss ible t o d e termine i ns tan t ly t he n umber o f p o t l ids l ack ing s l ip o n b o th s ur faces a nd h av ing o n ly t wine d ecora t ion b y c ons u l t ing T able 9 .2 ( p . 1 3 1) , r ow 4 , c o lumn 4 . T he d rawback t o t h ef requency t ables i s t ha t ag ood d ea l o f d a ta c o l laps ing was n ecessary t o c rea te t he m . F irs t , t he n umerous a t tr ibu tes r ecogn ized f or e ach v ar iab le h ad t o b e r educed t o o n ly t wo : p resence-absence ( i .e ., a d ichot o mous s i tua t ion ) . B ecause n onforma l v ar iab les ( i .e . p roven ience ) a re n o t c ons idered i n t hese t ables , t he o bserva t ions o n a ny g iven r im c lass r epresen t d a ta f ro m t wo t es t p i ts a nd many d i f feren t l eve ls c o l lapsed i n to a s ing le t ab le. S im i lar i ly , t he e leven ma jor r im c lasses i n mos t c ases were c rea ted b y c o mb in ing s evera l s im i lar r im s hapes o u t o f t he t h ir tythree r im s hapes o r ig ina l ly r ecogn ized a nd r ecorded .

Paren the t ica l ly , i tm igh t b e n o ted h ere t ha t f i ve

o f t he o r ig ina l ly r ecorded r im s hapes a re n o t i ncluded i n a ny o f t he e leven ma jor r im c lasses , d ue e i ther t o t he u nusua l o r i n frequen t n a ture o f t he r im ( r ims 8 , 2 0 , 2 6) o r t o t he e x tre me sma l lness o f t he s herds , wh ich p rec luded d eterm ina t ion o f t he o r ig ina l r im a ng le ( r ims 1 2 , 1 5 ).

T he t o ta l n umber o f

s herds i n t hese f i ve c lasses i sf or tytwo , o u t o f 2 288 r ims r ecorded f ro m M 1 a nd M2 .

1 28

The f requency t ables f or e ach o f t he e leven ma jor r im c lasses f o l low b elow ; i n p aren thes is i m med ia te ly a f ter t he ma jor r im c lass n ame a re t he n u mbers o f t he o r ig ina l ly r ecorded r im c lasses ( 3 3 i n a l l ) wh ich h ave b een g rouped t oge ther t o f orm t he ma jor r im c lass .

B enea th e ach t ab le i s a

wr i t ten d escr ip t ion o f wha t i n my o p in ion a re s a l ien t p a t terns o bservable i n t he t ab le f or t ha t r im c lass .

A dd i t iona l d escr ip t ive i n forma t ion n o t a va i lab le

i n t he f requency t able i s a lso p resen ted , i nclud ing t he p ercen tage o f s herds w i th in t he r im c lass w h ich e xh ib i t f ire b lacken ing , t he r ange o f r im d iame ters o bserved , a nd d a ta o nb urn ish ing .

A t t he l ower r igh t-hand c orner o f e ach

p age , al i s t o f F igures a nd P la tes i l lus tra t ing t he r im c lass i s p rov ided .

1 29

+ i nner s lip +o uter .s lip +t wine, + p aint, + p lastic

2

+t wine, + p aint,

-p lastic

1

p aint, + p lastic

6

+t w ine,

+t w ine, - p aint,

p lastic

-o uter s lip

6

t w ine,

+p aint, - p lastic

2

-t wine,

p aint, + p lastic

1 5

t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

5 7 16

+o uter s lip

-o uter s lip 4

2 1 2

2 7

t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip

5 4 2

1

1

1 4

1

1 0

1 5

3 3

3 7

1 52

2 70

2

2

1

1

1 2

1

2 3

5 0

1 7

4 2

1 09

2 25

8 7

1 04

3 05

T ABLE 9 .1 U NRESTRICTED S IMPLE R IM ( 1,27,29)

N =612

U nrestricted s imp le r ims c ome f rom w ide-mouth v esse ls w ith d iameters r anging f rom 1 0 c entimeters t o o ver 3 8 c entimeters. A pproximate ly o ne-half o f a ll s herds i n t h is c lass a re u nslipped o n b oth i nterior a nd e xterior s urfaces, a nd o ver 8 0% o f a ll s herds a re e ither d ecora ted o n ly w ith t w ine i mpressions o r l eft u ndecorated. N inety-four p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd n ineteen p ercent o f a ll u nslipped s herds a re b urnished. E ighteen p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass s howed f ire b lackening.

A pp.II:

1 30

F igs.1-3

+ i nner s lip +o uter s lip + t wine, + p aint, + p lastic

-o uter s lip

1 7

+ t w ine,

2

1

p aint,

p lastic

t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic - t w ine,

+p aint,

2

p lastic

-t w ine,

p aint, + p lastic

- t wine,

p aint,

p lastic

1 1 0

9 5

1 4

3 4

2 30 3

1 1

5

1

6

2

1 00

2 1

-o uter s lip

-

3

+ t wine,

+o uter s lip -

—

+ t wine, + p aint, - p lastic -p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip

1

1

1 38

1 8

19

2

3 5

2

9

1

T ABLE 9 .2 U NRESTRICTED S IMPLE R IM ( 17) - P OTLIDS

N =309

P ot lids r ange i n d iameter f rom 2 8 c entimeters t o o ver 3 8 c entimeters. A lmost 7 5% o f a ll p otlid s herds a re d ecorated b y t w ine i mpression a lone; f ive o ut o f s ix o f t hese t w ine d ecorated s herds l ack o uter s lip. A n _ A dditiona l t ab le ( be low) d emonstrates t hat t he p ractice o f s lipping t he i nterior s urface o f p ot lids w as v ery c ommon d uring P hase II. S eventy-seven p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd f ortyf ive p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds w ere b urnished. T hirty p ercent o f a ll p ot lid r imsherds w ere f ire b lackened. + i nner s lip P HASE I V

M 1 l eve ls 1 -12 M 2 l eve ls 1 -12

P HASE II

M 1 l eve ls 1 3-20 M 2 l eve ls 1 3-16

P HASES I A ND I

M 1 l eve ls 2 1-30 M 2 l eve l 1 7

3 5

1 09

10

1 5

8

A pp.II: 1 31

-i nner s lip

3 2

F ig.8

5 1

+i nner s lip +o uter s lip +t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic +t wine, + p aint,

+o uter s lip 2

1

4

p lastic

+t w ine,

p aint, + p lastic

+t w ine,

p aint,

p lastic

-t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic t w ine, + p aint,

-o uter s lip

-i nner s lip -o uter s lip 2

2 1

2 1

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

6

9

p lastic

t w ine,

p aint, + p lastic

t w ine,

p aint,

p lastic

1 3

2 3 1 0

T ABLE 9 .3 U NRESTRICTED E VERTED R IM ( 21)

N =38

R ims r ange i n d iameter f rom 3 0 c entimeters t o m ore t han 3 8 c entimeters. F orty-f ive p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass h ave p aint d ecoration, w hich i s a n u nusually h igh p ercentage f or t he a ssemb lage. N o o ther s ystematic p atterning o f s herd a ttributes w ithin t his c lass i s o bvious f rom t he t ab le a bove. N inety-four p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd f ifty p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds a re b urnished. T en p ercent o f t he s herds a re f ire b lackened.

A pp.II:

1 32

F ig.4

+ i nner s lip +o uter . slip

- i nner s lip

-o uter s lip

+o uter s lip -

+t wine, + p aint, + p lastic +t wine, + p aint,

-o uter s lip 1

1

p lastic

1

1

+t wine,

p aint, + p lastic

1

1

+t wine,

p aint,

p lastic

3

2

-t wine, + p aint, + p lastic

2

2

-t w ine,

+p aint, - p lastic

1

1

-t wine,

p aint, + p lastic

2

t w ine, - p aint,

p lastic

1

3

2

2

3 1 2

2

_ 5

5 7

5

9

6 1 3

1

T ABLE 9 .4

U NRESTRICTED T HICKENED R IM ( 19,28)

N =35

R im d iameter c ould b e m easured o n o n ly t hree r ims, w ith r esults o f 2 8 c m., 3 4 c m., a nd 3 8 c m . S ixty-three p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass w ere e ither u ndecorated o r d ecorated o nly w ith t wine i mpressions. A ll o f t he s lipped s herds a nd t hirty-nine p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds w ere b urnished. F ire b lackening w as n oted o n 1 7% o f t he s herds i n t his c lass.

A pp.II:

1 33

F ig.4

+ i nner s lip -o uter s lip

+o uter .s lip +t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

4

+t w ine, + p aint, - p last ic

1

+t w ine, - p aint, + p last ic

9

+t w ine,

1 3

-t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

1 3

-t w ine, + p a int, - p lastic

.6

5

5 4

7

t w ine,

p aint, - p last ic

2

4

2 2

'

+o uter s lip

-o uter s lip 4

_

p aint, - p lastic

-t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip

1

1 7

7

6 7

2 0

1 4

4 4

2 ' 9

1 47

2

1 7

1

1 2

1 3

8 3 1 24

5 2

1 6

2 3

3

1 61

12

5 7

9 4

T ABLE 9 .5

R ESTRICTED S IMPLE ( 10,16,18,22,24,25)

N =424

D iameters f or t he c ategory o f c losed-mouth v esse ls r anged f rom 1 0 c entimeters t o 3 6 c ent imeters. T he c o llapsed t ab le b e low i llustrates t he t endency f or r estricted s imp le r ims t o b e e ither u nslipped a nd t w ine-impressed ( 30% o f t he s herds) o r s lipped a nd w ithout t w ine d ecoration ( 37% o f t he s herds). N inety-f ive p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds w ere b urnished. F ire b lackening o ccurred o n 1 2% o f t he s herds. +o uter s lip

o uter s lip

+t w ine

5 9

1 29

-t w ine

1 59

7 7

A pp.II: F igs.5-6

1 34

+i nner s lip +o uter .s lip +t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

9

+t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic t w ine, - p a int, + p lastic t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

-o uter s lip

+o uter s lip

7

+t wine, + p aint, - p last ic +t wine, - p aint, + p last ic

-i nner s lip -o uter s lip 1

1

1 8 1

1 2

1 4 2

1

4

7 5

8 1 5

8

4

3 1

6

2 0

1

9 9

1

,

5 3

3 4

3

9

6

1 63

2 5

7 5

1

5

9 5

4

1 9

2 1

T ABLE 9 .6 R ESTRICTED C ARINATED R IMS ( 7,11,14,23)

N =284

C arinated v esse l r ims r anged f rom 1 2 c entimeters t o 3 8 c ent imeters i n d iameter. E ighty-f ive p ercent o f t he s herds h ave p lastic d ecoration ( usually g rooves), a nd s even o ut o f e ight p lastic-decorated s herds a re s lipped o n t he e xterior. A n u nusua l n umber o f c arinated s herds a re p ainted ( 42%). I n a lmost a ll c ases, t he p aint a ppears i n t he g rooves a bove t he c arination. T he f requency t ab le b e low d emonstrates t hat g roove a nd p aint d ecoration o n c arinated r ims w as a P hase II s ty le. N inety-four p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd s ixty p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds a re b urnished. O ne-third o f a ll c arinated s herds e xhib it f ire b lackening. +p aint & p lastic

-p aint & p lastic

P HASE I V

M 1 l eve ls 1 -12 M 2 l eve ls 1 -12

3 8

1 09

P HASE II

M 1 l eve ls 1 3-20 M 2 l eve ls 1 3-16

7 9

3 6

P HASES I A ND I

M 1 l eve ls 2 1-30 M 2 l eve l 1 7

2 A pp.

1 35

2 0 I:

F igs. 7 -14

+i nner s lip +o uter .s lip

-o uter s lip -

+t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip +o uter s lip . —

-o uter s lip

+t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic +t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic

.

+t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic -t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

2

6

t w ine, + p a int, - p lastic

1

2

t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic

3

t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

'

2 2

2 0

1

3 7

2 6

1

6 7

2

2

1

9

1

4

1 -

1 4

2 6 7 2

1 9

T ABLE 9 ,7

R ESTR ICTED L ONG N ECKED R IM ( 30,32) - B OTTLES

N =113

R im d iameters f or t h is c lass r ange b etween f our a nd e ight c entimeters. O n ly t wo s herds ( 1 .7% ) h ad t w ine d ecoration. I n g eneral, s herds a re c haracterized b y o uter s lipping a nd l ack o f t w ine d ecorat ion ( 82% ). A ll o f t he s lipped s herds a nd n one o f t he u nslipped s herds a re b urnished. O n ly t hree p ercent o f t he s herds s howed f ire b lackening.

A pp .II:

1 26

F iqs.15-16

+i nner s lip +o uter . slip +t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-o uter s lip -

-i nner s lip

,

+o uter s lip

1

,

+t wine, + p aint, - p last ic +t w ine, - p aint, + p last ic

5

.

.

2

3

1

1

5

3

1 3

7

- 1 7

+t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

3

4

3

t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

5

2

1

t w ine, + p a int, - p lastic

1

t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic

1 3

t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

1 9

-o uter s lip

8 1

' 1 7

1 -

4 6

2

5

1 0

3 4

4

3 5

4

3 0

1 8

T ABLE 9 .8

R ESTRICTED 1 -RIM ( 3,4)

N =108

D iameters o f 1 -rims r anged f rom f ourteen t o t hirty-six c entimeters. F ifty-six p ercent o f a ll s herds i n t his c lass h ad o uter s lip a nd l acked t w ine d ecoration. P aint d ecoration w as r are ly a pp lied t o T -rims ( 9% o f s herds), a lthough p last ic d ecoration ( usually g rooves) a ppears o n 5 5% o f t he s herds. N inety-six p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd s ixty p ercent o f t he u ns lipped s herds a re b urnished. T wenty-two p ercent o f t he s herds a re f ire b lackened.

A pp.II: F igs.17-18

1 37

+i nner s lip +o uter s lip +t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip

-o uter s lip

-

+o uter s lip ._

.

-o uter s lip

1

+t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic +t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic +t w ine,

p aint, - p lastic

-t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic -t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic -t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

1

4

2

1

2

1 2

1 7

2

1

1 1

,

1 0

_

_

2 8

5

8

1

2 2

1 2

4 6

3 7

T ABLE 9 .9

R ESTRICTED S LIGHTLY E VERTED R IM ( 2 ,31)

N =112

D iameters o f v esse ls w ith s light ly e verted r ims r anged f rom t en t o t hirty-six c entimeters. P atterns o f a ttr ibute a ssociation w ere d iff icult t o i dentify i n t his t ab le, b ut o ne t endency i s ap reference f or s lipping a nd n o t w ine, a s t he c o llapsed t ab le b e low s hows. A ll o f t he s lipped s herds a nd n ineteen p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds w ere b urnished. S eventeen p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass w ere f ire b lackened. +o uter s lip

-o uter s lip

+t w ine

2 0

2 0

-t w ine

5 4

1 8 A pp .

1 38

I:

F ig. 1 9

+i nner s lip +o uter .s lip

-o uter s lip —

+t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip +o uter s lip

-o uter s lip

,

+t wine, + p aint, - p lastic +t w ine,

p aint, + p lastic

2

+t w ine,

p aint,

p lastic

2

t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

1

-t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic

1

-t w ine, - p aint, + p lastic t w ine,

p aint, - p lastic

3

1

2

1

7

1

1 5

2 0

1 9

1 4

1 0

3 9

2 0

4 0

1 3 4

3

_

5

3

1

3 6 5 3

T ABLE 9 .10

R ESTRICTED E VERTED R IM ( 5,6,9,34)

N =102

D iameters o f t he e verted r immed v esse ls r anged t rom t wenty-four c entim eters t o m ore t han t hirty-eight c entimeters. S eventy-one p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass w ere s lipped a nd l acked t w ine d ecoration. O ver h a lf o f t he t otal s herds w ere s lipped b ut u ndecorated o therw ise . A ll o f t he s lipped s herds a nd t hirty p ercent o f t he u nslipped s herds w ere b urnished. F ire b lackening w as e xhib ited b y o n ly t en p ercent o f t he s herds.

A pp.II: F igs.20-22

1 39

+i nner s lip

+t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

-i nner s lip

+o uter -o uter +o uter . slip s lip s lip . — -

2

2

+t w ine, - p aint, + p last ic

8

1

4

+t w ine, - p aint, - p last ic

3

2

1

-t w ine, + p aint, + p lastic

3

1

2

-t w ine, + p aint, - p lastic t w ine,

3

2

1

+t w ine, + p aint, - p last ic

-o uter s lip

1 1 4 1

1

t w ine, - p aint, - p lastic

1 3

4

4 1

8

2 0 7 1

1

p aint, + p lastic

1 4

2 4

1 0 1

1 0

3 1

2 6

3 4

T ABLE 9 .11 R ESTRICTED T HICKENED R IM ( 13)

N =106

R im d iameters f or t his c lass r anged f rom t wenty-two c entimeters t o o ver t h irty-e ight c entimeters. P atterns o f a ttribute a ssociation a re d iff ic u lt t o i dentify i n t he t ab le, b ut a t endency t owards s lipping a nd n o t w ine i mpressing c an b e i l lustrated b y m eans o f t he c o llapsed t ab le b e low . N inety-four p ercent o f a ll s lipped s herds a nd t hrity p ercent o f t he u ns lipped s herds a re b urnished. T hirteen p ercent o f t he s herds i n t his c lass a re f ire b lackened. +o uter s lip

-o uter s lip

+t w ine

2 1

2 0

-t w ine

5 1

1 6

A pp.II: F ig.25

1 40

Wi th t ab les 9 .1-9 .11 a va i lab le f or i nspec t ion , we a re a b le t o a ssess whe ther a ny o f t he a t tr ibu tes u nder c ons idera t ion a ppear t o b e c ons is ten t ly a ssocia ted .

I n f ac t , o ne p ar t icu lar ly n o t iceab le p a t tern h as emerged i n t he

b r ief d escr ip t ions a cco mpany ing e ach t ab le : u nres tr icted r i ms t end t o h ave e x ter ior s ur faces wh ich a re u ns l ipped a nd t wine r ou le t ted , whereas r es tr icted r i ms a re u sua l ly s l ipped a nd l ack t w ine d ecora t ion .

B y c o l laps ing t he p re-

c ed ing e leven t ables i n to o ne 2 x 2 x 2 t able , i ti s p os si b le t o c o mp lete ly d escr ibe t he J ennejeno p o t tery a sse mb lage w i th r espec t t o t he t hree v ar iables o f r im s hape , o u ter s l ip a nd t wine d ecora t ion ( Table 9 .12 ).

u nres tr ic ted r im

T able 9 .12 N=2273

r es tr icted r im

+o u ter

-o u ter

+o u ter

-o u ter

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

+t w ine

1 29

4 75

1 50

2 50

-t w ine

1 76

2 27

6 69

1 97

As e xpected , t he t wo l arges t c oun ts a re f or t wine d ecora ted u nres tr icted r i ms l ack ing o u ter s l ip a nd f or s l ipped r es tr icted r i ms l ack ing t wine .

I ts ee ms

s a fe t o a ssume t ha t t he c e l l f requenc ies i n t he a bove t able r ef lec t i n s o me way t he n on-rando m b ehav iour o f t he p o t ters a t J ennejeno . C lear ly , c er ta in a t tr ibu te c o mb ina t ions were p referred , a l though n o t e xc lus ive ly .

Wha t i s n o t

i m med ia te ly c lear f ro m i nspec t ion o f t he t able i s t he n a ture o f t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween v ar iables wh ich a ccoun t f or i t s s tructure .

F or e xamp le , i ti s p oss ible

t ha t t he a t tr ibu te c o mbina t ions + tw ine , s l ip a nd twine , + s l ip were f avoured b y t he J ennejeno p o t ters a nd t ha t e i ther c ombina t ion c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o ap o t r egard less o f i t s r im s hape .

I n s uch a c ase , t he s truc ture i n t he c on t ingency

t ab le wou ld b e t he r esu l t o f a ssoc ia t ion b e tween o ne p a ir o f v ar iab les , t wine a nd s l ip , a nd t he t wo f avoured c o mbina t ions wou ld o ccur w ith a pprox i ma tely e qua l f requency o n u nres tr icted a nd r es tr ic ted r i ms .

An i dea l ized 2 x 2 x 2

t able i l lus tra t ing t h is s i tua t ion a ppears b e low:

u nres tr ic ted r im

Table 9 .13 N=400

+o u ter

-o u ter

+o uter

-o u ter

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

1 00

0

1 00

+t w ine -t wine

r es tr ic ted r im

1 00

0

1 41

1 00

0

T h is e xamp le ( Table 9 .13 ) i s p urpose ly e x tre me ;

i t r epresen ts a s i tua t ion

wh ich s tands a t a n e x tre me r e move f ro m a t ab le e xh ibi t ing n o s tructure wha ts oever ( Tab le 9 .14 ). u nres tr ic ted r im

T ab le 9 .14 N=400

r es tr ic ted r im

+o u ter

-o u ter

+o u ter

-o u ter

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

.s l ip

+t wine

5 0

5 0

5 0

5 0

-t wine

5 0

5 0

5 0

5 0

A s Dav is ( 1974: 2 00 ) p o in ts o u t , at ab le w i th t he s a me f requency i n a l l c e l ls i s " the e ssence o f n o th ingness , s ince t here i s a bso lu te ly n oth ing g o ing o n o f a ny s ta t is t ica l i n teres t" .

S ince e qua l i ty o f c ross-products i s ad ef in i t ion o f

i ndependence , i ti s c lear t ha t T ab le 9 .14 i s amode l o f i ndependence — the c ross-products ( ca lcu la ted f or a ny t wo n umbers o n ad iagona l ) a l l e qua l 5 0 x5 0 .

Qu i te t he o ppos i te i s t rue f or T ab le 9 .13 ;

e qua ls z ero , t he o ther e qua ls 1 00 ,000 .

o ne s e t o f d iagona l p roducts

T ab les o f emp ir ica l ly-der ived d a ta

a re r are ly s o a cco moda t ing . More c o mp lex r e la t ionsh ips , s uch a s p a irwise a ssoc ia t ion b etween t wo p a irs o f v ar iab les , a lso may b e r espons ib le f or s tructure w i th in a 2 x 2 x 2 t able.

C ons ider a c ase where p o t ters d ecide whe ther o r n o t t o s l ip a p o t ,

a s we l l a s whe ther o r n o t t o t wine impress a p o t , o n t he b as is o f r im s hape. The t ab le b e low ( 9 .15 ) i l lus tra tes t h is s i tua t ion : u nres tr ic ted r im

Table 9 .15 N =242

+t w ine -t w ine

r es tr ic ted r im

+o u ter

-o u ter

+o u ter

-o u ter

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

1 0

1 00

1 0

1

1 0

1 00

1

1 0

B y i nspec t ing t he a ssoc ia t ion o f t w ine a nd s l ip f or e ach o f t he t wo a t tr ibu tes o f r im s hape , we c an c on f irm t ha t t he c ross-produc ts o f t wine a nd s l ip a t tr ib u tes f or b o th r es tr ic ted a nd u nres tr ic ted r i ms a re e qua l ( 10 x 1 0 = 1x 1 00 ). S ince e qua l c ross-produc ts d e f ine i ndependence , a s n o ted a bove , o ur i n terp re ta t ion i s t ha t t wine a nd s l ip a re n o t a ssocia ted , a nd t ha t t he o bv ious s tructure i n t he t able i s p roduced b y r i mshapetw ine a nd r i mshape-s lip a ssoc ia t ion a lone . Ano ther p oss ib le r e la t ionsh ip i s p a irwise a ssoc ia t ion b e tween a l l t hree p a irs o f v ar iables , a n e x tre me e xamp le o f wh ich i s g iven : T ab le 9 .16

u nres tr ic ted r im

N=400

r es tr icted r im

+o u ter

-o u ter

+o u ter

-o u ter

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

s l ip

+t w ine

0

2 00

0

0

-t w ine

0

0

1 42

2 00

0

The f ina l a nd mos t c o mp lex r e la t ionsh ip p ossible i n a2 x 2 x 2 t ab le r ela tes a l l t hree v ar iables s uch t ha t t he i n teract ion b etween a ny t wo v ar iab les d epends o n t he v a lue o f t he t h ird v ar iab le .

An e xamp le o f t h is k ind o f s truc-

t ure a ppears b e low : T ab le 9 .17

u nres tr ic ted r im

N400

+o u ter s l ip

+o u te r s l ip

1 00

1 00

+t w ine -t w ine

r es tr ic ted r im

-o u ter s l ip

1 00

0

0

-o u ter s l ip 0 1 00

Rare ly i s v isua l i nspec t ion o f a mu l t id imens iona l t ab le s u f f ic ien t t o i den t i fy t he n a ture o f c o mp lex t wo-var iab le o r t hree-var iable r e la t ionsh ips w i th in t he t able .

F or tuna te ly , s ta t is t ica l me thods p erm i t t ing t he s ys te ma t ic

e xam ina t ion o f a l l p oss ib le r e la t ionsh ips i n at able h ave r ecen t ly b een g rea t ly r ef ined . F or r eaders l ack ing s oph is t ica ted s ta t is t ica l k now ledge , ma jor r eferences o n t hese me thods i nc lude F ienberg ( 1977) a nd Dav is ( 1974 ). Archaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ions h ave b een c ons idered b y Read ( 1974 ) , C lark ( 1976) a nd S pau ld ing ( 1976) .

The d iscuss ion wh ich f o l lows h ere a t te mp ts t o o u t l ine

t he c oncep ts c en tra l t o a n u nders tand ing o f t hese me thods .

Lack ing t he

ma the ma t ica l e xper t ise a nd t a len t r equ ired f or a t ru ly i n formed e xpos i t ion o n t h is t op ic , Ih ave o p ted f or s i mp l ic i ty a nd b rev i ty. The S ta t is t ica l Ana lys is o f Mu l t id i mens iona l C on t ingency T ab les Ab as ic u nders tand ing o f t he c oncep t o f mode ls w i l l t ake u s al ong way t owards e xp la in ing t he l og ica l s tructure o f t he a na lyt ica l methods u nder c ons idera t ion .

The o pera t ion c en tra l t o t hese me thods i s t he c ons truc t ion a nd

t es t ing o f mode ls ,

wh ich a re " sets o f s em i-ar ti f icia l d a ta c rea ted b y t he

a na lys t a nd h av ing s o me s ta t is t ica l p roper ty .

T he a na lys t c rea tes a s er ies

o f mode ls , c o mpares t he m w i th a c tua l d a ta , a nd u ses t he d iscrepanc ies o r l ack o f d iscrepanc ies t o a ssess t he p resence o f v ar ious s ta t is t ica l e f fec ts" ( Dav is 1 974 : 1 99 ) . T he mos t f am i liar u se o f t h is c oncep t i s t he s tandard c h i-square t es t . I n e ssence , t he c h i-square t es t p os tu la tes a mode l where t he v ar iab les w i th in ac on t ingency t able , f or e xamp le , a re i ndependen t ( i .e ., n o t a ssoc ia ted ) , c a lcu la tes t he e xpected f requenc ies t ha t wou ld a r ise u nder t he i ndependence h ypo thes is , a nd i nves tiga tes t he s im i lar i ty o f t he e xpec ted t o t he o bserved f requenc ies . S hou ld t he mode l p er fect ly p red ict t he o bserved c e l l c oun ts , t he c h i-square w i l l e qua l z ero . Bu t i ft he emp ir ica l d a ta d i f fer s ign i f ican t ly f ro m t hose we migh t e xpec t t o d raw f ro m a p opu la t ion i n wh ich t he v ar iables were i ndependen t ,t hen we mus t c onclude t ha t t he mode l d oes n o t f i t t he a ctua l d a ta a nd t he v ar iab les a re n o t i ndependen t . T he l eve l o f s ign i f icance o f t he c h i-square s ta t is t ic i s o bta ined b y c onsu l t ing a t able o f c h i-square v a lues f or t he a ppropr ia te d egrees o f f reedo m ( i ndependen t c ompar isons i n t ab le ). Wi th t he c oncep t o f mode ls a t l eas t p ar t ia l ly d iges ted , we c an r egress a p age o r s o a nd r eca l l t he v ar ious k inds o f r ela t ionsh ips wh ich may a ccoun t f or s tructure i n a2 x 2 x 2 t able .

T o s um mar ize , i ti s p oss ib le t o h ave

a ssocia t ion b e tween o ne , t wo , o r a l l t hree p a irs o r v ar iab les , o r t o h ave

1 43

i n terac t ion o f t he t hree v ar iables w i thou t a ny s imp le p a irw ise r e la t ionsh ip . T h is s e t o f p o ten t ia l r e la t ionsh ips g rades f ro m s imp le t o c o mp lex , a nd t o i t may b e a dded t he c ase o f n o s truc ture ( i ndependence o f a l l v ar iables ) , wh ich i s t he s i mp les t s i tua t ion o f a l l . n o a ssoc ia t ion s imp le

I .

a ssoc ia t ion b e tween o ne p a ir o f v ar iab les a ssoc ia t ion b e tween t wo p a irs o f v ar iab les a ssoc ia t ion b e tween t hree p a irs o f v ar iab les

c o mp lex

i n terac t ion among a l l t hree v ar iables

I n e f fec t , o ur p rocedure w i l l b e t o t h ink o f t h is s e t o f r ela t ionsh ips a s s peci f ic h ypo theses , o r mode ls , wh ich may b e a pp l ied t o a ny g iven s e t o f d a ta . Each mode l d escr ibes a n e f fec t wh ich i s t o b e i nves t iga ted b y c a lcu la t ion o f t he c e l l f requencies e xpected u nder t he e f fec t a nd t es t ing o f t he e xpec ted a nd o bserved v a lues o f g oodness-of-f i t i n t he manner d escr ibed a bove f or t he c h i-square t es t .

F ienberg ( 1 977: 3 7 ;8 , 4 8-9 ) r eco m mends t he u se o f t he

l i ke l ihood r a t io c h i-square , a lso k nown a s G2 ,f or t es t ing g oodness-o f-f i t i n t he mode ls u nder d iscuss ion h ere . G2 i s as um o f c el l c on tr ibu t ions s im i lar t o t he c h i-square , e xcep t t ha t t he i nd iv idua l c e l l c on tr ibu t ions a re c a lcu la ted a s :

2x o bserved c el l c oun t

( na tura l l og

o bserved c e l l c oun t e xpec ted c el l f requency

I n t he s tandard ( Pearson 's ) c h i-square , e ach c e l l 's c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s ta t is t ic i s : ( o bserved c e l l f requency - e xpected c e l l f requency) 2 e xpec ted c e l l f requency I nb o th t es ts , av ery l ow s um o b ta ined o ver a l l c e l l c on tr ibu t ions i nd ica tes t ha t t he mode l t es ted c on forms we l l t o t he o bserved d a ta a nd t ha t t he r e la t ions h ip d escr ibed b y t he mode l a ccoun ts f or s o me o r a l l o f t he s tructure i n t he o r ig ina l d a ta t able . We c an i l lus tra te t he i n terp lay o f mode ls a nd G2 b y t urn ing t o t he f ol lowing h ypo the t ica l 2x 2x 2 t able : T ab le 9 .18 N =400

u nres tr icted r im ( C 1)

r es tr icted r im ( C2

+o u ter

+o u ter

-o u ter

s l ip ( A 1)s l ip ( A2 ) +t w ine ( B 1) -t w ine ( B2 )

5 9 5

9 5 5

C1 marg ina l t o ta l 1 i A1 marg ina l t o ta l

1 44

-o u ter

s l ip(Ai) s l ip(A 2 ) 5 9 5

9 5 5

Ana lys is o f t h is t ab le b eg ins b y t es t ing t he s imp les t mode l p oss ib le , wh ich i s t he h ypothes is o f i ndependence o f a l l v ar iables ( Mode l 1 ) . Expected f requenc ies a re c a lcu la ted f ro m marg ina l t o ta ls b y a n e x tens ion o f t he f ormu la f or a 2 x 2 t able .

Marg ina l t o ta ls f or e ach o f t he t hree a t tr ibu tes d ef in ing a

c e l l a re mu l t ip l ied t oge ther a nd d iv ided b y t he s quared g rand t o ta l .

F or t he

u pper l e f t c e l l i n T ab le 9 .18 ( AiBiCi) , t he c a lcu la t ion i s : 2 00 4 00

x

2 00 2 00 2 00 x 2 00 x 2 00 — x — x4 00 4 002 =5 0 4 00 4 00

S ince a l l marg ina l t o ta ls i n t h is s imp le e xamp le a re 2 00 , t he e xpec ted n umber f or e ach c e l l i s 5 0 .

T hese e xpec ted v a lues a re t hen u sed i n c o mpu t ing e ach

c e l l 's c on tr ibu t ion t o t he G2 s ta t is t ic . S um m ing o ver a l l e igh t c e l l c on tr ib u t ions i n t h is t ab le , we g e t ar esu l t o f 3 95 .70 , wh ich i s ah igh ly s ign i f ican t r esu l t f or a t ab le w i th f our d egrees o f f reedo m . T here i s v ir tua l ly n o c hance t ha t t he o bserved d a ta c ou ld h ave b een r ando m ly d rawn f rom a p opu la t ion where a l l v ar iables w ere i ndependen t . I n f act , t he o bserved d a ta e xh ibi t v ery r obus t s tructure . The a na lys is n ow moves t o t he s econd l evel o f mode ls ( Mode l 2 ) wh ich i nves t iga tes whether s i mp le p a irw ise a ssoc ia t ion a ccoun ts f or t he t able 's s truc ture . For a t ab le w i th t hree v ar iab les ( A , B , a nd C ) , we c ons truct mode ls t ha t p ose t he q ues t ion : d o a ny o f t he t hree p oss ible e f fec ts o f Mode l 2— i .e ., d ependence o f v ar iab les A a nd B , Aa nd C , o r Ba nd C—adequa te ly e xp la in t he s tructure w i th in t he t ab le? I ti s p oss ib le t o i nves t iga te t h is b y s et t ing u p n ew c on t ingency t ab les i n wh ich e ach p a ir o f v ar iables t aken j o in t ly i s s et a ga ins t t he t h ird v ar iable .

Thus , t here a re t hree r e-arranged t ables :

( a ) Cl A iBi

5

( b ) C2 5

B 1

A lB 2

9 5

9 5

1 0 1 90

A2 B i

9 5

9 5

1 90

A 2Ci

9 5

1 0

A 2C2

9 5

A 2B2

5

5

2 00 2 00

4 00

A 1C1 A iC2

5 5

( e ) A1 A2

B 2 9 5 9 5

1 00 1 00

B IC]. B iC2

5

1 00

B 2Ci

9 5

5

1 00

5

1 00

B 2C2

9 5

5

1 00

2 00 2 00

4 00

5 5

9 5 9 5

2 00 2 00

1 00 1 00

4 00

T ab le 9 .19 B y c a lcu la t ing t he e xpected f requenc ies f ro m t he marg ina l t o ta ls f or e ach t able a nd t hen t abu la t ing t he G2 v a lues , we a re a sk ing o f e ach t able :

i s t he

v ar iab le a t t he h ead o f t he t wo c o lumns i ndependen t w i th r espect t o t he o ther t wo v ar iables t aken j o in t ly? A G2 wh ich a pproaches z ero w i l l a l low u s t o c onclude t ha t s ince t he t wo v ar iab les t aken j o in t ly a re a l mos t t o ta l ly i ndependen t o f t he t h ird v ar iab le , v ir tua l ly a l l t he s tructure i n t he o r ig ina l 2x 2x 2t ab le mus t b e t he r esu l t o f a ssoc ia t ion b etween t he f i rs t t wo v ar iab les . T able 9 .19 ( a ) , ( b ) , a nd ( c ) a bove h ave G2 v a lues o f 0 , 3 95 .70 a nd 3 95 .70 r espec t ive ly. We c onclude t ha t Model 2 (a ) , wh ich s t ipu la ted i ndependence o f v ar iables A a nd Bw ith r espec t t o C( and , c onco m i tan t ly , d ependence o f Aa nd B ) , f i ts t he d a ta e x tre mely we l l b ecause i ta ccura te ly p red ic ted t he o bserved f requenc ies i n T able 9 .19 ( a ) .

I n t h is e xamp le , i ti s n o t n ecessary t o c on t inue o n t o more

1 45

c o mp lex mode ls . T he s tructure i n T ab le 9 .18 , wh ich was measured b y t he G2 o f Mode l 1 , h as b een c omp lete ly a ccoun ted f or b y d ependence o f v ar iables Aa nd B w i th r espec t t o e ach o ther : T ab le 9 .20

( a )

( b )

( e )

Mode l 1( G2 )

3 95 .70

3 95 .70

3 95 .70

Mode l 2( G2 )

0 .00

3 95 .70

3 95 .70

T he d isp lay o f G2 v a lues a bove i l lus tra tes t he e ssence o f t he a na lyt ica l me thods u nder c ons idera t ion :

t he mode l wh ich r esu l ts i n t he mos t d rama t ic d rop i n

G2 v a lues mos t a dequa te ly d escr ibes t he r e la t ionsh ip r espons ible f or s tructure i n t he o r ig ina l d a ta . I fn one o f t he t hree Mode l 2v ar ian ts h ad p roduced a l ow G2 , i t wou ld h ave b een n ecessary t o g o o n t o t he n ex t h igher l eve l o f c o mp lex i ty ( t es t ing f or d ouble p a irw ise a ssoc ia t ion w i th Mode l 3 ) , a nd p oss ibly o n t o Mode l 4( a ssoc iat i on b e tween a l l t hree p a irs o f v ar iab les ).

A t t he l eve l o f Model 4 , h and c a l-

c u la t ion o f e xpected f requenc ies b ecomes f orm idable ; t he e xpected n umbers mus t b e c o mpu ted b y s uccess ive a pprox i ma t ion , a lso c a l led i t era t ion ( Dav is 1 974: 2 27-31). S pau ld ing ( 1 976: 6 2-3 ) s um mar izes t he l og ica l p rogress o f t he a na lys is : T he o rder i n wh ich t hese h ypo theses were p resen ted i s n o t r ando m . Fro m t he f irs t t hrough t he f our th , e ach s uccess ive h ypo thes is a dded o ne n ew e f fec t ( or p arame ter ) t o i t s i mmed ia te p redecessor , a nd t he d egrees o f f reedo m c orrespond ing ly d ecreased s tead i ly. I f we h ad f i l led i n s o me n umbers a nd c a lcu la ted a c h i-square v a lue u nder e ach h ypo thes is , we wou ld h ave f ound t ha t t hese v a lues d ec reased s tead i ly f ro m t he f i rs t h ypo thes is t hrough t he f our th h ypot hes is . T h is i s i nev i tab le b ecause w e u se a dd i t iona l r e la t ionsh ips o f t he o bserved n umbers i n c a lcu la t ing t he e xpec ted n umbers a s we p rogress t hrough t he models ; w e a re f orc ing t he e xpec ted n u mbers t o b e more l i ke t he o bserved n umbers . T he h ypo theses f orm a n es ted h ierarchy ; a s we p ass f rom t he f our th t hrough t he t h ird a nd s econd t o t he f irs t , e ach h ypo thes is i s as pecia l c ase o bta ined b y om i t t ing o ne p arameter f ro m i t s p red ecessor .

T he h ierarchy p rov ides a s ys te ma t ic way o f e xam in ing

a l l p oss ible k inds o f i n teract ion— the d egrees o f f reedo m a re s yst e ma t ica l ly e xhaus ted . T here i s i n f act a f i f th h ypo thes is w i th z ero d egrees o f f reedo m wh ich a dds t o t he f our th h ypo thes is t he t hree-fac tor e f fect ; t he c a lcu la ted e xpec ted n umbers wou ld s i mp ly r eproduce t he o bserved n umbers . T able 9 .21 i l lus tra tes a h ierarchy o f mode ls a ppropr ia te t o 2 x 2x 2 t ables :

1 46

Tab le 9 .21 d egrees o f l og ei j k =

f reedo m

Mode l 1—no a ssoc ia t ion

4

[ 1 ]4 [A ]i+ [B ] j+ [C ]k

2—assoc ia t ion o f o ne

3

[ 1 14 [A ]i+ [1 3 ] J+ [C ]k+ [AB ]i

2

[ 1] +[ A ]i +[ B ] i+[ C ] k+[ AB ]i i +[ AC ]i k

1

[ 1 ]+ [A ]i+ [B ] j+ [C ]k+ [AB li jA JAC lik+ [BC ] jk

p r . v ar iab les 3—assoc ia t ion o f t wo p rs . v ar iab les 4—assoc ia t ion o f t hree p rs . v ar iab les

where e ach l og

ek

s pec if ies t he n a tura l l ogar i th m o f t he c e l l f requency e i jk ,

a nd [ 1 ] i s t he g rand mean o f t he l ogs o f t he e xpec ted c ounts . Om i t t ing s ubscr ip ts a nd b rackets , T able 9 .22 ( adap ted f ro m S pau ld ing 1 976: 6 5 ) p resen ts t he s ix l og l inear h ierarch ies p oss ible f or a t hree-way t able : Tab le 9 .22 ( a )

( b )

( e )

( d )

( e )

Model 1

1+A+B+C

1 +A+B+C

1 +A+B+C

1 +A+B+C

1 +A+B+C

1 +A+B+C

Model 2

+AB

+ AB

+ AC

+ AC

+ BC

+ BC

Model 3

+AB+AC

+ AB+BC

+ AC+AB

+ AC+BC

+ BC+AB

+BC+AC

Model 4

+AB+AC

+ AB+BC

+ AC+A B

+ AC+BC

+ BC+AB

+BC+AC

+ BC

+ AC

+ BC

+ AB

+AC

( 1)

+ AB

Wi th s o many p oss ib le mode ls a nd h ierarch ies f or a 2 x 2 x 2 t able ,

( t he

p erm .u ta t ions f or a l arger t ab le b eco me q u i te s tagger ing ) , t he q ues t ion o f h ow t hese mode ls a re t o b e e va lua ted i n o rder t o i so la te a s ing le ' bes t f i t ' mode l i s p ara moun t . A s C lark ( 1 976: 2 63 ) e xp la ins : T he " Bes t mode l i s d ef ined a s t he s i mp les t mode l wh ich a dequa tely d escr ibes t he p a t tern o f v ar ia t ion i n t he d a ta .

A dequacy , o r g oodness-o f-f i t , i s d e ter m ined b y c o mpu t ing a t es t

s ta t is t ic f ro m t he d a ta ."

T he G 2 t es t s ta t is t ic f or g oodness-o f-f i t i s a lready

f am i l iar f ro m t he d iscuss ion a bove . The r ea l a dvan tage o f G2 o ver c h i2 f or t he a na lys is o f n es ted h ierarch ica l mode ls emerges h ere : b ecause o f t he a dd i t ive p roper t ies o f l ogar i th ms , G2 c an b e p ar t i t ioned i n to a dd i t ive c o mpon en ts s uch t ha t e ach p ar t i t ion i s a n i ndependen t t es t o f ap ar t icu lar mode l . Ch i2 c anno t b e s o p ar t i t ioned ( C lark 1 976: 2 64 ).

T he f our c o mponen ts i n a

h ierarchy o f mode ls f or a 2 x 2 x 2 t able a re : C o mponen t 1 = G2 ( Mode l 1 ) - G2 ( Mode l 2 ) C o mponen t 2 = 02 ( Mode l 2 ) - G2 ( Mode l 3 ) C o mponen t 3 = G2 ( Mode l 3 ) - G2 ( Mode l 4 ) C o mponen t 4 = G2 ( Mode l 4 ) - G2 ( Mode l 5 )

Mode l 5i s h ypo thet ica l : i t s G2 = 0 . S ee p .l46 a bove .

1 47

T he u se fu l p roper t ies o f t hese c o mponen ts a re t wo : t he s um o f t he c o rnp onen ts i s e qua l t o t he G2 v a lue o bta ined f or t he s imp les t mode l ( Mode l 1 ) ; a nd e ach c o mponen t i ndependen t ly t es ts f or g oodness-o f-f i t o f t he mode ls a t e ach l eve l i n t he h ierarchy b y a ssess ing t he d i f ferences b e tween t hem .

When

t he d i f ference b etween t wo mode ls i s l arge e nough t o b e s ign i f ican t ( d e ter m ined b y c onsu l t ing a c h i-square t able f or t he a ppropr ia te n umber o f d egrees o f f reedo m a t t he d es ired l eve l o f s ign i f icance , s ay p =0 .01 ) , ac orrec t i n terpret a t ion i s t ha t t he f i t t ing o f t he a dd i t iona l p arameter ( i n teract ion e f fec t ) i n t he more c o mp lex mode l c aused a s ign i f ican t d rop i n G2 a nd , t here fore , t he s truct ure i n t he d a ta i s a t l eas t p ar t ia l ly d escr ibed b y t he more c o mp lex model . I n a ny l og l inear a na lys is t he ' bes t f i t ' mode l w i l l b e s igna l led b y al ow G2 ( p>0 .10 , s ay ) wh ich r epresen ts a s ign i f ican t d rop ( as measured b y t he a pprop r ia te c o mponen t ) f ro m t he G2 o f t he p reced ing mode l . H av ing o u t l ined t he ma jor c oncep ts i nvo lved i n t he l og l inear a na lys is o f 2x 2x 2 c on t ingency t ab les , Iw i l l n ow c ons ider t he a pp l ica t ion o f t he method t o t he p o t tery d a ta f ro m Jenne-jeno ( s ee T ab le 9 .12 f or t he o r ig ina l 2x 2 x 2 d a ta t able ).

T he l og l inear f i ts o f Models 1 , 2 , 3 , a nd 4 were c a lcu la ted b y

ECTA ( Every man 's C on t ingency T able Ana lyzer ) , ap rogram wh ich was wr i t ten a t t he Un ivers i ty o f C h icago f or L eo G ood man ( UCSB C o mpu ter C en tre 1 976) . I n t h is a na lys is , v ar iab le A i s s l ip , v ar iab le B i s t wine , a nd v ar iable C i s r im s hape ; t he t o ta l n umber o f s herds i s 2 273 . T he r esu l ts a ppear i n T able 9 .23. T he e x tre me ly h igh G2 v a lue o bta ined f or Mode l 1( 699.10 ) i nd ica tes t ha t t here i s ag rea t d ea l o f a ssoc ia t ion s o mewhere i n t he o r ig ina l d a ta t ab le. P inpo in t ing t he r e la t ionsh ip wh ich i s a ccoun t ing f or t h is s tructure p roves i mposs ib le , h owever . T he G2 v a lues f or a l l mode ls a re s o h igh t ha t C o mpon en ts 1 t hrough 4 i n a l l s ix h ierarch ies a re s ign i f ican t f or o ne d egree o f f reedo m e ven when a n e x tre me ly s tr ingen t l eve l o f s ign i f icance ( here , p =0.01) i s u sed f or c o mponen t e va lua t ion . I ta ppears a t f i rs t g lance t ha t t here i s e very p oss ib le k ind o f a ssoc ia t ion p resen t i n t he o r ig ina l d a ta , a nd t ha t n o o ne r e la t ionsh ip c an b e s ing led o u t a s a' bes t f i t ' mode l wor thy o f o ur a t ten t ion . I dea l ly , t he G2 o f a' b es t f i t ' mode l s hou ld p lunge d own t o al eve l o f n ons igni f icance , f or e xamp le p =0 .10 f or t he a ppropr ia te n umber o f d egrees o f f reedo m.

I n o ther words , c on tro l l ing f or t he e f fect wh ich i s p rov id ing t he

s tructure i n t he t able s hou ld e nab le u s t o c a lcu la te e xpec ted n umbers t ha t f i t t he o bserved n umbers " in a r easonab le s or t o f way when s a mp l ing v agar ies a re a ccoun ted f or" ( S pau ld ing 1 976: 6 4 ). F i t t ing t ha t e f fect s hou ld c ause a s ign i f ican t d rop i n G2 . I n T ab le 9 .23 , e very model a nd e very c o mponen t h as a G2 t ha t i s s ign i f ican t . Mus t we c onc lude t hen t ha t n one o f t he h ypo thes ized e f fec ts i s p ar t icu lar ly n o tewor thy? N o t n ecessar i ly . Our a na lys is may b e r ef lec t ing t he f act t ha t t he s amp le s ize i s l arge e nough t o d etect weak r e la t ions h ips , p erhaps e ven minor d epar tures b y i nd iv idua l p o t ters f ro m t he g enera l p a t tern . F or t he p urposes o f t h is s tudy , we n eed t o s egrega te t he s tronger r e la t ionsh ips b u t , u n for tuna tely , t here a re n o s tra igh t forward a nd s imp le me thods o f measur ing s treng th o f a ssoc ia t ion i n c on t ingency t ables h av ing more t han t wo d i mens ions . I ti s n o t p oss ib le t o i n fer s treng th o f a ssoc ia t ion f ro m t he G2 v a lues t he mse lves b ecause t hey a re t he r esu l t o f b o th s treng th o f a ssoc ia t ion a nd s amp le s ize .

1 48

0 L . )

4-

CO +
0 .0 1

1 53

T ab le 9 .28

R esu lts o f l oglinear a nalysis o f t he p ottery f rom m ajor o ccupat ion p hases a t M ound 2 . P HASE I

( a) M ode l 1 G2= 3 3.56 d f=4

( b)

( c)

( d )

( e )

( f)

3 3 .56

3 3 .56

3 3 .56

3 3 .56

3 3 .56

M ode l 2 d f=3

9 .9 1 * , 9 .9 1 p =0 .02 p =0 .02

2 6 .25

2 6 .25

3 1.88

3 1 .88

M ode l 3 d f=2

2 .59 p =0 .27

8 .22

2 .59 p =0 .27

2 4 .56

8 .22

2 4 .56

M ode l 4 d f= 1

2 .59 p =0 .11

2 .59 p =0 .11

2 .59 p =0.11

2 .59 p =0 .11

2 .59 p =0 .11

2 .59 p =0 .11

P HASE II ( a)

( b )

( c)

( d )

( e )

( f )

M ode l 1 G2= 6 4 .36 d f=4

6 4 .36

6 4 .36

6 4 .36

6 4 .36

6 4 .36

M ode l 2 d f=3

2 8 .57

2 8 .57

4 6.4 1

4 6 .4 1

4 0 .07

4 0 .07

M ode l 3 d f=2

1 0 .62

4 .29 p =0 .12

1 0.62

2 2 .13

4 .29 p =0 .12

2 2.13

M ode l 4 d f=1

0 .55 p =0 .46

0 .55 p =0 .46

0 .55 p =0 .46

0 .55 p =0 .46

0 .55 p =0 .46

0 .55 p =0 .46

P HASE I V ( a)

( b)

( c)

( d )

( e )

( f )

M ode l 1 G2= 3 8.70 d f=4

3 8.70

3 8 .70

3 8 .70

3 8.70

3 8 .70

M ode l 2 d f=3

3 0 .50

3 0 .50

1 3 .16

1 3 .16

2 9 .0 1

2 9 .0 1

M ode l 3 d f=2

4 .96 p =0 .08

2 0.81

4 .96 p =0 .08

3 .47 p =0 .18

2 0 .81

3 .47 p =0 .18

M ode l 4 d f= 1

0 .98 p =0 .32

0 .98 p =0 .32

0 .98 p =0.32

0 .98 p =0 .32

0 .98 p -0 .32

0 .98 p =0 .32

*h ierarchies a -f a re l isted i n T ab le 9 .22 * * pv alues g iven o n ly w hen p >0.0 1

1 54

T ab le 9 .29

I nterpretation o f t he l og linear a na lysis

M ound 1

M ound 2

M ode l 2( AB a ssociation) G2 = 4.75 p =0.19 I nterpretation: a ssociat ion b etween t w ine a nd s lip i s c ausing t he m aj or ity o f t he s tructure i n t his t ab le.

M ode l 3 (a) ( AB + A C a ssocia t ion) G2 = 2.59 p =0.27 I nterpretation; a ssociation b etween s lip-twine a nd s lipr im p rovides a g ood f it t o t he d ata, w ith s lip-tw ine t he s tronger o f t he t wo r e lationships a s i ndicated b y M ode l 2 (a) a nd ( b) r esults: G2 = 9.9 1 a nd p=0 .02)

M ode l 3 (h ) ( AB + B C a ssoc iat ion) G2 = 3.17 p =0.20 I nterpretat ion: s trong a ssociation b etween s lipt w ine a nd r imshape-twine i s u nquestionab ly r espons ib le f or a g reat d ea l o f t he s tructure i n t he o r ig inal d ata.

M ode l 3 (h) ( AB + B C a ssocia tion) G2 = 4.29 p =0.12 I nterpretation: a s i n M ound 1 , P hase II, a ssociation b etween s lip-twine a nd r imt wine a ccounts f or a g ood d ea l o f t he s tructure i n t he o rigina l d ata. S lip-twine i s t he s tronger r e lationship.

M ode ls 3 (a) a nd ( d) ( AB + A C a ssociat ion: A C +B C a ssociation ) G2 = 4.27 p =0.12, G2 = 4.38 p =0.11 I nterpretat ion: I t w as d iff ic u lt t o c hoose a ' best f it ' m ode l f or t his p hase. C lear ly, t here i s s ignif icant a ssociat ion b etween s lip-tw ine a nd s lip-rimshape, a s w e ll a s b etween t wine-rimshape a nd s lip-rimshape.

M ode l 3 (0 ( AC + B C a ssocia t ion) G=3.47 p =0.18 I nterpretation: a ssociation b etween t wine-r im a nd s lipr imshipe a ccounts f or m uch o f t he s tructure i n t he o rig ina l d ata. T here i s a w eaker r e lationship b etween s lip-tw ine a nd s lip-r imshape ( Mode l 3 a - G2 = 4.96 p =0.08).

S um mary Descr ip t ion o f t he J ennejeno P o t tery A sse mblage P hase I 2 50 B .C.-A.D . 5 0 ). T he ma jor i ty o f t he r im s herds f ro m P hase Io ccupa t ion l eve ls were e i ther s imp le u nres tr icted r i ms ( a pprox ima te ly 3 0% ) o r s imp le r es tr icted r i ms ( 3 5-40% ).

R i ms f ro m more c o mp lex f orms ,

s uch a s T -r im b ow ls , c ar ina ted f orms a nd e ver ted r i ms , a re e x treme ly r are. Mos t o f t he P hase Iv essels mus t h ave h ad r ounded b o t toms b ecause o n ly t wo t o s ix p ercen t o f t he n on-r im s herds a re b ase f ragmen ts . Th is i s , h owever , t he h ighes t r ela t ive f requency o f b ase s herds f ro m a ny p hase a t J ennejeno. R ing b ases p redo m ina ted b u t f l a t b ases a re a lso f ound .

S evera l f ragmen ts

o f p o t l egs were a lso r ecovered . I n g enera l , P hase Ip o t tery was e x tre me ly w el l made . U p t o f i f ty p ercen t o f t he s herds were made o f af ine , s andte mpered p as te ; we l l o ver h a l f o f t he s herds were c harac ter ized b y t he c lear r ed/orange c o lours t ha t r esu l t f ro m f u l l o x ida t ion o f f err ic o x ide c lays wh ich h ave b een we l l-f ired a t modera te t e mpera tures ( 750-850 0 C ) . T he ma jor i ty o f t he s herds ( o ver 7 5% ) were p a inst ak ing ly d ecora ted w i th t wine i mpress ions , a l though t win ing a ppears f ar l ess f requen t ly o n r im s herds t han o nb ody s herds . B y f ar t he mos t p opu lar t wine mo t i f was a woven ' f ishne t ' p a t tern ( Twine 4 ) b u t t wo t ypes o f wound r ou le t te ( Tw ines 6 a nd 7 ) e ach a ccoun ted f or a l mos t t wen ty p ercen t o f t he t w ine i mpressed s herds .

More t han h al f o f a l l P hase Ir im s herds h ad o u ter s l ip .

S ta t is t ica l

a na lys is i nd ica tes t ha t t he p o t ters o f t h is p er iod s trong ly p referred n o t t o p lace t wine i mpress ion a nd o u ter s l ip t ogether o n ag iven a rea o f p o t s ur face . O ther d ecora t ive mot i fs , s uch a s g rooves o r p a in t , w ere i n frequen t ly a pp l ied d ur ing P hase I . P hase I ( 2 A .D . 5 0-AD. 4 00 ). P hase Ip ot tery i n n ear ly a l l r espec ts .

Phase I p o t tery i s v ery s im i lar t o S ome c hanges d o t ake p lace h owever .

T he r e la t ive f requency o f s herds w i th f ine , s andte mpered p as te d ecreases s tead i ly s uch t ha t , b y t he e nd o f t he p er iod , o ver n inety p ercen t o f a l l s herds a re f ro m a med ium t ex tured p as te t e mpered w i th g rog . Twine d ecora t ion d ecreases v ery s l igh t ly i n f requency , b u t Twines 4 a nd 6 r e ma in a s p opu lar a s b efore . Tw ine 7 d isappears a t t he e nd o f P hase I . I ncreas ing ly , t he p ract ice o f s l ipp ing t he i nner s ur face o f p o ts b ecomes c ommon . P hase I I ( L t . A .D. 4 00-A.D. 9 00 ) . T he p o t tery a sse mblage f rom Phase I I l eve ls i s d o mina ted b y v essels w i th r es tr icted r ims . S i mple r es tr ic ted r i ms c on t inue t o a ccoun t f or o ver t wen ty p ercen t o f t he r im s herds , b u t c ar in a ted f orms r ise s ubs tan t ia l ly i n p opu lar i ty t hroughou t t he p er iod a nd u l t ima te ly c o mpr ise t wen tyf ive p ercen t o f t he r im s herds . Twine i mpress ion c on t inues t o b e t he ma jor d ecora t ive mo t i f—approx i ma te ly t wo o u t o f e very t hree P hase I I s herds a re t wine d ecora ted , a nd Twine 4 ( ' f ishne t t)weave ) i s s t i l l t he mos t p opu lar t wine p a t tern . The r e la t ive f requency o f p a in t d ecora t ion i ncreases d rama t ica l ly i n t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he p er iod , b u t wanes i n t he l a t ter p ar t . O f ten , p a in t was a pp l ied o ver p ara l le l g rooves i nc ised i n to t he p o t s ur face. T h is mode o f d ecora t ion i s f requen t ly f ound o n t he c ar ina ted r i ms wh ich a re c haracter is t ic o f P hase I I . T he r ela t ive f requency o f c lear , we l lf ired p as te c o lours h olds s teady a t 4 5-55% ; p as te t ex ture i s p redo m inan t ly med ium w i th g rog t e mper , b u t u p t o t wen ty p ercen t o f t he s herds a re made f ro m a c oarse , p oor ly mixed p as te . An i mpress ive ma jor i ty o f t he P hase I I r i ms h ave s l ip o n t heir i nner s ur face .

1 56

P hase I V

A .D . 9 00-A.D. 1 400 ) .

Dur ing P hase I V ,

t here i s a

r esurgence i n t he p opu lar i ty o f s i mp le u nres tr ic ted r i ms , wh ich c o mpr ise 4 0-50% o f t he a sse mb lage i n s evera l l eve ls . a re T -r i ms a nd e ver ted r i ms .

A lso o n t he q uan t i ta t ive u pswing

B o th c ar ina ted f or ms a nd s i mp le r es tr icted

r i ms d ec l ine marked ly i n r e la t ive f requency. C oarse , p oor ly- made p as te c haracter izes o ver o ne-quar ter o f t he s herds f ro m s o me l eve ls , a nd t here i s af ee l ing , e ven a bou t t he r e ma in ing med iu mt ex tured s herds , t ha t t he p o t tery o f P hase I V was l ess c are fu l ly e xecu ted t han t ha t o f p reced ing p er iods .

U p t o at h ird o f t he r im a nd b ody s herds r ecovered

f ro m Phase I V l eve ls were u ndecora ted .

O f t he d ecora t ive v ar iables , p a in t

was i n frequen t ly a pp l ied , a nd p las t ic d ecora t ion c on t inues u nchanged f ro m Phase I I i n r e la t ive f requency. Tw ine i mpress ion , h owever , d ec l ines t o b e tween f or ty t o s ix ty p ercen t o f t he r im a nd b ody s herds . C hevron woven t wine mo t i fs ( Twines 1 a nd 2 ) a re t re mendous ly p opu lar d ur ing P hase I V . S ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f t he p o t tery i nd ica tes t ha t t he p o t ters o f t h is p er iod were p ar t icu lar ly i n teres ted i n p roduc ing t wo t ypes o f p o ts : r es tr ic ted r i ms h av ing t wine d ecora t ion a nd n o s l ip ;

p o ts w i th u n-

a nd v esse ls w i th s l ipped

r es tr ic ted r i ms a nd n o t wine . S PECIAL POTTERY F INDS T erraco t ta S ta tue t te a nd A ssoc ia ted Po ts Wi thou t ad oub t , t he mos t d ra ma t ic mo men t o f t he 1 977 f i e ld s eason was t he d iscovery i n M2 L evel 2 , b e tween 6 60-875 m m d ep th , o f at erracot ta s ta tuet te i n a ssoc ia t ion w ih f ive a ssor ted c eramic o b jec ts a nd p o ts .

S tyl is-

t i ca l ly , t he s ta tue t te ( P la te I X ) , s howed s trong a f f in i t ies t o t he w ide-eyed , p rogna th ic s tyle t ha t i s we l l-known f ro m t he I n land N iger D e l ta .

T he f o l lowing

d escr ip t ion o f t he J ennejeno s ta tuet te i s t aken f ro m a n a r t icle b y t he a u thors ( 1979 ) , i n wh ich a l l a spec ts o f t he f ind , i nclud ing a n i n terpre ta t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t a nd a d iscuss ion o f i t s p oss ib le f unc t iona l s ign i f icance , a re s e t f or th . " The f igure i s i n ak nee l ing p os ture w i th t he l egs f or m ing p ar t o f t he r ec tangu lar b ase .

S o me k ind o f c over ing f ro m t he wa is t t o

j us t a bove t he k nees i s s ugges ted b y as er ies o f i ncised p ara l lel l i nes .

T he a r ms a re c rossed o ver t he c hes t w i th h ands r es t ing

o n t he s hou lders .

A l arge t orque h angs a bou t t he n eck , a nd a

n u mber o f d eep i nc is ions a t t he wr is t a nd l ower a rm u ndoubtedly r epresen t b race le ts .

T he h ead i s marked ly p rogna thous a nd

f la t tened a long t he a x is o f t he c h in . ad eep r edd ish-brown" .

The t erraco t ta was s l ipped

The f i ve p ieces o f p ot tery a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s ta tuet te a re d escr ibed i n Table 9 .30 a nd i l lus tra ted i n F igures 4 2 a nd 4 8 i n Appendix I . P o t tery w i th R a ised R el ie f Represen ta t ions Fro m M2 L eve l 2 , f our f ragmen ts o f k nobbed p o t l ids were r ecovered ( dep th 0 -100 m m ) .

A l l s ee med t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th J ar n o . 2 0 , ap a in ted

g lobu lar p o t o f u nusua l ly f ine manu facture ( App . I : f ragmen t h ad a h ead less h uman mo ti f ( App . I :

F ig . 4 3 ).

F ig . 4 6) ;

One p o t l id

a no ther d isp layed

wha t a ppears t o b e as erpen t ( App . I : F ig . 4 7) . The s ub jec ts d ep ic ted o n t he 1 57

T ab le 9 .30

P o t tery O b jects A ssoc ia t ion w i th T erraco t ta S ta tuet te i n M2 L evel 2 .

Po t N o . 1 3

Descr ip t ion Two h a lves o f ah o l low t erraco t ta s phere w i th a k nob-l ike p ro tuberance o n t op a nd a s er ies o f s erpen t ine mo t i fs i n r a ised r e l ie f . Tw ine imp ress ions h ave b een a pp l ied o n t he s ur face b e tween t he r a ised s nake mo t i fs .

H e igh t :

1 2 mm .

T he e n t ire s ur face was o r ig ina l ly c overed w i th r ed s l ip ,

1 40 m m ;

d ia me ter :

1 20 m m ;

wa l l t h ickness :

mos t o f wh ich h as f laked o f f .

T he f abr ic i s g rog-te mpered a nd

e x tre me ly c oarse i n t ex ture .

I ta ppears t ha t t he p iece was p oor ly

made ;

t he f abr ic i s s o f u l l o f a ir p ocke ts d ue t o c are less mix ing

a nd l ack o f a era t ion o f t he c lay t ha t t he o b jec t i s l i tera l ly c rumb l ing t o p ieces . 1 4

U -shaped b eaker w i th p ro trud ing f langes . max i mum d iameter :

1 35 m m ;

H eigh t :

wa l l t h ickness :

1 60 m m ;

1 5 mm .

T he e x-

t er ior s ur face o f t he p o t i s s l ipped a l i gh t o range o vera l l . i s med ium t ex tured w i th g rog t e mper .

T he f abr ic

T he f abr ic i s v ery c ru mbly

a nd a ppears t o h ave b een made f ro m a p oor ly p repared a nd p oor ly f ired c lay. 1 5

A pp . I :

F ig . 4 8 .

Crude c era m ic "mor tar a nd p est le" ( App . I ; t ar" i s v ery c rude ly e xecu ted ; The c lay i s p oor ly p repared ;

1 1 mm .

7 4 mm ;

T he "mor-

a n u nburn ished r ed s l ip h as b een

a pp l ied o ver t he e n t ire p o t s ur face . H e igh t :

F ig . 4 8 ).

b oth i t s s hape a nd s ur face a re u neven . F abr ic :

max i mum d iame ter :

med ium w i th g rog .

1 20 m m ;

wa l l t h ickness :

T he " pes t le" i s made f ro m a s o l id a nd we l l-f ired p iece o f

c oarse g rogte mpered c lay. Red s l ip h as b een a ppl ied a nd a r a ised s erpen t ine e f fec t a ch ieved b y s tabbing a t a l terna te s ides o f ar a ised c ordon . C ircu lar s tamped d ecora t ion i s a lso p resen t . was r es t ing i ns ide t he "mor tar" i n s i tu . 1 6

C ar ina ted p o t , d escr ibed i n A ppendix I :

F igure 4 2 .

The " pes t le"

The p o t c on-

t a ined t races o f r ice ( Oryza g laberr i ma ) a nd p urs lane ( Po r tu laca o leracea ) , wh ich may b e t he r e ma ins o f af ood o f fer ing .

1 58

r e ma in ing t wo f ragmen ts a re d i ff icu l t t o i den t i fy , a l though o ur work men s ugges ted t ha t t he p or traya l was o f a n a n tea ter ( App. I :

F igs . 4 4 , 4 5 ).

Traces o f r ed p a in ted g eo me tr ic d es ign were v is ib le o n t wo o f t he f ragmen ts . C lay F igur ines An u mber o f z oo morph ic a nd a n thropo morph ic f igur ines r ang ing f ro m 3 t o 7 cm i n l eng th were r ecovered f ro m v ar ious l eve ls .

T hey a re d escr ibed i n

T ab le 9 .31. T ab le 9 .31

Z oo morph ic a nd An thropo morph ic C lay F igur ines D escr ip t ion

P roven ience M1 L eve l 1

f ired c lay z oo morph ic f igur ine , p oss ib ly h orse o r c ow

M1 L eve l 5

f ired c lay a n thropo morph ic f igur ine ;

b o t to m o f t orso a nd

t op o f l egs M1 L eve l 1 2

f ired c lay c ow f igur ines?

M1 L evel 1 2

f ired c lay a n thropo morph ic f igur ine —torso o n ly

M1 L eve l 1 4

f ired c lay a n thropo morph ic f igur ine —torso

M1 L eve l 1 4

t wo f i red c lay o b jec ts r ese mbl ing a r ms , p oss ibly f ro m a n thropo morph ic f igur ine

M1 L eve l 1 4

f ired c lay z oo morph ic f igur ine —cow?

( App. I :

F ig . 4 9 )

M1 L eve l 2 2

t hree u n f ired c lay z oo morph ic f igur ines —poss ibly c ows

S p ind le Whor ls a nd C lay Beads I ti s s o me t i mes d if f icu l t t o d raw a c onv incing l i ne b e tween c lay b eads a nd s p ind le whor ls when t he p redo minan t s hape f or b o th i s t he s phere . f in ing c harac ter is t ic u sed h ere i s p er fora t ion d ia me ter :

T he d e-

t he p er fora t ion i n

as p ind le whor l mus t b e l arge e nough t o a cco m moda te a sma l l s t ick .

P er-

f ora t ion d iame ters o f t he s p ind le whor ls i den t i f ied a t J ennejeno r ange f ro m 3 -5 m m ;

c lay b ead p er fora t ion d iame ters a re l ess t han 2 m m .

T ab le 9 .32 P roven ience

S pind le Whor ls D ia me ter

We igh t

Undecora ted

2 3 mm

8 gm

J F2 L evel 1

B icon ica l , u ndecora ted .

2 4 mm

7 gm

M2 L eve l 1

Two s pherh ica l , u ndecora ted 1 9 mm

4 gm

J F2 L eve l 1

D escr ip t ion S ub-spher ica l , s l igh t ly f la t tened .

s p ind le whor ls M2 L eve l 1

L en t icu lar , made o f e x tre me ly f ine p as te , f ired b lack .

d ia m .= 2 0 mm

Decora ted w i th p ara l le l i nc ised

l eng th= 3 3 mm

l ines a nd o bl ique h a tch ing .

we igh t= 1 2

1 59

gm

Fragmen t o f b icon ica l s p ind le

M2 L eve l 1

whor l made o f f ine p as te a nd f ired t o ab lack c o lour .

M1 L eve l 5

T able 9 .33

Undecora ted .

2 8 mm

1 0 gm

S pher ica l , u ndecora ted .

1 5 mm

3 gm

C lay B eads ( per fora t ions l ess t han 2 m m i n d ia me ter ) D escr ip t ion

P roven ience

D ia me ter

We igh t

1 6 mm

3 gm

1 3 mm

1 gm

Undecora ted , s ub-spher ica l

J F1 L eve l 1

f ired c lay b ead . J F2 L eve l 1

Undecora ted , f la t tened , f ired c lay b ead .

J F1 L eve l 6

Poss ib le b ead , p ar t ia l ly p erf ora ted , t eardrop s hape .

M1 L eve l 1

M1 L eve l 1

2 gm

Two u ndecora ted , s pher ica l

1 3 mm

2 gm

f ired c lay b eads .

1 4 mm

3 gm

6mm

1 gm

1 3 mm

2 gm

One t ubu lar , u ndecora ted f ired c lay b ead .

M2 Level 1 0

One s pher ica l , f ired c lay b ead .

Undecora ted .

M isce l laneous An umber o f u nusua l c lay o b jec ts were f ound whose u se c ou ld n o t b e d e f in i te ly a scer ta ined . T ab le 9 .34 1 .

These a re d escr ibed i n T able 9 .34 b e low.

Misce l laneous C lay O b jec ts

" Spoons"

F our o f t hese were f ound ( one e ach f ro m Leve ls 1 3 , 1 7 ,

1 9 , a nd 2 0 o f M1) , e ach o f wh ich h ad a h and le a t o ne e nd a nd a s cooped-ou t a rea a t t he o ther .

S im i lar o b jec ts were f ound a t E l

Oua led ji , where t hey h ave b een i n terpre ted a s c ruc ibles ( creuse ts ) ( Lebeu f a nd Pacques 1 970 : 3 1). The J ennejeno e xa mp les s how n o t races o f r e-hea t ing a f ter i n i t ia l f ir ing ; t he ir f unct ion i s u nknown . 2 .

Brace let o r a nk le t .

Af rag men t o f al i gh t-orange s l ipped , f ired

c lay b racele t o r a nk le t was r ecovered f ro m J F1 L eve l 3 , a t ad ep th o f 5 80 m m , f ro m a s po t j us t wes t o f S ke le ton 3 .

The o b jec t was o va l

i n c ross-sec t ion , measur ing 2 2 mm a t t he w ides t p o in t a nd 1 7 mm i n t h ickness .

The i nner d iame ter o f t he b race le t/ank le t wou ld h ave

b een a pprox ima te ly 8 0 m m. 3 .

" Na i l" . ( P l . X )

Ab u f f-co loured , f ired c lay o b jec t r ese mb l ing ab lun t n a i l

w as r ecovered f ro m M1 L eve l 2 5 .

I t was made f ro m a n

e x tre mely f ine p as te , a nd measured 5 1 mm i n l eng th , 8m m i n d iame ter ( body ) , 1 3 mm d iame ter ( head ) . 1 60

I t s f unct ion i n u nknown .

4 .

" Po ts tands" . These e n igma t ic p ieces a re i n terpre ted a s b asa l f ragmen ts f ro m p o ts wh ich were o r ig ina l ly s uppor ted b y t hree c urved l egs .

The s hape may h ave b een s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he " Te l lern b ow l"

k nown f ro m a rchaeo log ica l d epos i ts i n t he Band iagara r eg ion o f Ma l i ( Bedaux , i n p ress ).

The t hree " po ts tands" f ro m J ennejeno were

r ecovered f ro m M1 L eve l 1 , M1 L eve l 1 5 , a nd M1 H ouse 6 . 5 .

" Crucib le" ( App . I ;

A sma l l , d eep , c up-shaped o b jec t o f b lackened f ired c lay

F ig . 4 9 ) was f ound a t ad ep th o f 8 05 m m i n M1 L evel 8 .

I t s d i mens ions a re : 3 0 mm ;

h e igh t :

o u ter d iameter :

2 8 mm .

4 6 mm ;

i nner d iame ter :

T he p iece i s f ragmen tary , a nd i tl ooks

a s i f ah and le h as b roken o f f o ne s ide .

N o t races o f meta l o r a ny

o ther s ubs tance a re v is ible i n t he b o t to m .

On ly t he b lack c olour

a nd t he s ize ( R . J . McIn tosh h as o bserved

g o lds m i ths i n G hana u s ing

c rucib les o f p rec isely t h is s ize ) c o mbine t o s ugges t t ha t t h is o b jec t may h ave b een u sed a s ac ruc ible. 6 .

" Pendan t" .

Af ired c lay o b jec t , c on ica l i n s hape a nd p erfora ted ,

was f ound i n M1 L eve l 1 3 . 7 .

" Po t tery g o ldwe igh t" .

I t may h ave b een u sed a s ap endan t .

Ap o tsherd wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een d el i-

b era tely c h ipped a nd r ounded i n to a n o va l s hape ( App . I : was r e tr ieved f ro m J F1 L evel 6 .

F ig . 4 9 )

Th is o b jec t may h ave b een s haped

f or u se a s ag aming c oun ter o r r ubber ; h owever , t he f act t ha t t he we igh t o f t h is s haped s herd ( 7 .0 g rams ) f a l ls c onv inc ing ly w i th in t he I s la m ic , we ight s tandard o pens t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he s herd f unct ioned a s a weigh t measure . T he u se o f g oldwe igh ts made o f b rass , i ron , l ead , a nd s tone wh ich c on form t o t he I s la m ic we igh t s er ies i s we l l-known i n Wes t A fr ica . The mos t f amous e xa mp le i s u ndbou te ly t he b rass g oldweights o f t he Akan r eg ion o f G hana .

T he I s la m ic we igh t s tandard r epresen ted

b y t he Akan g o ldwe igh ts was i n i t ia l ly d i f fused f ro m N or th A fr ica t o J enne a nd T i mbuk tu i n c onsequence o f t rade a nd t hence t o G hana ( Garrard 1 975: 6 2 ).

Th is we igh t s er ies was b ased o n ac o m mon t rade

o unce ( uqu iya ) o f 2 7.3 g rams , wh ich c an b e t raced b ack t hrough t he Arabs t o t he R o mans ( Garrard 1 975 : 6 3 ).

The u qu iya was d iv ided

i n to 4 ,1 / 8 , 1/16, e tc . U se o f t h is we igh t s er ies c on t inued i n to t h is c en tury a t J enne . I n 1 955 , ag roup o f me ta l a nd s tone weigh ts was p urchased f ro m a J enne t rader . 1 3.77 , 1 3 .85 , 1 9.95 , 1 ,

E igh t s pec i mens , g iven a s 1 3 .75

3 8 .92 , 5 3 .19 , a nd 1 08 .43 g ra ms r epresen t

4 -, 2 , a nd 4 u qu iya ( ounces ) , a nd t he o unce h as a n a verage

we igh t o f 2 7.1 g ra ms ( Mauny 1 961: 4 18 , r epor ted i n G arrard 1 975 : 6 3 ). T . F . G arrard was t he f irs t t o s ugges t t ha t t he c are fu l ly s haped d iscs o f p o t tery f ound a t n u merous ' med ieva l ' a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n G hana a nd u sua l ly i n terpre ted a s g aming p ieces o r c oun ters b e we ighed .

N ine p erfec t s pecimens f ro m Begho we ighed 6 .5 , 1 3.1,

1 3 .3 , 1 3 .5 , 1 3 .8 , 2 0 .1 , 2 0.4 , 2 0 .9 , a nd 2 1.2 g ra ms , r epresen t

. g

4 , 1 , a nd

o unce , b ased o n a n a verage o unce o f 2 7.2 g rams ( Garrard

1 975 : 6 5 ).

T hree p o t tery d iscs f ro m G ao ( Ma l i ) we ighed 1 3 .0 , 4 3 .5 ,

a nd 5 2.5 g rams , r epresen t ing

1 4-a nd 2 t rade o unces , w i th a n

a verage o unce o f 2 7.25 g rams ( Garrard 1 975 : 6 6).

Ora l t rad i t ion

c o l lec ted b y G arrard g ubs tan t ia tes t he u se o f p o t tery weigh ts ( Garrard , p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) . 1 61

A f ter e xam in ing a p ho tograph a nd d escr ip t ion o f t he s haped p o tsherd f ro m J ennejeno , G arrard o f fered t he f o l lowing o p in ion i n al e t ter d a ted J anuary 2 0 , 1 978 : " Th is may b e r egarded a s f a l l ing n ea t ly w i th in t he I s lam ic o unce s tandard . I tc ou ld e as i ly r epresen t t he c o mmon u n i t o f I s lam ic o unce , whose e xpected s tandard a t J enne wou ld b e 6 .83 g rams . T he s herd i s c lose t o t h is t heore t ica l s tandard ; t he d i f ference , l i t t le more t han o ne t wo-hundred th o f a n o unce , i s s o s l igh t t ha t i tc ou ld p ass w i thou t d i f f icu l ty a s ar easonably a ccura te we igh t o f I s lam ic o unce . Mon te i l ( 1903 ) r ecorded a me ta l we igh t o f 7 .1 g rams a t J enne , t hen b e ing u sed f or we igh ing s i lk , wh ich e v iden t ly r epresen ts t he s ame k o unce ; h e a lso r ecords a h a l f-ounce we igh t o f 1 4.0 g rams . H av ing r egard t o i t s o ther f ea tures— the v ery r egu lar s hape a nd i nc ised l i nes—I s ee n o d i f f icu l ty i n a ccept ing i t ( t he J ennejeno s herd ) a s ap o t tery we igh t" . I n v iew o f G arrard 's .o p in ion , s evera l a spects o f t he s herd i n q ues t ion t ake o n n ew i n teres t : t he i nc ised d ecora t ion o n t he s herd i s u n ique among t he n ear ly 1 0 ,000 s herds e xam ined f ro m Jenne-jeno; t he s herd p as te a ppears t o h ave b een t e mpered w i th c ha f f o r s traw , a lso a u n ique f ea ture ; a nd t he s herd was r ecovered f rom a l eve l t ha t s ee ms , o n t he b as is o f t he p o t tery c hrono logy d eveloped f or t he s i te , s ubs tan t ia l ly t o a n teda te A .D. 9 00 .

S TONE ARTIFACTS G r ind ing a nd R ubb ing S tones F our sma l l b locks o f s ands tone ( l ess t han 1 5 c en t i me tres l ong ) were f ound , a l l o f wh ich h ad b een p ecked i n to r ec tangu lar o r t rapezo ida l s hapes . A l l e xh ibi ted wear a nd r ound ing a s ar esu l t o f a bras ion . T hree o f t he g r ind ing s tones l ay o n t he f l oor o f H ouse 4 ( Leve l 6 ) i n M2 . The o ther g r ind ing s tone c ame f ro m M1 L evel 1 4. A dd i t iona l ly , a sma l l p yramida l p ecked a nd a braded r ubbing s tone was r ecovered f ro m M1 L eve l 8( App . I : F ig . 5 0 ). I tm igh t b e n oted h ere t ha t s ands tone d oes n o t o ccur n a tura l ly w i th in t he I n land N iger D e l ta . S tone b eads S tone b eads , a l l o f wh ich mus t h ave b een t raded i n to J ennejeno i n v iew o f t he l ack o f s tone i n t he I n land N iger D e l ta , o ccur t hroughou t t he d epos i ts . A l l b eads a re b icon ica l ly p er fora ted e xcep t o ne f rom t he h ighes t l eve l o f M1 wh ich h as a s tra ight p er fora t ion .

Mauny ( 1 961: 5 8 ) h as o bserved t ha t t he

a rr iva l o f t he Arabs i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica was a ssoc ia ted w i th t he i n troduct ion o f n ew s tone work ing t echn iques wh ich p erm i t ted l ong , s tra igh t p er fora t ions t o b e made i n s tone b eads .

1 62

T able 9 .35

S tone B eads Max i mu m D ia me ter

D escr ip t ion

Proven ience M1 L eve l 1 /2

Po l ished b lack-and-wh i te c yl indr ica l b ead , b roken .

P er fora t ion :

min imu m d iame ter . L eve l 5

s l igh t ly r ounded s ides .

H e igh t measured

p ara l le l t o p er fora t ion :

1 0 .8 m m .

d iame ter .

b icon ica l , 3 .0 m m min i mu m 1 7.2 m m

( P la te X I :n )

P o l ished , l igh t g rey q uar tz b ead , r ounded s ides , f la t tened a t p o les . P er fora t ion : d iameter .

L eve l l a

1 0.7 m m

( P la te X I :f )

P o l ished r ose q uar tz c yl indr ica l b ead ;

P er fora t ion :

L eve l 1 2

s tra igh t , 2 .1 m m

H e igh t :

4 .1 m m .

b icon ica l , 2 .2 m m min i mum 9 .8 m m

( P la te X I :j)

P o l ished r ose q uar tz c y l indr ica l b ead . H e igh t : 3 .8 m m . P er fora t ion : b icon ica l 1 .8 m m min i mum d ia me ter . ( P la te X I :k )

L eve l 2 3

P o l ished , c olour less , t rans lucen t q uar tz b ead—barrel-shaped . P er fora t ion : d iame ter .

L eve l 3 0

8 .1 m m

H e igh t :

1 3 .1 m m .

b icon ica l , 1 .9 m m min i mum

( P la te X I :I )

1 0 .6 m m

P o l ished g rey-and-wh i te c yl indr ica l b ead . H e igh t :

9 .3 m m .

P er fora t ion :

1 .8 m m min i mum d ia me ter . b ad ly o f f-cen tre .

b icon ica l ,

P er fora t ion

( P la te X I :m )

9 .0 m m

M2 L eve l 1 2

P o l ished , b rown , s ub-spher ica l b ead . He igh t :

7 .6 m m .

P er fora t ion :

1 .8 m m min i mu m d iame ter .

1 63

b icon ica l ,

( P la te X I :i )

8 .9 m m

GLASS ARTIFACTS G lass B eads F ive g lass b eads were f ound , a l l o f wh ich were q u i te sma l l .

F our o f

t hese b eads c ame f ro m l eve ls d a ted t o l a ter t han A . D. 1 000 , a nd a l l f our h ave i n c o m mon a g enera l c arelessness o f work mansh ip .

The p er fora t ion i s o ff-

c en tre i n t hree o f t hese b eads , a nd n one i s s y m me tr ica l i n s hape.

T he f i fth

b ead , f ro m J F1 L eve l 6 , i s p uzzl ing b ecause i tc o mes f ro m a l eve l wh ich a ppears , o n t he b asis o f t he c era mic c hrono log y d ev ised f or t he s i te , t o a n teda te A .D. 6 00.

The e x is tence o f t rade i n g lass b eads p r ior t o t he t en th

c en tury A .D. i s n o t h is tor ica l ly d ocumen ted i n Wes t A fr ica .

The b ead ,

a l though f ragmen tary , i s c lear ly wel l- made , w i th v ery t h in wa lls u n l ike t he l a ter b eads .

I ts ee ms t o h ave b een p er fect ly s y m metr ica l , a nd i s av ery

c lear , t rans lucen t l igh t b lue i n c olour . Table 9 .36

G lass Beads

Max i mu m D iameter

Descr ip t ion

Pr oven ience M1 L evel 1

Sma l l , d u l ly o paque , t urquo ise b ead . P erfora t ion d iameter :

1 .8 m m . 5 .1 m m

( P la te X I :a ) M2 H ouse 4

Dark b lue , d u l ly o paque b ead , Ex ter ior i s i ncised ,

H eigh t :

P er fora t ion d ia meter :

7 .5 m m.

2 .8 m m ( P la te

X I :b ) 9 .8 m m

L eve l 5

Sma ll , s h iny, o paque , d ark b lue b ead . H e igh t , 2 .9 m m. 1 .1 m m.

H ouse 7

P er fora t ion d ia meter :

( P la te X I :c )

3 .2 m m

Sma l l , d u l l o paque y e l low b ead . 1 .8 m m . m m.

H eigh t :

Pe r fora t ion d ia me ter :

1 .1

( P la te X I :d )

3 .8 m m

J F1 L evel 6

Fragmen t t ranslucen t b lue b ead . P erfora t ion d ia meter :

2 .2 m m

( P la te X I :e )

3 .4 m m

METAL ART IFACTS Copper Ar t ifacts F inds o f c opper were c o mpara t ively r are.

I n e very c ase where t he p ieces

r ecovered were n o t t oo f ragmen tary t o b e i den ti f ied , t hey a ppeared t o b e d ec ora t ive i n f unct ion .

N o weapons o r t oo ls o f c opper were f ound .

Two o f t he

c opper a r ti facts r ecovered were r ecogn ized b y t he work men a s f e ma le h a ir o rna men ts ( Pla te X I I ca nd f ) .

T ire c opper f inds a re c urren tly b eing a na lyzed

t o d eter mine whether t hey a re p ure o r a l loyed c opper . 1 64

I den t i f iab le I ron A r t i facts I den t i f iable p ieces o f i ron were f ar o u tnumbered b y b ad ly c orroded f ragmen ts whose o r ig ina l f orm c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined .

T hree c lasses o f u t i l i-

t ar ian o b jec ts were d is t ingu ished among t he i den t i f iab le i ron a r t i fac ts : p ro ject i le p o in ts , f i shhooks , a nd k ni fe b lades .

Sma l l p ro jec t i le p o in ts l ike

t hose p ic tured i n P la te X I I I ( f , ga nd h ) a re u sed t oday b y t he B ozo o f t he I n land N iger D e l ta a s f i sh ing s pears , s o t he J ennejeno p o in ts n eed n o t n ecess ar i ly h ave f unc t ioned a s weapons . I n a dd i t ion t o u t i l i tar ian i t e ms , d ecora t ive o b jects , i nc lud ing b race le ts a nd r ings , were a lso made o f i ron . U n iden t i f iable I ron Ar ti fac ts I n a l l , 1 45 f ragmen ts o f u n iden t if iable i ron t o ta l l ing 5 76 g rams were r ec overed f ro m t he e xcava t ions .

Among t hese f ragmen ts were n umerous

e xamp les o f i ron " w ire" , wh ich h as r ound c ross-sec t ion a nd a d ia me ter o f l ess t han t hree mi l l ime tres .

Pr esu inably , t he " w ire" was d rawn f ro m a

d rawp la te . S lag P ieces o f s lag were f a ir ly c o m mon t hroughou t t he d epos i ts a t J ennejeno , i nd ica t ing t ha t me ta l was sm i thed a t t he s i te d ur ing t he e n t ire ty o f i t s o ccup a t ion . u n i ts .

At o ta l o f 2 97 p ieces o f s lag was r ecovered f ro m t he t hree e xcava t ion S lag c oun ts f ro m e ach e xcava ted l eve l i n Ml, M2 a nd J F2 a re p resen ted

g raph ica l ly i n F igure 9 .2. T able 9 .37

C opper O b jec ts

Pr oven ience

Descr ip t ion

Weigh t

M1 L eve l 5

Wa is ted c y l inder . 5 .2 m m ;

Min i mum i ns ide d iame ter

t h ickness - 2 .2 m m .

( P la te X I I :f )

4 gm

L eve l 1 4

Fragmen t—un iden ti f iab le

2 gm

L evel 2 0

N odu le —un iden t i f iable

1 gm

F ragmen t —un iden t i f iab le

1 gm

M2 L evel 1 L eve l 2

Fragmen t o f c ha inl ink?

F ound i n s ec tf on :

2m m d iame ter ( P la te X II :e ) L eve l 5

B ead s pacer? 2mm w ide ;

F la t i n s ec t ion :

< 1 gm 1m m t h ick ;

3 .5 m m i ns ide d iame ter

( P la te X I I :a ) L eve l 8

B i furca ted o rna men t , p oss ibly f or t he h a ir . T h ickness :

L eve l 1 0

< 1 gm

2 .2 m m ( P la te X I I :c )

3 gm

Ornamen t w i th p er fora t ion , p oss ibly f or t he h a ir .

Tapers t o ap oin t :

max i mum t h ickness

7 .0 m m , min i mu m t h ickness - 2 .0 m m

L evel 1 2

( Pl a te X I I :d )

2g in

Two f ragmen ts —un iden ti f iable

5 gm

1 65

U,

P IECES O F S LAG

J ARFIELD

P IECES O F S LAG

c o

‘ . 0

C 1 J

P IECES O F S LAG

G J

C \ J

C

LJ 1 CC

N I

C . D 1 • •• 1

1 66

NJ NI .

4' e.. 1 .

CO NI I

NI

ei

el

J F1 L evel 1

Fragmen t —un iden t i f iable

J ar 1

Fragmen t o f af inger r ing . 2 .5 m m d iame ter ( P la te

2 gm R ound i n s ec t ion :

X I I :b )

< I gm

J F2 L evel 1

Tab le 9 .38

B ead

< 1 gm

I den ti f iab le I ron O b jec ts D escr ip t ion

P roven ience

Weigh t

UTILITAR IAN M1 L eve l 1

L evel 4

L eve l 7

Po in t . S ha f t i s r ound i n s ec t ion , 4 . 7m m d iame ter . ( P la te X I I I :f )

3 gm

F ishhook . d iame ter .

3 gm

P o in t .

S ha f t i s r ound i n s ec t ion , 4 .9 m m

d iame ter . L evel 1 2

R ound i n s ec t ion , 4 .9 m m ( P la te X I I I :a )

( P la te X I II :h )

Tanged p o in t .

3 gm

S ha f t i s a pprox i ma te ly r ound

i n s ect ion , d iame ter 4 .9-5 .1 m m , p o in t i s h a m mered f la t , t h ickness 1 .8 m m ( P la te X I I I :g ) L eve l 1 5

5 gm

Large f i shhook , b ad ly c orroded . s ec t ion , c . 8m m d ia me ter .

L evel 1 8

R ound i n

( P la te X I I I :b )

1 0 gm

S pear f ragmen t , b roken a nd b ad ly c orroded . L en t icu lar i n s ec t ion , 9m m a t t h ickes t p o in t . ( P la te XII :d )

3 5 gm

M2 L evel 1 4

B lade o r k n i fe f ragmen t? s ec t ion , 2mm t h ick .

L evel 1 4

L en t icu lar i n

( P la te X I I I :e )

S pear o r k n i fe f ragmen t?

6 gm

L en t icu lar i n

s ec t ion , 4mm t h ick a t midpo in t . ( P la te X IL I :c )

7 gm DECORATIVE

M1 L evel 1 5

Fragmen t b race let , b ad ly c orroded . F la t tened s ec t ion , 3 .5 m m t h ick . ( P la te X IV :c )

L eve l 2 0

5 gm

Three f ragmen ts b race le t , b ad ly c orroded . Round i n s ect ion :

C . 8m m ,

I nner d ia me ter

o r b race le t a pprox i ma te ly 6 8 mm ( P la te X IV :a ) 1 67

5 3 gm

Table 9 .39

Uh iden t i f iab le I ron O b jec ts

Proven ience

Descr ip t ion

We igh t

M1 L evel 1

1l arge p iece

1 4 gm

Leve l 1

3f rag men ts

1 5 gm

L eve l 1

1f ragmen t :

1 8 .5 m m l ong , 7 .4 m m w ide ,

5 .2 m m t h ick .

2 gm

L eve l 1

sma l l s phere :

4 .1 m m , d ia me ter

L evel 3

b ad ly c orroded f ragmen t " w ire" ;

< 1 gm r ound i n

s ec t ion , C >
< >C

>


(

>C

>


C

>C

'

>
0 0 1 e e "0 . 4 . • > oe o cO

M

•

0, •, • • • G J

i n

w

E M

1 -

e a 0 C CO M m E M -0

. 2 : e C l ) • 0 . 1

. ..,

E > s e l

= ▪ •C C 1 01 • C L , Q J

.

▪ U ) 4 -, a M 01 0 ) C C S . Sr- 7 0 > 0 0 4- 0 4, IC

• a, •

t ."

-J

1 76

v el —

. 1 )

a jE

0 1 : : 1 . 1 2 1 CO C T ) .—

L . )

0 0 C 0

0 . ) > a /

i n

c y

-0

CO

1 / 1

1 . .

S . .

. 0

. 0 ( -)

V iverridae

R emains f rom J enn6-Jeno

Z

• 0 4 -,

4 )

S .

77 S .

e a L . )

O

,-

X L i,

.0 12

I t s hou ld b e p o in ted o u t , h owever , t ha t K le in d id n o t f ee l t ha t h is s ize c a teg or ies were n ecessar i ly d iscre te w i th r egard t o ma ter ia l f ro m a ny o ne s pec ies . For e xa mp le , i ti s p oss ib le t ha t sma l l b ov ine p os t-cran ia l ma ter ia l was p laced i nb o th Large a nd Large Med ium b ov id s ize c lasses , a nd r eduncine ma ter ia l may h ave b een i nc luded i nb o th Sma l l Med ium a nd Large Med ium s ize c lasses . G iven t he sma l l s a mp le s ize , t he d egree o f b one f ragmen ta t ion a nd a cco mpanying l ow d egree o f p rec is ion i n i den t i f ica t ion , i ti s imposs ible , o n t he b as is o f t he ma ter ia l r ecovered d ur ing t he 1 977 e xcava t ions , t o d is t ingu ish a ny t e mpora l t rends i n s ubs is tence s tra teg ies i nvo lv ing l arge ma m ma ls a t J ennejeno . F ish Bone T he f ish b ones r ecovered f ro m Jenne -j eno were e xa m ined a nd i den t if ied b y Dr . G ordon H owes o f t he D epar t men t o f Z oo logy , Br i t ish Museum .

Var ious

g enera o f c a t f ish , i nc lud ing C lar ias , S ynodon t is , a nd Auchenog lan is p redo m in a te .

The N i le p erch , La tes n i lo t icus , i s a lso wel l r epresen ted .

The o n ly

o ther f ish p resen t a ppears t o b e H e tero t is , a l though t h is i den ti f ica t ion i s q u i te t en ta t ive . Ca t f ish a nd N i le p erch a re among t he l arges t o f t he f ish c o m mon t o t he I n land N iger D el ta .

A du l t C lar ias a nd Auchenog lan is c an weigh b etween o ne

a nd t wo k i lograms ( Dage t 1 954: 2 22 , 2 63 ) .

N i le p erch mos t f requen t ly weigh

i n b e tween o ne a nd e igh t k i logra ms , w i th c a tches e xceeding a me tre i n l eng th a nd we igh ing 2 0-40 k i lograms o n r ecord ( Dage t 1 954: 3 58 ).

A l though c a t f ish

a nd N i le p erch make u p as ubs tan t ia l p ar t o f t he f i sh d ie t o f p eop les i n J enne t oday , t he ir v ir tua l ly e xc lus ive r epresen ta t ion a t J ennejeno i s u ndoubted ly ar e f lec t ion o f t he s urv iva l r a te o f t he ir s turdy b ones .

Sma l l f ish , o f ten

f r ied a nd e a ten whole , s tand l i t t le c hance o f a rchaeo log ica l p reserva t ion . T hus , t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he sma l l , o i l-r ich A les tes wh ich h as b een s o v i ta l t o t he I n land N iger D e l ta e cono my i n r ecen t h is tor ica l t imes ( Sunds tro m 1 972 ) may n ever b e d ocumen ted a rchaeo log ica l ly.

A t t he s ame t ime , i tw i l l b e

r eca l led t ha t s creen ing was a bandoned a t J ennejeno d ue t o s o i l c ond i t ions , s o t he l ack o f sma l l f i sh b ones may e qua l ly wel l b e t he r esu l t o f r ecovery b ias . Wi th r egard t o t he c ond i t ion o f t he J ennejeno f ish b one , H owes c o m men ts : " So me o f t he f ragmen ts h ave s u f fered c harr ing a nd Iwas s truck b y t he c o mp le te d is loca t ion o f t he p ec tora l g ird le f ragmen ts , a s i ft hey h ad b een c hopped" . Table 1 0 .3 s um mar izes Dr . H owes ' f ind ings ;

h is c o mp le te r epor t i s

r eproduced i n A ppend ix I V . ANALYS IS OF THE HU MAN SKELETAL RE MA INS T he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno r evea led t we lve s ing le b ur ia ls , s ix o f wh ich were p laced i n u rns , a nd o ne d oub le i n ter men t i n a n u rn .

A l l s ke letons

were a ss igned n u mbers i n t he o rder i n wh ich t hey were d iscovered .

O f t he

f our teen i nd iv idua ls e xposed , n o o s teo log ica l r e ma ins c ou ld b e r ecovered f or s ke le tons 6 a nd 1 2 b ecause o f t he c o mp lete ly d is in tegra ted s ta te o f t he b ones .

I n for ma t ion o n t he c ond i t ion a nd b ur ia l c on tex t o f a l l s ke le ta l ma ter ia l

f ro m J ennejeno i s p resen ted i n T able 1 0 .4 .

T he v ar ie ty o f b ur ia l a t t i tudes

r epresen ted i s q u i te u nusua l , p ar t icu lar ly s ince i ta ppears f ro m s tra t igraph ic

1 77

w i n

e n

I n 0.

I n

1 -3 ' P uW P uW 9-L /Z S H P uW P uW LIE SH ` Z P uW S P uW Z /S P u l d 9 P t« 8 'L t it S H PW 1 L /L S H ` Z P uW 8-6 P u t i 0L /8 s H P uW 6-0 1 1P u t i 1 P u i i L -C P uW L -Z 1 ' 1 P uW-1

X

3 K

• »C

X

X 3 .
c > c a c

» c

s t

a
c

1d r Z •1A C C L -t i . ' 1 P 1 4 4 L 1 -8 1 1P uW t P uW -i S 1P uW— I 9s H 6L P uW 9 1 P uW 6 1 ' 1 p 14 4 C d e 5 1 -9 P uWi O Z 1P uW— ' t A V 1 2 -Z P uW S-9 A C L I ' 7 P uW E Z -t 2 P u t i S Z -9 Z L Z -6 7 8 1 O L

IK 3K

Lu PW 1P uW P u th P uW-1

3 .0

X

X

X

X

X

3K

3K X

3K

X

L anai ' 4 1 .U f l

6 1 ) L k . .. 4 . 3 0

I n . . . C I A T

U p 4 0 .0 . 1 ." I A L . . . . l e 4. , . .. 4 . . . f a .)

3

1 78

43 C 0 .0 0 C

«0

T

. ...

0 C a U .0 U

T

13 . . . 0 3 . . = T

.0 C C . ) s • 1 1 W Q S CL 4 .1 . 0

=

g . E w 4 . ) C

T ABLE 1 0.4

B ur ia l

C ontext a nd C ondition o f H uman R emains f rom J enne jeno C ONDIT ION O F B ONE

S KELETON

P IT

U RN o r I NHUME

1

J F 1

I

D isarticu lated; l ong b ones g r ouped t ogether, c ranial f ramgments s cattered. D ist urbed b y b uria l o f J ar 1 .

f air

2

J F 1

U

D isarticu lated; t eeth a nd c ran ia l f ragments l y ing i n u rn s herds. D isturbed b y b ur ia l o f J ar 5 .

p oor

3

J F 1

I

A rticu lated, e xtended i nh um ation. O riented E -W, F acing N . T ibiae d isturbed b y b ur ial o f S ke leton 5 .

f air t o g ood

4

J F 1

I

A rticulated. t inht iv f lexed i nhumation, o r i ented N W-SE, f acing E .

f air/ g ood

5

J F 1

I

A rt icu lated, l oose ly f lexed i nhumat ion, o r iented N W-SE, f acing S .

v ery p oor

6

J F 1

U # 1

D isart icu lated; v ery f ragm entary, p owdery b one.

v ery p oor

7

J F 1

U #6

D isart iculated; f ragmentary b one, d isturbed b y l ater i nterment o f S ke leton 8 .

p oor

8

J F 1

U #6

P art ia lly a rticu lated

f air

9

J F 1

U #5

D isart icu lated; f ragmentary b one , a pparent b reakage o f b ones p r ior t o i nterment.

f air

1 0

J F 1

u #7

D isart icu lated; f ragmentary b oned.

p oor

1

J F 1

U #8

A lmost f u lly a rt iculated.

e xce llent

1 2

M 2

I

A rt icu lated, e xtended i nh umat ion, o r iented N -S.

v ery p oor

1 3

M 2

I

1 4

M 1

U #12

B UR IAL A TT ITUDE

A rticulated, f lexed i nhumat ion w ith h ands u nder c hin, o riented N -S, f acing W .

v ery p oor

D isarticulated; h igh ly f ragmentary

v ery p oor

1 79

d a ta t ha t b o th u rn a nd i nhuma t ion b ur ia l were p ract iced c on te mporaneous ly. T he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t b ur ia l t rea t men t r ef lec ted s ex o r a ge d is t inct ions was i m med ia te ly i nves t iga ted .

T ables 1 0 .5 a nd 1 0 .6 p resen t t he d a ta u sed i n t he

d e ter m ina t ion o f a ge a nd s ex wherever s u f f ic ien t r e ma ins p er m i t ted .

T able

1 0 .7 i nd ica tes t ha t b ur ia l a t t i tude c anno t b e c orre la ted w i th a ny o bv ious c a teg or ies o f a ge o r s ex .

I ft he v ar ia t ion i n b ur ia l t rea t men t d oes r e f lec t s o me

o ther a spec t o f s oc ia l p a t tern ing a t J ennejeno ( and i t wou ld b e u nwarran ted t o a ssume t ha t i tn ecessar i ly mus t d o s o ) , e thn ic a nd/or r acia l d ivers i ty mus t b e c ons idered a s ap oss ible v ar iable.

Wi th in t he t own o f J enne a nd i t s i m-

med ia te e nv irons t oday , s ix e thn ic g roups l i ve i n c lose p rox im i ty a nd b ury t he ir d ead i n as ing le , v as t Mus l im c e me tery. T he p oss ib i l i ty o f e thn ic h e terogene i ty a t J ennejeno e nor mous ly c omp l ica tes t he a na lys is o f s ke le ta l r e ma ins .

O s teo log ica l a na lys is i s o p t ima l ly

c arr ied o u t b y c o mpar ison w i th a we l l-known p opu la t ion .

No t o n ly d o w e l ack

s o much a s o ne a na lys is o f a ny p opu la t ion , l i v ing o r d ead , f ro m t he I n land N iger D e l ta , b u t , f ar f ro m s ecur ing i n i t ia l d a ta o n ad iscre te p opu la t ion a t J ennejeno , we may b e d ea l ing w i th s ke letons f ro m t wo o r more e thn ic/racia l g roups .

I n s uch a c ase , d a ta o n t oo th wear l i ke t ha t s et f or th i n Table 1 0 .8

may more r e l iably r ef lec t c u l tura l d i f ferences i n d ie t a nd u se o f t he t ee th a s t oo ls t han a t tr i t ion d ue t o a ge ( see Mo lnar 1 970 , 1 972 ) . D e termina t ion o f s ex i s e qua l ly p roble ma t ic when t he s amp le may i nc lude s ke le tons f ro m more t han o ne p opu la t ion .

P ar t icu lar ly when d iagnos t ic e le-

men ts o f t he o ssa c oxae a re n o t p resen t , o ne i s o bl iged t o b ase s ex d e term in a t ion o n more s ub jec t ive a na to mica l c r i ter ia . C o m mon ly , i ti s n ecessary t o a ssess t he l argeness o r sma l lness o r t he r uggedness o f f ea tures o n t he s ku l l when t he r ange o f t hose c haracter is t ics i n t he p opu la t ion i s u nknown .

No

s tud ies h ave e ver b een u nder taken o n s exua l d i morphis m i n p opu la t ions i n t he I n land N iger D e l ta ;

p ersona l o bserva t ion , h owever , l ed t he a u thor t o c onc lude

t ha t s evera l c ran ia l t ra i ts

c o m mon ly c ons idered d iagnos t ic o f s ex ( see

K rogman 1 962: 1 15 a nd K een 1 950 : 6 5-79 ) s hou ld n o t b e u sed i n e va lua t ing s ke le ta l r e ma ins f ro m t h is r eg ion . F or e xamp le , p ar ie ta l a nd f ron ta l em in ences were e specia l ly marked among Fu lan i men l i v ing i n J enne t oday , b u t Fu lan i wo men g enera l ly d id n o t d isp lay t hese t ra i ts .

T ex tbooks , h owever ,

t each t ha t l arge f ron ta l a nd p ar ie ta l em inences a re a f e ma le c haracter is t ic. S im i lar ly , t he s ize o f s upra-orb i ta l r idges , a s we l l a s s ize a nd s hape o f t he e ye o rbi ts , may v ary more b e tween p opu la t ions t han b e tween t he s exes o f o ne p opu la t ion . A long t hese l i nes , Hu inziga 's a n thropo me tr ic s tudy o f t he D ogon* i s o f i n teres t , f or h is r esu l ts s howed s urpr is ing ly l i t t le s exua l d i morp h is m among t he p opu la t ion measured . H u inziga s ta tes , " ...as f ar a s g enera l b ody measure men ts a re c oncerned , Dogon f e ma les a re a l mos t ' har mon ious ly r educed ma les ' "( Hu inziga a nd B irn ie-Te l l ier 1 966: 6 86) . A n u mber o f i ndices a nd measure men ts were c o mpared f or 8 4 ma le a nd 4 8 f e ma le Dogons i n t h is s tudy , i nc lud ing s ta ture , c epha l ic i ndex , c r is ta h e igh t , a rm l eng th , b iacro mia l b read th , p e lv ic b read th , f acia l i ndex , ( se l l ion-gna th ion d is tance ) , a nd n asa l i ndex .

*

Ac lear ly b i moda l d is tr ibu t ion , i nd ica t ing s exua l d i morph is m , was

T he D ogon i nhabi t t he Band iagara e scarp men t , l oca ted 1 50 k i lo me tres n or theas t o f J enne.

1 80

i n•

0 r )

t o

C ,,

CV

CD CM

CM

r e)

C I '

i n

C s)

•

(-,t

P.

LO

I, II i t 4

1 81

L .

> . ,

t o

e n

1 ,1 1

CM I

CV

CM

CO

C r , 4 4, i c

Q J

0

E

t e , S .

V t S .

c « ,

4 7

u n

u n t o

> 5

c >

CI R I 4, c r )

e 1 1

V _ s

i n

V 1

" C / .0 0

V I

1 ) . ,) . ,

C ',. 1 1

C N J •

0 ,

1

C .J I

.7

r.

o .

CD

. --

7 4 4 , 4

C .3 . .

C r.

-

u-)

**=high c onf idence i n a ge e stimate

1 1

w ear o n m o lar s eries

e p iphysis f used

OI e V 4 -1 V)

w ear a nd t ooth l oss

w ear o n m o lar s eries

V ,•

r ecent ly e rupted

w ear o n m o lar s er ies

r ecent ly e rupted M 3

w ear o n m o lar s er ies

w ear a nd t ooth l oss

w ear o n m o lar s er ies

C RANIAL S UTURES

A g ing C r iteria a nd R esu lts o f A nalysis

w ear o n m o lar s er ies

L j

0-

U .0

› , 2

V , S .

V )

L e ,

e r

C O

04

I t o

4 4 4

i » . I

. . I

. . •

0 , .

I0 r •. E rs

E

CV

,

re

E

RS

CO 4 ,1

( . , r 3

• • 4 1

s ke leton n umber

CV

E

C el

r . . . rn

E

E

9 1

1 . 4

E

re

CV

•

R)

b

e r s •-• •

I o sn

t or e -I

< I

0

at

E

0. c u t a

1 RI

V I 4

'0 I r e

'0

' I D

CV

c u E 1 CV

b . " a

CV

RI

C .4

E t n

E I n

rn .. e

"0 W E

'0 0 . 1 E

"0 W E

'0 W E

0 3

c.j

cv

CV

CV

CM

c r . . • M

c r i • • •

cm . .-

re

re

E t n I

t u oe C 8 1 3

U

i . 1 «C re = L I =

S . . O 4 . ) . 5 S .

CI 0 C i. VS

.0 0

C C

cc C S

I

. 4...

5 0 . c e l. 0

C W E f e s I .

= 0 . . ) c o -

= .L 1 . . . . 1 • • d o . . . 0 VI

1 . i i = S J e i n •• = s . 0 =. • • • s o = 0 1 t e l s . . C i.

. E i s m er f t t 9 : 7 W .0 I • •••

e ns . 0 = • '.

e

4 . 9 w / . .4 . C D

1 82

O ccip ital l ines

. . I

E I n I . . 4

F emur L ength

en I. I , r1

h

E

• t n . I . • .c t a t V I S . I R I C ' ) E

E I n m C • 1

0

I Di r

RI

RS

e io

•

• er

0. V I = L i

0. t n = • • 0 1 : 1, g e t s . f . I LA I l e I re E . .

0 1

t n W e t 1 ▪ c C J o 1 .

in 5— .1 = V) SU CC

e t » I RI

z

.0 S .

re

s 0 3 • 0

1 0 1 ..0 u • I i « «

I n • SI n > , 2

0.

• i B n

2

C onf idence L eve l

r • J

T ABLE 1 0.7

C orre lation o f B uria l T ype w ith A ge a nd S ex

I NHUMAT IONS S ke leton #

3

4

5

S ex

F

M

F

A ge

2 0-25

3 0+

2 5-32

U RN B URIALS S ke leton #

7

8

9

S ex

F

M

M

2 5-35

2 0-24

A ge

1 8-20

1 83

1 0 F 2 0-25

1

1 4

M

?

4 5-55

i nfant

T ABLE 1 0 .8

S keleton

M 1

A ttrition o n M o lar S eries U sed i n A ge E stimation

M 2

1 4 3

1

A ge

M 3 r ecently e rupted

1 7-22 y ears

2

2 3-30 y ears

3

2 0-25 y ears

4

M ost m olars l ost p re-mortem. M oderate w ear o n p remolars.

3 0+?

y ears

2 5-32 y ears

5

1 8-20 y ears

M 3 r ecently e rupted

2 5-35

9

y ears

2 0-24 y ears

O nly o ne r ecently-erupted M 3 r ecovered

2 0-25 y ears

4 5-55

A ll m olars l ost p re-mortem

y ears

1 8-25 y ears

1 4

1 d eciduous M 1 - e rupted 4 d eciduous M 2 - u nerupted 2 p ermanent M 1 - 3 /4 c alcified

1 6-24 m onths

KEY

g Za

e namel p olishing e xposed d entine

method a dapted B rothwell M iles

1 84

f rom:

1 965:69 a nd

1 963:204

o bta ined f or o n ly o ne s e t o f measure men ts —s ta ture .

Hu inziga s ugges ts t ha t

t h is t endency t owards c onverg ing morpho logy may r e f lec t t he a dap t ive a dvant age o f c er ta in ' shapes ' ( e .g ., c ran ia l morpho log y) wh ich a re s e lec ted f or i n b o th ma les a nd f e ma les , p ar t icu lar ly i n p opu la t ions i nhabi t ing e x tre me e nv ironmen ts .

T hese r esu l ts may b e p er t inen t t o a ny s tudy o f ap opu la t ion

wh ich h as u ndergone l ongter m a dap ta t ion t o t he p arched S ahel e nv ironmen t o f t he I n land N iger D e l ta . The r e l iab i l i ty o f s exua l ly d iagnos t ic t ra i ts i nvo lv ing t he r ugos i ty o f muscle a t tach men ts , e spec ia l ly o n t he o ccip i ta l b one , i s s er ious ly d im in ished f or g roups i n wh ich w o men r ou t ine ly b ear h eavy b urdens ( up t o 1 00 l bs . )o n t heir h eads .

Th is c er ta in ly i s t he c ase t oday i n J enne , where t he f am i ly 's

d a i ly wa ter a nd wood f ue l s upp ly i s t ransported c ons iderab le d is tances o n t he h eads o f f e ma le f ami ly me mbers . Wi th a l l t he a bove c avea ts i n mind , S .K . M. a t te mp ted t o s ex n ine o f t he t we lve b ur ia ls f ro m wh ich o s teo log ica l r e ma ins were r ecovered . A s i nd ica ted i n Table 1 0 .6, t he n a ture a nd q ua l i ty o f r e levan t d a ta were s u f f icien t i n o n ly f our c ases t o p erm i t ah igh d egree o f c on f idence i n t he s ex d e term ina t ion . Age a t d ea th c ou ld b e a ss igned w i th a h igh d egree o f c on f idence i n f i ve c ases ;

t he r e ma in ing e s t i ma tes a re b ased p r i mar i ly o n t he h igh ly v ar iable

c r i ter ia o f d en ta l a t tr i t ion ( see Tab le 1 0 .8 ) a nd f us ion o f c ran ia l s u tures . V ery f ew p a tho log ica l c ond i t ions o r p hys ica l a no ma l ies were n o ted ( Table 1 0 .9 ) .

N o h ea led f ractures were f ound , a nd v ery f ew d en ta l c ar ies were i n

e v idence .

Pre mor tem t oo th l oss was h igh i n o n ly t wo i nd iv idua ls , o ne o f

who m (n o . 1 1) was c er ta in ly q u i te o ld a t d ea th .

T he r e ma in ing t ee th o f

S ke le ton 1 1 e xh ib i t c a lcu lus d epos i ts e x tend ing i n ad eep V p a t tern t oward t he t oo th r oo ts , i nd ica t ing t ha t p re mor te m t oo th l oss may h ave r esu l ted f ro m g ing iv i t is w i th s ubsequen t d eve lop men t o f p er iodon t i t is .

E v idence o f p er io-

d on ta l d isease i s marked i n t he mand ib le o f S ke le ton 4 , where a l l mo lars were l os t b e fore d ea th , a nd t he l e f t h or izon ta l r amus s hows c ons iderable t h icken ing , p robably a s t he r esu l t o f a lveo lar i n fec t ion ( os te i t is ) . d ib le o f S ke le ton 4 was a no ma lous i n t ha t i t was a ssy m me tr ica l ;

T he mant he l e f t

h or izon ta l r amus ( measur ing f ro m g na th ion t o g on ion ) was 9 2 .3 m m l ong , wh i le t he r igh t r amus measured 8 5 .8 m m. I ti s p oss ible t ha t o cclusa l p roble ms a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is a noma ly may h ave c on tr ibu ted t o t he l arge amoun t o f p remor te m t oo th l oss a nd p er iodon ta l d isease i n a n i nd iv idua l who d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave b een v ery a dvanced i n a ge , j udg ing b y t he sma l l amoun t o f a t tr i t ion o n h is c an ines a nd p re- mo lars .

I t migh t b e n o ted h ere t ha t S ke le ton 4 a lso

e xh ibi ts a n i n teres t ing p a t tern o f e xcess ive wear o n t he r igh t l a tera l a nd med ia l l ower i nc isors , p oss ib ly b ecause o f s o me u se o f t hese t ee th a s t oo ls , s uch a s t he d raw ing o f r eed o r r a f f ia t hrough t he t ee th .

T he wear o n t he l ower r igh t

i ncisors i s ma tched b y an o tch worn a way o n t he u pper r igh t

l a tera l a nd

med ia l i nc isors . Ev idence o f o s teoar thr i t is was f ound o n ly i n S ke le ton 1 1, where l i pp ing i n v arying d egrees was n o ted o n v er tebrae , t he k nee j o in t , e lbow , wr is t , a nd me ta tarsa ls . The l im i ted e xcava t ion s amp le f ro m J ennejeno d oes n o t p rov ide e v idence o f t rauma t ic i n jury r esu l t ing i n f rac tures o r o f e name l h ypop las ia a ssoc ia ted

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TABLE 1 0 .9 Pa tho log ica l C ond i t ions a nd Ano ma l ies

S ke le ton 1 -

L arge s ep ta l a per ture o n r igh t h umerus .

S ke le ton 3 -

P ronounced g on ia l e vers ion .

S ke le ton 4 -

E x tens ive p re- mor te m t oo th l oss ( mand ib le : l e f t M1 a nd M2 a lveo l i t o ta l ly r esorbed , M3 a lveo lus p ar t ia l ly r esorbed ; r igh t M2 a lveo lus c o mp lete ly r esorbed , M1 p ar t ia l ly r esorbed , M3 r ecen t p re- mor te m l oss ). h ave n o tched wear p a t tern .

U pper a nd l ower r igh t i ncisors

A sy m me tr ica l h or izon ta l r am i

o f mand ib le . S ke leton S -

Sma l l c ar ious l es ion - u pper M3 .

S ke le ton 1 0 -

L ower l e f t 1 2 l os t p re- mor te m .

S ke le ton 1 1 -

C ar ies : l oss :

Wor m ian b ones .

sma l l l es ion o n u pper l e f t I l .

Pre- mor te m t oo th

t o ta l a lveo lar r esorp t ion o f l ower l e f t M3 a nd M2 a nd

l ower r igh t M3 a nd M2 . a nd l ower r igh t Ml. M2 a nd PM2.

Par t ia l r esorp t ion o f u pper l e f t M3 ,

Recen t p re mor te m l oss o f l ower l e f t

Worm ian b ones .

A bove a nd s l igh t ly t o t he

r igh t o f g labe l la i s a sma l l ( 1 cm x 0 .4 cm ) h ea led b one l es ion , s ugges ting a b low t o t he f ron ta l w i th a s harp o b jec t s o me time s ubs tan t ia l ly p r ior t o d ea th .

Two sma l l ( 2-3 m m

d ia m . )a troph ic s po ts i n s uprasp inous f ossa o f s capu la . O s teoar thr i t ic l i pp ing :

h eavy o n 5 th l umbar ; modera te o n

s acro i l iac j o in t , o don to id a r t ic . f ace t , a nd 4 th l umbar ; s l igh t o n l ower t horac ic v er tebrae , 2 nd a nd 3 rd l u mbars , med ia l c ondy le o f l ef t f e mur , media l b order o f c ap i tu lum ( hu merus ) p os ter ior marg in o f b o th d is ta l r ad ia l a r t icu lar s ur faces , t roch lear n o tch o f u lna , a nd p rox i ma l a r t ic. f acets o f 1 s t , 2 nd a nd 3 rd meta tarsa ls .

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w i th d isease o r n u tr i t iona l s tress . S ince mos t o f t he i nd iv idua ls i n t he s amp le d ied b e fore t he a ge o f 3 0 , h owever , i t wou ld b e i ncorrec t t o p ronounce t he m ah ea l thy g roup .

T oday , t he r eg ion i s p lagued b y ah os t o f d iseases whose

v ec tors t hr ive i n t he s lugg ish wa ters o f t he N iger .

S ch is tosom ias is , f i lar ias is ,

a nd ma lar ia a l l c on tr ibu te t o l ow l i fe e xpectancy f or p eop les l i v ing i n t he I n land N iger De l ta .

T he i mprove men t o f t he wa ter s upp ly h as r educed t he i nc idence

o f c holera , h epa t i t is , a nd d ysen tery , b u t o lder i nhab i tan ts o f J enne t oday c an s t i l l r e me mber when e p ide m ics s truck e very f ew y ears a nd n ewborn i n fan ts d ied " by t he d ozen" f ro m t e tanus c on tracted when t he umbi l ica l c ord was c u t . T he ma jor i ty o f t hese d iseases were n o t r ecen t i n troduct ions i n t he c ourse o f European e xpans ion a nd mus tb e c ons idered a s a ma jor c ause o f t he l ow l i fe e xpec tancy s ugges ted b y t he J ennejeno s amp le .

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CHAPTER 1 1 S U M MARY OF THE OCCUPATION PHASES DEFINED AT J ENNE-JENO

PHASE I- C . 2 50 B .C. - A .D. 5 0 ( M1 L eve ls 3 0-25 ;

M2 L eve l 1 8 )

T he e ar l ies t p hase o f o ccupa t ion a t J ennejeno i s d e f ined b y t he a bsence o f a ny e v idence f or mud a rch i tecture ;

i n Ml , t hese e ar ly l eve ls a re c apped

b y l eve l 2 4 b eg inn ing P hase I ) wh ich a ppears t o b e c o mposed ma in ly o f c o l lapsed mud wa l l ma ter ia l a nd h as p roduced a r ad iocarbon d a te o f a .d . 4 0 +5 0 .

T he ma jor s tra t igraph ic c o mponen t o f P hase Ii s at h ick , h o mo-

g eneous l ayer o f v ery d ark c lay c on ta in ing s ubs tan t ia l amoun ts o f d ispersed c harcoa l , a sh , a nd p o t tery.

The i n ter face b e tween t h is l eve l a nd s ter i le

f l oodp la in a l luv ium was r eached i nb o th M1 a nd M2 a t ad ep th o f a pprox i ma te ly f ive metres .

C harcoa l t aken f ro m t he u pper h a l f o f t h is e ar ly o ccupa t ion l eve l

( M1 L eve l 3 0 ) was d a ted t o 2 10 t180 b .c .

Ac onserva t ive i n terpre ta t ion o f

t h is d a te i s t ha t t he f irs t p hase o f o ccupa t ion a t J ennejeno b egan a round o r s o mewha t e ar l ier t han 2 00 B . C. a nd c on t inued u n t i l c . A . D. 5 0 .

Dur ing

t h is t ime , t he min i mum l i near e x ten t o f t he s i te was 1 10 metres ( t he d is tance b e tween M1 a nd M2) , b u t s e t t le men t d id n o t e x tend a s f ar a s J F1, where n o P hase Id epos i ts o r c u l tura l ma ter ia l was e ncoun tered . T he e cono my d ur ing t h is e ar ly p hase c an b e o n ly p ar t ia l ly r econs truc ted d ue t o t he h igh d egree o f p os t-depos i t iona l f ragmen ta t ion o f b one a s we l l a s t o s ampl ing f actors .

B ones o f c a t f ish a nd N i le p erch a re c o m mon i n Phase I

d epos i ts , b u t t he ma jor i ty o f t he f auna l ma ter ia l c o mes f ro m b ov ids o f v ar ious s izes , o f wh ich o n ly t he r eedbuck , R edunca r edunca , c ou ld b e d ef in i te ly i dent i f ied .

A sma l l b ov ine — mos t l i ke ly B os t aurus ( R. G . K le in 1 978 : p ersona l

c o m mun ica t ion ) o r p oss ibly S yncerus c al ler ( A fr ican b u f fa lo ) —was a lso p resen t . A dd i t iona l ly , r e ma ins o f c rocod i le , t or to ise , a nd b ird were n o ted . D esp i te t he c ons is ten t p resence o f d o mes t ica ted r ice i n mos t l eve ls f ro m Phase I o n , n o e v idence o f r ice o r a ny o ther c erea l r e ma ins was r ecovered f ro m Phase I .

The p oss ibi l i ty o f s amp l ing e rror l oo ms l arge , h owever .

I ron a nd s lag were p resen t i n q uan t i ty i n t he e ar lies t l eve ls .

N o P hase

Ib ur ia ls were f ound , n or was t here a ny e v idence o f p er manen t mud a rch i tecture . T h in a sh l enses o f P an ico id g rass i n M1 L eve l 3 0 may p oss ibly b e t he r e ma ins o fb urned g rass h uts .

A l terna t ive ly , t hese a sh l enses may b e t he r esu l t o f

sma l l g rass f ires u sed t o smoke f ish i n t he manner s t i l l emp loyed b y t he Bozo o f t he r eg ion t oday. P hase Ip o t tery i s c haracter ized b y s i mp le u nres tr ic ted a nd s i mp le r es tr ic ted r im s hapes ( 60% ) a nd a marked p reference f or t wine-i mpressed d ecora t ion ( 70-80% o f a l l s herds ) a nd r ed s l ip ( presen t o n 5 0-70% o f a l l Phase Ir im s herds ).

A l mos t h a l f o f t he s herds s tud ied were made f ro m a

f ine-tex tured , s andte mpered p as te .

Pa in t d ecora t ion i n wh i te , magen ta ,

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a nd r ed i s p resen tb u t r are . The p os tf ir ing a pp l ica t ion o f y e l low p as te o ver t he s ur face o f ap o t i s c o mpara t ive ly p opu lar i n L eve l 3 0 . P las t ic d ecora t ion i s a lso u nco m mon , a ppear ing o n l ess t han l b% o f a l l P hase Is herds . PHASE I - C . A .D . 5 0 -4 00 ( M1 L eve ls 2 4-21;

M2 L eve l 1 7;

J F1 L eve ls 6 -4 )

The l ower b oundary o f P hase I di s p rov ided b y al eve l o f mud-wa l l c o l lapse i n o ne o f t he c en tra l e xcava t ion u n i ts ;

as ubs tan t ia l s amp le o f we l l-preserved

c ha f f f ro m Oryza g laberr i ma was t aken f ro m t h is s ame l eve l . A ssocia ted c harcoa l y ie lded a d a te o f a .d . 4 0 +5 0 . T h is i s t he e ar l ies t a rchaeo log ica l o ccurrence o f A fr ican r ice y et k nown . O ther e cono m ic e le men ts s how a g rea t d ea l o f c on t inu i ty w i th P hase I ; f auna l r e ma ins a re s t i l l d om ina ted b y f i sh a nd b ov ids . Two c lay a n i ma l f igur ines c lose ly r esembl ing t hose made t oday b y Fu lan i p astora l is ts f or t he ir c h i ldren p rov ide a n a dd i t iona l h in t t ha t t he sma l lb ov ine p resen t may b e B os t aurus r a ther t han S yncerus c a f fer .

S im i lar

f igur ines were f ound a t Karkar ich inka t ( Sm i th 1 974 ) a nd Da ima ( Connah 1 976) , made b y La te S tone A ge p as tora l is ts/co l lec tors . Two o ther r ad iocarbon d a tes c o me f ro m P hase I d epos i ts : a .d . 2 90 + 1 50 ( M1 L evel 2 3 ) , a nd a .d . 3 80 ±1 10 ( M2 i n ter face o f L eve ls 1 6 a nd 1 7 ) , wh ich i s t aken a s t he u pper b oundary o f P hase I . Phase I d epos i ts a re p resen t i n a l l t hree ma jor e xcava t ion u n i ts ( M1, M2 , a nd J F1) , s epara ted b y a max i mum d is tance o f 4 00 metres . Aga in , t h is may b e c ons idered t ob e t he min i mum l i near e x ten t o f t he s i te a t t ha t t ime . T h is a pparen t i ncrease i n s i te s ize b y e ar ly P hase I may p oss ibly b e c orrel a ted w i th t he a ppearance o f p ermanen t mud a rch i tec ture a nd d omes t ica ted r ice a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he p hase . On t he o ther h and , t he ir s ee m ing ly s i mu lt aneous a ppearance may mere ly b e a n a r ti fact o f a n e x tre me ly sma l l e xcava t ion s a mp le .

On ly f ur ther e xcava t ion c an r eso lve t h is q ues t ion .

A lso

t o b e c lar if ied b y f u ture e xcava t ion i s t he r a te o f p hys ica l e xpans ion o f J ennej eno i n P hase Ia nd t he a rea l e x ten t o f t he mound a t t he b eg inn ing o f P hase I . Based o np resen t e v idence , h owever , i ti s p robable t ha t J ennejeno was a s i te o f c ons iderable d i mens ions , p oss ib ly measur ing a h a l f-k i lo me tre o r more a long h er ma in a x is , b y A .D. 2 00 . The p o t tery o f P hase I i s v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f P hase I , a l though f inet ex tured a nd s andtempered wares b eco me p rogress ive ly l ess c o m mon , a nd i n ter ior s l ip o np o ts i ncreases r ap id ly i n p opu lar i ty b y t he e nd o f t he p hase. Over 5 0% o f t he r i ms a re s i mp le , a nd t w ine d ecora t ion ( par t icu lar ly " f ishne t" weave ) i s s t i l l t he u sua l mode o f d ecora t ion . A s b e fore , p a in t d ecora t ion i s p resen t , t hrough r are , a nd g rooves o r s ome o ther f orm o f p las t ic d ecora t ion c an b e f ound o n u p t o 2 0% o f a l l s herds . Presen t ly e n igma t ic , b u t o f p o ten t ia l ly g rea t s ign i f icance , a re t wo f inds r ecovered f ro m J F1 L eve l 6 : ap a le b lue , f ine ly- made g lass b ead , a nd a c h ipped p ot tery d isc we igh ing 7 .0 g rams t ha t may h ave f unc t ioned a s a meas ure o f weigh t . I ft h is i n terpre ta t ion i s c orrect , b o th f inds imp ly t he e x is tence o f t rade i n t he e ar ly f irs t c en tur ies A .D., a l though t he d irec t ion a nd s ca le o f t h is t rade i s u nknown . The s tra t igraph ic p os i t ion o f Funerary U rns 9 , 8 , a nd 7 i nd ica tes t ha t J F1 was f irs t u sed a s ac e me tery i n l a te P hase

1 89

PHASE H I -c . A .D. 4 00 - 9 00 ( M1 L eve ls 2 0-13 ; — J F1 L eve ls 3 -1)

M2 L eve ls 1 6-14 ;

Ear ly P hase I I d epos i ts i nb o th M1 a nd M2 a ppear t o h ave b een c rea ted c on te mporaneous ly b y o ne d epos i t iona l p rocess .

I ti s n o t k nown wha t p rocess

wou ld r esu l t i n f a ir ly e ven d epos i t ion o f at h ick , h o mogeneous l ayer o f c ons o l ida ted l oam o ver a n a rea a t l eas t 1 10 me tres w ide ( t he d is tance b e tween M1 a nd M2 ) , b u t t he i den t ica l t ex ture a nd a ppearance o f M1 L eve l 2 0 a nd M2 L eve l 1 5 , a s we l l a s t he v ir tua l ly i den t ica l f requenc ies o f v ar ious p o t tery c lasses a nd a t tr ibu tes , s ugges t t ha t b o th l eve ls a re t he r esu l t o f t he s a me d epos i t iona l e ven t . J udg ing f ro m t he r ad iocarbon d a tes , b o th l eve ls may h ave b een l a id d own w i th in a p er iod o f o ne h undred y ears :

M1 L eve l 1 6 i s d a ted

t o a .d . 5 20 + 1 70 ( m id-Phase I I ) a nd i tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t M1 L eve l 2 3 ( mid-Phase I ) was d a ted t o a .d . 2 90 + 1 50 .

T h is p er iod o f a ccu mu la t ion

i s f o l lowed i n M1 b y t he l eng thy o ccupa t ion o f H ouse 6 , wh ich i s u l t i ma te ly d es troyed a t t he e nd o f t he p hase. a re v is ible i n s ec t ion ;

An u mber o f wa l l s tu mps a nd h ouse f loors

t hey a re u ndou ted ly r ela ted t o v ar ious b u i ld ing a nd

r ebu i ld ing e p idodes o f H ouse 6 , wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een c on t inuous ly i nhabi ted f or a c ons iderable p er iod o f t ime , p erhaps a s much a s s evera l h undred y ears .

Phase H I a rch i tectura l t echn iques a re i l lus tra ted b y t he

c urv i l inear t au f wa l l o f H ouse 6 .

The a bsence o f c o mpac ted wa l l c o l lapse

d ebr is a round t he t au f wa l l i nd ica tes t ha t a t l eas t p ar t o f t he s upers tructure may h ave b een c ons tructed o f o rgan ic ma ter ia ls s uch a s r eed o r g rass . T he u ppermos t l eve l ( Level 1 3 ) a ssocia ted w i th H ouse 6 c on ta ined a g rea t d ea l o f a sh a nd c harcoa l ; i ti s q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t he o ccupa t ion o f H ouse 6 f ina l ly c a me t o a n e nd a s f ire c onsu med t he t ha tch o r ma t s upers tructure. M2 s ee ms t o h ave b een r ela t ively f ree o f o ccupa t ion d ur ing much o f t he p er iod o f H ouse 6 o ccupancy. There i s s o me e v idence t ha t t he a rea o f M2 was e xper ienc ing a c t ive e ros ion a t t h is t ime . T he Phase H I s ubs is tence e cono my c on t inues t o b e b ased o n r ice , f ish , a nd b ov ids .

Wi ld p lan ts a re r epresen ted , f or t he f irs t t ime , b y S e tar ia

p a l l idi fusca

( f ox ta i l mi l le t ) a nd P or tu laca o leracea ( co m mon p urs lane ) r e-

c overed f rom t he b o t to m o f i n tact p o ts i n P hase H I d epos i ts .

Owing t o s a m-

p l ing c ons idera t ions , h owever , t he ir e cono m ic s ign i f icance c anno t b e e va lua ted a t t h is t ime . The i ron r e tr ieved f ro m Phase I I d epos i ts was i nb e t ter c ond i t ion t han t ha t f ro m e ar l ier p hases .

I t was p oss ib le t o i den ti fy among t he i ron a r ti facts

ap ro jec t i le p o in t , t wo k ni fe b lades , f our f ishhooks , a nd a b race le t . f ragmen ts o f c opper were a lso f ound .

S evera l

O ther f inds o f i n teres t f ro m P hase I I

i nc lude a n umber o f sma l l , f ired c lay z oo morph ic a nd a n thropo morph ic f igur ines , ab one a wl ( ?) , ac orna l ine b ead , s evera l f ired c lay " spoons" , a nd a s ands tone g r ind ing s tone . Phase H I p o t tery i s d om ina ted b y v esse ls w i th r es tr icted r i ms . C ar ina ted f orms i n p ar t icu lar r ise s ubs tan t ia l ly i n p opu lar i ty.

The mos t c harac ter is t ic t ype o f P hase H I p o t tery i s t he we l l- made

c ar ina ted b ow l , s l ipped d ark o range/red o n t he i n ter ior a nd r im , w i th g roove a nd p a in t d ecora t ion a bove t he c arina t ion a nd t w ine d ecora t ion b elow i t . T hese b ow ls a re f requen t ly f ound i n a ssocia t ion w i th b ur ia ls i n J F1 o r a re u sed , i nver ted , a s c overs f or f unerary u rns . e xc lus ive h owever ;

T h is f unerary f unct ion i s n o t

s evera l f ire-blackened c ar ina ted b ow ls were r ecovered

f ro m h ear th a reas o f M1 a nd M2 where t hey c lear ly h ad b een u sed a s c ook ing p o ts . 1 90

P hase I I was t he ma jor p er iod o f u se f or t he c e me tery a rea i n J F1. A l l t he i nhuma t ions a nd t he ma jor i ty o f t he u rn b ur ia ls were i n terred d ur ing t h is p hase . PHASE I V -C . A .D. 9 00 - 1 400 ( M1 L eve ls 1 2-1;

M2 L eve ls 1 3-1)

Ano ther p er iod o f s low a ccumu la t ion i n M1 a nd M2 marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ina l p hase o f o ccupa t ion i den ti f ied a t J ennejeno . Phase I V i s s ubs equen tly r epresen ted i n M1 b y t he b u i ld ing , o ccupa t ion , a nd d es truc t ion o f H ouse 2 , a s we l l a s b y l a ter a ccumu la t ion . T he n a ture o f t he H ouse 2 d est ruct ion l eve l , wh ich c on ta ined a l arge amoun t o f c harcoa l a nd a sh mixed w i th t he f i re-ox id ized mud b r ick o f t he wa l l c o l lapse ma ter ia l , s ugges ts t ha t H ouse 2 was a mud b r ick s truc ture r oo fed w i th t ha tch , a nd t ha t i t was d est royed b y f ire .

C harcoa l t aken f rom a p o in t d irect ly a bove a l ens o f f a l len

b r ick f ro m t he h ouse ( depth 6 60 m m ) y ie lded a modern r ad iocarbon d a te ( MASCA c a l ibra ted d a te : > 1 530 A .D.). T h is d a te c anno t b e a ccep ted s ince i t imp l ies t ha t a ccumu la t ion o f t he u pper 6 0 cm o f d epos i ts i n M1 o ccurred i n v ery r ecen t t imes . I n f act , we h ave a c lear h is tor ica l r epor t b y t he 1 7th c en tury n a t ive c hron ic ler , a l-Sa 'd i , t ha t J ennejeno was a lready a bandoned i n A . D. 1 468 when t he s i te was g arr isoned b y S ongha i c onquerer S onn i A l i d ur ing h is s e ige o f J enne ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900 : 2 6-28 ) . F or o ur p urposes , i ti s p robab ly s a fe t o s ay t ha t c o mp le te a bandonmen t o f J ennejeno h ad t aken p lace b y c . A .D . 1 400 , i fn o t e ar l ier . Phase I V i n M2 i nc ludes a n impress ive amoun t o f b u i ld ing a ct iv i ty: H ouses 7 , 4 , a nd 3w ere a l l b u i l t a nd d es troyed w i th in a s hor t p er iod o f t ime ; r ad iocarbon d a tes o f a .d . 1 030 + 1 50 f rom t he l evel b e low H ouse 7 a t ad ep th o f 1 200 m m , a nd o f a .d . 1 120 + 1 40 f ro m t he wa l l c o l lapse t o t he i n ter ior o f H ouse 4 a t ad ep th o f 7 65 m m ( pos t-da t ing , t here fore , t he b u i ld ing a nd d est ruc t ion o f H ouse 7 ) i nd ica te t he r ap id i ty w i th wh ich t hese e ven ts o ccurred . I ti s n o t k nown why t hree s uccess ive h ouses were b u i l t o n t he s ame s po t a nd e i ther a bandoned o r d e l ibera te ly r azed w i th in a p er iod o f p oss ibly l ess t han 1 50 y ears . T he f unc t ion o f t he s truc tures r e ma ins e n igma t ic . None o f t hese h ouses r evea led a ny c onv inc ing e v idence o f d omes t ic a ct iv i ty ; i ndeed , t hey were s ingu lar ly d evo id o f t he f ood d ebr is a nd b roken p o t tery c o mmon ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he h ouses i n Ml. The d iscovery o f at erracot ta s ta tue t te a nd s evera l a ssoc ia ted p o ts wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een b ur ied i n as ha l low p i t i n t he f l oor o n H ouse 4 r a ises t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t H ouse 4 h ad r i tua l s ign i f icance . I ta ppears t ha t t he wa l ls o f House 4 were d e l ibera tely t opp led t o ah e igh t o f c . o ne me tre s oon a f ter t he s ta tuet te was p laced i n p os i t ion .

S hor t ly t herea f ter , t he r ec t i l inear wa l ls

o f H ouse 3 were c ons tructed o n t he l eve l led s i te o f H ouse 4 , b u t n o t u n t i l a f ter t he i n termen t i n t he s ou theas t q uadran t o f M1 o fa n e x tended i nhuma t ion ( Ske le ton 1 2 ) whose s ku l l l ay d irect ly u nder t he s ou th wa l l o f H ouse 3 .

T he

b ur ia l may b ear o n i mpor tan t r e la t ionh ip e i ther t o t he s ta tue t te a nd t he d el ib era te r a zing o f H ouse 4 o r t o t he r easons f or e rec t ing H ouse 3 . A l terna t ively , i t s p os i t ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n r e la t ion t o H ouse 3 , may b e mere ly f or tu i tous . Wi th in H ouse 3 , af ine ly- made g lobu lar p o t ( Jar 1 0 ) r es ted d irect ly o ver t he s po t where t he s ta tue t te was l a ter d iscovered .

H ouse 3 a nd t h is u nusua l p o t

may h ave f unc t ioned t o mark t he s i te , b u t i ti s e n t ire ly p oss ib le t ha t t he ir c lose s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip t o t he s ta tue t te i s p urely c o inciden ta l .

A t p resen t ,

i ti s imposs ible t o d raw a ny f urther c onclus ions c oncern ing t he n a ture o f P hase W a c t iv i t ies i n M2. 1 91

T he s ubs is tence e cono my i n P hase I V c on t inues t o b e b ased o n r ice , f ish , a nd b ov ids i nc lud ing c a t t le , e land , r eedbuck , a nd o v icapr ids . Two t rends a re n o t iceable i n P hase I V p o t tery: f irs t , q ua l i ty o f manuf acture a ppears t o d ec l ine . T he f requency o f c oarsetex tured p as te i ncreases , a nd s herds made f ro m p oor ly mixed a nd a era ted c lays r ise i n f requency. Po ts a re l ess f requen t ly s l ipped a nd d ecora ted : o ver 5 0% o f Phase I V r im s herds a re u ns l ipped , a nd t he f requency o f u ndecora ted s herds r ises a s h igh a s 4 0% d ur ing t he p hase . T he s econd impor tan t t rend i n P hase I V p o t tery i s t he i ncrease i n t he p opu lar i ty o f c hevron t wine d ecora t ion ( Twines 1 a nd 2 ) , wh ich a ccoun t f or 5 0-70% o f a l l t w ine d ecora t ion d ur ing t he p hase. Two c lasses o f a r t ifac ts c o m mon ly t hough t t o h ave b een i n troduced t o Wes t A fr ica b y t he A rabs a ppear f or t he f i rs t t ime i n P hase I V d epos i ts : s p ind le w hor ls , a nd o paque g lass b eads o f p robab le European manu fac ture. O ther f inds o f i n teres t f ro m t h is p hase i nc lude a p oss ible c rucib le f or g o ld sme l t ing , s evera l s ands tone g r ind ing s tones , v ar ious c opper a r t i fac ts , a nd i ron p o in ts a nd f i shhooks . T he o ccurrence o f c er ta in ma jor c lasses o f a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins a t J ennejeno i s s u mmar ized b y p roven ience a nd p hase i n F igure 1 1.1

1 92

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APPE NDIX I

RADIOCARBON DATES FRO M J ENNE-JENO

1 94

J ENNE-JENO RAD IOCARBON DATES

We h ave f o l lowed t he c onven ien t c onven t ion o f u s ing ' b .c .' a nd t a .d . when s peak ing o f s imp le , u nca l ibra ted r ad iocarbon d a tes a nd ' B.C.' a nd ' A. D.' when t he d a tes a re e xpressed i n c a lendar y ears a f ter c a l ibra t ion . Ca l ibra ted d a tes h ave b een c a lcu la ted u s ing t he MASCA c orrect ion f ac tors p ubl ished i n Ra lph 1 971: T ab le 1 .5 . M1 Rad iocarbon Da tes RL-794: modern ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D.> 1530 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S amp le n o . 3 , c o l lec ted f ro m M1 L eve l 4b ot to m a nd L eve l 7t op o n February 1 7 , 1 977 b y R : J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le :

N 700-800/E100/dep th 6 60 m m ( mean ing t ha t t he

s amp le was c o l lec ted 7 00-800 m m s ou th o f t he n or th wa l l o f t he p i t , 1 00 m m wes t o f t he e as t wa l l , a nd 6 60 m m d own f ro m t he P o in t o f Or ig in ) - The s amp le i s o f wood c harcoa l a nd p erhaps r epresen ts r oof o r o ther s truc tura l p o les wh ich f e l l when H ouse 2 b urned .

T he c harcoa l c oncen-

t ra t ion was i n ag ap o f t he c o l lapsed wa l l ( Leve l 6 ) where L evel 7 a nd t he c harcoa l a t t he b o t to m o f L eve l 4 merge .

L eve l 4 was r e la t ive ly

f ree o f r oo t , i nsec t , a nd b urrow ing a n i ma l d is turbance , b u t many sma l l r oo ts r e ma ined w i th in L eve l 6 .

T he s amp le i t se l f was f ree o f r oo ts ,

b u t wa ter c ou ld s t i l l h ave d ra ined d own f ro m t he f r iable o r l oose lyc o mpacted s tra ta a bove . The d a te c anno t b e a ccep ted , e ven i n c a l ibra ted f orm , b ecause d o ing s o wou ld i mp ly t ha t t he t op 6 0 cm o f M1 d epos i ts a ccumu la ted i n f a ir ly r ecen t t imes .

I n f act , a1 7th c en tury n a t ive

c hron icler , a l-Sa 'd i , s pec i f ica l ly s ta tes t ha t J ennejeno was a lready a bandoned when S ongha i c onquerer S onn i A l i g arr isoned h is t roops a t t he s i te i n c . 1 468 . P -2682 : a .d . 5 20 + 1 70 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D. 5 70 ± 1 70 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S a mp le n o. 1 5 c o l lec ted f ro m M1 L eve l 1 6 t op o n March 2 7 , 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le:

N 500-550/E600-640/dep th 1 890 m m

- The s amp le was f ro m a l arge p ocket o f sma l l c harcoa l f ragmen ts b e low t he t op o fJ ar 1 2 ( car ina ted p o t c on ta in ing S ke le ton 1 4 ) a t t he t op o f L eve l 1 6 .

Th is d a tes t he b ur ia l o f t he J ar , wh ich p robably

o ccurred b efore t he l as t p hase o f c ons truct ion o f H ouse 6 a nd c ert a in ly b efore t he e x ter ior p ar t i t ion was b u i l t . T here was n o a pparen t r oo t , i nsec t , o r a n i ma l a c t iv i ty i n t he v ic in i ty.

1 95

P -2679 : a .d . 2 90 + 1 50 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D. 3 20-290 + 1 50 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S a mp le n o. 2 1 c o l lec ted f ro m M1 L eve l 2 3 t op o n A pr i l 1 0 , 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le :

N 2300-2500/E1800/dep th 3 300 m m

-T h is v ery l arge s amp le o f c harcoa l i s f ro m o ne o f s evera l d ef in i te h ear ths i n L eve l 2 3.

N o e v idence o f r oo t g row th o r b urrowing was

n o ted . P -2742 : a .d . 4 0 ±5 0 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D. 9 0 +5 0 ( ca l ibra ted ) -C o mbined s amp les n o . 2 4 a nd n o . 2 5 c o l lec ted f ro m M1 L eve l 2 4 b o t to m o n A pr i l 1 3 a nd 1 6 , r espec t ive ly , b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp les :

n o . 2 4 -N 1350-1450/E850-900/depth 3 515 m m ;

n o . 2 5 -N 850-900/E2100-2250/depth 3 745 m m -B o th s amp les a re f ro m v ery l arge p ocke ts o f c haroca l i n t he s ame l evel a nd n o . 2 4 may b e f ro m a d is turbed h ear th .

T here was s o me

b urrowing i n t h is l eve l , b u t n o t i n t he a rea o f t hese p ockets . RL-807 :2 10 ± 1 80 b .c . ( uncorrec ted ) -2 00 ± 2 40 B .C. ( ca l ibra ted ) -C o mb ined s amp les n o . 2 7 a nd n o . 2 8 c o l lec ted f ro m M1 L eve l 3 0 o n 2 1 a nd 2 4 A pr i l , 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp les :

n o . 2 7 -N 750/E1650/dep th 4 165 m m ;

n o . 2 8 -

N 850/E1600/dep th 4 555 m m - Bo th s amples were f ro m t he s ame v ery l arge p ocke t o f c harcoa l a nd c lay , wh ich a ppeared t o b e n e i ther a s ing le p iece o f wood ( a c harred t ree t runk , f or e xa mp le ) n or a n a n i ma l b urrow .

T here was , h owever ,

much c harred b one , s o t h is may h ave b een a h ear th .

N o o bv ious

s ource o f c on tam ina t ion c ou ld b e s een . M2 Rad iocarbon Da tes RL-806: a .d . 1 120 + 1 40 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D. 1 150 + 1 40 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S amp le n o. 1 6 c o l lec ted f ro m M2 L evel 2b o t to m ( d irect ly a top L eve l 6 ) o n March 2 7 , 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le :

N 550-650/E2650-2700/dep th 7 65 m m

-T he s amp le was f ro m a l arge p ocke t o f wood c harcoa l a t ad iscon t inu i ty b e tween L eve ls 2 a nd 6 ( perhaps r es t ing o n t he f loor o f H ouse 4 ). T he s amp le was C . 5 00 m m s ou th o f t he e dge o f Fea ture 4 a nd i s u nr e la ted t o t ha t r oo t i n trus ion .

T he s a mp le l i es w i th in H ouse 4 , j us t

o u ts ide t he l im i ts o f H ouse 3 , a nd a t t he s ame d ep th a s t he s ta tue t te ( t he b ur ia l o f wh ich i td a tes ).

T here was n o r ecen t r oo t g row th o r

e v idence o fb urrowing .

1 96

P-2772: a .d . 1 030 + 1 50 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D. 1 040 ± 1 60 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S amp le n o. 2 2 c o l lec ted f ro m M2 t rans i t ion b e tween L eve ls 1 0 a nd 1 1 o n 1 2 A pr i l 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le :

N 500-600/E900-1000/dep th 1 200 m m

-S amp le was t aken 3 25 m m b enea th t he p os i t ion o f t he s ta tue t te a nd 5 00 m m t o t he n or th-nor thwes t o f t he c ran iu m o f S ke le ton 1 3 .

There

was n o a pparen t d is turbance i n L eve l 1 0 a nd c on f idence a t c ol lec t ion was v ery g ood t o e xcel len t . RL-808 : a .d . 3 80 ± 10 ( uncorrec ted ) -A .D . 4 00 + 1 30 ( ca l ibra ted ) -S amp le n o . 3 0 c o l lec ted f ro m M2 L eve l 1 6 b o t to m o n 2 9 A pr i l 1 977 b y R . J . McIn tosh -c en tre o f s amp le :

N 1100-1200/E1050-1150/dep th 3 535 m m

-S amp le o f wood c harcoa l ( l arge p ieces ) f ro m a l arge p ocke t w i th in wh ich t here was n o b urrow ing o r o ther s ources o f c on tam ina t ion . J F1 Rad iocarbon Da tes RL-950 : a .d . 1 130 + 1 80 ( uncorrec ted ) -A . D. 1 150 + 1 60 ( ca l ibra ted ) - Hu man b one t aken f ro m Funerary U rn n o . 6b y S . K . McIn tosh -L ong b ones o f S ke le ton 8 -J ar 6 was p robab ly b ur ied d ur ing o r a t t he e nd o f t he a ccumu la t ion o f L eve l 2 .

B one was h and led a nd e xposed f or s evera l mon ths b efore

i t was s en t t o t he l abora tory.

1 97

T he R adiocarbon C hronology f or J enne-jeno

C 14 Y EARS 5 568 h a l fl i fe

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APPENDIX 1

I LLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES TO ACCO MPANY CHAPTER 9 ( CULTURAL MATER IALS )

1 99

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R estricted C ar inated R im

T op: M ound 1 , L eve l 9 ; r im t ype - 2 3; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range . M idd le : M ound 1 , L eve l 8 ; r im - 1; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range . B ottom : M ound 1 , L eve l 8 ; r im - 1; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c olor - d ark o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip .

2 07

1 0 c m.

L C)

4 ) t r ) • r -

CD

E

s -

0

0 ( ) 4 )

.

( CS 0 CL

C f ) •r C O C " 4) I 3

E 0 _ = a ) E E S . -

2 08

'

R estr icted C arinated P ot

cD

2 09

p aste - m edium w ith

4 )

• •• •

•••

R estr icted C ar inated P ot

4 ) 0

S . Cr

•r -

Li -

L J

e

LJ

O

ee 0

2 10

E w • r-

( 1 . )

L I 3 ( 1 : $ 4 -)

E 7: 3 • r -

5 . -

C A

• • r " '

C P

r e)

l ight o range;

Lf l

> M , ,< >

p ,19

5 t /% ,

e \

\ < > ' \>.) ; ‘ / \ , '• ?\ ,H ) ) 9r , >>) `) e ,).> \ 4 ? ' , , , e ,> 9 , k \ » H > > j / ? > 4 `‚ ) ' , ‘ , ` > \ \ , ,> >< \

> 7 , ` / ,?, , > :\ ,> ) )

,/ ? \ ,

) ;

' 7\ 7 >

) i

2 11

,

R estr icted C arinated

4 ) o

s . _ o 0

•

0

S — C ZT ) 0 •r -C 4—) C I ) • r-

•r —

c

0

C D 0 E I V I

2 12

R estricted C arinated P ot

, e *, • • •

NeN, " • • •% . • • `,

• • • • • .

• • , , • •

e ^,

•

• • • -•

• • • • • •• ." . .

e •N , •

/ r

•

, -

s

. 1/

o rs . . • • •••

, • • • • •• , ./

%e re NI . . . IN,

•

^se_ • • • • •

, e •

t 7Z . ; g • •-

s y • • • • (\e'

,

' Nee /

'Ne

• • N ./

. , •

, ••••

F IGURE 1 3 •

1 0

2 13

z o 'c m .

F igure

1 3

R estr icted C arinated P ots

T op: f ound i n J arf ie ld 1 o n t op o f f unerary u rn # 8; r im 7 ; p aste - c oarse w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range; f ireb lackened o n e xterior; d ark r ed/orange s lip o n i nter ior . M idd le : f ound i n J arf ie ld 1 i nverted o n t op o f f unerary u rn # 5 ; r im - 7 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range ; d ark r ed/orange s lip o n i nter ior. B ottom : f ound s mashed i nside f unerary u rn # 7; r im - 1 4; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range; d ark r ed/ o range i nner s lip .

2 14

I L _ 0

F igure

1 4

5

R estricted C arinated R im

T op: M ound 1 , L eve l 2 0 ; r im - 7 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip. M iddle: M ound 1 , L eve l 1 ; r im - 7 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lorl ight o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip. B ottom l eft: M ound 1 , L eve l 8 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip . B ottom r ight : M ound 1 , L eve l 3 ; r im - 7 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor d ark o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip %

2 15

1 0 c m .

0

5c m.

3 F igure

1 5

R estricted L ong N ecked R im - B ott les

L eft : f ound b roken i nside f unerary u rn # 7 i n J arf ie ld 1 ; r im 3 2; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - l ight o range. R ight t op : M ound 1 , L eve l 1 6; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor d ark o range . R ight b ottom : M ound 1 , L eve l 1 2; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - l ight o range.

2 16

I

t

••••

• 1 , 0

F igure 1 6

5

1 0 c m .

R estricted L ong N ecked R im - B ott les

M ound 1 , L eve l 2 6; r im t ype - 3 2; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - b uff ; o uter s lip i s l ight o range .

2 17

/ I

/

/

/

I l k I I n 5

0

I

I

/ I

/

a.. .

F igure 1 7

•••

R estr icted T -r im a nd V ar iant

T op : M ound 1 , L eve l 9 ; r im - 3 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range : d ark r ed/orange i nner s l ip . B ottom : M ound 1 , L eve l 1 3; r im - 4 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor g rey .

2 18

1 1 0 c m .

• r s I I —

0 . ) 4 3

( A IL M I S . -

c x . r o a ) I z c

-C 1

a )

I x )

f r i c c s t i

I 0 C r E • - 0 i t s U 0 • 1 : 2 ) 0 a ) S . ( I ) _ h e 0 . ) s M I P

c c a . ) ▪

• •

• • u -

• •

2 19

• •

o p

. e-

E c

‘ • \ •

0

0 • • , • • c / I

•

" z / r c t 0 0 ) t E 0

/

ao.

«ma

«I»

a l..

F IGURE 1 9

5

2 20

1 0 c m.

F igure

1 9

R estr icted S light ly E verted R im

T op : M ound 1 , L eve l 3 0; r im - 3 1; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c olor - c lear o range . B ottom : M ound 1 , L eve l 3 0 ; r im - 2 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c olor - d ark o range .

F igure 2 0

R estr icted E verted R im

M ound 1 , L eve l 1 0 ; r im - 5 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog: c o lor g rey ; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip .

2 21

. 1 1 1

L C ) ••••

• • • • •

N

2 22

•••

oe

1 0 c m .

5

0

) i

s

I I

I

/ /

•

• ow.»

• 1 0.

/

. • • •

4 •• •• ••• • • 1• M e

I l•• ••••

C .

F igure

2 1

R estricted E verted R im

T op : M ound 1 , L eve l 3 0 ; r im - 3 4; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - d ark o range; d ark r ed/orange i nner s lip . B ottom : M ound 1 , L eve l 5 ; r im - 9 ; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor d ark o range .

2 23

/

1 0 c m

5

•/ "

V

W ./ • , . 4 • / 1 /%• , " /\ _

s.

\/ • . „ \/4,1•1*• . "/\/ "

/

•

/ \ I N/'/'•/% .1

/• • • /%.

. e1 /‘ •/, /, • •• • • /, . / • • • •/ N ,/ /N /N ./. ./

,/ ,. /\ /• A 2', /

/

e

/

/N . As / • . / Ns/N . /

n • • . -

\/.1 .41 SI V

•7"-‚' "' •

• "N ./

4" / 1 .

S,

"

.. •

"%,

"

" ‘

"

/-/•2 N e

/` •( ' " /N

'

z 5 ",

,/- / • - /,

0

5

F IGURE 2 2

2 24

1 0

2 0 c m

F igure 2 2.

R estricted E verted R im ( Overhanging)

T op: M ound 1 L eve l 2 6; r im - 2 6; p aste - m edium w ith g rog ; c o lor - d ark r ed/orange; n o s lip . B ottom: J ar F ie ld 1 , F unerary U rn # 8; r im - 2 6; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - l ight o range; n o s lip .

2 25

/ • • • , /1 4/ / • . /1

/ * • • • " -z • • • • • , "/ •/" . ." •

R I M

0

F igure 2 3.

5

Overhanging) R estricted E verted R im (

r im - 2 6; J ar F ie ld 1 , F unerary U rn # 5; c l e a r l i g h t p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor o range; n o s lip.

2 26

1 0

2 0 c m

F igure 2 4 .

R estricted E verted R im ( Overhang ing)

J ar F ie ld 1 , P ottery C oncentration # 2; r im - 2 6; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - c lear l ight o range ; d ark o range/red s lip i nside; l ight c omb g rooving o n n eck w ith y e llow p aste r ubbed i nto g rooves.

2 27

L C /

— — . . —

—

_

••••

—

«f e .

•.« .

. . ...,

...

—

c r c s s . 0

M.... . . . ...

—

- .

. . „

• •

. .„ •

CD

•

•

1Z

s _

•

•

r t s

• \

• s 0 E r —

\

r — ( 2

0

'0 W

• C r )

G J 4 — ) C \ J L aj

r ▪ c s •. ‘ ‘ -4

• S .

z

• • • • M M.

• • • • • •

2 28

. ) 7 R im 2

R im 2 5

R im 8

R im 1 2

F igure 2 6

R im 1 5

M isce llaneous R im P rofiles

2 29

R im 2 0

w hite p aint o ver g rooves

1 1 : 11 1 1 .1 1[1: 1 011 E:

g roove

•

i I I II i iHII

F igure 2 7.

g roove +

E xamp les o f p ainted d esigns o n J enn6-jeno p ottery

2 30

c omb i mpression

s tamp a nd c omb i mpression

p aralle l

X) e / •

g rooving

x

W‘ A A ) .

i ncision

C ) 9 Z . ) 4 ) t ) c )

f inger/f ingernail

i mpression

c omb d ragging

s tab + c omb i mpression + g rooved a nd i ncised

) )

F igure 2 8.

s tab + c omb i mpression

E xamp les o f p lastic d esigns o n J enne jene p ottery

2 31

0 t O 0

0

0

p c )

m edium p aste w ith g rog t emper

• •

c oarse p aste w ith g rog

N o

E

0

G ) Cr

C I . S -

0 C 1 )

0 " )4 -) E 0

2

I 0 6.

c >

1

4 ) e t 5 4 )

t .

0-

e r ) N

• t. •

•

0

0

0

•

0 0

r n

0 e l• 1 10

—

r e

C V

C P r • •

i f ,

C D

C r , 0

N

e

( 0 r e .

c o

2 32

i n

C I

0 N

N

N N

r e , N

N

1 0 N

W r - C O N N C . 1

0 ' ) 0 C •I r )

0

c v

t O

f - c f b . 47

r

c 0 0-

e t o

44-0

0 _2

0

p r )

a ) s . _ c r )

c lear o range

d ark o range,

0 i n

•

•

•

•

C D

1

C -.

k r.5

0

0 O D

0

0

0

0

0

e e t t o P . I n

o ( 7 1 0

-

r e

e

C D P . -

C D

W

C r )

0 cJ

2 33

N N

e t o

N

r -c o

N

N

C A 0 N

0 r t -

•

4 . 0

P 1

0 r ‘ l

re

r n

t v I t e

p - c r t

r e

05 "

Z

e-

6

C V

1 e t ( 0

b lack o r w hite

0

l ight o range

d ark r ed/orange

•

,

1 ,

7I -

C -•

I

0 ( N J

0

1 "

1

e

P -

1

II c o s r 0 . _

C u

e ø p t . c 0 i n

2 34

1

C r ) 0 I v C V CV CV

p v e N A . ) C V

1 - c o c r 0 r C V C V C V r e )

0

‘ , 0

o z s 13

4 ) _C u f• r , --

4 ) r d

e

r -_ CI

0 L f l

N

W

e

r s - c r ,

c o _

P r )

T I C \ e

r -

0

4 ) C ' s . 1 . 3 _ ) z C -r ) a ) c u L. ) S s — . 4 -, C U ( L S 0_ C : 1 ) • r - S 4 ) f r 5

C o

C

C

P)

' t

( . 0 1 • - I n

C O 0, 0 —

r " )

C e

( J O

2 35

c o

( C )

0 )

0 — C \ J

r \ t

e • t r ) M i

C O

r ) 0

CV

CV

r ? )

MOUND

1

MOUND

1

1

2

2

3

2

5

5

H7

8

8 ,9

1 2 F 16

1

1 4

1 2

1 0

1 5

1 4

1 6

r- 1 5 ,16

20

1 7

22 2 4

1 0

20

30

40

50

20

3 0

40

50

0/ 0

30 1 0

20

30

40

5 07 0

S imp le U nrestricted R ims

1

I 2

2

3

5

5

H7 8 , 9

a 1 2 H6

1 0 1

1 4

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6 20

1 5 ,16 1 7

22

1 0

24 30 1 0

20

30

40

50 %

P ot lids

F igure 3 3 F requency o f r im s hapes t hrough t ime e xpressed a s p ercent o f r im s herds p er l eve l ( for l eve ls w here t ota l r im s herds >3 0).

2 36

0/ 0

MOUND

1

MOUND

2

1 2

2

3

5

5

H7

a

8 ,9

1 2 H6

1 0 1

1 4

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6

1 5 ,16

20

1 7

22 24

1 0

20

30

40

50

3 0

40

5 0 0/ 0

0/ 0

30 1 0

20

30

40

50

%

S imp le R estricted R ims

2

2

5

3 5

H7 8 ,9

a 1 2 H

1 0 1

1 4

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6 20

1 5,16 1 7

22

1 0

24 30 1 0

20

30

40

20

50 cI o

t arinated F orms

F igure 3 4 F requency o f r im s hapes t hrough t ime e xpressed a s p ercent o f r im s herds p er l eve l (f or l eve ls w here t otal r im s herds)30).

2 37

MOUND

1

MOUND

2

2

2

3

5

5

H7

a

8 ,9

1 2 H6

1 0 1

1 4

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6

1 5 ,16

20

1 7

22 2 4

1 0

20

30

40

50

( 1 0

20

3 0

40

50 70

30 1 0

20

30

40

5 07 0 T -r ims ( and v ar iants)

2

2 3

5

5

HT 8 , 9

1 2 H6

1 0 1

1 4

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6 20

1 5 ,16 I T

^

22

1 0

24

3 0 1 0

20

30

40

50

cl o

E verted R im

F igure 3 5 F requency o f r im s hapes t hrough t ime e xpressed a p ercent o f r im s herds p er l eve l ( for l eve ls w here t otal r im s herds > 30).

2 38

F igure 3 6 C umulat ive g raph o f t w ine d ecorated r im ( ) a nd b ody ( --) s herd f requencies e xpressed a s p ercent o f r im + b ody s herds p er l eve l.

1 , 2 3 ,4 H2 ,6 ,7

M OUND 1

5 8 M I»

1 0

• •••

I 1 2 1 3 ,14 • •••

H6 1 7 ,18

b ody s herds

r ims

1 5

q u e

1 6 1 9 -

20

2 1, 22

L

23 , 2 4 2 5,28 29

> I

30

•

3 ,H 3 5

M OUND 2

2 6 4 , H4 H7 8 , 9 1 0 , H8

b ody s herds

r ims 1 3

t e . •• • •

•••

1 2

• • ••

` a .

1 4

%

1 0

20

30

40

2 39

50

60

70

80

90

V ) I 4- 0 • • f- 4 ) r4 ) C 1 ) O 4- > E 0 C U rG J 4 -) C C S . • e - C 1 ) G ) 4 . . ) • o s . . 0-

X • I V ) 40 V ) C U • v -

C I ) V ) C a -1 : 1 5 , ( ) C I ) n j _C V ) -1 0 G ) >> V ) -0 V I 0 C D -0

2 C I ) X Z C U CC ) r-

C n 3

E • r -

S 4-

-0

C 0 . ) = > 0 * r4 -) n j 4 -3 i -- ( C 1 C L )

S -0

C L )

4 )

c e c u

r t : $ S . 0 ( . )

C U E -a

• r4 -) -C C >2 L C)

. .

0 c . )-

.

0 CI

0

c m 0 r."

•• • 1 1 1 .

e 7.

r n -

W C O V ) I D C h 0 i

-

-

-

-

r : -

N g r G O 7-

- I t v e d

2 40

1 )

0

.

g i 0

0

. . .

—

M N

0

= I ) C r ) •1 L. L .

1 C I ) C

I

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E

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0

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t i )

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—

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N

P laklter

2 41

C Z )

O D

r E D-

0

•rU -

N

t r o —

I

C O

i n

( D

0 )

0

N

N

N

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C r ) 0

N

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1. •

r Oi f l c q

2 42

N

N

I C C )

z

/ . ‘

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i

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\

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-

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r e ) I n C \ J

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r ( ) N

t o r - c o

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4 0 E 0 C ) • r C C . ) 4-

C rr e -0 C D S - C l ) U S . CT 4 -, 5 - C ) r e C ) C I ) S . - Q. > • u " ) 4 > C I ) r e

/

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r a w

z

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0

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e r - i n . - . , r )

( D N

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—

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2 43

C O L r ) C D C ) — — - — -

—

O N N

e . 1

: 1 - C O CV

-

_

C \ I

-

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tO

l i l

c \ J

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N

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f \

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C T C l . ) • C e— S - V I 4 a ) >

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( 1 )

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f • • C O

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s . _ S . . C T ) E • t C D 5 > 4 -) C C L ) t e 4 -) r - ( S . V a ) E 3

73 . a . )

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40

A

V / V I C I . X

• r L i -

N

r -

i n

CO

0

—

oamp

t i me

N

g t

c 0

r e )

2 44

( . 0

0 1

0

N

c 0

CA

0

—

E ( . )

a I

1 . . r )

a

0 1 s _

-f 0

O 0

. 1 .nj

. . c r ) o s c m

4 -,

c 0 ( ) •^ a )

4 ) • r. ,— ( 1 )

• , •

o -0

a )

I -)

R S C r-

s -

r t s c _ . ) .

CV cr

a ) S . = o ) . , L s -

2 45

e , 4 E • . -

_Y -0

V I

•r . 1: 3

( 1 ) c l ) C T , W . . C v,

( • J

r o S . r m

r 0 C a ) c o > 4' a )c L ' n . _ _ J

CV

C r )14 . r- ( r ) = _C

0 % c ( c ) c u = ra ) _ 0 o u s. E

I go

0

F igure 4 3.

5

1 0

J ar 1 0

V isib le o n s urface o f M ound 2 w ithin w alls o f H ouses 3 a nd 4 ; r im - u nknown; p aste - m edium w ith g rog; c o lor - c lear l ight o range/buff; n o i nterior s lip.

2 46

i

2 0 c m

•

F igure 4 4.

P ot lid w ith r aised r e lief d ecoration

2 47

( scale 1 :1)

F igure 4 5.

P ot lid w ith r aised r e lief d ecorat ion ( anteater? ) ( sca le 1 :1)

2 48

F igure 4 6.

P ot lid w ith r aised r e lief d ecoration ( scale 1 :1)

2 49

F igure 4 7.

P ot lid w ith r aised r e lief d ecoration ( serpent?) ( scale 1 :1)

2 50

U -shaped, f langed b eaker f rom M 2, L eve l 2 ( scale 1 :2)

F IGURE 4 8

C eram ic " pest le" f rom M 2, L eve l 2( scale 1 :1)

2 51

" Crucib le" f rom M l, L eve l 8 ( scale 2 :1)

F IGURE 4 9

z oomorphic f igurine f rom M l, L eve l 1 4 ( scale 2 :1)

" Pottery g o ldweight" ( ?) f rom J F 1, L eve l 6 ( scale 2 :1)

2 52

P endant o n e p iderm ic p late o f ac rocodile, f rom M 2, L eve l 1 8 ( scale 2 :1)

F IGURE 5 0

B iconically p erforated w arthog t usk f rom M l, L eve l 2 3 ( scale 1 :1)

P ecked a nd a braded r ubb ing s tone f rom M l, L eve l 8 ( scale 2 :1)

2 53

T ab le A . T otal r im a nd b ody s herds r ecorded f rom e ach e xcavated l evel o f M ound 1 . L eve l

T ptal S herds

R im S herds

B ody S herds

1

6 0 1

1 74

4 27

2

1 76

3 7

1 39

3

2 70

6 9

2 0 1

4

15

2

9 3

H s 2

12

2 7

8 5

5

3 89

1 24

2 65

6

4 6

1 6

3 0

7

8 2

1 9

6 3

8

5 92

1 6 1

2 70

9

2 9

1 5

1 4

1 0

6 2

1 8

4 4

1

8 7

1 7

7 0

1 2

6 44

2 02

4 42

1 3

1 08

3 2

7 6

H s 6

13

4 7

6 6

1 4

3 84

15

2 69

1 5

2 79

9 4

1 85

1 6

1 02

3 4

6 8

1 7

7 4

2 0

5 4

1 8

2 4

1 9

7 4

2 3

5 1

2 0

4 98

10

2 78

2 1

6 9

1 5

5 4

2

1 42

3 6

1 06

2 3

9 6

2 8

6 8

2 4

1 9 1

4 3

1 48

2 5

3 2

2 6

6 8

2 7

2 7

2 8

3 2

1

2 1

2 9

8 6

1 3

7 3

3 0

54

1 4 1

4 13

8

6 1 6 7

2 54

1 6

2 6 5 2 2 0

T ab le B . T otal r im a nd b ody s herds r ecorded f rom e ach e xcavated l eve l o f M ound 2 .

L evel

T otal S herds

R im S herds

B ody S herds

1

1 23

3 9

8 4

2

10

4 0

7 0

3

2 2

8

1 4

H s 3

1 5

3

1 2

4

1 3

2

1

2 1

5

1 6

H s 4 5

10

6

3 2

3 5 6

7 5 2 6

H s 7

6 2

2 2

4 0

8

7 2

2 3

4 9

9

2 1

1 0 H s 8

8

1 26

5 2

1 5

4

1 3 7 4 1

1

2 36

16

1 20

1 2

2 58

10

1 48

1 3

3 4

1 4

8 3

3 1

5 2

1 5

7 7

2 1

5 6

1 6

1 0

1 7

1 09

8

2 5 3

2 55

2 6

8 5 6

T ABLE C .

a ja

1 ,2 7 12 9 1 3 . 4 17 ,14 1 1 1 ,2 3 117

1

6 8

9

2

1 4

3

3

1 7

5

4 H s2

1 9

4

1

6

2

8

1

6

4

2

9

6

7

2

5

1

5

3 1

8

7 8

-

1

1 2

1 1

1 5

1 8

1

3

1 1

1

1

0

6

3

2

1

5 5

H t s6

5

1

6

1 7

1

2

1 8

-

1 5 1 6

3

1 1

.

2 0

2 2 2 3 2 4

1

1

'2

1 0

1

5 1 0 8 1 1

2 5

1

2

1

2 6

-

2

1

2 8 2 9

3 0

4

R im 0 =1:

1

1

3 1

2

R im 2 2=7;

4

-

1 -

2

-

1

1

7

1

1 1

2

1

1

4

1

1 0

1

1

1

5

1

5

2

1

2

1

2

1

5

2

2

1 5

1

1

5 1

8 6

2

3 5

3 1

2

1

3

1 1 2 -

1

1

1-

1

2

1-

1

1

4

2

1 -

-

3

1

- 1 -

4

2 2

1

1

1

1 -

9

4

6

2

9

5 1

-

1

-

-

1

2

1 -

1

1

4

5

1

2

2

2

-

2

1

R im 2 4=1;

4

1

2 3

2

2

2 30

1 2

3

3

1 0

1

2

-

2

9

1 2

- 3-

1

1

7

2

2 8

1

2

1

2 9

-

2 _ 3 8 2 0 8 2 2 00

0

1

8

34 1 _ 43 7

4

1

7

2 7

1

1

1 4

2 1

2

1

7

1

1

1

1 2115 2 0

1

6

5

4

1

1 7

8

6

1

1

4

1

1

1

4

4

1

3

1

8

1 8

1 5

1 - 1

5

1

3

6

5

9

.

2

9

3 2

6

2

1 4

6

6

4

2

2 5

3 1 7

1 4

1 9

2 1

7

3 2

8

1

8

1 3 0

1

4

2

1

4

4

1

2

1 3

-

1

2

1 1

2 6 1 9 8

2

1 5

9

1 3128 2 1

5

2 0

2

1 4

1

1

2

1 3

4

2

1 1

8 0

3 2

4

1 0

1 2

8

2

1

6

3 0 3 0.16.18 6 ,9,34 1)1,215 2 1

7

1

7

9

F requencies o f m ajor r im c lasses f rom e xcavated l eve ls i n M 1

4

1

1 2

-

_ 12

2 8

5 4

3 07

R im 2 5=4

2 56

6 3 2

2

- 1 -

1

A Z

1

-

1 - 2

-

7 8

3 6 7 5

-

4 3 0 1 0 2 2 1 0

1

5 7 4

1

I

I

1

1

1

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I

I

I

I

I

1

1

1

1

.4

1

1

1

1

1

1

94

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4 4

l

e

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

91

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I

e

" .

1

1

9 4

1

I

1

, r . 1

I

It w %

I

1

. . 1

I

. 4 4

e 4 . 4

1

N

I

I

r\

N

I

1

. 4

1

1

9 . 4

1

1

C V

I

. 4

I tc, v ,I I . 4.e .

I

I

. 1.

N

I

I

N

N

I

I

4 4

1

1

1

1

1

( N J

, _

I

I

1

1

i n t r%

‘. 4

I

9 4

N

. 1

1

N

I

i ntn i

e . 1 N

e

9 4

r1

I

1

I

I

C ^ 1

I

, 4

I

1

I

1

1

1

I

1

N , 4

, 4 1 4

N

C '1 C O =

N

t r1

VD

. 4

1

1

I

9 . 4

1

1

1

1

1

. 1

N .9 . 1

1

N

1

I

e e V I =

2 57

1

1

I

1

1

N

1

1

I 1

. 4

I

N

r e1

1

. e .

I le I

e 1

CA

1

9 1

I

1

1

N

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

e 4

I

I

N

I

I

I

1

I

I

C Y

r1

9 . 4

1

Ic o . . 4 . " 1 I c . .

I

I

v-% 9 4

N

I

C Y

N

n N

2 '

1n

I

V.1 . 4

1

in

I

IA

1

VN

. 9 . 1

0 1 1

C O

9 . 1

C O e 4

n

0 1 . 4

1

1

1

1

0 '1 m I

1

e• • I

. 4 . 4

1 . 4

. . 1 '

9 4

V ".1 . e 4

.e

1 • 4

I N I .0

1

1

1

1

1

1

OD

N

e . . 1

C ' . •

N 4

V>1 C Y ( . "1

C % -, t 's L O =

C r \

C O

0 . 4

C O C O =

I

I

C O

1

I

9 . 4

I

l

1 0D

N • r4

1

C O

I

1 1

I

1

I

1

1

1

( 7 " , . 4

% I.1 N

4 . 4

, 4 . 4

1 , 4

I

I

l 1

I

0 N

I

9 . 4

1

YD 4 . 4

1

1

UN 1 . 4

9 1

1

1

c , c o e I

C . -

0

i

I

I

I

1 A

I

r1 . 9 . 1

1

. C " . c v e % . 0 c % .

e 4

1 . 4

1

) . r ‘

e 1 . 4

1

1

1

I

CO

1

4 4 .1

1

1

r\

I Itn i . 4 -e cv

1 91

N

1

1

9 1

1

1

1

1 . 4

I

1

1

1

I

1

1

4 . 4

e 4

4

I

I

I

, 4 a ) > a )

9 . 1

I

N

. 9

1

1 . 4 . , 1 . . 1 . / 1 e 1

CO 4 , 4

9 1 0 q r 4

N I OD

a )

5 4

. g

t e

a ) s h .

T ab le E . B ase s herds e xcavated f rom M ound 1 a nd M ound 2

L eve l

n umber & t ype o f b ase s herds

b ase s herds a s % o f b ody s herds i n l evel

1

2r ing

4 0 .0 1

3

1r ing

4 0 .0 1

4

1r ing

1 .0

1r ing

1 .0

5

5r ing 1f lat

1 .9

8

3r ing

1 .1

1 2

1f lat

4 0 .0 1

1 4

3r ing

1 .1

1 5

6r ing 2p ot legs

3 .2

1 6

1r ing

1 .5

1 7

1r ing

1 .7

2 0

9r ing

3 .2

2 1

1r ing

1 .7

2

1r ing

1 .0

2 3

1r ing

1 .5

2 4

6r ing

3 .4

2 6

3r ing

5 .7

2 9

2r ing

2 .8

3 0

7r ing 1f lat 1c rown 5p ot legs

3 .6

2r ing

5 .0

1

4r ing

3 .3

1 2

1r ing 1p ot leg

1 .3

1 4

1r ing

1 .9

1 7

1r ing 1p ot leg

3 .6

H s 2

H s 7

2 58

T ABLE F .

O ccurrence o f p ot h and les a nd l ugs

E lliptical l ugs

Handles

M l L evel 1

3

L evel

3

2

L evel

5

1

L evel 8

2

9

1

L evel 1 1

1

L evel 1 2

2

L evel 1 3

1

6

3

L evel

H ouse

L evel 1 5 L evel 2 0

1

1 2

L evel 2 1 L evel 2 3

1

1 1

M2

H ouse

3

1

L evel

8

2

L evel

1 2

2

L evel

1 4

2

L evel

1 5

1

2 59

r e )

L r )

( Y )

C V

r im c lasses

r --

r

c

h . C D C Y ) C T ) 0 1 L C ' ) L C ) C ) C Y ) r — C V r e ) r e ) r e ) r — C Y ) . • • • • • . • • d - C V C V d - C Y ) C Y ) ( Y )

k r )

r —

EEE

E E

E E d '

C " )

L C ) C T t . C ) t . C ) C O C ) C ) L U ' 1 • • • . C D r " ) t . 0

r — 0 3

N . C V

C V C V

N .

L . r )

t . 0 o r-)

C ) L r )

C O ( I D

C V

C I

c t -

c

E F

C V

r — CY )

r e )

d -

C Y-) •

d -

EE

r e ) d - N . L U l . 0 L r ) . . . • C r ) I X )

•

C V

d N .

C N .

N .

L n

N .

C O

•

C V

• • C V C V

C r t

d L C 1 C ' • )

E e • •

r —

L c ) d - L C D • 0 ) r e )

( . C )

L t-) r e ) LU

•• • C ' ) 0 r • •

e N .

C 7 1

c 0

L . c ) N .

C Y )

N .

C D

C Y )

2 60

N .

• • • C V C V r —

C O

C r )

C T )

•

L t-) ( . 1 D

C : 7 )

C O

CO

L C )

•

r—

EE E E E E E E E E E r e )

N .

E

C rI

E

E

i c t C " )

L U c ) r e ) 0 r e ) C O • • C ) r —

L n N . t . fJ • I - C O

LU

c m

r e )

r e )

O D c \ J

d '

N .

C ) r e )

r e )

, --

, -

e t

CD

( . 0

0

e r )

c • . )

N .

0

CO

C \ J

LU

T ab le H . C o lors r ecorded f or p ainted r im + b ody s herds f rom e ach e xcavated l eve l o f M ound 1 L eve l 1

W hite 3 6

M agenta 1 0

B lack 2

2

4

1

1

3

4

1

3

4 H s 2 5

2

1

1 2 1 3

7

3

8

6

2

1

1

1

3

1

1 2

1 4

1 3

1 0

1 1

1 0

H s 6

R edY e ll ow U nspecif ied P aste C o lor

1 9

1 1 1 3

3

1

6

5

1 4

3 9

1 5

3 3

1 6

1 8

1 7

5

1 8

6

1 9

1 9

2 0

5 7

2 1 5

1

2

7 1

4

3

2 2 2

8

2 1

3

1

2

3

1

2 3

1

1

1

2 4

1

1

2

2 6

2 2 1 2

1

2 7

1

3 0

1

2

1

3

2 61

1 3

T ab le I . A ttr ibutes o f p last ic d ecoration r ecorded f or r im + b ody s herds f rom e ach e xcavated l eve l o f M ound 1 L eve l

G rooves

C omb I mpress

I ncise

1

1 20

6

3

2

3 2

1

1

3

5 8

1

1

4

1 9

H s 2

2 0 7 0

5 6

2

1 3

8

9 6 1

1

1 7

1 2

1 44

1 3

3 2

H s 6

2 3

1

1

2

2

7

2

2

7 1

1 1 0

5

3

1 5

1 3

3

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1 2

2

1 6

2 0

1

1 7

1 6

1

2

4 1

6

1 9

1 9

2 0

7 1

2

6

7 2 1

1

1

9 2 8

2

2

3

4

2 6

8

1

2 7

2

2 8

1

2 9

3 5

1 1

2 5

3 0

1

1

4 9

2 4

2

1

1 5

2 3

2

D rag

5

1 0 1

2

1

C omb

1

1 4

2 1

S tamp

1

5

1 0

1 8

ge r I mpress

F in

5

7

9

S tipp le

7

2 62

5

T ab le J . D ecorat ive A ttr ibutes r ecorded f or r im + b ody s herds f rqm e ach e xcavated l eve l o f M ound 2 P AINT L eve l

W hite

M agenta

1

B lack

1

2

2

3 +Hs 3

2

4 +Hs 4

2

1

5

2

1

8+ 9

1

1

7

1

1 0 +H s 8 1

R ed

3

1

1 2

1 7

1 4

1 3

1

1 6

2

1 5 +1 6 1 7

1

2

9 P LASTIC

L eve l

G rooves

C omb I mpress

I ncise

1

2 0

1

2

2 1

3

3 +Hs 3

3

4 +Hs 4

5

5 6

2

3

2

2 5

2

1

3 6

3

1 2

6 3

2

1 1 7

1

1

1

1

5 6

1

1

1 2

2

1

2 0 2 6

1

1

9

1 7

5

1

5

8+9

1 5 +1 6

1

C omb D rag

2

1

1 4

S tamp

2 1

8

1 3

F inger I mpress

1

H s 7

1 0+Hs 8

S tipp le

2 1

2 63

APPENDIX I I

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES I N MALI

2 64

EXPLANATORY NOTES FOR APPENDIX I I

Th is l i s t o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w i th I ron Age c o mponen ts i nves t iga ted i n Ma l i p r ior t o 1 977 r ecords s i te n ame , d a te o f i nves t iga t ion , a nd me thod o f i nves t iga t ion , f o l lowed b y c a tegor iza t ion o f s i te t ype ( e .g ., t umu lus , s e t t le men t s i te , e tc .) , a nd r e ferences a nd p ubl ica t ions c oncern ing t he r esu l ts o f t he i nves t iga t ion .

S i te n u mbers l oca te s i tes o n t he a cco mpanying map .

Me thod o f i nves t iga t ion i s c lass i f ied a ccord ing t o t he d egree o f c on trol ma int a ined i n t he f ie ld .

F u l l C on tro l i s d ef ined a s t he a pprec ia tion b y t he e xcava tor

o f s tra t igraphy , a ssocia t ion o f s i te e le men ts , a nd t he a ccura te r ecord ing a nd p ub l ica t ion o f t hose e le men ts .

L im i ted C on tro l i mp l ies t ha t f u l l measure men ts

were t aken i n o ne d i mens ion o n ly ( usua l ly t he v er t ica l ).

On ly i n forma l r ecords ,

s uch a s s che ma t ic v er t ica l s ec t ions , were k ep t a t s i tes d ug b y N om ina l C on tro l . N o C on tro l means e x tens ive e xcava t ion w i thou t r eference t o s tra t igraphy , a ssoc ia t ion , o r p roper r ecord ing p rocedures.

S ur face C o l lect ion i nc ludes

t he s elect ion o f c er ta in a r t i fact c lasses f ro m t he s i te s ur face a nd p o t-hun t ing .

2 65

L IST O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES ( c .

5 00 B .C.- A .D.1800)

I NVESTIGATED I N M ALI P RIOR T O 1 977

S ITE

D ATE I NVEST IGATED

I NVESTIGATOR

M ETHOD O F I NVESTIGATION

1 .

B aguineda 1 929 ( Tumulus);

2 .

n r. B amako 1 976-7 A .O .Konare F u ll ( Hypogeum); K onare:pers. c omm., 1 977

3 .

n r. B andiagara 1 952 G .Szumowski ( Rock s he lter); S zumowski 1 956c

S urface C o llection

4 .

B ankoni

1 954-5 G .Szumowski ( Pseudotumulus);Szumowski 1 958

N o C ontrol

5 .

B ango

1 952 ( Sett lement);

6 .

B ougoumeira 1 940? P .Avinen ( Tumu lus?); A vinen 1 942

S urface C ollection

7 .

D alabani 1 950 ( Hypogeum);

V .Paques M auny 1 961:127

N o C ontrol

8 .

D anewal

T .Monod S urface C ollection M auny 1 949; S cu lpture S oudanaise 1 947

9 .

D iguidiguida 1 952 ( Sett lement);

1 0. D ioura

1 945 ( Sett lement);

1 952 ( Sett lement);

P omozanoff S urface C ollection r eported i n M auny 1 961:100 C ontrol

G .Szumowski N ominal C ontrol S zumowski 1 957a; M auny 1 961:103

G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 961

N o C ontrol

G .Szumowski N o C ontrol S zumowski 1 957a; M auny 1 961:103

1. D jimdjim 1 954-5 R .Mauny, J .Daget ( Sett lement); M auny 1 961:104-5

N ominal

1 2. D ogo

N o C ontrol?

1 970 ( Hypogeum); 1 973-4

M .Cisse L iesegang 1 975a

C ontrol

G .Liesegang F u ll C ontrol? L iesegang 1 975a, 1 975b, 1 977

2 66

1 3.

D oupw il

1 975 ( Sett lement);

1 4. e l-Oualadgi 1 904 ( Tumulus);

R .M.A.Bedaux L imited C ontrol B edaux 1 975, 1 976, n .d. L T .Desp lagnes N ominal D esp lagnes 1 907:57-66, 1 951; L ebeuf a nd P aques 1 970:23-50

C ontrol

1 954

R .Mauny M auny 1 961:96-7

S urface C ollection

1 5. n r.Famanbougou 1 971 ( Hypogeum);

M .Cisse L iesegang 1 975a

N o C ontrol

1 973-4

1 6.

F atoma

1 7.

F eto-Kole 1 952 ( Sett lement);

1 8. G alia

1 952 ( Sett lement);

1 975 ( Sett lement);

G .Liesegang F u ll C ontrol? L iesegang 1 975a, 1 975b, 1 977 G .Szumowski N ominal C ontrol S zumowski 1 954; M auny 1 961:102 G .Szumowski N o C ontrol S zumowski 1 957a; M auny 1 961:103 R .M .A .Bedaux L imited C ontrol B edaux 1 975, 1 976, n .d.

B .le P ontois S urface C ollection M auny 1 961:112-3 J .K ikoine N o C ontro l M auny 1 961:112-3; F light 1 978b 1 950-1 R .Mauny N om inal C ontrol M auny 1 961:112-3, 4 92-3, 4 98-9

1 9. G ao a ncien 1 931 ( Urban); 1 949

2 0. G ao S ane 1 939 M .Bartoli N o C ontrol ( Urban); M auny 1 961:113; F light 1 978b 1 972,1974 a nd 1 978 C .F light F u ll C ontrol F light 1 975b, 1 978b, 1 979 2 1. G oubo

1 931-2 H .C lerisse ( Tumu lus); M auny 1 961:101

2 2. J enne-jeno 1 938 ( Urban); 2 3. K am i

G .Vieillard M auny 1 961:102

N o C ontrol

N o C ontrol

1 948 R .Mauny S urface C o llection ( Sett lement) M auny 1 949 1 949-50 D .Wintrebert S urface C ollection M asson-Detourbet 1 953; M auny 1 961:102 1 952

G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 955a

2 67

N o C ontrol

1 933

2 4. K aniana ( Urban);

1 943 1 955

2 5.

K e-Bozo

2 6.

K e lebere 1 956 ( Sett lement);

2 7. K oa

1 952 ( Sett lement);

G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 957a

2 8. K o lima

1 930 ( Sett lement); 1 954

K oubai 1 952 ( Sett lement);

3 0. K ouga

3 1. K oukiya

1 954-5

S urface C o llection

G .Szumowski N o C ontro l S zumowski 1 956a; M auny 1 961:102

c .1900 i nhabitants ( Sett lement); L igers 1 957 1 964

2 9. n r.

C .Daire S urface C ollection M auny 1 961:101; V ieillard 1 940 T .Monod • S urface C ollection M onod 1 943 J .Daget S urface C ollection D aget 1 955

S urface c o llection

H .Hase lberger H ase lberger 1 965,1966

S urface C ollection

C hristoforoff M auny 1 961:97-100 R .Mauny M auny 1 961:100

N o C ontrol S urface C ollection

M .Bardage S urface C ollection S zumowski 1 955a; M asson-Detourbet 1 953

( Tumu lus);

R .Mauny, J .Daget F u ll M auny 1 961:106-11; 1 964

C ontrol

1 921 ( Sett lement);

G .de G ironcourt S urface C ollection M auny 1 961:120; d e G ironcourt 1 911

3 2. K ourounkorokale 1 951-3 G .Szumowski ( Rock s he lter); S zumowski 1 956b

N ominal

3 3. M acina

S urface C ollection

1 952 ( Sett lement);

G .Szumowski S zumowski I 957a

3 4. M oribadougou 1 954 G .Szumowski ( Pseudotumulus);Szumowski 1 958 3 5. N antaka

1 948 ( Sett lement); 1 952

3 6. N gom i

1 954 G .Szumowski ( Pseudotumulus),Szumowski 1 958

C ontro l

N o C ontrol

R .Mauny S urface C ollection M auny 1 949 G .Szumowski N o C ontrol S zumowski 1 956a; M auny 1 961:102

2 68

N O C ontrol

3 7. n r.

N gomi 1 972 ( Sett lement);

3 8. N okara

H .Barth, K .Krieg B arth 1 977

N ominal

C ontrol

1 966

H aan, H uinziga S urface C o llection H uinziga 1 968; B edaux 1 972

3 9. N ouhoun-Bozo 1 964 ( Sett lement);

H .Hase lberger S urface C o llection H ase lberger 1 965:477-9; 1 966

4 0.

G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 957a

N o C ontrol

4 1. O ueyanko 1 954-5 G .Szumowski ( Pseudotumuli); S zumowski 1 957b

N o C ontro l

4 2. P ehe

N om inal

C ontrol

N ominal

C ontrol

( Cave);

N ouma-Sourinda 1 952 ( Sett lement);

1 930 ( Sett lement); 1 952

C .C lause l M auny 1 961:97-8 G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 957a

4 3.

P e lengena 1 952-3 G .Szumowski ( Sett lement); S zumowski 1 957a

4 4.

P oint

' G ' ( Cave);

1 932 1 951

4 5. S anga ( Caves);

d e Z a ltner S zumowski 1 953 G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 953

N o C ontrol

S urface C ollection N o C ontrol

1 964-6,71 R .M.A.Bedaux F u ll B edaux 1 972, 1 973, 1 974

4 6. S are-Dary 1 949 ( Sett lement);

P .Bar let B ar let 1 949

C ontrol

S urface C ollection

4 7. S egoubougou 1 952-3 G .Szumowski N om inal C ontrol ( Sett lement); S zumowski 1 957a; M auny 1 961:103 4 8. S egoukcro 1 954-5 G .Szumowski ( Sett lement); S zumowski 1 957a

S urface C ollection

4 9. S evara-Lode 1 952 ( Sett lement);

G .Szumowski S zumowski 1 957a

N o C ontrol

5 0. n r. S evare 1 972 ( Sett lement);

M .Sarr S arr 1 972

N ominal C ontrol ( Rescue)

5 1. n n S evare 1 972 ( Sett lement);

H .Barth, K .Krieg B arth 1 977

N ominal

2 69

C ontrol

5 2. S infansy 1 901 L t.Desp lagnes N ominal C ontrol ( Tumu lus); D esp lagnes 1 90 , 1 907:57, L ebeuf a nd P aques 1 970. A .K .A. K illi, K ol G oureye 5 2. T admekka ( Urban);

1 935 1 952

5 4 . T eghaza ( Urban);

H .Lhote S urface C ollect ion L hote 1 951. A .K .A. E s-Souk R .Mauny N om inal C ontro l M auny 1 961:117-8, 4 87-8

1 937-8

L t.Lang lais M auny 1 961:116-7 1 938 H .Bessac B essac 1 950 1 934-4 T .Monod M auny 1 961:116-7 1 944 L t.Bougrat M auny 1 961:116-7 1 949-50 G .de G ironcourt M auny 1 961:116-7

N o C ontrol N o C ontro l S urface C o llection S urface C o llection N o C ontro l

5 5. T emouna-Sebera 1 945 ( Sett lement);

T .Monod M onod 1 955

S urface C ollect ion

5 6. T endirma 1 896 ( Tumu lus);

C pt.F loren fin D esp lagnes 1 90 : 1 53-5

N o C ontro l

5 7. T iebala 1 960 ( Sett lement)

A .Gallay M auny 1 967b:53

N o C ontro l?

5 8. T ienra

M .Aris A ns 1 950

N o C ontrol

P .Avinen A vinen 1 942

S urface C ollection

1 949 ( Hypogeum);

5 9. T in T ara 1 940 ( Tumu lus?); 6 0. T ogou

1 952-3 G .Szumowsk ( Sett lement) S zumowsk i 1 957

N o C ontrol

6 1. T ondia

1 954-5 R .Mauny, J D aget ( Sett lement); M auny 1 961:105 6

N o C ontro l

6 2. T ondidarou 1 908 ( Megaliths); 1 922

G .de G iron o urt t u ny 1 961:13C E .Maes 't e s 1 924 1 931-2 H .C lerissE ' erisse 1 933

6 3. n r. K odougouni 1 958 ( Sett lement);

R .Pageard g eard 1 975

2 70

S urface C o llect ion S urface C o llection N o C ontro l

N o C ontro l

2 71

APPENDIX W

S PECIALIST REPORTS ON FAUNAL RE MA INS I . I .

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2 72

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J ENNE-JENO--MOUND 2 T he m in imum n umber o f i nd iv idua l s ma ll b ov ids r epresented b y v ar ious s ke letal e lements L EVELS 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 H ouse 8 1- M andib le I nnom inate T he m inimum n umber o f i nd ividua l s ma ll m edium b ovids r epresented b y v arious s ke leta l e lements L EVELS 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 H ouse 8 m axilla - - - 1 m and ib le ? 1 - - - - 1 - - - - t h or a c ic v ertebrae 1 U lna-proximal 1 1 - P ha langes-lst 1 3rd - 1 -- - - - - T ib ia-proximal 1 T he m in imum n umber o f l arge m edium b ovid i ndividuals r epresented b y v ar ious s ke leta l e lements L EVELS 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 H ouse 8 C ervicals 3 -7 1 C arpa ls - - - 1 -- - - - - P halanges-lst - 1 2nd 1 A stragalus 1 1 N aviculo-cubo id 1 1 T he m in imum n umber o f l arge b ovid i nd ividuals r epresented b y v ar ious s ke letal e lements L EVELS 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 H ouse 8 m axilla l cf 1 m andib le T he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals b y w h ich v ar ious m amma lian s pecies a re r epresented. L EVELS 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 H ouse 8 R edunca r edunca, r eedbuck ? 1 - - - 1 - - - - B os t aurus/Syncerus c affer , s ma ll b ovine - l cf - - - - - l cf 1 O vis a r ies/Capra h ircus, c apr ine - ? 1 i dae - g eneral s mall 1 1 s mall m edium 1 1 1 1 1 l arge m edium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l arge 1 1 1

B ird

- -

J ENNE-JENO - J AR F IELD 1 T he m in imum n umber o f s ma ll m edium b ovid i ndividua ls r epresented b y v ar ious s ke leta l e lements L EVELS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F eature 2 m andib le - - - 1 - 1 - H umerus-distal 1 P ha langes-3rd - T he m inimum n umber o f l arge b ovid i ndividuals r epresented b y v ar ious s ke letal e lements L EVELS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F eature 2

m ax illa P ha langes1st

1 - 1 - -

2nd

1 - -

T he m inimum n umber o f p eop le r epresented b y v ar ious s ke leta l e lements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F eature 2 d ent it ion - - 1 -- - - a stragalus - 1 -- - - T he m inimum n umber o f j acka l-size c arn ivores r epresented b y v ar ious s ke letal e lements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F eature 2 m etapodial - 1 -- - - T he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals b y w hich v ar ious m ammalian s pecies a re r epresented 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 F eature 2 H omo s apiens, p eop le - 1 C arnivora g en . e t s p . i ndet . j acka l-size c arn ivore 1 R edunca r edunca, r eedbuck 1 1 n riid rus/Syncerus c affer , b ovine 1 B ovidae--genera l s ma ll m edium - 1 1 1 1 l arge 1

2 78

I DENTIFICATION OF F ISH RE MAINS FRO M J ENNE-JENO R epor ted b y G ordon H owes D epar tmen t o f Z oo logy Br i t ish Museum ( Na tura l H is tory )

MOUND 1 L evel 1 /2 :

C lar ias : L a tes :

s ku l l b ones v er tebrae a nd f in s p ines

S ynodon t is : p ec tora l g ird le Var ious s p ines a nd f ragmen ts ( perco id a nd c a t f ish ) H ouse 2 :

S ynodon t is :

c le i thrum p rocess

I nde term ina te f ragmen ts o f s p ines L eve l 3 :

S i luroid : P erco id :

L evel 4 :

S ynodon t is : p ec tora l g ird le a nd s ku l l f ragmen t ( charred ) I nde term ina te f in s p ine

L evel 5 :

C lar ias : s ku l l b ones , l ower j aw S ynodon t is : s ku l lb ones , p ec tora l g ird le , f in s p ines La tes?

H ouse 6 :

f in s p ines a nd v er tebrae f in s p ines a nd v er tebrae

p teryg iophone , o percu lum f ragmen t

C lar ias :

s ku l l b ones , p ec tora l s p ines

Auchenog lan is : d orsa l f in s p ines Percoid : v er tebrae a nd p teryg iophones L eve l 7 :

C lar ias :

p ectora l f in s p ines

S ynodon t is : p ec tora l g ird le a nd s p ines P ercoid : f ragmen ts L evel 9 :

C lar ias : S i luro id :

p ec tora l s p ines , s ku l l a nd c le i thrum f ragmen ts p ectora l g ird le ( charred ) ( poss ibly S ynodon t is )

L evel 1 0 :

C lar ias :

p ec tora l s p ines

L eve l 1 2 :

S ynodon t is : p ec tora l p rocess C lar i id : s ku l l f ragmen ts S i luroid : La tes :

s p ines

Pt eryg iophone f ragmen t

Var ious i nde ter m ina te f ragmen ts L eve l 1 3:

C lar ias :

d en tary

Bagr id o r muchoch id : L evel 1 4 :

La tes : C lar i id :

p ec tora l a nd d orsa l s p ines

C le i thrum s ku l l f ragmen ts a nd p ectora l s p ines

S ynodon t is : p ec tora l g ird le a nd p ec tora l s p ines S i luroid : v er tebrae 2 79

MOUND 2 L eve l 1 :

C lar ias : La tes :

s ku l l b ones , l ower j aw , v er tebrae , s p ines p reopercu lum

S ynodon t is :

p ectora l g ird le

H e terot is?:

o percu lum

L eve l 2 :

I nde termina te s p ine

L eve l 1 1:

S i luroid :

s p ines

P ercoid :

c en trum

L eve l 1 2 :

I nde term ina te L eve l 1 4:

L a tes :

L eve l 1 7:

p ar t o f c en trum

C lar ias : La tes :

f ragmen ts o f d en tary a nd s ku l l b ones ( 2 ) d en tary

S ynodon t is : L eve l 1 8 :

C lar i id :

p ectora l s p ines a nd p ectora l g irdle

s ku l l b one , c le i thrum

S i luro id : d orsa l s p ine JARFIELD 1 L eve l 1 : L evel 2 :

P erco id :

v er tebrae a nd s p ines

C lar i id :

s ku l l b one , c le i thrum

I nde ter m ina te L evel 3 :

L eve l 4 :

C lar i id :

c le i thrum , p ec tora l s p ine

S i luroid :

d orsa l s p ine , f rag men ts

La tes :

v er tebra l c o lumn , s p ines , p reopercu lum

C lar i id : l ower j aw f ragmen t L eve l 5 : L evel 6 :

L eve l 7: F ea ture 2 :

La tes :

g i l l-raker

C lar i id : p ectora l g ird le , d en tary ( 2 ) P ercoid :

s p ines

S i luroid :

s pines , p ec tora l g ird le f ragmen ts , c ran ia l f ragmen ts

I ndetermina te f ragmen ts L a tes?:

a na l s p ines a nd p teryg iophone

I nde term ina te f ragmen t

2 80

P late I .

F unerary J ar # 3 i n W est S ection o f J F1 s cale o n c halkboard i s

P late I I.

5 cm;

( each s ection o f

d epth o f s ection = 1 .5m)

C ollapsed m ud b rick w alling o f H ouse 2 ( top ) a nd t auf w all o f H ouse 6 ( bottom) i n n orth s ection o f M l. m easures 3 m . l ong b y 2i n . d eep.

S ection

P late I II.

P late I V .

C urvilinear t auf w all o f H ouse 6 i n M l. T op o f w all b etween 1 520 - 1 580mm b elow P oint o f O rigin.

T erracotta s tatuette a nd a ssociated p ottery i n s itu

i s

P late V .

I ncised a nd a lternate-zoned t wine r oulette a l arge s herd f rom M l,

P late V I.

( Twine 7 )

o n

l evel 2 6.

T wine t ypes i dentified o n J enne-jeno p ottery:

C oarse w oven-

T wine 1 ( top l eft a nd c enter); woven l arge c hevron-Twine 2 ( top r ight, c enter l eft); d ouble c hevron-Twine 3 ( center r ight); f ishnet-Twine 4 ( bottom l eft); ( bottom c enter a nd r ight).

a nd r oulette-Twine 6

P late V II.

P late V III.

C lay i mpressions o f t wine d ecoration o n s herds i n V I, p resented i n s ame o rder

P lastic d ecoration o n J enne-jeno p ottery: t op l eft-twine i mpression a nd i ncision; t op r ight--parallel g rooves a nd i ncision; c enter l eft--non-parallel; s hallow g rooves; c enter r ight--incision; b ottom l eft--incision a nd s tabbing; b ottom c enter--parallel g rooves; b ottom r ight--twine r oulette a nd s tabbing .

P late I X.

S ide v iew o f t erracotta s tatuette f rom M 2

P late X .

M iscellaneous o bjects f rom J enne-jeno c lay " nail", w ooden k nife h andle,

( left t o r ight:

f ired

h orn " needle")

•

P late X I.

G lass a nd s tone b eads. t o r ight;

M iddle r ow:

B ottom r ow:

T op r ow: s tone b eads

s tone b eads j -m,

g lass b eads a -e; fi,

l eft

l eft t o r ight

l eft

t o r ight;

P late X II.

C opper a rtifacts

( a-f s tarting a t t op l eft a nd p roceeding

c lockwise).

1 MM

P late X III.

m 4 m m v m e l

U tilitarian i ron a rtifacts p roceeding c lockwise).

0 1 1

1 2

1 3

1

( a-h s tarting a t t op l eft a nd

P late X IV.

D ecorative i ron a rtifacts

( a-d,

s tarting a t

l arge b racelet a nd p roceeding c lockwise).

l eft w ith

Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali A Study in the Development of Urbanism in the Sahel Part ii : The Regional Survey and Conclusioris Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology BAR International Series 8 9 (ii) 1980

2

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP,'England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B .Sc., �I.A., D .Phil. D. R. Walker, �I.A. B.A. R. S89 (II), 1980: "Prehistoric Investigations in the Region of Jenne, Mali" Part II © Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh, 1980. Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology General Editor: John Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., F. S.A. Dept. Archaeology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ England Manuscripts should be submitted to Dr. Alexander in the first instance Also available: B. A. R. S75, 1980: "The Niger Delta, Aspects of its Pre­historic Economy and Culture" by Nwanna: Nzewunwa. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389455 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389462 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541035 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407352428 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541035 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

P ar t i CONTENTS Page S ECTION I . C hap ter 1

BACKGROUND TO THE SURVEY

2 89

An I n troduc tion t o t he S tudy o f S et t le men t H ierarch ies i n West A fr ica

2 90

C hap ter 2

H is tor ica l Re ferences t o t he J enne Reg ion

2 99

C hap ter 3

The L a te P leis tocene a nd H o locene G eo morpho logy o f t he U pper I n land N iger Del ta

3 08

C hap ter 4

G eography a nd Hu man G eography o f t he U pper I n land N iger De lta

3 33

S ECTION I .

THE REG ION SURVEY

3 45

C hap ter 5

A S urvey o f t he J enne Reg ion

3 46

C hapter 6

Ana lys is o f t he Ev idence f ro m t he J enne Reg ion

4 20

S ECTION I I .

J ENNE-JENO AND I TS RE G ION I N PERSPECTIVE

4 33

Chap ter 7

J enne-Jeno :

Imp l ica t ion o f t he Excava t ion a nd

Reg iona l S urvey APPENDIX I

4 34

G ranu lo metr ic a nd P etrograph ic Ana lys is o f S oi l S a mp le 1 10

4 66

APPENDIX I

S urvey Da ta :

4 70

APPENDIX I I

Recorded S i tes

B IBLIOGRAPHY

F or ma l S urvey Area

4 79 5 10

Par t i L IST OF F IGURES F IGURE

Page

4.1

S ect ion Through A .P .( Aer ia l Photograph ) 1 59

3 43

5 .1

S ize o f S i tes a nd V i l lages

4 07

5 .2

H ec tare S ize

4 08

6 .1

O ccupa t ion Trends

4 28

Par t i L IST OF MAPS P age

MAP 2 .1

F ea tures n ear t he I n land Del ta

3 03

3 .1

Fea tures o f t he I n land N iger Del ta

3 09

3 .2

U pper I n land De l ta

3 10

3 .3

D is tr ibu tar ies

3 16

4 .1

G eo morpho logy o f t he S urvey Reg ion i n t he V icin i ty o f J enne , Ma l i ( 1 977)

3 34

5 .1

D iv is ions o f t he S urvey Reg ion

3 50

5 .2

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma li )— W i th in Four K i lo me tres o f J enne

3 52 3 53

5 .3

1 970 AO 8 92-500 ( Ma l i ) -159

5 .4

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma l i ) -157

3 54

5 .5

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma l i ) -155

3 55

5 .6

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma l i ) -291

3 56

5 .7

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma 14 -293

3 57

5 .8

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma l i ) -295

3 58

5 .9

O ccupa tion i n t he V icin i ty o f J enne , Ma li ( 1977)

3 79

5 .10

Wa terways

3 93

7 .1

Var ious S i tes Men t ioned i n C hap ter 7

4 35

7.2

S a l t S ources i n p re-Colon ia l A fr ica

4 47

7 .3

The B i lad a l-Sudan A ccording t o I bn S a tid

4 59

7 .4

A R econsidera t ion o f t he G eography o f I bn S a 'id 's I s land o f G old

4 60

Par t i L IST OF TABLES TABLE

Page Landform Areas :

S urvey Reg ion

5 .2

Landfor m Areas :

For ma l S urvey Area

5 .3

Nu mbers o f S et t le men ts i n t he S urvey R eg ion :

S i tes

3 72

5 .4

Nu mbers o f S et t le men ts i n t he S urvey Reg ion :

V i l lages

3 73

5 .5

Nu mbers o f S e tt le men ts i n t he For ma l S urvey Area :

5 .1

3 67 3 68

S i tes 5 .6

3 74

Nu mbers o f S e tt le men ts i n t he Forma l S urvey Area : V i l lages

5 .7

3 75

P ercen tage o f Grand Tota ls :

S e t t le men ts i n t he S urvey

Reg ion 5 .8

3 76

P ercen tage o f Grand Tota ls :

S et t le men ts i n t he For ma l

S urvey Area

3 77

5 .9

P er iod o f Abandonmen t

3 82

5 .10

Da tes o f S i tes o n D i fferen t Landfor ms

3 83

5 .11

Da ted S i tes :

3 84

5 .12

Da ted S i tes

Expanded For ma l S urvey

3 86

5 .13

P rox i mi ty t o Wa ter :

5 .14

O ccupa t ion o f Wa terway C hannels

A l l S i tes a nd V i l lages

5 .15

Nu mbers o f S i tes w i thin C lus ters

3 97

5 .16

D egree o f C lus ter ing

3 98-9

5 .17

D isplay o f S i te S izes :

Frequency D is tr ibu t ion C lasses

3 90 3 95

4 03

5 .18

S ize o f S ites

4 04

5 .19

S ize o f V i l lages

4 05

5 .20

E s ti ma t ion o f S ize o f S i tes

4 10

5 .21

O ccurrence o f S urface Re ma ins

4 12-3

5 .22

S i te S ize a nd Co mp lex i ty

4 17

Par t i

SECTION I

BACKGROUND TO THE REGIONAL SURVEY

2 89

CHAPTER 1 AN I NTRODUCTION TO THE S TUDY OF S ETTLE MENT H IERARCH IES l N WEST AFRICA

I n troduct ion I n t h is monograph t he a uthors h ave i nvest iga ted t he emergence o fu rban J enne b y t wo q ui te d ifferen t me thods. E v idence o f t he s e t t le men t a nd g row th o f t he p r inc ipa l s i te i s p resen ted i n t he f i rst p ar t ; h ere we r ecord r esul ts o f a n e x tens ive r eg iona l s urvey c onducted im med ia te ly a f ter t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno.

The s urvey w as u nder taken i n a n a rea wh ich h ad b een i nvest i-

g a ted o n ly v ery s uperf ic ia l ly b efore t he 1 977 s eason .

The g oa ls a nd r esul ts

o f t he f i rst s eason o f s urvey w ere t herefore modest : t o i nvest iga te t he n ature a nd c hrono logy o f h u man o ccupa t ion i n t he im med ia te h in ter land o f J enne . On ly t he most e xp lora tory a nd t en ta t ive s teps h ave b een t aken t owards a n a pprecia t ion o f t he r eg iona l f ac tor i n t he u rban isa t ion p rocess i n t h is p ar t o f West A fr ica .

The f i e ld s eason o f 1 977 d id n ot p rovide a n e xp lana t ion o f why

s evera l l arge s et t le men ts a nd a c o mp le men t o f many t iny h am le ts d eve loped i n t he w estern I n land N iger De lta i n t he f i rst m i l lenn iu m A . D ., n or a s ecure c hrono logy f or t he ir a ppearance .

Ra ther , t he ma jor c on tr ibut ion o f t he s urvey

p ro ject i nc lude b asic s e t t le men t d a ta o f a n e xp lora tory n a ture , i den t if ica t ion o f as er ies o f t op ics mer i t ing f uture , i n-dep th i nvest iga t ion , a nd a n a ppreciat i on o f f i e ld methods most s ui ted t o t he i nvest iga t ion o f t hese t op ics. T he d ef in it ion o fu rban is m i n t h is r eg ion r e ma ins a s e lusive a s e ver . H owever , i n i t ia l s teps h ave b een t aken wh ich may e ven tua l ly p rovide t he k ind o f i n for ma t ion n eeded i n o rder t o r ecogn ise a nd e xp la in t he d eve lop men t o f p reis la m ic a nd p re-co lon ia l c o mp lex s et t le men t h ierarch ies i n s ub-Saharan A fr ica . G eographers a nd s ociolog ists h ave l ong a t te mp ted t o a gree u pon a d ef in i t ion o f t he c i ty a nd t he f ea tures o fu rban isa t ion . An u mber o f c r i ter ia h ave b een p roposed i n t he p ast t o d e ter m ine i f ap ar t icu lar s et t le men t m igh t b e c lassif i ed a s u rban ;

t hese h ave i ncluded s ize , n u mber a nd d ensi ty o f p opu la t ion ,

v ar iety o f o ccupa t ion , h e terogene i ty o f c lass s tructure , min i mum p ercen tage o f n on-agr icu ltura l w orkers , p resence o f l arge o r c o mmun ia l ly-used b u i ld ings , amoun t o f s pace b etween b u i ld ings , a nd p resence o f f unct iona l d if feren t ia t ion ( p o l i t ica l , a dm in istra t ive , c o m mercia l , i ndustr ia l , a nd c u ltura l ) ( Beau jeuG am ier a nd C habot 1 967 :23-31 ; J ones 1 966:4-9 ; r ev iewed f ro m t he a rchaeol og ica l p erspect ive i n A lexander 1 972:843-844 ). E ach o f t hese c r i ter ia h as b een f ound t o f a i l t he t est o fu n ifor m a pp licab i li ty , e ven t o modern E urope a nd N or th Amer ica ( c f ., J ones 1 966: 4 0 ) . E qua l ly u nsuccessful h as b een t he a t te mp t t o i sola te u n iversa l c haract er ist ics o f t he p reindustr ia l c i ty , d ef ined b y S joberg ( 1955 ) i n ter a l ia a s a

2 90

market ing a nd h and icraf t manufactur ing c en tre i n wh ich o n ly h u man o r a n i ma l s ources o f e nergy a re a va i lab le t o e f fect p roduct ion o f g oods a nd s erv ices. T he c onste lla t ion o f a t tr ibu tes p ar t icu lar t o p reindustr ia l c i t ies ( r ig id s ocia l a nd e thn ic s tra t i f ica t ion i n r es iden t ia l a nd o ccupa t iona l a ssocia t ions, l i t t le s pecia lisa t ion o r f rag men ta t ion o f w ork , f ew m idd le men , s pread o f g ui ld a ssoc ia t ions t o a l l me mbers o f t he p opu la t ion b u t t he p ol i t ica l o r r e lig ious e l i te , h igh ly p ar t icu lar o r l oca lised c urrency a nd a ccoun t ing p ract ices, a nd l im i ted s oc ia l mob i l i ty — S joberg 1 955 ) a pp lies t o t he med ieva l E uropean c i ty a nd , p erhaps l ess s a t isfactor i ly , t o c er ta in b et ter-stud ied A s ian c i t ies. H owever , t he d ef in i t ions a re c onsiderab ly l ess u seful when a pp l ied t o p re-industr ia l s et t le men ts i n t he n on-western w or ld , f or e xa mp le, t he Y oruba o r Hausa c i t ies o f N iger ia ( Mabogunge 1 968 : 4 0-41 ; c f ., B asco m 1 958-1959 ; F lanagan 1 978 ) .

Gug ler a nd

( For t he d i ff iculty o f a pp ly ing t hese s a me c r i ter ia t o p resen t-

d ay J enne , s ee r ecen t s tud ies b y Ga l la is 1 967 a nd B rasseur 1 968 : 4 24-448 .) A s ac onsequence , c er ta in g eographers a nd s ociolog ists h ave e vo lved a s ub ject ive a nd r e la t ive d ef in i t ion o f t he t own : "I n e ach c oun try a t own c an b e s a id t o e x ist i ft he p eop le o f t he d istr ict f ee l t he mse lves t o b e i n at own" ( Beau jeu-Garn ier a nd C habot 1 967 : 3 0 ) , o r "A t own i s wha t i s imp l ied b y t he l oca l p eop le when t hey c a l l al oca li ty a t own" ( J ones 1 966: 5 ) . G eographers h ave a lso r eso lved t he p rob le m o f d ef in ing t he d if ference b etween t own a nd c i ty b y u sing t he t wo w ords i n terchanab ly ( Jones 1 966: 5 ) , a s w i l l b e t he p ract i ce i n t he p resen t v o lu me .

H owever , t he e n t ire ly s ub ject ive d ef in i t ion o f t he

c i ty i s i nadequa te f or t he a rchaeo log ist l ook ing f or e v idence o f t he p rocess o fu rban isa t ion i n t he p ast . C lear ly , t he l ong-dead i nhab i tan ts o f a n a rchaeol og ica l s et t le men t c annot b e i n terviewed . A lso t o b e c onsidered i s t he n ecess i ty o f ad ef in i t ion wh ich makes r eference t o t he t ype a nd q ua li ty o f ma ter ia l e vidence wh ich t he a rchaeo lof ist i s l i kely t o h ave a va i lab le .

F or e xa mp le,

d if feren t ia t ion o f c lass a s ap erceived r ea l i ty d oes n ot s urvive , a nd t he i n terp reta t ion o f h eterogene i ty o f ma ter ia l c ul ture w i th in a s et t le men t s i te o r e ven ac e metery a s a man i festa t ion o fo ne p ar t icular c lass s tructure h as t o b e r eg arded w i th a c r it ica l e ye i n t he a bsence o f s uppor t ing e vidence ( e .g ., l i terary o r c on te mporary w i tness ). T he p roble m i s c o mpounded f or t he a rchaeo log ist i n t he n on-western w or ld b y t he l im ited amoun t o f p r ior a rchaeolog ica l w ork . I ft here a re n o u n iversa l ly-app licab le c r i ter ia b y wh ich t he a rchaeolog ist may i den t ify a s i te a s a nu rban s et t le men t , i s i tt herefore impossib le t o i nv est iga te t he c ircu mstances u nder wh ich t he u rban isa t ion p rocess t akes p lace? G eographers h ave f ound i tu sefu l t o i nvest iga te t he of ten-sy mb iot ic r e la t ions h ip b e tween t own a nd s urround ing c oun tryside a nd t o d ef ine t he r egion wh ich f a l ls u nder t he i nf luence o f ap ar t icu lar c i ty ( t he 'u n land ' , h in ter land ' ,o r c i ty-reg ion ';

B eau jeu-Garn ier a nd C habot 1 967 : 4 31-442 ; J ones 1 966: 1 1 ,

9 6-97 ) . G eographers h ave r ecogn ised a n i ncrease i n t he n u mber a nd v ar iety o f s erv ices a va i lab le a s o ne p rogresses u p t he s et t le men t h ierarchy f ro m t he a gr icultura l h am le t t o t he t rue t own ( Beau jeu-Garn ier a nd C habot 1 967 : 4 364 42 ; Mabogunge 1 968 : 3 6 ) . Au sefu l way f or t he a rchaeo log ist t o s tudy t he h istory o ft he emergence a nd t he n a ture o fu rban is m i n ar eg ion i s n ot o n ly t o e xcava te t he c u lm ina t ion o f t he p rocess, i .e., t he l argest s i te i n t he r eg ion , b ut a lso t o a t te mp t t o i den t ify a h ierarchy o f i n teract ing s et t le men ts, w i th t he d irect ion o f c o mp lex i ty r evea led b y i ncreasing h eterogene i ty o f r e ma ins r a ther t han b y s ize a lone .

I f as i te s uppor ted a g rea ter v ar ie ty o f o ccupa t ions t han 2 9 1

an e ighbour ing a grar ian s e t t le men t , a nd i f more o f t he p r iv i ledged o ft he s oc ie ty l i ved i n t he f or mer , t h is d if ference w i l l p resu mab ly b e r ef lected i n ag rea ter d iversi ty o f i t e ms d eposited t here . The ma jor p oin t i s t he d egree o f h eterogene i ty .

A r ura l c o mmun i ty may

b e r ig id ly h ierarch ica l ( a s i s r ura l I nd ia t oday ) , b ut t he ma jor i ty o f r ura l c o mmun i t ies i n t he s a me a rea may s how t he s a me p r inc ip les o fo rgan isa t ion , whereas a f ew ( urban ) c o mmun i t ies i n t he s a me r eg ion may b e a ppreciab ly more c o mp lex. N ote t ha t i n t h is mode l i ti s n ot r equired t ha t t raded g oods, e specia l ly manufactured g oods, i nvar iab ly f l ow f ro m t he u rban s et t le men t d own t hrough t he l ess-co mp lex c o mponen ts o f t he h ierarchy .

A lso, s et t le men t s ize may

i ncrease w i th t he h eteregene i ty o f t he p opula t ion , a l though i tn eed n ot n ecess ar i ly d o s o. The s tudy o f s et t le men t h ierarch ies imp l ies t he n eed t o r ec ognise s o me p er manence o fo ccupa t ion ( c f ., A lexander 1 972: 8 44 ) . E ven i n t h is t here may b e e xcep t ions.

I n s o me w idespread a nd mu lt i-ethn ic A fr ican

k ingdo ms t he r oya l c our t a nd n u merous d ependen ts was a nu rban a gg lo merat i on , wh ich n ever the less moved p er iod ica lly f ro m o ne p ar t o f t he k ingdo m t o a nother a s ap ol icy o f p ol i t ica l c onsol ida t ion ( re m in iscen t o f t he mob i le c our t o f E uropean f euda l t i mes ). A f actor l i ke t h is may e xp lain why t he c ap i ta l o f t he Emp ire o f Ma l i h as p roved s o d if f icu l t t o l oca te . A s af i na l c onsidera t ion , i ft here w ere a v ar ie ty o fo ccupat iona l s pec ia lis a t ions i n s et t le men ts o ccupy ing t he more c o mp lex r anks o f t he s et t le men t h ierarchy , t hen t here may h ave b een more r eason t o t rade a nd , i n af am i l iar West A fr ican p a t tern , ag rea ter d egree o f e thn ic h eterogenei ty ( Mabogunge 1 968 : 3 9-40 ).

E thn ic h eterogenei ty may , b ut n eed n ot n ecessar i ly , c on tr ibute

t o ah e terogene i ty o fb ui ld ing t echno log ies, s et t le men t s tructure ( i n t he f or m o f ' stranger ' q uar ters) , a nd a rtefacts d ropped f or t he a rchaeo log ist .

B ut

o nce a ga in , t he way i n wh ich u rban isa t ion a s ad iachron ic p rocess i n p rec o lon ia l ( i .e ., p re-industr ia l ) West A fr ica c an b est b e r ecogn ised b y t he a rchaeolog ist i s b y t he i den t if ica t ion o f as et t le men t h ierarchy t hrough t he e xa m ina t ion o f h eterogenei ty i n f ea tures a nd a r tefacts ( and s econdar i ly b y i nv est iga t ing a t tr ibutes s uch a s s ize , d ensi ty o f b ui ld ings, e tc.) a t al arge s a mp le o f s i tes i n ar eg ion .

Al arge s ite d oes n ot b eco me u rban i n i sola t ion ; c hange

i n t he r e la t ionsh ip amo n g an u mber o f s et t le men ts i n ar eg ion , i n wh ich a t endency t owards c o mp lex i ty , o r h e terogenei ty , c an b e i den t if ied , i s t he h ist or ica l p rocess we h ave c o me t o l abe l u rban isa t ion . I n terest i s a s g rea t i n t he p r inc ip les, emergence , a nd d eve lop men t o f t he s et t le men t h ierarchy a s i n i t s f i n ished e xpression a s a n i n tegra ted u rban e n t i ty .

A t t his e ar ly s tage

i n t he a rchaeology o f West A fr ica i ti s p robab ly n ecessary f i rst t o i den t i fy t hose c r i ter ia wh ich t yp ify l oca l s et t le men t h ierarch ies a nd t hen t o f ormula te a ppropr ia te r eg iona l d ef in i t ions o fu rban is m . Once t h is i s d one f or a n u mber o f r eg ions we may b e a b le t o d ist i l l o ut a more u n iversa l d ef in i t ion o fu rb an is m . S u m mary . I th as b een a rgued t ha t t he most e f fect ive way t o i nvest iga te t he a ppearance a nd d eve lop men t o ft he p re-co lon ia l t own i n West A fr ica i s n ot t o e xcava te o n ly t he t own s i te , b ut s i mu l taneously t o d ocu men t a nd e xp la in t he e vo lut ion o f t he h ierarchy o f s et t le men ts o f wh ich t he t own i s t he s u mm it . A s as e t t le men t b eco mes more u rban , i ti s r easonab le t o a ssu me 2 92

t ha t t he i nhab i tan ts b eco me more v ar ied t han i nhab i tan ts o fv i l lages i n t er ms o f wea lth a nd i t s man ifesta t ions, s ocia l o r p erhaps e thn ic b ackgrounds , a nd i n t heir p ersona l i d iosyncracies ( a l lowed b y u rban a non im i ty ).

Aga in , t h is

i s n ot t o s ay t ha t t here i s n o d iversi ty i n r ura l v i llages, b ut r a ther t ha t d ivers i ty ( and i t s e xpression i n ag rea ter h e terogenei ty a t t he a rchaeo log ica l s i te ) s hou ld n or ma l ly i ncrease i n s o me r e lat ionsh ip t o t he p osi t ion o f t he s et t le men t w i th in t he h ierarchy . Approaches t o t he I nvest iga t ion o f West A fr ican Urban is m Having a rgued t ha t t he s tudy o f r eg iona l s et t le men t s yste ms i s au seful way t o i nvest iga te t he p ast e vo lut ion o f s ocio-econo m ic c o mp lex i ty i n ar eg ion , we n ow t urn t o a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he v ar ious ways i n wh ich o ther r esearchers h ave a pproached t he q uest ion o f u rban d eve lop men t . A f am i l iar f ocus f or West A fr ican a rchaeo log ica l r esearch h as a lways b een t he r uins o f l arge, of ten s tone-bu i l t s et t le men ts wh ich may b e t he r e ma ins o f c i t ies o r t rade e n trep i its men t ioned i n t he h istor ica l s ources. Research s tra tegy i n s uch c ases f req uen t ly c onsists o f s ing l ing o ut o n ly t he l arges r uins w i th in a r eg ion f or e xcav a t ion .

Sma l ler s i tes n earby a re c onsidered o n ly i n p assing , i fa t a l l , i n

f or ma l r epor ts.

E xcava t ion i s n or ma l ly c oncen tra ted a t o r n ear t he r e mains

o f p ub l ic s tructures ( mosques, p a laces ) , l arge h ouses , a nd c e meter ies.

Th is

t ype o f r esearch a pproach t o u rban e vo lu t ion c an b e c onven ien t ly l abel led s i te s pec if ic , i n wh ich ma jor h istor ic u rban o r t rade c en tres a re s ing led o ut f or e xcava t ion w i thou t r eference t o sma l ler s i tes i n t he s uppor t ing h in ter land. Ma l ian s i tes .

A s d iscussed e ar lier i n P ar t i , C hap ter 2 , much o f t he work

a t ma jor Ma l ian s i tes h as b een o f t h is s i te s pec if ic n a ture.

V ir tua lly w i thout

e xcep t ion , a rchaeolog ica l i nvest iga t ion o fu rban a nd t rade c en tres w i th in Ma li h as c onsisted o f l im i ted t est e xcava t ions c onf ined t o c e me tery a reas o r r e mans o f p robab le p ub l ic s tructures .

Th is h as b een t he c ase a t t he s i tes o f Gao

( Mauny 1 951b : 8 37-848 , 1 961: 1 12 ; a nd 1 979 ) ;

F ligh t 1 973b , 1 975a , 1 975b , 1 978a , 1 978b

K ouk iya ( a lso k nown a s B en t ia ;

1 920 e xcava t ions b y d e G ironcour t

r e main u npub l ished — d e G ironcour t 1 911 ; v an B erche m 1 913 ;

Mauny 1 961:

1 20 ) ;

E s-Souk ( or Tad mekka , a nc ien t c ap i ta l o f t he s outhern Tuareg- L ho te

1 951 ;

Mauny 1 961 : 17-118 , 4 87-488 ) ;

Mauny 1 961: 1 16-117 , 4 85-487 ;

a nd Teghaza ( a l-Bakr i 's Ta ten ta l? ;

Monod 1 938 a nd 1 940 ) .

S urpr ising ly e nough ,

i n v iew o f t he s trong E uropean i n terest i n t he c i ty g enerated b y t rave llers s uch a s Bar th ( 1859 ) a nd D ubois ( 1897 ) , n o e xcava t ion h as y et b een a t te mp ted a t T i mbuk tu . The c hronolog ica l a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip o f t he c i ty w i th t he f ew s urveyed o r e xcava ted s i tes a nd f unerary t u mu li o ft he l ower I n land N iger De l ta a nd N iger B end i s u nknown .

I t was men t ioned e ar lier ( Par t i , C hap ter 2 ) t hat

t he f a i lure o f Da ire ' sa nd V ie i l lard ' ss ca t tered e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno t o t urn u p a ny th ing " va luab le"

( cer tain ly n oth ing e ver a ppeared i n p r in t c on-

c ern ing t hese e xcava t ions ) may h ave s pared t he s i te f ro m f ur ther d igg ing u n t i l 1 977 . O ther West A fr ican s i tes.

As i te s pecif ic a pproach h as a lso c haracter ised

t he i nvest iga t ion o f K ou mb i S a leh a nd Tegdaoust i n Maur i tan ia .

Excava t ions

a t K ou mb i S a leh , a s s u m mar ised i n t he p rev ious p ar t o ft h is monograph f oc ussed o n emp ty ing d o mest ic a nd p ub lic b ui ld ings a nd u ncovering n earby t o mbs ( Tho massey a nd Mauny 1 951 a nd 1 956; S . a nd D . R ober t 1 972 : 2 19-226) .

2 93

I n t he c ase o f more t han a d ecade o f r esearch a t Tegdaoust ( provisiona l ly i den t if ied a s Awdaghust ) , S . a nd D . R ober t c onducted a s earch o ver a t enk i lo me tre r ad ius o f t he t o wn , i n wh ich f our ma jor n or thern c e meter ies , a s epara te r es iden t ia l q uar ter , a nd d ispersed t o mbs a nd m isce llaneous b ui ld ings were i den t if ied .

H owever , o n ly t own r e ma ins h ave b een e xcava ted ;

n o o ther

s et t le men ts n earby h ave b een i den t if ied a nd e xcava ted , n or h ave c onc lusions b een d rawn a bout t he s pa t ia l d eve lop men t o f t he t own ( D; R ober t 1 970b : 4 734 79 ;

F ig . 2 , 4 47 ;

S . a nd D . R ober t 1 972 ).

N ian i-sur-Sankaran i i n Guinea , t he p utat ive N ian i o r c ap i ta l o f t he Emp ire o f Ma l i d escr ibed b y I bn Bat tu ta i n a n i t inerary o f av isi t i n c . 1 345, h as b een e xcava ted d ur ing s evera l s easons b y F i lipow iak , J asnosz , a nd N iane.

I n

a dd i t ion t o e xcava t ing t he a l leged R oya l Q uar ter ( O ld T own ) , Arab Q uar ter ( S ta t ion 6 D ) , a nd v ar ious c e metery a nd r esiden t ia l s ect ions, s urveys were made o f mounds w i th in a f ew-k i lo me tres r ad ius.

On t he b asis o ft hese s urveys ,

t he i nvest iga tors h ave p roposed a r econstruct ion o f t he s pa t ia l d eve lop men t o f t he t own ( F i l ipow iak e t a l ., 1 968 : F ig . 1 , 5 78 a nd 6 43-648 ) .

B y t h is r econ-

s truct ion , ap a t tern o f d ispersed h ab ita t ions ( f am i ly u n i ts ) i n t he s ix th c en tury ( based o n as ing le r ad iocarbon d a te ) , l a ter d eve loped i n to a s trong h ierarchy o f f unct iona lly d if feren t ia ted q uar ters.

H owever , o ne migh t e qua lly i n terpret

t he e vidence t o i nd ica te sma l l ( and s o me r a ther l arger ) a gr icultura l v i l lages i n p er manen t b u t s h if t ing o ccupa t ion o f t he p la teau.

There may b e e v idence

o f m inor i ndustr ia l p roduct ion o f i ron , l ead ing t o s o mewha t l arger v i l lages, b ut s ta te men ts a bout a p revai ling h igh p opula t ion d ensi ty i n t he e cono m ic h in ter land a re n ot s uppor ted b y t he e vidence a va i lab le i n p ub lished r epor ts . Un t i l r ecen t ly . s et t le men t p a t terns a nd t he b eginn ings o f u rban is m a nd i t s c hronology r e ma ined l arge ly u nstud ied i n n or ther N iger ia .

S uperf ic ia l e xa m i-

n a t ion o f t he K anur i s i tes o f B irn in Gazarga mo, G a mbaru, a nd N 'g uru ( B ivar a nd S h inn ie 1 962 ) a nd s cat tered r epor ts o f e xp lora t ion o f l arge wa l led t owns n ear K ano a nd K a tsina ( Obaye m i 1 976: 4 ) a nd n ear S okoto a nd Zazzau ( S ut ton , r epor ted i n P osnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976: 1 72 ) i s t he o n ly work k nown t o h ave t aken p lace .

I nvest iga t ion i s s evere ly h a mpered i n t he s outhern f orest b ecause

o ft he imper manen t n a ture o f t he b asic e le men ts o f s et t le men t b ui ld ings a nd c o mpounds.

Wi l let t h as d escr ibed c ond i t ions o f e xcavat ion o f

imp luv ia ' s ty le

h ouses a t t he c i ty o f I f e ( W i llet t 1 967 : 1 8 , 1 04-105, 1 17 a nd 1 26 ) a nd G oodw in ( 1956 a nd C onnah [ 1975 ]) t hose o f e xcava t ion a t B en in C i ty ( f or a t echn ica l r ev iew o f t hese p rob le ms a s t hey a f fect a rchaeolog ists i n v ar ious p ar ts o f West A fr ica , s ee McIn tosh 1 975: 1-80 ). Or ig ina l e xcava t ions a t I f e t ended t o b e o f a n a r t h istor ica l n a ture , s i tes h av ing b een s hr ines o r a r t c aches d isturbed b y o thers ( W i l let t 1 967 a nd 1 970 f or a g enera l s yn thesis o f t he a r t w orks a nd t he ir c on tex t , a nd E yo 1 974 a nd Gar lake 1 974 f or a ccoun ts o f more r ecen t a nd more c on tro lled w ork ; S haw 1 978 : 1 25-163) . S pecu la t ion a bou t t he p r incip les a nd h istory o f t he g row th o f Y oruba c i t ies ( and a bout why t he Y oruba t o t he west o f t he R iver N iger d eve loped e ar ly c i t ies wh i le t he I bo t o t he e ast d id n ot ) h as o n ly r ecen t ly b een a t te mp ted u sing a rchaeolog ica l e vidence ( wh ich h as c o me f ro m s urveys o f t he s o-ca l led f or t i f ica t ion wa lls a nd s cat tered a nd q ui te l im i ted e xcava t ions a t I f e , O ld Oyo, a nd B en in ) ( f or I f e , c f ., O zanne 1 969 , Wi l let t 1 970 : 3 25, S haw 1 978 : 1 57-163 ; f or O ld Oyo, c f ., Wi llet t 1 960 , S oper 1 977 , a nd S haw 1 978 : 1 63-166;

2 94

a nd f or

B en in , c f ., C onnah 1 963 a nd 1 975 ( F ig . 2 3 , 1 03 ) , Dar l ing 1 974 a nd p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion , 1 979 , Rees 1 975, Ma l iphan t e t a l ., 1 976, a nd S haw 1 978 : 1 67-172 ) .

I ti s o n ly n ow t ha t a rchaeolog ists c an b eg in t o r ecogn ise t he d if-

f erences amongst t he wa l ll ike f eatures o f t hese c i t ies (s o me f or d efense , s o me f or t err i tor ia l d e marca t ion , a nd s o me p ossib ly f or t he s ecur ing o f s laves ) , a nd b e tween d if feren t p ar ts o f t he a ncien t c i t ies, a l though t he p rob le ms o f a rchaeo log ica l s urvey i n h eavi ly v ege ta ted o ut ly ing p ar ts o f t hese c i t ies r e ma in f or m idab le ( Connah 1 975: 1 01-102 ).

The i n terna l a nd e x terna l s t i mu li

t o u rban is m , wh ich h ave b een d iscussed s o u sefu lly b y Mabogunge ( 1968 ;

c f .,

B asco m 1 958-1959 ) , a re n ow b eing u nderscored b y a rchaeo log ica l c on tr ibut ions. The n ex t s tep wou ld s ee m t o b e a n e x tensive a nd s yste ma t ic s earch f or a l l s e t t le men ts o f e ach p er iod i n o rder t o i nvest iga te t he way i n wh ich p oli t ica l a nd r e l ig ious a uthor i ty f ro m t hese u rban c en tres a f fected a nd s tructured t he r eg iona l s et t le men t h ierarchy . Presen t k now ledge o f B egho ( a lso k nown a s N soko , B i 'u , B eeo, o r B i tu ) i n west c en tra l Ghana i s s o mewha t l ess c o mp le te b ecause o f t he d ispersed n a ture o f t he s et t le men t a nd t he t h ick b lanket o f P enn isetu m p urpureu m ( e lep han t g rass ) wh ich g rows t o t hree metres a nd e f fect ive ly p reven ts e xp lora t ion b y a er ia l p hotography a nd o n f oot ( Posnansky 1 972 , 1 973b , 1 973c, 1 975b , 1 976a , 1 976b ;

c f ., B rav mann a nd Ma thewson 1 970 ) .

V i l lagers c an d irect a rchaeo lo-

g ists t o t he v ar ious q uar ters o f t he o ld t rade t own , b u t f or t he mo men t i th as p roved d if f icu lt t o t i e t ogether t he r esul ts o f s evera l y ears o f e xcava t ions a t t he s evera l q uar ters i n to a s a t isfactory v iew o f h ow t he s et t le men t may h ave l ooked a t a ny p er iod i n i t s h is tory . O ther I ron Age s i tes h ave b een i den t if ied i n t he v icin i ty o f B egho, a nd f ro m s o me o f t hese c o mes v ery impressive e v idence o f i ron p roduct ion o n a n i ndust r ia l s ca le .

H owever , b ecause o f d if f icu l t ies w ith t he d a t ing o f t he o ccupa t ion

o f t hese p er iphera l s i tes , t he r e la t ionsh ip among s i tes i n t he B egho r eg ion r e ma ins u ndef ined . Reg iona l S urvey i n West A fr ica The ma tur ing s ta te o f a rchaeo logy i n West A fr ica i s c haracter ised b y t he u nevenness o f t he r ecord o f d eta i led s urveys o f i t s v ar ious p ar ts.

B y r eg iona l

s urvey i s mean t t he s yste mat ic i den t if ica t ion a nd r ecord ing o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w i th in a d ef ined g eograph ica l a rea .

Reg iona l s urvey i s g enera l ly s upp le-

men ted b y e xcava t ion o f s e lected s i tes a nd , i dea l ly , s hould b e c onducted i n a manner p rovid ing u nb iased o r r epresen ta t ive i n for ma t ion o n t he d istr ibut ion o f v ar ious t ypes o f s i tes o ver t he l andscape.

The t horoughness o r r epresen ta-

t iveness o f t he s earch i s c lear ly o f c oncern s ince t he s oph ist ica t ion o f a ny a na lysis i s d irect ly r e la ted t o t he q ua li ty o f t he d a ta .

I ti s g enera l ly t rue

o f West A fr ica t ha t s a mp l ing c onsidera t ions h ave n ot b een o f ma jor c oncern t o a rchaeolog ists. I ti s n ot t he p urpose h ere t o p resen t t he r esul ts o f a l l s urveys u nder taken i n West A fr ica , b u t r a ther t o i l lustra te t he v ar ious s tra teg ies o f r econna issance , w i th s pec ia l r eference t o I ron Age r esearch . S i te S pecif ic.

The f i rst c a tegory w i l l b e l abe l led s i te s pecif ic a nd h as b een

d iscussed a bove w i th r eference t o t he i nvest iga t ions a t t he u rban s i tes o f Gao,

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Tad mekka , K ou mb i S a leh , T egdaoust , Teghaza , N ian i , t he a ncien t K anur i c ap i ta ls , I f e , O ld Oyo , a nd B egho.

Th is c a tegory i ncludes i nvest iga t ions

where e xp lora t ion i s u nder taken o n ly a t as ing le ( usua l ly h istor ica l ) s i te o f s o me impor tance , w i th n o r eference t o n earby s et t le men ts .

S i te s pec if ic

s urvey h as b een t he most u sua l s tra tegy f or t he i nvest iga t ion o f u rban s i tes ; n o r eference i s made t o t he r egiona l s et t le men t s yste m o f wh ich t he u rban s i te i s t he c l i max . P oin t C oncen tra t ion .

The s econd c a tegory o f s urvey i s p oin t c oncen tra t ion ,

i n wh ich r esearch i s c onducted w i th in a c onven ien t d istance o f s ing le p oin ts , wh ich a re f requen t ly p opu lous t owns.

Th is t ype o f s urvey a s a pp l ied i n Ma li

i s i l lus tra ted i n t he map i n A ppendix I I o f P ar t i , where c oncen tra t ions o f a rchaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty c an b e n o ted a round Bamako , a nd Mop t i .

B ougoun i ,

S egou ,

C oncen tra t ions o f s i tes n ear i E lgers , Ouarg la , a nd Dakar i n

P osnansky a nd McIn tosh ( 1976: 1 88 ) r ef lect t he s a me p heno menon .

P oin t c on-

c en tra t ion s urvey a lso i nc ludes s urvey s tra teg ies c onducted f ro m s pecif ic p oin ts , s uch a s a rchaeolog ica l s i tes, wh ich s erve a s b ases f or e xa m ina t ion o f t erra in i n t he v ic in i ty .

E xa mp les o f t h is method i nc lude L a mber t ' ss urvey

o f s i tes w i th in a f i ve-k i lo metre r ad ius o f Ak jou jt i n Mauretan ia ( a lthough o n ly c opper a ge ' s i tes a ppear t o h ave b een r ecorded — L a mber t 1 965a : 1 971 ) ; F i lopow iak e t a l ., ( 1968 ) s urvey i n t he im med ia te e nv irons o f N ian i ;

v ar ious

e xp lora t ions a round Y enga ma a nd K aba la c aves i n S ierra L eone ( New man 1 966 ; O zanne 1 966b ) ;

a nd Wa i-Ogusu ' sr econna issance o f t he t erra in a round s pecif ic

b ase p oin ts i n Upper V o lta ( Wa i-Ogusu 1 973: 1 9 ) .

I n N iger ia , r ecen t s earches

d escr ibed b y R ees ( 1975 ) a nd Ma l iphan t e t a l ., ( 1976 ) f or d efensive f ea tures, wa l ls , a nd d i tches n or th o f B en in C i ty , a nd b y Darl ing ( persona l c o mmun ica t ion , 1 979 ) f or s i tes n ear B en in C i ty f a ll i n to t h is c a tegory.

S urvey h as b egun i n

t he v icin i ty o f K u mas i i n Ghana ( c f ., Anquandah 1 977 ) b ut i th as b een h a mp ered b y t he f orest v egeta t ion , a s h as b een t he c ase i n t he v icin i ty o f Begho. L inear R econna issance.

S o me e f for t t o map s i te d istr ibut ions o ver a w ider

a rea i s made i n t he t h ird s urvey c a tegory , l inear r econna issance.

I n t h is

c ase , h owever , r ivercourses o r r oads ( or r a i lway c uts) d e ter m ine t he p a th o f s urvey , a nd o ne c annot b e c er ta in f ro m p ub l ished r epor ts t ha t a l l t ypes o f s i tes i n t he r eg ion h ave b een e ncoun tered a nd r ecorded .

A lso, b ecause many

o f t he s i tes d iscovered i n t h is k ind o f s urvey h ave b een e xposed b y r oadb ui ld ing o r b y s h if t ing r iver c ourses, t hey c an b e b ad ly d isturbed . Th is s tra tegy i s e xe mp lif ied i n Ma l i b y t he w ork o f S zurnowsk i i n t he Mass ina ( on t he D ioura r oad ) a nd b y t he w ork i n t he B and iagara c lif f r eg ion b y Haan a nd B edaux .

More r ecen t ly ( l ate i n 1 974 ) B edaux i n i t ia ted a s earch b y

b oa t o f t he N iger R iver f ro m Mop t i t o K ouakourou a nd o f t he Ban i R iver f ro m J enne t o Mop t i , i n t he c ourse o f wh ich t he r iverbanks were s crut in ised a nd f our teen s i tes s urface c o l lected ( Bedaux 1 975 a nd 1 976b : 1 -2 ;

v ide s upra ).

S o me l i t tora l e xp lora t ion h as b een u nder taken i n t he I vory C oast ( c f ., Mauny 1 973 ;

F l igh t 1 973: 5 45-547 ) a nd more r ecen t ly i n G hana ( Do mbrowsk i ,

p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion , 1 978 ) .

Most r ecen t s urvey i n S ierra L eone h as b een

a long r iver c ourses a nd o n t he p la in-p la teau b oundary ( B. S acharow , p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion , 1 978 ;

c f ., O zanne 1 966b ) , a nd Gabe l c oncen tra ted u pon t he

S t . P aul R iver d ra inage d ur ing h is 1 973 s urvey i n L iber ia ( Gabel 1 974 a nd G abe l e t a l ., 1 972-1974 ) .

The o n ly r ecen t s urvey o f Upper V o lta , t hat o f

Wa i-Ogusu i n 1 970 a nd 1 971 , was p art ia l ly c onducted i n t h is manner a s we l l. 2 96

Deve lop men t o f n a t iona l e cono m ies c rea tes a rchaeolog ica l 'r escue ' s i tuat i ons ;

d am c onstruct ion i n e astern N iger ia r ecen t ly t hreatened s i tes i n t he

N iger R iver b asin ( a s t he c rea t ion o f an ew F edera l c ap i ta l n ow t hrea tens s i tes i n t he B enue P la teau s ta te ) .

T he K a in ji R escue Archaeologica l P ro ject was

b egun t o r ecord , s urface c o l lect , a nd t est e xcava te s i tes a long t he N iger a nd t r ibu tary r ivers a bove t he d am ( Ca lvocoressi 1 969 ; C a lvocoressi a nd Y ork 1 971 ;

Har t le 1 970 ;

B retern i tz 1 968 ) .

S im i lar c ircu mstances l ed t o t he e stab-

l i sh men t o f t he V o lta B as in R esearch P ro ject i n Ghana ( Ca lvocoressi 1 969 : 3 -5; Dav ies 1 965 ; Y ork 1 966 a nd 1 973 ) . Th is r iver s urvey was p receded b y ac ons iderab le ( but u npub l ished ) s earch o f r oad a nd r iver c u ts t hroughou t Ghana b y Dav ies ( f ie ldnotes o n f i le a t t he Un iversi ty o f Ghana , L egon , 1 951-1966 ) . I n n or theastern N iger ia a nd a d jacen t c oun tr ies C onnah c onducted r econna iss ance i n t he f i rk i c lay p la ins s outh a nd west o f L ake Chad a nd i n t he u ndula t ing s andy l and t o t he w est .

I n t he c lay p la in t he s earch was 'L inear ' a long t he

l ake t erraces , a nd i n t he r eg ion o f s andy s oi l t he s earch p roceeded a long t he s outhern s ide o f t he R iver Y obe , a long t he R ivers Ngadda a nd Y edsera m , a nd a long r oads l ead ing f ro m Ma idugr i a nd B a ma n or th t o Mub i ( Connah 1 976: F ig . 1 , 3 22 ;

c f ., 1 970 , 1 971 , a nd 1 978 ) .

C onnah h as b een a b le t o r econstruct

t he e volut ion o f o ccupa t ion i n t hese t wo a reas f ro m t he e ar ly s econd m i l lenn iu m B . C . t o t he e stab l ish men t o f f u lly u rban s i tes s uch a s B irn in Gazarga mo b y t he s ix teen th c en tury A . D . Ex tensive Unsyste ma t ic .

E lsewhere , p rofessiona l a rchaeo log ists h ave

l oca ted many o f t he ma jor k inds o f s i tes w i th in a l arger a rea b y s urvey methods wh ich c an b e c a l led e x tens ive b u t u nsys te ma t ic ( i den t ica l t o t he "wh ist le s top" o r "h un t-and-peck " me thods i den ti f ied b y S ch if fer a nd H ouse 1 976: 4 0-41 ). Th is c a tegory o f s urvey f requen t ly h as a s i t s o b ject t he r ecord ing o f al im ited n u mber o f s pecif ic s i te t ypes ( e .g ., t u mul i ) wh ich may b e d istr ibuted o ver a l arge a rea .

I ti s n ot , h owever , c oncerned w i th r ecord ing a l l t ypes o f s i tes

wh ich may h ave b een o ccup ied c on te mporaneously . J ouenne a nd J oire ( 1955 ) r ecorded mega li th ic monu men ts a nd ' tu mul i ' i n S enega l ( c f ., Mauny 1 961: 1 62-172 ) a nd Ravisse- h as r ecen t ly s earched f or s i tes o f many p er iods i n e astern S enega l a nd t he C asa mance ( Chron ique d e 1 'I . F . A . N . 1 976 ; 1 19 ) .

H i l l a lso s urveyed i n t he Ga mb ia f or mega l i ths ( H i l l 1 974 )

a nd i n t he Eastern a nd S ou thern P rov inces a nd B o D istr ict o f S ierra L eone ( H i l l 1 969 ) .

David ( 1968a , 1 968b , a nd 1 976 ) a nd Har t le ( 1969 ) c onducted im-

p or tan t s urveys o f C a meroon s ou th o f L ake C had .

An i n terest ing s urvey o f

n or thwestern C a meroon was u ndertaken b y Maniac i n 1 974 , i n wh ich r econn a issance was c o mp le men ted b y t he u se o f d eta i led s oi l a nd t opograph ic maps a nd a er ia l p hotograph ic c overage ( and t he methods p ub l ished i n a n u nusua l ly c o mp lete f or m ) ( Mar liac 1 974 ) .

L arge r eg ions o f n or thern C had a nd N iger

h ave b een s urveyed s e lect ive ly b y H uard a nd Massip ( 1967 ) , a nd Q uechon a nd R ose t ( 1974 ) ( c f ., C our t in 1 967 a nd C oppens 1 965 ) .

Ag rea t d ea l o f s urvey

h as g one o n i n t he s ou thern b asin o f L ake C had a nd t he d e lta o f t he C har iL ogone , b ut t h is h as p r i mar i ly b een a s earch f or t e lls b ui l t b y t he s o-ca l led S ao ' p eop le ( Ber ie l 1 976 ;

L ebeuf 1 962 a nd 1 969 ) .

Many o ther impor tan t ,

b u t u npub l ished p rogra m mes h ave n ot b een i ncluded h ere ( e .g ., r ecen t work i n n or thern a nd e astern N iger ia a nd i n t he G on ja r eg ion o f Ghana ) , b ut most o ther s urveys h ave p ara lle led t he p h i losophy o f t he a bove.

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A l though s urvey i n West A fr ica h as o n ly b egun t o mature , t here h ave b een s o me a t te mp ts t o p resen t g raph ica l s yn theses o f k now ledge a bout t he d istr ibut ion o f s i tes. The most n otab le a re Mauny ' s map o f m isce l laneous s i tes i n t he Massina a nd N iger B end r eg ions ( Mauny 1 961: 9 4 ) , ac o mp i lat ion o f r epor ts o fv i l lages, t u mul i , mega l i th ic monu men ts, s hel l mounds , a nd i ron work ings i n S enega l ( Mar t in a nd B ecker 1 974 ) , a nd t he C ar te Archeo - l og ique d es Abords d u L ac T chad ( 1969 ) i n wh ich L ebeuf .c o mb ines f our d ecades o f f i e ld w ork , o ra l t rad i t ions, a nd e x tensive u se o f a er ia l p hotography ( c f . G u i ta t 1 970 a nd 1 972 ) .

T he s yn theses b y Mar t in a nd B ecker a nd b y L ebeuf

a re s tud ies o f c hange i n t he s et t le men t t hrough t ime i n wh ich l i t t le e f for t i s made t o e stab l ish t ha t a l l s i tes a t tr ibuted t o e ach p er iod w ere c on te mporan eously o ccup ied o r t o f u l ly c a ta logue t he r ange o f s i tes i n t he r eg ion o ccup ied s i mul taneously w i th t he p r inc ipa l , q u i te s pec ia l ised s i tes. Another ma jor c r i t icis m i s t ha t t he a uthors h ave f a i led t o map s oi l a nd g eo morpho log ica l l andfor ms a nd t o p lot t he l oca t ion o f a nc ien t s i tes o f d ifferen t p er iods a ga inst t hese l andfor ms i no rder t o o bserve t he way i n wh ich p references f or l andf or ms c hange t hrough t ime ( excep t i n t he mos t g enera l way ). H ence , t he n ature o f s urvey i n West A fr ica t o d ate makes s ta te men ts a bout t he g row th o fu rban is m impossib le ow ing t o t he l ack o f t rustwor thy d iachron ic i n for ma t ion a bout t he e volu t ion o f t he r eg iona l s et t le men t h ierarchy wh ich g ave r ise t o t he u rban s et t le men ts. A t t he mo men t o ne c annot k now whether a l lu rban s et t le men ts i n West A fr ica w ere o nce s uppor ted b y a we llin tegra ted a gr icu ltura l h in ter land , o r whe ther s o me were a r tefacts o n ly o f t he l ongd istance t rade d eve loped s ince Arab c on tact .

The r equire men ts o f t rade p laced

many o f t he l a t ter ( e .g ., T eghaza ) i n l oca t ions i n wh ich t hey were d ependen t u pon d istan t a gr icul tura l r eg ions f or many b asic s tap les.

U rban s et t le men ts

o ft he l at ter t ype may h ave emerged r e la t ive ly r ap id ly w i th t he e xpansion o f t he t rans-Saharan t rade ;

t hose c i t ies w i th a we l lin tegra ted h in ter land may

e qua l ly h ave b een t he p roduct o f al ong , s low e vo lut ion .

I n t he f o l low ing c hap ters w e p ass f ro m t he r esu l ts o f a rchaeo log ica l s urvey t o o ther c lasses o f i nfor ma t ion a bou t t he p at tern o f s et t le men ts i n J enne ' s h in ter land . C hap ter 2 i s ar eview o f a l l a va i lab le i nfor ma t ion f ro m t he h ist or ica l s ources, i nc luding o ra l t rad i t ions. Th is r ev iew i s s upp le men tary t o t he a t te mp t i n P ar t i , C hap ter 3t o t race t he e ar l iest men t ion o f t he t own . C hap ter 3 p resen ts t he r esu lts o f g eo morpholog ica l s urvey c onducted i n t he f i e ld i n 1 977 , s upp le men ted b y s ate ll i te a nd a er ia l p hotograph ic i n for ma t ion . L andfor ms a nd s oi l u n i ts o f t he J enne h in ter land a re mapped a nd e v idence o f t he e volut ion o f t he u pper I n land N iger De l ta c o mpared t o t ha t o b tained a nd a ccura te ly d a ted d ur ing g eo morpholog ica l s tud ies e lsewhere i n t he Western S udan . I n C hap ter 4 , t he f i na l b ackground c hap ter b efore p resen ta t ion o f t he r esu lts o ft he s et t le men t s urvey o f 1 977 , we e xa m ine t he d istr ibut ion o f modern e thn ic g roups, l oca t ion o f t he ir s ubsistence a ct iv i t ies, a nd t he d istr ibut ion o f t he n a tura l f l ora o ver t he l and for ms d escr ibed i n t he p reced ing c hap ter .

S tudy

o ft he modern g eography h e lps t he a rchaeolog ist t o a ssess t he p oten t ia l o f e ach l andfor m f or h u man o ccupa t ion i n t he p ast a nd t o p red ic t where o n t hose l andf or ms r e ma ins o f p ast o ccupa t ion may b e f ound .

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CHAPTER 2 H ISTORICAL REFERENCES TO THE J ENNE REGION

Men t ion o f t he c i ty o f J enne i n t he h istor ica l r ecords was l a te a nd c ursory , a s we h ave s een i n C hap ter 3 o f P ar t io f t h is monograph .

The s pareness o f

d e ta i l i n h istor ica l s ources c oncern ing t he i nhab i tan ts a nd a ppearance o f t he t own i t se lf was a cco mpan ied b y as im i lar s i lence a bout t he e thn ic c o mposi t ion , o ccupa t ions, a nd s et t le men t c haracter ist ics o f t he h in ter land .

The r eview

wh ich f o l lows o f i n for ma t ion a bout t he i nhab i tan ts a nd s et t le men ts o f t he r eg ion s urround ing t he c i ty was u nder taken i n t he e xpecta t ion t ha t t h is i n for ma t ion wou ld f aci l i ta te t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he r esults o f s i te s urvey u nder taken i n 1 977 . The r eview b eg ins w i th e ar ly d ocu men tary s ources, f o llowed b y t he s o mewha t more g enerous i n for ma t ion c on tained i n l oca l o ra l t rad i t ions a nd i n a ccoun ts o f n ineteen th c en tury e xp lorers a nd m i li tary p ersonne l . The e ar liest b od ies o f i n for ma t ion a bou t t he h istory a nd p ol i t ics o f t he Western S udan , n a me ly e ar ly a nd

C lassic ' a rab g eograph ies a nd e ncycloped iae

a nd e ar ly p re-colon ia l E uropean a ccoun ts, c on ta in v ery l i t t le u sefu l i n for mat i on .

The f i rst h istor ica l men t ion o f J enne i n t he Tua t l et ters o f An ton ius

Ma lfan te ( A . D . 1 447 ) o ccurs i n al i st ing o f t he c i t ies o f Takedda , E s-Souk , T i mbuk tu , O uden i , a nd G en i ( Jenne ) . g endered c on troversy ;

B u t e ven t h is s parce r eference h as e n-

j ust wha t d oes h is u se o f "c ivi ta te"

imp ly r egard ing

t he t err itor ia l e x ten t o r p ol i t ica l d i mensions o f J enne — "c i ty" o r "c i ty-sta te" ( La R onciere 1 924: 1 54 ;

c f . P russin 1 973 : 6 6-67 )?

L eo A fr icanus, who made

t wo e xtensive j ourneys t hrough A fr ica ( A . D . 1 511 a nd 1 512-1514 ) c o mpounds t he p uzz le men t a bou t J enne ' st err i tor ia l a uthor i ty .

A fr icanus g ives J enne

o n ly t he b r iefest men t ion , c a l ling i t" bu t ac er ta ine g rea t v i l lage o ne ly" 8 22 ; c f . 8 40 ) .

( 1896:

N ever the less, i ti s a t t h is t i me t he s ea t o f t he p rince o f

Gh inea ( Jenne ) , who r ules a n e nor mous k ingdo m :

"I n l eng th i tc on ta ineth

a l most f i ve h undred m i les, a nd e x tendeth t wo h undred a nd f i f t ie m i les a long t he r iver o f N iger "( Afr icanus 1 896: 8 22 ) . Ac ur ta in o f c on fusion d escends o n t he e x terna l s ources f or a c onsiderab le p er iod t hereaf ter .

J enne i s c on fused ly d escr ibed a s ac i ty , r eg ion , o r k ing-

d om o n maps f ro m t he e ar ly s even teen th c en tury o nwards , e .g ., J odecus H ondus ' map o f 1 606 , a nd a s l a te a s 1 788 Ven tur d e Parad is d ep icts t he r outes a long t he N iger a nd a sser ts t ha t J enne i s s i mp ly a n e n trepö t ( Prussin 1 973: 7 3 , 7 6). H owever , i n terna l s ources f or t he Western S udan were b et ter a ppr ised o f t he t err i tor ia l e x ten t a nd g eography o ft he J enne r egion .

Un for tuna te ly , t hese

w ould n ot b eco me a va i lab le t o E uropean s cholars f or s evera l c en turies a nd , i ndeed , a na lysis o f t he t a ' r ikh ( l oca l h istory wr it ten i n a rab ic b y an a t ive s cho lar ) h as g enera l ly n ot b een u sed t o i t s f u ll p oten t ia l h ere a nd e lsewhere i n West A fr ica .

The most u sefu l o f t hese l oca l h istor ies i s t he Ta ' r ikh e s-

S udan , wr it ten i n c . A . D . 1 656 b y a l-Sa 'd i ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900 ;

2 99

c f . Mauny 1 961:

3 9-40 ;

P ageard 1 961;

a nd Prussin 1 973: 7 8-81 a nd 3 58-359 ).

I n t he f i rst

c hap ters a l-Sa 'd i p rov ides t he f i rst men t ion o f t he a ncien t t own s i te , Z oboro ( or D joboro-Jennejeno) ( 1900: 2 3 ) , a nd u nderscores t he i mpress ion t ha t J enne o nce h e ld g rea t t err i tor ia l a uthor i ty .

B y t h is a ccoun t , J enne a dm in istered a

r eg ion o f p ossib ly 1 7 ,000 km 2 : f ro m t he v i llage o f K ika i ( near L ake Debo ) s outh c lose t o t he b ank o f t he western R iver V olta , w est f ro m T ina i ( i n t he p resen t c an ton o f S ay ) t o t he Band iagara moun ta ins i n t he e ast ( a l-SW d i 1 900: 2 5 ;

c f . E vrard 1 977 , I :2 2 ) . a l-Sa 'd i ' si n for ma t ion a bou t t he a rea s urround ing J enne c an b e d is join ted

a nd impression ist ic, b ut c onsiderab le n ever the less.

We a re a ssured t ha t t he

a rea a round J enne was o nce f ert i le a nd w e ll p opula ted ; p acked c lose ly t oge ther s urrounded t he c i ty .

i n f act , 7 ,077 v i llages

Th is p opula t ion d ensi ty a l lowed

a nu nusua l f or m o f c o mmun ica t ion : I f , f or e xa mp le , t he s ul tan ( o f J enne ) r equired t he p resence o f a n i nh ab i tan t o fo ne o f t he v i l lages n ear L ake Debo, h is messager w ould s i mp ly make h is way t o o ne o f t he g a tes o f t he c i ty wa l l a nd , f ro m t here , w ould c ry o u t t he s u m mons.

The p eop le o fv i l lage af ter v i llage

a long t he way wou ld r epea t t he message , a nd s o t he s u mmons immed ia tely r eached t he c oncerned p ar ty , who h astened t o t he i n terview . N oth ing f ur ther i s r equired t o s how h ow h eavi ly p opula ted i s t he t err it ory o f J enne. ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900 : 2 4-25;

t ransla ted b y RJ M ).

And a l though t h is a ccoun t may b e as l igh t e xaggera t ion , i t may r epresen t t he me mory o f at i me i n c o m mon r eco llect ion when c rops were more l uxur ien t a nd c o mmun i t ies more p rosperous ( c f . a l-Sa 'd i 1 900: 2 4 , 2 22 ). The r eg ion o f J enne e xper ienced p ol i t ica l t ur moi l a nd s oc ia l u pheava l d ur ing t he s even teen th t hrough n ine teen th c en tur ies, a nd t he t roub led t i mes b egan e ven d ur ing t he r e igns o f t he l ast A sk iyas o f S onghay .

The F u lan i o f t he Mass ina

a nd t he J enne a rea were d ivided a nd f euded amongst t he mse lves.

They r e-

g u lar ly r a ided s eden tary v i l lages, wh ich were a lso w orr ied b y t he Mossi ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900: 2 84-288 ) .

I n A . D . 1 558-1559 a n e ar lier A sk iya ( Daoud ) r e-

p r i manded h is r epresen ta t ive i n J enne f or a l low ing t he p agan Ba mbara t o i n f i l tra te t he J enne a rea i n g rea t n u mbers ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900: 1 71-172 ).

When

p o li t ica l a u thor i ty weakened d ur ing t he Moroccan o ccupa t ion , t hese s a me B a mbara a l l ied w i th t heir b re thren f ro m S egou t o d estroy v i l lages a nd l ay waste t he l and ( a l-Sa td i 1 900 : 2 23 , 2 73-276 , 2 79-281 , a nd 4 18-420 ).

The

i nhab i tan ts o f J enne were n ever c on ten t u nder Moroccan r u le a nd p er iod ica lly r ose i n r evol t ( e .g ., i n 1 599 , 1 609 , 1 610 , 1 632 , 1 643 , 1 651 a nd 1 653-1655 ) ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900 : 2 43-249 , 2 78-279 , 2 98-299 , 3 80-382 , 4 02 , 4 41, 4 76-480 , a nd 4 88-489 ) .

I nstab i l i ty d ur ing t he s even teen th c entury c on tr ibu ted t o a

marked d ecrease i n r iver ine t rade a nd t o ag rea ter l ike lihood o f f am ine d ur ing y ears o f d im in ished r ain fa ll o r u nusua l f l ood ing , a s i n 1 617 a nd 1 633 ( a l-Sa 'd i 1 900 : 3 37-338 , 3 98 ) .

I fa ny th ing , t he s i tua t ion was w orse i n t he Mass ina.

B ecause J enne a nd t he Massina w ere t he p roviders o f f ood f or t o wns d owns trea m , s uch a s T i mbuk tu a nd Wa la ta , t he i ns tabi l i ty s pread w ide ly i n e f fec t . a l-Sa 'd i c lear ly d id n ot l ike t he r ule o f t he p ashas.

H owever , h is t est i mony

p ara l lels o ther e vidence t ha t t he e nd o f t he s ix teen th c en tury w i tnessed a marked c hange i n t he f or tune o f t he r eg ion o f J enne . 3 00

Al ess u sefu l s ource i s t he Ta t r ikh e l-Fat tash , wr i t ten b y I bn a l- Mukh tar ( Mah moud K a t i ) i n a pprox i ma te ly A . D . 1 665 ( a l- Mukh tar 1 913 ; 8 1-82 a nd 3 60-361 ;

a nd L evtzion 1 97 1 ) .

P russin 1 973:

C issoko h as made v ery e f fect ive u se

o f t he s ca t tered r eferences i n t h is work t o f am ines, p lagues, f l oods a nd d rough ts a s measures o f t he e f fect o f p o li t ica l i nstab i l i ty o n t he p opu la t ion o f t he I n land N iger De lta a nd t o wns d own t he N iger ( Cissio ko 1 96 8 ; 1 974: 1 27-132 ;

c f . a l- Mukh tar 1 913 : 1 32 a nd p assi m ) .

Ty mowsk i

C issoko ' sc en tra l

a rgu men t i s t ha t t he Western S udan i s u nderpopula ted n ow , b ut was p rosperous a nd d ense ly p opu la ted d ur ing a nd b efore t he s ix teen th c en tury .

Dur ing t ha t

c en tury t here w ere e p ide m ics ( i n A . D . 1 536 , 1 548 , 1 551 a nd 1 58 2-15 8 3 ) , b ut t he p opula t ion was h ea l thy a nd f ood p len t i fu l e nough t ha t l i fe was n ot t oo b ad ly d isrup ted .

I n t he s even teen th a nd e igh teen th c en tur ies, h owever , t here

was a r ap id s uccession o f Moroccan p ashas ( n one o f who m , i ta ppears, were p er manen t ly i n c on trol o f a reas o utside o f ma jor t owns ) , a nd t he r ich a gr icultura l a reas o f J enne a nd t he Massina were t hrea tened b y t he Tuareg a nd B a mbara a nd were b a lkan ised b y t he F u lan i m i l i tary c h iefs, t he a rdo. C onsequen t ly , u nusua l p eriods o f i nunda t ion ( t oo g rea t , t oo l i t t le , o r s ign if i can t ly o f f-schedu le ) a nd p er iods o f d ecreased r a in fa ll r esu lted i n a n e xpand ing wave o f f am ine , e p ide m ics a nd f ur ther p ol i t ica l d isenchan t men t .

The y ears

A . D . 1 616-1618 , 1 639-1643 , 1 669-16 7 1 , 1 711-1716 a nd p ar t icular ly 1 7381 756 were v ery s er ious i n T enne a s we ll a s i n T i mbuk tu .

By t he e nd o f t he

e igh teen th c en tury t he S aharan c i t ies c losest t o t he b end o f t he N iger ( e .g . Tad mekka , Arawan , Wa la ta ) were a ll b ut a bandoned a nd t he t rade i n l uxury g oods h ad a l most c eased ( C issoko 1 96 8 : 8 13-819 ) .

T i mbuktu h ad p erhaps

1 0 ,000-12 ,000 i nhab i tan ts a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n ine teen th c en tury , whereas C issoko e st i ma tes a p opu la t ion o f a pprox i ma te ly 8 0 ,000 f or b oth T i mbuktu a nd J enne d ur ing t he s ix teen th c en tury ( C issoko 1 96 8 : 8 10 ;

c p . Mauny 1 961: 5 00 ;

C a i l l ie 1 830 , I : 3 00 ) . S usta ined b y h er r ich a gr icul tura l h in ter land J enne may h ave f ared s o mewha t b et ter , b ut t he t rend was c er ta in ly t he s a me. These i nd igenous s ources were , o f c ourse , n ot immed ia te ly a va i lab le t o s cholars i n t he i s la m ic o r c hr ist ian wor lds, a nd a s we h ave s een , E uropean r eferences t o t he c i ty i n maps o r g eograph ies b eca me r arer a nd more c onf used .

The f i rst v isi t t o J enne b y a European was p robab ly made b y Mungo

P ark d ur ing h is s econd t r ip o f 1 805 ( Park 1 907 : 1 54-166;

3 67 ).

He p assed

t hrough t he I n land N iger De l ta d ur ing t ha t i l l-fa ted j ourney ( and c a me t o a v i l lage w i th in t wo d ays ' d istance d ur ing h is f i rst t r ip ) , b u t t he a ccoun ts o f t hose d ays a re l ost .

H owever , i tc an b e s een f ro m t he r e ma in ing j ourna ls

t ha t i n t he l ast d ecade o f t he e igh teen th c en tury a nd f i rst d ecade o f t he n inet een th c en tury , t he w estern f ron t ier o f t he u pper I n land N iger De l ta ( near S ansand ing ) was g rave ly t roub led b y p ol i t ica l i nstab il i ty , a nd n or ma l c o m merce w i th J enne h ad b eco me f ar more d iff icul t .

Park was t old t ha t t he J enne r eg ion

was c on tro lled b y t he Ba mbara F a ma o f S egou, h it a t t he t i me i t was r uled b y l oca l F u lan i a r istocra ts a nd t he merchan t c lass ( Brown 1 969 : 2 0 ) . Rene Ca i l lie was t he f i rst European t o p rovide a n e ye-w i tness a ccoun t o f t he c i ty ( Ca i ll ie 1 830 ;

c f . P russin 1 973: 8 5-89 a nd 3 62-374 ) .

Trave ll ing w i th

Dyula ( Mande t raders ) i n March o f 1 828 , h e f o l lowed t he s outhern r outes a long wh ich t he c i ty was t he n a tura l g a teway t o T i mbuk tu .

Wh i le i n K ankan t o t he

e ast o f t he F uta J a lon , h e h eard t ha t war h ad made t rave l b y r iver impossib le

3 01

b e tween S egou a nd J enne ( Ca i l l ie 1 830 , I :2 69 , 4 22 ) .

H is a pproach t o t he c i ty

t herefore was f ro m S a mba t ik i la i n B a mbara c oun try ( where h e n oted many o uronde ', o r s lave v i llages ) , a long t he h igh land s outh a nd s outheast o f t he I n land N iger De lta ( t he Benedougou ) , c rossing t he Ban i o pposi te J enne ( see Map 2 .1 ).

C onsiderab le t rade was b eing c onducted b etween J enne a nd t he

v i l lages o ft he s outhern De lta a nd t he B enedougou a t t ha t t i me ( c f . C a i l l ie 1 830 , I :4 60 ) .

V i l lages a ppear t o h ave s pecia l ised i n v ar ious p roducts f or t rade ,

e .g ., P ola ( Ca i l l ie 1 830 , I :4 13-414 ) a nd B ere ( 1830 , I :4 21 ) a nd o ther v i llages o f t he B enedougou i n i ron ( con f ir med b y O us man C isse i n J enne i n 1 977 , c f . Mon te i l 1 903: 2 25 ) , Ta mero i n t he f rui t a nd l eaves o ft he b aobab ( 1830, I :4 35 ) , a nd S yenso ( 1830 , I :4 35-436 ) a nd K ir ina ( 1830 , I :4 37-438 ) i n r ope.

He e st i-

ma tes e ach o f t he v i l lages i n t h is r eg ion t o h ave 5 00-600 i nhab i tan ts ( Ca i l l ie 1 830 , I :4 38 ) .

H is i t inerary i s r easonab ly c lear a nd c an b e f o llowed o n maps

o ft he r eg ion t oday .

Un for tuna te ly , h e i s v ery i nexact i n h is e thn ic a t tr ibut ion

o fv i l lages ( c f . 1 830 , I :4 40-441 ;

h e a pparen t ly c on fuses Marka , R i ma ibe ,

a nd s o me B a mbara w i th t he "Dyula" J enne i s p opula ted b y 'Mand ingo ', F u lan i , B a mbara a nd Moors ;

C a i l lie

e st i ma tes i t s p opula t ion a s 8 ,000-10 , 0 00 p ersons a nd i t s c ircu mference a s a bout t wo a nd a h a lf m i les ( Ca i ll ie 1 830 , I :4 59-460 ).

The t own i s s urrounded

b y a n i l l-constructed e ar th wa ll a bout t en f eet h igh a nd f our teen i nches t h ick . The a rea a round J enne i s marshy a nd c lear o f t rees.

S laves g row r ice o n t he

p la in , m isce l laneous v egetab les o n t he b anks o f t he s trea ms n ear t he t o wn , m i l let a nd ma ize o n h igh land a reas, a nd t he F u lan i k eep c at t le i n t he d eep p ar ts o ft he f l oodp la in a nd s e ll m i lk , woo l a nd a n i ma ls i n t he market .

C a iH ie

was t old t ha t t he Mass ina i s v ery p roduct ive i n c erea ls, v egetab les, p oultry a nd h orses ( and u ndoub ted ly c a t t le a nd s heep ) ( 1830 , I :4 68 ) .

The r eg ion o f

J enne i s r u led b y S e im Amadou ( Ha m mad i B oubou ) , whose c urren t wars s ev ere ly h indered t he t rad i t iona l t rade b y sma ll c anoes w i th t he s ources o f g old a t B oure b y way o f Ya m ina , S ansand ing , a nd Ba mako ( 1830 , I :4 65-66 ). C a i ll ie b e lieves t ha t "The t o wn o f J enne c an n o l onger b e c onsidered a s t he c en tra l p oin t o f c o m merce ."

( 1830 , I :4 60 ) .

R iver t rade w i th T i mbuk tu was

c er ta in ly h ur t b y t he g enera l i nstab i l i ty a nd p ar t icu lar ly b y t he d ut ies d emanded b y t he T uareg n ear T i mbuk tu , b u t many l arge b oa ts l a iden w i th f ood a nd p roduce made t he v oyage w i th C a i ll ie i n Apr i l o f 1 828 . P o li t ica l i nstab i l i ty h ad u nquest ionab ly h ur t t rade b y t he e ar ly n ineteen th c en tury .

H owever , o ne c an s ee f ro m C a i ll ie ' sa ccoun ts t ha t l oca l t rade t o

t he J enne marke t s t i ll t hr ived a nd t ha t t he n eighbourhood o f t he c i ty a nd t he Mass ina were s t i ll r ich i n p astora l a nd a gr icultura l p roducts a nd a pparen t ly r easonab ly we l l p opula ted . The t he me o f d evasta t ion a nd d epopula t ion o f t he c oun tryside b eco mes more c o mmon i n t he s ources a s t he n ine teen th c en tury a dvances.

N e ither

Anne Raf fene l ( i n t he F a le me a nd Kaar ta r eg ions ) n or He inr ick Bar th ( Ti mbuk tu a nd H o mbor i ) e n tered t he I n land N iger De lta , b ut b oth wrote o f t he u nset t led s ta te o f t he c oun try ( Raf fene l 1 846, c f . 1 849 ;

B ar th 1 859 ) .

I n J u ly o f 1 887

L ieutenan t Caron o f t he f i rst Ga ll ien i e xped i t ion t ook a r econna issance v oyage t o T i mbuk tu b y s tea m v esse l t hrough t he I n land N iger De lta wh ich was n ow c on tro lled b y t he Tuku lor u nder Amadu ( T i jan i ) , o ldest s on o f e l-ha j j U mar ( Ga l l ien i 1 891: 1 91-214 , 3 19-320 ;

c f . C aron 1 891 ) . 3 02

C aron r epor ts t ha t t he

MAP 2 .1

0

TI mbuktu

C c 0 b




0

4 : 7 \

gi

f

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ar, e \ d h- o f eoa C g

hf

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r ecorded c l us ter

3 52

v i l lages

N IAP 5 .3

1 970 AO

% . , % .

o a

( 1

0

8 9 1-500 ( MAL I )- 1 59 i gn

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r P eO v is ib le mounds 4v i l lages D s i tes n o t s een f r om t he a i r 2 r ecorded c lus ter o r t ransect n umber

3 53

M AP 5 .4

1 970 AO 8 9 1-500 ( MAL I )i gn

1 57

0

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t e 3 .0

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v i l lages r ecorded c l us ter

3 54

3

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1 970 AO 8 9 1-500 ( MAL I )- 1 55 i gn

1 k m 2 I it ,

3

c aO v i s ib le mounds v i l lages v mounds w i thout s ur face r ema ins 0 r ecorded c l us ter o r t ransect n umber

3 55

MAP 5 .6

1 970 A O

8 9 1-500 ( MAL I ) - 2 91 i gn

0 1 k m 2 ii . i II

1 : 2 0

3 i

v i s ib le mounds * v i l lages r ecorded c lus ter o r t ransect n umber

g

3 56

MAP 5 .7

1 970 A O

0

8 9 1 -5 00 ( MAL I )- 2 93 i gn

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v i l lages c luster

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The n ex t s tage o ft he s urvey was t o s elect a t wen ty p ercen t s amp le o f t he s i te-c lusters i n e ach a ir p hotograph b y d raw ing n u mbers f ro m a t able o f r ando m n u mbers , f ro m a r ow o r c olu mn o f n u mbers s e lected f ro m a d i f feren t p osi t ion i n t he t ab le f or e ach a er ia l p hotograph .

There i s n o a gree men t i n t he l i tera-

t ure a bout wha t s ize s a mp le i s most e f f icien t f or e st i mat ing t he t rue n a ture o f a p opu la t ion ' o f s i tes i n ar eg iona l s urvey , b u t t en p ercen t i s a n a rb i trary f i gure o f ten g iven a nd a ny i ncrease i n s a mp le s ize o ver t ha t w ould t heoret ic a l ly improve r esu lts.

Dur ing 1 977 a l l t he s i tes i n e ach s e lected c luster w ere

v isi ted , b ut o n ly o ne o r t wo ( t he most p ro m inen t ) were f or ma l ly r ecorded . A l though a n ested ' ,o r

h ierarch ica l ' s a mp le w ould h ave b een p referab le t o

as i mp le r ando m s a mp le o f s i te-clusters f o llowed b y a n a rb i trary s e lect ion o f c onst i tuen t s i tes f or f or ma l r ecord ing , i t was d ecided t ha t t he n u mber o f s i tes w i th in c lusters was t oo sma l l t o warran t f ur ther s a mp l ing wh i le o ur r ecord ing s tandards r e ma ined s o p r im i t ive ( c f . R ed man 1 974: 1 9 ). A more s oph ist ica ted t ype o f s a mp l ing was c onducted a t s evera l s i tec lusters w i th in a f our k i lo metre r ad ius o f J enne ; o n t he b as is o f t hese r esu l ts i tw i l l b e p ossib le t o f or mu la te a b et ter s tra tegy f or d ea ling w ith c lustered s i tes d ur ing f u ture s easons o f s urvey . The i nd iv idua l s i tes w i th in a c luster p resu mab ly r epresen t d i f ferences i n c hrono logy ( sh if t ing s et t le men t ) , e thn ic c o mposi t ion ( sy mb iosis o f c o m mun i t ies i n c lose p rox im i ty ), f unct ion , o r p erh aps n one o f t hese a t a l l ( s ib l ing a nd c on te mporaneous c o mmun i t ies o r as ing le s i te d iv ided b y e rosion a f ter a bandon men t ) . We d ecided t o p ostpone i nvest igat ing t hose p ossib i l i t ies d ur ing t he e xp loratory s eason , u n t i l we c ou ld l earn f ro m t he a na lysis o f a r tefacts f ro m J ennejeno wh ich ma ter ia ls t o r ecord i n g rea test d e ta i l f or t he c hronologica l e f fect a t l east ( a l though s o me a t tr ibutes o r a r tefacts a re c once ivab ly s ensi t ive t o t i me a nd t o e thn ici ty ). E ach c luster w as v isi ted i n t he o rder o f t heir s e lect ion f ro m t he a er ia l p hotograph , a nd e ach a er ia l p hotograph was c o mp leted b efore b eginn ing t he n ex t .

Wh i le e n r ou te t he f l oodp la in was s earched f or o ther s i tes v isib le o n

t he a er ia l p hotographs ( recorded i n Append ix I a s a 'c on f ir med s i te ' i ft here were a ny s urface f ea tures o r a r tefacts ) a nd f or l i th ic s cat ters.

Upon a rr iv ing

a t t he c luster , a l l mounds w ere v isi ted a nd r e ma ins b r ief ly n oted a nd o ne o r t wo o f t he l argest mounds w ere a rb i trar i ly s e lected f or f or ma l r ecord ing . N ote was t aken o f t opography a nd p resen t-day l and u se n earby , s oi l t ests were c onducted , a nd a t l east o ne h undred metres a round t he c luster s earched f or c ul tura l r e ma ins.

F u l l i n for ma t ion c ol lected a t s i tes w i th in t he F or ma l S ur-

v ey Area d ur ing f or ma l r ecord ing i s f ound i n Append ix I I . F or ma l S urvey : H igh lands.

L im i ta t ions o f t ime a nd r esources a lso d e ter-

m ined t he s a mp ling s che me u sed o n h igh land a reas.

H igh land a reas were

s o mewha t e asier t o r each f ro m J enne b ecause b e t ter r oads c rossed t he m . Once t here , h owever , t he v eh icles w ere a lways l ef t a t t he r oad b ecause o f t he d anger o f p uncture b y t horns. Thorns a lso made wa lk ing s low g oing , p art icul ar ly o n t he h eavy l oa m s oi ls o f h igh a ncien t l evees.

These a re s oi ls a voided

b y t he B a mbara f ar mers who p refer t o c lear o n ly t he b et ter d ra ined s andy s oi ls f or m i l let f i e lds. E ach h ighland f ea ture was d iv ided i n to r ectangu lar t ransects , o ne h a l f k i lometre w ide a nd t wo t o t hree k i lo metres l ong d epend ing o n t he s ize o f t he f eature ( e .g . a er ia l p hotograph — 1 59 = 2 0 t ransects o f 2 .5 km b y 0 .5 km ) .

3 59

These

w ere n u mbered s equen t ia l ly .

The s urvey t hen p roceeded a s a' syste ma t ic

s a mp le ' :t ransects t o b e s earched w ere s epara ted f ro m e ach o ther b y a n i nt erva l f i xed b y t he p ercen tage o f t he t o ta l ( e .g ., 2 0% o f 2 0 =4 t ransects, w i th 5b e tween e ach ) . T he f i rst t ransect was s e lected u sing a r ando m n u mber t ab le ( 3 ) a nd t he n ex t t hree t ransects f o l low a t t he f i xed i n terva l ( 8 , 1 3, 1 8 ) ( c f . R ed man 1 974: 1 2-13 ). R esearchers h ave o f ten c o mp la ined o f d i f f icu lt ies f i nd ing a nd k eep ing t o t he b oundar ies o f t heir s urvey u n i t i n t he f i e ld .

I n t he

S urvey Reg ion , i t was a r e la t ively e asy ma t ter i fo ne b egan a t t he e dge o f t he h igh land a nd t he f l oodp la in . Transects w ere u sua lly o r ien ted N -S o r E- W a nd i t was t he r esponsib i li ty o fo ne me mber o f t he s urvey p ar ty t o k eep a c ourse a nd t o k eep t he o thers o n c ourse. B ear ings w ere t aken a ga in a t t he f ar e nd o f e ach s weep ; o n o n ly t wo o ccasions was i tn ecessary t o r ewa lk a n arrow b and o f t he t ransect n eg lected d ur ing t he s earch . On h igh l eve ls t hree s urv eyors wa lk ing s ide b y s ide c overed t he h a lf-k i lo metre w idth b y mak ing t hree sweeps , o ne s urveyor o ver lapp ing t he p rev ious s weep d ur ing t he s econd a nd t h ird t ransverse ( i .e ., 7 1 me tres p er p erson p er sweep ) . On t he o pen d unes t hree s urveyors made t wo s weeps, w i th n o o ver lapp ing ( i .e. , 8 3 metres p er s urveyor p er t ransverse ) .

E ach t ransverse was wa lked s low ly a nd was c overed

b y t ak ing a z ig-zag c ourse. N u mbers o f c hanges o f d irect ion d uring e ach s weep v ar ied d epend ing u pon t erra in a nd g round c over , b u t f or ty t o f i f ty c hanges w ere made d ur ing e ach o f t he t hree sweeps o ft he 2 .5-k i lome tre l ong t ransec ts . T he s oi l was c lear e nough o fv egeta t ion e ven o n t he c lay l evees, p er m i t t ing g ood v isib il i ty s evera l metres t o e i ther s ide a nd , b ecause most l evee a nd d une s ur face i s d evoted t o m i l let f i e lds, p er iphera l v isib i li ty was a lso g enera l ly v ery g ood . I ti s l i ke ly t ha t o n ly m inor s ca t ters o f p ot tery e scaped n ot ice , a nd t hese were i n a reas o f s o mewha t h eavier g row th o f t horn b ushes ( h eavy l oa m n ear t he f l oodp la in ) wh ich were i n e ach c ase g iven a n e x tra s earch a f ter t he f i na l sweep . The sma l lest s ca t ter o f a r tefacts , o r as ing le i so la ted f eature ( h ouse f oundd a t ion , u rn ) was r ecorded a s as epara te s i te. A s i th appened , t he f ew m inor s ca t ters o f a r tefacts e ncoun tered c ould a l l b e a ssoc ia ted w i th r ecen t a ct iv i t ies, f or w i th in f i f ty metres o f a ny v i l lage i s az one o f r ecen t ly d iscarded p ot tery , r usted meta l b ow ls, e tc ..

Modern p ot tery i s immed iate ly d ist inguishab le f ro m

a ncien t f or ms a nd wares b y i t s t h ick wa l ls, c oarse f abr ic a nd g rog t e mper , p oor p repara t ion o f t he c lay , a nd b y r ed s l ip a pp l ied i n l i near d es igns . O cc as iona l ly , s herds o f modern ware were a lso f ound o n p a ths f ro m v i l lages t o f ar ms ( when i n Ghana , Io bserved t ha t c h i ldren i n p ar t icu lar of ten d ropped wa ter j ars a nd f ood v esse ls f ro m t he ir h eads o n t he l ong wa lk t o t he f ar m ). P loughed o r h oed f i e lds w ere r e markab ly f ree e ven o f sma l l s tones a nd we were t o ld b y s evera l B a mbara f ar mers o n t he r ed d une ( a er ia l p hotograph-155 ; Map 5 .5 ) t ha t t hey d e liberately r e moved p ot tery a nd o ther d ebr is wh ich m igh t d ul l t he ir a gr icu l tura l t oo ls. ( Th is , Is uspect , i s why t hree mounds o n t he a ncien t d une , p robab ly r e lated t o t he p resu med t u muli s i te a nd a l most c er ta in ly a r t if i cia l , h ad n o r e ma ins o n t he s urface ;

a l l were l ow e nough t o b e p loughed a nd

t urned t o m i l le t f i e lds.) Dur ing s urvey o f t he h igh lands s evera l t e mporary h uts o f F u lan i p astora l ists were e ncoun tered ; s im i lar ly , B ozo c a mps were n oted when wa lk ing c hanne ls n ear t he Ban i a t l ow wa ter ( a er ia l p hotograph-159 ; Map 5 .3 ) . C ul tura l r e ma ins a t r ecen t ly a bandoned c a mps w ere n ever f ound , h owever . Th is i s p erhaps b ecause t hese g roups c arry p or tab le h ousehold i t e ms o fo rgan ic mater ia l ( e .g ., l i gh t c a labash b ow ls ) . 3 60

A f i na l p rob le m was t he d eter m ina t ion o f t he s ize o f s i tes o n t he h igh land f ea tures.

The p rob le ms i nvolved i n p ac ing s i tes a re d iscussed i n t he l a ter

s ect ions o f t h is c hap ter , b ut i tw as d if f icu lt L o d eter m ine i ft wo a d jacen t s i tes a re i n f act t he s a me s e t t le men t .

A l l s i tes o n t he f l oodp la in a re d iscrete mounds

a nd i n a l l b u t o ne c ase , t hose o n a ncien t l evees were w e l l i sola ted .

I n t he

c ase o f s i te 1 59-T18-A ( Map 5 .3 ) , t here may i n f act b e t wo o ver lapp ing s i tes , b ut i t was r ecorded a s o ne s i te i n t wo c o mponen ts u n t i l i tc an b e r evisi ted a nd a more e xact e st i mat ion o f t he p er iod o f a bandon men t c an b e made.

The

g rea ter d if f icu lty a rose d ur ing t he s urvey o f t ransec t 2o f a er ia l p hotograph 1 55 ( Map 5 .5 ).

O ne mound w i th in t he b oundary o f t he t ransect was v ery p ro-

b ab ly p ar t o f as er ies o f e qua l-sized mounds r ing ing ( i n s em i-circ le o r c irc le ) ap ro m inen t

t u mulus ' v is ib le p erhaps f our h undred metres t o t he west .

S evera l r epor ts o f s im i lar p heno mena among t he t u mu l i s i tes o f t he G ounda mN ia funke r eg ion a re i n t he l i tera ture a nd i ti s r easonable t o i n fer t ha t a l l were a ssocia ted .

T herefore t he c en tra l mound a nd t hree s urround ing mounds w ere

v isi ted a nd p ot tery s a mp les r ecorded f ro m t he s urfaces o f t he p resu med 't u mulus ' a nd t wo o f t he p eriphera l mounds.

A l l mounds, i ncluding a f ew

v ery l ow mounds , a ppeared o n a er ia l p hotographs o f t he r ed d une , b u t i n t he i n ter ior o f t he d une i t was d if f icu lt t o o b ta in c o mpass b ear ings when a mound was l oca ted .

A ssocia t ion o f mounds i n t he f i eld w i th t hose o n t he p hotograph

was g enera l ly g ood , h owever . S i tes o n h igh land s oi ls a re i den t i f ied b y t he n u mber o f t he a ppropr ia te a er ia l p hotograph , t ransect n u mber ( beg inn ing w i th a T ' ) , a nd a n u pper-case l et ter f or e ach s i te w i th in a t ransect ( e .g., 1 59-T13-A ). F or ma l S urvey :

I m med ia te V icin i ty o f J enne .

r ad ius o f J enne w ere s urveyed more i n tens ive ly .

S i tes w i th in a f our-k i lo metre A l l mounds a nd h igh land f ea-

t ures ( 100% s a mp le ) w i th in f our k i lo metres o f t he J enne mosque were v isi ted a nd i n for ma l n otes made a t e ach s i te ( see Map 5 .2 ) .

O f t he f if teen s i te-c lusters ,

t en ( or 6 7% ) w ere f or ma l ly r ecorded i n t he manner d escr ibed a bove f or s i tes i n t he f l oodp lain .

T he c lusters a t wh ich n o f or ma l r ecord ing was d one w ere n u m-

b ers 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 , a nd 1 0 .

I n t he im med ia te v icin i ty o f J enne w e a lso c onducted

ap re l im inary t est o f t he p r inc ip le(s ) o f t he c lustering p heno menon .

The

r eader w i l l r eca l l t ha t d ur ing s urvey o n t he f l oodp la in o n ly t he more p ro m inen t s i tes w i th in e ach c luster were r ecorded .

Therefore , w e c ould n ot a ssess

whe ther a l l s i tes w i th in t he s a me c luster w ere o ccup ied s i mul taneously o r whe ther , f or e xa mp le , t he sma l ler s i tes w ere a bandoned c onsisten t ly e ar lier t han t he l arge s i tes.

C lusters 5 , 1 1 , 1 2 , a nd 1 4 n ear J enne w ere s e lected

( not a t r ando m ) f or t h is t est .

A s i n t he f l oodp lain , w ith in e ach c luster t he

c onst i tuen t s i tes w ere s equen t ia l ly a ssigned a l et ter i n o rder o f s i te ( 'A ' t o t he l argest , e tc .) .

T hen a s a mp le o f a t l east 3 3% was s elec ted b y d raw ing n u m-

b ers f ro m a t ab le o f r ando m n u mbers.

F or e xa mp le , f or c luster n u mber 1 1 ,

t he n u mbers d rawn were 1 ( s ite 'A ' ) , 3 (si te

C ' ) , 4 (si te ' D ' ) , a nd 8 ( si te 'H ' ) .

These s i tes were t hen f or ma l ly r ecorded , t he b ias t owards p ro m inen t s i tes t hus h aving b een r e moved . I nf or ma l S urvey : L inear Reconna issance . A sma l l s urvey o f t he n or thern p ar t o ft he S urvey R eg ion was a lso u nder taken , a long t he motorab le p a th f ro m J enne t o K ouakourou, wh ich p ara l le ls t he S ou man-Ban i , a t t he e x tre me e ast o f t he S urvey R eg ion .

S ix s i tes a long t he r oad w ere f or ma l ly r ecorded a nd

3 61

t hese a re l abe l led b y t he n u mber o f t he a ppropr ia te a er ia l p hotograph .

L in '

( f or L inear S urvey ) , a nd t he n u mber t wo t o s even g oing f ro m s outh t o n or th ( e .g ., 3 52-L in-2 ;

s ee Map 5 .9 ) .

The f i rst s i te i s a sma l l mound o r f rag men t

o f s andy l eve l n ear t he v i l lage o f K oina a nd w h ich h as a ncien t r e ma ins, b ut i s c urren t ly u sed a s t he v i l lage c e metery . n ot s elected b y a ny r ando m p rocess

A lthough s i tes t o b e r ecorded were

t h is i ncar 7 irvey m3y h e u sefu l t o e st i-

ma te t he b iasing e f fect o f r ecord ing s i tes a long n avigab le wa terways a lone . I n for ma l S urvey : R ivercut I nspect ion .

Af i na l s earch n ot c onnected w i th

t he s a mp ling p a t tern was u nder taken i n a n a t te mp t t o f i nd 'e ar ly ' s i tes w ith l i th ic i ndus tr ies .

N one h ad b een l oca ted i n t he a l luviu m b enea th J ennejeno

( excava ted t o 1 .5 me tres b e low t he b ot to m o f t he e ar liest o ccupa t ion l eve l ) , n or o n t he s urface o f f l oodp la in o r h igh land f eatures d ur ing s urvey .

The B an i

a nd i t s a ct ive d istr ibutar ies ( e specia l ly t he S ou man-Ban i a nd t he Mar igot o f G om i tago t o t he n or thwest o f J enne ) h ave r e la t ive ly r ecen t ly i nc ised c hanne ls i n to t he f l oodp la ins . The f o l low ing were s earched ( see Map 3 .3 ): s even k i lometres o f r ivercuts t hrough t he s evera l p ara l le l l evees b e tw e en t he B an i a nd t he N yansannar i ;

t he l eng th a nd b oth b anks o f t he Mar igot o f S enouna f ro m

t he B an i t o J enne ( a lso k nown a s t he H u te ) ;

s evera l l ef t b ank l oca l i ties a long

t he l ower a nd m idd le S ou man-Ban i ( par t icu lar ly a long t he l ef t b ank o f t he C ha lugo l-Hu te n or theast o f J enne ) ;

most o f t he s outh b ank o f t he Mar igot o f

G om itogo w i th in f our k i lo me t !-e s o f J enne ( t he F oko lore ) a nd s evera l l oca li t ies o n b oth l eve ls o f t h is d istr ibutary b eyond f our k i lo metres. I n a l l a pprox i ma te ly t wen ty k i lo metres w ere c overed , where t he r ivers h ad e xposed f ro m t hree t o f our metres o f l evee o r f l oodp la in a l luv iu m ( o f ten v ery r ecen t ly ).

Where I ron

Age s i tes w ere e xposed b y t he r iver , t he r e ma ins a ppeared v ery c lear ly i n t hese v er t ica l o r s ubver t ica l s ect ions;

n o S tone Age ma ter ia l was f ound ( see

B er trand 1 975: 1 37 f or a d oub t fu l r epor t o f t e l ls b ui l t b y "Neol i th ic" p opu lal a t ion i n t he K ounar i n or theast o f t he S urvey R eg ion ) . S u m mary .

The 1 083 km 2 S urvey R eg ion was s e lected f or i nves t iga t ion

b ecause i ti nc ludes a r epresen ta t ive c ross s ec t ion o f J ennejeno ' sr ura l h in terl and w i th a w ide d iversi ty o f l andfor ms a nd v egeta t ion .

B oundar ies o f t he

S urvey R eg ion were a rb itrar i ly d e linea ted t o c oincide w ith t he b oundar ies o f a er ia l p hotographs o f t he a rea , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he e astern b oundary p rov ided b y t he B an i a nd S ou man-Ban i R ivers. t hreefold :

T he o b ject ives o f t he s urvey were

f i rst , t o p rov ide w i th m in i mu m e xpend i ture o f t ime a nd money a

b ase f or q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive e st i ma tes o f t he c haracter o f a rchaeol og ica l s i tes i n t he S urvey Reg ion ;

s econd , t o m in im ize e x ist ing a rchaeo log i-

c a l b ias wh ich f avours s i tes l oca ted o n t he b anks o f t he N iger a nd B an i R ivers ; a nd t h ird , t o p rov ide ' ground t ru th ' d a ta w h ich w ould f aci li tate d eta i led mapp ing f ro m a ir p hotographs , w i th t he g oa l o f r econstruct ing t he g eo morphol og ica l a nd p a laeoc li ma t ic h istory o f t he S urvey R eg ion .

F or p urposes o f

t i me a nd e cono my , t he r eg iona l p opu la t ion o f a reas t o b e s a mp led w as r est r icted t o i nclude o n ly t hose e leva ted a reas n o t s ub ject t o s easona l i nunda t ion . We made t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he s can ty t races o f s easona l o ccupa t ion wh ich may e x ist o n t he f l oodp la in h ave p robab ly b een o bscured b y a l luvia t ion o r r emoved b y c urren ts i n t he f l oodwa ters .

Th is a ssu mp t ion may b e i ncorrect ,

a nd i t may d iscr im ina te a ga inst t he s easona l o r l im ited-act iv ity s i tes o f n o mads , b ut t he a ssu mp t ion p roved c orrect a t l east i n t he c ase o f a n i n i t ia l i n tens ive

3 62

s earch o f t he f l oodp la in w ith in a f i ve-k i lo metre r ad ius o f J enne.

The n e t e f fect

o f t h is a ssu mp t ion was t o r educe b y e . 9 0% t he r eg iona l a rea t o b e s urveyed . The S urvey R eg ion was f i rst s tra t if ied g eo metr ica l ly i n to 1 2 s quares meas ur ing c . 9 .5 km b y 9 .5 km , wh ich i s t he a rea c overed b y as ing le a ir p hoto. G eo morpho log ica l s tud ies w ere c o mp leted w i th in t he e n t ire S urvey R eg ion , b u t b ecause o f v eh ic le f a i lure t he s et t le men t s urvey was c on f ined t o t he a rea c overed b y t he s outhern s ix a er ia l p hotographs , t he F or ma l S urvey Area . Wi th in t he F or ma l S urvey A rea , t he t wo d i f feren t c lasses o f n oninundated a reas w ere e ach s a mp led b y ad if feren t , a ppropr ia te method : d iscre te mounds i n t he f l oodp la in ( l oca ted i nd iv idua l ly o r i n c lusters ) w ere i den t if ied o n a ir p hotographs , n u mbers w ere a ssigned t o e ach i so la ted s i te o r c luster o f s evera l s i tes , a nd a 2 0% s a mp le s e lected w i th t he a id o f ar ando m n u mber t ab le f or i nv est iga t ion ;

o ther u p land a reas ( i .e ., d unes a nd l evees) w ere g r idded i n to

c onsecut ive ly n u mbered t ransects a nd a s yste ma t ic 2 0% s a mp le was c hosen f or c arefu l , o n-foot i nvest iga t ion .

The p r incipa l e xcep t ion t o t he a bove p ro-

c edures c oncerned t he a rea w i th in a 4 -k i lo metre r ad ius o f J enne , where a l l n oninunda ted a reas w ere v isi ted a nd f or ma l r ecord ing c o mp leted a t 6 7% o f s i te c lusters. t he

Two o ther s urveys w ere a lso u nder taken :

1 ) t o t he n or th o f

F or ma l S urvey Area b ut s t i l l w i th in t he S urvey R eg ion , s ix s i tes a long

t he w es t b ank o f t he S ou man-Ban i were r ecorded i n wha t we l abel led t he L inear S urvey ;

a nd 2 ) a pprox im ate ly 2 0 k i lo metres o f e xposed r ivercuts were s earched

w i th in t he S urvey R eg ion t o l ook f or r e ma ins o f S tone Age o ccupa t ion . F or ma l R ecord ing An a t te mp t was made t o r ecord i n au n i for m manner e very s i te s e lected b y t he s a mp ling t echn iques.

I n for ma t ion f ro m t hese s i tes f a l ls i n to t hree c a te-

g or ies: c on tex t , s urface f ea tures , a nd p re li m inary p ot tery d a ta . t wo c a tegor ies w ere t he r esponsib i l i ty o f t he wr i ter ;

The f i rst

t he r ecord in g o f s urface

p ot tery f ro m t he s i tes was c arr ied o ut u nder t he p resen t wr i ter ' ss upervis ion . The c era m ics w ere s tud ied i n o rder t o a ssign a t en ta t ive d a te t o t he f i na l s et t lemen t o f t he s i te a nd t he d a t ing was a ided b y s o me s ur face f ea tures. f or ma t ion r ecorded i n t he f i e ld i s r eproduced i n Append ix I I ;

A l l i n-

a n e xp lana t ion

o f t he d escr ip t ions a nd o f t he methods o f r ecord ing u sed i n t ha t a ppend ix f o l lows h ere . C on tex t : Aer ia l Photograph :

G ives t he n u mber o f t he I nst i tut G eograph ique N at iona l

p hotograph o n wh ich t he s i te a ppears. b e l led (M iss ion )

A ll p hotographs a re o f t he s er ies l a-

1 970 AO 8 91-500 ( Ma li ) a nd t he n om ina l s ca le o f e ach i s 1 :

1 :50 ,000 . L oca t ion :

1 ,

D istance f ro m P r incipa l P o in t i s t he d istance i n m i l li metres

o n t he a er ia l p hotograph f ro m t he P r inc ipa l P o in t ( c en tre o f t he c a mera l ens a nd m idpoin t b etween t he n ick-poin ts o n t he p hotograph ) t o t he s i te . t i on f ro m t he P r inc ipa l P oin t i s g iven i n d egrees f ro m n or th . C o-ord ina tes r ecords t he n earest f i ve s econds.

3 .

l o ca t i on

2 .

The d irecG eograph ica l

o f t he s i te b y l ong i tude a nd l a t it ude t o t he

D istance f ro m N earest V i l lage p rov ides t he n a me o f

t he n earest c urren t ly-occup ied s e t t le men t a nd t he e st i ma ted d istance i n k i lometres a nd d irect ion f ro m t ha t v i l lage . 3 63

T opograph ic S i tua t ion : I ncludes a b r ief d escr ip t ion o f t he g eo morpho log ica l f ea ture o n wh ich t he s i te i s l oca ted ( and o ccasiona l ly t he p osi t ion o f t he s i te o n t ha t l andfor m ) a nd modern a gr icu ltura l o r p astora l u se o f t he l and o bs erved i n 1 977 . P ar t icu lar n ote was t aken o f s i tes l oca ted o n t he b order o f t wo o r more d if feren t l andfor ms. S o i ls: Th is i s ar ecord o f t he n a ture o f t he s oi ls o f t he g eo morpho log ica l f ea ture o n wh ich t he s i te i s l oca ted . As i mp le f i e ld t est o f s oi l t ex ture a s d esc r ibed b y Ahn ( 1970 : 1 9-20 , F ig . 2 .1 ) was a pp l ied t o as ing le s a mp le o f s oi l t aken f ro m a l oca t ion a pprox i ma te ly t wen ty metres f ro m e ach s i te ( n ot f ro m t he s i te i t se lf ) .

Th is i nfor ma t ion was u sed t o i n terpre t t he s ate l l i te imagery

o ft he S urvey R eg ion a nd t o d raw Map 4 .1 . T h is t est p roved au sefu l t ool i n t he f i e ld a nd was t he o n ly t est ing o p t ion a va i lab le t o u s b ecause o f t he p roh ib it i ve c ost o f f l y ing s ui tab ly-sized s oi l s a mp les t o af u l l-equiped l abora tory . B u t t he t est o n ly i den t if ies ma jor c o mponen ts o f t he s o i l ( sand , s i l t , a nd c lay ) , a nd t he e f fect o f c e men t ing a gen ts s uch a s s olub le i ron o x ides i s d if f icu lt t o a ssess u n t i l af u l l s er ies o f g ranulo metr ic t es ts c an b e a rranged f or c o mparab le s a mp les. The t est c lassif ies s oi ls c on ta in ing a h igh p ropor t ion o f c lay a s a c lay s oi l, a s oi l d om ina ted b y s and a s as and s oi l, a nd s oi ls b etween t hese t wo a s l oa m s oi ls. G rea ter d escr ip t ive p recis ion i s g even b y u s ing t he a d ject i ve

l i gh t ' o r 'h eavy ' ,t he f or mer i nd ica t ing more s and ( or l ess c lay ) a nd

v ice v ersa ( e .g ., a ' l igh t l oa m ' i s am ix ture o f s and , c lay , a nd p robab ly s i l t , i n wh ich p ar t ic les o ft he s and e nd o f t he s ize s pec tru m modera te ly d om in a te t hose o f t he c lay e nd ) . S ize : Th is i s ar ecord o f t wo methods o f e st i ma t ing t he s urface a rea o f t he s i te . B oth me thods c on ta in s er ious s ources o f e rror ; t hese w i l l b e a ssessed i n al a ter s ect ion o f t h is c hap ter . I n t he f i e ld w e p aced a n or th-south l i ne p ass ing a s c lose t hrough t he c en tre o f t he s i te a s p ossib le a nd t hen r epea ted t he p ace a long a n e ast-west l i ne a lso p assing t hrough t he c en tre o f t he s i te . The a ccuracy o f t he metre-pace d ec l ines w i th t he p resence o f t horny v egetat i on . S evera l s i tes a re r inged b y at h ick b and o f t horn g ro w th mak ing i t imp oss ib le t o f i nd t he e dges o f t he s i te .

These f i gures a re u sed t o c a lcu la te t he

a rea o ft he s i te b y t rea t in g t he s urface o f t he mound a s ap lane-f igure e l lipse. The f or mu la f or t he a rea o f a n e l l ipse , where x2 . i s r ab ( 2a = ma jor

+ 2 =1 ,

a2

b2

a x is a nd 2 b =m inor a x is ). The s ize o f t he s i te c an a lso b e e st i ma ted d irect ly f ro m t he a er ia l p hotograph . I n t h is c ase t he l ongest a x is o f t he s i te , wh ich n eed n ot b e e i ther t he n or th-sou th o r e ast-west l i ne , i s t he ma jor a x is o f t he e l l ipse a nd t he f or mu la i s a ga in a pp l ied .

The p rocedure a nd r esu lts a re e x-

p la ined i n d e ta i l b e low ( p . 4 01). The h e igh t o f e ach s i te i s a lso g iven o n t he s i te r ecord s heet , b ut t h is f i gure was v ery d iff icu lt t o e st i ma te i n t he f i e ld . Tree C over : Descr ibed a s l i gh t , modera te , o r h eavy . Thorn C over :

I ti s t h is more t han a ny o ther f ac tor wh ich r educes t he q ua l i ty

o fo bserva t ion a t s o me s i tes.

S o me s i tes a re e dged b y a n impass ib le b and o f

t horns, mak ing t he r ecord ing o f f ea tures a t t he ir p eriphery v ery d i f f icul t . C onf idence i n C overage: There was n o e v idence o f e x tensive d igging o r p ot-hun t ing a t a ny s i te f or ma l ly r ecorded o r v isi ted b ut i ti s d if f icu l t t o s ay wh ich s i tes h ave b een ' surface-co llected ' . S i tes t urned t o f i e lds a re b ad ly 3 64

d isturbed a nd p erhaps 3 0% o f t he s urface o f J ennejeno h as n o s ur face r e ma ins b ecause f ar mers b roke u p h ouse f ounda t ions a nd c ol lected a r tefacts i n t he m i l le t f i e lds.

J ennejeno was t he o n ly s i te a way f ro m t he a ncien t d une w i th

c lear s ign o f c u lt iva t ion , a l though o thers w ere d evoted t o mango g roves. Three l ow mounds o n t he a ncien t d une h ave n o s urface r e ma ins o r e ven a m inor s cat ter o f s herds o r s lag .

I ti s p ossib le , h owever , t ha t t hese a re s i tes ( p er-

h aps a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p resu med 't u mu li ' ) , w h ich h ave b een p loughed a nd s urface c o llec ted f or c en tur ies.

( Th is i s ap rocess wh ich o ne c an o bserve a t

t he s i te o f B egho i n G hana where h oed o r p loughed f i e lds e rode b ad ly d ur ing t he h eavy r a ins a nd f ar mers must r e move s tones, p ot tery , a nd o ther a r tefacts b efore p lan t ing t he f o llow ing y ear .) The amoun t o ft horn c over , p ot-hun t ing a nd f ar m ing a re t ogether r espons ib le f or a ny v ar ia t ion i n t he q ua l i ty o f r ecord ing . Th is c ategory i s r anked o n as ca le o f 'A ' t o 'C ' ,w i th 'A ' mean ing t ha t a l l p ar ts o f t he s i te w ere s earched f or f ea tures a nd a r tefacts a nd 'C ' g enera lly mean ing t ha t t horns b ad ly imp eded t he s earch a t t he p er iphery .

T he r ank ing a pp l ies a s we l l t o c on f idence

i n t he a ccuracy o f t he p ac ing o f t he l eng th a nd w id th .

T h is i s av ery s ub ject ive

c a tegory — o ther s i tes w ere n ear ly a s l arge a s J ennejeno a nd w ere t oo l arge t o c over c o mp le te ly a nd t horough ly e ven d ur ing av isi t o f s evera l h ous ( e .g ., K an iana , 2 91-E-6 , was s earched f or t we lve man-hours ) . I ts hould a lso b e n oted t ha t t he o bserva t ions a re o n ly v a l id f or 1 977 a nd o bserva t ions made d ur ing a nother d ry s eason a re n ot s tr ict ly c o mparab le.

E rosion a nd w ind

d ef la t ion a re a ct ive p rocesses ( a l though v ar iab le i n a nnua l e f fec t ) a nd e very y ear s o me p ar ts o f h ouse f oundat ions , u rn f rag men ts, a nd sma l ler a r tefacts a re c arr ied a way t o b e r e in terred w i th in t he e xpand ing p er iphery o f t he s i te , wh i le o thers a re e xposed f or t he f i rst t ime. S ur face f ea tures : S urface f ea tures i nc lude n on-por tab le f ea tures a nd a l l p ortab le a r tefacts, e xc lud ing p ot s herds. E ach s i te was wa lked s low ly , q uadran t b y q uadran t , a nd t he l arge f ea tures r ecorded . ( I n Append ix I I , S ect ion I , i t e ms , A -F , H , K -Q , EE , a nd GG ) . O bserva t ions o f a r tefacts o ther t han p ot tery were n oted a nd t a l l ied o n t he f i e ld r ecord f or m . A r tefacts w ere o n ly r are ly r emoved f ro m t heir p osi t ion , s o t ha t r ecord ing c ould b e r epea ted i n t he f uture. S urface c o l lec t ion t ook p lace a t J ennejeno b ecause t he s i te b egan t o a t tract p ar t ies o f sma l l b oys s cour ing t he s urface ( wh ich u nfortuna tely h ad a lready b een we ll-scoured b y l oca l

a n t iquar ians ' ) . A l l s urface f i nds w ere i nc luded

w i th t he c onsign men t o f a r tefacts d eposi ted w i th t he M in istry o f C u lture i n B a mako . P re l iminary C eramic S tudy: When i tb eca me n ecessary t o s e lect p ot tery a t tributes t o b e r ecorded i n t he f i e ld w e w ere f aced w i th t he d i ff icu lt t ask o f s e lec t ing t hose wh ich m igh t b e s ensi t ive t o t ime w i thout t he b enef i t o f p r ior k now ledge o f t he l oca l p ott ery t rad it ion .

S o f ew p ot tery s er ia t ions h ad b een c arr ied o ut i n Wes t A fr ica

t ha t we c ould n ot r ely o n t heir a id ( e .g ., t here i s n o g enera l c onsensus i n West A fr ica t ha t , f or e xa mp le , r oulet te d ecora t ion t ends t o c hange more r ap id ly a nd c onsisten t ly t han r im s hape ).

I n a n a rea o f c o mp lex e thn ic d istr i-

b ut ion a nd u nknown c o m mercia l s ources o f p ot tery , o ther f actors c ould b e r esponsib le f or c hange i n p ottery a t tr ibutes r a ther t han t ime. 3 65

S ince t he f or ma l a na lysis a nd s er ia t ion o f t he J ennejeno p ot tery h ad n ot y e t b een d one , w e c ou ld r e ly o n ly o n v ague i n tui t ions a bout wh ich a t tr ibute m igh t b e t he most t ime-sensi t ive . The p ersons r ecord ing p ot tery d ur ing s urv ey were w e l ltra ined a nd e xper ienced i n t he J ennejeno a t tr ibute c a tegor ies. There was g ood u n ifor m i ty o f d escr ip t ion , b u t s o me v ar iety i n t he d e ta i l o f d escr ip t ion . R ecord ing was d one i n t he f i e ld , w i thout r e mov ing t he p ot tery f ro m t he a rea . A s t h is was a p re li m inary s urvey w e wan ted t o d isturb t he s urface o f t he s i te a s l i t t le a s p ossib le .

F ie ld w orkers w ere a ss igned d if feren t q uadran ts

a nd t hen t he mse lves s e lected t he s pecif ic c o llect ion l oca l i ty . t o c o llect a l l t he p ot tery f ro m a n a rea o f o ne s quare metre.

T hey w ere a sked A s a t J ennejeno ,

t he p ot tery c over i n ao ne s quare metre a rea w as s o t h ick t ha t l oca l i t ies y ie lded o n a verage e igh ty s herds f or s tudy ( t ota l o f 6 757 ) . A s a t J ennejeno, e ach s quare me tre g roup was s or ted f i rst t o r e move a l l b ut o ne s herd f ro m e ach v esse l .

Two o r t hree o ne- metre s quare l oca l i t ies h ard ly make a s er ious

s a mp le o f as i te w i th a n a rea e ven o f 1 ,0 00 s quare metres, s o a ny c onclusions b ased o n t he p otsherds c oncern ing t he p er iod o f f i na l o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te h ave t o b e v ery t en ta t ive i ndeed . The r ecorders f i rst l i sted t he ir p osi t ion a t t he s i te a nd t heir impression o ft he d ens i ty o f t he s ca t ter o f p ot tery i n t he v ic in i ty ( h eavy , moderate , l i gh t , o r n eg lig ib le ) . They t hen c o llected t oge ther p ot tery f ro m t he o ne me tres quare a rea a nd c oun ted t he s herds . They w ere a sked t o d escr ibe t he p red om ina t ing f abr ic ( and t o men t ion t he p resence o fu nusua l c haracter ist ics s uch a s s and t e mper ing ) . They were a sked t o s pec ify t he c olour o f t he f abr ic , a nd t o g ive p ercen tage f i gures f or e ach c olour t o t he n earest t en p ercen t . They d escr ibed t he p redo m ina t ing t ype o f t w ine ( r oulet te ) d ecora t ion a nd men t ioned wh ich o ther d ecora t ions were u sed . O ccasiona l ly , b u t n ot a lways, t h is i nforma t ion was g iven i n t he f or m o f e st i ma ted p ercen tages. They t hen d escr ibed t he t ype o f s l ip ( c olour , p resence o f b urn ish ing ) a s ap ercen tage. T hey were a sked t o b e v ery s pecif ic a bout p a in ted p ot tery , t o g ive t he e xact n u mbers, t o d escr ibe t he p a in t , a nd t o s ke tch a ny d ecora t ive mot i fs wh ich c ou ld n ot b e d esc r ibed . They d escr ibed t he q ua li ty o f p repara t ion o f t he p aste a nd f i r ing a s 1w e l l- made ' , modera te ' •o r 'p oor ' . They w ere t hen a sked t o d escr ibe a ny o ther p ot tery f abr ic o r d ecora t ion , c o mmen t o n t he ir s a mp le , a nd t o l i st o ther a r tefacts c o llected amongs t t he s herds.

ANALYSIS OF THE SURVEY DATA H abaa t ion o f L andfor ms :

P as t a nd P resen t

The s urface a rea o f t he g eo morpholog ica l f ea tures i l lustra ted i n Map 4 .1 was measured f ro m t he a er ia l p hotographs b y u sing a n e lectron ic p lan i meter a ccura te t o t he n earest t en th o f as quare c en t i me tre ( 0 .1 cm 2) .

S urface a rea

i s p resen ted i n Tab les 5 .1 a nd 5 .2 t o t he n earest t en th o f as quare k i lo metre. The marg in o f e rror o n e i ther s ide s hou ld n ot b e g rea ter t han + 0 .3 s quarek i lo metre . G rea ter p recision would b e o b ta ined b y d raw ing a map o f s oi l t ypes a nd ma jor l andfor ms f ro m s urvey i n t he f i e ld ; t he maps u sed h ere were d rawn f ro m t he mosa ic o f a er ia l p hotographs.

3 66

The ma jor s oi l a nd l andfor m

Tab le 5 .1

L andfor m a reas :

S urvey _ R eg ion

R eg iona l D iv isions ( see Map 5 .1 )

a rea ( km 2 ) %o f t o ta l r eg ion

P ondori

N yansannari

3 03 .6

3 3 .8

2 8 . 0

3 . 1

J enneri

Derari

Dune

2 21 .0

4 86 .3

3 8 .6

2 0 . 4

4 4 . 9

3 .6

Tota ls 1 083 .3 1 00

L andfor ms C lay C hanne l ( row % ) c o lu mn % S and C hanne l

Deep C lay

2 7 .9

1 3 . 2

6 4 .6

( 36 . 3 )

2 3 . 5 km 2

( 43 . 3 )

( 20 . 4 )

( 100 )

7 .7

1 2 .6

2 .7

2 1 .8

3 6 .3

2 8 .1

( 25 . 3 )

( 42 .1)

( 32 . 6 )

7 .2

1 6 .4

6 .0 8 6 .2 ( 100 )

5 .8

8 .0

7 0 .9

7 0 .9

( 100 )

( 100 )

2 3 .4

6 .5

Middle P lainL oa m

L ow P lain

4 5 .1

5 6 .9

1 25 .3

2 27 .3

( 19 . 9 )

( 25 . 0 )

( 55 . 1 )

1 4 . 9

2 5 . 7

2 5 . 8

5 9 .0

8 8 .4

8 0 .5

( 25 . 9 )

( 38 . 8 )

( 35 . 3 )

1 9 .4

4 0 .0

1 6.5

2 1 .0

2 38 .9

3 29 .9

( 100 ) 2 1 . 0 2 27 .9 ( 100 )

Middle P lainS and

L igh t L evee

8 3 .2

7 .8

( 25 . 2 )

( 2 .3)

( 72 . 4 )

( 99 . 9 )

2 7 .4

3 .5

4 9 .1

3 0 .5

1 3 . 2 ( 93) 3 9 .1

Heavy L evee

1 .0

1 4 . 2

( 7)

( 100 )

0 .5

1 .3

2 0 .6

2 .8

O .3

( 8 7 .1)

( 11 .8)

( 1 .1)

6 0 .9 S and

1 .3

2 3 .7 ( 100 )

O .1 r ed

2 .2 2 5 .9 ( 67) 2 .4

3 8 .6 ( 100 ) 3 .6

y e l low

1 2 . 7 ( 33) 1 .2

3 67

Tab le 5 .2

L andfor m Areas :

F or ma l S urvey Area

R eg iona l D iv is ions ( see Map 5 .1)

a rea ( km 2 ) %o f t ota l r eg ion

P ondor i

N yansannari

J enner i

Derari

Dune

T ota ls

3 03 .6

3 3 .8

7 9 .7

1 19 .0

3 8 .6

5 74 .7

5 2 .8

5 .9

1 3 .9

2 0 .7

6 .7

1 00

L andfor ms C lay C hanne l ( row % ) c o lu mn % S and C hanne l

Deep C lay

2 3 .4

1 3 .5

7 .2

( 53 .1)

( 30 .6)

( 16 .3)

7 .7

1 6 .9

2 1 .9

5 .4

( 5 6 .8)

( 13 .9)

7 .2

6 .7

4 4 .1 ( 100 )

6 .0

7 .7

1 1 .2

3 8 .5

( 29 .3)

( 100 )

9 .4

6 .7

7 0 .9

7 0 .9

( 100 )

( 100 )

2 3 .4

1 2 .3

Middle P la inL oa m

L ow P lain

Middle P la in .Sand

L igh t L evee

Heavy L evee

4 5 .2

1 4 .6

2 5 .4

8 5 .2

( 53 .0 )

( 17 .1)

( 29 .8)

( 99 .9 )

1 4 .9

1 8 .3

2 1 .3

1 4 .8

5 9 .0

3 5 .7

9 .5

1 04 .2

( 56 .8)

( 34 .3)

( 9 .1)

1 9 .4

4 4 .8

8 .0

1 8 .1

8 3 .2

7 .8

6 5 .7

1 56 .7

( 53 .1)

( 4 .9)

( 41 .9)

( 99 .9)

2 7 .3

9 .7

5 5 .2

2 7 .3

( 100 )

1 3 .2

0 .2

( 98 .1)

( 1 .9)

3 9 .1

0 .3

2 .3

2 0 .6

2 .5

2 3 .1

( 89 .2)

( 10 .8)

6 0 .9

3 .1

S and

1 3 .4 ( 100 )

( 100 ) 4 .0 r ed

2 5 .9 ( 67) 4 .5

3 8 .6 ( 100 )

y e l low

1 2 .7 ( 33) 2 .2

3 68

6 .7

c a teog ires ( and t he p ercen tage t hey r epresen t o f t he t ota l a rea o f t he S urvey R eg ion ) a re :

1 ) C lay C hanne l ( r iver c hanne l a nd s yste m o f r ecen t p ara l le l

l evees — 6 .0% ) , 2 ) S and C hanne l — ( 8 .0% ) , 3 ) Deep C lay B asin ( t he l owest , h eav ies t , a nd l east w e l l-dra ined s oi ls — 6 .5% ), 4 ) M idd le P la in-Loa m ( heavy t o l i gh t l oa m ;

modera te ly h igh f l oodp la in — 2 1 .0% ) , 5 ) L ow P la in ( l igh t l oa m

o r s and , g enera l ly b ut n ot a lways s o mewha t l ower t han M idd le P la in-Loa m ; b et ter d ra ined f l oodp la in — 2 1.0% ) . 6 ) M idd le P la in-Sand ( heavy s and o r s and ; q ui te h igh , b ut g enera l ly i nunda ted f l oodp la in — 3 0 .5% ) , 7 ) Ancien t L evee-L igh t ( L igh t L evee ; l i gh t l oa m o r s and ; we ll-dra ined h igh land — 1 .3% ) , 8 ) Ancien t L evee-Heavy ( Heavy L evee ;

h eavy l oa m ;

p oor ly d ra ined a nd v ery o ccasiona l ly

f l ooded — 2 .2% ) , a nd Dune ( 3 .6% ) , d iv ided i n to 9 ) r ed Dune ( ancien t a nd l arge f ea ture west o f J enne — 2 .4% ) a nd 1 0 ) y e l low Dune ( d ispersed r ecen t d unes o f f inetex tured s ands — 1 .2% ) . The p eop le o f t he J enne a rea r ecogn ize s evera l n a tura l d iv isions i n t he a rea s urveyed a nd t hese a re i l lustra ted i n Map 5 .1.

There i s , un fortuna te ly ,

n o a gree men t amongst t he l oca l p eop le a bout t he b oundar ies o f s o me o f t hese d ivisions ( t he Derar i a nd J enner i i n p ar t icu lar ) a nd s o s o me o f t he d ef in i t ions u sed h ere a re c o mpro m ises.

The c on fusion a r ises b ecause d ifferen t e thn ic

g roups v iew t he u se a nd u sefulness o f t hese a reas q ui te d i f feren t ly a nd b ecause l abe ls c hange mean ing t hrough t i me ( as w e h ave s een i n t he c ase o f t he t er m Massina ', wh ich t rad i t iona l ly mean t t ha t p ar t o f t he I n land N iger De l ta west o f t he N iger , t hen c a me t o mean t he e n t ire I n land De l ta d ur ing t he r eign o f S eku Amadou, a nd t hen u nder t he Tuku lor t o i nclude t he Ban iagara r eg ion ). There i s a lso l i t t le a gree men t i n t he l i tera ture a bout t he a rea l e x ten t o f t hese d iv isions . T o t he s outh a nd n or th o f J enne a re n arrow b ands o f h igh a nc ien t l evee wh ich a l l p eop le i n J enne c a l l t he Nyansannar i . b ush '

( Ga l la is 1 967 , I : 1 02 )

Th is i s t he 'l and o f t he wooded

n ow f avoured b y Ba mbara m i l le t f ar mers.

The

Nyansannar i f or ms 3 .1% o f t he t ota l a rea o f t he S urvey R eg ion . T o t he west o ft he N yansannar i i s t he P ondor i , wh ich f or ms 2 8 .0% o f t he t ota l a rea .

L oca l p eop le a gree t ha t t he P ondor i i s b ounded o n t he n or th b y

t he G om i togo d istr ibutary ( t he Mar igot o f G om i togo ) .

De lafosse ( 1912 ,

Map 1 8 , 2 37) , p laces t he P ondor i n or th o f J enne , a s d oes Mon te i l who p laces t he P ondor i n or th a l most t o t he N iger ( Ch . Mon tei l 1 903: 2 81, 3 17-319 ; map o f t he

C erc le d e D jenne ' a t e nd ) .

c p .,

The P ondor i ( 'l and o f t he b asin ' ,

Ga l la is 1 967 , I :1 02 ) i s t he a rea o f l owly ing c lay s oi ls f avoured b y Marka r ice c u lt iva tors a nd b y t he B ozo d ur ing t he f l oods. There i s g rea t d iv ision o f o p in ion a bou t t he b oundar ies o f t he Derar i a nd t he J enner i ; Derar i r efers t o at ype o f l and a nd J enner i t o t he a rea most c lose ly a l lied w i th J enne.

J enner i i s t he immed ia te p ol i t ica l a nd c o m mercia l

h in ter land o f t he c i ty a nd i t may , a s d ef ined b y s o me , i nc lude t he l and t ype t yp ica l o f Derar i .

F or Mon tei l ( 1903: 2 81-310 ) t he n or thern- most v i l lage o f

t he J enner i i s Y an te la ( I en te la ) , a pprox i ma te ly s ix k i lo metres n or th o f J enne . H owever , i n for man ts i n J enne ( e specia l ly H . B ocou m ) c la im t ha t i nhabi tan ts o f v i l lages t o t he n or th a long t he S ou man-Ban i c ons ider t he mse lves t o b e J enneke ( at er m o f c ul tura l a f f i lia t ion w i th n o p recise p ol i t ica l imp l ica t ion ) . I n t h is c hap ter t he J enner i i s d ef ined more b road ly t o i nclude t he c hanne ls o f t he Mayo Manga a nd S ou man-Ban i a nd a l l l and b e tween . 3 69

Th is a rea o f mode-

r a te ly l ow , l oa m s oi ls i s q ui te d if feren t f ro m t he r egion o f h igher , s and s oi ls t o t he w est o f t he Mayo Manga .

I ts hou ld b e e xp la ined t ha t t h is moreinc lusive

d ef in i t ion i nc ludes v i l lages wh ich o thers p lace i n t he Derar i ( e .g ., G ayna o r Gan ia f i f teen k i lo metres n or th o f J enne ( Ga lla is 1 967 , I :9 0 , c f . Mon te i l 1 903 : 2 6-27 a nd B a a nd Dage t 1 962 : 1 07 ) .

Th is d iv ision o f t he Derar i a nd J enner i

q ui te u n in ten t iona l ly ma tches t he d iv ision b etween t he t rad i t iona l t err i tory ( l eyd i ) o f t he F u lan i O uro Ga l lankobe ( very l ow p opula t ion a nd i ndex o f p asture ( i .e ., a rea o f b ourgou/nu mbers o f F u lon i ) o f 2 50 ( 13 ,000 h a . o f b ourgou ) a nd t ha t o f t he O uro A l i ( i ndex o f 8 6;

6 8 ,000 h a . o f b ourgou ) ( Ga l la is 1 967 , I : 1 43 ,

1 47 , s ee s epara te map 'L es L eyd i P eu l d u De l ta ' ) . Ga l la is ( 1967 , I : 1 01 , c f ., 1 83 ) d ef ines t he Derar i a s t he a rea n or th o f J enne where s andy p la in a l terna tes w i th p er manen t h igh land a nd w eak ly s unken b asins ( seno-bourgou ) .

Th is d es-

c r ip t ion b et ter d escr ibes t he a rea t o t he n or thwest where h igh r ecen t d unes a nd l ow c lay s oi ls w i th in a ncien t meander s cars a re d ispersed o ver t he s oi l o f M idd le P la in-Sand .

The d unes a re i nhabi ted b y B a mbara a nd F u lan i ( of ten

R i ma ibe ) ; t he l ow b asins p rov ide g ood b ourgou v egeta t ion ( f or F u lan i h erds , b ut t he s oi ls a re n ot w e ll-su i ted f or r ice o r e ven f or s orghu m c ult iva t ion . T he l owerly ing J enner i ( 20.4% o f t he S urvey R eg ion ) i s q ui te d if feren t f ro m t he Derar i ( 4 4.9% ) . T he a ncien t d une i n t he w estern S urvey R eg ion i s ac on tinua t ion o f t he ma jor d une e ast o f J enne , t he F e maye ( Mon te i l 1 903: 3 10-312 ) ( see Map 2 .1 ) . T o t he w est t he d une h as n o s pecif ic n a me , b ut f or ms p ar t o f al arger a rea wh ich i s r are ly , i fe ver , i nunda ted .

T h is i s t he S arro , wh ich i s p ar t o f t he

l arger S a maye ( Ga l la is 1 967 , I :3 9 , 4 3 , 9 1 , 1 05 ).

East o f t he S ou man-Ban i

a nd n or th o f t he F e maye a re t he S ebera a nd K ounar i ( t he l a t ter i s e ast o f Mop t i ) . The n arrow s ect ion o f t he S ebera c losest t o t he S ou man-Ban i , a nd i nc luded b y Mon te i l a nd Ga l la is i n t he d ef in i t ion o f t he Derar i , i s t he K oror i ( Ga lla is 1 967 ; I :4 3 a nd s epara te map 'E squisse Morpholog ique d u De lta I n ter ieur t; Mon te i l 1 903 : 2 81-283 ;

c p . De lafosse 1 912 : I : 2 37 , Map 1 4 a nd 3 39 , Map 1 7 ) .

The a rea o f d eep b asins b etween t he S urvey R eg ion a nd t he N iger ( be tween K oa a nd K ouakourou ) i s c a l led t he Y ongar i ( Ga l la is 1 967 : q u isse Morpholog ique d u De lta I n ter ieur ';

s epara te map 'E s-

c p . I : 3 66 , F ig . 3 9 ).

A s men t ioned a bove ( p .349 ) , n o s i tes w ere f ound wh i le s earch ing w i th in f i ve k i lo metres o f J enne wh ich were n ot a lso v is ib le o n a er ia l p hotographs ; e ven t he sma l lest s i tes w ere v isib le.

Th is s uggested a t t he t i me t ha t a rchaeo-

l og ica l d epos i ts m igh t b e v isib le t hroughou t t he f l oodp la in p ar ts o f t he S urvey R eg ion .

I tt ook r e la t ive ly l i t t le p ract ice t o l earn t o d istingu ish i so la ted f rag-

men ts o f h igh land f ro m a rchaeolog ica l s i tes, ( u sua lly b y t h ick t ree g ro w th o ver t he h igh lands a nd a lways b y t he ir r educed h e igh t , e .g ., 1 55-(2 ) , ( 7 ) , ( 5 ) a nd 2 91(10 ) ;

Map 5 .5 a nd 5 .6 ) .

As earch o f t he v ic in i ty o f s i tes o n t he f l ood-

p la in s e lected f or f or ma l r ecording a nd a c arefu l s earch o f t he f l oodp lain wh i le e n r ou te t o t hose s i tes s uppor ts t he s ta te men t t ha t a l l f l oodp la in s i tes c an b e s een o n t he p hotographs.

E ven s i tes wh ich h ave b een s evere ly r educed

i n h e igh t o r s ize b y t he f orce o f t he f l oodwa ters a ppear o n t he a er ia l p hotog raphs , d esp i te t he f act t ha t t hey may s how l i t t le o r n o r e lief when v iewed o n s tereoscop ic p a irs.

P er manen t s et t le men t o n t he f l oodp lain must b e o n a r t i-

f i cia l mounds ( t ogguere-)a nd e ven i ft he mounds a re n ot h igh o r l arge , t he a rchaeolog ica l d epos i ts a re q ui te d if feren t f ro m t he f l oodp la in s oi ls.

Re ma ins

o f t e mporary s et t le men ts w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een c overed b y r ecen t a l luviu m

3 70

i f , i n f ac t , t here h ad b een t e mporary o r s easona l u se o f t he f l oodp la in .

T oday

n o g roups move t o s e t t le o n t he e xposed f l oodp la in s oi ls when t he wa ters r ec ede .

F ar mers a nd f i sher men a lways , o ccupy t oggue 'res,

a nd f l oodp la in s o i ls

r eta in t oo much wa ter a nd a re t oo d a mp a nd c o ld f or F u lan i h erds ( sub ject t o h oof d iseases ).

E ven t e mporary , d ry-season c a mps o f p astora l F u lan i a re

l oca ted o n t he e dges o f s andy h igh lands ( d une o r L igh t L evees ) , n ear , b ut n ot w i th in , t he r eg ion o f b ourgou. Based o n p resen t e v idence , t hen , i ti s r easonab le t o s ay t ha t a l l s i tes wh ich a re l ike ly t o b e f ound o n t he f l oodp la in c an b e d e tected b y c areful ly s earch ing s tereoscop ic p a irs o f a er ia l p hotographs u sing a magn i fy ing l ens u nder a magn if y ing s tereoscope .

Tab les 5 .3 t o 5 .6 l i st t he n u mbers o f v i llages a nd s i tes

v isib le o n a ir p hotographs w i th in t he P ondor i , N yansannar i , J enner i , Derar i a nd t he r ed ( anc ien t ) a nd y el low ( recen t ) D unes.

These g eograph ica l r eg ions

a re d ivided i n to t he e igh t ma jor s oi l o r l andfor m c a tegor ies.

The f l oodp la in ,

where w e c an a ssu me f or t he p resen t t ha t 1 00% o f v i l lages a nd s i tes , ( most o f wh ich f or m c lusters ) a re v isib le a nd s o may b e c oun ted , c o mpr ises t he c a teg or ies C lay C hanne l ,

S and C hannel , Deep C lay Basin , M idd le P la in-Loa m ,

L ow P la in , a nd M idd le P la in-Sand .

T ota ls a re g iven f or l andfor m c a tegor ies

a nd f or g eograph ica l r eg ions, a s w e l l a s r ow a nd c o lu mn p ercen tages.

S i tes

f ro m a l l p er iods a re g rouped t ogether . The s earch f or a ncien t o ccupa t ion o f t he N yansannar i was c onducted b y wa lk ing t ransects s e lected b y a s yste ma t ic ' s a mp l ing s che me.

E igh teen s i tes

a re v isib le ( and most o f t hose h ave b een c on f ir med a s s i tes ) , b u t t wo s ites f ound d ur ing t he f or ma l s earch were n ot v isib le o n t he a er ia l p hotographs. The s yste ma t ic ' s a mp le t echn ique w as u sed t o a l low u s t o e x trapola te f ro m t he s a mp le t o t he e n t ire g eograph ica l r eg ion w i th s o me c on f idence.

A l though t he

n u mbers a re l ow a nd wa lk ing t he t ransects was d if f icu lt , i ti s r easonab le t o s ay t ha t s ince t wo

i nv isib le ' s i tes w ere f ound d ur ing a s urvey o f 2 0% o f t he

t ota l a rea , a l toge ther t here may b e t en s uch s i tes t hroughou t t he N yansannar i . Th is w i l l b e u sed h ere a s aw ork ing h ypothesis, r a ther t han a s as ta te men t o f p robab i li ty .

Aga in , t he b asic d a ta f or s et t le men t o n t he N yansannar i a re l i sted

i n Tab les 5 .3 t o 5 .6 . The d unes w ere a lso s urveyed b y ' syste ma t ic ' s a mp le ( excep t f or a f ew t iny d unes o n t he f l oodp la in wh ich were t rea ted a s s i te-c lusters a nd s e lected b y s i mp le r ando m s e lect ion ) ;

n o s i tes w ere d iscovered wh ich were n ot a lso

v isib le o n t he a er ia l p hotographs . H owever , t hree mounds l oca ted o n t he p hotog raphs a nd i n t he f i e ld h ad n o s urface r e ma ins. These w ere r a ther l ow mounds n ear t he ma jor

t u mu l i ' g roups , wh ich h ad e v iden t ly b een c u lt iva ted f or q ui te

s o me t i me a nd h ence h ad a l ong h istory o f b eing s urface c o llected b y f ar mers. I ft hese t hree mounds were r e la ted t o t he 't u mu l i ' g roups a nd were n ot s e t t lemen t s i tes , a s i s p robab ly t he c ase , t hen t hey w ould n ot h ave h ad much o n t he s urface when c rea ted .

There i s s l igh t d oub t i n o ur m inds t ha t t hey a re s i tes

a nd t ha t t hey were r e la ted t o t he

t u mul i ' g roups .

The c oun ts o f s e t t le men ts v isib le ( and e x trapo la ted f ro m t he s urveyed s a mp le ) p rov ide t he i n for ma t ion f ro m wh ich a c har t o f p ercen tages o f t he g rand t ota ls o f v i llages a nd s i tes was d rawn ( Tab le 5 .7 a nd 5 .8 ) .

Aga in , t hese d a ta

a re l i sted b y g eograph ica l r eg ion a nd s o il o r l andfor m c a tegory .

The e st i ma ted

t en 'i nv is ib le ' s i tes f ro m t he N yansannar i a nd t he t hree a no ma lous mounds o n 3 71

Tab le 5 .3

N u mbers o f S e t t le men ts i n t he S urvey R eg ion :

S i tes

( s i te c oun ts

f ro m a er ia l p hotographs ) R eg iona l D iv is ions ( see Map 5 .1) P ondor i I ndiv idua l s i tes %o f t ota l s i tes

1 35 3 3 . 4

n ot v is ib le

N yansannar i 1 9 4 .7

J enner i 1 31 3 2 . 4

Derar i 1 04 2 5 . 7

Dune

Tota ls

1 5

4 04

3 .8

2

p ro jec ted

1 00 2

1 0

1 0

L andfor ms C lay C hanne l I ndiv idua l s i tes ( row % ) c olu mn % S and C hanne l

Deep C lay

5 9

0

( 54 . 1 ) 4 3 .7 3 2

3 8 ( 34 .9) 2 9

0

6 5

( 26 . 2 )

( 53 . 3 )

2 3 .7

4 9 .6

0

1 2

1 09

( 11)

( 100 )

1 1 .5

2 7

2 5

1 22

( 20 . 5 )

( 100 )

2 4

0

0

0

1

1

8

3 0 .2 0

Middle P la inL oa m

L ow P la in

1 1 ( 52 . 4 )

( 4 . 8 )

( 4 . 8 )

( 3 8 . 1 )

8 .1

5 .3

0 .8

7 .7

5

0

2 1

9

( 14 . 3 )

( 60 )

( 25 . 7 )

3 .7

1 6

8 .7

2 1 ( 100 ) 5 .2 3 5 ( 100 ) 8 .7

Middle P lainS and

L igh t L evee

2 8

5

5 0

8 3

( 6)

( 60 . 2 )

2 0 .7

3 .8

4 8 .1

2 0 .5

0

4

0

3

1

( 75)

( 25 )

1 5 .8 1

n ot v is ible p ro jected Heavy L evee

0

( 33 . 7 )

( 100 )

( 100 )

0 .8

1 .0 1

5 0

1 5

5 0

0

1 5

( 100 )

( 100 )

7 8 .9

3 .7

n o t v is ible

1

1

p ro jected

5

5

S and

r ed

1 0 ( 66 .7 ) 2 .5

y e l low

5 ( 33 . 3 ) 1 .3

3 72

1 5 ( 100 ) 3 .8

Tab le

5 .4

N u mbers o f S e t t le men ts i nt he S urvey R eg ion :

V i l lages ( v i l lage

c oun ts f ro m a er ia l p hotographs ) R eg iona l D iv isions ( see Map 5 .1 ) P ondori I ndiv idua l v i l lages

1 1

%o f t ota l v i l lages

( 22 . 9 )

N yansanna ri 4 ( 8 .3)

J enner i 1 5

Derar i 8

( 31 .3)

( 16 .7)

3

0

Dune 1 0

T ota ls 4 8

( 20 .8)(100 )

Landfor ms C lay C hanne l I ndiv idua l v i l lages ( row % ) c o lu mn % S and C hanne l

3

0

( 50 ) 2 7 .3 2

( 100 )

2 0 0

( 25 ) 1 8 .2 Deep C lay

6

( 50 )

1 2 .5

4

2

8

( 50 )

( 25 )

( 100 )

2 6 .7

2 5

1 6 .7

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

Middle P lainL oam

( 100 )

( 100 )

9 .1 L ow P lain

2

2 .1 0

( 40 )

3

0

5

( 60 )

1 8 .2

( 100 )

2 0

1 0 .4

Middle P la inS and

3

0

( 30 ) 2 7 .3 L igh t L evee

0

0

6 ( 60 )

6 .7 2

4

( 33 . 3 )

( 66 . 7 )

5 0 Heavy L evee

1 ( 10 )

2

1 0 ( 100 )

7 5

2 0 .8

0

6 ( 100 )

2 6 .7 0

1 2 .5 0

2

( 100 )

( 100 )

5 0 S and

4 .2 r ed

4 ( 40 ) 8 .3

1 0 ( 100 )

y e l low

6 ( 60 ) 1 2 . 5

3 73

2 0 .8

Tab le 5 .5

N u mbers o f S e t t le men ts i n t he F or ma l S urvey Area :

S i tes ( s i te

c oun ts f ro m a er ia l p hotographs ) Reg iona l D iv is ions ( see Map 5 .1)

I ndiv idua l s i tes %o ft ota l s i tes

P ondori

N yansannari

1 35

1 9

5 0 .2

n ot v isib le

7 .1

J enner i 6 1 2 2 .7

Derar i . 4 1 1 5 .2

Dune

T ota ls

1 3

2 82

4 .9

2

p ro jec ted

1 00 2

1 0

1 0

Landfor ms C lay C hanne l I ndiv idua l s i tes ( row % ) c o lu mn %

C hanne l

Deep C lay

5 9

0

2 1

( 63 .8)

( 26 .2 )

4 3 .7

3 4 .4

3 2

0

1 8

0

8 8 ( 100 ) 3 2 .7

2 4

7 4

( 43 .2 )

( 24 .3 )

( 32 .4 )

2 3 .7

2 9 .5

5 8 .5

2 7 .5

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

( 100 )

Middle P la inL oa m

1 1 ( 91 .7)

L ow P lain

Middle P la in-Sand

L igh t L evee

8 .1

5 .3

5

0

( 100 ) 4 .5 1 7

( 22 .7)

( 77 .3)

3 .7

2 7 .9

2 8

0

0

8 .2

5

9

( 11 .9)

( 21 .4 )

2 0 .7

8 .2 3

0

2 2 ( 100 )

( 66 .7)

0

1 2

( 8 .3)

4 2 ( 100 )

2 2

1 5 .6

0

3

( 100 )

( 100 )

1 5 .8

1 .1

n o t v is ible

1

1

p ro jec ted

5

5

Heavy L evee

0

1 5

0

0

1 5

( 100 )

( 100 )

7 8 .9

5 .6

n ot v is ible

1

1

p ro jected

5

5

S and

r ed

1 0 ( 76 .9) 3 .8

1 3 ( 100 ) 4 .9

y e l low

3 ( 23 .1) 1 .1

3 74

Tab le 5 .6

N u mbers o f S e t t le ments i n t he F or ma l S urvey Area :

V i l lages

( v i l lage c oun ts f ro m a eria l p hotographs ) R eg iona l D iv isions ( see Map 5 .1 ) P ondori

N yansannari

J enner i

Derar i

Dune

T ota ls

4

1 0

4

8

3 7

2 9 .7

1 0 .8

2 7

1 0 .8

2 1 .6

1 00

3

0

I ndiv idua l v i l lages

1 1

%o f t ota l v i l lages L andfor ms C lay C hanne l I ndiv idua l v i l lages ( row % ) c o lu mn % S and C hanne l

( 50 ) 2 7 .3 2

t i 0

6 ( 100 )

3 0 0

0

( 50 ) 1 8.2 Deep C lay

0

( 50 )

1 6 .2 2

4

( 50 )

( 100 )

5 0

1 0 .8

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

Middle P la inL o am

( 100 )

( 100 )

9 .1 L ow P la in

2

2 .7 0

( 40 )

3

0

5

( 60 )

1 8 .2

( 100 )

3 0

1 3 .5

Middle P la inS and

3

0

( 50 ) 2 7 .3 L igh t L evee

Heavy L evee

0

0

1

2

( 16 .7)

( 33 .3)

1 0 2

3

( 40 )

( 60 )

5 0

3 0

2

0

6 ( 100 )

5 0

1 6 .2

0

5 ( 100 ) 1 3 .5

0

2

( 100 )

( 100 )

5 0 S and

5 .4 r ed

4 ( 50 ) 1 0 .8

8 ( 100 )

y e l low

4 ( 50 ) 1 0 .8

3 75

2 1 .6

T ab le 5 .7

Percen tage o f Grand T ota ls :

S et t le men ts i n t he S urvey R eg ion

R eg iona l D iv isions ( see Map 5 .1) N ya n sa nP ondor i

n ari

J em ier i

Derar i Dune

T ota ls

% i ndiv idua l s i tes

3 2 .4

7 .0

3 1 .4

2 4 .9

4 .4

( n=417)

% s i te c lusters

2 2 .0

8 .2

3 8 .5

2 5 .3

6 .0

( n=183)

% i ndiv idua l v i l lages

2 2 .9

8 .3

3 1 .3

1 6 .7

2 0 .8

D iv ision a rea ( % )

2 8 .0

3 .1

2 0 .4

4 4 .9

3 .6

Area %

( n=48)

L andfor ms C lay C hanne l % i ndiv idua l s i tes

1 2 .5

0

9 .1

2 .9

2 6 .1

% s i te c lusters

7 .7

0

1 1 .0

2 .7

2 1 .4

% v i l lages

6 .3

0

6 .3

0

1 2 .5

S and C hanne l

7 .7

0

1 5 .6

6 .0

2 9 .3

6 .6

0

1 7 .6

2 .7

2 6 .9

4 .2

0

8 .3

4 .2

1 6 .7

Deep C lay

0

0

0

0

Middle P la in-Loa m

2 .6

0 .2

0 .2

2 .0

5 .0

1 .6

0 .5

0 .5

2 .2

4 .9

2 .1

0

0

0

2 .1

L ow P la in

Middle P la in-Sand

L igh t L evee

Heavy L evee

0

1 .2

0

5 .0

2 .2

8 .4

2 .2

0

7 .1

1 .6

1 1 .0

4 .2

0

6 .3

0

1 0 .4

6 .7

0

1 .2

1 2 .2

2 0 .3

3 .8

0

1 .6

1 5 .9

2 1 .4

6 .3

0

2 .1

1 2 .5

2 0 .8

0

2 .0

0 .2

0

2 .2

0

3 .3

0 .5

0

3 .8

0

4 .2

8 .3

0

1 2 .5

0

4 .8

0

0

4 .8

0

4 .9

0

0

4 .9

0

4 .2

0

0

4 .2

S and

r ed

6 .0

8 .0

6 .5 2 1 .0

2 1 .0

3 0 .5

1 .3

2 .2

3 .2 3 .3 8 .3

4 .4 6 .0

y e l low 1 .2 2 .7 1 2 .5

3 76

2 0 .8

3 .6

Tab le 5 .8

Percen tage o f Grand T ota l :

S e t t le men ts i n t he F or ma l S urvey Area

Reg iona l D iv isions ( see Map 5 .1) N ya n sa nP ondori

n ari

J enneri

% i ndiv idua l s i tes

4 7 .9

1 0 .3

2 1 .6

1 4 .5

% s i te c lusters

4 1 .2

1 5 .5

2 2 .7

% i ndiv idua l v i l lages

2 9 .7

1 0 .8

2 7 .0

5 2 .8

5 .9

2 0 .9

0

D iv ision a rea ( % )

Derar i Dune

T o ta ls

5 .7

( n=282 )

1 1 .3

9 .3

( n=98)

1 0 .8

2 1 .6

( n=37)

1 3 .9

2 0 .7

6 .7

7 .4

2 .8

3 1 .2

Area %

L andfor ms C lay C hanne l % s i tes % s i te c lusters % v i l lages S and C hanne l

1 4 .4

0

7 .2

1 .0

2 2 .7

8 .1

0

8 .1

0

1 6 .2

1 1 .3

0

6 .4

8 .5

2 6 .2

7 .7

6 .7

1 2 .4

0

2 .1

4 .1

1 8.6

5 .4

0

0

5 .4

1 0 .8

Deep C lay

o

o

o

0

0

1 2 .3

Middle P la in-Loa m

3 .9

0 .4

0

4 .3

1 4 .8

3 .1

1 .0

0

2 .7

0

0

o o o

1 .8

0

6 .0

7 .8

4 .1

0

1 0 .3

1 4 .4

5 .4

0

8 .1

o o o

9 .9

0

1 .8

3 .2

1 4 .9

L ow P la in

Middle P la in-Sand

L igh t L evee

Heavy L evee

4 .1 2 .7

1 3 .5

7 .2

0

3 .1

6 .2

1 6 .5

8 .1

0

2 .7

5 .4

1 6 .2

0

2 .8

0

0

6 .2

0

0

5 .4

8 .1

o o o

0

7 .1

0

0

9 .3

0

0

5 .4

0

2 .8

2 .3

6 .2

7 .1

4 .0

9 .3 5 .4 6 .7

4 .6 6 .2 1 0 .8

5 .7

y e llow 1 .1

2 1 .6

9 .3 3 .1 1 0 .8

3 77

2 7 .3

1 3 .5

o o o r ed

S and

1 8 .1

t he r ed d une a re i nc luded i n t he g rand t o ta l , b r inging t he s i te t ota ls f ro m 4 04 v isib le s i tes t o 4 17 g rand t ota l i n t he S urvey R eg ion ( f ro m 2 69 t o 2 82 i n t he F or ma l S urvey Area ) .

Aga in , s i tes o f a l l p er iods a re g rouped t ogether ( chrono-

l ogy i s d iscussed i n t he n ex t s ect ion o f t h is c hap ter ) .

S evera l ma jor t rends a re

s een e ven i n t hese c o l lapsed t ab les when o ne c o mpares t he d istr ibut ion o f modern v i llages w i th t ha t o f a ncien t s i tes ( Survey R eg ion ): t he C lay C hanne ls

1 ) a bandon men t o f

( C lay C hanne l t ota l o f 2 6.1% o f s i tes t o 1 2 .5% o f v i l lages ),

2 ) s im i lar a bandon men t o f t he S and C hanne l ( Sand C hanne l t ota l o f 2 9 .3% o f s i tes t o 1 6.7% o f v i l lages ) , 3 ) r educt ion o f o ccupa t ion i n t he M idd le P la inL oa m a reas ( t ota l o f 5 .0% o f s i tes t o 2 .1% o fv i l lages ), 4 ) r ecen t p reference f or t he L igh t L evee s oi ls , ( L igh t L evee t ota l o f 2 .2% o f s i tes t o 1 2 .5% o f v i ll ages ) . a nd 5 ) s trong r ecen t p reference f or t he d unes ( Dune t ota l o f 4 .3% o f s i tes t o 2 0 .8% o f v i l lages ).

T here h as n ever b een a ny o ccupa t ion o f t he Deep

C lay r eg ions , a nd o ccupa t ion o f t he Med iu m P la in-Sand a nd H eavy L evee s oi ls h as r e ma ined much t he s a me .

The o vera l l t rend i s t owards a bandon men t o f

most o f t he d eep f l oodp la in ( C lay C hanne l , S and C hanne l , Med iu m P la in-Loa m ; c o mb ined y ie ld f ro m 6 0 .4% o f s i tes t o 3 1 .3% o f v i l lages ) i n f avour o f t he l i gh t , we l l-dra ined , s andy h igh land r eg ions ( Dunes a nd L igh t L evee ; f ro m 6 .5% o f s i tes t o 3 3.3% o f v i llages ) .

c o mb ined y ie ld

A ltogether f l oodp la in o ccupa t ion h as

d ec lined ( f ro m 8 8 .7% o f s i tes t o 6 2 .5% o f v i l lages ) , wh i lst t ha t o f t he l and p ermanen t ly a bove f l ood h as i ncreased ( 11 .3% o f s i tes t o 3 7 .5% o f v i l lages) . Overa l l , o ccupa t ion o f t he P ondor i a nd Derar i h as d ec l ined ( 37 .4% o f s i tes t o 2 2 .9% o fv i l lages, a nd 2 4 .9% o f s i tes t o 1 6.7% o fv i l lages r espect ive ly ) wh i le t ha t o f t he N yansannar i a nd J enner i h as i ncreased a nd d ec l ined r espec tive ly o n ly v ery s l igh t ly .

Tha t o f t he d unes h as i ncreased marked ly .

These a re v ery c rude f i gures b ecause s ites o f a l l Phases a nd o f a l l t ypes h ave b een p it t ogether . S i tes w i l l b e c o mpared b y p er iod o f a bandon men t ( and n a ture ) i n f o l low ing s ect ions. A l l v i llages o n t he f l oodp la in ( b ut f ewer o n h igh land a reas ) r est o n mounds c lear ly c rea ted o ver many c entur ies o f o ccup a t ion .

I n s evera l c ases B ozo f i sher men move w i th t he r is ing f l ood f ro m d ry

s eason c a mps o n t he b anks o f t he Ban i t o a ncien t mounds i n t he f l oodp la in ( where t he ir h ouses r e ma in emp ty f or s evera l mon ths , e .g ., 1 57-2 a nd 1 55-8 ) . I ti s , o f c ourse , impossib le t o k now h ow l ong t hese a nd o ther t oggue 'res w i th p resen t-day s e t t le men ts ( i nc lud ing J enne ) w ere o ccup ied w i thout c onduct ing e xcava t ions.

S evera l a re n ear ly a s h igh a s J ennejeno, b ut i t wou ld b e f ool ish

e ven t o t ry t o e st i ma te a g enera l r a te o f a ccu mu la t ion f ro m o ne s i te a lone. C hrono logy o f t he S et t le men ts ( Map 5 .9 ) I t mus t b e s tressed o nce a ga in t ha t s urvey was n ot c onducted d ur ing 1 977 i n s uch a way a s t o a l low d e ta i led e x trapo la t ions t o b e made f ro m a l l p ar ts o f t he F or ma l S urvey Area t o t he l arger S urvey R eg ion .

E ven h ad u n foreseen

t ranspor t p rob le ms n ot p reven ted u s f ro m s a mp l ing t he e n t ire S urvey R eg ion , t h is w ould h ave b een t rue f or f l oodp la in r eg ions wh ich were n ot f u l ly s a mp led a ccord ing t o s ta t ist ica l p rocedures. I n f u ture s urveys a l l s i tes w i th in s i tec lusters , o r as a mp le o f t hese s i tes s e lected b y ar ando m p rocess w i l l a l low t hese e x trapola t ions t o b e made. The d unes a nd t he Nyansannar i w ere s urv eyed i n as uf f icien t ly r igourous way i n 1 977 ( a l im i ted e xa mp le o f t he t ype o f e x trapo la t ions wh ich may b e a t te mp ted was p resen ted a bove , v iz ., t he e st i mat i on o ft he t ota l n u mbers o f s i tes n ot v is ib le o n a er ia l p hotographs ) . 3 78

N 1AP 5 .9

1 4°30 2 0

1 0

2 5

O ccupat ion i n t he V i c in i ty o f J enne , M a l i ( 1 977 ) Cj o

V IS IBLE MOUND , P ROBABLE S ITE A ND T ENTAT IVE A BANDONMENT

I-c .A .O . 5 0-40 3 I- c A .D

4 00-900

S ITE

0- S ITE N OT V IS IBLE O N A ER IAL P mOTOGRAPs

D ATE O F

V- V IS IBLE MOUND , NO

I V -V-cA .0 1 300 1600 V -cA .0 ,1600 1900?

S uRFACE ( 2

-V ILLAGE

3 79

, ,

B RAS D E O CCUP IED

WATER

V EST IGIAL S TEA K

R EMA INS

-S ITE , S EASONALLY

I V- c .A .D . 9 00 1300

P ERMANENT

D

C RuE

L AND P ERMANENTLY -A BOVE F LOOD ING

A dd i t iona l ly , t he methods u sed t o d a te t he p er iod o f a bandon men t o f t hese s i tes a re v ery c rude .

The a ssu mp t ion was made t ha t s i tes i n t he v icin ity o f

J ennejeno c ou ld b e d a ted b y r eferr ing t o t he c era m ic s equence e stab lished a t t ha t s i te a nd i t was a ssu med t ha t t he d istr ibut ion o f a t tr ibutes w i th in a r tef act a sse mb lages a t t hese s i tes were i nf luenced p r i mari ly b y c hrono log ica l f actors, t o t he e xc lusion o f e thn ic o r p ersona l e f fects.

S herds w ere s e lected

f ro m a v ery f ew sma ll l oca l i t ies o n t he s urface o f s i tes a nd t he r ecord ing o f a t tr ibu tes was h ard ly c o mp le te .

N ever the less, t he ma jor P hases t o wh ich

t hese s i tes a re a ssigned a re p robab ly c orrect a nd s uf f icien t f or p resen t p urp oses. The p er iod o f a bandon men t i s r ecorded e i ther a s as ing le p er iod ( e .g ., Phase I V ) o r a s j oin t ly ( e .g ., Phase I I-IV ) .

T he f or mer means t ha t t he s ur-

f ace p ot tery f ro m t he s i te s trong ly s hare a t tr ibutes c haracter is ing t he p ot tery a sse mb lage o f t ha t p ar t icular Phase a t J ennejeno .

Aj o in t d esigna t ion l ike

P hase I I-IV means t ha t t he p ot tery h as s o me c haracter ist ics wh ich a re p resen t i n l a te Phase I n a nd wh ich c on t inue a t l east i n to e ar ly P hase I V a t J ennejeno. S i tes a bandoned a f ter P hase I V ( i .e., s o me t ime a f ter c . 1 300-1400 ) a re d if f ic u l t t o d a te d ue t o t he t er m ina t ion o f t he J ennejeno s equence a t t ha t p oin t , a l though s i tes w ere a ssigned t o P hase V ( c . 1 600-1900 ) o n t he b asis o f t obacco p ipes a nd c loseness o f t he p o t tery t o modern p o t tery a t J enne .

One s ees who le

t obacco p ipes o n ly i n t he s ta l ls o f 'a n t iquar ians ' ,a nd w e c an o n ly h ope t ha t f rag men ts o f p ipes a re n eg lected d ur ing s urface c o llect ion b y t he l oca l p eop le. A s a t J ennejeno, t he s a mp le r ecorded was s o t iny t ha t i t was i nappropr ia te t o a pp ly a p robab i l ist ic s a mp l ing s che me t o d eter m ine where t he p ot tery l oca l it ies s houd b e. s tage o f h is

( Red man s uggests t ha t t h is b e d one e ven i n t he e xp lora tory f i rst

mu l t i-stage f i e ld r esearch p ro ject ' ,b u t h e o f c ourse a ssu mes

t ha t af ar l arger p ercen tage o f t he a rea o f e ach s i te c ould b e r ecorded ( i .e ., o n t he o rder o f 1 0-20% m in i mu m ) ( Red man 1 974: 2 8 ;

Red man a nd Wa tson 1 970 :

2 81-282 .) S even a t tr ibutes o f t he s ix teen a t tr ibutes a na lyzed i n t he J ennejeno a sse mb lage p roved t o b e t he most t i me-sensi t ive.

Two o f t hese , s andte mpered

p aste a nd c lear o range p aste , w ere s trong ly c haracter ist ic o f P hase Id eposi ts a nd h ad a l most c o mp le te ly d isappeared b y t he b eg inn ing o f P hase I I .

Another

a t tr ibute , t w ine d ecora t ion n u mber 7 , i s s tronges t a lso i n P hase I , b ut d isapp ears b y t he e nd o f P hase I .

These t hree e le men ts were s earched f or d ur ing

s urvey a nd w ou ld h ave b een r ecorded h ad Phase Io r P hase I s i tes b een f ound . Observers w ou ld a lso h ave n oted t he w e l l- made a nd t h in-wa l led ware o f Phase Ih ad i tb een p resen t .

We c an t herefore b e r e la t ive ly c er ta in t ha t s i tes a ban-

d oned d ur ing t h is p er iod were n ot o ver looked . The t wo a t tr ibutes most c haracter is t ic o f P hase I I d eposi ts were p a in t d ec ora t ion ( wh ich p eaks marked ly d ur ing P hase I I ) a nd a s ign if ican t f requency o f c ar ina ted v esse ls ( wh ich i ncrease t o 2 5% o f r i m-vesse l s hape d ur ing Phase I I , b ut s harp ly d ec line d ur ing P hase W) . c orded i n t he f i e ld .

On ly t he f i rst o f t hese c lasses was r e-

P hase I I d epos its a re a lso c haracter ized b y t he c lear

p redo m inance o f Tw ine 4 ( 2..4 0% ) o ver c o mb ined Tw ines 1 a nd 2 ( a l though Tw ine 4 h as s l igh t ly d ecl ined s ince P hases Ia nd I ) .

C oarse p aste r ises n o

g rea ter t han C . 2 0% b y t he e nd o f Phase I n a nd i ti s we l l o ver 2 5% t hroughou t P hase I V . 3 80

The ma jor i nd ica tors o f P hase W d eposits were T-r i m med b ow ls a nd t he p redo m inance o f Tw ines 1a nd 2 . b lage a pprec iab ly d ur ing P hase I V .

P oor ly- made p ot tery i ncreases i n t he a sse mT herefore , t he ma jor e le men ts u sed d ur ing

s urvey t o d ist ingu ish p ot tery s im i lar t o P hase I I p ot tery a t J ennejeno f ro m t ha t s im i lar t o P hase I V p ot tery i s t he p resence o f p a in t , p redo m inance o f Tw ine 4 a nd b et ter p repara t ion f or t he f or mer a nd , f or t he l at ter , ac lear p red om inance o f Tw ines 1a nd 2 a nd a r e la t ive i ncrease i n c oarse , i l l-f ired f abr ic . O f c ourse i t would h ave b een p referab le t o h ave h ad p recise p ercen tages f or t he f requency o f e ach c lass o ft w ine d ecora t ion , a s we ll a s p ercen tages o f i nner a nd o uter s l ipp ing ( t he f or mer i ncreases i n p opular i ty d ur ing P hase I ), p resence o f s l ip o n t he r im , p resence o f c ar ina ted p o t tery , a nd a l l r im t ypes . H owever , e ven i n i t s c rude f or m t he p ot tery d a ta p rov ides a g ood i nd ica t ion o f t he p er iod o f a bandon men t o f t hese s i tes , measured a s 'P hases ' s im i lar t o t hose r ecogn ised a t J ennejeno a nd d ated b y r ad iocarbon d a tes. The d a ta f ro m t he s urvey d o f a ll i n to p at terns wh ich may r epresen t t rue c hrono log ica l t rends , a nd wh ich , o nce i so la ted , may b e s yste ma t ica l ly i nv est iga ted when n ex t i n t he f i e ld . I tw i l l b e r e la t ive ly e asy t o d esign a method t o a dequa te ly t est t hese s uggested t rends , a r med w i th s o me k now ledge o f t he n a ture o f s i tes a nd t errain o f t he f l oodp la in , a nd o f t he c era m ic a nd a r tefact a t tr ibutes most l ike ly t o y ie ld c hrono log ica l d iv isions sma l ler t han t he P hases o f s evera l-hundred-years l eng th u sed h ere . S uf f icien t d a ta w ere r ecorded t o s uggest t he t ime o f a bandon men t o f t he f or ty-one s i tes r ecorded i n t he c ourse o f t he F or ma l , 2 0% s yste ma t ic s a mp le s urvey p lus J ennejeno ( see Map 5 .9 ) . These s i tes a re l i sted b y P hase i n T ab le 5 .9 a nd b y t he l andfor m o n wh ich t hey a re f ound i n Tab le 5 .10 .

I ti s

i n terest ing t o n ote h ow c lose ly t he p ercen tages o f d ated s i tes d o o r d o n ot c o mpare t o t he p ercen tage o f e st i ma ted t o ta l o f s i tes b y g eograph ica l r eg ion : P ondor i , 4 3% o f d a ted s i tes t o 3 1.1% o ft he e st i ma ted g rand t ota l ( 4 6 .4% o f t he e st i ma ted g rand t o ta l f or t he F or ma l S urvey Area ) ;

Nyansannar i , 7 % o f

d a ted s i tes t o 7 .1% o f e st i ma ted ( 10 .6% i n F or ma l S urvey Area ) ; J enner i , 3 1% o f d a ted s i tes t o 2 0 .4% o f e st i ma ted ( 22 .3% i n F or ma l S urvey Area ) ; Derar i , 1 0% o f d a ted s i tes t o 2 5 .4% o f e st i ma ted ( 1 5.0% i n F or ma l S urvey Area ) ; a nd D une , 1 0% o f d a ted s i tes t o 4 .4% o f e st i ma ted ( 4 5.8% i n F or ma l S urvey Area ) . N oth ing more s hould b e made o ft hese o bserva t ions t han t o r eg ister a warn ing o f p oss ib le s l igh t o ver-represen ta t ion o f t rends i n t he P ondor i , J enner i a nd D unes , a nd a n u nder-est i ma t ion o f t hese i n t he Derar i . Aga in , t he e st i mated g rand t o ta ls o f s i tes f or e ach o f t hese g eograph ica l r eg ions were o b ta ined b y p oss ib ly b iased s a mp ling a nd b y p roceed ing f ro m u n tested ( b ut p robab ly s ound ) a ssu mp t ions. I n o rder t o c orrect t hese s ources o f b ias , a t l east i n al im ited way , a n e xper i men t was made t o e xpand t he p robab i l i ty s a mp l ing s che me t o t he e n t ire F or ma l S urvey Area b y s e lect ing b y u se o f ar ando m n u mber t ab le a 2 0% s a mp le o f t he f i f teen s i te-c lusters w i th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne.

The

c lusters s o c hosen ( 4 , 1 4 , a nd 1) a re a dded t o t hose o f t he s urvey o f t he r est o ft he F or ma l S urvey Area a nd t he r esults a re i l lustrated i n Tab le 5 .11. A ga in , t hese r esu lts c annot b e u sed f or s ta t ist ica l s tudy b ecause s i tes w i thin c lusters w ere n ot s e lected f or f or ma l r ecord ing b y r ando m p rocess.

I n t he

E xpanded F or ma l ( Probab i l i ty ) S urvey t he P ondor i y ielded 3 6% o f t he t ota l o f 3 81

Tab le 5 .9

P eriod o f Abandon men t 9 (corre la ted w i th Phases d ef ined a t J ennejeno)

I

I I

I V

I V-V

V

F or ma l S urvey 1 55-T2-A(Ma in )

2 93-2-B

1 55-T2-A (E0 )

2 93-2-D

1 55-T2-A (SE )

2 93-14 2 95-10-A

1 55-T9-A

TOTAL

2 91-11-A

2 95-10-B

1 59-T 8-A

I V=44%

2 93-23-A

1 59-T13-A

I V&IV-V=67%

2 93-23-C

V =11%

2 91-11-B 1 59-4 1 59-6-A 1 59-T18-A Wi thin f our k i lo metres o f J enne 1 59-E-11D

2 91-E-3 2 91-E-2

2 91-E-6

2 91-E-4

1 59-E-11H

2 91-E-5A 2 91-E-5B

1 59-E-14A

TOTAL

1 59-E-14C

I I=6%

2 91-E-5C

I V=61%

1 59-E-11A

I V&IV-V=67%

1 59-E-11C

V=28%

1 59-E-12B 1 59-E-12C 1 59-E-13A 1 59-E-15A J ennejeno L inear S urvey 3 52-L in-2 3 52-L in-3

TOTAL I V=67%

3 52-L in-4 3 79-L in-5

I V&IV-V=100% 3 79-L in-6 3 79-L in-7

5

2 3

3 82

7

7

2 93-23-C :IV

2 93-23-A :I V

2 93-2-D :IV-V

2 93-2-B :IV-V

C / 2

3 83

J ennejenola te I V

1 59- E -15-A :IV-V

1 59-E-12-C :1V

C Z C V

1 59-E-12-B :IV

r 4

1 59-E-11-H :V

C V

1 59-E-11-C :IV

I I

1 59-E-11-D :1 1 I

1 1 C M

2 91-E-6 :V

1 r J

2 91-E-5-A :IV

Wi th in f our k i lo me tres o f J enne

2 91-11-B :IV

2 91-11-A :IV-V

F or ma l S urvey

• ; t i

1 59-E-13-A :IV

2 93-14 :IV-V

2 95-10-B :1V

2 95-10-A :IV

t • •

r 4

o 0

• • I n .

I

• 4 1 . ,

I

r 1 • es

0 r 4

11

• OS

1 1 C z t • c r j rZ

7 P

•

I

I I

r 4

C n C V

1 1

1

1 1

c Y D

1

C Z

C Z

L t L evee

1 59-T13-A :V

r i D c l ) ( 1 )

C )

1 59-T13-A :V

I

L I Z i n r— i L C C D L CL 1 1

L S D i n

1 59-E-11D :I I I

1 59-T18-A :IV

C f )

< I I C \ I c \ I

3 84

1 59-E-11H :V

1 : 1 )

1 59-T8-A :V

c d

2 93-23-C : IV

2 93-23-A :IV

1 59-6-A :( 1 1 )-TV

" J e-fa4

Wi th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne

F or ma l S urvey

• r i F4

g 4

!

t +

e m c e j

• • • •

I C V 1 1

c l I Z • ON

•r l

0

i n I C

? 1 C . 0

• • • •

e l I Z

e, I C • • ••

2 5 d a ted s i tes ( 3 1.1% o f e st i ma ted s i tes i n t he F or ma l S urvey Area ) , t he N yansannar i 1 2% ( 7 .1% o f e st i ma ted s i tes ) , t he J enner i 2 0% ( 32 .0% o f e st ima ted s i tes ) , t he Derar i 1 6% ( 2 5.4% o f e st i ma tes s i tes ) a nd t he Dunes 1 6% ( 4 .4% o f e st i ma ted s i tes ) .

N e i ther t he c o mb ined n u mbers o f d a ted s i tes n or

t he E xpanded F or ma l ( Probab i l i ty ) S urvey n ecessar i ly r ef lect t he t rue s i tuat i on a ny b et ter , b u t i ti s i n terest ing t ha t a na lysis o f b oth y ields t he i den t ica l g ross p a t terns.

These p at terns a re p resen ted h ere b y c hrono log ica l Phase ;

t hey a re t he t rends t o b e more r igorous ly s ubstan t ia ted d ur ing f uture s urveys. Phase I I ( 2..A . D . 4 50-900 ):

The f act most im med ia te ly s een i n Tab le

5 .12 i s t ha t f our o f t he f i ve s i tes whose a bandon men t c an b e d a ted t o P hase I I a re f ound o n t he a ncien t r ed Dune .

These a re t he o n ly s i tes f ound o n t he

r ed D une . The f i f th i s a sma ll s i te b etween J enne a nd J ennejeno ( 1 59-E-11D ) . Three o f t he f our d a ted mounds o n t he r ed Dune a re , i n f act , t he o n ly s i tes wh ich d o n ot s hare a r e markab ly s im i lar a ppearance i n s hape, s urface f ea tures , a nd s urface s ca t ter o f s herds a nd s lag w i th J ennejeno .

These t hree

mounds , 1 55-T2-A ( Ma in , S ou theastern a nd E astern O ut l iers ) a re c lear ly r el a ted t o o ne a nother a nd t here i s l i t t le d oub t i n t he a u thors ' m inds t ha t t he f irs t i s a mound s im i lar t o t he e arthen t u mu l i f ound i n a bundance i n t he G ounda mN iafunke r eg ion ( c f . Desp lagnes 1 903 a nd 1 951 ) a nd a lso a s f ar away a s S enega l ( e .g ., Rao , wh ich was a lso l oca ted o n ar ed , ' Ogo l ian ' d une ) ( c f ., J o ire 1 955 ). The o ther t wo a ppear t o b e p ar t o f as em i-circ le o f sma ller mounds a round 1 55-T2-A ( Ma in ) .

I n t he G ounda m-N iafunke r eg ion t here a re s im i lar s em i-

c irc les o f sma ller p er iphera l mounds, u sua l ly w i th t he c en tre o f t he s em ic irc le t owards t he n or th ; o n t he r ed d une , t he c en tre o f t he s em i-circle i s t owards t he e as t . T he p r incipa l s i te i s a pprox ima te ly 1 50 me tres i n d iame ter , 7 -10 me tres h igh a nd c on ica l i n s hape .

The t op i s n o t f la t tened i n t he manner

o f s e t t le men t s i tes , a nd i t s s ur face i s r e la t ively c lear o f r e ma ins .

S evera l

o ther p resumed t u mu l i a ppear o n t he a er ia l p ho tograph , i ncluding a v ery l arge mound t o t he e as t o f t h is g roup ( 155-T1).

I fe s tabl ished t o b e t u mu l i b y e xca-

v a t ion , t hese w i l l b e t he s ou thern- mos t e x tens ion o f t h is b ur ia l c us to m y e t r epor ted i n Ma l i . The f our th s i te o n t he r ed d une , 1 55-T9-A , i s av ery l ow mound w i th a modera te amoun t o f s urface r e ma ins, b u t b ad ly d isturbed b y p lough ing .

Th is

may r epresen t as e t t le men t o ccup ied a t a pprox i ma tely t he s a me t i me a s t he e rect ion o f t he ' tu mu lus ' g roup . I ti s i n teresting t o n ote t ha t t he p ot tery c oll ected a t t hese e ar ly s i tes i s im med ia te ly r ecogn izab le a s v ery s im ilar t o P hase I I p ot tery a t J ennejeno.

A l though P hase i f i was t he p er iod o f i ncreasing

u se o f l arge f unerary u rns f or b ur ia ls a t J ennejeno a nd n o f unerary u rns were f ound a t a ny s i te o n t he r ed d une , t he p resu med d if ference i n b ur ia l p ract ices may b e o ne o f v ar ia t ion w i th in t he s a me c ultura l t rad i t ion .

Whe ther i ti s a

mat ter o f o ne g roup b ury ing t he ir d ead i n t hree ways ( s i mp le i nhu ma t ion , u rn b ur ia l , a nd t u mu lus b ur ia l ) o r o f more t han o ne g roup o b tain ing t he ir p ot tery a nd o ther ma ter ia l g oods f ro m a c o m mon s ource c annot b e b lown a t t he p resen t . B ecause t he n u mbers o f s i tes a bandoned i n Phase D I a re s o l ow i ti s n ot p ossib le t o s ay more a bout p references o f s oi l t ypes o r l andfor m c ategor ies. T hree mounds a re v isib le o n a er ia l p hotographs o f t he r ecen t d unes a nd t wo

3 85

TABLE

5 .12

D a ted S i tes

4 .

4 P

0 4 . 1

I .0

N

.. I

C

4 1

" I N

. .

• . . .,

, . . ... . . .. . . .,

. . .. .-. --,

. . . .... . ... . ,

1 .4

_

.

" 4

1

,

I . 4 . 4

N

4 1

1

I Ni

. . .,

N. .. . • ..,

1

N

N

I

N

. • r , C 41 4 1 G V

. . . .,

4 1

4 1

I

1 NI r . i

I

.. ., , . . . . . .

. . ." . . . ., ,

, .. .. . . .. . . ,

, . .--.1. -„ ,

„ . .... -. .

.4

01

" 4 1

1

1

1 1

% t i

l

l

M

s ..1

1

I

.

>

.

> .I

. 1 1

>

> I

>

> .

. . .

>

>

1

>

. . 4

.

>

>

I >

.

1 1 4 4

>

.

>

1 >

>

.

1 4 I . 1

>

.

>

1 >

I N

>

.

>

.

. . . ., , . . ./

>

1

I I

I

1

I

N 4

1

N , . . . .

.1 ' , . . . .

I

N I

. . ../

>

>

, -,

1 14

N

,. .,

.

>

>

N

, . . . ., , . . 1

. . . .,

. > > I -I e -t I

1. 1

1

1. . . . .

' . . .0

I I ,

. . . .,

e t

, . . ./

N

4 1

41

4 1

. 4 . . • -• 4-

. .. .

4, 4 ..".

• ., , , .. . . • . . . .,

s . . . . •

' .. .1 • J .. .,

r s 4

1 / 3

N

I A

1 14

N

1

• • . . . . ,

1 r1 . . . ,

N

1 N

04 . 4 . . . . •

0

N . . . . •

1

N

1 -

1 1 4

1 1

, n

. 1

1 i t ‘ e s

1

NI , . . .4

N . . .4

1 eV N , . . 4 4 • , . . 4

1

e i I 1

41

' l 1 . 14 I

N

. . 1 1 1

. . ., . . . . . . . . . .

. .. . .. .

/ 1 .. . . .

V

0 0

1 4

.4 . . . . .•

o 4 4 .

>

. 1

>

I > . 4

>

.

1 4 e 4

>

.

>

I > 1 4

. 1 4 I I

>

a e . 44 4 ( 4 1 . 1 ,p )

C Z

3 86

"4 0. . .

. . . .,

—

.

_

4 -. 41

>

1 0%

1 34

>

I > .

Y ellow D une

L d 0 -0

>

" 4

( 4)

a e •. 1

.

4 4 4 4

R ed D une

>

3 1%

I

> .

( 13)

>

J enngri

4 1

7 %

>

I 1 1 4

( 3)

"I

N yansannari

P ercentage o f T otal ( 1 1. .42)

C 1 11

N

I 1

. , .. ,

. 4 4 . 4 1

. . . ..

N

t.- 4 . . . . .

> .

> > I > ) 4 4 1

E

1 . 0 .4 4 4 4 1

0

‘ 4 3

4

0

E 1

o ft hose a re q ui te l arge ( 291-4 a nd 2 93-15 ) .

These t hree mounds w ere n ot

i nc luded i n t he 2 0% s urvey o f y el low d unes, s o o ne w i l l h ave t o wa i t f or f u ture s urvey t o d e ter m ine w hether o r n ot t he p reference o f ' tu mul i ' b ui lders f or r ed D une s oi ls e x tended a s w e ll t o y e l low D une s oi ls. Th is w ould s ee m r eas onab le b ecause t he s oi l o f e i ther t ype o f d une a re more e asi ly w orked t han e ven t he l i gh t s oi ls o ft he L igh t L evee a nd much more s o t han t he h eavy l oa m o r c lay s oi ls o f t he f l oodp la in . A lthough e rect ion o f t hese s pecia l ' tu mu lus g roups ' a ppears t o b e l im i ted t o h igh d une s oi ls , o ther P hase I I a ct iv i ty was c lear ly n ot s o l im i ted . S i te 1 58-E-11-D a nd J ennejeno were o ccup ied d uring t ha t P hase a nd t here i s n o d oub t i n t he a uthors ' m inds t ha t many o ther s i tes i n t he S urvey R eg ion w ere a lso. L ast ly , c on te mporary v i llages o n t he d unes a re b ui l t im med ia te ly u pon t he d une s oi ls o r r est o n mounds a ppreciab ly l ess e leva ted t han t hose o fo ther v i l lages i n t he S urvey R eg ion . Th is r e lat ively t h in a ccu mu la t ion o f d eposi ts may s uggest t ha t t hese v i llages w ere f i rst o ccup ied c o mpara t ive ly r ecen t ly .

Was t he r ed Dune ( or b o th d unes ) , t he s cene o f

a ct iv i ty d ur ing t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he f i rst m il lenn iu m A . D . a nd t hen d eser ted u n t i l r ecen t ly ( un t i l t he B a mbara m igra t ions o f t he s ix teen th c en tury?) o r h as e v idence o f s e t t le men t d ur ing t he i n terven ing p er iod b een e rased b y a gr icult ura l a ct iv i ty? P hase I V ( ! . A . D . 9 00-1300 ): I t must b e s tressed a ga in t ha t t he d ate a ss igned t o t hese s i tes i s t ha t o f t heir f i na l o ccupa t ion a nd a bandon men t o n ly . A t t he r isk o fg iving a n impress ion o f a r t if icia l p recision , t he s i tes a re d iv ided i n to t hose a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V ( up t o a pprox ima tely t he t ime o f t he e nd o f J ennejeno ) a nd t hose wh ich may h ave b een o ccup ied a c en tury o r t wo l onger ( t o t he l a te s ix teen th c en tury , Phase I V-V ) . Doub t a bou t t he a ctua l d ate o f a bandon men t o f J ennejeno makes t h is d iv ision n ecessary . Twen tythree o f t he f or tytwo F or ma l S urvey s i tes ( or 5 5% ) w ere a bandoned d uring P hase I V ( 1 1 o ft he 2 5 s i tes i n t he E xpanded F or ma l S urvey ) .

E leven

o f t he 1 8 s i tes o n t he P ondor i ( or 6 1% ) a nd 9o f t he 1 3 s i tes o n t he J enner i ( or 6 9% ) were a bandoned d ur ing t h is p hase , whereas o n ly t wo o f t he f our s i tes o n t he Derar i ( 50% ) a nd o ne o ft he t hree s i tes ( or 3 3% ) o n t he N yansannar i were a bandoned t hen . T hese s a me t rends a ppear i n t he E xpanded F or ma l S urvey . T he P ondar i a nd J enner i a re t he l owes t r eg ions a nd b oast t he h eaviest s oi ls. T he h eavier s oi l t ypes ( w i th t he e xcep t ion o f H eavy L evee ) a lso h ave t he h ighest n u mber o f s i tes a bandoned d ur ing t h is p hase , v iz ., C lay C hanne l 1 3 o f 2 0 ( 6 5% ); M idd le Phase-Loa m , o ne o fo ne ;

a nd L ow P la in , t hree o f f our ( 75% ) .

Most o ft he s i tes w i th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne ( i nc lud ing J ennejeno ) were a bandoned d ur ing t h is p er iod ( 61% ) . I fo ne c an t rust t he r e la t ive p osit i ons w i th in t he P hase l i sted i n Tab le 5 .9 , t hen most o f t hese P hase I V s i tes w ith in 4 k i lo me tres o f J enne were a bandoned i n t he l a t ter h a lf o ft he P hase. P hase W a nd I V-V ( . 9 00-1600?): Th ir ty o f t he f or tytwo s i tes ( 72% ) w ere a bandoned d ur ing t h is c o mbined P hase ( 1 5 o f t he 2 5 s i tes, o r 6 0% i n t he E xpanded F or ma l S urvey ) . I n t he P ondar i 1 3 o f t he 1 8 s i tes ( 72% ) a re o f t h is P hase , 1 2 o f t he 1 3 s i tes o n t he J enner i ( 92% ) a re o f t h is P hase , a s a re a l l t he s i tes o n t he D erart .

The a pparen t t rend i s t ha t l ow , c lay p ar ts o f t he

f l oodp la in l ost s et t le men ts i n i t ia l ly , a nd s hor t ly t hereaf ter s i tes o n t he l i gh ter , s and s oi ls o ft he f l oodp la in were a bandoned . Dur ing P hase W a nd I V-V , 1 7 o f 2 0 s i tes o n t he C lay C hanne l ( 8 5% ) w ere a bandoned , a l l f our s i tes o n t he 3 87

S and Channe ls , t he s ing le s i te o n t he M idd le P la in-Loa m , 3o f t he 4 s i tes ( or 7 5% ) o f t he L ow P la in , a nd 4 o f 6( or 6 7% ) o f s i tes o n M idd le P la in-Sand r eg ions.

Deep C lay s oi ls w ere a pparen t ly n ever o ccup ied .

6 7% o f t he s i tes w i th

w i th in f our k i lo me tres o f J enne w ere a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V a nd I V-V . P hase V ( g _ . A . D . 1 600-1900 ):

On ly 7o f t he f or ty-two s i tes ( 17% ) were

a bandoned d ur ing t he l ast P hase ( or 5 o f t he 2 5 s i tes , o r 2 0% , i n t he E xpanded F or ma l S urvey ) , b ut d ist inc t p at terns a ppear .

4o f t he 1 8 s i tes o n t he P on-

d on i ( 22% ) were a bandoned d uring t h is p er iod , t wo o f wh ich were i n t he C lay C hanne l n ear J ennejeno a nd t wo o n t he h igher s and f l oodp la in s oi l ( M idd le P la in-Sand ) o f t he s a me a rea .

Two o f t he t hree s i tes o f t he N yansannar i ( 67% )

a re o f t h is p er iod , b ut o n ly o ne o f t he t h ir teen J enner i s i tes ( 8% , a lso n ear J enne ) .

Two o f t he t hree s i tes o n h igh l evees a re o f P hase V :

t an t o f t hese i s 8 .5 k i lo metres f ro m J enne .

t he most d is-

Thus , a l l s even s ites a bandoned

i n P hase V a re e i ther o n t he h igh l evees im med ia te ly s outh o f J enne o r o n t he f l oodp la in w i th in 2 .5 k i lo metres o f t he c i ty ( and i n t he l at ter c ase t wo o f t he f i ve a re o n t he h igher s andy f l oodp la in s oi ls ) . There may b e s o me t ruth t o t he a pparen t p a t tern o f c luster ing o f l a te s i tes a round J enne.

Wi th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne f i ve o f t he e igh teen s i tes d a ted

( or 2 8% ) d a te t o P hase V , whereas m i th in t he r es t o f t he F or ma l S urvey Area o n ly t wo o f e igh teen s i tes ( or 1 % ) were a bandoned d ur ing P hase V a nd n one o f t he s ix s i tes r ecorded d ur ing l inear s urvey d a te t h is l a te . a ppears i n t he E xpanded F or ma l S urvey .

The s a me t rend

S uperf ic ia l ly , t he p a t tern o f d ated

s i tes o n Map 5 .9 s uggests t ha t t he a t tract ion o f t he immed iate v ic in ity o f J enne was l ong-stand ing ; t he d a te o f s i te a bandon men t t ends t o b eco me more r ecen t a s o ne a pproaches t he f our-k i lo metre r ad ius.

H owever , q ui te t he o pposi te

e f fect i s s een i n t he s ix s i tes r ecorded d ur ing L inear S urvey ;

t he most-

r ecen t ly a bandoned s i tes a re f ar thest f ro m J enne ( perhaps r ef lect ing t he p ers isten t a t tract ion o f t he N iger R iver , 1 k i lo me tres f ro m 3 79-L in-7 ) .

C lear ly

much more f u ture s urvey i s r equired t o c onf ir m a nd e luc ida te t hese p a t terns. D iscussion :

S ix ma jor t rends a ppear t o u nder ly t he p a t tern o f s i te d istr i-

b u t ion a t t he t ime o f a bandon men t : 1 ) .

N o 'S tone-Age ' s i tes , o r s i tes w i th a ny v is ib le l i th ic c o mponen ts w ere

e ver f ound .

Th is may mean t ha t t hese s i tes a re b ur ied u nder d eep a l luviu m ,

o r t ha t o ccupa t ion o f t he u pper I n land N iger De lta b egan o n ly w ith i ron- a nd p ot tery-bear ing p eop les i n t he f i rst m i l lenn iu m B . C . 2 ) .

B efore A . D . 9 00 most o f t he e ar l iest-abandoned s i tes a re o f as pecia l

t ype ( 't u mu lus-cluster ' ,a nd a ssocia ted s e t t le men t?) o n o ne l andfor m .

S i tes

o f P hase I I a re t he o n ly d a ted s i tes f ound o n t he r ed Dune ( or a ny d une ? ) a nd i t m igh t b e a rgued t ha t t he d unes w ere r eoccup ied o n ly a f ter a f u l l m i l lenn iu m h ad p assed. T he R ed Dune was n ot t he o n ly l and for m o ccup ied a t t h is t i me , h owever . 3 ) .

S i tes d eser ted b e tween c . A . D . 9 00-1300 , P hase I V , a re f ound w i th in

t he l owest r eg ions ( Pondor i a nd J enner i ) o r o n s oi ls w i th t he h ighes t c lay c ont en t ( Clay C hanne l , M idd le P la in-Loa m , L ow P la in ) .

Th is t rend i s empha-

s ized i n Phase I V-V , b y t he e nd o f wh ich 7 2% o f a l l s i tes h ad b een a bandoned . S i tes a bandoned most r ecen t ly ( Phase V , C . A . D . 1 600-1900 ) t end t o b e o n

3 88

t he ' l i gh t s oi ls o f t he N yansannar i , wh ich a re n ot f l ooded , o r o n t he h ighest a nd s andy f l oodp la in s oi ls.

Th is t rend may b e r ef lected i n c on te mporary

s e t t le men t , when t he h igh l eve ls o f t he N ya nsannar i ( 3 .1% o f t o ta l s urface a rea ) b oast 8 .3% o f modern v i llages a nd t he d unes ( 3 .6% o f a rea ) a re o ccup ied b y 2 0 .8% o f modern v i l lages , w hereas t he d eep , b ut r ich P ondar i ( 28% o f a rea ) c an b oast o n ly 2 2 .9% o f modern v i l lages . 4 ) .

S i tes a bandoned d ur ing P er iod V c luster n ear J enne o r a re l oca ted o n t he

N yansannar i w i th in t wo h ours wa lk ing d istance o f t he c i ty .

T oday t he f l ood-

p la in r eg ion c losest t o J enne , t he J enner i ( 20 .4% o f a rea ), c la i ms 3 1 .3% o f modern v i l lages , b ut t he r eg ion most d istan t , t he Derar i ( 44.9% o f a rea ) i s o ccup ied b y o n ly 1 6.7% o f modern s et t le men ts ( t h is d esp i te t he f act t ha t t he s oi ls o f t he l a t ter a re l i gh ter a nd h igher t han t hose o f t he J enner i ).

The r ecen t

c luster ing a round J enne may h ave a l ong h istory a s s uperf icia lly i ta ppears t ha t s i tes f ar thes t f ro m t he f our-k i lo metre r ad ius o f J enne a re t he l ongesta bandoned ( excep t f or t he s i tes r ecorded d ur ing L inear S urvey ) . 5 ) .

A ll p resen t-day s et t le men ts o n t he f l oodp la in , i nclud ing J enne , r est o n

h igh t e l ls , a nd may h ave b een c on t inuous ly o ccup ied s ince t he e ar l iest p er iods . 6 ):

S evera l s i tes ( i nc lud ing J ennejeno a nd K an iana ) s how p ar ts a bandoned

b efore f i na l Phase o f a bandon men t . OTHER LOCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS D istance f ro m S tand ing Wa ter .

Tab le 5 .13 p resen ts a s u m mary o f t he

r esu lts o f as earch o n t he a er ia l mosa ic o f t he S urvey R eg ion f or t he n earest s tand ing wa ter t o a bandoned s i tes a nd c on te mporary v i l lages.

I n for man ts

c la im t ha t t here was n o t rad i t ion o f d igg ing we l ls b efore t he F rench a rr ived ( excep t f or t he n ove l 'Moroccan ' we l l i n J enne ) a nd n o f ea tures wh ich c ould b e i n terpre ted a s w e lls w ere f ound d ur ing s i te s urvey .

E ven i n J enne , where

s evera l r ecen t w e l ls s er vice e ach q uar ter , t he i nhab i tan ts d epend o n t he o pen wa ter o f t he n earby d istr ibutar ies f or b a th ing , wash ing c loth ing a nd h ouseh o ld wash ing-up a nd , d ur ing a l l b ut t he d r iest mon ths , f or d r ink ing wa ter . I f ap r incipa l f actor d e ter m in ing t he l oca t ion o f ap er manen t s et t le men t w ere t he a va i lab i l i ty o f wa ter d ur ing a l l mon ths o f t he y ear , s et t le men ts wou ld b e l oca ted w i th in c onven ien t d istance o f wa ter s tand ing i n c hanne ls o r p onds e ven d ur ing t he d r iest mon ths ( Apr i l — J une ) .

And , i fa ncien t s et t le men ts w ere

a bandoned p r i mar i ly b ecause o f as low a nd p rogressive d esicca t ion o f t he im ih ydrolog ica l n e twork o f t he S urvey R eg ion , t h is s hou ld b e r ef lected i n ad n u t ion o f t he n u mbers o f s i tes n ear wa ter s tand ing o pen t oday c o mpared t o n u mbers o f v i l lages n ear wa ter . The ma jor d if f icul ty e ncoun tered i n t he s earch was t ha t t he a er ia l p hotog raphs w ere t aken r e la t ive ly s oon a f ter t he d ecl ine o f t he a nnua l i nunda t ion o f 1 970 ( t aken l a te J anuary — e ar ly F ebruary ) .

More s tand ing wa ter a ppears

o n t he p hotographs t han wou ld b e e xpected d ur ing t he v ery d r iest mon ths. H owever , 1 970 was w i th in t he p an-A fr ican d rough t o f 1 968-1973 a nd f l oodl eve ls w ould p robab ly h ave b een q ui te l ow . i n f our g roups:

Da ta i n Tab le 5 .13 a re a rranged

s i tes/vi l lages w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f p er manen t s tand ing

water ( presu me t o b e t he o p t i mu m l oca t ion ) , s i tes/vi l lages w i th in 1 .0 k i lometres o f p er manen t wa ter ( l ess d esirab le ) , s i tes/v i l lages w i th in 0 .5 k i lo-

3 89

Tab le 5 .13

P rox i mi ty t o Wa ter : P ondor i

A l l S i tes a nd V i l lages

N yansannar i

J enncr i

Derar i

Dunes

T ota ls

8 8=67%

6 6=63%

2 =11%

2 28=57%

S ites w i th in 0 .5 km o f p er m . wa ter

7 1=56%

1 =5%

7 2% S i tes w ith in 1 .0 km o f p er m . wa ter

1 6=13%

3 =16%

1 9=15%

1 8=17%

3 =17%

5 9=15% 8 6%

S i tes w i th in 0 .5 km o f v es t ig ia l

6 =5%

1 5=79%

1 5=11%

1 9=18%

3 =75%

1 2=80%

3 =38%

0

5 5=14%

3 =30%

2 6=54%

V i l lages w i th in 0 .5 km o f p er m . wa ter

5 =45%

N

7 9%

V i l lages w i th in p 1 e .r 0m km .w oa f te r

2 =18%

1 =25%

2 =13%

5 =50%

2 =25%

1 2=25% 8 7%

V i l la c res w i thin 0 .5 km o f v est ig ia l

0

0

1 =7%

3 =38%

0 =7%

1 =1%

0

0

0

4 =8%

More d istan t s i tes

3 4=27%

1 3=72%

5 7=14%

2 =20%

6 =13%

More d istan t v i l lages

4 =36%

3 90

metre

o n ly o f aw a ter c hanne l a lready d r ied ( l abe l led ' vest ig ia l ';

t hese

g enera l ly s erve o n ly a s a ct ive wa ter c ourses d ur ing t he r ise o f t he f l oods

b ras

d e c rue ) , a nd s i tes/v i l lages more d istan t f ro m wa ter t han a ny o f t he a bove. V i l lages a re c lear ly l oca ted n ear s ources o f y earlong wa ter : t e mporary v i l lages a re w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre

5 4% o f c on-

o f p er manen t wa ter a nd 7 9% a re

w i th in 1 .0 k i lo metre o f ap er manen t s ource , whereas. 8 % a re w i th in 0 .5 km o f av est ig ia l s ource o n ly .

The s ix v i l lages ( 13% ) more d istan t t han t h is o ver-

r epresen t t he s i tua t ion ; t wo o f t hese v i l lages ( 1 57-2 a nd 1 55-8 ) a nd v ery p ossib ly a t h ird i n ar eg ion n ot v isi ted i n 1 977 a re s easona l v i l lages o ccup ied b y B ozo o n ly a t h igh f l ood . d istance f ro m wa ter .

H ence n o more t han 8 % o f v i l lages a re o f s o me

The Tab le a lso s hows t ha t e ssen t ia l ly t he s a me p a t terns

p reva i l i n t he c ase o f s i tes ( a ll v isib le s i tes a nd t he t wo 'i nv isib le ' s i tes o n t he N yansannar i were i nc luded ). metre

5 7% o f a l l s i tes a re l oca ted w i th in 0 .5 k i lo-

o f p er manen t wa ter a nd 7 2% a re w i th in 1 .0 k i lo metres o f s tand ing

wa ter , whereas 1 4% a re w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre a re more d istan t .

o f v est ig ia l wa ter o n ly a nd 1 4%

( I t i s impossib le t o k now whe ther o r n ot s i tes o f t he l ast

c a tegory were o ccup ied o n ly d ur ing h igh f l oods.)

These d a ta d o n ot a ppear

t o s uppor t t he h ypothesis t ha t a ncien t s i tes w ere a bandoned p ri mar i ly b ecause o f o vera l l d ec l ine i n t he amoun t o f water a va i lab le y earlong .

I f we a re p re-

p ared t o a ccep t , a s i ts ee ms r easonab le t o d o ( v ide s upra , C hap ter 3 ) , t ha t t he d epressions a nd d istr ibutary c hanne ls i n wh ich s ources o f p er manen t wa ter a re n ow f ound w ere i n p lace b efore t he o ccupa t ion o f t he r eg ion f or wh ich we a re l ike ly e ver t o h ave e vidence a nd t ha t t he amoun t o f wa ter w i th in t hose s a me b asins v ar ies a ccord ing t o l oca l c l i ma tolog ica l c ond i t ions, t hen i t may b e t ha t s im i lar c ond i t ions t o t hose o f t oday g overned t he d istr ibut ion o f s i tes i n t he p ast .

H owever , t he b asic a ssu mp t ions made h ere a re v ery c rude ;

we

n eed t o k now h ow much wa ter i s r equired b y as e t t le men t o f g iven p opu la t ion d ur ing t he d r iest mon ths a nd i fm inor d ec lines i n a va i lab le wa ter a f fected c er ta in s ubsistence a ct iv it ies o r e thn ic g roups more s evere ly t han o thers. We a lso n eed t o k now more a bout s easona l p a t terns o f s i te o ccupa t ion a nd i f , i n f act , w e l ls w ere n ot d ug t o t he wa ter tab le . The p a t tern o f s e t t le men t i n t he S urvey R eg ion a s a who le i s c lose ly p ara ll e led b y t ha t o f s i tes a nd v i l lages o f t he P ondor i , v i l lages o f t he N yansannar i , s i tes a nd v i l lages o f t he J enner i , a nd s i tes o ft he Deren. t he N yansannar i a re l oca ted w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre ( f or e xa mp le , s ee 1 59-T11 , T12 a nd T13 ) .

7 9% o f s i tes o n

o f av est ig ia l s trea m o n ly

V i l lages o f t he Derer i a ppear t o

b e l ess t igh t ly d istr ibuted a round p er manen t wa ter ( 38% a re w i th in 0 ,5 k i lometre

o f v est ig ia l c hanne ls o n ly ) , b ut s o me o f t hese may o n ly b e s easona l ly

o ccup ied .

The d unes a ga in p rove t o b e t he ma jor e xcep t ion t o o vera l l p a t terns

o f o ccupa t ion :

7 2% o f s i tes o n d unes a re a t s o me d istance f ro m wa ter ( n ot s o

s urpr ising i f most o ft hese s i tes a re c e metery s i tes ) .

E igh t o f t he t en v i l lages

o n t he d unes a re w i th in 1 .0 k i lo metres o f p er manen t wa ter , b u t t wo a re more t han 0 .5 k i lo metre

e ven f ro m v est ig ia l s trea ms.

P erhaps t he d unes h ave

b een o ccup ied more r ecen t ly b y B a mbara who b rough t w i th t he m f ro m t he Mand ing P la teau a t rad i t ion o f d igg ing we l ls.

C lear ly t hese f i gures a re t oo

c rude t o p er m i t f ur ther s pecula t ion . S i tes h ave a lso b een i nvest iga ted b y t he o rder o f t i me o f a bandon men t i n o rder t o s ee whether t he e ar l ier s i tes n ow l i e f ar ther f ro m p er manen t wa ter

3 91

t han o thers , as i tua t ion wh ich m igh t s uggest t ha t a reas o f s tand ing wa ter h ave s hrunk i n s ize t hrough t i me.

B ecause a l l t hose s i tes were w ith in t he F or ma l

S urvey Area a nd b ecause t he g eo morphology o f t heir s urround ings was s tud ied i n g rea test d e ta i l , i t was p ossib le t o d iv ide t he c a tegory 'w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f p er manen t wa ter ' i n to a s ub-ca tegory o f t hose s i tes w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f b od ies o f wa ter wh ich r e tain wa ter d ur ing t he f i rst t wo mon ths o f t he d ry s eason , b ut wh ich wou ld b e d ry d ur ing t he f o l low ing t hree o r f our mon ths. S i tes d a ted t o P hase I I a re more d istan t f ro m p er manen t wa ter , b ut f our o f t he f i ve s i tes a re l oca ted o n d unes a nd t hree o f t hese f our a re p robab ly n ot s e t t le men t s i tes. p er manen t wa ter :

Phase I V s i tes d isp lay o n ly a w eak t endency t o b e f ar f ro m 1 3% o f t he s i tes a re more d istan t t han 0 .5 k i lo metre

f ro m v est ig ia l w a ter a nd 3 0% a re more d istan t t han 0 .5 k i lo metre manen t wa ter .

e ven

f ro m p er-

H owever , t he f i gure o f 5 7% o f s i tes w i th in 0 ,5 k i lo me tre o f

p er manen t wa ter a nd 8 7% w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f v est ig ia l wa ter a re v ery s im i lar

t o t he f i gures f or c on te mporary v i l lages ( 3 3% a nd 8 7% r espect ive ly ) .

The p ercen tage o f s i tes w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f p er manen t wa ter c l i mbs e ven h igher ( t o 6 3% ) when P hase I V-V s i tes a re c ons idered . On ly t he p a t tern o f s i tes a bandoned d uring P hase V s hows t races o f t he e xp ected t endency : o n ly t wo o f t he s even s i tes a re w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f s tand ing wa ter , f our o f t he s even a re w i th in 1 .0 k i lo me tre o f p er manen t water a nd o n ly o ne s i te i s more d istan t t han 0 .5 k i lo me tre e ven o f v est ig ia l s trea ms. I nco mp le te a s t he d a ta a re , i tn ever the less s ee ms r easonab le t o s uspect t ha t t he u n ifor m ity o f p a t terns o f d istance o f v i l lages a nd s i tes f ro m s tand ing wa ter imp lies t ha t p rox im i ty t o wa ter was a f actor more impor tan t t o t he f ound ing o f s i tes t han t o t he ir a bandon men t ( w i th t he p ossib le e xcep t ion o f P hase V ) .

We m igh t l ook t o at i me i n t he p ast when c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions mos t c losely

a pproached t he s ub-ar id c ond i t ions p reva i ling t oday t o s uggest a l ike ly t i me o fo ccupa t ion .

I n C hap ter 3 , t he e vidence was p resen ted f or t he b el ief t ha t

t he p er iod f ro m c . 5 00 B . C . t o A . D . 7 00 ( and p ar t icu lar ly t he m id-f irst c ent ury B . C . t o t he m id-f if th c en tury A . D .) was a s a r id o r more a r id t han t oday . Th is f i ts q ui te n ice ly w i th t he f i rst d a te f or J ennejeno.

Th is i s n ot n eces-

s ar i ly t o imp ly t ha t a l l s i tes w ere f ounded a t t he s a me t i me , b ut t he a gree men t o f t he e vidence i s e ncouraging .

E vidence f ro m t he N iger l akes i nd ica tes t ha t

c ond i t ions w ere h um id a nd l akes h igh f ro m c . A . D . 7 00 t o a t l east 1 000 a nd , o n a na logy w i th S enega mb ian t rends , p robab ly t o t he t h ir teen thfour teen th c ent ur ies ( N icholson 1 976: 7 5, 8 3-87 ). c an t ly more h um id t han a bandoned .

I n o ther w ords , c ond i t ions were s ign i f i-

a t p resen t t hroughout P hase I V , when most s i tes were

C ond i t ions t hen d ec l ined s o mewha tu n t i l a nother m inor h um id

p hase f ro m c . A . D . 1 450 o r 1 500 u n t i l p erhaps 1 600 , when c ond i t ions b egan t he ir d ec line t o t he s ub-ar id p resen t .

These c li ma t ic imp l ica t ions w i l l b e g one

i n to i n g rea ter d eta i l i n t he n ex t c hap ter , b ut f or t he mo men t i t wou ld a ppear u n like ly t ha t t he s i mp le e xp lana t ion o f d im inut ion o f r eserves o f s tand ing water e xp la ins e i ther t he g enera l d ec l ine i n n u mbers o f s et t le men ts i n t he u pper I nl end N iger De l ta o r t he a pparen t s h if ts i n t he d istr ibut ion o f t hose s et t le men ts o ver d if feren t l andfor ms. Wa terways.

•

A s pecia l s tudy o f t he s ubstan t ia l c hanne ls o f t he S urvey Reg ion

p rov ides i n terest ing r esu lts ( see Map 5 .10 ) .

3 92

S even c hanne ls were i nvest iga ted :

MAP 5 .10 Waterways

1

B an i

R iver

2

Hu te

5

S oa lobo

3

S ouman ban i

6

N layo

4A

Gom i togo

7

K onguene -F inak ie

4 B u ppe r Gom i togo

Mar igo t

3 93

N 1anga

1 ) t he B an i ( f ro m S oa la t o S anouna , t he l ow-wa ter p or t o f J enne , c . 1 0 k i lome tres ) , 2 ) t he H u te ( a lso k nown a s t he Mar igot o f S anouna ; f ro m t he Ban i t o t he w est o f K an iana ( 1 59-E-6 ) , C . 8k i lo metres ), 3 ) t he S ou man-Ban i ( i nc lud ing t he C ha lugol-Hute ) , f ro m 1 59-E-10 t o t he n or thern e dge o f t he S urvey Reg ion , c . 3 2 k i lo metres ) , 4A ) t he Mar igot o f G om i togo ( a lso k nown a s t he Mar igot o f F oko lore o r S oa ;

w est o f K an iana t o e ast o f t he r ed Dune , C . 2 1

k i lo me tres ) , 4B ) u pper Mar igot o f G om i togo ( west o f K an iana t o t he j unct ion w i th t he Maya Manga . c . 6 .5 k i lo metres ) , 5 ) S oa lobo ( par t o f t he S ine-Ouo lo ; e ast o f t he r ed D une t o t he s outh-western e dge o f t he S urvey R eg ion , c . 1 2 k i lo metres ) , 6 ) Mayo Manga ( f ro m t he Mar igot o f G om i togo t o t he S ou manB an i , c . 2 6 k i lo metres ) , a nd 7 )t he K onguene-F inak ie ( Mar igot o f G om i togo t o t he n or thern e dge o f t he S urvey R eg ion . c . 3 5 k i lo metres ).

The a rea o f t he

C lay a nd S and C hanne ls a d join ing t hese wa terways was c a lcu la ted .

Tab le 5 .14

p resen ts t he n u mbers o f s i tes a nd v i llages , s izes o f t hose s et t le men ts, a nd t he n u mbers o f e ach p er s quare-k i lo metre. The s ing le a ssu mp t ion was made t ha t i ft he h ydro logy was more a ct ive i n t he p ast . t here may b e as ign if ican t d if ference i n t he s ize a nd n u mbers o f a nc ien t s i tes n ear t hese wa terways when c o mpared t o modern s et t le men ts. A r educt ion i n n u mbers may mean t ha t c hanne ls n o l onger h o ld s uff icien t wa ter t o s us ta in a n e qu iva len t p opu la t ion d ur ing t he d ry s eason , o r t ha t a t o ne t i me t hese wa terways c ould h ave b een u sed a s r ou teways f or b oa t t ranspor t ( i n wh ich c ase t he l arger s et t le men ts may h ave b een p or ts t app ing a nd s erv ic ing t he w ea lthy a gr icu ltura l h in ter land ) , o r b oth .

The c r i t ica l t i me f or wa ter t rans-

p or t wou ld p robab ly h ave b een t he e ar ly d ry s eason , when t he f l oods h ad d ec l ined , b ut w hen t he r ecen t ly-harvested c erea ls o f t he h in ter land h ad t o b e t aken t o c en tra l c ol lect ing p o in ts f or s h ip men t t o more-d istan t markets .

T oday

t he d istr ibutar ies w i th in t he S urvey Reg ion c ou ld n ot f unct ion f or wa ter t ransp or t a nd t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he r ice h arvest must b e b rough t i n to J enne b y h orse o r d onkey c ar t . F our o f t he s even wa terways d isp lay h igher t han a verage n u mbers a nd/or s izes o f s i tes a s c o mpared t o modern v i l lages:

t he H u te , t he u pper Mar igot

o f G om i togo ( 4B ) , t he S ou man-Ban i , a nd t he Mayo Manga .

The Ban i R iver

s uppor ts n ei ther p er manen t v i llages ( even S anouna i s s easona l ), n or t races o f p ast o ccupa t ion ( p ossib ly b ecause t e ll o ccupa t ion n ever c ould b e e stab l ished i n t he v ery d eep l ow-wa ter c hanne ls o r b ecause r ecen t i ncision h as e rased e v idence o f o ccupa t ion ) .

A l though t he S oa lobo was n ot p referred i n t he p ast ,

t he t hree modern v i l lages t here n ow a re q ui te l arge.

I nhab i tan ts o f t hese v i l-

l ages c an a va i l t he mse lves o f t he p er manen t s tand ing wa ter o f t he S oa lobo a nd c an f i sh t here a nd g row r ice i n t he r ich P ondor i s o i ls.

( Th is may b e ac aut ion

t ha t p ast o ccupa t ion i n h igh d ensi ty a nd i n l arger-than-average s et t le men ts n eed n ot a lways h ave b een a p roduct o f t he t ranspor t c apab i l i t ies o f c er ta in wa terways , r a ther t han s i mp ly a f unct ion o f a va i lab i l i ty o f s tand ing wa ter f or d r ink ing a nd f i sh ing , a l though , a s w i ll b e s een i n C hap ter 6 , t he l arge s ize o f t hese v i l lages i s p robab ly a n a r tefact o f t he n ine teen th c en tury .)

The K onguene-

F inak ie i s a n u nusua l c ase b ut o ne p robab ly c lose ly r e la ted t o t he S oa lobo ( see Map 3 .3 ) .

The n or thern t woth irds ( t he K onguene a nd t he F inak ie n arrow ly

d ef ined ) h as v ery l i t t le C lay o r S and Channel a nd v ery f ew a ncien t o r modern s e t t le men ts ( a l though p ar ts o f t he p r inc ipa l b ed h old wa ter y ear-round ) .

The

u pper p ar t s uppor ted many r a ther sma l l a ncien t v i l lages a nd n ow s uppor ts

3 94

Tab le 5 .1 4

Occupa t ion o f Wa terway Channe ls T ota l a rea o f a d jacent c lay o r

S i tes ( v i l lages )

s and c hanne l ( l un 2 )

N u mbers

0 (0 )

N u mber/k m 2 0 (0 )

1 .

Bani R iver

6 .6

2 .

H ute

8 .2

3 7( 5 )

1 .3 8(0 . 5 4 )

4 .6 (0 . 6 )

3 .

S ou man-Bani

2 7 . 3

3 3(5 )

1 .5 (1 . 4 5 )

1 .2 (0 . 2 )

4 a .

Marigot o f Go mi togo

1 5 . 4

4 3(1)

O .8 3(1 . 6 4 )

2 .8(0 . 0 6)

4 b .

u pper Mar igo t o f 2 .1

1 9(1)

O .9 2(1 .6 4 )

9 .0(0.4 )

G o mi togo

0 (0 ) h a .

Mean s ize

5 .

S oa lobo

1 8 . 5

5 (3)

O .5 7(4 . 6 4 )

O .2 (0 . 1 6)

6 .

Mayo Manga

3 1 . 7

4 8(3)

O .9 8(1 . 2 1)

1 .6(0 .1)

7 .

K onguene-Finak ie

1 9 . 0

3 6(3 )

O .3 9(1 . 9 9)

1 .8(0 .16)

Tota l Wa terways S urvey R eg ion

1 28 . 8

2 02(20 )

O .9 3(1 . 7 )

1 .6(0 .16)

1 083 . 3

4 04 (48)

O .9 5 (1 . 9 8)

0 .3 8(0 . 0 4 )

3 95

o ccupa t ion wh ich i s a verage i n s ize a nd d ens i ty .

These d a ta a re c lear ly t oo

c rude t o a l low a r eso lut ion o f t he p rob le m o f i den t if ica t ion o f waterways u sed a s p r inc ipa l r outes. S i te C luster ing .

The p rob le m e ncoun tered when a t te mp t ing t o d eve lop a

u n iversa l ly a pp l icab le d ef in it ion o f ac luster o f s i tes was e xp la ined a bove. I n most c ases c lusters a re g roups o f s i tes g enera l ly w i th in 0 .5 k i lo metre o f o ne a nother .

H owever , b y t he s i mp le a pp l ica t ion o f t h is c r i ter ion t here w ould

b e s evera l v ery l ong c ha ins o f s i tes ( e .g ., o ne o n t he Mayo Manga a t a pprox ima te ly 1 4° N or th l a t itude , wh ich w ou ld b e l onger t han t en k i lo metres ) .

These

c on t inuous c ha ins w ere d iv ided a ccord ing t o t he o bserva t ion t ha t g enera l ly t here a re o ne o r more s i tes a t s o me d istance g rea ter t han 0 .5 k i lo metre f ro m o ne a nother , w i th sma l ler s i tes a round e ach . The l arger s i tes w ere a rb i trar i ly c hosen a s t he c en tres o f t he c lusters. The d a ta o n s i te c luster ing a re p resen ted i n ar ef ined s ta te i n Tab les 5 .15 a nd 5 .16.

C lusters a re d iv ided i n to s ix c a tegor ies r epresen t ing a n a r i th met ic

p rogression o f t he n u mbers o f s i tes c on ta ined i n e ach c luster : ( 2 + 2 =4 , i .e ., 3 a nd_ 4 _ ) ; ( 11 + 5 = 1 6 ) .

( 4 +3=7 , i .e ., 5 , 6 , a nd_ 7 _ ) ;

( _ 1 ) ;

( 1 + 1 =. 2 _ ) ;

( 7 +4 = 1 1 ) ;

a nd

The n u mber o f c lusters i n e ach o f t hese s ix d iv isions i s t hen

p resen ted b y g eograph ica l d iv ision a nd b y s oi l/ land for m c a tegory . O f t he 4 06 s i tes i n t he S urvey Reg ion , 9 6 ( or 2 3% ) a re i sola ted o r s ing le s i tes , 6 2 ( 1 5% ) a re p a ired s i tes, a nd t he r e ma in ing 6 2% o ccur i n 4 7 l arger c lusters o f t hree o r more s i tes e ach .

T hree o f t hese c lusters c on ta in a s many a s 1 2-16 s i tes.

Th is c o mpares t o t he d istr ibut ion o f c on te mporary s et t le men ts ( n =4 8 ) i n wh ich 4 2 ( or 8 7% ) a re i so la ted a nd o n ly s ix ( 13% ) a re p a ired v i l lages ( i .e ., t here a re t hree c ases where modern v i l lages a re c o mposed o f t wo a d jacen t s e t t lemen ts ) . Two s ets o f o bserva t ions p rovide a b as is f or c o mpar ison .

The n u mber o f

s i tes f ound w i th in c lusters, e xpressed a s ap ercen tage o f a l l s i tes w i th in t ha t c a tegory ( and g iven b e low i n t he f or m ' x% c lustered ' ) , s how t o wha t e x ten t i nhab i tan ts p referred t o l i ve i n i sola ted s e t t le men ts o r i n s et t le men ts w i th o ther mounds n earby .

S econd ly , t he n u mber o f c lusters c o mposed o f f i ve o r

more s i tes , e xpressed a s ap ercen tage o f a l l c lusters f or a g iven g eograph ica l d iv is ion o r l and for m c a tegory , p rov ides a c rude e st i ma te o f t he s trength o f t he t endency t owards mu lt i-si te c luster ing w i th in t ha t c a tegory . o bserva t ion i s e xpressed b e low i n t he f or m

Th is s econd

x% e labora ted c lusters '

There i s c onsiderab le u n ifor m i ty i n t hese e xpressions o f c luster ing b e tween g eograph ica l c a tegor ies.

Th is s uggests t ha t , i n g enera l, t he s a me p r inc ip les

g overned t he t endency t o c luster .

The e xcep t ions a re a s l igh t ly h igher t en-

d ency t o c luster ( 89% c lustered , c o mpared t o 7 6% c lustered i n t he S urvey R eg ion a s a who le ) i n t he c ase o f t he P ondor i a nd a l ower t endency i n t he Dune r eg ions ( 40% c lustered , c o mpared t o 7 6% ) . i n t he c ase o f

Dunes a gain p rov ide a n e xcep t ion

e labora ted ' c lusters ( i .e ., t hose w i th g rea ter t han 5 s i tes ) ;

Dune r eg ions h ave n o ' e labora ted ' c lusters a t a l l , c o mpared t o 2 4% f or t he S urvey R eg ion a s a who le . When t he e xpression o f c luster ing i s c o mpared w i th in s oi l/ land for m c a teg or ies , t here i s l ess u n ifor m i ty .

Those c a tegor ies w ith a t endency t owards

h igh c luster ing a re M idd le P la in-Loa m ( 95% c lustered , c o mpared t o 7 6%

3 96

TABLE Numbers

of

Sites

5 . 15

within

Cluster

C 'n I

LA

1 (1

1

I

I , - 4

0

r e \ C • 1

0-1 — _

( N

o '

1

I I \

I-

I

V I

I

I

‚0

- 0 3 0 c,1 c 1. 1 •— \ -0

CV 1 . "

C ,1

I

/

Il

l

I I

-7

1

I I

I

I I

I

—

I

I

I

I

1 1

1

1

1

I l

l

II

C • J

-

1 C . " 1

I I

LA

1 . • ••

I

I I

I I

I I \

c . " 1

1 1

1

c 0

1

( v1 I I

I I

I

1

I

-

1 1

1

1

1

I

1 4 ' 1

1

1

1

1

1

LA •

—7 II

o c C_ c ( 5 . 1 . „ "

C * 1

I

CV' N

(N

I

I I

I1

I-

I

I

C \ J

L c \

1 C • 1

I -

I

I I

I

c ‘ s i

01

M

I I

C LA C,1

1

I

C • L . ( r i

▪

D l

• • • • • •

( /2

L N J

l ' s s .

• 0

0

I

a )

• — • C J I

4 )

0

-0

0

I

C ' f ` t

C s s l

'C )

• pl ..

C

3 "

I ",

• L / I

C J 1 (N 4 -

1 " -

N yans i annari

N umbers o f S ites w ith in C lusters

1

3 97

• •

V ) L N J

1

1

I

C C N 1 t " ,

a ) D l • •

( . 0 ) c ‘ 1

0,1 ( N 1

e s 1

Regiona l t ota ls

z

• , i . 5)

a )

C Z

r 4

C . )

.

c z rz c z oo , i 1 + c s )

C • 1

, I

a ) to

r i 2

• I . 1

, i

C l ) ; 4 Q )

+a

a • ) c d . ) c . ) +3 z • . , 4 U D C l )

.

C l )

r n

3

. 4 . , 4 • V ) i l

Q

C l ) I n

» E

. 5 ( 7 )

m e w

1 4

0 0

Heavy l evee C . ) •

• f d

• ” 4

r I 7 1, 1 1

c n3 a )

C n

C n

a ) z = r n = 1 _ a ) • o z c . ) c . ) 6 •, 1

6, i

C f )

CA

Ce

r' i

, , C , )

•

U. . .

CD

CI

C S D

a ) C l )

3

a ) l e c c . )

•

6, 1

C f )

02

1 1

r i

•r 'l

•

0

9 2% c lus tered

L ight l evee

t n 4

4

6 2% c lustered

Middle p lain-sand

8 0% c lustered 0 % c lus tered

4 C L )

6 8% c lustered

i ddle p lain-loa m

0 % c lus tered

0 % c lus tered

Lo w p lain

S and c hannel

23

C I D

Q . ) 4 1 C / D

C lay c hannel

C I ) C l ) 1 ;0 4

C / D

( 20c : ) 1 • .5 )

L

Regiona l d ivisions

L

L

C Y 3

0 0 C ' e

C Y Z 1 4

L t Z C l

S t 0

F 4 C L )

0

C I )

C C

r I

Q . ) C I )

a ) r i t A ) • c i D

4 1

C Z

( 1 . ) 4 1 C / 2

0 L C C

r 4 c d a )

4 0% c lustered

C D

c i ) 4

6 6% c lustered

4 C D

C l ) C I )

H eavy l evee

3 08 i n c lusters

4 06 s i tes

R eg iona l t o ta ls

( 1 )

C l ) CZ

C )

•

L igh t l evee

i n c lusters

L C D r I

6 3% c lustered

Midd le p la in-sand

R eg iona l d iv is ions

8 0% c lus tered

T ab le 5 .16 c ont inued

C lay c hanne l

8 7 i n c lus ters

S and c hanne l

9 6 i n c lusters

Midd le p la inloam

8 0% c lus tered

9 5% c lustered

L ow p la in

i n t he S urvey R eg ion a s a whole ) a nd C lay C hanne l , w i th a h igh n u mber o f e labora ted ' c lusters ( 4 1% o f e laborated c lusters, c o mpared t o 2 4% i n t he S urvey Reg ion a s a whole ).

The s oi l/ landfor m c a tegory w i th a l ow e xpress ion

o f c luster ing i s L igh t L evee ( 50% c lustered , c o mpared t o 7 6% i n t he S urvey Reg ion ) ; t h is i s c o mp le men ted i n t he c ase o f t he L igh t L evee b y a n o bservat i on o f 0% e labora ted ' c lusters, c o mpared t o 2 4% i n t he who le S urvey Reg ion . A l though t here a ppears t o b e n o s trong t endency t owards c luster ing i n a ny l andfor m o r g eograph ica l c a tegory a s a whole ( w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he MP-Loam ) , s evera l s trong t rends a ppear a t t he l eve l o f d if feren t l andfor ms w i th in e ach r eg iona l d iv ision : H igh :

P ondor i ( 89% c lustered ) ( 35% e labora ted )

— M idd le P la in-Loa m a t 1 00% c lus tered

Derar i ( 78% c lustered )

— S and C hanne l a t 9 6% c lustered — M idd le P la in- L oa m a t 1 00% c lustered

— C lay C hanne l a t 5 6% e labora ted

— S and C hanne l a t 7 5% e labora ted

( 2 6% e labora ted )

— L ow P la in a t 1 00% e labora ted — C lay C hanne l a t 1 00% e labora ted C lay C hanne l ( 80% c lustered ) S and C hanne l ( 80% c lus tered )

— P ondor i a t 9 6% c lustered — Derar i a t 9 6% c lustered

M idd le P la in-Sand ( 77% c lust ered ) L ow :

— P ondor i a t 9 2% c lustered

P ondor i ( 89% c lustered ) ( 3 5% e laborated )

— L ow P la in a t 4 0% c lustered — S and C hanne l a t 1 3% e labora ted — L ow P la in a t 0 % e labora ted

J enner i ( 12% e labora ted )

— L ow P la in a t 0 % e labora ted — M idd le P la in-Sand a t 0 % e labora ted

M idd le P la in-Loa m ( 9 5% c lus tered )

— Nyansann .ar i a t 0% c lustered — J enner i a t 0 % c lustered

L ow P la in ( 63% c lus tered )

— P ondor i a t 4 0% c lustered

T hese o bserva t ions o f t he c luster ing p heno menon l ead t o t he f o l low ing g enera l s ta te men ts.

C luster ing i n p r incip le i ncreases w i th b a thy metr ic d ep th ,

w i th t he t hree d eepest o ccup ied s oi ls ( Clay C hanne l , S and C hanne l, a nd M idd le P la in-Loa m ) d isp lay ing t he g reates t n u mber o f s i tes f ound w i th in c lus ters c o mpared t o a l l s i tes. These d eep f l oodp la in s o i ls a lso d isp lay t he g rea test t endency t owards

e labora ted ' c lusters c on ta in ing f i ve o r more s i tes e ach .

D isp lay ing a s trong t rend t owards i sola t ion a re l ands p er manen t ly a bove wa ter , v iz ., L igh t L evee , r ed Dune , y e l low Dune , a nd H eavy L evee .

Once a ga in ,

o ccupa t ion o f h igh land a reas i n t he p ast p roceeded u nder d if feren t , a nd o f ten q ui te modern r a tes. The s ing le c luster o f t we lve s i tes o n H eavy L evee s oi l i s l oca ted w i th in a s p lay c hannel ( bras d e c rue ) f eed ing f l oodwaters t o t he P ond or i b asin f ro m t he B an i R iver a nd i s o n t he f ron t ier b etween t he Nyansannar i a nd t he P ondor i — a nd s o i s a nu nderstandab le a no ma ly .

However , i t may n ot

b e ac ase s i mp ly o f c orre la t ing c lusters c o mposed o f many s i tes w i th t he l owest r eg ion o rw i th t he f irst a bandoned p ar ts o f t he S urvey R eg ion . 4 00

F our o f t he

n ine teen c lusters ( or 2 1% ) c on ta in ing f i ve o r more s i tes a re l oca ted w i th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne .

Th is a rea b oasts s o me o f t he h ighest s oi ls o f t he

P ondor i , where more o f t he most-recen t ly a bandoned s i tes may b e f ound . Once a ga in t he u nusua l c ircu mstances o f t he J enne a rea a re man i fested . I ti s n ot im med ia te ly o bvious f ro m t he s urface r e ma ins whether t he d iff eren t s i tes o f e ach c luster r epresen t e thn ic d if ferences ( as i n s o me o f t he p a ired v i l lages o f t he I n land N iger De lta t oday , e .g ., S ou man-Ba mbara a nd S ou man-Bozo) , f unct iona l d i f ferences ( as S zu mowsk i [ 1954:107 ] b el ieved t o b e t he c ase a t t he mounds c o mpr ising t he s i tes o f F ato ma , K am i a nd Nan taka n ear Mop t i ) , o r s pa t ia l s h if ts t hrough t i me o f t he s a me s et t le men t .

P erhaps a s t he

s e t t le men t g rew sma l ler , t he p er iphery o f t he mound was b roken u p b y masons c o l lect ing wa ll ing mud , o r p erhaps t he sma l l s i tes r epresen t l ow-wa ter o ccup a t ion f or f am i lies who a nnua l ly f l ed t o t he ( h igher ) ma jor s i te a t t he r ise o f t he f l oods.

I n o rder t o b eg in t o t est whether c lusters r epresen t c hronolog ica l

p a t terns , we f or ma l ly r ecorded more t han o ne s i te w i th in e ach o f f our c lusters n ear J enne .

I n c luster 2 91-E-5, s i tes 5B a nd 5 C were a bandoned d ur ing Phase

I V , p robab ly m idway t hrough , a nd s i te 5A was a bandoned p erhaps s l igh t ly l a ter , b ut s t i ll we l l w i th in Phase I V .

I fJ ennejeno i s i nc luded i n c luster 1 59-E-11

( as i tw ou ld b e i n t he w ork ing d ef in it ion ) , s i te 1 1D was a bandoned w i th in Phase I I , s i te 1C a nd J ennejeno w i th in t he l a t ter h a lf o f P hase I V a nd s i te 1 1H w i th in P hase V .

I n c luster 1 59-E-12 , b oth s i tes 1 2-B a nd 1 2-C were d eser ted

d ur ing t he l at ter h a lf o f P hase I V .

S ites 1 4-A a nd 1 4-C o f c luster 1 59-E-14

were b oth a bandoned d ur ing P hase V .

Thus o n ly o ne o f t he f our c lusters

a ppears t o s uppor t t he h ypothesis o f s equen t ia l d eve lop men t . I n o rder t o e scape t he p ossib le a no ma lous e f fect o f p rox im i ty t o J enne , we may v iew d a tes o f o ther c lusters.

A ll t hree s i tes w i th in 1 55-T2-A were d e-

s er ted d ur ing P hase I I ( but t hese were p robab ly a s pecia l c lass o f s i te ). S i tes 2 93-23-A a nd 2 3-B w ere b oth d eser ted d ur ing m idla te Phase I V .

S i tes

2 93-2-B a nd 2 -D were b oth a bandoned a f ter P hase I V , b ut b efore P hase V . S i te 2 91-11-B was a bandoned i n m id-Phase I V a bandoned af ter P hase I V , b u t b efore Phase V .

b u t 2 91-11-A was l i kew ise And s i tes 3 52- L i n-2 , 3 , a nd

4 were a bandoned w i th in t he f i rst h a lf o f Phase I V .

Thus o n ly o ne o f f our

c lusters w ith in f our k i lo me tres o f J enne a nd o ne o f t he f i ve c lusters b eyond ( f our o f wh ich were s e lected b y r ando m p rocess ) s uppor t t he h ypothesis o f s equen t ia l a bandon men ts.

I ti s t rue t ha t , e ven i ft he t echn ique o f d a t ing s i tes

was p rec ise t o t he n earest c en tury o r b et ter a nd s i tes w ere s hown t o h ave b een a bandoned a t d i f feren t t i mes , w e w ould s t i l l n ot k now whether o r n ot t hey were o ccup ied s i mu l taneously .

I n s evera l c ases t he g rea t a ccu mu la t ion o f

c u ltura l d ebr is a rgues f or s o me p er iod o f o ver lapp ing o ccupa t ion . S et t le men t S ize.

Another a dvan tage o f t he s tereoscop ic a er ia l p hotographs

was t ha t t he a rea o f s i tes c ou ld b e e st i ma ted w i th r easonab le a ccuracy .

The

l ongest a x is o f e ach s i te a nd t he a x is p erpend icu lar t o t h is were measured t o t he n earest 0 .5 m m u sing a magn if ied c a l ibra ted s ca le u nder a magn ifying s tereoscope .

A t an om ina l s ca le o f 1 :50 ,000 , t h is method a l lowed a ccuracy

t o w i th in 2 5 metres.

S i tes were n or ma l ly e l lipses, a nd a reas f or t he 4 04

v is ib le s i tes a nd f or 4 8 c on te mporary s et t le men ts i n t he S urvey R eg ion were c a lcu la ted b y u sing t he f or mu la f or t he a rea o f a n e l l ipse.

Areas c a lcu la ted

i n s quare metres were t hen c onver ted f or d isp lay t o a res ( 100 m 2)o r h ectares

4 01

1 0 ,000 m 2

c . 2 .5 a cres ) .

F or e xa mp le , J ennejeno measures 1 5-by-11

m i l li metres o n t he a er ia l p hotographs, wh ich y ie lds a n a rea o f 3 23 ,977 s quare me tres o r 3 2 .4 h a .

I nstru men t s urvey o f t he mound y ielded a n a rea o f 3 30 ,

8 10 s quare metres o r 3 3.1 h a , ar espectab le a gree men t f or s o p r im i t ive a method o f e st i ma t ion . I n t h is me thod o f e st i ma t ing s i te a reas w e a ssu me a c onstan t n om ina l s ca le o n e ach a er ia l p hotograph a nd we a ssu me t ha t t he d if ference i n s ca le e ncount ered a s o ne moves f ro m t he n ad ir o f t he p hotograph w i l l n ot b ad ly a f fect t he r esul ts .

B u t b ecause o f t hese a nd o ther p oten t ia l e rrors i n o bserva t ion , a nd

i n o rder t o more e f f icien t ly d isp lay t he r ange o f s i te s izes, t he r ange was d iv ided i n to t wen ty-two f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses o f a r i th met ic ( add i t ive ) p rogression ( Tab le 5 .17 ) .

The i n terva l o f i ncre men t b y wh ich t he r ange o f

e ach c lass i ncreases i s o b ta ined b y a dd ing a c onstan t , 5 00 s quare metres, t o t he c u mu la t ive p rogression .

The r ange i n terva l o f t he f i rst c lass i s 5 00

s quare metres, o r 3 50 t o 8 50 s quare metres ;

t he s econd i ncreases b y 5 00 t o

1 000 s quare me tres , o r 8 51 t o 1 850 s quare metres; t he t h ird b y 1 500 t o 1 851 t o 3 350 s quare metres , a nd s o f or th . The l ower e nd o f t he f i rst c lass ( 3 50 s quare me tres ) was a rb i trar i ly c hosen a s av a lue s uf f icien t t o i nc lude s i tes sma l ler t han t he l owest p ossib le measure men t ( i .e ., 2 5 m — b y — 2 5 m = 4 91 m 2) , a nd y e t l arge e nough s t i l l t o b e s een o n t he a er ia l p ho tograph . A s i te would h ave t o b e 1 0 .6 me tres-by-10 .6 metres t o f a l l u nder t he r ange , a nd s o sma l l as i te w ou ld a l most c er tain ly n ot b e r ecogn ized u nder t he s teroscopes. T he a rgu men t was p resen ted a bove t ha t a l l s i tes o n t he f l oodp lain a re l arge e nough ( and h ave s uf f ic ien t r e lief ) t o b e s een o n t he a er ia l p hotographs. C lasses 1 -19 i ncrease a ccord ing t o t h is p rogression ; were a rb i trar i ly g iven t he v a lues > 10 .0 h a , < 20 .0 h a ;

c lasses 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2

2 0 .0 h a , < 30 .0 h a ;

a nd > 30 .0 h a r espect ive ly The n u mbers o f s i tes w i th in e ach o f t he t wen tytwo f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses a re a rranged b y g eograph ica l r eg ion a nd s oi l/ landfor m c a tegor ies i n Tab le 5 .18 ;

Tab le 5 .19 l i sts c o mparab le d a ta f or modern s et t le men ts .

Wi th in

many o f t hese r eg ion a nd s oi l c a tegor ies t he mean s ur face a rea a nd s tandard d evia t ion ( u s ing t he f or mula f or s tandard d ev ia t ion o f aS a mp le ( S )

b ecause

t he S urvey Reg ion i s p ar t o f t he l arger u pper I n land N iger De lta ) a re o b ta ined b y c onsider ing t he m idpoin t o f t he f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses a s t he v ar ia te f or e ach c lass ( Tho mas 1 976: 6 5-66, 7 6-81 ) .

B ecause c lasses 2 0-22 w ere

n ot o b ta ined b y c u mu la t ive a dd i t ive p rogression t hese w ere n ot i ncluded w hen d er iving mean a nd s a mp le s tandard d ev ia t ion ; t heir n u mbers a re i nd ica ted a s ap ercen tage o f a l l s i tes w i th in e ach c lass.

S ince we a re i n terested b oth i n

t he c en tra l t endency , o r mean o f s i te s izes , a nd i n t he d egree o f v ar ia t ion f ro m t h is mean , t he S a mp le s tandard d evia t ions h ave b een c onver ted t o ac oef f icien t o fv ar ia t ion ( CV = 1 00 x ) i n o rder t ha t w e may c o mpare t hese s u m mary x s ta t ist ics f ro m a l l c a tegor ies ( s tandard d ev ia t ions c an o n ly b e c o mpared i ft he means a re n ear ly i den t ica l ) .

Tho mas ( 1976: 6 6 ) d iscusses t he d egree o f i n-

a ccuracy e xper ienced b y u sing t he m idpoin ts o f f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses r a ther t han e ach i nd iv idua l d a tu m ( i .e ., a rea o f e ach s ite ) when c a lcu la t ing mean a nd c oef f ic ien t o f v ar ia t ion ;

a ccep tab le i naccuracies were o b ta ined i n

at est o f t he t wo methods w i th t he g rand t ota ls o f v i l lages X = 1 .98 h a , C . V .

4 02

T ab le 5 .17

D isp lay o f S i te S izes :

R ange

F requency D is tr ibut ion C lasses

Midpoint ( m2)

1 .

3 .5-8 .5 a res

6 00

2 .

8 .5-18 .5 a res

1 350

( I ncre men t ) ( m2) + 500 + 1000

3 .

1 8 .5-33 .5 a res

2 600

+ 1500

4 .

3 3 .5-53 .5 a res

4 350

+ 2000

g .

5 3 .5-78 .5 a res

6 600

+ 2500

6 .

7 8 .5-108 .5 a res

9 350

+ 3000

1 2600

+ 3500

7 .

1 08 .5-1 .44

8 .

1 .44-1 .84 h a .

1 6350

+ 4000

9 .

1 .84-2 .29 h a .

2 0600

+ 4500

1 0 .

2 .29-2 .79 h a .

2 5350

+ 5000

1 1 .

2 .79-3 .34 h a .

3 0600

+ 5500

1 2 .

3 .34-3.94 h a .

3 6350

+ 6000

1 3 .

3 .94-4 .59 h a .

4 2600

+ 6500

1 4 .

4 .59-5 .29 h a .

4 9350

+ 7000

1 5 .

5 .29-6 .04 h a .

5 6600

+ 7500

1 6 .

6 .04-6 .84 h a .

6 4350

+ 8000

1 7 .

6 .84-7 .69 h a .

7 2600

+ 8500

1 8 .

7 .69-8 .59 h a .

8 1350

+ 9000

1 9 .

8 .59-10 .00 h a .

9 0600

+ 95000

2 0 .

Grea ter t han 1 0 .0 a nd l ess t han 2 0 .0 h a .

2 1 .

Grea ter t han 2 0 .0 a nd l ess t han 3 0 .0 h a .

2 2 .

Grea ter t han 3 0 .0 h a .

4 03

TABLE Size

5 .18

of

S ites

,

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. . .

r . . N , J;

• . . 4

. . 1

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e . . ;

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4

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. 0

TABLE 5 .19

S ize

of Villages

"4 " 1 " 1 " 4 .• .• ,• . .

• • • . .

" 4 .•

^ 1

" 4

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r s 4

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OD

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0 ,4

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ri

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ri

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D unes

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" 1 . . CO

I . 4 . . . . r . . 4 rn r4 ,,

"I

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N yansannati

L ow P lain

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+ . -, I. , 1 "

el

1 0:2 . F requency d istribution c lass:Number

C lasses

< 10ha:

C s i I N

I N "4 ,4

0 44

r / M

, o , . . C 0 M E . a

• -. 1

=8 0% f or f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses v ersus 3 Z=1 .93 h a , C . V . =8 2% ) a nd a l l s i tes o n M idd le P la in-Loa m s oi ls ( X =0 .55 , C . V . =1 24% v ersus X= 0 .63 , C . V . =1 35% ).

I n b oth t ests t he means f a l l w i th in t he s a me t h ird o f o ne f re-

q uency d istr ibut ion c lass a nd t he c oef f ic ien ts o f v ar ia t ion a re s uff ic ien t ly c lose f or p resen t p urposes. Anc ien t s i tes d isp lay a sma l ler mean s ize t han modern v i l lages ( 0 .95 h a , c o mpared t o 1 .98 h a ) . The c oeff icien t o f v ar ia t ion o f a ncien t s i tes i s g rea ter t han d oub le t ha t o f modern v i llages ( 167% v ersus 8 0% ) , mean ing t ha t t he s i tes v ar ied more c onsisten t ly t han d o v i l lages. I n a dd i t ion t o b eing o n t he whole l arger , more o f t he t ota l n u mber o f modern s e t t le men ts a re l arger t han t en h ectares i n a rea ( n =4 o r 8 .3% v ersus n = 5o r 1 .2% o f s i tes ) . H owever , many l arge s e t t le men ts o ccup ied t oday were l ong o ccup ied i n t he p ast . These v ery l arge s et t le men ts a re c oncen tra ted i n t he C lay C hanne l p ar ts o f t he P ondor i ( two o f f our modern s et t le men ts a nd f i ve o f f i ve v ery l arge a ncien t s i tes ) .

On

t he o ther h and , 1 06 o f t he 4 04 a nc ien t s i tes ( or 2 6 . 2 % ) a re u nder 0 .185 h ectares ( 18 .5 a res ) i n a rea ( c lasses 1a nd 2 ) , whereas n o v i llages a re t h is sma l l . T he o vera l l t rend i s f ro m ( c lustered ) v ar iab ly-s ized a nd o f ten many sma l l s et t le men ts t o f ewer , i sola ted s et t le men ts wh ich a re l arger i n a rea a nd l ess v ar iab le i n s ize.

The t ota ls o f s i te s izes s how d istr ibut ion w i th t wo p eaks a t

c lasses 1 -3 a nd 6 -11 , whereas t he d istr ibut ion o f v i l lage s ize d isp lays t he p eak a t t he c lasses 6 -10 ( or O .7 85 t o 2 .79 h ectares ) ( F igure 5 .1 ) .

B ecause

o f t he f a i lure i n t he f i e ld t o r ecord f or ma lly a l l s i tes i n c hosen c lusters, a l l s i tes o f a l l p hases must b e l u mped t oge ther .

Therefore , i ti s impossib le f or

t he mo men t t o d e ter m ine when a nd a t wha t r a te t he move men t t owards t he modern p a t tern o f s ize a nd d istr ibut ion b eca me a pparen t . F igure 5 .2 i s a n a t te mp t t o d isp lay t he s a me l u mped s ite a nd v i l lage s ize d a ta i n af or m p erhaps more f am i liar t o t he r eader .

Ra ther t han emp loy f re-

q uency d istr ibut ion c lass i n for ma t ion ( u t i l ised f or F igure 5 .1 ), s i te a nd v i l lage s izes i n F igure 5 .2 a re d er ived f ro m t he i nd iv idua l measure men ts o f e ach s et t le men t . s ca le .

B oth n u mber a nd s ize o f s et t le men t a re p lot ted a long a l ogar i th m ic

I n t h is f or m t he d istr ibut ion o f a ncien t s i tes a ppears v ery s im i lar t o

t ha t o f t he r ank-size p a t tern f am i liar t o g eographers ( Hagget t 1 965 ; J ohnson 1 977 ).

The a pp lica t ion o f g eograph ica l mode ls o f l oca t iona l a na lysis s uch a s

t he r ank-size r u le i s d iscussed i n t he f o l low ing c hap ter . O f t he f i ve g eograph ica l r egions i n t he S urvey Region , t he s i tes o n D unes h ave t he h ighest mean s ize ( 1 .68 h a ) a nd t he l owest c oef f icien t o fv ar iab i li ty ( 84% ) .

These f i gures a re i n terest ing i n l i gh t o f t he f act t ha t t he s i tes o n t he

Dunes a re t he e ar liest a bandoned , b ut t hese r esu lts a re n ot c o mparab le b ecause o f t he u nusua l n a ture o f s i tes o n t he Dune ( t he

t u mulus-groups ' ) .

The N yan-

s annar i b oasts more o f t he most r ecen t ly-abandoned s i tes ( a l l o f wh ich , h owever , were n ot v isib le o n a er ia l p hotographs ) , b ut t he mean s ize o f s i tes o n t he Nyansannar i i s l ow ( 0 .82 h a ) a nd t he c oef f icien t o f v ar iab il i ty i s h igher t han t ha t o f t he Deren io r d unes.

The P ondor i h as t he h ighest c oef f icien t o f

v ar iab i l i ty i n t he f l oodp la in ( 154% ) , a nd a l l o f t he s i tes g rea ter t han 1 0 . 0 h ectares i n a rea . There i s g rea t v ar iab i li ty b etween t he s even s oi l/ landfor m c a tegor ies. The mean a rea o f s i tes i s v ery l ow i n t he M idd le P la in-Loa m s oi ls ( 0 .55 ) a nd L igh t L evees ( 0 .61 [ s ma l l n ] )a nd q ui te sma l l o n t he S and Channel ( 0 .78 h a ) .

4 06

F IG . 5 . 1 S ize o f S i tes a nd V i l lages — 1 00 9 0 8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0

3 0

r umberm

1

2

34 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1

1 3 1 2

1 5 1 4

1 7 1 6

1 9

2 0

1 8

2 2 1

—

7 0

— 6 0 — 5 0 4 0 3 0

V i l lages

2 0

- 1 0

N umberm

M il 1 2

3

45 6 7 8 91 0 1

1 3 1 2

F rmo o ency

1 5 1 4

1 7 1 6

' 1 .mtribution

407

1 9 1 8 C la.9

2 0

2 2 2 1

0

2

11

—

4 08

S ite a rea i n h ectares

c I

V illage a rea i n h ectares

V ILLAGES

F IG . 5 .2

H ec tare S izes

0

s aaqu inm

e

Ci

C lay C hanne l s oi ls b oast t he l argest mean s i te s ize ( 1 .19 h a ) .

The c oef f icien ts

o fv ar iab i l i ty o f a l l f l oodp la in s oi ls a re s ign if ican t ly h igher t han t hose o f t he h igh land s oi ls (> 124% v ersus

< 104% ).

Once a ga in , r ecogn i t ion o f t hese p a t-

t erns i s n ot t he s a me a s e xp lain ing t he r easons why t hey c a me t o b e , b ut t heir r ecogn i t ion d oes a l low more s pec if ic q uest ions t o b e a sked a nd , h opefu l ly , a nswered d ur ing f uture s urvey . A s af ina l e xercise t he s i te a reas e st i ma ted f ro m a er ia l p hotographs were c o mpared t o t hose d er ived b y p ac ing t he f or ma l ly-recorded s i tes.

Tab le 5 .20

l i sts o n ly t hose s i tes a t wh ich c on f idence i n s urface c overage was b et ter t han C '.

Th is i s at est o f h ow b ad ly v ar ious f actors i n t he f i e ld i n terfered w i th

a ccura te p ac ing .

On t he whole t he r ecord i s q ui te g ood :

1 5 o f t he 2 7 e st i ma-

t i ons ( 56% ) f a l l w i th in t he f requency d istr ibut ion c lass o b ta ined f ro m a er ia l p hotographs , 1 9 ( 70% ) f a l l w i th in + 0 .05 h a ( 500 m 2)o f t he c lass r ange.

2 3

( 85% ) f a l l w i th in + 0 .3 h a ( 3 ,000 m 2) , a nd o n ly t hree ( 11% ) were g rea ter t han +0 .5 h a ( 5 ,000 m 2) . Un for tuna te ly , t wo o f t hese t hree ( b oth g rea ter t han 2 h a d evia t ion ) were a ssigned a n

A ' v a lue o f c on f idence.

Ra ther t han s i mp le

i naccuracy o f t he me tre-pace o ver l ong d istances, t he f actors a ccoun t ing f or most l ack o f a gree men t a re p robab ly t horn-cover ( especia lly a t t he p er iphery , where i ti s d iff icu lt t o d e ter m ine t he e dge o f t he s i te i fu ndergrow th i s t h ick , t he l eng then ing o f . he p a th o ver a h igh a nd h em i-spher ica l s i te ( t he f or mula u se i s , o f c ourse , f or a p lane-f igure e l lipse ) , a nd t he d if ference i n v a lues o bt a ined b y measur ing t he N-S , E- W a xes o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he l ongest a x is a nd t ha t p erpend icu lar t o t he f i rst o n t he o ther . Ana lysis o f Ar tefacts a nd F ea tures.

F requency o f o ccurence o f t he t h ir ty-

f our c lasses o f a r tefacts a nd f ea tures o bserved o n t he s urace o f mounds a re l i sted b y P hase i n Tab le 5 .21,

On ly a f ew o f t hese w ere n ot f ound o n t he

s urface a t J ennejeno ( f ired b r icks [ G ], g unf l in ts [ Z ], t obacco p ipes [ CC ], c era m ic s tools [ FF ], a nd l arge s andstone s labs [ GG ] ) . J ennejeno was t he o n ly s i te w ith c er ta in e v idence o f ac i ty wa ll ( EE ) ( a l though t he r e ma ins o f wa l ls may b e h idden b y t horns a round t he p er iphery o f o ther s ites ). Dwe l l ings : The b u i lding t echno logy s hows s o me c hange t hrough t ime . R ound h ouses o f c y l indr ica l b r icks c a l led j ennefre ( D ) f or m t he ma jor i ty o f h ouses o f r ecogn izab le s hape d ur ing P hase I V ( 54% ). a t t wo o f t he Phase H I s i tes ;

( They a re a lso f ound

a t J ennejeno a t auf h ouse was f ound i n e ar ly

P hase I n d eposi ts i n Mound 1a nd a r ound h ouse o f c y lindr ica l b r icks a t t he e nd o f P hase I I-ear ly Phase I V i n J ar F ield 1 .)

A f ter P hase I V , b ut b efore

P hase V t h is p ercen tage f a l ls t o 4 6% a nd i n P hase V t o 3 9% .

R ectangu lar

h ouses o f c y lindr ica l b r icks ( E ) r ise f ro m 3 7% i n P hase I V t o 5 1% i n Phase W-V a nd 4 6% i n P hase V .

Rectangular h ouses o f r ectangu lar b r ick ( C ) a re 6%

i n P hase I V , 2 .5% i n P hase I V-V a nd t hen 1 5% i n Phase I V .

T ota l c onstruc-

t i on i n c y l indr ica l b r ick ( A , D , a nd E ) d rops f ro m 9 6% i n P hase I V a nd 9 8% i n Phase I V-V , t o 9 0% i n Phase V .

C onstruct ion i n j ennefre h as a lways b een

a ssocia ted w i th t he mason c aste o f J enne a nd d ur ing t he f our teen th a nd f if teen th c en tur ies t hese masons worked t hroughout t he I n land N iger De l ta a nd i n t he S egou r eg ion ( Prussin 1 973b ) .

The a pparen t i ncrease i n c onstruct ion i n j en-

n efre f ro m c . A . D . 1 300-1600 may r ef lect t he g rowing impor tance o f t ha t c onstruct io jtrad i t ion , whereas t he d rop af ter c . A . D . 1 600 may r ef lect t he i n trusion o f n ew e thn ic g roups w i th c usto ms o f b ui ld ing i n o ther t echnolog ies

4 09

Tab le 5 :20

E st i ma t ion o f s ize o f s i tes

S i te

Paced ( m2)

AP Range ( m2)

Dev ia t ion 2 ,644

2 91-E-2

8 ,207

1 0 ,851-14 ,350

2 91-E-3

2 2 ,368

1 8,351-22 ,850

2 91-E-4

9 ,071

7 ,851-10 ,850

2 91-E-5-B

4 ,948

2 91-E-5-A

7 0 ,686

5 ,351-7 ,850

2 91-E-6

4 00 ,553

c lass 2 2(410 ,371)

1 59-E-11-A

9 2 ,363

8 5 ,851-100 ,000

1 59-E-11-C

2 8,493

1 8,351-22 ,850

c lass 2 0

403 29,314

+ 5 ,643

1 59-E-11-D

1 5 ,119

1 0 ,851-14 ,350

+ 769

1 59-E-11-H

1 3 ,744

7 ,851-10 ,850

+ 2 ,894

1 59-E-12-B

3 0 ,631

2 7,851-33 ,350

1 59-E-15-A

1 8,072

1 8,351-22 ,850

279

1 59-4

3 0 ,725

5 2,851-60 ,350

22,126 3,059

1 59-6-A

1 9 ,792

2 2,851-27 ,850

1 59-T13-A

1 4 ,137

1 0 ,851-14 ,350

1 55-T2-A (M )

1 7 ,671

1 4 ,351-18,350

1 55-T9-A

1 7 ,671

1 4 ,351-18 ,350

2 91-11-A ( top )

2 5 ,918

2 2,851-27 ,850

2 93-2-B

8 ,679

1 0 ,851-14 ,350

2 93-2-C

5 ,498

3 ,351-5 ,350

2 95-10-A

2 ,121

1 ,851-3 ,350

3 52-L in-2

3 1 ,220

3 52-L in-3

5 ,655

3 52-L in-4

1 8,162

1 8,351-22 ,850

3 79-L in-5

1 2 ,763

1 0 ,851-14 ,350

3 79-L in-6

1 7,082

1 4 ,351-18,350

3 79-1 , M-7

5 1 ,542

4 5 ,851-52 ,850

2 ,172 + 148

2 7,851-33 ,350 5 ,351-7 ,850

4 10

189

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a nd t he d ec line o f t he t rad i t iona l c usto m s.

I n for man ts i n J enne r eca l l t ha t

" ennefre w ere s t i ll u sed i n t he t own a t t he t urn o f t he p resen t c en tury ( 0 . C isse-: p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion , 1 977 ) . Wi th in t he j ennefre t rad i t ion a t P hase I V , most s i tes h ave a ma jor ity o f r ound h ouses, b ut s o me a c lear ma jor i ty o f r ectangu lar b u i ld ings ( 291-E-2 , 1 59-E-12-C, 2 91-11-B , a nd J ennejeno ) . Whether t h is d if ference r ef lects e thn ic p references o r whe ther t he d i f ference w ould e vapora te i ft he t rue s hape o f a l l 'i nde ter m inan t '

( A ) h ouses w ere k nown c annot b e s a id a t t he p resen t .

At hough t here a re f i red , r ectangular b r icks ( G ) a t s i tes a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V ( genera l ly u ndecora ted ) , 9 3% o f b r icks wh ich were c oun ted a nd a l l s l ipped a nd d esignincised b r icks a re f ro m s ites a bandoned af ter P hase I V . On t he o ther h and , 8 8% o f a l l p ossib le p otsherd p ave men ts ( H ) w ere f ound a t s i tes a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V . B ur ia ls : A l though mos t b ur ia ls i n l arge u rns o ccured d ur ing P hase I I a t J ar F ie ld 1 a t J ennejeno , o n ly o ne s i te a bandoned d ur ing t ha t p hase h ad a nu rn c e me tery ( 1 59-E-11-D ) .

Th is may b e b ecause o f t he s pec ia l f unct ion o f t he

o ther s i tes ( 't u mulus ' g roup ' a nd a ssoc ia ted s i te?) o r b ecause o f t heir l ocat i on o n t he d une .

F unerary u rns a re most c o mmon a t s i tes a bandoned d ur ing

P hase I V ( 59% ) a nd , p erhaps p red ictab ly w i th t he g radua l p ene tra t ion o f I s la m , u rns o ccur l ess c o mmon ly a t P hase I V-V s i tes ( 28 .3% ) a nd l ess c o m mon ly s t i l l a t P hase V s i tes ( 9 .5% ).

Throughout , t here i s ac lear t endency f or u rn

c e me ter ies t o b e l oca ted o n t he e astern s ide o f s et t le men ts ( J a nd K ) ( Phase I I — 6 8%

P hase I V — 7 1% , P hase I V-V — 6 7% , P hase V — 6 1% ) .

Th is a p-

p aren t p reference i s p robab ly n ot a n a r tefact o f e rosion , b ecause t he w inds b ear f ro m t he S S W- WS W d ur ing t he r a iny s eason ( Ga l la is 1 967 , I :4 8 , F ig . 7 ) a nd a s many s i tes a re n ow b e ing u ndercut b y m igra t ing s trea ms o n t he ir west ern s ide a s o n t he ir e astern s ide.

These a verage f igures d o mask s o me c on-

s iderab le v ar ia t ion i n p reference f or t he f our q uadran ts ( J , K , L , a nd M ) a nd o n ly f ur ther r esearch w i ll e stab l ish whether we s ee i n t h is d iversi ty e thn ic p erfor mance , e l i te q uar ters w i th in a s et t le men t , o r o ther f actors. Musl im b ur ia ls ( N ) were r are a t e ar ly s i tes, b ut i n af ew c ases a bandoned s i tes n ear more r ecen t v i llages h ave b een t aken o ver f or t ha t p urpose ( because o f t he p auci ty o f l and a bove t he f l oods ; I ndus try :

e .g ., 2 91-E-7 , 2 93-2-D , 3 52-L in-1 ).

B o th o f t he t wo s e t t le men t s i tes o f P hase I I were c overed w i th

s lag ( D ) a nd s i te 1 51-E

1 1-D h ad t hree marked c oncen tra t ions ( P ) .

o f t he t wen ty-three P hase I V s i tes w ere c overed w i th s lag ( 6 5% ) ; t en c oncen tra t ions a t s ix o f t hese s i tes. w i th s lag ;

F if teen

t here were

A l l Phase I V-V s ites were c overed

a nd t here were e leven c oncen tra t ions a t f i ve o f t hese.

A l l Phase

Vs i tes w ere c overed w i th s lag a nd t here were t en c oncen tra t ions a t s ix o f t hese .

These c oncen tra t ions o f s lag were p robab ly r e ma ins o f i ndustr ia l a ct i-

v i ty , a l though e v idence i n t he f or m o f f urnace r e mains ( Q ) o r t uyeres ( R ) was s urpr ising ly r are ( f ive p oss ib le o f t he f or mer a nd f i ve o ccurances o f t he l a t ter ; a t s even s i tes ) .

At ota l o f t h ir ty-one s i tes ( 74% ) were c overed w i th s lag ( )5

p ieces/ m 2) ; e igh teen ( 43% ) b oast s trong c oncen tra t ions o f s lag ( 34 c oncen trat i ons ) a nd s even s i tes w i th s lag c oncen tra t ions ( 17% ) s how a dd i t iona l e v idence o f i ron p roduct ion . J ennejeno.

Abundan t

s lag was f ound i n a l l p hases o f o ccupa t ion a t

S uch s trong e vidence o f al ong h istory o f l oca l i ron p roduct ion

4 14

i n c onsiderab le q uan t i ty i s s urpr is ing i n l i gh t o f t he l ack o f h igh-grade o re i n t he I n land N iger De l ta .

I tp erhaps s uggests e i ther t ha t t here a re c oncen tra-

t i ons o f l ow-grade o re s uch a s l imon ite i n t he De lta , wh ich were r oasted b efore sme lt ing ( and wh ich a ccoun t f or t he l arge q uan t i t ies o f s lag ) o r t ha t t here d eve loped a v ery e ar ly a nd v olu m inous t rade o utside t he a l luvia l De l ta f or o re , r a ther t han f or t he f i n ished p roducts o f t he sme l t . De l ta o nce s uppor ted more w ood lands.

I t. a lso s uggests t ha t t he

A s a t J ennejeno, e vidence o f n on-

f errous me ta ls i s r e la t ive ly r are ( T , U .) . P or table A r tefac ts : Tab le 5 .21 l i s ts t he f requency o f o ccurance o f e v idence o f o ccupa t ions ( V—A . A .) a nd c us to ms ( BB-DD ) . T he p resence o f s p ind le whor ls a nd t obacco p ipes were u sed a s s econdary e v idence i n t he d a t ing o f a bandonmen t o f s i tes . I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t a l l f i ve i ns tances o f h uman r ep resen ta t ion ( s ta tue t tes a nd mode lled r e l ief o n p ot tery ) were f ound a t Phase I V s i tes; t he s ta tuet te a nd a n thropo morph ic r epresen ta t ion i n r el ief a t J ennej eno were f ro m t he P hase I V l eve ls o f Mound 2 . F our l arge s andstone s labs, c lear ly impor ted f ro m o utside t he De lta , r est o n P hase I V s i tes. much l arger t han

These a re

s te lae ' mark ing musl im g raves a nd n o e ngraving o f a n

e p i taph i s e v iden t . Af i na l i t em o ft he m isce l laneous c a tegory ( HH ) i s t he o ccurence o f c a lc areous n odu les ( p erhaps e v idence o f h igher f l ood ing ) . The f our o ccurences a re a t t he P hase I I s i te i n t he f l oodp la in ( 1 59-E-11-D ) , a t t he e nd o f Phase I I d epos i ts a t J ennejeno ( be low L eve l 1a nd H ouse 1 a t J F1, a nd b e low d ebr is t ranspor ted more r ecen t ly f ro m t he c en tre o f t he mound , i n L eve l 1 , Ml o f J ennejeno , a nd a t al ower s lope o f aP hase I V s i te ( 352-L in-4 ). T h is c ircu mstan t ia l e v idence s upports t he b e l ief i n a more h um id p er iod f ro m c . A . D . 7 00 t o p erhaps a s l a te a s A . D . 1 200 , when improved r a in fa l l i n t he h eadwa ters r eg ions may h ave c aused more f l ood ing ( v ide i n fra ). C o mp lex i ty A na lys is :

T he r ela t ive c o mp lex i ty o f e ach s i te i s measured

b y ac rude i ndex o f c o mp lex i ty o b ta ined b y c oun t ing t he n umber o f c lasses o f r e ma ins r ecorded a t e ach s i te ( A t o HH = 3 4 ) a nd b y t hen d ivid ing t he s um b y n ine ( t he n u mber o f t he c lasses o ccuring most f requen t ly : A , C , D , E , J , K , L , M , 0 ).

Th is i s n ot t o imp ly t ha t t hese n ine c lasses must o ccur i n s i tes

r eg ister ing 1 .0 o n t he i ndex ; t he i ndex i s s i mp ly a n a rb i trary d evice t o r educe t he p ossib le t h ir ty-four c lasses t o af or m more c onven ien t f or v isua l e xa m inat i on .

Resu lts o f t he i ndex r ange f ro m 0 .0 ( genera l ly s i tes b ad ly d isturbed b y

r ecen t a ct iv i ty , b ut a t wh ich s urface s herds w ere n ever the less a va i lab le f or t en ta t ive d a t ing ) t o 2 .56 ( Jennejeno ) . The ma jor weakness i n t he method i s l ack o fu n ifor m i ty o f o bserva t ion . An h onest e f for t was made t o a l lot t ime f or t he s urface s earch p ropor t iona te t o t he s ize o ft he s i te , b ut t here w ere c ases i n wh ich a s i te was l ess-co mp lete ly r ecorded b ecause o f i nsuff ic ien t t i me o r , more of ten t he c ase , b ecause o ur wa ter was e xhausted .

More s er ious p rob le ms were t he o bscur ing o f s urface

f ea tures b y t horn b ushes a nd d ust , o r t he r e mova l o f t hose f ea tures b y f ar mers. P erhaps a s much a s 3 0% o ft he s urface o f J ennejeno h ad b een t urned o ver t o mango g roves o r , more s er iously , t o s orghu m a nd m i l let f i e lds ; t hese a reas were d evoid o f a ny f ea tures a nd e ven o f much o f as cat ter o f s herds.

A l l s i tes

o n t he r ed Dune were b ad ly a f fected b y r ecen t c u lt iva t ion . O ther s i tes were c o mp lete ly c overed b y t horn b ush o r , more of ten , were r inged b y at h ick b and 4 15

o ft horn g row th ( e .g ., f u l ly 4 /5 o ft he s urface o f s i te 2 91-11-B was impassab le ) . Trees a nd t horn b ushes c o llect d ust b lown d ur ing t he d a i ly d ry-season w ind s tor ms , a nd s evera l s i tes w ere c overed b y a n a ppreciab le l ayer o f r ecen t 'l oess ' ( e .g ., s i te 1 59-E-13-A ) . T en o f t he f or tytwo s i tes ( f our o f t he f i ve P hase I I s i tes ) a re n ot i nc luded i n t he f o l low ing a na lysis b ecause o f t hese h inderances t o f u ll r ecord ing .

A nother u nknown i s t he amoun t o f r obb ing ( p ots ,

b eads , c opper b race le ts , s ta tuet tes , s p ind le whor ls , e t c .) f ro m e ach s i te . A s f ar a s w e c ould a scer ta in a t J enne , t he f ew s ta l ls a t wh ich t hese i t e ms a re s o ld d ur ing t he w eek ly market a re r ecen t e stab l ish men ts f or t he t our ist t rade. B u t i nd iv idua l i t e ms may h ave b een s ough t more c onsc ien t iously i n t he p ast . B ecause o ft hese d oub ts , t here w i l l n ever b e a n a l terna t ive t o p roper e xcavat i on t o d e ter m ine t he t rue p er iod o fo ccupa t ion a nd t he d egree o f c o mp lex i ty o ft hese s i tes.

Doub ts a bout t he d egree t o wh ich t he r ecorded s a mp le r ef lects

t he p a t tern o f a l l s i tes i n t he S urvey R eg ion f ur ther l im i ts t he c o mp lex i ty o f a na lysis o f t hese d a ta . I n Tab le 5 .21 t he mean a nd c oef f icien t o fv ar iab i l i ty o f t he i ndex o f c o mp lex i ty i s l i sted b y P hase . S i tes a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V d isp lay a mean o f 1 .02 a nd a c oef f icien t o fv ar iab i l i ty o f 3 9.2% ;

t hose o f P hase I V-V o f X =

1 .36 a nd C . V . =42 .6% , a nd t hose o f P hase V o f5 =1 .38 a nd C . V . =47 .1% . The t rend i s t owards g rea ter c o mp lex i ty a s o ne a pproaches t he p resen t , b u t t he i ncreasing c oef f ic ien t o fv ar iab i l i ty s uggests t ha t af ew v ery c o mp lex ( or u nusua lly s i mp le ) s i tes may h ave h ad a n u naccep tab le e f fect o n t he p hases w i th a sma l l n u mber o f s i tes.

The d a ta h ave a lso b een l u mped i n to f our c lasses:

Z0 .99 , 1 .0-1.49 , 1 .5-2 .0 , a nd 2 .0. A l though t he n u mbers a re smal l , t here s ee ms t o b e s o me r educt ion t hrough t ime i n t he a sy m me try o f t he e le men ts o f t he f our c lasses ( 9 4% i n Z1.5 i n P hase I V v ersus 6 0% i n P hase V ) .

B ut , u n t i l

f ur ther s urvey i su nder taken i n a n u nb iased manner , i tw i l l b e impossib le t o k now whe ther t here i s at rue t endency f or a l l s i tes a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V t o h ave g rea ter h o mogene i ty o f s urface r e ma ins , o r whether t he r esult h ere i s b ecause most P hase V s i tes were w i th in e asy a ccess t o J enne , t he c o m merc ia l c en tre o f t he N iger De lta . S i te s ize a nd d egree o f c o mp lex i ty a re c o mpared i n Tab le 5 .22 a nd i n g enera l s i te s ize i s ag ood way b y wh ich t o p red ict c o mp lex i ty o f r e ma ins. The e xcep t ion t o t h is a re t he s ize c lasses 1 5 , 1 7 , a nd 1 9 , wh ich r everse t he p osi t ive c orre la t ion , b u t e ach o ft hese a re r epresen ted b y o ne s i te o n ly ; t he f or mer t wo w ere a lso r inged b y t horns , a l though t he c en tres were f ree, a nd t here i s g ood r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t he l ast ( 1 59-E-11-A , Ha mbarke tolo ) h as b een s evere ly s ur face c ol lected . One c an p erhaps h ave a l i t t le more c on f id ence i n t h is r a ther s i mp le-m inded c orre la t ion when i ti s u nderstood t ha t v ery l arge s i tes were more d if f icu lt t o c over a s c arefu l ly a nd u n ifor m ly a s sma l l s i tes , e ven when we a t te mp ted t o a l lot p ropor t iona te amoun ts o f t ime t o e ach . T h is a lso , o f c ourse , a ssu mes t ha t a l l c lasses o f s urface r e ma ins h ad a n e qua l o ppor tun i ty t o b e d ropped b oth a t l arge a nd a t sma l l s i tes, a nd t ha t a l l s i tes o f a l l p er iods were e qua l ly n eg lected b y t he l oca l 'a n t iquar ians ' . P hase I l l a nd I V s i tes h ave b een e xposed f or a l onger t ime t o t he t hrea t o f s urface c ol lect ion , b ut P hase V s i tes a re c loser t o J enne a nd t he t our ist t rade. These a re c o mp lex f actors a nd we c an o n ly g uess t he ir e ffect u pon h ow wel l t he r e ma ins o n t he s urface r ef lect t he h o mogene i ty o r h eterogenei ty o f t he p opu-

4 16

T ab le 5 .22

S ize :

S i te S ize a nd C o mp lex ity

C o mp lex i ty

( averaged i ndex o f c o mplex i ty)

1 :0 .56 ( n=1)

8 :1 .11 ( n=4 )

4 :0 .45 ( n=2)

9 :1 .17 ( n=5 )

1 5

: 1 .5 6 ( n=1 )

1 7

: 1 .44 ( n=1)

5 :0 .74 ( n=3)

1 0

:1 . 0( n=1)

6 :0 .71 ( n=3 )

1 1

:1 .22 ( n=2 )

1 9

: 1 .22 ( n=1)

7 :1 .17 ( n=4)

1 4

:1 .89 ( n=2 )

2 2

:2 .34 ( n=1)

I ndex o f C o mplex i ty 2 .5 2 .25 2 . 0 1 .75 1 .5 1 .25 1 .0 0 .75 O .5

1

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1 1

1 4

1 5

S ize o f S i te ( f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses )

4 17

1 7

1 9

2 2

l a t ion o ccupy ing t he s i te .

Another c o mp l ica t ion i s t ha t s i tes may h ave a reas

e xposed wh ich were l ast o ccup ied w e l l b efore t he f ina l a bandon men t o f t he s e t t le men t ( e .g ., t he J ar-F ie ld a rea o f J ennejeno a nd a lso, Is uspect , p ar ts o f K an iana [ 29 1-E-6 ]) .

H ence o n ly b y d eep e xcava t ion o f many s i tes c an we

a ssess t he a pparen t t rend t owards a g rea ter d egree o f h eterogenei ty w i th i nc reasing s ize , g rea ter a sy m metry o f t he d istr ibut ion o f c o mp lex s i tes w i th in aP hase d ur ing t he e ar lier p er iods ( i .e., more s i mp le a gr icultura l v i l lages s uppor t ing f ewer l arger c o m mercia l c en tres) , a nd t he a pparen t sma l ler mean o f c o mp lex i ty a nd g reater o vera l l h o mogene i ty d ur ing t he e ar l ier p er iods. An A ssess men t o f t he S urvey An i nfor ma t ive way t o r ev iew t he s treng ths a nd f a i l ings o f t he s urvey i s t o imag ine wha t t he c onc lusions a bou t p ast a nd p resen t o ccupa t ion m igh t h ave b een h ad o n ly t he a reas w i th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne a nd t ha t c overed i n t he L inear S urvey b een s earched f or s i tes. 1 ) .

I tw ould h ave b een imposs ib le t o map t he t rue d ivers ity o f l and for ms

a nd s oi l t ypes i n t he v ic in ity o f J enne . c luded , a s w ould many f l oodp la in s o i ls.

A ll h igh land f eatures w ould b e e xThe r eg iona l d ivers i ty w ould b e l ost

a s w e l l b ecause o n ly a f rag men t o f t he P ondor i a nd a n arrow b and o f t he J enner i w ould h ave b een c overed .

A l though a l l t he s i tes i n t h is i mag inary r e-

s tr icted s urvey would b e o n f l oodp la in s oi ls ( and a l l b it a f ew o n C lay C hanne l o r S and C hanne l ) , o ne c ou ld n ot b e a t a l l c on f iden t t ha t a l l f l oodp la in s i tes o n a l l t ypes o f s oi ls c ould b e s een o n s tereoscop ic a er ia l-pa irs. 2 ) .

I tw ou ld a s ac onsequence b e impossib le t o measure e ven c rude ly t he

d egree t o wh ich d if feren t l andfor ms h ave b een a bandoned o r c o me t o b e f av oured f or o ccupa t ion .

T he r ecen t s trong p reference f or h igh , l i gh t s oils

( t he L igh t L evee a nd , e specia l ly , t he d unes ) w ou ld e scape d e tect ion , a s would t he c onverse , t he o vera l l b ut g radua l a bandon men t o f l ower f l oodp la in s o i ls. 3 ) .

The l oss o f i nfor ma t ion wou ld b e e ven more s er ious when i tc a me t o

d a t ing s i tes.

On ly o ne s i te a bandoned d ur ing P hase I I a ppears i n t he imag i-

n ary s urvey a nd a l l s pecia l ized s i tes o f t he

t u mu li-group ' w ou ld b e l ost .

On t he o ther h and , b ecause o f t he h igh p ercen tage o f P hase I V-V s i tes i n t he L inear S urvey a nd w i th in f our k i lo metres o f J enne , a nd b ecause o f t he u nusua l n u mber o f s i tes o f P hase V ( 28% o f r ecorded s i tes n ear J enne , 1 7% o f a l l s i tes r ecorded i n 1 977 ) , t he h igh c oncen tra t ion o f more r ecen t ly a bandoned s i tes n ear J enne ( and n ear t he N iger?) m igh t b e m isin terpreted a s at rue p ropor t ion o f l a te s i tes t o t hose a bandoned d ur ing P hase I V . 4 ) .

S im i lar ly , t he t rue p ropor t ion o f s i tes a nd v i l lages a t d if feren t d is-

t ances f ro m p er manen t s tand ing wa ter w ould b e m is in terpreted b ecause t he J enne a rea a nd L inear S urvey a re w e l l s erved b y t he S ou man-Ban i a nd t he Hu te . Therefore , t here w ould b e n o p ossib i l i ty t o a ssess t he h ypothesis o f al inear d ec line i n t he h ydrology o f t he I n land N iger De lta t ak ing p r i mary r esp ons ib i li ty f or t he d ec line i n n u mbers o f s et t le men ts.

F or t ha t ma t ter ,

b ecause t hese a reas a re s o -w e l l-wa tered t here i s a n u nusua l ly h igh n u mber o f modern s et t le men ts ( 12 , o r 2 5% ) c o mpared t o a ncien t s i tes ( 69 , o r 1 7% o f t o ta l) .

4 18

5 ) .

B ecause a l im i ted n u mber o f s oi l t ypes w ou ld b e e xa m ined i n t he

i mag inary s urvey , i tw ou ld n ot b e k nown t ha t g enera l ly t he s a me r a tes a pp ly t o t he p heno menon o f c luster ing o f s i tes o n a l l s oi l t ypes.

The h igh d egree

o f c luster ing i n t he P ondor i a nd t he o pposi te i n t he J enn .er i w ould b e a pparen t , b ut i tw ou ld b e impossib le t o t est whether o r n ot t hese p a t terns were t he c ase o ver a w ider a rea . The imag inary s urvey wou ld g ive a v ery b iased r esu lt t o t he t est o f n u mbers o f s i tes i n e ach c luster b ecause o f t he u nusua l ly p opu lous c lusters n ear J enne . The s trong p a t tern o f i so la ted s i tes a nd modern s et t lemen ts o n h igh land s oi ls w ould e scape d e tect ion c o mp lete ly . There i s a lso a n u nusua l ly l arge n u mber o f l arge s i tes a nd v i l lages i n t he C lay Channel n ear J enne ( most o ft hose g rea ter-than t en h ectares i n a rea ) a nd i n t he L inear S urv ey .

Th is w ould b ad ly d istor t t he d e ter m ina t ion r e

6 ) .

I t wou ld s t i l l b e e v idence t ha t a ncien t s i tes c lus ter more t han mod-

e rn v i l lages , b u t t he p ropor t ion o f v ery sma l l s i tes ( 1 8 .5 a res ) wou ld b e b adly u nder-represen ted . Mos t s o i ls o f t he f l oodp la in s uppor t s i tes o f v ery l ow mean s ize , a nd t he C lay C hannel s oi ls h ave t he h ighes t means o f t he f l oodp la in o n ly b ecause o f t he c oncen tra t ion o f l arge s i tes n ear J enne . The f ac t t ha t d une s i tes a re o n a verage l arger a nd more h o mogeneous i n s ize t han t hose o f a l l o ther l andforms wou ld b e missed . 7 ) .

And f i na lly , i tw ould b e impossib le t o i nvest igate whether t he d egree

o f h eterogene ity ( c o mp lex i ty ) o f r e ma ins o n t he s urface o f s i tes i n t he imag ined s urvey , a nd h ow i tv ar ies w i th p er iod o f a bandon men t a nd s ize o f s i te, was t he t rue p at tern t hroughout t he u pper I n land N iger Del ta , o r whe ther J enne a nd i t s s econdary l ink w i th t he N iger , t he S ou man-Ban i were e xer t ing u nusua l i n f luence o ver n earby s i tes b y mak ing a va i lab le more e xot ic g oods a nd i deas.

4 19

CHAPTER 6 ANALYS IS OF THE EV IDENCE FRO M THE J ENNE REG ION

I n troduc t ion There i s av ast a nd g row ing a rchaeolog ica l l i terature a bout r eg iona l s et t lemen t s tud ies. Much o f t h is l i tera ture d raws h eavi ly u pon mode ls a nd i n terpret i ve t echn iques d eve loped b y g eographers ( e .g ., H odder a nd Or ton 1 976 ; P log 1 976 ; H agget t 1 972 ) . There a re s evera l r easons why t he u se o f most o f t hese mode ls i s i nappropr ia te t o t he i n forma t ion n ow a va i lab le a bou t p as t o ccupa t ion i n t he u pper I n land N iger De lta ; t he ma jor r easons a re r ev iewed h ere. C on te mporane i ty .

I n e very c ase t he mode ls wh ich g eographers t est a ga inst

s et t le men t d a ta p resu me t ha t a l l s et t le men ts were o ccup ied s i multaneously . Archaeo log ists h ave p erhaps n ot b een s uff ic ien t ly a ware o f t h is r equire men t when a pp lying s oph ist ica ted i n terpre t ive t echn iques t o a rchaeo log ica l d a ta ( c f . Oa tes 1 976 ; f or a n e xa mp le o fo ne s uch a buse o f t he a pp lica t ion o f t he n earest-ne ighbour ' s ta t ist ic , s ee E ar le 1 976 ). The r ecord ing o f s urface p ot tery a t s i tes w i th in t he S urvey R eg ion g ave o n ly t en ta t ive d a t ing o f t he f i na l o ccupa t ion o f t he s i tes. Abandon men t may h ave o ccurred a ny t i me d ur ing t he c en tur ieslong P hases. A t p resen t i ti s n ot k nown h ow l ong t he f l oodp la in t e l l s i tes w ere o ccup ied , o r i ft ha t o ccupa t ion was c on t inuous a nd u n in terrup ted . I t must b e s tressed o nce a ga in t ha t t here i s ad anger i nheren t i nu sing a p ot tery s equence e stab l ished a nd r ad io me tr ic a l ly d a ted a t o ne s i te t o d a te o ther s i tes u n t i l t he mechan is ms o f t rade a nd i n teract ion b etween t he s i tes a re f u l ly u nderstood ( v ide i n fra ) .

Deep e xcava-

t i on a t many s i tes i n t he n e ighbourhood o f J enne i s n eeded i n o rder t o d e term ine t he l eng th a nd c on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion ( a l though t he l at ter i s d i f f icu lt t o e stab lish s a t isfactor i ly a t t e l l s i tes w i th c o mp lex s tra t if ica t ion ) .

E x tensive

e xcava t ion w i l l a lso p rov ide t he q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty o f c era m ics r equired f or t ests o f a sse mb lage s im i lar i ty b etween s i tes ( c f . J ohnson 1 977 : 4 81-482 ). S ize o f S e t t le men t . Many i n terpre t ive t echn iques ( e .g ., a rchaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ions o f t he r ank-size ' r u le ) d epend u pon a n a pprecia t ion o f t he a rea o f t he s et t le men t a t d if feren t p er iods o f i t s e volut ion .

Th is i s av ar iab le

wh ich i s e asy t o measure i n modern s et t le men ts, b ut v ery of ten d i f f icu l t t o e st i ma te b y t he a rchaeolog ist d ea l ing w i th a n e xcava ted s a mp le wh ich may b e b ut a t i ny f ract ion o f t he f u l l s i te . The s urface a rea e xcava ted d uring 1 977 ( 37 .5 s quare metres ) r epresen ts o ne p ar t i n 8 ,8 27 o f t he s urface o fJ ennejeno.

F or t h is r eason , i ti s d i f f i-

c u l t t o k now , f or e xamp le , whether t he P hase I d epos i ts i n Ml , M2 , a nd J F1 a re p ar t o f as ing le l arge mound , o r t wo mounds s epara ted b y f l oodp la in . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o k now whe ther t he f ina l s ize o f a ny s i te i n t he S urvey R eg ion

4 20

r epresen ts t he f u l l o ccupa t ion a t t he c l i max o f t he s i te , o r whe ther t he d epos i ts r epresen t ac ompos i te o f o ver lapp ing , b u t s equen t ia l o ccupa t ions ( i .e ., t he p rob le m o f t he ' pa l impses t ').

P erhaps o ne d ay t he c haracter is t ics o f

s e t t le men t i n t he I n land D e l ta w i l l b e wel l e nough k nown t ha t o ne c ou ld d isreg ard t h is c au t ion , b u t t ha t i s n ot n ow t he c ase .

S evera l l arge s i tes , i nc lud ing

J ennejeno , Kan iana , a nd 1 59-T18-A , were a pparen tly a t t heir f u l l s ize d ur ing P hase I I , a nd t hen e xper ienced o ccupa t ion o ver a sma l ler a rea d ur ing l a ter P hases .

O f c ourse , i fp o t tery r ecord ing h appened t o h ave t aken p lace a t a n

e ar ly-deser ted p ar t o f a ny s i te , t he t en ta t ive d a te o f a bandonmen t w i l l b e f ar t oo e ar ly. Mo men tary P opu la t ion .

Most g eograph ica l mode ls r equire t he k now ledge

o f t he s ize o f t he c o mmun i ty a t c on te mporaneous s et t le men ts.

The a na lyst i s

r equ ired t o k now t he s ize o f t he p opula t ion a nd t he s ize a nd n u mbers o f s ubp opu la t ions ( i .e ., t he 'f unct iona l s ize ' o f t he s et t le men t , wh ich i ncludes e l i tes, c raf t c orpora t ions , c astes , t he a gr icul tura l b ase , e tc.) w ith in t he c o mmun i ty . Th is i n for ma t ion i s t hen u sed t o a rrange s et t le men ts i n to a r eg iona l h ierarc h ica l t axono my ( J ohnson 1 977 : 4 95) .

Archaeo log ists l ack ing t h is q ua l i ty o f

i nfor ma t ion h ave e st i ma ted p opula t ion a nd f unct iona l s ize f ro m t he f ina l s ize o f s i tes ( o f ten d isregard ing t he p rob le ms o f t he p a l i mpsest , o r o f s uper i mposed o ccupa t ions e xposed b y e ros ion ) b y a pp ly ing a c onstan t o b ta ined t hrough o bserv a t ion o f modern c o mmun i t ies, o r b y e sti ma t ing t he a verage n u mbers o f p ersons i n e ach h ouseho ld .

H ousehold n u mbers a re e st i ma ted b y measures

o f t he a rea o f f l oor , n u mbers o f dwe l l ings a nd a ssocia ted a ct iv i ty a reas, s pace b e tween h ouses, e tc . ( Marcus 1 976: 7 9-84 ) . The e x tre mely c rude f i gure o f 2 50 p ersons p er h ectare u sed t o e sti ma te t he p opu la t ion a t J ennejeno d ur ing v ar ious Phases was o bta ined f ro m r ecen t c ensus f i gures f or J enne a nd f or o ther f l oodp la in v i l lages l arger t han t en h ect ares .

Th is c onstan t must b e r egarded w i th s o me s usp ic ion b ecause t hese

l arge s e t t le men ts h ave g rea t ly i ncreased i n s ize d ur ing t he p ast f ew d ecades ( e .g ., G om i togo f ro m C . 1 ,471 i n 1 939 t o 2 ,643 i n 1 958 ;

J enne f ro m 6 ,797

i n 1 958 t o c . 1 0 ,000 i n 1 970 ( Ga l la is 1 967 , I : 5 51-552 ) a nd b ecause o f o ur i gnorance o f t he e f fects u pon s et t le men t d ensi ty o f t he p o l i t ica l d isturbances o f t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he p resen t m i l lenn iu m , p ar t icular ly t he f orced r eset t lemen t p ol ic ies o f t he n ineteen th c en tury ( v ide s upra , C hap ter 2 ) .

I t may b e

p oss ib le i n t he f u ture t o d eve lop a t ypo logy o f h am lets-v i l lagestowns, t o wh ich ar ange o f max i mu m a nd m in i mu m p opu la t ion p er h ectare may b e a pp lied . I ta ppears u n likely t ha t s et t le men t d ensi ty was a s g rea t o n h igh land f ea tures a s a t f l oodp la in t e lls .

Wi th r espect t o f unct iona l d if feren t ia t ion w i th in J enne ,

Ga l la is ( 1967 , I : 5 56-558 ) p rovides s o me d e ta i l o f t he o ccupa t iona l d ivisions o f t he p resen t-day p opula t ion ( 40% "p re-urban"

f ar mers, f i sher men , a nd

p astora l ists, a nd 6 0% " urban" c raf ts men , merchan ts, p rofessiona ls , a nd i n te l lectua ls ) . I tw i l l b e many y ears b efore w e c an e st i ma te t he f unct iona l s ize o f J ennejeno t o t he s a me s tandard o f d e tai l, o r k now whether t he a ncien t s e t t le men t was d ivided i n to "p re-urban " a nd "u rban" p ar ts a s a ppears t o b e t he c ase i n J enne t oday . C lustering .

The d if f icu l ty i n e st i ma t ing s e t t le men t s ize a nd p opu la t ion o f

t he c o mmun i ty i s a ug men ted b y t he p rob le m o f i n terpre t ing t he p heno menon o f s i te c luster ing .

I n o ther p ar ts o f t he w or ld , c lusters h ave v ar iously b een

4 21

i n terpre ted ( o f ten b ased o n i nsu f f ic ien t i n forma t ion ) a s d augh ter c o m mun i t ies r epresen t ing l ower-s ta tus l i neages wh ich d iv ided f ro m t he s en ior l i neage r epr esen ted b y t he p r inc ipa l s e t t le men t ( wi th wh ich r e la t ions a re ma in ta ined f or s ocia l r easons ) , o r a s t he r esu l t o f a t tract ion t owards a c oncen tra ted r esource o r ah igh-s ta tus a dm in is tra t ive o r c ere mon ia l c en tre ( e .g ., F lannery 1 976: 1 68-169 ; Ear le 1 976 ) . We s i mp ly d o n ot k now whether c lusters i n t he S urvey R eg ion r epresen t s equen t ia l o r s i mu ltaneous o ccupa t ion , f unct iona l d if ferences, e thn ic d iff erences , o r e ven s easona l o ccupa t ion d if ferences ( e .g ., t he sma l l p er iphera l s i tes may h ave b een s easona l ly o ccup ied a t l ow wa ter b y f am i l ies who t hen r e trea ted b ack t o t he ( h igher ) l arger mounds d ur ing t he mon ths o f f l ood ) . On ly when t hese s i tes a re d a ted c an o ne b eg in t o l ook f or r epea t ing a ssocia t ion p a t terns o f s i tes o f d if feren t s izes. The d a ta f ro m t he S urvey R eg ion a re i n terest ing a lso b ecause s tud ies f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he w or ld i nd ica te t ha t , i n

r ank-s ize ' s tud ies , t he b ehav iour

o f s i tes o f l ess t han a pprox i ma te ly o ne h ectare i n s ize d oes n ot c on for m t o t he p a t tern s e t b y t he r est o f t he s et t le men ts i n t he r eg iona l h ierarchy ; b een l abe lled t he 'l owerl i mb r ela t ionsh ip ;

t h is h as

a nd t he o ne-hectare a rea h as b een

d escr ibed a s t he "e f fect ive t hreshold v a lue f or v iab le s et t le men t s ize w i th in i nd iv idua l s et t le men t s yste ms"

( Johnson 1 977 : 4 99-501 ;

N o o ne h as y e t s a t isfactor i ly e xp la ined t he p heno menon .

H agget t 1 965: 1 06-107 ) . I n t he S urvey Reg ion ,

most a ncien t s i tes a re l ess t han o ne h ectare i n s ize ( 292 , o r 7 1% ) ;

t he e x-

p lana t ion o f t he c luster ing p r incip le w i th in t he I n land N iger Del ta may c on tr ibute t o t he e xp lana t ion o f t he

l owerl i mb r e la t ionsh ip '.

H owever , u n t i l t he c hrono-

l og ica l r e la t ionsh ip b etween s i tes w ith in a c luster i su nderstood , i tw i l l b e d if f icul t t o a pp ly a na ly t ica l t echn iques wh ich t ake d istance b etween s i tes a s t he u n i t o fo bserva t ion ( e .g ., ' nearest-ne ighbour ' s tud ies ).

S im ilar ly , t h is

k now ledge w i l l a f fect c a lcula t ions o f t he p opu la t ion o f c o mmun i t ies.

F or

e xa mp le , d ur ing P hase I I o r P hase W i s o ne t o c onsider J ennejeno ( 33 .1 h a ) , J enne ( 44 . 8h a?) , K an iana ( 41,0 h a ) , Kanafa ( 19 .4 h a ) , T oga l Hu te ( 13 .7 h a ), a nd Ha mbarketolo ( 8 . 8h a ) , ( and p erhaps o ther s i tes o f t he 1 59-E-11 c luster ) , a s o ne e nor mous s et t le men t , w i th a p opula t ion p oss ib ly i n e xcess o f 4 0 ,000? Or a re e ach t o b e c onsidered s epara te s et t le men ts w i th in a c oncen tra t ion i nc lud ing u p t o s even s et t le men ts l arger t han t en h ectares, o f wh ich t hree a re l arger t han t h ir ty h ectares ? S i te C a tch men t Area .

Th is i s a n a na ly t ica l c oncep t a bout wh ich much

h as b een wr it ten d ur ing t he p ast s evera l y ears ( e .g ., H iggs 1 972 a nd 1 975 ) a nd wh ich i s n ow w ide ly a pp l ied b y a rchaeo log ists i n many p ar ts o f t he w or ld . There a r ises a p rob le m i n t he a pp lica t ion o f e ven t he most g enera l d ef in i t ion o f t he c oncep t ( "t he z one o f r esources, b oth w i ld a nd d o mest ic , t ha t o ccur w i th in r easonab le wa lk ing d istance o f ag iven v i l lage" )( F lannery 1 976: 9 1 ). The S urvey R eg ion i s aj u mb led mosaic o f l andfor ms a nd s oi ls a nd i s a f fected b y ma jor c l i ma t ic f orces wh ich v ary g rea t ly i n e f fect f ro m y ear t o y ear .

A

map o f l anduses d rawn t o t oday ' sc ond i t ions w i l l h ave l i t t le r e levance t o l andu ses d ur ing t he d ocu men ted h um id a nd d ry p er iods w i th in t he p er iod o fo ccup a t ion o f J ennejeno .

F or e xa mp le , ac hange o f e ven a f ew metres h igher o r

l ower o f t he a verage a nnua l h ighwa ter f l ood l eve l , a veraged o ver l ess t han a c en tury , would h ave s er ious c onsequences a f fect ing t he a va i lab i l i ty o f s oi ls

4 22

s uppor t ing r ice a nd s orghu m c ul t iva t ion , a s w e l l a s b ourgou p asture , a nd t he l oca t ion o f f i sh ing g rounds a nd a reas s ui tab le f or y ear-round o ccupa t ion . Wha t i s n eeded i s ap ro ject ion o f t hree o r f our d if feren t c ircu mstances o f f l ood ing , p recip i ta t ion , a nd s chedules o f t hese i n o rder t o r ecrea te , o r mode l, wha t w ould h ave b een t he e f fect o f , o r e xa mp le , c ond i t ions p erhaps s o mewha t more a r id t han t oday ( c . 5 00 B . C . t o A . D . 7 00 ) , h igher f l oods a nd more p rec ip i ta t ion ( ! . A . D . 7 00 t o 1 200-1300 ) , a nd c ond i t ions s im i lar t o t hose o f t oday , b ut w i th g rea ter o r l esser v ar iab i l i ty b e tween y ears.

Ac onserva t ive r esponse

t o c l i ma t ic u npred ictab i l i ty i s a s impor tan t t o c onsider a s a re e f for ts t o max im ize h arvests a nd y ie lds o f a l l r esources f ro m t he c a tch men t a rea d ur ing a l l s easona l p hases.

The p recision r equired f or mapp ing t hese p ro ject ions would

r equ ire more d eta i led s oi l i den t if ica t ion t han was a t te mp ted i n 1 977 a nd a t opog raph ic map o f t he e n t ire S urvey R eg ion p recise t o o ne o r t wo metre c on tour i n terva ls .

F or e xa mp le , t he modern p reference f or t he L ow P la in s oi ls o f

t he P ondor i a t t he e xpense o f t he L ow P la in s oi ls o f t he Derar i p robably i s a f unct ion o f d ep th o f f l ood ing f or r ice c u lt iva t ion .

One w ou ld a lso n eed f ar more

i n for ma t ion t han i s c urren t ly a va i lab le a bout y ie ld p er h ectare o f t rad it iona l c rops ( e spec ia l ly t he s evera l v ar iet ies o f Oryza g laberr i ma ) u nder v arious c ond i t ions , a nd a bout t he s o-ca l led f am ine f oods, wh ich may h ave b een a morec o mmon p ar t o f t he d iet i n t he p ast . I n teract ion a nd D istance.

Archaeo log ists h ave r ecen t ly b egun t o d ea l i n

e arnest w i th t he d if f icu lt p rob le m o f h ow t o measure t he d egree o f i n teract ion b etween t he i nhab i tan ts o f t wo s i tes ( t hese e f for ts 1 977 : 4 81-487 ) .

a re s u m mar ized i n J ohnson

The d anger o fu ncr i t ica lly u s ing a s ing le p ot tery s equence

t o d a te d istan t s i tes was d iscussed a bove ;

i ti s e qua lly u n l ikely t ha t as i mp le

d escr ip t ion o f t he s im i lar i ty o f a sse mb lages a t t wo s i tes d escr ibes t he n a ture a nd v ar ie ty o f e xchanges wh ich o ccurred b etween e ach o f t he s evera l s ubp opu la t ions a t t hose c o mmun it ies ( c f . P log 1 976: 2 58-259 ) , P ires-Ferreira a nd F lannery 1 976: 2 86-292 ;

C rossland a nd P osnansky 1 978 ) .

Many r econ-

s truct ions o f p reh istor ic c hange p resu me t ha t a l l me mbers o f t he c o m mun i t ies h ad e qua l t astes a nd e qua l a ccess t o t raded o r e xchanged i t e ms ( par t icular ly t he

g ravi ty mode l ' ,c f . P log 1 976: 2 59 ), b ut i ti s c lear t ha t s ub-popula t ions

d ef ined b y wea lth , a ge , s pecia l g roup a f f i l iat ion , o ccupa t ion , a nd a scr ibed s ta tus i n teract w i th in a c o mmun i ty a nd b etween c o m mun i t ies a ccord ing t o c o mp lex r u les.

Geograph ica l mode ls of ten p resu me t ha t p hysica l ( s tra igh t-

l i ne ) d istance b e tween s e t t le men ts a ffects t he i n tensi ty o f e xchange i n a n i nv erse f ash ion , i .e., a s d istance i ncreases, s o i n teract ion d ecreases. h owever , i s t oo s i mp le a n e qua t ion ;

Th is,

d istance must b e c onver ted t o a 't rave l-

t i me t ransfor ma t ion ' wh ich measures t he c ost a nd e f for t o f t ranspor t b y d if feren t means, o ver v ar ious t ypes o ft erra in , a nd a cross p ol i t ica l o r e thn ic f ron t iers ( J ohnson 1 977 : 4 85-487 ) . We a re s t i l l av ery l ong way f ro m f u l ly d ocu men ting a nd u nderstand ing t he ways i n wh ich t he a ncien t c o mmun i t ies o f t he I n land N iger Del ta i n teracted . Once a ga in , t ests o f a ssoc ia t ion a re n eeded t o a ssess t he s im i lar i ty o f c o m mon i t e ms s uch a s h ouseho ld c era m ics.

We a re i gnoran t a bou t wh ich more-

s oph ist ica ted i t e ms were imported f ro m a far , p roduced b y s pecia l ized c raf tsmen

o n ly a t t he p r incipa l s et t le men ts w i th in t he I n land Del ta , o r made b y

p ar tt i me ,

c ot tage ' c raf t men i n a gr icul tura l v i l lages.

4 23

The s im i lar i ty o f

a r tefacts o n t he s urface o f s i tes a bandoned d ur ing P hase I I o r W ( and l a ter ) t o t hose o f t he J ennejeno s equence w ou ld s uper f ic ia lly a rgue f or a l ong h ist ory o f c lose a nd p erhaps f or ma l e cono mic t ies i nc lud ing e ven t he sma l lest a nd most d istan t s i tes.

V i l lages w ith in t he S urvey R eg ion t oday o b ta in many

c era m ics f ro m t he J enne market , a nd t h is may h ave b een t he c ase i n t he p ast . H owever , i ti s n ot o u t o f t he q uest ion t ha t t he s im i lar i ty o f p ot tery b etween s i tes i s mere ly a pparen t a nd t ha t l oca l p ot ters w ere s i mp ly v ery s k i l led a t c opy ing t he ' Jenne s ty le '.

I t may a lso h ave b een t he c ase t ha t a s e ar ly a s

P hase I I ( . A . D . 4 00 t o 9 00 , o r b efore?) t he I n land N iger Del ta n urtured t he J enne c raf t c orpora t ions ( c f . Ga lla is 1 967 , I : 4 72-473 , 5 57-559 ; 1 973 ;

Mon te i l 1 903: 1 46-147 ;

P russin

A . C isse , p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion , 1 977 ) .

Masons , sm i ths a nd p ot ters ( of ten h usbands a nd w ives ) , j ewe lers, a nd s o me weavers a nd t a i lors b e longed t o e soter ic , b ut l ow-sta tus c orpora t ions i n wh ich me mbersh ip was o pen a nd c ross-cut e thn ic a ff i lia t ion , b ut wh ich r equ ired a l ong a ppren t icesh ip .

The J enne c raf ts men a re c onsidered l oca l ly t o h ave

b een t he p r incipa l t rans m i t tors o f t he e lusive ' Jenneke ' t rad i t ion . g rega ted i n t he t o wn d ur ing t he h igh wa ter

They c on-

s eason , b ut t hen d ispersed t hrough-

o ut t he h in ter land a f ter t he h arvests a nd a lso t rave l led t o more d istan t a reas ( especia l ly t he B enedougou r eg ion t o t he s outheast ) f or s evera l mon ths e ach y ear .

There t hey t rave l led f ro m v i llage t o v i l lage , p ly ing t heir t rade ( and

s o me , l ike t he 5 00 me mbers o f t he f a mous c orpora t ion o f masons, t he s orob ana , who were t aken b y t he A sk iya Muha m med t o b ui ld h is p a laces a t T end irr aa a nd Gao, s pread t he f a me o f J enne v ery f ar i ndeed [ a l- Mukh tar 1 913 ]) .

The

s easona l d ispersa l o f sm i ths a nd p ot ters w ould h e lp t o e xp la in why p ot tery i s s o u n ifor m i n p repara t ion , f or m , a nd d ecora t ion , a nd why s o many s i tes , l arge a nd sma l l , a re c overed w i th s lag . The q uest ion o f t rave l t i me b etween s et t le men ts i n t he I n land N iger De lta a lso n eeds i nvest iga t ion ;

t he i nunda ted f l oodp la in c ou ld , o f c ourse , b e t ra-

v e l led e asi ly b y p irogue d ur ing t he w in ter .

B u t b y l a te-February when t he

r ice c rop h as b een h arvested a nd i s r eady t o b e b rough t t o c en tra l markets a nd s torage , t he d istr ibutar ies o f t he S urvey R eg ion a re b locked b y s and c ong est ion ( c f . Mon te i l 1 903: 1 4-15 ) .

There i s s o me e v idence , wh ich i s p resen ted

b e low , o f f reer a ccess a long t he ma jor wa terways w i th in t he r ecen t p ast . Reg ion .

A ll g eograph ica l mode ls wh ich s eek t o e xp lain o r d escr ibe t he

f unct ion o f as et t le men t w i th in a h ierarchy o f s et t le men ts r equ ire t ha t t he b oundar ies o f t ha t s e t t le men t s yste m a re k nown t o t he i nvest igator ;

i fs i tes

b e long ing t o ah ierarchy a re e xc luded f ro m s tudy o r i fa ny o ver lapp ing o f s e t t le men t s yste ms o ccurs, t hen t he a na lysis w i l l b e s er ious ly c o mpro m ised ( J ohnson 1 977 : 4 98 ). Wi th t he i ssue o f c on te mporane i ty , t h is i s t he i ssue most c onsisten t ly d isregarded a nd a bused b y a rchaeologists u s ing t echn iques a nd mode ls d esigned f or t he g eographer ' sd ata . The S urvey R eg ion o f 1 977 was a n a r tefact o f a er ia l p ho tograph ic c overage a nd n ot t he n atura l r eg ion r equired b y g eograph ica l mode ls.

The p rob le m

t hen i s t o d ef ine t he r eg ion o ft he s et t le men t s yste m i n wh ich J enne ( or t he J enne-co mp lex ) was t he p r incipa l s et t le men t t o wh ich a l l o thers were t i ed b y e cono m ic a nd ( possib ly ) a dm in istra t ive c onsidera t ions ( c f . Tr igger 1 972 : 5 77 , who d ef ines a c i ty a s "a u n i t o f s e t t le men t wh ich p erfor ms s pec ia l ized f unct i ons i n r e la t ionsh ip t o ab roader h in ter land") .

4 24

The r eg ion may p rove t o b e

sma ll o r v ery l arge i ndeed ;

i n P ar t i , C hap ter 1 2 o f t h is monograph , t he

e x ten t o f s im i lar i t ies among a r tefacts f ro m v ar ious d istan t s i tes w i th t hose f ro m J ennejeno h as d iscussed .

Areas f ro m wh ich s i tes h ave b een c o mpared

t o t hose o f t he u pper I n land N iger De l ta i nc lude t he Massina a nd Me ma t o t he n or thwest , t he B enedougou t o t he s outh-southwest , a nd t he N iger B end , G a l la is b e l ieves t ha t many o f t hese were l inked i n af or ma l p reis la m ic t rade n etwork c en tred f i rst u pon D ia a nd s oon t hereaf ter u pon J enne ( Ga l la is 1 967 , I : 8 1-82 ;

c f .

4 69-472 ;

c f . V incen t 1 963: 4 6 a nd Mauny 1 978 ) .

Th is a lso r a ises t he t horny p rob le m o f t he t err i tor ia l a uthor i ty o f J enne . H istor ians h ave g enera l ly b e lieved t ha t J enne was n ever a s ta te w i th p ol i t ica l p ower o ver h er h in ter land , b ut t he h istor ica l s ources r epeated ly a sser t t he c on trary :

e .g ., t he d escr ip t ion b y L eo A fr icanus o f t he wea lthy 'k ingdo m o f

G enn i , o r Gh inea '

5 00 b y 2 50 m i les l ong ( Afr icanus 1 896 ) o r t he d escr ip t ion

o f at err i tory o f a pprox i ma te ly 1 7 ,000 s quare k i lo metres g iven b y a l-Sa 'd i ( 1900 : 2 5 ;

c f . E vrard 1 977 , I :2 2 ).

An ton ius Ma lfan te d escr ibes J enne a s a

c iv i ta te . T o af if teen th-century n or thern I t a l ian , ac iv i ta te w ould p robab ly imp ly a c iv i tas a nd a n a dm in istered a nd t axed a gr icu ltura l t err i tory , t he c ant ado. h ost .

Ma lfan te may h ave h ad v ery p rec ise i n for ma t ion f ro m h is k now ledgeab le H is d escr ip t ion o f t he c iv ita te b e low t he S ahara i s "E ta ts t res g rands,

c heflieux d e p rov ince d 'o u d ependen t d 'i nno mbrab le t err itoires e t v i lles" ( La R onciere 1 924 : 1 54, c f . 1 37 , 1 48 ) . S e t t le men t H ierarchy . t he e f fect o f

There i s ag row ing a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture a bout

s ca le e cono m ics ' u pon a r eg iona l s et t le men t s yste m , b y wh ich

c osts o f o pera t ion a re r educed b y p rogress ive ly c oncen tra t ing a ct iv it ies a t l arger c en tra l l oca l i t ies.

Ma ter ia l , c oncen tra t ions o f manpower a nd s k i l led

l abour , a nd i n for ma t ion t ends t o b e a rranged u neven ly w i th in a v er t ica l h ierarc h ica l s tructure b ecause o f t he d esire t o max im ize p roduct ion , t o m in im ize d istr ibut ion c osts , a nd t o o p t im ize t he i n tegra t ion o f t he s yste m ( ad m in istrat i on , o r c on trol o ver t he f l ow o f a uthor ity a nd i n for ma t ion ) ( Tr igger 1 972 ; J ohnson 1 977 : 4 94-501 ;

Hagget t 1 972 ) .

g raphers ' t rea t men t o f t he e f fects o f

The most e legan t e xpressions o f g eos ca le e cono m ics ' h ave b een t he r ecen t

r ef ine men ts o f C hr ista ller ' sa nd L ösch ' sc lassica l

c en tra l p lace ' mode ls,

a nd a rchaeo log ists h ave a t te mp ted t o a pp ly t hese mode ls t o a rchaeo log ica l s i tuat i on o f many p er iods a nd a t many p laces i n t he wor ld . F or a l l t he r easons g iven a bove , i tw ould b e d ishonest t o a t te mp t t o d o t he s a me h ere .

Un t i l more s urvey a nd e xcava t ion i s c onducted e nab l ing o ne t o

a scer ta in wh ich v ar iab les b est r ef lect a nd measure d if ferences b etween s e t t lemen ts, i ti s t oo e ar ly e ven t o p resen t af or ma l t ypology o f s i tes c haracter iz ing t he s et t le men t h ierarchy a t d if feren t p er iods.

F or t he mo men t i t must s uf f ice

t o u se t he t wen tytwo s ize f requency d istr ibut ion c lasses o f C hap ter 5 ( Set t lemen t S ize ) t o d escr ibe p re l im inar i ly t he d iversity o f s i tes i n t he S urvey Reg ion . S urvey d ur ing 1 977 f a i led t o p roduce e vidence o f s easona l f i sh ing a nd h un t ing c a mps , p astora l s ta t ions, k i l l-and-butchery s i tes, e tc ., wh ich must e ven tua l ly b e i n tegra ted i n to a ny s i te h ierarchy .

The 'i nvisib le p opu la t ion ' r epresen ted

b y t hese s i tes may h ave b een v ery l arge ( another c r i t ica l f actor i gnored i n many a rchaeolog ica l s tud ies o f s et t le men t s ys te ms ).

4 25

The a pproach t aken t o t he i n terpreta t ion o f s et t le men t d a ta c ol lec ted d ur ing 1 977 i s c onserva t ive.

T h is i s n ot t o s ay t ha t t here h as n ot b een g rea t t e mp ta-

t i on t o d isregard a l l c aut ion a nd t o s tray f ro m t he l im i ts s et b y t he q ua l i ty o f t he d a ta .

T o e nd t h is s ect ion a nd t o i l lustra te t he n eed f or t hese c aut ions , a n

e xa mp le o f t he d anger o f s uccu mb ing t o as educ t ive g eograph ica l a pp l ica t ion f o l lows. I n C hap ter 5 , ( Waterways ) t he p a t tern o f l argerthan-average s i te s ize a nd d ens i ty w i th in t he C lay a nd S and C hanne ls o f t he H ute , u pper Mar igot o f G om it ogo

S ou man-Ban i , a nd Mayo Mang •a was p resen ted w i thout d eta i led e xp lana t ion .

T o g o as tep f ar ther , when d istances b etween s i tes a re measured , l arge s i tes ( i nc lud ing a f ew modern v i llages o ccupy ing h igh t e l ls ) a re f ound t o b e r egu lar ly s paced o n e i ther s ide o f t he c hanne ls a t a n a verage i n terva l o f 2 .5-3.0 k i lome tres ( none g rea ter t han 5 .0 k i lo metres ) .

I fo ne a ssu mes t ha t a l l w ere

o ccup ied s i mu ltaneous ly , t hen t h is r egular p a t tern m igh t b e i n terpreted a s t he l inear r iver v ar ia t ion o f c en tra l p lace l oca t ion , wherein t he l arger s i tes f l anked b y sma l l s i tes s erved a s p or ts s usta ined b y a nd s ervicing t he r ich a gr icultura l h in ter land o n e i ther s ide o f t he d istr ibutar ies a t at i me w hen t he c hanne ls s erved more a s t ranspor t r ou tes t han t hey d o t oday ( d ur ing t he e ar ly d ry s eason ) ( c f . F lannery 1 976: 1 73-180 ;

B urghard t 1 959 ) .

Th is r econstruc-

t i on may i n t ime b e p roved c orrect , a l though i ti s i n terest ing t ha t modern v i llages a long t he f our wa terways d isp lay f ar l ess r egular i ty . H owever , t h is e xa mp le i s as p lend id i l lustra t ion o f t he d angers o f a sk ing t oo much o f t he d a ta f ol low ing a n e xp lora tory s eason o f s urvey :

1 .

I fo n ly

o neth ird o f a l l t he l arge s i tes were o ccup ied a t a ny o ne t ime , a nd i ft hose o ccup ied s i tes w ere i n a ny manner c oncen tra ted , t he i n terpreta t ion c ol lapses ( Con te mporane i ty ) .

2 .

The d ef in i t ion o f al arge s i te was u nsyste ma t ic ( i .e .,

g enera lly g reater t han t wo h ectares ). 3 .

( S ize o f S et t le men t a nd f unct iona l s ize ) .

L arge s i tes o n t he h igh land l evees o f t hese d istr ibutar ies may h ave b een

l ess d ense ly p opula ted t han sma l ler t e l l s i tes b ui l t u pon t he S and o r C lay C hann e ls ;

s ize o f s i te i s n ot a c lear g auge o f t he p opula t ion o f t he c o mmun i ty

( Mo men tary P opula t ion ) , 4 .

I n s evera l c ases ( e .g ., 2 91-11-A a nd B ) t wo

l arge s ites w i th in a c luster were c oun ted a s as ing le s et t le men t ;

r esu lts o f

t he a na lysis w ould b e q ui te d if feren t i fe ach s i te i n ac luster p roves t o b e a d if feren t a nd s epara te s e tt le men t , o ccup ied c on te mporaneously ( Cluster ing ) . 5 .

T he d istances b etween s i tes w ere measured a long t he p r inc ipa l b ed o f

e ach wa terway , b ut o ne n eeds t o k now whether e very p ar t o f e ach c hanne l was f ree o f c ongest ion d ur ing-t he c r i t ica l mon ths a nd w hether a ny o f t he l arger s i tes w i th in t hese l inear a l ign men ts r anked h igher i n t he h ierarchy a nd s o u nder took a n u neven f unct ion a s c en tra l s tore a nd c raf t a nd a dm in istra t ive f ocus ( I n teract ion a nd D istance ) .

6 .

N eed J enne o r t he J enne-co mp lex n eces-

s ar i ly h ave b een t he f ocus o f a n i n tegra ted n e twork o f r iver t ranspor t?

I ft he

d est ina t ion o f f oodstuf fs f ro m t he S urvey Reg ion w ere t he c i t ies d own t he N iger R iver , i t may h ave b een b et ter t o f l oa t b arges d own t he Mayo Manga a nd t he S ou man-Ban i t o t he c onf luence w i th t he N iger a t K ouakourou , t hereby b yp ass ing t he s torehouses, merchan ts a nd m idd le men o f J enne a l together . Wou ld t h is a rgue f or s o me p ol i t ica l c on trol o ver t he f l ow o f p roduce?

4 26

( Reg ion )

S u m mary o f S e t t le men t i n t he S urvey R eg ion ( s ee F ig . 6 .1 ) The s et t le men t d a ta f ro m J ennejeno a nd t he S urvey Reg ion must n ow b e i n terpreted i n t he l i gh t o ft he i n for ma t ion a bout c l i ma te a nd g eo morphology p resen ted i n C hap ter 3 a nd i n t he l i gh t o f wha t i s k nown f ro m e x terna l s ources o f t he h istory o f t he I n land N iger De l ta . Th is i s a modest a pproach n ecessit a ted b y t he l im i ted q ua l i ty o ft he s et t le men t d a ta . s en t wr i ters

t ha t

I ti s t he b el ief o ft he p re-

r esu l ts o f a n e xp lora tory c ampa ign o f e xcava t ion a nd s urvey

a re b est i n terpre ted w i th c aut ion ; t oo o f ten r esearch f o l low ing a n e xp lora tory p ro ject i s d evoted t o r epa ir ing t he d a mage d one b y t he t oo-hasty a nd s pecu la t ive i n terpre ta t ion o f i nco mp le te ly c ol lec ted a nd d igested d a ta . P hases Ia nd I a nd B efore . J ennejeno i s t hus f ar t he o n ly s i te i n t he I nl and N iger De l ta t o h ave r evea led d eposi ts e ar lier t han t he l a te f i rst mi l lenn iu m A . D .

N o l i th ic ma ter ia l was f ound a t J ennejeno, n or a nywhere e lse

w i th in t he S urvey R eg ion . I tt hus a ppears u n like ly t ha t e vidence o f L a te S tone Age o ccupa t ion w i l l b e f ound i n t he u pper I n land N iger De lta . Th is may b e b ecause t he e n t ire I n land De lta was c overed b y a n e xtensive f ro m a pprox i ma te ly 6 500 t o 4 500 b . p .

p a leo-Lake Debo '

I n s uch a c ase , o ccupa tion d uring t hose

t wo m i l lenn ia w ould h ave b een i mpossib le , a nd a ny a r tefacts o f e ar lier p er iods wou ld h ave b een b ur ied u nder d eep l acustr ine d eposi ts. I ft he l ake were v ery l arge a nd t he a nnua l v ar ia t ion i n l eve l g rea t , e ven t he f ew f ea tures a bove wa ter may h ave b een u noccup ied .

Desp i te B ozo t rad i t ions t ha t t he r eg ion was a

l arge l ake b efore t heir a rr iva l , t he p hysica l e v idence o f t h is l ake h as p roved e lusive .

H owever , e ven i ft he a rea were n ot p er manen t ly u nder wa ter , i ti s

c lear t ha t t he r ecen t a nd a ct ive h ydro logy o f t he f l oodp la in would h ave r e mbved s urface e v idence o f L ate S tone Age o ccupa t ion . The N iger l akes d ec l ined a t c . 4 000 t o 3 500 b . p ., a s d id t he r e mnan t l akes o f t he s outhern S ahara . F ro m 3 300 t o 2 300 b .p . t he N iger l akes r ose s o mewha t , b ut e ven d ur ing t he f irst h a lf o f t he l ast m i l lenn iu m B . C . t he a rea o f t he i nunda ted p la in was f ar g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he l i ve d e l ta t oday .

I t may h ave b een p ossib le f or g roups

t o p ene tra te w i thin t he J enne r eg ion o n ly d ur ing t he d r iest f ew mon ths o f t he y ear , a t wh ich t i me f i sher men a nd p erhaps p astora lists may h ave e xp loi ted c hanne ls a nd marshy d epressions o n as easona l b asis much a s t he B ozo a nd mob i le F u lan i d o t oday .

R e ma ins o f t he ir t e mporary c a mps w ould h ave b een

i n p recise ly t hose a reas s ub jec ted t o g rea test f l uvia l a nd d e lta ic s ed i men ta t ion . T h is w ould p robab ly h ave b een t he e nd o f t he p hase o f h eavy s ed i men ta t ion , v io len t f l oods, a nd s trangu la t ion o f d istr ibutar ies wh ich c haracter ized t he l a t ter h a lf o ft he s o-ca l led H o locene p luv ia l , a l though t he Ban i h ad p robab ly a lready a ssu med i t s p resen t c ourse a round t he e astern p ar t o f t he F e maye. Then , f ro m c . 2 500 b .p . t o A . D . 7 00-800 t here a ppears e vidence o f a marked d ry p eri od t hroughout West A fr ica . Decrease i n r a in fa l l l a t t h is t ime p robab ly h ad t he e f fect o f r educing t he h eigh t a nd p er iod o f t he f l oods, o pen ing t o p er manen t s e t t le men t a reas h i ther to f l ooded f or a l l b u t af ew mon ths e ach y ear .

P erhaps t he f i rs t f l oodp la in a reas a va i lab le f or y ear-round o ccupa t ion

were t he s o mewha t h igher s oi ls, e .g ., t he J enne a nd J ennejeno a rea wh ich i s w i th in t he l im i ts o ft he a ncien t r ed d une , p erhaps a lso e leva ted o n as ubt erranean a nchor ing f ea ture.

I t may a lso b e t he c ase t ha t many , i fn ot most ,

o ft he s i tes o n t he f l oodp la in were f i rst o ccup ied b efore c ondi t ions a ga in b ec a me h um id a t C . A . D . 7 00 . v e loped i n i so la t ion .

I ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t he g row ing J ennejeno d e-

4 27

F IG . 6 .1

Occupa t ion T rends

Y ears, C l ima t ic , b .p . 'E p isodes ' _ _

T en ta t ive O ccupa t ion T rends

i gh t We t L

D ry

P hases

a t

IJ ennejeno

D ense

r ecen t t urmo i l I

-

CD

b amba ra / fu lan i p ene tra t ion

-

h igh land s i tes a bandoned

—500 -

( r7-7)

a bandonmen t o f j ennejeno/near s i tes

_

4 4

h igh f l oodp la in a bandoned

-

I r r ir

( ow f l oodp la in a bandoned

—1000

max . h i n ter land d ens i ty J ennejeno-33 h a .

_

t umu l i b u i l t

I I I

_ —1500 _ _ -

T o

n i v ) v l( t ) ( 1 )3 3 7 ? a

_ _

j enneJeno 12ha .

—2000

_ _ _

_ 2 500

I

1 , j ennejeno f ounded ? e ar ly s e t t lemen t o f I . N .D . ?

4 28

9

1 1

I fi tw ere t he c ase t ha t o n ly s e t t le men ts e stab l ished d ur ing t he p er iod o f l ow f l oods b eca me t rue t e l ls when t he wa ters r e turned t o f u l l h e igh t , t hen p erh aps t he m idd le d ep ths o f t he P ondor i ( e .g . ,t he r eg ion o f 1 59-6 a nd 1 57-2 ) were a lso p er manen t ly a bove t he wa ters b efore c . A . D . 7 00 .

Those wh ich

h ad b een b ui lt u p t o al eve l a bove t he f l ood l eve l, o r wh ich k ep t p ace w ith t he c en tur ieslong r ise o f t he a nnua l h ighwa ter mark , r e ma ined o ccup ied . Th is r econstruct ion o f c ourse p resu mes t ha t t hese s et t le men ts w ere p er manen t o n ly ; t he c o mmun i ty c ou ld h ave f l ed t o h igh land a reas f or s evera l mon ths e ach y ear , s et t le men ts b eco m ing p er manen t o n ly a f ter b ui ld ing d ebr is h ad a ccu mul a ted t o ah eigh t a bove t he f l oods. I ti so f i n terest t ha t i n 1 977 many f l oodp lain t e lls w ere v isi ted wh ich h ad b een u ndercut b y s h if t ing wa tercourses a nd a l ong s ect ion e xposed . I f many s i tes w ere e stab lished d ur ing t he p er iod o f l ow f l oods, i ti s t o t ha t p er iod t ha t o ne must l ook f or t he c auses o f c lustering o f s i tes a nd f or t he e arl i est p a t tern o f c lusters o f q ui te sma ll s i tes d ispersed o ver t he f l oodp la in . S pecu la t ions a bout t he o r ig in o f J ennejeno c u lture a nd t he e ar ly e cono my f o l low i n t he n ex t s ect ion o f t he p resen t c hap ter . Phase I I . F ro m a pprox i ma te ly A . D . 7 00 t o t he t h irteen th o r f our teen th c en tur ies c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions improved a nd t he N iger l ake l eve ls r eached t heir l ast h ighstand a t c . A . D . 1 000 . I ti s a ga in d if f icu lt t o s ay much a bou t t he s et t le men t p at terns o f t h is p er iod b ecause o f t he l ack o f e v idence c oncern ing wh ich o ft he many s i tes o f t he S urvey R eg ion were o r were n ot o ccup ied b et ween c . A . D . 4 00 t o 9 00.

Most s i tes d eserted d uring Phase I I were n ot

s et t le men t s i tes ( ra ther , t hey were s pecia l b ur ia l mounds ) ; h owever , t here i s i nd irect e v idence t ha t s o me o ft he l argest s i tes e xper ienced t he ir max i mu m a reä o fo ccupa t ion d ur ing t h is P hase ( e .g ., J ennejeno, K an iana , 1 59-T18-A ) a nd t ha t s evera l o ft he l arge modern s et t le men ts o ccupy mounds b ui l t u p a t l east i n p ar t i n t he c ourse o f Phase I I ( e spec ia l ly J enne a nd T oga l Hu te ).

I t

i s i n tr iguing t ha t s o many v ery l arge s i tes n ear J enne s hould s how s igns o f P hase I Io ccupa t ion . I t was n ot o n ly l arge s i tes wh ich may h ave p ro li fera ted a t t h is t ime , a nd we may f i nd e vidence o f t he f u ll e xpression o f t he mul t i-si te c luster ing p heno menon a t t h is t ime . I ts ee ms v ery l i ke ly t ha t i n t he p ast t he u pper I n land N iger De lta was more h eav i ly p opula ted t han t oday ; a pparen t ly , i th as n ot a lways b een t he c ase , a s s o me h u man g eographers c la im , t ha t h u man p opu la t ions h ave f ound i t imp oss ib le t o p opula te a n e x tensive A fr ican f l oodp lain t o a ny s ign i f ican t d ensi ty ( c f . Ga l la is 1 967 , I :2 0-21 ) . P hase I V . S evera l l a te-Phase I I a nd P hase I V s i tes s how e v idence o f d es truc t ive f l ood ing ., a nd t h is may b e r e la ted t o t he h um id a dvance o f c . A .D. 1 000 a t tes ted a t o ther l oca l i t ies i n t he Wes t A fr ican S ahe l a nd S ahara . C a lcareous n odu les o ccur i n t he u pper l eve ls o f t he e xcava t ions l abe l led M 1 a nd J F1 a nd 2 .

T hese a re s ca t tered o ccurrences a nd t he n odu les may

h ave b een t ranspor ted f ro m a far .

H owever , c on t inuous s hee ts o f n odu les

a t t he P hase I I s i te o f 1 59-E-11D a nd e rod ing f ro m t he m idd le s lope o f t he P hase I V s i te 3 52-L in-4 a pp ear t o h ave b een c rea ted i n s i tu a nd may i nd icate t he l eve l o f f l ood ing a t t ha t t ime.

The Tapa ma my th a nd i t s i n terest ing a sso-

c ia t ion w i th t he t erracot ta s ta tuary o f P hase I V c on tex ts may b e a me mory o f ap er iod o f h igh , f requen t , b ut u npred ictab le f l ood ing . 4 29

Th is me mory i s

v ery s trong i n t he l oca l o ra l t rad i t ions.

The h igh f l oods may h ave c aused t he

a bandon men t o f s o me l ow s i tes a nd p erhaps s o me c hanges i n s ubsistence e conom ies ( e .g ., l i vestock a nd d o mest ic a n ima ls a re a lways b ad ly a f fected b y h igh a nd v iolen t f l oods ) .

The g eo morphology o f t he S ou man-Ban i a nd t he Mayo

Manga s hows t ha t t he d istr ibutar ies h ave r ecen t ly c arr ied a l arge l oad a nd e xper ienced a f orcefu l p er iod o f meander ing , b ut t ha t t he l i near a l ign men t o f n ow-deser ted s i tes h ad b een e stab l ished b efore t he p er iod o f c hanne l m igrat i on b egan ( s i tes o n t he c onvex b anks a re b e ing d eserted b y t he p r incipa l b ed , whereas s i tes o n t he c oncave b ank a re b e ing b ad ly u ndercut ) . I ft hese f l oods were e ven modera te ly v iolen t , a nd e ven i ft hey o ccurred o ver a s pan o f a v ery f ew y ears , t hey c ou ld h ave t ranspor ted a nd d eposi ted e nough s and a nd s i l t t o b ad ly c ongest t he c hanne ls. t ar ies may b e v ery r ecen t i ndeed .

T he f i na l s trangula t ion o f t hese d istr ibuThe a troph ied c hanne ls may h ave l ost

t he ir u t i li ty f or r iver t ranspor t a nd i so la ted s tands o f wa ter b eco me b rack ish a nd f i na l ly c o mp lete ly d ry . Th is may b e p ar t o f t he r eason why t he s trong p reference f or o ccupa t ion o f C lay a nd S and C hanne ls o f t he p ast i s n ot maint a ined t oday . A l terna t ive ly , t he C lay a nd S and C hanne ls may h ave b een t oo d angerous f or f u ll o ccupa t ion a s t he wa ters b egan t o r ise w ith t he r eturn o f r e la t ive ly h um id c ond i t ions. Modern v i llages a long t he S ou man-Ban i t end t o a void t he C hanne ls b y o ccupy ing t he h igh a ncien t l evees o r n earby e leva ted f l oodp la in s oi ls. B rasseur ( 1968 : 1 46 ) b e l ieves t ha t t he f l oodp la in o f t he Mass ina ( t ha t i s , t he e n t ire I n land N iger De l ta i n B rasseur ' st er m inology ) was a lready l arge ly d eser ted when t he F u lan i a rr ived i n t he f i f teen th c en tury b ecause t he f ar mers f ound t he a n ima l f l ood r eg i me t oo u npred ictab le e ven f or t he t rad i t iona l d ecrue r ice c u lt iva t ion . Ar ecen t i ncrease i n t he l ongter m v ar iab i l i ty a nd u npred ictab i li ty o f t he c l i ma te i n t he S ahe l o f West A fr ica i s c erta in ly a t rend i nd ica ted b y t he r ecen t w ork o fg eo morpho log ists ( e .g ., N icho lsen 1 976: 1 021 76 )

a nd i tf i ts wel l w i th t he p redo m ina t ing t rend o f t he H olocene , i .e .,

c l i ma t ic v ar ia t ion o f r educed amp li tude a nd p er iod .

B u t i ti s d iff icu lt t o d is-

m iss s usp ic ions t ha t t he u npred ictab le c l i ma te was a f act o f l i fe i n t he I n land N iger De lta f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f I ron A ge o ccupa t ion a nd t ha t t he a pparen t i ncrease i n c l i ma t ic v ar iab i l i ty s ince a pprox i ma te ly t he s ix teen th c entury i s s i mp ly a n a r tefact o f t he g rea ter a va i lab i l i ty o f d eta i l i n t he s ource ma ter ia l ( e .g .

C issoko 1 968 ).

T here i s i nsuf f ic ien t e v idence t o r esolve t he d eba te a bout whether t he more h um id c ond i t ions o ft he l ate-f irst a nd e ar ly-second m i l lenn ia A . D . mean t a s hor t p er iod o fv ery v io len t f l oods , al onger h istory o f u npredictab le f l ood a nd r a in fa ll r eg i me , o r s i mp ly c ond i t ions o p t i ma l f or a gr icu lture i n t he f l oodp la in . The r ise i n t he a verage f l ood l eve ls p robab ly d id c on tr ibute t o t he a bandon men t o f s i tes o n t he l owlying , h eavy s oi ls o f t he P ondor i . I tw ould b e i n teresting t o k now whether t he o ld f i e ld p a t terns v isib le o n t he a er ia l p hotographs ( e .g ., 1 59 a nd 1 57 ) d a te t o P hase I V o r whether t hey a re s i mp ly ar ecen t p roduct o f as h if t ing r ice c u l t iva t ion s yste m .

With t he r ise o f t he

f l ood wa ters, n ew h igher s oi ls s uch a s t hose o f t he Derar i may h ave b r ief ly b eco me a va i lab le f or r ice a nd s orghu m f ar m ing .

4 30

A lthough t here i s l i t t le e vidence o f ac a tac lys m ic e nd t o a ny o ft he P hase I V s i tes, p ol i t ica l e ven ts r e la ted t o t he c onsol ida t ion o f t he Emp ire o f Ma l i ( S und ia ta i n 1 235-1240 , Ma l i a ga inst J enne a nd t he Massina i n 1 270-1300 ) a nd t he w eaken ing o ft ha t Emp ire ( Mossi r a ids o f 1 333 a nd t he m idf if teen th c ent ury , S onn i A li i n 1 468 ) u ndoub ted ly h ad a p rofound e f fect , i fo n ly a s ac on tr ib u t ion t o t he p rogressive ly d im in ish ing s tab i l i ty o f t he Western S udan . A bandon men t o f many s i tes may a lso h ave b een c aused b y e ven l ess v is ib le p heno mena s uch a s t he s pread o f I s la m ( i n s o me c ases r equir ing a move f ro m as i te p ol luted b y p agan p ract ices ) o r t he s pread o f r ecen t A sia t ic d iseases ( e spec ia l ly c ho lera a nd t he b ubon ic p lague ). Any o f t hese r easons, o r t he s i mp le e f fect o f a t tract ion t owards a w e ll-defended , wea l thy , a nd u rbane a dm in istra t ive c en tre may e xp lain t he a pparen t t rend t owards c oncen tra tion o f s et t le men ts n ear J enne , wh ich was t aken t o f u ll e xpression d ur ing t he f o l low ing c en tur ies. I ti s i n terest ing t ha t f ew e xot ic i t e ms w ere f ound i n t he u pper l eve ls o f J ennejeno a nd o n t he s urface o f t he many s i tes f i e ld-wa lked d ur ing 1 977 . S lag c overs t he s ur face o f 6 5% o f t hese s i tes a nd t rad i t iona l u rn b ur ia l a ppears t o f l our ish .

Much more w ork i s n eeded b efore o ne c an s ay e i ther t ha t t he u pper

I n land N iger De lta was u n t i l q u i te r ecen t ly i sola ted f ro m d istan t i n f luences, o r s i mp ly r esistan t t o f oreign i nf luences. P hase I V-V . T he t ime-span o f t h is p er iod i s imprecise a nd i ts hould b e v iewed s i mp ly a s at ransi t ion f ro m t he s i tua t ion wh ich o b ta ined a t t he t i me o f t he a bandon men t o f J ennejeno t o t ha t f ound b y t he F rench u pon p ene tra t ion o f t he I n land N iger De lta i n t he l a te-n ineteen th c en tury ( l a te Phase V ). The l ast s ubstan t ia l h um id p er iod p robab ly e nded a t A . D . 1 200-1300 a nd was f o llowed b y ap er iod p robab ly n ot q ui te b ut n ear ly a s d ry a s t oday . A t c . A . D . 1 500 t o 1 750 c ond i t ions improved o n ly s l igh t ly a nd af terwards d ec lined t o t he p res en t v ar iab le , s ub-ar id r eg i me.

Th is i s t he p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he Derar i

was f i na l ly l argely a bandoned , p robab ly b ecause t he l ower f l oods made t he a rea u nsu i tab le f or t rad i t iona l a gr icul ture. A l most t hree-quar ters o f a l l r ec orded s i tes w ere a bandoned b y t he e nd o f t h is t ransi t iona l p er iod a nd a l l b ut av ery f ew o f t hose i n t he C lay a nd S and C hanne ls b eyond t he f our-k i lo metre r ad ius o fJ enne a lso a ppear t o h ave b een a bandoned p r ior t o t he s even teen th c en tury A . D . t h is t ime ;

S i tes o n t he h igher s andy f l oodp lain s oi ls were a bandoned d ur ing

s o me g roups may h ave f o l lowed t he d ec lin ing f l oods a nd moved

b ack t o t e lls c onstructed o n t he d eeper s oi ls n ow s ui ted f or r ice .

O thers may

h ave j o ined t he l a te c oncen tra t ion w i th in a f ew k i lo metres o f t he J enne-co mp lex . O ccupa t ion o f t he C lay ( and S and ) C hanne l , M idd le P la in-Loam a nd M idM idd le P la in-Sand p ar ts o ft he n or theastern P ondor i r uns c on trary t o t he t rend o ft he r est o ft he S urvey R eg ion a nd c an p robab ly b e a t tr ibuted t o t he a t tract ion o fJ enne .

H istor ians k now t ha t t he Mossi r a ided t he r eg ion r egular ly a nd t ha t

t he t ransi t ion t o S onghay r u le was n ot smooth .

H owever , t he most s ign if ican t

t rend was t he p enetra t ion o f t he B a mbara ( b eg inn ing i n t he t h irteen th c en tury?) a nd t he F u lan i ( beg inn ing i n t he e leven th o r t h ir teen th c en tur ies ? ) . B oth g roups a ppear t o h ave e n tered t he I n land N iger De lta i n l arge n u mbers d ur ing t he f if teen th t o s even teen th c en tur ies.

The ir i n i t ia l impact u pon t he J enne

h in ter land may h ave b een l ess t han t ha t f e l t i n t he Massina r eg ion , b ut t he ir i nf luence was n ever the less p rofound , ( c f . Ga l la is 1 967 , I :8 6-89 ).

4 31

B y t he t ime o f t he Moroccan i nvasion o f 1 591 , o r s hor t ly t hereaf ter , t he i n ter ior a ppears t o h ave b een b a lkan ized b y t he B a mbara f a ma , F ulan i a rdo , a nd Moroccan a r ma

b etween who m o n ly s hor t a nd u nsteady p eace was e stab-

l i shed , a nd who r egular ly r a ided a nd r avaged l ands a nd v i l lages o f a l l e thn ic g roups ( especia l ly t he t rad i t iona l g roups l ack ing a mar t ia l t rad i t ion ).

The

o ra l t rad i t ions r eca l l t h is a s p ar t o f t he l ong p er iod d ur ing wh ich f ar mers o n t he sma l l mounds a round J enne o f ten h ad t o r un t o t he s afety o f t he c i ty wa l ls. Aga in t here i s s o me r eason f or h istor iograph ica l d oub t :

a s o ne a pproaches

t he p resen t t he e thn ic a nd p ol i t ica l e xp lana t ions b eco me more impor tan t t han t he e nv iron men ta l .

I s t h is a f unct ion o f t he q ua l i ty o f t he s ources f or t he more

r ecen t p er iods? P hase V .

E ven ts d a t in g f ro m t he l a te-s ix teen th c en tury a nd e spec ia l ly

d ur ing t he n ineteen th c en tury e stab l ished t he s et t le men t p a t tern s een t oday i n t he I n land De lta . F u lan i c on t inued .

P o li t ica l i nstab i li ty a nd p enetra t ion b y t he Ba mbara a nd I n t he e igh teen th c en tury t he r eg ion f e ll u nder n om ina l

c on tro l o f t he F a ma o f S egou a nd i n t he e ar ly-n ineteen th c en tury t he F u lan i c ler ic S e-k u Amadou d ra ma t ica l ly a l tered t he t rad i t iona l s et t le men t p a t tern . H e f orced a l l n o mad ic F u lan i t o e stab l ish o r j oin a p er manen t v i l lage , wh ich h ad t o b e l oca ted o n ah igh land l andfor m b ecause o f t he n eed t o k eep m i lk c ows d ur ing t he w in ter a nd t o g row s orghu m f or t hose c ows .

B y t he b eginn ing

o f F rench a dm in istra t ion most v i l lages n ear J enne w ere i nhab i ted b y R i ma ibe o r m ixed F u lan i-R i ma ibe ( c f . Mon te i l 1 903: 2 84 ) .

B y t h is t ime many Ba mbara

h ad e stab lished v i l lages o r b eco me t he ma jor p ar t o fv i l lages o n t he d unes o r L igh t L evee , a nd S e im Amadou f ur ther s e t t led B a mbara p r isoners w i th in t he S urvey Reg ion .

I t was t he p o licy o f S e-k u Amadou t o g a ther a l l p eop le t ogether

i n l arger , more-easi ly c on tro lled v i l lages; h ence t he modern p a t tern o f q u i te l arge v i l lages , v ery f ew t iny s et t le men ts, a nd a s trong t endency t owards i so lat i on o r p a ir ing a t most .

There a re a lso f ewer modern s et t le men ts o f g rea ter-

t han t en h ectares ( a l though more a s ap ercen tage o f a l l v i l lages ) .

The Tuku lor

c on t inued many o f t he s a me p o lic ies d ur ing t he l ast f ew d ecades b efore F rench a dm in istra t ion .

4 32

Par t i

S ect ion I I JENNE-JENO AND I TS RE G ION I N PERSPECTIVE

4 33

CHAPTER 7 J ENNE-JENO :

I MPL ICATIONS OF THE

EXCAVAT IONS AND REG IONAL S URVEY

EARLY J ENNE-JENO Or ig ins o f J ennejeno C u l ture N o ma ter ia l a t tr ibu tab le t o t he La te S tone Age ( 'Neo l i th ic ') was f ound a t a ny p o in t i n t he e xcava t ions a t J ennejeno .

The f irs t o ccupan ts o f t he s i te

a ppear t o h ave b een f u l ly i ron-us ing a nd d id n o t u se f laked s tone t oo ls , n or i s t here a ny e v idence f or b one t oo ls s uch a s h arpoons .

I n f act , f laked a nd

p o l ished l i th ic a r te fac ts s ee m t o b e s ingu lar ly a bsen t f ro m t he wes tern I ND . N e i ther S zumowsk i ( 1954 , 1 955 , 1 956a , 1 957a ) n or B edaux ( 1976b , 1 977 ) r epor ted e ncoun ter ing a ny l i th ic ma ter ia l i n t he c ourse o f t he ir e x tens ive r econna issance ;

t hree mon ths o f i n tens ive s urvey o f a n u nb iased 2 0% s a mp le

o f t he p er manene t ly d ry , u p land a reas w i th in a 2 5-k i lo me tre r ad ius t o t he n or th a nd wes t o f J enne t urned u p n o t o ne f lake .

T hese r esu l ts , p ar t icu lar ly

t hose f ro m t he c on tro l led s amp le s urvey n ear J enne , s trong ly s ugges t t ha t La te S tone Age s i tes o n u p land a reas a re e x tre me ly r are i n t he wes tern I ND , i fi ndeed t hey e x is t a t a l l .

Many o f t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he I ND a ppear

t o b e q u i te r ecen t ( i .e ., s econd mi l lenn iu m A .D.) , a nd a l l a va i lable e v idence p oin ts t o t he d eve lop men t o f t e l l s i tes a s au n ique ly I ron Age p heno menon i n t he I ND . Th is , o f c ourse , p rov ides a s harp c on tras t w i th t he s i tua t ion d ocumen ted i n B ornu o f t he t e l l s i tes o n t he f irk i ( c lay p la ins ) s ou th o f L ake C had ( Connah 1 976: 3 27) . Why wou ld La te S tone Age p as tora l is ts/hun ter-ga therers a vo id t he I ND when s im i lar e nv ironmen ts i n t he S ahara were d ry ing u p a f ter C . 2 000 B .C., p resumably c aus ing move men t o f p opu la t ions t owards b e t ter-wa tered a reas t o t he s ou th?

Two r easonable e xp lana t ions p resen t t he mse lves .

I ti s e n t ire ly

p oss ible t ha t t here was La te S tone Age o ccupa t ion i n t he I ND wh ich was s eas ona l ly c oncen tra ted i n l owlying a reas d ur ing t he d r ies t mon ths o f t he y ear ( a p a t tern n o t u n l ike t ha t o f t he Fu lan i p as tora l is ts i n t he a rea t oday ).

I n

t h is c ase , e v idence o f L a te S tone Age p resence w ou ld b e b ur ied u nder a c ons iderable amoun t o f a l luv iu m .

A l terna t ive ly , i th as b een s ugges ted , o n a na-

l ogy w i th L ake C had , t ha t t he p resen t I ND may h ave b een a s lowly d es icca t ing l ake o r h igh-f loodwa ter a rea d ur ing t he s econd a nd f irs t mi l lenn ia B .C. N icho lson ( 1 976: 7 2-97) h as f ound e v idence o f h igher wa ter l eve ls i n t he N iger l akes d ur ing t he p er iod 1 300-300 B .C., wh ich p resu mably imp l ies a more a ct ive f l ood r eg i me a t t ha t t ime i n t he u ps trea m I ND r eg ion f eed ing t he l akes .1 S e t t le men t w i th in t he a rea o f t he p resen t I ND may n o t h ave b een p oss ible u n t i l t he wa ters r eached a pprox i ma te ly t he ir p resen t l eve l C . 3 00 B .C .

G iven s uch

as i tua t ion , as i te l i ke K obad i ( see Map 7 .1) may b e a n e xamp le o f t he k ind o f La te S tone Age s i te t ha t was l oca ted a d jacen t t o t he s econd/ear ly-f irs t mi l lenn iu m

4 34

X C opper

v . G o ld

[ IT I F orest • C har io t p i ctures % --% P oss ib le c ha r io t r ou tes

+a dditiona l 1 . 2 . 3 .

M AP

s ites

K obadi K arkar ichinkat K ourounkoroka le

7 . 1

4 . 5 . 6 .

D aima T ichitt R im

V arious s ites m entioned i n C hapter 7 , ( adapted f rom M .Posnansky, ' Aspects o f e ar ly W est A frican t rade ', W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 973:151)

4 35

I n land D el ta r eg ion .

Mauny r epor ts t ha t t he s ur face o f K obad i i s " jonch6

d 'osse men ts h uma ins , d 'an i maux e t d e p oissons , d e f ragmen ts d e p o ter ie , e t d e p ierres t a i l lges ...I 1 yf u t t rouv6 a uss i 2h arpons e n o s" ( Mauny 1 967a : 7 6 , 7 8 ).

A r ad iocarbon d a te o f 7 13 + 1 45 b .c. i s a va i lable f or t he s i te

( Posnansky a nd McIn tosh 1 976: 1 92 ). Fur ther work i s r equ ired b efore t hese t wo p oss ibi l i t ies c an b e a dequa tely a ssessed , b u t i n e i ther c ase i ti s r easonab le t o t h ink t ha t t he Ear ly I ron Age c u l ture a t J ennejeno d eve loped o u t o f t he La te S tone Age c u l ture o f s i tes l i ke Kobad i .

E ven i fi ti s n o t p oss ib le t o s ee a n i n s i tu d eve lop men t f ro m L a te

S tone Age t o Ear ly I ron Age i n t he I ND , t here i s n o r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t he c u l tura l e le men ts o f P hase Io ccupa t ion a t J ennejeno were t ranspor ted f ro m p o in ts much more d is tan t t han t he n or thern a nd wes tern p er iphery o f t he Del ta . T he p ers is ten t t rad i t ions among t he B ozo a nd N ono o f o r ig ins f ro m D ia may b e a me mory o f t h is move men t i n to t he D el ta . C o mpar isons o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture f ro m P hase Ia t J ennejeno w i th t ha t o f o ther s i tes a re d i f f icu l t ;

t he o n ly o ther I ron Age s i tes i n Wes t A fr ica o f

c o mparab le a n t iqu i ty a re i n t he N ok a rea o f N iger ia a l mos t 1 500 k i lo me tres t o t he s ou theas t .

T he c loses t we c an g e t t o J ennejeno b o th c hrono log ica l ly

a nd g eograph ica l ly i n t er ms o f we l l-s tud ied s i tes a re R i m Ma a nd I i l b ( A. D. 0 -950 ) , T ich i t t ( sequence e nds c . 4 00 B .C .) , a nd Karkar ich inka t ( ends c . 1 300 B . C.) .

Kourounkoroka lh i s aL a te S tone Age s i te w i th p o t tery , b u t i ts

a ge i s u nknown .

L i th ic t oo ls , b o th p o l ished a nd f laked , a re c o m mon i n a l l

o f t hese s i tes , i nc lud ing t he I ron Age l eve ls a t R im ( Wa i-Ogusu 1 973 : 3 01). A pparen t ly , s e t t le men t i n t he I ND , wh ich l acks a ny s ource o f s tone f or t oo l manu fac ture , o ccas ioned a r ad ica l s h i f t i n t oo l k i t , s ince n o s tone t ools o ther t han g r ind ing s tones w ere f ound a t J ennejeno .

Any b e tween-s i te c o mpar isons

we migh t w ish t o make , t hen , w i l l f ocus p r i mar i ly o n t he p o t tery f ro m t hese s i tes . There c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t he P hase Ic era m ics a t J ennejeno a re o f fs ho ts o f aS aharan p o t tery t rad i t ion . S ahara i s c haracter ized b y:

L a te S tone Age p o t tery i n t he s ou thern

s i mp le-r i m med p o ts o f s pher ica l o r h e mispher ica l

f or m ( Camps-Fabrer 1 966: 4 64 ) , we l l- made p as te ( Camps-Fabrer 1 966 : 5 21) wh ich was o f ten s andte mpered , a nd p redo m inance o f impressed d ecora t ion o ver much o f t he s ur face o f t he p o t ( Camps-Fabrer 1 966: 4 64 ; 1 965b : 4 36) .

La mber t

A l though t here a ppear t o b e r eg iona l a nd t e mpora l p references

i n t he S ahara f or d i f feren t t ypes o f i mpressed d ecora t ion— tw ine , r ockers ta mp ing , s cored-padd le i mpress ion , c o mb — the s a l ien t p o in t h ere i s t he r ar i ty o f i nc ised o r c ordoned d ecora t ion i n t he ' Saharan N eo l i th ic t.

2

T he

g enera l h o mogene i ty o f s ou thern S aharan La te S tone Age c era m ics i s s tr ik ing ly i l lus tra ted b y Mauny ( 1967 ) . B y c on tras t , t he L a te S tone Age p o t tery f ro m t he s avanna a nd f ores t a reas i n Wes t A fr ica ( espec ia l ly t ha t o f t he s o-ca l led G u inea N eo l i th ic ) d i f fers i n s evera l ma jor a spec ts f ro m ' Saharan N eo l i th ic ' c era m ics :

t here i s ap re-

p onderence o f e ver ted a nd f lar ing r i ms a nd c oarse a nd p oor ly made p as te t e mpered w i th g rog , a s we l l a s at endency t owards d eep p las t ic d ecora t ive t echn iques s uch a s g roov ing , s tabbing , a nd r e l ie f c ordons ( c f ., Mauny 1 951c ; B essac 1 952 ;

H o las a nd Mauny 1 953 ;

4 36

S zumowsk i 1 956b ).

O f c ourse , t here i s s o me d egree o f o ver lap b etween t he p ot tery a sse mb lages o f t he S aharan a nd t he G u inea Neo l i th ic ( e .g ., c o mb d ecora t ion i s p opu lar i n s o me p ar ts o f b o th r eg ions ) , b u t i n g enera l t he d i f ferences b etween S aharan a nd s avanna/ fores t La te S tone Age c era mics a re s ubstan t ia l ( c f ., Mauny 1 967a : 7 3 , 7 4 , t o c o mpare p o t tery f ro m S enega l w ith S aharan c era mics ). The ma jor i ty o f p ots f ro m P hase Ia t J ennejeno h ad s i mple r es tr icted o r u nres tr ic ted r i ms a nd were made f ro m a we l l-prepared , s and-te mpered p aste . Mos t o f t hese s andte mpered s herds were n ot iceably t h inner (