Britannica Book of the Year 1995 0852296118

Citation preview

BRITANNICA

BOOK OF

THE YEAR

LIRPARY

ie

NORTHERN BAPTIST THEOLG GICAL SEMINARY -

, =~ 8 d 14r b60a — LomiIL

Les avn

Encyclopedia

Britannica, Inc.

Chicago Auckland London Madrid Manila Paris Rome Seoul

Sydney Tokyo Toronto

LIBRARY

NORTHERN BAPTICT tum Aaien) ence...

MANAGER, COPY DEPARTMENT Sylvia Wallace COPY SUPERVISORS Julian Ronning Barbara Whitney COPY STAFF Ann Belaski Anthony G. Craine Madolynn Cronk Letricia A. Dixon Ellen Finkelstein Laura R. Gabler Anthony L. Green Sherman Hollar Glenn Jenne John Mathews Maria Ottolino Jeffrey Wallenfeldt Lee Anne Wiggins

EDITOR Charles P. Trumbull

EDITORIAL STAFF Ellen Bernstein David Calhoun Charles Cegielski Arthur Latham Melinda C. Shepherd Karen Jacobs Sparks Linda Tomchuck SPECIAL EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS Robert Rauch Rinzo Sakauchi

STATISTICAL STAFF William A. Cleveland W. Peter Kindel

MANAGER, PRODUCTION CONTROL Mary C. Srodon SENIOR COORDINATOR, PRODUCTION CONTROL Marilyn L. Barton PRODUCTION CONTROL STAFF Noelle M. Borge

Stephen Neher

CREATIVE DIRECTOR, ART Bob Ciano SENIOR PICTURE EDITOR Holly Harrington PICTURE EDITORS Kathryn Creech Karen Wollins PROJECT DESIGNER

Carmen-Maria Hetrea

INDEX SUPERVISOR

Edward Paul Moragne

INDEX STAFF Mansur G. Abdullah Darrin Baack Steven Monti

Stephen S. Seddon LIBRARIAN

Terry Passaro ASSOCIATE LIBRARIAN Shantha Uddin CURATOR/GEOGRAPHY David W. Foster ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN Robert Lewis SECRETARIAL STAFF Sara Brant Catherine E. Johnson

VICE PRESIDENT, MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS Lawrence J. Merrick MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS STAFF Steven Bosco

MANAGER, COMPOSITION/PAGE MAKEUP

Steven Kapusta

Melvin Stagner

ART PRODUCTION SUPERVISOR

SUPERVISOR, COMPOSITION/PAGE MAKEUP Michael Born, Jr. COORDINATOR, COMPOSITION/PAGE MAKEUP

Stephanie Motz

DESIGNERS Kathryn Diffley John L. Draves Jon Hensley

ART STAFF Diana M. Pitstick

Philip Rehmer Vincent Star

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA, INC. Peter B. Norton, President and

Chief Executive Officer

Danette Wetterer

MANAGER, CARTOGRAPHY Barbra A. Vogel SUPERVISOR, CARTOGRAPHY Brian L. Cantwell CARTOGRAPHY STAFF Steven Bogdan Amelia R. Gintautas David A.R. Herubin Michael D. Nutter

©1995 BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA

MANAGER, INDEX DEPARTMENT

COMPOSITION/PAGE MAKEUP STAFF Griselda Chaidez Maria Rosa De Rosa Carol A. Gaines

Thomas J. Mulligan

ENCYCLOPA:DIA BRITANNICA NORTH AMERICA

Amelia R. Portinari

Karen M. Barch, Executive Vice President,

Gwen E. Rosenberg Tammy Yu-chu Wang

Operations Elizabeth P. O’Connor, Vice President, Finance and Administration Charles P. Trumbull, Director of Yearbooks

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Copyright Under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopzedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-611-8

International Standard Serial Number: 0068-1156

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR

(Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.) Printed in U.S.A.

FOREWORD ncyclopedia Britannica and the editors of the Britannica Book of the Year are proud to present the annual compilation of the trends, developments, and facts of 1994—our 58th edition. And what a year it was! Watershed elections in South Africa, unimaginable

bloodshed in Rwanda, and old politicians rejected in the United States and Italy. The world lost notables like Richard Nixon, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, and Kim II Sung; gained heroes like Hakeem Olajuwon, Taslima Nasrin, and Tom Hanks; regained figures like Jean-Bertrand Aristide and Helmut Kohl; feted Bonnie Blair, Whitney Houston, and Frank Gehry; celebrated the

birth of a new country (Palau) and two new chemical elements (numbers 110 and 111); and marked the anniversaries of D-Day, the tulip, and, yes, Barbie. This year’s edition features the work of some 70 new contributors. Sir Peter Ustinov, actor, public figure, and citizen of the world, shares his observations about the year in our keynote

COMMENTARY. We have also added eight Spotlight features in WORLD AFFAIRS to draw attention to important regional topics; for example, “The New Middle East,” “Africa’s Second Liberation,” and “Asian Values.”

Regular readers will note a number of changes in the 1995 yearbook. SPorTs AND GAMES now features an introductory essay on general issues as well as new coverage of judo, sumo, Australian rules football, equestrian show jumping and dressage, and Little League baseball. We also have special coverage of two top sporting events of the year—the Olympic Winter Games and the World Cup football (soccer) competition—as well as the top nonevent: the U.S. baseball strike. LITERATURE gains a few words on Netherlandic, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic letters as

well as coverage of important writing in English outside the U.K., the U.S., and Canada. Music includes expanded coverage of the genres of popular and world music; THEATRE applauds Toronto’s featured billing in that field; and MoTION PICTURES is accompanied bya special report on Hollywood’s challenge to the film industry worldwide. A new section, AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS, brings together coverage of art auctions, rare books, philately, and numismatics and adds a discussion of other collectibles (what is the most ever paid for a corset?) and a celebration of Sotheby’s 250th anniversary. You'll find full coverage of a once-in-a-millennium event, the crash of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 into Jupiter (as well as biographies of the comet’s discoverers), and features on the effects of digital photography on our perceptions of reality and the controversy over “repressed memories.” We have a new section on PALEONTOLOGY. You can learn about Prozac (a drug that bears an uncanny resemblance to “soma,” the substance dreamed up by Aldous Huxley, born 100 years ago this year) and Jules Verne’s eerily accurate technological vision of the 20th century in a newly discovered manuscript. RELIGION has a new table on church membership in the U.S. to complement the widely consulted table of religious affiliation by continental areas. The social status of women and children worldwide is examined in two features, and two other articles provide historical background on

the conflict between Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda and the white settlement of South Africa. We have retitled our business section BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW and added coverage of retailing, paper and pulp, apparel, and housewares, as well as light metals, advanced composite materials, and metalworking. In Economic AFFAIRS look also for a fascinating account of the world’s new stock exchanges. We have also made visual improvements in the book. Tables have been redesigned, and several have been changed to charts so as to better present the essence of the data. Layouts have changed too, most visibly in SPORTING RECORD but also in the placement of photographs throughout the book. Photos include the unforgettable work of Sebastiao Salgado and the late Kevin Carter. Six maps were specially compiled for this volume. Cataloging what’s new in our book is not in any way to diminish the importance of the regular features of Britannica Book of the Year, of course, especially the authoritative and incomparable BRITANNICA WORLD DATA. Surely you will find yourself returning time and time again to the Britannica Book of the Year during 1995. I also hope that if you have suggestions about how the book could be of even greater value to you, you will write and let us know. Enjoy! Charles P. Trumbull, Editor

CONTENTS COMMENTARY 7 Toward the Age of Common Sense by Sir Peter Ustinov

THE YEAR IN REVIEW 11 Chronology of 1994 32 Disasters People of 1994

36 39 60 Events 90 100 101 104 107

Nobel Prizes Biographies Obituaries of 1994 Agriculture and Food Supplies Anthropology Archaeology Architecture © Preserving the World’s Historical and Cultural Legacy by Arlene K. Fleming Art Exhibitions Astronomy

© Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9: A Spectacular Good-bye

278

by Kenneth Brecher Auctions and Collections e Sotheby’s Birthday by Geraldine Norman Botanical Gardens and Zoos Business and Industry Review

e Digitally Altered Photography:

The New Image-Makers by Arthur Goldsmith

e Last Puff Postponed by Michael F. Barford Chemistry Consumer Affairs Crime, Law Enforcement,

and Penology Dance

Earth Sciences e Mapmaking: Redrawing the Boundaries by John D. Bossler Economic Affairs SPECIAL REPORT: Emerging Equity Markets by John Mullin Education

104

178 180 185 186 191 192 193 194 198

201 203 204 208 209 215 218 230 230 239 242

Energy Engineering Projects Environment e Save the Tiger by Barbara Whitney Fashion and Dress Gardening

e Tulip Mania by Shepherd Ogden Health and Disease SPECIAL REPORT: Repressed Memories by Michael D. Yapko Information Processing and Information Systems Labour-Management Relations Law Libraries Life Sciences SPECIAL REPORT: Prozac by Richard M. Restak Literature Mathematics Military Affairs Mining Motion Pictures

301 308

321 339 342 346

347 350

352 374

383

394

418

453

468

474 486

245

247 249 252

254 255) 257 259 263 265

266 276 277

278 280 283 285

SPECIAL REPORT: The Hollywood Conquest by David Robinson Museums Music © In Our Lives: 30th Anniversary of the Beatles’ First U.S. Visit by Jeff Wallenfeldt Physics Populations and Population Movements e The Cairo Conference by Carl V. Haub Publishing Race and Ethnic Relations © Rwanda’s Complex Ethnic History by Learthen Dorsey Religion Social Protection ¢ Human Rights: The Status of Women by Suzanne Roach SPECIAL REPORT: Street Children by Marilyn E. Rocky Space Exploration Sports and Games e Baseball Strikes Out by Robert William Verdi

© World Cup by Jack Rollin SPECIAL REPORT: The XVII Olympic Winter Games by Melinda C. Shepherd Sporting Record Television and Radio Theatre e Toronto, Theatre’s

Third City by H.J. Kirchhoff Transportation SPECIAL REPORT: Seafaring and History in the English Channel by Nigel Calder World Affairs SPOTLIGHT: The South Pacific Forum by Barrie MacDonald SPOTLIGHT: Latin America’s New Economic Strategy by John Sheahan SPOTLIGHT: East Asia and the Transition in North Korea by Donald Morrison SPOTLIGHT: Perils of Postcommunism in Eastern Europe by George Schdpflin SPOTLIGHT: Africa’s Second Liberation by Colin Legum SPOTLIGHT: Asian Values by Berton Woodward e White Settlement in South Africa by Martin Legassick SPOTLIGHT: The New Middle East

by Robert D. Kaplan 495

497

e The 1994 Midterm Elections

by Melanie Anne Cooper SPOTLIGHT: The New Caribbean Basin Identity by David Renwick

Major Revisions from the 1995 Macropedia American Literature Eastern Africa: Eritrea Marketing and

Merchandising (in part) South America: Amazon River Basin Bibliography: Recent Books

Book of the Year Contributors

COMMENTARY

-Age of Seoyaaven! Sense BY SIR PETER USTINOV

“=== r

=

am not one of those who can easily tell the difference between year and year, like a meteorologist with reliable charts to go by. I am not even one who can refer to a kind of event or quirk of fashion as typically ’70s or ’80s. All I am capable of is sensing the prevalent groundswells of life and registering, on occasion, the undertow,

which is often contradictory. We are in the midst of an enormous revolution in collective behaviour, one which

is too often judged by old criteria. It all | Lo began, within living memory, with the sudm= den dissolution of one of the most rigidly Boncroied? autocracies the world has ever known, the Soviet Union. It was as if the nation had responded to some physical law, like the boiling point, and simply vanished. Abruptly, in a world which had obeyed a general tendency to unify and coalesce, a large number of new republics were born, all enjoying a precarious independence as though they had found themselves in the middle of the last century. The example was, followed by others who felt cheated of their moment of self-identity in history. Slovakia decided to secede from its Czech sister, and the horror of Yugoslavia must be invoked as the most lamentable example of blood carelessly and brutally spilled during these enormous upheavals. I would go as far as to say that in Prague, suddenly released from the doctrinaire bonds of communism, the mob reacted, perhaps for the first time in history, with the intelligence of an individual. There were no excesses; no

proof was needed of what was happening; joy and relief created their own congenial climate. Mikhail Gorbachev will certainly go down in history as the great pioneer who made this extraordinary reassessment possible. It matters little that he is suffering from a temporary eclipse in his own country. He launched a new way of thinking of which we all are the beneficiaries, and

nothing parochial politics can do is capable of tarnishing his example. There will always be those of limited vision who believe that the Cold War was won by the West and that it constituted a victory over the heresy of communism, to be celebrated as such. To be so shortsighted would be to judge by outmoded standards, as I have mentioned above. Gorbachev’s importance was not merely to re-create Russia out of the embers of the Soviet Union but actually to be the first to hazard the opinion that the nuclear deterrent, so favoured by hawks in both camps, was a lunacy and an odious reflection on the humanity of all nations. Chernobyl was a frightening warning. The idea of millions of deliberate Chernobyls, killing and distorting life on a huge scale, was an idea too horrible to contemplate, and yet its possibility had been entertained by rational people. The automatic result of this renunciation of the advantages of nuclear weaponry by the major powers, and the beginning The protean Sir Peter Ustinov is known throughout the world as an actor on stage and screen (numbering two Academy Awards and a New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award among his honours), a playwright, and a director of theatrical productions, operas, and motion pictures. Forbes FYI recently titled an interview with him “The Greatest Living Raconteur”; he delights audiences around the world with his witty one-man show. Ustinov has served as

goodwill ambassador for UNICEF since 1969 and chancellor of the University of Durham since 1992. He was knighted in 1990 and is a member of the French Academy. In addition to his stage works, Ustinov has written short stories and novels and contributes a regular column to The European. A collection of these commentaries was published in 1991 under the same title, Ustinov at Large. SEBASTIAO SALGADO

A boy prays with his fellow Muslim soldiers in the breakaway Russian ous example but succeeded of the gradual dismantling republic of Chechnya. After a period during which the world saw diverse in demonstrating that it of their huge arsenals, was nationalities gathered together in large, multinational states, many peoples is the duty of responsible the signal for another phehave begun to assert their separate identities. governments in the midst SEAN RAMSAY—JB PICTURES. nomenon to begin, a reof the present moral conspect for human life in fusion to act responsibly. The fact that they did something those parts of the world most capable of ending it on a was, in itself, a welcome change from the general paralysis large scale. This unexpected respect for the sanctity of life, gripping other large nations. In Somalia the muddle of the coupled with growing political pressure from Green parties attempted reconciliation between armed intervention and and ecological groups like Greenpeace, has resulted ina tohumanitarian action had not been resolved, with the result tally changed attitude toward military intervention and the that a violent punitive expedition against clandestine but military in general. A new role is being invented for NATO, popular leaders was thwarted, the troops withdrawn, and without much success now that the Warsaw Pact has disthe peacekeepers left more or less at the mercy of the appeared into thin air. There is, in fact, something alittle gangster bosses. pathetic about vast armies left without opponents worthy of The acme of mismanagement in 1994 was reached in them. In NATO’s case there is the paradoxical sight of old Bosnia. Once again a compromise was sought between the enemies applying desperately to join, finally underscoring military and those dispensing humanitarian aid. The result its utter uselessness, at least in the role for which it was was a hybrid force confronting those who expected and constituted. Another case, that of the U.S. armed forces, feared old-fashioned ruthlessness but received only shadowis at least as difficult to resolve. The imaginative tiptoe boxing. It was too easy for the disreputable to deliberately diplomacy of Jimmy Carter, Sam Nunn, and Colin Powell in misunderstand the rules of this new game of symbolic Haiti in 1994 was followed by an enormous show of military strength, with every finger forbidden contact with the trigmight. This time, however, unlike Panama of a few years ger and only intangible moral ascendancy as the force to be back, the might was used only as a demonstration of the reckoned with. We know the results. Some spectacular but power behind the tiptoes. The airborne troops landed and, halfhearted air strikes against meticulously specific targets their mandate not being immediately clear, they had for and entire groups of thinly armed UN peacekeepers taken a time to watch local police brutality without intervening. hostage temporarily in order to prevent this from happenEventually it turned into a successful mission, however, with ing again. NATO, left to its own untried devices, would the reestablishment of an elected authority, to be followed presumably have known what to do under such provoking by the gradual evacuation of the armada to leave the councircumstances, but driven into endless and fruitless consultry to whatever devices lie within its competence. tation with the UN asa senior partner, it was frustrated and Other spheres of international intervention in 1994 were finally worse than useless. not so happy. In Rwanda the French risked setting a danger-

8

In an African refugee camp a worker with Médecins sans Frontiéres removes As an unarmed apossay nothing of the Green the body of a dead child. Since its founding in France in the late 1960s, the tle of peace, the secretaryparties in various parliaaid group has sent medical personnel to Afghanistan, Liberia, Peru, and general of the UN was ments, in which for the Somalia—wherever their humanitarian services have been needed. STEELE-PERKINS—MAGNUM somehow less convincing first time concern for the in 1994 than was Mahatma health of our environment Gandhi half a century ago, a business suit carrying less achieves a response from voters, is symptomatic of an exweight than a loincloth and dispassionate logic less weight traordinary reassessment of responsibility in human affairs. than serene conviction. The cumulative effect of these half The terrifying advance of AIDS has created an enemy measures and counterfeit toughness was to leave the frightfor the human animal far more tangible than the traditional ening impression that perhaps millions of men had died in rivalry between nations. It arrived at the very moment vain during the most recent of wars “to end all wars,” and in history when humankind was being asked for the first that, compared with the spineless posture of these modern time to contemplate a future without enemies, a far more self-styled peacekeepers, the appeasers of Munich, Neville formidable task than it at first appeared. From time imChamberlain and Edouard Daladier, appeared in retrospect memorial enmity has been a fact of life. It has polarized our endeavours and created targets for our energy. And as merely cautious. it is good for business. What Dwight D. Eisenhower so Of course, it is easy to criticize when one has no responsigraphically described as the military-industrial complex was bility, and it may well be that the present anomalies are all a the logical consequence of the concern for defense which result of the profound changes to which the societies of the was a priority at a time in which the enemies were allowed more evolved sections of our planet have submitted. There to flourish. Since then the military-industrial complex has is a general increase in sensitivity toward the value of hupriced itself out of the market with the endless need for man life, and the threats to the well-being of the community weapons of ever greater sophistication. Now that the latest are suddenly clearly defined. For the first time in history, combat aircraft costs 10 times what it did in even recent if one excepts the unique example of the International Red memory, there is a sudden need for stringent economy in Cross, which succeeded in enforcing accepted standards for an area traditionally outside normal strictures. Besides that, the treatment of prisoners of war, there have come into the chronic absence of rivals has sounded more than a being movements born of the guilty conscience of the huwarning note to all those industries reliant on pessimism for man animal, such as Médecins sans Frontiéres, volunteer their very existence. medics in explosive parts of the world; Greenpeace, vigiIn the new pattern of nationalism, there is no country left lantes raising objections to errors of ecological judgments which is fully independent. Even the mighty United States is on the part of governments and businesses; and Amnesty required to consult before exercising its rights as an indepenInternational, an organization recording man’s inhumanity dent nation. Those countries which have recently acquired to man. The very existence of such international bodies, to

9

independence often find themselves in fact less independent than they were before their gesture of liberation. A flag unlike any other, an anthem with unique words, and a worthless currency all one’s own are not valid proof of national identity. This can only come through interdependence, a sane evolution of independence with secure modern structures, where national identity is respected and a fair share in increasing mutual prosperity is guaranteed.

their disciplines rather than divided by

their nationalities, more than a hint of

We do not inherit the world from our parents,

a new spirit animating this aging world. We were not born with prejudice, which develops through family life and education and seems much like the sediment in any bottle of fine wine. However,

the fact that children

left

an outcome of that universality of purpose desired by all sane inhabitants of the globe, concerned with people and not with monstrous excrescence such as ethnic cleansing and other antediluvian forms of racism. Already commerce is international, and the close examination of a recently purchased product often reveals that it may have been built anywhere but in its country of ori-

to their own devices are free from it should be an example and a warning to us all. The old African proverb which says that we do not inherit the world from our parents but rather are lent it by our children is particularly apt. The fact that this piece of subtle and searching wisdom comes to us from the most troubled and the most perplexing of this earth’s continents is very revealing. In an ideal world, every living being would be everyone’s responsibility. In a real, yet changing world, we are shyly edging toward such a distant possibility. Love of country is normal. Patriotism which leads to others’ being hurt is no longer acceptable. The young are invariably in advance of where we stood at the same age. They are often skeptical of the values we piously handed down to them, and this is all to the good. Experience is something which may well have to be acquired, but so much has changed fundamentally since we acquired ours that it may not be apposite today. Politicians are far too glib about the rise of crime in the young and tend to advocate sterner penalties, more prisons, and a galaxy of lazy solutions to problems which have their roots in boredom, in the chronic lack of horizons, in the penury of oxygen for the imagination. Here is the real clash of generations, opposing the

gin. Once business is international, it follows that crime is

hardened mental arteries of those still addicted to a dull,

but rather we are lent it by our children. —African proverb

The tendency toward internationalization is irreversible because it is an economic necessity, and economics governs the ebb and flow of human intercourse where military might and colonialism did in a previous era. If this were not so, why was the League of Nations created at the end of World War I, a prototype, imperfect and dangerously ahead of its time, destroyed by the swan song of old-style empires and the upstart dictators who sought to revive them? It took another terrible war to build up momentum for a new surge of hope, in the shape of the UN. It, too, is living through moments of danger, but what a triumph of the will that it exists at all! The UN survives because there is an urgent desire for its survival, as

automatically international too. The police are still shaking themselves free of their parochial shackles. Interpol is authorized to work only in a consultative capacity for the time being. And certainly a form of an internationally approved legal system is a crying necessity for dealing with organized crime stretching over national borders. The farce of instituting tribunals to deal with war crimes in former Yugoslavia is an example of the creaking mechanism operative at this time in such urgent matters. In this case it is obviously not facilitated by the fact that many potential war criminals are engaged in a parody of peace talks, and it will be difficult to recognize accepted negotiating delegates as criminals once peace has been established. But, you may ask, once all is subjected to this new, as

yet uncertain, atmosphere of cooperation toward an ultimate raising of living standards everywhere, a technological breakthrough for changing conventional concepts of unemployment, of jobs, of all human activity, even of leisure, what is there left for those who still dream of glory, of service to a country, to a flag? Little wars and isolated outbursts of turbulence will go on as long as there are communities still rooted in their tribal past, playing old games by old rules, matches and return matches with bullets as arguments and death as the scorer. In the more evolved parts of the globe, the elements in human nature which still hanker for victory and the clash of arms, the Olympic Games, the World Cup, and other safety valves, are there in force to ensure an outlet for high spirits. The sight of an athlete on the victor’s podium, eyes blurred with tears and mouth stumbling over the words of an anthem unknown to a majority of spectators, should be enough to slake the thirst for restrained heroics, and athletes, embracing, united by 10

conventional view of things and those impatient with what they are told and eager to obey their own instincts, which suggest that life must be richer than it is allowed to appear. As one who is privileged to be chancellor of an outstanding university, may I say that I have the greatest respect for the motives and impulses of the young. They may make mistakes at times, but that capacity is also enjoyed by the old. On the other hand, their sense of adventure, if allowed to burgeon, is a constant source of wonder, as is the clarity

of their vision and their optimism even under the pall of authoritative discouragement. Sometimes, listening to the admonitions of those old be-

fore their time, laying down the law in some parliament or congress or chamber of deputies, we might easily get the impression that nothing really evolves, nothing really moves forward. Believe me, it does. The proof? Sixty-seven years ago there was a picture on the wall of my first classroom. It was of Jesus Christ leading a Boy Scout by the hand and showing the boy with his other hand the extent of the British Empire on the map. The expression on the Lord’s face could best be described as reverent ecstasy. There was no doubt whose side He was on. Once again, in the early ’20s, a French politician made a vibrant oration describing the swelling pride in a mother’s heart when she inadvertently discovered that the Unknown Soldier was none other than her missing son. It is difficult to understand today how such tasteless nonsense could have been taken seriously only just over half a century ago. If standards have changed so rapidly, is there any limit for our future hopes? In all probability, the coming generation will take as normal that which we welcome with such trepidation and incredulity today, an age of common sense.

Chronology of 1994

JANUARY Mexican peasants revolt in Chiapas.

military procurement program were likely to be substantially affected.

1 A group of uniformed Mexican peasants, calling themselves the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN), caught the government completely off guard when they attacked and captured four towns in the southeastern state of Chiapas. In a writtenstatement the rebels called for the resignation of Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gor-

Afghan officials reported that more than 600 people had been killed or wounded during the first 36 hours of intense fighting in the capital city of Kabul. Most of the civilian casualties were victims

tari, urged free elections, and demanded an

of misdirected rebel rockets, mortars, and

end to the government’s alleged discrimination against the region’s Indians. The EZLN began its insurrection on January 1 because the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) took effect on that date. The rebels cited NAFTA as another instance of government policy that further enriched the wealthy while ignoring the plight of the poor. Although outgunned and outmanned by superior government forces, the EZLN vowed to broaden the conflict. On January 6 three bombs exploded near Mexico City, the capital. Two days later a bomb was detonated in Acapulco and four others in or near the capital. On January 10 the president ordered a cease-fire and

artillery shells that landed in residential areas. Following the 1992 overthrow of Mohammad Najibullah, the Soviet-installed president, rival factions took over various areas of the city and continued to battle for supremacy. Pres. Burhanuddin Rabbani, who headed a fragile Islamic coalition government, accused Gen. ‘Abd ar-Rashid Dostam of having launched the latest offensive in order that the government might once again come under communist control.

gave

a federal prison in Maracaibo, Venezuela,

Manuel

Camacho

Solis, the former

foreign relations minister, broad authority to negotiate a peace settlement with the Indians. Saudi Arabia

to implement

budget cuts.

During a nationally broadcast address, King Fahd of Saudi Arabia informed his Cabinet that a world surplus of oil had depressed prices to such an extent that the government would have to trim its annual budget by 20%. The monarch did not specify which areas of spending would be curtailed, but analysts surmised that the country’s vast social welfare system and its

ALYX KELLINGTON—GAMMA

Hundreds

killed in Afghan

3 Indians

capital.

riot in Venezuelan

prison.

At least 122 inmates were killed during a vicious ethnic feud that erupted in

located about 520 km (325 mi) west of Caracas, the capital. The riot, which appeared to be planned vengeance for the decapitation of a Guajiro Indian inmate the previous week, allegedly began when 400 Indians broke out of their cell blocks and hurled firebombs into areas occupied by non-Indian prisoners. Some of the

5 France moves to deport illegal aliens.

Charles Pasqua, the Cabinet minister responsible for implementing France’s immigration policy, declared that “the world will get the message” when the government begins deporting planeloads, boatloads, and trainloads of illegal immigrants. Conceding that in the future France would face immigration problems even greater than those encountered in the past, Pasqua justified the nation’s new laws and immigration policies, which

took effect on January

1,

as the only way to stop a massive influx of immigrants from North Africa and the republics of the former Soviet Union, where thousands saw no hope in a future at home. The government estimated that between

100,000

entering and each year. Fierce

and

staying fires

150,000 aliens were

in France

ravage

Sydney

illegally area.

8 Thousands of people were forced to flee their homes in the suburbs of Sydney, Australia, as firestorms continued to rage out of control on an 800-km (500mi) front for the third straight day. The director of the New South Wales state brushfire services described the blaze as the worst in Australia in 200 years. The arrival of light rains on January 10 aided

the 7,000 firefighters as they gradually brought under control the 130 fires still burning; some had almost certainly been set by arsonists.

victims burned to death; others were shot, stabbed, drowned, lynched, mutilated, or decapitated. Few, if any, of those who died

9 BCCI officer to be charged in the U.S.

were Indians. The National Guard finally restored order after battling the inmates for five hours.

with Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan an-Nahayan,

U.S. federal prosecutors revealed that an agreement had been reached president of the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) and ruler of Abu Dhabi (one of the seven Persian Gulf states that constitute the U.A.E.), to extradite Swaleh

LIAISON

Naqvi to the U.S. to face charges of massive fraud. As chief executive of the Luxembourg-based Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI), Naqvi possessed extensive knowledge about the bank’s international dealings and could presumably explain the disappearance of some $20 billion before the bank’s global operations were shut down in 1991. US. investigators were especially eager to learn

the degree to which BCCI influenced First American

D.C.,

r

ae

pa

o

s

aeeuah: bi

=eae

The bodies of men presumed to be rebels lie in Ocosingo, in southeastern Mexico. Peasants began attacks on January 1 and took four towns before being driven out by government troops.

Bankshares Inc. in Washington,

after it had

secretly and illegally purchased the bank. As part of a broad agreement, Sheikh Zaid received assurances that he would face no civil or criminal charges in the U.S. even though he had been BCCT’s largest shareholder and had been sued by trustees of First American for $1.5 billion.

th

12

Chronology: February

1

Guatemala

seeks

After

days

five

lasting of

peace.

discussions,

Guatemalan officials and representatives of the three-army leftist guerrilla movement agreed on a new framework for negotiating an end to over 30 years of violent conflict. A broad-based assembly,

headed by Roman Catholic Bishop Rodolfo

Quezada Torufio, a veteran negotiator, had

been empowered to make recommendations for solving the country’s social and human rights problems, which were key issues in the civil strife. Jean Arnault, an on-site UN

negotiator, expressed hope that a peace settlement could be signed before the end of the year. New Russian

severe earthbut none a, Californi southern in quakes would look like after the election. had occurred in such a heavily populated area. Authorities quickly moved to take Ukraine surrenders nuclear arms. control of the situation by declaring a 14 Ukrainian Pres. Leonid Kravchuk, state of emergency and imposing a duskRussian Pres. Boris Yeltsin, and to-dawn curfew. Construction engineers U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton signed an agreement estimated that it would take months to in Moscow that would, it was hoped, the freeways, which were a vital restore lead to the transfer of Ukraine’s nuclear part of the region’s transportation network. weapons to Russia, where they would be destroyed. In exchange, Ukraine would . On February 12 President Clinton signed an $8.6 billion relief bill for the state of California for what some believed was the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history.

with confidence what the political landscape

Legislature ousts Belarus

11

government. 13

Italian prime minister resigns. Carlo Ciampi tendered his resignation after less than nine tumultuous

months as prime minister of Italy. Since February 1992 several thousand Italians had been implicated in corruption, including five former prime ministers, about 200 members of Parliament, and numerous prominent businessmen. The cases of alleged bribery,

leader.

The Parliament of Belarus voted 209-36 to unseat Stanislau Shushkevich, chairman of the Supreme Soviet (head of state). The legislators, who had been elected before the breakup of the Soviet Union, were overwhelmingly opposed to Shushkevich’s efforts to introduce reforms that would establish a freemarket economy. They also sought closer alignment with Russia’s foreign policies. Parliamentarians who supported Shushkevich denounced his ouster as a betrayal of the nation’s sovereignty. The leader of the Belarusian Popular Front, disheartened by

26

assembly convenes.

Members of both chambers of Russia’s newly constituted Federal Assembly gathered in separate buildings in Moscow amid hope that the proceedings would be less raucous than those that had characterized the former Congress of People’s Deputies. The 178 members of the Federation Council (upper house) included two members from each of the nation’s 89 regions and territories. In his opening address, Pres. Boris Yeltsin asked the delegates for their cooperation, but he also made it clear that he was completely prepared for confrontation. In addressing the less powerful State Duma (lower house), Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin indicated that the government would continue its program of reforms without resorting to “shock therapy” tactics. First Deputy Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar was the leader of Russia’s Choice, a reformist party that held about 16% of the seats in the Duma. The anti-Yeltsin forces were dominated by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, a flamboyant ultranationalist who apparently aspired to the presidency. Among the assembly’s top priorities was the passage of laws that defined the functions and authority of the various branches of the newly structured

years there had been more

(From left) U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton, Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin, and Ukrainian Pres. Leonid Kravchuk shake hands at the signing of an accord on January 14. Ukraine agreed to give up its nuclear weapons in return for aid. WALKER—GAMMA

receive

the turn of events, declared that the new

leadership would now bring Belarus “into the Russian empire.” 3

Algerian military loses its power. Algeria took a significant step

LIAISON

nuclear

fuel

and

guarantees

of

security. The country, which was the second

largest of the former Soviet republics, was in a state of near economic collapse. With its currency reserves virtually exhausted, inflation raging out of control, the production of energy far below normal, and large factories idle or barely functioning, the country desperately needed help to extricate itself from the economic quagmire that was devouring it. Divesting itself of nuclear weapons in exchange for Russian help seemed to be Ukraine’s best hope for recovery.

toward returning to political normalcy by naming Liamine Zeroual to a three-year term as president. The appointment was the first of a series of steps leading to the election of a new national legislature. Algeria had plunged into political turmoil in December 1991 when

Muslim

had won

devastates

Los

Angeles.

17

Millions of residents of southern California were terrorized by a disastrous predawn earthquake initially measuring 6.6—and later upgraded to 6.8— on

the Richter

scale.

The

quake,

which

extortion, fraud, embezzlement, and illegal

was centred some 32 km (20 mi) northwest

political contributions were said to involve billions of dollars. On January 16 Pres. Oscar Luigi Scalfaro dissolved Parliament and called for new elections in March. With countless old-guard politicians discredited beyond redemption, no one could predict

fires. At least 61 persons were reported killed. Hundreds of thousands of people were without water or electricity. In recent

of Los Angeles, sent freeway overpasses crashing to the ground, totally demolished multistory buildings, and ignited numerous

in the first

an absolute majority of the vote,

the Islamic Salvation Front had done so well that the fundamentalists were virtually certain,

Quake

fundamentalists,

round of voting for the National Assembly, stunned almost everyone by capturing 44% of the seats outright. In other races that required a runoff because no candidate

in the final round

of voting,

to

take over the government and establish an Islamic state. At that juncture the army, backed by secularists, forced Pres. Chadli

Bendjedid to resign. It then set up a High State Council to run the country, declared a

state of emergency, and canceled the second round of the election. During the two years

of conflict that followed, paramilitary death squads tracked down and killed suspected rebels, and Muslim guerrillas succeeded in assassinating government officials. At least 2,000 lives were

estimated

to have

been

lost to such violence.

FEBRUARY Lasso named to new UN rights post. 1 UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali nominated José Ayala

Lasso to be the first United Nations high commissioner for human rights. However, members of several human rights organizations were highly critical of the appointment because Ayala had served as foreign minister under a repressive military

regime in his native Ecuador. During the 1993 UN General Assembly debate that preceded the creation of the new

agency,

there was wide disagreement on what the functions of the commission should be and what authority it should have. Because these differences were never resolved, the

UN mandate establishing the commission did not specify the circumstances under

which it could initiate an investigation of suspected violations of human rights or whether it could act only with the approval of UN organizations to which the nations in question belonged. 3 U.S.

ends Vietnam trade embargo. President Clinton officially ended the 19-year-old U.S. trade embargo

Chronology: February

against Vietnam, thereby paving the way for the eventual restoration of full diplomatic relations between the two countries. For the present, each nation would conduct business through a liaison office in the other’s capital. Indirectly addressing the concerns of the families of more than 2,000 Americans missing in action during the Vietnam

War, Clinton remarked

that

he was absolutely convinced that lifting the embargo was the most efficacious way of learning the fate of the military personnel still unaccounted for. U.S. businessmen had long argued that the embargo was an anachronism that barred them from investing in Vietnam’s rapidly expanding economy.

Court

favours

Chad

in border

dispute.

The International Court of Justice, popularly known as the World Court, ruled 161 that Libya had no legal basis to support its claim

to the

120,000-sq

km

(45,000-

sq mi) Aozou Strip. Libya and Chad had both laid claim to the long stretch of land, which over the years had been the scene of fierce military engagements. In 1983 Libya, supported by its allies in northern Chad, had won

effective control over the

whole northern half of Chad, but the Chadian army gradually reoccupied the territory. In 1990 both parties in the dispute agreed to let the World Court, the judicial arm of the United Nations, decide the case. The court concluded that the border had been definitively fixed in 1955 when

Russian military to help Shevardnadze. Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin and Georgian Pres. Eduard Shevardnadze signed a series of agreements in the Georgian capital

Libya signed a treaty with France, which at the time claimed Chad as an overseas

city of Tbilisii These included a treaty that extended the life of three Russian military bases in Georgia beyond the year 1995. Russia would also train and supply the Georgian army. Small groups of protesters denounced “Russian imperialism” and Shevardnadze’s “betrayal of the country’s independence.” Factions within Russia’s legislature also opposed the treaty, reportedly because they feared Russia could become embroiled in Georgia’s effort to reestablish control over Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two strongholds of armed secessionists. Georgia had earlier asked for and received Russian military assistance in Abkhazia after promising to strengthen ties with other former Soviet republics by becoming a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Costa Ricans elect new president. After an intense and sometimes virulent campaign, José Maria Figueres

colony.

Olsen,

the

Liberation

candidate

Party, won

of

the

National

slightly less than

50% of the popular vote and was elected to a four-year term as the president of Costa Rica. Figueres, whose father had drawn up the Central American nation’s blueprint for democracy and welfare, was scheduled to succeed Pres. Rafael Calder6n Fournier on May 8. The Costa Rican constitution did not permit the head of state and government to seek reelection. Ahtisaari wins the presidency of Finland. Martti Ahtisaari, leader of the Social Democratic Party, won 54% of the vote in a runoff

election to become president of Finland.

His opponent, Defense Minister Elisabeth Rehn, had surprised nearly everyone by finishing ahead of nine other candidates in the January 16 election. Ahtisaari indicated that he would involve himself in domestic issues in an effort to revitalize the nation’s moribund economy. Prime Minister Esko Aho,

however,

pointedly

eK

remain

Ae

that

intact.

By tradition,

the

Finnish

president was responsible for the conduct of foreign policy and the prime minister for domestic affairs. 9 Accord initialed by Israel and PLO. Yasir Arafat, chairman of the Palestine

Liberation Shimon

Peres,

Organization

(PLO), and

foreign minister

of Israel,

initialed a document in Cairo that resolved all the problems “either completely in detail or in principle” that had impeded implementation of the accord signed in September 1993 in Washington, D.C. That historic agreement granted self-government to Palestinians in occupied Gaza and the West Bank. As a first step, Palestinians would govern all of Gaza and the city of Jericho in the West Bank. Whether the Palestinians would exercise jurisdiction beyond the city’s limits was a matter still to be negotiated. The timetable for total Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho would depend on how quickly practical problems involving the transfer of power could be settled. Final ratification of the accord by both sides did not appear to present any serious problem.

17

Bosnian

Serbs

yield

to threats.

Ethnic Serbs living in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to withdraw

a

ores

remarked

the government’s domestic policies would

CHRISTOPHER MORRIS—BLACK STAR

BT

13

a

the city. Citizens move along a street in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, after Serbs had stopped shelling 17. February on city the around hills the from artillery their of withdrawal a began The attackers

14

Chronology: March

their heavy artillery from the hills surrounding Sarajevo, the besieged capital. On Nov. 9, 1993, NATO

had issued an ultimatum

that included threats to launch air strikes to silence the weapons if they were not put under UN control or moved 20 km (12 mi) away from the city by February 20. The ferocious fighting in Bosnia involved Croats,

Serbs,

and

Muslims

who

were

battling each other in shifting alliances to establish control over various regions of the country. NATO intervened after the Serbs had rejected repeated demands that they stop shelling the virtually defenseless city. Numerous reports of hate-inspired

atrocities had evoked worldwide pleas that something be done to end the slaughter, especially of innocent civilians. The best hope for peace appeared to rest on the

willingness of all parties to accept a division of the republic into autonomous ethnic

regions. 2,

be muffled and that Washington would release millions of dollars in urgently needed aid. 23

Yeltsin’s archrivals get amnesty. Members of Russia’s State Duma,

the lower house of the nation’s

legislature, in a calculated act of defiance,

approved a sweeping amnesty that included the release from prison of Pres. Boris Yeltsin’s most intransigent opponents— those who had led an armed revolt against his government in October 1993. The vote was 253-67. On February 26 Ruslan Khasbulatov, the former speaker of parliament, and Aleksandr Rutskoy, the former vice president, were among those who were set free. Both had been captured with their armed supporters after Russian troops shelled and attacked the White House (the parliament building). The assault claimed 140 lives. Shortly before the prisoners walked out of the prison, Russia’s chief

rapes, acts of torture, and other violations

of human rights that had occurred after his declaration of martial law in 1972. The Marcos estate would also be liable for compensatory damages, the size of which had not yet been determined. Despite the court’s decision, there were serious doubts

that the plaintiffs would ever receive any money because the Philippine government had thus far failed to locate the billions of dollars Marcos allegedly looted from the national treasury before his ouster from power in 1986. Israeli. murders Arabs in Hebron.

25 Baruch Goldstein, a U.S.-born medical doctor and an Israeli right-wing extremist, opened fire with an automatic weapon on a dense crowd of Palestinians worshiping at the Cave of the Patriarchs mosque in Hebron. About 30-40 persons were slain and some 150 wounded. Goldstein had apparently entered

CIA agent charged with spying. Aldrich Ames, a former member

of the Soviet counterintelligence unit of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, was arrested by federal authorities in Washington, D.C., and charged with spying for Moscow, both before and

after the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Ames allegedly had received as much as $2.7 million for passing on highly secret information and for identifying agents employed abroad by the U.S. Ten of the agents were reportedly arrested and shot. Ames’s wife, who had once been a CIA informer, was also arrested. The damage

Ames had inflicted on U.S. intelligence operations was said to be catastrophic. The CIA itself was accused of inexcusable laxity for having failed to investigate the opulent lifestyle of Ames and his wife, which could not have been supported by a conventional income. Peruvian army officers guilty of murder. A military court in Lima, Peru, sentenced

two army majors, described as leaders of an assassination squad, to 20 years in prison for their roles in the 1992 murders of nine students and a teacher at the Enrique Guzman y Valle National Education University. The victims had been shot in the head and their bodies burned. The army general in charge of intelligence planning was also implicated in the killings and was given a five-year sentence. Six others were sent to prison for periods ranging from 4 to 15 years. The case had been kept alive by the weekly magazine Si, which disclosed the site where some of the victims were buried. Peruvian Pres. Alberto Fujimori expressed hope that U.S. criticism of his country’s human rights record would now

—_

A father carries his wounded son from the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron in the West Bank.

An Israeli settler opened fire in the mosque on February 25, killing and wounding Palestinians.

JACQUELINE ARZT—AP

prosecutor, a Yeltsin supporter, resigned because there was no legal way he could accede to the president’s request and halt the release. Marcos estate ordered to pay $1.2 billion.

the mosque with his weapon in full view without arousing the suspicion of Israeli security guards. The massacre that followed was the worst act of violence in the West Bank since Israel occupied the territory in 1967. After the first wave of shock and

A 10-member federal jury in Hawaii, having heard a class-action suit filed against Ferdinand Marcos, ordered his estate to pay some 10,000 plaintiffs exemplary damages (extraordinarily large punitive damages, allowable in certain cases) amounting to

terror

$1.2 billion. The jury had concluded that

territories was expected; less expected were

the former president of the Philippines bore responsibility for the numerous murders,

had

passed,

infuriated

worshipers

sprang toward Goldstein and beat him to death. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin called the massacre “a loathsome criminal act of murder.” The anti-Israeli rioting that quickly erupted in the occupied the angry protests of Arabs Israel proper.

in parts of

MARCH EU welcomes three new nations. The European Union (EU), formerly known as the European Community (EC),

reached

agreement

with

Austria,

Finland, and Sweden on terms for their admission into the organization at the beginning of the new year. All of the

approved applicants, however, still had to have the accord formally ratified by their re-

spective national legislatures. Negotiations with Norway were put on hold because of a dispute over fishing rights in the North Sea. Spain and Portugal had expanded the EC to 12 members by joining the group in 1986. The ultimate goal of the EU was to unite all of Western Europe in a freetrade zone with a common currency and a unified foreign policy.

Mexico agrees to assist Chiapas. Representatives of the Mexican gov-

ernment and of Indians from the impoverished state of Chiapas announced a tentative agreement that would, it was hoped, end the Indians’ two-month-old insurrection and gradually improve the economic and political climate of their region. The package of promised reforms,

Chronology: March

which had to be submitted to various Indian communities for approval, included new rights for Indians, land reform, a series of new social programs, and changes in the political and judicial structures of Chiapas. Subcomandante Marcos, the nom de guerre of the leader of the rebel Zapatista National Liberation Army, indicated that his followers would not lay down their arms until the government’s promises had been spelled out in greater detail and Mexican law changed to ensure greater democracy on a national scale. Proponents of change accused the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) of Pres. Carlos

engineer, was identified as the person who procured the explosives. Ahmad M. Ajaj, found guilty on 10 counts, provided the manual of instructions for making the bomb. During the five-month trial, some 200 witnesses had been put on the stand and more than 1,000 exhibits placed in

City.

3 Vatican establishes ties with Jordan.

The Vatican officially reported that it had established diplomatic ties with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to reinforce “the relationship of respect and friendship which already exists between the two sides.” The move had long been expected because the Vatican had already established diplomatic missions in Arab nations that had a Catholic presence far less conspicuous than that in Jordan. The Vatican and Jordan also shared a deep concern about the status of Jerusalem, which was sacred to Jews, Muslims, and

Christians alike. Even though Israel occupied the entire city after seizing control of east Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, Jordan still claimed

a protectorate over the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa Mosque, two sites sacred to Muslims. The future status of Jerusalem,

which Israel had designated as its national capital, was one of the most delicate and intractable problems standing in the way of a comprehensive peace settlement in the Middle East. 4 Ukraine begins Implementing a signed in Moscow Leonid Kravchuk and

shipping warheads. January agreement by Ukrainian Pres. Russian Pres. Boris

Yeltsin, Ukraine sent the first shipment of 60 nuclear warheads to Russia for dismantling. Ukraine had pledged to divest itself of all of its 1,600 nuclear weapons at staggered intervals. The U.S. had played a pivotal role in the negotiations by promising

1

Moravcik becomes prime minister. Leaders of five political parties

in Slovakia approved the appointof Jozef Moravcik as the nation’s

ment new

prime

minister.

Moravcik,

the

last

foreign minister of Czechoslovakia before its breakup in January 1993, replaced Vladimir Meciar, who had been ousted on

March 11 when the parliament rejected his

Salinas de Gortari, which had dominated

Mexican politics for 65 years, of resorting to fraudulent elections to retain power.

of Canterbury and York, both of whom attended the ordination ceremony, issued a joint statement urging church members to show “generosity, tolerance, courtesy, and loving patience with each other.”

evidence. Sheikh Omar Abdel-Rahman, a radical Muslim cleric, and 14 others were

scheduled to go on trial in September. All were believed to be terrorists involved in a similar plot to bomb the United Nations building and other targets in New York

15

Agreement to reduce Polish debt. Western banks agreed, after four

1

years of negotiations, to reorganize Poland’s huge foreign debt in such a way that its obligations would be reduced by more than 40%. Poland’s economic situation had become so dire that its leaders had little choice but to default on the nation’s debt for several years. Although each of the many banks that had granted loans to Poland would have to study and approve the agreement in the months ahead, Poland was expected to experience a significant upturn in its economy within a year or so. 1

Anglican Church ordains women.

With the ordination of 32 women as priests of the Church of England, the Anglican Church abandoned a tradition that had been honoured for more than 450 years. The women were ordained by Bishop Barry Rogerson in Bristol Cathedral. Even though the General Synod of the Anglican Church had declared in 1975 that it found no theological basis for excluding women from the priesthood, many Anglicans were deeply perturbed by the announcement. Their number included some 700 clergymen who warned that they would leave the church and convert to Roman Catholicism if such ordinations took place. Pope John Paul II, whose opposition to women priests was clear and unswerving, viewed the ordinations as “a profound obstacle to every hope of reunion between the Catholic Church and the Anglican communion.” The archbishops

leadership by a 78-2 vote of no confidence.

There were 56 abstentions. Meciar had been widely criticized for antidemocratic policies that led many members of his own Movement for a Democratic Slovakia to desert him. He had also created political turmoil by publicly feuding with Pres. Michal Kovac. The new prime minister faced the urgent and daunting task of reconciling various political interests so that measures could be taken to shore up democracy and foster economic reforms. PRI

candidate

slain

in Mexico.

23

Luis Colosio, the presidential candidate of Mexico’s ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), was shot and killed as he was leaving a campaign rally in Tijuana. Colosio, whom Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari had handpicked as his successor, was virtually guaranteed the presidency because the PRI had monopolized all branches of the government

for more than six decades. Accused of the assassination was a young local pacifist, identified as Mario Aburto Martinez, who

had no known opposed to the Salinas selected Leén, who had campaign, to be

connection to any group government. On March 29 Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de been manager of Colosio’s the PRI’s new presidential

candidate. U.S.

ends

mission

in

Somalia.

)5 Fifteen months after spearheading Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, the U.S. quietly withdrew its last Marine combat units from the country. At

PETERSON—GAMMA LIAISON {

to provide $350 million to Russia to help defray the cost of rendering the weapons useless. World Trade Center bombers convicted. A federal jury in New York City found four Arab immigrants guilty of the February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in Manhattan. The huge explosion, detonated in an underground garage, killed six persons, injured more than 1,000, and caused

hundreds of millions of dollars in damage. The alleged mastermind of the plot and one of his associates were still at large. A seventh suspect was to be tried separately. The four convicted terrorists included Mohammad

A. Salameh,

who

was found

guilty on 10 counts. He was convicted of renting the apartment where the explosives were mixed and of renting the van that carried the bomb into the garage. Mahmud Abouhalima, convicted on nine counts, was

part of the small group that constructed the bomb. Nidal A. Ayyad, a chemical

_~

te

Moo:

The last of the U.S. troops in Somalia leave on March 25. The U.S. forces, which had entered Somalia on Dec. 9, 1992, to prevent mass starvation, relinquished their operations to a United Nations force.

16

Chronology: April

labour unions. The assembly was expected to complete its draft of a new constitution in about six months. Only then would the people return to the polls to elect a president and members of the parliament.

one time the U.S. presence had numbered personnel.

28,000

some

About

19,000

United Nations troops still remained in Somalia, but there was growing evidence that whatever progress had been made to

ameliorate

the chaotic political situation

France

was proving to be not much more than a passing phenomenon. The main goal of the operation,

however,

had been

successful.

Hundreds of thousands of Somalis had been saved from starvation, and the warring factions had been sufficiently contained— despite numerous ugly incidents—to permit the distribution of food and medicines to those in desperate need. Uganda

to get new

constitution.

Enthusiastic voters went to the polls in Uganda for the first time in 14 years to elect a constituent assembly. More than 1,500 candidates had campaigned on a nonparty basis for the 214 elected seats. Supporters of Pres. Yoweri Museveni won 114 seats; the president was further allowed to appoint 10 members of his choosing. The assembly would also include two representatives from each of the four main political parties and 56 persons representing the special interests of such groups as women, youth, and

bows

to student

protests.

Edouard 30) French Prime Minister Balladur yielded to student demands and revoked a government decree that would have allowed employers to hire young people at less than the minimum wage. Faced with an unemployment rate that exceeded 12% overall and 25% for those under 25, the government had viewed the new law as a positive step that would create job opportunities for the young. The students,

28

however,

took to the streets of

Paris and a dozen other cities to denounce the decree as discriminatory. On March 28 the government tried to mollify the protesters by agreeing to suspend the edict until a more satisfying proposal could be

French students protest a measure allowing employers to pay below-minimum wages to workers under 25 years of age. The decree was revoked on March 30. BASSIGNAC/TURPIN/VAN DER STOCKT—GAMMA LIAISON

drawn up, but the students insisted that the decree be stricken from the books. The government then took a new tack to help resolve the unemployment problem by offering employers a $175 monthly subsidy for providing first-time jobs to those under 25. aaa

ee

APRIL Turkey

adopts

austerity

program.

5 Prime Minister Tansu Ciller announced a series of austerity measures designed to alleviate the nation’s severe economic problems. Inflation had reached an annual rate exceeding 70%, and the national budget deficit had soared to more

than $8.5 billion by the end of 1993. In addition, the country’s trade and balance of payments deficits had reached record heights. To reverse this negative trend, Ciller pledged to shut down unprofitable state industries, give high priority to a program of privatization, freeze wages, and increase the cost of tobacco, gasoline,

and other items sold by the government. There would also be a one-time tax on the assets of banks and corporations. The government also devalued the lira for the second time since January, pegging the exchange rate at 32,000 liras to one U.S. dollar. The leader of the Motherland Party,

which represented the strongest challenge to Ciller’s True Path Party, characterized the austerity measures as a bad copy of a similar program in 1980 that led to a military coup. Two presidents killed in crash. Cyprien Ntaryamira and Juvénal Habyarimana, the respective presidents of Burundi and Rwanda, were killed when

their plane crashed as it was landing in Kigali, Rwanda’s capital. Eight others aboard the plane also died. The circumstances of the incident were unclear, but there were

suspicions that the plane might have been brought down by ground fire or a missile. The two African leaders, both Hutu, were

returning from Tanzania, where they had conferred with other African leaders on ways to end the incessant bloody feuding between Tutsi and Hutu tribesmen in their respective countries.

8 Japanese prime minister resigns. Morihiro Hosokawa, who had become

UN had designated one of the six “safe zones” in the war-ravaged country, was

prime minister of Japan in August 1993, abruptly resigned amid allegations that he or close associates had profited illegally from a large loan proffered by executives of a trucking company in the early 1980s. As head of the Japan New Party, Hosokawa had led a broad-based seven-party coalition government that was united by its determination to prevent the scandal-ridden Liberal-Democratic Party from regaining power. During the 38 years it had controlled the government, the LDP had become so corrupted by money politics that many longtime members deserted the party in disgust. On April 25, with Hosokawa gone, the lower house of the Diet (parliament) elected Tsutomu Hata, a member of Shinseito (Japan Renewal

home

Party), prime minister. Like Hosokawa, he was a former member of the LDP and had served in Hosokawa’s Cabinet as deputy prime minister and foreign minister. On April 26, even before he was formally appointed to his new post by the emperor, Hata faced a major political crisis: the Social Democrats withdrew from the coalition. That left Hata without a majority in the lower house and with an uncertain future as head of the government.

to some

65,000 people. That small

community included an estimated 40,000 Muslim refugees who had fled to Gorazde when their own towns were seized by the Serbs. The Serb commander condemned the UN for supporting the NATO attack, saying that the UN had violated its own principles and had taken sides in the civil war by supporting the Muslims. The U.S. ambassador to the UN responded that the air strikes were basically undertaken to protect UN peacekeeping forces in Gorazde. Florida sues the U.S. government.

11

Lawton

Chiles, the governor

of

Florida, filed a lawsuit against the

U.S. government to seek reimbursement for the hundreds of millions of dollars the state had been forced to spend on illegal immigrants. Following an analysis of the state’s finances, Florida claimed that it had spent nearly $900 million on some 350,000 undocumented immigrants during 1993. As a consequence, the state’s hospitals, schools, and prisons were underfunded, and

legal residents had only limited access to certain government services. The financial burden of caring for huge numbers of illegal aliens, the state argued, should be

NATO

cripples

Serb

offensive.

10 U.S. military aircraft assigned to NATO forces in Europe attacked Bosnian Serb positions near Gorazde on orders from the United Nations commander in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbs, choos-

ing to ignore UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s warning of possible military reprisals if they did not halt their

borne by the federal government because it had not taken adequate steps to control its borders.

World

trade

pact ‘finally signed.

15 The seventh series of international trade talks under the so-called

offensive, continued their two-week assault

Uruguay round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that began in Punta del Este in 1986 reached a successful

against the Muslim

enclave with artillery

conclusion

in Marrakech,

and armoured vehicles. Gorazde, which the

complexity

of the numerous

Morocco.

The

issues that

Chronology: April

took years to resolve was evident in the final document, which filled 22,000 pages. When representatives of 125 nations signed

tion. In the March

the accord, GATT

unnecessary. The March election had been the first since the United Nations brokered a peace accord in January 1992 that ended a 12-year-old civil war. The Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front guerrillas had accepted the peace settlement in exchange for certain guarantees, including the opportunity to seek elective office.

went out of existence

and was replaced by the World Trade Organization, which would bear responsibility for overseeing compliance with the new regulations. The pact, designed to liberalize international trade by, among other things, eliminating tariffs, was expected to have an impact of immense proportions and improve the economies of countries all over the world. Even though most of the signatory nations had not yet formally ratified the pact, it was scheduled to take effect on Jan. 1, 1995.

had

fallen

just

20 election, Calderén

short

of

an

absolute

majority, which would have made a runoff

When

Calderén

took

office

on

June

1,

Arena would control 39 of the 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly. However, with the promised support of the National Conciliation

Party, which won

four seats,

Calder6n would operate with a very slim CIS strengthens unity at Moscow summit.

The 12 nations constituting the Commonwealth of Independent States became more cohesive during their meeting in Moscow by consolidating Russia’s position of preeminence in the organization and by establishing an Interstate Economic Commission,

headquartered

in Minsk, the

capital of Belarus, to facilitate the eventual formation of a custom-free union. Three days earlier Russia and Belarus had signed a treaty that would progressively give Russia control over Belarus’ monetary system. >

4), ¥ 4%

majority.

A historic vote in South Africa. For the first time in South Africa’s history, people of all races went

3 to the polls to elect their national and regional leaders. The balloting, which ended on April 29, signaled an end of three centuries of white minority rule and the extinction of apartheid—a system of racial separation that had been institutionalized

17

astonishing transformation in the nation’s political life. When the final election tallies had been completed, Nelson Mandela’s African National Congress was awarded 252 seats in the National Assembly, the National Party of former prime minister F.W. de Klerk 82, and. Mangosuthu

Inkatha Freedom

Buthelezi’s

Party 43. (Buthelezi, a

political rival of Mandela, had waited until

April 19 before deciding that his Zulubased party would not boycott the election.) Four other parties shared the remaining 23 seats. On May 9 Mandela, who had been imprisoned for 27 years until 1990 for opposing the all-white government, was elected president, unopposed, by the National Assembly. The next day he took the presidential oath of office in the presence of dignitaries from more than 130 nations. His Cabinet included de Klerk as second deputy president and Buthelezi as minister of home affairs. Syria and Russia sign accords. A series of accords was signed in d Damascus that helped revitalize relations between Syria and Russia and enhanced the latter’s image as a broker

Russia receives $1.5 billion loan. The International Monetary Fund

44% (IMF) released a $1.5 billion loan to Russia to support the country’s economic reform and stabilization program during the current year. A similar sum had been lent to Russia in June 1993 as part of an overall effort to assist Russia and the new democracies of Eastern Europe. The director of the IMF remarked that the loan was justified because Russian monetary policy had undergone a spectacular change for the better during the 10 months following receipt of the initial loan. Russia was also expected to reap economic benefits by having its $84 billion foreign debt rescheduled. y

Richard Nixon dies from stroke. Richard Nixon, the 37th president

(fad (1969-74) of the United States, died in a New York City hospital four days after suffering a severe stroke at home. According to his wishes, no aggressive measures were taken to prolong his life after he lapsed into a coma. The funeral was held on April 27 in Yorba Linda, Calif., on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace; the house where Nixon was born stands on the same site. During the funeral ceremony, presided over by

evangelist Billy Graham, a longtime family friend, eulogies were delivered by President Clinton; Henry Kissinger, Nixon’s secretary of state and foreign policy adviser; Bob Dole, the minority leader in the Senate; and

Pete Wilson, the governor of California. Nixon had specified in his will that he did not want a formal state funeral in Washington, D.C. AMA

Calder6n

wins

in

El

Salvador.

J /§ In a runoff election for the presidency of El Salvador, Armando fH

Calder6n Sol of the ruling Nationalist Republican Alliance (Arena) coasted to victory with 68% of the popular vote. His opponent was Rubén Zamora, candidate of the leftist Democratic Convergence coali-

ad

aS

a

i

Be

Black South African voters wait in a long line. The voting, which began on April 26, was the first in which citizens of all races could cast ballots in a national election and represented the

beginning of majority rule. BROOKS

KRAFT—SYGMA

by the National Party in 1948. Despite preelection violence, mainly on the part of white extremists,

(75%

of the

13%),

Coloureds

South African

population), (mixed

whites

race, over

blacks

(over 8%),

and Indians (near 3%) brought about an

in the quest for a Middle East peace settlement. Moscow deflected criticism of its arms deal with Syria by saying that it would supply Syria only with defensive weapons and with spare parts for Sovietmade equipment it already possessed. The

18

Chronology: May

two nations also agreed to expand trade and cooperate more fully in other areas. 2:

settle bitter strike. Teamsters The International Brotherhood of Teamsters,

which

had

called

a

strike on April 6 after four months of failed negotiations with 22 trucking companies, approved a compromise settlement that ended a bitter and complex labour dispute. The 24-day work stoppage was the longest in the U.S. union’s history. A critical issue had been management’s decision to replace full-time drivers with lower-wage part-time employees in order to cut operating costs on loads delivered to multiple destinations. Many transport companies had gone out of business in recent years because the cost of doing business had become intolerable. Competition also intensified after the industry was deregulated in 1980 and more independent truckers took to the roads. The terms of the settlement excluded the hiring of part-time drivers but included a no-strike clause and allowed more freight

to be shipped by rail rather trucks. Although some 75,000 delivery

dockworkers,

drivers,

than by truckers, warehouse

workers, and mechanics were expected back at work within a few days, the Teamsters had good reason to worry about how much business they had lost permanently to nonunion truckers in the strike. Rwanda

engulfed

in

violence.

29 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, secretarygeneral of the United Nations, urged the UN Security Council to consider taking “forceful action” to end the wanton massacre of Hutu and Tutsi civilians in Rwanda. A tidal wave of violence had engulfed the capital city of Kigali immediately after Pres. Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, was killed in a suspicious plane crash on April 6. In the week that followed, an estimated

10,000-20,000 civilians were

slain, many by marauding bands of Tutsi armed with machetes, spears, arrows, clubs, and guns. The

and Hutu bows and

Rwandan Patriotic Front (Tutsi guerrillas)

added a new dimension to the conflict by laying siege to Kigali. With the situation

totally out of control, Belgium, France, and

the U.S. dispatched troops to the area to evacuate their nationals. UN peacekeepers on the ground did their best to succour the victims with food and medicines. Meanwhile,

vast

numbers

of Rwandans

were fleeing the country, most notably to neighbouring Tanzania, where at least 250,000 had massed by the end of the month. Besides the thousands of civilians buried in mass graves to prevent the spread of disease, the death list included high government officials, nuns and priests, and persons working in hospitals and relief agencies. Because the majority Hutu (90%) and minority Tutsi had never been able to agree on an equitable sharing of power, ethnic animosities continued to smoulder. Outside observers believed that Rwanda’s ethnic and political problems would continue to be explosive issues even if the UN-brokered cease-fire and peace accord signed in August 1993 were reestablished. eee

ee

ee

MAY Netherlands election is inconclusive. 3 Dutch voters were so divided in their loyalties that the results of the national election left many wondering what kind of government The Netherlands would have. The ruling coalition, which included the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and the Labour Party, was clearly destroyed, but no party emerged with enough strength to claim a mandate to rule. The Labour Party, under the leadership of

Deputy Prime Minister Willem (“Wim”) Kok, received the greatest support and a projected 37 seats in the 150-seat Second Chamber (lower house of parliament). The CDA was expected to hold on to 34 seats, leaving the former coalition 5 seats short of a majority and with 32 fewer seats than it had controlled before the election. Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers’ government had lost popular support in large part

sula, was plunged into civil war because of a dispute over the sharing of power

6 Tunnel

links

Britain

and

France.

had been two separate republics before agreeing to unite in 1990. Hoping to end the fighting quickly, northern forces loyal to Pres. Ali Abdallah Salih launched an offensive against outnumbered southern troops supporting Vice Pres. Ali Salim alBaidh. He had been head of the Marxistoriented People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen before unification. By the end of

Queen Elizabeth II of the U.K. and Pres. Francois Mitterrand of France formally inaugurated the Channel Tunnel (Eurotunnel), a 50-km (31-mi)-long rail tunnel beneath the English Channel, in a ceremony in Calais, France. The project was hailed as one of the great engineering successes of the century. After construction began in 1987, it gradually became clear that the project would take a year and a half longer than planned. Its final cost would

the

be about $15 billion, more than double the

between

the north

month,

and the south, which

thousands

of Yemenis

had

been killed or wounded in the fighting, and northern troops were poised about 16 km (10 mi) from Aden, the most important city in the south. A spokesman for the north urged the United Nations not to jeopardize the nation’s unity by intervening in the conflict.

original estimate. Paying customers would begin using the high-speed Eurostar rail

system in about six months, pending the installation and testing of safety systems.

Full service, which included the transport of passengers in their automobiles, was set for the summer of 1995.

because it had cut social programs and introduced other belt-tightening measures to curb The Netherlands’ growing budget deficit. The next ruling coalition—which would not likely take shape without long and laborious negotiations—would likely include the Democrats 66 party, a leftleaning group that was expected to occupy about 24 seats in the lower house. 4 Israeli and PLO leaders sign accord.

During

a meeting

in Cairo,

Yasir

Arafat, chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Yitzhak Rabin,

prime minister of Israel, signed a longdelayed accord that resolved a number of outstanding details on Palestinian selfrule in the Gaza Strip and in Jericho, a city located in the West Bank. During the

gradual transfer of power to Palestinian civil authorities, Israel would continue to have

overall responsibility for security matters and authority over Jewish settlements in the occupied territories. § Yemen

Yemen,

torn

apart

a republic

by

civil

war.

situated

at the

southern end of the Arabian

Penin-

Queen Elizabeth II of the U.K. (second from right) and French Pres. Frangois Mitterrand (sixth from right) attend the ceremony in Calais, France, on May 6 inaugurating the rail tunnel beneath the English Channel. Construction of the 50-km (31-mi) tunnel began in 1987.

Chronology: May

Haiti faces broader

new

19

trade embargo.

The United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to expand its trade embargo against Haiti in an effort to force the military regime to relinquish power and allow Jean-Bertrand Aristide to return from exile and assume the presidency. After easily winning the December 1990 democratic election, Aristide had held office for about

eight months before being ousted in a military coup. The Security Council also set a May 21 deadline for Haiti to comply with the UN-sponsored agreement Aristide and Lieut. Gen. Raoul Cédras, the de facto

tuler of the country, had signed in New York in July 1993. Under terms of that accord, the military would step down and Aristide would return to Haiti as president. Instead, a powerful pro-military group of senators openly defied the Security Council on May 11 by naming Emile Jonassaint, an elderly Supreme Court justice, provisional president. Colombia

legalizes private use of drugs.

Colombia’s Constitutional Court voted 5-4 to legalize the personal use of marijuana, cocaine,

and

other

drugs.

The

decision,

which startled U.S. and Colombian officials who had fought for years to curtail the use of such drugs, could be reversed only by amendment of the nation’s constitution. Pres. César Gaviria Trujillo called the court’s ruling absurd. The country’s chief prosecuting attorney, however, had taken the position that efforts to stop drug use had been a failure and that the decriminalization of drugs should be seriously considered. Germany’s Federal Constitutional Court had recently ruled that possessing or importing small quantities of marijuana and hashish was not illegal. After marijuana was legalized in The Netherlands in 1976, hundreds of cafés and other establishments openly included a wide variety of drugs among the other items they offered for sale. 8 Pérez elected Panamanian Ernesto Pérez Belladares,

president. a million-

aire banker running under the banner of the Democratic Revolutionary Party, defeated six other candidates in a race for the presidency of Panama. Although he was supported by only one-third of the electorate, a runoff was not required. His strongest challenge had come from Mireya Moscoso

de Gruber,

who

received

29%

of the vote. Singer-actor Rubén Blades made a serious run for the presidency, but he finished third with 17% of the vote. Incumbent Pres. Guillermo Endara Galimany was not directly involved in the

election

because,

by law, he

could

serve only one five-year term. During the campaign Pérez Belladares promised to better the lives of the country’s poorest citizens through social programs and the creation of more jobs. Berlusconi

takes

helm

in Italy.

11

A new political era dawned in Italy when Silvio Berlusconi took the oath of office as prime minister. The ceremony not only apparently closed a chapter on a government besmirched by blatant corruption; it also marked a return to the past because, for the first time since the end

of World

War

II, neo-Fascists

were elevated to positions in the Cabinet.

Images of the centre of galaxy M87 made by the Hubble Space Telescope reveal a disk of gas, the rapid rotation of which suggests a massive black hole. The finding was announced May 25. HOLLAND

FORD (STSCI/JHU), NASA, ET AL.

Before the March elections Berlusconi’s Forza Italia party formed a coalition with the neo-Fascist National Alliance (formerly known as the Italian Social Movement) and the Northern League. Campaigning under the name Alliance for Freedom, the

coalition won an absolute majority in the national Chamber of Deputies. After bitter wrangling, all agreed to offer Berlusconi the prime ministership. He responded by awarding high Cabinet posts to members of the Northern League and the National Alliance. Voters oust president of Malawi.

17

In Malawi’s first multiparty elections, nonagenarian Pres. Hastings Kamuzu Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi, candidate of the United Democratic

Front. Muluzi had formerly been secretarygeneral of the ruling Malawi Congress Party.

Banda,

self-declared

president

for

life, had exercised dictatorial powers since 1964, when the African republic became independent from Britain. The electorate, however, had paved the way for his removal in June 1993 by passing a referendum establishing a multiparty political system. Hubble proves Einstein’s theory. During a news conference in Z5 Washington, D.C., Holland Ford,

an astronomer at the Space Telescope Institute and Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., announced that the Hubble

Space Telescope had provided “conclusive evidence of a supermassive black hole” in the centre of galaxy M87 in the constellation Virgo. Confirmation of the existence of such a phenomenon, predicted by Albert Einstein in his theory of general relativity, had eluded scientists for decades. Some black holes were thought to form from massive stars that became unstable and gravitationally collapsed inward upon themselves after exhausting their internal

thermonuclear fuel. Other kinds may form at the centres of galaxies when large volumes of interstellar matter collect under the influence of gravity and collapse. In either case, the weight of the matter falling in from all sides compresses the matter at the centre of the collapsing region to zero volume and infinite density. Gravity becomes so intense that nothing, not even light, can escape. Clinton

26

alters

his China

policy.

President Clinton announced that

he had decided to sign an executive order extending for one year China’s mostfavoured-nation trade status even though it had failed to make “overall significant progress” in respecting the human rights of its citizens. Clinton revised his policy even further by declaring that China’s observance of human rights, which previously had been a key issue in determining its trade status, would henceforth be treated as a separate matter. The U.S., however, would

continue to pressure China to comply with the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It would also, among other things, resist the importation of goods produced in Chinese prisons. Antarctic

whale

sanctuary

established.

During its annual meeting in Mexico, the International Whaling Commission voted

23-1, with

six abstentions,

to bar

permanently all the waters south South America, for many types

commercial whalers from of Africa, Australia, and a major feeding ground of whales. All stocks of

whales

area,

in

the

except

the

minke,

had been reduced to a fraction of their population. Japan, the only nation actively fighting the establishment of a vast whale sanctuary covering nearly one-quarter of the world’s oceans, argued that a ban on hunting minke was an emotional decision unjustified by scientific data.

20

Chronology: June Socialists

29 tacular

triumph

in Hungary.

The Hungarian Socialist (former Communist) Party staged a specpolitical comeback by winning,

after the final runoff elections, a total of

209 of the 386 elective seats in the National Assembly. Eight additional seats were filled by appointment. The Alliance of Free Democrats finished a weak second with 70 seats. The Hungarian Democratic Forum, which had been the senior partner in the previous coalition government, retained only 37 seats.

Observers

attributed

the

election results to widespread dissatisfaction

with Hungary’s efforts to adopt a freemarket economy. During a special party congress on June 4, the Socialists officially named Gyula Horn as their choice for prime minister. Late in June the entire assembly was expected to confirm Horn as head of government. Pope bans ordination

of women.

30

Pope John Paul II emphatically reaffirmed the position that women cannot be ordained priests in the Roman Catholic Church. In a letter addressed

the pontiff endeavoured to end a debate that had engrossed a large number of bishops, priests, nuns, and laypeople. The central message of the pope’s letter read: “Wherefore, in order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the church’s divine constitution itself, in virtue

of my ministry of confirming the brethren, I declare that the church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the church’s

to Catholic bishops throughout the world,

faithful.”

legitimacy of the claim. Local resistance had been resolute throughout the years, and Indonesian troops had reportedly killed one-sixth of the population. President Suharto, embarrassed and annoyed by the adverse publicity his country was receiving, urged Philippine Pres. Fidel Ramos to use his authority to cancel the meeting. Suharto had implied that if nothing was done, he might choose to aid the Muslim separatists fighting in the southern part of the Philippines. Ramos issued an injunction, but it was invalidated by the Supreme Court. The president, however, was able to deny visas to overseas delegates and to order the deportation of foreign delegates already in the country. The wife of French

defeat of Nazi Germany. Some 30,000 elderly veterans also traveled to Normandy to remember and pay homage to those who had given their lives to set others

JUNE Crimea acknowledges ties to Ukraine. 3 A dispute over the status of the

Crimean Peninsula was officially resolved and a crisis averted when the Ukraine government and its autonomous region of Crimea signed a joint communiqué affirming that Crimea was part of Ukraine. The issue was especially important to Ukraine because the Black Sea Fleet, which Russia and Ukraine both claimed,

was based in Crimea. The communiqué also noted that differences between Crimean and Ukrainian laws would be resolved by a joint committee. On May 20 Crimea’s local legislature had taken the region a step closer to total independence by reconfirming (69-2) a constitution that had been adopted in 1992 but was suspended a few days later when Ukraine gave in to several Crimean demands. Rights in East Timor discussed. 4 A private conference on Indonesia’s observance of human rights in East Timor, a former Portuguese colony seized by Indonesia in 1976, concluded in

Manila despite government efforts to ban the meeting. Indonesia claimed East Timor as its 27th province, but the United Nations

had repeatedly refused to acknowledge the

Pres. Francois Mitterrand, made aware of the situation, canceled plans to attend the

conference.

free. On June 5, 38 veterans of the 82nd Airborne Division, some in their 80s, were

warmly cheered as they dropped from the sky in multicoloured parachutes in a reenactment of their hazardous Normandy landing behind enemy lines 50 years earlier. Other veterans in battle gear waded ashore to commemorate the launching of Operation Overlord, the largest amphibious invasion in history. French Pres. Frangois Mitterrand presided over the largest of the anniversary celebrations at Omaha Beach. Among the many other remembrances that took place at various locations was a visit by President Clinton to the Normandy American Cemetery near Omaha Beach, where more

6 Allies remember

Normandy

landing.

Various heads of state and government, representatives of the Allies whose troops had participated in the historic 1944 D-Day invasion of Normandy during World War II, gathered in France to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the event, which

led to the liberation

Western

and contributed

Europe

of

to the

LES STONE—SYGMA

buried.

The

than 9,000 U.S. soldiers were

president

remarked,

“These

are the fathers we never knew, the uncles we never met, the friends who never

returned, the heroes we can never repay.” 1

Muslim Brotherhood under attack.

The Egyptian government stepped up its campaign against the Muslim Brotherhood, a powerful antigovernment organization that sought to win converts to Islamic fundamentalism by gaining control of charitable institutions and by influencing university faculties, professional groups, local government

officials, labour

leaders,

and others of like status. The ultimate goal of the Brotherhood,

officially outlawed

in

Egypt in 1954, was to turn Egypt into an Islamic republic. Pres. Hosni Mubarak, who had no such wishes for his country, was concerned that the vast sums of money the Brotherhood received from Saudi Arabia

and other Persian Gulf states and its adherents, numbering in the hundreds of thousands and growing, posed a greater threat than did the terrorist groups that shared the Brotherhood’s vision of the kind of state Egypt should be. U.S. puts new pressure on General Cédras. President Clinton, determined to dislodge

a

Haitian children wait in line to receive drinking water. On June 10 the U.S. government further

tightened sanctions against the island nation in an effort to bring down its military government.

the military regime in Haiti headed by Lieut. Gen. Raoul Cédras, added two new elements to the list of economic sanctions already in place, He ordered an immediate ban on all financial transactions between the two countries, thereby making it impossible for wealthy Haitians, many of whom profited from the military government, to withdraw funds from their U.S. accounts

Chronology: June

or transfer funds out of Haiti for deposit in the U.S. The ban would affect hundreds of millions of dollars. Clinton also called a halt to all commercial flights between the U.S. and Haiti. On June 12 it was unofficially reported that some 30 LatinAmerican countries had privately informed USS. officials that they were prepared to support a military invasion of Haiti if economic sanctions did not bring down its military rulers. That same day Emile Jonassaint,

Haiti’s

provisional

suppressed “for covering political events without appropriate licenses.” Tempo, which did have such authority, was reportedly shut down for its coverage of a sensitive story: a Cabinet-level squabble involving Minister of Research and Technology B.J. Habibie and Finance Minister Mar’ie Muhammad over the cost of refitting 39 former East German warships that had been purchased on Habibie’s authority.

president,

French troops cross into Rwanda. The French government ordered some 2,500 marines and Foreign Legionnaires to cross the Zairean border into Rwanda to protect refugees, mission-

declared a state of emergency. 1

23

New European Parliament elected. The 12 nations of the European

Union finished their two-stage balloting for representation in the European Parliament without giving any political bloc a majority of the 567 seats. The left-of-centre groups, which included an assortment of socialists, communists, and environmentalists, won 242 seats. Right-

of-centre groups captured 229 seats, and

nonaffiliated groups won 96 seats. Both of the major blocs were expected to woo the uncommitted, but neither group was confident it would be able to command an absolute majority of 284 seats when Parliament convened. 1

Israel

and

Vatican

affirm

ties.

After years of often bitter antagonism between Jews and the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican and Israel simultaneously announced the establishment of full diplomatic relations. Following the lead of virtually all other

states with diplomats accredited to Israel, the Vatican announced that its embassy would be located in an area administered by Tel Aviv rather than in Jerusalem. Even though Jerusalem had been officially designated Israel’s capital, most nations tried not to become directly involved in the sensitive issue of the ancient city’s status. When the Vatican agreed to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, it was given no guarantees that it would have an active voice in future discussions about the status of Jerusalem. O.J. Simpson accused of murder. 17 Hall of Fame professional football player and television personality O.J. Simpson was formally charged in Los Angeles with murdering his former

wife Nicole Brown

Simpson

and Ronald

Goldman, who was at Nicole’s house the

night of June 12 when the murders were committed. After a preliminary evaluation of the evidence, the police ordered Simpson,

by now a prime suspect, to turn himself in. While his lawyers were discussing the situation, Simpson slipped away and became a fugitive from justice. Hours later a longtime friend, driving along a Los Angeles freeway, contacted police by car telephone to say that Simpson was with him in the car holding a gun to his head. Millions sat transfixed in front of their television sets

aries, and the wounded from indiscriminate

massacre

BOUy

ats iaasee Te 1

Former football star, television personality, and actor O.J. Simpson appears in a mug shot. On June 17 Simpson was charged with the murder of his former wife Nicole and a friend, Ronald Goldman. LAPD—GAMMA

LIAISON

months. No murder case in U.S. history had ever received such sensational pretrial publicity, sparked so much discussion, or generated so many news stories, editorials, magazine articles, television interviews, and

even “instant” books. Samper wins Colombian election.

19

Ernesto Samper Pizano, candidate of the ruling Liberal Party, narrowly defeated Andres Pastrano Arango, the Conservative Party candidate, in a runoff election for the presidency of Colombia. Samper, scheduled to begin his four-year term on August 7, would succeed César Gaviria Trujillo, who was excluded by law from seeking reelection. Analysts attributed the low voter turnout (45%) to a general lack of interest in the outcome. Both candidates, whose political parties had dominated national politics since the 1950s, had pledged to continue the gradual process of economic liberalization initiated by Gaviria and to push for a negotiated peace settlement with leftist rebels. Samper supported an increase in social expenditures to create jobs and raise the living standard of the poor. He also advocated caution on such policies as privatization and the lowering of trade barriers. Neither of the two candidates spoke much about Colombia’s notorious illegal drug trade even though there was a widely held belief that high government officials were being bought off by drug kingpins. Indonesia clamps down on press.

Simpson surrendered to authorities. He hired a team of prominent defense attorneys

and at his arraignment pleaded not guilty. Legal squabbles over the admissibility of evidence and jury selection dragged on for

that had approached acirculation of nearly 500,000 in little more than a year, were

as helicopter crews beamed live pictures of the car leisurely moving through traffic while police vehicles followed at a discreet After

returning

to

his

home,

at the hands

and Tutsi

The Indonesian government notified three popular publications that their licenses had been revoked. News of the crackdown came as a shock to the hundreds of thousands who had come to rely on Tempo, Editor, and DeTik as dependable sources of information about their country. Many who were angry about the closures accused President Suharto of depriving the public of legitimate news and reversing his policy of gradually relaxing government censorship of the press. Editor,

distance.

21

21

a news

magazine,

and

DeTik,

a tabloid

tribesmen.

of warring Hutu

More

than

200,000

Rwandans had already lost their lives. The French minister of defense explained that Operation Turquoise was launched “to protect threatened civilians, not for war operations or military assistance.” Its purpose, he reiterated, was to put a stop to genocide by moving noncombatants to safer areas close to the border in Zaire. Socialist is chosen to lead Japan.

29

In a move that stunned Japan, the lower house of the Diet (parliament) elected (261-214) Tomiichi Murayama, the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Japan (SDPJ), prime minister. He replaced Tsutomu Hata, a reformist who had resigned on June 25, and gave Japan its first socialist prime minister since 1948. To win the prime ministership, Murayama agreed to accept the LiberalDemocratic Party (LDP) as partners in his coalition government in exchange for their support. Until that moment such a coalition would have been the most unlikely of scenarios. During the LDP’s long hold on power, its most formidable opposition had come from the SDPJ, which opposed the LDP on virtually every major issue. The SDPJ, moreover,

had joined the coalition

government of Prime Minister Morihiro Hosokawa when the scandal-riddled LDP fell from power in July 1993. The partners in the

new

government,

however,

were

united in their opposition to political reforms that were likely to diminish their representation in the Diet. Murayama also backed away from the anti-U.S., antinuclear power, pro-North Korea positions that had characterized the SDPJ in the past. Murayama, inaugurated on June 30, awarded 13 of the 20 Cabinet posts to members of the LDP. Hong Kong votes for democracy.

30) Hong Kong’s 60-member Legislative Council ignored dire threats from Beijing (Peking) by approving a proposal that would expand democratic participation in the process by which council members were elected. Gov. Chris Patten had disregarded China’s vigorous objections, saying that the people of Hong Kong desired greater democracy, which would guarantee Hong Kong’s economic future. Because China threatened to dismantle Hong Kong’s political structure after it gained sovereignty over the territory on July 1, 1997, some segments of the business community, with an eye to the future, leaned toward compliance with China’s wishes.

22

Chronology: July

JULY Arafat

warmly

welcomed

1 Fulfilling a dream

in Gaza.

he had nurtured

for decades, Yasir Arafat, chairman

of the Palestine Liberation Organization, crossed the Egyptian border and entered the Gaza Strip, the homeland of his ancestors. It was a momentous event for hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who,

as a result of the accord Arafat had signed with Israel, would begin adjusting to selfrule under the Palestine National Authority (PNA). Despite the general jubilation that marked Arafat’s arrival, he was protected by extremely tight security because certain Palestinian extremists, opposed to any compromise

with

Israel,

a traitor to their cause.

considered

him

Four days later

Arafat made his first trip in 27 years to Jericho in the West Bank, where

he was

sworn in as head of the PNA. Jericho had been granted the same degree of independence as Gaza. 2 Cambodia

reports

attempted

coup.

Officials of the Cambodian government reported that a coup led by Prince Norodom Chakrapong, the estranged son of King Norodom Sihanouk, and Gen. Sin Song—both members of the Cabinet— had been foiled when government troops intercepted 200-300 dissident soldiers in armoured vehicles and trucks as they were advancing on Phnom Penh, the capital. The coup had been planned to occur while the king was in China for treatment of prostate cancer. After many hours of telephone conversations that involved the king, the queen, Chakrapong, government officials, and the U.S. ambassador, Chakrapong was allowed to board a plane and go into exile in Malaysia. Gen. Sin Song was placed

200,000-500,000

people

had

been

killed,

and up to two million Rwandans had sought safety across the border in Zaire, where thousands were dying from starvation and disease. A spokesperson for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees described the situation as “absolutely catastrophic.” One member of an on-site British relief agency characterized the plight of the refugees as “a disaster on a scale not witnessed in modern times.” For untold thousands water, food, and medical supplies arrived too late to save their lives. 8 Kim

I] Sung

dies

in

Pyongyang.

North Korea’s official news agency informed the nation on July 9 that “Great Leader” Kim I] Sung had died the previous day of an apparent heart attack. The year after Korea was divided into two separate states (1948), Kim gained absolute power in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea as chairman of the Korean Workers’ (Communist) Party. At his death

Kim, who

had named

his son

Kim Jong Il heir-designate, left North Korea’s economy in shambles, in great part because his country had become more and more isolated from the international community. Shortly before his unexpected death, Kim had agreed, for the first time,

to discuss reconciliation with the president of South Korea and to seek to resolve the tense international crisis over North Korea’s nuclear program. Kuchma

wins Ukrainian

election.

10

under arrest. Rwandan

easily overwhelmed the national army, which was under Hutu command. The three-month-long civil war had already created unspeakable suffering. An estimated

refugees

inundate

Zaire.

The Rwandan Patriotic Front captured Kigali, the national capital, then directed its offensive against other parts of the country still under government control. Although the Tutsi rebels comprised less than 15% of the population, their professionally trained, highly motivated troops

In a runoff election for the presidency of Ukraine, Leonid Kuchma defeated incumbent Pres. Leonid Kravchuk by capturing 52% of the vote. An analysis of the results showed that a vast proportion of the electorate had voted along ethnic lines. In the predominantly Russianspeaking eastern regions of Ukraine and in Crimea, where 70% of the population was

ethnic

Russian,

Kuchma

won

about

SEBASTIAO SALGADO

90% of the vote. In some districts in the western part of the country, which were heavily populated by ethnic Ukrainians, he failed to win even 5% of the vote. Kuchma,

who had'formerly been head of the Soviet Union’s largest missile plant, campaigned on a promise to reform and invigorate the country’s pitiful economy by forging closer ties with Russia. During the previous year Ukraine’s industrial output had declined 40%, and nearly half of the workforce was

unemployed. Lukashenka coasts to victory in Belarus. In a runoff election to choose Belarus’ first president, Aleksandr Lukashenka, a former communist, overwhelmed Prime Minister

Vyacheslau Kebich by capturing more than 80% of the popular vote. The landslide victory was viewed by many observers as a mass protest against the status quo. Lukashenka had campaigned on a promise to root out corruption, which was rampant among government officials, to imprison Kebich, and to dismiss anyone who had ties to his administration. Although Lukashenka had no significant experience -in either domestic or foreign affairs, he made lavish promises to rebuild the country’s shattered economy, create jobs, provide for the elderly, and stifle inflation, which had been

averaging about 10% a week. Lukashenka also declared that there was no solution

to the nation’s severe problems other than closer ties with Russia. 1

Employees

buy

United

Airlines.

After seven years of sporadic negotiations, employees of United Airlines (UAL) bought controlling interest (55%) in the world’s largest carrier. The $4.9 billion investment made by the company’s 54,000 employees included wage and benefit concessions ranging from 8.25% for nonunion workers to 15.7% for pilots over a period of 5% years. Under terms of the agreement, the employees would have a significant albeit indirect role in decision making because the three persons they selected to sit on the 12-person board of directors would have veto power over such proposals as the sale of company assets and the expansion of its operations. Even so, some investment advisers with intimate knowledge of the highly competitive airline

industry were_reluctant to predict that the new owners would, in the years ahead, be

happy with the decision they had made. The new chairman of UAL would be Gerald

Greenwald,

a former executive

at

Chrysler Corp. 1

UN

The

retains

sanctions

United

Britain,

which

on

Iraq.

States

and

Great

had

veto

power

over UN Security Council resolutions, took

ee

a firm stand against the removal of UNimposed economic sanctions on Iraq. The U.S. ambassador to the UN argued that Iraq had made only token gestures to meet UN conditions for removing restrictions on its trade and oil sales and had not, therefore, earned favourable consideration. China,

Bodies of Rwandans who had tried to flee their country lie scattered along a road. On July 4 the minority Tutsi rebels captured the capital, Kigali, creating thousands of additional refugees.

France,

Russia,

and

some

Third

World nations holding seats on the Security Council pushed in vain for a statement

Chronology: August

acknowledging that Iraq had made sufficient progress to justify a loosening of the sanctions. The Russian representative issued a separate statement in which he encouraged Iraq to satisfy the UN conditions and urged the Security Council to revoke the sanctions as soon as the UN Special Committee on Iraq declared that the installation of a system to monitor Iraqi weapons had been completed. 2

Tony

Tony Blair to lead Labour Party. The electoral college of Great Britain’s Labour Party selected

Blair

succeeded

to be its party John

Smith, who

leader.

He

had died in

May. Political analysts expressed a belief that Blair provided the Labour Party with a good chance of regaining control of the government for the first time since 1979. They cited the substantial decline in Prime Minister John Major’s popularity, broad dissatisfaction with the Conservative government, and Blair’s decision to back away from such traditional Labour policies as increased taxation to finance social programs and support for trade unions in their disputes with industry. The next parliamentary election had to be called no later than mid-1997. ))

Gambian military seizes power. Sir Dawda Jawara, president of The

Gambia

since

1970,

was

overthrown in a coup organized by junior army officers. The country’s four or five new military rulers immediately suspended the constitution, outlawed political parties,

imposed a curfew, and set up a Provisional Council of the Armed Forces. They also promised to set a date for the restoration of democracy. Sir Dawda and his sizable entourage were taken aboard a visiting U.S. warship and set ashore in neighbouring Senegal, where they were granted temporary. political asylum. 7

Congress

passes

anticrime

bill.

After months of contentious congressional debate, conferees from

the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives reached agreement on anticrime legislation that President Clinton hailed as “the toughest, largest, smartest federal attack on crime in the history of our country.” Some members of Congress continued to ridicule the bill, especially for financing social welfare programs as deterrents to crime. The entire anticrime program would cost $30.2 billion. The money would put 100,000 new police officers on the nation’s streets, finance new prisons, pay for crimeprevention and rehabilitation programs, and provide scholarships for students willing to commit themselves to a career in law enforcement. In addition, the bill banned the manufacture, sale, and possession of 19

23

passed 10 constitutional amendments after three months of tumultuous confrontation between the ruling Kuomintang (KMT;

Nationalist Party) and the opposition Democratic Progressive Party and its allies. One amendment provided for the direct election of the president and vice president, a right previously invested in the National Assembly. Another change would permit overseas nationals to cast ballots in that election. The conditions for recalling a president were also modified. Henceforth a president could not be removed from office without a two-thirds vote of the Assembly and the approval of a majority of voters. Only one KMT-sponsored amendment failed. It called for the simultaneous election of the president and the National Assembly to avoid fundamental changes in the government during a president’s term in office. UN

approves

invasion

of Haiti.

3]

Frustrated in its attempt to persuade the military government of Haiti to step down and allow the Rev. Jean-Bertrand Aristide to assume the presidency, which he had won in the December

1990 election,

the United

and extended the some 60 crimes. It life imprisonment of three serious

Nations Security Council authorized (12-

Taiwan amends its constitution. The National Assembly of the Republic of China in Taiwan

were not given a specific deadline after which they would be taken into custody by invading foreign troops.

Slovaks, and one German. On August 12 a German carrying a tiny quantity of nuclear material was arrested in Bremen. All the nuclear material was believed to have been smuggled out of Russia or one of the other former Soviet republics. Russian

election, Joaquin Balaguer was sworn in as president of the Dominican Republic. The frail 87-year-old politician had held the office for 20 of the previous 28 years. On August 10 Balaguer and opposition party leaders had reached a compromise that

authorities promised to track down source of the smuggled material.

allowed Balaguer new elections were Four days later assembly added constitution that until May 1996.

types of assault weapons federal death penalty to also required mandatory for persons convicted felonies.

29

0, with

2 abstentions)

a United

States-

led military invasion of the country if the sanctions already in place failed to force the junta to relinquish power. Gen. Raoul Cédras and his associates, however,

AUGUST Breyer joins U.S. Supreme Court. 3 During a private ceremony conducted by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, Stephen Breyer officially became a member of the U.S. Supreme Court. He had asked to take the oath of office before the formal White House ceremony on August 12 so that he could begin selecting his staff and have access to material on cases awaiting decision by the court. In July the Senate Judiciary Committee had questioned Breyer, the chief judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, on a wide variety of issues before unanimously recommending that he be confirmed by the entire Senate. Only nine senators opposed the appointment. Breyer replaced retired

justice Harry Blackmun. Germany seizes nuclear material.

10

In a sting operation carried out at the Munich airport, German police

seized 370-430 g (12-14 oz) of plutonium239, an isotope used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons. One Colombian and two Spaniards were arrested after they arrived aboard a Lufthansa flight from Moscow. Three other incidents that occurred between May 10 and August 12 involved smaller amounts of smuggled nuclear material. The first case involved a German businessman with apparent ties to Iraq. Police found six grams of 4°Pu in his home in Tengen. In June the discovery in Landshut of about nine grams of highly enriched uranium235 led to the arrest of one Czech, four

Sudan

14

nabs

notorious

the

terrorist.

Ilich Ramirez Sanchez, an international terrorist known as Carlos,

or “the Jackal,” was apprehended in The Sudan and turned over to French authorities. The next day he was flown to France to face murder charges and other charges. Carlos,

a native of Venezuela,

had been

sought by Western intelligence agencies for some 20 years even though he had apparently given up his terrorist activities. One of his most sensational successes was

the 1975 kidnapping of 11 OPEC ministers who were meeting in Vienna. Three persons were killed, but Carlos and his accomplices

hijacked a plane and took the oil ministers to Algeria, where they were released after

the payment Carlos was groups,

but

of a $20 million

most

closely linked

at various

times

ransom.

king

ousts

Mokhehle.

17

Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle and his Cabinet were dismissed by King Letsie III of Lesotho on the grounds that the people were dissatisfied with the nation’s first democratically elected government. On August 19 a provisional council was appointed to run the country until new elections were held at a stillunspecified date. The king’s action was widely seen as an attempt to return power to his father,

Moshoeshoe

II, who

had

been deposed by the military in 1990 and temporarily exiled.

to Arab

communist

regimes in Eastern Europe protected him, if only because he was creating havoc in Western Europe.

16

Lesotho’s

to remain in office until held in November 1995. a special constitutional an amendment to the postponed the election

Dominican Republic ends crisis. Three months after winning what

was widely viewed as a fraudulent

Sri Lankans elect Kumaratunga. Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, candidate of the nineparty People’s Alliance, was sworn in as prime minister of Sri Lanka. Although the alliance failed to win an absolute majority in the August 16 parliamentary elections, it captured 105 of the 225 seats—11 more

19

24

Chronology: August

than the United National Party, which had controlled the government for 17 years. Kumaratunga’s father and mother had both held the post of prime minister. Under Sri Lanka’s political system, Pres. Dingiri Wijetunga, whose term did not expire until the end of the year, could have selected anyone to be prime minister. He named Kumaratunga after Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe announced that he would oppose any other choice.

was expected to take over the reins of government from Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari on December 1. Incomplete results of the parliamentary elections indicated that the PRI would still control the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.

U.S. policy on Cuban refugees is changed.

prime minister of The Netherlands. His three-party coalition included the rightwing Liberal Party and the leftist Democrats 66 bloc. For the first time in decades, the Christian Democratic Appeal became the

President

Clinton,

fearful

that thousands

of Cuban refugees in unseaworthy vessels were heading for the United States with the approval of Cuban Pres. Fidel Castro, announced that Cuban refugees would no longer automatically be granted asylum in the U.S. Instead, those picked up at sea by the U.S. Navy or Coast Guard and those reaching U.S. shores would be sent to holding camps. Some would be routed to the U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. On August 20 Clinton increased the pressure on Castro by prohibiting charter flights to Cuba and by outlawing cash transfers, which had been providing Cuba

with an estimated

$500 million

a year

in hard currency. Clinton remarked, “The solution to Cuba’s many problems is not an uncontrolled exodus. It is freedom and democracy for Cuba.” 1

PRI retains Mexican presidency. Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Léon,

candidate of Mexico’s long-ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), won the presidency in balloting that observers reported was virtually free of the blatant fraud that had characterized most past elections. The PRI had not lost the presidency since the party was founded in 1929. Zedillo’s closest rival was Diego Fernandez de Cevallos of the National Action Party. He won the support of about 27% of the electorate. Zedillo

Kok

takes

over

in Netherlands.

Nearly four months after para liamentary elections, | Willem (“Wim”) Kok, leader of the left-wing Labour

Party, took the oath of office as

party in opposition. Kok had insisted that all the partners in his coalition endorse his political program, which was designed to increase employment,

lower taxes, and

cut the national budget. The government would continue to provide free education for undergraduates, but in the future those wishing to pursue graduate degrees would have to pay their own way. Papua New Guinea holds election.

30) Following an order of the Supreme Court, Papua New Guinea’s unicameral National Parliament held an election for the prime ministership. The vote was 69-32 in favour of Sir Julius Chan. He succeeded Paias Wingti, who had been elected in 1992. In September 1993 Wingti resigned overnight and was reelected the next morning. He employed this strategy in hopes of taking advantage of a provision in the law that protected a new prime minister from a no-confidence vote for the first 18 months of his tenure in office. The Supreme Court, after ruling that such tactics violated the spirit of the constitution,

ordered

a new

election.

Wingti then decided to step aside. After assuming office, Chan announced that his top priority would be to end the six-year-

old civil war in Bougainville, the largest of the Solomon Islands, which were part of Papua New Guinea. IRA proclaims a new cease-fire. Affirming a new determination to rely on political solutions to end the

3

conflict in Northern Ireland, the outlawed

Provisional wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) announced a complete cessation of military operations against the British government and its troops in Northern

Ireland. Since 1969 some 3,000

people, mostly civilians, had been killed there in sectarian fighting between Roman Catholics and local Protestant paramilitary units backed up by British soldiers. For months there had been unofficial reports of high-level meetings, many in secret, to find a formula for settling the dispute over who should rule Northern Ireland. Despite all efforts to resolve the impasse, the basic problem remained; the majority of people in Northern Ireland were Protestant and presumably wished to remain British, while the IRA and its supporters contended that the Irish republic comprised the entire island. Russia

meets

deadline for troop pullout.

Adhering to a time schedule agreed to in July, Russia withdrew the last of its troops from Estonia and Latvia. The future status of retired Russian soldiers who wished to remain in prosperous Estonia had been settled earlier; all could apply for permanent

residence,

but

Estonia

would

have the right, after reviewing each case individually, to deport criminals and others judged to be detrimental to the country. The first total withdrawal of Russian military personnel from the Baltics had occurred in Lithuania in August 1993, and Russian forces left Poland the following month. On August 31 the final contingent of Russian troops departed from Berlin, Russia’s last base on German soil.

ALON REININGER—CONTACT PRESS IMAGES

ms ee Cubans trying to reach Florida on a homemade raft are picked up by the U.S. Coast Guard. On August 19 Pres. Bill Clinton announced that the U.S. would begin to hold Cuban refugees in camps rather than grant them automatic asylum.

Chronology: September

Nigerian ruler proclaims dictatorship.

My Gen. Sani Abacha, who had been VW ruling oil-rich Nigeria since November 1993 as chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council, assumed dictatorial powers. The previous day oil workers had ended a twomonth strike that failed to force Abacha to turn over the reins of government to Moshood (“MKO”) Abiola, who was in prison facing charges of treason. He had been arrested after apparently winning the presidential election in June 1993. The National Defense and Security Council annulled the election “so as to protect our legal system and the judiciary from being ridiculed.” After assuming absolute power, Abacha declared that his government was beyond the jurisdiction of the courts and that persons taken into custody could be detained for three months without being charged. He also muzzled the press by shutting down leading newspapers and magazines.

Action to stabilize the world’s population. The Sudan, a largely Islamic country, was one of 11 countries that did not send delegates to the conference. It boycotted the meeting, it said, because the outcome

would result “in the spread of immoral and irreligious values.” Those who argued that the lot of impoverished nations would improve significantly if the birthrate was

25

Exxon fined billions for oil spill. In Anchorage,

Alaska,

a federal

LX jury fined Exxon Corp. a record $5 billion in punitive damages for the oil spill in Prince William Sound that resulted when the supertanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in 1989. The money would go to some 34,000 fishermen and to others who

claimed in a lawsuit that they had suffered

Barbados chooses a new government.

Owen Arthur took the oath of office # as prime minister of Barbados one day after his Barbados Labour Party soundly defeated the ruling Democratic Labour Party (DLP) by winning 19 of the 28 seats in the lower House of the Assembly. The DLP, which had held uninterrupted power for a decade, captured eight seats and the National Democratic Party one. Arthur, who was trained as an economist, promised that his government would give top priority to lowering unemployment, which stood at 22%. Accord reached on Cuban refugees. After more than a week of negotia-

tions in New York City, the U.S. and Cuba reached agreement on a new refugee policy that would end the recent tidal wave of Cubans fleeing to the U.S. In the future a minimum of 20,000 Cubans a year would be permitted to enter the U.S. legally as long as Cuba took steps to stem the tide of illegal emigrants heading for the U.S. The number of economic refugees had reached such unmanageable proportions in recent weeks that President Clinton had felt compelled on August 19 to announce that, beginning immediately, the nation’s 28-year-old policy of granting asylum to any Cuban reaching U.S. shores was no longer in effect. Henceforth, Cubans picked up at sea, often crowded aboard unseaworthy boats

or

on

makeshift

rafts,

would

Delegates confer during the UN population conference, which ended in Cairo on September 13. There were sharp disagreements on the roles of family planning versus economic development. DONNA DECESARE—IMPACT VISUALS

controlled encountered challenges from others who cited history as proof that birthrates invariably drop when nations emerge from widespread poverty. Much greater emphasis, they contended, should be placed on economic development as a vital element in stabilizing the world’s population. Before the conference ended, the Vatican surprised many by endorsing 8 of the 16 chapters that constituted the new UN statement of policy on population.

substantial losses because of the pollution. Lawyers for Exxon announced that they would appeal the jury’s decision. Haiti’s military junta to step down. President Clinton announced on national television that Haiti’s mil-

ma itary rulers by agreeing 15, thus Aristide to

had defused a tense situation to relinquish power by October allowing Pres. Jean-Bertrand return to Haiti to assume the

JEFFREY MARKOWITZ—SYGMA

be

transported directly to holding camps at U.S. bases in Panama or Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Disputes

mar

Cairo

conference.

The third UN-sponsored InternaA tional Conference on Population and Development ended in Cairo after nine days of often bitter debate over such issues as sexual morality, family planning, and the legitimacy and desirability of abortion as a means of birth control. The Roman Catholic Church,

some

Latin-American

countries,

and several predominantly Islamic nations generally strongly opposed certain specific policies (or the ambiguity of statements) contained in a proposed Program of

(From left) U.S. Sen. Sam Nunn, Gen. Colin Powell, and former president Jimmy Carter report on their mission to Haiti. On Sept. 18 it was announced that Haiti’s military leaders would quit.

26

Chronology: October

presidency that he had held before being ousted in a September 1991 military coup. The agreement was reached while U.S. warplanes were flying toward Haiti to carry out the first phase of a military operation to remove by force Lieut. Gen. Raoul Cédras and other members of the junta. The top U.S. negotiators in Port-au-Prince were former president Jimmy Carter, Sen. Sam Nunn, and Colin Powell, the former

chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On September 19 U.S. troops landed in Haiti

to work in close cooperation with local military and police forces “to promote freedom and democracy and to forge a sustained and mutually beneficial relationship between the governments, people, and institutions of Haiti and the United States.” Once deployed, the U.S. soldiers obeyed orders and did not interfere on occasions when

street

violence,

including

brutal,

wanton beatings, occurred. Recognizing the absurdity of the situation, the U.S. later changed its policy and ordered its troops to take command. Scientists

find remarkable

fossil.

2 1 Timothy D. White, a paleontologist at the University of California at Berkeley and the leader of an international group of scientists working in Ethiopia, announced the discovery of ancient fossils belonging to apelike creatures that were the ancestors of modern humans (Homo sapiens). The 4.4 million-year-old fossils represented an entirely new species that was a million years older than the partial skeleton of Lucy, a hominid (uprightwalking primate) discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. An analysis of the newly discovered fossils appeared to support the theory that humans and apes evolved from a common ancestor that lived some four million to six million years ago. Quebec

to vote

on

sovereignty.

26

Jacques Parizeau, whose separatist Parti Québécois (PQ) had won 77 of the 125 seats in the province’s National Assembly on September 12, was sworn in

as premier of Quebec. Despite the PQ’s overwhelming success in gaining control of the Assembly, its percentage of the popular vote was only a fraction of a percentage point greater than that of the Liberal Party, which won only 47 seats. The Liberal Party had run the government for nine years. Parizeau’s victory meant, among other things, that Canadians would once again face the possibility that the mainly French-speaking voters of Quebec would opt for sovereignty when given a choice in a provincial referendum to be held in 1995. Saudi Arabia arrests Islamic militants. The government of Saudi Arabia publicly confirmed press reports that 110 Islamic militants had been recently arrested for plotting to spread sedition and destabilize the country. Although the Saudi govern-

ment was alert to possible threats coming from leftist secularists, extreme right-wing religious zealots appeared to present a more immediate threat to the status quo. They were blamed for social unrest inside Saudi Arabia and were responsible for serious conflicts in such Arab nations as Egypt, Algeria, and Tunisia. U.S. health care debate reaches impasse.

George leader

Mitchell, of

the

speaking

U.S.

as

Senate,

majority

announced

that national health care legislation was a dead issue during the current session of Congress. President Clinton had made universal health care a major goal of his Democratic administration, but he was

unable to overcome the opposition that surfaced in many different quarters. Given the complexity of the problems that had to be solved and the conflicting interests that had

to be reconciled,

it became

clearer

each day that passage of comprehensive health care legislation was not close at hand. Most legislators, however, agreed that health care reforms were badly needed and would in time become law, if not on

a national scale then locally, in a variety of ways, by individual states.

Americas

now free of poliovirus.

The Pan American Health Organization declared that paralytic

2

poliomyelitis (polio) had been eradicated in North and South America and in the Caribbean. Health officials coupled the announcement with a caution that the disease could reappear unless a serious effort was made to totally eradicate the disease through an extensive program of immunization. Some 120,000 cases of polio were still reported each year, mostly in less developed countries. Claes named as NATO

secretary-general.

All 16 nations belonging to NATO approved the appointment of Willy Claes as the organization’s new secretary-general. Claes, who was Belgium’s deputy prime minister and foreign minister, replaced Manfred Worner, who had died in August. The U.S. was not an enthusiastic supporter of Claes because the Belgian government, of which he was part, had refused to sell ammunition to Great Britain during the Persian Gulf war. In addition, Claes’s Flemish Socialist

Party had created discord by opposing the deployment of U.S. missiles in Europe in the 1980s. Arabs relax their boycott of Israel.

30) Six Arab nations belonging to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) declared that they would no longer blacklist companies doing business with Israel. The Arab nations’ 46-year-old ban on direct trade with Israel remained in force, but the GCC planned to call on the Arab League to rescind the ban entirely. Egypt became the first Arab nation to violate the boycott deliberately after it signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979. The boycott was further weakened in September 1993 when Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization signed a declaration of peace. Since that time the Arab boycott had become something of an anachronism because there were

numerous indications that Israel and its longtime foes were prepared to negotiate a step-by-step permanent peace settlement.

OCTOBER agreement that ended a festering debate over China’s alleged violation of a treaty that prohibited the sale of certain hightechnology items to other countries. China had not formally signed the 1987 international agreement, known as the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), but it had agreed in 1992 to adhere to its provisions. The U.S. contended that China had reneged on its promise by selling M-11 missile components to Pakistan—

of the Order of the Solar Temple, an international religious cult. An examination of the bodies indicated that the cultists

Belgian

scheduled to assume office on Jan. 1, 1995.

a charge both countries denied. China further contended that the M-11 missiles had a shorter range and a smaller payload than the limits set by the MTCR. The dispute was resolved when China accepted the more-restrictive interpretation of the treaty and the U.S. removed its one-yearold ban on the sale of high-tech equipment that China wished to purchase.

4 Dispute over missile sales settled. After negotiations in Washington,

5 Swiss

D.C., the U.S. and China signed an

found

Cardoso wins the election in Brazil. 3 A runoff election for the presidency of Brazil was avoided when Fernando Cardoso won a majority of the valid votes cast. (Because voting was mandatory in Brazil, a large number of ballots were left blank or declared invalid.) Cardoso’s closest rival in the field of eight was Luis Inacio Lula da Silva (“Lula”) of the Workers

Party, who had been considered

the front-runner until Cardoso resigned as finance minister in March and declared his intention to run for the presidency even though many Brazilians scarcely knew his name. His surge in popularity was attributed to the success of measures he had drafted as finance minister to curb rampant inflation, which by election day was at its lowest level in years. Cardoso was

Police find the bodies of 53 cultists.

police the

in two bodies

small

of 48

villages members

had

died

by suicide,

from

bullets

fired

into their heads, or by suffocation. The corpses of five other members of the cult were discovered in Quebec. The residences occupied by the cultists in Switzerland and Canada had been set ablaze by several devices connected to gasoline and benzine. The badly burned body of Luc Jouret, the founder

of the cult, had

to be

identified through dental records. He had warned his followers that an apocalypse was near because humans had polluted the environment. a U.S. responds to new Iraqi threat. President Clinton ordered the imme-

diate dispatch of additional Marine and navy forces to the Persian Gulf to

counter

a new

military threat posed by

Iraqi Pres. Saddam Hussein. Just hours earlier Saddam had issued orders for two

Chronology: October

27

gence and Class Structure in American Life. The uproar it created generated scores of television

interviews

and

discussions,

numerous newspaper and magazine articles, and countless letters to the editor. Among those who spoke out, many vigorously condemned the book’s basic premises and

conclusions,

while

others

defended

the book as fundamentally sound. Its coauthors, Harvard University professor Richard Herrnstein and social scientist Charles Murray, argued that a person’s intelligence, or cognitive ability, was largely determined by heredity. As a consequence, better educational opportunities could have only limited value in improving these abilities. The most heated debate raged over one chapter that claimed that blacks as a group scored lower on intelligence tests than whites and Asians

woke

os

———

eerie

|

The USS George Was hington moves through the Suez Canal on its way to the Persian Gulf. On October 7 U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton ordered troops to the area to counter a buildup of Iraqi forces. TOM HARTWELL—SABA

divisions of Republican Guard troops to move

toward

the Kuwaiti

border,

where

50,000 Iraqi soldiers were already stationed. The sudden buildup raised the possibility that Saddam was planning, for unknown reasons,

another

invasion

of Kuwait.

In

1990 some 350,000 Iraqis had invaded and annexed Kuwait until U.S.-led United Nations forces launched a massive and devastating counteroffensive. The most recent crisis subsided when Saddam ordered his troops to pull back from the Kuwaiti border. The retreat followed reports that 28 U.S. ships, about 650 planes, and an additional 40,000 troops were either heading for Kuwait or already in place.

and would,

predictably, as a group, earn less during their working years than other groups. The authors emphasized that their findings applied only to groups, not to individuals. Any one person, they pointed out, could outscore and outperform any other individual regardless of their respective backgrounds.

Chancellor Helmut Kohl’s Christian Democratic Union and its sister party, the Christian Social Union, together won 294 of the 672 seats. Kohl’s coalition ally, the Free Democratic Party, captured 47 seats, giving the government a total of 341. The opposition Social Democratic Party emerged with 252 seats, the Greens/ Alliance 90 party with 49, and the Party of Democratic Socialism with 30. The combined total of seats occupied by the opposition came to 331. Kohl, who was reelected on November 15, was expected to

surpass Konrad Adenauer’s postwar record 14-year tenure during his new four-year term as chancellor.

)

U.S. and North Korea sign pact. After three weeks of intense negotiations in Geneva, the United States and North Korea signed an agreement that set forth a timetable for the

complete dismantling of North Korea’s nuclear program. There had been worldwide concern over Pyongyang’s refusal to allow the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to inspect certain sites where, it was believed, nuclear weapons were being developed. Although North Korea repeatedly denied the charge, suspicions that it had in fact launched such a program had been reinforced when it announced in March 1993 that it was withdrawing from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. Key provisions of the agreement signed in Geneva included a U.S. commitment to oversee the construction in North Korea of two 1,000-MW light-water nuclear reactors,

Aristide gets warm welcome home.

15 Two days after Haiti’s most powerful military figures were flown

Macedonia holds first national election. Kiro Gligorov, candidate of the Alliance for

government.

Macedonia—a three-party coalition governing the country—was easily reelected to a five-year term as president. The election was the first in Macedonia since it became independent in 1991 with the breakup of Yugoslavia. Gligorov won more than 52% of the vote, while Ljubisa Georgievski of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization—Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity won about 14.5%. Only 10 of the nearly 1,800 candidates seeking election to the unicameral 120-seat Assembly won their contests outright. All other races were to be decided in later runoff elections. Officials of an international team of observers conceded that the election process had been flawed, but they would not side with those demanding that the results be voided. Instead, they expressed optimism that most of the problems that had surfaced during the first round of voting would be solved before the final round of balloting took place.

Germany’s coalition government suffered a serious setback in parliamentary elections,. but it managed to maintain control of the Bundestag (lower house) with a slim majority of 10 seats.

19 Bookstores throughout the U.S. began selling a highly controversial new book entitled The Bell Curve: Intelli-

into exile in Panama,

Jean-Bertrand

Ari-

stide returned to Haiti aboard a USS. government plane. As tens of thousands of jubilant supporters cheered, Aristide was reinstalled as president in Port-auPrince, the capital. Under heavy security he addressed an ecstatic crowd at the National Palace. His message, intended to bring peace and stability to a nation that had been terrorized for three years, was

delivered in French, Creole, and English: “No to violence, no to vengeance, yes to reconciliation.” On October 26 the president announced that he had selected Smarck Michel to be prime minister. The appointment of the U.S.-educated commodities trader who advocated a free market indicated that revitalization of the country’s economy would be one of the government’s top priorities. Vote

weakens

Kohl

16

New

book

creates

a

firestorm.

financed mainly by Japan and South Korea; a cessation of all activity at a graphitemoderated reactor in Yongbyon and of construction work at other reactor sites; a

guaranteed supply of oil from the U.S; and full access to all of North Korea’s nuclear facilities by IAEA inspectors after the light-water reactors came on-line. 23

New rice increases output by 20%. During a meeting of agricultural experts and World Bank officials in

Washington, D.C., Ken Fisher, director of

research at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, revealed that a new variety of rice had been developed that would increase harvests by at least 20%. He estimated that the increased yield would eventually feed an additional 500 million people in several years, after the rice plants became commercially available. At the same meeting, Lester R. Brown, the

president of the Worldwatch Institute and an expert on world grain supplies, pointed out that the demand for rice would increase significantly with rising populations in Asia. He also noted that the amount of land devoted to rice cultivation was gradually shrinking in many places to make room for factories and other buildings.

28

Chronology: November

marked its relationship with Israel. Egypt had been the first in 1979. President Clinton was among the 4,500 guests who attended the signing ceremony, which took place under heavy security. The peace treaty resolved long-standing disputes over land and water and called for the establishment of full diplomatic relations within a month. The two countries also pledged to work together on joint projects and cooperate in a wide variety of other areas. Both King Hussein of Jordan and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin of Israel spoke of the numerous benefits each country would reap with the advent of peace. Pretoria

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (left) shakes hands with Jordan’s King Hussein as U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton applauds. The two Middle Eastern countries signed a treaty of peace on October 26. PATRICK ROBERT—SYGMA

Vatican

and PLO

establish

ties.

In an apparent effort to increase its influence and diplomatic presence in the Holy Land, the Vatican established “permanent and official” relations with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Although the action fell well short a

os)

of recognition

of a Palestinian

state, the

Vatican somewhat balanced out its formal relations with Israel by agreeing to maintain

Canada

revamps

immigration

rules.

contact with the PLO through the Holy See’s embassy in Tunisia. At the same time, the Vatican continued to defend the

inalienable right of Palestinians to freedom and independence. Israel and Jordan embrace peace.

Jordan became the second Arab nation formally to end the state of war and hostility that for 46 years had

to be restricted, but government

grants per capita than any other major

would help compensate for the shortfall in financing campaigns. In addition, urban areas, long underrepresented, were set to have a greater voice in the Diet, which would have 500 members in the House of Representatives rather than 511 after the new laws took effect on December 25.

admitted without restrictions, but all other

relatives would be placed in a special category and subjected to quotas. Japanese

approve

political

reforms.

The final version of a package of broad political reforms, which had wide popular support, was approved by Japan’s House of Representatives, in the hope that a restructuring of the electoral system would rid the country of blatant corruption. The upper chamber,

the

House of Councillors, added its approval on November 21. The new legislation would introduce single-seat electoral constituencies, which would break the power

of large political parties that could no longer depend solely on seats awarded by proportional representation. Corporate

to

criticism.

civil service bureaucracy would become substantially leaner. During an interview

Mandela had remarked that high salaries and luxurious living had undermined the government’s credibility when it asked South Africans “to tighten their belts.” He also called for the privatization of many government-owned enterprises in order to encourage private investment in South Africa and acquire capital for financing social programs.

contributions to individual candidates were

After years of welcoming more immiindustrialized nation, Canada announced that it was revising its immigration laws. Tighter limits would be placed on the total number of immigrants admitted into the country (215,000 in 1995), and preference would be given to those with higher education or skills that would benefit the nation’s economy. Consequently, by the year 2000, the percentage of family-sponsored immigrants would decline from 51% to 44% of all those granted permanent residence. Spouses and children of immigrants already settled in Canada would continue to be

responds

Thabo Mbeki, first deputy president of South Africa, announced that Pres. Nelson Mandela’s administration would respond to widespread criticism that government officials were living lives of luxury while the country was heavily burdened with debts and a large segment of the population was mired in poverty. As part of a general plan to trim expenses, the salaries of the president and two deputy presidents would be cut by 20%, and the

subsidies

Republicans triumph nationwide. Scoring one of the most decisive political victories in modern U.S. history, the Republican Party won control of both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years. The landslide was so complete that not one Republican senator, congressman, or governor seeking reelection was defeated. The Republicans gained eight Senate seats, giving them control by a margin of 53-47. They also gained 53 seats in the House, bringing their new total to 230; the Democrats won 204 seats, and an

independent, one. All 11 first-term senators would be Republicans, as would 73 of the 88 first-term members of the House. For the

first

time

since

1862,

a speaker

New York Gov. Mario Cuomo concedes defeat in his bid for a fourth term. Cuomo was one of several prominent Democrats who lost to Republicans in the November 8 elections. MARK PETERSON—SABA

of

the House went down to defeat. Thomas Foley’s loss was just as shocking as that of Dan Rostenkowski. The 36-year tenure of the powerful chairman of the Ways and Means Committee was ended by a young, virtually unknown, underfunded political neophyte. Jack Brooks of Texas, a 42-year veteran in the House and chairman of the

Judiciary Committee, also went down to defeat. The success of Republicans at the state level was equally impressive. After ousting 11 Democratic governors, they were in a position to set the agenda for 30 states. The Democrats also lost the governorship in Maine when an independent swept to victory. Rep. Newt Gingrich led the

Chronology: November

29

Republican attack on President Clinton and his fellow Democrats. He pledged that the old ways of doing business would be a thing of the past the moment he became speaker of the House.

and by opening up investment opportunities by the year 2020. The U.S. and Japan, ranking first and second in world trade, gave APEC the economic base it needed to develop its full potential. Other economies represented in APEC included those of

molestation. The nomination of Whelehan and his elevation to the High Court on November 15 was so resented by the Labour Party that it resolved to bring down the government by deserting the coalition. The priest had already gone voluntarily to

9 Kumaratunga

Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico,

Northern Ireland, where he was sentenced

easily

wins

election.

Sri Lankan Prime Minister Chandrika Kumaratunga became president after winning 62% of the popular vote during national

elections.

Her

rival, Srima

Dis-

sanayake, ran as a candidate of the United National Party. Kumaratunga, leader of the People’s Alliance coalition, finished first in all but one of the nation’s 160 electoral districts. On November

president appointed her mother, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, prime minister—a position she had filled twice before. 1

Iraq

recognizes

The

Iraqi

Kuwait

border.

Revolutionary

Com-

mand Council issued a declaration,

signed by Pres. Saddam Hussein, officially recognizing the sovereignty of Kuwait, the integrity of its borders, and its political independence. If Iraq hoped that its formal recognition of Kuwait would move the United Nations to drop its economic sanctions, it was doomed to disappointment. On November 14 the U.S. ambassador to the UN presented the Security Council with evidence that Saddam had spent more than $500 million on dozens of luxurious palaces for family members while millions of Iraqis were still living in poverty. The Security Council left the sanctions in place. Sweden

13

to join European

Union.

Given their choice in a national referendum,

52.2%

of

Swedish

voters opted for membership in the European Union (EU). Subsequent ratification by the Riksdag (parliament) followed as a matter

of course.

Finland

pines,

and Austria,

Singapore,

South

Korea,

Ukraine

to become

Fragile

Taiwan,

and Thailand. As a group, the members of APEC represented 38% of the world’s population, 41% of global trade, and 50% of the world’s gross national product.

15, three

days after being sworn into office, the new

to four years in prison.

New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philip-

nuclear

free.

16

The Supreme Council (parliament) of Ukraine voted overwhelmingly to add the country’s name to those of other nations formally committed to observing the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. The decision obliged Ukraine, once the world’s third largest nuclear power,

2,

After

peace

accord

yearlong

Lusaka,

the

in Angola.

negotiations

capital

in

of Zambia,

the government of Angola and the rebel National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) signed their third peace treaty since 1989. Expectations that this treaty would hold were based on the fact that, for the first time, UNITA was guaranteed a share of power in national, regional, and local governments. The

to proclaim

United Nations also promised to deploy some 7,000 armed peacekeepers throughout the country once there was evidence that the peace settlement was holding firm.

itself a nuclear-free zone and recognize that only five nations could legitimately possess nuclear weapons: China, France,

Optimism about the future, however, was muted because Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, did not attend the meeting,

Great Britain, Russia, and the U.S. Russia’s

prompting Pres. José Eduardo dos Santos to refrain from personally signing the treaty. During the 19 years of civil war, an estimated 500,000 Angolans had been

with 1,800 nuclear warheads,

implementation of the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks treaty (START I) and ratification of START II by the US. and Russia had been held up until Ukraine agreed to sign the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Among the safeguards Ukraine had demanded was a guarantee that its borders and independence would be respected and that no nations would ever use nuclear weapons against it. 1

Ireland’s prime minister resigns.

Albert Reynolds, leader of the Fianna Fail party, resigned as prime minister of Ireland one day after leading members of the Labour Party, junior partners in the ruling coalition, quit their Cabinet posts. Reynolds had raised the ire

killed. Uruguayans reelect former leader.

27

In an uncommon procedure that permitted political parties to field more than one candidate for an elective office—thereby eliminating primary contests—Uruguay’s Colorado Party won a plurality of 32.2% of the popular vote in national elections. By rule, the most popular of the Colorado Party’s three candidates, former president Julio Maria Sanguinetti, became head of state and government. The National (Blanco) Party, led by Alberto Volonte, finished in second

which earlier in the year had approved similar referenda, would join Sweden as official

members

of the

EU

on

Jan.

1,

1995. Late in November a majority of Norway’s electorate voted to keep the country outside the EU. Congress Party ousted in Nepal. 15 Preliminary results of parliamentary elections in Nepal indicated

that the United Marxist-Leninist (UML) alliance had won 88 seats in the House of Representatives, a net gain of 20. The Nepali Congress Party (NCP) finished second and lost control of the government. The 83 seats it had won represented a net loss of 35. Its poor showing at the polls was attributed to intraparty bickering and charges of corruption. The National Democratic

Party captured

several minor parties won

20 seats,

and

a total of 14.

In order to form a workable coalition, the

UML—whose policies resembled those of social democrats more than those of hardline communists—was expected to seek allies among disaffected NCP members. APEC agrees to liberalize its trade laws. At the end of a two-day conference in Bogor, Indon., the leaders of the 18 economic powers formally committed to AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) signed an agreement to liberalize trade by gradually eliminating barriers to free trade

:

on

bs

vie

Ce

3

5d

:

aa

As host, Indonesian President Suharto speaks at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum on November 15. The 18 member states agreed to ambitious goals of trade liberalization. HALSTEAD—GAMMA

LIAISON

of Dick Spring, the deputy prime minister and foreign minister, by announcing on November 11 the nomination of Harry Whelehan, the nation’s attorney general, to the post of president of the High Court. Spring had accused Whelehan of ignoring for seven months repeated requests from the police in Northern Ireland to extradite a Roman Catholic priest charged with child

place with 31.1% of the vote. Although the Broad

Front

finished

in third place,

its popular support fell just 1.5% below that of the victorious Colorado Party. It was expected that when ballots cast for candidates seeking election to the Chamber

of Deputies

were

tallied,

the

three major parties would have relatively equal representation.

30

Chronology: December

i

U.S. Senate ratifies GATT accord. Eight months after U.S. trade officials

had given their approval to a new General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Senate ratified the 125-nation

accord by a vote of 76-24. The House of Representatives had led the way two days earlier by approving the legislation 288-146. President Clinton signed the bill on December 8. Most other GATT nations were expected to ratify the new accord before it went into effect on Jan. 1,

1995,

under

the

new

name

World

Trade Organization (WTO). Because the WTO apparatus was authorized to settle disputes, some U.S. legislators feared that the U.S. could have decisions forced upon it that it found unacceptable or that were incompatible with U.S. laws. In response to such concerns, a provision in the treaty allowed any country to withdraw from the WTO six months after giving notice. WHO to direct a new AIDS program. During a meeting in Paris on World AIDS Day, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali told delegates from 42 nations that previous efforts to conquer AIDS had been largely unsuccessful because there had been too little consultation and

Elysées,

Paris’ most famous boulevard,

to

protest what they considered to be a tepid response by those in positions to do much more to attack the AIDS epidemic. Opposition

party wins

Taipei

post.

Scoring its most significant political victory to date, the opposition Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the race for mayor of Taipei, the capital of Taiwan. Its candidate, Chen Shui-bian, was a well-

known member of the National Assembly. The success of his campaign was cited as evidence that multiparty democracy was taking firm root in Taiwan. The victory also gave the DPP a conspicuous platform from which to challenge for the presidency in 1996. The ruling Kuomintang (KMT; Nationalist Party), however, continued to dominate the political scene. James Soong,

its candidate for governor, faced election for the first time and was returned to office in a landslide. (The governor had previously been appointed by the president). Wu Den-yih gave the KMT another important victory with his election as mayor of Kaohsiung, Taiwan’s second largest city. Political analysts interpreted the election results as a general desire for controlled change that would not destabilize the

of the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), had been fraudulent, the EZLN refused to recognize the legitimacy of his governorship and, in a separate ceremony, installed Amado Avendafio of the Democratic Revolutionary Party as chief executive officer of the state. On October 15 Subcomandante Marcos, the leader of the EZLN, had threatened to turn

not only Chiapas but all of Mexico into a battleground if Robledo was inaugurated. Turkey imprisons eight of its legislators.

Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Ciller’s campaign against Kurdish separatists took on a new dimension with the sentencing of eight members of the National Assembly to prison for consorting with members of the outlawed Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK). Five of those convicted received 15-year terms. Earlier in 1994 Ciller had ordered

300,000 troops to wipe out PKK strongholds in Turkey’s southeastern provinces. She also suspended parliamentary immunity and ordered the arrest of six members of the Democratic Party, a pro-Kurdish group said to be a front for the PKK. The conflict between Kurds and government forces had claimed

an estimated

13,000 lives over

a

period of 10 years.

Cea

A Chechen fights amid the rubble of the streets of Grozny, his republic’s capital. On December 11 the Russian army invaded Chechnya, a largely Muslim region that had unilaterally declared its independence in 1991. PAUL LOWE—MAGNUM

cooperation among various groups working on the same tasks. To remedy this situation, Peter Piot, the associate

director of

the World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) AIDS program since 1992, was appointed head of a new UN agency on December 12. Its main responsibility would be to coordinate the work of six international

organizations devoted to all aspects of AIDS research. Members of Act Up, a militant group demanding that more be done to combat AIDS, lay down on the Champs-

country. Many voters apparently also had misgivings about the DPP’s call for Taiwan independence. Tensions

mount

in

Chiapas

area.

The formal inauguration of Eduardo Robledo Rinc6n as governor of the Mexican state of Chiapas threatened to revive the civil conflict initiated by the rebel Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) in January. Claiming that the August election of Robledo, a member

Cuban

refugees

in

Panama _ riot.

US. officials reported that order had been restored at four U.S.-controlled Cuban refugee bases in Panama after a full day of sporadic rioting. The violence appeared to be the result of frustration among the 8,500 detainees who had grown weary of their confinement and primitive conditions and were anxious about their future. All had hoped to enter the U.S. as legal immigrants. Among the hundreds injured during the melee were 25 military

Chronology: December

personnel and 19 Cubans who required hospitalization. Most of their wounds had

been inflicted by rocks, bricks, or bottles.

About 1,000 Cubans took advantage of the confusion to escape from the camps, but virtually all were back in camp within a short time. Japanese political parties merge.

10 The alignment of political forces in Japan underwent a dramatic change with the official inauguration of the New Frontier Party (Shinshinto) in Yokohama. The new party represented the merger of nine parties: Shinseito, Komeito, Japan New Party, Democratic Socialist Party, and five smaller groups. The organization committee, which included representatives of all nine parties, was headed by Ichiro Ozawa, who had deserted the scandal-ridden Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) to articulate his views as a member of the opposition. His mentor in the

who had Frontier reform” had not

LDP

had

been

Shin

Kanemaru,

left politics in disgrace. The New was committed to “unwavering and “responsible politics,” but it yet taken a position on certain

specific issues. Toshiki Kaifu, a former LDP prime minister, was elected leader of

the party by a vote of 131-83. Ozawa was chosen to be its secretary-general. Russian army invades Chechnya. 11 Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin, having

warned the federated republic of Chechnya that military force would be used to prevent its secession, ordered the Russian army to attack. The predominantly Muslim Chechen population was a fiercely independent group with a long history of animosity toward outsiders. Their president,

Dzhokhar

Dudayev,

had

declared independence unilaterally in 1991. The situation was highly explosive because the area was rich in oil and the main oil pipeline from the Caspian oil fields of Azerbaijan passed through the republic. On December 16 Russian Major Gen. Ivan Babichev dramatically halted his tank division about 32 km (20 mi) from Grozny, the Chechen capital. He told the people that he could not bring himself “to use the army against peaceful civilians.” Despite numerous international efforts to establish a cease-fire, Russian troops entered Grozny on December 31 after the city had been severely damaged by air strikes and heavy artillery. Americas

to form own free-trade zone. During its three-day meeting in Miami, Fla., the leaders of 34 Western Hemisphere nations endorsed the creation of a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). The only independent nation in the Americas not invited to participate was Cuba. If negotiations went smoothly, the FTAA would be a reality by the year 2005 and would be the largest trade organization in the world. It had a combined annual purchasing power of $13 trillion. Plans called for much smaller regional trade agreements already functioning in South America to be incorporated into the FTAA. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which regulated trade between

Canada,

the

U.S.,

and

Mexico,

was expected to serve as a guide when the FTAA began drafting its regulations.

31

On the final day of the meeting, the three members of NAFTA invited Chile to join the organization. North Korea downs

U.S. aircraft.

17

An unarmed U.S. Army OH-58 Kiowa reconnaissance helicopter was shot down by North Korea approximately five kilometres (three miles) north of the demilitarized zone that separated North and South Korea. The incident threatened to negate the improvement in relations between the U.S. and North Korea following the October settlement of a dispute over North Korea’s nuclear program. One of the U.S. chief warrant officers was killed in the crash, the other taken into custody. The U.S. claimed that the pilots were on a routine training mission and had probably strayed into North Korea airspace because the normally familiar terrain was covered with snow. Repeated U.S. requests that the matter be resolved quickly went unanswered until December 22, when

the remains of David

Hilemon

were turned over to U.S. authorities. Bobby Hall, the second pilot, appeared to be in good health when he was set free on December 30. 1

Ex-communists

win

contested

the

election,

the

Union

of Democratic Forces, which was strongly anticommunist, had the most support— about 25% of all the votes cast. Prime Minister Lyuben Berov’s resignation on September 2 was accepted by Parliament on September 8. Pres. Zhelyu Zhelev bided his

time,

then

dissolved

Parliament

on

December 17 and ordered new elections. Berov had led a nonparty government of technocrats for nearly two years with little

success.

Videnov,

however,

spoke

confidently of his ability to solve Bulgaria’s problems, “not by returning to the past but by moving forward.” Because he was not an ardent advocate of the free market,

Bulgaria seemed likely to remain one of the least privatized nations in Eastern Europe. Cease-fire

announced

in Bosnia.

20

Former U.S. president Jimmy Carter announced that government leaders in Bosnia and Herzegovina and representatives of the Bosnian Serbs had agreed to a four-month cease-fire beginning December

T. ORBAN/B. BISSON—SYGMA

in Bulgaria.

The Bulgarian Socialist (former communist) Party led by Zhan Videnov won control of the nation’s 240seat unicameral legislature by capturing a substantial plurality of the popular vote. Among the 48 other political parties that

The bodies of hijackers are removed from an Air France plane. Militants opposed to the Algerian government hijacked the aircraft in Algiers on December 24.

23. Earlier in the year Carter,

acting as peacemaker in a private capacity, had had similar successes in North Korea and Haiti. The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina had so frustrated UN officials that there were serious discussions about a total withdrawal of its peacekeeping force. Typical of the problems it faced was the capture of UN personnel, who were taken hostage and dispersed to strategic areas to deter the UN from launching air strikes against Serb positions. The UN sense of hopelessness was further heightened when the “safe zones” it had set up to protect civilians came under Serb attack. All the while, U.S. and UN military leaders were at odds over what policies to pursue.

Facing

defeat,

Berlusconi

quits.

oy

Italy was once again plunged into political turmoil when Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi tendered his resignation after just seven months in office. He urged Pres. Oscar Scalfaro to call new elections in order to foster the democratic process rather than search for someone capable of forming a new coalition government. Berlusconi felt compelled to resign in the face of three upcoming motions

of no confidence,

one

of which

was directed by a leader of one of the parties in his own coalition. He remained as prime minister in a caretaker capacity. French

plane

seized

in Algiers.

24

Four heavily armed gunmen seized control of an Air France Airbus A-300 as it began to taxi to the runway at the international airport in Algiers, the capital of Algeria. The 227 passengers and 12 crew members aboard were scheduled to fly to Orly Airport outside Paris. The terrorists released dozens of Algerian passengers almost immediately and distributed head scarfs to women who remained aboard—an indication that the terrorists were probably Islamic fundamentalists. On December

26,

after three passengers had been killed, the Algerian and French governments allowed the plane, which had been surrounded by police, to fly to Marseille, France. As darkness began to settle over the airport, French paramilitary commandos stormed the plane and killed the four

gunmen. Some passengers, crew members, and police were injured, but none was killed. While the hijacking was still in progress, the Armed Islamic Group claimed responsibility, explaining that the action was in reprisal for France’s “unconditional political, military, and economic aid” to the Algerian government, which it had vowed to overthrow. French authorities reported on December 27 that the government had received word that the terrorists had planned to blow up the plane over Paris. After the crisis ended, police searched the plane and found 20 sticks of dynamite.

32

Disasters

Disasters The loss of life and property from disasters in 1994 included the following:

Aviation January 3, Near Irkutsk, Siberia. A TU-154 Rus-

sian jetliner with one of its three engines ablaze plowed through farm buildings and power lines before crashing in a field and bursting into flames moments after takeoff; all 120 persons aboard perished, and another fatality was reported on the ground. January 5, Florida. A twin-engine plane crashed on a rural road in the Orlando area after experiencing engine trouble shortly after takeoff; 10 persons were killed, including a newlywed couple and a number of their relatives. January 12, Cuzco, Peru. A helicopter with 15

military personnel aboard crashed on the airport runway; all aboard were killed. February

25, Near

Carpish

Pass,

Peru. The

wreckage of a passenger plane carrying 29 persons was discovered in a remote, cloud-shrouded

area of the eastern Andes a day after it lost radio contact and disappeared; there were no survivors of the crash. March 14, Off the coast of Kenya. A U.S. Air

Force AC-130 gunship carrying weapons to support the international effort in Mogadishu, Somalia, crashed some 20 m (66 ft) from the shoreline; 11 of the 14 crew members aboard were killed. March 17, Nagorno-Karabakh, Azerbaijan. An Iranian transport plane carrying the families of diplomats home from Moscow to Tehran to celebrate the Muslim New Year went down in the disputed, heavily Armenian enclave; the craft, which carried 32 persons, mostly women

and children,

reportedly lost cabin pressure before it crashed, claiming the lives of all aboard. March 23, Near Novokuznetsk, Siberia. A Rus-

sian A-310 Airbus slammed into a snow-covered hillside and exploded after disappearing from radar tracking screens. The pilot, who had apparently turned over the cockpit controls to his teenage son and daughter while he and the copilot visited with the passengers, was unable to reach the controls in time to steer the plummeting aircraft out of a fatal nosedive, which resulted in the deaths of all 75 persons aboard the halfempty plane. March 23, Pope Air Force Base, North Caro-

lina. Two air force planes, one an F-16 Fighting Falcon and the other a C-130 Hercules transport plane, collided in midair when both attempted to land simultaneously; the two fighter pilots ejected to safety and the C-130 cargo plane was able to land safely with its crew, but the F-16 exploded, crashed, skidded down the tarmac in the form of a giant fireball, and slammed into a C-141 Star-

Lifter transport plane with hundreds of paratroopers on board. The death toll on the ground was 23, and 85 were badly injured, most of them with severe burns. April I, Near Djanet, Alg. A helicopter crashed with 14 persons aboard; there were no survivors. April 26, Nagoya, Japan. A China Airlines A-300 Airbus crash-landed and exploded on the tarmac shortly after an inexperienced copilot at the controls struggled to land the jet as its com-

bers of the special branch of the Royal Ulster Constabulary to a security conference exploded in a fireball before crashing in heavy fog on the tip of the Mull of Kintyre; none of the 29 persons aboard survived. June 6, Near Xian (Sian), China. A Chinese jetliner en route to Guangzhou (Canton) crashed moments after takeoff; all 160 persons aboard perished. June 7, Near Abidjan, Céte d’Ivoire. An Air

Ivoire Fokker F-27 crashed on its approach to the capital; 17 persons were killed. June 18, Near Washington, D.C. A plane car-

rying Mexican fans to a World Cup soccer match between Mexico and Norway crashed in the woods in heavy fog while making its final approach to Dulles Airport outside Washington, D.C.; all 12 persons aboard the aircraft were killed. July 1, Tidjikya, Mauritania. An Air Mauritania passenger plane crashed while attempting to land during a sandstorm; 94 of the 101 persons aboard lost their lives. July 2, Charlotte, N.C. A USAir DC-9 jetliner

with 57 persons aboard crashed during a thunderstorm while making its approach to the Charlotte-Douglas International Airport; 37 persons were killed despite the pilots’ desperate efforts to reverse the aircraft’s downward spiral. Experts believed that wind shear was a possible cause of the crash. July 19, Near Coloén, Panama. A plane carrying 21 persons exploded and crashed shortly after takeoff; all aboard perished, and investigators were concerned that a bomb may have been aboard the aircraft. August

5, Bada,

Siberia. A

Russian

military

transport plane crashed upon landing at the Bada airport; 47 persons perished. August 21, Near Agadir, Morocco. A Royal Air Maroc passenger plane crashed in the Atlas Mountains; all 44 persons aboard the aircraft were killed, including 16 foreign tourists and a Kuwaiti prince and his wife. Government allegations that the pilot was suicidal could not be proved. September 8, Near Aliquippa, Pa. A USAir Boeing 737 inexplicably nose-dived to the ground and exploded while approaching the Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, a scheduled stop en route to its final destination in Florida; all 132 persons aboard were killed. September 26, Near Vanavara, Siberia. A Rus-

sian Yak-40 plane carrying 26 persons crashed while preparing for an emergency landing during a storm; there were no survivors.

October 12, Central

Iran. A commuter

plane

crashed in the Karkas Mountains; all 66 persons aboard perished. October 29, Near Irkutsk. A four-engine Rus-

crashed and burned in a cornfield after descend-

ing from 3,050 m (10,000 ft) to 2,440 m (8,000 ft)

during a torrential downpour; no one survived the crash, which investigators believed was probably caused by ice buildup on the aircraft’s wings. November 1, Off the coast of Cozumel, Mex-

ico. A helicopter carrying 14 persons plunged into the Caribbean Sea shortly after its pilot had reportedly experienced mechanical failure; all aboard were killed.

December 13, Near Morrisville, N.C. A commuter plane crashed in a heavily wooded area while preparing to land at the Raleigh-Durham

Airport; of the 20 persons aboard the craft, 15

were killed when the plane plummeted to the ground in fog and rain, apparently after experiencing an engine flameout. December 29; Near Van, Turkey. An

aircraft

whose pilot had aborted two landings crashed during a third attempt in a blinding snowstorm; of the 76 persons aboard the aircraft, which was

severed into three parts, 54 persons were killed and 22 were injured.

Fires and Explosions January 16, Tetouan, Morocco. A fire that swept through a steam bath claimed the lives of 24 persons; 15 persons were treated for smoke inhalation. Mid-February, Yuanshi (Yuan-shih) county, Hubei (Hupeh) province, China. Several crates of firecrackers exploded at a market; 16 persons were killed and 7 were injured in the blast. March 20, Dhaka, Bangladesh. A gas cylinder belonging to a balloon vendor exploded near a tap where women and children were waiting in line to collect water; more than 18 persons were killed, and 15 were seriously injured. March 29, Kashmir, India. An explosion tore

through an army explosives depot; at least 15 military personnel were killed in the inferno. March 30, Idil, Sirnak province, Turkey. A passenger minibus traveling on a country road struck a mine planted on a bridge by separatist Kurdish guerrillas; 15 persons were killed, and one was wounded. Late April, Near Galashki, Russia. An apparent engine defect caused a bus to erupt in flames; at least 31 persons lost their lives, and 27 were

injured. July 1, Vit6ria,

Brazil. A fireworks

stall ex-

ploded at an outdoor antique market and touched off other fires in adjacent buildings and in cars passing through the marketplace; at least 30 persons were killed, and some 40 were injured. July 3-10,

Southern

and

eastern

Spain. The

worst wildfires in 20 years, resulting from extraordinarily dry weather coupled with torrid tempera-

sian plane crashed; 21 persons were killed.

tures, incinerated more than 150,000 ha (370,500

October 31, Near Roselawn, Ind. A Chicagobound commuter plane carrying 68 persons

ac) of pine and eucalyptus forest and claimed the lives of 14 firefighters and 7 others.

REGION BEAL—PITTSBURGH POST GAZETTE/SYGMA

puterized controls tried to abort the landing and gain altitude; only 7 of the 271 persons aboard

survived the fiery explosion. In early May it was also revealed that the copilot had a blood level

of alcohol that was in excess of Japan’s standards for drunken driving.

Late April, West Kalimantan, Indon. A plane crash claimed the lives of 10 persons, but a lone

survivor was found crawling through the bush five days later. May 6/7, Near Kinshasa, Zaire. A twin-engine plane carrying at least nine officials from Zaire, Tunisia, and Uganda crashed in a swamp; besides

the various government officials, an unspecified number of passengers were on the flight; apparently all perished. June 2, Western Scotland. A helicopter carrying high-ranking MI-5 officers and senior mem-

Cre

Investigators study the wreckage of an airplane that crashed in Pennsylvania on September 8. All 132 people on the USAir flight were killed when the plane suddenly dived to the ground.

Disasters

33

to one side of the boat after the helmsman experienced difficulty steering; at least 272 persons were killed in what was the country’s worst ferry disaster to date. May 17, Near Libreville, Gabon. A canoe carrying illegal immigrants capsized off the coast during a storm; some 50 persons perished. May 24, Off the coast of the Dominican Republic. A small boat carrying more than 100 illegal immigrants to Puerto Rico capsized in the Mona Passage; at least 40 persons drowned. June 12, Off the coast of Somalia. A dhow filled with refugees from Yemen capsized off the northern

coast of Somalia;

at least 50 persons

were feared drowned. June 20, Off the coast of South Africa. The Chinese tanker Apollo Sea sank off the Cape of Good Hope and produced a massive oil spill near Dassen Island, the breeding grounds of the endangered jackass penguin; 37 crew members were killed, and some 1,600 jackass penguins drowned after being coated with oil. Early July, Off the coast of Haiti. Hundreds of boats containing some 5,000 Haitian refugees set sail for the U.S.; the massive exodus in over-

Rescuers search for victims in Durunkah, Egypt, after a fire on November 2. More than 500 people were killed when floodwaters spread burning fuel from an explosion at a fuel-storage complex. TOM HARTWELL—SABA

July 6, Near Glenwood Springs, Colo. A firestorm on Storm King Mountain claimed the lives of 14 of 52 smoke jumpers who were trapped when the relatively contained wildfire exploded into a major conflagration as it was fueled by

80-km/h (50-mph) winds. July 18, Buenos Aires, Arg. An explosion in a Jewish community centre claimed the lives of nearly 100 persons; authorities believed that a bomb planted by terrorists had triggered the blast. Mid-August, Seoul, South Korea. A fire swept through a hostess bar; 14 persons were killed. September 7, Moscow.

At least three explosions

ripped through a two-story building that housed a sports club, a municipal maintenance office, and

the passport division of a neighbouring police station; the unexplained blast killed as many as 10 persons and injured 27. Early October, Uttar Pradesh, India. An explo-

sion in a fireworks factory claimed the lives of 26 persons and critically injured 27; many of the victims were children. October 24, Chungju Lake, South Korea. A fire

swept through a pleasure boat, and the vessel was engulfed in flames; at least 20 persons were killed, and 12 were missing. October 26, Bihar, India. A

January 15, Near Chimagurhi, India. Two passenger ferries carrying Hindu pilgrims collided in thick fog in the Bay of Bengal; one boat was severed in two, and at least 100 passengers from that vessel were feared drowned. Late January, South China Sea. An oil tanker with 10 crewmen aboard inexplicably exploded and tore in two; all crew members were feared

dead. February 3, Off the coast of Land’s End, En-

gland. A bulk carrier sank during a violent storm packing hurricane-force winds after reporting that it was taking on huge amounts of water through a damaged hold; the 27 crewmen aboard the vessel were lost at sea. Mid-February, Off the coast of Ramong, Thailand. A boat that may have been overloaded capsized; more than 200 Burmese workers were

feared drowned. February 21, Off the coast of The Bahamas.

overcrowded grants

sank

boat

carrying illegal Haitian

in shark-infested

waters;

some

An

mi24

passengers were feared dead. March 7, Lake Victoria, Kenya. An overloaded

fire that

raced

through one coach of a train claimed the lives of at least 28 persons. November 2, Durunkah, Egypt. A raging fire broke out at a fuel-storage complex when torrential rains caused the main bridge to the complex to collapse on an oil depot. Floodwaters spread blazing fuel from the damaged depot on the village; more than 500 persons were killed, and at least 200 homes were incinerated. November 27, Liaoning (Liao-ning) province, China. A blazing fire swept through a dance hall in Fuxin (Fu-hsin) filled with students from a local technical school; 233 students perished, and

only 16 escaped from the structure, which had one small entrance door and small, out-of-reach windows. November 30, Shantung (Shan-tung) province, China. A raging hotel fire claimed the lives of 38 persons and injured 11; it took nearly 100 firefighters to bring the conflagration under control. December 8, Karamay (K’o-la-ma-i), Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur) Autonomous Region, China. A movie theatre filled with more than 800 persons, at least 500 of them schoolchildren and their teachers, was engulfed in flames as patrons watched a cultural performance; at least 300 persons, most of them children, lost their lives.

Marine January 1, Mid-North

cuers found empty life rafts and concluded that all 36 persons aboard the vessel had drowned.

ferry carrying passengers, timber, and corn (maize) capsized and sank during a storm; at least 40 persons were missing and believed drowned. March 13, Bosporus, Turkey. The collision of an oil tanker and a dry cargo ship in the busy waterway resulted in an oil spill and a raging fire aboard the tanker; at least 17 crewmen were killed, and 16 were missing. March 20, Off the coast of Masirah, Oman.

A

moth cargo ship sank during a fierce storm; res-

and children, drowned.

August 20, Chandpur, Bangladesh. A ferry carrying some 250 passengers overturned in strong currents and was drawn underwater by a whirlpool while it prepared to dock; more than 200 persons were feared drowned. Early September, Off the coast of Cape Town. An iron-ore carrier, the Jron Antonis, apparently sustained a crack during a storm and sank in the Atlantic Ocean; all 24 crewmen

November

11,

Off

the

sized; 37 of the 87 persons

drowned.

April 22, Off the coast of al-Basit, Syria. An

overloaded fishing boat carrying elementary schoolchildren and teachers capsized; of the 55 persons aboard the vessel, 36 children and 5 teachers perished. ferry packed with commuters capsized and sank when panic-stricken upper-deck passengers ran

the

coast

of

Johore,

Malaysia. A small boat packed with Indonesian illegal workers was swamped by waves and cap-

exploded and caught fire at sea; as the vessel with

18 dead crewmen aboard tried to dock, various states refused to allow it into port because of fears of pollution. March 30, Off the coast of Toulon, France. A submerged French nuclear submarine, powered by a pressurized, water-cooled nuclear reactor, limped back to port after a pipe burst and released superheated steam into the vessel’s turbine compartment; 10 sailors conducting routine inspections were burned to death or asphyxiated. April 8, Central Philippines. A wooden boat carrying 15 fishermen sank after being swamped by Typhoon Owen; only one person survived.

abandoned

vessel and drowned. September 28, Off the coast of Turku, Fin. The Estonia, a massive passenger-and-car ferry, rapidly sank in the Baltic Sea during a roaring storm accompanied by high winds of up to 100 km/h (62 mph) and choppy seas as high as 10 m (33 ft); the roll-on, roll-off vessel apparently began taking on water when the large hydraulic loading door in the bow was ripped off during the pounding storm. While many of the passengers slept below, the ferry heaved to its port side and sank, stern first, in the chilly (10° C [50° F]) water; of the more than 1,040 passengers believed aboard, only about 140 survived. October 16, Near Madarbari Island, Bangladesh. A ferry carrying nearly 200 persons, 165 of them members of a wedding party, capsized and sank in choppy waters; more than 100 persons were feared drowned.

supertanker filled with millions of gallons of oil

April 29, Off the coast of Mombasa, Kenya. A

Atlantic Ocean. A mam-

crowded, rickety boats resulted in the deaths of at least 200 persons in numerous tragedies at sea. July 9, China. A bus that was being ferried across the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) slid off the boat and plunged into the water; at least 50 persons drowned. July 13, Off the coast of Havana. A stolen wooden tugboat with 63 refugees aboard sank; the leaking vessel was submerged after a pursuing vessel struck its stern; 31 persons, mostly women

aboard

the craft

December 2, Near Rosario, Phil. A ferry and

a freight tanker collided near the mouth of Manila Bay; 34 persons aboard the ferry were known dead, and 113 were missing and presumed drowned. December 9, North Atlantic Sea. A Ukrainian cargo ship sank after being battered by huge waves and fierce winds; 2 of the 31 seamen aboard the boat were rescued, but rescuers were unable

to save others clinging to life rafts because of the turbulent waters.

Mining and Tunneling January 24, Heilongjiang (Heilungkiang) province, China. A powerful gas explosion at the Xiji (Hsichi) coal mine claimed the lives of 47 miners and left 32 missing and presumed dead. January 25, West Bengal, India. Lethal carbon monoxide emissions from a fire that was caused by a short circuit killed 55 miners at a coal mine near Asansol.

34

Disasters

January 27, Newkenda, India. A fire in a coal mine trapped 55 miners for two days; all perished. March 6, Jilin (Kirin) province, China. A predawn explosion at the Liaowang coal and gas field claimed the lives of 12 miners. April, China. Several gas explosions during the first three months of the year reportedly killed at least 700 Chinese coal miners despite the closing in February of some 2,000 mines in Heilongjiang province for safety reasons. Mid-May, Jiangxi (Kiangsi) province, China. A powerful gas explosion killed 38 coal miners in underground tunnels. Early August, Queensland, Australia. A series of gas explosions trapped 11 miners underground; all succumbed to the toxic fumes. August

29, Mindanao

Island,

Philippines. A

powerful gas explosion ripped through the country’s largest coal mine near Malangas; 90 of the 170 miners working underground were killed. Early September, Slov’yanoserbsk, Ukraine. An explosion in a coal mine claimed the lives of 24 miners and injured 15; methane gas was suspected as a cause of the blast.

Natural January 7, Bicol, Phil. A violent storm lashed the

area, causing landslides and flooding; at least 23 fatalities were attributed to the weather system,

which hit the town of Manito hardest, leaving 15 persons known dead and 30 missing. Mid-January,

U.S. A bitter

arctic cold wave

that stretched from the Midwest to the Eastern Seaboard paralyzed the regions with temperatures that plummeted to record-breaking lows, notably in such cities as Pittsburgh, Pa. (—30° C [—22° F]); Akron, Ohio, and Clarksburg, W.Va. (—32°

C [-25° F]); and Indianapolis, Ind. (—33° C [—27° F]); more than 140 deaths were attributed to the deep freeze. Mid-January, Northern and northwestern Bangladesh. A severe cold snap killed 29 persons, mostly destitute children and elderly people living in slums. January 17, Los Angeles. A strong predawn earthquake of magnitude 6.8 violently shook the area, claimed the lives of 61 persons, injured more than 9,000, and resulted in $13 billion—$20 billion in damages; the temblor caused sections of the Santa Monica, Golden State, Antelope Valley,

pung province and devastated 75% of the mountain town of Liwa, which was beset by thundering landslides; the temblor claimed the lives of at

least 215 persons. March, Kyrgyzstan. A series of landslides killed nearly 100 persons during the month. March 27, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina,

South Carolina, and Tennessee. A series of violent thunderstorms and ferocious tornadoes

wreaked widespread destruction across the five states and claimed the lives of at least 42 persons; hardest hit were the town of Piedmont, Ala.,

where a tornado killed at least 19 Palm Sunday worshipers at the Goshen Methodist Church, and the Georgia counties of Bartow, Pickens, Lumpkin, White, and Habersham, where at least 13

persons lost their lives. Late

March,

Nampula

province,

Mozam-

bique. A brutal cyclone lashed the northern province with punishing winds that claimed the lives of at least 34 persons, destroyed thousands of homes and farmlands, and left some 1.5 million persons homeless. Mid-April, Brazil. A thundering landslide killed at least 19 miners at an Amazon tin mine. April 17, Bangladesh. Tropical storms accompanied by gale-force winds crushed homes, uprooted trees, and claimed the lives of at least 29 persons near the coast of the Bay of Bengal; 200 fishermen in the town of Cox’s Bazar were also missing and feared drowned. May 2, Southeastern Bangladesh. A roaring cy-

clone whipped up winds of up to 290 km/h (180 mph), rampaged through the islands of Kutubdia, Maheshkhali, Ukhia, and St. Martin, and claimed

the lives of 233 persons; a new storm-warning system aided early evacuation and was credited with keeping the death toll to a relatively low number, although the figure was expected to rise after destruction in remote areas had been assessed. May 27, Sabaragamuva province, India. A huge landslide triggered by incessant rains entombed at least 15 persons. Late-May, Northern India. A record-breaking heat wave gripped New Delhi and the western state of Rajasthan; at least 161 deaths were attributed to the searing temperature, which reached 49° C (120° F).

August 20-21, Zhejiang (Chekiang) province, China. Typhoon Fred assaulted the eastern province with driving rain, which pounded the

area for 43 consecutive hours; the brutal storm killed some 1,000 persons and caused damages in

excess of $1.1 billion. August 26, Baluchistan province, Pak. Rampaging floodwaters swept away a minibus carrying 24 persons, including 16 children; all drowned.

August 27-28, Central Moldova. Several days of torrential rains triggered severe flooding; at least 50 persons lost their lives in the central Hincesti region, which was declared a disaster area. Late August, Niger. Severe flooding led to the deaths of 40 persons and prompted some 30,000 to abandon their homes. September 23, Algeria. Floods caused by torrential rains claimed the lives of at least 29 persons. Late September, Pampanga province, Phil. Heavy rains caused the Mt. Pinatubo volcano to unleash an avalanche of mud and rocks that killed 23 persons and buried more than 1,300 homes in the Porac and Bacolor districts; some 10,000

persons fled high-risk areas. October 4, Kuril Islands. An earthquake of magnitude 8.2 struck the sparsely populated chain of islands and claimed the lives of 16 Russian soldiers stationed there. October 16-19,

Houston,

Texas. As much

as

76 cm (30 in) of rain soaked Houston’s San Jacinto River Basin, causing massive flooding that submerged homes and highways and claimed the lives of at least 10 persons. October 23, Manila. Typhoon Teresa battered the main island of Luzon, killing 25 persons, including 16 crewmen from an oil tanker that broke in two during the storm, leaving thousands homeless, and downing trees and power lines. November 4-5, Northern Italy. Torrential rains produced the worst flooding in more than 80 years; in the hardest-hit region of Piedmont, at least 57 persons were killed as the floodwaters obliterated homes and highways and destroyed communications links. Authorities feared the death toll could rise as high as 100 after rescuers reached and searched villages isolated by the storm. November

North

13-19,

Haiti,

Carolina. Tropical

Cuba,

Florida,

and

Storm

Gordon

un-

June 3, Eastern Java, Indonesia. Two predawn

leashed its fury on Haiti, where more than 200

earthquakes caused a series of tidal waves to lash

persons were killed, before battering Cuba, head-

and Simi Valley freeways to collapse; multiple fires resulting from gas leaks, including those that destroyed some 70 homes in Sylmar; the derailment of a 64-car train between Northridge and

the island; hardest

ing northeast across southern Florida, and cross-

Chatsworth;

and mud buried dozens of villages in the Cauca and Huila regions; though the official death toll was placed at 269, other reports estimated that as many as 1,000 persons, many of them Paez and Guambiano Indians, succumbed. Mid-June, Southern China. Torrential summer rains produced massive flooding in Guangdong (Kwangtung) and Guangxi (Kwangsi); as many as 400 persons were believed dead, and housing, industry, and agriculture sustained sizable damages. Late June-mid-July, India. Torrential monsoon

and the collapse of offices, plants,

and apartment buildings, notably a three-story apartment in Northridge (close to the epicentre in the San Fernando Valley), where 16 persons were killed when the building crumpled. Many of the 25,000 left homeless camped in parks and shelters as powerful aftershocks reverberated. January 21, Halmahera, Indonesia. A strong earthquake of magnitude 6.8 jolted the Moluccan island, reduced some of the buildings to rubble, and claimed the lives of at least seven persons. Early February, Southwestern Colombia. Heavy rains produced flooding that destroyed some 1,400 homes and claimed the lives of at least 19 persons; hard hit was the town of Florida, which

was ravaged by the floodwaters. February 2-4, Madagascar. Cyclone Geralda, which was billed as the “cyclone of the century,” lashed the island with torrential rains and winds of up to 350 km/h (220 mph); the brutal storm killed

at least

70 persons;

left some

500,000

homeless, including 80,000 in the worst-hit town of Toamasina; sank seven ships; flooded 70% of the farmlands; and devastated 95% of the main commercial port. February 4, Virginia, South Africa. The wall of a gold-treatment dam collapsed and unleashed a

huge wave of toxic mine refuse; at least 12 persons were known dead, and 82 were missing and presumed dead. Mid-February, Peru. Torrential rains caused se-

vere flooding and mud slides; at least 50 persons were

killed, and more

than 5,000 families were

left homeless. February 16, Sumatra, Indonesia. A powerful earthquake of magnitude 7.2 violently shook Lam-

hit was

Banyuwangi,

where

more than 200 sleeping residents were killed. June 6, Southwestern Colombia. An earthquake followed by a massive avalanche of rocks, ice,

rains caused

massive

flooding;

some

500

lives

were lost, and precious crops were destroyed. Early

July,

Georgia,

Alabama,

and

Florida, Tropical Storm Alberto stalled over the Southern states and dumped as much as 61 cm (24 in) of rain in some areas of Georgia, where at least 32 persons lost their lives. At least one person died in Alabama, and 31 deluged counties across the three states were declared federal disaster areas. Early July, Philippines. Relentless rains triggered heavy flooding in nine provinces, where 68 persons were killed. The government pledged relief funds of $2.8 million to assuage the calamitous devastation. Early August, Taiwan. A ferocious typhoon packing winds of up to 137 km/h (85 mph) claimed the lives of 10 persons, injured 41, severed power lines, and blew down hundreds of trees.

Mid-August, Beijing (Peking). A suffocating heat wave claimed the lives of at least 104 persons. August 18, Northern Algeria. A strong earthquake of magnitude 5.6 killed at least 171 persons, left some 15,500 persons homeless, and reduced mud-brick homes to rubble in the Mascara region.

ing into the North Atlantic to briefly threaten North Carolina’s Outer Banks before making a U-turn back to Florida and weakening into a tropical depression. The zigzagging storm claimed

the lives of at least 537 persons. At least $200 million in damages occurred in Florida alone. Mid-November, Northern Somalia. A cyclone killed at least 30 persons and injured hundreds. November 15, Mindoro, Phil. An earthquake of magnitude 6.7 spawned tidal waves up to 15 m (49 ft) high that subsumed houses in the town of Baco, where

the corpses of children were

later

discovered hanging from trees; at least 60 persons lost their lives, and 130 were injured as more than 700 aftershocks (one of which measured 5.1) reverberated. Late November, Djibouti. Torrential rains forced thousands to evacuate their homes; 20 persons were killed in the southern region of HolHol. November 22, Java. A volcanic eruption on Mt. Merapi killed at least 31 persons and buried dozens who were trapped in homes built on the slopes of the country’s most active volcano. Late December, Philippines. Tropical Storm Axel vented its fury on the country and claimed the lives of at least 15 persons and injured some 40.

Railroad March

8, Near

Durban,

South

Africa. A com-

muter train that was traveling at an accelerated speed around a sharp tutn derailed and fell into a gorge; at least 88 persons were known dead, and more than 350 were injured in Natal province’s worst railroad accident. March 21, Shaba, Zaire. A train derailment between Lubumbashi and Lubudi claimed the lives of 43 persons and injured several.

Disasters

April 3, Near Sohawa, Pak. A passenger train traveling to Rawalpindi from Lahore derailed and plunged down asteep hill; at least 13 persons lost their lives, and some 100 were injured.

May 15, Near Pinlong township, Myanmar (Burma). A train that was heavily loaded with passengers and rice derailed en route to Kayah state; 25 persons were killed, and 38 were injured. Early August, Southwestern Russia. A commuter train slammed into five freight cars that broke away froma freight train and derailed; 21 persons were killed in the accident, and at least

80 were injured. August 13, Near Tbilisi, Georgia. A passenger train rammed astationary freight train because of a faulty signal; at least 22 persons were killed, and some 16 were injured. August 21, Tunisia. A collision between two passenger trains between the villages of Kalaa Kebira and Kalaa Seghira resulted in 21 deaths and 89 injuries. Late September, Southern Angola. A train derailment claimed the lives of at least 140 persons,

and 80 were injured. October 20, Near Beijing. A freight train plowed into a commuter bus at an unguarded railroad crossing; at least 17 persons were killed, and 30 were injured. December 2, Near Szolnok, Hung. An express train derailed, causing some of its cars to slam

into a building; at least 20 persons were entombed under rubble. December 30, Myanmar. A passenger train derailed while crossing a bridge in the northern part of the country; at least 102 persons were killed and 53 were injured when one of the cars plunged into a ravine and another was left dangling from the bridge.

Early May,

Andhra

Pradesh,

India. Separate

road accidents involving two wedding parties claimed the lives of 48 persons. May 2, Gdansk, Poland. A bus crash killed 30 passengers riding in the vehicle. Mid-May, Near Cairo. A truck that was transporting children who were observing the feast of Eid al-Adha by visiting the graves of their relatives went out of control and careened into an irrigation canal; 18 youngsters lost their lives in the crash. May 23, Western Nepal. A bus traveling on a mountain road veered off the pavement and plunged 300 m (984 ft) down the slope; 22 persons were killed, and 24 were injured. May 26, Eastern Transvaal, South

Africa. A

bus fell into a reservoir; 32 persons drowned. May 29, Central Kenya. An overcrowded bus carrying more than 70 passengers overturned; 18 schoolchildren and a teacher were killed. Late June, Mirerswarai, Bangladesh. Two buses collided head-on; 22 persons were killed, most of

them members of a bridal party, and 80 were injured, 12 of them seriously. July 3, Weatherford, Texas. An 18-wheel tractor-trailer rear-ended a van, causing the van

to burst into flames; 14 persons in the van were killed, and 5 were injured, including the truck driver. July 3, Near

Snyder, Texas. A tractor-trailer

plowed into a pickup truck carrying three adults

A helicopter hovers over a section of a bridge

and 12 children, who were seated in the bed of the vehicle; 11 persons were killed in the crash. Early August, Near Umzimkulu, South

that fell into the Han River in Seoul, South

Africa. A bus transporting high-school students slammed into a rock formation; 10 persons were killed, and 78 were injured.

AFP

trailer of a truck became loose, and several metal

sheets were released into the pathway of a bus; 11 persons were killed. January 10, Bali, Indonesia. A bus carrying mainly French tourists plunged into a ravine near

the bus, lost their lives, and 25 were injured. September 25, Near Presidente Prudente,

killed, and 13 were injured. Mid-July, Near Khartoum, The Sudan. At least

Brazil. A bus transporting 45 persons to a pollitical rally in SAo Paulo plowed through a bridge

22 passengers stranded in the desert after the bus they were riding in became lost in a sandstorm died of thirst and starvation. August 12, Brazzaville, Congo. A group of Roman Catholics gathered outside a church to witness a claim that a preacher would perform miracles surged, and 142 believers, most of them children, were trampled. Early October, Guangdong (Kwangtung) province, China. A suspension bridge collapsed

Near

Wenatchee,

Wash.

A

car

August 26, Near Silvan, Turkey. A crowded bus

Kintamali; 10 tourists lost their lives, and 17 were

guardrail after the driver lost control of the ve-

injured.

hicle on ‘a steep descent; 31 persons were killed

January 14, Bihar, India. A small bus carrying

60 persons careened into a dry riverbed; all 40 passengers inside the vehicle were killed, but the 20 persons riding atop the vehicle survived the crash. January 14, Tak province, Thailand. An 18wheel truck that was barreling down a dark highway collided head-on with a tour bus; at least 37 persons were killed, and 3 were injured. February 5, Kerala, India. A head-on collision

between a bus and a truck carrying inflammable coir resulted in at least 40 fatalities when the fuel tank of the bus exploded on impact. February 10, Sumatra. A bus plunged into a ravine in the village of Gulbong; 36 persons were killed, and 11 were injured when the vehicle left

the road during bad weather. March 9, Near Barstow, Calif. A pickup truck

carrying 20 persons,

including at least 19 Sal-

when

the bus plunged

into the river, and

14

were injured. December 13, Northeastern Brazil. A bus full of

Christmas shoppers collided with a tanker truck; 13 persons lost their lives, and 29 were injured. December 25, Cote d'Ivoire. A bus carrying schoolchildren home for Christmas skidded off a coastal road and plunged into a ravine after swerving to avoid a parked vehicle; the accident, which occurred in heavy fog, killed 21 persons and injured 49. December

28,

Near

Maturin,

Venezuela. A

speeding passenger bus rammed a bus that had stopped to assist yet another bus disabled along the roadside. The bus that was struck was shoved into an oil pipeline, which exploded on impact; at least 30 persons aboard that vehicle were incinerated, and 15 were injured.

vadorans, veered off the road and rammed into a

Miscellaneous

culvert after the driver apparently fell asleep; 12

January 26, Nice, France. The concrete roof of

of the Salvadorans were killed in the crash, but

a supermarket collapsed on shoppers and sales

the driver survived. March 14, Near Nashik, India. A bus transporting mainly women and children fell off a bridge and plunged into the Kadva River; at least 65

staff; at least 10 persons were killed, and some 90

persons were killed, and 11 were injured. March 20, al-‘Ayn, Abu Dhabi. A tractor-trailer

transporting fertilizer slammed into a passenger pickup in heavy fog; 19 Pakistanis were killed.

April 14, Near Karnal, India. A private bus carrying 120 members of a wedding party toppled into a canal; more than 80 persons lost their lives. April 16, Near Dhobi, India. A crowded bus

fell into the Moma River after smashing into guardrails; at least 20 persons were killed, and 20 were injured. April 16, Near Bogota, Colombia. A multi-vehicle accident involving a cargo truck, a car, and a small bus claimed the livés of at least 22 persons who were incinerated in the inferno.

July 14, Motta Visconti, Italy. A home for the

crashed into a military vehicle and exploded; 30 persons, many of them women and children on

21,

persons died in the collision.

Mid-January, Southwestern Hungary. A cable that was securing some six tons of sheet metal to the

Korea, on October 21. At least 32 people died when their vehicles were thrown into the water.

elderly was leveled after a gas explosion ripped through the concrete structure and claimed the lives of 27 residents; the blast occurred while workers were repairing sewage pipes. July 14, Bombay. Heavy rains saturated a fivestory building, which collapsed; 14 persons were

August

crossing into another lane rammed into acar; 11

Traffic

35

were injured. Late January, Near Delhi, India. Some 13 villagers, who stole what they thought was liquor but was actually a poisonous chemical from a disabled tanker, succumbed

to the toxic substance

after drinking it; 37 were hospitalized. February 15, Hunan province, China. A throng of passengers changing trains in the crowded railway station at Hengyang (Heng-yang) stampeded in a rush to return to the city of Guangzhou (Canton) following the Chinese New Year holiday; more than 40 persons died in the crush.

May 23, Mina, Saudi Arabia. Pilgrims attending the annual hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) stampeded during a symbolic ritual that involved throwing stones at three piles of rocks to cast out the devil; some 270 persons were trampled to death

in the melee.

at an amusement

park; at least 38 tourists were

hurled to their death in the lake below. October 21, Seoul. A 48-m (157-ft)-long section of a steel-girdered bridge sheared neatly from the main structure the morning after the bridge had undergone repair work. The span floated after falling into the Han River, but at least 10 vehicles were spilled into the water; 32 or more persons were feared dead. Mid-November, Central Nepal. A party of mountain

climbers,

including

nine

Germans,

a

Swiss, and their Nepalese guide, fell to their death while descending from the summit of Mount Pisang; all 11 were roped together and were killed after some members of the group slipped and sent the entire party down the slope and over a sheer drop. Mid-November,

liquor killed at spirits. November 18, room poisoning caused illness in

Bihar,

India. Locally

made

least 50 persons who drank the

Turkey. An outbreak of mushkilled at least 18 persons and 175; government officials banned wild mushroom hunting in the wake of the deaths. November 23, Nagpur, India. A stampede by protesters attempting to force their way through a police cordon guarding astate legislature building killed at least 130 persons who were trampled. Mid-December, Morelos, Mexico. A lethal con-

coction of mescal and methanol sold as liquor by bootleggers claimed the lives of at least 28 persons who imbibed the deadly brew. Mid-December, Luanda, Angola. Home brew laced with methyl alcohol claimed the lives of at least 50 persons who drank the lethal concoction.

THE YEAR IN REVIEW

People of 1994 NOBEL PRIZES Prize for Peace Controversy surrounded the Nobel Committee’s decision to award the 1994 Nobel Prize for Peace to (“in alphabetical order”) Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasir Arafat, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, and Israeli

Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin “for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East.” Criticism was aimed not only at the choice of Arafat, whose organization’s primary aim had once been Israel’s destruction, but also at Rabin and Peres,

who had led offensives against Israel’s neighbours. The prize was intended “to honour a political act which called for great courage on both sides” and to “serve as an encouragement to all the Israelis and Palestinians who are endeavouring to establish lasting peace in the region.” The Israeli Labour Party government’s decision to negotiate with the PLO was met with fierce opposition. After Arafat and Rabin signed the Sept. 13, 1993, peace agreement with a historic handshake, militant forces on both sides tried to shatter the delicate accord. Arafat and Rabin both were born in the Middle East and grew up enemies. Arafat was born Rahman ‘abd ar-Rauf al-Qudwah in Palestine on Aug. 24, 1929. Upon graduating with a degree in civil engineering from the University of Cairo in 1956, he joined the Egyptian army and fought in the Suez. While working as an engineer in Kuwait, he helped found al-Fatah, which became

the military arm of the PLO, and in 1968 he gained the PLO chairmanship. Long considered a chief proponent of terrorism, Arafat was sometimes a target of it himself. His tendencies, at

Rabin, born in Jerusalem

on March

1, 1922,

made his career in the military (1941-68), joining the Jewish Defense Forces against the Nazisponsored French regime in World War II, directing the defense of Jerusalem in Israel’s war of independence (1948), and planning the winning strategy for the Six-Day War (1967). He was ambassador to the United States (1968-73) before entering politics as a Labour Party member. After a brief stint as minister of labour under Prime Minister Golda Meir, he himself became prime minister in June 1974. It was he who ordered a daring raid (July 1976) to rescue hostages seized by Palestinian terrorists and held at the airport at Entebbe, Uganda. Rabin was forced to resign his post in April 1977, but he regained the leadership of his party and the job of prime minister in June 1992. Born Shimon Perski in Wolozin, Poland (now Volozhin, Belarus), on Aug. 15, 1923, Peres immigrated to Palestine with his family in 1934. His mentor in the Zionist movement was David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s first prime minister, who in

1948 put Peres in charge of the navy. From 1952 to 1965 he held various defense offices, with responsibility for increasing weapons production and initiating a nuclear program. Peres led the Labour Party from 1977 to 1992 but served only briefly as prime minister (1984-86). When Rabin recaptured the Labour leadership in 1992, Peres was named foreign minister. Although for many years he and Rabin had clashed over their party’s direction, they agreed at last to put old rivalries aside to pursue a legacy of peace. (MARGARET BARLOW)

times, to act alone and to compromise won him

enemies from within his own camp. Nevertheless, six months after the state of Palestine was de-

Prize for Economics John F. Nash of Princeton

clared in 1988, he was

Harsanyi of the University of California at Berkeley, and Reinhard Selten of the University of

elected president of its

provisional government.

University, John C.

ALEKSANDER NORDAHL—NTB/PHOTOREPORTERS

Bonn, Germany, shared the 1994 Nobel Memo-

rial Prize in Economic Science for their achievements in establishing the foundations of what is known as game theory. Game theory, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noted, “emanates from studies of games such as chess or poker,” in which “players have to think ahead [and] devise a strategy based on expected countermoves from the other player. Such strategic interaction also characterizes many economic situations, and game theory has therefore proved to be very useful in economic analysis.” Game theory has transformed modern business, replacing the classical economics of pure competition. It was invented in the 1940s by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. Much of its formal mathematical basis was set forth by Nash in “Non-cooperative

In 1951 he joined the staff of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but after an illness in the late 1950s, he returned to Princeton as a visit-

ing scholar.

Born in 1920 in Budapest, Harsanyi earned a doctorate (1947) in mathematics from the University of Budapest. He arrived in the United States in 1956 as a Rockefeller fellow at Stanford University (Ph.D., 1959) and was a research associate (1957) at Yale University before joining the faculty of the Haas School of Business at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964. He remained there until 1990, when he became professor emeritus. After the late 1960s, when he enhanced Nash’s model by introducing the predictability of rivals’ actions based on the chance that they would choose one move or countermove over another, Harsanyi’s work embraced ethics as well as game theory. Among his contributions were formal investigations concerning appropriate behaviour and correct social choices among competitors. His numerous publications includeA General Theory of Equilibrium Selection in Games (1988), co-written with Selten. Selten, the first German to receive the economics prize, was born in Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) in 1930 and studied mathematics at the University of Frankfurt/Main (Diplom, 1957). He, too, expanded upon Nash’s model in the 1960s, first by establishing theories for discriminating between reasonable and unreasonable game outcomes and later by incorporating the concept that strategies develop over time. In numerous publications he has explored mathematical systems in economics. He was avisiting professor at the University of California at Berkeley in the late 1960s and taught at the Free University of Berlin and the University of Bielefeld before joining the faculty at Bonn in 1984. Interested in applications of his work

(From left) PLO head Yasir Arafat and Israel's Foreign Minister Shimon Peres and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin show the Nobel Peace Prizes they shared for agreements on Palestinian self-rule.

Games,” his doctoral

dissertation at Princeton University. Nash’s equilibrium theory is still taught to determine when to stop changing bargaining strategies. It was his assumption that all players are rivals, using what they know about one another to operate in their own self-interest. Nash was born in 1928 in Bluefield, W.Va., and studied mathematics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University; B.S., M.S., 1948) and at Princeton (Ph.D., 1950).

outside

the field of economics,

he

participated in a 1976 conference at which game theory was used to predict (with limited success) future developments in the Middle East. (MARGARET BARLOW)

People of 1994: Nobel Prizes

Kenzaburé Oe appears with his wife at ceremonies honouring him as the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. The writer was known primarily for his fiction about postwar Japan. TOBBE GUSTAVSSON—REPORTAGEBILD/PHOTOREPORTERS

Prize for Literature Japanese novelist Kenzaburd

Oe, who

gave

a

voice to the darkness that gripped the soul of his nation in the aftermath of war, was awarded the 1994 Nobel Prize for Literature. Referring to the impact on Oe and his generation of Japan’s defeat in World War II and the subsequent occupation, the Swedish Academy of Letters wrote, “The humiliation took a firm grip on him and has coloured much of his work.” Born on Jan. 31, 1935, he was

10 when

the

emperor of Japan surrendered and the U.S. occupation forces arrived at Oe’s mountain village on the island of Shikoku. Years later, when he was a student (1954-59) of French literature at

the University of Tokyo, he wrote to express his anger and betrayal over these events. Short stories such as “Shiiku” (1958; “The Catch,” 1959), for which he won the Akutagawa Prize, symbolized the disillusionment that pervaded postwar Japan. Always a voracious reader, he was influenced by many French- and English-language writers, including Mark Twain, whose antiestablishment Huckleberry Finn was an early hero to Oe. Two powerful books embodied primary themes that dominated Oe’s work. Hiroshima noto (1965; Hiroshima Notes, 1981) was based on 1963 interviews with atomic-bomb survivors and chronicled courage in the face of hopeless destruction. In Kojinteki

na

taiken

(1964;

A

Personal

Matter,

1968), Oe probed his desperate struggle to come to terms with his first-born son’s severe brain damage. After his plot to take the child’s life fails, he decides to let him live and accepts his obligation to love and nourish the boy. The novel, winner of the 1964 Shinchd Prize, was the first of several autobiographical stories in which his son appeared. While his essays often drew criticism for their preoccupation with left-leaning politics, Oe’s style was praised for its brilliance and energy. It was in short-fiction collections such as Warera no kyoki o ikinobiru michi o oshieyo (1969; Teach Us to Outgrow Our Madness, 1977) and Nan to mo shirenai mirai ni (1983; The Crazy Iris and Other Stories of the Atomic Aftermath, 1985) that he displayed the “poetic force” commended by the academy. Oe’s novel Man’en gannen no futtoboru (1967; The Silent Cry, 1974), which won a Tanizaki Prize, was singled out by the academy as “one of his major works. At first glance it appears to concern an unsuccessful revolt, but fundamentally the novel

deals with people’s relationships . . . in a confusing world in which knowledge, passions, dreams, ambitions, and attitudes merge into each other.” Expressing surprise at the academy’s announcement, Oe commemorated two compatriots, saying

that they shared the prize in a symbolic way. Kobo Abe, author of the surrealistic Suna no onna (1962; The Woman in the Dunes, 1964), and

Masuji Ibuse, who wrote about the victims of the atomic bomb in Kuroi ame (1966; Black Rain, 1969), had both died in 1993. The only other Japanese writer to have won the Nobel literature prize was Yasunari Kawabata, in 1968. (MARGARET BARLOW) Prize for Chemistry

An organic chemist, George A. Olah of the University of Southern California (USC) won the 1994 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for discovering how to extend the life span of an elusive family of compounds that appear for only a split second in the intermediate stages of chemical reactions. Use of his technique finally provided proof that those

chemical

intermediates,

termed

carboca-

tions, really do exist. “Olah’s discovery completely transformed the scientific study of the elusive carbocations,” said the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in its citation. It allowed chemists to study the structure of carbocations, improve their understanding of the manner in which organic compounds react to produce products, and find ways of manipulating reactions to yield desired products. Olah’s work led to many industrial applications, including syntheses of high-strength plastics and lead-free high-octane gasoline. Olah became interested in carbocations while still in his native country of Hungary. He was born May 22, 1927, in Budapest and received his Ph.D. in 1949 from the Technical University of Budapest. After holding various positions at the university, he served as head of the department

of organic chemistry and associate director of the central research institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Following the 1956 Hungarian revolution and the subsequent defeat by Soviet troops, Olah fled the country and began work at a Dow Chemical Co. laboratory in Ontario, where he developed the techniques for stabilizing and isolating carbocations. He served on the faculty of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio, from

1965 to 1977. Olah then

moved to USC and in 1991 became director of the Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute. Carbocations are positively charged fragments of hydrocarbon molecules whose properties had puzzled chemists since the 1920s and 730s. At that time chemists had only a poor understanding of the way that reactions actually proceed. In a reaction, chemicals called reactants interact to form products, new compounds having structures and properties that can be much different from those of the reactants. The earliest studies of organic

37

reactions made chemists realize that in some reactions the products could not possibly form in a single step. Rather, intermediate products must form and disappear as the reaction proceeds, as no other mechanism could account for some of the dramatic structural changes that were seen to take place in the transformation from reactants to products. Chemists theorized that the intermediates in hydrocarbon reactions would be positively charged hydrocarbon molecules, or carbocations. Since most chemical reactions proceed quickly, carbocations had to form and disappear in millionths of a second. Chemists thought that it would be impossible to isolate and study carbocations because they would vanish long before any analytical technique could be completed. Olah’s method for extending the life span of carbocations from millionths of a second to months was relatively simple. He prepared stable carbocations by dissolving hydrocarbon compounds in cold solutions of powerful acids such as that made by mixing hydrogen fluoride and antimony pentafluoride. Such “superacids” are much stronger than conventional acids like the sulfuric acid used in automobile storage batteries. The technique produced high concentrations of stable carbocations that could be studied with conventional analytical tools. Some of the early analyses, which were conducted by Olah’s group, brought additional surprises. Ever since the 1860s it had been believed that carbon could form no more than four chemical bonds with other atoms— the basis for the carbon-atom-centred tetrahedral structure well known to chemists. Analysis showed,

however,

that some

carbocations

were

pentahedral or hexahedral, capable of forming additional bonds. (MICHAEL WOODS) Prize for Physics Two scientists, one American and one Canadian, shared the 1994 Nobel Prize for Physics for de-

veloping neutron scattering, a powerful technique that uses nuclear radiation to analyze the innermost structure and properties of matter. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in awarding the prize, said that the pioneering work of Clifford G. Shull and Bertram N. Brockhouse was of major theoretical and practical importance. Neutron scattering allowed scientists to peer into the atomic structure of bulk matter and begin to understand interactions that determine the properties of solid and liquid materials. Neutron-scattering studies were important in the development of magnetic materials in computer data-storage devices, new superconducting materials that lose electrical resistance without deep cooling, and better catalysts for cleaning up automobile exhausts. They even contributed to elucidating the structure of disease-causing viruses. Brockhouse and Shull conducted their research independently in the 1940s and ’50s at two of the earliest nuclear reactors built in Canada and the U.S. Brockhouse worked at the Chalk River reactor in Ontario, Shull at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. The reactors supplied beams of neutrons—electrically neutral subatomic particles emitted during radioactive decay—that the two scientists exploited in their research. As early as the 1930s physicists had dreamed of using neutrons to study the atomic structure of materials. They knew that neutrons, like other subatomic particles, have the ability to behave as both particles and waves. When neutrons strike a sample of matter, they penetrate, collide with the nuclei of the constituent atoms, and then diffract, or scatter, in a characteristic pattern that depends on their wavelike behaviour. The resulting diffraction pattern provides detailed information about the composition of the material under study, specifically the way that its atoms are arranged in space in relation to each other. In 1946 Shull joined a group of Oak Ridge physicists, headed by E.O. Wollan, who were trying to use neutron-diffraction patterns to locate the three-dimensional positions of atoms in solid materials. A similar technique, based on X-rays, already was in use. But X-ray diffraction could not determine the location of hydrogen atoms, which are an important component of many inorganic materials and all organic molecules found

38

People of 1994; Nobel Prizes the cell. Molecules of cAMP relay the final sig-

nals that alter function within the cell. Humans respond to fright, for instance, by producing the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline), which signals

heart muscle cells to produce cAMP, which causes

the heart muscle to beat faster and stronger.

Beginning in the late 1960s, Rodbell, then work-

ing at the National Institutes of Health (NIH),

Bethesda, Md., showed that this communication

process requires cooperation between three separate components. They are the cell surface receptor, a transducer that relays information from

the receptor, and an amplifier that produces large quantities of second-messenger molecules like cAMP. Rodbell was among the first to realize that the receptor and amplifier were separate entities. But his major contribution was the discovery of a separate transducer function in cell communication that explained the way in which information passed between receptor and amplifier. Rodbell showed that the transducer worked only in the presence of an energy-rich molecule called guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Gilman and his associates, working in the 1970s at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, de-

termined the chemical nature of Rodbell’s mysterious transducer. They studied mutated cells that

could not respond to outside chemical signals. The

Bertram N. Brockhouse (left) receives the Nobel Prize for Physics from King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden. The Canadian shared the award with U.S. scientist Clifford G. Shull. GUNNAR ASK—REPORTAGEBILD/PHOTOREPORTERS

in living things. Unlike neutrons, which deflect off the nucleus of an atom, X-rays deflect off the orbiting electrons. Hydrogen has just one electron around its nucleus and thus is scarcely noticeable on X-ray diffraction patterns. “Similar efforts were being made

elsewhere,”

the Royal Swedish Academy said, “but it was the Wollan-Shull group and later Shull in collaboration with other researchers that proceeded most purposively and achieved results with surprising rapidity.” Nuclear reactors produce neutrons that move at different speeds. Researchers, in contrast,

needed beams of neutrons that were monochromatic—all traveling at essentially the same speed. Shull’s group solved the problem by passing the mixed beams through crystals of sodium chloride and other materials. The crystals separated neutrons of different speeds into separate, monochromatic beams. Shull and his colleagues studied neutron diffraction in very simple crystals, thus

establishing the basis for interpreting diffraction patterns from more complicated materials. They also developed a neutron-scattering technique to probe the structure of magnetic materials, a task that could not be done with X-ray diffraction. Shortly after Shull began his work, Brockhouse initiated studies that led to development of neutron spectroscopy, the technique that brought his share of the Nobel Prize. “During a hectic period between 1955 and 1960 Brockhouse’s pioneering work was without parallel within neutron spectroscopy,” the Royal Swedish Academy said. Scientists already knew that atoms in the innermost structure of materials vibrate or oscillate. Vibrations induced in one atom cause neighbouring atoms to resonate, so that the entire crystal

vibrates in a unique pattern determined by its atomic structure. Knowledge about a material’s vibrational energy is extremely important because it helps to determine how well a material will conduct electricity or heat. Brockhouse’s neutron spectroscopy technique provided a way for scientists to measure vibrational energy. He devised an apparatus, similar to that de-

veloped by Shull, for obtaining monochromatic beams of neutrons and passed them through samples of crystalline material. When the neutrons collided with an atom, they lost energy and set up vibrations in the crystal structure of the material. Brockhouse also developed a device, called the triple-axis spectrometer, that measured the amount of energy that neutrons lost as a result of

scattering. He realized that the lost energy could

be interpreted as energy absorbed by the sample in the creation of phonons. Phonons are units of

vibrational energy that proved to be of great use in evaluating the properties of different materials. Brockhouse

was born July 15, 1918, in Leth-

bridge, Alta. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 from the University of Toronto. That same year he began a long career at the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories operated by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. He joined the faculty of McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont., in 1962, where he helped

to establish a program in solid-state physics. Shull was born Sept. 23, 1915, in Pittsburgh, Pa. He received his Ph.D. in 1941 from New York University. After working as a research physicist for a private firm, Shull served as chief physicist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1955. He then joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as professor of physics. (MICHAEL WOODS) Prize for Physiology or Medicine Two American researchers, Alfred G. Gilman and

Martin Rodbell, shared the 1994 Nobel Prize for

Physiology or Medicine for discovering G proteins, molecules that allow cells to respond to chemical

signals such as hormones,

neurotrans-

mitters, and growth factors from a variety of the body’s tissues. G proteins proved to be the missing link in a biochemical information-processing system in which cells react to incoming signals in ways that give rise to such fundamental life processes as metabolism, vision, smell, and cognition.

Diseases can result from disturbances in the way that G proteins pass on, or transduce, incoming signals. Rodbell retired in June 1994 as head of the laboratory of signal transduction at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), a U.S. government agency located in Research Triangle Park, N.C. Gilman was with the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas. Long before Rodbell and Gilman began their work, conducted independently in the 1960s and 70s, scientists knew that cells use hormones and

other chemical messengers to communicate with one another and coordinate their activities. The American

scientist Earl W. Sutherland, Jr., won

the 1971 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for showing that most hormones, which he called “first messengers,” carry signals to the outer surface of the cell membrane in animals. Rather than entering the cells directly, the hormone molecules attach to special receptor sites on the cell surface, and the cell responds by producing a “second messenger,” the compound cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which acts inside

cells, nevertheless,

had a normal

receptor

mechanism for accepting signals from afirst messenger and a normal ability to generate cAMP as a second messenger. Gilman showed that the cells lacked a functional transducer mechanism that relayed the signal from receptor to amplifier. He further established that the missing component was a protein, found in normal cells, and showed that its transfer to defective cells restored signal transmission. By 1980 Gilman’s group had purified the protein, allowing its properties to be studied. Researchers found that the protein exists in the cell membrane in an inactive form until a signal arrives and binds to the membrane. Then the protein rapidly changes into an active form by binding to GTP. This association with GTP led to the protein’s name, the G protein. The activated G protein then shuttles from the receptor system to the amplifier system, turning on production of large amounts of the second messenger cAMP. After a few seconds the G protein reverts to an inactive form and awaits another activating signal. Scientists subsequently identified about 100 kinds of cell receptors that rely on G proteins for transducing signals into cellular action. G proteins in the cells of the eye’s retina, for instance, transduce the light signals that the brain interprets as images. Other G proteins work in olfactory cells and taste cells, help regulate the overall metabolic activity of cells, and help control cell division and

specialization. “Many symptoms of disease are explained by an altered function of G-proteins,” said the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute, a biomedical research centre in Stockholm that selects winners of the medicine prize. The toxin produced by cholera bacteria, for instance, prevents one kind of G protein from reverting to an inactive form. Stuck in the “on” position, it causes the severe loss of water and salts that dehydrates and kills many cholera victims. Abnormal activity of G proteins may be involved in cancer, diabetes, skeletal diseases, and other health problems. Rodbell was born Dec. 1, 1925, in Baltimore, Md. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 from the University of Washington and held positions in the U.S. and Switzerland. From 1970 to 1985 he headed laboratories at NIH and then joined NIEHS as scientific director. Gilman was born July 1, 1941, in New Haven, Conn. He received M.D. and Ph.D. degrees in 1969 from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. From 1971 to 1981 he served on the faculty of the University of Virginia School of Medicine in Charlottesville. In 1981 Gilman moved to the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, where he served as professor and chairman of pharmacology. He also was coeditor and coauthor of a noted, regularly revised textbook on drug action, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, which was originated by his father, Alfred, also a pharmacologist. (MICHAEL Woops)

BIOGRAPHIES Adams, Gerry

In 1994 Gerry Adams joined the long list of international figures who made the change from alleged terrorist to peacemaker. On August 31 the Irish Republican Army (IRA) announced a cease-fire. As president of the IRA’s political wing, Sinn Fein, Adams was a central figure in bringing it about. Gerard Adams was born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on Oct. 6, 1948, into a prominent Irish

nationalist family with ties to the IRA. Although Adams

denied being a member

of the IRA, it

was widely believed that by 1972 he had become a member of the IRA’s army council and its commander in Belfast. He was one of the first people to be imprisoned when the British government introduced internment without trial for suspected terrorists. During the course of his three years’ imprisonment, he collected his sole criminal con-

viction: for attempting to escape. In 1981 Adams persuaded Sinn Fein to widen its strategy and enter candidates in both local and national elections. He was elected an MP in 1983,

but he refused to take the oath of allegiance and never took his seat. (He lost his seat in 1992.) As an MP, Adams was frequently invited to condemn violence, but he always refused. In 1991, however, Adams started shifting Sinn Fein’s strategy toward negotiation. He wrote to trade-union and church leaders and to politicians in both London and Dublin, saying that Sinn Fein wanted to join peace talks. He also began a series of secret negotiations with John Hume, the leader

of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party, which had always opposed violence and the IRA. In 1993 the British government admitted that it had conducted indirect negotiations with Sinn Fein through intermediaries. In December 1993 British Prime Minister John Major and Irish Prime Minister Albert Reynolds agreed on a common strategy for considering the

and enthusiasm for science into the establishment of a variety of educational endeavours, including City Science, a program to improve science instruction in the San Francisco elementary-school system. He influenced national efforts to address scientific literacy by serving on the advisory board of the National Science Resources Center,

a joint project of the NAS and the Smithsonian Institution, as well as on the board of the Na-

1958, and he went

tional Academy of Sciences’ National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment. In 1988 he became head of the Commission on Life Sciences of the National Research Council (NRC—the operating arm of the NAS and its affiliated institutions, the National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine).

of organizations, large and small. By 1993 the Annenberg Foundation, worth about $1.6 billion, was one of the nation’s wealthiest. That year it was announced that he was donating $500 million toward efforts to reform the public schools. (CHERYL L. COLLINS)

Bruce Michael Alberts was born on April 14,

1938, in Chicago, Ill. He earned an A.B. in biochemical sciences from Harvard College in 1960 and received a doctorate in biophysics from Harvard University in 1965. Alberts taught at Princeton University until 1976, when he moved to the

University of California at San Francisco. Elected to membership in the NAS in 1981, Alberts became its 20th president, succeeding geophysicist Frank Press. Alberts’ major concern was running the NRC, which prepared hundreds of scientific, medical, and technical reports each year under contract from the government and private sources. In the midst of all that the post required, Alberts nonetheless maintained his passion for reforming science education and undertook the groundwork necessary for the NAS/NRC to move ahead toward the establishment of a national science-education program. (MARY JANE FRIEDRICH)

If the new president of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Bruce Alberts, had his way, scientific literacy would soon become one of the nation’s leading concerns. A strong advocate of improving science education in primary and secondary schools, Alberts arrived (1993) at the prestigious organization in Washington, D.C., eager to promote this message. Only one year into his six-year term as president, he had already made

his presence felt with his unpretentious manner and self-deprecating humour. Though a life devoted to scientific research could be demanding,

Alberts combined a vital

career as a research scientist with one as an administrator involved in educational projects. As a professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the University of California at San Francisco, Alberts spent many years investigating the role of certain proteins in chromosomal replication and served

as department chairman. He was also coauthor of

Molecular Biology of the Cell (1983), a widely used textbook. Alberts channeled his boundless energy

On Oct. 15, 1994, just over three years after a coup had forced him to flee, Pres. Jean-Bertrand

Aristide returned to Haiti, urging, “No to violence, no to vengeance, yes to reconciliation.” Whether it would prove to be a triumphant return remained to be seen. Aristide had been elected in Haiti’s first free democratic

election on Dec.

16, 1990, with an

overwhelming 67% of the vote. His inauguration on Feb. 7, 1991, represented a victory for Lavalas (which means “flood” or “torrent” in Creole), Haiti’s mass movement that had drafted Aristide to run. In his seven months as president, Aristide

proposed raising the minimum wage, initiated a literacy campaign, dismantled the repressive system of rural section chiefs, and oversaw a drastic

reduction in human rights violations. The coup of Sept. 30, 1991, led by the military and financed by members of Haiti’s small elite, declared that such reforms would not be tolerated. On his return had aligned himself with the poor and disenfranchised and often criticized the church hierarchy and the country’s powerful elite—regardless of the risks to himself—faced a peculiar challenge. He was constitutionally prohibited from a second term and, despite promises of millions of dollars in aid, none had arrived by year’s end. What could he accomplish in his remaining 15 months that would transform the compromises he had been forced to accept into boons for the movement that had nurtured him? Aristide was born on July 15, 1953, in Port Salut. He attended a school in Port-au-Prince

important philanthropists in the U.S. It was also the story of a quiet boy with a speech impediment who lived in the shadow of his flamboyant-father until he took over the family’s scandal-plagued legacy and turned it into one of the most profitable communications empires in the country. Annenberg was born into a life of ease and

Alberts, Bruce

Aristide, Jean-Bertrand

from exile in the U.S., Aristide, who for 20 years

ambassador, an art collector, and one of the most

der had been lifted. The scene was set for Adams’ new role as principal Sinn Fein negotiator in talks about the long-term future of Northern Ireland. (PETER KELLNER)

to hundreds

In 1994 many people considered the life of Walter Annenberg an American success story: an immigrant’s son who gained renown as a publisher, an

Ireland, the so-called Dow-

been ended; within seven weeks the exclusion or-

on to donate

Annenberg, Walter H.

ning Street Declaration. Adams stepped up his campaign to win international respect. In January 1994 he obtained a visa to visit the U.S., where he appeared on a number of television and radio interview programs. At the same time, Adams was barred from British radio and TV under the terms of an exclusion order and broadcasting ban. (Intriguingly, his statements could be read on the air by actors.) Meanwhile, Adams was involved in intensive debates inside Sinn Fein and the IRA over their response to the Downing Street Declaration. Finally came the announcement of a cease-fire. Within three weeks the broadcasting ban had

future of Northern

announced that after his death his collection— Impressionist and Postimpressionist works worth an estimated $1 billion—would be donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. It was as a philanthropist that Annenberg gained wide respect late in life. He founded the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania (his alma mater) in

privilege on March 13, 1908, in Milwaukee, Wis.

His father, Moses (“Moe”) Annenberg, an immigrant from East Prussia, had been the generalcirculation manager of Hearst newspapers, but he made his fortune after he took control of the popular horse-racing publications the Daily Racing Form and Morning Telegraph, as well as a wire service that sent racetrack results to betting parlours nationwide. Annenberg joined the family business in 1928. He was a company vice president when his father was indicted (1939) for tax evasion and bribery. Annenberg was also indicted, but the charges against him were later dropped, and upon his father’s death (1942) shortly after being paroled, he gained full control of what was left of Triangle Publications, Inc. Although the company was deep in debt, Annenberg turned it around quickly by taking it in new directions in publishing and in radio and television. The cornerstone of its fortune was laid in 1953 when Annenberg merged several local TV publications into one national magazine, TV Guide, which came to be one of the most popular magazines in the U.S. He also served as the editor and publisher of the Philadelphia Inquirer (which his father had purchased in 1936). In 1969, after his friend Richard Nixon was elected president, Annenberg was appointed ambassador to the Court of St. James’s, where he served until 1974. Annenberg sold his interests in Triangle for a reported $3.2 billion in 1988 and turned his energies to philanthropy and art collecting. He purchased numerous high-priced pieces in the soaring art market of the 1980s, notably Pablo Picasso’s “At the Lapin Agile” for $40.7 million in 1989. Annenberg made headlines when he

run by the Roman Catholic Salesian order, where

he exhibited a great aptitude for language and a sharp intelligence. In 1966 he moved to the Salesian seminary at Cap-Haitien and began to prepare for the priesthood. In 1975 Aristide first aligned himself with the poor and Ti Legliz (“Little Church”), which sprang from liberation theology. He returned from his novitiate year in the Dominican Republic to Port-au-Prince to study psychology (B.A., 1979) at the state university. The late 1970s was a time of increasing militancy against the brutal regime of Jean-Claude Duvalier. Aristide, responsible for programming at Radio Cacique (the Roman Catholic radio station), urged change and often found himself at odds with his superiors. Encouraged by them to leave the country, he spent most of the next six years studying biblical theology abroad. He visited Haiti briefly in 1982 for his ordination by the progressive Bishop Willy Romélus. He returned to Haiti in 1985, eventually becoming parish priest at St. Jean Bosco, a centre of resistance in Portau-Prince. In 1986, the year Duvalier was driven

from power, Aristide survived the first of many assassination

attempts, was cautioned

about his

outspoken political views by the Salesians, and founded the orphanage Lafanmi Selavi. During the next several years he continued to anger the church hierarchy and the military. An attempt in 1987 to transfer him to a less central parish in the countryside failed when his supporters occupied Port-au-Prince’s cathedral. An attack on a 1988 mass he was celebrating left 13 people dead and more than 70 injured. He was reprimanded,

39

40

People of 1994: Biographies

and the Salesians expelled him in late 1988. (He stopped celebrating mass or preaching in public in order not to anger the hierarchy.) In 1990, when a notorious Duvalierist announced his candidacy for president, progressive-centre forces united to urge Aristide to run for the office. After his election the Vatican continued to pressure Aristide to leave the priesthood. In November 1994 Aristide formally requested that he be relieved of his priestly duties. (ELLEN FINKELSTEIN) Barbie In March 1959 the first Barbie doll was unveiled at a toy fair in New York City. She was the brainchild of Ruth Handler, who along with her husband, Elliot, cofounded

Mattel Creations

(later

Mattel, Inc.) in 1945. While raising her two children, Barbara and Kenneth, Handler noticed how much her daughter liked to play make-believe with paper dolls, often assigning them adult roles. Inspired by this and by a German comic strip character

named

Lilli, to which

Mattel bought

Kathleen

Deanne

Battle was born on Aug.

13, 1948, in Portsmouth,

Ohio. As a child and

young adult she was both a good student and a good singer, but her ambitions were not grand.

She was awarded a scholarship to the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, but

she chose to major in music education rather than risk the possibility of failure and disappointment inherent in a performance career. In 1971, with both bachelor’s and master’s degrees, Battle

set out to teach music to Cincinnati’s inner-city youth. While teaching, she continued to study voice privately, which resulted in an audition with Thomas Schippers (then conductor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra). He was so moved by Battle’s remarkable voice that he hired the almost totally inexperienced singer to perform at the 1972 Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto, Italy. Battle’s debut at the festival in Brahms’s Ein deutsches Requiem was very well received. Not long after, Schippers introduced Battle to

duced. Handler believed that allowing little girls to imagine the future with pretend play was an important part of growing up. What emerged was what came to be the world’s most popular doll, including four younger siblings, a pantheon of friends, and a proliferation of accessories—each

Handel and Purcell; excelled in such Mozart roles

the Ken doll, Barbie’s significant other, was intro-

sold separately, of course. As Barbie turned 35, however, she found that along with her designer clothes, motor homes, and product endorsements came her share of controversy. Barbie began life as a teenage fashion model. Over the years she became a ballerina, registered nurse,

American

Airlines

stewardess,

surgeon,

nounced his candidacy for the national legislature. Running on a platform of free enterprise and individual initiative, he inveighed against bureaucracy and governmental interference in private business. To this end he allied himself with the right-wing Northern League and the neo-Fascist National Alliance. In the March 28 elections, this

coalition, known as the Freedom Alliance, won a majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. As leader of the majority party of the ruling coalition, he was sworn in as prime minister on April 28. The new prime ministers honeymoon was

short-lived, however. Opponents charged Berlusconi with conflicts of interest, and in December magistrates formally questioned him regarding past business ‘practices. Faced with a no-confidence vote, Berlusconi resigned on December 22,

although he remained at the head of a caretaker (JOHN H. MATHEWS) government.

the conductor James Levine, who was to become

influential in her performing career, and by 1978 she was singing supporting roles in major U.S. opera houses. That same year she made her debut at the Met as the Shepherd in Wagner’s Tannhduser. Critics immediately recognized that Battle’s lyric soprano was exceptionally pure and that it retained its perfection at both ends of her two and one-half octave range, from low A to high E. She dispatched the virtuosic coloratura of

the rights, Handler created the three-dimensional Barbie doll (named after her daughter). In 1961 her son had his name immortalized in plastic when

Democrats and Socialists. Amid popular cries for

reform, Berlusconi founded Forza Italia and an-

as Susanna in The Marriage of Figaro, Zerlina in Don Giovanni, and Despina in Cosi fan tutte; and was celebrated for her interpretation of AfricanAmerican spirituals. Her extensive discography also included the music of Donizetti, Richard Strauss, George Gershwin, and others. After the Met’s dismissal of Battle, doomsayers

Black, Conrad In 1994 financier Conrad Black, whose inherited

wealth and acquisitive nature helped establish him as an international press baron, expanded his already vast empire by purchasing the Chicago SunTimes newspaper. As head of one of Canada’s largest conglomerates, he was a symbol of Canadian capitalism. Black began in 1967 as partowner and operator of two small Quebec weeklies. By 1972 he owned 21 local papers across Canada, and during the next 20 years, he built

a media empire of almost 250 newspapers world-

wide. By 1994 Black controlled the London Daily Telegraph,

the Fairfax

Group

in Australia,

the

Jerusalem Post, Southam Press in Canada, and nearly 100 local dailies in the United States. Born on Aug. 25, 1944, in Montreal, Conrad

of

Berlusconi was born on Sept. 29, 1936, in Milan.

the Barbie franchise, and in 1993 sales of Barbie

After graduating from the University of Milan, he entered the property-development business, where he took advantage of the booming Milanese real estate market to amass a considerable fortune by the 1970s. Berlusconi soon decided to expand the scope of his business interests. In 1974

Moffat Black was the son of George Black, a major shareholder and director of Canada’s Argus Corp. Conrad grew up in Toronto, and his ambition was to become head of Argus. When he assumed control of the corporation in 1978, Argus was an investment holding company with token control of several Canadian corporations, including Hollinger Mines, Dominion Stores (a grocery chain), Standard Broadcasting, and MasseyFerguson (a farm equipment company). Black’s goal was to transform Argus from a holding company to an operating company and to reposition it in the newspaper business. Partly to achieve this end, he divested Argus of Massey-Ferguson in 1980 and dismantled Dominion Stores by selling or closing many outlets. Hollinger became the principal shareholder of Argus, and the name of the corporation was changed in 1986 to Hollinger Inc. Problems erupted in 1986 when Hollinger withdrew more than $50 million in surplus from the Dominion Stores pension fund with the approval of the Pension Commission of Ontario. The union representing the Dominion Stores employees sued the commission. The dispute was settled when Hollinger and the employees agreed to share the surplus equally. Black received a B.A. in history and political science from Carleton University, Ottawa (1965), and a law degree from Laval University, Quebec City (1970). His thesis for his M.A. in history from McGill University, Montreal (1973), was a biography of former Quebec premier Maurice Duplessis; published in 1977, it came to be considered a definitive work. Black, who enjoyed expressing his thoughts on politics and business, was a columnist for the Toronto Globe and Mail Report on Business Magazine. He was also noted

he created Telemilano,

for his excellent memory, which served him well in

and U.S. Air Force pilot. In 1992 she ran for president, but she lost, possibly because, after 20 years of silence, her first utterances (much to the

dismay of feminists) included the words, “Math class is tough.” In 1991 Mattel took action against Kenner Products’ Miss America doll, citing copyright infringement. Versions of Miss America— which was manufactured in China—were subsequently seized by the U.S. Customs Service and stored in a government warehouse. A year later Mattel settled a similar suit against Hasbro Inc., which agreed to change its popular British Sindy doll to look less like Barbie. By 1994 it seemed that Barbie herself could not be stopped and would continue her reign as the queen of dolldom. Since 1959 more than 800 million dolls in the Barbie family had been sold. Adult collectors invested thousands of dollars in special-issue Barbies. She had had more than 500 professions and could be found in more than 140 countries in the guise of several nationalities. However, it was unlikely that she would ever be seen in Kuwait after she was banned by a top Muslim official in August 1994. Barbie’s curvacious figure had often been chastised for providing girls with an unrealistic body image. On the other hand, a group of Finnish scientists declared that she was anorexic.

After losing $113 million in 1987 on unsuccessful new product lines, Mattel found that it

was more

profitable to increase promotion

paraphernalia exceeded $1 billion. In celebration of Barbie’s 35th birthday in 1994, Mattel reissued a replica of the’ original 1959 doll, and in October her life was chronicled in the book Forever Barbie: The Unauthorized Biography of a Real Doll, by M.G. Lord. (ANTHONY L. GREEN)

predicted that her performing career might be over. However, she remained highly popular with the public—all of Battle’s recordings continued to sell extremely well—and it seemed likely that concert halls and other opera houses might be happy to have her, despite the allegations of bad behaviour. After all, she has been described as the “best coloratura in the world.” (ELIZABETH LASKEY) Berlusconi, Silvio

Since the end of World War II, Italy had had more than 50 governments and more than its share of colourful and controversial politicians. In the elections of March 1994, the victory of the coalition led by the Forza Italia party introduced yet another player to the great game of Italian politics—Italy’s new prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi. A 58-year-old business tycoon and founder and leader of Forza Italia, Berlusconi brought to the

political arena the same skills he had used in building a vast financial empire, portraying himself and his party as an efficient and businesslike alternative to the corruption and cronyism endemic in Italian politics. Many observers pointed out, however, that Berlusconi had benefited from

the same system that he promised to reform and suggested that his web of business interests would conflict with his duties as prime minister.

a cable television

firm,

Battle, Kathleen

and four years later he mounted the first direct challenge to the national television monopoly.

In February 1994 New York City’s Metropolitan Opera issued the terse announcement that it had

commercial television network in Italy. He also

fired Kathleen Battle, considered by many to be

one of the finest sopranos singing today, for what it termed “unprofessional actions.” Opera fans around

the world were

stunned, and a journal-

istic firestorm fueled by speculation and rumour ensued in which the media dug up accounts con-

cerning the prima donna’s alleged maltreatment of all ranks of opera personnel, from wigmasters and stagehands to entire casts.

By 1980 he had established

Canale

5, the first

steadily diversified his business holdings, acquiring department stores, movie theatres, publishing companies,

recalling and recounting in great detail the story of his business dealings in his autobiography, A Life in Progress (1993). Black received the Order of Canada in 1990 and became a member of the Privy Council of

Canada in 1992.

(DIANE LOIS WAY)

and the AC Milan soccer team. He

consolidated his empire under the umbrella of the Fininvest holding company, a vast conglomerate that grew to control more than 150 businesses. In January

1994

Berlusconi

turned

his tal-

ents to politics. Bribery and corruption scandals had devastated the ruling coalition of Christian

Blades, Rubén

In May 1994, 20 years after moving to the U.S., Rubén Blades, the Panamanian-born, Harvardtrained lawyer and internationally known salsa singer, composer, political activist, and Hollywood actor, returned to Panama to run for the presi-

People of 1994: Biographies dency. As the populist candidate of Papa Egor6 (Mother Earth), the party that he had formed during a brief return to Panama in 1991, Blades campaigned with songs and guitar, attracting sup-

port from those disillusioned with corrupt politicians. His campaign, however, was underfinanced,

and although Blades proved a popular candidate, some thought that his extended absence from the country had left him out of touch. In the May 8 elections, he placed third, winning only 17%

of the vote.

Blades was born in Panama City, Panama, on July 16, 1948. His St.-Lucian-born father was a

police detective and bongo player, and his Cubanborn mother was a musician and an actress on radio soap operas. Blades initially played the guitar and sang North American rock and roll, but

he later composed and performed songs of political protest. Blades graduated with a law degree from the University of Panama in 1972. Shortly thereafter, he and his family were sent into exile when his father (a former member of the secret police) ran afoul of Manuel Noriega, then head of military intelligence. After settling in New York City, Blades sang and composed as a member of the Willie Colén combo. He left Coldn in 1982 to form a new group,

Seis del Solar.

The

band’s

salsa music

incorporated rock and jazz elements, and vibraphones replaced traditional trumpets and trombones. His album Buscando América was named a top-10 album of 1984. At the height of his popularity, Blades took a break from his musical career to earn a master’s degree (1985) in international law from Harvard University. His first film, Crossover Dreams, was released in 1985. In 1987 Blades won a Grammy award for his album

Escenas, in which Linda Ronstadt joined him in a Spanish duet. His music echoed such social issues as the Iran-contra affair and the AIDS crisis. After Blades

embarked

on a film career,

he

received praise for his performances in such films as The Milagro Beanfield War (1988), Disorganized Crime (1989), The Two Jakes (1990), The Lemon Sisters (1990), Mo’ Better Blues (1990), The Super (1991), and Color of Night (1994). Blades also composed the musical score for the fim Q & A (1990). (NAOMI BERNARDS POLONSKY) Blair, Bonnie Kathleen

After her career-topping performances in 1994, U.S. speed skater Bonnie Blair was hailed as the most successful American woman in Olympic Games history. At 19 she first gained acclaim by winning the world overall short-track title in 1986 at Chamonix, France, and a year later she twice

clocked the world-record time for the 500 m on the standard circuit. 5 BOB MARTIN—ALLSPORT

Blair’s era of Olympic glory began in 1988 at

41

Calgary, Alta., when she not only won the 500 m with a time that remained on the record books for the next two Games but also took third place in the 1,000 m. Specializing as a sprinter, she won the world sprint championship with a record

riding of Lac-Saint-Jean. He was made minister of the environment in 1989. Bouchard’s aim in entering politics was to help in salvaging the Meech Lake accord, a constitutional agreement that would have recognized Quebec as a distinct society. When the failure of the accord seemed

points score in 1989 at Heerenveen, Neth., and

inevitable in 1990, Bouchard

recaptured the title at Calgary in 1994, again with record aggregate points. On March 26, during the latter tournament, she became the first woman to skate 500 m in less than 39 seconds. On the Hamar track near Lillehammer, Norway,

Cabinet and the Progressive Conservative caucus to become an independent member. He decided to remain in politics to work for the sovereignty of Quebec, and later in 1990 he was a founding

Blair in 1994 successfully defended her 1,000-m

Born in Saint-Coeur-de-Marie, Que., on Dec. 22, 1938, Bouchard received a degree in social

title to win the fifth Olympic gold medal of her career, surpassing the previous U.S. women’s Olympic record of four gold medals held jointly by track sprinter Evelyn Ashford, swimmer Janet Evans, and diver Pat McCormick. She achieved this by winning the 500 m at three consecutive Games and the 1,000 m twice. A 1,000-m bronze

resigned from the

member of the Bloc Québécois. sciences (1960) and a degree in law (1963) from Laval University. After being called to the bar in 1964, he practiced law in Chicoutimi,

Que.,

until 1985. During those years he was called upon several times to work for the provincial government. From 1970 to 1976 he was chairman

at Calgary in 1988 brought her total Olympic medals tally to six. Blair’s 500-m success in 1994 made her the only speed skater of either sex to have won the same event in three successive Olympics.

which had been set up to ensure uniform working conditions in the provincial education sector. He served as chief counsel for the Cliche Commission

Blair was born at Cornwall, N.Y., on March 18, 1964. She was coached mainly by Nick Thometz,

75), which examined the problems of the James Bay hydroelectric project. Bouchard was coauthor

who was also an Olympic speed skater. Her height of 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) and weight of 60 kg (132 Ib) gave her a slender appearance that masked a well-developed strength in calves and thighs. Her commendably smooth motion usually seemed al-

of the Martin-Bouchard Report (1977-78) on reforming negotiation procedures for public sector employees. From 1978 to 1981 he coordinated Quebec’s negotiations with its employees. In 1985 Bouchard became Canadian ambassador to France. In that role he promoted the interests of Canada and of Quebec. He helped organize the first Francophone summit in Paris (1986) and was chairman of the preparation committee for the second Francophone summit in Quebec City (1987). Late in 1994 Bouchard was stricken with necrotizing myositis, a virulent bacterial infection. After several operations, including the amputation of a leg, he was reported to be recovering and was expected to continue as leader of the opposition.

most silent, with what sound the skating strokes

emitted muffled by the roar of the crowd. Moving about a minute a mile faster than a track athlete (a speed skater being the fastest human over level ground), Blair learned how to counter the extra wind resistance to best advantage with an accentuated crouching, streamlined, gliding style. Her graceful body roll with pronounced lean even at top speed was what her well-informed fans best appreciated. (HOWARD BASS)

of the Quebec

Educational

Arbitration

Board,

of Inquiry into the Construction Industry (1974-

(DIANE LOIS WAY)

Bouchard, Lucien

In 1990 the Bloc Québécois was formed in Canada to promote sovereignty for the province of Quebec on the federal level. In the federal election of 1993, the Bloc Québécois surprised many Canadians by winning 54 ridings (districts) in Quebec to become the official opposition in the House of

The two-hour, three-LP piece For Four Orchestras, composed by Anthony Braxton and recorded

Commons.

A subsequent work, Braxton

The party leader, Lucien Bouchard,

became leader of the opposition. Bouchard began his career in politics as a member of the Progressive Conservative Party. Then in 1988 Prime Minister Brian Mulroney invited Bouchard to join his Cabinet. After being appointed secretary of state, Bouchard won a seat in the House of Commons from the Quebec

Braxton, Anthony

in 1978 by 160 musicians and 4 conductors, was to have been the first composition in a series. anticipated, would

involve simultaneous orchestras in separate cities linked by television; after that, he would compose

a work for linked orchestras on several planets and, by 1995, a work for linked orchestras in sev-

eral galaxies, assuming that humankind’s progress in space travel could keep up with him. Instead, reality caught up with Braxton. He had to finance the four-orchestra recording himself, and though he was among the leading free-jazz improvisers on saxophones, clarinets, and flutes and leader of

a topflight quartet, raising money through concert fees was a losing battle. By the early 1980s the Braxton family was living in poverty in upstate New York, in a telephoneless house heated by burning logs in a fireplace. If that was a low point of Braxton’s career, a high point came in 1994 with the release of one of his finest recordings, Duo (London) 1993, with

fellow saxophone virtuoso Evan Parker, and with a five-year MacArthur Foundation fellowship. The prize came shortly after the second book about him, New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton’s Cultural Critique by Ronald M. Radano, was published and in the midst of his term as chairman of the music department at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. What brought about this upswing in Braxton’s life was dedication. Braxton was born on June 4, 1945, in Chicago,

where he began playing alto saxophone in his teens, and in 1966 he joined the groundbreaking free-jazz cooperative Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians. He quickly grew into an original player and was the first to record an entire album of unaccompanied saxophone solos. After 1969, when he went to Paris, he became an

avant-garde hero while recording with the likes of free improvisers, pianists Muhal Richard Abrams and Dave Brubeck, the Globe Unity Orchestra,

and bop musicians.

42

People of 1994: Biographies Meanwhile, inspired by John Cage and Karl-

heinz Stockhausen,

among others, Braxton

also

composed prolifically for chamber settings, for orchestras, for 100 tubas, and for 4 amplified shov-

els and a coal pile. His compositions were titled with abstract diagrams and written in coloured graphs; they were also almost never played. That situation would change in 1995, however, when CDs were to be released of his Composition 174 for 10 percussionists and tape; Composition 175, “storytelling music”; and Trilium M, the first of

his operas to be documented. “I feel the millennium that’s coming will reflect on the beautiful universal ‘balances’ that will make up new evolutionary processes,” he said. “My hope is to be part of these dynamic universal processes.” (JOHN LITWEILER) Breyer, Stephen

In recent years, nominations to the U.S. Supreme Court have often been fraught with controversy, with partisan politics taking the place of wellreasoned consideration of the potential justice’s merits. Democrats and Republicans alike have accused each other of attempting to politicize the judiciary, and confirmation hearings have sometimes degenerated into ad hominem attacks instead of explorations of judicial philosophy. Pres. Bill Clinton’s nomination of Stephen Breyer in 1994 to fill the seat of retiring Justice Harry Blackmun appeared to be an effort to break this cycle. Breyer was viewed as a moderate, acceptable to both Republicans and Democrats. His formidable intellect and legal acumen were tempered by a generous dose of pragmatism unencumbered by any pronounced ideological position, giving him a reputation as a consensus builder. Breyer’s supporters expected him to reach out to the centrist wing of the court, as well as providing a moderate counterweight to the conservative constitutional formalism of the court’s current intellectual leader, Justice Antonin Scalia. Stephen Gerald Breyer was born on Aug. 15, 1938, in San Francisco.

He received an under-

graduate degree from Stanford University and spent two years as a Marshall scholar at Oxford before ‘attending Harvard Law School. Following his graduation from Harvard in 1964, Breyer clerked for Supreme Court Justice Arthur Goldberg, where he further developed his philosophy of neopragmatism and helped write the landmark right-to-privacy decision in Griswold v. Connecticut. Breyer then spent three years as a special assistant to the U.S. assistant attorney general before returning to Harvard as a professor. At Harvard, Breyer wrote extensively on antitrust and administrative law. He also served as an assistant special prosecutor (1973) during the Watergate hearings. In 1979 he was appointed

Cardoso, Fernando Henrique Not long after the military took control of the government in Brazil in 1964, a young sociolo-

gist was blindfolded, arrested, and interrogated. After being blacklisted from teaching in the state university system he went into exile and continued his academic work, in which

he examined

the relationship between the less developed, “dependent,”

nations and the dominant West. He

gained a reputation as abrilliant sociologist and became one of the leading lights of Brazil’s leftwing intellectual opposition. That he would run for president soon after the reestablishment of civilian rule might not be surprising, but that he would do so with the overwhelming support of the nation’s business establishment—and that foreign multinational corporations would beat a path to his door soon after his election—might be. Yet Fernando Cardoso had shown that he was willing to defy expectations. Fernando Henrique Cardoso was born in Rio de Janeiro on June 18, 1931, to a well-to-do mil-

itary family. He became a professor of sociology

at the University of Sao Paulo in 1958. After he left the country in 1964, he taught at universities in Santiago, Chile, and Paris. Upon his return to Brazil in 1968 Cardoso founded a research institute, the Brazilian Centre for Analysis and Planning, which was bombed by right-wing terrorists in the early 1970s. Cardoso entered politics in 1986 when he won a seat as senator from Sao Paulo; he gained a reputation as a centrist who was willing to compromise. In 1988 he cofounded the centre-left Party of Brazilian Social Democracy, which ran on a clean-government platform. In 1992, after Pres. Fernando Collor de Mello was impeached on corruption charges and Itamar Franco took over, Cardoso resigned his Senate seat and joined the Cabinet as foreign minister. In May 1993 Cardoso allowed himself to be drafted as finance minister—the fourth in 13 months. He oversaw the complicated political negotiations that produced the Real Plan, an anti-inflation package that introduced a new currency, the real. In March 1994 Cardoso announced his bid for the presidency, and he stepped down from his post as finance minister. Inflation was running at 45% in June, and when the Real Plan went into effect on July 1, Cardoso was trailing his closest opponent by 20 points. As inflation plum-

extensively breached before on a prime-time network television show. As the season progressed, however, the show won kudos from Viewers for

Quality Television, the People’s Choice awards, the Golden Globe awards, and Humanitas. By the end of the season, in May 1994, the show had

set new standards of excellence for the medium,

and it had garnered a record 26 Emmy-award nominations. During the summer of 1994 the industry was abuzz with the news that the reportedly temperamental and headstrong Caruso had demanded a hefty pay raise. Though he had proven his star quality with an Emmy nomination for best actor in a drama, Caruso’s demand was not met. His

character, facing banishment to another precinct, quit the force and was written out of the show after the first four episodes. It was not only the salary dispute that prompted Caruso to leave, however, but also the hope of following in his matinee idols’ footsteps. Like two other famous Hollywood redheads, James Cagney and Spencer Tracy, who influenced his acting style, Caruso wanted to make good as a leading man in feature films. Many wondered if the somewhat baby-faced actor could make the transition smoothly, when many other performers had failed. In the meantime, Caruso had filmed two yet-to-be-released motion-picture thrillers for which he reportedly received between $1 million and $2 million each. One feature, Kiss of Death, was a remake of the 1947 classic, which had made a star of unknown

Richard Widmark. Caruso was born on Jan. 17, 1956, in New York

City to an Italian-American father and an IrishAmerican mother. He had no formal training as an actor but earned cash by posing as an extra in police lineups—his first “acting jobs.” In 1978 he moved to California, where he spent the next 15 years playing bit parts in such films as First Blood (1982), An Officer and a Gentleman (1982), and Mad Dog and Glory (1993) before his meteoric rise in “NYPD Blue.” (SUSAN RAPP) Castro, Fidel

On Aug. 11, 1994, Cuban Pres. Fidel Castro indicated in a speech that his government was lifting restrictions on those wishing to leave the country.

however,

In short order, thousands of people took him at his word and set sail for Florida in makeshift rafts and homemade boats. Not since 1980 had there been such a massive exodus from the Caribbean

his popularity soared. Many observers suspected

nation. True to form, Castro and his Cuban gov-

where he helped draft legislation on fair-housing law and deregulation of the airline and trucking industries, as well as making the acquaintance of

that the business sector had held a lid on prices to boost Cardoso’s campaign and, further, that painful economic restructuring loomed after the election. During his campaign Cardoso had called for moving Brazil away from a state-dominated economy and toward increased foreign investment, more rapid privatization of state-owned companies, and large-scale funding of education and social services. Many of Cardoso’s beliefs had

ernment were making themselves a thorn in the side of the United States. Castro was a man under considerable pressure in 1994. The son of a Spanish immigrant farm worker, Fidel Castro Ruz was born near Biran, Oriente province, on Aug. 13, 1926/27. He became a political activist as a student, joining the Cuban People’s Party about 1947. He obtained a law degree in 1950 and was a candidate in the 1952 elections for a seat in the House of

Sen. Edward Kennedy, who was to become one

changed over time, but his commitment

Representatives.

of his strongest supporters. In 1980, with bipartisan support, Breyer was confirmed as judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. As a federal judge, Breyer gained a reputation as a centrist. His pragmatism took precedence over any broad constitutional vision, and his reliance on empirical data in shaping his opinions led critics to claim that his judicial philosophy was determined more by economic considerations and cost-benefit analysis than by concern for people. However, Breyer himself stated that he was skeptical about the benefits of economic pragmatism outside antitrust and regulatory law, and he demonstrated a passion for First Amendment rights. Breyer also served on the U.S. Sentencing Commission, created to determine how severely federal crimes should be punished.

proving the living standards of the nation’s poor

chief counsel to the Senate Judiciary Committee,

meted to less than 2% in September,

had not, even

though

he had come

to im-

to believe

that a free-market economy was the best means

to that end.

(CHERYL L. COLLINS)

Caruso, David

Breyer was confirmed with little difficulty. His freedom from ideological bias assuaged conser-

After emerging from virtual obscurity in late 1993 to become the actor labeled “TV’s hunkiest tough guy” by early 1994 only to be branded atelevision pariah by late summer, Golden Globe winner David Caruso experienced firsthand the seesawing fortunes of a U.S. actor—all in one dizzying year. The up-from-the-streets, flame-haired Method actor helped propel the unconventional television drama “NYPD Blue” into the ratings stratosphere in its first season with his portrayal of John Kelly, a tough-on-the-outside, in-control homicide detective with a tormented yet sensitive soul. When the show, produced by Steven

vative fears of a doctrinaire liberal on the court,

Bochco, first debuted in the fall of 1993, it gener-

while liberals were eager to support a moderate whose intellectual firepower might match Scalia’s. Observers of the court predicted that Breyer

ated strident condemnations from religious leaders and other conservatives, boycotts by affiliates of parent company ABC, and cancellations by major commercial advertisers because of its unabashed use of explicit language, sexual situations, and posterior nudity. These taboos had not been

would continue his role as a consensus builder,

drawing the court toward his own brand of pragmatism and moderation. (JOHN H. MATHEWS)

On

March

10, 1952, however,

Gen. Fulgencio Batista overthrew the government. In 1953 Castro began to organize a revolution against Batista, but he was unsuccessful and

was subsequently jailed. Released under a 1955 amnesty, Castro went to Mexico, where he organized the next steps of his revolution. In December 1956 he led a small force into Cuba. Aided by waning internal support for the government and by successive military victories, Castro and his forces—reduced

to only about

1,000 men—

forced Batista to flee. Castro took control of Havana on Jan. 2, 1959, and became prime minister in February. In 1976 he became the president of Cuba. Castro and his 26th of July Movement, with the

Communist Party of Cuba in the lead, attempted to move Cuba from a corrupt dictatorship to a showplace socialist state. He rooted out capitalism and tried to precipitate socialist revolution elsewhere in the hemisphere, meanwhile relying increasingly on the financial support of the U.S.S.R. and its allies. On the positive side, Cubans under Castro were better educated and healthier than almost any other Latin Americans; all education and health services were provided free of charge, and citizens were guaranteed employment.

People of 1994: Biographies Over time, the economy

was unable to keep

pace with the swelling population and especially with the growing number of young people. Cuba became a drain on the resources of the Soviet Union, and Castro could no longer rely on $6 billion in annual subsidies after the U.S.S.R. was dissolved in 1991. Few expected el lider to survive the domino-like toppling of communist regimes. Dire economic and social conditions in Cuba led to increased dissent among the citizenry and growing pressure on Castro to move on. Still, he managed to cling to power, partly by moving tentatively in the direction of a market economy and partly by fostering tourism in order to cover the catastrophic shortfalls in sugar revenues. Mean-

while, the U.S., influenced by its large, conservative Cuban émigré community, came in for its share of criticism for what Spain’s El Pais called a “policy of strangulation”—which was providing the perfect scapegoat on which Castro could blame his economic woes. In late December 1993 Castro’s daughter, Alina

Fernandez Revuelta, had embarrassed her father by seeking asylum in the U.S., where she was publicly critical of the way her homeland was being run. Tensions in Havana boiled over on Aug. 5, 1994, when Cubans rioted during the first massive antigovernment demonstration in 35 years. Some observers saw Castro’s lifting of the ban on emigration a week later as the punitive reaction of a desperate man. Still, speculation flared anew that the wily revolutionary might pull it off once again. (ANTHONY L. GREEN)

these conflicts was still open to question, but they both symbolized the type of confrontation that the new secretary-general would have to face in the future. (JOHN H. MATHEWS) Crossan, John Dominic “Jesus was not born of a virgin, not born of David’s lineage, not born in Bethlehem,” and “there was no stable, no shepherds, no star, no

Magi, no massacre of the infants, and no flight into Egypt.” These assertions were made not by a fire-breathing atheist but by John Dominic Crossan, a bookish Roman Catholic teaching biblical studies at DePaul University in Chicago. In 1994 his research came “out of the ivory towers” with publication of the volume Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography, with the theories that he and the 73 other members of the Jesus Seminar put forth in a book titled The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? and with a discussion of his own work by other scholars ina collection titled Jesus and Faith: A Conversation on the Work of John Dominic Crossan. Born

on

Feb.

17, 1934, in Ireland,

Crossan

moved to the U.S. in 1951 and began his study of the life and teachings of Jesus. In 1969, while on the faculty of the Chicago Catholic Theological Union, he resigned from the Servite priesthood. As he explained later, he “wanted to be free from

the irritation of having been trained to think critically but being in constant trouble for doing it.” Crossan first gained notice outside academe with a 1992 work, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. The book sold

Claes, Willy

more than 60,000 copies, a surprise to Crossan,

Following the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and the subsequent dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) appeared to be an alliance with-

whose previous works had sold about 2,000 copies

out a mission. However, as the disintegration of

the Soviet empire spawned a variety of separatist movements and the conflict in former Yugoslavia threatened to engulf the Balkans, NATO once again emerged as a significant international institution. In late 1994 a new leader took on the task of leading NATO into the 21st century. On September 29, following the death of SecretaryGeneral Manfred Wérner (see OBITUARIES), the North Atlantic Council chose Willy Claes, the Belgian minister of foreign affairs, as the new secretary-general of NATO. Claes was an unusual selection as leader of the world’s most powerful military alliance. A lifelong socialist, he had spoken out against the deployment of U.S. missiles in Europe during the 1980s and had been asenior figure in the Belgian government that had refused to take part in the Persian Gulf war. As a member of the European Union’s Council of Ministers, he had also spoken

strongly against Europe’s ineffectuality in dealing with the conflict in former Yugoslavia. Claes was born in Hasselt, Belgium, on Nov. 24, 1938. After studying at the Free University of Brussels, he was elected to the Hasselt

City Council (1964). A Flemish Socialist, Claes entered national politics in 1968 when he was elected to the parliament. He became spokesman for the Belgian Socialist Party in 1971 and was named minister of education the following year. In 1973 Claes accepted appointment as minister of economic

affairs, and he was praised for his

handling of the 1973-74 oil crisis. After his party’s return to power, Claes again served as minister of economic affairs (1977-82). In 1979 he was also appointed deputy prime minister, a post he held five times. Claes developed a reputation as a talented diplomat, and he was

enlisted by King Baudouin to aid in the formation of a coalition government during a period of political turmoil in the 1980s. In 1992, following a third term as economics minister, Claes became

minister of foreign affairs. That same year, he was elected chairman of the Party of European Socialists. Following his appointment as secretary-general of NATO,

Claes reaffirmed his commitment

to

the alliance as the bedrock of European security. By year’s end, the war in Bosnia still raged and a new conflict had broken out in the Chechnya region of Russia. What role NATO would play in

each. That book, and its 1994 successor,

made

Crossan one of the key figures in the latest version of an old controversy—trying to separate the Jesus of history from the Jesus of the Gospels. In Crossan’s view, “Jesus’ divine origins are just

as fictional or mythological as those of Octavius. Neither should be taken literally, both must be taken metaphorically.” Crossan said that his views need not be taken to mean that the Bible was worthless or that Jesus was not unique. “I see no problem with the [biblical] stories as metaphors and myths,” he said. “I want people to face the truth about the relationship between history and faith, and not to let one

masquerade

for

the other.” Amid the flurry of analyses of his works and those of his colleagues in both the academic and popular media, Crossan began work on another major volume, this one dealing with the early years of Christianity. “We’re talking about the period before Paul,” Crossan told Publishers Weekly. “Right now, we only see early Christianity through his glasses. I think there is plenty to learn about those immediate decades following Christ’s death.” (DARRELL J. TURNER) Curien, Hubert

Physicists suffering from evaporated research funding in 1994 focused their attention on one of the few remaining oases of Big Science, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) planned for the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN) near Geneva, and on the new president of the CERN Council, Hubert Curien. When money in the U.S. for the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) particle accelerator being built near Waxahachie, Texas, dried up in 1993, it dashed the

hopes of particle physicists worldwide for probing beyond the so-called standard model—the successful but incomplete theory of the fundamental constituents of matter and their interactions—toward a more satisfactory and inclusive theory and for answering such basic questions as why quarks, electrons, and other fundamental particles have the masses they do. Those hopes were revived in June 1994 when council delegates from 17 of the 19 supporting nations of CERN voted to include the construction of the LHC in the laboratory’s basic program. Curien, who took office as council president in January, had been instrumental in rallying support for the LHC and in convincing scientists and government leaders that data from the collider would be their best bet for unraveling some of the

43

mysteries of subatomic physics. At the end of the June meeting he expressed his belief that “there are no major obstacles, but some more effort and a little time is needed” before unanimous approval could be sought at a later session of the council. That consensus came in December, allowing plans for the LHC to proceed. Many American scientists who had been slated to work on the defunct SSC were already employed at CERN, so building the LHC meant brighter future opportunities for them as well as for colleagues who would have the chance for collaborative research. Curien was born on Oct. 30, 1924, in Cornimont, France. He was educated in Paris and

earned a doctorate in physics, with an emphasis on mineralogy and crystallography, at the University of Paris in 1951. Shortly thereafter he joined the faculty of science at the university, where he stressed the need for a return to basic research in physics. While crusading for that cause, Curien served as director general of France’s National Centre for Scientific Research (1969-73), president of the National Centre for Space Studies (1976-84), and council chairman of the European Space Agency (1981-84). In 1984 Curien parlayed his reputation as a defender of basic research into a seat in the French government as minister of research and technology. He occupied that position for two years and then returned to the post from 1988 to 1993. During his ministerial service Curien succeeded in spurring an increase in government funding of nearly 8% for civilian research and development. Even before the final CERN vote, scientists and engineers were designing and testing accelerator magnets for the LHC. The activity represented a significant step toward achieving the high-energy collisions between

protons (and, later, between

heavy atomic nuclei) that would be needed to find some of the exotic new particles thought to lie beyond the standard model. Although installation of the LHC was not scheduled to begin until the year 2000, the interim survival of CERN as the world’s premier particle-physics institution would depend heavily on the continued efforts of Curien, its champion of basic science. (SUSAN RAPP) Dion, Céline

By 1994 Canadian singer Céline Dion had reached her goal of becoming an international pop music star. Her first success outside her native Quebec was at the Tokyo Song Festival in 1982. There she won the Musician’s Prize and the gold medal for best song with “Tellement j’ai d'amour pour toi.” Dion’s fame soon extended to audiences in Europe

and the U.S., and in 1983 she was

the

first Canadian to earn a gold record in France with her song “D’amour ou d’amitié.” Two years later Dion had a six-week run at the Olympia in Paris. Her recording of “Ne partez pas sans moi” won the 1987 Eurovision Song Contest. Audiences in the U.S. heard Dion sing the closing song in Steven Spielberg’s animated film An American Tail: Fievel Goes

West (1991), and in 1993 her

recording with Peabo Bryson of the title song for the animated Disney film Beauty and the Beast won a Grammy award for best pop duo. Earlier that year, Dion performed in the U.S. at Pres. Bill Clinton’s inauguration gala. Born on March 30, 1968, in Charlemagne, Que.,

Dion grew up in a musical family. As a child she performed in her parents’ restaurant. Dion’s mother wrote “Ce n’était qu’un réve” and sent her daughter’s recording of the song to impresario René Angélil. He launched Dion’s career when she was 13 years old. Her extraordinary voice and simplicity delighted Canadians. In 1983 she won Quebec’s Felix Awards for best female performer and discovery of the year. She was featured in an episode of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation’s French-language program Les Beaux Dimanches. The clergy chose Dion to represent young people for Pope John Paul II’s 1984 visit to Quebec, and she sang “Une colombe” for him at Montreal’s Olympic Stadium. By age 18, Dion had become determined to shed her “good girl” image. She took a oneyear career break and reemerged with a new look and new music. Sporting short hair and sequined

44

People of 1994: Biographies

dresses, she sang songs with upbeat rhythms, and she began to record in English. Her first Englishlanguage recording, “Where Does My Heart Beat Now?”

(1990), was released in 16 countries. In

1993 Dion performed in her first English-language television special, The Colour of My Love. In a much-publicized ceremony, she married longtime manager Angélil in December 1994. Dion, who was once called Ja p’tite Québécoise,

had won 15 Felix Awards by 1991, the year she won the Juno Award for best female performer. At the World Music Awards in 1992, she won the award for best-selling Canadian female recording artist. Although she recorded in English, she considered herself to be a francophone, and in 1990

she refused to accept the Felix Award for anglophone artist of the year. Other French albums included Dion chante Plamondon (1991) and Des mots qui sonnent (1994). (DIANE LOIS WAY) Downer, Alexander John Gosse

Political dynasties are rare in Australia, where the widespread egalitarian ethos works against inherited wealth and power. Thus, when Alexander

Downer became leader of the Liberal Party of Australia on May 23, 1994, he faced not only a

party in disarray but also the burden of a distinguished background. Downer’s father, Sir Alexander Downer, had been a Cabinet minister in

Sir Robert Menzies’ government and Australia’s High Commissioner in London. His grandfather, Sir John Downer, was one of the founding fathers of the Australian Commonwealth and a senator in the Australian Parliament. Downer’s first tasks as Liberal leader were to distance himself from accusations of being born with a silver spoon in his mouth and to rebut the charge of having no experience of grassroots life. Public opinion polls soon put Downer and his conservative party ahead of Prime Minister Paul Keating and his Australian Labor Party government. Downer made a series of mistakes in his handling of Aboriginal policy, however, and by the end of the year the trend was reversed. Downer’s troubles began when he said that a Liberal government would consider scrapping the Native Title Act, under which Aborigines were encouraged to take up large-scale outback land ownership. He made matters worse by a visit to settlements in the Alice Springs area, where what he saw at Kintore, Desert Bore, Areyonga, Yuendumu, and

and examined the cruelty inflicted upon children by other children. The protagonist, 10-year-old Paddy Clarke, feared

his classmates’

ostracism,

especially after the breakup of his parents’ marriage. In mid-1994 Doyle watched as his BBC drama “Family” generated heated controversy throughout conservative Ireland. The program shed harsh light on a family’s struggle with domestic violence and alcoholism and portrayed the bleaker side of life in a housing project, the same venue he had used in his earlier, more comedic Barrytown trilogy. Doyle’s unvarnished depiction of the workingclass world was a hallmark of his work, and he

often alienated critics, many of whom chastised him for his harsh “docu-journalism.” The softspoken and reserved Doyle proved, however, that it was possible to convey the undiluted truth and still be popular, especially among the very class of people whose lives he chronicled. Doyle’s distinctively Irish settings, style, mood, and phrasing made him a favourite fiction writer in his own country as well as overseas. The second of four children of a printer and a homemaker,

Doyle was born in 1958 in Dublin.

After majoring in English and geography at University College, Dublin, he taught the subjects for 14 years at Greendale Community School, a

Dublin grade school. During the summer break of his third year of teaching, Doyle began writing seriously. In the early 1980s he wrote a heavily political satire, Your Granny’s a Hunger Striker, but it was never published. The first editions of the comedy The Commitments (1987) were published through his own company, King Farouk, until a London-based publisher took over. The work was the first installment of his internationally acclaimed Barrytown trilogy, which was completed by The Snapper (1990) and The Van (1991). The trilogy centred on the ups and downs of the never-say-die Rabbitte family, who tempered the bleakness of life in an Irish slum with familial love and understanding. The first two parts of the trilogy were also made into popular international films in the 1990s. By the end of 1994 a movie script for The Van had been completed, and Doyle had secured

a reputation as a well-respected, if controversial, literary figure. (SUSAN RAPP) Dudayev, Dzhokhar If you asked a Muscovite

home. Downer’s many supporters brushed off the

in 1994 to describe the Chechens—who number some 1.3 million and live north of the Caucasus Mountains—you might hear characterizations as diverse as “proud Caucasian warriors,” “gangsters from the south,”

nosedive in the polls. Chastened nonetheless, he

“staunch defenders of Islam,” or “a historically

was even more resolved than ever to bring true

oppressed people.” Similar things were being said about Dzhokhar Dudayev, the president of Chechnya (Chechenia), who declared the republic independent from Russia in 1991 and who has been a major thorn in Moscow’s side ever since. Dzhokhar Musaevich Dudayev was born in February 1944, during the enforced deportation of his family (together with the entire Chechen and Ingush nations, on Joseph Stalin’s orders) from their native village of Yalkhori in the ChechenIngush autonomous oblast. He spent the first 13 years of his life in Kazakhstan. Following the 1957 repatriation of the Chechens and Ingush, he studied at evening school in Chechen-Ingushetia and qualified as an electrician. He entered flying school and graduated from the Tambov Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots in 1966. He joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1968. Dudayev served in a heavy bomber unit of the Soviet air force in Siberia and Ukraine. He studied at the Gagarin Air Force Academy (1971-74) and rose steadily in the air force, assuming command of the strategic air base at Tartu, Estonia,

Utopia so unnerved him that he made aseries of contradictory and confusing statements, causing his approval rating of 53% at the beginning of the trip to dive to only 34% by the time he returned

former prime minister Bob Hawke’s prophecy that Downer would be Australia’s next prime minister. To this end the Liberal leader took up an aggressive position, replying to ridicule in kind and drawing attention to Keating’s 1994 purchase of a $2 million home in which to house his French clock collection. Downer was born on Sept. 9, 1951, went to school at Geelong Grammar, and continued his

education in England at Radley College and the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. He began his working career as an economist with the Westpac Bank; however, he moved quickly to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and served as a diplomat in Australian embassies in Belgium and Luxembourg. In December 1984 he was elected to Parliament,

where

his boyish good humour,

confidence, and frank reaction to the difficulties that crossed his path endeared him to his party. As the Adelaide Advertiser put it, he showed up most other Canberra politicians by getting out into the real world to study problems head on. (A.R.G. GRIFFITHS)

in 1987 with the rank of major general.

Doyle, Roddy

Irish schoolteacher-turned-novelist Roddy Doyle was busy on both sides of the Atlantic in 1994, In January he toured the U.S. to support the American release of his novel Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha (1993), which had won the 1993 Booker

Prize. His fourth novel was set in the 1960s in a fictional working-class area of northern Dublin

Dudayev retired from the air force in May 1990 and returned to Grozny, the Chechen capital, to devote himself to local politics. In November 1990 he was elected head of the Executive Committee of the unofficial opposition All-National Congress of the Chechen People, which advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the U.S.S.R. When the communist

leadership of the Chechen-Ingush republic publicly expressed its support for the Moscow putsch in August 1991, it was forced to step down. Dudayev was elected Chechen president in October 1991 and unilaterally declared Chechnya’s secession from the Russian Federation. Russia refused

to recognize this move, but hesitated to use force

against the secessionists.

Dudayev’s aggressively nationalistic, _antiRussian policies soon began to undermine Chechnya’s economy and, Russian observers claimed, transformed the region into a gangsters’ paradise. In 1993 the Chechen parliament attempted to organize a referendum on public confidence in Dudayev on the grounds that he had failed to consolidate Chechnya’s independence. He retaliated by dissolving parliament and other organs of power. Beginning in early summer 1994, armed

Chechen opposition groups with Russian military and financial backing tried repeatedly, but

without success, to depose Dudayev by force. In late November, Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin issued an ultimatum to Dudayev and the opposition to lay down their arms. Russian tanks and troops entered Chechnya to quell the rebellion in December but found the tough mountain people an even match. Fierce fighting, most of it centred in Grozny, continued through the end of the year. (ELIZABETH FULLER) Freud, Lucian

In late 1993, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City opened a major exhibition of paintings by artist Lucian Freud. Best known as a figure painter, Freud aroused controversy because he often portrayed his subjects naked. In many of the large, later paintings, he represented the raw physical characteristics as well as the inner tensions of his subjects. Adding to the sombre realism of his figures was the dingy setting of the Paddington (London) studio where he had worked for many years. In addition, a show of Freud’s early works at the Robert Miller Gallery, also in New York City, ended in January 1994. Although his earlier drawings and paintings were generally smaller, they displayed a similar intensity to those shown at the Met. Freud was born in Berlin on Dec. 8, 1922. His father, Ernst, an architect, was the youngest son of Sigmund Freud, the famed father of psychoanalysis. The family moved to London about 10 years later. At school he developed a passion for horses and did some early drawings and sculptures of this subject. Later, as an art student, he was as much known for his unconventional behaviour as for his drawing talent. As a teenager he unexpectedly joined the Merchant Navy and, while attending the East Anglian School of Painting and Drawing, he accidentally set fire to the school with a cigarette. He was something of a boy wonder,

and when

he was

17 his first

published sketch (a self-portrait) appeared in an avant-garde literary magazine. Freud took a long painting trip to Paris and Greece after World War II. Back in London, he began laying the groundwork for his distinctive style in a series of paintings of his first wife, Kitty. Thereafter the subjects of his figure paintings— often nude—were his friends (many of whom were artists) and relatives, including his children. These works were not conventional portraits, and

because they are more about paint than about a specific person, their titles seldom reveal the sitter’s identity. The paintings show no attempt by the artist to idealize or prettify the subject. Rather, his style was described as creating flesh with paints. His unusual, coarse, personal style of painting made people curious about the artist, but Freud always guarded his privacy and rarely gave interviews.

Although he had been an important artist in England for many years, Freud’s work first became widely known in the U.S. through a 1987 retrospective exhibition at the Hirschhorn Museum in Washington, D.C. In the catalog for this exhibit, art critic Robert Hughes called the artist “the greatest living realist painter.” In fact, Freud belonged to no “school” of art, and his highly individualistic style did not fit nicely into any particular category. (MARGARET BARLOW)

People of 1994: Biographies Gaarder, Jostein When it first appeared in the United States in September 1994, Sophie’s World was already something of a phenomenon—and a surprise to the Norwegian high-school teacher, Jostein Gaarder, who wrote it. Originally published in Norway in 1991, the book established its international fame

in Germany, where it climbed to. the top of Der Spiegel’s best-seller list and stayed there for most of the year. Sophie was expected in British bookstores in January 1995, and rights had been sold to publishers in most European countries as well as in Turkey, Israel, Japan, South Korea, China,

and Brazil. Gaarder was born

on Aug. 8, 1952, in Oslo

Norway. He studied the history of ideas, religion, and Nordic literature at the University of Oslo. After graduation in 1976, he worked as a secondary-school teacher of philosophy, religion, and literature in Oslo and Bergen. He began his literary career gradually, lecturing occasionally, submitting articles and poems to newspapers, and coauthoring textbooks. Gaarder debuted as an author of fiction with two short stories published in 1982 and 1986 and followed those with two children’s books, Barna fra Sukhavati (“The Children from Sukhavati”) in 1987 and Froskeslottet (“The Frog Palace”) in 1988. In both books a fantasy world was set against the real world, giving the central characters the opportunity to explore and question ideas and values. In 1990 came Kabalmysteriet (“The Patience Mystery”), featuring a boy, Hans Thomas, and his father on a journey searching for the boy’s mother, who had been lost eight years earlier. Gaarder felt that young Hans Thomas needed a greater understanding of philosophy, and this was how he came to write his history of philosophy in Sophie’s World. Scoffed at by many critics (The Times called it “a potted philosophy primer masquerading as a novel of ideas”), Gaarder’s best-seller undoubtedly owed its popularity to its cross-genre and cross-generational appeal. The central character is Sophie, a 14-year-old schoolgirl, who one day re-

ceives an unsigned note containing two questions: “Who are you?” and “Where does the world come from?” This leads her—and the reader—into an examination of the history of Western philosophy, from the pre-Socratics to Hegel, Kierkegaard, and Sartre. As was his style in other books, Gaarder spiced the plot of Sophie’s World with an element of mystery and dosed out the philosophy sections in a gentle and accessible way. Gaarder’s next novel, Julemysteriet (1992; “Christmas Magic”), was a journey through the history of Christianity, while J et speil, I en gate (1993; “Through a Glass, Darkly”) took its title from a line in the Bible and was written as a dialogue between an angel and a girl dying of cancer. The author received several prizes in Norway and Germany for children’s literature. In a lecture at the Oslo Book Fair, Gaarder ar-

gued for the introduction of philosophy in schools from the age of 10, when children still retained

their curiosity. He felt that confronting and exploring issues such as “Who am I?” and “Where does the world come from?” were important for young people striving to find themselves in a complicated world. (IRENE GARLAND) Gehry, Frank

In designing the new American Center in Paris, which opened in June 1994, Frank Gehry created an exciting space for promoting U.S. culture. The complex, which included galleries and studios, two small theatres, apartments, and a language school, incorporated several of Gehry’s distinguishing characteristics. Typical of Gehry’s work, the American Center appeared to be a cluster of functional buildings instead of one monolithic structure. Large window areas overlooked the bustling city outside. Structural elements were emphasized. Open passageways invited movement and conversation. References to older architectural forms abounded. For example, the popular French mansard roof form appeared on the lower stories of one facade and again, around the corner, in tall, sloping windows. For a 1994 office building in a historic district of Prague, Gehry also played with earlier forms

45

from nearby 18th- and 19th-century buildings to create a late 20th-century landmark. Other recent Gehry projects included a fish restaurant in Japan, the Vitra Design Museum in Germany, and a theatre at Euro Disneyland Paris. Frank Owen Gehry was born in Toronto on Feb. 28, 1929. His family immigrated to Los Angeles in 1947. Gehry studied architecture at the University of Southern California (1949-51; 1954)

and city planning at Harvard University (195657). Before establishing his own firm, Frank O. Gehry & Associates, in 1962, he worked for several other architects. Southern California remained his home and his headquarters. Gehry’s early designs were influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright. In the mid-1960s he began producing the novel structures that established his reputation as a maverick. Gehry’s output was prolific, often controversial. He steered away from modern glass boxes, conceiving each design as a sculptural form. His office was filled with large and small models. For Gehry, architectural space was meant to stimulate its inhabitants. The lively campus he created for Loyola Marymount Law School (198184) in downtown Los Angeles inspired a more dynamic on-campus spirit. Even when the client was a large corporation, structures were human-sized. For the Rouse Co. headquarters (Columbia, Md., 1974), he clustered a number of small buildings, one for each corporate division. Gehry won numerous honours and was a visiting professor at several universities. His design work was not limited to architecture. He did installations for several large art exhibitions, including “The Treasures of Tutankhamen” (1978).

MIRAMAX

film, stubbornly wages a fight against the local bureaucracy. The film was a triumph at the Venice

His love of inexpensive, functional materials led

Film Festival, where it received the Golden Lion

to the creation of lines of cardboard furniture, Easy Edges (1969-73) and Experimental Edges (1979-82). (MARGARET BARLOW)

and Gong Li was given the best actress award.

Gong Li

When Gong Li’s (Kung Li’s) sensuous smile first appeared in close-up in Red Sorghum, a legend was born. A major event at the 1988 Berlin Film Festival, Red Sorghum was the first directorial effort of Zhang Yimou (Chang Yi-mou), whose work as a cinematographer on Chen Kaige’s (Ch’en K’ai-ke’s) The Yellow Earth (1984) had helped launch a new wave of filmmakers from China known as the “Fifth Generation.” International audiences had tended to view contemporary Chinese cinema as boring and propagandistic.

In Farewell, My Concubine, which won the Palmé

d’Or at Cannes in 1993, Chen Kaige cast her as a shrewd, single-minded, yet sensitive prostitute, who gets her man and forces him out of an ambiguous relationship with a fellow Peking Opera singer but is betrayed by him during the Cultural Revolution. In 1994 Zhang’s To Live, which covered the life of a couple between the 1940s and the 1970s, allowed her to explore new dimensions

of her art: not only does she age significantly, but she also evolves from the long-suffering wife of a patrician gambler to a plain, yet energetic, peasant woman who supports two children and a whimsical husband to a doting grandmother who has found peace in her old age. In addition to her

The “Fifth Generation” brought back sensuality,

glamour,

talent, and emotion to their national cinema, and Gong Li came to symbolize this new sensibility. It was this happy combination of glamour and historical significance that propelled the 22-yearold acting student to centre stage, where she was

Gong Li’s phenomenal popularity was due to her modernity. She was an incarnation of the new Chinese woman standing for herself through the tortuous meanders of melodramatic conventions, bureaucratic procedures, and the changing winds of history. (BERENICE REYNAUD)

meant to stay.

Gong

Li

was

born

on

Dec.

31,

talent, and magnetic

screen

presence,

1965,

in Shenyang, Liaoning province. She was the youngest of five children in a family of academics. In 1985 Gong Li was admitted to the prestigious Central Drama Academy in Beijing. It was during her second year that Zhang, who was interviewing young actresses for the part of the rebellious young bride in Red Sorghum, noticed her. Not only did Gong Li get the job, but she also got the man. The romance with director-Pygmalion Zhang (who was still married at the time) both scandalized and delighted fans throughout East Asia. Zhang Yimou’s and Gong Li’s careers grew together—with Ju Dou (1990) and Raise the Red Lantern (1991). In these films, Gong Li played a spirited young woman who, forced to marry the wrong man, fights for her right to independence and sexual pleasure, but pays dearly. She was soon wooed by Hong Kong producers and landed her first comic role in Terra-Cotta Warrior (1990),

in which she is pursued throughout the centuries by a faithful lover played by Zhang. She also appeared in parodic gangster movies, light-hearted dramas, and kung fu comedies. It was, however, with mainland directors that

she did her best work. In Zhang’s Qiu Ju Goes to Court (1992; also known as The Story of Qiu Ju) she played a decidedly unglamorous country wife, who, though heavily pregnant during most of the

Habibie, B(achruddin) J(usuf)

An aircraft engineer seemed an unlikely central figure in the closure of outspoken publications, a billion-dollar controversy over used warships, and the removal of powerful ex-generals from the top of Indonesia’s ruling Golkar political organization. Yet all three of these events were linked to B.J. Habibie, Indonesia’s research and technology

minister and the former chief of research and development at Messerschmitt-Bélkow-Blohm in Germany. During Golkar’s 1993 central-board elections, Habibie helped the children and allies of President Suharto rise to top positions, easing out long-standing military-backed power brokers. In June 1994 a tabloid and two newsmagazines were closed after reporting Cabinet disagreement over Habibie’s plan to refurbish 39 vessels bought from the former East German navy at his initiative. The Finance Ministry balked at the cost and the armed forces felt that its turf had been violated. Habibie still got more than $400 million for refurbishing. Habibie was born on June 25, 1936, in Parepare, South Sulawesi. He met Suharto in 1949 when the general was posted to the province. Suharto became a family friend and took a personal interest in Habibie’s development after the boy’s father died. Brilliant in science and mathematics, Habi-

46

People of 1994: Biographies

bie studied at the prestigious Bandung Institute of Technology and the Technische Hochschule in Aachen, Germany, graduating in 1960. He then did research at the Hochschule before becoming head of research at Messerschmitt in 1966. Suharto took power in 1966, and in 1974 he

asked Habibie to return to Indonesia to help build advanced industries. Suharto assured him that he could do whatever was needed to accomplish that goal. Initially assigned to the state oil company Pertamina, Habibie became a government adviser and chief of a new aerospace company in 1976. Two years later he became research minister and head of the Agency for Technology Evaluation and Application. He oversaw 10 “strategic” ventures: in aircraft, shipbuilding, train cars, steel,

electronics, telecommunications equipment, heavy machinery, explosives, small arms, and ammuni-

tion. His agency also funded genetics research. In November 1993 he unveiled the first Indonesiandeveloped plane, which he helped design. He also brokered a $34 billion gas deal with the United States. Habibie wanted Indonesia to climb the technology ladder as rising costs forced labour-intensive industries out. He believed his enterprises would spawn high-tech ventures in the private sector. Indonesian technocrats and the World Bank expressed misgivings about costs and viability, however. Military brass resented having to buy equipment from Habibie’s firms. Nevertheless, Suharto’s support helped the energetic minister generally get his way. In 1990 Habibie was appointed head of the Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals Association to boost the influence of Muslims, who constituted

about 90% of Indonesians, in a government traditionally dominated by Christian technocrats. Habibie was viewed as one of several possible successors to Suharto, whose sixth five-year term would end in 1998. (RICARDO L. SALUDO) Hanks, Tom

For his gripping portrayal in the film Philadelphia—as a gay, AIDS-stricken lawyer embroiled in a discrimination suit against the law firm that had fired him—U.S. actor Tom Hanks was presented in 1994 with both the Academy Award and the Golden Globe award. The dramatic role, for which he shed 35 pounds and thinned his hair, was a vast departure from his many performances in light comedies. Hanks had built a loyal following by portraying characters that blended qualities of Jimmy Stewart and Clark Gable—the amiable, affable, and approachable boy-next-door with good looks and charm. Thomas J. Hanks was born on July 9, 1956, in Concord, Calif. He was a shy, responsible child

who frequently traveled with his father after his parents divorced in 1961. As an undergraduate at California State University, Hanks was attracted

to acting because he thought it would provide an opportunity for him to express himself flamboyantly. During 1976-78 he dropped out of school to become an acting intern at what was then the Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival in Lakewood, Ohio. After winning the Cleveland Critics Circle award for playing Proteus in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Hanks received his first taste of the adulation accorded an actor. Two years after arriving (1978) in New York City, Hanks landed the part of cross-dresser Kip Wilson in the television show “Bosom Buddies.” Hanks’s flair for light comedy was admired by director Ron Howard, who helped expand Hanks’s career into motion pictures with Splash (1984), a blockbuster romantic comedy about a mermaid in love with a human. During the following decade, Hanks further sharpened his considerable talents in such mediocre films as The Man with One Red Shoe (1985), The Money Pit (1986), Punchline (1988), and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990). His nomination for an Academy Award as best actor in the 1988 comedy Big and the success of A League of Their Own (1992) marked Hanks

as a major Hollywood leading-man-in-waiting. It

was not until 1993, however, that he cemented

his reputation as a serious actor. In that year he

starred as a widower who discovered his true love via a radio talk show in the megahit movie Sleep-

less in Seattle and then as the lead in Philadelphia. In the summer of 1994, Hanks portrayed the title role in the film Forrest Gump, which was released to overwhelming critical and popular acclaim. His character, an ever hopeful, guileless, simpleminded man on whom fate smiled, philosophized that “Life is like a box of chocolates: you never know what you’re gonna get.” Most movie audiences agreed that Tom Hanks was blessed with

10, 1913. After being dismissed from his local high school for writing an ironic antiwar poem, he went to Berlin to finish school. When the Nazis seized power in 1933 and he learned that the Gestapo was searching for him, the 20-yearold fled into Czechoslovakia. Once safe in Prague he wrote to his parents to tell them where he was, but in order to shield them from danger he signed himself “Stefan Heym.” (The name Heym,

(SUSAN RAPP)

which he chose on the spur of the moment, means

When the time came to choose a candidate for Germany’s first postunification presidential election, Chancellor Helmut Kohl (q.v.) and his ruling Christian Democratic Union (CDU) sought out an easterner as a gesture to promote harmony within the country. The CDU was trailing in

After managing to survive in Prague for two years by writing articles for the local German press, Heym won ascholarship offered by the University of Chicago. Living in a fraternity house, he earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees with a thesis on Heinrich Heine. By 1942 he had become a USS. citizen and published a novel, Hostages, written in English. This became a best-seller and was made into a Hollywood film.

the best of the box in 1994. Herzog, Roman

the polls, and a general election loomed on the

horizon in October. While the post of president was largely ceremonial, Kohl’s ability to replace the outgoing president, Richard von Weizsicker, with his own candidate was seen as a test of the chancellor’s political muscle. His choice—Steffen Heitmann, the justice minister for the state of Saxony—had proved a poor one. Heitmann, an inexperienced politician, came under intense criticism in 1993 when he voiced some extreme and unpopular opinions on subjects that included Naziism and immigrants. He then withdrew from the race. Kohl fared better with his replacement nominee, old crony Roman Herzog, the president of Germany’s Federal Constitutional Court. A few weeks before the May 1994 presidential election, Herzog created his own bit of controversy. A magazine quoted him as saying that foreigners living in Germany who turned down the opportunity for citizenship should return to their own countries. Herzog claimed that his comment had been interpreted incorrectly, but the damage

“home” and reflected his homesickness.)

In 1945, toward the end of World War II, Heym returned to Germany as asoldier in the

U.S. Army. Being a dedicated leftist, however, he opposed the army’s policy on Germany’s postwar future. After the war he tried to support himself as a novelist, but he found that he was blacklisted

because of his political views. Unable to make a living in the United States, Heym moved to the German Democratic Republic and took citizenship there in 1953. Although he was genuinely supportive of the Communist “East German experiment,” he was also committed to open discussions of controversial subjects, such as the crimes of Stalinism. Heym’s notorious frankness prompted the continual surveillance he was given in East Germany. (Heym once offered coffee to the plainclothesmen who were keeping him under 24-hour watch.) Still, he continued

to write in English, and his

elec-

international prominence protected him to some extent from government wrath. Even after. the

toral college assembled in the Reichstag in Berlin

Berlin Wall was erected in 1961, he was able to

was

done.

When a

special 1,324-member

on May 23 to choose a new

president, it took

three rounds of voting before Herzog received the required majority for the victory. The narrow margin by which he was elected—Herzog received 696 votes, while his nearest rival had 605—proved

to be prophetic; the CDU-led coalition squeaked through the October election with a 10-seat majority in the federal legislature. Herzog was born April 5, 1934, in Landshut, Bavaria. He began his career in law in 1966 as a professor at the Free University in Berlin. He moved on to the College of Administration in Speyer, where he met Kohl, who was then the premier of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. In 1973 he became Kohl’s permanent representative in Bonn and then served in a series of government posts, ultimately becoming the minister of the interior of Baden-Wiirttemberg. Kohl appointed him to the Federal Constitutional Court in 1983, and in 1987 he became its president. While Herzog was generally considered to be a conservative, his court had a history of return-

ing some surprisingly liberal decisions. Attacked even before the start of his five-year term by Social Democrats, who said that he had failed to

denounce right-wing extremism in his acceptance speech, Herzog pledged to speak for all of Germany. But many others felt that a man who could modestly ask the Polish people “for forgiveness for what Germans did to you”—as Herzog did in a speech at the monument to the World War II Warsaw Uprising in the Polish capital on August 1—might be just the kind of president they needed to represent the newly reunited Germany in the newly uniting Europe. (ANTHONY G. CRAINE) Heym, Stefan

Never one to be inhibited by public opinion or government disapproval, the German writer Stefan Heym spent most of his life provoking controversy, and 1994 was no different. Running on the

parliamentary slate of the Party of Democratic Socialism—the reformed Communist Party—the 81-year-old maverick became the oldest member of Germany’s Bundestag (lower house of the parliament). Heym—the name is a pseudonym—was born Helmut Flieg in Chemnitz, Germany, on April

travel to the West in order to meet with publishers and give public readings. It was only in 1969 that he was forced to pay a steep fine for having one of his books printed in the West after it had been banned by the East German government. When the Communist regime collapsed, Heym became a prominent spokesman for those who wished to retain some form of “socialism with a human face.” On these grounds he opposed the reunification of Germany. Elected from a Berlin district to the Bundestag in 1994, he was asked what he planned to say in his opening speech as parliamentary elder. The answer: “You can expect some surprises.” (DIETLIND LERNER) Heyman, I. Michael On Sept. 19, 1994, the Smithsonian Institution inducted I. Michael Heyman, law professor and former chancellor of the University of California

at Berkeley, as its chief executive officer. As 10th secretary of the cultural and scientific institution,

Heyman would oversee the management of its exhibitions and research operations, as well as the maintenance of the vast collections housed in the Smithsonian’s many museums. This jovial native New Yorker brought to his new job a long history of administrative and fund-raising expertise as well as experience in dealing with a great variety of scientific and policy issues. Ira Michael Heyman was born in New York City on May 30, 1930. Despite an early interest in science—he qualified to enter the prestigious Bronx High School of Science but transferred to a private school so that he could play football and basketball—he studied government at Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H., receiving a B.A. in 1951. After serving as a U.S. Marine Corps officer during the Korean War, he entered Yale

University Law School, where he became editor of the Yale Law Journal. He graduated in 1956, and from 1958 to 1959 he setved as chief law clerk for Chief Justice Earl Warren. Heyman began his teaching career at the University of California at Berkeley as an acting professor of law in 1959 and became a full professor in 1961 and a professor of law and city and regional planning in 1966. He served as chancellor of the university from 1980 to 1990,

People of 1994: Biographies during which time he restructured and revitalized the biosciences programs. While at that post, he also became a successful fund-raiser and helped supervise the museums the university maintained. Throughout his career Heyman involved him-

self in a wide range of issues by both serving on and chairing numerous committees dealing with civil rights, land use, and environmental concerns.

In the year before his appointment to the Smithsonian, he was deputy assistant secretary for policy at the U.S. Department of the Interior, acting as counselor to Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt on such issues as the Endangered Species Act. He also served on the Smithsonian’s Board of Regents from 1990 to 1994, an involvement that thoroughly acquainted him with the institution. The 148-year-old Smithsonian Institution, con-

sidered the “nation’s attic” by some, is a complex of 16 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park, most of which are located in Washington, D.C. Affiliated scientific and cultural

research facilities are located in eight states and Panama. Heyman’s goals for his tenure as sec-

retary included converting the Smithsonian’s rich stores of information to digital form so that electronic access to them could be made available. (MARY JANE FRIEDRICH)

he was made a Knight of the British Empire in 1987. In the latter part of 1994 Hopkins appeared in the film The Road to Wellville and made his stage directorial debut in August, in which he also acted. (JEFF WALLENFELDT) Houston, Whitney

By 1994 velvety-voiced vocalist Whitney Houston had seen seven consecutive singles reach the top of Billboard’s Hot 100 chart and had accomplished more in a decade than most artists achieved in a lifetime. Her first three albums sold more than 40 million copies, and she scored a string of number one hits, beginning in 1985 with “Saving All My Love for You” and culminating in 1992 with “I Will Always Love You.” By 1994 Houston had also garnered several American Music Awards and five Grammy awards, and she was presented with the trophy as the best-selling pop artist of the year at the Monte Carlo Music Awards festival. Whitney Houston was born on Aug. 9, 1963, in Newark, N.J. Her family included her cousin and

professional singer Dionne Warwick and Whitney’s mother and singing coach, Emily “Cissy” Houston, whose vocal group, the Sweet Inspirations, sang backup for Aretha Franklin. While still in high school, Houston served as a backup

for Chaka Khan and Lou Rawls and modeled for Hopkins, Sir Anthony

fashion magazines.

Having overcome alcohol and other personal demons to attain in midlife the stature so long predicted for him, British actor Anthony Hopkins secured a place in the firmament with an Oscar for his portrayal of Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991) and with two more extraordinary performances in 1993-94 films: as writer C.S. Lewis in Shadowlands and as Stevens the butler, whom Hopkins described as “pathologically afraid to love,” in The Remains of the Day. Repressed emotion has been central to Hopkins’ best performances but not always to his

showcased her soaring soprano voice at a New York City nightclub and was brought to the at-

stormy life. The son of a baker, he was born on Dec. 31, 1937, in Port Talbot, Wales, the hometown of actor Richard Burton, who was both

Hopkins’ inspiration and the standard against which his career had often been measured. After a lonely, undistinguished youth, Hopkins attended the Cardiff (Wales) College of Music and Drama and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, London. Following a stint in regional theatre, he

was asked in 1965 to join the National Theatre (NT), where, understudying Laurence Olivier in

The Dance of Death (1967), he won rave reviews and was designated by critics as the heir apparent to Burton and Olivier. (He had the temerity to audition for Olivier’s company with an Othello monologue at a time when Olivier himself was playing the role.) In 1968 he made his film debut in The Lion in Winter. An early 1970s clash with an NT director sent Hopkins to the U.S., first to New York City, where he triumphed on Broadway in Equus, then to Los Angeles, where, increasingly self-destruc-

When

she was

19, Houston

tention of Clive Davis, the president of Arista

Records, Inc. After signing her to a recording contract, Davis groomed the gospel-based singer for crossover pop success. Her debut album, Whitney Houston (1985), yielded three numberone singles. She attracted a large following with

his second wife, Jennifer. A decade of mixed per-

his talent. In the mid-1980s Hopkins made atriumphant return to the NT, alternating the roles of King Lear and Antony in 200 performances and winning accolades as the unscrupulous media magnate in Pravda. That role, like his postfeminist

powder keg in the film The Good Father (1986), set the stage for his portrayal of the gentlemanly psychopath Lecter, which resulted in international stardom and another plum role in Howards End (1992). Where once Hopkins’ obsession with technique had been too obvious, these later performances were seamless, his smallest gestures and looks

conveying layers of meaning, volcanic emotion percolating beneath the surface (“the lava doesn’t erupt but it moves,” Lauren Bacall once said of

Hopkins). A Method actor known to read over his part as many as 150 times, Hopkins found a way to express what he called the “black anger” within him with great brilliance. For his achievements

stringent code of behaviour; he earned the nick-

name Commander Pilate (after Pontius Pilate). Many Ugandans resented the Rwandan presence in their country, however, and as the 1980s closed,

Kagame and three other expatriate Rwandan military leaders plotted an invasion of their homeland. In 1990, while Kagame was studying at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, that invasion—mostly involving Tutsi veterans of the Ugandan army— was undertaken and repulsed. In the process the other three members of the FPR command were killed. Kagame assumed direction of the civil war,

which was suspended in August 1993 by a peace agreement that promised—but never delivered— real power sharing. Assuming power in the aftermath of the Hutu massacres

of the Tutsi in 1994, Kagame

Kernot, Cheryl

As one of the foremost Australian

ton, but Houston’s

rendition

stayed at number

Kagame, Paul

The dominant figure to emerge from the tragedy in Rwanda in 1994 was Paul Kagame, the architect of the successful military campaign waged by the Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR) to gain control of the country from the Hutu majority after the genocidal bloodbath that followed the death of Pres. Juvénal Habyarimana in April. As hundreds of thousands of the minority Tutsi and their Hutu allies perished at the hands of Hutu militia, Kagame and his rebel army renewed the civil war they had begun in October 1990. Outnumbered by as many as 20,000 soldiers, Kagame’s force of 10,000-14,000 executed

the general’s “deliberately protracted” strategy to perfection. The FPR minimized its casualties by avoiding direct assaults on the enemy. Instead it hammered government strongholds with artillery for days but left corridors through which the enemy could flee, abandoning their heavy armaments, when their stocks and will were depleted. By early July the FPR’s siege of the capital, Kigali, was complete, and in a matter of weeks the country was under FPR control. The new government included a Hutu president and prime minister, but real power appeared to rest with

stood

firmly against random Tutsi reprisals. In interviews he said that he was determined to bring an end to the cycles of violence. He also called on the Tutsi and Hutu to live together as one people. (JEFF WALLENFELDT)

love ballads, and the song “Greatest Love of All”

tive, he finally faced his alcoholism, supported by formances in film and on television followed— strong work in Magic (1978) and The Elephant Man (1980) and an Emmy for his portrayal of Adolf Hitler in “The Bunker” (1981) were compromised by appearances in films unworthy of

Kagame, who, at age 37, assumed the titles of vice president and minster of defense. Kagame was born about 1957 in southern Rwanda and grew up in exile in Uganda. His parents had taken him there as a young child when Hutu violence toward the Tutsi flared in 1959 during the buildup to Rwandan independence from Belgium. In Uganda he studied at Makerere University, Kampala, before joining the forces of Yoweri Museveni, who overthrew Ugandan Pres. Milton Obote in 1986. Kagame became Museveni’s chief of intelligence and gained a reputation for incorruptibility and severity by enforcing a

became her signature. In 1992 Houston made her motion-picture debut in The Bodyguard, portraying a spoiled superstar who required protection when her life was threatened. Although critics gave the film lukewarm reviews, The Bodyguard was an enormous box office success and featured Houston’s biggest hit to date, “I Will Always Love You.” The song was originally written and recorded by Dolly Par-

one longer than any other single had before—a record 14 weeks—and the sound track of the film sold more than 28 million copies. In September, when life began imitating art, Houston obtained a restraining order against a man accused of stalking her. In July 1992, just months prior to her film debut, Houston married hip-hop singer Bobby Brown. She gave birth to a daughter the following year. In 1994 Houston was featured in an AT&T ad campaign, and she launched a world tour during the last half of the year. She also considered such projects as producing a gospel album and appearing in remakes of Cinderella and A Star Is Born. (ANTHONY L. GREEN)

47

els for young

women,

role mod-

Cheryl Kernot—senator

from Queensland and leader of the Australian Democrats (AD)—highlighted the contribution made by women climbing the ladder of success. In 1994 she launched an “Inspiring Women” calendar for 1995, with herself as Miss April under

the rubric “Strength and Courage.” Kernot said that she hoped the calendar would send the message to women that success and inspiration were not necessarily synonymous with fame and wealth and that happiness was not just about being thin or fashionable. She ended by quoting Emmeline Pankhurst: “Women will only be truly successful when no one is surprised that they are successful.” Kernot was born Dec. 5, 1948, in Maitland,

New South Wales. After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree and Diploma of Education from the Universities of Sydney and Newcastle,

she taught in secondary schools for 10 years and worked in the communications industry as a freelance radio producer. The most popular chief of any Australian political party, she became AD leader after 81% of the full membership elected her in May 1993. She had joined the Democrats in 1979 (two years after its founding), in part because she was attracted to an organization that right from the start had set up party administrative processes that were very appealing to women. In an early speech to the Australian Federation of University Women in Brisbane, Kernot recalled that because

of the party’s relative youth, the Democrats had not formed links with unions, business, or farmer

organizations and had never had to battle with the sort of vested interests and entrenched male hierarchies that existed in other places. She was the party’s representative in a Young Political Leaders’ exchange tour of the U.S. in 1986, and in 1990 she was elected to the Senate on her fourth attempt. In late 1993 Kernot was heavily involved in the successful passage of the historic Native Title (Mabo) legislation, acting as a behind-thescenes negotiator between the government, the Senate independents, and Aboriginal groups. Later, addressing the Harvard Club of Australia in Brisbane on Oct. 1, 1994, Kernot drew atten-

tion to her own main political preoccupation, the widening gap between the “haves” and the “have nots” in Australia. With the major parties doing battle for the political middle ground, she said, both the government and the opposition coalition

48

People of 1994: Biographies

were essentially locked into policies and programs that were the most welcome to the greatest number of voters. This ensured that neither of the major parties wanted or would dare to enter into public dialogue with the people of Australia about the fairest way of raising sufficient revenues to continue to fund the services of a civilized society. In 1994 Senator Kernot kept faith with the Australian Democrats’

traditional motto, “Keep

the Bastards Honest.”

(A.R.G. GRIFFITHS)

Kim Jong I

In North Korea he was hailed as “Dear Leader,” “Guiding Focus,” “Bright Star of the Country,” and, following his father’s death, “Great Succes-

sor.” Elsewhere, however, people often did not know what to believe about him. Although his true nature and intentions remained obscure, Kim Jong Il was set to take control of the world’s most isolated, secretive, and unpredictable nation

and to fulfill the dynastic aspirations of his father, Kim II Sung, the only leader that North Korea had ever known: Legends in North Korea surrounding his birth indicated the status accorded Kim Jong Il. It was said that he was

born on Feb.

16, 1942, in a

log cabin on Mount Paekdu (a sacred site that in popular myth was the birthplace of the first Koreans). At the time, his father was coordinat-

ing the guerrilla war against the Japanese. His birth, allegedly, had been foretold by a swallow from heaven. The day he was born asingle star hung over the mountain,

and the moment

was

announced by the appearance of a double rainbow. (The lone star over Mount Paekdu became a visual symbol of the younger Kim, and the cabin was designated as a pilgrimage site.) It was thought, however, that Kim Jong II actually was born in Khabarovsk, Siberia, U.S.S.R.,

where his parents had sought refuge from the invading Japanese. Kim was his father’s firstborn son. When he was six his father took control of North Korea; the following year his mother died. Kim attended elite schools in the capital city of Pyongyang while his father continued to consolidate power and fostered the personality cult that would persist until his death. After Kim graduated from Kim Il Sung University, Pyongyang, in 1964, he went to work for

the Korean Workers’ (communist) Party. In 1975

he became a member of the Politburo. His star rose in 1980 when he was officially designated his father’s successor. In 1991 he was named supreme commander of the armed forces. Kim reportedly had been running the nation’s day-to-day operations for some time before his father’s death in July 1994, Kim Jong II took centre stage at a time when the nation’s economy was contracting, its funds depleted, and its nuclear program facing international condemnation. Kim had previously avoided contact with foreign dignitaries, had rarely traveled outside of the country, and had not been part of the high-level negotiations that revolved around the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. Rumours, disinformation, and speculation depicted

Kim as either a bloodthirsty terrorist whose nefarious deeds included a 1983 bombing in Burma (now Myanmar) that killed 17 South Korean government officials, as a power-hungry autocrat who nonetheless liked to spend time partying, or as an amicable man given to making self-deprecating comments on his diminutive stature. Kim dropped from sight after his father’s funeral, fueling rumours

that he was

unable

to

consolidate power or was seriously ill following a car accident—or both. At year’s end he had not yet formally taken control. (CHERYL L. COLLINS) Kohl, Helmut

The election in November 1994 of Helmut Kohl as chancellor of Germany demonstrated that the 64-year-old politician was a survivor. Despite winning confirmation by the slimmest margin of his long political career, Kohl claimed that his fragile coalition government would hold together. As he began his 13th year as head of government, Kohl reflected that his mentor, former chancellor Konrad Adenauer, had won his first election by a

narrow margin and went on to rule Germany for 14 years, a record that Kohl was eager to break. Kohl and his Christian Democratic Union (CDU) faced a vastly different Germany from the one Adenauer had beheld in 1949; indeed, the political landscape of the country had changed drastically since Kohl himself had taken office. German

reunification,

long a dream

of Kohl’s,

had occurred in 1990, but the financial and social problems resulting from it had not ended. Efforts to integrate the economically depressed former East Germany with the prosperous West had brought public debt to unprecedented levels, while those who had lived under communism often found it difficult to adjust to a society driven by a market economy. Kohl was born in Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany, on April 3, 1930. He studied at the

University of Frankfurt and received a Ph.D. from the University of Heidelberg in 1958. Entering politics the next year, he was elected to the Rhineland-Palatinate state legislature. He became minister-president (prime minister) of that state in 1969 and served until 1976 when he was elected to the Bundestag (parliament), where he became Christian Democratic floor leader. After losing his bid for chancellor in the 1976 election, Kohl did not run again until 1982, when changes in the makeup of the coalition government resulted in his confirmation as chancellor. He was reelected in 1987 and 1990. As 1994 began, however, Kohl was running behind in the polls. His main opponent, Rudolf Scharping of the Social Democratic Party, was benefiting from disenchantment with the political status quo. Unemployment had hit record levels, and the recession that plagued Germany for much of 1993 was showing no signs of letting up. Unification was continuing to drain funds from the German treasury, while Germany’s allies urged that the German government become a more active player in the European and international arena. The spring brought a change in fortune for Kohl and his party, however. The economy began a powerful recovery and, as Scharping made several errors and misjudgments, the experienced

Kohl began to be viewed as a steadying influence. In the national elections on October 16 the German voters narrowed the CDU-led coalition’s majority in the Bundestag to 10 seats from 134. A month later the Bundestag elected Kohl to his fourth term as prime minister by only one vote more than the required majority. (JOHN H. MATHEWS) Koss, Johann Olav

The highlight of the outstanding ice speed skating career of Norway’s Johann Olav Koss came on Feb. 20, 1994, when he won the stamina-sapping 10,000-m race in the Winter Olympics at Hamar, FOCUS ON SPORTS

Norway. His time of 13 min 30.55 sec lowered the record for the distance by an incredible margin

of almost 13 seconds. He had clocked the previous best time three years earlier at Heerenveen, Neth. The feat put beyond doubt the fact that the 25-year-old medical student was the world’s best long-distance skater. Clinching a third world record in eight days, he had set new marks earlier of 6 min 34.96 sec for the 5,000 m and 1 min 51.29 sec for the 1,500 m. Not since 1980, when

Eric Heiden of the U.S. won five Olympic gold medals at Lake Placid, N.Y., had there been a

comparable accomplishment in the sport.

A previous victory in the 1,500 m in the 1992

Olympics at Albertville, France, brought Koss’s tally of Olympic gold medals to four. Other major achieveihents included three overall world championship titles—in 1990, 1991, and 1994. There was little doubt, however, that Koss’s amazing

Olympic 10,000 m would remain etched more indelibly in his memory than anything else. “I had hoped to beat the world record, but never dreamed I would do it by so much,” he reflected. “It took quite a while afterwards to understand fully what I had achieved.” He was determined to produce an exceptionally fast start and admitted afterward that his pace in the opening laps “actually scared me a bit.” Even so, he went on to make a grueling event almost look easy. “I did not conscientiously use extra power at the outset. I was just gliding. It was fantastic.” The 12,000 onlookers who packed the arena, including Norway’s Crown Prince Haakon Magnus, offered the kind of inspiration that only a host nation could provide. “It’s only once ina lifetime that you experience such an atmosphere, such good ice and, at the same time, be in such good

form,” said Koss. The three Olympic titles at one tournament equaled the performance of his fellow countryman,

Hjalmar

Andersen,

who

tripled

in Oslo

in 1952. Norway’s cultural affairs minister announced that a new sculpture of Koss would be erected next to that of Andersen at the Hamar rink. Koss’s 10,000-m time was three full minutes faster than that of Andersen, who, at the age of 70, presented Koss’s medal. Koss, who was born on Oct. 29, 1968, wore spe-

cially developed lightweight one-piece skates for the Olympic competition. Designed by Finn Halvarsen, a former Norwegian national coach, they

weighed some 200 g (7.1 0z) less than those of his rivals. Koss’s humanitarian side was demonstrated by an altruistic gesture after the Winter Games, when he donated substantial victory bonuses of

about $30,000 to the Olympic Aid fund. Some of the money was destined to help relieve suffering in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the capital of which, Sarajevo, had been the site of the 1984 Winter

Games.

(HOWARD BASS)

People of 1994: Biographies Kuchma, Leonid Danylovych

In the Ukrainian presidential elections of July 1994, Leonid Kuchma achieved a surprising victory over the incumbent—and first—Ukrainian president, Leonid Kravchuk, by sweeping the industrial cities of eastern Ukraine and the Crimea and dividing the vote in central Ukraine. During the campaign he persistently advocated closer ties with Russia, a policy that endeared him to the former communists and alienated him from the major nationalist centres of western Ukraine. Though Russian was his native tongue, Kuchma was able to demonstrate an adequate command of the Ukrainian language in his campaign speeches. He had served his country earlier as prime minister, from October 1992 to September 1993. The new Ukrainian president represented a new

breed

of politician,

that of the industrial

managers of the Soviet era. Though Kuchma was born in the village of Chaykino, in the northcentral province of Chernihiv on Aug. 9, 1938,

dent was Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, the incumbent prime minister and the daughter of two prime ministers: her father, Solomon Bandaranaike, who served in the 1950s, and her mother, Sirimavo

Bandaranaike,

who

served as

the world’s first elected woman prime minister in the 1960s and ’70s and was appointed to the post again after her daughter won the presidency. The women leaders of South Asian countries were often the widows or daughters of slain political leaders, and Kumaratunga was no exception. Both her father and her husband, a film actor who had risen in politics, were killed by assassins. Even her rival for the presidency was a widow—of Gamini Dissanayake, who was assassinated only weeks before the election by a suicide bomber, alleged to be a Tamil rebel. Kumaratunga became prime minister in August when the People’s Alliance (PA), the political party she led, ousted the long-entrenched United National Party (UNP) in national elections. She had run on a platform of alleviating widespread poverty and ending the bloody civil conflict with the Tamil rebels. Analysts saw the war-weariness of the people as a factor in her election victory. Kumaratunga also vowed to eliminate the nearly dictatorial powers of the presidency—invoked by the UNP when it came to power 17 years earlier—and to make the position ceremonial. It was expected that once she had accomplished this, she would switch positions with her mother and lead the country as prime minister. Kumaratunga

was born on June 29, 1945, in

Colombo, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). She formulated some of her political philosophy during her university days in Paris, and she later recalled that she had once stood at the barricades during a student uprising. She received a degree in political science from the University of Paris and also studied developmental

AP/WIDE WORLD

his technical career blossomed in the industrial heartland of Dnipropetrovsk. He graduated in 1960 with a degree in mechanical engineering from Dnipropetrovsk State University. From 1960 to 1975 Kuchma progressed steadily as an

engineer,

senior

engineer,

and

assistant

chief designer at the construction works in the city of Dnipropetrovsk. He served as Communist Party secretary at the works from 1975 to 1982, and in 1982 he was promoted to the position of first deputy general designer. During those years he also worked at a top secret post (even the precise dates were never made known) as a technical manager at Baykonyr, Kazakhstan, the centre of the Soviet space program. Kuchma’s most prestigious position in management was from 1986 to 1992, when he served as the general director of the world’s largest rocket construction firm, in Dnipropetrovsk. During his time as prime minister of Ukraine,

Kuchma often professed himself frustrated with the difficulties in implementing significant reforms and with what he perceived as a lack of substantial aid from the West. Reflecting his management skills, he was appointed chairman of the Ukrainian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs in December 1993. He was also a recipient of the Lenin Prize and in 1994 held the position of professor at Dnipropetrovsk State University and academician of the Engineering Academy of Ukraine. (DAVID R. MARPLES) Kumaratunga, Chandrika Bandaranaike Even in South Asian politics, where women

re-

cently had risen to leadership positions, the situation that evolved in Sri Lanka in 1994 was unique. In November a mother and daughter took over the country’s two top governmental positions, that of president and prime minister. Elected presi-

economics, law, and

49

was selected for West Indies first at age 21, but he did not make his mark until three years later. There was no doubt about Lara’s talent, but his concentration was erratic and his patience limited. The first sign that he was starting to overcome those failings came in Sydney, Australia, in 1993, when his innings of 277—full of delicate late cuts, full-blooded drives, and flicks of his hips, his trademark shot—heralded the arrival of

a new force in Test cricket. Despite the adulation, the fame, and the growing fortune, Lara remained a shy, modest, amus-

ing man, aware of his gifts, but not conceitedly so. The only dangers to an assured rise into the ranks of the very greatest players lay in the expectations that his phenomenal feats had prompted and the staleness that often comes from playing too much cricket. By the middle of the summer, he was nursing a knee injury and complaining of fatigue, but his mere presence lifted Warwickshire to an historic treble in domestic competitions in England. There seemed to be no limit to what Lara could achieve over the next decade or to the pleasure he would bring to those fortunate enough to watch him bat. (ANDREW LONGMORE) Leakey, Richard In January 1994 Richard Leakey resigned from

his position as director of the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), after being accused of arrogance, corruption, and racism by high-ranking Kenyan officials. The famed paleontologist and conservationist was caught up in this political maelstrom while still learning to walk on artificial limbs, the result of a plane crash the previous September in which he lost both legs. Following Leakey’s resignation, Kenyan Pres. Daniel arap Moi recalled him to his position at the beginning of March, but Leakey, a white Kenyan citizen, resigned once again two weeks later, citing unacceptable government restrictions as the reason for his abrupt departure. His suc-

political journalism. During 1988-91 she was a research fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London. Significant positions that she held before becoming prime minister included chairperson and managing director of Dinakara Sinhala Daily News Paper (1977-85), vice president of the Sri Lanka Mahajana Party (SLMP; 1984), and president of SLMP (1986). In 1994 she was the vice president of the PA and deputy leader of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, part of the PA coalition. (MARVIN MARTIN)

and a well-known conservationist. Leakey was first appointed director of the KWS in 1989 by President Moi. He was given broad powers and was widely praised for reducing corruption within KWS, instituting and maintaining a strong policy against ivory poachers, and restoring the security of the national parks. Described

Lara, Brian

was a strong presence in the Kenyan government,

In the space of 50 glorious days of dominance, Brian Lara broke the two most coveted batting

devoted to the preservation of Kenya’s wildlife and sanctuaries. As director, however, he made enemies by resisting the efforts of politicians to obtain land from wildlife sanctuaries for commercial purposes.

cessor, David Western, was also a white Kenyan

as unconventional,

records in cricket. On April 18, 1994, in Antigua,

the West Indian left-hander scored 375, beating the 365 not out of Sir Garfield Sobers in 1958; and on June 6, at the Edgbaston ground in Birmingham, England, Lara made the highest individual

score in first-class cricket with an unbeaten innings of 501 for his county, Warwickshire, against Durham. It was Lara’s seventh century in eight innings, a record of sustained run-scoring that not even Sir Don Bradman, the greatest of all batsmen, had been able to match.

Lara was still just 25 years old, but if he never made another run, he had already established himself as one of the greats, a worthy inheritor of the tradition of West Indian batting set by Everton Weekes, Viv Richards, and Clive Lloyd. Lara was smaller than all of these, but he relied on timing, a high back lift, and iron-firm wrists rather than brute strength for his power, and his rate of scoring—a run a minute during his 501—was all the more phenomenal because he did not look aggressive either on or off the field. Though not short of self-confidence, he had none

of Richards’ swagger. But, like all the great batsmen, he played straight and late. Lara was born on May 2, 1969, in Cantaro, Trinidad, one of a family of 11, and was a natural

games player in his youth, a member of the national under-14 association football (soccer) team, and a useful tennis player. But, as with most West Indian children, cricket was his great love. Under the guidance of the former Test left-hander Joey Carew, the boy quickly became the talk of the Caribbean—destined to lead West Indies into the next decade. It did not happen immediately. Lara

tough, and abrasive,

Leakey

Leakey’s supporters claimed that his departure would hurt Kenya, a country that was regarded as a world leader in wildlife conservation. In fact,

Kenya’s $450 million-per-year tourism industry was based on its marine and animal parks. Foreign donors expressed concern about the political turmoil surrounding the KWS, and the Kenyan government became apprehensive about losing overseas loans and other monetary support for wildlife conservation, much of which had actually been attracted by Leakey. Leakey was born on Dec. 19, 1944, in Nairobi,

Kenya, to noted anthropologists Mary and Louis S.B. Leakey. He was initially reluctant to follow in his parents’ footsteps and in 1961 started his own safari business in Kenya. While exploring the Lake Natron area in 1963, he found an australopithecine jaw and decided that he would indeed become an anthropologist. He then went to London, where he completed a two-year secondary education program in six months. However, he became low on funds, lost interest in academics,

and returned to Kenya. Leakey became best known in the scientific world for his work at the Koobi Fora site on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya. This site, which had yielded a remarkable collection of fossils, compelled scholars to revise their views on

human development. With his wife, Meave G. Leakey, he coedited volume one of Koobi Fora Research Projects (1978). Leakey’s other writing includes three books in collaboration with the sci-

50

People of 1994: Biographies Huan from

LIZ GILBERT—SYGMA

ence writer Roger Lewin: Origins (1977), People of the Lake: Mankind and Its Beginnings (1978), and Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human (1992). (AMANDA E. FULLER) Lepage, Robert Quebec’s Renaissance man—author, director, designer, and actor—Robert Lepage continued in 1994 to surprise and amaze audiences as the

theatrical wizard who masterfully translated ideas into images and made his plays seem like intricate puzzles. Tectonic Plates (1988) dealt with the collision of French Canadian and Scottish cultures. Two pianos gliding across the stage symbolized the continents of Europe and North America. The bombing of Hiroshima was the metaphor in The Seven Streams of the River Ota (1994). This play, set in the home of a Jewish Czech photographer living in Japan, revealed the story line through a series of flashbacks. Lepage’s play Polygraphe was a metaphysical detective story sparked by the murder of one of his friends. Born in 1957 in Quebec City, Robert Lepage graduated in 1978 from Conservatoire d’Art Dramatique de Quebec and then studied in Paris with Swiss director Alain Knapp. Lepage became a skilled performer in comic improvisational theatre before joining Théatre Repére in Quebec (1982). This theatre, founded by Jacques Lessard, relied on the active involvement of actors to discover the key, object, or pattern necessary to develop the production. In 1985 Lepage became artistic director of the company. From 1989 to 1993 he was head of the French theatre section of the National Arts Centre in Ottawa. In 1994 he returned to Quebec City to found a new theatre company, Ex Machina. Lepage was noted for surprising juxtapositions in his plays. In Needles and Opium (1991), French poet and filmmaker Jean Cocteau and USS. jazz trumpeter Miles Davis exchanged places. Lepage envisioned both these men in 1949 traveling between New York and Paris at the same time, both addicted to drugs. He also believed in producing plays in more than one language, making the actors devise methods to project the meaning to the audience without translation. In 1989 he produced Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet in a combination of English and French. His Dragon’s Trilogy (1985) was staged partly in Chinese. He won the Dora Mavor Moore Award for his direction of the Trilogy (1988). In 1992 Lepage sparked controversy at the British National Theatre by setting Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night's Dream in a mud bath. In 1993 Lepage directed the Canadian Opera Company’s production of Béla Bart6k’s Bluebeard’s Castle and Arnold Schoenberg’s Erwartung. He also directed Richard Wagner’s Ring cycle in

Paris. In a lighter vein, he designed a Montreal

show for British rock star Peter Gabriel. As an actor, Lepage starred in his one-man plays Needles and Opium and Vinci (1985). In 1988 he played the role of Pilate in the film Jesus of Montreal. For his contribution to the performing arts in Canada, Robert Lepage received the National Arts Centre Award in 1994. (DIANE LOIS WAY) Lin, Maya For sculptor/architect Maya Lin, 1994 was a busy year. In August her translucent clock, Eclipsed

Time, was installed in the ceiling of Penn Station in New York City. Looking much like a flying saucer, the 4.3-m (14-ft)-wide elliptical frosted glass clock was illuminated from above. A metal disk, moving slowly across the glowing oval, cast an ever-changing shadow on the numerals below (12:00 was atotal eclipse). She also saw the completion of her first two houses, one on each coast. Lin was a college senior in 1981 when her design was chosen for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. In the years that followed her instant fame, Lin showed great versatility, refusing to become typecast as a creator of memorials. Lin was born on Oct. 5, 1959, in Athens, Ohio.

Her parents, Julia Chang Lin, a poet, and Henry KEVIN FITZSIMONS

Lin, a ceramicist, emigrated to the U.S. China

in the 1940s. As a child, Lin en-

joyed spending time alone, reading, hiking, and making pottery in her father’s studio. A highschool course on existentialism and its fascination with death sparked her interest in cemeteries and memorial statuary. For a class assignment while studying architecture at Yale University, Lin was required to enter the nationwide Vietnam memorial competition. Her design consisted of two low black EE granite walls that intersected to form a wide Engraved on the mirrorlike stone surface were the names of the more than 58,000 U.S. dead and missing-in-action who served in the Vietnam War. When Lin’s winning entry was announced, a number of veterans’ groups and others protested. Eventually, a compromise was reached, and a traditional statue depicting three servicemen with a flag was commissioned to stand at the entrance to the memorial site. After its dedication in 1982, however, Lin’s wall became one of the city’s most visited and most moving tourist attractions. After graduating from Yale, Lin attended Harvard University. She retreated from the spotlight to work briefly for a Boston architectural firm before returning to Yale for graduate studies (1983— 86). Lin then struck out on her own, working out of a New York City loft studio. Her vastly different designs included an earth sculpture for the University of Michigan (1994) and a corporate logo. Concentrating on sculpture much of the time, Lin completed numerous small pieces and two important large commissions—the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Ala. (1989), and The Women’s Table at Yale (1993). She also designed a loft conversion for the Museum for African Art in New York City (1993). (MARGARET BARLOW) Lukashenka, Aleksandr Hrygorevich

Throughout the former communist states of Eastern Europe, ex- or pro-communists were returning to power. Still, Aleksandr Lukashenka was a sur-

prising newcomer to the Belarusian political scene in 1994, emphatically winning the runoff presidential election on July 10 against Prime Minister Vyacheslav Kebich, a man who had controlled the

politics of the country through strong backing in parliament. Lukashenka was known to the population only because of his role as chairman of the parliamentary commission on corruption. During the campaign, he propagated a simple message: return to a “clean” government; remove corrupt officials from office and bring to trial those who had abused their position; and move the country closer to its Russian neighbour in orientation. Lukashenka was born in the village of Kopys, Orshanske raion, Vicebsk (Vitebsk) oblast in

People of 1994: Biographies 1954. He graduated from the Mahilau (Mogilyoy) Teaching Institute and the Belarusian Agricultural Academy. In 1975-77 he was an instructor of political affairs of the Western border district (he spent a total of five years in the army). Subsequently, he held a series of minor posts in the Komsomol (Young Communist League) and raion organizations in the Shklau region of Mahilau oblast. From 1982 through 1990 Lukashenka held leading management and Communist Party posts at collective and state farms and at a construction materials combine in the Shklau region. He was elected to the Supreme Soviet (parliament) in 1990 from Tuisvwal district. In the parliament Lukashenka created a faction called Communists for Democracy. He was the only deputy to oppose the December 1991 agreement that effectively dissolved the Soviet Union. He maintained close association with “conserva-

Though he once wrote that “modern capitalism has outlived its usefulness,” Mbeki became

identified with a more moderate position. When he became chairperson of the ANC in 1993, a South African newspaper complimented him as “the suave jet-setting intellectual.” During the 1970s Mbeki undertook missions for the ANC in Botswana, Swaziland, and Nigeria in order to work with black youth who had left South Africa. In the 1980s he played a key role in the discussions with South African businessmen in Lusaka in September 1985 and with other leading white South Africans in Dakar, Senegal,

in July 1987, which paved the way toward South African Pres. F.W. de Klerk’s initiation of negotiations with the ANC in 1990. From 1990 Mbeki participated in those negotiations, which led to the adoption of a new interim constitution. In 1993 he was elected to succeed the ailing Tambo as ANC chairperson.

tive” Communist factions, such as the Belaya Rus Slavic Congress and the Union of Officers, and

(MARTIN LEGASSICK)

prior to the Belarusian election was known to have links with similar groups in Russia. In May 1994 Vladimir Zhirinovsky’s (g.v.) Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) arranged a press conference for Lukashenka in Moscow after he addressed the State Duma with an appeal for the formation of a new Slavic Union.

Miller, Shannon

During the 1992 summer Olympic Games in Barcelona, Spain, a 15-year-old U.S. gymnast, Shannon Miller, drew worldwide notice by earning two silver medals and three bronzes—more than any other U.S. athlete won at Barcelona. By 1994 she had secured more Olympic and world

Despite such associations, Lukashenka was best

described as unpredictable. He was something of a novice in the affairs of state and had made several contradictory statements and radical shifts of direction. He was committed to economic and monetary union with Russia and possibly

championship medals than any other U.S. gymnast in history. Miller was born on March 10, 1977, in Rolla, AP/WIDE WORLD

favoured political union, but he balked at weak-

ening Belarusian independence and found close relations with Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin difficult to achieve. Despite a proclaimed opposition to privatization

and market

reformers,

he kept

some promarket politicians in high office. The pro-Communist Lukashenka might be characterized as a gradualist with a clear preference for a powerful executive. (DAVID R. MARPLES) McEntire, Reba

“Everyone’s going to OD on Reba,” joked country music singer Reba McEntire near the beginning of the year. McEntire, already considered the reigning queen of country, did indeed spend more time in the limelight in 1994 than ever before. She released Read My Mind, her 22nd al-

bum; published Reba: My Story, a best-selling autobiography; starred in Is There Life Out There?, a made-for-TV

movie, and a TV music special;

appeared in the films North and The Little Rascals; won a Grammy award and a Country Music Association (CMA) award for her collaboration with Linda Davis on “Does He Love You”; and

planned an ambitious concert tour. McEntire was born on March 28, 1954, in McAlester, Okla. The daughter of a world-cham-

pion steer roper, she too did some rodeo performing. She joined her first band while in the ninth grade but scored her first big break in music when she was asked to sing the national anthem at the 1974 National Finals Rodeo. Her performance impressed country music star Red Steagall, who helped McEntire record a demo that led to a contract with Mercury Records. Six years after her first single, “I Don’t Want to Be a One

Night Stand” (1976), she topped the charts with “Can’t Even Get the Blues.” Other hits followed, but McEntire longed to have more control of her own career and to recapture a more traditional country music sound. She moved to the MCA label in 1984, started coproducing her albums, and topped the charts seven times by the end of 1986. She was the first woman to win six CMA award nominations in one year and was crowned CMA’s best female vocalist an unprecedented four years straight (1984-87). With her musical destiny now resting in her own hands, McEntire expanded into business and acting. Along with second husband and manager Narvel Blackstock, McEntire built an empire that included a talent-management

firm, a construc-

tion company, a horse farm, and a jet charter service. She made her film debut in the 1990 science-fiction thriller Tremors. Then, in March 1991, the euphoria of success was abruptly in-

51

terrupted when a plane carrying her tour manager and seven band members crashed near San Diego, Calif. McEntire was criticized when, within

a month of their deaths, she was back on stage performing with new musicians. She answered the criticism—first by explaining that work helped her deal with the loss, then by releasing the album

For My Broken Heart. The album paid tribute to the crash victims. During 1994 her book remained on the New York Times best-seller list for 16 weeks. To date McEntire had won at least 30 major awards and sold more than 20 million albums. (ANTHONY G. CRAINE)

Mbeki, Thabo On May 10, 1994, Thabo Mbeki was sworn in as

first deputy president in the first democratically elected government of South Africa. Regarded as a person of original thought and considerable diplomatic and political skills, Mbeki combined these attributes with urbanity, charm, and calmness as well as toughness. Mbeki was born in Idutywa, Transkei, on June

18, 1942. His father, a longtime leader in the Eastern Cape African National Congress (ANC), was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island with Nelson Mandela in 1964, released in

November 1987, and named deputy president of the Senate in 1994. Mbeki attended schools in Transkei, including

the well-known Lovedale secondary school in Alice. He joined the ANC Youth League in 1956, and in 1959 he participated in a student strike that caused the school to be closed. Already he had impressed observers with his leadership qualities; “he was a very good judge of people” recalled one. Continuing studies at home, he was also active in the ANC after it was banned in South Africa in 1960. He served (1961) as secretary of the African Students Association, left South Africa illegally in 1962, and enrolled at the University of Sussex,

Brighton, England, from which he graduated with an M.A. in economics in 1966. He worked for the ANC in London (1967-70) and then underwent military training in the Soviet Union. Though criticized in the late 1960s by ANC cadres in Africa for spending time in Europe, Mbeki moved rapidly up in the ANC hierarchy. From 1971 he served in Lusaka, Zambia, as assistant secretary to its Revolutionary Council, becoming the youngest member of the national executive (1975) and political secretary to Pres. Oliver Tambo (1978).

Mo. At an early age she began taking gymnastics classes and competing. She won her first junior division meet when she was 11, scoring three firsts at the 1988 U.S. Classic. When she was 13,

she won the all-around title at the Catania Cup competition in Italy by gaining gold medals in the vault, beam, and floor-exercise events and a silver

in the uneven bars. She continued to accumulate honours during the following years, frequently winning the all-around title. Unlike many gymnasts, Miller did not have a specialty—she was noted for her versatility. At the 1991 world championships, she was the first-ever U.S. female gymnast to qualify for all four of the individual events. She succeeded in winning two silver medals there. After the Olympics, Miller really came into her own; from 1992 to 1994, she

dominated women’s gymnastics. She possessed the petite physical proportions that were ideally suited for the sport, and she was able to execute all the maneuvers with precise technical expertise. Her performances were also enhanced by her dynamic, yet graceful, ballet-inspired style. In late 1994 she experienced some setbacks, however. At the Goodwill Games in St. Petersburg, Russia,

she failed to take the all-around

title; it was the first time in two years that anyone had been able to defeat her in that category. Even more devastating was the gold-medal sweep by another U.S. gymnast, Dominique Dawes, at the national gymnastics championships in August. Gymnastics enthusiasts murmured that Miller’s age (17) and size (nearly 1.5 m [5 ft]—tall by gymnastics standards) had begun to be a handicap. In November she withdrew from the world team championships, citing exhaustion. With the 1996 Olympics drawing nearer, however, the historymaking gymnast seemed determined to win her spot on the U.S. Olympic team. (ELIZABETH LASKEY) Mirren, Helen

Despite the fact that Helen Mirren had been an established and highly respected stage, screen, and television actress for more than two decades,

it was not until she starred in “Prime Suspect,” the highest-rated PBS “Mystery” series show ever, that she gained her widest recognition in the United States. As Detective Chief Inspector Jane Tennison in the Emmy award-winning miniseries, she became—as Newsweek magazine put it—‘“the PBS pinup woman of the decade.” Though considered sexy, she was not a stereotypical pinup, however. In “Prime Suspect” she was ruthless in her ambition, often looked exhausted, and could

face the most gruesome of murder scenes without flinching. Hollywood was said to be interested in filming an American version of the miniseries but,

52

People of 1994: Biographies

ironically—and typically—Mirren’s role would be played by someone thought to have more boxoffice appeal. Mirren was born in London in 1946 of a Russian-born father (until she was 10 her last name was Mironoff) and a Scottish mother. When she was 18, she played Cleopatra in a National Youth Theatre production and attracted favourable attention, but she did not immediately pursue an acting career. Instead, at her parents’ urging, she attended teacher-training college and qualified as a teacher. She then began to get acting jobs and before long joined the Royal Shakespeare Company. She spent a large part of the next 15 years there, appearing in such roles as Cressida in Troilus and Cressida and Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra. She also spent a year touring Africa and North America with Peter Brook’s experimental theatre troupe. Mirren’s motion-picture career began with A

Midsummer Night’s Dream in 1968. She followed that with appearances in over 20 more films, among them The Long Good Friday (1980), Ex-

calibur (1981), Cal (1984), for which she won the best actress award at the Cannes Film Festival,

White Nights (1985), The Mosquito Coast (1986), the controversial The Cook, The Thief, His Wife, and Her Lover (1989), and The Hawk (1994). In addition to the three “Prime Suspect” miniseries, her television credits include “The Country Wife,” “Blue Remembered Hills,” and “Cause Célébre.” In 1994 Mirren returned to the London stage with a brilliant portrayal of the mercurial, lovestruck Natalya Petrovna in Ivan Turgenev’s A Month in the Country. Her film The Madness of King George was released late in the year, and a fourth “Prime Suspect” miniseries was being planned. (BARBARA WHITNEY) Morceli, Noureddine “T am gifted by God,” Noureddine

Morceli was

frequently heard to say. By the end of 1994 the Algerian track star’s accomplishments had reached proportions befitting his statement. In August, after breaking the outdoor world record for 3,000 m (7 min 25.11 sec), he could claim five

middle-distance world records. The others were (outdoor) the 1,500 m (3 min 28.86 sec) and the mile (3 min 44.39 sec) and (indoor) the 1,000 m (2

min 15.26 sec) and the 1,500 m (3 min 34.16 sec).

Morceli was named Athlete of the Year by Track & Field News in 1993 and 1994 and by the International Athletic Foundation in 1994. In that two-year period, he lost only once, at 800 m. As he set his sights on more records, most notably the 800-m, the 2,000-m, and 5,000-m events, his

driving force was a deeply rooted dedication to bring glory to his country and Islam. Morceli and his twin sister, Zahia, were born Feb. 20, 1970, in Tenes, Alg. They and their seven

siblings were raised in strict adherence to the tenets of Islam, and Morceli’s religious devotion remained strong. During the sacred holy days of Ramadan he would fast from sunrise to sunset despite the rigours of training. Morceli claimed he could not remember when he did not want to run. At the age of seven he was inspired by his brother Abderrahmane, a world-class runner who finished fourth in the 1,500 m in the 1977 World Cup. Later his brother would become Morceli’s coach. In the early 1980s Morceli came to idolize Said Aouita, a Moroccan

who won the gold medal in the 5,000 m in the 1984 Olympics Games. By age 17 Morceli had taken second place in the 1,500 m in the world junior championships. A

year later he enrolled at Riverside (Calif.) Community College, which

had been

recommended

for its coaching and track facilities. He spent two years there, at the end of which he had run the world’s fastest 1,500 m for 1990. From that time there was no stopping him. At age 20 he was ranked first in the world in the 1,500 m. In 1992 he added the outdoor world record for the 1,500 m, in 1993 for the mile, and in 1994 for the 3,000 m. As Morceli looked forward to the 1995 season,

sportswriters unabashedly proclaimed him the greatest runner in the world or even the greatest of all time. Perhaps his spirit was best exemplified

by his winning performance in the 1994 Grand Prix. Racked with flu, weakened and hacking, he not only ran but left the field behind at the finish. (MARVIN MARTIN) Murayama, Tomiichi The election in June 1994 of Tomiichi Murayama

as Japan’s first Socialist prime minister in 47

years surprised everyone, including himself. With no previous experience in government or inter-

national affairs and little economic expertise, the

self-effacing Murayama, the third prime minister in a year, was viewed as another titular head of another shaky coalition. An unorthodox alliance was formed between the Social Democratic Party

of Japan (SDPJ) and their ideological foes in the Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP). The two groups that over the years had opposed each other on

such vital issues as diplomacy, security, and taxa-

tion, now joined forces to block the ambitions of LDP renegade Ichiro Ozawa and to keep at bay the increasingly powerful reformists. The dubious arrangement was viewed as an opportunistic sellout and a shameless grab for power. Against all predictions, however, the new government did well during its first months in office. Various contested political and economic reforms were cleared and trade agreements approved. Murayama’s deft pragmatism on key policy issues guided the Socialists to tough sacrifices and made them come to terms with such realities as Japan’s post-World War II military posture in the proliferation of UN peacekeeping missions, and the use of nuclear power. The deep split between his own party and the LDP was papered over by concessions on these issues, but by year’s end Murayama once more looked vulnerable with the unraveling of unity within his own party and divisions emerging within the coalition while the opposition gained new coherence. Although the LDP and the SDPJ moved closer at the centres of power, their local organizations remained far apart. This boded ill for the 1995 elections, which were to be contested under a new electoral system that depended on strategic cooperation. Murayama was born in Oita prefecture on March 3, 1924, one of 11 children born to a poor

fisherman. After graduating from Meiji Univer-

executive board reviewed Nakajima’s record of

service and concluded that he had the qualifications to succeed Mahler. Some months after assuming office, Nakajima

returned to Japan to ask for greater cooperation and assistance. He also urged the government to be more aggressive in promoting WHO’s health programs. Nakajima launched campaigns to fight infectious diseases, especially AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and dengue fever. He also put great emphasis on preventive medicine in the form of vaccinations for children. His enthusiasm for such programs derived in part from his visits to remote areas in Africa and elsewhere. Nakajima’s election to a second term seemed to be taken for granted until June 1992, when Muhammad

Abdelmoumene,

an Algerian

neu-

rosurgeon, announced his candidacy for director general. (He had been second in command at WHO until Nakajima fired him). Abdelmoumene’s chief support came from the U.S., France, and other European countries. An unexpectedly bitter battle ensued. While Japan lobbied hard in support of Nakajima, his critics charged that he lacked management skills, leadership qualities, and an ability to formulate and enunciate ideas. Nakajima was also accused of bypassing budgetary procedures in allocating WHO funds. Critics claimed that, because of such “problems,”

WHO was in disarray and morale was low in regional offices and research agencies. At the same time, some Western media accused Japan

of threatening to slash imports from less developed countries that did not support Nakajima’s reelection. Japan vehemently denied this and all the other charges. In January 1993 WHO’s executive board recommended (18-13) that Nakajima be given a second term. When the World Health Assembly convened in May 1993, Japan and its Third World allies prevailed. Nakajima was reelected by a vote of 93-58. In August 1994 he traveled to Japan for the 10th international conference on AIDS. Among the 10,000 public health officials, researchers, patients, and journalists in attendance were representatives of WHO,

who had prepared extensive data on the current status of AIDS around the world. (TAKUJI MIWA)

sity, Tokyo, in 1946, he returned to Oita to work

as an activist in the local fishermen’s union. The majority of Murayama’s political career was spent in relative obscurity. He worked his way up from councilman in 1955 to prefectural assemblyman in 1963, then was elected to the lower House of

the Diet (parliament) in 1972, where he served seven terms. Murayama moved into the limelight when, as a compromise candidate, he was coaxed into the chairmanship of the fractious SDPJ in September 1993. To his critics, the main assets of the prime minister seemed to be a lack of firm policies and the manner of a kind, bushy-browed grandpa. But he also profited from a good understanding of parliamentary tactics. Murayama’s habits were homespun and modest, untainted by the sex and money scandals that had undone his predecessors. (GERD LARSSON)

Nasrin, Taslima

In early August 1994 the Bangladeshi feminist author Taslima Nasrin, disguised in the traditional shrouding dress of Muslim women, made her way through Dhaka and onto a plane. Thus began her flight to sanctuary in Sweden. Left behind was a major fundamentalist Islamic uprising demanding her death for “blasphemous” writings and statements. Militant Muslims had issued a series of fatwas, or religious decrees, against Nasrin, and a bounty was offered to her killer. Nasrin had been enraging strict Muslims for several years. In her columns, poems, and fiction,

she wrote withering diatribes against the oppression of women and the Islamic code that made them virtually the chattel of men. Her subject matter became increasingly sexual, and her condemnation of men was unrelenting. She wore her

Nakajima, Hiroshi

hair short, smoked cigarettes, and eschewed wom-

In January 1988 the executive board of the World Health Organization (WHO), reviewed the credentials of various candidates before recommending that Hiroshi Nakajima be elected WHO's fourth director general. Four months later the general assembly of WHO approved the recommendation and on July 21 Nakajima became the first Japanese to head a United Nations agency. Nakajima was born in Chiba City on May 16, 1928. He studied at Tokyo Medical College and the University of Paris, where he specialized in neuro-psychopharmacology. After joining WHO in 1973, he spent several years at the organization’s headquarters in Geneva. From 1979 to 1988 he was assigned to the Philippines, where he carried out WHO’s health programs as director of its Western Pacific region. As his second term in Manila was drawing to a close, WHO was preparing to celebrate its 40th anniversary and choose a replacement for Halfdan Mahler of Denmark, whose third five-year term as director general was due to expire in May 1988. WHO’s

en’s traditional Muslim dress. In 1992 fundamentalists attacked bookstores carrying her works. It was not until the fall of 1993 that she became an international cause célébre. At that time the first fatwa was issued against her in reaction to her novel Lajja (1993; Shame), which depicts the persecution of a Hindu family by Muslims. The real fundamentalist explosion came in May 1994, when she was quoted in the Calcutta Statesman as saying that the Quran “should be revised thoroughly.” This brought larger and more vociferous demonstrations, demanding that the government put Nasrin to death. She insisted that her statement referred to the Shari‘ah, the Islamic code of law, rather than the Qur'an itself. The outcry against her went unabated, however, and the government called for her arrest, invoking a 19th-century blasphemy law. After about two months in hiding, Nasrin appeared in court. She

was released on bail and allowed to keep her passport. A few days later she left the country. In Sweden she remained in hiding while stat-

People of 1994: Biographies

53

al SHAHIDUL ALAM—DRIK PICTURE LIBRARY

ing that, when

it was safe, she would return to

Bangladesh to continue her battle for women’s rights. The Bangladeshi government, meanwhile, sought a court order for her return. Unfazed, she went even further and in November declared that

the Quran had only historical value. Nasrin was born Aug. 25, 1962, in the town of Mymensingh, then in East Pakistan. Her father was a doctor, and she also became a doctor, work-

ing in a until she in Dhaka service in twice.

family planning clinic in Mymensingh was reassigned to a government clinic in 1990. She left the national medical 1993. Nasrin was married and divorced

Comparisons with the author Salman Rushdie,

also in hiding from Islamic fundamentalists, were inevitable, but Nasrin made a clear distinction between herself and Rushdie. In October 1993 she

was quoted as saying, “He has apologized. I have not and will not.” (MARVIN MARTIN) Novak, Michael

The modern state “is an overpromiser and an underachiever and ultimately a fraud. It is bound to disappoint, to embitter, to divide, to engender corrosive cynicism.” These provocative remarks were made by Michael Novak, lay theologian, economist, and political philosopher, at the announcement in March of his having been selected 1994 recipient of the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion. Established in 1972 by financier John Marks Templeton, the award—the

largest annual monetary prize in the world—was worth about $1 million in 1994. Novak’s works crossed boundaries in political ideology and subject matter. He supported the presidential campaigns of both George McGovern and Ronald Reagan, was an active critic of both the Vietnam War and the American Catholic bishops’ pastoral letters on nuclear weapons and the U.S. economy, and wrote on subjects ranging from ethnicity to sports. Novak was born on Sept. 9, 1933, in a blue-

collar community in Johnstown, Pa. He graduated from Holy Cross Seminary at the University of Notre Dame, Stonehill College in North Easton,

Mass., and Gregorian University in Rome. He transferred to Catholic University in Washington, D.C., in 1958 and left the Congregation of Holy Cross in 1960, within months after ordination as a

priest. He was accepted to Harvard on a graduate fellowship later that year and published his first novel, The Tiber Was Silver, in 1961.

Novak covered the Second Vatican Council for several periodicals in 1963-64 and wrote a major report on the second session, The Open Church

(1964). He became a professor of religious studies at Stanford University that year, and in 1967 visited three of his students in Vietnam, where

he also served as a monitor of national elections. From 1968 to 1972 he taught at the State University of New York at Old Westbury. During the 1970s Novak helped launch the Hastings Institute, a study centre for bioethics, and a humanities program for the Rockefeller Foundation and accepted the post of resident scholar in religion and public policy for the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, a position he still held in 1994. His writings appeared regularly in both the liberal journal Christianity and Crisis and the conservative National Review. By the 1980s Novak was widely considered a “neoconservative,”

a former leftist now

criti-

cal of that political perspective. In 1981 he was appointed U.S. ambassador for the UN Human Rights Commission. His 1982 book, The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism, was considered a seminal work in the theology of economics; other works include Belief and Unbelief (1965), Vietnam: Crisis of Conscience (1967, with Rabbi Abraham J. Heschel and Protestant theologian Robert McAfee Brown), and The Catholic Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1993). (DARRELL J. TURNER) Olajuwon, Hakeem

In June 1994 Nigerian-American basketball player Hakeem (“The Dream”) Olajuwon made his longtime dream come true by leading the Houston Rockets to victory in the National Basketball Association (NBA) championship series over the New York Knicks. As his first championship title, it capped a milestone year in which he was named Most Valuable Player, Defensive Player of the Year (for the second time), and MVP

STEPHEN DUNN—ALLSPORT

Hakeem Abdul Olajuwon was born on Jan. 21,

1963, in Lagos, Nigeria, where his family owned a cement business. Until age 15 he was unfamiliar with the sport of basketball, instead playing association football (soccer) and team handball at Moslem Teachers College in Lagos. Two years later he was recruited to play basketball in the U.S. with the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) at the University of Houston, Texas. In his first collegiate season, the Houston Cougars competed in the semifinals of the 1982 NCAA tournament. The next year, Houston returned to

the Final Four but lost the championship game; even so, Olajuwon was awarded the Final Four MVP. In 1984 Houston again advanced to the final game, and again the championship title eluded Olajuwon, who battled his rival Ewing, centre for the victorious Georgetown Hoyas. Olajuwon left college when he was selected first in the 1984 NBA draft, two spots ahead of Jordan, with whom, a decade later, he shared alife-

time field-goal percentage of .516. In Olajuwon’s first season with the Houston Rockets, the team

reached the play-offs, and in his second year they narrowly failed to clinch the championship. His dream was finally fulfilled in 1994 when Houston defeated New York 90-84 in the final game of the seven-game series. (TOM MICHAEL)

of

the NBA finals. Extremely versatile throughout the regular season, he was a top-ranking player in the major categories of scoring points (27.3 per game), capturing rebounds (11.9), blocking shots (3.71), and making steals (1.6). The 2.13-m, 116-kg (7-ft, 255-Ib) centre, whose surname Olajuwon in his native Yoruban language means “being on top,” was no stranger to these heights. During his 10-year career in the NBA, he played in nine all-star games and repeatedly led the league in blocked shots and rebounds. Olajuwon’s ascendancy as one of the finest players in the league coincided with the reemergence of the centre as the dominant position in the NBA. Not since the late 1970s had a centre— generally a team’s tallest player—led a club to the NBA finals. For almost two decades team leaders had been smaller guards and forwards, such as superstar guard Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls, who retired in 1993. The first season after Jordan’s retirement from basketball culminated in a championship matchup between two of the best centres in the league—Olajuwon and the Knicks’s Patrick Ewing.

Ozawa, Ichiro

Ichiro Ozawa, architect of Japan’s unfolding political realignment, lost his hold on the levers of government with the formation of the new Socialist-led government in June 1994. Most observers expected Ozawa to be back in control following elections in 1995. He was, after all, thought to be the most influential politician Japan had produced in recent years and the only one with a clear-cut vision of where he was headed. Ozawa was born into the family of a powerful party politician on May 24, 1942. At 27 he inherited a lower house seat for the Iwate prefecture. After studying economics at Keio University, Tokyo, and law at Nihon University, Tokyo,

Ozawa was primed for a political career. When his father died in 1968, he hitched his fortunes

to Kakuei Tanaka, a Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) strongman and onetime prime minister. Ozawa stayed close to Tanaka despite his involvement in bribery scandals, then shifted his allegiance to the new king-maker, Shin Kanemaru. Taking his cue from these backroom power bro-

kers, Ozawa became a prodigious fund-raiser.

54

People of 1994: Biographies

In the late 1970s, Ozawa served as vice minister of the Science and Technology Agency and of Construction. He was also minister of home affairs (1985-86) in the Cabinet of Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone. From 1989 to 1991 he held the post of secretary-general of the LDP. After walking out on his own party in the summer of 1993 over the question on political reform, Ozawa put together Shinseito (Japan Renewal Party)—a seven-group coalition that toppled the Liberal Democrats, who had held power for 38 years. Through the subsequent administrations of prime ministers Morihiro Hosokawa and Tsu-

tomu Hata, which passed the electoral reforms he

had sought, Ozawa was top policymaker. His dictatorial management

came under fire, however,

after the Social Democratic Party of Japan left the ruling coalition in April 1994, thereby forcing it to resign. Ozawa then set up the Kaikaku (Reform) parliamentary group in order to launch a major new anti-LDP party. Consequently, Ozawa was a prime mover in organizing Shinshinto (New Frontier Party), a merger of nine political parties, which was formally inaugurated on December 10. Ozawa’s grand goals, to create “real parliamentary politics” and a new foreign policy, had been taking shape for two decades. He laid out his prescription for national renewal in his best-selling book, Blueprint for a New Japan. It called for Japan to become “a normal nation” and assume responsibilities

in the international

community,

not only as an economic power but also as a political and military one. Ozawa urged Japan to be aggressive in seeking a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and to amend the post-World War II constitution, which prohibited the country from military engagements, so that Japan could participate in UN peacekeeping missions that involved actual or potential conflict. To free Japan from bureaucratic stranglehold, he wanted decen-

tralization and deregulation. He also envisaged new political stability with two big central parties alternating in office and a strengthened presidential-style prime minister heading a British-style Cabinet. Only time would tell how successful Ozawa’s plans for Japan would be. (GERD LARSSON) Pasqua, Charles

At the end of 1994 things were looking good for Interior Minister Charles Pasqua, France’s premier flic, or “top cop.” The international assassin Carlos “the Jackal” was safely under lock and key, the French

government

had scored victo-

ries against Algerian and Kurdish terrorists, and he had virtually run the government during the vacation month of August. Even with his reputation as a tough law-and-order advocate whose main concern had been the stemming of illegal

Arab immigration and Islamic activism, Pasqua nevertheless moved comfortably among the more traditional politicians, including Socialist Pres. Francois Mitterrand, and was a key factor in the Socialist-conservative “cohabitation” government. Together with Prime Minister Edouard Balladur, Pasqua topped the polls as France’s most popular politician. Pasqua was born on April 18, 1927, in Grasse on the French Riviera, the younger son of Cor-

sican parents. His father, a policeman, was a member of the Resistance, as was an uncle who

was deported by the Nazis in 1942. By age 15 Pasqua was a courier for the local Resistance network. He never completed his law studies, instead becoming a jack-of-all-trades (a wine trader, a private detective, and eventually sales director for

the pastis company Ricard). His colourful Marseillais accent later became a crucial element of his popularity, although it had earned him many snubs during his early political career. By the late 1940s he was an active militant in Gen. Charles de Gaulle’s Rally of the French People. Pasqua created the Service d’Action Civique (SAC) in 1958 to protect Gaullist personalities from terrorist bombings and attacks by FrenchAlgerian right-wing colonists. By the time SAC leaders had been proved to have been involved in a series of gory murders in 1973, Pasqua had long left their leadership, but these associations came

often to haunt him. Neither Pres. Georges Pom-

pidou nor his successor, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, offered him a ministerial portfolio. When Prime Minister Jacques Chirac resigned in 1976, Pasqua became his main ally within the neo-Gaullist party Rally for the Republic. A brilliant campaigner and political strategist, he helped Chirac win the crucial job of mayor of Paris in 1977, then masterminded aseries of at-

tacks to challenge Giscard that cost the latter the presidency in the 1981 elections. Once Giscard was out of the way, Chirac was established as the natural leader of the right wing, and he duly appointed Pasqua as his interior minister in 1986. When Mitterrand won the presidency, Pasqua forged a good relationship with Balladur. In 1993 Pasqua was instrumental in convincing Chirac to refuse another cohabitation prime ministership, ‘ suggesting Balladur in his place. By year-end 1994 Pasqua had still not announced whether he would support Chirac or Balladur in the May 1995 presidential election, while his own name started appearing in polls as a possible candidate. Now the strongest kingmaker in France, he was expected to support the candidate that would promise him the office of

showmanship. The most visible member of the group, vocalist Eddie Vedder (b. Dec. 23, 1965, Evanston, Ill.), wrote despairing lyrics about adolescent abuse that complemented his brooding baritone voice. Other members included guitarists

Stone Gossard and Mike McCready and bassist Jeff Ament. Drummers Dave Krusen and Dave Abbruzzese left the band in 1991 and 1994, respectively.

Pearl Jam, named after a preserve Vedder’s great-grandmother made, was formed in 1991 in

Seattle, Wash., at the epicentre of the burgeoning grunge scene in alternative rock. Gossard and Ament had previously played together in Seattle with the bands Green River (1984-88) and Mother Love Bone (1988-90). After being joined by McCready, the trio circulated a demo tape of Gossard’s music that caught the attention of Vedder,

then

living in San

Diego,

Calif. The

tape formed the basis of the band’s first album,

Ten, which, after its release in September 1991,

became one of the most successful debuts of a rock group. Pearl Jam’s stock rose even higher with their subsequent concert tours, music videos, and var-

(ANNE-ELLSABETH MOUTET)

ious musical side projects. Their second album,

One of the most popular rock bands in the United States, Pearl Jam not only wrote songs about perceived injustices but also, in June and

popularity than Ten had, instantly topping the music charts and selling 350,000 copies on the first day of its release in October 1993. In another unconventional move, the album was issued without accompanying singles or music videos. (TOM MICHAEL)

prime minister. Pearl Jam

July 1994, actually testified before a congressional subcommittee about such matters. For their sum-

mer concert tour the group planned to set ticket prices at about $20, well below the typical rate of $50, simultaneously hoping to scale the average service fee of $6 down to less than $2. When Ticketmaster Corp., the nation’s largest ticket broker,

refused to comply with the service-fee reduction, the band canceled its summer tour and in May filed a complaint with the U.S. Department of Justice, asserting that Ticketmaster held a national monopoly on ticket distribution. It was not the first time that Pearl Jam had challenged

convention,

nor was

it the last. In

an unusual move the band’s third studio album, Vitalogy, was released as a vinyl record in November 1994, a couple of weeks before the compact disc was made available. Despite their superstar stature as a band that typically performed soldout shows in large sports arenas, they occasionally scheduled last-minute concerts at small venues and experimented with alternative forms of ticket distribution—such as organizing ticket lotteries (thus bypassing Ticket Master), imposing twoticket limits on sales, and offering local fan-club members opportunities to purchase tickets before the general public. The real power

of Pearl Jam, of course,

lay

in their angst-ridden music and intense onstage K.N. NG/EDIE BASKIN—ONYX

Vs,, met with even greater critical acclaim

and

Prescott, John

In an era when politicians in many countries were becoming as bland and manufactured as processed cheese, many people took special pleasure in John Prescott’s election as deputy leader of the U.K.’s Labour Party in July 1994. Prescott’s robust manner, working-class roots, and trade union

background provided an ideal foil for the party’s new

leader,

the

middle-class,

Oxford-educated

lawyer Tony Blair. Prescott was born on May 31, 1938, at Prestatyn, North Wales. His grandfather was a coal miner; his father a railwayman. After leaving school at the age of 15, Prescott worked for two years as a trainee chef and then as a steward (1955-63) on Cunard Line passenger ships. He became active in the Labour Party and the National Union of Seamen. In March 1966 he stood unsuccessfully for the House of Commons. Three months later he helped to organize a seamen’s strike, although Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson condemned the “tightly-knit group of politically motivated men” behind the strike.

Wilson’s rebuke, however, did nothing to prevent Prescott’s being nominated for the safe Labour constituency of Hull East, which he won

People of 1994: Biographies in 1970. Prescott displayed many of the traits of a left-winger, notably in his opposition to the U.K. membership in the European Communities. He was never a standard, bash-the-party-leadership left-winger, however, and by 1981 he began to distance himself from the far left. In 1983 he backed Neil Kinnock’s campaign for the party leadership and was rewarded with a place in Kinnock’s shadow cabinet. In 1988 relations between the two men came close to a breaking point when Prescott unsuccessfully challenged Kinnock’s incumbent deputy, Roy Hattersley, for his job. After Labour lost the 1992 general elections, Kinnock and Hattersley stepped down, and Prescott stood again for the deputy leadership. He was defeated by Margaret Beckett but soon established a rapport with Labour’s new leader, John Smith. (See Opiruaries.) In the fall of 1993, Smith entrusted Prescott with making a speech to close the debate on reforms to the party constitution. Prescott’s syntax and grammar were terrible, but his passion swayed a number of undecided votes, and he was deservedly given the credit for the victory. When Smith died suddenly in May 1994, Prescott ran for both leader and deputy leader. Blair won the leadership easily, but Prescott defeated Beckett for the deputy leadership by 5743%. He quickly proved an indispensable ally to Blair, supporting him in his policy initiatives and launching a campaign to overhaul Labour’s organization and increase its membership. (PETER KELLNER) Price, Nick

In 1982, 26-year-old Nick Price held a threestroke lead with six holes left to play in one of golf’s premier events, the British Open. But then he faltered, and Tom Watson beat him by one

stroke. Watson,

having also won

the 1982

U.S. Open, became only the sixth player ever to win consecutive major tournaments. Twelve years would pass before that exclusive back-to-back club would

admit another member:

Price, who

endured a lengthy period of frustration before being named the best golfer in the world in 1994. Nicholas Raymond Leige Price was born Jan. 28, 1957, in Durban,

South

Africa.

His family

moved to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he began playing golf at the age of eight. At age 17 he traveled to the U.S. and won the Junior World tournament in San Diego, Calif. Price spent the next year (1975) playing on the South African and European tours as an amateur. He served two years in the Rhodesian Air Force as a pilot and then rejoined the European tour as a professional in 1977. He joined the Professional Golfers’ Association of America (PGA) tour fulltime in 1983 and showed great promise, winning the World Series of Golf that year by four strokes over Jack Nicklaus.

Price was

hailed

In the years that followed,

by his peers as one

of the

best, and most likable, golfers on the tour. From

1983 to 1990 he earned nearly $1.9 million. After winning the World

Series, however, he did not

capture another PGA tour event for eight years. Finally, in 1991 his name topped the leader board twice, and he earned a career-high $714,000. But it was his first-place finish at the PGA championship in 1992 that marked the beginning of an incredible 24-month run in which he won 16 times and finished in the top 10 in 37 of 59 tournaments. The 15th win came in July 1994 at the British Open in Turnberry, Scotland, where Price avenged his 1982 heartbreak by sinking a spectacular 18-m (60-ft) putt for an eagle on the second-to-last hole, a shot that clinched his vic-

tory. Then, in August at the PGA championship in Tulsa, Okla., he shot an 11-under-par 269—the

lowest score ever recorded in a U.S. major tournament (Masters, U.S. Open, and PGA)—to win by an amazing margin of six strokes and become the seventh golfer to win back-to-back majors. The win propelled Price to: the top position of the Sony world rankings. The next day he underwent minor surgery. Less than a month later he won the Bell Canadian Open-at Oakville, Ont. Price finished 1994 as the top money winner of the PGA tour, having earned nearly $1.5 million. (ANTHONY G. CRAINE)

Proulx, E. Annie

E. Annie Proulx did not follow the customary advice to writers to “write about what you know.” She preferred to write about what interested her—what she would like to know—and she enjoyed going to new places and writing about what she found there. Thus, for her second novel, The

Shipping News, she made a number of trips to the Newfoundland coast and just hung around— watching the people, listening to them, and absorbing the atmosphere. She learned about the traditional life there and the ways that life was changing, and she found names for her characters in phone books and on bulletin boards. Her methods proved successful. For her novel about a Brooklyn, N.Y.-born newspaperman who moves to Newfoundland with his two daughters and his aunt, Proulx—after having already won the Chicago Tribune’s Heartland Prize, the Irish Times

Ynternational

Fiction Prize, and the Na-

tional Book Award—was the recipient of the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Edna Annie Proulx was born Aug. 22, 1935, in Norwich,

Conn., and grew up in various towns

in New England and North Carolina. She earned two degrees in history—a bachelor’s degree from the University of Vermont in 1969 and a master’s from Sir George Williams University, Montreal, in 1973. She was married and divorced three times,

raised three sons, and for 19 years supported herself by writing magazine articles. She had written her first story at the age of 10, while she was sick in bed with chicken pox, and her first published short story appeared when she was in her early 20s. When she later returned to writing stories, they were all published, and in 1988 a collection,

Heart Songs and Other Stories, came out. At the suggestion of an editor, she turned to novel writing. Postcards—which, in its illustration of the years from World War II to the 1990s in the rural U.S., features a New England farm family losing its home—was published in 1992. For that book, Proulx in 1993 captured the PEN/ Faulkner Award for Fiction. Proulx

credited

her mother,

a painter, with

teaching her how to see—to look carefully at the smallest detail of everything—and she learned her lessons well. Her work was highly praised for

its vivid depiction of locale and character and, in addition, for its dark, offbeat humour. As of 1994

a third novel was more than half-finished, and several others already formed in her mind were waiting their turn. Proulx obviously would be taking many more trips to interesting new places. (BARBARA WHITNEY) Qiao Shi

i

If the arrangements for political succession that senior leader Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p’ing) had in place in 1994 came unstuck, 70-year-old Qiao Shi (Ch’iao Shih) would have a good shot at the top leadership position in China. Qiao Shi was number three in the Chinese political hierarchy, a member of the powerful Political Bureau Standing Committee, and chairman of the National People’s Congress (NPC). He had used the latter post to enhance his domestic political standing and acquire needed foreign exposure. Born in Shanghai in 1924 as Jiang Zhitong (Chiang Chih-t’ung), he changed his name after joining the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1940. A graduate of East China Associated University, Qiao Shi worked in the Shanghai CPC underground before 1949. He then spent several years in East China and the Northeast, working for a time at the Anshan Iron and Steel Co. His specialty was apparently security and intelligence. In 1963 Qiao Shi was transferred to the CPC headquarters in Beijing (Peking). For the next 20 years he worked in the International Liaison Department (ILD) of the Central Committee, becoming its head in 1982. Responsible for managing relations with other communist and revolutionary parties, the ILD was in the thick of the intrigues and polemics that characterized the era of the cold war between China and the Soviet Union. In 1982 Qiao Shi’s career took off when he was elected to the Central Committee. He successively headed the party’s General Office, Orga-

55

nization Department, Political and Legal Affairs Commission, and possibly the secret police and the People’s Armed Police. Qiao Shi was elected to the Political Bureau in September 1985 and to its inner core, the Standing Committee,

two

years later. His most important post was that of secretary of the Central Discipline Inspection Commission in charge of attacking rampant corruption. In April 1986 Qiao Shi received his first government post as a deputy premier of the State Council. In 1992 he became chairman of the National People’s Congress (China’s nominal parliament) and, along with General Secretary Jiang Zemin (Chiang Tse-min) and Premier Li Peng (Li P’eng), one of the nation’s ruling triumvirate. During Qiao Shi’s tenure, the NPC slowly became a forum for limited debate on policy issues. By emphasizing the need to strengthen China’s legal order, Qiao Shi enhanced

the role of the

NPC and obliquely called into question the political primacy of the CPC. For this reason, student democracy leader Wang Dan (Wang Tan) remarked, “Although Qiao Shi is a master of illusions, it’s possible that he could lead China toward more enlightened rule.” In 1993, as head

of China’s parliament, Qiao Shi toured Southeast Asia, and in 1994 he visited Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Ar-

gentina, and Brazil. If Jiang Zemin were to falter after Deng Xiaoping’s death, Qiao Shi could be-

come primus inter pares in a post-Deng collective leadership. (STEVEN I. LEVINE) Quindlen, Anna

In September 1994 New York Times syndicated columnist Anna Quindlen—stating that when she got comfortable in a job it was time to move on to the next challenge—announced that at the end of the year she would be leaving the paper to pursue a full-time career as a novelist. She had already had two novels published. Her first— Object Lessons, a coming-of-age story—appeared in 1991 and became a best-seller. The experience of temporarily dropping out of college to care for her mother as she was dying of cancer formed the basis of her second novel, One True Thing (1994). In addition, two collections of her columns and a

children’s book were published. One of the most successful columnists in the U.S., Quindlen was valued for seeming to speak directly to each of her readers about the issues that concerned them, and she brought an insightful, personal view to political, especially gender, issues. Although she had been mentioned as a possible future Times executive editor, she felt that continuing her work at the paper would not leave time for the commitment she wanted to make to her fiction writing and to her family. Quindlen was born July 8, 1953, in Philadelphia. She began her newspaper career as a parttime reporter for the New York Post when she was still a student at Barnard College, New York City, and her first story was published in Seventeen magazine when she was a junior. She received a B.A. degree in 1974 and went to work at the paper full-time. In 1977 she moved to the New York Times to be a general assignment and city hall reporter, and from 1981 to 1983, when she became deputy metropolitan editor, she wrote the biweekly column “About New York.” In 1985 Quindlen left the Times to stay home with her two young sons and work on a novel, but she returned in late 1986 to write the “Life in the 30’s” column. Within two years it was being published in some 60 newspapers. The birth of her daughter in late 1988 led her to quit again, but a year later she was lured back to the Times, this time with

an offer to write a column on the op-ed page. “Public & Private” began early in 1990, and her popularity continued to grow. In 1992 Quindlen won the Pulitzer Prize for commentary, only the third woman to win the prize in that category. In her final column, on December 14, Quindlen

paid tribute to the “everyday angels” who, through their efforts to give help selflessly where it is needed, make it possible to believe in the essential goodness of people. “I leave you with good tidings of great joy,” she wrote. “Those who shun the prevailing winds of cynicism and anomie can truly fly.” (BARBARA WHITNEY)

56

People of 1994: Biographies

Reinsdorf, Jerry

It was a turbulent year for the American “national pastime” as players of major league baseball went on strike in August 1994 after failing to negotiate a new labour contract with team owners. During the strike many fans came to realize that professional baseball was no longer just a game but a fast-growing, multibillion-dollar monopoly that enjoyed an antitrust exemption. The one who perhaps best typified the modern sports executive was Jerry Reinsdorf, owner of the Chicago White Sox (from 1981) and of the Chicago Bulls (from 1985), a franchise of the National Bas-

ketball Association (NBA). He was one of the most powerful representatives of baseball’s 28team ownership bloc, who precipitated the strike with their proposal for a cap on players’ salaries and for revenue-sharing that would aid ball clubs in smaller media markets. Reinsdorf emerged in 1992 as one of the most persuasive owners in baseball, spearheading the replacement of baseball commissioner Fay Vincent with ally Bud Selig, owner of the Milwaukee Brewers. Reinsdorf was also an influential owner in the NBA. Over the wishes of the league in the early 1990s, he secured a lucrative television

contract for the Bulls with the Chicago-based su-

perstation WGN.

With an estimated personal worth between $60

million and $90 million, Reinsdorf was respected

for his financial expertise, as well as for his winning teams. He helped transform the White Sox into division champions (1983 and 1993) and the Bulls into three-time NBA champions (1991-93). His dual sports holdings conveniently converged in 1993 when Bulls superstar Michael Jordan retired from basketball to pursue a lifelong dream to play professional baseball and Reinsdorf enrolled him in the White Sox minor-league system. Despite these successes Reinsdorf was often vilified by fans for his laserlike focus on the economic bottom line. In 1988, threatening to relocate the White Sox to St. Petersburg, Fla., he persuaded

Illinois politicians to help finance a new stadium, allowing him to tear down beloved Comiskey Park. The new publicly funded Comiskey Park, which opened in 1991, was subsidized by taxpayers and contained a large number of premiumpriced seats. Similarly, in 1994 he unveiled the new United Center, featuring 216 luxury suites, to replace Chicago Stadium for the Bulls. Reinsdorf was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on Feb.

25, 1936. After graduating from George Washington University (B.A., 1957) and from Northwestern University Law School (1960), he became a lawyer for the Internal Revenue Service, where he arranged tax shelters for corporations. In 1973 he cofounded Balcor Co., one of the nation’s first firms to specialize in real-estate partnerships. After it became a huge success, he sold it to

American Express for $53 million in 1982; he eventually left the company in 1987. (TOM MICHAEL) Romario Idolized by the public, the despair of authority— Brazilian association football (soccer) player Romario de Souza Faria was one of the sport’s most colourful players. In 1994 he led Brazil to victory and won the Golden Ball as the most gifted per-

former in the World Cup. Romario was born on Jan. 29, 1966, and brought up in Villa Pena, a Rio de Janeiro suburb. His first income was derived from cleaning car windshields at traffic lights. It was not until his father took him along to see the Olaria football club that any thoughts of a career in professional sports emerged. He signed with Olaria and developed rapidly. In a friendly match against Vasco da Gama he scored four times, a feat that persuaded Vasco

to sign him. He won two championships with the team and scored 73 goals in 123 matches. Selected for the 1988 Brazilian Olympic team, he was leading goal scorer in the competition, and

Brazil took the silver medal. In the América Cup, with Romario goal in the final against Uruguay. Romario then transferred to PSV Eindhoven. PSV captured

1989 Brazil won scoring the only

the Dutch club the League and

Cup championships in his first season (1987-88), though Romario was already giving clear indica-

tions that he wanted to make a name for himself,

not necessarily for the team. His control, mobil-

ity, and vision—allied to strength and fine body balance plus a surprisingly long stride—made him a potent striker. But he was disinterested in training, which he considered a waste of energy, and

was fined for throwing temper tantrums, failing to report on time, complaining of the cold, and flying to Rio de Janeiro at every conceivable excuse. Though immensely popular with spectators, he was disliked by his fellow players and made no attempt to learn Dutch. His goal-scoring prowess, however, was undeniable. In five seasons

he scored 125 goals for PSV. In March 1990, having already been banned from three internationals for being sent off against Chile for fighting, Romario broke his leg. He

was clearly far from being match fit for the 1990 World Cup in Italy. Romiério had a disagreement with the Brazilian coach before the start of the qualifying matches for the 1994 World Cup because he wanted to

select his own team. He was brought back for the crucial match with Uruguay and scored twice to guarantee Brazil a place in the finals. In the U.S.

he behaved himself on and off the field and was the second-highest scorer, with five goals. Had the World Cup matured him? Perhaps not. In August he reported back 23 days late for preseason training with the Spanish club Barcelona, to which he had transferred in 1993, and was fined £50,000. Rom4rio said that he was overseeing his Romario Foundation, a project to help Rio street children. (JACK ROLLIN) Rose, Sir Michael

In January 1994 Lieut. Gen. Sir Michael Rose assumed one of the toughest and most delicate military commands in the world: leading the UN forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Within weeks he had won praise from around the world for his ability to combine diplomatic skills with military judgment. Rose was born in Quetta, India (now in Pak-

istan), on Jan. 5, 1940. After studying at the University of Oxford and the Sorbonne, he was

commissioned (1964) into the Coldstream Guards. He first saw active service in Aden (now part of Yemen), where the transition from colonial rule to independence (1967) was accompanied by considerable violence. In 1968 Rose joined the fabled Special Air Services (SAS), with whom he conducted a number of undercover operations in Northern Ireland, the Middle East, and East Asia.

In 1976 he surfaced as a squadron commander in Northern Ireland. Although some British troops were accused of operating a shoot-to-kill policy,

Rose acquired a reputation for insisting that all counterterrorist operations had to operate strictly within the law and under political control. On April 30, 1980, six Arab

terrorists occu-

pied the Iranian embassy in London, seizing 27 hostages. Six days later, after the murder of one hostage and the breakdown of negotiations to secure the release of the rest, Rose led a rescue team of SAS officers. They abseiled into the embassy, freed all the remaining hostages, and killed five terrorists. The assault, shown live on television, greatly enhanced the reputation of the SAS in general and Rose in particular. Two years later Rose played a prominent role in the recapture of the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas from Argentina. He led the operation that regained Mt. Kent, overlooking the capital, and subsequently negotiated the Argentine surrender that ended the war. In 1990 he was appointed director of the Army Staff College, with instructions to modernize its courses and shift its emphasis toward small-scale local wars and counterterrorist operations. His appointment as UN commander in Bosnia gave him a chance to use his experience. He quickly became convinced that he did not have enough troops to guarantee keeping the peace. Partly as a result, he sought to talk, rather than

fight, his way out of problems. This provoked criticism from some quarters that he was too slow

to launch air strikes against Serbian positions.

Rose repeatedly called for an increase in his 10,000-strong force, especially the 3,700-strong British contingent. He also entered the argument

over whether the UN should lift its arms embargo on Bosnia. He said that if the embargo were lifted, his troops would be placed in an impossible position and would have to withdraw. On October 17, the UN announced that Rose would leave Bosnia in January 1995, at the end of his (PETER KELLNER) 12-month term. Sanders, Barry

A favourite activity of fans of the National Football League (NFL) was to debate who was the best running back of all time. The usual candidates included Jim Brown, O.J. Simpson, and Walter

Payton. But after the 1994 season, fans would have to give Barry Sanders serious consideration.

In his sixth year with the Detroit Lions, Sanders

rushed for a career high 1,883 yd on 331 carries, an average of 5.7 yd per carry. Not only did he lead the league in rushing, but his performance was the fourth best in NFL history. A stocky, thick-legged back, Sanders could use

power to defeat would-be tacklers, but his real gift was the darting feints and spins that left defenders grasping air. He could change direction seemingly without losing speed, and on the faster artificial grass he looked like a whirling dervish. Sanders was on the home carpet of the Silverdome when he had the best game of his pro career against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 13, rushing for 237 yd on 26 carries. Sanders was born July 16, 1968, in Wichita, Kan. A deeply religious person who tithed to his church in Wichita, he learned about the value of humility and hard work from his parents while growing up with eight sisters and two brothers. These lessons proved valuable when Sanders’ talents were initially ignored. He had learned his quicksilver moves on the sandlots, but in high school his small stature of 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) discouraged coaches from playing him at running back until the last five games of his senior year. The startling 1,417 yd that Sanders gained in those games, however, was enough to earn him a football scholarship to Oklahoma State University (OSU). For most of his first two years there Sanders found himself limited to returning kicks, while All-American halfback Thurman Thomas got the handoffs. Sanders was a junior in 1988 when he finally became the starting halfback and had what was probably the greatest single season in college football. He rushed for 2,628 yd— the best single-season rushing performance in the history of the National Collegiate Athletic Association—and broke 33 other records as well. Not surprisingly, Sanders easily won the Heisman Trophy that year as the nation’s best college football player. When OSU was put on probation the next year, Sanders declared himself eligible for the professional draft and was selected by the Detroit Lions as the third overall pick. Sanders’ first year in the NFL was an enormous success. He rushed for 1,470 yd (a Detroit Lions single-season record), averaged more than 5 yd per carry, caught 24 passes, and scored 14 touchdowns. At the end of the season he was named rookie of the year and made the All-Pro team. Sanders had rushed for more than 1,000 yd

in each of the first six years of his professional career, a feat exceeded only by Eric Dickerson. (JAMES HENNELLY) Santer, Jacques

“The right man in the right place at the right time,” as he was called by British Prime Minister John Major, or the lowest common denominator, as others said of him, Jacques Santer came to

the presidency of the European Commission as a compromise choice. He was selected for a fiveyear term by the European Council, the heads of government of the 12 member nations of the European Union (EU), at a special meeting on July 15, 1994, and confirmed by a majority of only 22 votes in the 567-seat European Parliament one week later. Santer was drafted after Major had vetoed the selection of Belgian Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene, whose candidacy had been advanced by France and Germany.

People of 1994: Biographies Santer, who

was

reelected

in June

1994 to

his third term as prime minister of Luxembourg, would assume the reins of the EU administra-

tion in January 1995, at a crucial time in the

EU’s movement toward political and economic integration. The Maastricht Treaty, which established the ground rules for that integration, was scheduled for review in 1996. Several of the “Euroskeptical” signees had begun to waver as the Commission, Parliament, and member nations

battled over sharing power. Even if Santer might lack the commanding presence of his predecessor, France’s Jacques Delors (for 10 years the voice of EU centralization), his skills as a quiet conciliator would still be much in demand. It was under his guidance, during Luxembourg’s six-month stewardships of the rotating presidency of the European Council, that essential agreements were reached—in 1985 and 1991—concerning a single economic market and the Maastricht Treaty, re-

spectively. Santer’s vision was of a federalized, “non-Napoleonic” Europe (“The more Europe is decentralized, the stronger it is,” he said)—not the predominant view. Holding his own with influential Eurocrats such as the U.K.’s Sir Leon Brittan, within the Commission and outside it, would require statesmanship of the highest order. Born on May

18, 1937, in Wasserbillig, Lux-

embourg, Santer graduated from the Athénée de Luxembourg, studied law at the Universities of Strasbourg and Paris (with a degree from the latter), and attended the Institute of Political Science in Paris. Shortly after beginning his law career, he entered politics, serving the Christian Social People’s Party as its parliamentary secretary (1966-72; becoming Luxembourg’s secretary of state for social and cultural affairs in the last year), secretary-general (1972-74), and ultimately president (1974-82). In 1975 he became a member of the European Parliament and was reelected in 1979 and 1984. He was elected Luxembourg’s prime minister in 1984 and at different times during his three terms took on the additional portfolios of Finance and Communications, Treasury, and Cultural Affairs. From 1987 to 1990

he also assumed the leadership of the European People’s Party, the coalition that united Christian

Democratic and Christian Social parties in the European Parliament. (JEFF WALLENFELDT) Sa‘ud, al-Walid ibn Talal ibn Abdulaziz as-, Prince

In what was called a modern-day fairy tale, but also might turn out to be a shrewd business move,

a wealthy prince in 1994 came to the rescue of an American company in trouble. Saudi Prince Walid made a large investment in Euro Disneyland Paris, which was suffering from severe financial difficulties, partly brought on by lower-thanexpected attendance. The parent-company stock, Euro Disney S.C.A., had fallen by 20%, and the theme park had lost more than $1 billion since its opening in 1992. Prince Walid, the nephew of Saudi Arabia’s King Fahd, invested $400 million in the troubled venture, part of his long-term goal

of attaining $5 billion in wealth by 1998. Prince al-Walid ibn Talal ibn Abdulaziz asSa‘ud was born in 1954 in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and reared there and in Beirut, Lebanon. He attended Menlo College in Menlo Park, Calif.,

and Syracuse (N.Y.) University, where he studied business and social science. In 1980, allegedly

with $15,000 given to him by his father and a 130-room palace against which he could borrow, Prince Walid set out to make his fortune by negotiating big deals at bargain prices. In 1990-91

he bought nearly a 15% interest in the Citicorp banking group for about $800 million, a sum that he parlayed into nearly $2 billion. In addition, he held an 11% interest in the Saks Fifth Avenue retail chain. As the chairman of United Saudi Commercial Bank, a small but highly efficient and profitable concern, Prince Walid led a number of takeovers, including the 1993 acquisition of Panda Supermarket Co., which, after merging with Al-Azizia Supermarket Co., recorded a 10fold increase in profitability in the first six months of 1994. In July Prince Walid acquired a 50% interest in the Fairmont Group of hotels in the U.S., and.in September he completed a deal for

a 25% stake in Canada’s Four Seasons Hotels. In October he successfully negotiated the takeover of Saudi Livestock Co. Perhaps the prince’s most highly publicized deal, however, was the 24% interest he bought in

Euro Disneyland Paris. His plan was to turn the park around financially by investing another $100 million inthe construction of a nearby convention centre, which, it was thought, would help draw

conventioneers and their families to the theme park. If all went well, both Prince Walid and Euro

Disneyland Paris would benefit. (ANTHONY L. GREEN) Schuller, Gunther Of Reminiscences and Reflections by Gunther Schuller is a work filled with unique, changing sound colours, “a hazy exercise in luxuriant orchestration,” according to one critic. Dedicated to Schuller’s wife, who died in 1992, it was

performed only by the Louisville Orchestra, conducted by the composer, before it won the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for musical composition. If only a comparative handful of people heard the work, many may have applauded the award, considering Schuller’s extraordinarily diverse half century of composing, playing, producing, teaching, and conducting music. Gunther Alexander Schuller, who was born in

New York City on Nov. 22, 1925, began composing music at age-11, “which is rather late; I mean,

Mozart started at three or four,” and won the disapproval of his father, a violinist in the New York Philharmonic, because of his fondness for jazz. As “one of the original dropouts,” Schuller left high school at 17 to play French horn in the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. While playing French horn in the orchestra of the Metropolitan Opera (1945-59), he wrote music for chamber groups

and orchestras,

including Seven

Studies

on Themes of Paul Klee, possibly his best-known work. As a “conservative radical” composer,

he

championed “third-stream” music, which joined jazz improvisation to classical composition, as in his Conversations and Abstraction for, respectively, the Modern Jazz Quartet and alto saxophonist Ornette Coleman with string quartets. He also composed the opera The Visitation during the height of the civil rights movement; it recast K.,

the protagonist of Franz Kafka’s The Trial, as a contemporary African-American. Schuller’s preoccupation with American music resulted in the book Early Jazz (1968), the first volume of a proposed historical trilogy. As president of the New England Conservatory of Music (1967-77), he added jazz artists and a third-stream department to the faculty. He also organized a series of ensembles to preserve distinctively American music in danger of being neglected: bands to play swing music, country fiddle music, and the music of Duke

Ellington and of

the Paul Whiteman orchestra; the most noted of these groups was his New England Conservatory Ragtime Ensemble, a leading factor in the 1970s revival of ragtime music. After his conservatory years he composed his second, third, and fourth symphonies and several concertos, published the second volume of his history of jazz, The Swing Era (1989), and supervised the completion and performance of a major unfinished jazz work, Epitaph, by Charles Mingus. In the 1990s Schuller composed, ran his GM recording company, and transcribed music and conducted for the Smithsonian Institution’s Jazz Repertory project. The MacArthur Foundation “genius grant” that he received in 1991 had a five-year limit, but there seemed to be no limits to Schuller’s energy and creative ingenuity. (JOHN LITWEILER) Shalala, Donna Edna

As the debate over health care came to centre court in the U.S. Congress in 1994, one of the Clinton administration’s key players was Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) Donna Shalala. Whether battling Beltway gridlock or opponents as a teenaged tennis champion, Shalala, a respected academic and the first woman to head a Big Ten university, had always been a fierce, principled competitor. Born on Feb. 14, 1941, in

57

Cleveland, Ohio, where her father, a real-estate

salesman, was one of the leaders of the SyrianLebanese community, Shalala had a strong female role model in her mother, a physical education teacher who attained a law degree while holding two jobs and raising Shalala and her twin sister. After graduating from Western College for Women,

Oxford,

Ohio

(B.A.,

1962),

Shalala

served two years in the Peace Corps in Iran, then attended Syracuse (N.Y.) University (master of social sciences, 1968; Ph.D., 1970). She aspired to a career in journalism, but when a job interview with the New York Times ended with the advice that she seek a position with a small-town newspaper, Shalala pursued an academic career, teaching at the City University of New York’s (CUNY’s) Bernard M. Baruch College, then at Columbia University, New York City. She also served as a director and treasurer of the Municipal Assistance Corp., which helped rescue New York City from bankruptcy. From 1977 to 1980 she served in the administration of Pres. Jimmy Carter as an assistant secretary in the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Returning to academia, Shalala became, at age

39, the president of Hunter College, CUNY. At Hunter she added to her reputation as a committed feminist by overseeing dramatic increases in the percentages of female and minority faculty and administrators. In 1988 she became the chancellor of the University of Wisconsin at Madison, one of the largest universities in the U.S. Confronted by a campus afflicted with racial tension, she instituted the “Madison Plan,”

which increased recruitment of minority students and faculty and reflected her commitment to a “multiethnic, multiracial, multicultural” academic

environment. Also seeking to improve the university’s image by reversing the woeful fortunes of its football team, she hired a new athletic director and a new head coach, who led the team to a

Rose Bowl victory in January 1994. By that time, however,

Shalala had moved

on to head HHS,

the nation’s principal agency for protecting health and providing human services, with responsibility for administering Social Security, Medicare, the National Institutes of Health, and the Food

and Drug Administration. Shalala has faced every challenge with the same determination that prompted New York Yankees’ owner George Steinbrenner, the coach of the girls’ softball team that Shalala once led to the city championship in Cleveland, to call her “one of the toughest com-

petitors that I have ever seen.”

(JEFF WALLENFELDT) Shoemaker, Carolyn and Eugene, and Levy, David

For six days between July 16 and 22, 1994, Carolyn Shoemaker, her husband Eugene, and fellow comet hunter David Levy peered anxiously through telescopes to watch the estimated 21 major fragments of the comet they had jointly discovered—Shoemaker-Levy 9—pummel the planet Jupiter. Following months of speculation as to what the impacts would entail, the event itself proved equal to the most optimistic predictions. From the atmosphere of a bruised and battered Jupiter arose tall, bright plumes that left broad, dark stains beneath them, providing a spectacular show for sky watchers around the world. (See ASTRONOMY.) The team discovered the fragmented comet in orbit around Jupiter in March 1993 at the Palomar Observatory in southern California. The find was certainly not the first for the veteran comet spotters: as of late 1994 Carolyn had 32 comet discoveries to her credit, more than anyone alive

and only five less than the all-time record held by the 19th-century amateur astronomer Jean-Louis Pons. Eugene (Gene to his acquaintances) was credited with 29, and Levy with 21, of which 13 were in collaboration with the Shoemakers. Of the three team members only Gene was formally trained as a scientist. Born April 28, 1928, in Los Angeles, Calif., Eugene Merle Shoemaker

received a bachelor’s degree in geology from the California Institute of Technology and a doctorate from Princeton University. He worked for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) from 1948 to 1993, serving thereafter as scientist emeritus.

58

People of 1994: Biographies

In the 1960s Gene established the astrogeology branch of the USGS and subsequently its astrogeology centre at Flagstaff, Ariz. He was noted for helping to confirm the impact origin (rather than volcanic origin) of the site now known as Meteor Crater in Arizona and for his work with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on lunar exploration missions. Carolyn Spellman Shoemaker was born in Gallup, N.M., June 24, 1929. She received bach-

elor’s and master’s degrees from Chico (Calif.) State College, having studied history, political science, and English literature. She and Gene were married on Aug. 18, 1951. After teaching high school for a year, Carolyn remained at home to raise their three children. Not until the children left home did she begin helping her husband to search for asteroids and comets, a task at which

she became an expert. In 1980 Carolyn accepted - a position as a visiting scientist with the astrogeology branch of the USGS and in 1989 also began serving as research professor of astronomy at Northern Arizona University. Both Carolyn and Gene were on the staff of Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff. Amateur astronomer David Levy met the Shoemakers in 1988 as a result of a comet he had discovered and they were tracking. Born in Montreal on May 22, 1948, Levy developed an interest in astronomy at an early age. In college, however, he studied English literature, receiving a bachelor’s degree from Acadia (Nova Scotia) University and a master’s degree from Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont. A science writer by trade, he was the author of 11 books on astron-

By 1979 he had decided to use some of his profits to create a network of philanthropic organizations. Much of the work of the Soros Foundations was directed at Eastern Europe—starting with Hungary, where he awarded scholarships, provided technical assistance, and helped modernize schools and businesses. Even though Hungary was still a communist state, Soros obtained guar-

antees that his foundation could operate without government interference. As the Cold War ended and the Soviet regime collapsed, Soros established foundations in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Rus-

sia. Some critics argued that he was being inconsistent—condemning “short-termism” in Western governments while making money from shortterm currency speculation. However, he continued to spend significant sums to help establish democracy in Eastern Europe. Although Soros’ critics suggested that his 1994 losses could signal a real change of fortune, admirers predicted that he would be back on top just as quickly. (PETER KELLNER) Steel, Danielle

In 1994 U.S. publishing phenomenon Danielle Steel saw her 32nd novel, Accident, occupy the Publishers Weekly list of best-selling hardcover fiction for 15 consecutive weeks. Most critics gave tepid reviews to what they called the formulaic themes in Steel’s romance novels, which featured

strong yet glamorous women

overcoming major

version of the French literary prize Deux Magots for two

best-sellers.

The

first, a titillating yet

disturbing autobiographical novel, sold 300,000 copies after its appearance in late 1993. By July 1994 it had gone into 18 printings. The other, We Are Reproducing, consisted of a series of manga (comics) on pregnancy, birth, and bringing up an illegitimate baby. Noted religious anthropologist Shinichi Nakagawa, a one-man jury, selected Uchida for “openly and frankly portraying life and sex,...at times even making men

fear the

reality so tenderly described.”

Uchida reinforced her individuality and defied convention by insisting on spelling her name “Shungicu.” A vivacious entertainer noted for her colourful costumes and rhythmic dances, she frequently appeared in funky concerts and was a featured vocalist with Avecs, her own Latin band.

Uchida was born in Nagasaki on Aug. 7, 1959. Her father deserted the family when she and a younger sister were in primary school. Sometime later, her mother, a dance teacher and bar hostess,

began living with a fellow dance instructor. When Shungicu was forced to sleep with her stepfather, her mother did not interfere. One of Shungicu’s happiest memories from those unhappy days was receiving a ream of rough paper from her fourth grade teacher for saying, in response to a question, that her dream was to become a manga-ka (cartoonist). Shungicu dropped out of high school in her second year and worked in a restaurant, in a bar,

obstacles or ordeals to secure a career, love, and a family. Her fans, however, devoured her every

in a printshop, and as a domestic. At times she slept under a bridge. Five years later she left Nagasaki for Tokyo with her beloved manga and

omy, including his latest, The Quest for Comets

best-seller lists. Her admirers, consisting of almost

$7,000 in savings.

(1994), and contributed a monthly column to the magazine Sky and Telescope. He noted that, al-

exotic locales, historical ambiance, and, most im-

though Shoemaker-Levy 9 had made a forceful impact on Jupiter, its reverberations on Earth were even greater, as the widely reported summer event rekindled popular interest in the starry

skies above.

(MARY JANE FRIEDRICH)

Soros, George

Whenever turbulence struck world money markets, financial dealers traditionally asked two questions: would currency values change and what would happen to interest rates? During the early 1990s a third question acquired equal importance: what was George Soros doing? Soros’ status as an almost mythical financier was established in September 1992, when the British government devalued the pound sterling. Through his Quantum group of companies, Soros had sold some $15 billion worth of sterling during the days preceding devaluation, much of it purchased with borrowed money. Afterward, Soros bought back pounds, paid back the money he had borrowed, and made a profit of about $1 billion. Other people also profited from the pound’s fall, but the scale of Soros’s operations dwarfed those of everyone else. In 1994, however, his instincts appeared to fail him—at least temporarily—as he speculated that the dollar would rise in value against the Japanese yen. Instead, the dollar fell all year, and the Quantum Fund lost some $600

million in February and possibly another $400

million in the autumn. Soros was born in Budapest into a prosperous Jewish family on Aug. 12, 1930. His upbringing was disrupted by the Nazis’ arrival in 1944. The family split up and used false papers to avoid being sent to concentration camps. In 1947 the family moved to London. Soros studied philosophy under Karl Popper (see OBITUARIES) at the London School of Economics, but he abandoned his plans to become a philosopher and joined the London merchant bank Singer & Friedlander. In 1956 he moved to New York City, where he

worked initially as an analyst of European securities and rapidly made his mark. In 1969 he established the Quantum Fund, which subsequently spawned a range of associ-

ated companies. His daring investment decisions caused the funds to grow rapidly, but not all his gambles succeeded. He correctly foresaw the worldwide stock market crash of October 1987— but wrongly predicted that Japanese stocks would fall hardest of all.

novel and helped drive each to the top of the equal numbers of males and females, enjoyed the portant, the happy endings in her cathartic books. Danielle Fernande Schuelein-Steel was born on Aug. 14, 1947, in New

York

City. She was

an

only child, and after her parents divorced she was reared by relatives and family employees in Paris and New York City. Steel was a lonely child who immersed herself in poetry and books, especially those by her favourite author, French novelist Colette. By the age of 15, Steel had graduated from the Lycée Frangais, and in 1963 she enrolled in the Parsons School of Design, in New York. IlIness prevented her from finishing her studies, but when she recovered, Steel married a wealthy French banker. In 1968 she was hired as a vice president of public relations for the advertising agency Supergirls, Ltd., in New York City. When the firm floundered in 1971, Steel turned

to writing novels and poetry. Her first paperback novel, Going Home, was published in 1973 but sold only moderately well. Steel also began writing copy for the Grey Advertising Agency in San Francisco. After divorcing and remarrying and

Shungicu’s first collection of manga, entitled Shungicu, was an instant hit when it appeared in 1984. Blending sex with what she described as “gag nonsense” that did not offend readers, she won a huge following matched by few others in the crowded field of Japanese manga-ka. One of Shungicu’s best works was Minami-kun’s Sweetheart, a manga portraying an amiable girl, Chiyomi, who suddenly shrinks to the size of a doll but continues to develop normally. From her place inside Minami-kun’s pocket, she accompanies him everywhere he goes. She talks to him from the palm of his hand and sleeps on his pillow beside his head. They fall in love, but she is fatally injured when he is struck by a car and she is thrown to the ground. The romantic fantasy was made into a popular television drama in 1994. In less than 10 years Shungicu produced more than 60 books, including three collections of essays. Her manga books include A Working Girl’s Thoughts, You Gotta Shungicu, The Living Dress, Strange Fruit, Unobserved Foot Beat, Fantasy of an Ordinary Young Girl, and Coelacanth Romance.

(KAY K. TATEISHI)

while raising her children, Steel continued to write

but did not achieve much success until the publication of her fourth novel, The Promise (1978), an instant best-seller that was followed by a slew of best-selling paperbacks. Her first hardcover novel, The Ring (1980), a multigenerational, international saga, was also quite successful. Though she published a book of poetry, Love: Poems (1981), contributed to the nonfiction book Having a Baby (1984), and wrote the Max and Martha series of

Yanni For the New Age composer/performer known only as Yanni, 1994 was a very good year. Although

from the mid-1980s his nine previous albums had sold some 6 million copies, he became a superstar after March 1994, when Public Broadcasting Service stations repeatedly aired his 90-minute special, “Yanni in Concert: Live at the Acropolis,”

Uchida, Shungiku In Japan, as elsewhere, success was part luck, part talent, and part hard work. For singer, dancer, author, and cartoonist Shungiku Uchida, it also

during national pledge week. The program elicited record-breaking contributions from viewers and became one of the most successful programs ever shown on public television. The television spectacular, which Yanni coproduced, starred the selftaught keyboardist and composer, accompanied by the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra and his own percussive six-piece band in a triumphant performance in his native land, Greece. Three days after its commercial release in the US., the album Yanni Live at the Acropolis began to climb Billboard magazine’s charts; both album and video later went platinum. Public demand for more of Yanni and his romantic, arpeggio-infused instrumental music brought about brisk sales of his earlier releases; his 64 subsequent concerts throughout the U.S. in 1994 were virtually sold out. Plans were made for a world tour. Yanni Chryssomallis was born to a middle-class

included a calculated flouting of social proprieties to shock her devotees. In 1994 she won Japan’s

family in Kalamata, Greece, on Nov. 14, 1954. As an adolescent, he was a member of the Greek

children’s books in 1989, Steel pleased her core

of fans most with a string of novels about bittersweet love. Several of her works became popular television movies, including Kaleidoscope, Jewels, and Crossings. Steel, however, had no desire to emulate the

jet-setting lifestyle of her heroines; she spent most of her time at home with her nine children and third husband. By the end of 1994, she had more

than 125 million books in print and no plans to stop crafting her unique blend of juicy dialogue, strongly defined characters, and twisting plots.

(SUSAN RAPP)

People of 1994: Biographies

59

national swimming team, breaking the national freestyle record at age 14. Yanni went to'the U.S. at age 18 to attend the University of Minnesota, from which he graduated in 1976 with a B.A. in psychology. A founding member of the rock band Chameleon, he launched his solo recording career in 1980 with the instrumental album Optimystique. Reflections of Passion (1990) sold 1.8 million copies; both Dare to Dream (1992) and In My Time (1993) were nominated for Grammy awards. Although unable to read music or to notate it, Yanni composed music for films and television. A naturalized U.S. citizen, he lived in California, where he recorded for his Private

Music label. In performance,

Yanni

almost diffident charm.

exuded

From

sincerity and

time to time, he

tossed his mane of shoulder-length black hair and smiled almost shyly, displaying dazzling white teeth beneath an upper lip adorned witha bristling black mustache. Lean and tanned, Yanni had a straightforward, calm glance andaself-contained expression. He usually wore either all white or all black, sometimes favouring a romantic-looking shirt with billowy sleeves. Occasionally while performing, either seated at an acoustic piano or standing at one of several synthesizers, he would close his eyes and shake his head slightly, as if basking in the musical energy and love being exchanged between him and his audience. When Yanni spoke briefly to his audience in fluent, lightly-accented English, he shared his thoughts on creativity and his belief in the oneness of all people. (NAOMI BERNARDS POLONSKY)

Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leén stepped in to replace him as the candidate of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The PRI, which had

Yegorova, Lyubov A women’s cross-country

governed Mexico for more than 60 years, was expected to continue to operate in a similar fashion. Zedillo’s refreshing campaign, however, centred

skier

from

Russia,

Lyubov Yegorova became one of the two most decorated performers in the 1994 Olympic Winter Games at Lillehammer, Norway, by winning three gold medals and a silver. These, with the

three golds and two silvers she had acquired in 1992 at Albertville, France, brought her Olympic career total to six gold and three silver medals,

an achievement bettered only by the 10 accumulated by her former national team colleague Raisa Smetanina. Only one other Winter Games athlete had captured as many gold medals—the Soviet speed skater Lydia Skoblikova, who amassed six in 1960 and 1964. Yegorova

was born May 5, 1966, in Tomsk,

Siberia. In 1982 she moved to Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), where she trained arduously on the local ski course. Joining the World Cup circuit in 1987, she did not make her first real impact

until she finished third overall in 1991 and then repeated the feat the following season. She became World Cup winner in 1993 and finished second in 1994. In addition to placing first in 10 cup events during those momentous four years, Yegorova took the 30-km freestyle in the 1991 world championships at Val di Fiemme, Italy, and was a member of the winning relay team. In the 1993 championships at Falun, Sweden, she helped retain the relay title. Of average build—1.67 m (5 ft 5% in) tall and weighing 54 kg (119 lb)—Yegorova developed

admirable stamina and versatility, excelling over both the shortest and longest distances, as evidenced in her Olympic performances. In 1992 her first three gold medals were won in the freestyle 10 km, 15 km, and 4 x 5-km relay. In 1994 her three golds came in the 5 km, 10-km pursuit, and

relay. She planned to extend her Olympic participation and perhaps shatter all previous records at the 1998 Winter Games in Nagano, Japan. Resolved to comply with husband Igor Sysoyev’s wishes, Yegorova aspired to become a mother be-

fore Nagano. “Before then, I would like to take a season off to relax,” she said. Asked if she would like her hoped-for child to become a serious skier,

she expressed a preference for dancing. “Compet-

SERGIO DORANTES—SYGMA.

on promises to open and modernize Mexico’s economy. Though not with as wide a margin as predicted, Zedillo on August 21 defeated eight other candidates with 50.18% of the vote to become Mexico’s newest president. Mexico’s economic future and its ability to respond to the demands of open trade in the 21st century rested squarely on Zedillo’s shoulders. Zedillo, the son

of an electrician, was

born

on Dec. 27, 1951, in Mexico City. After spending most of his childhood in Mexicali, just south of the California border, he returned to Mexico

City in 1965 to attend the National Polytechnic Institute. A decisive moment in Zedillo’s career came when he joined the PRI in 1971. After obtaining his doctorate in economics from Yale University and working for Mexico’s central bank, he was appointed undersecretary of planning and budgetary control in 1987 by Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Mexico’s president-elect from the PRI. In that position Zedillo earned his reputation as an economic wizard and technocrat by reducing the inflation rate from 160% to only about 8% in five years. He also helped Mexico achieve its first balanced budget. Becoming secretary of education

in 1992, Zedillo overhauled

the public

school system by decentralizing it and giving each of the 31 states more responsibility and control over their own schools. Against a tense economic backdrop of lingering recession, hesitant foreign investors, high interest rates, and a devalued peso, Zedillo’s challenge after taking office on December 1 was to spur Mexico’s economy and to combat unemployment. He also promised to spend more money on education, health, and basic services while remaining

within the constraints of a balanced budget. Zedillo’s hopes of an early start were quickly dashed, however. The stock market plunged, and on December 20 the government was forced to devalue the peso by about 14% against the U.S. dollar and then allow it to float. By year’s end, despite an economic restructuring plan and promises of support from other nations, the value of the peso had dropped by more than 40%. (SUSAN RAPP)

itive skiing is too difficult,” explained Yegorova,

a philosophy clearly not applicable to herself. (HOWARD BASS) Zedillo, Ernesto

i

When Mexican presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated on March 23, 1994,

while campaigning in Tijuana, campaign manager

Zhirinovsky, Vladimir

When Vladimir Zhirinovsky’s Liberal Democratic Party won 22.8% of the vote in the Russian parliamentary elections in December 1993, the West gasped. It had previously not taken much notice of the man

known

for his boorish, bul-

lying behaviour or for his promise’ to create a

dictatorship when elected president, and they had not listened very closely to his threats to expand the borders of Russia to include Alaska and Finland, use large fans to blow radioactive waste into the Baltic states, and reduce crime by instituting summary executions. People did not know if they should take his high-decibel nationalistic comments seriously. Much of Vladimir Volfovich Zhirinovsky’s personal history was vague, unknown, or disputed. It was known that he was born on April 26, 1946,

in Alma-Ata (now Almaty), Kazakhstan. He left at age 18 to attend Moscow State University, where he studied Turkish and other languages. After graduating about 1969, he went to work as

a translator in Turkey, whence he was expelled in murky circumstances eight months later. He went on to earn a law degree, working first in a staterun law firm (where he was asked to resign) and then at the Mir publishing company. When the local council held elections in 1987, Zhirinovsky

sought to run as the firm’s candidate and as an independent, but he was disallowed by the Communist Party and Mir, which cited a letter from his previous employer that questioned his ethics. Zhirinovsky was not deterred. In the spring of 1990 he was asked to become the chairman of the Liberal Democratic Party, but by October his

views had provoked his expulsion. In the spring of 1991 Zhirinovsky created his own party—and took his previous party’s name. In June 1991-he ran for the presidency and won some six million votes, which placed him third. A figure as colourful as Zhirinovsky was bound to be the object of rumour and speculation. It was widely reported that his career could only have been possible under the auspices of the KGB. Documents surfaced that showed that the surname

of his father, who was killed the year

he was born, had originally been Eidelshtein, that Zhirinovsky had changed his name at age 18, and that he had been a member of a state-sponsored Jewish group in the late 1980s. Given his rabid Russian nationalism and broad anti-Semitic asides and the support they drew from large segments of the population, the charge that he was Jewish was significant. Zhirinovsky, however, heatedly denied that he was Jewish or that he had been affiliated with the KGB. The facts did not always seem to matter. Zhirinovsky’s campaign proclamations that he was “the last hope of a cheated and humiliated people” and “the very same as you” and his promise to “bring Russia up off its knees” resonated more keenly among many voters than did those of more conventional politicians. “If there were a healthy economy and security for the people, I would lose all the votes I have,” he said. (CHERYL L. COLLINS)

ee

ee

OBITUARIES Abs, Hermann Josef, German banker (b. Oct. 15, 1901, Bonn, Germany—d. Feb. 5, 1994, Bad

Soden,

Germany),

was

a dominant

figure in

the West German “economic miracle” following World War II, most notably in his role as deputy supervisory board chairman (1948-57) of the

Kreditanstalt fiir Wiederaufbau (Credit Institute for Reconstruction) and then as spokesman for the managing board (1957-67), chairman of the supervisory board (1967-76), and honorary chairman (1976-94) of the powerful Deutsche Bank. Abs studied law for a year before obtaining a post with a merchant bank in 1929. He worked and studied international banking in Germany, France, Britain, and the U.S. until 1938, when he

joined the managing board of the Deutsche Bank

in Berlin. Abs, a devout Roman Catholic, never became a member of the National Socialist Party,

and this, along with his close personal association with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer,

quickly

gained him a central role in the nation’s postwar economic redevelopment. While with the Kreditanstalt, Abs supervised the distribution of Marshall Plan funds to West German industry, and in

1951-53 he led the delegation that renegotiated national war debts. When the Deutsche Bank reopened in Frankfurt in 1957, Abs took control of the new board. He also served successfully on the boards of more than two dozen companies until a 1965 law (unofficially dubbed the Abs law) limited the number of corporate chairmanships an individual could hold simultaneously. Acton, Sir Harold Mario Mitchell, British writer and connoisseur (b. July 5, 1904, Villa La Pietra, near Florence, Italy—d. Feb. 27, 1994, Villa La

Pietra), was “the consummate aesthete of his generation,” more admired for his exuberant dilettan-

tism while a student at the University of Oxford in the 1920s and for his lifelong charm than for his many books. The son of an Anglo-Italian father and American mother, Acton went from a

privileged childhood at a Tuscan villa to Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. At Oxford

he founded aliterary magazine and led a circle of friends that included Graham

Greene, Kenneth

Clarke, and Evelyn Waugh, who reportedly used Acton as the model for the aesthete Anthony Blanche in Brideshead Revisited. From 1932 to 1939 Acton lived in China, lecturing on English literature,

translating

classical

Chinese

drama,

and collecting art. After serving in the British Royal Air Force in World War II, he returned to the family estate overlooking Florence. He spent the remainder of his life writing, overseeing his extensive art collection, and lavishly entertaining international celebrities, artists, and dignitaries.

ences in 1960. In 1968 he was appointed deputy editor of Pravda, where he remained except for his brief stint at Kommunist. He was elected corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. in 1972 and made a member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1976. During his years at Pravda, Afanasyev, a close associate of Soviet Pres. Leonid Brezhnev and a dedicated communist, built the party newspaper into a powerful and well-respected hard-line publication. In the 1970s readership reportedly reached some 10 million, but it began to decline under Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost policies in the late 1980s. In 1989 Afanasyev was removed from his post and given a sinecure at the Academy of Sciences.

Balsam, Artur, Polish-born U.S. pianist (b. Feb. 8, 1906, Warsaw, Poland, Russian Empire—d. Sept. 1, 1994, New York, N.Y.), was an accomplished soloist, accompanist for violin and cello,

Anderson, Lindsay Gordon, British stage and film director (b. April 17, 1923, Bangalore, India—

Oscar

d. Aug. 30, 1994, near Angouléme, France), as one of the original Angry Young Men, made his distaste for conformity and England’s class consciousness the constant theme of his often anarchic works. While attending Wadham College, Oxford, Anderson

cofounded

and coedited

the

film magazine Sequence, and he later wrote for such publications as Sight and Sound and New Statesman. He began his career in film by directing documentaries, including Thursday's Children (1954), which won an Academy Award. Anderson

was

part of the Free

Cinema

movement,

which featured contemporary urban working-class themes. He worked in television and the theatre before making his feature debut with This Sporting Life (1963), a classic social realist drama about a rugby player, adapted by David Storey from his novel. His second feature film, /f... (1968), was about rebellious students who challenge the establishment at a British boarding school. Anderson, who had a long association with London’s Royal Court Theatre, became its

associate artistic director (1969-75) and directed the premieres of many of Storey’s stage productions there—among them, Jn Celebration (1969), Home (1970), and The Changing Room (1971). Subsequent films were O Lucky Man! (1973), In Celebration (1974), Britannia Hospital (1982), and The Whales of August (1987). “Glory! Glory!”— a two-part television series satirizing TV evangelists—was made in 1989. Anderson also occasionally acted, appearing in cameo parts in several films and playing a Cambridge schoolmaster in Chariots of Fire (1981). Ball, George Wildman, U.S. government official

and lawyer (b. Dec. 21, 1909, Des Moines, lowa— d. May 26, 1994, New York, N.Y.), as undersec-

Bourbons of Naples; and a two-volume autobiography, Memoirs of an Aesthete (1948) and More Memoirs of an Aesthete (1970). He was knighted in 1974. Acton bequeathed his estate—estimated

retary of state (1961-66) in the administrations of John F, Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, vociferously objected to increasing U.S. troop involvement in Vietnam and warned both presidents that the U.S. could not win a guerrilla war. His prophetic counsel was ignored, however, and U.S. involvement escalated from 400 “advisers” to more than 500,000 ground troops. After earning a law degree from Northwestern University

to be worth between $100 million and $500 mil-

in Chicago, Ball practiced law there and became

Acton’s books

include

The Last Medici

(1932);

Peonies and Ponies (1941), recounting his years in China; the nonfictional Tuscan Villas (1973) and Florence: A Travellers’ Companion (1986); collections of poetry

and fiction; two works

on

the

lion—to New York University. Afanasyevy, Viktor Grigoryevich, Russian journalist (b. Nov. 18, 1922, Aktamysh, Tatar A.S.S.R., Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic—d. April 10, 1994, Moscow, Russia), as deputy editor

(1968-74) and editor in chief (1976-89) of the daily newspaper Pravda and editor in chief (1974— 76) of the journal Kommunist, was the official voice of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) for more than two decades. Afanasyev joined the army in 1940 and the CPSU in 1943. He graduated from the correspondence division of the Chita Pedagogical Institute in 1950, and

three years later he left the army to teach at the Pedagogical Institute in Chelyabinsk. Afanasyev was named head of the department of scientific socialism at the CPSU’s Academy of Social Sci-

60

a supporter of Adlai Stevenson, the governor of Illinois. When Stevenson ran for the presidency in 1952, 1956, and 1960, Ball served as national director of Volunteers for Stevenson and was propelled into politics. Ball joined the Kennedy administration as undersecretary of state for economic affairs but was soon elevated to undersecretary of state and advised Kennedy during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis. Ball resigned in 1966 to return to his law practice but served as the U.S, ambassador to the United Nations in 1968. His dovish views on Vietnam became known with the publication in 1971 of the sensitive Pentagon Papers. Ball was the author of five books, including Diplomacy for a Crowded World (1976), Error and Betrayal in Lebanon (1984), and The Passionate Attachment (1992), an examination of U.S.Israeli relations.

and chamber musician whose elegant interpretations of Mozart, Beethoven, and Haydn sonatas distinguished his vast repertoire. Balsam received his musical training in Lodz, Poland, where

he

made his concert debut at the age of 12. He attended the Lodz Conservatory and the Berlin State Academy of Music and was the winner of the 1930 International Piano Competition and the 1931 Mendelssohn Prize. The following year he toured with violinist Yehudi Menuhin in the U.S., his permanent home after the rise of the Nazis. He recorded about 250 works, notably the com-

plete set of Mozart violin and piano sonatas (with Shumsky),

the Beethoven

violin sonatas

(with Joseph Fuchs), and cello sonatas (with Zara Nelsova). During the 1960s he performed as a member of a trio with violinist William Kroll and cellist Benar Heifetz. He also taught at Boston University, the Manhattan School of Music, New

York City, and the Philadelphia Academy of Music. From 1956 to 1992 he headed a chamber music summer school in Maine. Barrault, Jean-Louis, French actor and director (b. Sept. 8, 1910, Le Vésinet, France—d. Jan. 22s 1994, Paris, France), mounted acclaimed produc-

tions of both classical and modern avant-garde plays that helped revive the theatre in post-World War II Paris. Barrault studied at the Théatre de l’Atelier with Charles

Dullin, who

directed

his

stage debut in 1931. An accomplished mime (and a student of Etienne Decroux), Barrault produced a pantomime version of William Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying (1935) and captured international attention for his portrayal of a mime in the film Les Enfants du paradis (1944; The Children of Paradise). In 1940 he joined the Comédie Frangaise and married Madeleine

Renaud, who was

10 years his senior and had been aleading actress with the company since 1921. Six years later Barrault and Renaud left to form their own theatrical company at the Théatre Marigny. There he produced, directed, and acted in a mixed repertoire of classics by Shakespeare, Moliére, Chekhov,

and Marivaux, along with modern scripts by Jean Anouilh, Samuel Beckett, Jean Genet, and Eu-

géne Ionesco (q.v.) and adaptations of works by Voltaire, Jean-Paul Sartre, Franz Kafka, and oth-

ers. Barrault was invited to take command at the state-funded Odéon (later renamed the Théatre de France) in 1958, but he was abruptly dismissed when he expressed support for the 1968 student uprising, in which the theatre was badly damaged. His career was not set back, however, and he and Renaud continued to work at the Théatre des Nations (1965-67; 1972-74), the Théatre d’Orsay (1974-81), and the Théatre du Rond-Point (from

1981). In addition to starring in many of her husband’s productions, Renaud made more than 20 motion pictures, including Jean de la lune (1931) and La Lumiere du lac (1988). Barrault appeared in more than three dozen films (most made before 1960) and published several books on the theatre and an autobiography. Both Barrault and Renaud were elected to the Legion of Honour. She died on Sept. 23, 1994, just nine months after her husband’s death. Belluschi, Pietro, Italian-born architect (Aug. 18, 1899, Ancona, Italy—d. Feb. 14, 1994, Portland,

Ore.), designed the Equitable Life Assurance Building (1944-47), in Portland, a sleek office tower of aluminum and glass that served as one of the earliest and finest examples of the International Style of architecture, but with a series of

magnificent domestic and religious structures that relied on the use of indigenous materials, notably woods, he later became

most closely identified

as the premier regional designer of the Pacific Northwest.

Before traveling to the U.S. as an

exchange student in 1923, Belluschi studied engi-

People of 1994: Obituaries neering at the University of Rome. He attended Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., before: settling in Portland and working for Albert E. Doyle, a prominent architect there. After Doyle’s death Belluschi emerged (1928) as the firm’s chief designer. In 1943 he purchased the company and renamed it for himself. In Portland he created such prized structures as the Portland Art Museum (1930-38), Sutor House (1938), St. Thomas More

Chapel (1939-41), and Zion Lutheran Church (1950), examples of his principle of “eloquent simplicity.” From 1951 to 1965 Belluschi headed

operators, who received larger payments for taking farmland out of production. After returning to the church, Benson ascended to the presidency of the Council of the Twelve Apostles in 1973, thus assuring his elevation to the presidency of the church in 1985 upon the death of Spencer Kimball. Benson’s leadership came under attack in 1993 when one of his grandsons revealed that Benson had not been able to speak or recognize relatives since being stricken bya severe illness in 1989,

61

His style, which was influenced by the writings of his mentor, H.P. Lovecraft, was also the model

for horror specialist Stephen King and sciencefiction writer Ray Bradbury. Bloch worked for an advertising agency while writing stories for the magazine Weird Tales. He also wrote 39 episodes for the radio program “Stay Tuned for Terror” and established his reputation through multiple broadcasts and republications of the story “Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper.” In 1953 he quit his job to become a full-time writer. After publishing his first novel, The Scarf (1947), Block began a pro-

the School of Architecture and Planning at the

Bill, Max, Swiss graphic artist, industrial designer,

lific career writing for television, radio, and film.

Massachusetts

architect, sculptor, and painter (b. Dec. 22, 1908, Winterthur, Switz.—d. Dec. 9, 1994, Berlin, Ger-

Some of his screenplays include Torture Garden (1967), The House That Dripped Blood (1970), and Asylum (1972).

Institute

of Technology,

and

he

continued to collaborate with leading architectural firms. He codesigned such New York City landmarks as the Juilliard School of Music, Lin-

coln Center, and the Pan Am (now Met Life) Building and such San Francisco buildings as the Bank of America World Headquarters and St. Mary’s Cathedral. In 1972 Belluschi was the recipient of the Gold Medal of the American In-

many), advocated modern design with austere geometric forms and sophisticated, disciplined advertising designs. Among the last surviving students of the Bauhaus art movement, Bill studied architecture, metalwork, stage design, and paint-

reli-

ing while attending the Bauhaus school from 1927 to 1929. He set up his own art studio in Ziirich in 1930 but earned his living mainly by designing advertisements. One of his most famous sculptures was a work in brass entitled “Konstruktion aus drei Kreisscheiben” (1945-46). His designs, how-

gious leader (b. Aug. 4, 1899, Whitney, Idaho— d. May 30, 1994, Salt Lake City, Utah), as president (1985-94) of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, stressed the importance of the

constructed from more unconventional materials. His hard-edged, sometimes impersonal creations were designed on mathematical concepts and

Book of Mormon, one of four volumes of church

were

scripture, and increased church membership from

Among his works were wall sprockets, a clock,

5.9 million to 8.7 million. During the 1960s and

a bridge, furniture,

*70s, Benson aroused controversy both inside and

and most notably the College of Design in Ulm, Germany. These works earned him recognition as a leader of the Concrete and Constructivist

stitute of Architects, and in 1991 he was awarded

the National Medal of the Arts. Benson,

Ezra

Taft, U.S.

agronomist

and

outside the church by endorsing the right-wing John Birch Society, by denouncing the civil-rights

ever, were usually more eclectic in concept and

made

of plaster, metal, wood,

a movie

and stone.

theatre,

a house,

Bondarchuk, Sergey, Soviet film director and actor (b. Sept. 25, 1920, Belozerka, Ukraine— d. Oct. 20, 1994, Moscow, Russia), as one of

the most prominent and successful film directors in the U.S.S.R., gained fame for his largescale battle-filled epics. Bondarchuk had attended a theatre school before his studies were interrupted by World War II. After being discharged from the army in 1946, he enrolled in the acting department at the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, where he studied under Sergey Gerasimov. During Bondarchuk’s final year, Gerasimov had the class rehearse a script

for a film he was preparing, and Bondarchuk read well enough to be cast in the film, The Young Guard (1948). He went on to gain wide recognition for his performance in the title role in Taras Shevchenko (1951). His depiction of the Ukrainian poet was considered one of his finest performances and won him the title People’s Artist of the Soviet Union in 1952. Bondarchuk went on to star in a number of films, including a

highly praised Othello (1956). He played a former prisoner of war returning home in atelevised version of a short story, but he was so unhappy with the result that he decided to direct a film version himself. The critically acclaimed Destiny of a Man (1959) marked his debut as director and earned him the Lenin Prize in 1960. The theme of war ran through many of the films he directed. Perhaps his best-known work was War and Peace (1967), a four-part epic in which he played the role of Pierre

Bezukhov;

the film, edited

for

foreign release, won an Academy Award. The ambitious Waterloo (1970) followed. Bondarchuk joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1970 and the following year became the secretary of the Union of Cinematographers. In later years he became a symbol of conservatism, and in 1986 he was voted out of office. Bondarchuk’s last film was Boris Godunov (1986). In 1994 he called for government support of and protection for the Russian film industry. Boros, Julius Nicholas, U.S. golfer (b. March 3, 1920, Fairfield, Conn.—d. May 28, 1994, near Fort

Ezra Taft Benson (centre), who became president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1985, died in May at age 94. In the 1950s he served as U.S. secretary of agriculture. TOM SMART—GAMMA LIAISON

movement as “a communist program,” and by criticizing the women’s movement. His position in the church hierarchy was assured because he was the great-grandson of Mormon church pioneer Ezra T. Benson, who accompanied Brigham Young to the Great Salt Lake in 1847. Benson served as a Mormon missionary for two years before graduating with honours (1927) from Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, and earning a master’s degree in farm economics from Iowa State College. In 1943 he was appointed to the ranks of the Council of the Twelve Apostles, second in rank

to the First Presidency, which consisted of the president and his two-man council. Benson gained national prominence while serving (1953-61) as secretary of agriculture in the administration of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, and he became the

first Mormon

to attain Cabinet status. He was

unsuccessful, however, in his effort to strengthen

family farms; his policies, in fact, bolstered big

art movements. Bill also taught (1951-56) and planned the curriculum at the College of Design and served (1967-71) as a member of the Swiss parliament. His highly admired sculptures could be seen in cities worldwide. In 1993 Bill was awarded the Imperial Prize for sculpture by the emperor of Japan.

Bloch, Robert Albert, U.S. writer (b. April 5, 1917, Chicago,

Ill—d.

Sept. 23, 1994,

Los

Angeles,

Calif.), crafted dozens of screenplays, mysteries, fantasies, and essays but was best remembered for his spine-tingling psychological tales of horror and suspense, most notably the classic Psycho (1959), a cult favourite that was adapted for Alfred Hitchcock’s 1960 film of the same title. Bloch, who relied on elements of surprise rather than scenes of graphic violence or mythological forces to terrorize and captivate readers, was also one of the first writers to delve into the criminal mind.

Lauderdale, Fla.), was a consistent player whose trademark rhythmic and relaxed swing helped him win 18 Professional Golfers’ Association of America (PGA) titles, including two U.S. Open championships (1952 and 1963), during a career that spanned a quarter century. Boros, who worked as an accountant before turning professional at the age of 30, was largely self-taught. His masterly touch was also instrumental in making him one of the best wedge shot players of all time. Boros was also a member of the 1959, 1963, 1965, and

1967 PGA Hall from

Ryder Cup teams. He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1974 and the World Golf of Fame in 1982, five years after he retired the professional tour.

Borotra, Jean-Robert, French tennis player (b. Aug. 13, 1898, Arbonne,

near Biarritz, France—

d. July 17, 1994, Arbonne), was one of the renowned “Four Musketeers”—Borotra, René Lacoste, Jacques Brugnon, and Henri Cochet— who dominated amateur tennis in the 1920s and early ’30s. As a group they won the Davis Cup for France for six consecutive years (1927-32) and reached the finals in 1925, 1926, and 1933.

As an individual Borotra won 19 Grand Slam titles. Nicknamed “the Bounding Basque,” he was

62

People of 1994: Obituaries

as well known for his exuberance and his omnipresent blue beret as for his unorthodox serveand-volley style of play. He won the French championship nine times—singles in 1924 and 1931, men’s

in 1925,

doubles

1928,

1929,

1934, and

1936, and mixed doubles in 1927 and 1934; six All-England (Wimbledon) titles—singles in 1924 and 1926, doubles in 1925, 1932, and 1933, and mixed doubles in 1925; the U.S. mixed doubles in 1926; and three Australian titles in 1928—

Brazzi, Rossano, Italian actor (b. Sept. 18, 1916,

Bologna, Italy—d. Dec. 24, 1994, Rome, Italy), personified the handsome heartbreaker and romantic aristocrat in over 200 films, most of them

made in the U.S. In 1939 he gave up a promising law career to debut in The Trial and Death of Socrates. Though he was a reigning screen idol by the 1940s, Brazzi secretly worked with Resistance fighters in Rome during World War II. After the war, his popularity declined in Italy, but he became immensely popular in the U.S., notably as Emile de Becque in South Pacific (1958). The blue-eyed sex symbol’s first Hollywood film appearance was as the professor in Little Women (1949), a performance that so enraptured his fans that they later mobbed Brazzi at his Los Angeles motel, seeking autographs and other souvenirs. Brazzi found widespread fame portraying swashbuckling playboys in such films as The Barefoot Contessa (1954), Three Coins in the Fountain (1954), Summertime (1955), Count Your Blessings (1959), The Great Waltz (1972), and White Telephone (1976). By the late 1960s, he returned to Italy to work in television and film, but the success he enjoyed in Hollywood eluded him. In 1984 Brazzi was indicted along with 36 others for international drug and weapons smuggling; the charges against him, however, were later dropped. Brazzi was working on a film when he was hospitalized with a viral infection that disabled his nervous system and eventually claimed his life. Brooks, Cleanth, U.S. educator, author, and critic

(b. Oct. 16, 1906, Murray, Ky.—d. May 10, 1994, New Haven, Conn.), helped to establish New Criticism, a theory of literary analysis that dominated

-

ns

ALLSPORT/HULTON DEUTSCH

singles, doubles, and mixed doubles. He also won

the French indoor championship 12 times, was on the Davis Cup team as late as 1947, and played competitive tennis into his 80s. Borotra trained as a civil engineer and was a company director for more than 40 years (1930-75). He was minister of

sport (1940-42) in the Vichy government of Nazioccupied France, but his wartime collaboration had little effect on his reputation or his popularity. Borotra was awarded the Legion of Honour and was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame (1976). Boulle, Pierre-Frangois-Marie-Louis, French nov-

elist (b. Feb. 20, 1912, Avignon, France—d. Jan. 30, 1994, Paris, France), was best known for two

vastly different novels, Le Pont de la riviére Kwai (1952; The Bridge on the River Kwai; film adaptation, 1957), a World War II tale of morality

and madness among British troops in a Japanese prison camp, and the science-fiction fable La Planéte des singes (1963; Planet of the Apes). The film adaptation of the latter (1968) spawned several sequels and atelevision series. Boulle trained as an electrical engineer in Paris, but in 1938 he moved to Malaysia to work on a rubber plantation. During World War II he was an intelligence agent in Southeast Asia. In 1942 he was captured while on a mission in French Indochina, but he

escaped in 1944. After the war he returned to France to try his hand at writing. His first novel, William Conrad (1950), which concerned a German spy in wartime Britain, introduced the issues of morality and honour that he expanded in later books. In River Kwai Boulle examined the plight of British soldiers compelled by their own commanding officer’s obsessive work ethic and misplaced sense of honour to build a bridge for their Japanese captors. The book, which was translated into more than 20 languages, caused an international sensation, as did the Academy

Award-

winning film based on it. Boulle’s other works include La Face (1953; The Face), Aux sources de la riviere Kwai (1967; My Own River Kwai), Les Oreilles. de jungle (1972; Ears of the Jungle), Le Bon Leviathan

(1978; The Good Leviathan), and

A nous deux, Satan (1992).

the teaching of literature at U.S. universities for two decades after World War II. Brooks downplayed consideration of biographical and historical influences and championed a “close reading” of literary texts, emphasizing careful structural analysis. He earned a B.A. (1928) from Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., before coming under the influence of the Fugitives, a literary group that included John Crowe Ransom and Robert Penn Warren. After further study at Tulane University, New Orleans, La. (M.A., 1929),

he became a Rhodes scholar at the University of Oxford. Brooks then taught at Louisiana State University (1932-47), where he edited the influential Southern Review with Warren, his longtime

colleague and with whom he coauthored Understanding Poetry (1938). That book and Brooks’s Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939) and The Well Wrought Um (1947) were cornerstones of New Criticism. Ransom called Brooks “the most expert living ‘reader’ or interpreter of difficult verse.” He also wrote several insightful studies of the cultural milieu of William

Faulkner,

chief among them William Faulkner: The Yoknapatawpha Country (1963). Brooks taught at Yale University (1947-75), was much in demand as a visiting professor, and served as the cultural attaché at the U.S. embassy in London (1964-66). In 1985 he was named Jefferson lecturer. His last books were On the Prejudices, Predilections, and

Firm Beliefs of William Faulkner (1987) and Historical Evidence and the Reading of SeventeenthCentury Poetry (1991). Bukowski, Charles, U.S. poet, novelist, and screenwriter (b. Aug. 16, 1920, Andernach, Germany—d. March 9, 1994, San Pedro, Calif.),

probed into the life of the inner city and the inner self and described what he found there in uncompromising, often crude, language. A cult figure, first in Europe and, after the success of his screenplay for the motion picture Barfly (1987), in the U.S. as well, Bukowski parlayed his life of hard drinking and womanizing into a literary genre. Born in the German Rhineland of a U.S. occupation soldier and his German wife, Bukowski moved to Los Angeles when he was two. His childhood was marred by an abusive father, and after a short stint at a local college

and a few years in New York trying to become a writer, Bukowski

embarked

on what was es-

sentially a 10-year drinking binge, finally arriving at the brink of death in the charity ward of a Los Angeles hospital with an ulcerated liver in

1956. He achieved his first successes in local and

underground publications. Los Angeles publisher John Martin recognized the peculiar genius of the self-described “dirty old man” and established Black Sparrow Press to publish Bukowski’s works. Bukowski’s poetry appeared in dozens of

volumes, including Flower, Fist and Bestial Wail

(1960) and Poems Written Before Jumping out of an 8 Story Window (1968); his novels and shortstory collections include Notes of a Dirty Old Man (1969), Post Office (1971), Erections, Ejaculations,

Exhibitions, and General Tales of Ordinary Madness (1972), Factotum (1975), and Ham on Rye (1982). He completed a mystery novel, Pulp, just before his death. Although he was too much of an underground figure ever to have won wide critical acclaim, Bukowski was reportedly selling one million books a year worldwide. Burle Marx, Roberto, Brazilian landscape architect (b. Aug. 4, 1909, Sao Paulo, Brazil—d. June 4, 1994, near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), transformed

his native land by replacing European-style formal gardens with lush tropical native flora. A Renaissance man—sculptor, jewelry designer, ceramicist, amateur opera singer, and painter— Burle Marx fashioned gardens with the eye of an abstract artist. While studying (1928) art in Berlin, he became entranced with the tropical plants populating that city’s botanical garden, and he began studies at Dahlem Botanical Gardens. After returning to Brazil, he converted his

home into a tropical plant paradise, eventually surrounding it with 800,000 sq m (8.6 million sq ft) of gardens brimming with thousands of rare species. He was particularly fond of Brazilian orchids, palms, water lilies, and bromeliads.

Some

of his most breathtaking commissions included Rio’s Flamengo Park, a 122-ha (300-ac) expanse of land reclaimed from the sea, which included lawns, playing fields, an artificial beach, and an automobile parkway; the hanging gardens of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Brasilia; and the Brazilian pavilion at the Brussels International Exposition of 1958. He also did landscaping for

the UNESCO

Building, Paris (1963); the U.S.

embassy, Brasilia (1967, 1972); the Iranian em-

bassy, Brasilia (1971); and the international airport, Rio de Janeiro (1978). He was one of the first to criticize the destruction of rain forests,

and he protested against the government’s move to enclose parks behind cast-iron fences, which he viewed as sequestering the city in a cage. Busby, Sir Matthew (“Matt”), Scottish footballer (b. May 26, 1909, Bellshill, Lanarkshire, Scotland—d.

Jan. 20, 1994, Manchester,

England),

was the revered manager (1945-69), general manager (1969-71), director (1971-83), and president (1980-93) of the Manchester United association football (soccer) team; as manager he steered that club to win two Football Association (FA) Cup titles (1948 and 1963), five English Football League championships (1952, 1956, 1957, 1965, and 1967), and the 1968 European Cup. Perhaps his greatest challenge came in February 1958 when the plane in which the club was traveling crashed on takeoff near

Munich,

Germany.

Busby was

critically injured, and eight first-string players of the young team that had come to be known as the “Busby Babes” were among the 23 people killed. By the end of that season, however, the surviving players and their hastily recruited reinforcements had reached the FA Cup semifinals, and within 10 years the rebuilt side had captured the European Cup. Busby, the son of a Lanarkshire coal miner

who died in World War I, briefly worked in the mines until he won a place with Manchester City in 1929. He was a moderately successful player with City and then with Liverpool (1936-39) and was selected to play for Scotland in 1934. After serving as a physical training instructor in the British army during World War II, he accepted the post of manager at Manchester United, which

at that time was languishing in obscurity and near bankruptcy. Busby was particularly known for his skill at recruiting young talent and for introducing a fast-moving, attacking style of play. He was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958 and was knighted in 1968.

People of 1994; Obituaries Calloway, Cab (CABELL CALLOWAY III), U.S. entertainer (b. Dec. 25, 1907, Rochester, N.Y.—d.

Nov. 18, 1994, Hockessin, Del.), plied his uniquely full and rich singing voice, swinging rhythms, and flamboyant stage manner to become one of the

swing era’s top bandleaders, then won further fame on the musical stage in notable revivals of

Porgy and Bess and Hello, Dolly! His first hit record,

“Minnie the Moocher” (1931), with Calloway and his band exchanging nonsense “hi-de-hi-de-hi-deho” lyrics, led to a series of successes with barely disguised drug ditties (“Reefer Man,” “Kickin’ the Gong Around”) and Calloway-composed scatsinging tunes (“Zaz Zu Zaz,” “Get That Hi-DeHo in Your Soul”). Tall, clad in a tuxedo (usually white), his long black hair flying and wide mouth in a teeth-baring grin, he cavorted in front of his band in high-energy shows; he portrayed himself as the heppest of hep cats, talking “jive” language and instructing squares with his “Hepsters Dictionary” and “Swingformation Bureau”

ing at a local art school, he continued his education (1939) at the Institute of Fine Arts in Pérto Alegre before attending the National School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro. He launched a professional career as a printmaker and returned to the National School of Fine Arts as the inaugural teacher of printmaking. Camargo dabbled in figurative and Constructivist art before exploring the limits of Abstract Expressionism. His style, initially typified by a light-hued pallette, was later marked by gloomy dark colours, anthropomorphic forms, and monstrous figures that produced an unsettling effect. Camargo, who saw himself as a cyclist peddling against the wind, also frequently used cyclists as a theme. His lack of artistic conformity—he would not bend to producing fashionable Surrealist-inspired fantastic art or to Brazilian abstract and conceptual art—resulted in the exclusion of his works from a retrospective of Latin-American art mounted in the U.S. and Europe.

63

analyses of the individual’s position in society. Born into a family of Sephardic Jews, Canetti migrated with his parents when he was six, to Manchester, England, and two years later, after the death of his father, he moved with his

brother and mother to Vienna. His mother taught him German, the language of his books. He was educated in Ziirich, Frankfurt, and Vienna and

received (1929) a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Vienna. In 1927 Canetti witnessed a protest march during which Vienna’s Palace of Justice was set on fire and 90 demonstrators were killed. This incident crystallized his interest in crowds and power. He planned an eight-novel series on extremes in human behaviour; only one was written, Die Blendung (1935; Auto-da-Fé, also

published as The Tower of Babel), a nightmarish story of a scholar whose life ends in madness and conflagration. After the Nazi takeover of Austria, Canetti moved to England. There he began the work that resulted—after 10 years of research and 10 years of writing—in Masse und Macht (1960; Crowds and Power). His interest in the psychopathology of power was also evident in his three plays—Hochzeit (1932; The Wedding), Komédie der Eitelkeit (1950; Comedy of Vanity), and Die Befristeten (1964; The Numbered, also

published as Life-Terms). Also published were such nonfiction works as Der Ohrenzeuge—Fiinfzig

Charaktere (1974; Earwitness: Fifty Characters), a book of character sketches; Aufzeichnungen 19421972 (1973; The Human Province), excerpts from his notebooks; three volumes of autobiography:

Die gerettete Zunge (1977; The Tongue Set Free), Die Fackel im Ohr (1980; The Torch in My Ear), and Das Augenspiel (1985; The Play of The Eyes); and Die Fliegenpein (1992; The Agony of Flies), was a collection of aphorisms. A fourth volume of autobiography awaited publication. Carmet,

Jean-Gabriel-Edmond,

French

actor

(b. April 25, 1920, Tours, France—d. April 20, 1994, Sévres, near

REUTERS/BETTMANN

booklets. In an era of pallid, high-pitched male singers, Calloway stood out for his wide range and robust style, yet he was also a moving ballad singer on occasion. Raised in Baltimore, Md., he followed his sister, singer Blanche Calloway, to Chicago, where he briefly attended Crane College and sang in clubs. By 1929 he was in New York, performing on Broadway in Connie’s Hot Chocolates. The next year his band began starring at The Cotton Club. He hired excellent musicians (including tenor saxophonists Ben Webster and Chu Berry and bassist Milt Hinton) and molded his band into a powerful, tightly disciplined unit. Abetted by radio, films (beginning with The Big Broadcast in 1932), and much touring, they remained one of the most popular jazz bands until the post-World War II decline of ballrooms and big bands. Calloway returned to the musical stage to play the charismatic hedonist Sportin’ Life in Porgy and Bess, touring the world in the opera’s revival in the mid-1950s. He then portrayed Cornelius Vandergelder in the 1967 all-black revival of Hello, Dolly! Though semi-retired in the 1970s

and ’80s, he continued to play concerts and appeared in the film The Blues Brothers (1980). Calloway’s autobiography, Of Minnie the Moocher & Me, appeared in 1976. Camargo, Iberé Bassanti, Brazilian artist (b. Nov. 18, 1914, Restinga Séca, Brazil—d. Aug. 9, 1994, Pérto Alegre, Brazil), was a leading Abstract Expressionist painter who experimented with colour and form, using bold gestures and heavy paint

encrusted on huge canvases. Camargo, who confessed that his first toys were a pencil and paper, was a loner who drew inspiration from childhood memories of his native countryside. After study-

Paris, France),

appeared

in

some 200 motion pictures in a career that spanned 50 years. Carmet began as a stagehand and comedian in revues such as the Branquignols troupe (1948). His first screen role was as a member of a crowd in Marcel Carné’s Les Enfants du paradis (1944; Children of Paradise). For the next quarter century, the short, stocky actor appeared in dozens of films, particularly comedies, building a recognizable persona as a French Everyman. Beginning in 1970, however, Carmet

tackled more

Candy, John Franklin, Canadian comedian (b. Oct. 31, 1950, Newmarket, Ont.—d. March 4, 1994, Durango, Mexico), created such kooky char-

serious roles as directors began using his deceptive on-screen ordinariness to good effect in such films as Le Grand Blond avec une chaussure

acters as slick television personality Johnny La Rue, ghoulish Dr. Tongue, and polka clarinetist Yosh Shmenge for the satirical comedy show “SCTV” before delighting film audiences as a bumbling yet lovable nerd, notably in such smash hits as Planes, Trains and Automobiles (1987) and Uncle Buck (1989). Though Candy’s girth (he weighed more than 136 kg [300 Ib] at his death) was a key component in his comedy routines, he attempted numerous diets without lasting success. Beginning in 1972, the genial performer honed his comedic gifts as a member of the Second City improvisational troupes in Chicago and Toronto. Candy joined Second City’s “SCTV” series as a regular skit performer and writer in 1977, and he won two Emmy awards for his scripts. After appearing in supporting roles in such films as The Blues Brothers (1980), Stripes (1981), and National Lampoon’s Vacation (1983), Candy achieved star status as the sex-obsessed brother of Tom Hanks in Splash (1984). Among his other film credits are Who’s Harry Crumb? (1989), Delirious (1991), Only the Lonely (1991), Once Upon a Crime (1992), and Cool Runnings (1993). Candy was also part owner of the Canadian Football League’s Toronto Argonauts. At the time of his death—he died in his sleep of a heart attack—Candy was on location filming Wagons East.

noire (1972; The Tall Blond Man with One Black

Canetti, Elias, Bulgarian-born novelist and playwright (b. July 25, 1905, Ruse, Bulg—d. Aug.

Shoe), Dupont-Lajoie (1974), La Victoire en chantant (1976; Black and White in Colour), Violette

Noziére (1977; Violette), and Buffet froid (1979; Cold Cuts). He won two César awards from the French cinema academy for best supporting actor for Les Misérables (1982) and Merci la vie (1992; Thank You, Life) as well as the academy’s lifetime achievement award in 1993. Carmet’s last screen role was in Germinal (1993). Carter,

Kevin,

South

African

photojournalist

(b. Sept. 13, 1960, Johannesburg, South Africa— d. July 27, 1994, Johannesburg), recorded on film the racial strife and political chaos of his native South Africa, but he captured international attention and the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for a haunting photograph of a vulture patiently watching a starving Sudanese child. Despite his own comfortable suburban childhood, Carter rejected the inequities of apartheid in his native land at an early age. He was drafted into the South African Defense Force and then secured (1983) a job as a sports photographer with the Sunday Express newspaper. In 1984 he switched to the Johannesburg Star and joined other young white photojournalists who risked imprisonment and death to expose the evils of apartheid. Later he worked for the Sunday Tribune, the Weekly Mail, and Reuters international news agency. Many of his

photographs were picked up all over the world,

the 1981

notably his Pulitzer Prize winner, which was taken

Nobel Prize for Literature for his explorations of the behaviour and emotions of crowds and

during a short foray into The Sudan, and his picture of an anguished South African neo-Nazi

14, 1994, Ziirich, Switz.), was awarded

64

People of 1994: Obituaries

Kevin Carter's photograph of a starving Sudanese girl beingWeiched Bya vulture won the Pulitzer Prize for ‘seu 33-year-old South African photographer committed suicide in July.

aipicaneny in 1994. The

KEVIN CARTER—SYGMA

facing death at the hands of a dimly seen black police officer. Carter, who was increasingly depressed by the violence and suffering he had witnessed and despondent over the shooting death of his friend and colleague Ken Oosterbroek, took his own life. Cernik, Oldrich, Czechoslovak politician (b. Oct. 27, 1921, Ostrava, Czech—d. Oct. 19, 1994, Prague, Czech Republic), was one of the architects of the brief period of economic and political reform in 1968 known as the Prague Spring. Cernik, a miner’s son, went at age 16 to work in the steel

mills around heavily industrialized Ostrava. After joining the Communist Party in 1945, he began (1949) to work in the organization; his ascent was rapid and by 1956 he had become a member of the party’s Central Committee. He studied engineering by correspondence and earned a degree in 1964. Cernik gained a reputation as an able technocrat, and in 1960 he was named minister of fuel. He joined forces with others who believed in the decentralization of the state’s economy and worked as a behind-the-scenes player in attempts to advance reform. In 1966 he was elected to the party’s Presidium. In April 1968 Cernik was appointed prime minister by party president Alexander Dubcek. Cernik was considered a centrist and a master at conciliation. After Warsaw Pact troops occupied Prague in August, he and a handful of other politicians were handcuffed and led away to the Soviet Union. Upon his return, he tried to maintain a balancing act, calling upon his countrymen to cooperate and publicly sup-

porting the country’s accord with Moscow while also promising to continue economic reform. In 1969 he was named prime minister of the new

political career after the fall of the communist regime in 1989 were unsuccessful.

izations.

Childress, who was reared in Harlem,

Spanish novelist and poet (b. June 3, 1898, Valla-

New York City, performed with the American Negro Theater in both Broadway and OffBroadway venues during the 1940s. She wrote,

dolid, Spain—d. July 27, 1994, Madrid, Spain), as

directed, and starred in her first play, Florence

Chacel, Rosa Clotilde Cecilia Maria del Carmen,

a member of the Generation of 1927, balanced her dense narrative style with surrealist imagery and psychological insights. Chacel studied painting and sculpture in Madrid, but ill health forced her to quit school in 1918. In 1922 she and her husband, the painter Timoteo Pérez Rubio, moved to Rome, where Chacel taught at the

Spanish Academy and wrote her first novel, Estaci6n: ida y vuelta (1930; “Station/Season, Round Trip”). After returning to Spain in 1927, she wrote a volume of sonnets, A /a orilla de un pozo (1936; “At the Well’s Edge”). During the Spanish Civil War, Chacel took her son to France, while

Pérez Rubio stayed in Madrid to assist in the rescue of the art collection at the Prado Museum from the wartime violence. The family went into exile in South America in 1940. There Chacel published little of the poetry she wrote but continued to release essays, short stories, and novels,

notably Memorias de Leticia Valle (1945; Memoirs of Leticia Valle) and La sinrazén (1960; “Without Reason”). She settled permanently in Spain after her husband’s death in 1977. Chacel’s later writings include fiction, essays, two autobiographical works, a study of her husband’s paintings, and the verse collection Poesia (1931-1991) (1992). Chacel spent two years (1959-61) in New York City on a Guggenheim fellowship, won the National Award for Spanish Letters, and received the Gold Medal for Fine Arts from King Juan Carlos I shortly before her death.

federal government of Czechoslovakia, and he ac-

tively disassociated himself from the “errors” that he and others had committed. His about-face was insufficient; in January 1970 he was forced out as prime minister and by the end of the year expelled from the party. Cernik’s attempts to rekindle his

sensitive portrayals and finely crafted character-

(produced

1949), and enhanced

her reputation

with the play Trouble in Mind (produced 1955; revised and published 1971). The latter satiric play-within-a-play poked fun at white liberals and condemned racial stereotyping in the performing arts. Whereas Wedding Band (1966) focused on interracial love, String (1969) and Wine in the Wilderness (1969) dealt with other racial themes. Many of her plays featured music, including Just a Little Simple (produced 1950; based on Langston Hughes’s Simple Speaks His Mind), Gold Through the Trees (produced 1952), The African Garden (produced 1971), Gullah (produced 1984; based on her 1977 play Sea Island Song), and Moms (produced 1986). Other novels were written for adolescents, notably A Hero Ain’t Nothin’ but a Sandwich (1973), a story about a teenage drug addict, and Rainbow Jordan (1981), which explored the struggles of poor black urban youth. Two plays, When the Rattlesnake Sounds (1975) and Let’s Hear It for the Queen (1976), were also written for juveniles. Childress’ straightforward language was often targeted by censors. Among her other novels were A Short Walk (1979) and Those Other People (1989).

Chung Il Kwon, Korean army officer and politician (b. Nov. 21, 1917, North Hamgyong province, Korea—d. Jan. 17, 1994, Hawaii), was the com-

mander of South Korean troops during some of the most intense fighting with North Korean and Chinese forces during the Korean War (1950-

Childress, Alice, U.S. playwright, novelist, and

53), and he was hailed as a national hero for his

actress (b. Oct. 12, 1916, Charleston, S.C.—d. Aug. 14, 1994, New York, N.Y.), addressed racial

brilliant tactical skills. He led the army during

issues frankly and honestly in works that drew on the African-American experience and featured

the September 1950 UN landing at Inchon, which

crippled the North Korean offensive. Chung was a 1940 graduate of Tokyo’s Military Academy and

People of 1994: Obituaries served in Japan’s Imperial army during World War II. He then joined the Chinese Nationalist army before entering the South Korean army. Chung retired from the military in 1957 as a fourStar general. During the 1960s he was ambassador to the U.S., France, and several Latin-American

countries. He served as prime minister (1964-70) under Pres. Park Chung Hee, who had seized power in 1961. Chung then held a number of government posts before Chun Doo Hwan assumed the presidency in 1980. Clavell, James, British-born U.S. novelist (b. Oct. 10, 1924, Sydney, Australia—d. Sept. 6, 1994,

Grohl in 1989 to complete the trio. The band, whose style derived from punk rock, combined the fury of that genre (they often smashed their equipment during performances) with a deafening sound of anguished lyrics, a signature that together with their torn jeans and flannel shirts ushered in what became known as grunge rock. In 1989 Nirvana (minus Grohl) released its first album, Bleach, and gained a counterculture following among collegé students. Their second album, Nevermind (1991), featured the strident lyrics of “Smells like Teen Spirit,” which became

65

winning election to the Senate in 1988. That same year he became Salinas’ presidential campaign manager when the latter was named the PRI’s candidate by Pres. Miguel de la Madrid. Colosio’s political reputation was tarnished when Salinas emerged victorious by a narrow margin only after a suspicious malfunction of the PRIcontrolled Federal Electoral Commission’s computer. When he was named head of the party, however, Colosio pledged to spearhead electoral reform and attempted to distance himself from the authoritarian rule of the PRI, in power since

1929, In 1992 Colosio headed the newly created Social Development Secretariat (Sedesol), a program designed to address poverty. His promises

Vevey, Switz.), used his gifts as a storyteller to

create long, richly detailed historical adventure

of social reform, however,

did not prevent the

novels set in exotic locales. Though his books were not popular with the critics, they were bestsellers; some 21 million copies were sold during his 40-year career. At the age of nine months, Clavell was taken to England from Australia, where his father—a Royal Navy officer—was stationed. During World War II he joined the Royal Artillery, and in 1942 he was captured by the Japanese in Java. He spent 3% years in the infamous Changi prison camp near Singapore, which

January 1994 uprising in the state of Chiapas, one of the chief beneficiaries of Sedesol. While campaigning as a man of the people and one

so brutal that only 10,000 of its 150,000

N.Z.—d. March 26, 1994, Panguru), campaigned throughout her life for land rights and social justice for the aboriginal Maori people. As the daughter of the tribal chief Heremia Te Wake, Cooper was a highly visible leader. At age 18 she led her first protest—concerning the draining of a local swamp. She trained as a teacher at St. Joseph’s College and later worked as a storekeeper and postmistress. After the death of her

was

dedicated to democracy, Colosio appeared with-

out the protection of bodyguards. As a result, he proved an easy target for the assassin who gunned him down at a campaign rally. Cooper, Dame Whina, New Zealand Maori activist (b. Dec. 9, 1895, Panguru, Northland region,

inmates survived. Clavell left military service in 1946 after a motorcycle accident left him with a limp. He held various odd jobs before discovering an interest in films and working first as a film distributor and then, after moving to the U.S.,

in television production in New York and as a screenwriter in Hollywood. He wrote screenplays for such films as The Fly (1958) and Watusi (1959), was one of the writers of The Great Escape (1963),

second husband,

and wrote, produced, and directed Five Gates to

Hell (1959), Walk like a Dragon (1960), To Sir with Love (1966), and The Last Valley (1969). He became a USS. citizen in 1963. During a 1960 screenwriters’ strike, Clavell wrote his first novel,

King Rat (1962, filmed 1965), based on his prison camp experiences. Tai-Pan (1966), Shogun (1975), and Noble House (1981), all of them set in the Far East, became best-sellers and were filmed as television miniseries; Shogun (1980) was second only to Roots in TV audience ratings. Clavell’s

Reginald

John

(“JACK”),

British

te Matakite

poet

(b. March 11, 1916, near St. Austell, Cornwall, England—d. July 25, 1994, Weymouth, Dorset,

England), despite deafness (from about 1936) and recurrent attacks of blindness that began in childhood and left him sightless by 1956, wrote deeply personal poetry in which he explored the austere harshness of his Cornish birthplace, the spiritual influence of his physical handicaps, the quest that led to his religious conversion,

and, eventually,

the peace and happiness he found in his marriage at age 52. Clemo was the son of a clay-kiln worker and had no formal education after age 13. In 1948 he published a novel, Wilding Graft, and the first of two autobiographies, Confession of a Rebel, appeared in 1949. His first book of poems, The Clay Verge (1951), was imbued with a love of Cornwall and its people. He followed with a volume of theological essays, The Invading Gospel (1958), and two more volumes of poetry, The Map of Clay (1961) and Cactus on Carmel (1967). After Clemo’s marriage to an art teacher in 1968, his poetry showed greater warmth anda sense of redemption. Later works include the verse collections The Echoing Tip (1971), Broad Autumn (1975), and Approach to Murano (1993) and an autobiography, The Marriage of a Rebel (1980). Cobain, Kurt, U.S. musician (b. Feb. 20, 1967, Aberdeen, Wash.—d. April 5, 1994, Seattle,

Wash.), as the anointed angst-ridden poet of the so-called Generation X and lead guitarist and singer of the grunge rock band Nirvana, bespoke a deeply personal despair that struck a chord of fellowship among young adults struggling with their own frustrations. Cobain, a troubled youth, turned to music and then heroin as a source of consolation. He and bass, player Chris Novoselic formed Nirvana in 1986, and after employing several different drummers, they recruited Dave

Cooper,

in 1949, she

and, despite the need

for a cane,

walked the length of North Island at the head of the month-long Maori Land Reform March. She was created Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1981 and was made a member of the Order of New Zealand in 1991.

later books include Whirlwind (1986) and GaiJin (1993). Clemo,

William

resumed her role as a social activist. In 1951 she was elected the first president of the Maori Women’s Welfare League, through which she fought for better health care and for an increased role for women in the debate over native rights. Two years later she became ajustice of the peace. In 1975 Cooper established the group Te Roopu o

Copleston, Frederick Charles, British Jesuit priest

and scholar (b. April 10, 1907, Taunton, Somer-

rs

Sec Mis 8 REUTERS/BETTMANN

set, England—d. Feb. 3, 1994, London, England),

something of an official anthem for their fans. Cobain’s unexpected rise to stardom—the album went triple platinum—elevated him to a prominence he abhorred. In Nirvana’s next blockbuster album, Jn Utero (1993), he railed against his fame, “T do not want what I have got.” He and his wife,

Courtney Love, also a heroin addict, temporarily lost custody of their daughter when Love admitted having taken the drug during her pregnancy. His wife was also lead singer of the neo-punk band

Hole.

In March

1994, while Nirvana

was

touring Europe, Cobain was rushed to a hospital after slipping into a drug-and-alcohol-induced coma. On April 8, some three days after Cobain took his life, his body, with a gunshot wound to the head, was discovered.

Colosio Murrieta, Luis Donaldo, Mexican politi-

cian

(b. Feb.

Sonora,

10, 1950,

Mexico—d.

Magdalena

March

23,

1994,

de Kino, Tijuana,

Mexico), was designated (Nov. 28, 1993) by Pres. Carlos Salinas de Gortari as his handpicked successor, making him the governing Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate and the odds-on favourite to win the August 1994 elections. Colosio, a 1972 graduate of the Technological Institute of Higher Studies in Monterrey, joined the PRI that same year. After earning a graduate degree (1977) from the University of Pennsylvania in regional and urban development, he became

a protégé

of Salinas,

and

in 1979

he joined the Secretariat of Budget and Planning under his mentor. Colosio was elected to Congress in 1985 and in 1987 became a member of the PRI’s national executive committee before

wrote the nine-volume work A History of Philosophy (1946-74), a concise, clearly written, and objective overview that became a standard introductory philosophy text for thousands of university students, particularly in its U.S. paperback edition (1962-77). Copleston attended Marlborough College, from which he was expelled after he converted from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, and St. John’s College, Oxford. He joined

the Society of Jesus in 1930 and was ordained in 1937. In 1939 he was named professor of the history of philosophy at Heythrop College (later a school of the University of London). He retained that position until he was elevated to principal of Heythrop (1970-74) and dean of the faculty of theology (1972-74). He also taught metaphysics on a regular basis at the Gregorian University in Rome (1952-69) and served as a visiting professor at the University of Santa Clara, Calif. (197582). In 1946 Copleston published A History of Philosophy: Greece and Rome, the first book of what he originally envisioned as a three-volume survey. His other books include Nietzsche (1942),

Philosophies and Cultures (1980), and Philosophy in Russia (1986), which many scholars felt should have been released as volume 10 in the History series. Copleston was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1993. Cotten,

Joseph,

U.S.

actor

(b. May

15, 1905,

Petersburg, Va.—d. Feb. 6, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), was an accomplished Broadway star and a silver screen matinee idol whose elegant mannerisms, handsome looks, and low-key yet compelling

dramatic performances earned him both popular and critical acclaim. Cotten, tall and wavy-haired and distinguished by a trace of a Southern drawl,

66

People of 1994: Obituaries Brussels. In 1982 the Paul Delvaux Museum, de-

was a major player from 1937 in Orson Welles’s Mercury Theater radio ensemble before appearing in the benchmark Broadway production of The Philadelphia Story (1939-40) opposite Katharine Hepburn. He secured his reputation, however, starring in three classics by Welles, beginning with his film debut as a drama critic in Citizen Kane (1941), followed by The Magnificent Ambersons (1942) and Journey into Fear (1942). Cotten then starred as the likable yet murderous Uncle Charlie in the Alfred Hitchcock thriller Shadow of a

voted exclusively to his work, opened in SintIdesbald on the North Sea coast. Delvaux and his wife eventually retired to Veurne, an isolated

Flemish village, to escape the glare of publicity. He continued to paint until his eyesight failed in

the late 1980s.

Doisneau, Robert, French photographer (b. April 14, 1912,, Gentilly, near Paris, France—d. April 1, 1994, Paris), immortalized the spirit of post-

World War II Paris through black-and-white photographs that captured the romance, humour, and poignancy embodied in the lives of ordinary people caught in the act of doing ordinary things. Although he was eventually forced to reveal that one of his best-known pictures—a couple kissing

Doubt (1943), a serious Scotland Yard detective

in Gaslight (1944), and a shell-shocked veteran in Ill Be Seeing You (1945). He often played the romantic lead, notably opposite such stars as Ingrid Bergman in Under Capricorn (1949), Joan Fontaine in September Affair (1950), and Jennifer Jones in Duel in the Sun (1946) and Portrait of Jenny (1948). For his role in the latter, as an artist mesmerized and inspired by the model for one of his paintings, he won the best actor award at the Venice Film Festival. Cotten was superb in The Third Man (1949), but his screen career declined sharply in the 1950s, and he appeared mainly in westerns and Italian films. Later films credits include Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1961), The Great Sioux Massacre (1965), Airport ’77 (1977), and Heaven’s Gate (1980). A stroke in 1981 left him temporarily speechless and ended his acting career.

in a crowded street—was staged with paid models,

Doisneau created candid images that conveyed the spontaneity and absurdity of everyday life to “show the world as I would like it to be at all times.” After studying lithography and engraving at the Ecole Estienne in Paris, he laboured as a

photographer’s assistant and worked in the advertising department of the Renault automobile factory (1934-39). During the German occupation he fought with the French army and put his skills to use forging papers for the Resistance. After the war he earned a living as a fashion photographer for Vogue magazine, a portraitist of Parisian artists and intellectuals, and a commer-

CAMERA PRESS/GLOBE PHOTOS

Curry, John Anthony, British figure skater (b. Sept. 9, 1949, Birmingham, England—d. April 15, 1994, Binton, Warwickshire, England), came to

be known as “the Nureyev of the ice” as he defied conventional wisdom within the sporting establishment and revolutionized men’s figure skating with a combination of graceful athleticism and innovative choreography derived from classical ballet. As a boy, Curry studied figure skating because his father considered ballet too effeminate. He won his first skating trophy in 1965 and captured the British national championship five times between 1970 and 1975. In the early 1970s he acquired an American financial sponsor and began training in the U.S. Despite solid compulsory figures and inspired free skating, Curry repeatedly failed to win in international competitions, as tradition-

bound judges downgraded his performances and favoured his more athletic competitors. He persevered, however, and in 1976, after toning down his routine somewhat, he finally triumphed, winning the European championship, the Olympic gold medal, and the world championship within a three-month period. In later years, as director of his own professional skating company, Curry worked closely with ballet choreographers, including Kenneth MacMillan, Twyla Tharp, John Butler, and Peter Martins. He also performed occasionally off the ice—as an actor and a dancer— and in 1978 he founded a skating school in New York City. Curry was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1976. Diagnosed with AIDS, he retired from skating in 1991.

Cushing, Peter Wilton, British actor (b. May 26, 1913, Kenley, Surrey, England—d. Aug. 11, 1994, Canterbury,

Kent,

England),

raised

the horror

film to an art form with his many portrayals of Baron Frankenstein, Dr. Van Helsing, and similar

characters in such classics of the genre as The Revenge of Frankenstein (1958), Dracula (1958), The Brides of Dracula (1960), Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed (1969), The House That Dripped Blood (1971), and Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell (1974). Although the gaunt, elegant Cushing appeared in some 100 motion pictures in his 50year career, he found his true métier in the hor-

ror movies made by Hammer Films, beginning with The Curse of Frankenstein (1957). He was also successful as Sherlock Holmes in The Hound

tably as Osric in the 1948 film version of Hamlet, but his career took off with his award-winning performance as Winston Smith in a 1954 BBC television adaptation of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-four. Cushing continued to act through the 1980s and published two volumes of memoirs.

publications. Doisneau’s images, which were first exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1951, were later exhibited through-

out the U.S. and France and were collected into numerous books.

Degrelle, Léon Joseph Marie, Belgian fascist (b. June 15, 1906, Bouillon, Belgium—d.

1994, Malaga,

Spain), was

March 31,

perhaps his coun-

try’s best-known World War II Nazi collaborator,

leader of the fascist Rexist Party of Belgium, and commander of the Walloon (French-speaking Belgian) troops in the German army. Degrelle, the son of a prosperous brewer, attended the University of Louvain. In 1930 he founded the Rexists as an extreme right-wing Roman Catholic populist movement, and in the 1936 national election the party unexpectedly won more than 10% of the vote and 21 of the 202 seats in Parliament. After the Rexists broke with the more moderate Roman

Catholics,

Degrelle

lost influence

until

the German invasion of Belgium inspired him to collaborate with the occupation forces. In 1941 he founded the Walloon Legion, which was later

attached to the Waffen-SS on the Russian front. He won the Iron Cross and was decorated by Adolf Hitler personally. After the war Degrelle was tried in absentia and sentenced to death, but he had fled to Spain, where Gen. Francisco

Franco rejected Belgian demands for his extradition. In 1954 Degrelle became a Spanish citizen under the name Léon José de Ramirez Reina. Delvaux,

Paul,

Belgian

painter

(b. Sept.

23,

1897, Antheit, Liege, Belgium—d. July 20, 1994,

Veurne, Belgium), in his mature works visually conveyed a dreamlike state, often juxtaposing nude, doe-eyed women with skeletons and other incongruous images in settings of richly detailed classical architecture. Delvaux studied architecture and painting at the Académie des BeauxArts in Brussels. As a young artist, he experimented with Expressionism and Impressionism. In the early 1930s, however, he was introduced to the Surrealist works of Salvador

Dali, René

Daleks (1965) and Daleks—Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. (1966), and as Grand Moff Tarkin in Star Wars (1977). Cushing made his professional stage

Magritte, E.L.T. Mesens, Max Ernst, and Giorgio de Chirico, whose use of imagery was especially influential. Although Delvaux rejected being labeled, he was well established within the Surrealist movement by 1936, when he exhibited his paintings in a joint show with Magritte. The first major retrospective of Delvaux’s paintings was

debut with the Worthing Repertory Company in 1935 and his Hollywood film debut four years later in The Man in the Iron Mask. His early work was mainly in classical stage and screen roles, no-

subject of a documentary art film. From 1950 to 1962 he was a professor of painting at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Art et d’Architecture in

of the Baskervilles (1959) and inatelevision series a decade later, as Dr. Who in Dr. Who and the

cial photographer, but he continued to work as a freelance photojournalist, wandering the streets of Paris on a daily basis taking pictures that appeared in the pages of Life and other international

held in Brussels in 1944—45; soon after, he was the

Ellison, Ralph Waldo, U.S. writer and educator (b. March 1, 1914, Oklahoma City, Okla.—

d. April 16, 1994, New York, N.Y.), spent seven years writing his seminal novel, Invisible Man (1952), which explored through the eyes of a nameless black narrator the sense of racial alienation experienced by blacks and the social forces that conspire to deny all individuals an identity. His work, which was immediately recognized as a classic, earned him a National Book Award in

1953 and a permanent niche as one of the most important American writers of the 20th century. Ellison, who attended Tuskegee (Ala.) Institute, from 1933 to 1936, began writing short stories while serving in the Merchant Marine during World War II. Invisible Man told the story of a young black man who experienced rejection by both blacks and whites as he pursued university studies in the South and traveled north to become a political activist. Ellison, who produced two volumes of essays, Shadow and Act (1964) and Going to the Territory (1986), spent the remainder of his life working on a second novel, which was

unpublished at the creative writing at serving as a visiting Ellison influenced

time of his death. He taught New York University besides scholar at various universities.

such writers as Joseph Heller

and Kurt Vonnegut.

Ellul, Jacques César, French sociopolitical scientist and Protestant theologian (b. Jan. 6, 1912, Bordeaux, France—d. May 19, 1994, Bordeaux),

warned against the dangers of a society in which all human activity was determined according to absolute technical efficiency. His antitechnological views, particularly as expressed in his bestknown book, La Technique: ou l’enjeu du siécle (1954; The Technological Society, 1964), were es-

pecially popular among rebellious young Americans in the late 1960s. Ellul’s theories were largely grounded in his dual interest in Marxism (which he later renounced) and an austere Protestantism found in the Reformed Church, both of which he discovered while a student. After completing his studies at the Universities of Bordeaux and Paris, Ellul lectured at the Universities of Montpellier (1937-38) and Strasbourg (1938-40). During World War II he joined (1940) the French Resistance, and later he tried his hand at poli-

People of 1994: Obituaries

67

tics as deputy mayor of Bordeaux (1944-47). He

soon abandoned his attempt at a political solu-

tion to social problems, however, and returned to

the University of Bordeaux as a professor of law (1946-80) and as professor of history at the affiliated Institute of Political Studies (1947-80). Ellul was also a consultant to the Ecumenical World Council of Churches (1947-53) and a member of the National Council of the Reformed Church in France (1950-70). His other books include Le Fondement théologique du droit (1946; The Theological Foundation of Law, 1960), L’Illusion

politique (1965; The Political Illusion, 1967), and

L’Ethique de la liberté (1973; The Ethics of Freedom, 1976). Enwonwu,

Benedict

Chuka,

Nigerian

artist (b.

July 14, 1921, Onitsha, Nigeria—d. Feb. 5, 1994, Lagos, Nigeria), gained international recognition in the 1950s and ’60s for figurative sculptures and

paintings in which he combined classical Westem training with traditional African elements. Enwonwu first showed artistic promise while at Nigeria’s Government College. He won ascholarship to study in England, where he attended Goldsmith’s College, London (1944), Ruskin College, Oxford (1944-46), and the Slade College of Art in London (1946-48). In 1946 he participated in a UN-sponsored international exhibition in Paris; two years later he held his first one-man show in London. Enwonwu was soon known as a major artist, and in 1957 Queen Elizabeth II posed for him for a controversial bronze sculpture that graced the entrance to the Nigerian parliament building. In 1959 he returned to Nigeria as official art adviser to the federal government. He quit public service in 1971 to serve as a visiting professor of African studies at Howard University, Washington, D.C., and as professor of fine arts at the University of Ife, Nigeria. He retired in 1975. Enwonwu’s other notable works include the carved doors of the chapel for the Apostolic Delegation in Lagos and an elegant bronze figure of a woman donated by the Nigerian government to the UN headquarters in New York City in 1966. He was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1958 and received the Nigerian National Merit Award in 1980. Erikson, Erik Homburger, German-born psychoanalyst (b. June 15, 1902, Frankfurt am Main, Germany—d. May 12, 1994, Harwich, Mass.),

profoundly influenced the study of human development with the 1950 publication of Childhood and Society, in which he divided human development, from infancy to old age, into eight stages. Each of these stages in the life cycle, he theorized, presented acrisis resolution that was influenced by culture, society, and history and contributed to the individual’s ability to grow and change. Erikson also coined the term identity crisis, a personal psychosocial conflict that shaped a distinct aspect of personality. Though he was a disciple of Sigmund Freud, Erikson departed from Freud’s theory that the ego was fixed in early childhood. Erikson’s psychobiographies of Martin Luther, Young Man Luther (1958), and Mohandas K. Gandhi, Gandhi's Truth on the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969), interpreted their lives in terms of their psychological development. The latter book won Erikson a Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award in 1970. When

he was 68, Erikson divulged the secret

Senne

5a NEWSWEEK

University of California at Berkeley (1939-50). His studies concentrated on those living on the fringes of society, and he was known especially for his observations of the Yurok tribe of northern California. He repeatedly found that similar problems are approached in various ways by different societies. Erikson left Berkeley after refusing to sign a loyalty oath and joined the Austen Riggs Center in Stockbridge, Mass. In 1960 he returned to Harvard, and in 1970 he was made

professor emeritus. Faubus, Orval Eugene, U.S. politician (b. Jan. 7, 1910, Greasy Creek, Ark.—d. Dec. 14, 1994, Con-

way, Ark.), as governor (1954-67) of Arkansas, defied a 1957 federal court order to desegregate schools and called out the Arkansas National Guard to “prevent violence” by blocking the access of nine black students to Little Rock Central High School; his action was countered by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who mobilized 1,200 U.S. Army paratroopers to usher the students into the school. Faubus, the son of a poor farmer, was a

southern populist who supported New Deal policies. After his election as governor, he appointed six black men to the Democratic State Committee,

a move that triggered a charge during his 1956 reelection campaign that he was “soft” on racism. The following year—after the entire Arkansas legislature signed the Southern Manifesto, which attacked the Supreme Court’s desegregation law as “naked judicial power”—Faubus determined that his political survival depended on stopping desegregation. His actions attracted national television attention and set the stage for the South’s resistance to integration. After leaving office in 1967, Faubus worked as a bank clerk and made three (1970, 1974, and 1986) unsuccessful bids for

terly feuded with jazz traditionalists who decried the emergence of bebop, a style he highly praised in his well-regarded book Inside Be-bop (1949). Besides composing such songs as “Evil Gal Blues” and “Blowtop Blues,” which Dinah Washington recorded, and “How Blue Can You Get?,” a B.B. King hit, Feather played piano on recordings by major artists. During his tenure at the Los Angeles Times, Feather championed younger musicians and harshly criticized avant-garde jazz. He also taught at various universities in California. Firkusny, Rudolf, Czech-born U.S. pianist (b. Feb. 11, 1912, Napajedla, Moravia, Austria-Hungary {now Czech Republic]—d. July 19, 1994, Staatsburg, N.Y.), had an elegant, patrician style and was a champion of the music of his compatriots; early in his career he also composed. As a child he began studies with Czech composer Leos Janacek; other preparation included the study of composition with Josef Suk and piano with Alfred Cortot and Artur Schnabel. Firkusny began performing as a child prodigy in the musical capitals of Europe in the early 1920s and made his debut in London in 1933 and in New York City in 1938. Escaping the Nazis, he had settled in New York by 1941 and later became a USS. citizen. Although he was praised for his performances of Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms, he became best known as an interpreter of the Czech masters Bedrich Smetana,

Dvorak,

Janacek,

and his friend Bo-

huslav Martinu, who wrote a number of works for Firkusny. He also frequently performed works by other 20th-century composers. He collaborated with orchestras, both in the U.S. and elsewhere, and was known especially for his performances of Dvorak’s neglected piano concerto. Among his recordings were the complete piano works of Janacek. He taught at the Juilliard School, New York City, and in Aspen, Colo. After the fall of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia at the

behind his own identity crisis: his birth was the result of his Danish Lutheran mother’s extramarital affair with a Danish man. He never knew his

the governorship. He defended his record in The Faubus Years (1991).

father. From the age of three, however, Erikson carried the name of his stepfather, a German Jew,

Feather, Leonard Geoffrey, British jazz critic and

end of the 1980s, Firkusny returned to his home-

songwriter (b. Sept. 13, 1914, London, England—

and was known as Erik Homburger. This dual identity disturbed him emotionally. After graduating from high school, he traveled in Europe before settling in Vienna. He was 25 when Anna Freud became his psychoanalyst. He trained at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and became

d. Sept. 22, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), compiled

land to perform for the first time in some 44 years. He received a number of honours and was made a member of the Order of Tomas Masaryk, the Czechoslovak patriot and an early sponsor.

a full member in 1933, the year he fled from Hitler’s Europe to the U.S. There, with neither

a medical nor a university degree, he practiced child psychoanalysis in Boston and served on the faculties at Harvard Medical School (193536), Yale School of Medicine (1936-39), and the

the standard reference work The Encyclopedia of Jazz (1955), a several-times revised and expanded work offering histories, musical analyses,

and thousands of biographies, and he served (from the 1960s until the 1990s) as the influential jazz critic for the Los Angeles Times. Feather contributed articles on music to the British publication Melody Maker before he embarked on a career as a record producer and migrated to the USS. in the late 1930s. While serving as a publicist for Duke Ellington during the early 1940s, he bit-

Francis, Samuel Lewis (“SAM”), U.S. painter (b. June 25, 1923, San Mateo, Calif—d. Nov. 4, 1994,

Santa Monica, Calif.), applied coloured stains to pure white canvases to create a luminescent effect that was rooted in the subtle influences of French and Japanese painting. After 1970, however, his works became more bold; heavy stripes were complemented with splattered drips and blobs in

68

People of 1994: Obituaries

contrasting colours. Francis, who initially studied medicine, took up painting in a hospital while recovering from spinal tuberculosis, an affliction that resulted from an airplane crash when he was serving with the U.S. Air Force during World War II. He studied at the California School of Fine Art, San Francisco, before moving (1950) to Paris to attend Fernand Léger’s private academy. Though Francis was associated with the second generation of New York Abstract Expressionist painters—those artists who relied on an emotional approach to the conception and execution of their works—he cultivated his style in Paris, where he was inspired by the works of Cézanne, Monet, and Matisse, especially the latter’s expressions of pure colour. In 1952 Francis established an international reputation with his first one-man show in Paris; he made his New York City de-

but in 1956 with a solo exhibition at the Martha Jackson Gallery. The following year he visited East Asia, gaining insight into Japanese art and Buddhist meditative techniques. In the late 1950s Francis completed commissions for murals at the Sofu School of flower arrangement in Tokyo and at the Chase Manhattan Bank in New York City. He returned (1960s) to California and took up residence in the Los Angeles area. He was a founding trustee of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles.

Gerulaitis, 26, 1954,

Vitas, U.S. tennis Brooklyn,

N.Y.—d.

player (b. July Sept.

18,

1994,

Southampton, N.Y.), by means of his courtsweeping speed, precision shots, and dependable forehand, ranked among the top 10 professional tennis players from 1977 to 1982; he won only one Grand Slam event, however, the 1977 Australian

Open singles title. The shaggy-haired Gerulaitis was one of the circuit’s most visible personalities,

and his high-spirited lifestyle ensured that his name remained in the headlines. During his 14year career he won 27 singles and 9 doubles tournaments. Gerulaitis captured the 1975 Wimbledon doubles championship and the Italian Open twice (1977 and 1979); he reached the finals in the 1979 U.S. Open and 1980 French Open. During the 1980s Gerulaitis admitted that he had been treated for drug abuse, and in 1983 he was implicated but never charged in a cocaine-dealing conspiracy. After his retirement in 1985, Gerulaitis began a career as a sports announcer and later made a comeback as a player on the senior circuit. He was found dead after a faulty propane heater leaked lethal fumes into the heating and air-conditioning system of a friend’s home where he was staying. Goren, Shlomo, Israeli cleric (b. 1917, Zambrow, Poland—d. Oct. 29, 1994, Tel Aviv, Israel), was an important and often controversial figure in Israel’s religious and military establishment. Goren, born in Poland, moved with his family to Palestine in 1925. He entered the yeshiva at age 12, and by age 17 he had published his first religious article and was considered a prodigy. About 1936 Goren joined the Haganah, the underground military organization that fought the British in Palestine. As a soldier in the Palestine

war

of 1948-49,

Goren was often asked to help resolve specific questions concerning religious observance under wartime conditions, and in 1948 the chief rabbis

in Israel named him chief chaplain of the new state’s army. In that position he was often noted for his bravery, accompanying troops to the front and at times going behind enemy lines to bring back the dead for burial; he rose to the rank of

brigadier general. He retired from the army in 1972, and in that year Goren was elected Israel’s chief Ashkenazic rabbi. His decisions were considered attempts to reconcile religious teaching and technological progress, and he often clashed with the chief rabbi of the Sephardic tradition. Goren served in that post until 1983, yet he continued

to offer his opinions into the 1990s. He bitterly opposed accommodation with the Palestine Liberation Organization; he made headlines in late

1993 when he “ruled” that soldiers could disobey orders and refuse to dismantle settlements in the West Bank, and in 1994 he pronounced that religious law commanded Jews to kill Yasir

Arafat. Goren wrote many religious articles and essays, including his commentary on the Talmud, Ha-Yerushalmi ha-Meforash (1961), a volume that won the Israel prize. Goria, Giovanni Giuseppe, Italian politician (b.

July 30, 1943, Asti, Italy—d. May 21, 1994, Asti), was Italy’s finance minister (1982-87, 1992-93) as

well as the country’s youngest post-World War II prime minister (July 1987-March 1988). He resigned from the Cabinet in February 1993 when he was caught up in a widespread government corruption investigation. Goria joined the Christian Democratic Party at age 17 and entered local politics in Asti soon after studying for a degree in economics at the University of Turin. He was elected to the national Chamber of Deputies in 1976 and was appointed undersecretary for the budget in 1981. Although Goria had no political power base within the Christian Democrats, his youth, good looks, and relative success as a

pragmatic finance minister made him an acceptable compromise choice to lead the country after Socialist Prime Minister Bettino Craxi’s resignation forced a snap election in June 1987. Goria submitted his own resignation in February 1988 after a rebellious Parliament had rejected his proposed budget bill 17 times in three weeks. His resignation was not accepted initially, and he remained in office for another month. He was elected to the European Parliament in 1989, returned to Rome as agriculture minister in 1991, and rejoined the Finance Ministry the next year. In February 1994 he was brought to trial on corruption charges. Goria, who strongly denied the accusations of bribery and corruption, was acquitted of one charge; another was still pending at the time of his death. Gottman, Jean-Iona, French geographer (b. Oct. 10, 1915, Kharkov, Ukraine, Russian Empire—d. Feb. 28, 1994, Oxford, England), introduced the

concept and term megalopolis (from an ancient Greek concept) to describe a densely populated social and economic entity encompassing two or more cities and the increasingly urbanized space between them. After a four-year study of the region stretching from Boston to Washington, D.C., Gottman published Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States (1961), in which he concluded that this fusion of cities “was the cradle of a new order in the organization of inhabited space.” Gottman was reared by relatives in Paris after his Ukrainian-Jewish parents were killed in 1917. He was at the Sorbonne as a student (1934-37) and researcher (1937-41), but he was forced out during the World War II German occupation of France. In 1941 he moved to the U.S., where he was a government consultant

(1942-44), an associate professor at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. (1943-48), and a member

of the Institute for Advanced

Study,

Princeton, N.J. (1942-65). He later taught at the University of Paris (1948-56), served as director of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes in Paris (1960-84), and eventually settled at the University of Oxford as professor of geography (1968-83), professor emeritus (1983-94), and fellow of Hertford College (1968-94). Gottman’s other books include Virginia at Mid-Century (1955) and Megalopolis Revisited (1987). Greenberg, Clement, U.S. art critic (b. Jan. 16,

1909, New

York, N.Y.—d.

May 7, 1994, New

York), exerted extraordinary influence over post-

war North American art as a champion of both Abstract Expressionism and one of the movement’s chief exponents, Jackson Pollock. His patronage was essential to elevating the emerging movement into a major art form, and his critical

essays in the Partisan Review and his role as art critic for the Nation magazine, two powerful cul-

tural publications, made him the chief arbiter of art in the late 1930s, *40s, and ’50s. Greenberg’s own artistic talents were discouraged by his parents, who destroyed all of his drawings. The experience was instrumental in laying the foundation for Greenberg’s theory on the mutual antagonism between art and the average person. After graduating from Syracuse (N.Y.) University (1930), he

returned to New York City and translated books. While working for the government as a customs clerk, he began to write essays that espoused a formal approach to looking at art, the so-called Greenberg formalism. In addition to shaping the career of Pollock, Greenberg helped promote Helen Frankenthaler, Mark Rothko, Jules Olitski,

and David and artists’ Greenberg Conceptual

Smith. He routinely visited galleries studios, where he offered his advice. disavowed such movements as Pop and Art and wrote little after the 1960s.

Habyarimana,

Juvénal,

Rwandan

officer

army

and politician (b. March 8, 1937?, Gasizi, Gisenyi

province, Ruanda-Urundi—d. April 6, 1994, near

Kigali, Rwanda), ruled Rwanda almost singlehandedly for more than 20 years after he seized power in a bloodless coup on July 5, 1973. Habyarimana studied humanities and mathematics at St. Paul’s College and medicine at Lovanium University, both in Belgian Congo (now Zaire). He returned home in 1960 to begin training for the National Guard in Kigali. Although he was a member of the Hutu majority ethnic group, he proved to be an effective officer against insurgents from both the Hutu and the Tutsi minority. He rapidly rose through the ranks, becoming chief of staff (1963-65) and then minister of defense and police chief of staff (1965-73). In April 1973 he was promoted to major general; three months later he led a group of disgruntled Hutu officers in the overthrow of Pres. Grégoire Kayibanda. Habyarimana initially banned all political activity. In 1975 he established the National Revolutionary Movement for Development, with himself as sole leader of the single-party state. He gradually allowed more civilian involvement, however, and after the country’s first multiparty elections in 1992, he was forced to relinquish some power to the new Tutsi prime minister. Habyarimana and Pres. Cyprien Ntaryamira, the Hutu leader of neighbouring Burundi, were returning from ongoing peace talks between the two ethnic groups when their plane was shot down. The death of the two Hutu presidents under suspicious circumstances ignited the simmering tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi and led to the massacres and the mass exodus from Rwanda. Hawkins,

dancer

Frederick

(“ERICK”),

and choreographer

Trinidad,

Colo—d.

Nov.

U.S.

modern

(b. April 23, 1909, 23, 1994, New

York,

N.Y.), was the first male dancer in Martha Graham’s dance company; he later formed and danced in his own company. When he was a student at Harvard, reading Greek, Hawkins saw

a performance by Harald Kreutzberg, a German modern dancer, and decided to make dance his

career. After graduation (1930) he studied with Kreutzberg for two months in Austria. He moved to New York in 1934, studied ballet at George Balanchine and Lincoln Kirstein’s newly formed School of American Ballet, and the following year began dancing with the American Ballet. In 1936 he also became

a member

of Ballet

Caravan;

Hawkins’ first choreography, Show Piece (1937), was created for that company. After having performed (1938) as a guest artist with Graham’s company, Hawkins began a relationship with her and in 1939 joined her company. They were married in 1948. In addition to creating leading roles in such Graham works as El Penitente, Appalachian Spring, and Night Journey, he handled the company’s administrative work. He also presented some of his own works in her programs. In 1951 he left the company to organize his own group, which eventually became the Erick Hawkins Dance Company. He and Graham were divorced in 1954. Hawkins’ works were deeply influenced by American Indian rituals, folklore, Zen Buddhism, Western: and Eastern philosophies, and Asian theatre. His dances—among them, Here and Now with Watchers (1957), To Everybody Out There (1964), Angels of the Inmost Heaven (1972), Parson Weems and the Cherry Tree (1975), and Death Is the Hunter (1975)—employed his Normative Theory of Movement; the body movement was free, simple, and natural— unforced. Hawkins received the National Medal of Arts in October 1994.

People of 1994: Obituaries Hebblethwaite, Peter, British writer (b. Sept. 30, 1930, Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, England— d. Dec. 18, 1994, Oxford, England), was considered the foremost “Vaticanologist” in the Englishspeaking world and wrote the definitive biographies of two popes—John XXIII: Pope of the Council (1984; U.S. title, Pope John XXIII: Shep-

herd of the Modern World, 1985) and Paul VI: The First Modern Pope (1993). Hebblethwaite was educated in England and France, joined the Society of Jesus in 1948, and was ordained a priest in 1963. His attendance at the final sessions of the Second Vatican Council sparked his interest in the papacy and the modernization then taking place in the church. Hebblethwaite was editor of the Jesuit magazine The Month from 1965 to 1973. In 1974, unhappy with the church’s slow progress on liberalization, he left the priesthood and married. He then was assistant editor of The Frontier (1974-76), a lecturer at Wadham College, Oxford (1976-79), and (from 1979) a writer for the National Catholic Reporter. Among his other books were The Year of Three Popes (1978) and The Next Pope, to be published posthumously. Hebblethwaite was a contributor to Britannica Book of the Year for some 25 years.

Hoad was diagnosed with a rare, virulent form of leukemia.

Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, British chemist

(b. May 12, 1910, Cairo, Egypt—d. July 29, 1994, Shipston-on-Stour, Warwickshire, England), won the 1964 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for her work in determining the atomic structure of vitamin B,, and other important biochemical compounds. Hodgkin studied chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford (B.A., 1931; B.Sc., 1932), and the Univer-

sity of Cambridge (Ph.D., 1937), but most of her research was in X-ray crystallography, which was more closely linked to physics than to chemistry. She returned to Somerville College as a tutor in 1935; she became a fellow the following year and remained there until 1977. Hodgkin then became

doubles partner and sometime rival Ken Rosewall,

dominated amateur tennis in the mid-1950s. The “Sydney twins,” as the two were labeled almost from the beginning, led Australia to the Davis Cup championship in 1953, 1955, and 1956. Hoad won 13 Grand Slam events: the Australian singles (1956) and men’s doubles (1953, 1956, and 1957);

the French singles (1956), doubles (1953), and mixed doubles (1954); the All-England (Wimbledon) singles (1956 and 1957) and doubles (1953, 1955, and 1956); and the U.S. doubles (1956). At

his peak in 1956, he captured 15 singles and 17 doubles titles, and he just missed a Grand Slam

sweep when he Ashley Cooper) U.S. singles final fessional in 1957. of his wrists and

lost the French doubles (with in the final and then lost the to Rosewall. Hoad turned proHe was known for the strength the power of his serve; how-

ever, recurring back problems ended

his career

and plagued his attempted comeback (1968-72). In 1968 Hoad and his wife opened a tennis camp in Spain. He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1980. In January 1994

Germany

in 1992, but in January

stand trial, and he was allowed to emigrate to

Houser, Allan C., U.S. sculptor and painter (b. June 30, 1914, Apache, Okla—d. Aug. 22, 1994,

Santa Fe, N.M.), was a Chiricahua Apache who played a pivotal role in the development of native American Indian art. His works, including murals, watercolours, and sculptures made of stone, wood,

to

Hoad, Lewis Alan (“Lew”), Australian tennis player (b. Nov. 23, 1934, Sydney, Australia—d. July 3, 1994, Fuengirola, Spain), with his frequent

many, which he visited in 1987. Internal unrest grew, however, and thousands of East Germans

Chile, where members of his family resided.

and he pursued a dual career for much of his life. He graduated from Princeton University with degrees in chemistry (Ph.D., 1947) but also studied composition with Roger Sessions and Milton Babbitt. After a five-year stint as a research chemist

moved to the State University of New York at Buffalo. There he taught composition and codirected (with Lukas Foss) the Center for the Creative and Performing Arts.

1971. As head of state Honecker took advantage of West Germany’s policy of accommodation and signed the Basic Treaty by which Bonn recognized East Germany’s existence as an independent nation. For a time he successfully balanced the GDR’s ties to the Soviet Union and to West Ger-

1993 a Berlin court ruled that he was too ill to

Hiller was interested in both science and music,

nois electronic music studio until 1968, when he

Walter Ulbricht, who resigned under pressure in

to reunified

New York City—d. Jan. 26, 1994, Buffalo, N.Y.), was a pioneer in computer music. From childhood

compose and saw his first works performed publicly, Hiller joined the chemistry department at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Working there on the ILLIAC IV, the first largescale university computer, Hiller recognized certain parallels between computer applications in science and the process of composing. In collaboration with Leonard Isaacson, he wrote the Illiac Suite for String Quartet (1956), in which many compositional decisions were given to the computer to make in conformity with a set of rules or weighted probabilities set down by the composer. Other major works included Computer Cantata for soprano, tape, and chamber ensemble (1963), Algorithms I-III (1968-72), and (with John Cage) HPSCHD (1968), a deliberately chaotic work for 1-7 harpsichords (playing pieces of Mozart) and 1-51 channels of taped sound. Hiller also wrote chamber music for traditional instruments as well as a variety of theatre, motion-picture, and television music. He directed the University of Illi-

was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment, a sentence that probably spared him from being shot in later crackdowns on the opposition. He was released in 1945 and was the founding chairman of the Free German Youth Movement (194655). As the new GDR was forming, Honecker rose rapidly in the SED. By 1967 he was the designated successor to the East German leader,

fled to the West, despite Honecker’s tightfisted rule, tough emigration restrictions, and reported shootings. Honecker could not withstand the fall of communism throughout Eastern Europe, and in October 1989 he resigned. He took refuge on a Soviet military base near Berlin to avoid criminal prosecution for manslaughter and treason. In 1991 he fled to Moscow, where he sought asylum in the Chilean embassy. Honecker was deported

Hiller, Lejaren, U.S. composer (b. Feb. 23, 1924,

in industry, during which time he continued

69

and bronze, depicted such familiar Indian themes as mother and child, fire dancers, and warriors on

horseback. Houser attended the School of Indian Art in Santa Fe before working for the Federal Works Progress Administration in the 1930s. He taught for some 20 years at such schools as the Intermountain Indian School, Brigham City, Utah, and the Institute of American Indian Arts, Santa

Fe, before retiring in 1975 to devote himself completely to sculpture. In 1992 he was awarded the

“ UPI/BETTMANN

National Medal of Arts, and in April 1994 he

fellow by special election (1977-82) at Oxford’s

presented first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton with “May We Have Peace,” a 3.4-m (11-ft) bronze sculpture of an Indian holding aloft a sacred pipe.

Wolfson College. She remained active as chancellor (1970-88) and honorary fellow (from 1988) at the University of Bristol. In the 1930s and early ’40s, Hodgkin began work on an X-ray analysis of the atomic structure of penicillin and of insulin (though it took nearly 35 years to finally accomplish the latter). From 1948 to 1956 she concentrated her crystallographic research on vitamin B,., an enormously complex nonprotein compound crucial to the treatment of pernicious anemia. She also did research into other compounds, including cholesterol and vitamin D. Hodgkin was a founder (1957) of the Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Wolfson research pro-

fessor of the Royal Society (1960-77), a member of the Order of Merit (1965), and the winner of numerous international awards. Honecker,

Erich,

German

political

leader

(b.

Aug, 25, 1912, Neunkirchen, Germany—d. May 29, 1994, Santiago, Chile), was first secretary of the Socialist Unity (Communist) Party (SED) and thus head of state of the German Democratic Republic (GDR; East Germany) from 1971 to 1989. Honecker’s career was inextricably linked

Ionesco, Eugéne (EUGEN IONESCU), Romanianborn French dramatist (b. Nov. 26, 1912, Slatina, Romania—d. March 28, 1994, Paris, France), was

a pioneer in the nonrepresentational Theatre of the Absurd, using social parody and broad slapstick to examine ordinary people trying to cope with the relentless anxiety of modern life, the absurdity of bourgeois social conventions, and the impossibility of meaningful communication. Beginning with his first one-act “antiplay,” La Cantatrice chauve (1950; The Bald Soprano), Ionesco turned audience expectations and conventional stage techniques upside down, reducing conversation to tedious platitudes and turning an existential pessimism about the human condition into uproarious “tragic farce.” In the play’s most famous scene, two strangers exchange clichéd pleasantries until they stumble upon the discoyery that they are apparently husband and wife. Ionesco, the son of a Romanian father and a French

mother, was

educated

at the Universi-

ties of Bucharest and Paris and spent his early years shifting between residence in Romania and France. While working as a proofreader in Paris

with the Berlin Wall, the supreme emblem of the

soon after World War II, he decided to learn En-

Cold War, from 1961 (when he was placed in charge of its construction) through 1989 (when it was physically breached in the bloodless revolution that overthrew his communist regime) to 1993 (when criminal charges that he had issued “shoot-to-kill” orders to East German border guards were dropped because he was dying of cancer). Honecker, who was the son of communist activists, joined the Young Pioneers at age 10 and left school to work four years later.

glish. The stilted sentences and banal platitudes he encountered in his English grammar book served as the inspiration for The Bald Soprano, which opened in Paris to almost universal ridicule. By the late 1950s, however, lonesco was recognized

After Adolf Hitler’s accession to power (1933),

he organized anti-Nazi opposition in northern Germany. He was arrested in 1935 and in 1937

as a brilliant

innovator,

and

his fanciful,

mini-

malist style was increasingly imitated. His most popular full-length work, Le Rhinocéros (1959; Rhinoceros), was successfully staged in Paris by Jean-Louis Barrault (q.v.), in London starring Sir Lawrence

Olivier, and on Broadway

with Zero

Mostel. In the play Berenger, the “unheroic hero,” struggles against the pressure to conform

70

People of 1994: Obituaries the body uses a preexisting, immensely diverse repertoire of antibodies to recognize invading organisms and other foreign substances and provided explanations for the way the immune system develops and for the system of interactions in which the immune system is activated when it is needed and then is inactivated. Jerne grew up in Denmark and was educated first in The Netherlands, studying physics at the University of Leiden, and later at the University of Copenhagen, from which he received his medical degree (1951). From 1943 to 1956 he was a researcher at the Danish State Serum Institute, and he then spent six years (1956-62) as the chief medical officer of the World Health Organization. Jerne taught biophysics at the University of Geneva (196062), was chairman of the microbiology depart-

ment at the University of Pittsburgh, Pa. (196266), and was professor of experimental therapy at J.W. Goethe University and director of the Paul Ehrlich Institute in Frankfurt am Main, Germany

(1966-69). He then served (1969-80) as director of the Basel (Switz.) Institute for Immunology, which he helped establish, and taught (1981-82) at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Jerne was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a foreign associate of the National Academy of Sciences. Jobim, Anténio Carlos, Brazilian songwriter and composer (b. Jan. 25, 1927, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil—

JERRY BAUER

with society as his friends and neighbours gradually change into mindless, bellowing pachyderms. Ionesco’s other plays include La Legon (1951; The Lesson), Les Chaises (1952; The Chairs), Amédée

(1954), and Le Roi se meurt (1962; Exit the King). He continued to write in the 1970s, but his later

works were less witty and were more concerned with an exploration of the subconscious. Ionesco also published essays, children’s books, a personal journal, and a novel. He was elected to the French Academy in 1970. Jarman, Derek, British filmmaker (b. Jan. 31, 1942, Northwood, Middlesex, England—d. Feb.

19, 1994, London, England), crafted highly personal avant-garde motion pictures through which he sought to “demystify homosexuality” and explore human experience from a uniquely gay perspective. While Jarman often used classical plays or historical personages as the basis for his work, it was said that all of his films were in some way “about” homosexuality. Jarman studied at King’s College, London, and the Slade School of Fine

Art. He had some success as a painter and as a set designer for the Royal Ballet, the English National Opera, and other arts companies. After

designing sets for two films by the controversial director Ken Russell, Jarman tried his hand

at moviemaking. The result, Sebastiane (1975), was a low-budget portrait of the early Christian martyr and featured male nudity, homoerotic themes, and Latin dialogue in a Super-8 format. Jarman’s other films (many of which were shot on a shoestring budget with Super-8 or 16-mm rather than conventional 35-mm stock) include Jubilee (1977), The Tempest (1979), Caravaggio (1986), War Requiem (1989), Edward II (1991), and Wittgenstein (1993). Blue (1993), which was made when Jarman was nearly blind, featured an unchanging plain blue screen and a spoken narrative of the director’s own thoughts and feelings about his battle with AIDS. Glitterbug, a compilation of fragments from old home movies that was commissioned for television, was previewed shortly before his death. Jarman also wrote several books, including two volumes of memoirs, Mod-

ern Nature (1992) and At Your Own Risk (1992). Jerne, Niels Kaj, British-Danish immunologist (b. Dec. 23, 1911, London, England—d. Oct. 7, 1994,

Castillon-du-Gard, France), was a corecipient— with César Milstein and Georges K6hler—of the 1984 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his theories of immunology and the effect they had on research. These theories proposed that

d. Dec. 8, 1994, New York, N.Y.), transformed the extroverted rhythms of the Brazilian samba into an intimate music, the bossa nova (“new wrinkle” or “wave”), which became internationally popular in the 1960s. A guitarist and pianist since boyhood, he performed in Rio clubs before becoming music director of Odeon Records. In 1958 Joao Gilberto’s recording of Jobim’s song “Chega de Saudade” (“No More Blues”) was released. The record was a hit in Brazil, and in 1959

Jobim and Luis Bonfé became noted for their score for Orfeo negro (Black Orpheus), which won an Academy Award as best foreign film. Jobim’s worldwide success soon followed. He maintained a second home in the U.S., where bossa nova’s fusion of understated samba pulse (quiet percussion, unamplified guitars playing subtly complex rhythms), gentle singing (Jobim often worked with lyricist Vinicius de Morais), and the melodic and sophisticated harmonies of cool jazz found a longlasting niche in popular music. He appeared at Carnegie Hall in 1962 with his leading jazz interpreters, tenor saxophonist Stan Getz and guitarist Charlie Byrd; collaborated on the Frank Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim and Getz/Gilberto albums; recorded albums under his own name; and

composed classical works and film scores. Hundreds of performers recorded his more than 400 songs, including “Samba de uma nota s6” (“OneNote Samba”), “Desafinado” (“Slightly out of Tune”), “Meditagao” (“Meditation”), “Corcovado” (“Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars”), “Garota de Ipanema” (“The Girl from Ipanema”), “Wave,” and “Dindi.” Joseph of Portsoken, Keith Sinjohn Joseph, BARON, British politician (b. Jan. 17, 1918, London, England—d. Dec. 10, 1994, London), con-

verted (during the 1980s) the British Conservative Party under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher from Keynesian demand management to Friedmanite free-market monetarism. Hailed as one of the sharpest intellects in the government and a fervent disciple of the free market, Joseph managed to free industry from governmental controls. Some of his views, particularly concerning social services, were very controversial. Joseph believed in building self-reliance within an economy based mainly on highly competitive free enterprise. On the other hand, Joseph was also labeled the “mad monk” because of his conscientious attempts to end the vicious cycle of poverty, dependence on the welfare state, and deprivation of the inner cities. Although Joseph achieved many of his dreams, he openly regretted some of his decisions.

He designed a new form of taxation that provided grants for those with substandard incomes. Joseph was a brilliant student, becoming (1947) a fellow of All Souls, University of Oxford. He served as

a Conservative member of Parliament (1956-87), secretary of state for health and social services (1970-74), secretary of state for industry (197981), and secretary of state for education (198186). Thatcher relied heavily on Joseph, one of the so-called “architects of Thatcherism,” and she called him her oldest political ally and mentor. An honest, forceful, and utterly committed man

of ideas, Joseph was at the same time shy and diffident and was therefore never seriously expected to take over as prime minister. In 1987 he was made life peer. In 1993 he survived a severe stroke, which left him wheelchair-bound. Joseph died of chest complications from that stroke.

Julia, Raul (RAGL RAFAEL ARCELAY),

Puerto

CARLOS

Rican-born

U.S.

JULIA Y actor

(b.

March 9, 1940, San Juan, P.R.—d. Oct. 24, 1994, New

York,

N.Y.),

was

a dashing

and

hand-

some Latin stage and film star, whose versatility stretched from drama to farcical comedy; his compelling film performance as Valentin, a South American political prisoner incarcerated with a homosexual window dresser (William Hurt) in Kiss of the Spider Woman (1985), was one of his most admired screen roles, but he also achieved popular acclaim with his comedic portrayal as the lusty family patriarch, Gomez, in the macabre and wildly successful The Addams Family (1991) and its sequel, Addams Family Values (1993). Atter graduating from the University of Puerto Rico, Julia pursued an acting career while appearing in a nightclub act. He arrived (1964) in New York City and gained renown as Macduff in Macbeth (1966) and as the title character in Othello (1979) in Joseph Papp’s New York Shakespeare Festival. On Broadway he earned four Tony award nominations for his roles as Proteus in Two Gentlemen of Verona (1971), Charley in a revival of Where’s Charley? (1974), Mack the Knife in an experimental production of The Threepenny Opera (1976), and a Fellini-like film director in Nine (1982). His real-life role as an activist—he tirelessly campaigned to end world hunger and poverty— drew him to social-activist film roles. In Romero (1989) he portrayed El Salvador’s assassinated Archbishop Oscar Romero, and in the made-for-

cable-television film The Burning Season (1994) he starred as the martyred Brazilian labour leader and environmentalist Chico Mendes. Julia’s commanding presence, athleticism, and vitality were showcased in such stage productions as Betrayal (1980) and Arms and the Man (1985) and in such films as Eyes of Laura Mars (1978), One from the Heart (1982), The Morning After (1986), and Presumed Innocent (1990). For a brief time during the early 1970s, he also appeared as the handyman Rafael on TV’s “Sesame Street.” Julia, who died following a stroke, was reportedly battling cancer. Kienholz, Edward, U.S. artist (b. Oct. 23, 1927, Fairfield, Wash.—d. June 10, 1994, Hope, Idaho),

crafted elaborately detailed three-dimensional environmental- or theatrical-style assemblages that served as harsh indictments of American society. His most famous walk-in tableaux included “Roxy’s,” a replica of a 1943 Nevada bordello; “Back Seat Dodge °38,” featuring a couple in a sexual embrace; and “The Beanery,” a reproduction of a:decrepit bar complete with 17 sculpted patrons, piped-in smells, jukebox music, and background conversation. Critics labeled some of Kienholz’ works repulsive or pornographic. The Vietnam War, death, and mental illness were subjects of his social and political concerns. The tools of his trade included discarded mannequins and stuffed animals, as well as furniture, bones,

carpets, and fake blood. Kienholz was initially a painter, but in 1953 he moved to Los Angeles, where he began producing large wooden reliefs for walls. In 1956 he helped found the Ferus Gallery, an avant-garde studio, which exhibited his threedimensional works. His often controversial sculptures set him apart from his contemporaries. After leaving Los Angeles in 1960, Kienholz divided his time between residences in Berlin and Hope. He credited his fifth wife, Nancy Reddin Kienholz, a

photojournalist, as a collaborator after their marriage in 1973. Together they operated the Faith

People of 1994: Obituaries and Charity in Hope Gallery, where exhibitions of established and emerging artists were held. His works found their way into private collections and museums around the world. Kim Il Sung (Kim SunG Ju), Korean dictator (b. April 15, 1912, near Pyongyang, Korea [now North Korea]—d. July 8, 1994, Pyongyang), ruled the Democratic Republic of Korea (North Korea) with an iron fist from the time it was established in 1948 until his sudden death from a heart attack. As premier (1948-72) and president (197294), the “Great Leader” promoted a successful cult of personality that imparted on him “godlike qualities.” As a consequence, he was able to cow political adversaries at home and preside unchallenged over one of the communist world’s most isolated and repressive societies. In 1925 Kim’s family moved to Manchuria from Korea, which had been occupied by Japan since 1910. As a young man Kim joined the antiJapanese resistance movement and appropriated the name of Kim Il Sung, a legendary guerrilla hero. While in the Soviet Union, where he had

been sent for political and military training, he joined the local Communist Party. During World

War II he served in the Soviet army. Following Japan’s surrender in 1945, Korea was effectively divided at the 38th parallel; Soviet troops were

stationed in the North and U.S. troops in the South. In 1948 the Soviet forces departed, leaving Kim as the head of a communist state, and in

1949 he became chairman of the Korean Workers’ (communist) Party. Hoping to reunify Korea by

Kim Sang-Man, Korean publisher (b. Jan. 19, 1910, Puan, North Cholla province, Korea—d. Jan. 26, 1994, Seoul, South Korea), as the pub-

lisher of Dong-A Ilbo, the country’s most influential newspaper, was an intrepid defender of the freedom of the press. While conforming to the press censorship imposed by the dictatorial regimes of Presidents Park Chung Hee and Chun Doo Hwan, Kim quietly and shrewdly gained international support for resisting the measure. During a 1974 showdown between the Park government and striking Dong-A Ilbo journalists, who objected to censorship and the presence of Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) agents in newspaper offices, Kim used his international contacts to bring pressure on the government,

which had threatened to suspend the paper. Though Park withdrew the KCIA agents, he ordered a complete commercial advertising boycott. Kim’s stature was such that ordinary blue-collar workers joined intellectuais in buying newspaper advertising space to show their support for press freedom. The paper was brought to the brink of bankruptcy, and Kim was forced to let some reporters go and reassign others. During Chun’s social purification campaign, a number of reporters were fired, but Kim found jobs for many of them in special research departments. Kim, who joined Dong-A Ilbo in 1949, served as executive director, president, publisher, chairman, and, from 1981,

chairman emeritus. He was a graduate of the London School of Economics. He was named a Commander of the British Empire in 1974 and a honourary Knight of the British Empire in 1981.

force, Kim ordered his army to invade the South

in June 1950, thereby igniting the Korean War. North Korea received massive support from Chinese troops, while South Korea got the backing of UN forces made up largely of U.S. soldiers. The conflict ended three years later in a stalemate. An estimated three million—four million people were killed, yet Korea remained divided. During

the

decades

that

followed,

relations

with China and the U.S.S.R. cooled. Kim was held responsible for several acts of international terrorism, including the assassination of 17 South Korean officials during a presidential state visit to Burma (now Myanmar) in 1983 and the 1987 bombing of a South Korean commercial plane that killed 115 persons. Shortly before his death, Kim agreed to an unprecedented meeting with South Korean Pres. Kim Young Sam. An international crisis had developed over North Korea’s withdrawal from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and Kim’s refusal to allow UN inspection of several facilities that were believed to have the capability of producing nuclear weapons. In 1972 Kim designated his eldest son, Kim Jong Il, as his successor.

Kirby, Jack (JACOB

KURTZBERG),

U.S. comic-

book artist (b. Aug. 28, 1917, New York, N.Y.— d. Feb. 6, 1994, Thousand

Oaks, Calif.), as the

undisputed king of the comics, helped create some 400 characters, including such unforgettable superheroes as Captain America, Spiderman, the Incredible Hulk, and the Fantastic Four; during the 1950s and ’60s, he reinvented those invincible

71

genius was captured in his brilliantly coloured, larger-than-life superhero depictions, which elevated action drawing to a new level. Other innovations included exploding panels, double-page spreads, and ultimately a book-length format. He also produced (1970) The Fourth World series for DC Comics. In 1993, some seven years after he

published his last full comic book, Kirby’s peers voted him the most influential of all creators. Knoll, Erwin, Austrian-born U.S. editor (b. July 17, 1931, Vienna, Austria—d. Nov. 2, 1994, Madi-

son, Wis.), as editor of the political magazine The Progressive, was known for his commitment to civil liberties and nonviolence and his opposition to capital punishment, nuclear weapons, and U.S. intervention abroad. Knoll gained international attention in 1979 when he refused a government request that an article supposedly revealing hydrogen bomb design secrets be withheld, and the government secured a court order prohibiting publication—an act of prior restraint unprecedented in U.S. history. He contended that all the information

was

in the public domain,

and after six months—following a Madison newspaper’s publication of a letter containing some of that information—the Justice Department relented, and the article was printed. Knoll was

reared and educated in New York—his family had fled the Nazis and moved to the U.S. when he was nine—and he received a B.A. from New York University in 1953. He also did graduate work in political science at George Washington University, Washington, D.C. He worked for the Washington Post (1957-63) and the Newhouse National News Service (1963-68) before becoming the Washington editor of The Progressive in 1968 and then moving to Madison in 1973 to be its editor. His opposition to the 1991 Gulf war—almost singular among U.S. editors—led to appearances on the PBS “MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour.” Knoll’s several books included Scandal in the Pentagon

(1969; coauthor with William

McGaffin),

War

characters by endowing them with a measure of human vulnerability. Kirby left high school at the age of 16 and worked in Max Fleisher’s animation studio on Betty Boop and Popeye cartoon material before teaming up with Joe Simon in

book about capital punishment unfinished.

1941. Together for 15 years, they collaborated on Captain America, featuring the nation’s top Nazi

(b. Oct. 5, 1909, Oberndorf, Austria—d. Feb. 26, 1994, Gloucester, England), expounded on “the

combatant; the Boy Commandos,

beauty of the small,” particularly in his major work, The Breakdown of Nations (1957). Kohr’s philosophy, which was based on the premise that human stability and prosperity are best served by small-scale political, social, and economic institu-

about a team of

young soldiers; and My Date, the first romance comic book. In 1959 Kirby, who had dissolved his partnership with Simon in 1956, joined the Marvel Comics Group and teamed up with writer-editor Stan Lee. Their blockbuster hits included Silver Surfer, Mighty Thor, Iron Man, and X-Men besides

Crimes and the American Conscience (1970; coeditor), and No Comment (1984; editor). He left a

Kohr, Leopold, Austrian-born social philosopher

tions, was later popularized in E.F. Schumacher’s

The Incredible Hulk, The Fantastic Four, and the

Small Is Beautiful (1973). Kohr studied law and economics in Innsbruck, Vienna, and London.

revival in 1964 of Captain America. Kirby’s artistic

In 1938

he moved

to North

America,

where

he taught economics at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. (1946-54), and the University of Puerto Rico (1955-73). He later settled in Britain and lectured on political philosophy at the University of Wales in Aberystwyth (1968-77). Kohr blamed widespread modern problems such as crime and poverty on the rise of “national and urban giantism,” which had replaced earlier citystates, and he fiercely opposed the political and economic unification of Europe. His other books include Development Without Aid (1973) and The Inner City (1988).

FRANCOIS LOCHON—GAMMA LIAISON

Lancaster, Burton Stephen (“Burr”), U.S. motion-picture actor (b. Nov. 2, 1913, New York, N.Y.—d. Oct. 20, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), brought a strong, intelligent presence to the screen

in a diverse array of emotion-packed roles, ranging from those in Hollywood westerns to European art films, but he was perhaps best remembered for his Academy Award-winning performance as a fiery evangelist and con man in Elmer Gantry (1960). Tall, lithe, and distinguished by his winning smile, Lancaster first played to audiences as part of a two-man acrobatic team in a traveling circus. After the act was dissolved, he held various ryi

Kim Il Sung was the leader of North Korea from its founding in 1948 until his death in July at age 82. Even though he headed arepressive regime, Kim was acult figure to many North Koreans.

jobs in Chicago before serving in World War II. When the war ended, he won a small part in a Broadway production of A Sound of Hunting (1945). Lancaster made his screen debut in The Killers (1946) and became an overnight sensa-

72

People of 1994: Obituaries

tion with his charisma and handsome ruggedness. He then starred in a number of thrillers and melodramas, including Brute Force (1947), Sorry, Wrong Number (1948), and Criss Cross (1949), and such adventures as The Flame and the Arrow (1950) and The Crimson Pirate (1952). More complex roles followed, and Lancaster gave com-

pelling performances in Come Back, Little Sheba (1952), The Rose Tattoo (1955), and From Here to Eternity (1953), which featured a steamy beach

Kids, Krazy Kat, Happy Hooligan, and Mutt and Jeff cartoons. After moving to California in 1927, Lantz served as a gagman for Mack Sennett and

Hal Roach before working (1928-38) for Universal Studios. There he took over the Oswald

the Lucky Rabbit cartoon series and developed such characters as Andy Panda, Winchester the Tortoise, Homer

Pigeon, Inspector Willoughby,

and Chilly Willy (a pint-sized penguin). Woody

Woodpecker, his most enduring character, made

his film debut in a bit part in the 1940 cartoon

short Knock, Knock and became a featured film

character and, beginning in 1957, a television star on “The Woody Woodpecker Show.” Lantz’s inspiration for Woody was a pesky woodpecker that disturbed his honeymoon.

His wife, Grace,

provided Woody’s distinctive voice for most ofhis adventures. During his more than 60-year career, Lantz produced more than 800 short films, and his

cartoons were translated into more than 60 languages and seen in some 70 countries. He closed his studio in 1975, and in 1979 the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented him with a life achievement Oscar in recognition of his superb craftsmanship. Lasch, Christopher, U.S. social critic and academic (b. June 1, 1932, Omaha, Neb.—d. Feb.

14, 1994, Pittsford, N.Y.), penned stinging indictments of contemporary American culture as the author of several books, most notably the 1979 best-seller The Culture of Narcissism, in which he

decried a self-absorbed society that failed to develop a self-awareness and instead depended on consumer purchases, demography, opinion polls, and government to define itself. His controversial views on the erosion of society attracted the attention of U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter, who consulted

Lasch for his famous “national malaise” speech. Lasch proposed that Americans embrace such basics as self-reliance, family, nature, community,

WASSER—GAMMNA LIAISON

scene with Deborah Kerr. In 1948 Lancaster and his agent Harold Hecht founded an independent production company, which turned out a string of starring vehicles for him. Among them was Sweet Smell of Success (1957), with Lancaster portraying a brutal, Walter Winchell-like gossip columnist. He poignantly portrayed loneliness as an inhabitant of a hotel in Separate Tables (1958) and as an inmate in Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), which led to his role as a prince in The Leopard (1963), directed by Luchino Visconti. Lancaster returned to Hollywood to make Seven Days in

and the work ethic to counteract the alienation and despair he found prevalent in society. After graduating summa cum laude from Harvard University, Lasch earned an M.A. (1955) in history and a Ph.D. (1961). He taught at the University of Iowa (1961-66), Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. (1966-70), and the University of Rochester, N.Y. (1970 until his death). His book, The Minimal Self (1984) was a successful sequel to The Culture of Narcissism and attacked the false prophets of the New Left. Lasch himself had initially been leftist in his leanings but adopted a more centrist view. Some of his other works include The American Liberals and the Russian Revolution (1962), The Agony of the American Left (1969), Haven in a Heartless World (1977), and The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy, which was to be published posthumously.

d. April 3, 1994, Paris, France), identified (1959) the human chromosomal abnormality linked to Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, one of the most

common forms of mental retardation and the first chromosomal disorder to be positively identified. Lejeune’s discovery marked a turning point in the new science of cytogenetics (the scientific study of genetic variations at the chromosomal level). Lejeune attended the University of Paris (M.D., 1951; PhiD., 1960). In the early 1950s he began research into inheritance patterns of Down syndrome in twins at the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Paris. In 1959, just three years after the correct number of human chromosomes (46; 23 pairs) had been discovered, he demonstrated that children with Down syndrome had an extra chromosome 21, making three where there would normally be a pair. The term trisomy was coined to describe this condition. He later identified several other chromosomal aberrations,

notably the cause of the syndrome known as cri du chat, which is associated with severe mental retardation. He served as director of research at the CNRS from 1963 and held the post of professor of fundamental genetics at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris from 1964. A devout antiabortion activist, Lejeune was named to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1974, and shortly before

his death he was appointed by Pope John Paul II to head the newly formed Pontifical Academy for Life. Leonov,

Leonid

Maksimovich,

ist and playwright

Russian

(b. May 31 [May

Style], 1899, Moscow,

Russia—d.

novel-

19, Old

Aug. 8, 1994,

Moscow), was admired for the intricate structure of his best narratives and for his ability to convey the complex moral and spiritual dilemmas faced by his characters. His multilayered, psychological approach was strongly influenced by—and often compared to—that of Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Leonov went to school in Moscow and published his first stories in a newspaper in Arkhangelsk, where his father, the poet Maksim L. Leonov, had

been exiled. He served as a soldier and journalist in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War (1918-20). In 1924, after publishing several more short stories and novellas, Leonov established his literary reputation with his epic first novel, Barsuki (The Badgers, 1947), and with Vor (1927; The Thief, 1931), a pessimistic tale set in the Moscow criminal underworld. Other major works include Sot (1930; Soviet River, 1932), Skutarevsky (1932;

d. Oct. 9, 1994, New York, N.Y.), was a vision-

Eng. trans., 1936), and Doroga na okean (1935; Road to the Ocean, 1944). In the 1930s and ’40s his fiction conformed somewhat more closely to the prevalent style of Socialist Realism, as did his 12 plays, 11 of which were staged in Moscow. His last major novel, Russky les (1953; The Russian Forest, 1966), won the Lenin Prize in 1957. Leonoy devoted the remainder of his life to revising his earlier works. He was elected to the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences in 1972.

the haunted professor in another Visconti film, Conversation Piece (1974). In 1976 he appeared in both Bernardo Bertolucci’s 7900 and Robert Alt-

ary and ambitious organizer who built the New York City Marathon—the first such race of its kind—from a small contest with limited appeal

oper (b. Feb. 11, 1907, New York, N.Y.—d. Jan.

man’s Buffalo Bill and the Indians. Lancaster also won acclaim for his performances in Adlantic City (1981), Tough Guys (1986), and Field of Dreams (1989), his last big-screen film. Off-screen Lancaster supported the NAACP and served as president (1968-70) and as a board member (196892) of the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation of Southern California.

to a premier event, attracting thousands of inter-

28, 1994, Manhasset,

national participants. Lebow, an Orthodox Jew, immigrated to the U.S. during the 1960s. He left Nazi-occupied Romania before the Soviet occupation at the end of World War II and lived in

president of Levitt & Sons, Inc., dramatically altered the U.S. residential suburban landscape with single-family, mass-produced, 74-sq m (800sq ft) homes. His dwellings both provided an affordable source of housing for returning World War II servicemen and served as the cookie-cutter prototype for Levittown, a model village on Long

Lantz, Walter, U.S. animator (b. April 27, 1900,

In 1970, with $300 of his own capital, Lebow initiated the first New York City Marathon, which

the

Lebow, Fred (FiscHt LeEBOowiITz), Romanianborn sports figure (b. June 3, 1932, Arad, Rom.—

hugely successful Airport (1970) before starring as

May

New

(1964),

The Professionals

Rochelle,

N.Y.—d.

March

(1966),

and

22, 1994, Bur-

bank, Calif.), created an unforgettable stable of cartoon characters, notably the rambunctious, redheaded Woody Woodpecker, an irascible birdbrain who delighted viewers with his staccato “Ha-ha-ha-Ha-ha!”

merriment;

Lantz also made

animation history in 1930 with the production of the first Technicolor cartoon, which graced the opening sequence of the film King of Jazz. Lantz launched his career in 1915 as an office boy in the art department of the New York American before dabbling in animation in 1916 and finding his niche (1922) at Bray Studios in New York City, where he collaborated on The Katzenjammer

Czechoslovakia, The Netherlands, and Ireland be-

fore finding a permanent home in New York City. He worked in the garment district and became a distance runner to gain stamina for playing tennis. involved about 127 runners in four circumnavigations of Central Park. Six years later, he expanded the race to include all five of New York City’s boroughs, and some 2,000 runners covered the course. In 1985 the event was the largest marathon in the world. Lebow, who was stricken

with brain cancer in 1990, nonetheless organized and ran in the 1992 marathon while battling the disease. He was inducted into the U.S. National Track Hall of Fame shortly before his death. Lejeune, Jéréme-Jean-Louis-Marie, French geneticist (b. June 13, 1926, Montrouge, France—

Levitt, William

Jaird, U.S. builder N.Y.),

and devel-

as the pioneering

Island, New York, that Levitt built on the site of

a potato farm. While his brother, Alfred, designed the houses and his father, Abraham, focused on

landscaping, William Levitt concentrated on organizing, financing, advertising, and sales. After the booming success of the first Levittown (1947— 51), which

included

more

than

17,000 homes,

Levitt constructed (1951-56) a second Levittown in Bucks county, Pa. He was credited with innovating efficient and cost-effective construction techniques and with uniquely patterning the suburbs with his massive tracts of uniform houses. Levitt was at the same time criticized for the mass-produced appearance of his units, for refusing to sell to blacks, and for not supporting housing for the poor. Levitt erected the New Jersey

People of 1994: Obituaries Levittown in 1958 and went on to build various

other projects before selling his concern in 1968 to International Telephone and Telegraph for $92 million. In a number of business reverses in the 1970s and ’80s, Levitt lost much of his wealth.

orchestral compositions, including Concerto for Orchestra (1954), Funeral Music (1958), Venetian Games (1961), Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1988), and four symphonies, the last of which had its world premiere in 1993.

Liu Haisu, Chinese painter and teacher (b. 1895?, Wujin [Wu-chin], Jiangsu [Chiang-su] province,

Lwoff, André Michel, French scientist (b. May

China—d. Aug. 7, 1994, Shanghai, China), com-

1994, Paris, France), shared the 1965 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod. Their research established how the genetic material of certain bacteriainfecting viruses that have become incorporated into the chromosome of their host cell can be passed along in a noninfective state to succeeding generations of bacteria and then reactivated to produce infective viral particles. Lwoff grad-

bined traditional Chinese painting methods with European techniques, especially those of van Gogh and Cézanne, and promoted this style as a model for revolutionizing art education in China. As the leader of art schools in Shanghai and Nanjing (Nanking), Liu exerted extraordinary influence. The scion of a distinguished literary family, Liu studied calligraphy under Kang Youwei (K’ang Yu-wei) and traditional landscape and flower painting under Wu Changshi (Wu Ch’angshih) and Chen Hengke (Ch’en Heng-k’e). At age 13, however, Liu set out on his own to pursue a less formal education. He became one of the founders of the Shanghai Academy, the first art college in modern China. During the 1920s and ’30s he organized several important national and international exhibitions and toured Japan and Europe, where he studied Western techniques and exhibited his own works. As a teacher, Liu maintained that painters should combine a knowledge of formal art theory with their natural talent and personal judgment, a departure from the Chinese tradition of copying the compositions and techniques of old masters. His works in traditional Chinese style were free-flowing and brilliant in colour. His landscapes focused on rocks and trees, and some of his paintings featured eagles and lions. Lleras

Restrepo,

Carlos,

Colombian

politician

(b. April 12, 1908, Bogota, Colombia—d. Sept. 27, 1994, Bogota), served as president of Colombia 1966-70 and fostered economic union in Latin America as the driving force behind the Andean Pact, an agreement that forged trade links between

Venezuela,

Colombia,

Peru, Bolivia, and

Chile: Lleras Restrepo, a dyed-in-the-wool liberal, practiced law before gaining political prominence as head of the Liberal Party in 1941 and again from 1948 to 1950. His second term as party president began after his predecessor, Jorge Gaitan, was assassinated, an event that touched off

a decade of violent unrest between the Liberals and Conservatives in Colombia. After his home was burned to the ground, Lleras Restrepo spent two years in exile in Mexico. His bid for the presidency in 1978 was not supported by the party. Nonetheless, he remained active both in politics and as a journalist, writing for his magazine Nueva Frontera. Lutoslawski, Witold, Polish composer and conductor (b. Jan. 25, 1913, Warsaw, then in the Russian Empire—d. Feb. 7, 1994, Warsaw, Poland),

attempted to create a “new musical language” by incorporating elements of folk songs, 12-tone serialism, atonal counterpoint, and controlled improvisations reminiscent of aleatory (chance) compositions while retaining elements of harmony and melodic form. Lutoslawski started composing as a child, but he did not begin formal training until age 15. He studied mathematics at the University of Warsaw and received diplomas in piano (1936) and composition (1937) from the Warsaw Conservatory. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, he performed

in clandestine concerts and, with

fellow composer Andrzej Panufnik, played piano duets in cafés; these often included proscribed music. Lutoslawski’s prewar compositions (most notably the 1938 Symphonic Variations) were primarily conventional neoclassical pieces, often infused with traditional folk tunes. When his Symphony No. 1 (begun in 1941) had its premiere in 1948, however, the new communist

government

denounced the piece as “formalist” and banned Lutoslawski’s increasingly avant-garde works from public performance. He earned aliving writing children’s songs and scores for motion pictures

until these restrictions were eased in the mid-

1950s. Although Lutoslawski wrote some vocal and chamber music, he was best known

for his

8, 1902, Ainay-le-Chateau,

France—d.

Sept. 30,

uated from the University of Paris in 1921, the

same year he joined the Pasteur Institute. He earned medical and science doctorates at Paris in 1927 and 1932, respectively. Lwoff was appointed head of the laboratory at the Pasteur Institute in 1929, and in 1938 he became the head of the microbiology and physiology department. During World War II, he was an active member of the Resistance and was awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and the Medal of the Resistance. From 1959 to 1968 he chaired the microbiology department at the Sorbonne. Lwoff’s work on viral interactions with host cells greatly influenced cancer research and resulted in his appointment (1968) as director of the Cancer Research Institute at Villejuif, France, a position he held until his retirement in 1972. In later years Lwoft

became

involved

in various

movements,

ranging from family planning to the control and banning of chemical and biological weapons. His writings include Biological Order (1962) and Jeux

et combats (1981; “Games and Combats”). Lynch, Charles Birchell, Canadian journalist and

author (b. Dec. 3, 1919, Cambridge, Mass.—d. July 21, 1994, Ottawa, Ont.), was a gifted storyteller

who attracted a wide and loyal readership as the longtime (1958-84) Ottawa syndicated columnist for Southam News Services. Lynch’s folksy approach endeared him to English-speaking readers throughout much of the country. In his political commentaries, he boasted of “slipping the readers mickeys of information along with the entertainment.” A veteran journalist, Lynch was working as a Reuters correspondent (1943-58) when he reported the D-Day (1944) Normandy landing of Allied troops. The globe-trotting reporter also covered the war crimes trials in Niirnberg before joining Southam. His five-times-a-week column established him as a personality, and the engaging raconteur branched out into radio and television, where his bespectacled, bearded, and rotund fig-

ure became a familiar fixture. He was also the author of several books related to Ottawa politics,

among them You Can't Print That! (1983), Our Retiring Prime Minister (1983), and A Funny Way to Run a Country (1986). Lynch, who was forced into retirement in 1984, continued to pursue a freelance writing career. He was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1977. McRae, Carmen, U.S. vocalist (b. April 8, 1922, New York, N. Y.—d. Nov. 10, 1994, Beverly Hills,

Calif.), mingled subtle technique and a dry contralto voice with swing, edgy wit, and a thoughtful ballad approach to become one of the most admired jazz singers of her generation. Compared with such contemporaries as Sarah Vaughan and Ella Fitzgerald, McRae had a narrow vocal range, yet her stylistic ingenuity, generally unsentimental manner, and care for the meanings of lyrics made her distinctive. She studied piano in her youth and won an amateur talent contest singing at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem in 1939; not long thereafter she met the innovative Billie Holiday, who became the major influence on her style. After touring (1946-47) with the Mercer Ellington band, she spent a crucial formative 31/2 years in Chicago before returning to New York and winning a New Star award from Down Beat magazine. She began her prolific solo recording career about 1953 and soon was working with top arrangers such as Tadd Dameron and Ralph Burns

73

and collaborating with Sammy Davis, Jr. (1957— 58; Boy Meets Girl and Porgy and Bess) and Dave Brubeck (1960-61). Instrumentalists such as tenor saxophonists Ben Webster and Zoot Sims and the Quincy Jones and Kenny Clarke—Francy Boland big bands sometimes accompanied her (the great drummer Clarke had been her first husband). Typically, though, on record and on her many nightclub and concert tours, she was accompanied by piano trios. Among her last projects, before she retired

in 1991, were

recorded

tributes

to

Vaughan and composer Thelonious Monk.

Mancini, Enrico (“HENRY”), U.S. composer (b. April 16, 1924, Cleveland, Ohio—d. June 14, 1994,

Los Angeles, Calif.), revolutionized film scoring by incorporating elements of jazz into his enduring melodies; he won four Academy Awards— for the songs “Moon River” (1961) and “Days of Wine and Roses” (1962) and for film scores for Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961) and Victor/Victoria (1982)—besides garnering 20 Grammy awards and collecting eight gold records. His other hits included the title song from the film Charade, the Pink Panther film theme song, and the “Peter Gunn” television theme song. Mancini’s musical education began with flute lessons from his father, but in time the piano became his instrument of choice. He briefly attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pa., where Max Adkins, conductor of the Stanley Theater pit band, encouraged him to produce arrangements for that group. Mancini’s studies at the Juilliard School of Music in New York City were interrupted by duty in the army air force during World War II. While in the service, however, he met

Glenn Miller, and after the war he joined Miller’s band as an arranger and pianist. Mancini wrote music for radio before composing scores for such films as The Glenn Miller Story (1954), The Benny Goodman Story (1956), and Touch of Evil (1958). He teamed up with television producer Blake Edwards in 1958, rocketed to fame with his brassy “Peter Gunn” and “Mr. Lucky” theme songs, and wrote the scores for all of Edwards’ films, notably The Great Race, Darling Lili, 10, S.O.B., Sunset,

and the Pink Panther series. Besides composing the scores for more than 80 films, he also conducted sellout concerts. At the time of his death,

Mancini was working on a stage adaptation of Victor/Victoria. RALPH DOMINGUEZ—GLOBE

PHOTOS

74

People of 1994: Obituaries

known for his classic text Deutsche Geschichte des

of Gen. Ne Win, and he was unable to prevent the September 18 military coup. Maung Maung fought with the Burmese nationalists during and after World War II. After Burma gained indepen-

19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (1958; The History of Germany Since 1789, 1968) and for his somewhat

University of Rangoon, was called to the bar at

Mann, Gottfried Angelo (“GoLo”), German-born historian (b. March 27, 1909, Munich, Germany— d. April 7, 1994, Leverkusen, Germany), was best

unorthodox conviction that National Socialism was “an historically unique phenomenon, dependent on an individual and on a moment,” rather

than an expression of the German national character. Mann, who was the son of the Nobel Prizewinning novelist Thomas Mann, studied philosophy at the Universities of Munich, Berlin, and

Heidelberg (Ph.D., 1932). After leaving Germany with his family in 1933, he taught German literature and history at Rennes (France) University (1935-36) and edited (1937-40) a Swiss literary journal, Mass und Wert. He was interned by the Nazis in 1940, but he escaped and moved to the

dence from Britain (1948), he studied law at the Lincoln’s Inn in London, and studied further at the University of Utrecht, Neth., and Yale Uni-

versity, where he later taught political science and Southeast Asian studies. In Burma in the 1950s he practiced law, founded the Guardian Magazine (1954) and Guardian newspaper (1956), and served in Prime Minister U Nu’s civilian administration. After a 1962 coup brought Gen. Ne Win to power, Maung Maung was named supreme court chief justice and appointed to the central committee of the Burma Socialist Program Party. Ne Win unexpectedly resigned on July 23, 1988, but his successor, U Sein Lwin, was forced out by

U.S., where he taught at Olivet (Mich.) College (1942-43) and Claremont (Calif.) Men’s College (1947-57). He returned to Germany in 1958 and was professor of history and political science at Stuttgart Technical University from 1960 until he retired from academia in 1964. Later he worked as a television commentator. Mann’s other published works include Wallenstein: Sein Leben erzdahlt (1971; Wallenstein: His Life Narrated, 1976) and an autobiography, Erinnerungen und Gedanken: Eine Jugend in Deutschland (1986; Reminiscences and Reflections: A Youth in Germany, 1990). He won the Goethe Prize in 1985.

antigovernment riots after about two and a half weeks. As president, Maung Maung lifted martial law, released political prisoners, and declared a

Marty, Francois Cardinal, French Roman Catholic prelate (b. May 18, 1904, Pachins, France—d. Feb. 16, 1994, near Villefranche-de-

Test matches. At age 14 while at Charterhouse,

Rouergue, France), as archbishop of Paris (1968— 81), was primate of France during the months of civil and political unrest in 1968 and the difficult years thereafter. Marty received a doctorate in theology from the Catholic Institute in Toulouse. He was ordained in 1930, made bishop of SaintFlour

in 1952,

and

elevated

to archbishop

of

Rheims in 1960. He was created cardinal in April 1969, a year after taking his post as head of the French church at Notre-Dame. Marty was a vigorous advocate for disaffected labourers and for non-Christian immigrant workers. In 1962 he was asked by Pope John XXIII to prepare a report for the Second Vatican Council on teaching the gospel to the working class. Upon taking his post as archbishop of Paris, he reduced the church hierarchy and introduced a more conciliatory, ac-

tivist approach to the ministry. Marty retired to a Dominican convent in 1981. Masina, Giulia Anna (“GIULIETTA”), Italian actress (b. Feb. 22, 1921, San Giorgio di Piano, near Bologna, Italy—d. March 23, 1994, Rome,

Italy), was artistic muse, adviser, and frequent leading lady for her husband of 50 years, the acclaimed filmmaker Federico Fellini, who dedicated his body of work to her. Masina worked as a stage and radio actress while attending the University of Rome and made her professional debut in 1939. In 1942 she performed in a radio play by Fellini, whom she married the following year. Masina’s first major screen role was as the ingenuous waif Gelsomina in Fellini’s La Strada (1954; “The Road”). Three years later she won the best actress award at the Cannes Film Festival for her portrayal of the naive prostitute in Le notti di Cabiria (The Nights of Cabiria). She also drew accolades for I bidone (1955; The Swindle), Giulietta degli spiriti (1965; Juliet of the Spirits), and Ginger e Fred (1985; Ginger and Fred). She occasionally worked with other directors, notably

Alberto Lattuada in Senza Pity) and Roberto Rossellini The Greatest Love), Masina less than five months after

pieta (1948; Without in Europa ’51 (1952; succumbed to cancer her husband’s death.

Maung Maung, U, Burmese politician (b. Jan. 11, 1925, Mandalay, Burma [now Myanmar|—d. July 2, 1994, Yangon [Rangoon], Myanmar), was a Western-educated lawyer, judge, and government

official before being named the civilian president of Burma on Aug. 19, 1988. His attempts at reform were undermined, however, by his longtime association with the 26-year dictatorial rule

free press, but the riots continued until the mili-

tary stepped in after only one month. May, Peter Barker Howard, English cricketer (b. Dec. 31, 1929, Reading, Berkshire, England— d. Dec. 27, 1994, Liphook, Hampshire, England),

was widely regarded as England’s finest postWorld War II batsman. In his first-class career (1948-63)—all as an amateur—May scored 85 centuries and 27,592 runs (average 51), including 4,537 runs (average 46.77) and 13 centuries in 66 he led that public school’s batting average in his first year. He was a blue for three years at the University of Cambridge, which he attended after his wartime service in the Royal Navy. May debuted with Surrey in 1950 (he was captain from 1957). He was selected to play for England against South Africa in 1951 and scored 138 runs in his first innings. In 1957 he triumphed against West Indies, when he made a career high 285 not out and 411 in partnership with Colin Cowdrey, a fourth-wicket

record in any Test and a

record for any England the time of his death. was England captain a wins, 10 losses, and 11 after ill health and the ALAIN KELER—SYGMA

wicket that still stood at From 1955 to 1961, he record 41 times, with 20 draws. In 1963, two years pressures of his work as

a broker with Lloyd’s of London led to his early retirement

from Test cricket, May retired from

first-class cricket. Later he served the Marylebone Cricket Club as president (1980-81) and had a somewhat less successful stint as the chairman of selectors (1982-88). May was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1981. May, Rollo Reece, U.S. psychologist and author (b. April 21, 1909, Ada, Ohio—d. Oct. 22, 1994,

Tiburon, Calif.), was known as the father of exis-

tential psychotherapy. He was one of the first to abandon Freudian theories of human nature, and

in his humanistic approach to therapy, he stressed that anxiety could be harnessed and used as a positive force and that people could use their inner resources in making the choices that guide the direction of their lives. May presented his views in a number of popular books, including The Meaning of Anxiety (1950), Man’s Search for Himself (1953), Love and Will (1969), Power and Innocence (1972), and The Courage to Create (1975). May earned (1930) a bachelor’s degree from Oberlin (Ohio) College and became a teacher of English at an American college in Greece. During holidays he attended psychoanalyst Alfred Adler’s seminars in Vienna and was inspired to study theology. He returned (1933) to the U.S. and entered Union Theological Seminary, receiving a bachelor of divinity degree in 1938. After serving as a Congregationalist minister for two years, he resigned his ministry to study psychology at Columbia University, New York City. He contracted tuberculosis,

however, and was given only a 50-50 chance of surviving. He realized that his personal struggle against death would do more than medical care would to determine whether he lived, and this solidified his existentialist views. He received his Ph.D. in 1949. Over the years May was on the faculty of the William Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychoanalysis and was a lecturer at the New School for Social Research, both in New York City, and was avisiting professor at such universities as Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Mercouri, Melina (MARIA AMALIA MERCOURIS), Greek actress and politician (b. Oct. 18, 1925, Athens, Greece—d.

March

6, 1994, New

York,

N.Y), burst onto the international scene in the

People of 1994: Obituaries role of Ilya, the flamboyant, good-hearted prostitute in the film Never on Sunday (1960); in later years as Greece’s minister of culture (1981-89; 1993-94), she used her fame as an actress in her crusade to repatriate Greek antiquities. Mercouri studied drama at the National Theatre in Athens (1943-46), made her stage debut in 1944, and established her reputation as Blanche in Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire (1949). Her first screen appearance in Stella (1955) drew little attention. In 1965 she married the French-born U.S. director Jules Dassin, who made her a star in Never on Sunday and many of her other memorable films, including Phaedra (1962), Topkapi (1964), and A Dream of Passion (1978). She also re-created her most famous role in a Broadway musical adaptation, Ilya, Darling (1967). Mercouri, who was the daughter of a former government minister and the granddaughter of a long-time mayor of Athens, was abroad in 1967 when a military coup toppled the Greek government. She fought tirelessly against the junta, defiantly naming her 1971 autobiography I Was Born Greek after she was deprived of her citizenship. She triumphantly returned to Athens after the junta collapsed (1974) and, running as a socialist, was elected to Parliament three years later. As minister of culture, Mercouri devoted much

of her

energy to a worldwide campaign for the return of the Elgin Marbles, sculptures removed from the Parthenon and placed in the British Museum in the early 19th century. Morgan, Henry (HENRY LERNER VON OsrT), U.S. radio announcer and television personality (b.

March 31, 1915, New York, N.Y.—d. May 19, 1994, New York), singed the airwaves with his savage wit as the sardonic host of “Here’s Morgan,” which showcased his gifts as a mordant adlibber; his irrepressible satiric commentary was so biting and irreverent that it even extended to network sponsors advertising Life Savers, Oh! Henry candy bars, and Schick razors and was the source of his blacklisting during the 1950s communist witch-hunts. At the age of 18 Morgan held court as the youngest radio announcer in the U.S. He worked in Philadelphia, New York City, Duluth, Minn., and Boston before launching his own show

in the 1940s. After serving in the army air forces during World War II, he returned to the airwaves and continued to dispense his unique brand of humour. Though he was blacklisted, he did find

work on television as the star of “Henry Morgan’s Talent Hunt” (1951) and “Here’s Morgan” (1953) and as a regular panelist on “I’ve Got a Secret” and “What’s My Line?” Morgan, William Wilson, U.S. astronomer (b. Jan. 3, 1906, Bethesda, Tenn.—d. June 21, 1994,

Williams Bay, Wis.), discovered the spiral shape of the Milky Way Galaxy after years of observing and analyzing the distances and arrangements of stars. Morgan’s feat was complicated because our solar system lies within the Milky Way, thus making outside telescopic observation of its configuration impossible. With Philip C. Keenan he had developed the MK (for Morgan Keenan) system for using observations of stars’ spectra to determine their luminosity and therefore their distance from Earth, and in 1943 he published An

Atlas of Stellar Spectra, a classification guide. Using the MK system, he estimated the distances of

bright stars within the Milky Way. In 1951 at an American Astronomical Society meeting, Morgan received a standing ovation when he revealed that the structure of the Milky Way Galaxy includes two spiral arms and provided evidence for a third arm. After earning a Ph.D. (1931) from the University of Chicago, Morgan spent his entire career associated with his alma mater and its Yerkes Observatory, of which he was director from 1960

to 1963. An astronomical morphologist, Morgan devoted his career to studying and classifying stars and galaxies, and he also proved the existence of super-giant galaxies. Morgan, who was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts, was the recipient of the Bruce Gold Medal from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific arid the Herschel Medal from the Royal Astronomical Society of London.

Moschino, Franco, Italian fashion designer (b. Feb. 27, 1950, Abbiategrasso, Italy—d. Sept. 18, 1994, Annone di Brianza, Italy), as the irreverent enfant terrible of the fashion industry, poked fun at the excesses of the 1980s with his “tongue in chic” designs, most memorably creating suits festooned with cutlery, jackets with faucet handles or dice used as buttons, coats and hats made from

teddy bears, expensive linen shirts embroidered with outrageous puns and slogans, dresses that looked like shopping bags, and ball gowns assembled from plastic garbage bags. After studying painting at the Academy of Fine Arts in Milan,

Moschino found work in the fashion industry as a freelance illustrator. He designed for Cadette, the Italian clothing company, before launching his own

label in 1983. His company,

Moonshadow,

had annual revenues in excess of £150 million from two main-line collections and six complementary lines. His designs, which were inspired by the Surrealist movement

of the 1920s, found

acceptance among pop stars such as Madonna, Tina Turner, and Yoko Ono; royalty, including Princess Caroline of Monaco and Diana, Princess of Wales; and people on the street, though the latter could rarely afford his pricey ensembles. His mocking disdain for the industry earned Moschino both ridicule and respect among his contemporaries. He died after suffering complications from an abdominal tumour. Mpetha, Oscar Mafakafaka, South African political activist (b. Aug. 5, 1909, Transkei, South Africa—d. Nov. 15, 1994, Cape Town, South

Africa), was a founder of South Africa’s trade union movement during the 1940s who became famous for his groundbreaking efforts on behalf of the mainly black Food and Canning Workers’ Union. Mpetha qualified as a road master and began working as an assistant foreman; in 1940 he organized and led a movement calling for higher wages for road labourers. He also made a name for himself as a strong voice against apartheid. Mpetha joined the African National Congress (ANC) about 1951 and quickly rose to become chairman of its Cape Province unit. He served in that post until the ANC was banned by the government in 1960. Following the 1960 Sharpeville shootings, Mpetha was detained for four years and then briefly went underground. Resurfacing in the 1970s as a trade union and community leader on the Cape, Mpetha was repeatedly detained and his labour organizations banned. Then in 1980 during a confrontation between residents of the Crossroads squatter camp and police, Mpetha was arrested for provoking the unrest and later charged with terrorism and murder. Mpetha spent three years in prison before the murder charges were dropped. He was sentenced to five years for terrorism, however, which he served at Pollsmoor Prison, where ANC veterans Nelson Mandela and

Walter Sisulu were incarcerated. While out on appeal in August 1983, Mpetha was elected one of three copresidents of the United Democratic Front, an alliance of antiapartheid forces. After Mpetha was released in 1989, he fought for the release of Mandela. Despite Mpetha’s extremely poor health—his legs were amputated as a result of severe diabetes—he continued to travel and speak throughout the country.

75

Murchison underwent surgery for colon cancer, his sprinting career ended. He later coached highschool and college track teams in Chicago. Natwick, Mildred, U.S. actress (b. June 19, 1905, Baltimore, Md.—d. Oct. 25, 1994, New York,

N.Y.), specialized in portraying mischievous spinsters and likable eccentric characters on stage and television and in films. She was best remembered as the medium in the stage and television production of Blithe Spirit (1941 and 1956, respectively), a mystery writer and amateur sleuth paired with Helen Hayes in the television series “The Snoop Sisters” (1973-74), and Jane Fonda’s fun-loving mother in Barefoot in the Park (1967), a role that earned her an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actress. With her sharply defined features and twinkling eyes, Natwick became a Broadway regular, appearing in supporting roles in some 40 productions after making her debut in Carry Nation (1932). Following her film debut in The Long Voyage Home (1940), Natwick showcased her talents in The Enchanted Cottage (1945), The Late George Apley (1947), The Trouble With Harry (1955), If It’s Tuesday This Must Be Belgium (1969), Daisy Miller (1974), and Dangerous Liaisons (1988). Nelson, Harriet (PEGGY Lou SNYDER) U.S. singer and actress (b. July 18, 1909, Des Moines, lowa— d. Oct. 2, 1994, Laguna Beach, Calif.), became an

American icon of motherhood as the radio and television matriarch who starred with her reallife family—husband Ozzie and sons David and Ricky—in the situation comedy “The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet.” The show, which debuted on radio in 1944 before moving to television in 1952, aired until 1966, making it one of the

longest-running family comedies. While singing under

the name

Harriet

Hilliard, she met

and

married (1935) Ozzie, a bandleader. They appeared on the Red Skelton radio program during the 1940s and won an audience following with their unsophisticated and playful humour. When “The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet” first aired,

David and Ricky were portrayed by child actors, but the boys began playing themselves in 1949. The show was billed as “radio’s favorite family,”

and they capitalized on its popularity by making a film, Here Come the Nelsons (1952). She later appeared (1973) with her husband in the shortlived series “Ozzie’s Girls,” but was rarely seen after his death in 1975. Ten years later, Ricky was killed in a plane crash. Nicol,

Davidson

Sylvester

Hector

Willoughby

(ABIOSEH NICOL), Sierra Leonean diplomat and writer (b. Sept. 14, 1924, Freetown, Sierra Leone— d. Sept. 20, 1994, Cambridge, England), enjoyed a varied career as a medical researcher, physician, academic, diplomat, and writer. After attend-

ing the University of London, where he studied medicine, Nicol earned a B.A. (1947) in natural science and doctorates in medicine and biochemistry from Christ’s College, Cambridge. There he conducted research on the chemical structure of insulin in the human body, and he wrote and lec-

tured widely on medical and scientific topics. In

burst forth from the starting block with such lightning-quick speed that he was dubbed the “human Sputnik” by Soviet admirers and at 1.62 m (5 ft 4 in) tall was one of the shortest of the great sprinters. In 1951 Murchison reigned as Illinois highschool champion in the 100- and 220-yd dashes, but he reached the pinnacle of his career in 1956 when he ran the leadoff leg of the U.S. 400-m relay at the Olympic Games in Melbourne, Australia, and helped propel his team to a gold medal victory in a world and Olympic record time of 39.5 sec. That year he also jointly held the world 100-m record (10.2 sec) with Bobby Morrow and tied a day-old record (10.1) set by Willie Williams. In 1958 he ran for Western Michigan University and was the NCAA 100-yd champion with a time

1957 Nicol became a fellow of Christ’s College, the first black African to achieve this distinction. Nicol returned to Sierra Leone in 1958 as a senior pathologist, but in 1960 he was appointed principal of the Fourah Bay College in Freetown, a position he held for eight years. He began a distinguished diplomatic career in 1969, when he was appointed Sierra Leone’s ambassador to the UN. In 1970 he became president of the UN Security Council, and he served (1972-82) as executive director of the United Nations Institute for Training and Research. From 1983 to 1987 he was president of the World Federation of UN Associations. Nicol, writing under the pen name Abioseh Nicol, won the 1952 Margaret Wrong Prize and Medal for Literature in Africa. His works include Two African Tales (1965) and The Truly Married Woman, and Other Stories (1965). He edited Paths to Peace: The UN Security Council and Its Presidency (1981) and coedited Creative Women in Changing Societies: A Quest for Alter-

of 9.5 sec. The

natives (1982).

Murchison, Ira, U.S. track star (b. Feb. 6, 1933, Chicago, Ill—d. March 28, 1994, Harvey, IIl.),

following year,

however,

after

Obituaries

78 People e rsee1994: inof e aR e five

England (1994). Suffering from complications of diabetes, Osborne died of heart failure. Parish, Sister (DoRoTHY May KrnnicutTT), U.S. interior designer (b. July 15, 1910, Morristown, N.J—d. Sept. 8, 1994, Dark Harbor, Maine), cre-

ated ageless atmospheres that appealed to both

women and men and dictated style on both sides of the Atlantic with her traditional designs; she was renowned for the quality of her work, and

her homey yet sophisticated touch marked the residences of such industrialists and politicians as the Astors, the Rockefellers, the Gettys, and,

most prominently, first lady Jacqueline Kennedy (see OBITUARIES: Onassis, Jacqueline), for whom Parish redecorated the White House. Parish, who

became

identified by her childhood

Sister, was

the daughter

nickname,

of a stockbroker

and

was raised in baronial splendour. Four years after both her father and her husband, also a stockbroker, were devastated by the stock market crash of 1929, Parish opened a small interior

design shop in Far Hills, N.J. She was partial to the understated English country house look, and her combinations of Colefax and Fowler chintzes, overstuffed armchairs, and brocade sofas with such unexpected items as patchwork quilts, fourposter beds, knitted throws, and rag rugs led to

her being credited with ushering in what became known as American country style during the 1960s. In 1962 Albert Hadley became her partner,

and was The the

the firm of Mrs. Henry Parish II Interiors renamed Parish-Hadley to reflect the change. patrician designer remained a mainstay of company into her 80s.

Pass,

BRUCE HOERTEL

autobiography, Man of the House, was published in 1987, and publication of a book of his anecdotes and lore, All Politics Is Local, coincided with his death.

Onetti, Juan Carlos, Uruguayan-born novelist (b. July 1, 1909, Montevideo, Uruguay—d. May 30, 1994, Madrid, Spain), chronicled human struggles with alienation and hopelessness amid the decay of modern urban life. In a series of complex existential novels and short stories, many of which were set in the mythical town of Santa Maria, he fused fantasy and reality in a nihilistic view of city life devoid of spiritual meaning. For many years Onetti moved back and forth between Uruguay and Argentina, working as a journalist for the Reuters news agency in Montevideo (1942-43) and Buenos Aires (1943-46). He was also editor (1939-42) of the respected Montevideo weekly magazine Marcha and later (1946-55) of the Argentine magazine Vea y lea. After settling in Montevideo, he was named (1957) director of the city’s municipal library system. He was imprisoned briefly in 1974 after a literary jury on which he served awarded a prize to a work deemed unacceptable by the Uruguayan military govern-

ment. In 1975 he went into self-imposed exile in Spain, where he eventually became a citizen. Onetti’s first short story appeared in the Argentine newspaper La prensa in 1933, while his first short novel, E/ pozo (The Pit), was published in

Montevideo in 1939. Other novels include Tierra de nadie (1941; No Man’s Land), La vida breve (1950; A Brief Life), El astillero (1961; The Shipyard), Juntacadaveres (1964; Body Snatcher), and Cuando y no importe (1993; “What’s the Use”). He also wrote several volumes of short stories and essays, notably Réquiem por Faulkner (1975;

“Requiem

for Faulkner”).

Onetti received the

national literary award of Uruguay in 1963 and the Cervantes Prize, Spain’s top literary honour,

in 1980.

Osborne, John James, British playwright and film producer (b. Dec. 12, 1929, London, England—d. Dec. 24, 1994, Shropshire, England), revolution-

ized the British drama by spearheading the “Angry Young Men” movement with his landmark play Look Back in Anger (1956). The frustrations portrayed by the play’s hero, Jimmy Porter, an underemployed man in his 20s who finds postWorld War II England greatly lacking in opportunity, were acutely mirrored in London society

Joe

(JOSEPH

ANTHONY

JACOBI

PAs-

SALAQUA), U.S. guitarist (b. Jan. 13, 1929, New Brunswick, N.J—d. May 23, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), was a technically skilled jazz virtuoso who overcame drug addiction to become an internationally renowned sideman, performing with such jazz greats as Oscar Peterson, Ella Fitzgerald, and Sarah Vaughn. He was also a spellbinding soloist whose fluid fingering and impassioned improvisations defined his incomparable artistry. Pass, a self-taught guitarist, was given his first instrument at the age of nine and was performing with big-name bands by the time he was a teenager. Though his career was stalled by heroin addiction and a five-year jail sentence, he kicked his habit after enrolling in the Synanon drug-rehabilitation program and emerged from obscurity with the 1973 release of a solo album, Virtuoso. That same year he became a member of a celebrated trio that included pianist Oscar Peterson and the bassist Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen. Pass then found recording opportunities with Norman

you,

Granz, producer and head of Pablo Records, and

England.” Osborne managed to steer generations of British playwrights away from the long-established tradition of portraying the upper classes and their boring, strangled way of life. He opened up the world of British theatre to the gritty “kitchen sink” reality of urban life and the tough lower classes that increasingly inhabited London. In his passionate monologues and throughout his memoirs, Osborne poured out his ire in spiteful outbursts against women, especially his four exwives. The fiery and prolific writer crafted several highly successful plays, including Luther (1961), for which he won a Tony award, Jnadmissible Evidence (1964), A Patriot for Me (1965), Time Present (1968), The Hotel in Amsterdam (1968), and Déjavu (1991), a reexamination of the characters originally introduced in Look Back in Anger. He produced such films as The Entertainer (1960), based on his 1957 play of the same name, and Tom Jones (1963), for which he won an Academy Award. Osborne wrote his first play, The Devil

worked as a regular member of a studio band. In later years, however, it was his work as a concert soloist that made him a standout.

and

echoed

Inside Him

in Osborne’s

(1950), with

motto,

mentor

“Damn

Stella Linden.

He provided demanding roles for actors and was credited with restoring the tirade (a passionately scathing speech) as a respectable dramatic element. In his 1981 autobiography, A Better Class of Person, Osborne attacked the mediocrity of the lower middle classes, discussed his mother’s negative influence, and attempted to justify his volatile temperament. Osborne wrote two books in the 1990s, Almost a Gentleman (1991) and Damn You,

Pauling, Linus Carl, U.S. chemist (b. Feb. 28, 1901, Portland, Ore.—d. Aug. 19, 1994, Big Sur, Calif.), was a towering figure in the scientific community and the only solo winner of two Nobel Prizes in different categories. He was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for discoveries on the nature of chemical bonding, work that was in-

strumental in describing the structure and shape of molecules, including the complex molecules of living tissues, and he received the 1962 Nobel Prize for Peace as a tireless crusader against the use of warfare, especially nuclear weapons, as a means of resolving international disputes. Pauling, the son of a pharmacist, shared his father’s fascination with chemistry. After earning a B.S. (1922) in chemical engineering from Oregon State Agricultural College, Pauling took a Ph.D. (1925) in physical chemistry from the California Institute of Technology, where he taught and conducted research until 1963. An insightful and brilliant researcher who easily recognized interrelationships, Pauling was the first to apply the principles of quantum mechanics to the structure of molecules and effectively used a variety of data to calculate the lengths and angles of the bonds that exist between the atoms in a molecule and ultimately to develop a theoretical framework for understand-

People of 1994: Obituaries

79

JOE MCNALLY

ing the forces that hold atoms together. He put forth his findings in The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939), undoubtedly the most influential chemistry textbook of the early to mid-20th century. Pauling was also a leader in the movement against nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s and *60s. During the McCarthy era of communist witch-hunts, Pauling’s passport was revoked for two years. He also submitted an anti-bomb-testing petition to the UN with the signatures of more than 11,000 scientists, a move

that was credited

with helping to persuade the U.S., U.K., and.Soviet Union to initial the 1963 atmospheric test ban treaty. His pacifist views were echoed in his denunciation of the Vietnam War, a stand for which

he was widely criticized. He aroused controversy during the 1970s with his zealous advocacy of vitamin C, taken in large doses, as a cure-all for

a variety of conditions, ranging from the common cold to cancer. His bold experimentation and courage in pursuing unorthodox ideas led him to discoveries in molecular biology, notably the iden-

tification of the genetic defect in the hemoglobin molecule that is the cause of sickle-cell anemia. He was at the forefront in efforts to unravel the structure of DNA, a feat ultimately accomplished by James Watson and Francis Crick. During his remarkable career, Pauling was a member of the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Santa Barbara, Calif., a faculty member of Stanford University, and, at the time of his death,

director of research at the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine, Palo Alto, Calif.

Peppard, Detroit,

George, U.S. actor (b. Oct. 1, 1928, Mich.—d.

May

8, 1994, Los

Angeles,

Calif.), rocketed to fame after starring opposite Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 film classic Breakfast at Tiffany’s and enhanced his reputation in such films as How the West Was Won (1962), The

Carpetbaggers (1964), and The Blue Max (1966). When he lost his box-office appeal, he turned to television, appearing in a succession of tough-guy roles, most notably as cigar-chewing soldier of fortune John (“Hannibal”) Smith in the action- and

violence-packed adventure series “The A-Team” (1983-87). Peppard studied Method acting at Lee Strasberg’s Actors Studio, made his film debut in The Strange One (1957), and enjoyed a stint on Broadway in The Pleasure of His Company (1958) before securing supporting film roles in Pork Chop Hill (1959) and Home from the Hill (1960). Other television characters Peppard created were an insurance investigator on “Banacek” (197274) and a neurosurgeon on “Doctors’ Hospital” (1975-76). In 1992 Peppard had a cancerous tumour removed from his lung but still embarked on a tour of The Lion in Winter.

economists of his day. Pinay’s visionary approach to this daunting task brought inflation under control in France for the first time since World War II. In 1960, while serving as finance minister, Pinay introduced a new franc, deflating the standard franc by removing the last two zeroes. For this monumental deed, Pinay earned the moniker “the man who saved the franc.” Though he held a series of governmental posts ranging from secretary of state (1949) to minister of foreign affairs (1955-56) to France’s first ombudsman (197374), Pinay’s highest yet briefest office was as

Phoumi

successful austerity measures and issued the “em-

Vongvichit, Laotian political leader (b.

April 6, 1909, French Indochina?—d. Jan. 7, 1994), was a longtime communist and a leader in the Pathet Lao (Land of Lao) revolutionary movement against French colonial rule; he eventually became acting president (1986-91) of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Phoumi reportedly was born into an affluent family and educated at Vientiane College. He joined Lao Issara (Free Laos) in 1950, and when the movement split in two in the mid-1950s, he was named deputy leader of the more radical Stalinist faction, Pathet Lao. In 1961 he represented the Pathet Lao in negotiations at the international peace conference in Geneva. For more than a decade thereafter, he served a series of coalition governments in such posts as deputy prime minister, foreign minister, and minister of culture and

fine arts. When the Pathet Lao seized power in 1975, Phoumi became education minister, with jurisdiction over the “reeducation” of thousands of royalist supporters of the previous government. He was named interim president in 1986 after Prince Souphanouvong resigned that office, and he retired five years later. Pinay, Antoine, French politician (b. Dec. 30, 1891,

Saint-Symphorien-sur-Coise, France—d. Dec. 13, 1994, Saint-Chamond, France), engineered the recovery of the French economy after World War II by adamantly pursuing an anti-inflationary policy, a stance that was unpopular among

prime minister, which he held from March to December 1952. In that post, Pinay introduced

prunt Pinay,” a bond that allowed French citizens who had hidden away gold and cash during the war to convert their caches into legal, tax-exempt savings. He later served (1964-73) as president of regional economic development for Rhdne-Alpes. Earlier, Pinay had earned the Croix de Guerre for heroism during World War I, had managed a tannery (1919-48), and had aided the Resis-

tance fighters during World War II. He served as mayor of Saint-Chamond from 1929 to 1977. The man whose name became synonymous with

strong currency died peacefully just days before his 103rd birthday. Popper, Sir Karl Raimund, Austrian-born British

philosopher (b. July 28, 1902, Vienna, AustriaHungary—d. Sept. 17, 1994, Croydon, Surrey, England), believed that knowledge—particularly scientific knowledge—evolves from individual ex-

perience and cannot be verified through inductive reasoning. Popper postulated that since no one can ever observe and verify all possible evidence to prove a scientific hypothesis correct, it is necessary Only to discover one observed exception to the hypothesis to prove it false. He rejected as “pseudoscience” any system of beliefs that could not pass this “falsifiability criterion” and that relied on predetermined “laws” of human behaviour. These included logical positivism, metaphysics, Marxism, fascism, and Freudian psychoanalysis. In the 1980s many conservative politicians seized

80

People of 1994: Obituaries

on his contention that government should avoid evil rather than seek social reform by actively pursuing good. Popper was educated at the University of Vienna (Ph.D., 1928) and worked for a time under the psychiatrist Alfred Adler. He

televised until 1987 because its subject matter was deemed sacrilegious), “Blue Remembered Hills”

Ray, Dixy Lee (MARGARET RAY), U.S. zoologist and government official (b. Sept. 3, 1914, Tacoma,

Your Collar” (1993). He also wrote novels, a stage play, and screenplays, notably Gorky Park

of the nuclear industry, critic of the environmental movement, and proponent of making science more accessible to nonscientists. A childhood fas-

(1979), “Blade on the Feather” (1984), “Christabel” (1989), “Blackeyes” (1989), and “Lipstick on

first presented his theories in the highly regarded Logik der Forschung (1934; The Logic ofScientific Discovery, 1959). Three years later he immigrated to New Zealand, where he taught philosophy at Canterbury University College, Christchurch, until he accepted a post at the London School of Economics (1945). Popper formally retired in 1969, but he continued to write and lecture in

(1983) and Dreamchild (1985). In a television interview in April 1994, Potter announced that he was dying of pancreatic and liver cancer. He spent the last weeks of his life caring for his wife (who died of cancer one week before Potter) and completing two final teleplays: “Karaoke” and “Cold Lazarus.”

His other principal books include The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), The Poverty of

Primus, Pearl, U.S. dancer, choreographer, and teacher (b. Nov. 29, 1919, Trinidad—d. Oct. 29,

England, the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand.

Historicism (1957), Unended Quest: An Intellectual

Autobiography (1976), and. A World of Propensities (1990). Popper was knighted in 1965, elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1976, and made a Companion of Honour in 1982. Porritt,

Arthur

Espie

Porritt,

BARON,

New

Zealand-born physician and statesman (b. Aug. 10, 1900, Wanganui, N.Z.—d. Jan. 1, 1994, London, England), after a long career with the British monarchy as surgeon to King George VI (1946— 52) and sergeant surgeon to Queen Elizabeth II (1952-67), served as the first native-born governor-general of New Zealand (1967-72). Porritt studied at Otago University, and in 1923 he was awarded a Rhodes scholarship to Magdalen College, Oxford. He completed his medical training in London at St. Mary’s Hospital, where he remained on the surgical staff until 1965. After serving at the front in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War II, he remained an RAMC consultant until 1967. He was also president of the Royal College of Surgeons (196063), the British Medical Association

(1960-61),

and the Royal Society of Medicine (1966-67). Despite his innumerable international honours, in New Zealand Porritt was perhaps better known as a former Olympic athlete. A champion runner both in New Zealand and at Oxford, he led his native country’s national Olympic team as captain in 1924 and 1928 and as manager in 1936. In 1924 Porritt took the bronze medal in the 100-m race behind the great Harold Abrahams and American Jackson Scholz. He was a longtime member of the International Olympic Committee (1934— 67) and chairman of the Commonwealth Games (1945-66). Porritt was created a baronet in 1963 and awarded alife peerage in 1973. Potter,

Dennis

Christopher

George,

British

dramatist (b. May 17, 1935, Berry Hill, near the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, England— d. June 7, 1994, Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, En-

gland), wrote television dramas that challenged the conventions of the medium as well as the expectations of the audience. He often used shocking themes, fantasy sequences, and musical

interludes (in which the actors lip-synched to ofd recordings of period songs) to break the dramatic mood and to provide running commentary on the characters and on the real world beyond the play. After graduating from New College, Oxford (B.A., 1959), Potter made documentaries for BBC television. In 1961 he was stricken with psoriatic arthropathy, a painful and crippling disease of the joints and skin that plagued him for the rest of his life. Unable to work for long periods, he became a television critic and dramatist. His first teleplays, “Vote Vote Vote for Nigel Barton” and “Stand Up, Nigel Barton,” were broadcast in December 1965. “Pennies from Heaven” (1978), a six-part serial about a Depression-era sheetmusic salesman deluded by his fantasies of love,

established Potter’s reputation both for quality and for controversy, although his 1981 film adaptation was

a failure.

“The

Singing

Detective”

(1986), his best-known and most obviously autobiographical teleplay, concerns a novelist suffering with psoriatic arthropathy who lies helpless in a hospital bed dreaming of his childhood in the Forest of Dean, mentally rewriting a pulpfiction detective novel, and hallucinating fantastic

musical numbers. Potter’s other teleplays include “Brimstone and Treacle” (written in 1976 but not

1994, New Rochelle, N.Y.), pioneered the use of authentic African elements in her works and influenced a number of black dancers and choreographers, among them Alvin Ailey and Donald McKayle. Primus moved with her family to the U.S. when she was three. She planned to be a doctor and studied biology at Hunter College, New York City, receiving a bachelor’s degree. She sought laboratory work but could not find a job open to blacks, so she applied to the National Youth Administration and was placed in a dance group. She made her solo performing debut in 1943 with the New Dance Group and soon was appearing at Café Society Downtown, one of the first fully integrated nightclubs. She founded (1944) her own company, which performed on Broadway and toured the U.S. Primus had begun using African themes in her choreography, notably her first major work, African Ceremonial (1944), and in 1948 she was awarded a Rosenwald fellowship and studied dance in Africa. She made several more trips over the following years and eventually, in 1978, earned a Ph.D. in African and

Caribbean studies. In 1954 she married Percival

Wash.—d. Jan. 2, 1994, Fox Island, near Seattle,

Wash.), was a colourful and outspoken supporter

cination with the sea led to academic degrees in zoology from Mills College, Oakland, Calif. (B.A.,

1937), and Stanford University (Ph.D., 1945). A specialist‘in marine crustacea, Ray joined the faculty of the University of Washington, where she taught for 27 years. In 1963 Ray accepted the directorship of the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, which she developed into a major facility for

publicizing and popularizing science. Although she had served on numerous federal advisory groups, Ray first moved to the nation’s capital in August 1972 after she was selected by Pres. Richard Nixon to be a member of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), the first woman to be appointed to a full five-year term; she succeeded James Schlesinger as chairman of that body the

following year. Ray’s unconventional lifestyle (she

lived in a house trailer with her two dogs, which she occasionally took to the office with her) provided piquant contrast to the stereotypical Washington bureaucracy. Following the breakup of the AEC into two agencies in 1974, Ray moved to the Department of State and served as assistant secretary in charge of the Bureau of Oceans, International Environmental and Scientific Affairs. She resigned in 1975 in protest against a lack of support from Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger. Returning to Washington state, Ray was elected governor in 1977 and served one four-year term. In addition to writing many scientific papers, Ray was coauthor of two books on the excesses of the environmental movement, Trashing the Planet

(1990) and Environmental Overkill (1993).

Borde, a dancer she had met on atrip to Trinidad,

and they frequently performed and toured together. In addition to African themes, Primus often incorporated experiences of U.S. blacks in her dances. In the mid-1940s she created Strange Fruit, which depicted a woman’s reactions to a lynching, and The Negro Speaks of Rivers, which was inspired by a poem by Langston Hughes and portrayed the difficulty of life along the Mississippi. Michael, Row Your Boat Ashore (1979)

Raye,

Martha

(MARGARET

TERESA

YVONNE

REED), U.S. entertainer (b. Aug. 27, 1916, Butte, Mont.—d. Oct. 19, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), es-

tablished her reputation as an irrepressible comic in a career that encompassed radio shows, theatre, film, and entertaining U.S. troops stationed

Rani, Devika, Indian actress (b. March 30, 1908, Waltair, Andhra Pradesh, India—d. March 9, 1994, Bangalore, India), was one of India’s most

overseas. Raye began performing at the age of three, when she joined the family vaudeville act. She made her feature film debut in Rhythm on the Range (1936), scoring a success with her rendition of the song “Mr. Paganini.” Raye appeared in such films as College Holiday (1936), Waikiki Wedding (1937), Give Me a Sailor (1938), Keep ’Em Flying (1941), and Hellzapoppin (1941). She drew praise for her performance opposite Charlie Chaplin in Monsieur Verdoux (1947), which was widely regarded as her best film. Raye also performed in the theatre, notably as Ginger Rogers’ replacement in Hello, Dolly! (1967), and in No, No, Nanette (1972). Raye made few films in her

esteemed movie stars in the 1930s and early ’40s

later years, but she continued

and, with her husband, the filmmaker Himanshu Rai, was founder of Bombay Talkies studio, Rani

lesque shows, nightclubs, radio, and television. On TV she was well known for her “Big Mouth” advertisements for a dental adhesive. For working tirelessly with the United Service Organizations (USO) during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, she was awarded the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1969. She

was

about

the mother

of a Birmingham,

Ala.,

church-bombing victim. Primus danced until 1980 and thereafter directed a black studies program at the State University of New York at Buffalo and taught ethnic studies at five Massachusetts colleges. Among the awards she received was the National Medal of the Arts in 1991.

was the grandniece of the Nobel Prize-winning poet Rabindranath Tagore and the daughter of an eminent surgeon. While in London studying architecture, textiles, and art design, she met Rai,

who hired her as a set and costume consultant. They were married in 1929 and worked in Germany for several months. Rani made her cinema debut opposite her husband in Karma (1933), the first Indian film released in English and the first to feature a kissing scene. On their return to Bombay (1934), the couple founded Bombay Talkies, employing German and British technicians and having as its mission the production of socially relevant films. Rani was admired both for her luminous beauty and for her sensitive acting in such films as Achhut Kanya (1936; “The Untouchable Girl”), Jeevan Prabhat (1937), Nirmala (1938), and Durga (1939). After Rai’s death (1940), Rani remained at the head of Bombay Talkies until she retired to Bangalore with her second husband, the artist Svetoslav Roerich, in

1945. She was honoured by the Indian government with the Padma Shri, one of the highest civilian awards, and she was the first recipient

of the Dada Saheb Phalke prize for her lifetime achievement in Indian cinema.

to work

in bur-

sued the makers of the film For the Boys (1991),

claiming the story line was based on her USO experiences, but the suit was later dismissed. Raye married for the seventh time in 1991; she wed her

manager, who was 33 years her junior. In 1993 she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Redhead, Brian, British journalist and broadcaster (b. Dec. 28, 1929, Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, England—d. Jan. 23, 1994, Mac-

clesfield, Cheshire, England), as chief presenter of BBC radio’s popular “Today” program from 1975, was for millions of devoted listeners “the voice of the morning.” Redhead studied history at Downing College, Cambridge, before joining the editorial staff of the Manchester Guardian in 1954. Within five years he was features editor, and after the newspaper (renamed The Guardian) relocated to London, he was made the northern editor. In 1969 he was promoted to editor of The Guardian’s sister paper, the Manchester Evening

People of 1994: Obituaries News. Over the years he simultaneously pursued a career in broadcasting, with a series of regional radio and television programs. When his application for editor of The Guardian was rejected, he left print journalism to take the job on “Today.” Redhead, a lively and relentless interviewer, often

irritated his political guests, but his incisive questions and animated personality made his earlymorning broadcast required listening in the halls of government. In later years he also produced radio documentaries on religion. Rey, Fernando (FERNANDO CasADO ARAMBILLET VEIGA), Spanish actor (b. Sept. 20, 1917, La Corufia, Spain—d. March 9, 1994, Madrid, Spain),

excelled at portraying suave, complex villains, especially in a series of motion pictures directed by Luis Bufiuel in the 1970s, but he was perhaps best known to English-speaking audiences for his role as the French drug baron Alain Charnier in The French Connection (1971) and its 1975 sequel. Rey was born into a prosperous family and studied architecture at the University of Madrid until he quit to fight on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). He began working as a movie extra in 1936, and by 1960 the multilingual Rey had achieved moderate success acting in low-budget pictures and dubbing foreign films into Spanish. His breakthrough came as the lecherous Don Jaime in Bufiuel’s Viridiana (1961). Rey superbly captured Bufiuel’s vision of privileged decadence and obsession in their later collaborations, Tristana (1970), Le Charme discret de la bourgeoisie (1972; The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie), and Cet obscur objet du désir (1977; That Obscure Object of Desire). Rey appeared in more than 100 other movies, including

Orson Welles’s Chimes at Midnight (1966), Lina Wertmiiller’s Seven Beauties (1975), and Carlos Saura’s Elisa, vida mia (1977; Elisa, My Love), for

which he won the best actor award at the Cannes Film Festival. He also starred as Don Quixote on Spanish television in 1992. Rey’s last film, Al otro lado del tunel (The Other Side of the Tunnel), was released shortly before his death.

first half of his career. In the 1960s he played with bands in Las Vegas, Nev., and underwent

drug rehabilitation. He also ran afoul of the law when he impersonated a general and stole $10,000 and some secret documents from the safe at an Atomic Energy Commission facility. While spending three years in prison, Rodney earned his law degree but was unable to practice because of his felony conviction. In 1980 Rodney formed a band with multi-instrumentalist Ira Sullivan. He took up the fliigelhorn and returned to glory as a skilled ballad player, in demand worldwide. Gilbert (Luis ANTONIO

DAMASO

DE

ALONSO), U.S. actor (b. Dec. 11, 1905, Ciudad Juarez, Mexico—d. May 15, 1994, Beverly Hills,

Rubin, Jerry, U.S. political activist turned busi-

nessman

silent-film classic Camille opposite Norma Talmadge, but he was also featured in swashbuckling talkie roles, including that of the Spanish sea captain in The Sea Hawk (1940), a matador in The Bullfighter and the Lady (1951), and a Mexican rebel leader in Bandido (1956). The son and grandson of Spanish bullfighters, Roland also trained as a torero before his family fled the Mexican Revolution and moved to Texas. The maturelooking Roland moved to Los Angeles on his own as a young teen and began appearing as an extra in Hollywood films. The enduring character actor, who was distinguished by a trim mustache,

d. Nov.

made more

than 100 films, including She Done

Him Wrong (1933), Captain Kidd (1945), We Were Strangers (1949), The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), and The Big Circus (1959). During the 1950s and ’60s he became a familiar figure on television on such shows as “Alfred Hitchcock Presents,” “The Alfred Hitchcock Hour,” and “The Fugitive.”

Romero, Cesar, U.S. actor (b. Feb. 15, 1907, New York, N.Y.—d. Jan. 1, 1994, Santa Monica, Calif.), was a tall, debonair, and mustachioed

film veteran whose diverse career encompassed roles as ingratiating playboys, engaging bandits, and likable scoundrels; he was best remembered master

sanitation. She did not seek reelection in 1968 but continued to maintain an interest in politics. At the age of 95, she served as the oldest delegate to the Democratic national convention, held in New York City. Rodney, Red (ROBERT CHUDNICK), U.S. trumpeter and bandleader (b. Sept. 27, 1927, Philadelphia, Pa—d. May 27, 1994, Boynton Beach, Fla.), was a brilliant jazz improviser who performed with the swing bands of Jimmy Dorsey, Gene Krupa, Woody Herman, and Benny Goodman before finding his niche as a member (1949-51) of Charlie Parker’s bebop quintet. Rodney, distinguished by his flaming red hair, was also the first white bebop trumpeter. His innovative playing style was marked by his brilliant technique and purity of tone. After receiving his first trumpet as a bar mitzvah gift, Rodney adopted the romantic style of trumpeter Harry James before becoming obsessed with the emergence of bebop, a jazz

style that relies heavily on complicated melodic and harmonic improvisations. By age 21, Rodney was a sensational player, and he was recruited

by Parker to fill the seat vacated by Miles Davis. Rodney’s heroin addiction, however, blighted the

the Lenin

notably in the 1927

the silver screen’s Cisco Kid, a Mexican rogue. Romero’s good looks coupled with his Cuban heritage seemed likely to result in his being typecast as a “Latin lover,” but his screen persona was more akin to a light parody of a gigolo. A onetime professional dancer, Romero made his film debut in 1934 in The Thin Man. After appearing opposite Marlene Dietrich in The Devil Is a Woman (1935), his first leading role, Romero seldom starred as a leading man and almost never got the girl. He appeared with Shirley Temple in Wee Willie Winkie (1937) and The Little Princess (1939) and with Sonja Henie in Happy Landing (1938) and Wintertime (1943). Romero was also featured in such musicals as The Great American Broadcast (1941), Weekend in Havana (1941), and Springtime in the Rockies (1942), He starred as the Joker in the film version of Batman (1966), reprising his role from the campy television series that ran from 1966 to 1968. Some of Romero’s

works, including housing, hospitals, schools, and

Union from 1977 and was awarded Prize in 1979.

dashing Latin lovers, most

cian (b. 1897?, Ceiba, P.R.—d. Sept. 16, 1994,

returned to office in succeeding elections, winning votes with her Wednesday open-house public forums at the city hall and her attention to public

70s when others, even Yevtushenko, were in dis-

favour. Among his other collections were Rovesniku (1962; To My Contemporary), Posvyashcheniye (1970; The Dedication), and Za dvadtsat let (1973; In the Twenty Years). The narrative poem Rekviyem (1961; Requiem) was set to music, as were many of his short love lyrics. Rozhdestvensky was a

Calif.), specialized in portraying charismatic and

Rincén de Gautier, Felisa, Puerto Rican politi-

pointed mayor in 1946, Rincén de Gautier was

(1953). Despite the political idealism and literary experimentation evident in his early work, Rozhdestvensky never openly criticized the Soviet government, and his poetry remained officially acceptable during the more restrictive 1960s and

member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Roland,

for his portrayal of the Joker, an archvillain and

San Juan, P.R.), served as a popular mayor of San Juan (1946-69) after helping in the 1932 campaign in which women succeeded in gaining the right to vote. Rincon de Gautier was the daughter of a lawyer. She left school at age 15 to care for seven younger siblings. A social activist, Rinc6n de Gautier entered politics and lobbied for child care programs, centres for the elderly, and legal aid for the poor. Her social programs earned her support among San Juan’s poor, who affectionately addressed her as Dofia Fela. Ap-

81

of puns

on

television’s

“Batman,”

and

other credits include Diamond Jim (1935), The Return of the Cisco Kid (1939), The Gay Caballero (1940), Tall, Dark and Handsome (1941), Around

the World in 80 Days (1956), and Donovan's Reef (1963). During the 1980s he portrayed Jane Wyman’s husband on the television evening soap opera “Falcon Crest.” Rozhdestvensky, Robert Ivanovich, Russian poet (b. June 20, 1932, Kosikha, Altay kray, Russian

S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.—d. Aug. 19/20, 1994, Moscow, Russia), was one of a group of young Russian poets who broke away from the strictures of Socialist Realism in the 1950s and ’60s and wrote unconventional verse filled with romanticism and introspection. Rozhdestvensky began writing poetry as a boy and published his first collection, Flagi vesny (1955; Flags of Spring), several months before he graduated from the Maksim Gorky Institute of World Literature in Moscow. Along with his better-known contemporary, Yevgeny Yevtushenko, he came of age in the era of artis-

tic freedom that followed Joseph Stalin’s death

(b. July 14, 1938, Cincinnati, Ohio— 28, 1994,

Los Angeles,

Calif.), gained

his widest renown from the anti-Vietnam War protests during the 1968 Democratic national convention in Chicago and the subsequent “Chicago Seven” trial, in which—after one defendant was

removed to be tried separately—he and six others were tried on charges of conspiracy to incite violence and crossing state lines with intent to riot. After a long trial punctuated with taunts and outbursts from the defendants, they were acquit-

ted of conspiracy, but five were convicted of incitement, and all—plus their lawyers—were cited for contempt some 200 times. The convictions were later overturned. Rubin attended Oberlin (Ohio) College, graduated from the University of Cincinnati, and studied at Hebrew University in Jerusalem before briefly attending the University of California at Berkeley. Radicalized by the Free Speech Movement and a trip to Cuba, he helped found the Youth International Party, better known as the Yippies, and was one of the leaders of the 1967 antiwar march on the Pentagon. During the 1968 election campaign, he staged acts of street theatre such as promoting the Yippie candidate—a pig named Pigasus. Rubin moved away from radical politics during the 1970s and turned his attention to the humanpotential movement, sampling, for example, yoga, est, meditation, bioenergetics, and Rolfing. In the 1980s he organized networking seminars in New York City for young Wall Street professionals, and he and fellow former Chicago Seven defendant Abbie Hoffman engaged in a series of “Yippie Versus Yuppie” debates. In 1991 he moved to Los Angeles to market a nutritional drink that contained bee pollen and ginseng. Rubin died of a heart attack two weeks after being hit by a car while jaywalking. Rudolph, Wilma

Glodean, U.S. runner (b. June

23, 1940, Clarksville, Tenn.—d. Nov. 12, 1994, Brentwood, Tenn.), was a phenomenal sprinter who overcame crippling childhood illnesses to become the first American woman to capture three track-and-field gold medals at a single Olympics. In the 1960 Olympics in Rome she won the 100-m dash (tying the world record of 11.3 sec in a semifinal race) and the 200-m dash, and she anchored the triumphant U.S. 4 x 100-m relay team (which set a world record of 44.4 sec in a semifinal race). Rudolph, a sickly child who conquered scarlet fever, double pneumonia, and the temporary paralysis of her left leg, wore a leg brace and then an orthopedic shoe until she discarded the shoe to play basketball, her first love. In high school, her basketball coach dubbed the lanky, 1.85-m (6-ft) scoring machine (she had 803 points in 25 games as a junior) “Skeeter” because, he said, “You're little, you’re fast and you always get in my way.” She attended Tennessee State University from 1957 to 1961. In 1956, weighing less than 46 kg (100 lb), she won a bronze medal in the 4 x 100-m relay at the Olympic Games in Melbourne, Australia. For the 1960 Olympics she bulked up to 59 kg (130 lb). After retiring as a runner, Rudolph established a foundation for underprivileged children; served as a good-

will ambassador to French West Africa; coached briefly at DePauw

University, Greencastle, Ind.;

and held various corporate business positions. In 1977 her inspirational autobiography, Wilma, was published and made into a television movie.

ries People of 1994: Obitua eee i82Se i a Cuban Missile Crisis. U.S. aerial photographs revealed that the Soviets were constructing missile-

launching installations in Cuba. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and threatened military reprisals,

after which Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles under UN super-

vision. In his 1990 memoirs, As J Saw It, Rusk

recounted his assessment of the situation: “We are eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just blinked.” He helped negotiate some of the first arms-control accords with Moscow. After stepping down as secretary of state, Rusk taught international law at the University of Georgia until he retired in 1984. Sablon, Jean, French singer and songwriter (b. March 25, 1906, Nogent-sur-Marne, near

Paris, France—d. Feb. 24, 1994, Cannes-la-Bocca,

France), was an elegant crooner whose matineeidol looks (enhanced by his trademark thinly clipped mustache), mellow baritone voice, and intimate use of a microphone charmed audiences

in the U.S. and Europe and earned him the nick-

name “the French Bing Crosby.” Sablon made his professional debut in a Parisian operetta in 1923, and by 1931 he was a sought-after cabaret and music-hall singer. In the 1930s he added popular jazz recordings to his repertoire. He also toured and sang regularly on the radio in England, Brazil, and the U.S., where he was performing when World War II broke out in 1939. On his return to Europe (1945), he was initially derided for his Americanized style and dubbed “the singer without a voice” because of his use of the newfangled microphone, but his romantic vocals soon won

over French audiences. Sablon gave his last public performance in Rio de Janeiro in 1983, two years

after marking his 75th birthday with a concert at New York City’s Lincoln Center. Sallal, ‘Abd Allah as-, Yemeni army officer and politician (b. 1917?, San‘a’, Yemen—d. March 5, 1994, San‘a’), was the first president and prime

minister of the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) after having led a military coup against the last imam, Saif al-Islam Muhammad al-Badr, on Sept. 27, 1962; Sallal himself was overthrown

MARK KAUFFMAN—LIFE MAGAZINE

Rudolph, who was Amateur Athletic Union 100yd dash champion from 1959 to 1962, was inducted into the U.S. National Track and Field

Hall of Fame in 1974. Riihmann, Heinz, German actor (b. March 7, 1902, Essen, Germany—d. Oct. 4, 1994, Berg,

near Starnberg, Germany), had a motion-picture career that spanned more than 60 years and 100 films and was one of his country’s most beloved stars. Specializing in roles as the little man whose optimism and humour enable him to defeat adversity, he came to be considered a comic institution and was voted most popular actor in Germany at least a dozen times. Rtihmann began his career as a stage actor in 1920 and made his film debut in 1926 in Das deutsche Mutterherz (“The German Mother Heart”). He became a star after his performance in his first talking picture,

K6penick (1956; “The Captain from Képenick”),

and Der Brave Soldat Schwejk (1960; “The Good Soldier Schweik”). Riihmann became known to English-speaking audiences through his role in the motion picture Ship of Fools (1965). In 1993 he appeared in In weiter Ferne, so nah! (“Far Away, So Close”), thus becoming one of the very few silent-film performers to remain active in

the 1990s. Rusk, (David) Dean, U.S. diplomat (b. Feb. 9, 1909, Cherokee county, Ga.—d. Dec. 20, 1994,

Sanchez, Luis Alberto, Peruvian politician and

Athens, Ga.), as U.S. secretary of state (196169) during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B.

1994, Lima), was a prolific man of letters who wrote more than 70 volumes of history, biography, literary criticism, philosophy, fiction, poetry, and autobiography and was politically prominent as a longtime member of the centre-left American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), which was founded by Victor Rati Haya de la Torre to combat imperialism in Latin America. Sanchez, an APRA loyalist, founded the party’s newspaper, Tribuna, in 1931, the same year he was elected to Congress. The following year, however, he was imprisoned briefly by the military government of Luis Sanchez Cerro, and for the next 25 years he endured persecution and exile at the hands

Johnson administrations, gave unwavering support for U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War amidst massive protests at home as the war escalated and U.S. participation increased. After graduating (1931) from Davidson (N.C.) College,

Die Drei von der Tankstelle (1930; “Three from

Rusk attended St. John’s College, Oxford, as a

the Gas Station”). Such films as Der Mann, der seinen Morder sucht (1931; “Looking for His Mur-

Rhodes scholar and earned (1934) an M.A. in philosophy, politics, and economics. He taught at

derer”) and Der Mann, der Sherlock Holmes war (1937; “The Man Who Was Sherlock Holmes”)

Mills College, Oakland, Calif., from 1934 to 1940,

when he was called to active duty in the U.S.

made Riihmann so popular that Nazi authorities

Army. During World War II, Rusk served Gen.

pressured him to divorce his wife, who was half Jewish. He did so in 1938—after 14 years of mar-

Joseph W. Stilwell as deputy chief of staff for the China-Burma-India theatre and rose to the rank of colonel before leaving the military in 1946. That year he joined the State Department and

riage—but he helped her escape to Sweden, and after World War II they appeared on television together. Riihmann then directed a few films, but acting remained his principal focus. Among his postwar acting successes were Charleys Tante (1955; “Charley’s Aunt”), Der Hauptmann von

on Nov. 5, 1967. As a youth Sallal was selected by the monarchy for special military training in Iraq. On his return to Yemen in 1939, he was briefly imprisoned for political reasons. He later spent seven years in jail (1948-55), but he was released by then Crown Prince Badr, who made him governor of Hodeida (1959-61) and promoted him to brigadier. When Badr succeeded to the throne on Sept. 18, 1962, he appointed Sallal chief of staff. Within 10 days a military coup had overthrown the monarchy and installed Sallal as president, with Egyptian military, political, and economic aid. His rule became increasingly tenuous, however, as royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia, continued to promote civil unrest. When Egypt withdrew its backing in 1967, moderate republicans staged a bloodless coup while Sallal was on a visit to Iraq. He did not return to Yemen from exile until 1981.

held a variety of posts before being recruited by Kennedy in 1961 to head the department. In this role he served as advisor to the president during the showdown with Moscow known as the 1962

author (b. Oct. 12, 1900, Lima, Peru—d. Feb. 6,

of successive military governments as a result of his APRA affiliation. Sanchez was elected to the Senate in 1963, 1980, and 1985, and he served

as the sembly When APRA

chairman of that drafted Alan Garcia president in

the 1978-79 Constituent Asa new Peruvian constitution. became the country’s first 1985, Sanchez was given the

People of 1994: Obituaries post of vice president, and he served briefly as prime minister in 1989, the year before Garcia’s

term in office expired. Sanchez also served (194661) as rector of the National University of San Marcos, his alma mater. Saraswati,

Swamigal

Chandrasekharendra,

In-

dian religious leader (b. May 20, 1894, Viluppuram, Tamil Nadu, India—d. Jan. 8, 1994, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu), was a revered Hindu

sage and a lifelong advocate of religious tolerance. Saraswati, the son of a Brahmin schoolteacher,

originally was named Swaminathan. At the age of 13 he was chosen for areligious vocation and taken by a monk to a Hindu math (monastery) near Madras. Saraswati was a learned student of the sacred Vedic texts and devoted much of his life to the preservation and teaching of the dharma, the Hindu religious and moral law governing individual conduct. A devout and scholarly man, he spoke a dozen languages, including English, French, Swedish, and several Indian dialects. He also traveled throughout India on foot,

visiting pilgrim centres, studying local customs, and preaching nonviolence and religious tolerance among Hindu castes and between India’s Hindu majority and Muslim minority populations. Savalas, Aristoteles (“TELLY”), U.S. actor (b. Jan.

21, 1924, Garden City, N.Y.—d. Jan. 22, 1994, Universal City, Calif.), specialized in portraying film villains before gaining international stardom as Lieut. Theo

Kojak, television’s bald-headed,

lollipop-licking New York City detective who shielded a heart of gold under a gruff, wise-cracking exterior. As the Emmy award-winning star of the dramatic police series “Kojak” (1973-78), the hawk-nosed detective was renowned for sporting three-piece suits and for uttering his signature catchphrase, “Who loves ya, baby?” Savalas was an award-winning documentary producer at ABC News before he broke into acting (1959) as a stand-in. He was discovered by Burt Lancaster (q.v.), who featured him as a police detective in The Young Savages (1961) and then asa sadistic convict in Birdman of Alcatraz (1962). The latter

movie The Marcus-Nelson Murders that served as the springboard for the series, After “Kojak” was dropped in 1978, Savalas appeared in films, notably Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979), before reviving Kojak in 1989 for a few television episodes on “The ABC Saturday Mystery.”

Talmudic disquisitions were made available; full-

Scarry, Richard McClure, U.S. author and illustrator (b. June 5, 1919, Boston, Mass.—d. April

Lubavitcher grand rabbi in 1950 following the death of his father-in-law. Schneerson, though he

page newspaper advertisements were published; and Schneerson himself, a mesmeric figure with piercing blue eyes and a flowing white beard, dispensed blessings and a crisp new dollar bill to each Sunday morning visitor. A Sorbonneeducated scholar, Schneerson became the seventh

30, 1994, Gstaad, Switz.), captured the imagination of preschoolers with his oversized, highly de-

had not traveled beyond Crown Heights, Brook-

lyn, the site of the Lubavitch World Headquar-

tailed picture books, which featured a whimsical menagerie of characters, including such favourites

_ters, in 37 years, had a strong influence on Israeli

as Huckle Cat, Sergeant Murphy, Mayor Fox, Farmer Goat, and especially Lowly Worm, a Tyrolean-hatted earthworm who slithered into numerous story lines. Scarry’s 250 books appealed mainly to curious toddlers who were learning to talk and explore the world. Dog-eared and Scotchtaped copies of such best-sellers as Richard Scarry’s Best Word Book Ever (1963), Richard Scarry’s

his death caused great consternation, especially when his hoped-for resurrection failed to take place. He was childless and did not designate a successor.

Please & Thank You Book (1973), and Richard

Scarry’s Find Your ABC’s (1973) were tenderly preserved in homes and provided testimony to the enduring popularity of his works, which were translated into more than 30 languages. Scarry, a mediocre student who spent five years in high school, studied (1938-41) at the Boston Museum School before serving in the army (1941-46). He began illustrating books in 1947 and scored his first commercial success in 1963. Scarry’s enticing books invited children to examine the minute details cluttered into many of his colourful illus-

politics, both within the Knesset (parliament) and among the electorate. Because many of his followers revered Schneerson as the potential Messiah,

Schubert, Max Edmund, Australian enologist (b. Feb. 9, 1915, Moculta, near Adelaide, Australia— d. March 6?, 1994, Adelaide), created Grange Hermitage, Australia’s most internationally ac-

claimed red wine, and almost single-handedly changed the standard for the nation’s wine industry. In 1930 Schubert took a menial job with the Penfolds winery, which followed the Australian

tradition, producing mainly sweet sherry and port. He studied enology at night, was made an assistant winemaker in 1940, and was promoted to

senior winemaker in 1947. While on a tour to study European winemaking techniques in 1950,

trations, which were both informative and edu-

he realized that the Shiraz, or Syrah, grape could

cational. His “busy” books and dictionaries sold

be used to create an Australian claret similar to the great red Bordeaux and Rhéne wines. Schubert’s first attempts, aged in new American oak casks, were pronounced a dismal failure, and he was ordered to cease production. He persevered

more than 100 million copies worldwide, and in

1989 eight of his books made the list of the top 50 best-selling children’s books of all time. In 1968 Scarry moved

to Switzerland, where he contin-

ued to produce his delightful hardbacks. A cable-

in secret, however,

television animated series, “The Busy World of

when the 1955 vintage won a gold medal at the 1962 Sydney Wine Show. By 1994 Australian premium table wines were respected around the world, a bottle of the most recent vintage of

Richard Scarry,” made its debut in 1994. Schneerson,

Menachem

Mendel,

Russian-born

and his faith was rewarded

rabbi (b. April 14, 1902, Nikolayev, Russia [now

Grange Hermitage was selling for around $A 100,

in Ukraine]—d. June 12, 1994, New York, N.Y.),

and the previously much-maligned early vintages were commanding thousands of dollars a bottle. Schubert was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1984.

role earned him an Academy Award nomination as best supporting actor. After first shaving his head for the role of Pontius Pilate in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), Savalas made his bald pate

was a towering figure in Orthodox Judaism and for 44 years the charismatic spiritual leader of the New York-based Lubavitch Hasidic movement. He built a religious empire from the remnants of

his trademark. Some of his other menacing roles were as a black marketeer in Battle of the Bulge (1965), a vicious Southern racist and rapist in The Dirty Dozen (1967), a renegade murderer in The Scalphunters (1968), the nemesis of James Bond in On Her Majesty’s Secret Service (1969), and a sadistic bandit inA Town Called Bastard (1971). It was his portrayal as Kojak in the 1973 television

a Russian flock, whose numbers had been decimated to a few thousand by the Holocaust, into

REUTERS/BETTMANN

83

a powerful following of some

200,000 believers

Schwinger, Julian Seymour, U.S. physicist (b. Feb. 12, 1918, New York, N.Y.—d. July 16, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), was a brilliant theoretician whose

studies helped define the basic principles of quan-

worldwide. Schneerson attracted members by using several strategies: converted campers (dubbed “mitzvah tanks”) that served as recruitment centres canvassed New York City; toll-free telephone

with electromagnetic radiation; he won the 1965

numbers, satellite television hookups, and faxes of

Nobel Prize for Physics (with Richard P. Feynman

tum electrodynamics, a theoretical description of

the interaction of electrically charged particles

of the U.S. and Tomonaga Shin’ichiro of Japan) for this important work. His mathematical formulations provided a vital link between quantum mechanics and Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. A prodigy, Schwinger received (1939) a Ph.D. from Columbia University, New York City, at the age of 21 and began conducting research in the newly emerging field of nuclear physics under J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California at Berkeley. During World War II he helped develop radar at the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1945 he joined the faculty of Harvard University, where he began his work on quantum electrodynamics and became the first to calculate the anomalous magnetic property of the electron. His superb teaching methods were distinguished by scintillating lectures, and his mentorship of students resulted in dozens of them earning their Ph.D.’s under his guidance. Three of his pupils also later won Nobel Prizes. From 1972 to 1980 he served as professor of physics at the University of California at Los Angeles, and from 1980 until his death he was university professor there. Among his other honours were the first Albert

Einstein Prize in 1951 (with Kurt Gédel) and the National Medal of Science in 1964. Selvon, Samuel Dickson, Trinidadian-born Cana-

dian author (b. May 20, 1923, Trinidad—d. April 16, 1994, Trinidad), was an important West Indian writer who, with V.S. Naipaul, was in the

82

People of 1994: Obituaries Cuban Missile Crisis. U.S. aerial photographs revealed that the Soviets were constructing missile-

launching installations in Cuba. Kennedy ordered 4 naval blockade and threatened military reprisals, after which Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles under UN super-

vision. In his 1990 memoirs, As I Saw It, Rusk

recounted his assessment of the situation: “We are eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just He helped negotiate some of the first blinked.”: arms-control accords with Moscow. After stepping down as secretary of state, Rusk taught international law at the University of Georgia until he retired in 1984. Sablon,

Jean,

French

singer

and

songwriter

(b. March 25, 1906, Nogent-sur-Marne, near Paris, France—d. Feb. 24, 1994, Cannes-la-Bocca, Fraiice), was an elegant crooner whose matinee-

idol looks (enhanced clipped mustache),

by his trademark thinly

mellow

baritone voice, and

intimate use of a microphone charmed audiences in the U.S. and Europe and earned him the nickname “the French Bing Crosby.” Sablon made his professional debut in a Parisian operetta in 1923, and by 1931 he was a sought-after cabaret and music-hall singer. In the 1930s he added popular jazz recordings to his repertoire. He also toured and sang regularly on the radio in England, Brazil, and the U.S., where he was performing when World War II broke out in 1939. On his return to Europe (1945), he was initially derided for his Americanized style and dubbed “the singer without a voice” because of his use of the newfangled microphone, but his romantic vocals soon won over French audiences. Sablon gave his last public performance in Rio de Janeiro in 1983, two years

after marking his 75th birthday with a concert at New York City’s Lincoln Center. Sallal, ‘Abd Allah as-, Yemeni army officer and politician (b. 1917?, San‘a’, Yemen—d. March 5, 1994, San‘a’), was the first president and prime

minister of the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) after having led a military coup against the last imam, Saif al-Islam Muhammad al-Badr, on Sept. 27, 1962; Sallal himself was overthrown on Noy. 5, 1967. As a youth Sallal was selected

MARK KAUFFMAN—LIFE MAGAZINE

Rudolph, who was Amateur Athletic Union 100-

yd dash champion from 1959 to 1962, was inducted into the U.S. National Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1974. Riihmann, Heinz, German 1902, Essen, Germany—d.

actor (b. March 7, Oct. 4, 1994, Berg,

near Starnberg, Germany), had a motion-picture career that spanned more than 60 years and 100 films and was one of his country’s most beloved stars. Specializing in roles as the little man whose optimism and humour enable him to defeat adversity, he came to be considered a comic institution and was voted most popular actor in Germany at least a dozen times. Riihmann began his career as a stage actor in 1920 and made his film debut in 1926 in Das deutsche Mutterherz

(“The German Mother Heart”). He became astar

after his performance in his first talking picture, Die Drei von der Tankstelle (1930; “Three from the Gas Station”). Such films as Der Mann, der

seinen Morder sucht (1931; “Looking for His Murderer”) and Der Mann, der Sherlock Holmes war

(1937; “The Man Who Was Sherlock Holmes”) made Riihmann so popular that Nazi authorities

pressured him to divorce his wife, who was half

Jewish. He did so in 1938—after 14 years of mar-

riage—but he helped her escape to Sweden, and after World War II they appeared on television

together. Riihmann

then directed a few films,

but acting remained his principal focus. Among his postwar acting successes were Charleys Tante (1955; “Charley’s Aunt”), Der Hauptmann von

KGpenick (1956; “The Captain from K6penick”), and Der Brave Soldat Schwejk (1960; “The Good Soldier Schweik”). Riihmann became known to English-speaking audiences through his role in the motion picture Ship of Fools (1965). In 1993 he appeared in Jn weiter Ferne, so nah! (“Far Away, So Close”), thus becoming one of the very few silent-film performers to remain active in the 1990s. Rusk, (David) Dean, U.S. diplomat (b. Feb. 9, 1909, Cherokee county, Ga—d. Dec. 20, 1994,

Athens, Ga.), as U.S. secretary of state (196169) during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson administrations, gave unwavering sup-

port for U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War

amidst massive protests at home as the war escalated and U.S. participation increased. After

graduating (1931) from Davidson (N.C.) College, Rusk attended St. John’s College, Oxford, as a

Rhodes scholar and earned (1934) an M.A. in philosophy, politics, and economics. He taught at Mills College, Oakland, Calif., from 1934 to 1940, when he was called to active duty in the U.S. Army. During World War II, Rusk served Gen. Joseph W. Stilwell as deputy chief of staff for the China-Burma-India theatre and rose to the rank of colonel before leaving the military in 1946. That year he joined the State Department and held a variety of posts before being recruited by Kennedy in 1961 to head the department. In this role he served as advisor to the president during the showdown with Moscow known as the 1962

by the monarchy for special military training in Iraq. On his return to Yemen in 1939, he was briefly imprisoned for political reasons. He later spent seven years in jail (1948-55), but he was released by then Crown Prince Badr, who made him governor of Hodeida (1959-61) and promoted him to brigadier. When Badr succeeded to the throne on Sept. 18, 1962, he appointed Sallal chief of staff. Within 10 days a military coup had overthrown the monarchy and installed Sallal as president, with Egyptian military, political, and economic aid. His rule became increasingly tenuous, however, as royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia, continued to promote civil unrest. When Egypt withdrew its backing in 1967, moderate republicans staged a bloodless coup while Sallal was on avisit to Iraq. He did not return to Yemen from exile until 1981. Sanchez, Luis Alberto, Peruvian politician and author (b. Oct. 12, 1900, Lima, Peru—d. Feb. 6, 1994, Lima), was a prolific man of letters who

wrote more than 70 volumes of history, biography, literary criticism, philosophy, fiction, poetry, and autobiography and was politically prominent as a longtime member of the centre-left American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), which was founded by Victor Ratil Haya de la Torre to combat imperialism in Latin America. Sanchez, an APRA loyalist, founded the party’s newspaper, Tribuna, in 1931, the same year he was elected to Congress. The following year, however, he was imprisoned briefly by the military government of Luis Sanchez Cerro, and for the next 25 years he endured persecution and exile at the hands of successive military governments as a result of his APRA affiliation. Sanchez was elected to the Senate in 1963, 1980, and 1985, and he served

as the chairman of the 1978-79 Constituent Assembly that drafted a new Peruvian constitution. When Alan Garcia became the country’s first APRA president in 1985, Sanchez was given the

People of 1994: Obituaries post of vice president, and he served briefly as prime minister in 1989, the year before Garcia’s term in office expired. Sanchez also served (194661) as rector of the National University of San Marcos, his alma mater. Saraswati,

Swamigal

Chandrasekharendra,

Tamil

Nadu,

India—d.

Jan.

8, 1994,

Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu), was a revered Hindu sage and alifelong advocate of religious tolerance. Saraswati, the son of a Brahmin schoolteacher,

originally was named Swaminathan. At the age of 13 he was chosen for a religious vocation and taken by a monk to a Hindu math (monastery) near Madras. Saraswati was a learned student of the sacred Vedic texts and devoted much of his life to the preservation and teaching of the dharma, the Hindu religious and moral law governing individual conduct. A devout and scholarly man, he spoke a dozen languages, including English, French, Swedish, and several Indian dialects. He also traveled throughout India on foot,

visiting pilgrim centres, studying local customs, and preaching nonviolence and religious tolerance among Hindu castes and between India’s Hindu majority and Muslim minority populations. Savalas, Aristoteles (“TELLY”), U.S. actor (b. Jan. 21, 1924, Garden City, N.Y.—d. Jan. 22, 1994, Universal City, Calif.), specialized in portraying film villains before gaining international stardom as Lieut. Theo

was dropped in 1978, Savalas appeared in films,

notably Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979), before reviving Kojak in 1989 for a few television episodes on “The ABC Saturday Mystery.”

In-

dian religious leader (b. May 20, 1894, Viluppuram,

movie The Marcus-Nelson Murders that served as the springboard for the series. After “Kojak”

Kojak, television’s bald-headed,

lollipop-licking New York City detective who shielded a heart of gold under a gruff, wise-cracking exterior. As the Emmy award-winning star of the dramatic police series “Kojak” (1973-78), the hawk-nosed detective was renowned for sporting three-piece suits and for uttering his signature catchphrase, “Who loves ya, baby?” Savalas was

an award-winning documentary producer at ABC News before he broke into acting (1959) as a stand-in. He was discovered by Burt Lancaster (q.v.), who featured him as a police detective in The Young Savages (1961) and then asa sadistic

Talmudic disquisitions were made available; fullpage newspaper advertisements were published; and Schneerson himself, a mesmeric figure with piercing blue eyes and a flowing white beard, dispensed blessings and a crisp new dollar bill to each Sunday morning visitor. A Sorbonneeducated scholar, Schneerson became the seventh

Scarry, Richard McClure, U.S. author and illus-

trator (b. June 5, 1919, Boston, Mass.—d. April 30, 1994, Gstaad, Switz.), captured the imagination of preschoolers with his oversized, highly detailed picture books, which featured a whimsical

menagerie of characters, including such favourites as Huckle Cat, Sergeant Murphy, Mayor Fox, Farmer Goat, and especially Lowly Worm, a Ty-

Lubavitcher grand rabbi in 1950 following the death of his father-in-law. Schneerson, though he had not traveled beyond Crown Heights, Brooklyn, the site of the Lubavitch World Headquar_ ters, in 37 years, had a strong influence on Israeli

politics, both within the Knesset (parliament) and among the electorate. Because many of his followers revered Schneerson as the potential Messiah,

rolean-hatted earthworm who slithered into numerous story lines. Scarry’s 250 books appealed mainly to curious toddlers who were learning to talk and explore the world. Dog-eared and Scotchtaped copies of such best-sellers as Richard Scarry’s Best Word Book Ever (1963), Richard Scarry’s

his death caused great consternation, especially when his hoped-for resurrection failed to take place. He was childless and did not designate a successor.

Please & Thank You Book (1973), and Richard

Feb. 9, 1915, Moculta, near Adelaide, Australia— d. March 6?, 1994, Adelaide), created Grange

Scarry’s Find Your ABC’s (1973) were tenderly preserved in homes and provided testimony to the enduring popularity of his works, which were translated into more than 30 languages. Scarry, a mediocre student who spent five years in high school, studied (1938-41) at the Boston Museum School before serving in the army (1941-46). He began illustrating books in 1947 and scored his first commercial success in 1963. Scarry’s enticing books invited children to examine the minute details cluttered into many of his colourful illustrations, which were both informative and educational. His “busy” books and dictionaries sold more than 100 million copies worldwide, and in

1989 eight of his books made the list of the top 50 best-selling children’s books of all time. In 1968 Scarry moved to Switzerland, where he continued to produce his delightful hardbacks. A cable-

Schubert, Max Edmund, Australian enologist (b.

Hermitage, Australia’s most internationally acclaimed red wine, and almost single-handedly changed the standard for the nation’s wine industry. In 1930 Schubert took a menial job with the Penfolds winery, which followed the Australian

tradition, producing mainly sweet sherry and port. He studied enology at night, was made an assistant winemaker in 1940, and was promoted to

senior winemaker in 1947. While on a tour to study European winemaking techniques in 1950, he realized that the Shiraz, or Syrah, grape could be used to create an Australian claret similar to the great red Bordeaux and Rh6éne wines. Schubert’s first attempts, aged in new American oak casks, were pronounced a dismal failure, and he

was ordered to cease production. He persevered in secret, however,

and his faith was rewarded

Richard Scarry,” made its debut in 1994.

when the 1955 vintage won a gold medal at the 1962 Sydney Wine Show. By 1994 Australian premium table wines were respected around the

Schneerson,

world,

television animated series, “The Busy World of Menachem

Mendel,

Russian-born

rabbi (b. April 14, 1902, Nikolayev, Russia [now

convict in Birdman of Alcatraz (1962). The latter

in Ukraine]—d. June 12, 1994, New York, N.Y.),

role earned him an Academy Award nomination as best supporting actor. After first shaving his head for the role of Pontius Pilate in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), Savalas made his bald pate his trademark. Some of his other menacing roles were as a black marketeer in Battle of the Bulge (1965), a vicious Southern racist and rapist in The Dirty Dozen (1967), a renegade murderer in The Scalphunters (1968), the nemesis of James Bond in On Her Majesty’s Secret Service (1969), and a sadistic bandit inA Town Called Bastard (1971). It was his portrayal as Kojak in the 1973 television

was a towering figure in Orthodox Judaism and for 44 years the charismatic spiritual leader of the New York-based Lubavitch Hasidic movement. He built a religious empire from the remnants of a Russian flock, whose numbers had been deci-

REUTERS/BETTMANN

83

mated to a few thousand by the Holocaust, into

a powerful following of some 200,000 believers worldwide. Schneerson attracted members by using several strategies: converted campers (dubbed “mitzvah tanks”) that served as recruitment centres canvassed New York City; toll-free telephone numbers, satellite television hookups, and faxes of

a bottle of the most

recent vintage of

Grange Hermitage was selling for around $A 100, and the previously much-maligned early vintages were commanding thousands of dollars a bottle. Schubert was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1984. Schwinger, Julian Seymour, U.S. physicist (b. Feb. 12, 1918, New York, N.Y.—d. July 16, 1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), was a brilliant theoretician whose studies helped define the basic principles of quantum electrodynamics, a theoretical description of the interaction of electrically charged particles with electromagnetic radiation; he won the 1965 Nobel Prize for Physics (with Richard P. Feynman of the U.S. and Tomonaga Shin’ichiro of Japan) for this important work. His mathematical formulations provided a vital link between quantum mechanics and Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. A prodigy, Schwinger received (1939) a Ph.D. from Columbia University, New York City, at the age of 21 and began conducting research in the newly emerging field of nuclear physics under J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California at Berkeley. During World War II he helped develop radar at the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1945 he joined the faculty of Harvard University, where he began his work on quantum

electrodynamics and became the first to calculate the anomalous magnetic property of the electron. His superb teaching methods were distinguished by scintillating lectures, and his mentorship of students resulted in dozens of them earning their Ph.D.’s under his guidance. Three of his pupils also later won Nobel Prizes. From 1972 to 1980 he served as professor of physics at the Univer-

sity of California at Los Angeles, and from 1980 until his death he was university professor there. Among his other honours were the first Albert

Einstein Prize in 1951 (with Kurt Gédel) and the National Medal of Science in 1964. Selvon, Samuel Dickson, Trinidadian-born Cana-

dian author (b. May 20, 1923, Trinidad—d. April 16, 1994, Trinidad), was an important West Indian writer who, with V.S. Naipaul, was in the

84

People of 1994: Obituaries

vanguard of the Caribbean literary renaissance in London during the 1950s; he was best remembered for the 1956 classic novel The Lonely Londoners, a picaresque account of the initial exhilaration and excitement experienced by black West Indians living in post-World War II London tempered by discrimination, poverty, and a sense of exile. After serving (1940-45) in the Royal Navy Reserve as a wireless operator on patrol boats in the Caribbean Sea, Selvon worked as a

reporter with the Trinidad Guardian newspaper while establishing a reputation as a gifted shortstory writer. After moving to London (1950) he published his first book, A Brighter Sun (1952), which explored racial tensions between black Africans and Indians living in the West Indies. Selvon established a rich oral tradition in novels _ featuring painstaking attention to dialect, one of the hallmarks of his writing style. He was also praised for his vivid, if not ribald, descriptiveness

and his colourful accounts of local life. His other important works include the short-story collection Ways of Sunlight (1957) and such novels as J Hear Thunder (1963), The Housing Lark (1965), Moses Ascending (1975), and Moses Migrating (1983). The latter two novels were sequels to The Lonely Londoners. In 1978 Selvon adopted Canada as his home, but he traveled to Trinidad in early 1994

to promote a reprinting of one of his books. Senna, Ayrton, Brazilian race-car driver (b. March 21, 1960, Sao

Paulo,

Brazil—d.

May

1, 1994,

Imola, Italy), was a fierce competitor who was renowned for his ruthless and risky maneuvers on the Grand Prix circuit and dominated the sport with 41 Grand Prix titles and 3 circuit world championships (1988, 1990, and 1991). Senna was revered as a national hero in Brazil, and his death, from massive head injuries suffered when he smashed head-on into a concrete wall at some 300 km/h (186 mph) at the San Marino Grand Prix, plunged the country into mourning. At the age of four, Senna was already behind the wheel of a go-cart and demonstrating a determination to win. He joined the Formula One racing circuit in 1984 as one of the most promising new drivers, and he captured the coveted pole position a record 65 times for having had the fastest race-qualifying times. An enigmatic figure who was deeply religious yet highly aggressive on the racetrack,

Senna

thrilled spectators

and cowed

competitors with his fearsome driving. He invited controversy over his long-standing rivalry with Frenchman Alain Prost, with 51 titles the most successful driver; the two collided during the final race of both the 1989 season, when Prost emerged victorious, and the 1990 season, when

Senna captured the world crown. He reportedly earned more than $100 million during his career, which included an annual salary of some $10 million. Senna’s death came one day after Austrian rookie Roland Ratzenberger was killed in a similar accident during qualifying trials. Both deaths renewed concerns about recent rule changes. The Fédération Internationale de Automobile banned electronics and other drivers’ aids from Formula

One cars, a move

that many

believed

made the sport more dangerous. Sharkey, Jack (JoSEPH PAUL ZUKAUSKAS), U.S.

boxer (b. Oct. 26, 1902, Binghamton, Aug.

N.Y.—d.

17, 1994, Beverly, Mass.), dethroned

Max

Schmeling as heavyweight champion of the world in a controversial 15-round split decision (June 21, 1932) but lost the title on June 29, 1933, when

Primo Carnera knocked him out with a powerful uppercut in the sixth round of their bout. Sharkey, who named himself after pugilist Jack Dempsey and former heavyweight “Sailor” Tom Sharkey, was also a sailor before he entered the ring. His punishing body blows helped him defeat top-ranking boxers and earned him the chance to fight Dempsey on July 21, 1927. In that contest Sharkey led for the first seven rounds but was decked by Dempsey while complaining to the referee about a supposed low body blow. In his first attempt in 1930 at the heavyweight crown, Sharkey lost to Schmeling on a foul. Sharkey’s subsequent 1932 victory over Schmeling was unpopular, and his loss to Carnera was questioned

because of Carnera’s links to the underworld. During boxing’s golden era Sharkey also fought Joe Lewis, who knocked him out in the third round. Sharkey was the only boxer ever to fight two sets of champions who had never faced each other in the ring—Dempsey and Schmeling and Dempsey and Lewis. Sharkey hung up his gloves after his loss to Lewis. Nicknamed “the Boston Cob,” Sharkey had a career record that included 55 bouts, with 38 victories (14 by knockout), 13 losses, 3 draws, and 1 no-decision. He was inducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1980 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1994. Shelepin, Aleksandr Nikolayevich, Soviet government official (b. Aug. 18, 1918, Voronezh, Russia—d. Oct. 24, 1994), was a ruthless, powerful

member of the post-Stalin leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and at one time was thought to be in contention for his country’s top position. Even though he gained power with the aid of Nikita S. Khrushchev and was chairman (1958-61) of the Committee for State Security (KGB) under him, he was thought to have played a major part in Khrushchev’s overthrow (1964). Shelepin graduated (1939) from the Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature and then served with the Red Army during the war with Finland (1939-40). After joining the CPSU (1940), he rose rapidly through party and government ranks and by 1952 was director of the Komsomol (Young Communist League), a post he held until he became KGB head. As KGB chairman Shelepin was known to have been responsible for policies of political harassment, espionage, and assassinations. He gained even more power when he was named chairman of the Committee of Party and State Control (1962), and in 1964, after Khrushchev’s ouster, he became a member of the party Presidium (later the Politburo). When

Leonid

Brezhnev

assumed

power,

however, Shelepin gradually lost his prominence. After his 1975 trip to Britain as head of a trade union delegation provoked huge protest demonstrations because of his KGB

activities, Shelepin

was dismissed from the Politburo. Shilts, Randy Martin, U.S. journalist and author

(b. Aug. 8, 1951, Davenport, Iowa—d. Feb. 16, 1994, Guerneville, Calif.), was a top-notch inves-

tigative reporter who became the nation’s first openly gay journalist to work on a major U.S. newspaper, the San Francisco Chronicle. He also was critically acclaimed for his weighty book And the Band Played On (1987), which chronicled the history of the AIDS epidemic in passionate yet unbiased prose. Because Shilts openly professed his homosexuality while he was attending SUZIE BLEEDEN—GLOBE PHOTOS,

the University of Oregon, after graduation (1975) he found it difficult to secure employment and went to work for The Advocate,

a San Francisco

gay publication. Frustrated by his job prospects, Shilts penned a book on assassinated gay-rights activist Harvey Milk. The Mayor of Castro Street: The Life and Times of Harvey Milk (1982) appeared shortly after Shilts was offered a position at the Chronicle. There he covered the gay beat. He was struck by the growing number of young gay men who were afflicted with an uncommon cancer and succumbed to wasting ailments. The unknown syndrome was AIDS, first named Grid (Gay-Related Immunodeficiency Disorder), and Shilts was at the journalistic forefront of the story. He lambasted the scientific and government bureaucracies responsible for impeding the disclosure of vital information to the public and called for increased medical research funding. His stinging indictment of those agencies in And the Band Played On, which was made into a television

movie in 1993, coupled with his warnings about casual sex and the dangers of the San Francisco gay bathhouses brought AIDS awareness into the limelight. Shilts, who was diagnosed HIV positive

in 1987, published Conduct Unbecoming (1993), a history of homosexuals in the military, before

AIDS took his life. Shore, Frances Rose (“DINAH”), U.S. singer (b. March

1, 1917, Winchester,

Tenn.—d.

Feb. 24,

1994, Los Angeles, Calif.), projected a sunny disposition and exuded an effervescent Southern charm

that, combined

with her sultry contralto

renditions of such favourites as “Blues in the Night,” “I’ll Walk Alone,” and “Buttons and Bows,” endeared her to record buyers and tele-

vision audiences for some 40 years. Shore, who graduated from Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., with a degree in sociology, sang with newcomer Frank Sinatra on New York radio and was rejected as a vocalist by some of the top bandleaders of the 1930s before making a recording debut with Xavier Cugat’s orchestra in 1939. Shore recorded 75 hits between 1940 and 1955, among them “Yes, My Darling Daughter,” “Dear Hearts and Gentle People,” and “The Anniversary Song.” She starred on Eddie Cantor’s radio show and made an unspectacular foray into films before finding her niche on television. In 1951 she

debuted as the host of a 15-minute variety program, “The Dinah Shore Show.” She followed this

with “The Dinah Shore Chevy Show” (1956-63), on which she established the jingle “See the USA in Your Chevrolet” as her trademark along with a signature sign-off kiss for the audience. During her years on television, Shore garnered 10 Emmy awards, was repeatedly named one of America’s

People of 1994: Obituaries most admired women,

and continued to delight

viewers as the host of “Dinah’s Place” (1970-74), “Dinah” (1974-79), “Dinah and Friends” (197984), and “A Conversation with Dinah” (198991), which appeared on the Nashville Network. Shore was married twice, first to actor George Montgomery and then briefly to Maurice Smith. She raised eyebrows in the 1970s because of her romance with Burt Reynolds, who was almost 20 years her junior. She was an avid tennis player and golfer and the sponsor of a professional golf tournament.

Singh, Zail (JARNAIL SINGH), Indian politician (b. May 5, 1916, Sandhwan, Punjab, India—d.

Dec.

25, 1994, Chandigarh, India), was India’s seventh

president (1982-87) and the first Sikh to hold that largely ceremonial office; he was an impotent bystander when government troops stormed (1984) the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Sikhs’ holiest shrine, in an effort to flush out militant Sikhs

who were demanding independence for Punjab (an agriculturally rich state heavily populated by Sikhs). When he was barely 15, Singh became active in the politics of the Akali Dal, a Sikh

organization that opposed British rule. Singh pursued traditional studies in Sikh holy books and earned the title Giani (“learned man”) for his scholarly mastery of scriptures. In 1938 he established the Praja Mandal, a political organization allied to the Indian

National

Congress,

in his

home district of Faridkot. This insurrectionary act carried a five-year jail sentence. During his incarceration, he took the name Zail Singh. After

India became independent in 1947, Singh served (1956-62) in parliament and was chief minister of Punjab (1972-77). When Prime Minister Indira Gandhi

was

voted

out of power

in 1977,

Singh contined to support her. After returning to office in 1980, Gandhi rewarded his loyalty by naming Singh minister of home affairs. He held that post until 1982, when

he was

named

the

Congress (1) Party’s presidential candidate. Many viewed Singh’s easy elevation to the presidency as a way for Gandhi to appease extremist Sikhs in Punjab. Four months after Indian troops stormed the temple, Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards. Singh named Gandhi’s son Rajiv to succeed her, but he soon fell out of favour with

the new prime minister. Singh further inflamed the government by refusing to sign into law a 1987 bill permitting official censorship of private mail. He died after sustaining serious injuries in a car accident in November.

Smith,

Arnold

Cantwell,

Canadian

diplomat

(b. Jan. 18, 1915, Toronto, Ont.—d. Feb. 7, 1994,

Toronto),

as the first secretary-general

of the

Commonwealth, organized and coordinated association activities but, more important, demon-

side Reporter. Her thriving weeklies, however, were the targets of advertising boycotts when she became outspoken about civil rights abuses in her editorial column, “Through Hazel Eyes.” After earning a B.A. in journalism from the University of Alabama in 1935, Smith purchased the News and boosted circulation by catering to local news and events rather than attempting to compete with larger papers. She was able to purchase three other weeklies in rapid succession. In 1954 she published a column calling for the resignation of a local Holmes county sheriff after he reportedly shot a black youth without provocation. As she focused more on civil rights, her papers continued to lose advertising, and Smith was forced to accept paid speaking engagements to keep her newspapers afloat. In Mississippi’s “Freedom Summer” of 1964, when civil rights workers registered blacks to vote, the Northside Reporter was bombed. In that same year Smith became the first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing in recognition of her treatment of civil rights. She was also named 1964 Mississippi Woman of the Year. A documentary film, An Independent Voice, and a television movie, A Passion for Justice, chronicled her career.

Smith, John, British politician (b. Sept. 13, 1938, Dalmally, Argyll, Scotland—d. May 12, 1994, London, England), as the pragmatic leader of the British Labour Party from July 1992, was credited with moving the traditionally left-wing party to a more centrist, pro-European stance. It was widely believed that the revitalized party would be well positioned to challenge the ruling Conservatives after four consecutive election defeats, but

Smith’s sudden death from a heart attack threw the party into temporary disarray. Smith studied law at the University of Glasgow and was called

in 1972.

Smith,

a Rhodes

scholar, joined the diplomatic service in 1943 and was posted to the U.S.S.R. (1943-45) before serving in Brussels, New York City, Phnom Penh, and London.

He was also ambassador to

Cairo (1958-61) and Moscow (1961-63) before his appointment as secretary-general. In 1976 he was a cofounder of the North-South Institute in

Smith, Hazel Brannon, U.S. publisher and editor (b. 1914?, Gadsden, Ala—d. May 14, 1994,

Cleveland, Tenn.), courageously crusaded for social reform and consistently promoted unpopular causes as the editor of four Mississippi newspapers—the Durant News, Lexington Advertiser, Flora Banner County Outlook, and Jackson North-

11-year partnership with Dame Margot Fonteyn. His affiliation with the Royal Ballet began when he was awarded (1934) the first scholarship ever given to a male by the school of the VicWells Ballet, the company that—after first having changed its name to the Sadler’s Wells Ballet-— became (1956) the Royal Ballet. He joined the company in 1935. Somes possessed a musicality and sensitivity that soon took him from the corps to solo parts and, in 1938, to his first leading

role—the Young Boy in Ashton’s Horoscope— which was also his first partnership of Fonteyn. A serious injury during military service in World War

II threatened

his career,

but he returned

to the company and over the years created roles in some 30 ballets, including Symphonic Variations (1946), Cinderella (1948), Daphnis and Chloé (1951), and Ondine (1958). From 1950 to 1961 Somes was Fonteyn’s official partner, his strength and noble sensitivity perfectly accompanying her precise characterizations and technique. He retired as premier danseur in 1961 but continued to perform in such character parts as Lord Capulet in Romeo and Juliet, the Emperor Franz Joseph in Mayerling, and, notably, Armand’s father in Marguerite and Armand, which starred Fonteyn

and Rudolf Nureyev. From 1963 to 1970 Somes was assistant director of the Royal Ballet, under Ashton’s directorship, and until his retirement in 1984 he was the company’s principal teacher. Somes was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1959 and in 1981 received the Queen

Elizabeth

II award

from

the Royal

law degree from the University of Florence, and at age 25 he joined the political science faculty there, eventually becoming professor of contemporary history. Concurrently, he served as a contributing author and political editor at several newspapers. In 1955 Spadolini was named editor of the Bologna daily // Resto del Carlino, and in 1968 he moved to Milan to become the editor of the nation’s largest circulation newspaper, the Corriere della Sera. In 1972 he embarked on a political career and was elected to the Senate as a member of the tiny Republican Party. Spadolini held several Cabinet positions in various coalition governments until 1979, when he gained leadership of the party. In 1981 a scandal centred on a powerful Freemasons lodge known as Propaganda Due led to the collapse of the government, and in June 1981 Spadolini put together the first of two five-party coalitions in which he would serve as prime minister. Spadolini, the first nonChristian Democrat to head the government in 35 years, held power until November 1982. He served as defense minister from 1983 to 1987 and was elected speaker of the Senate in 1987. Although he was one of the few veteran politicians to emerge unscathed from the political scandals that had rocked the system, Spadolini lost the speaker’s post by one vote in April 1994 to a member of Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi’s party. While confined to the hospital, Spadolini completed the last of his more than 60 books, which spanned a range of topics. Several weeks

leader Neil Kinnock appointed him the shadow chancellor of the Exchequer. After Kinnock resigned in the wake of Labour’s disastrous 1992 election defeat, Smith was elected to succeed him by a massive 91% majority. Smith,

Oliver, U.S. set designer (b. Feb.

1918, Waupun,

Wis.—d.

13,

Jan. 23, 1994, Brook-

Story, Camelot, Hello, Dolly!, Flower Drum Song, and Brigadoon; for such ballets as Jerome Robbins’ Rodeo and Fancy Free, Agnes deMille’s Fall

the Commonwealth

ton’s works, but he was best remembered for his

secretary of state for trade in 1978. When the Conservatives, led by Margaret Thatcher, ousted the Labour Party from power in 1979, Smith used his debating skills in the shadow cabinet as opposition spokesman on trade and prices (1979-82), energy (1982-83), employment (1983-84), and trade and industry (1984-87). In 1987 opposition

Ottawa, and he served as its chairman until 1991.

ex-

ated with the Royal Ballet for over 50 years and was considered the guardian of Sir Frederick Ash-

Academy of Dancing.

Smith was made a Companion of Honour in 1975 and became an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1984. He published Stitches in Time: The Commonwealth in World Politics in 1981.

ing his two five-year terms in office, Smith

pertly negotiated the storms that threatened to destroy the cohesion of the association, especially when the white-minority government in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) proclaimed independence from Britain in 1965, Britain proposed selling arms to South Africa in 1971, and Pakistan resigned from

Somes, Michael, British ballet dancer (b. Sept. 28, 1917, Horsley, Gloucestershire, England—d. Noy. 18/19, 1994, London, England), was associ-

to the bar in 1967 (he took silk in 1983). He was elected to Parliament in 1970 after unsuccessful efforts in 1963 and 1964. A man equally admired for his integrity and his debating skills, Smith held a succession of junior posts in the Energy Ministry and the Privy Council Office. He was named

lyn Heights, N.Y.), used his imaginative painter’s eye to create magnificent and visually striking set designs that served as centrepieces in some 250 theatre, dance, opera, and film productions and helped elevate Ballet Theater (now American Ballet Theater) to international renown while serving as its codirector (1945-80 and 1990-92). Smith, who graduated (1939) with a B.A. in architecture from Pennsylvania State University, was also an inspired painter. His works were displayed in such institutions as New York’s Museum of Modern Art and the Art Institute of Chicago. He secured his first professional set design for the Ballet Russe’s production of Saratoga (1941) and the following year made his Broadway bow with designs for Rosalinda (1942). His impressive list of credits, which showcased his versatility with colour and style, included Broadway sets

strated aplomb while serving (1965-75) as a troubleshooter during several serious crises. Dur-

85

for such musicals

as My Fair Lady,

West Side

River Legend, Eliot Feld’s Harbinger, and Martha

Graham’s Gospel of Eve; for such operas as La Traviata and Martha; and for such films as Porgy and Bess, Oklahoma!, and The Sound of Music. He both produced and provided the sets for Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, No Exit, and On the Town. Smith, the winner of seven Tony awards, was in-

ducted into the Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981.

Spadolini, Giovanni, Italian politician (b. June 21, 1925, Florence, Italy—d. Aug. 4, 1994, Rome,

Italy), was

a prominent

and respected elected

official, editor, and author. Spadolini earned his

before his death, he told an aide, “The sickness

that afflicts me is called Italy.”

Sperry, Roger Wolcott, U.S. neurobiologist Aug. 20, 1913, Hartford, Conn.—d. April 1994, Pasadena,

Calif.), conducted

(b. 17,

fundamental

studies on the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain and shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with David Hunter Hubel and Torsten Nils Wiesel for this work. Sperry was honoured for uncovering the function of the corpus callosum, a thick bundle of nerve fibres that passes information between the brain’s hemi-

86

People of 1994: Obituaries

spheres. Sperry earned a B.A. in literature and an M.A. in psychology from Oberlin (Ohio) College and a Ph.D. (1941) in zoology from the University of Chicago before serving as an associate of Karl Lashley, first at Harvard University and then at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Fla. He then joined the University of Chicago faculty before spending the remainder of his career (1954-84) at the California Institute of Technology. Beginning in the late 1940s, Sperry developed experimental and surgical techniques that dismantled previously held notions about the function of the brain and helped formulate a “map” that detailed various mental processes. During the latter part of his career, Sperry, who was hailed as abrilliant experimentalist, became

fascinated with the mind and turned to psychology. He developed a controversial theory of consciousness and was in the process of formulating a new science based on ethical values. It was for this work that he wished to be remembered. Spivak, Lawrence Edmund, U.S. broadcast jour-

nalist (b. June 11, 1900, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. March 9, 1994, Washington, D.C.), was a founder of the

pioneering radio and television show “Meet the Press,” which set the standard for a generation of political interview programs. Spivak graduated from Harvard University cum laude in 1921 and went to work in the publishing business. In 1935 he purchased American Mercury, but he sold that

magazine in 1950. In 1945, together with producer and moderator

Martha

Rountree,

he launched

“Meet the Press” as a radio program on the Mutual Broadcasting System. The show moved to NBC television three years later. Spivak developed the style of a moderated panel of journalists subjecting leading political figures to rigorous, direct questioning. Originally preferring to be a permanent panelist, Spivak took over as moderator of the program in 1960. A model of selfcontrol and objectivity himself, he said that “if a man is honest and knows his stuff, he’ll emerge with the proper stature. By the same token, so will a phony.” The program rapidly won acclaim and attracted a stream of illustrious guests that included emperors, kings, presidents (including incumbent Pres. Gerald Ford on the occasion of Spivak’s last regular show), chancellors, and senators. “Meet the Press” continued after Spivak’s retirement in 1975 and in 1994 was the longestrunning program on U.S. television. Stewart,

J(ohn)

I(nnes)

M(ackintosh),

British

novelist and literary critic (b. Sept. 30, 1906, Edinburgh,

Scot—d.

Nov.

12, 1994, Coulsdon,

Surrey, England), created the character of Inspector John Appleby, a British sleuth known for his suave humour,

“raised eyebrow,”

and liter-

ary finesse. Stewart wrote such beloved murder mysteries as Appleby’s End (1945), The Journeying Boy (1949), and Operation Pax (1951) under the pseudonym Michael Innes. Stewart was unique among fellow mystery writers of the day because he allowed his fictional inspector to grow older naturally, from a young man into middle age and finally into retirement. Stewart did not, how-

ever, set out to become a popular novelist. He was first an admired teacher and respected literary aficionado. While making a sea voyage from England to Australia to assume the post of Jury Professor of English Literature at the University of Adelaide (1935-45), Stewart began to write a mystery novel, Death at the President’s Lodging (1936), the first of almost 50 novels and short

stories written under his pseudonym. Upon publication the mystery was immediately recognized as unique within the genre because of its stylish wit. Other fictional works written under Stewart’s name include Mark Lambert's Supper (1954), The

Styne, Jule (JULIUS KERWIN Stern), U.S. songwriter (b. Dec. 31, 1905, London, England— d. Sept. 20, 1994, New York, N.Y.), composed

more than 1,500 songs, many of them showcased

in such smash Broadway hits as High Button Shoes (1947), Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949; filmed 1953), Peter Pan (1954), Gypsy (1959; filmed 1962), and Funny Girl (1964; filmed 1968), and counted among his prolific output at least 200 enduring songs, including “I Don’t Want to Walk With-

out You,” “Diamonds Are a Girl’s Best Friend,”

“Eyerything’s Coming Up Roses,” and “People.” Styne’s musical genius was recognized by his parents, who arranged piano lessons and practice sessions on a rented instrument. Though Styne was a prodigy who studied from the age of eight at the Chicago College of Music and performed with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, his career as a concert pianist was stymied because of his small hand span. He performed in burlesque and jazz clubs, and in 1926 he wrote his first song, “Sunday.” He changed his name to avoid being confused with music executive Jules Stein and played with bands fronted by Charlie Spivak and Glenn Miller. After moving to New York City (1934) and then Hollywood (1937), he became a voice coach, notably for Shirley Temple. Styne was a songwriter for Gene Autry and Roy Rogers at Republic Pictures, where he teamed up with Sammy Cahn to compose astring of hits, including “I’ll Walk Alone,” “Five Minutes More,” and “Three Coins in the Fountain,” which won them

an Academy Award. The two worked together on numerous stage musicals, and they created many songs for Frank Sinatra. Styne collaborated with Frank Loesser on Sweater Girl (1942). On Broadway he also scored hit songs written with lyricists Betty Comden and Adolf Green for such productions as Two on the Aisle (1951) and Bells Are Ringing (1956; filmed 1960). Following the success of his masterpiece, Gypsy, Styne had his last major success with Funny Girl. The Broadway production of Sugar (1972) had moderate success, but The Red Shoes (1993) closed in less than a week. Styne, whose melodies made stars of such leading talents as Carol Channing, Mary Martin, Judy Holliday, Ethel Merman,

and Barbra Streisand,

was honoured at the 1990 John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., and was the 1992 recipient of the New Dramatists Lifetime Achievement Award. Sullivan, (Patrick Francis) Barry, U.S. actor (b. Aug. 29, 1912, New York, N.Y.—d. June 6, 1994,

Sherman Oaks, Calif.), was a ruggedly handsome leading man who specialized in unsmiling roles, and his dour countenance was featured for more than four decades in thrillers, westerns, dramas,

and gangster films. A one-time and department

theatre usher

store buyer, Sullivan made

his

Broadway debut in J Want a Policeman (1936). On the silver screen he secured his reputation after turning in a strong performance portraying a psychoanalyst in Lady in the Dark (1944). He returned to Broadway to replace Henry Fonda as the defense attorney in The Caine Mutiny Court Martial and reprised the role for the 1955 television adaptation. Often paired opposite strongwilled women

on-screen, Sullivan costarred with

Barbara Stanwyck in Jeopardy (1953), The Maverick Queen (1956), and Forty Guns (1957), Bette

Davis in Payment on Demand (1951), and Joan Crawford in Queen Bee (1955). Other film credits include The Gangster (1947), The Great Gatsby (1949), The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), Strategic Air Command (1955), and Earthquake (1974). On television Sullivan was a regular on such series as “The Man Called X” (1956), “Harbourmaster” (1957-58), “The Tall Man” (1960-62), and “The Road West” (1966-67).

Guardians (1955), An Acre of Grass (1965), and A Villa in France

(1982). In addition to these

Swann, Donald Ibrahim, British entertainer and

novels, Stewart also wrote many scholarly books

composer (b. Sept. 30, 1923, Llanelli, Wales— d. March 23, 1994, London, England), with his partner and lyricist, Michael Flanders, delighted audiences in England, Australia, the U.S., and Canada with satiric, often nonsensical songs and lively banter in their long-running two-man revues At the Drop of a Hat (1956-61) and At the Drop of Another Hat (1963-67). Swann, the son of a

using his real name, including works on Shakespeare, Thomas Hardy, and Rudyard Kipling. He held academic posts at the University of Leeds in England (1930-35), Queen’s University of Belfast (1946-48), and the University of Oxford (196973). His autobiography, Myself and Michael Innes, was published in 1987.

Russian-born doctor and his Muslim wife, was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church,

Oxford. An accomplished pianist, he was in great demand for school musical revues. After serving in the Friends Ambulance Unit during World

War II, he teamed up with his old schoolmate

Flanders, by then confined to a wheelchair by polio, to write songs for such revues as Penny Plain (1951), Airs on a Shoestring (1953), and Fresh Airs (1956). At.the Drop of a Hat opened in London in 1956, with the bespectacled Swann playing the piano with amateurish enthusiasm. The popularity of the team’s songs, including “The Hippopotamus Song” (a paean to mud), “I’m a Gnu,” “The Gas Man

Cometh,”

and “Have Some Madeira,

M’Dear,” continued long after they retired from performing in 1967. Swann continued to compose after Flanders’ death in 1975. He also wrote several books, including an autobiography, Swann’s Way (1991). Synge, Richard Laurence Millington, British biochemist (b. Oct. 28, 1914, Liverpool, England— d. Aug. 18, 1994, Norwich,

Norfolk,

England),

shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with Archer J.P. Martin for their work in the development of partition chromatography, a sophisticated analytic technique by which samples of a mixture of closely related chemicals such as amino acids can be separated for identification and further study. In his most important individual research, Synge determined the sequence of amino acids that make up the antibiotic gramicidin S. Synge studied classics at Winchester College and then switched to the natural sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge (Ph.D., 1941). He spent his entire professional career as an active researcher, first with Martin under the auspices of the Wool Industries Research Association, Leeds (1941-43), and later on his own at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, London (1943-48), the Rowett Research Institute, near Aberdeen, Scotland (194867), and the Food Research Institute, Norwich

(1967-76). He was also an honorary professor at the University of East Anglia (1968-84). Synge was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1950.

Talhouni,

Bahjat

at-, Jordanian

politician

1913, Ma‘an, vilayet of Syria, Ottoman

(b.

Empire

[now Ma‘an, Jordan]—d. Jan. 30, 1994), was a loyal monarchist and close personal adviser to King Hussein of Jordan throughout a long career in public service; he was called upon to serve as

prime minister four separate times between 1960 and 1970. Talhouni trained as a lawyer at the University of Damascus (LL.B.; 1936). He was appointed a judge in Kerak in 1938 and was elevated to president of the Court of Appeals in 1952. He joined the Cabinet as minister of the interior the next year. As chief of the Royal Diwan (secretariat) from 1954, he was Hussein’s chief adviser.

Talhouni was named prime minister for the first time in August 1960, after Prime Minister Hazza‘

al-Majali’s assassination, and served until January 1962. He was recalled to office three times (July 1964—-February 1965, October 1967—March 1968, and August 1969-June 1970). Each time the selfeffacing Talhouni was recalled during a period when Hussein wished to assert control over the Cabinet and present a moderate response to the question of Palestinian guerrillas based in Jordan, and each time he was removed when unpopular measures were deemed necessary. In 1974 Talhouni was

named

president

of the Senate,

of

which he had been a member since 1962. Tandy, Jessica, British-born U.S. actress (b. June

7, 1909, London, England—d. Sept. 11, 1994, Easton, Conn.), was a luminous stage, screen, and television star whose complex portrayals, including her original Tony award-winning performance as Blanche DuBois in Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) and her best actress Academy Award-winning role as a dictatorial southern matron in Driving Miss Daisy (1989), highlighted a 67-year career. Besides earning solo acclaim, Tandy and her second husband, Hume Cronyn, worked together on radio and TV and made such motion pictures as The Seventh Cross (1944), The Green Years (1946), The World

People of 1994: Obituaries transcriptase, an enzyme that transcribes RNA into DNA. Temin identified the enzyme while conducting research on a virus that causes can-

cer in chickens. Temin’s groundbreaking finding dramatically illustrated the exception to one of the fundamental

tenets of molecular biology—

that the genetic instructions for protein synthesis flow uniquely from DNA to RNA. Temin’s studies helped scientists determine that reverse transcriptase also has a role in the replication of such viruses as hepatitis B, cauliflower mosaic (a plant virus), and HIV, which causes AIDS. Temin’s original 1964 theory that the DNA-intoRNA sequence could be reversed was derided in the scientific community, but he persevered for six years before proving his hypothesis. Temin graduated from Swarthmore (Pa.) College at the age of 18 and earned a Ph.D. (1959) at the California Institute of Technology. There, working under the tutelage of Dulbecco, he began his investigations into viruses and their role in animal cancers. Temin contended, however, that viruses

probably did not play a central role in cancers in humans. An ardent antismoking crusader, he felt

that the incidence of cancer could be reduced by the elimination of smoking. In 1960 Temin joined the staff of the University of Wisconsin, where he successively served as associate professor, full professor, Wisconsin Alumni Research Founda-

tion professor of cancer research, and American Cancer Society professor of viral oncology and cell biology. Temin succumbed to lung cancer, but not a type associated with smoking.

REUTERS/BETTMANN

According to Garp (1982), Cocoon (1985) and its sequel, Cocoon: The Return (1988), and Batteries Not Included (1987). Their superb stage artistry— as evidenced in The Fourposter (1951), Madame, Will You Walk (1953), The Honeys (1955), A Day by the Sea (1955), The Man in the Dog Suit (1958), A Delicate Balance (1966), and Noel Coward in

Two Keys (1974)—was likened to that of Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne. Tandy, the daughter of a traveling salesman, grew up in London and studied acting at the Ben Greet Academy of Acting. She made her London stage debut in The Rumour (1929) and her Broadway bow in The Matriarch (1930). Her versatility onstage brought her roles ranging from light comedy to Shakespearean tragedy in both starring and supporting roles. After becoming

a U.S.

citizen in 1954,

she garnered two other Tony awards for The Gin Game (1977) and Foxfire (1982), both with Cronyn; the couple also received the first-ever Tonys for Lifetime Achievement in 1994. Tandy’s other film credits include Dragonwyck (1946), The Desert Fox (1951), The Birds (1963), Fried Green Tomatoes (1991), and Used People (1992). Tchelistcheff, André, Russian-born U.S. enologist (b. 1901, Moscow, Russia—d. April 5, 1994, Napa,

Calif.), was a pivotal figure in the revitalization of the California wine industry following Prohibition (1919-33) and used his Paris training in viticulture and wine making to pioneer such techniques as cold fermentation and the use of American oak barrels for aging. He was also an authority on the types of soil suitable for growing various grape varieties. Tchelistcheff, who served in the White

Russian army during the Allied armies’ retreat through the Crimea to Gallipoli, left the service in 1923, when he enrolled at the University of Brno,

Czech., to study agronomy. He later continued

his studies in Paris at the National Agronomy Institute and also worked in the champagne cellars of Moét & Chandon. A diminutive figure with a pronounced accent, Tchelistcheff was also distinguished by his Old World mannerisms and savoir faire. Hired by Georges de Latour, owner of the Beaulieu Vineyard in California’s Napa Valley, where he worked from 1938 to 1973 and again from 1991 until his death, Tchelistcheff made Latour’s Private Reserve Cabernet Sauvignon the best-selling wine of its kind in the United States. Temin, Howard Martin, U.S. virologist (Dec. 10, 1934, Philadelphia, Pa—Feb.

9, 1994, Madison,

Wis.), won the 1975 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (with Renato Dulbecco and David Baltimore) for his role in discovering reverse

Tinbergen, Jan, Dutch economist (b. April 12, 1903, The Hague, Neth.—d. June 9, 1994), shared

the first Nobel Prize for Economic Science (1969) with Ragnar Frisch of Norway in recognition of their contributions to the development of econo-

87

Agency (1946); contributed on a regular basis to such publications as Theatre World, The Stage, The Times, The Independent, and the Financial Times; and did radio broadcasts for the BBC World Service. The multilingual Trilling traveled widely, covering drama from Scandinavia to Hungary to Israel and serving as an adviser for theatre companies from Belgium to Yugoslavia. He was also vice president of the International Association of Theatre Critics (1956-77). In 1980 he was made an Officer of the Royal Order of the North Star in recognition of his contributions to theatre in Sweden. Trilling was a regular contributor on the theatre to the Britannica Book of the Year from 1963 until 1990, when he suffered a stroke.

Turnbull, Colin Macmillan, British-born anthropologist (b. Nov. 23, 1924, Harrow, England—d. July 28, 1994, Kilmarnock, Va.), conducted ex-

tensive field studies in Africa among the Mbuti Pygmies in the Belgian Congo (now Zaire) and the Ik hunters of northern Uganda and recorded

his experiences in two best-selling books, The Forest People (1961) and The Mountain People (1972). Turnbull earned a B.A. (1947) and an M.A. (1949) from Magdalen College, Oxford, and received degrees from Oxford in social anthropology (1956), literature (1957), and anthropology (D.Phil., 1964). During World War II he served in the Royal Navy. Turnbull was employed (195969) as a curator of African ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History, New York City,

besides teaching anthropology at such universities as Hofstra University, Hempstead, N.Y. (196972); Virginia Commonwealth University (197275); and George Washington University, Washington, D.C. (1976 until his retirement in 1983). His anthropological field studies provided grist for such works as The Lonely African (1962); Way-

metrics, a method of measuring economic rela-

ward Servants (1965), another look at the Mbuti;

tionships through the systematic application of mathematical models and statistical techniques. This quantitative approach eventually formed the basis for modern economic forecasting. Tinbergen was particularly known for his revolutionary idea that a government cannot achieve a given number of economic policy objectives unless it applies an equal number of independent economic instruments. Late in his career he worked extensively on the problems of international aid to and economic reforms in less developed nations and on the principle of equitable income distribution. Tinbergen received a doctorate in mathematical physics from the University of Leiden (1929), with a dissertation on “Minimum Problems in Physics and Economics.” He worked as a business-cycle statistician for the Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics from 1929 to 1945, except for a two-year stint (1936-38) with the League of Nations in Geneva. As director of the Netherlands Central Planning Bureau (1945-55), he applied his theories on the dynamics of the business cycle to the nation’s post-World War II economic recovery. He resigned in 1955 to take a post as professor of economics at the Netherlands School of Economics (later part of Erasmus University), where he had taught part-time from 1933. He was professor of international cooperation at the University of Leiden from 1973 until he retired in 1975. Tinbergen’s major books include Statistical

Tibet (1968; with Thubten Jigme Norbu); Man in Africa (1976); and The Human Cycle (1983), which explored childhood to old age among var-

Testing of Business-Cycle Theories (1939; 2 vols.),

Economic Policy: Principles and Design (1956), and Income Distribution (1975). Trilling, (Joshua) Ossia, Polish-born theatre critic

(b. Sept. 22, 1913, Bialystok, Russian Empire [pow Poland]—d.

Sept. 13, 1994, London,

England),

as a London-based correspondent and magazine editor, tirelessly promoted European theatre for more than 50 years. Trilling moved with his family from Poland to Russia, Finland, and, finally,

England. He was educated at St. Paul’s School, London,

and St. John’s College, Oxford, where

he joined the university dramatic society. In 1937 he codirected the British premieres of August Strindberg’s The Road to Damascus and Queen Christina. After serving with the army intelligence corps during World War II, Trilling took up writing. He coedited Theatre Newsletter (1946-51) and International Theatre; founded the Theatre News

ious cultures. His classics The Forest People, an

uplifting account of the resourceful Ituri Forest Pygmies, and The Mountain People, an exceedingly grisly portrayal of the often brutal customs of the hunger-starved Ik, secured his reputation. Turnbull spent the latter years of his life in Hawaii, Samoa, and India, where he became a Buddhist

monk and adopted the name Lobsang Rigdol. Vazgen I (LEVON GARABET BALJIAN), Armenian cleric (b. Oct. 3 [Sept. 20, Old Style], 1908, Bucharest,

Rom.—d.

Aug.

18, 1994, Yerevan,

Armenia), as head of the Armenian Orthodox Church for nearly 40 years, was both the spiritual leader and the symbol of national unity for Armenians throughout the world. Levon Garabet Baljian graduated from the University of Bucharest’s faculty of philosophy and literature (1936) and taught school for several years. He chose the religious name Vazgen when he was ordained in 1943. He was consecrated bishop of the diocese of Romania and Bulgaria in 1951, and in September 1955 the Church Assembly elected the scholarly, moderate Vazgen the 130th Patriarch of Echmiadzin and Catholicos of All Armenians. Vazgen was often criticized for his public accommodation with the officially atheist Soviet authorities and for his reluctance to endorse Armenian

nationalism.

On

the other hand, he

forged stronger ties with Armenian communities in the diaspora, gained government permission to accept funds donated by Armenians abroad, and established warm relations with leaders of other world churches. In 1970 he traveled to the Vatican for an historic meeting with Pope Paul VI. With the breakup of the U.S.S.R. (1991), he openly supported Armenian independence. He also worked for a peaceful solution to the dispute with Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave. Less than a month before his death Vazgen was named the first recipient of the title National Hero of Armenia. Vines, (Henry) Ellsworth, Jr., U.S. tennis player

and golfer (b. Sept. 28/29, 1911, Los Angeles, Calif—d. March 17, 1994, La Quinta, Calif.), de-

livered blinding service aces and rapid-fire fore-

Obituaries of ee1994: 88 People S Recrieei S O hand shots that were marvels of precision and power, and he was hailed as one of the greatest tennis players of all time because of his hardhitting accuracy and his ability to make sensational comebacks after teetering on the brink of defeat. Vines’s lanky 1.88-m (6-ft 2-in), 65-kg (143-Ib) frame belied his whipcordlike muscle strength. A versatile athlete, he attended the University of Southern California on a basketball scholarship before making his tennis debut on grass courts. He gained a reputation after beating Frank Shields and Frank Hunter twice each. In 1931 he won 11 tournaments, including the U.S.

singles championship, and the following year he captured the title again and the Wimbledon singles in possibly the most one-sided final in the history of that event. Vines, who wore long trousers and favoured a small wooden racket, was an allout player. In 1940 he abandoned tennis for am-

works include an award-winning 1974 biography of Samuel Johnson, a playgoer’s guide to Shakespeare, and two volumes of memoirs. He was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1983. Walcott, Jersey Joe (ARNOLD RAYMOND CREAM), U.S. boxer (b. Jan. 31, 1914, Merchantville, N.J.— d. Feb. 25, 1994, Camden,

N.J.), was

crowned

heavyweight champion of the world after knocking out Ezzard Charles in the seventh round of their July 18, 1951, bout and became, at the age

of 37, the oldest fighter ever to win the title. Walcott, a precision technician, started fighting in 1930 but needed to supplement his meagre

the author of more than two dozen books. He was also a successful lawyer and a leading figure in the cultural life of Dublin for more than 30 years, with important positions on the boards of the National Gallery (from 1967), the National Library (1946-79), the Chester Beatty Library (1959-80), and the Gate Theatre (1969-81). The son of a Protestant solicitor (who died when White was a boy) and his Roman Catholic wife, he was apprenticed ina solicitor’s office at age 15 and worked there full-time while studying law at Trinity College (B.A., 1931; LL.B., 1933). In 1946 White published The Road of Excess. This was followed by several more nonfiction works, but he kept his legal practice until the success of his first

ateur golf. Vines turned professional in 1942 and,

though he never won a Professional Golfers Association tournament, usually ranked high among the money winners during his 15-year career. In 1962 Vines was inducted into the National Lawn (now International) Tennis Hall of Fame. Volonté, Gian Maria, Italian actor (b. April 9,

1933, Milan,

Italy—d.

Dec.

6, 1994, Florina,

Greece), epitomized, with his chiseled features,

hooded eyes, and scowling demeanour, the classic tough guy in such films as Sergio Leone’s A Fistful of Dollars (1964; under the stage name John Wells), Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion (1970), and Lucky Luciano (1973). Noted for his charisma and intensity, Volonté was called

the Italian Laurence Olivier, although admittedly more for his bearing than for his dramatic skills. He was most popular as a heavy, but it was his

role as a diligent journalist in the 1983 Swiss film Death of Mario Ricci that earned him his highest artistic honour—the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Other more sympathetic roles included Volonté’s portrayal of antifascist Italian writer Carlo Levi in Christ Stopped at Eboli (1979), a good-hearted physician investigating a mysterious murder in Chronicle of a Death Foretold (1987), and an upstanding Sicilian judge in Open Doors (1990). Volonté’s outspoken defense of militant leftist politics prompted him to refuse a lucrative Hollywood offer, declaring that his conscience would not allow him to accept such a large sum for work as an actor. Volonté began acting at the age of 17 with traveling theatre groups, and during the 1950s he appeared on television in adaptations of Dostoyevsky’s The Idiot, Chekhov’s Uncle Vanya, and Vittorio Alfieri’s Saul. The actor was little known outside Europe. Volonté was on film location when he died in his hotel room after suffering a heart attack. Wain, John Barrington, British writer (b. March 14,

1925,

Stoke-on-Trent,

Staffordshire,

En-

gland—d. May 24, 1994, Oxford, England), was initially identified with the Angry Young Men, a generation of post-World War II writers who rejected the traditional middle-class strictures and stuffy literary conventions of the British establishment. Much of Wain’s fiction, particularly his witty first novel, Hurry On Down (1953; U.S. title Born in Captivity), incorporated the antibourgeois realism and biting satire common to the movement. However, Wain, who felt equally comfortable writing fiction, poetry, plays, literary criticism, and the occasional biography, consistently refused to be categorized. He was educated at St. John’s College, Oxford (B.A., 1946; M.A., 1950),

where he was founding editor of the literary periodical Mandrake.

He also became friends with

Kingsley Amis and Philip Larkin, both of whom joined him inaseries of poetry readings on BBC radio in 1953. Wain taught English literature at the University of Reading (1946-55); later he was

a professor of poetry at Oxford (1973-78). His first poetry collection, Mixed Feelings, appeared in

boxing purses by working as a shipyard labourer. Though Walcott knocked Joe Lewis down three times, twice during their Dec. 5, 1947, title fight, in which Lewis himself appeared stunned to win a 15-round split decision, he was never able to beat

the champ. In their second match Walcott was knocked out by Lewis in the 11th round. Walcott twice challenged Charles for the titlk—in June 1949 and March 1951, being outpointed on both occasions—before finally winning the crown. He lost it 14 months later to Rocky Marciano, who knocked him out in the 13th round. In 1953, after Walcott unsuccessfully challenged Marciano and was knocked out in the first round, he hung up his gloves but stayed in the ring as a fight referee. Walcott, who fought in 69 matches and scored 30 knockouts among his 50 wins, competed in a record six heavyweight title bouts. He was in-

ducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1969. He later served as a New Jersey sheriff and athletic

1951. This was followed by more than a dozen volumes of verse, notably Weep Before God (1961),

commissioner.

Feng (1975), and Poems, 1949-1979 (1980). Other

White, Terence de Vere, Irish author and editor (b. April 29, 1912, Dublin, Ireland—d. June 17, 1994, London, England), was the influential

novels include The Contenders (1957), A Winter in

the Hills (1970), The Pardoner’s Tale (1978), and Where the Rivers Meet (1988). Wain’s nonfiction

literary editor of the Irish Times (1961-77) and

novel, An Affair with the Moon (1959), induced the Jrish Times to offer him a job. Thereafter he wrote novels, short stories, criticism, histories, and biographies. White’s novels include Prenez Garde (1961), The March Hare (1970), and Chat Show (1987), while his nonfiction works include The Parents of Oscar Wilde (1967) and The AngloIrish (1972). White was a member of the Irish Academy of Letters, a professor of literature at the Royal Hibernian Academy, and a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. Wigglesworth,

Sir Vincent

Brian, British ento-

mologist (b. April 17, 1899, Kirkham, Lancashire,

England—d. Feb. 11?, 1994, Cambridge, England), pioneered in the study of insect physiology; he was particularly respected for his research into the role of hormones in insect growth, metamorphosis, and reproduction and for his insights into simple mechanisms, such as how insects walk upside down. Wigglesworth was educated at Repton and at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. He received his medical qualification at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London, but a research project into cockroaches (and later into other medically important insects) led him to change

People of 1994: Obituaries careers. Wigglesworth was lecturer in medical entomology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (1926-45), reader in entomology (1945-52) and later Quick professor of biology (1952-66) at Cambridge, and founding director of the Agricultural Research Council Unit of Insect Physiology (1943-67). He published some 300 papers and half a dozen books, most notably Insect Physiology (1934), The Principles of Insect Physiology (1939), The Physiology of Insect Metamorphosis (1954), and Insect Hormones (1970). He was elected to the Royal Society in 1939, made Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1951, and knighted in 1964. Wilkinson, Charles (“Bub”), U.S. football coach

(b. April 23, 1916, Minneapolis, Minn.—d. Feb. 9, 1994, St. Louis, Mo.), led the University of

Oklahoma Sooners to three national football championships (1950, 1955, and 1956), turned out 32 all-American players, and established a National Collegiate Athletic Association record for 47 consecutive victories between 1953 and 1957. The incredible string of wins was broken by a 7-0 loss to Notre Dame, but the record was never bettered. Wilkinson, a star athlete at

the University of Minnesota, played football on three national championship teams and earned three letters for that sport besides three more for hockey. After graduating (1937) with a B.A. in English and briefly working in banking, Wilkinson coached football at the Universities of Syracuse,

N.Y., and Minnesota. During World War II he served in the navy as a hangar deck officer, and he also coached the Iowa Pre-Flight team. He joined Oklahoma in 1946 as assistant coach and was elevated to head coach the following year. As a result of his coaching success—an impressive record of 145 wins, 29 losses, and 4 ties at Oklahoma, Wilkinson drew large audiences of

fellow coaches, who flocked to his clinics on the split-T offense. Wilkinson was inducted into the National Football Foundation College Football Hall of Fame and retired from college coaching in 1964. He later served as a sports commentator, head of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness, and head coach of the National Football

League’s St. Louis Cardinals from 1978 to 1979.

Williams, Marion, U.S. gospel singer (b. Aug. 29, 1927, Miami, Fla.—d. July 2, 1994, Philadelphia,

Pa.), drew on blues, jazz, folk, and calypso music as inspirations for her innovative vocals, which included octave-spanning leaps from contralto to spine-tingling falsetto tones; her exceptional artistry was often compared to that of Mahalia Jackson. As a child Williams began singing with the congregation at her neighbourhood Church of God. Professional opportunities, however, had to be put off while she attended to her work as a laundress, which helped support the family. In 1947 Williams joined the Ward Singers, and she soon became the star of the group. Williams’ solo interpretation of the song “Surely God Is Able” was the group’s first recording to sell one million copies. After scoring such great hits as “Packin’ Up” and “I’m Climbing Higher and Higher,” she left the Ward Singers (1958) to form the Stars of Faith and pursue a solo career. Besides performing in Black Nativity, the first gospel musical, Williams gained exposure with her television-

commercial rendition of “Standing Here Wondering Which Way to Go,” 10 record albums, and singing appearances in the films Fried Green Tomatoes (1991) and Mississippi Masala (1992). In 1993 she was the first singer to receive a MacArthur Foundation “genius” grant. Warner, Manfred, German defense official (b. Sept. 24, 1934, Stuttgart, Germany—d. Aug. 13, 1994, Brussels, Belgium), was the first German to serve (1988-94) as secretary-general of NATO, and he worked vigorously to redefine the organization after the Cold War precept upon which it was founded crumbled away with the collapse of the Soviet Union. He sought to turn NATO into a stabilizing force when ethnic rivalries in Eastern Europe threatened to unbalance the region. From 1953 to 1957 Worner studied law at the Universities

of Heidelberg,

Paris, and

Munich,

89

and he received his Ph.D. from the University of Munich in 1961. He had joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1956 and, after serving as a civil servant for several years, was

Li Peng (Li P’eng) urging him not to allow the use of military force to crush the pro-democracy student demonstrations.

elected a member of the Bundestag in 1965, a seat he held until 1988. Wérner became increasingly knowledgeable about defense issues, and in 1976 he was named chairman of the Bundestag’s committee on defense, serving in that post until

Yegoroy, Boris Borisovich, Russian physician (b. Nov. 26, 1937, Moscow, U.S.S.R.—d. Sept. 12, 1994, Moscow, Russia), participated in the first spaceflight with more than one crew member and was the first practicing physician to soar into space. His flight was also the first in which the cosmonauts did not wear space suits. Yegorov graduated (1961) from the First Moscow Medical In-

1980, when

he was named

deputy chairman

of

the party in the Bundestag. In 1982 the CDU gained power, and W6rner was named defense minister. He secured a reputation as an aggressive hawk, advocating a strong defense relationship with the U.S. He welcomed the deployment of U.S. Pershing and cruise missiles in Germany, despite much resistance, but also advocated the strengthening of NATO conventional forces, including increased participation by the German forces. These positions endeared him to the U.S. and the Reagan administration, which supported Worner’s election as secretary-general of NATO. Although he was diagnosed with cancer in 1992, Worner worked through mid-1994 to negotiate peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where he had early called for the use of NATO forces. Wright, William Ambrose (“BILLY”), British footballer (b. Feb. 6, 1924, Ironbridge, Shropshire, England—d. Sept. 3, 1994, London, England), was a mainstay of association football (soccer) in England for 13 years as a reliable defensive player and captain for the Wolverhampton Wanderers (1946-58) and as captain for 90 out of a thenrecord 105 appearances for England (1946-59). Wright joined the Wolverhampton grounds crew immediately after completing secondary school and tried out for the team in 1938. He played his first unofficial international match for England while serving his World War II tour of duty in the light infantry. Within two years of his return to professional football (1946), he had been named captain of both Wolverhampton and the national team. Wright’s speed and brilliant defensive skills made him a valuable wing-half and (from 1954) centre-half. He led Wolves to the FA Cup title in 1949 and to the league championship in 1954, 1958, and 1959. He was named

Footballer of the Year in 1952. After retiring as an active player in 1959, Wright tried his hand at managing Arsenal (1962-66), but he was deemed insufficiently ruthless. He had greater success as a television sportscaster and as an administrator with ATV Network (1966-81) and Central Independent Television (1982-89). Wright was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire Yang Dezhi (Yang Te-chih), Chinese military official (b. 1911, Zhuzhou (Chu-chou), Huprovince, China—d.

for his flight. On Oct. 12-13, 1964—crowded with two other cosmonauts aboard Voskhod 1, a craft

designed for one—Yegorov performed a number of tests on himself and the others during their 16 orbits. The information gained on the effects of radiation, confinement, and weightlessness helped

scientists make advances in human adaptation to long journeys in space. After his flight, he earned (1965) a doctor of medicine degree from Humboldt University in East Berlin and went on to serve as head of several medical research institutions. Yegorov received a number of his country’s highest awards, including the Order of Lenin. Yoshiyuki, Junnosuke, Japanese novelist and short-story writer (b. April 1, 1923, Okayama,

Japan—d. July 26, 1994, Tokyo, Japan), explored human sexuality and prostitution as a means of understanding human relationships. His prizewinning works include the short story “Shiu” (1954; “Sudden Shower,” 1972), and the novels Anshitsu (1969: The Dark Room, 1975) and Yugure made (1978: “Until Evening”), the latter of which won the Noma Literary Prize. Yoshiyuki, a confessional writer in the Japanese genre “I novel,” documented his own sexual adventures in wartime Tokyo in Honoo no naka (1956; “Among the Flames”). An asthmatic condition precluded military service during World War II, allowing him to write. Though he entered Tokyo University in 1945 and helped launch a small literary magazine, Ashi (“Reed”), Yoshiyuki ended his English literature studies to work for a scandal magazine. He found grist for his works by frequenting Tokyo’s bars, cabarets, and gay quarters. He contracted tuberculosis in 1954 and during his hospitalization wrote

“Shiu,”

which

chronicled

with

detached

objectivity his relationship with a prostitute. This first story won the Akutagawa Prize and secured his reputation.

One

no shokubutsugun

in 1959.

nan

stitute, where he specialized in aviation and space

medicine. He then worked in medical research institutions, studying medical telemetry data from Soviet missions, before beginning (1964) training

of his novels, Suna

no ue

(1963; “Vegetable Garden in

the Sand”), became a best-seller. At the time of his death, Yoshiyuki was working on a novel,

Medama (“Eyeballs”).

Oct. 25, 1994, Beijing

(Peking), China), joined the communist People’s Liberation Army (PLA) at its creation and went on to serve in virtually every major Chinese military conflict for the next 50 years, eventually becoming the army’s chief of staff. Yang was ° raised in a peasant family in an area that Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-Tung) heavily organized in the 1920s. Yang joined the PLA in 1927. He quickly rose through the ranks, commanding a vanguard regiment during the Long March (1934-36) and combat units during both the Sino-Japanese War (1937-45) and the struggle against the Nationalists (1945-49). Yang joined the Chinese People’s Volunteers in 1951 after China decided to support North Korea, which was engaged in a blood conflict with UN forces. Yang was made commander of the Chinese forces in 1954. Upon his return to China in 1955 he was elevated to general. Yang, one of the few high-ranking officials to survive the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) with his reputation intact, was promoted to the party’s Central Committee in 1967. His last post as a field officer was as deputy commander of the forces that invaded Vietnam in 1979. In 1980 he became the army’s chief of staff, a position he held until his retirement in 1987. In 1989, several

weeks before army tanks rolled into Tiananmen (T’ien-an-men) Square, Yang and six other retired military officials sent a letter to Premier

Zetterling,

Mai

Elisabeth,

Swedish

actress

and

director (b. May 24, 1925, Vasteras, Sweden—d. March 15?, 1994, London, England), was a popular stage and screen actress in post-World War II Britain; in the 1960s she became a successful film

director. Zetterling grew up in poverty and was largely self-educated. Her stage debut at age 16 earned her an invitation to join the Royal Dramatic Theatre School in Stockholm. She gained international attention for her first major film, Hets (1945; “Frenzy”), and in 1947 she moved to England to star in Ealing Studio’s Frieda. Other films include Quartet (1948), Knock on Wood (1954) opposite Danny Kaye, Abandon Ship (1957), and Only Two Can Play (1961) with Peter Sellers. She continued to appear onstage, with successful runs in The Wild Duck, The Seagull, A Doll’s House, and Hedda Gabler. Dissatisfied

with the movie roles being offered her, Zetterling turned to directing in 1960 and won a Golden Lion at the 1963 Venice Film Festival for a short documentary, The War Game. As a director she evinced a strong feminist perspective in films such as Alskande par (1964; Loving Couples), Nattlek (1966; Night Games), Flikorna (1968; The Girls), and Scrubbers (1983). She returned to the screen as an actress in The Witches (1989) and Hidden Agenda (1990). Zetterling also wrote novels and an autobiography, All Those Tomorrows (1985).

Events of 1994

Somalia, and The Sudan. Food supplies were critical for many subsistence farmers in Tanzania, and Uganda felt the impact of refugees fleeing Rwanda and The Sudan. Agriculture in Somalia was showing signs of recovery because of improved security conditions in the south that allowed some farmers to return to the land. The civil war intensified in southern Sudan in May 1994. The result was more displacement of people, disruption of agriculture, interference with relief operations, and reports of high rates of malnutrition for children under five. Ethiopia’s food-aid needs remained exceptional because of the economic aftermath of three decades of civil war and an annual increase in population of nearly 3%. Burundi continued to feel the effects of the disruption of agriculture following the ethnic conflicts in October 1993. Conditions generally improved in West Africa, but five years of civil war in Liberia had destroyed the country’s capacity to import food commercially and increased its reliance on food aid. The breakdown of the 1993 peace agreement brought a resumption of fighting, impeding the commencement of normal agricultural activities and the distribution of food aid. In southern Africa, Mozambique recorded another excellent grain harvest in 1994; the peace accords signed in 1992

Agriculture and Food Supplies World agricultural production increased a little over 2% in 1994, according to preliminary estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The recovery of output in the developed countries, which fell 6% in 1993, was responsible for the bulk of the increase. Production in the less developed countries (LDCs) rose somewhat in excess of the 2% rate of population growth there. Output in the “countries in economic transition” in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union may have fallen 5% after increasing less than 1% in 1993. INTERNATIONAL ISSUES Food Emergencies. The most dramatic problems were those in Rwanda and in surrounding countries sheltering Rwandan refugees. After some 1 million people were reported killed in massacres by Hutu militiamen, 300,000 people fled to Tanzania and more than 1 million fled to Zaire. Both national and international relief organizations initially were overwhelmed by the speed and magnitude of these popu-

encouraged farmers to return to their lands. Nonetheless,

lation movements before sufficient international assistance could arrive. Famine conditions also existed in the Horn of Africa,

the country still faced the postwar problems of how to feed and resettle some 500,000 refugees and demobilized soldiers.

The Angolan food-supply situation remained grave, with

and major food assistance was needed in Ethiopia, Eritrea,

Table |. Selected Indexes of World Agricultural and Food Production

(1979-81 = 100) Total food production

Total agricultural production

Region or country

1990

Developed countries

1991

1992

«ss111—'s«108—i(“itiB8SCOS—C

Canada

127

127

Europe

109

410.407

Japan

98

91

108

108

United States

106

105

eFomerUSSR.

1B

Less developed countries

140

South Atica

125

1993

106

104

100

400

e500)

128

127

128

122

113

112

110

109

103

409 94

99

85

98

99

88

94

79

; 92

86

103°

112

82

82

64

76

80

114

102

113

106

104

114

102

113

96

94

102

90

99

405 |

oa

CO

96

96

89

113

97

88

87

81

145

149

151

154

141

145

150

153

156

115

115

117

117

118

ie

te

8)

ise

442

116

112

116

94

95

98

94

98

130

129

131

127

130

132

131

133

103

104

103

100

100

119

433.141 166

Egypt

ey

ae

171

a

112

112

147

ABA)

16B

116

166

177

ee

ee

ae

137

147

148

157

109

410

116

114

175

178

158

163

170

176

178

136

139

143

147

147

ir

ee

149

«156

164

169

167

116

118

121

122

118

113

113

113

114

118

116

115

86

85

85

81

78

AGO

165,

148

154

160

162

167

424

oo

a4

124

125

182

186

166

170

182

187

138

138

145

147

173.

184.

a7

boa

ee

Mexico

115

116

121

121

Nigeria

164173

188

195

aa

Philippines

117

116

117

Turkey _ Venezuela Vietnam

133 132 154

134185 135 141 156 167

118

ee 115

120

192

ee 118

126

124

91

93

90

94

164172

188

195

;

119

121

127

8

90

89

118

121

ne,

116

117

119

123

93

185 136 173

180 139 179

134 132 150

136 136 WES)

136 142 166s

136 138 872

«132 141 178

106 102 121

106 104 102 105 122555428

152

147

100

100

106

105 = 105

138

143

147

151

146

136

143

148

126.

127.

08

Be

130

126.

-128~—~—

199438181

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics.

90

1994

< 97

06

159

Zaire

1992

104

101

130

World

128

1991

108 =—s«108

10a

China

a

106

1990

95

Brazil

162

122

jos

1994

08

129

Indonesia

126

Per capita food production

1993

82

125

Malaysia

1G

1992

100

Bangladesh

es

1991

1990

96

A

Former Ethiopia

1994

86

Argentina

India

1993

100

149

OO a1

89

90

404 100 130

97 100 131

100

103

1

94 "

104

.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

91

Table Il. Shipment of Food Aid in Cereals

period 1986-89, Africa on average was the recipient of 47%

In 000-metric ton grain equivalent

of such assistance, Asia 35%, and Latin America 18%. In 1993-94, however, LDCs received 64% of total assistance,

Region and country

Average 1989-90, 1991-92

1992-93

1993-94

1994-95!

while the former Soviet bloc became the top regional recipient, with 36% of total assistance. Among the LDCs, Africa commanded 31% of the total, Asia 21%, and Latin

United States

6,777

8,466

8,483

5,100

America 12%. The availability of food aid in 1994-95 was reported down sharply from 1993-94. The final total, however, was likely to be larger because donors increasingly delayed their commitments in order to respond to evolving food emergencies. Budget cutbacks and high prices for wheat brought about by the worldwide reduction in grain stocks led to reduced food-aid commitments by several countries; the estimate for

To less developed countries

Lowe erG

cs

Sub-Saharan Africa

1 Estimated. 2 Includes“Argentina, Austria, China, Finland, India, OPEC Special Fund, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and World Food Program, but not necessarily for all years. 3 Low-income food-deficit countries with per capita incomes under U.S. $1,305 in 1992. Source: FAO, Food Outlook, November-December 1994.

starvation and severe malnutrition reported throughout the country because of massive displacement of the country’s population following the resumption of intensive civil war _ in 1992 and the frequent interruption of food distribution by the fighting. Swaziland,

Yemen,

and Kyrgyzstan were

added to the

FAO’s list of countries requiring either exceptional or emergency food assistance. Food supplies remained difficult in Iraq, where the political dispute connected with the UN embargo continued to limit the country’s ability to finance food imports. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan faced exceptional or emergency food needs, while the availability of food supplies in Bosnia and Herzegovina waxed and waned with the military situation there. In Asia the situation in Afghanistan deteriorated further because of renewed fighting and the needs of returning refugees adding to the displaced persons within the country. The small rice crop of Laos in 1993 placed some 10% of the population in need of emergency assistance. Food supplies were also tight in Cambodia and Mongolia. In Central America crops were seriously damaged by drought, and El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua experienced acute food shortages requiring outside assistance. Food Aid. In December the Food Aid Committee of the International Wheat Agreement approved and opened for signing an extension of the current Food Aid Convention (FAC), the international mechanism for guaranteeing minimum availability of food aid, which was due to expire in June 1995. FAC members were reportedly prepared to pledge to supply a minimum of 7,320,000 tons of grain (wheat equivalent) annually, a reduction of approximately 200,000 tons from the expiring agreement. The United States was said to be maintaining its long-standing pledge

U.S. aid was the lowest since 1988-89. AIDS and Agriculture. Particularly in Africa and parts of South America, AIDS was increasingly regarded as a serious obstacle to the economies of many LDCs. AIDS had initially been an urban disease, but more and more cases were being reported in rural areas. The impact was expected to be particularly severe because of the central role agriculture played in so many of the poorer countries and because the disease attacked the most economically productive age group—those roughly 15-45 years of age— in countries where the very young made upa large percentage of the population. In addition, infection rates for women were two and one-half times higher than for men, and women contributed the bulk of agricultural labour in Africa and in parts of Asia and Latin America. These facts suggested potential decimation of the rural labour force in some countries. Table III. World Cereal Supply and Distribution In 000,000 metric tons 1991-92

Europe. 2 The FAO reported that the equivalent of about 13,340,000 tons of food aid in cereals was provided in 1993-94,

The last year in which the LDCs were virtually the sole recipients of food aid was 1988-89. During the three-year

1993-94

1994-95"

Total

.

218

217

200

196

323

370

317

303

23.8%

87.2%

25.8%

17.1%

20.0%

15.0%

16.3%

15%

14.1%

18.0%

21.4%

18.1%

17.2%

Ending stocks?

Total

Stocks as % of utilization

Wheat Coarse grains

of a minimum of 4,470,000 tons annually. These minimums

had previously applied to a list of poorer LDCs whose incomes fell under a level prescribed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The new convention was believed to add to the list some of the poorer countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern

1992-93

Production

Rice, milled Total

‘48.6% 18.8%

Stocks held by U.S. in %

a :

ee

Coarse grains

ee a 24.7%

37.8%

eee

11.9%

22.1%

39.7%

1.9

11.6%

13.0%

7.9%

Stocks held by EU in %

t Wheat

252

Coarse grains

NSW. 14.1%

ol

NOOR

ye

11.6%

1 Forecast. 2 Series includes estimates of Chinese and Russian stocks. Data not available for all countries, including parts of Eastern Europe and Asia.

Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, December 1994.

92

Agriculture and Food Supplies

The stark economic problem for agriculture was how to invest in laboursaving technologies to compensate for the loss of able-bodied farm workers or to attract workers from other economic sectors. Subsidiary problems included how to adjust land-tenure arrangements and provide credit to accommodate the consolidation of farm holdings after the death of farmers. Another likely issue would be how to compensate for reduced domestic production of food through food imports, including food aid. International Initiatives. A proposal by FAO DirectorGeneral Jacques Diouf to convene a World Food Summit in March 1996 in connection with the organization’s 50th anniversary was endorsed by the FAO governing council in November. The aim was to develop a consensus among world leaders about the likely future direction of the world food situation and how to improve it. This would be the first meeting that heads of state had devoted to world food. An international convention to combat desertification was signed in Paris in October. The document focused on Africa and called for the establishment of a process to combat

land degradation. The convention, which was intended to

establish a mechanism for linking planning with implementation and to coordinate local national activities with those of aid donors, would enter into force, probably sometime in 1996, upon ratification by a majority of the countries. The negotiators also approved a resolution calling for voluntary “Urgent Early Action for Africa” to start the process rolling before the convention formally came into force. The resolution was based on an OECD/Club du Sahel proposal to initiate partnership agreements between individual donors and individual countries. Ecological and Technological Developments. International concern over the safe use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals led to the establishment of a system by which nearly all developed exporting countries would voluntarily inform importing countries of safety issues related to agricultural chemicals traded internationally. The intent of these London Guidelines on International Trade, sponsored by the United Nations Environmental Program, was to give LDCs a means of protecting their populations from the effects of misuse of such chemicals. The FAO Council in November endorsed a proposal to initiate negotiations making this “prior informed consent” procedure formally part of an international agreement open to signature by all countries. Technology

and Food and Environmental

The USDA also had granted field-testing permits for 57 plants in which virus resistance had been genetically engineered. They included corn (maize), cucumbers, melons,

peanuts (groundnuts), potatoes, tobacco, lettuce, papayas,

beets, barley, alfalfa, watermelons, and gladiolus. A virus-

resistant tomato had been marketed in China for nearly two

years, resistant potatoes were being tested in Mexico, and

criollo melons were the subject of research in Costa Rica. At the end of 1994, Agracetus, a U.S. company, was seeking a broad European patent based on the development of a key technology for insertion of genes into soybeans. In 1992 the company had obtained exclusive U.S. rights for genetically engineered cotton based on the same technique. A coalition of commercial and international public-interest groups argued that the patent was too broad and would have a chilling effect on research. The USDA also challenged the patent, saying the process was too important to be monopolized by one company and that other scientists, including some at USDA facilities, had also contributed. The company denied seeking a monopoly for cotton, saying it had licensed the process to others, including the USDA. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in October agreed to review and phase out the use of cerTable IV. World Production of Major Oilseeds and Products In 000,000 metric tons 1993-94!

1994-952

117.1

116.6

132.9

US.

59.6

50.9

68.7

China

10.3

15.3

13.8

114

17

12.4

22.5

24.5

24.0

31.6

29.5

32.8

oF,

5.8

6.9

3.7

3.8

3.8

Soybeans

Argentina Brazil

Cottonseed US. Former Soviet republics China

7.7

6.4

Tat

Peanuts

23.1

24.0

245

U.S.

1.9

15

1.9

China

6.0

84

7.3

India

Sunflower seed

8.6

7.6

8.8

21.3

21.0

22.4

U.S.

12

1.2

21

Former Soviet republics

5.5

5.3

47

3.1

3.8

3.7

44

3.4

42

125.3

26.8

29.4

3.7

55

7.2

es

6.9

74

6.1

5.9

6.4

5.4

55

5.4

48

4.8

5.0

Argentina

European Union Rapeseed

Safety. Con-

cerns about the effects of agricultural technologies received more attention in 1994, particularly in the U.S. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in May approved the first whole food developed through biotechnology for sale in the U.S. The Flavr Savr tomato was engineered by Calgene Inc. to delay the ripening process so that the tomato could be picked closer to full ripeness than most mass-marketed tomatoes, thus gaining more flavour while still retaining sufficient firmness to survive being shipped long distances. Calgene said it would label the product’s origin, although the FDA said it was not necessary because the tomato had the essential characteristics of traditional tomatoes. After lengthy hearings the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) approved a genetically engineered yellow crookneck squash in December, ruling the squash was as safe as traditionally bred virus-resistant squash. Some ecologists and public-interest groups opposed the action, claiming the need for a more thorough examination of the potential risks from the escape of the genes into the wild, turning wild plants into weeds or forming new recombinant virus strains. Most plant pathologists and plant breeders saw no new risks.

1992-93

~

Canada China

European Union India

Copra Palm kernel

Oilseeds crushed Soybeans

Oilseed ending stocks Soybeans

:

4.0

4.3

43

183.6

186.8

197.6

96.2

99.7

104.9

23.2

19.6

28.8

20.2

17.0

24.9

World production? Total fats and oils

re

Ree

59.6

61.2

64.4

Soybean oil

171

17.9

19.0

Palm oil

13.0

13.4

13.8

Animal fats

ee

aoa

er

Marine oils

1.2

he

1.2

124.2

127.9

135.1

Soybean meal

75.8

76.9

83.0

Fish meal

5.9

6.2

6.4

Edible vegetable oils

High-protein meals*

1 2 3 4

om

Preliminary. Forecast. Processing potential from crops in year indicated. Converted, based on product's protein content, to weight equivalent of soybeans of 44% protein content.

Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, December 1994.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

tain cancer-causing chemicals on food as part of an out-ofcourt settlement with several consumer organizations. Some 85 pesticides were to be reviewed for compliance with the “Delaney Clause” of a federal law that prohibited the use of carcinogenic chemicals that concentrate during food processing. These chemicals were authorized to be used on a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and field crops. Because not much use was made of Delaney chemicals on many crops and effective substitutes were

available for others,

however, the economic impact of the EPA action would likely vary from region to region. The European Union (EU) in December approved the use of recombinant bovine somatotropin (BST) for restricted testing purposes but extended the moratorium on its commercial use, originally imposed in 1990, through 1999. This synthetic hormone, which promotes growth in cattle and increases milk output by supplementing the BST produced naturally by a cow, was approved in the United States in November 1993. The EU’s resistance to its use was primarily economics; it was feared that increased production would swell existing government stocks of dairy products and put new pressure on costly subsidies to the industry. In the United States the use of the hormone was expected to increase per-cow milk yields by 2% in 1995 and perhaps 4% by 1999. The Canadian government in August decided to delay the introduction of BST until July 1, 1993: Trade Issues. International agricultural trade issues were on the back burner in 1994 as countries prepared to implement the agreement reached in the multilateral trade negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT),

which was concluded

in December

feed prices. The U.S., except for its Food Security Wheat Reserve

of four million tons, had virtually eliminated

its

government-held wheat stocks. A potential Canadian-U.S. trade war was averted in August when Canada agreed to limit wheat exports to the U.S. at the low rates permitted under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The U.S. had threatened unilateral restrictions under farm legislation that allowed curbs on imports when they interfered with U.S. price-support programs. Particularly irritating to Canadians and to U.S. Table V. Livestock Inventories and Meat Production in Major Producing Countries In 000,000 head and 000,000 metric tons (carcass weight) Region and country

1993)

19942

Cattle and buffalo

World total Canada

United States Argentina Brazil

Uruguay

cS

European Union

Other Western Europe? Eastern Europe4

Beef and veal

44.18

12.0

12.5

0.88

0.95

4084 = 2 4058

11,12

30.7

30.2

54.9

54.7

144.3

143.7

44.75

feat

1.73

2.55,

2.48

4.61

4.53

= 081

2084

105

107,

78.4

78.0

7.80

7.71

6.0

6.1

0.49

0.52

11.9

0.73

0.69

11.7

2

Kazakhstan

Russian Federation Ukraine

Australia India

China

:

9.3

8.9

0.60

0.58

48.9

48.5

3.36

3.20

21.6

20.9

1.39

1.30

268

= 26.6

1.81

1.82

272.7

274.2

0.95

113.2

119.0

234

Hogs

World total

7415

1.05

.

2.70

Pork

7505

66,08 _ 67.30

Canada

11.2

11.7

1.19

1.25

United States

57.9

60.5

7.75

7.93

Mexico

European Union Other Western Europe?

_

19942

1,039.0

Former Soviet republics

US. ratification of the agreement, which would become operational in 1995 under the new World Trade Organization, appeared assured with congressional acceptance of the agreement and passage of implementing legislation. The agreement progressively reduced the level of specified agricultural subsidies but did not eliminate them. Countries were jockeying to make the most efficient use of those subsidies still permitted. For instance, to gain congressional support for GATT, the U.S. government announced that it would no longer use the export subsidies provided under its Export Enhancement Program and Dairy Export Incentive Program merely to combat other countries’ unfair trade practices but would also use the programs for market expansion and promotion. The European Parliament approved the agreement and a $98-billion agricultural budget providing price supports and other subsidies under the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP). In December the United States was threatening retaliatory restrictions on European imports if the EU did not provide adequate compensation for U.S. exports lost because of tariffs raised in 1995 in connection with the enlargement of the EU from 12 to 15 members.

1993!

1,034.3

1017

Mexico

1993.

Eastern Europe

12.1

12.4

0.87

0.92

4110.2

109.8

14.64

14.63

79

7.7

0.99

0.98

34.4

35.5

2.71

2.28

0.22

Former Soviet republics

Kazakhstan Russian Federation

Ukraine

:

SBA

2.0

0.24

28.6

26.0

2.43

2.30

15.3

14.4

1.04

0.95

Japan

10.6

10.5

1.43

1.41

China

393.0

401.0

28.54

30.00

Poultry

World total United States

Brazil

Poultry meat®

a

tee)

80.82

41.56

ites

cae

12.40

13.15

eet

3.48

a

European Union

cok

ante

7.06

7.20

Eastern Europe

wee

ta

0.77

0.83

Former Soviet republics

Russia

Le

ae

128

1.20

Ba

Sas

0.42

0.40

Japan

ae

an

1.37

1.32

China

es

cate

5.30

6.10

Ukraine

AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES

Grains. World grain production overall was expected (in December) to increase in 1994-95, largely because of the recovery in U.S. corn production, which was devastated in 1993. Global wheat production was expected to be smaller because of a sharp reduction in output in the former Soviet Union and the effects of the most severe drought in 22 years in Australia. Even with an expected reduction in wheat consumption, world wheat stocks as a percentage of wheat use were likely to fall to the lowest level since the years leading up to the world food crisis in the early 1970s. EU policies pushed government-held “intervention stocks” into the EU domestic livestock market to help hold down

93

Sheep

World total”

896.0

Sheep, goat meat

889.1

6.30

6.28

All meat

Total

an

ve

155.88

159.88

1 Preliminary livestock numbers at year’s end. Countries included in totals but not shown include the most significant for trade in Latin America, Asia, and scattered coverage

elsewhere. 2 Forecast. 3 Austria, Sweden, and Switzerland. 4 Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania.

5 6 7 8

Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Ready-to-eat equivalent. Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Coverage includes China. Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, October 1994.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

94

of producers was a subrestriction in NAFTA on imports durum U.S. durum used to make pasta. They claimed that imports had increased mainly because U.S. export subsiup dies for durum had reduced domestic supplies, pushing Canacertain prices and attracting imports. The U.S. saw dian transportation subsidies as providing an unfair export advantage. An expert Joint Commission on Grains was due to make nonbinding recommendations by May 31, 1995. World production of coarse grain was expected to increase more than 10% in 1994-95, largely because of a bumper U.S. corn crop. Aggregate output outside the U.S. was reduced because of the Australian drought’s impact on barley, reduced yields in South Africa, smaller planted area in the former Soviet republics, and poor growing conditions for corn in Ukraine and the North Caucasus region of Russia. Only India, Eastern Europe, and China among the other major producers saw production increases. Decreased production, declining livestock inventories, and a limited ability to finance feed imports were pushing down coarsegrain consumption in the former Soviet Union. Australia, ordinarily a substantial exporter of coarse grains, was having to import large quantities to maintain its livestock industry. Oilseeds. World oilseed production was expected (in December) to increase more than 10% in 1994-95 as a result of the recovery of the U.S. soybean crop from the 1993 drought and strong expansion in output of nearly all major oilseeds in response to strong prices in 1993-94 that carried over into 1994-95. Output lagged in the former Soviet Union, where sunflower-seed production fell to the lowest level in 10 years. Prices of soybeans peaked at an average

of $282 per ton in January 1994 (c.if., Rotterdam, U.S.

No. 2 yellow) and remained strong, averaging $259 per ton in 1993-94 (October-September). Prices fell rapidly when the prospect of a record-large U.S. crop in 1994-95 became clear, trading near $235 from July 1994. Table VI. World Production of Milk In 000,000 metric tons

Region and country

“Developedcountries ==

ss

1992

19931

84.0

88

United Kingdom

14.4

Other Western Europe?

“49942

842.0

146

aaa

© 42B

129

13.0

13.1

17

= 12.5

3.8

3.5

3.5

Eastern Europe

Poland

:

Romania

Former Sovietrepublics -

es

Russian Federation

Ukraine

:

oe

Australia/New Zealand*

Japan

Brazil

“Attica, Asia

| Obing

1 2 3 4

47.2

46.9

NONE

BA

15.5

Se

=

Less developed countries

Latin America

OG

ae

nary 44.0

175

16.6

17.9

86

aR

8.5

172.0

177.0

181.0

44.0

45.0

46.0

15.0

15.2

ee.

AZO

116.0

60 0

119.0

e

15.3

ee

eos. 123.0

ed

8S

India

29.4

30.5

30.5

World total —

826.0

§25.0

$26.0

Preliminary. Forecast. Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Year ending June 30 for Australia and May 31 for New Zealand.

Sources: FAO, Food Outlook, November/December 1994; USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, August 1994.

continGlobal demand for protein meals for animal feed able oils. ued to grow more slowly than the demand for veget (cis ton per $202 to ed slipp meal The price of soybean 93. 1992in $207 with ared comp 94, Rotterdam) in 1993down either also were meals in prote Prices for most other n or only alittle higher than in the previous year. One reaso livestock for the lower prices was that the EU, with its large

industry, under CAP continued to price feed grains lower than protein meals to discourage the feeding of oilseed meal n to animals. In Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Unio ase purch to which with nge the shortage of foreign excha oilseed meal abroad was also a factor. International prices of vegetable oil, which had been surging since 1993 as rising demand outpaced the growth of supplies, were much stronger in 1993-94. Soybean oil prices averaged $580 per ton (f.0.b., Rotterdam), compared with $453 in 1992-93. Despite record-large global oilseed output predicted in 1994-95, supplies of vegetable oil remained extremely tight. Soybean oil prices stood at $706 per ton in November, reflecting the fact that the vegetable oil stocks-to-use ratio was the lowest in 20 years. Helping keep vegetable oil supplies tight was the small expected increase in production of palm oil in 1994-95. Most of the gain was expected to come

in Indonesia, where palm

plantings had been increased sharply. Malaysian output was being restrained by the cyclical stress on trees that follows a bumper crop like the one in 1993, a shortage of labour to pick the fruit, and unfavourable weather late in 1994. Livestock and Meat. The world cattle inventory grew modestly again in 1994. The most rapid gains continued to come in China, where rapid income growth was swelling the demand for meat and stimulating herd expansion. Expansion of the U.S. and Canadian economies was stimulating the demand for beef and leading to further strong growth of cattle herds there. The Australian drought necessitated the trucking of water into some towns and the temporary relocation of townspeople elsewhere. Both livestock and grain markets were disrupted, leading to increased slaughter of cattle (because of low feed supplies) and a halt to the expansion of cattle herds. Cattle herds in the former Soviet republics continued to decline. The expansion of global hog inventories accelerated in 1994, mainly on the basis of strong growth in China and the United States. The steadily growing Chinese industry was obtaining higher carcass weights thanks in large part to the importation of semen and to higher slaughter rates that were the result of improved management practices. A shortage of feed in the former Soviet states was slowing production there. China and the United States were also responsible for most of the growth in world production of poultry meat in 1994. China, which nearly doubled its output in four years, made good use of imported breeding ee 60% of all broilers were raised from nonnative stock.

World sheep and goat inventories continued to decline and were down 10% from 1989-90. Falling wool prices and drought reduced the incentive for sheep production in Australia, as had the phaseout of the U.S. wool-support program, which was created to ensure supplies of wool for defense in World War II. Global wool production had declined every year since 1989-90. Dairy. World milk output was forecast by the FAO (in December) to have fallen slightly in 1994, the fourth consecutive year of decline. Milk production overall in the

developed countries was down about 2%, reflecting smaller output in the former Soviet Union, where modest growth in output on private farms was not enough to offset reductions in the former public sector. Milk output in the EU

Agriculture and Food Supplies Table Vil. World Production of Centrifugal (Freed from Liquid) Sugar

for the third year in a row. Sugar supplies around the world had been drawn down to their lowest levels in six years, and

In 000,000 metric tons raw value

Region and country

Nomi Amentay

ee

United States oe

fs XICO

os

s

:

1993-94

NR

eee

de

7A

7.0

74

“a

Caribbean

5.4

a

ee

Central America

cer re

7

SUAS

sua

25

pecs

2.5

c ee

15.5

Ci

15.4

16.2

eae

Brazil

— Colombia

:

:

Europe

Western Europe European Union

ec Franca

:

:

Germany

9.8

9.9

ee

19.9

18.1

Se ABC

IBS.

17.1

17.4

Poland

Ukraine

48

ce Are

2.1 8.3

Ro

Indonesia

é

26

Philippines

Thailand

3

Oceania

Australia

i 10.8

ened

2.2

2.1

a

35.4

6.5

ee

2.3

Pakistan

2.0

9.8

Asia :

ea

2.7

160

China

div

(78

i

Turkey

4.0

ee

2.3

a

10.0

South Africa -

a

we

2.5

Africa and Middle East

15.4

4s

1.6

Russian Federation

2.0

22.3

4.4

ee

10.5

21.6

a

Former Soviet republics?

Sere

Has

47a

“Eastern Europe

g

4.3

oe 2.3

_

india

cs

5.1

: Cena

South America

_ Argentina

1992-93

=

6.2

ae

144

2.5

ie

2.5

ai

e382

241

1.8

2.0

3.8

Pane

ae

4.8

5.0

5.5

44

4b

so

Totals

__ Beginning stocks

O86.

BO

20.6%

18.5%

15.4%

Production

112.0

110.2)

112.6

Imports?

29.5

29.7

27.9

146

113.7

113.8

As % of consumption

Consumption

‘

95

ae

Tee

world prices for raw sugar by October 1994 had reached a four-year high of 14.4 cents per pound. Sugar production in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had declined during the difficult economic transition after the collapse of communism, and sugar consumption had fallen by some 20-25% in the past five years. Early in 1994 Russia and Cuba had agreed to an extension of their 1993-94 barter deal, under which Cuba would trade one million tons of sugar for 2.5 million tons of petroleum. By November Cuba had delivered half its quota but was reportedly behind schedule in deliveries. Cuba’s growing inability to supply China’s sugar needs was also making that country a major buyer on the open market. Having constituted about one-quarter of the world market in the 1970s, Cuba’s share of world sugar exports had declined to only about 9%. It seemed likely that the Caribbean nation would be replaced in 1994-95 by Australia as the second largest exporter.

Coffee. Coffee prices shot upward in 1994, despite estimates (in December) of a modestly larger 1994-95 global coffee crop because of severe freezes in Brazil. Coffee prices began edging up early in 1994 on the basis of expectations that production would exceed consumption for the third year in a row, prefrost reductions in estimates of the 1994-95 Brazilian crop, and an announcement by members of the new World Association of Coffee Producing Nations that they would withhold coffee from the market under an export-retention scheme. The scheme replaced the expired International Coffee Agreement under the designation of the International Coffee Organization (ICO), to which both producing and consuming nations had belonged. The retention operation was barely under way when it was suspended after prices moved above 85 cents per pound. Prices took off when a survey estimated that the freezes, followed uncharacteristically by drought, would cut the Table Vill. World Green Coffee Production In 000 60-kg bags

1 Preliminary. 2 Includes Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. 3 Exports do not equal imports because “Totals” are a composite of slightly differing marketing years, not all beginning in the same months. Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, November 1994.

was affected by adverse weather conditions and by Italian and Spanish attempts to bring production in line with EU quotas. Output was up as much as 3% in the LDCs, with the largest gains in Asia. Australia and New Zealand were gaining importance in world dairy trade as output fell in the EU because of policy reform and as pressures increased to reduce export subsidies in Western European countries and the U.S. Subsidies were likely to increase with implementation of GATT. New Zealand, the largest exporter of butter, was investing in more output of whole-milk powder and cheese and less of butter and nonfat dry milk. The international butter market took on a two-tier character following the suspension of minimum prices for butter ($1,350 per metric ton f.o.b.) in May 1994 under the International Dairy Agreement. Sugar. Global sugar output in 1993-94 proved to be smaller than anticipated because of shortfalls in the Indian and Chinese crops. Recovery of Indian sugar output and scattered gains elsewhere led to expectations (in November) of increased world production in 1994-95, despite the ef‘fects of drought in Western Europe, flooding in China, and another dismal performance by the Cuban sugar industry. Global sugar consumption was expected to exceed output

Region and country

1992-93

North America —

et

eee

Costa Rica

El Salvador

pe

Guatemala Mexico

ee

2,620

2,475

68M 3,584

:

:

Brazil

1,560

Africa

16,296

Cameroon

Céte d'ivoire

ee

Indonesia

‘Vietnam

(2

1,910

a8,B210 eS =

17,330 1,300

3,400

2,800

India

12,500

1,850

1,250

1,217 G

26,000

14005

2,700

2,800

Zaire

28,500

837

Ethiopia

Asia and Oceania

43,585

2,500

Kenya Uganda

4,300

MAS

_ 14,950

Ecuador

3,027

4,200

BG 24,000

Colombia

eee

3,078

4,180

South America

2,300

ae

3,000

:

3,500

1,230

4

2,700

1800 3,000

1,790

1,100

15,630

1,660

.

16,465

1,300

2 200

3,450

3,000

7,350

7,400

7,000

2,250

2,500

3,100

Total production

93,405

93,538

94,306

Exportable®

72,471

70,019

72,061

47,391

42,570

35,534

77,668

77,609

77,297

Beginning stocks*

Exports | 1 Preliminary. 2 Forecast. 3 Production minus domestic use. 4\n exporting countries.

Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, December 1994.

96

i

and Foodee Supplies Agriculture mee a

Onan

1995-96 Brazilian crop short by 9 million to 13 million bags from its 29 million-bag potential. The quantity of output from the 1994-95 crop was not affected, although its quality may have been reduced. Prices of green coffee, which had averaged about 62 cents per pound in 1993 (1979 ICO composite indicator), shot as high as $2.75 on the futures

market in September but fell as low as $1.45 in early De-

cember. Retail prices of roasted coffee, which in the U.S.

averaged $2.47 per pound in 1993, reached a plateau of 4 little under $4.50 in August-November 1994. Just before Christmas, producers in Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and El Salvador announced that

Table X. World Cotton Production and Consumption

In 000,000 480-Ib bales

82.7,

Production

20.5

Western Hemisphere

16.2

:

United States Brazil

Europe

4

:

Former Soviet republics

Uzbekistan Africa

Asia and Oceania? China

:

1994-95'

1993-94!

1992-93

Region and country

>

76.9.

(858.

=

25.2

20.5

19.6

eet

21

1.9

218

ie

2.3

ee 9.5

9.4

9.6

6.0

6.2

60

6.0

5.8

6.2

54.5

49.0

20.7

17.2

‘

52.7 20.7

10.0 9.6 10.9, : India they would withhold 20-22% of their exports beginning at 6.3 6.3 7A Pakistan the start of 1995, but traders speculated whether very much 85.8 84.5 85.6 ion Consumpt t coffee was actually available to be withheld. It was forecas 11.0 10.4 10.3 United States that U.S. imports of agricultural products in fiscal year 1995 21.2 20.9 215 China 10.2 would increase from $2 billion to $4 billion entirely because 10.0 9.8 India 63 of higher coffee prices. 6.5 6.6 Pakistan 5.4 5.1 5.0 Cocoa. The new five-year International Cocoa AgreeEuropean Union 48 46 4.4 ment established by the International Cocoa Organization Southeast Asia 1.8 2.0 2.2 Russia (ICCO), concluded in September 1993, became operationalee Se provisionally in February 1994. The agreement attempted to 1 Estimate. influence international cocoa prices by the obligations of its 2 Includes Middle East. Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, December 1994. on. individual members to control their own cocoa producti The old ICCO plan tried unsuccessfully to maintain cocoa the EU in establishing a new import regime in response prices within an agreed price band through operation of a to GATT. The EU previously had given preferential tariff ed buffer stock. The buffer stock continued to be liquidat treatment to imports of bananas from former European gradually under a five-year schedule designed to recover colonies in Africa and the Caribbean. Many Caribbean some of the cost of the stock and to eliminate the potential were heavily dependent on banana exports, and countries price-depressing effects of its existence. preferences were important because the bananas European Stronger demand for cocoa generated by the economic importing were generally of lower quality and were they the with upturn in the United States and Europe, together than Latin-American bananas. The new EU expensive more helped modest drawdown in cocoa stocks in recent years, system continued to favour the imporlicensing and quota threestrengthen prices. Futures prices (New York, nearest Latin-American bananas. over Caribbean of tation 20a month average) for cocoa beans moved upward from d at the behest of Colombia, panels—calle GATT Two an to 1993 year-low average of 46.7 cents per pound in and Venezuela, with U.S. Nicaragua, Ecuador, Rica, Costa higher The average of 58.4 cents for 11 months of 1994. was not in conformity system new the that d support—rule 1994— in prices were stimulating increased output in Africa agreement,” “framework special a Under rules. GATT with leadwas 95. That, together with better weather in Brazil, tariff-rate global annual its increase to proposed EU the ing to expectations of a record-high global cocoa crop in in 1995, tons million 2.2 to million 2 from quota import 1994-95. level of historical on based subquotas country establish to Bananas. The U.S. involved itself in a dispute between reduce the the exports to to EU, and proposed tariffs on banana-exporting countries and the EU when in September such within-quota imports. it accepted a petition under Section 301 of the U.S. Trade Cotton. The sharp reduction in world cotton producAct by the Chiquita Banana Co. and the Hawaii Banana tion in 1993-94, centred mainly in Asia, contributed to a Industry Association. It alleged unfair trade practices by widespread drawdown in cotton stocks by the beginning of 1994-95 that stimulated cotton prices in many countries. InTable IX. World Cocoa Bean Production ternational prices (Northern European Cotlook Index “A”), In 000 metric tons which had fallen to an average of 57.7 cents per pound Region and country 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95! in 1992-93, climbed steadily to a peak of about 86 cents North and Central America 113 112 114 in May-June for an average of 70.7 cents in 1993-94. The South America 496 444 475 result was the expectation (in December) of substantially Brazil 330 276 306 Ecuador 76 78 79 larger global cotton output in 1994-95. Africa 1,283 1,385 1,435 The recovery of production in China, where bollworm inCameroon 100 105 100 festations were being brought under control, and a recordCéte d'Ivoire? 700 850 860 large U.S. crop were mainly responsible for the increase, Ghana 312 260 315 although cotton plantings were expected to increase in most Nigeria? 140 140 130 major producing countries. Economic recovery in the U.S., Asia and Oceania 525 547 522 Japan, and Europe helped stimulate the demand for cotton Indonesia 240 280 260 textiles, although depressed use of cotton in the former Malaysia 225 210 200 Total production 2,417 2,488 2,545 Soviet bloc was holding down global use. Global output and Net production 2,393 2,463 2,520 use of cotton were expected to be roughly in balance folCocoa grindings 2,417 2,465 2,520 lowing two years of substantial drawdown in global stocks. Change in stocks —24 =2 0 (RICHARD M. KENNEDY) 1 Forecast. 2 Includes some cocoa marketed between Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire. 3 Includes cocoa marketed through Benin. Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, October 1994.

See also Gardening; Business and Industry Review: Textiles. This article updates the Macropedia article The History of AGRICULTURE.

Agriculture and Food Supplies: Fisheries

97

These 10 species produced a combined total catch of 27,-

FISHERIES

The total world harvest of fish and shellfish, including aquaculture, recovered during 1992, rising above the 1991 total by just under 1.1 million mt (metric tons), mainly because of a rise in the inland catch to a total of 98,112,800 mt.

These figures, while above those of the previous two years, were still below those of the late 1980s. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization reported that the recent decline in the growth of the total catch represented a slowdown in growth of production that had been taking place almost continuously over the past four decades. Production from inland fisheries grew steadily over the past few years, primarily because of the increase in aquaculture. Consistent with the pattern of increasing production over the past decade, the most

productive

areas were

in

Asia, where, for example, China reported an increase of 689,059 mt from

inland fisheries. The leading freshwater

species in terms of production were silver carp, grass carp, and common carp. The anchoveta became the leading maritime species, and the catch rose by 1,433,897 mt in 1992. Alaskan pollock, in second place, increased from 4,893,493 mt in 1991 to 4,992,289 mt in 1992 and had shown a steady

decline in catch in recent years. The top species landed in 1992 (in order of tonnage) were: Species

metric tons

anchoveta Alaskan pollock

5,451,003 4,992,269

Chilean Jack mackerel South American pilchard Japanese pilchard

3,390,263 3,105,462 2,488,533

caplin

1,529,392

skipjack tuna grass carp

1,421,391 1,254,383

salmon, European pilchard, and Atlantic cod.

China was again the leading producer, with a massive jump in its total catch for 1992, rising by 14.3% to 15,007,450 mt. Production of fish and shellfish by the rest of the world (excluding China) had fallen each year since 1989. Most of this decrease was a fall in production in the republics of the former U.S.S.R.—four million tons between 1989 and 1992—owing to a slump in marine fishing activity. Japan also showed a major drop. Chile, Norway, and Iceland showed increased catches in 1992, all by about 500,000 mt.

The problem of worldwide overfishing, dwindling fish stocks, and access to these stocks dominated the world fisheries agenda during 1994. Much publicity was given to the continuing work of the 1993 UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, where the world’s fishing nations had begun resolving conflicts arising from commercial fish stocks that either straddle or, at some point during a migratory life cycle, pass through a country’s 200-mi exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and out into international waters. One example of the problems was the situation faced by Canada and the commercial fisheries off the ican plaice, and turbot had dropped to record-low levels by 1992-93, and Canada instituted a two-year moratorium on

the domestic fishing of cod along the northern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1992. Even the fishing of cod for personal use was stopped. The moratorium was later

1,604,216

Atlantic herring

scallop, Japanese flying squid, Norway pout, South African anchovy, and mud carp. Species that exhibited a sharp decrease in catch included Argentine hake, Araucanian herring, Gulf menhadan, California pilchard, pink (humpback)

Maritime Provinces. Stocks of cod, redfish, flounder, Amer-

2,109,459

silver carp

346,371 mt, compared with 27,716,381 mt in 1991. Other species with large increases included bighead carp, Japanese

NORTH he PAGIFIC_# NE Pacific

ATLANTIC /NW Atlantic

« NORTH AND

CENTRAL AMERICA (ra \

NW Pacific

CENTRAL

ea 3

y

eo

on

SARE

pe Alanitic EC Atlantié

all meh ATL

EC Pacific

oe

& = X e ’ SOUTH SOUTH AMERICA ATLANTIC ) ~ SWAtlantic SE Atlantic _

1963-72 1973-82 @ 1983-92 Size of circle is proportional to total catch. y Circles on land represent inland [9 water catches.

ie / Windian

INDIAN

oJ

OCEAN

=== Primary ocean region — Ocean subregion

Source: FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics -- Catches and Landings. 0° 60° ©1995, Encyclopeedia Britannica, Inc.

Inland Waters

no w

0 1962

oacomnonandc

1967

SWAtlantic NWaAtlantic

1972

1977

1992

1962

(i) SE Atlantic [Bi] NE Atlantic

G@sw Pacific (wc Pacific

1982 ,1987

(@ WC Atlantic {§@)EC Atlantic

Tons Metric

Tons Metric

Metric Tons

Metric Tons

(millions)

(millions)

(millions) NNW fee

(millions)

1967

1972

1977

1982

(HEC Pacific SE Pacific

1987 1992

[NE Pacific NW Pacific

0 1962

0 1967

1972

(BE Indian

1977

1982

1987

[QW Indian

1992

1962

1967

1972

N and C America [3 Former U.S.S.R.

1977

1982

1987

(ls America [Africa

1992

HM Europe Asia

Food Supplies: Food Processing and eee lture eee 98 Agricu ene ON

fishing extended and introduced for other species. The vital 50,000 industry in this region was decimated; upwards of hoods. liveli their lost rs worke ing rocess fish-p fishermen and boats by tions opera illegal by ated infuri were The Canadians operies countr other and (EU) Union ean from the Europ e outsid waters l ationa intern in Banks ating on the Grand ded Canada’s 200-mi EEZ. These fishermen vastly excee agreed catch quotas for some species, sometimes by more than 16 times. (See LIFE SCIENCES: Zoology.) Media attention in Western Europe was focused during the summer of 1994 on the tuna fishery in the Bay of Biscay off France and Spain. The long-standing tensions between Spanish traditional tuna “pole and line” fishermen and the French and British drift-net fishermen, who compete for bonito tuna during the short summer season, erupted into violence in July 1994. Spanish vessels surrounded French and British vessels and cut away their drift nets. The Spanish fishermen claimed that the drift-net vessels were using nets longer than the 2.5-km (1.6-mi) maximum allowed under EU legislation and were indiscriminately entrapping all bonito, including undersized fish. This, they claimed, was depleting spawning stocks and imperiling the shoals for future years. The French and British fishermen claimed that while the drift nets appeared to exceed the 2.5-km limit, they in fact consisted of lengths of net interspersed with large gaps to allow passage of marine mammals and, therefore, the total

length of actual net sections did not exceed the legal limits.

The real problem, however, was that the use of drift nets

allowed French fishermen to capture three times as many tuna per boat as the traditional Spanish vessels while employing only half the crew. Table XI. World Fisheries, 1992' Trade

in 000 metric tons Country

Chita

ot,

Japan

EP

in $000,000 Exports

Imports

Total

Inland

45,007,450

6,217,185

8,460,324

187,169

12,831,762

792,369

ese

800

470,900

21,892

1,252,363

RNR OO

680,844

12,492

Russian Federation

5,611,164

378,011

_ 34,854

826,467

US.

5,602,876

339,369

6,024,064

3,582,545

4,475,112

1,702,061

=

615,377

Indonesia

3,357,700

861,570

56,145

1,178,552

Thailand —

2,855,000

233,000

South Korea

2,695,630

45,038

504,853

1,365,867

Norway _

2,549,130

680

346,048

2,436,832

Philippines

2,271,917

580,987

111,000

393,997

Denmark

1,995,025

36,287 ~—'1,197,370

2,819,917

India

Se

North Korea

iceland

+=

942,090 _—_—3,071,780

1,750,100

110,000

_

71,980

1,557,207

866

14,232

1,262,713

2,898,232

712,729

Spain

1,330,000

29,550

Taiwan

4,818,087

160,710

489,176 ~—- 1,803,399 686,876

2,085,495

73,646

316,799

Canada

1,251,018

64,907

Mexico

1,247,622

169,406

Vietnam

1,080,279

270,598

_

966,727

686,600

60

151,200

847,267

16,083

1,906,861

1,147,686

800,000

52,270

2,934,589

955,379

800,000

182,400

=

790,000

210,000

Argentina

705,316

13,029

South Africa _

695,318

2,375

117,000

490,250

New Zealand

679,288

1,452

33,627

654,533

Bangladesh United Kingdom

France Myanmar (Burma)

Brazil

"MalaysiaItaly

World Total

the North Atlantic “cod war.” In a curious echo of the Cold

War of the late 1950s, there were casualties as China and

Taiwan disputed fishing rights off the island of Quemoy in the Taiwan Strait. The U.K. and Argentina were at it again over the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, this time disputing squid-fishing rights. Even abject Somalia complained about EU fishermen taking one of its few remaining resources— lobsters—in the Gulf of Aden. One country with a good opportunity to start afresh in the development and management of a sustainable fishing industry was Namibia. Following years of exploitation of the abundant fish stocks off its coast, with the attendant prob-

lems of overfishing and declining fish catches, Namibia at a stroke rid its fishing grounds of virtually all foreign fishingvessel operators upon gaining independence in 1990. Since then the government had pursued a variety of strategic aims, including conserving stocks, maximizing local employment, and developing and diversifying the fishing industry in a coherent and rational manner. Meeting in May, the International Whaling Commission voted to create a sanctuary free from commercial whaling in the waters south of Africa, South America, and Australia.

Japan voted against the measure and also caused some consternation in November when it announced that it would sell some 65 tons of meat from minke whales caught for research purposes. Norway also continued its defiance of the 1987 international moratorium on whaling, announcing a quota of 301 minke for 1994. Finally, it was reported in February that the U.S.S.R. had consistently underreported its whaling catch by as much as one-half from the 1960s through the 1980s, which possibly would affect current esti(MARTIN J. GILL) mates of the world whale population. This article updates the Macropedia article Commercial FisHING.

~—1,559,961

6,501,767

Chile

These examples only hint at the seriousness and global nature of the problem. During the year, Iceland sent gunboats against Norwegian trawlers in the latest outbreak of

324,342

33,915

133,508

170,808

48,173

559,029

640,000

16,000

244,789

294,636

555,876

54,991

2,643,440

258,525

98,112,800

15,578,600

45,451,914

40,275,588

Excludes aquatic mammals, crocodiles and alligators, pearls, corals, sponges y and aquatic plants.

Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, vols. 74 and 75.

FOOD PROCESSING

In 1994 conflicting reports on food, health, and nutrition appeared daily, confusing professionals and consumers alike as to what constituted a healthful diet. Sales of reduced-calorie foods, decaffeinated coffee, and other supposedly “healthful” foods declined slightly in most developed countries; sales of fresh meat declined in Europe but increased in the U.S. and Japan. Food-poisoning incidents in most countries remained at the high levels of 1993, costing the U.K. economy alone between $750 million and $1.5 billion in working days lost because of illness. The release of six-year-old frozen beef onto the U.K. market from the European Union’s (EU’s) stockpile of 860,000 tons sent shock waves of horror through the media but had no adverse effect on public health. The Australian authorities were concerned that a surge of interest in herbs and other plant extracts in cooking could lead to a rise in accidental poisoning and launched an inquiry. Business Trends. Companies worldwide slashed costs by disposing of unprofitable operations and by laying off workers. Kraft General Foods, Inc., the largest U.S. food processor, laid off 14,000 workers—8% of its workforce—

and shut 40 plants. Declining sales of frozen vegetables, particularly in the U.S., where consumers were switching to fresh produce, caused Green Giant, the second largest frozen-food manufacturer in the U.S., to decide to close four plants. Meanwhile, sales of chilled foods and ready-toeat, shelf-stable meals increased.

U.S. and European companies stepped up promotions for children’s products, often drawing criticism from consumer

Agriculture and Food Supplies: Food Processing

groups that claimed this encouraged unhealthful eating among children. Character merchandising, whereby companies acquired licenses to use popular film and cartoon characters in their brand logos, increased; for example, “di‘nosaur mania” swept global markets following the success in 1993 of the film Jurassic Park. The conclusion of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations promised increased opportuni- | ties for food and drink exporters. A cut in tariffs on a huge range of imports was likely to increase world income by more than $200 billion by the year 2000. Manufacturers’ profits in some countries were reduced by the increasing number of supermarkets’ own-brand products and by the speed with which copycat products were brought onto the market. The Coca-Cola Co. prevailed upon the U.K.’s largest supermarket chain, Sainsbury’s, to stop selling their colasin cans that resembled those of Coke. Sainsbury’s look-alike instant coffee was in line for similar action by Nestlé. U.K. trademark protection was extended to cover the appearance of a package as well as the logo. Sales: of prepackaged nonalcoholic beverages surged on the European market, especially in Germany, boosted by increased demand for mineral waters and fruit juices. U.S. soft drink consumption remained static for the fourth consecutive year, although it exceeded that of all other beverages. Major marketing changes took place in the British dairy industry as a result of the abolition of the Milk Marketing Board, which had fixed prices. Prices of milk and dairy products were expected to rise, a situation made worse by the EU’s quota system for milk. Technology. A new Japanese production method called single-cell technology involved using an enzyme to break down vegetables and fruits into cell units in order to produce liquid and powder ingredients of foods and beverages. A Japanese company, Single Cell Foods, started using the technology, which gained approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. By altering the structure of a natural enzyme used in cheese manufacture, two Japanese companies, NEC Corp. and Yakult Honsha, jointly developed an artificial enzyme potentially able to produce new types of food. Tetra Laval of Sweden launched Ovotherm, a system for processing and packaging liquid egg products that eliminated Salmonella and Listeria bacteria and reduced bacterial count to a level unattainable by other methods. The U.K. government approved the use of a new genetically modified yeast that simplified brewing, improved beer quality, and cut costs. It was the first such new yeast strain to be approved for beer production. Roche Products of the U.K. developed a new method of refining fish oil that retained nutritive properties while removing taste, allowing food products to be nutritionally enhanced without affecting their flavour. Air Products Co. of the U.K. launched a freezing process called zero adhesion technology (ZAT) based on the principle that nothing will stick to a surface that has been cooled to —80° C (—176° F) or below. The process allowed multilayer ice cream products of complex shape, such as realistic reproductions of popular characters, to be easily produced, a key factor in the market for children’s products. New Products and Ingredients. The first user of ZAT, Rowntree’s of the U.K., launched Fruit Pastil-Lolly, a cross

between a lollipop and an ice cream, the first sugar confectionery brand in the U.K. ice cream sector. White chocolate emerged as a global craze, particularly in the U.K., France, and Brazil. Physicians in New Zealand claimed that honey derived from a tree growing there could eliminate certain bacteria

99

from infected people and that it was cheaper than and just as effective in the treatment of some stomach disorders as antibiotics. Packaging. After declining for two decades, glass containers began a comeback for food and drink applications, encouraged by the environmental friendliness of glass, its healthy image, and an increase in opportunities to recycle it. AseptiCan, a cylindrical paperboard package for liquid foods, was launched in. Europe jointly by United Paper Mills of the U.K., which made the paperboard, and Michael H6raul Maschinenfabrik of Germany, which made the forming machinery. Convenience, novel appearance, microwavability, and recyclability were its main advantages. The first customer was Finland’s largest food packer, Valio Oy, which

used the pack for juice drinks. Company Developments. Grand Metropolitan, a U.K. food and drinks producer and owner of Pillsbury of the USS., sold its U.S. pet food subsidiary Alpo to Nestlé for

$510 million, at the same time engaging in a $420 million restructuring operation and shedding 4,000 jobs worldwide. In May Sandoz Ltd., a Swiss drug and chemicals firm, bought Gerber Products Co., the leading U.S. producer of baby foods, for $3.7 billion. Unilever, an Anglo-Dutch firm and the biggest spender on food research-and-development in the world, increased its research and development spending by 12%. Two major U.K. research organizations, Campden Food Research Association and the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association, announced that they planned to merge on Jan. 1, 1995. i Pfizer Food Science Group, part of the New York-based Pfizer Inc., opened its first European technical service laboratory, at Sandwich, England, and announced plans for two more labs, in France and Germany, adding to those already established in the U.S., Australia, and Japan. APV

of the

U.K. won a $24 million contract to equip a dairy plant in Harad, Saudi Arabia. The first of its kind in the country, it

would be designed to process 375,000 litres (99,000 gal) of milk per day. Coca-Cola announced plans to build a $26 million bottling plant in Qingdao (Tsingtao), China, bringing to 23 the number of its plants in the country. Kraft General Foods International Inc. announced in late 1993 a joint venture to build a $42 million dairy products plant in Beijing (Peking). Also in late 1993 Kraft’s European subsidiary, Kraft Jacobs Suchard, bought a controlling interest in Kaunas Confectionery Co. of Lithuania, which produced 7,000 tons per year of confectionery products. Antinori, one of Italy’s oldest Chianti producers, bought Atlas Peak, a company in California’s Napa Valley producing high-quality wines. It was one-third the size of Antinori’s Italian holdings. After eight years of litigation, the Swedish Tetra Laval Group, the world’s largest privately owned beyerage and liquid foods packaging company, lost its appeal against the $45 million fine from the European Commission for breaking the EU’s competition rules. This was the largest fine ever imposed by the commission. Government Action. Food law continued to advance strongly in 1994, and so did efforts at deregulation and simplification. An attack on the growing complexity of EU draft food laws was made by the European Commission president, particularly in regard to novel and genetically modified foods. The European Commission was pressing for harmonization of national laws covering nearly 3,000 flavourings used by food companies, but discussions were likely to be contentious. Fears about consumer confidence in milk and meat products prompted the European Commission to demand a seven-year extension of the European ban on the genetically

100

Anthropology

and 800,000 years old, respectively, the fossils yielded astonishing new ages of 1.8 million and 1.6 million years. It had been thought that H. erectus originated in Africa 1.8 million years ago and then migrated to Asia about a million years later. The new dates indicated that the species is apparently equally old on both continents or, if it first evolved in Africa (which was still believed to be the case), it migrated to Asia soon thereafter. An alternate explanation was that the African and Asian fossils represent different species. This seemed highly unlikely, however, since H. habilis, the presumed ancestor of H. erectus, had never been found in Asia (nor had any of the australopithecines). Scientific debate continued over two, and possibly three, models for the origin of modern humans. What started it all was the discovery of anatomically modern human skulls of an unexpectedly early date (perhaps 120,000 years old) in South Africa and the analysis of a type of noncoding DNA, mitochondrial transfer DNA (mtDNA), gathered from living humans around the world, which indicated that the human populations with the most variable DNA sequences, and thus the oldest, were also African. Subsequent analysis of noncoding DNA sequences from cell nuclei yielded similar

engineered growth hormone bovine somatotropin (BST). Fears of a trade confrontation with the U.S., where the drug was developed, grew with the ending in September of a 15month moratorium on the use of BST imposed by the U.S. (ANTHONY WOOLLEN) Senate in June 1993. See also Business and Industry Environment; Health and Disease.

Review:

Beverages;

Tobacco;

This article updates the Macropedia article FOOD PROCESSING.

Anthropology The discovery of fossil evidence in Ethiopia supporting the evolutionary divergence of humans and apes roughly 4.5 million to 6 million years ago, long predicted on the basis of molecular evidence, was announced in 1994. Consisting

of teeth, jaw fragments, a skull base, and an arm, the fossils were classified as a new species of hominid, Australo-

pithecus ramidus. The bones, which are both chimpanzeelike and humanlike, were securely dated at 4.4 million years, placing A. ramidus at or near the point at which the human ancestral line split from the apes (see Figure). results. Furthermore, at least one case of replacement by an Initial evidence indicated that the species may have been anatomically modern human population of, in this case, a a bipedal woodland dweller. Given some of the arboreal anatomic features of more recent hominid fossils (including the A. " H. sapiens afarensis fossil known as Lucy), present : (modern humans) African apes it is possible that upright posture ‘ evolved quite some time before 1 H. neanderthalensis ‘ the specialized ground-dwelling, 1 1 two-legged, striding gait of mod' 1 ern humans. 1 H. erectus 1 During 1993-94 new Ethiopian 1 1 finds belonging to A. afarensis 1 , were announced. The hominids 1 1 lived from nearly four million to 1 1 three million years ago in both 1 ‘ open-dry and open-wet forest en1 vironments. Some disagreement 1 1 A. boisei existed about the reason for the ‘ ' diversity in size seen in their ' ‘ Homo habilis new skull skeletons (was it sexual dimor1 ' phism or the existence of separate 7 1 species?) and about their bipedal1 1 ism (could they really have made 1 A. robustus 1 the footprints found at Laetoli?). ' ' The new discoveries—one being 1 1 ee A the first complete skull for the 1 A. 1 species (see Figure)—tended to ' » ‘ * ‘ of millions ago years support the argument that vari1 : A. africanus 1 ' < ation in size was due to male1 s

1

*

female differences, but the issue of tree-climbing versus groundwalking ability remained unresolved.

New research on the human ancestor Homo erectus included the recovery of an almost com-

plete skull from Java in 1993, tentatively dated as being 500,000 to 700,000 years old. Of greater significance was a 1994 report on a new age estimate, by means of a state-of-the-art technology called argon-argon dating, of the well-known H. erectus fossils from Mojokerto and Sangiran in Java. Originally estimated at 1,000,000

|

‘

'

‘ ' 1 4 1 ' ‘ 1 1 ‘ ' 1 1 1‘ 1 1 1 a ‘ 1 1

(ABOVE) INSTITUTE OF HUMAN ORIGINS; (BELOW) TIM'D. WHITE—BRILL ATLANTA

A. afarensis

' 1

i

nae

Australopithecus ramidus

; * ’

common ape-human ancestor (4.5 million to 6 million years ago)

jawbone fragment

Archaeology

Neanderthal (H. neanderthalensis) population in Israel, was documented. Modern humans lived in the Levant while Neanderthals lived in Europe. Thus, when the latter traveled south to caves in Israel, modern humans already had been

there thousands of years. Although the interpretation of the evidence was debated, it was part of the “single-origin” model, which proposed — that one early population of modern humans spread out of Africa and eventually replaced all less modern populations of Homo worldwide. Support for the opposing “regionalcontinuity” model was based primarily on evidence of gradual morphological change, mainly of the skull, from ancient to modern inhabitants in different areas of the world. The model seemed to work best with some Asian populations. Recently a new model began attracting scientific interest. It suggested that about 65,000 years ago a large number of small groups of modern humans radiated out of Africa into Europe and Asia. Altogether only 100,000 migrants may have been involved. Survival was difficult, resulting in socalled genetic bottlenecks that caused the groups to become somewhat genetically distinct from one another over time. Nevertheless, by about 50,000 years ago, with the worst of the last Pleistocene ice age behind them, the groups dispersed all over the Old World and experienced population explosions. The peoples of the world today are the result of that process. The model is based on the historical demography and genetics of modern human populations. In both this model and the single-origin model, the genetic differences that exist today between the peoples of the world would not be very old. In the regional-continuity model, however, they would

be quite old, reflecting differences

that may have

existed since the dispersal of H. erectus out of Africa. The recent impetus for research into the origin and dispersion of modern humans came from the realization that noncoding DNA, both nuclear and mitochondrial, in human

cells serves as a kind of historical document about the relationships between living people. Not only does the degree of similarity between DNA samples indicate the degree of shared heredity, but it also indicates how long ago any two groups diverged from a common ancestor. Only natural selection can interfere with this historical interpretation of DNA, but because all human populations today are far more similar genetically than they are different, most of their DNA differences must be due to limits on gene flow and genetic drift. Thus, to understand human “genetic geography,” one needs prehistoric and historic information, particularly about migrations and factors that affect population size. Since by the mid-1990s the amount of genetic information from all over the world was quite extensive and was usable in conjunction with archaeological, ethnohistorical, and linguistic data, a detailed picture of modern human evolution was beginning to emerge. Among some of the findings from this research to date: (1) linguistic differences between populations do parallel genetic differences; (2) craniometric differences (differences in the dimensions and proportions of the skull in different populations) also parallel genetic differences; (3) the spread of farming involved the spread of farmers, not just their technology; (4) the Ainu of Japan, long thought to have Caucasoid characteristics, are indeed northeastern Asians; (5) after the Lapps, the Scandinavians are genetically most divergent from other populations in Europe; (6) the Basques are the indigenous descendants of Paleolithic and Neolithic peoples; and (7) according to an analysis of mtDNA taken from ancient bones, the prehistoric inhabitants of Easter Island were of Polynesian origin. The same broad-based research strategy, when applied to the question of the origin of American Indians, also led

101

to some interesting and controversial findings. Analysis of mtDNA confirmed an Asian origin for American Indians, the speakers of Amerind-group languages having four kinds of Asian mtDNA and the speakers of Na-Dene-group languages having only one of the four. Whether this difference represents two separate migrations from Asia to North America or a loss of three mtDNA types from part of the descendants of a single migration (due to genetic drift) was debated. Moreover, the diversity that exists in the Amerind speakers indicated a much longer period of existence in the New World, as long as 42,000 years, compared with perhaps 12,500 years for the Na-Dene. The former date is very much earlier than was generally accepted. A group of anthropologists and other scientists formed the Human Genome Diversity Project to address the problems of sampling the genetic diversity of the human species. Given the large number of populations globally and the rapid rate of disappearance of the smaller isolated populations, gathering a representative sample of human genetic diversity posed a real challenge. (HERMANN K. BLEIBTREU) See also Archaeology. This article updates the Macropeedia article Human EVOLUTION.

Archaeology Eastern Hemisphere. Old World archaeology suffered in 1994 from political circumstances in the Near East, in southeastern Europe, and in various parts of Africa and Asia, which understandably were not encouraging to field excavations. The number of yearly summaries on fieldwork given in the American Journal of Archaeology for some areas of Europe and for the Near East—but not, understandably, for countries such as Iran and Iraq—continued to increase. Heinrich Schliemann recovered a spectacular amount of gold artifacts in the site of Troy in the late 1800s and presented the “gold of Troy” to a Berlin Museum. During World War IJ it disappeared, but it was recently reported to be safely stored in a Moscow museum. The Russians were considering returning it—but to whom? An international conference was scheduled in Moscow to discuss the matter. Troy is in Turkey, and the Turks requested the collection; Greece claimed it, believing Troy’s antecedents were Greek; and Germany claimed it since the artifacts were Schliemann’s gift to them. The Institute of Paleolithic Culture in Japan reported the recovery of stone tools (hand axes, choppers, cleavers) of about 600,000 years ago. Given the region and the time, it was thought that these finds might relate to Pithecanthropus of Java. In northern Greece an impressive hand ax about 200,000 years old was recovered. Joint Russian and

American work in the northwest Caucasus recovered sites of Mousterian hunters, while a French and American study was made of the faunal remains of the classic Mousterian cave sites at La Quina. The lost half of a group of famous “Venus” figurines, about 18,000-25,000 years old, found in the Grimaldi cave

in Italy in 1883, was recovered. The original finder, Louis Jullien, moved from France to Canada, apparently taking the missing pieces with him. A sculptor found the lost figurines in an antique shop in Montreal. Knowledge of prehistoric art in Europe was enriched by two major finds. Archaeologists exploring a cave in the Ardéche River canyon in southern France discovered a gallery decorated with some 300 paintings of an astonishing variety of prehistoric animals, including bison, rhinoceroses,

bears, horses, panthers, and owls. Thought to be 20,000 years old, the images were being compared to the world-

102

Archaeology

ra, famous cave art found at Lascaux, France, and Altami age rable compa Spain. In northern Portugal a discovery of as such s animal came to light: images of more than 60 into tools stone bison, horses, ibexes, and deer chiseled with the rock face along a deep gorge of the Céa River. The carvings, already partly covered by backed-up water from a dam on the Douro River, were being threatened with complete inundation by a second dam under construction in the region. News of the discovery came amid charges that knowledge of the prehistoric site’s existence had been kept quiet for more than two years to allow building of the second dam to proceed. To the extent that field work could be done in southwestern Asia, the attention to sites yielding evidence of agricultural beginnings continued. Particularly remarkable was the evidence for early pig domestication at Hallan Cemi in southeastern Turkey. Round or U-shaped house plans indicated year-round occupation around 10,500 years before the present. The site’s early date and locality challenged the general current assumption that the beginnings of food production began only in the Levant (south and west Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan).

Excavations were especially active in southern Turkey and north-central Syria at sites yielding materials of the earlier urban periods. Public buildings with impressive wall paintings continued at the University of Rome’s Arslantepe site near Malatya, and there were various other locations of interest farther south in the Euphrates valley in Turkey yielding further hints of Uruk (southern Mesopotamian) connections. There was also activity in northeastern Syria, where tributaries flow to the Euphrates. A Belgian expedition fueled the growing interest in the early literate range with a find of pre-Sargonid tablets at Tell Beidar. While many archaeologists working within the Euphrates drainage system might have preferred to work in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq), their enforced choices had nonetheless succeeded in opening a new area of considerable. interest. Excavations at sites of the historic ranges in Israel and Jordan were focused on sites in the later historic ranges,

although work on the early village site of ‘Ain Ghazal in Jordan continued. Many of the exposed Israeli sites appeared to have been of 1,000 Bc or later, but interesting Chalcolithic materials appeared on Tell Shiqmim—a joint American, French, and Israeli excavation. Impressive Late

in 1991, Both the body itself and more than 20 artifacts and clothing had aroused much interest. In southern Russia and Kazakhstan, an impressive amount of evidence concerning the very early development of wheels (on remains of chariots) was recovered. Vast areas being prepared for drainage for agriculture, in the fenlands of eastern England, yielded over 2,000 sites (7th millennium BC to medieval times).

In Greece much interest turned to the clearance and yield of the site of the battle of Actium, near Corinth. The identification of ash (from a datable ice core taken in Greenland) was believed to fix the date of the Santorini volcanic eruption that buried the Minoan colony there at about 1623 Bc. The eruption may well have given rise to the Atlantis legend. As the centre of Athens was laid partially bare in recent months for the construction of a subway, graves dated from the 5th century BC as well as materials of later Byzantine and Turkish times were being recovered. The general dearth of archaeological news from Greece might be ascribed to something of a xenophobic attitude on the part of the country’s antiquity service or possibly to the tensions between successive Greek governments (for example, Melina Mercouri [see OBITUARIES], who served as minister of culture under the former

Socialist government,

was

an energetic

campaigner for the return of the Elgin Marbles to Greece). In Lugnano, a town on the Tiber River 110 km (70 mi) north of Rome, a large Sth-century AD children’s cemetery was being exposed—thus far, 49 skeletons had been recovered. Skeletal evidence pointed strongly to a plague of malaria mentioned in contemporary records. Attila the Hun may have cut short his invasion of Italy because of a fear of malaria. Similarly, a comparative study of the depictions of women on the Pompei frescoes with physical evidence from their skulls indicated hyperostosis frontalis interna, a hormonal disorder. At Suffolk, a Roman British site, 14,780

gold and silver coins, tableware, jewelry, and other ornaments were found and officially declared “treasure trove,” thus the property of the Crown. On the Chiang Jiang (Yangtze River) in China, where a new dam

and flood plain was under construction,

a gov-

ernment project began to recover a vast amount of archaeological materials spanning as much as 7,000 years. Many tombs and great quantities of pottery, porcelain, jade, and stoneware objects had already been recovered.

Bronze Age architecture continued to appear on Tell Ha-

On a beach dune of Lake Victoria in New South Wales,

zor. Several teams made new clearances at Petra, Jordan. A variety of interesting excavations were reported north

Australia, a huge necropolis was located, with expected evidence of as many as 10,000 skeletons. The ancient people

and west of the Tigris-Euphrates drainage—surely a reflection of the favourable prevailing circumstances for field work. At Troy a burned level discovered below Troy I, Schliemann’s earliest excavations, demonstrated still earlier

settlement, and broad later clearances (Troy II-VI) were made. More details of the tin mining and smelting at Goltepe-Kestel were recovered. Excavations on the longworked sites of the later Bronze and Iron Age ranges and of Greco-Roman and Byzantine times continued. The lack of field news from Egypt in 1994 reflected, to some degree, the prevailing political tension and perhaps the interest of some archaeologists there in not encouraging hordes of tourists. An Old Kingdom stone-paved road, about 12 km (7.5 mi) long, was cleared. It appeared to have facilitated the transportation of good stone for monumental use at Giza. In Sinai, near Egypt’s border with Israel, a huge

Roman fortress and large town were exposed in a region being cleared for a new agricultural development canal. In early Europe continued study added to information about the life of “Otzi,” the 5,300-year-old “Iceman,” whose

frozen remains were found in the Otz valley high in the Alps

seem to have left their dead exposed on the sandy dunes,

then bundled the disjointed bones for burial. The find suggested that far larger communities of hunter-gatherers existed before the arrival of Europeans than had been anticipated. (ROBERT J. BRAIDWOOD) Western Hemisphere. New World archaeology in 1994 was marked by the announcement of important discoveries concerning the arrival and antiquity of humans in North America, the emergence of significant new evidence suggesting that the agricultural foundations of the Maya may have extended back to preceramic times, and the combining of traditional archaeological techniques with modern biotechnology to resolve a long-standing debate over the origins of tuberculosis in the New World. It had been generally assumed that the first human immigrants to North America traveled from Siberia across a land bridge over the Bering Strait. They then moved from Alaska southward via an ice-free corridor through western Canada and down into the U.S. Southwest, where many artifacts of Paleo-Indians and extinct big game were first found. The early peoples were believed to have migrated

Archaeology

103

and analysis of a set of agricultural tools to establish that the ancient inhabitants were actually engaged in land clearing and the cultivation of domestic crops as early as 2500 BC, long before the introduction of the distinctive Mayan ceramics that were traditionally interpreted as the initial indicators for the advent of settled society in Mesoamerica. Distinctive chipped and carved stone tools with hoelike or axlike edges were similar to those of the later classic Mayan sites, suggesting cultural continuity over time. In addition, shifts in the range and diversity of the natural plants were documented through pollen evidence and indicated that swamp areas bordering the site had been drained. Maize (corn) and manioc pollen identified in refuse-pit deposits suggested that the inhabitants were early agriculturists, present perhaps 1,500 years earlier than previous projections for the earliest manifestations of this culture. The 1932 discovery by Alfonso Caso y Andrade of Tomb Seven at Monte Alban, Mexico, renowned for the whole gold mask and pectoral (chest piece) it contained, remains one of the most spectacular single discoveries in New World archaeology. Heated controversy over the site broke out in 1994 over a reinterpretation of the identity of the human skeletal remains in that tomb. Sharisse and Geoffrey McCafferty, associated with Brown University, Providence, R.I., announced that one of the skeletons, which had been

A figurine from a tomb in Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula resembles figures of goddesses associated with Teotihuacan. It was reported in 1994 that the investigation of two tombs in Mexico indicated classic Mayan cultural patterns to have been more widespread than previously thought. JEANNE RANDALL—SELZ FOUNDATION YAXUNA PROJECT; SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY

eastward from the Southwest to the Atlantic Coast several thousand years later. In the past year, however, the discoyery of a mastodon tusk in deeply buried sediments below a river in Florida challenged the common wisdom about both the early migration routes and the causes for extinction of the mastodon, an early relative of the elephant, and other Late Pleistocene mammals. A team led by David Webb of the University of Florida determined

that

the tusk, which

showed

clear

signs of

butchering by humans, is at least 12,200 years old, centuries older than similar documented activities in the Southwest. Well-preserved marks around the base of the bone tusk suggested that it had been cut off the carcass with sharp knifelike implements. Stone butchering tools were recoyered at the site, including a razorlike stone flake for cutting and scraping, as were associated tools and weapons made of ivory and decorated with geometric designs. The Florida excavation now had to be considered the earliest butchering site in North America. The astonishing find supported a new scenario, one in which humans first migrated from Alaska across Canada and down the eastern seaboard, only later spreading to the Southwest. Likewise, the antiquity of the tusk—at least 1,000 years older than the dated human finds

in the Southwest—suggested that instead of there having been a rapid killing off of big game through overhunting, mastodons and humans coexisted for at least a millennium. The discovery of what may be the earliest evidence of Mayan culture, potentially pushing back the known origins of this ancient Mesoamerican civilization by some 1,500 years, was announced. Working in previously unstudied areas and deposits at the Colha site in northern Belize, a multidisciplinary team led by Thomas Hester of the University of Texas at Austin used radiocarbon dating of pollen cores, botanical identification of the contents of buried refuse pits,

thought to be that of a great king or priest, may in fact be that of a queen or priestess. The McCaffertys based their surprising reinterpretation on the fact that one of the original researchers at Monte Alban had belatedly included a female jawbone among the inventory of the contents of the tomb. Furthermore,

the site contained

a wide assortment

of artifacts commonly taken as indicators of female activities—weaving batons, including an assortment of full-size and miniature spinning tools, and small “spinning bowls” on which the base of a spindle is rested when it is twirled— as well as two miniature gold rings that the archaeologists suggested may have served as ritual thimbles. This reinterpretation could result in a radical shift away from the former predication of a predominantly male power structure in ancient Mesoamerican society. It could cause reexamination of artifacts from other early sites to see if they contain similar evidence of elevated status of women. The debate went into high gear when the McCaffertys’ reassessment, which some perceived as long overdue, came under attack

from others, notably Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus of the University of Michigan, who charged that the McCaffertys, in the words of a Science News article, “parlayed a political concern about inequalities heaped upon women in ancient and modern societies ...to promote a vision of once-powerful Mixtec woman.” The first successful use of genetic analysis techniques in the study of ancient disease was reported in 1994 in research into the origin and antiquity of tuberculosis in the New World. While not enjoying the broad media coverage that forensic DNA testing received in U.S. criminal court cases during the year, the study of DNA genetic structure in tissue samples from ancient South American mummies nonetheless proved to be an important new diagnostic tool for researchers. The story began in 1990 with the excavation of some 600 pre-Inca burials near the village of Ilo in southern Peru. Archaeologists Jane Burikstra and Todd Holcomb of the University of Chicago investigated some 600 graves in 11 prehistoric cemeteries in the valley belonging to highland peoples who had migrated down to this lowland desert drainage on the coast about 1000 Bc. These migrants, as evinced by their distinctive Andean pottery, apparently dominated the lowland valley for at least 2,000 years, until

104

Architecture

just before the arrival of the Inca empire. About 140 of the burials contained the well-preserved, naturally mummified remains of 700-1,000-year-old individuals. The archaeologists enlisted paleopathologist Arthur C. Aufderheide and molecular biologist Wilmar L. Salo both from the University of Minnesota, Duluth. Together they identified and extracted tissue samples from what appeared to be tubercular lesions in desiccated lung and lymph node tissue from the body of a 40-50-year-old woman. They then used a modern genetic testing procedure called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies traces of ancient DNA by an amount sufficient to permit the identification of particular DNA types—in this case the ancient “molecular fingerprints” of the tuberculosis-causing bacterium. This new tool of DNA analysis thus provided unequivocal evidence that tuberculosis existed in the New World at least 1,000

years before the arrival of the first Europeans and demonstrated that the disease probably evolved in the Americas independently of the European strains carried to the New World in the 15th century. In addition to throwing new light on the antiquity of tuberculosis,

an

important

disease

worldwide,

PCR

also

provided a new line of evidence for archaeologists to use in assessing such issues as the political and economic structure of the large pre-Inca settlements. Given the association of tuberculosis with poverty, crowded living conditions, and poor diet, it seemed probable that the ancient coastal population of Peru may have suffered under such conditions—a type of existence most people did not usually associate with societies predating the arrival of highly centralized empires and their expanded political and economic power. (JOEL W. GROSSMAN) See also Anthropology. This article updates the Macropeedia article The Study of HisTORY: Archaeology.

Architecture Probably the most widely noted building of 1994 was the new home of the American Center, which opened in June

on the Seine River in the Bercy neighbourhood of Paris. Designed by Los Angeles architect Frank O. Gehry (see BIOGRAPHIES), the centre contained stage and motion-picture theatres and a variety of other performance and exhibit spaces, as well as 26 apartments for resident scholars and artists. Gehry employed the free-form tilting, curving, and colliding shapes that made him famous, but they seemed tamer than usual because of the traditional warm-toned limestone in which the entire building was clad. Many critics noted the appropriateness of the choice of Gehry, among the most innovative of contemporary U.S. architects, as designer of the American Center, which was founded in 1931 to promote French understanding of U.S. culture. A more typically wacky Gehry design, the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum, opened late in 1993 at the Univer-

sity of Minnesota. Known to students as “the Fred,” it was a childlike jumble of shapes on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, with several facades clad in brushed stainless steel that reflected the sky and the sunset. Awards. The Pritzker Architecture Prize, which bills itself as the equivalent of a Nobel Prize, retained its rank as the most prestigious architectural award despite a glut of rival $100,000-plus prizes. The 1994 Pritzker was awarded to Christian de Portzamparc, a French architect whose best-

known work was the Cité de la Musique, a school for music and dance in Paris. The award ceremony was held

in Columbus, Ind., as a way of honouring the town and its

remarkable collection of works by modern architects. The Pritzker jury called Portzamparc “a powerful poet of forms and creator of eloquent spaces” and spoke of his “exuberant collage of contemporary architectural idioms, at once bold, colorful, and original.” Among other awards, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) gave its 1995 Gold Medal, its highest award

for lifetime achievement, to Cesar Pelli. Pelli was born in

Argentina, served as dean of the School of Architecture at Yale University from 1977 to 1984, and established a practice in New Haven, Conn. He was known for his buildings with a lightweight, almost tentlike, appearance, often surfaced in glass or thin stone veneer. Among his best-known works were the Pacific Design Center in Los Angeles, the World Financial Center in New York City, Herring Hall at Rice University, Houston, Texas, and Carnegie Hall Tower

in New York City. The AIA named the Ford Foundation Headquarters in New York City as recipient of its 1995 Twenty-Five-Year Award, given to a building whose design has stood the test of time. The architect was Kevin Roche of Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo and Associates, with Dan

Kiley as landscape architect. The AIA also named 17 buildings by U.S. architects as recipients of its annual Honor Awards for good design. Among the most prominent were Carnegie Hall Tower by Pelli, Oriole Park at Camden Yards stadium in Baltimore, Md., by Hellmuth Obata m, and the United States Holocaust Memorial Kassabau & Washington, D.C., by James Ingo Freed, a New in Museum

baseball

York City architect. The Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects went to Michael and Patty Hopkins, known for their marriage of high technology with tradition in such works as the new Glyndebourne opera house in England. Civic Buildings. Of all types of buildings, it was those designed for transportation that dominated the world of architecture in 1994. The most spectacular was in Japan— the $14 billion Kansai International Airport, which opened

in September. It was built on an island created from landfill in 18 m (59 ft) of water in Osaka Bay, connected to the mainland by a 3-km (1.85-mi)-long double-deck bridge. The building itself was 1.6 km (1 mi) long and four stories high under a single curving metal roof. The terminal’s architect was Renzo Piano of Italy. In France the Lyon airport railway station opened as a railroad station linked to an older airport, thus bringing users of cars, trains, and airplanes together beneath a structure of concrete ribs that resembled the skeleton of a vast whale. The architect was Santiago Calatrava of Spain. In England a new Waterloo terminal, at the British end of the new Channel Tunnel, imitated the great glass-roofed railroad stations of the 19th century. Its architect was Nicholas Grimshaw.

In the United

States, Denver

(Colo.)

International Airport, the largest in the country, covered 137 sq km (53 sq mi) and included parking for 12,000 cars. Its main terminal, roofed in Teflon-coated tensile fabric, was the world’s largest tent and looked, as one critic noted,

like a Sioux encampment on the plain. The team of architects included August Perez and the firm of C.W. Fentress J.H. Bradburn & Associates. Designed and built with great speed in just over four years, the airport caused frustration when it failed to open on time because nobody could figure out how to get its $200 million automated baggage-handling system to work. Scheduled to open in late 1993, Denver was still not operational at the end of 1994, a delay that caused severe cost overruns. In Washington, D.C., a new embassy for Finland by Mikko

Heikkinen and Markku Komonen was an elegant collage of

Architecture

105

N a

Frank Gehry’s new home for the American Center opened in Paris during the year. A playful structure using glass, zinc, and limestone among other materials, the building includes a theatre, a school, a bookstore, dance and visual arts studios, a restaurant, apartments, and parking. ERICH KOYAMA

glass, copper, bronze, stainless steel, polished granite, and natural wood, held together by taut nautical detailing. It faced the street with a wall of leaves and flowers—a threestory bronze trellis planted with rose and clematis vines. Cultural Buildings. A remarkable concentration of architectural energy occurred at Yerba Buena Gardens in San Francisco, just south of the city’s downtown, where several internationally known architects created a cultural complex. Its core was a Center for the Arts designed by Fumihiko Maki of Japan and James Stewart Polshek of New York City. Maki’s building contained a film and video theatre and a variety of exhibition and performance spaces and was surfaced on the outside with the architect’s signature silvertoned finish. Polshek’s building was a 755-seat theatre. Both structures stood atop the underground portion of a 185,000sq m (2 million-sq ft) expansion of San Francisco’s main convention facility, the Moscone Center; the expansion was

designed by Freed. Also part of the complex was an oval park, the Esplanade, by MGA Partners with Romaldo Giurgola. Scheduled to open in January 1995 across the street from Yerba Buena was a new San Francisco Museum of Modern Art by Swiss architect Mario Botta. It was a formal, symmetrical, blocky

structure in red brick, topped by a huge elliptical skylight. In Paris much attention surrounded the opening of the new Cartier building, which housed the company’s headquarters as well as the Cartier Foundation for Contemporary Art. Designed by Jean Nouvel, the building contained exhibition spaces and was constructed of several transparent glass walls, one behind the other, creating elaborate depths

and reflections. In Santiago, Spain, a Galician Centre of Contemporary Art was under construction. Designed by Alvaro Siza, a Portuguese architect and winner of the Pritzker Prize, it was scheduled to open formally in 1995. The building, sited on a hillside and clad in gray granite, was to house a collection of regional art. Crisply modern, yet relaxed and angular, it

was already being hailed as a masterpiece. At the University of Wyoming, the Centennial Complex by Antoine Predock celebrated the Amerindian culture in a building shaped like a conical teepee. In Managua, Nicaragua, a cathedral by Mexican architect Ricardo Legoretta replaced an earlier one destroyed by a 1972 earthquake. Built of raw concrete enlivened by bright colours, the cathedral was roofed by white bubblelike domes and featured a 34-m (111.5-ft) bell tower. Exhibitions. The blockbuster architectural show of 1994 was “Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect,” displayed at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York City from February through May. It was the largest exhibit ever of the work of Wright, who lived from 1867 to 1959 and was usually regarded as the greatest U.S. architect. On view were over 450 drawings and photographs of famous Wright designs, from his early Prairie houses around Chicago to such later masterpieces as the vacation house “Fallingwater” in Pennsylvania and the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. The show included informative scale models of several of the buildings, including some that had been demolished or that were never built. For a time Manhattan—a place the car-loving, country-loving Wright always claimed he despised—seemed

to have been turned over to the architect,

as the Metropolitan Museum showed Wright’s designs for furniture, ceramics, and textiles, while a number of art galleries displayed various other aspects of “Wrightiana.” MOMA was also host to “Bernard Tschumi: Architecture and Event.” This exhibit featured the work of the controversial French-born architect Tschumi, the designer of the Parc de la Villette in Paris, who in 1994 was dean of the school of architecture at Columbia University, New York City.

In Montreal “Cities of Artificial Excavation: The Work of Peter Eisenman,

1978-1988”

was on view from March

through June at the Canadian Centre for Architecture. Eisenman, an avant-garde U.S. architect and teacher, designed the entire installation as a maze of twisting corridors

106

Architecture

Industrial Revolution, especially in the U.S. Vast steel mills along the rivers of western Pennsylvania, as well as structures elsewhere such as grain elevators and bridges, attracted the interest of preservationists as those structures began to decay from abandonment. Once regarded as blighting scars on the landscape, the industrial relics were now viewed by some as powerful and haunting objects and important symbols of America’s industrial past. Several “industrial heritage corridors” were proposed in different parts of the country. In Paris the renovation of the Louvre Museum continued with the opening of the museum’s Richelieu wing late in 1993. Part of a master plan for the museum by the U.S. architect I.M. Pei, the new wing, which once housed government offices, provided more than 12 ha (30 ac) of new space, most of it galleries for paintings and sculpture. (See also MUSEUMS.) In Pittsburgh, Pa., the new Heinz Ar-

chitectural Center at the Carnegie Museum of Art opened in November 1993 with plans for a series of thematic exhibitions. Already on permanent display was a complete suite of three rooms designed by Wright in 1951 as his San Francisco branch office. Technology and Practice. A January earthquake in Los Angeles damaged some famous works of architecture and cultural history, including houses from the 1920s by Wright and the last surviving original “Golden Arch” McDonald’s

Restaurant,

from

1953. The

Swiss architect Mario Botta employs a number of basic geometric forms in his building for the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. The museum, whose new building was completed in 1994, previously had been housed in cramped quarters in the War Memorial Veterans Building. RICHARD BARNES

and tiny rooms, thus allowing the visitor to experience space as well as look at pictures and models of the architectural projects being displayed. Both the installation and the projects gave a sense of having been carved or quarried out of the earth, layer by layer, rather than constructed. Eisenman cited, as a source of his architecture, his personal experience of psychoanalysis, in which he dug into his own history and unconscious. In Paris the Pompidou Centre held an exhibit of the lifetime work of the multifaceted Italian Ettore Sottsass. In the 1960s Sottsass designed modern-classic Olivetti typewriters. He later helped found an influential movement in Postmodern design that he called Memphis, and in 1994 he was an architect of houses. Preservation. A major controversy erupted over a pro-

posal by the Walt Disney Co. to build a new theme park on a 1,200-ha (3,000-ac) site in Virginia near Washington, D.C. “Disney’s America” was to feature re-creations of events from U.S. history and was to be sited only 6.4 km (4 mi) from the Manassas National Battlefield Park in Virginia, a major Civil War memorial. The plan was opposed by both environmentalists and history buffs, and the Disney company abandoned the proposal. A new concern in the field of architectural preservation was the fate of the disappearing monuments of the

earthquake demonstrated the success of California’s stringent building codes, which were upgraded in the 1970s and 1980s with earthquakes in mind. Little damage was suffered by buildings built or renovated in compliance with the codes, but it was noted that the 1994 quake had a modest magnitude of 6.7 and thus was no predictor of the performance of buildings in a future “big one”—the 8- or 9-point quake experts regarded as inevitable in Los Angeles. In Chicago the prominent architect Stanley Tigerman and interior designer Eva Maddox opened a new school of architecture, which was to be called Archeworks. The school

planned to combine design and research in an effort to develop socially conscious designs such as shelters for the homeless. An unprecedented development boom in China was attracting the attention of architects around the globe. The world’s most populous nation boasted the world’s fastestgrowing economy, a combination that created a need for buildings on a scale never before seen. The Ministry of Construction estimated that 1.4 billion sq m (15.1 billion sq ft) of new housing alone would be needed in just seven years— roughly the equivalent of building two new cities the size of the New York City metropolitan area. In Hong Kong, due to become part of China in 1997, more than 40,000 new apartments were built in 1994. U.S. and European architects were increasingly becoming associated with Chinese partners in the design of prominent commercial buildings. One

Art Exhibitions

of them, a proposed office and hotel tower in Chongqing (Chungking), by the U.S. firm Haines Lundberg Waehler, would be the tallest building in the world. Deaths during 1994 included Pietro Belluschi in February. Italian-born, Belluschi gained a reputation for a gentle version of modernism, using wood and other natural materials, in the Portland, Ore., area in the 1940s. (See OBITU-

ARIES.) Brazilian landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx, who combined abstract art with lush plantings in more than 3,000 gardens, died in June. (See OBITUARIES.) Friends of

Preserving the World’s Historical and Cultural Legacy The continuing destruction of the architectural, artistic, and historical patrimony of the multicultural society in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued to shock and appall the world in 1994, While some of the damage to historic sites, religious structures, libraries, and archives

Art Exhibitions

might be classified as incidental to the general warfare, many significant cultural icons were deliberately targeted for destruction as part of “ethnic cleansing.” All sides suffered, but Bosnian Muslim cultural objects were especially hard hit. Such acts during hostilities are forbidden by an international treaty, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, signed at The Hague in 1954 following disastrous losses of art and architectural treasures in Europe during World War II. The Convention was administered by the

Venice, the incomparable Italian city of art, was both the

ganization (UNESCO). Eighty-five nations were mem-

subject and the venue of several of the outstanding art

bers, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and

exhibitions of 1994. “The Glory of Venice, 1700-1800,” at

Yugoslavia. The treaty states that an enduring cultural heritage is a basic human right worthy of international collaborative respect and maintenance. Thus, responsibility for safeguarding manifestations of material culture transcends any particular ethnic group or nation. Significant losses of cultural sites and monuments resulting from armed conflict during the past decade, the

U.S. architect Charles Moore, who died in 1993, announced

plans to acquire and preserve the house that was his last house and studio, in Austin, Texas. (ROBERT CAMPBELL) See also Business and Industry Review: Building and Construction; Engineering Projects. This article updates the Macropedia article The History of Western ARCHITECTURE.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-

the Royal Academy in London in the autumn, was devoted to 18th-century Venetian art. It was a companion show to “The

Genius

of Venice,

107

1500-1600,”

which

10 years

previously had centred on artists of the 16th century. The 60 artists represented included Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, Francesco Guardi, Canaletto, Bernardo Bellotto, Antonio Canova, and, of course, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. A wide

range of subject matter—religious scenes of Tiepolo, genre paintings of Pietro Longhi, and cityscapes of Canaletto and Bellotto—created a picture of life in the city in all its diversity. Prints, drawings, and sculptures as well as paintings were represented. The year 1994 was the 400th anniversary of the death of the great Venetian painter Jacopo Tintoretto, and the occasion was marked by his home city, which designated itself Citta del Tintoretto, an initiative that included the publication of various Tintoretto walks for visitors to enjoy. Associated were two exhibitions that, although not large, illustrated the extent of his talents. The shows were held at the church of San Bartolomeo (“Tintoretto: Sacred Representations in the Churches of Venice”) and at the Accademia Gallery (“Jacopo Tintoretto: Portraits”) and subsequently appeared in Vienna at the Kunsthistorisches Museum. There were 13 religious paintings drawn from various Venetian churches on view at San Bartolomeo and at the Accademia 41 portraits lent by European and American public collections. Many of Tintoretto’s paintings hang in other public buildings in Venice, including the Ducal Palace, and at over 20 churches, and the two small exhibitions thus

complemented the great permanent displays always present in the city. The exhibition at the Accademia was by far the largest such show ever devoted to the artist’s work and comprised approximately 25% of his surviving portraits. The portraits were characterized by expressive heads, many of whose subjects were influential elderly men, painted for official purposes, but there were also several relaxed family portraits. A self-portrait of the artist from the Victoria and Albert Museum in London was loaned for inclusion in the show. A major show devoted to the architecture of the Italian Renaissance was mounted at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice. Titled “The Renaissance from Brunelleschi to Michelangelo: The Representation of Architecture,” it concentrated on exhibits that served to bring architecture alive. The im-

intentional nature of recent destruction in the Balkans,

and the spectre of ethnic strife elsewhere in the world signaled the urgent need to strengthen international safeguards. Several major nations not yet party to the 1954 Hague Convention—including the United States and Canada—were considering ratification. UNESCO and the government of The Netherlands sponsored a series of meetings, one in 1993 and two in 1994, conven-

ing legal, military, and cultural resource-management experts to formulate recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of the convention to be presented for consideration by the signatories in 1995. Other initiatives in 1994 supported protection, preservation, and reconstruction of cultural property in accordance with international humanitarian norms. A symposium at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., entitled “Destruction and Rebuilding of Architectural Treasures in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” considered cultural damage and losses in the context of the 1954 Hague Convention and examined the scope and process of an investigation under the aegis of the UN by experts preparatory to action by the international war crimes tribunal. During the summer of 1994, the Research Centre for Islamic History,

Art and Culture in Istanbul organized a pilot workshop on the reconstruction

of Mostar, the historic Herze-

govinian capital, with broad international support from educational institutions and professional organizations. The International Council on Monuments and Sites,

with national committees in 81 countries and headquarters in Paris, advocated improving preparation for protecting cultural heritage in the event of conflict or natural disaster. Approaches included identifying, inventorying, documenting, and marking cultural property worthy of protection and disseminating information about its worth among the military and civilian population. (ARLENE K. FLEMING)

108

Art Exhibitions

mense show had as a centrepiece the massive wooden model of an unbuilt design for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome by

Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, done in 1539-46, which

stood some 4.5 m (15 ft) high. Newly restored, the model dominated the courtyard of the Palazzo Grassi, allowing visitors to walk around and view it from all angles. A smaller, partial model of Michelangelo’s design for half of the drum and dome was suspended dramatically over the palace’s main staircase, showing by contrast how he had simplified and monumentalized the design.

exhibition and problems with loans being canceled at the last minute, the show generally offered much of interest. Objects on display included Persian pottery, Syrian silver work, and Egyptian textiles. Objects collected by the Medici, the Borgias, and the Estensi, including inlaid metalwork

and hard-stone pieces, were notable. Ottoman textiles were especially well represented. Also at the Ducal Palace a large loan exhibition entitled “Normanni” surveyed Norman culture and its European and Middle Eastern conquests for the period 1030 to 1200. A charming exhibition in Florence

at Fort Belvedere, entitled “Views of Florence,” comprised views of that city

as depicted by both foreign and Italian artists from the 14th to the 19th century, including photographs and representations of the city in the backgrounds of nonlandscape paintings. An exhibition devoted to 20th-century art of the Low Countries appeared in the early summer at the Musée National d’Art Moderne in Paris. The survey divided its presentation of Dutch art into separate

to the earlier another

shows, one

“historic”

to contemporary

devoted

period

and

works, with

the contemporary works actually being shown first. The subtitle of the exhibition (“From van Gogh to Mondrian”) was slightly misleading, as some 19thcentury Symbolist paintings were also included. The exhibition was themebased and included landscape, portraiture, and abstraction. One room was

devoted to architectural and design aspects of De Stijl and included studio photographs as well as decorative items. The star of the show was undoubtedly Mondrian, whose preeminent originality was unmistakable. The Belgian avantgarde was the subject of a show entitled “Impressionism and Post Impressionism in Belgium 1880-1900,” which was devoted to that short, productive “The Man of the Woods and the Cat of the Mountains” was one of the works by R.B. Kitaj period. The two aesthetic groups Les included in the 1994 retrospective at the Tate Gallery in London. Considered one of the early Pop Vingt and its successor La Libre Estheartists in Britain, he also was influenced by Abstract Expressionism. PRESENTED BY THE FRIENDS OF THE TATE GALLERY 1974 tique were represented. An exhibition at the Grand Palais in Paris explored The show included a further 29 wooden models illusthe cultural links between France and Sweden in the 18th trating projects from the 15th and 16th centuries as well century and included among the items on display French as drawings, documents, and portraits of architects. Many paintings from Swedish collections, as well as works by of the models could be appreciated as works of art in French artists working at the Swedish court. Furniture and themselves. Ironically, the exhibition was not particularly architecture were also represented. The title of the show comprehensive, focusing on surviving models, and Venetian was “The Sun and the North Star.” architecture was virtually unrepresented, as was the work of The work of Frank Lloyd Wright was celebrated by a Palladio. Three hundred examples of architectural drawings major retrospective mounted at the Museum of Modern Art were included, however, and there was also a fascinating in New York City from February to May. A wide range of section devoted to templates used for carving decorative Wright’s activity was covered by the exhibition, illustrating details (“modani’”), a few of which had actually been used his technological innovations and his interest in the relato reproduce moldings, cornices, and other ornamentation. tionship between architecture and landscape. The exhibition The show filled 37 rooms, some devoted to general topics comprised a well-chosen selection of models, photographs, and others to single buildings. The exhibition comprised two drawings, and artifacts, along with several full-scale wall distinct phases, with some of the exhibits being replaced at constructions. Wright’s designs for New York’s Guggenheim the halfway point by others, which was intended to protect Museum formed the subject of a small show at that museum the works on paper from too much light. in the summer. (See also ARCHITECTURE.) An exhibition devoted to Islamic works of art taken from Another architectural exhibition was devoted to Augustus Italian collections was shown at the Ducal Palace in Venice, Pugin at the Victoria and Albert Museum. The show was an ideal venue because of the city’s long history of Eastern entitled “Pugin: A Gothic Passion.” Pugin, often considered connections. Despite shortcomings in the mounting of the the founder of the Gothic Revival, was best remembered

Art Exhibitions

for his work at Westminster Palace (Houses of Parliament), but he was a prolific architect, designing 6 cathedrals and over 40 churches and many other religious buildings, including convents, as well as major secular buildings. On display were many designs and objects, as well as drawings of architectural subjects, textiles, and wallpapers, along with

examples of his writings. The exhibition was particularly rich in examples of furniture, church plate, ceramics, and jewelry, much of which had never before been on public

view, and the various facets of his work were well shown in

the analytic and scholarly show. An exhibition devoted to the work of William Morris and his group, entitled “Morris and Co.: Pre-Raphaelites and the Arts and Crafts Movement in South Australia,” was seen at the Art Gallery of South Australia in Adelaide in the spring. European and American enthusiasts of Morris may have been surprised to learn that from the early 1880s until the early 20th century, Adelaide was a major market for his works, owing to the interests and activities of the Barr-Smith family and their circle. Many of the furnishings and fabrics supplied to houses owned by the family had now been acquired by the Art Gallery of South Australia and formed the subject matter of this exhibition. Several major exhibitions took the work of Pablo Picasso as their subject in 1994. “Picasso and the Weeping Women,” comprising approximately 40 paintings and works on paper that depicted Marie-Thérése Walter and Dora

109

overlapping corrugated iron sheets, a reference to the system of map projection, and an installation entitled “Drift” encouraged the viewer to move among floor-mounted cages in which various unrelated

objects were

to be seen, with

mirrors and reflecting lenses giving the installation a series of reflections. An

exhibition

entitled

“Some

Went

Mad,

Some

Ran

Away...” was selected by the English artist Damien Hirst to explore diverse themes of the past three decades. The work of 15 English, German, French, and U.S. artists was

Maar between 1932 and 1942, was fea-

tured at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and later at New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sculpture was the subject of the exhibition ae Ze at London’s Tate Gallery entitled “Pi“Winter Scene” is one of Francisco de Goya’s smaller paintings, which were featured in a 1994 casso: Sculptor/Painter.” The exhibition exhibition that traveled from the Prado Museum in Madrid to London and Chicago. The show focused on three-dimensional aspects included a number of works not usually available for public viewing. of all of Picasso’s work, including paintPHOTOGRAPH © 1994, THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ing, and demonstrated as well the interactions between his painting and his sculpture. Picasso included in the show, which was seen at the Serpentine created nearly 1,000 sculptures in his life, using such diverse Gallery, the Nordic Arts Centre in Helsinki, Fin., and the media as paper, metal, wood, plaster, and pottery, most of Kunstverein in Hanover, Germany, and which was due to which he kept for himself and neither showed nor sold. travel early in 1995 to the Museum of Contemporary Art Many of the items on display had been retained by the artist in Chicago. The exhibition included work in various media, throughout his life and influenced his work at later stages. including sculptures and photographs. One exhibit, entitled The show at the Tate Gallery included a variety of works “Solomon Island Shark” by the American Ashley Bickerton, in all media, including the 1909 “Head of a Woman (Fercomprised a large black shark made of rubber, festooned with coconuts and bags of detergent, the whole being susnande)” in the original plaster as well as in the bronze and pended from the ceiling of the gallery and being subject painted iron (“Woman in a Hat”) made from it in 1961to numerous and diverse interpretations. An interest in the 63. The influence of primitive sculpture and ethnographic morbid combined with a perverse sense of humour seemed objects on Picasso’s paintings and sculpture were well ilto unite a number of the works in the show. lustrated, and his Spanish roots as a source of inspiration A large exhibition devoted to the work of R.B. Kitaj, enwere also apparent. Many important items were lent by the titled “R.B. Kitaj: A Retrospective,” was first shown at the Musée Picasso in Paris. Tate Gallery, then traveled to the Los Angeles County MuOn a more contemporary theme, sculpture by the artist seum of Art, and was scheduled to be shown in New York Richard Wentworth was seen at the Serpentine Gallery in in 1995 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Kitaj (born in London and also in Bristol, England, at the Arnolfini Gallery 1932), whose work was largely figurative, defied classificaand later in the spring in ’s-Hertogenbosch, Neth., and tion, but he was undoubtedly a major artist of the mid-20th Calais, France. Wentworth assembled familiar objects in an century. The show was his first British retrospective and unfamiliar manner; one “sculpture,” for example, comprised comprised a variety of paintings, pastels, and drawings, the a dictionary between the pages of which were interleaved installation of which was partially supervised by the artist. candy-bar wrappers. An exhibit entitled “Mercator” featured

110

Art Exhibitions

It was one of three Kitaj exhibitions in London, the others

being a print survey at the Victoria and Albert Museum and an exhibition of recent pictures at Marlborough Fine Arts. In 1994 there were a number of exhibitions in London devoted to aspects of 19th-century art of German-speaking countries, a relatively little-known area in Britain. The British Museum mounted “German Printmaking in the Age of Goethe.” The museum has a strong collection of German prints of the 19th and 20th centuries, which the organizers

of the exhibition were able to draw on for the comprehensive show. Thé exhibition covered the period around 1800, a time of considerable importance for printmaking because of the emergence of a variety of new techniques. Both scholarly and visually exciting, the exhibition put the art . and practice of printmaking in Germany into context and illustrated particularly the enormous scale of the industry in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Leading centres of printmaking represented included Berlin, Munich, and Vienna, and themes covered both cultural and _ political subjects. The influence of Goethe on the arts was also the subject of a show entitled “Goethe

and Art,” a major loan

exhibition at the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen in Weimar, Germany, which concentrated on all aspects of the poet’s influence on the arts from the 15th to the 19th century. The exhibition had previously been seen in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. “Printmaking in the Renaissance,” an exhibition at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, focused on early European printmaking and included works by Diirer and Mantegna. A show entitled “Treasures from Heaven” was the first important exhibition devoted to illustrated and illuminated manuscripts of Armenia to be held in the United States. It was on display at the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City in the summer and later at the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore, Md. The 88 items on show were drawn entirely from public and private collections in North America and provided a chronological survey of the different periods and schools of the Armenian tradition. The items showed a MICHEL BLOIT COLLECTION, NEUILLY

A porcelain jug, dating from the 1800s and honouring Napoléon Bonaparte, shows the French fascination with Egyptian art. The jug was among a collection of art and decorative items on display in “Egyptomania,” seen in Paris, Ottawa, and Vienna.

variety of styles ranging over a period from 966 to the early 19th century. The rich and varied exhibition entitled “Egyptomania,” which was seen at the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa in the summer, had previously been on view at the Louvre in Paris and was also scheduled to be seen in Vienna. The show explored the influence of Egyptian art on the decorative and fine arts of Europe and North America from the mid-18th to the early 20th century. The National Gallery in London mounted the major exhibition “Claude: The Poetic Landscape.” Although small (28 paintings, 53 drawings) and with all but one drawn from British collections, it comprised a splendid survey of the artist’s work and a fine introduction to the subject. Most of the pictures on display were drawn from the early part of Claude Lorrain’s career, the 1630s and ’40s. The interaction

of subject and landscape was preeminent, and the exhibition focused on the narrative content of his landscapes and included drawings hung next to their connected or related paintings. A show in the autumn at the Grand Palais in Paris was devoted to Claude’s contemporary Nicolas Poussin and included almost all of his major works that were not considered too delicate to travel. The exhibition was an in-depth survey and was to be seen in a reduced version in London early in 1995. Associated shows were mounted at Chantilly, near Paris, at the Louvre, and at the Villa Medici in Rome.

The creativity of the artist was the main theme of a major exhibition devoted to the work of the Spaniard Francisco de Goya entitled “Goya: Truth and Fantasy,” which was shown in the winter at the Prado Museum in Madrid and in the spring at the Royal Academy in London before traveling to the Art Institute of Chicago. This charming show offered visitors the chance to enjoy works rarely assembled or not usually publicly available; included were many portraits and miniatures. “A Gift to America” was an assembly of 54 of the most important old-master pictures donated by merchant S.H. Kress and the Kress Foundation to public museums throughout the United States. The show included works by artists such as Titian, Goya, El Greco, and Van Dyck and toured a number of museums, including the North Carolina

Museum of Art in Raleigh and museums in Houston, Texas, Seattle, Wash., and San Francisco. “The Age of Rubens” was billed as the first U.S.-mounted international loan exhibition survey of Flemish Baroque painting, a subject not usually popular with U.S. audiences. The exhibition was seen at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and subsequently at the Toledo (Ohio) Museum of Art. Its aim was to enhance the appreciation of the subject among contemporary museum visitors, and as such the exhibition was a delight to the eye. Peter Paul Rubens was well represented by 33 canvases, approximately one-quarter of the total number on show. Other artists represented were Van

Dyck, Jacob

A particularly larger projects, before been on Noteworthy

Jordaens,

and Jan Bruegel

the Elder.

attractive group of oil sketches, studies for were also included; some of them had never public view. exhibitions in Japan included, at the

Metropolitan Teien Museum

in Tokyo, the first of a se-

ries of shows that would assemble works from museums throughout the country. This first show concentrated on the introduction of oil painting to Japan and contrasted the medium as used by Japanese artists of the 20th century with its use by Western artists. “Scream Against the Sky” at the Yokohama Museum of Art surveyed Japanese art of the post-World War II period, with 180 exhibits representing the work of 60 artists. At the Fuji Art Museum in Tokyo, an exhibition commemorating the museum’s 10th anniversary

Art Exhibitions

focused on Napoleon and his period and included works by the French artists Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Jacques-Louis David. (SANDRA MILLIKIN) PHOTOGRAPHY A mood of looking back, summing up, and attempting to redefine both the photographic medium and the work of individual photographers who shaped it found expression in a number of impressive retrospective exhibitions in 1994. In Washington, D.C., the National Gallery of Art opened “Robert Frank: Moving Out, 1944-94,” a major overview of the work of the reclusive but influential photographer-cinematographer. The Swiss-born Frank, who

111

News of one of the most amazing photographic finds of recent times was made public: the discovery of 143 papernegative images taken in 1852 by German photographer Ernest Benecke during extensive travels in Africa and the Near East. Unlike most early travel photographers, who dwelled on landscapes and ancient ruins, Benecke frequently photographed people in a surprisingly modern, casual style, thereby qualifying as one of the first ethnographic photographers. The collection, which was acquired by German collector Werner Bokelberg, was estimated to be worth $1 million.

moved to the U.S. in 1947,

powerfully influenced postwar photography with the publication in 1958 of The Americans. In that seminal book Frank recorded with gritty, tilted-frame, snapshot casualness a haunting iconography of empty roads and lonely people and a bleakly pessimistic view of society. The exhibition displayed 150 of Robert Frank’s “End of Dream, 1992” reflects on the breaking up of ice and the waiting for spring. The triptych was included in “Robert Frank: Moving Out, 1944-94,” an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, those and other Frank phoD.C., surveying the work of the photographer-cinematographer perhaps best known for The Americans. tographs, many never be© ROBERT FRANK—COLLECTION OF THE ARTIST fore shown. A program of his innovative cinematic work included 21 films and videos The subject of controversy for 60 years, a blurred, grainy, and the premiere of his recently completed Moving Pictures. and much reproduced photograph purporting to show the Richard Avedon and his work, featured in a high-powered Loch Ness monster was revealed to be a fake. The prankster, media blitz during 1993, continued to be energetically pro90-year-old Christian Spurling, confessed to Scottish remoted in 1994 as the photographer pursued his monumental searchers before he died. He shaped Nessie’s plesiosaurproject of producing a series of major exhibitions and books. like neck and head out of a modeling compound applied to The keynote event was “Richard Avedon: Evidence 1944the conning tower of a small toy submarine, which he then 1994,” which opened at New York City’s Whitney Museum photographed in the shallows of Loch Ness. of American Art. Covering the full range of Avedon’s blackThe 1994 Pulitzer Prize for spot news photography was and-white photography over a half century, the exhibition awarded to Paul Watson of the Toronto Star for his picrevealed an astonishing versatility, a wildly innovative imagture of a U.S. soldier being dragged through the streets ination, and a complexity of emotion that transcended the in Somalia. Free-lance photojournalist Kevin Carter (see insouciant fashion work for which Avedon first became faOBITUARIES) received the Pulitzer for feature photography for his picture of a starving Sudanese child under mous. The collection included charming street photographs taken in New York and Italy during the late 1940s and the patient gaze of a waiting vulture. At the 51st Pictures of the Year competition sponsored by the National Press ’50s and heretofore unpublished harrowing images of VietPhotographers Association and the University of Missouri namese women burned by napalm. His compelling but disSchool of Journalism, free-lancer Anthony Suau was named turbing portraits of Isak Dinesen as—in the words of one Magazine Photographer of the Year, while Lucian Perkins reviewer—a “skull attached to a fur coat,” Ezra Pound sunk of the Washington (D.C.) Post took the title of Newspaper in despairing madness, a half-naked beekeeper crawling with Photographer of the Year. At the 37th Annual World Press insects, and a ravaged, broken-toothed Oscar Levant raised Photo contest, the Press Photo of the Year award was given questions about the status of photographic portraiture and to Larry Towell, a Canadian photographer associated with the ethical relationship between photographer and subject. Magnum, for his photograph of “Children of the Intifada” Perhaps the most unusual exhibition of the year was in Gaza. The primary W. Eugene Smith Grant in Humanis“Talking Pictures: People Speak About the Photographs tic Photography went to Helen Binder for “Russia” and the That Speak to Them” at New York’s International Censecondary award to Viviane Moos for “The Girls of Brazil.” ter of Photography, in which viewers listened to recorded Both recipients were New York-based free-lancers. comments from people both unknown and famous about Robert Doisneau (see OBITUARIES) died at 81 in Paris, the images being viewed. “André Kertész: A Centennial a city whose spirit he captured in many lighthearted and Tribute” at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, Calif., exgently humorous images of its street life, parks, lovers, and hibited 50 pictures, including rare vintage prints made by children during the post-World War II years. the greatly admired Hungarian-born master. An exhibition (ARTHUR GOLDSMITH) at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, “Dorothea photographs, 220 See also Auctions and Collections; Motion Pictures; Museums. Lange: American Photographs,” displayed about one-fourth not previously shown, documenting the This article updates the Macropedia articles The History of Western PAINTING; The History of Western SCULPTURE; PHOGreat Depression, the internment of Japanese-Americans TOGRAPHY. during World War II, and later photo essays.

112 Astronomy

Astronomy For astronomy 1994 was a particularly exciting year as astronomers and the general public thrilled to one of the most dramatic solar system encounters in memory, the crash of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 into the atmosphere of the giant planet Jupiter. (See Sidebar.) Sharp new images of a variety of astronomical objects were taken by the repaired Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) satellite, launched in 1992, began making substantial contributions; with its sensitivity to the ultraviolet radiation normally absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, it, too, produced many new views of the cosmos. Japan’s ASCA X-ray satellite kept unique observations of the sky pouring in at X-ray wavelengths. Astronomers hadafield day using several large Earth-based telescopes (such as the Keck telescope in Hawaii) to provide fresh insights into objects ranging from the nearest asteroids to the most distant quasars. Solar System. Without doubt the most exciting event in astronomy was the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter, but studies of other small bodies in the solar system provided their own delights and surprises. Although the solar system is traditionally viewed as comprising the Sun, nine planets, their moons,

and the asteroid belt between

Mars and Jupiter, the discovery in the past few years of increasing numbers of small cometary or asteroid-like objects beyond the orbit of the planet Neptune was beginning to change that picture. In 1994 Jane X. Luu of Stanford University and David Jewitt of the University of Hawaii reported several more such trans-Neptunian bodies. The 17 objects found as of the end of 1994 orbit the Sun with periods of about 300 years, compared with the planet Pluto’s 248-year orbital period. According to Brian Marsden of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, Mass., several of these distant objects, like Pluto, are locked into a so-called 3:2 resonance with the much more massive planet Neptune, meaning that they revolve twice about the Sun in stable orbits for each three revolutions of Neptune. The Galileo spacecraft, launched in October 1989, continued to beam images to Earth of a variety of solar system objects as it moved closer to its rendezvous with Jupiter. Unfortunately,

because

its main

radio

antenna

was

not

working, data had to be relayed to Earth very slowly through a smaller secondary antenna. Nonetheless, by the start of 1994 Galileo had already sent back a number of spectacular observations. In 1991, as the spacecraft passed near the asteroid Gaspra, it snapped the first close-up picture of an asteroid. Two years later it obtained a spectacular image of a second asteroid, 243 Ida, revealing it to be a heavily

cratered, elongated body about 52 km across (1 km is about 0.62 mi). Then in early 1994 Galileo sent back an image that showed the presence of another asteroid, only about 1.5 km across, within 100 km of Ida. The chances that two asteroids

would be this close together yet independent of each other were estimated to be less than one ina trillion. Therefore, the scientists from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,

Calif., who reported the observation concluded that Ida has a moon of its own, the first known asteroid-moon pair. The small moon, named Dactyl, has about a dozen craters more than 50 m (165 ft) in diameter, implying that it is at least

100 million years old but not as old as the solar system, since it would

have been obliterated

by repeated

hits in

less than a billion years. This information suggested that both Ida and Dactyl originated from a much larger asteroid,

which itself broke up into a collection of pieces called the Koronis asteroid family.

Impact sites of pieces of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 stand out in Jupiter’s atmosphere as large oval regions near the planet's south pole. Telescopes on Earth and in space watched as 21 fragments of the comet bombarded the giant planet July 16-22, 1994. DE PATER, GRAHAM, JERNIGAN—UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY; W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY

Stars. In February 1987 observers on Earth witnessed the explosion of a star in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy—the brightest supernova seen in more than three centuries. As Supernova 1987A became dimmer, astronomers detected an encircling ring of glowing gas about a light-year in radius. It was believed that the ring was composed of gas that had been ejected previously by the dying massive progenitor star and that was then stimulated to emit visible light by radiation from the supernova explosion. In 1994 Christopher Burrows of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), Baltimore, Md., reported that sharp HST images showed two additional rings several light-years in diameter that appeared to intersect the central ring, producing a double-hoop pattern. The large rings were thought to lie in front of and behind the central ring, forming an hourglasslike arrangement in which the hoops outlined the end caps of the hourglass and the central ring outlined the neck. The new rings had not been predicted and were unique in all of astronomy. Scientists offered several possible explanations for the giant hoops. The most intriguing one involved the illumination of interstellar material by a neutron-star or black-hole remnant of the initial explosion. Such an object might emit fast-moving particle beams or jets that could hit the surrounding gas and cause it to glow. The first well-established example of an extrasolar planetary system was reported during the year. Several years earlier astronomers had described two separate instances of a pulsar with one or more planets possibly in orbit around it. One of those reports proved erroneous, leaving the other also open to question. In 1994 Alexander Wolszczan of Pennsylvania State University presented data that confirmed the earlier evidence for at least two planets, and perhaps more, around the pulsar PSR B1257+12. A pulsar is a rapidly rotating neutron star whose spin period, as reflected in its pulse period, is normally extremely regular. The pulse period of PSR B1257+ 12, however, was observed to increase and decrease periodically above and below its average pulse period of 6.2 milliseconds. The variation was interpreted as due to motion of the pulsar toward and away

Astronomy

from the Earth as one or more planet-sized objects orbit the pulsar, gravitationally tugging it to and fro. By measuring the increase and decrease in the pulsar arrival times, Wolszczan showed that at least two planets, each about three times the mass of the Earth, are revolving around the pulsar with orbital periods of roughly 67 and 98 days. Galaxies and Cosmology. The Milky Way Galaxy, in which the solar system resides, was known to be surrounded by at least 10 small satellite galaxies. The nearest had been thought to be the Large Magellanic Cloud, which lies about 150,000 light-years from the Sun. During the year Rodrigo

A. Ibata and Gerry Gilmore of the University of Cambridge and Mike Irwin of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, Hailsham, England, discovered a dwarf spheroidal galaxy only about 50,000 light-years from the Sun. The faint galaxy, which lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, had remained undetected because of obscuration caused by stars and dust lying in the disk of the Milky Way. By starting with an image of the region under study and digitally subtracting the light from known foreground stars, the researchers were left with an image of the dwarf galaxy. It probably contains no more than 50 million stars, compared with some 200 billion for the Milky Way. From its elongated appearance, scientists speculated that the “Sagittarius dwarf” is destined to fall into the Milky Way within the next few hundred million years. In an independent search for previously undetected galaxies, a Dutch group used a radio telescope to penetrate the Milky Way’s obscuring disk of gas and dust. Using the Dwingeloo radio telescope in The Netherlands, Renee Kraan-Korteweg of the University of Groningen and collaborators from The Netherlands, the U.K., and the U.S.

reported finding a spiral galaxy some 10 million light-years away. It is thus about five times farther than Andromeda,

or M31, the nearest large galaxy. From its apparent size and rotational velocity, the galaxy was estimated to have about a quarter of the mass of the Milky Way. New evidence was reported for a massive black hole at the heart of the giant elliptical galaxy M87. The galaxy is close to the Milky Way by cosmic standards, located about 50 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo, making it one of the best active galaxies for detailed study. Images of the centre of M87 captured by the repaired HST showed what seemed to bea tilted disk of hot, ionized gas only about 60 light-years in diameter. The study team, headed by Richard J. Harms of Applied Research Corp., Landover, Md., and Holland C. Ford of STScI, determined the veloc-

ity of the gas to be about 500 km per second. If the gas is orbiting a central object, the mass of the object must be about three billion times the mass of the Sun. Because the deduced mass occupies such a small region, it is possible that the central object is a massive black hole. The HST also obtained clear images of the bright jet that emanates from the centre of M87. This feature was thought to be radiation from a beam of electrons accelerated to nearly the speed of light as a result of processes occurring in or near the disk of material spiraling into the purported black hole. Many astronomers believed that the observational evidence, although still circumstantial, provided the best argument to date for the existence of black holes. In some sense the study of cosmology is a search for two numbers: the age of the universe and its mass density. The first number is sought by means of attempts to determine the distances to certain types of stellar objects located in moderately distant galaxies. This can be done if one knows the absolute brightness, or luminosity, of these classes of stellar objects from their study within the Milky Way or relatively nearby galaxies. By finding what are believed to be the

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9: A Spectacular Good-bye In March 1993 a previously unknown comet caught the attention of veteran comet spotters Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker and David Levy. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) Most unusual about Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was its appearance; it looked like a string of glowing pearls. An early image made with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) revealed about 21 major separate cometary fragments strung out in a line. Calculations showed that the comet had broken up as the result of a near collision with the planet Jupiter in July 1992 and that the pieces would plunge into Jupiter’s southern hemisphere between July 16 and July 22, 1994. The largest pieces, with diameters estimated at about four kilometres, were predicted to unleash an energy equivalent to several million megatons of TNT each during their plunge into Jupiter’s atmosphere at speeds of 60 km per second (a kilometre is about 0.62 mi). The comet’s dazzling demise began right on time. It likely attracted more observations than any other astronomical event in history. Unfortunately, the impacts occurred, as predicted, a few degrees behind the darkened limb of Jupiter. Earth-bound telescopes and near-Earth satellites recorded the consequences as the impact sites were carried into view by Jupiter’s 10-hour rotation shortly after the actual events occurred. The Galileo spacecraft, heading for Jupiter, had the only direct view of the show. The G-fragment impact, one of the largest, produced a set of dark rings in Jupiter’s

113

atmosphere resembling a black eye. Within hours it had swelled to twice the size of the Earth. Days later the site was the most prominent feature on Jupiter, upstaging even the famous Great Red Spot. Within months, however, the impact bruises were nearly gone,

sheared Each optical frozen

into oblivion by Jupiter’s violent winds. of the impact sites appeared dark in ordinary images—a surprise in view of predictions that water and ammonia, which were thought to

be predominant

components

of comets,

would

show

as white plumes above the impact sites as material splashed back into the upper atmosphere and cooled. More surprisingly, very little water was detected spectroscopically. Ultraviolet spectra from the HST did show the presence of ammonia, sulfur, and hydrogen sulfide, the latter two substances having never before been seen on Jupiter. Although some plumes rose 3,000 km above Jupiter, no evidence was found for excavated material of the type thought to lie deep in Jupiter’s atmosphere. Apparently the cometary chunks did not penetrate as deeply into the atmosphere as expected. Was Shoemaker-Levy 9 a typical comet, a “dirty snowball” composed of frozen ice and dust? Or was it more like an asteroid, made of rocky material? The

comet tails seen in the early photos showed only dust, not gas. That detail and the impact results left scientists puzzling over the nature of the objects that had annihilated in Jupiter’s clouds. |.(KENNETH BRECHER)

114 Auctions and Sar abana eae ene

Collections: Art Auctions and Sales

ne

Earth Perihelion and Aphelion, 1995

Jan.4

Perihelion, 147,100,000 km (91,403,900 mi) from the Sun

July 4

Aphelion, 152,102,400 km (94,512,200 mi) from the Sun

March 21

Vernal equinox, 02:141

Equinoxes and Solstices, 1995 June 20

Summer solstice, 20:341

Sept. 23

Autumnal equinox, 12:13!

Dec. 22

Winter solstice, 08:17!

April 15

Moon, partial (begins 10:08'), the beginning visible in the western part of North America, Alaska, Hawaii, the southern tip of South America, Australia, New Zealand, eastern Asia, Antarctica, and the Pacific Ocean; the end visible in the western United States, Baja California, Alaska, Australia, eastern Asia, much of the Pacific Ocean, and the eastern Indian Ocean.

April 29

Sun, annular (begins 14:331), the beginning visible south of French Polynesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, Peru (near Lima), northern Brazil, mouth of the Amazon; the end visible in the western Atlantic Ocean (near the Equator).

Oct. 8

Moon, penumbral (begins 16:43'), the beginning visible in the northwestern United States, western Canada, Alaska, Hawaii, Australia, eastern Asia, eastern Antarctica, the western Pacific Ocean, and the eastern Indian Ocean; the end visible in Europe, Asia, most of Africa, Australia, the western Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean.

Oct. 24

Sun, total (begins 04:22"), the beginning visible south of the Caspian Sea (near Tehran), Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (near Calcutta), Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, southern Vietnam, South China Sea, south of the Philippines; the end visible in the western Pacific Ocean, near the Marshall Islands.

Eclipses, 1995

Universal time. Source: The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 1995 (1994).

A Hubble Space Telescope image of the exploded star known as Supernova 1987A shows it to be encircled by a smaller inner ring, which in turn appears framed bya pair of larger, hoop-shaped outer rings. Discovered in 1994, the outer rings were unique in astronomy. DR. CHRISTOPHER BURROWS (ESA/STSCI), NASA

same types of objects in other galaxies and measuring their luminosities, astronomers

can calculate galactic distances.

Because galaxies appear to be receding from one another at velocities that vary with their distance from the point from which they are observed, by correlating the distances to galaxies with their measured velocities, astronomers can derive a relation, called the Hubble

law, for determining

the current rate of expansion of the universe. The resulting number, called Hubble’s constant (H)), then can be used to find the age of the universe. Actually, the age also depends on the mass density of the universe, which is not well known, so a range of ages results in which the value being sought is somewhere between % and 1 times the reciprocal of Hubble’s constant (1/H)). In 1994 the controversy over the age of the universe gained new force. A group from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, headed by Robert Kirshner, reported an age for the universe of 9 billion to 14 billion years. Their work depended on calibrations of the brightness of exploding stars called type II supernovas. A group headed by Michael J. Pierce of Indiana University, along with five Canadian colleagues, used different types of stellar objects, Cepheid variable stars, to determine

the distance

to the Virgo cluster of galaxies. Their study led to an age estimate for the universe of 7 billion to 11 billion years. Finally, a group of astronomers using the HST and headed

All this consistency may sound like good news; scientists at last know the age of the universe. Unfortunately, nearly half a century of studies of stars indicates that the oldest stars in the Milky Way are at least 16 billion years old. Therefore, (1) the recent determinations of the Hubble constant are in error, (2) the ages of the oldest stars are wrong, or (3) current cosmological models of the expanding universe need revision. Which of those options is correct was not known. Some astronomers, such as Alan Sandage of the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., continued to report a Hubble constant (based on observations of type I supernovas) and an age of the universe consistent with that of the oldest stars. Given all the uncertainties involved in trying to determine the Hubble constant, at year’s end the standard picture of an expanding universe still provided a satisfactory description of the history and age of the universe. (KENNETH BRECHER) See also Space Exploration. This article updates the Macropedia

articles The

Cosmos;

GALAXIES; The PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Astronomy; The SOLAR SysTEM; STARS AND STAR CLUSTERS.

Auctions and Collections ART AUCTIONS AND SALES

The 1993-94 auction season was dominated by the sales of celebrity collections and the exorbitant prices paid by admiring fans for artistic mementos. Princess Gloria von Thurn und Taxis of Germany, couturier Hubert de Givenchy, singer Barbra Streisand, and a 96-year-old former Chinese warlord, Zhang Xueliang (Chang Hsiieh-liang), were all delighted with the profits from the sales of their collections. The estates of U.S. millionaires Peter Sharp, famed for his Old Master collection, and Wendell

Cherry, who favoured

by Wendy Freedman of the Carnegie Observatories of California reported its findings for the distance to the galaxy M100, also using studies of Cepheid variable stars. The age

Impressionists and French furniture, also attracted feverish bidders. A buyer’s market ensured that prices would not rise significantly. Many of the artworks offered for auction failed

to 12 billion years.

turnover. Sotheby’s turnover increased 19% and Christie’s

of the universe according to their calculations was 8 billion

to sell. Auction houses, however, recorded a rise in seasonal

Auctions and Collections: Books

14%. The Paris auction rooms recorded a 5.5% increase in turnover in the first six months of the year compared with the same period of 1993. For once, profits were not dominated by prices for expensive pictures, whether Impressionists or Old Masters. For these works Sotheby’s and Christie’s reported level sales,

although Impressionist paintings declined from the previous year. The decorative arts enjoyed buoyant sales, including ~ strong performances for English and French furniture, European ceramics, and Chinese works of art, especially snuff bottles. The growing number of private collectors buying directly from auction also increased. Traditionally, dealers bought at “wholesale” levels, but in recent years they had been joined at auction by private collectors who paid “retail” prices for furniture and pictures. The first sensational auction of the season was Sotheby’s 10-day sale of surplus furnishings from Schloss St. Emmeram, the Thurn and Taxis palace in Regensburg, Germany. The 6,596 lots sold for DM 31,417,712 (DM

1=$0.65), some 60% over forecast. Other princely families, including the Liechtensteins, Wiirttemburgs, and Wittelsbachs, attended the sale hoping to embellish the furnishings of their castles, but the wealthy bourgeoisie outbid the royalty. A walnut wardrobe of c. 1720 commanded DM 80,500,

three times the original estimate. A French Empire hound with an ormolu clock in its mouth fetched DM

29,900, six

times more than expected. Christie’s Givenchy sale in Monaco was a rousing success and made F 155,533,200 (F 1=$0.19). The couturier

had devoted 15 years to impeccably decorating his Paris apartment in 18th-century taste; he preferred the Baroque magnificence of the early years of the century and had acquired many pieces of royal provenance. It was the grandest furniture sale in many years and attracted acquisitive millionaires. Muhammad Mahdi at-Tajir, former London ambassador of the United Arab Emirates and silver collector par excellence, paid F 19,980,000 for a silver chandelier designed in the 1730s by William Kent for King George II. It was a record price for silver. A Louis XIV library table by André Charles Boulle made

F 18,870,000. The sale underscored

a rise in the price for the best French furniture. A boulle bookcase, which was made by Etienne Levasseur in the 1780s and had sold at auction in 1982 for $209,000, made

F 11.1 million, while a pair of Rococo ormolu candelabra supported by dragons made F 5.3 million after having sold in 1986 for $363,000. The real connoisseurs’ event in the field of 20th-century decorative

arts was

the sale of 143 pieces of furniture,

designs, and drawings by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, the Scottish architect and designer. The items had been amassed over 50 years by Thomas Howarth, professor emeritus of architecture at the University of Toronto. A 1904 ebonized writing cabinet inlaid with mother-of-pearl brought £793,500 (£1= $1.59), the highest auction price ever recorded for 20th-century furniture, while a high, oval-backed oak chair fetched £309,500. Howarth made £2,270,000.

In April a Sotheby auction of Chinese paintings in Taiwan demonstrated that Asian buyers were just as enamoured of celebrity offerings as Westerners. Sotheby’s attempted to sell the collection anonymously, but news soon leaked out. The 700-odd paintings, dating from the 10th century to around 1980, had been collected by Zhang Xueliang, a famous Chinese warlord who was held under house arrest in Taiwan for almost 40 years after he attempted to arrest Chiang Kai-shek in 1936. Every lot sold, and the collection brought NT$132,895,500 ($5,035,000), three times Sotheby’s

115

high estimate. A Sung dynasty painting of a spray of peach blossom

made

NT$16,550,000

($627,000),

four times the

forecast price. The widow of the U.S. millionaire Wendell Cherry, who founded the Humana hospital group and was one of the great

art collectors

of the

1980s,

made

Sotheby’s

sum-

mer by consigning paintings and furniture. Two of her Post-Impressionist paintings provided the top two picture prices—$11,662,500 for Gustav Klimt’s “Lady with a Fan” and $7,592,500 for John Singer Sargent’s “Spanish Dancer.” The furnishings from Cherry’s New York apartment, mainly French 18th century, made $13.7 million, including a Louis XIV boulle library table and filing cabinet, which com-

manded $2.2 million. In the field of modern art, the best results were provided by a collection formed in the post-World War II years by H. Gates Lloyd and his wife, Lallie. One of David Smith’s most famous sculptures, “Cubi V,” made $4.1 million and

Mondrian’s “Composition No. 8” sold for $5.6 million. Both works made about double the projected estimate. Specialty pieces and rarities also brought handsome profits. A 3,000-year-old Assyrian relief carving from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud sold for £7.7 million to Japanese dealer N. Horiuchi. The piece, which depicted a bearded divinity anointing a eunuch’s back, had been rediscovered under a coat of whitewash in the tuckshop of an English public school. A Greek pottery water jar of the 6th century BC decorated with a scene of Hero battling the sea monster Ketos sold for £2.2 million; an Islamic bronze lion

of the 11th or 12th century made £2 million; a 5.8-m (19-ft) Louis XV Savonnerie carpet, emblazoned with the royal arms of France, made £1,321,500 and established a record

price for any carpet; and a blue-and-white Medici porcelain dish made around 1570-80 was sold for F 8.8 million, a new

record for European porcelain.

(GERALDINE NORMAN)

BOOKS The market for antiquarian books emerged from recession during 1993-94, but overall prices were flat, especially for major rarities. The most extraordinary transaction of the year was the exchange of roughly half a Persian manuscript for a Willem de Kooning painting, both valued at about £13 million. The heirs of Arthur Houghton, a book collector, inherited the remaining pages of the Shah-nameh, the celebrated work of Persian epic poet Ferdowsi. Though Houghton had sold off the best of the 256 illustrations in his lifetime, 118 miniatures, over 500 pages of text, a magnificent 16th-century binding, and an illuminated rosette remained. The Iranian government traded de Kooning’s nude “Woman III” for the manuscript. Two major collections of early printed books came on the market. Sotheby’s sold some 400 books published before 1500 from the famous library of the Fiirstenberg princes at Donaueschingen in southern Germany for £3.2 million, and a top price of £221,500 was paid for a tiny block book of c. 1465 titled The Art of Dying. Christie’s sold a selection from the collection of Beriah Botfield (1807-63) for £3.8 million. Beres, a Paris dealer, paid a record £260,000 for a superb

copy of Pierre Joseph Redouté’s Les Roses, while the first Bible published in English—Miles Coverdale’s translation printed in Antwerp in 1535—made £106,000. The British Library reportedly paid £1 million for one of the only two remaining copies of the New Testament translated by William Tyndale and published in 1526. A letter written by Abraham Lincoln sold for $728,500 at Christie’s, and one by

George Washington made a record $635,000 at Sotheby’s. The Forbes family paid $321,500 for a map prepared by the lead pilot in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

116

Auctions and Collections: Philately

wine merchant in Bordeaux, France, the only known cover

to bear both the 1d. red and the 2d. blue of the “Post

cs /

re ont

Office” issue, made Sw F 5,750,000 ($3,840,000). A cover enclosing an invitation to the Government House ball from Lady Gomm, wife of the governor of Mauritius, fetched

pretsngn ’s aly ot

ot Bargeswalped ALO PHP 4 Sey

'

Yer yap SPs ces ante

Pongpnte angie apurre erevin\e!) *

BitsyoeDy hemes nary suk eprnline ot PR

Feta=

en Armeynd ee) Dodap,

Sombie Sparen ob atin \Portescaaunpecty danny E

.

speolensSa,

at HK$15,000, sold for HK$69,000 (approximately $9,000).

Aierds caren

Qa Si ae ga aret

Phillips (London) marked its centenary as philatelic auctioneers with an outstanding sale of British stamps and postal history totaling £431,579; a first-day cover of the 1840

aosSeah ahe se

aii aartiyh ast ane

Sedartinam St Serle

yds

AT9

a cee san

ayeses ia i ieee

hing need) Aone eens

Sw F 1,610,000. Ian Ray’s specialized collection of the Stock Exchange forgeries of the British Victorian 1s. green was sold intact for £57,000 by Sotheby’s (London), and a miscellany of British postal history made £7,000 (estimate, £2,700). Sotheby’s first stamp sale in Hong Kong, part of the firm’s 250th anniversary celebrations (see Sidebar), included an 1883 Chinese 3-candarins red showing the error of an additional figure “3,” a hitherto unknown variety. The stamp, which was found in a schoolboy’s collection and estimated

¥ -

A page from Codex Hammer, one of Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks, shows notes and diagrams on astronomy. When the notebook was offered by Christie’s, Bill Gates, chairman of Microsoft Corp., bought it for $30.8 million, the most ever paid for a manuscript sold at auction. COURTESY OF THE ARMAND HAMMER COLLECTION, UCLA AT THE ARMAND HAMMER MUSEUM OF ART, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA; PHOTOGRAPH, SETH JOEL

Children’s books enjoyed buoyant sales, reflecting bulk buying by a single U.S. collector, Lloyd Cotsen. A first edition of Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit commanded £63,250, and a pristine copy of the first Rupert bear annual, the 1936 New Adventures of Rupert, made £1,610. The best collection of scientific books on the market for over 20 years, formed by Robert S. Dunham (190691), sparked fierce competition, with Newton’s Principia Mathematica (1687) making $211,500 and Copernicus’ De revolutionibus (1543) fetching $151,000. A record auction price, $30.8 million, for a manuscript was paid by Bill Gates of Microsoft Corp. for a notebook of Leonardo da Vinci's. The sale of the last private copy of William Blake’s

1d. black commanded £15,645. A Perkins Bacon archive document, bearing 20 examples of the 1840 “Rainbow” cancellation trials, brought £28,000. Phillips also sold Gordon Latto’s British Commonwealth collection, with exceptional

proofs and essays. The total sale amounted to £157,393, including £6,200 for a composite die proof of the 5s., 10s., and 20s. Australian Kangaroo (1913), valued before the sale at £1,000. Greg Manning Auctions Inc. of Montville, N.J., specialists in handling dealer stocks and accumulations, raised $3,618,000 in its record-breaking sale in June. A very successful international exhibition was held in Seoul, South

Korea, under the patronage of the Fédération Internationale de Philatélie and a regional international exhibition in Hong Kong sponsored by the Federation of Inter-Asian Philately. The latter, four-day, event drew over 200,000 visitors. Stanley Gibbons Ltd., London, acquired the bankrupt

Bristol-based business of Urch Harris & Co. Ltd. for a reported £1 million and saved the firm’s worldwide new-issue service. The Association of British Philatelic Societies was formally established on Jan. 1, 1994, replacing the defunct British Philatelic Federation. The annual congress was held in September at Chelmsford, Essex. Three prominent collectors signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists: Wolfgang C. Hellrigl of Italy, a leading expert on the stamps and postal history of Nepal; Juan Santa Maria of Colombia, an authority on Colombian philately; and Brig. Borje Carl-

Jerusalem was sold at Christie’s for £617,500. Sotheby’s sold

Gustav Wallberg of Sweden, a student of Far Eastern phi-

both a rediscovered notebook containing the only known keyboard music written by Henry Purcell for £276,500 and the library of British double agent Kim Philby for £152,628. (GERALDINE NORMAN)

lately.

PHILATELY

In 1994 the worldwide stamp market enjoyed brisk sales of both major single stamps and important, but not always large, collections. Postal authorities continued efforts to attract adolescent collectors, and the International Federa-

tion of Stamp Dealers’ Associations instituted a new annual award, the Golden Globe, which honoured the national post office considered by the international stamp trade to have done the most to promote philately. The first award was bestowed on Britain’s Royal Mail, with the U.S. Postal Service and the Australian Post Office close runners-up. An important factor in the Royal Mail’s success was its reorganized Collectors’ Club (the former Stamp Bug Club), which raised its membership to 70,000. A new world record for a single philatelic item was established by David Feldman S.A. at the November 1993 auction in Ziirich, Switz., of the Hiroyuki Kanai collection of classic Mauritius stamps. An 1847 cover addressed to a

(KENNETH F. CHAPMAN)

NUMISMATICS

In July 1994 U.S. Treasury officials announced that the world’s best-known currency, the U.S. “greenback,” would

be restyled in an attempt to prevent counterfeiting on hightech equipment. The new money likely would include offcentre portraits, watermark images, and colour-shifting inks but would retain the size and feel of existing notes. The $100 bills, the denomination most favoured by counterfeiters, would be redesigned and introduced first, probably by 1996. Several other nations, including Belgium, Canada, France, Japan, and the U.K., produced currency with high-

tech antiforgery devices. The Reserve Bank of Australia circulated $5, $10, and $20 notes made of plastic.

The U.S. Mint tried to keep up with increasing demand for U.S. coinage fueled by an improving economy. Merchants in several states reported spot shortages of one-cent coins, prompting the government to boost its 1994 mintage goal to at least 19 billion coins from the 15.8 billion made in 1993. One-cent pieces accounted for about 75% of the total. The U.S. Mint also worked on six commemorative coin programs authorized by Congress, including three coin

Auctions and Collections: Antiques and Collectibles

117

types marking the 1994 World Cup soccer games played nearly 17,000 coin values. One of 15 known 1804 U.S. silver in nine U.S. cities. Several countries sold commemoratives dollars, the Dexter specimen, reportedly traded hands in a honouring heroes or important events of World War II, private sale for more than $575,000. Merrill Lynch & Co. notably the D-Day invasion of France on June 6, 1944. announced that 399 coins costing $3.3 million were missing U.S. Treasury Secretary Lloyd Bentsen called for a from the NFA World Coin Fund limited partnership. In moratorium on the passage of new commemorative coin August Merrill said it would reimburse investors in the NFA programs after several lawmakers introduced proposals in fund for their initial purchase price and likewise would pay Congress. Collectors also complained that the market was - investors in its two other rare-coin partnerships, both of saturated. In March, Mary Ellen Withrow became the 40th which had fallen in value. The moves cost Merrill up to $30 U.S. treasurer, with responsibility for overseeing the Bumillion. (ROGER BOYE) reau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and the U.S. Mint. This article updates the Macropedia article COINS AND By midyear,

series

1993

Federal

Reserve

notes with the

facsimile signatures of Bentsen and Withrow had begun to circulate. Meanwhile, a BEP employee was arrested in June in connection with the theft of $1.7 million in $100 notes from the BEP facility in Washington, D.C. Sales of investment-grade bullion coins slumped in the first half of 1994 as precious-metal prices remained static. In 1993 the U.S. American Eagle ranked as the world’s most popular gold bullion coin (514,000 troy ounces sold) and silver bullion coin (5.9 million troy ounces sold). South Africa marketed its Krugerrand in the U.S. and elsewhere following the South African all-race elections in April. From the mid-1980s

until 1991, several nations had banned

its

importation to protest South Africa’s apartheid policy. Almost all of the former Soviet republics issued their own money, often in large denominations to keep up with

COINAGE.

ANTIQUES AND COLLECTIBLES

In 1994 such once-ignored “collectibles” as film memorabilia, advertising, bottles, and toys were featured at special auctions. The objects that interested most collectors and buyers were found, however, in shops, shows, flea markets,

and garage sales and included cookie jars, Pez candy dispensers, bubble bath containers, Beatles memorabilia, arti-

facts used in spaceflight, gambling devices, toys and games, animation cels, advertising materials, and vintage clothing. The biggest news in collectibles, however, was in sports. The baseball card market was returned to the collector as investment-oriented buyers turned to other items. Rarities still sold well, but common

cards lost value.

Golf clubs,

inflation. Ukraine circulated a 100,000-karbovanets coupon,

baseball jerseys, baseball mitts, and player-endorsed advertisements sold for higher-than-expected prices. Babe Ruth’s

and Lithuania printed litas-denominated notes. On July 1 Brazil introduced the real—its sixth currency in a decade— and pegged it to the U.S. dollar. The move greatly reduced Brazil’s hyperinflation, which had been around 45% a month. U.S. rare-coin prices slipped 0.5% in the 12 months ended August 31, according to a Coin World survey that monitored

dating from the early 1900s set several record prices; the highest was $16,500 for a Victor Glodo checkered call. Buyers paid sizable amounts for the rarest pieces of 18thcentury American and English furniture but found many bargains for middle-market examples. The sale of an important Pennsylvania German collection fetched strong prices,

1921 bat set a record at $63,000. Carved wooden duck calls

Sotheby’s Birthday At precisely 12 noon on March 11, 1994, Sotheby’s, the world’s leading art auction house, invited each staff member to raise a glass of champagne to toast the firm’s 250th birthday. During the company’s first two centuries in business, Sotheby’s had reigned exclusively as the world’s largest seller of books by auction, and it was not until the 1950s that the firm seriously expanded into the realm of fine art, postage stamps, musical instruments, vintage cars, scientific instruments, wine, rock-and-roll memorabilia, toys and dolls, comic-book

art, and film posters.

aloger Edward Hodge to help him manage the rechristened Sotheby, Wilkinson and Hodge. In 1907 Hodge’s son, Tom, sold partnership rights to a new group, and in 1917 the firm moved to its permanent location at 34— 35 New Bond Street. By this time Sotheby’s had begun to auction coins, medals, prints, and a few antiquities as well as paintings, furniture, and works of art.

When Sotheby’s began a spectacular international expansion during the 1950s, it usurped Christie’s preeminent position as London’s dominant art auctioneer since the 18th century. The move was masterminded by

Sotheby’s was established on March 11, 1744, when a

Peter Wilson, a brilliant connoisseur and businessman,

London bookseller named Samuel Baker held his first book auction—a dispersal of “several Hundred scarce and valuable Books in all branches of Polite Literature” from the library of Sir John Stanley. He formed a partnership in 1767 with George Leigh, an experienced auctioneer. Upon Baker’s death, his nephew John Sotheby and Leigh divided the estate. It was the Sotheby family, however, that played a leading role in the business for more than 80 years, a period that established the firm as the leading book auctioneer of the Western world. Sotheby’s dispersed the libraries of Prince Talleyrand; the dukes of Devonshire, York, and Buckingham; and volumes amassed by Napoleon. When the last Sotheby died in 1861, John Wilkinson, a senior accountant, took the helm and promoted cat-

who became Sotheby’s chairman in 1958. In 1964 the concern took out a dangerously large loan to purchase the leading New

York

auctioneers,

Parke-Bernet,

an

investment that proved hugely profitable. Wilson also oversaw the opening of Sotheby offices across Europe and began to organize sales in Geneva, Monaco, Flor-

ence, Amsterdam, and Hong Kong. The company’s turnover increased from £1.7 million in 1955 to £241 million in 1980, when Wilson retired. Three troubled

years followed before Sotheby’s was acquired by U.S. industrialist A. Alfred Taubman. Under his guidance Sotheby’s played a leading role in the art investment boom of the 1980s. The firm suffered a 50% reduction in turnover in 1991 but rebounded in 1994 with annual sales in excess of $1 billion. (GERALDINE NORMAN)

118

Botanical Gardens and Zoos

including $43,700 for a painted poplar trinket chest. At the auction of the Nina Fletcher and Bertram K. Little collection of folk art, a curly maple dressing table and box brought $31,050. Though sales of ordinary “country” furniture lagged, Anglo-Indian furniture was rediscovered, Arts and Crafts furniture held steady, and Eclectic Revival Victorian pieces rose in price. The biggest surge of interest was in 50s furniture, notably styles lumped under the term Modernism. Renewed interest in the period also spurred prices for ’50s pottery, glass, jewelry, silver, paintings, and bicycles. Most 19th-century glass sold at average to lower prices, yet a Mt. Washington acid peachblow tankard pitcher decorated with flowers and a verse was auctioned at a record $26,950. Several important bottle collections were sold, and

a dark amber Jenny Lind calabash flask sold for a record $12,430. Italian glass by name designers of the 1930s—’50s also increased in price. Depression glass prices remained steady, while the more formal glassware of the period, such as Heisey and Fostoria, went up slightly. Common Carnival glass patterns dropped in value, but rarities remained high. The 19th-century English dinnerware and spatterware made for the American market found new competition from newer pieces, which brought high prices. Collectors also paid handsomely for Art Deco pieces by Clarice Cliff of England. A 20th-century Beswick figure made in England showing the Beatrix Potter character of the Duchess sold for a record $2,590, and a set of four Disney-character-head

vases made in the ’60s brought $2,000. Entertainment memorabilia brought exceptional prices. The Academy Award won by Vivien Leigh for her role in Gone with the Wind (1939) sold for $563,500. The corset worn in a 1990 concert by singer Madonna auctioned for $18,150, a record for both Madonna clothing and for any corset. Elvis Presley’s signed 1973 American Express card was auctioned for $41,400. Credit cards and telephone cards joined the ranks of collectibles, while animation cels and original comic art continued to set records. A Walt Disney

storyboard for When the Cat’s Away (1929) sold for $55,200. The original art from the March 1944 Amazing Stories

brought $25,300. Toys continued Checker

to sell well; a 1932 cast-iron Arcade & Reinhardt

dens, Kew, near London. This species was close to extinction

in the wild and was cultivated by the Waimea Arboretum

and Botanical Garden, Haleiwa, Hawaii, as part of a recov-

ery program that would involve reintroduction. Bulbs of the extinct Chilean blue crocus, Tecophilaea cyanocrocus, were

sent from Kew to the Chilean national botanical garden at Vifia del Mar as part of a collaborative conservation project. In May 1994 staff from the Gibraltar Botanic Garden discovered the Silene tomentosa, long thought to be extinct. Seeds and propagation material were collected from the three plants found, and many hundreds of young plants were in cultivation in both Gibraltar and Kew. The Rio de Janeiro botanical garden was cultivating the threatened brazilwood, or pernambuco, tree, Caesalpina echinata, highly prized for its mahogany-like timber and particularly valued for its use in violin bridges. A strategy was being developed to create habitat reserves east of that Brazilian city. National and regional conservation efforts continued to develop apace. The Indonesian Plant Conservation Network was launched at the Kebun Raya Indonesia, the botanical garden at Bogor, Java, in July 1994. The network was intended primarily to facilitate communication and cooperation among conservationists working in Indonesia. Following a meeting in the Canary Islands, the European Network for Botanic Gardens was inaugurated in May. A parallel network for the United Kingdom and Ireland began work in October 1994 after a meeting at the Royal Botanic

to rise in

Gardens, Edinburgh. Botanic Gardens Conservation Inter-

blue-eyed, strawberry-

national opened a regional office at the Utrecht (Neth.) Botanic Garden, to support activities throughout Europe. In recognition of the urgent need to develop regional and local training courses to strengthen the role of botanical gardens as major agents for plant conservation, such courses were being inaugurated in different regions of the world. In 1994, for the second year running, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, held courses on plant-conservation techniques and botanical garden management. The Australian Network for Plant Conservation, in association with the Canberra Institute of Technology, initiated a new course on plantconservation management. The Tropical Botanic Garden

cab sold for $68,200. Dolls continued

price. The Kammer

In October 1994 the Toromiro Management Group met at the University of Bonn (Germany) Botanical Garden. This group included representatives of botanical gardens, researchers, and conservationists developing an integrated conservation strategy for the tree Sophora toromiro, now surviving only in botanical gardens following its extinction on Easter Island. This was one of the few international conservation programs for a threatened plant linking European collection managers with protected area managers and conservationists in the country of origin. The first experimental reintroductions were planned for 1995. Other notable examples of international cooperation included the repatriation of the critically threatened Hawaiian endemic Alsinidendron trinerve from the Royal Botanic Gar-

blond schoolgirl doll set a record at $282,750. A one-of-a-

kind G.I. Joe fighter-pilot action figure sold for a record $5,750, and a Madame Alexander doll in the image of film

star Kathryn Grayson brought $10,400. The 1908 stuffed blue Steiff teddy bear “Elliot” sold for $74,000. Glass marbles of the ’20s went for up to $6,000 each. Advertising collectibles, popular for over 25 years, continued to sell. Rare tobacco tins, labeled perfume bottles,

talcum powder tins, and automobile related pieces found new collectors. An Aerio Gas Globe used in the ’40s by the Gregory (N.D.) Independent Oil Co. sold for $9,350, a record price for the glass top of a gas pump. Labels for cigar boxes, fruit crates, or beer bottles rose in price. Lithographed tin signs commanded high prices, while paper signs made price strides. An Aunt Jemima die-cut hanging six-part paper sign showing pancakes and boxes sold for $5,170. (RALPH AND TERRY KOVEL)

Botanical Gardens and Zoos BOTANICAL GARDENS

Notable conservation initiatives marked 1994 as a year of further consolidation for botanical garden networks and the increasingly international nature of plant conservation.

and Research Institute, Trivandrum, southern India, intro-

duced a course entitled “Practical Horticulture and Conservation of Tropical Plants.” There were also happy surprises. In July it was announced that the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx would receive a $15 million gift—its largest ever—from the Mary Flagler Cary Charitable Trust. A small stand of trees, called Wollemi pines, thought to have been extinct for 150 million years, was discovered in Australia. (See ENVIRONMENT: Wildlife Conservation.) And in Lesotho the world’s smallest species of moss, the Cape pygmy moss, Ephemerum capensi, believed extinct, was rediscovered. The specimen was found in the flower beds of the National University of Lesotho’s botanical garden! (MICHAEL MAUNDER)

Business and Industry Review

ZOOS

International coordination and cooperation between zoos has become critical to facilitation of long-term genetic and

demographic management of animal collections to implement regional collection plans. In 1994 zoos continued to build the linkages through networks of national and international zoo associations. Comprehensive accreditation programs and codes of ethics were put in place or were under development in several countries. The International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens-the World Zoo Organization functioned as the umbrella organization and counted 48 nations, 129 institutions,

and 11 regional zoo associations (August 1994) among its membership. The union’s World Zoo Conservation Strategy (1992) was translated into eight languages to better communicate its stated aims and objectives internationally. At its annual conference in Sao Paulo, Brazil, Aug. 26—Sept. 1, 1994, the IUDZG

established a permanent

administrative

office connected to the International Species Inventory System (ISIS) office at the Minnesota Zoo. The Committee on Inter-Regional Conservation Coordination was formed to organize officials of regional conservation programs, closely linked to the activities of the Conservation Breeding Specialist Groups (CBSG; formerly called Captive Breeding Specialist Group and renamed in September) of the Species Survival Commission of the World Conservation Union. The CBSG generated and recommended various strategic plans. One of these, the Global Captive Action Plan, in September was renamed Global Conservation Action Recommendation to better describe its role. A new Genome Resource Bank program was initiated to preserve sperm, ova, embryos, tissue, and blood.

The International Studbook added three more species: the Oriental white stork, the potto, and the Vietnamese sika deer; 142 studbooks were maintained. The Cincinnati

(Ohio) Zoo hatched 18 Komodo dragons—a record number; the San Diego (Calif.) Zoo bred the open-billed stork, collared pigeon, carmine bee-eater, and Siberian musk deer;

the Houston (Texas) Zoo bred the crowned hornbill; and the Honolulu Zoo reproduced the magnificent bird-of-paradise (ail of these breedings are believed first occurrences in the U.S.). As part of a joint U.S.-Canadian program, Calgary (Alta.) Zoo hatched the first chick in its new whooping crane breeding facility. New facilities opened in Nagoya, Japan (phase II of a new aquarium), Singapore (“Night Safari” exhibit), Moscow (new zoo bridge to connect the two exhibit areas), London (children’s zoo), Wuppertal, Germany (South American aviary), and St. Louis, Mo. (research centre and veterinary hospital). Mexico City’s Chapultepec Park Zoo reopened in May following $30 million in renovations. The Stanley Park Zoo in Vancouver, B.C., was designated to be phased out

by city council decision, without replacement. The quality of life for zoo animals remained a subject of much debate. Some, generally single-objective, interest groups targeted zoos and aquariums for closure. Zoo-Check of the Born Free Foundation called for public support to close facilities it deemed substandard. Zoos that had not been able to modernize experienced compounding effects of bad press, attention from antizoo activists, and political

disfavour, which often led to reduced financial support. In July the World Society for the Protection of Animals and the Born Free Foundation produced a document called “The Zoo Inquiry” that proposed legislation for zoos and questioned the contribution of zoos to conservation action. (PETER KARSTEN) See also Environment; Gardening.

119

Business and

Industry Review The world recession finally ended in 1993 and, for the first time since 1990, output in all of the major economies advanced in the first quarter of 1994. By the end of the year, recovery was in progress across the industrialized world. In the case of the G-7 economies (Group of Seven: the USS., Japan, Germany, France, Italy, the U.K., and Canada), the economic cycle remained desynchronized. U.S. output had risen steadily since 1991; in the U.K. recovery began a year later. In continental Europe it was only at the end of 1993 that the turnaround definitely arrived; in Japan it was not until the second half of 1994 that recession finally came to an end. For the industrialized world as a whole, 1993

marked the fourth successive year in which the manufacturing industry had contracted. The differing cyclical experience was reflected in the policy stance of the G-7 economies. In the U.S., where inflationary concerns were becoming more important than the need to support demand, the long period of monetary ease came to an end in 1994, starting with an upward move in interest rates in February. The U.K. followed with a severe fiscal tightening in April and an interest-rate hike in September. In Germany and across the core economies of the European exchange-rate mechanism (ERM), interest rates continued to fall. In Japan both fiscal and monetary policy eased. Still, the U.S. dollar remained weak, falling in the course

of 1994 to new post-World War II lows against the Japanese yen. Its weakness was exaggerated by the fall in world bond markets after the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank began to raise interest rates. While the U.S. authorities were happy to have a low dollar, since this improved the competitiveness of U.S. industry, it caused major problems for Japan, which traditionally relied upon exports to drive its economy forward. Japan was struggling to redirect demand away from exports in favour of domestic spending, especially consumption. Meanwhile in the U.S., domestic manufacturers reveled in

the heightened competitiveness with the Japanese; nowhere was this more

evident than in Detroit, Mich., where the

U.S. automobile industry won back market share.

Table |. Annual Average Rates of Growth of Manufacturing Output, 1980-93 Percent

Area

World! Industrial countries

Less industrialized countries

1980-84

1985-89

1990

1991

1992

uz

39

-05

-10

-09

03

1.4

3.7

AS

be=210)

we

9 = 0.8

3.5

Sit:

45

40

3.8

1993

6.0

1 For definition, see Table IV. Source: UN, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

Table II. Manufacturing Production in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union’ 1980 = 100

Country NSE TI

eS

Bulgaria?

1989 ER

1990 SRA

139

116

1991

1992

SSO EY RE

90

76

1993 EE

%3

SE SET

i

-16 —17

Former Czechoslovakia

125

121

89

74

Fa

Hungary

111

101

76

63

65

Poland

109

80

70

71

7

8

Former Soviet Union

139

139

126

a

ik

CH,COOH, gives high yields and produces only methanol and formic acid as by-products. Importantly, the reactions require temperatures of only 100° C (212° F), the boiling point of water. By contrast, a process used for manufacturing acetic acid from methane requires three costly steps, consumes much energy, and requires hazardous organic solvents that must be contained or recycled. The researchers regarded the new process as an important first step toward exploiting the methane in natural gas. Chemists were devoting increased research attention to

molecular self-assembly, a phenomenon in which complex molecules form spontaneously from simple components.

HN O-=~= x=

taxol

oO

OH

Consumer Affairs

between about 200° and 800° C (390° and 1,470° F). Sleight suggested that the unusual behaviour of the materials is due to their crystal structure, in which atoms of vanadium and phosphorus bond not to each other but to an intermediate atom of oxygen. When such a material is heated, the oxygen atom vibrates in a fashion that tends to physically pull the other atoms closer together. The behaviour differs from that of existing materials that resist expansion, such as those used in heat-resistant cookware. Those materials are made of small particles that, when heated, expand in some directions and contract in others, resulting in little net change in volume. But existing materials have disadvantages that limit their use in other applications. Sleight said that compounds such as ZrVPO, might be used as components in new polymer, graphite, or ceramic composites that would be more versatile yet highly resistant to heat-related failure. Nuclear Chemistry. A commission of the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended names for nine chemical elements. The elements, which number 101 through 109 on the periodic table, long had gone without official names because of conflicting claims of discovery and the need for experimental confirmation. The problems were resolved in recent years. All of the elements are unstable and synthetic, having been made in accelerators by fusion of the nuclei of atoms of lighter elements. If approved by the full IUPAC at a meeting scheduled for 1995, the following names and symbols would become part of the periodic table: 101, mendelevium (Md); 102, nobelium

(No); 103, lawrencium

(Lr); 104, dubnium

(Db); 105, joliotium (Jl); 106, rutherfordium (Rf); 107, bohrium (Bh); 108, hahnium (Hn); and 109, meitnerium (Mt). The recommendations caused intense controversy because the commission rejected several names proposed by the discoverers. Scientists who discover a new element traditionally have the right to name it. A stir arose, for instance, over rejection of the name seaborgium (Sg) proposed by the discoverers of element 106. The name would have honoured Nobel laureate Glenn T. Seaborg, the codiscoverer of plutonium and nine other transuranic elements. In November Peter Armbruster and co-workers at the GSI (Heavy Ion Research Center), Darmstadt, Germany, announced the discovery of element 110. They created three atoms of the element by fusing nuclei of isotopes of nickel and lead in GSI’s heavy-ion accelerator. The following month Armbruster’s team announced that they had made element 111 by fusing nickel and bismuth nuclei. Biochemistry. An enzyme called ATP synthase is the central energy-generating molecule in almost all forms of life. This protein promotes, or catalyzes, the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which stores chemical energy in a special bond, termed a high-energy phosphate bond. When the bond is broken, or hydrolyzed, thereby separating a phosphate group from the rest of the ATP molecule, the stored energy becomes instantly available. By means of additional chemical reactions, that energy can be transformed into energy needed, for example, to make muscle cells contract, assemble amino acids into proteins, or transmit signals along nerve fibres. In animals ATP is formed in cellular substructures termed mitochondria as nutrients are metabolized. Plants form ATP inside their chloroplasts as photosynthesis converts sunlight into chemical energy. Certain bacteria produce ATP in their cell membranes. Many biochemists worldwide have studied ATP synthase’s structure and function since it was first isolated in 1960. In an advance heralded as a landmark in those efforts, British

biochemists in 1994 reported the deciphering of the atomic structure of a key portion of the ATP synthase molecule. John E. Walker of the Medical Research Council Labora-

143

The detailed atomic structure of a key portion of the ATP synthase molecule was reported in 1994 and is shown in a computer model above. It consists of three of each of two kinds of subunits arrayed alternately, like the segments of an orange, around a central “stem.” LABORATORY OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, CAMBRIDGE

tory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, headed the research. Walker’s group spent 12 years studying the biochemistry of ATP synthase and trying to grow high-quality crystals of the enzyme. Crystals were necessary for analyzing the enzyme’s structure via X-ray diffraction techniques. Researchers said the work would help answer many questions about the way living organisms produce energy. Walker also predicted that the structural determination would lead to new insights into the molecular basis of aging. Mitochondrial genes that direct the production of part of the ATP synthase molecule mutate at a much faster rate than conventional genes in a cell’s nucleus. Walker and other scientists suspected that the mutations accumulate with time as an organism ages. The changes impair an organism’s ability to produce energy and may bea key factor in Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and other degenerative diseases of aging. (MICHAEL WOODS) This article updates the Macropedia articles BIOCHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF ORGANISMS; CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS; CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS;

CHEMICAL

REACTIONS;

The

PHYSICAL

SCI-

ENCES: Chemistry.

Consumer Affairs The signing of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on April 15, 1994, was one of the year’s most significant events for consumers everywhere. In theory, consumers stood to benefit from freer trade, in the form of more products and lower prices. The phaseout of quotas for clothing and textiles could be seen as a plus for less developed countries (LDCs). Consumers also stood to benefit from improvements in the procedures for settling disputes between countries. On the other hand, there were concerns that the

agreement might lead to lower national food standards and higher drug prices in the LDCs. In 1962 the richest 20%

144

Consumer Affairs

of the world population (most of whom lived in the North) had 30 times the income of the poorest 20%. In 1994 the gap was 60 times as great, and the role the new trade rules would play in shrinking that chasm was unclear. Nowhere was this problem more clearly illustrated than in Africa, where consumers faced ongoing basic problems, such as poor service, a lack of awareness of consumer rights, and a shortage of funds. The move away from command economies that were heavily regulated and controlled by governments to more liberal open markets was welcome in many areas, but it also created new problems for consumers, such as huge and sudden price increases. In some African countries consumer organizations flourished, but more than a dozen of the poorest African countries still had no consumer movement.

Implementation of consumer protection legislation in n these countries continued to be a major problem. Russia

consumers could claim a victory in 1994, however; the courts ed ruled that services, as well as goods, should be includ

in the 1992 Law on the Protection of Consumers’ Rights. The need for strict financial services legislation and better consumer education was demonstrated by the thousands of Russians who invested in a stock pyramid scheme and ended up losing their life savings. In Romania some four million people—50% of the population—took part in a pyramid investment scheme that collapsed in 1993.

Overall, Africa in the 1990s

was characterized by increased political tolerance, allowing the emergence of consumer and other movements. A model consumer protection law for Africa based on the 1985 UN Guidelines on Consumer Protection was due to be published in 1995. It was anticipated that this model would be used for lobbying across the continent at the regional and national level. The International Organization of Consumers Unions opened its first African office, in Harare, Zimbabwe, in March 1994, It signified the first attempt to bring the continent’s diverse consumer organizations together under one pan-Africa umbrella. Japanese consumers won greater protection through passage in 1994 of the country’s first product liability law. India became one of the first LDCs to begin “ecolabeling”—letting customers know the environmental impact of the product they were buying. Eight of Asia’s countries, however, including

Bangladesh,

Bhutan,

and

Cambodia,

remained

among the world’s poorest nations, and many people continued to struggle to meet their most basic needs of clean water, adequate food, and shelter.

In the South Pacific, a fledgling consumer movement was fast-growing where Western-style consumerism had come quickly. In the Solomon Islands, for example, people who were moving away from their traditional healthful diet of coconut, tuna, and taro were facing new health conditions,

including heart disease, obesity, and diabetes. Stories of people trading the fresh fish in their diet for canned Spam were common. Basic consumer education such as how to identify out-of-date packaged food was often needed. In Latin America consumers breathed a sigh of relief in 1994 as the region emerged from the deep economic crisis of the previous decade. Governments pressed ahead with massive programs to liberalize trade, privatize public enterprises, and deregulate domestic markets. Economic gains had their ups and downs, and 40% of the region’s population still earned less than a minimum wage and lacked sufficient access to basic consumer goods and services. The lack of basic services for much of the world was highlighted by World Consumer Rights Day, held annually on March 15. The problems were everywhere; in Mexico the monopoly telephone company raised user costs by 160% over two years, and in El Salvador an estimated 30% of city dwellers and 80% of rural inhabitants had no access to

piped water. Perhaps the most dramatic changes in 1994 were felt in the former

Soviet bloc countries, where

consumers

were

grappling with the pluses and minuses of living in newly privatized economies. Throughout the republics of the former Soviet Union, the main issues were still the lack of available goods, poor quality, and fake and dangerous products, many of them imported. The breakdown of centralized structures continued, and problems with public services increased, particularly with medical services, housing, and transport.

A mother signs a petition demanding that milk be labeled if it comes from cows given a genetically engineered hormone. There were a number of similar protests in 1994 as food products using biotechnology were introduced to the marketplace. RENATO ROTOLO—GAMMA

LIAISON

Western European consumers in 1994 closely followed the changes in the European Union (EU) and expansion of its membership. Maintaining high health and safety standards in a single European market was the focus of much consumer concern. Many countries were afraid that membership in the EU would compromise their national health and safety standards. Consumer groups charged that the European Commission favoured industry concerns over consumer needs. In 1994, however, they managed to win a

seven-year battle when the Commission agreed to regulate cross-border payments—when people send money from one country to another. Consumers would no longer have to

pay double service charges to banks, and the Commission established bank liability on all payments. At the end of the year, consumer groups everywhere were

gearing up for the World Summit for Social Development, to be held in Copenhagen in March 1995. Organizers hoped .it would be the people’s equivalent of the 1992 “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro. (ALINA TUGEND)

Crime, Law Enforcement, and Penology

In 1994 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) officially launched the most extensive renovation of food labels in 20 years. Mandated by the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990, the initiative imposed strict new standards for health, nutrition, and serving-size labeling claims from processors and manufacturers. For the first time, nutrition labels were required on most food packages, an estimated 90% of processed food sold in the marketplace—upwards of 285 billion items. Previously, only foods that made special claims or contained added nutrients had to carry labels, although

processors

labeled

many

other

foods voluntarily. Under the revised regulations, the FDA designed the new labels to provide consumers with a standard reference point, the “Daily Value,” representing the average diet for a healthy adult (set at 2,000 calories). The listed amounts of a product’s fat, cholesterol, sodium, fibre, and nutrients also

had to be presented as a percentage of this Daily Value. The Flavr Savr tomato became the first whole food produced by genetic engineering to reach the marketplace. Calgene Inc., of Davis, Calif., bred the tomato with a new

version of a gene that affects the ripening process in tomatoes. The introduction of this gene allowed the Flavr Savr to remain firm longer than traditional tomatoes, increasing the time it could stay on the vine and ripen, thus allowing it to achieve better flavour than other commercially produced tomatoes. It was marketed amid heightened consumer concern over labeling and the safety of genetically engineered foods. Biotechnology critics had sparked the controversy when the first milk produced with the aid of genetic engineering was marketed earlier in the year. Although that process had been approved by the relevant health agencies, critics said that as-yet-unknown risks could develop—if not in milk, then in other products slated for the market in coming years—and consumers would not be able to avoid them. Biotechnology proponents said such concerns stemmed from a misunderstanding of the science involved in genetic engineering. Half of all consumers surveyed said they would avoid genetically engineered products, according to the Wirthlin Group Inc., but such resistance would lessen if the technology resulted in consistently lower food prices. Steps toward a major change in how consumers buy their electric power were taken by the California Public Utility Commission, which proposed fully opening electric power service to retail competition by the year 2002. Without utility monopolies, under which consumers were forced

to purchase power at set rates from a local utility, business and residential consumers could shop among power companies for the best prices—much like people already shopped for long-distance telephone service. The proposed changes would allow consumers to tap into existing networks of electricity transmission that connect power companies nationwide. Efforts to open the electricity market to consumers in California, New York, and other states were opposed by critics in the utility industry, who said open competition would cause stock values to plummet, and by some environmentalist groups, which held that cheaper power would increase electricity use and thus air pollution. Despite the popularity and growing safety reputation among

consumers,

antilock

brakes

in automobiles

were

found to offer no clear advantage on the nation’s roads. A study by the Highway Loss Data Institute found that antilock brakes were not reducing either the frequency or the cost of car crashes, including crashes on wet and slippery roads, where antilocks should have proved advantageous. The researchers said the problem was not the technology,

which

demonstrated

clear benefits under

145

test conditions,

but drivers who did not know how to brake with antilocks properly. The Institute also cited studies showing that some drivers in cars equipped with antilock brakes drove less safely. (PETER L. SPENCER) See also Business and Industry Review: Advertising; Retailing; Economic Affairs; Environment.

Crime, Law Enforcement,

and Penology Terrorism. Peace talks continued in 1994 between Israel and its Arab neighbours despite a series of murderous incidents, while in Northern

Ireland the Irish Republican Army, one

of the world’s most tenacious terrorist groups, announced in August that it was halting its 25-year campaign of violence immediately and unconditionally. Also in August the French government secured the arrest and extradition of [lich Ramirez Sanchez, better known as Carlos or “the Jackal,” one of the most feared and wanted international terrorists, who was tracked down in The Sudan. These encouraging developments were overshadowed, however, by a number of bloody terrorist attacks linked to long-standing conflicts. On February 25 at Hebron in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian West Bank, about 30-40 Muslim worshipers were gunned down as they prayed at the Cave of the Patriarchs, a shrine venerated by both Arabs and Jews.

An Israeli inquiry into the shooting subsequently laid sole blame for the carnage on Baruch Goldstein, a member

of

a group of Jewish settlers living in the West Bank. Goldstein was overpowered and beaten to death by survivors immediately after the massacre, which provoked widespread violence in the area and disrupted Israeli-Arab peace negotiations. These negotiations were again placed under severe duress in July when a wave of attacks against Jewish targets in a number of countries raised fears about the rapid spread and reach of Islamic terrorism. The worst attack occurred on July 18 in the Argentine capital of Buenos Aires, where a powerful car bomb destroyed a Jewish community centre, leaving 96 people dead and at least 140 injured. Later in the year, a bomb exploded on a crowded bus in Tel Aviv, Israel, on October 19, killing 22 and injuring 45, and a suicide bomber killed himself and wounded 13 people at a bus stop in Jerusalem on December 25. (See WORLD AFFAIRS: Israel.) In Algeria a vicious terrorist campaign by Islamic extremists, aimed at toppling the country’s ruling military regime, threatened to spill across the Mediterranean into France and other European nations with large North African immigrant and exile populations. During the year some 64 foreign nationals were murdered by terrorists, including at least 22 French citizens. As French authorities arrested numbers of Algerian exiles suspected of extremism and uncovered networks in France supporting Algerian-based terrorist groups, these groups promised violent reprisals against those responsible for the crackdown. On December 27, one day after French commandos killed four terrorists who had hijacked an airliner, executed three passengers, and held 173 others hostage, the Armed Islamic Group murdered four Roman Catholic priests in Algeria in retaliation. Meanwhile, in Iran, a nation widely viewed as one of the principal supporters of Islamic extremist violence in many parts of the world, a bomb exploded on June 20 in a crowded shrine in the Muslim holy city of Meshed, killing 70 people and wounding 114. The attack, which

Iranian authorities blamed

on the

Mujahedin-e Khalq, an opposition group based in Iraq, was

146

Crime, Law Enforcement, and Penology

the worst terrorist incident in the country since the end of the 10-year Iran-Iraq war in 1990. War Crimes. Amid mounting criticism of its lack of action and delay, the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of War Crimes in the former Yugoslavia announced in October that a Bosnian Serb, Dusan Tadic, was to be the subject

of the first international investigation of this type since the Niirnberg and Tokyo trials after World War II. In July the tribunal appointed a South African judge, Richard Goldstone, as its principal prosecutor. Under the mandate given to the tribunal, persons found guilty of war crimes would not face the death penalty, but convicted defendants were likely to serve lengthy prison terms in countries that were prepared to accept them. The tribunal’s critics continued to express concern that it would merely target minor offenders as scapegoats, and senior political leaders who should be held responsible for atrocities would evade punishment. In March a long-suppressed U.S. Department of Justice report on the wartime activities of former UN secretarygeneral Kurt Waldheim was finally released. The 1987 report claimed that the Austrian was a key member of Nazi units responsible for executing prisoners, killing civilians, identifying Jews for deportation, and shipping prisoners to slave labour camps. Drug Trafficking. With an estimated 2.7 million hardcore drug users on the street and with Americans spending $49 billion annually on illegal drugs, a progress report on USS. national drug-control policy declared that action had to be taken. It called, among other things, for changes in the way international drug-control programs were viewed. For example, in countries that were major sources of drugs or through which drugs traveled, support for counternarcotics programs had to be an integral part of U.S. foreign policy. Nowhere was this policy being more vigorously pursued than in Colombia, long the principal source for the lucrative international trade in cocaine. As Colombia’s newly elected president, Ernesto Samper Pizano, was sworn into office in August, U.S. State Department officials expressed anxieties that the antidrug war would suffer a setback because he had received campaign funds from Colombia’s powerful drug cartels. Denying these charges, Samper announced an array of measures to combat drug trafficking. Photogray

Murder and Other Violence. U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton fulfilled his campaign promise to get tough on crime by securing the passage through Congress in September of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The new legislation provided funds for 100,000 new police and 100,000 new prison places and for crime-prevention programs. It also extended the federal death penalty from 2 to 60 crimes, including drive-by shootings and carjackings, and required mandatory life-imprisonment sentences for those convicted of a third felony involving violence. Against fierce opposition from the powerful U.S. gun lobby, the legislation incorporated a ban on 19 types of assault weapons. Sex-based violence was made acivil rights violation, thereby applying federal penalties to spousal abuse and stalking a woman across state boundaries. The grim realities of domestic abuse in U.S. family life were graphically exposed in June when O.J. Simpson, a football hero and motion-picture star, was accused of stalking and slaying his ex-wife Nicole and her friend Ronald Goldman. They were found stabbed to death on June 12 outside Nicole Simpson’s home in West Los Angeles. Simpson was arrested by Los Angeles police on June 17 following a bizarre low-speed chase along local freeways observed live by millions of television viewers in the U.S. and abroad. In the wake of Nicole Simpson’s death, domestic violence hot lines across the U.S. reported a record surge in calls as many battered and abused women broke their silence and left violent homes for sanctuary in shelters. In May a report by Pakistan’s Human Rights Commission said that half of the victims of reported rapes in that country were juveniles. Very few rapes were reported and even fewer prosecuted. Under an Islamic ordinance in force in Pakistan since 1979, a woman had to present four witnesses in order to prove a case of sexual assault. In the U.S. a Justice Department study published in June covering 11 states and the District of Columbia found that about half the victims of rapes reported to the police in 1992 were girls younger than 18 and that about one in six was under 12. The study determined most of the rapes were committed by relatives or friends. In July the House of Lords created an offense of male rape for the first time in English legal history. The decision to change the legal definition of rape was taken

AP/WIDE WORLD aces penne:

Photographs show three disguises used by Carlos “the Jackal,” captured in The Sudan in August and extradited to France. Born llich Ramirez Sanchez in Venezuela and trained in Cuba and Moscow, Carlos was one of the most feared of international terrorists in the 1970s and ’80s.

Crime, Law Enforcement, and Penology

without a vote as part of a homosexual law reform package agreed upon by all parties in the British upper house. The passions raised by international soccer resulted in the death of Colombian football star Andrés Escobar in July. On June 22 Escobar accidentally kicked a goal against his own team while playing in a World Cup match in Pasadena, Calif. On July 2, on his return home to Medellin, Escobar

was accosted outside a bar by a number of persons who hurled abuse at him for his error and then shot him to death in what local police described as a planned execution. A few days later authorities arrested three Medellin men suspected of being involved in a murder that shocked a nation already traumatized during recent years by the deaths of thousands of citizens in drug-related violence. In Mexico the assassination on March 23 of Luis Donaldo Colosio (see OBITUARIES), the presidential candidate of Mexico’s Institutional Revolutionary Party, shook the foundations of the country and raised doubts about its longterm stability. Colosio, addressing a political rally in Tijuana at the time of his death, was shot in the head by an assailant

who was then apprehended at the scene of the murder. (See WORLD AFFAIRS: Mexico.) A series of incidents in the latter half of the year involved apparent or real attacks on the White House, including two cases in which bullets were fired into the U.S. presidential mansion and the crash of a small airplane onto the grounds. Motives were unclear in two apparently related firebombings in New York City’s subway system in December that injured dozens of people. Political Crime and Espionage. Italy’s long-running corruption scandal claimed fresh victims during the year, including Paolo Berlusconi, the youngest brother of the nation’s prime minister, billionaire Silvio Berlusconi. Spearheaded by a team of magistrates in Milan, the anticorruption inquiry, labeled Operation Clean Hands, extended its investigations to the prime minister’s own business interests, and in December Berlusconi resigned from office. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) In September the Greek Parliament voted to send to

147

government-owned cement plant to an Italian company, but the case was dropped in December. In May Carlos Andrés Pérez, 71, a former president of Venezuela, was arrested

and briefly jailed after the nation’s Supreme Court ruled that he should be tried on charges of misappropriating part of $17 million in public funds. Following expressions of concern by foreign leaders, he was placed under house arrest. A series of trials took place in Indonesia during the year as the government sought to clean up the notoriously lax and corrupt state banking system. The most prominent of these prosecutions involved a multimillionaire entrepreneur, Eddy Tansil, who in September was sentenced to 17 years in jail for his part in a banking scandal involving the theft of $436 million. The U.S. CIA announced in February that one of its most senior officers had been a spy for the Soviet Union and then Russia since 1985. Espionage charges were filed against Aldrich (“Rick”) Ames, a 31-year career veteran and a past head of the CIA’s counterintelligence division, and his wife, Maria del Rosario Casas Ames. In April both pleaded guilty to charges of conspiracy to commit espionage and tax fraud. Aldrich Ames was sentenced to life imprisonment without chance of parole, while his wife received a lesser sentence. Prosecutors said that Ames, motivated by greed, had caused the deaths, arrests, and disappearances of at least one East German and 10 Soviet double agents. The Ames affair was cited as a key factor in the resignation of CIA director James Woolsey in December. White Collar Crime and Theft. Booming economic growth in China brought with it an unwelcome increase in economic crime. According to Chinese officials, 20,000 cases of

trial a former prime minister, Konstantinos Mitsotakis, for

embezzlement and corruption were reported in the first six months of 1994, an 81% increase from a year earlier. Communist Party leaders called for new vigour in the campaign to stamp out such crimes, including wider use of the death penalty. The rapidly expanding worldwide market in mobile phones was reported to be producing an associated boom in theft and fraud. British mobile phone operating companies revealed that during the first half of 1994 the theft of

allegedly taking a bribe of $22.5 million in the 1992 sale of a

handsets increased from 10,000 to 15,000 a month. In Ger-

INTERNATIONAL DRUG TRAFFIC

—]

Major drug-source

countries

Major drug-cultivating } areas Major routes:

—

xx Sy v

3 SARE DAngaur |.

(5%) Other

4°|e 30! Z

(9.8%) Filipino

(2.0%) Other Micronesian

©1995, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Palau’s formal approval of the Compact of Free Association had been delayed by seven unsuccessful plebiscites between 1983 and 1990 (over the issue of disposal and storage of U.S. nuclear materials in Palau) that did not meet the 75% approval requirement of the Palau constitution. A 1992 constitutional amendment reducing the 75% to a simple majority ended the impasse with approval of the compact in. the eighth plebiscite in November 1993 by an approval rate of 68%. The compact recognized Palau’s nearly complete autonomy in the conduct of domestic and foreign affairs but obligated it to avoid foreign policy initiatives that were contrary to U.S. interests as determined by joint consultations. The U.S. remained responsible for the defense of Palau for 50 years; Palau was required to grant the U.S. rights to existing military bases in Palau for that period of time. The new nation applied to the United Nations in November and was admitted as the 185th member of the General Assembly on December 15. (STEPHEN NEHER) This article updates the Macropeedia article PACIFIC ISLANDs: Palau.

PANAMA A republic of Central America, Panama lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean on the Isthmus of Panama. Area: 75,517 sq km (29,157 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 2,583,000. Cap.: Panama City. Monetary unit: balboa, at par with the U.S. dollar, with a free rate (Oct. 7, 1994) of 1.59 balboas to £1

sterling. Presidents in 1994, Guillermo Endara Galimany and,

from September 1, Ernesto: Pérez Balladares.

456

World Affairs: Papua New Guinea

Watched by 2,000 local and international observers, the May 1994 general elections were largely incident-free and were praised for their openness. The winner of the presidency was Ernesto Pérez Balladares of the Democratic Revolutionary Party, whose campaign invoked memories of the party’s founder, Omar Torrijos, and successfully avoided links with its more recent, now discredited, leader, Manuel Noriega. In

second place was Mireya Moscoso de Gruber of the Arnulfista Party, led by the outgoing president, Guillermo Endara Galimany. Third was salsa star and actor Rubén Blades (see BIOGRAPHIES), whose party, Papa Egoré (Mother Earth), in its electoral debut, won six seats in the legislature. Despite economic improvements (rising international reserves, a forecast 4.6% growth of gross domestic product in 1994, and declining unemployment), Endara’s administration failed to reduce poverty and an annual debt-service bill of about $900 million. Endara also failed to eliminate drug trafficking and corruption, accusations of which tainted his last days in office. Pérez Balladares pledged to end Panama’s key role in the narcotics and money-laundering network. Under the 1977 Panama Canal Treaty, the first US. Southern Command troops left Panama in June. Pérez Bal-

PAPUA NEW GUINEA A constitutional monarchy and Commonwealth member, Papua New Guinea is situated in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and comprises the eastern part of the island of New Guinea, the islands of the Bismarck, Kiriwina (Trobriand), Louisiade, and D’Entrecasteaux groups, Muyua (Woodlark) Island, and parts of the Solomon Islands group, including Bougainville. Area: 462,840 sq km (178,704 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 4,246,000. Cap.: Port Moresby. Monetary unit: kina, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 1.09 kinas to U.S. $1 (1.73 kinas = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1994, Wiwa Korowi; prime ministers, Paias Wingti and, from August 30, Sir Julius Chan.

In September 1994 the Papua New Guinea government recaptured the Bougainville copper mine after the dwindling group of separatist guerrillas occupying it withdrew to the hills. No date was set for the reopening of the mine, but the government looked forward to achieving this as soon as worker access to the site could be secured on a daily basis. Even though the safety of the guerrilla leaders was guaranteed by the presence of a multinational peacekeeping force in the Pacific region, the government was not able to

that Panama would consult with the U.S. to ensure the best management of the canal up to and after the year 2000. On October 13 former Haitian junta leaders Lieut. Gen. Raoul Cédras and Brig. Gen. Philippe Biamby and their families arrived in Panama. At the request of the U.S., Panama had granted them asylum to help restore democracy in Haiti. They were given modest quarters near the airport, but some accused Pérez Balladares of complying with a U.S. (BEN BOX) request not in Panama’s best interest.

entice the leaders of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army from the hills to peace talks. The good news in Bougainville was offset by disaster in the central highlands, where a massive explosion in a gold mine stopped production. The Porgera mine was one of the world’s largest, producing 32,885,000 g (1,160,000 oz) of gold a year. Eleven miners, including five Australians, were killed in the blast in the mine’s explosives area, and 48 were injured when two sealed containers of ammonium nitrate were ignited byafire. (A.R.G. GRIFFITHS)

This article updates the Macropedia ICA: Panama.

This article updates the Macropedia article PACIFIC ISLANDS: Papua New Guinea.

ladares, who met with U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton in July, said

article CENTRAL AMER-

P.F. BENTLEY—BLACK STAR go

Ane

Ernesto Pérez Balladares speaks to a crowd d uring his campaign for the presidency of Panama. Head of the Democra tic Revolutionary Party Balladares narrowly defeated Mireya Moscoso de Gruber of the Arnulfista Party and several minor candidates

World Affairs: Philippines

PARAGUAY Paraguay is a landlocked republic of central South America. Area: 406,752 sq km (157,048 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 4,732,000. Cap.: Asuncion. Monetary unit: guarani, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a

free rate of 1,919 guaranies to U.S. $1 (3,053 guaranies = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Juan Carlos Wasmosy.

August 1994 marked the first anniversary of Paraguay’s return to civilian leadership. The adjustment to multiparty democracy proved difficult for the ruling Colorado Party and its leader, Pres. Juan Carlos Wasmosy. He faced alegislature dominated by opposition parties determined to break the Colorado Party’s relationship with the military. On May 28 Congress approved a law that would have banned members of the armed forces from political party membership and activity. The government and military high command immediately initiated legal proceedings to have the law declared unconstitutional. This caused the opposition, led by Domingo Laino of the Authentic Radical Liberal Party, to

withdraw from its cooperation pact with the Colorados. Violent clashes between peasant farmers and police in February affected several regions of the country. Some 100 demonstrators blockading roads from the capital, Asuncién, were injured when police opened fire with rubber bullets. The farmers were demanding government subsidies to compensate for losses due to low cotton prices. They gained widespread support from church organizations, labour unions, and opposition parties, but the government refused to relent. Ironically, international cotton prices rose by some 29% in 1994, but a 12% decline in Paraguay’s cotton harvest prevented small farmers from reaping the benefits. An estimated 220,000 rural families depended on cotton for their livelihood. In order to stop deforestation through illegal exporting of wood products, mainly to Brazil, the government banned all exports of timber on December 14. Labour unions and peasant organizations staged a general strike on May 2 to demand pay increases of up to 40% and land reform and to protest against the government’s plans to privatize public-sector companies. The government conceded that the purchasing power of wages had fallen by 42% in the five years to June 1994 but offered pay increases of only 35%. Inflation remained under reasonable control in 1994 but was expected to end the year at 22%, slightly (JANET KRENGEL) above the 19.5% recorded in 1993. PERU The republic of Peru is located in western South America, on the Pacific Ocean. Area: 1,285,216 sq km (496,225 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 23,383,000. Cap.: Lima. Monetary unit: nuevo sol, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2.25 nuevos soles to U.S. $1 (3.58 _ nuevos soles = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Alberto Fujimori; prime ministers, Alfonso Bustamente y Bustamente and, from February 17, Efrain Godenberg Schreiber.

In mid-1994 it appeared that Pres. Alberto Fujimori’s only serious rival for the April 1995 elections would be former UN secretary-general Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. In August, however, Fujimori’s estranged wife, Susana Higuchi, declared her intention to run against her husband, with the backing of a political movement called Harmony 21st Century. Her announcement was in direct contradiction to a law, passed by Fujimori, preventing a president’s close relatives from running for office. She stated that the law was unconstitutional, but despite support for her claim from the Organization of American States, she was not permitted to run for president. In response to Higuchi’s accusations of corruption throughout the government and criticisms of his

457

failure to address Peru’s acute poverty, Fujimori called her disloyal and stripped her of her duties as first lady. She moved out of the presidential palace, set up headquarters in a school her family owned, and vowed that she would run

for Congress—and perhaps, later, higher office. Fujimori himself delayed announcing his candidacy until ’ October, a month after Pérez de Cuéllar launched his cam-

paign. The latter allied himself to opposition figures who favoured the reestablishment of the democratic institutions that Fujimori had abolished. By October the list of candidates for the presidency was expected to exceed 20. They were drawn from a variety of new movements, reflecting the continuing mistrust (fostered by Fujimori) of the traditional parties, which would nevertheless be fielding their own candidates. All those lining up against Fujimori would have to contend with his successful handling of a number of issues. The military offensive against the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) guerrillas was concentrated on the banks of the Rio Huallaga, some 500 km (300 mi) northeast of Lima. A propaganda campaign succeeded in persuading many sympathizers to profess that they had renounced the Sendero cause, but armed actions were inconclusive in this and other

‘regions. While the level of violence throughout the country declined, human rights organizations alleged that government forces killed, raped, and tortured innocent civilians in

the drive to destroy the guerrillas. The increased sense of security, especially in the Andean areas, allowed geologists and miners from other nations to investigate mineral deposits without interference. Joint ventures in gold and copper extraction and foreign investment in exploration revived the mining sector. Similar renewed interest in oil and gas promised to raise significantly the output of these fuels between 1994 and 2000. A program initiated in September gave Peruvian investors the opportunity to buy shares in companies that were to be privatized, the proceeds being used to finance the private pension fund system. Economic growth continued to be strong: 8.5% in the first half of 1994, compared with 7% in 1993. Other positive economic indicators included an inflation rate of about 20% and record levels of international reserves. Multilateral lending resumed in earnest, mainly for infrastructure projects, but the government’s inability to handle large amounts of funding for alleviating poverty and providing employment formed the main basis for opposition to Fujimori. (BEN BOX) PHILIPPINES Situated in the western Pacific Ocean off the southeast coast of Asia, the republic of the Philippines consists of an archipelago of about 7,100 islands. Area: 300,076 sq km (115,860 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 68,278,000. Cap.: Manila (lower house of the legislature meets in Quezon City). Monetary unit: Philippine peso, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 25.60 pesos to U.S. $1 (40.72 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Fidel V. Ramos.

On Aug. 26, 1994, Pres. Fidel V. Ramos announced that he was forming a coalition with the Philippines’ largest opposition party, Democratic Filipino Struggle (LDP), which had been obstructing legislation in the Congress. Agreement was reached on a common legislative program, but the main purpose of the coalition was to give each party six places on a common slate for the 12 Senate seats to be filled in the May 1995 elections. Whereas the LDP feared that it might fare poorly against Ramos’ party, Ramos sought to end political confrontations that were hampering economic development.

458

World Affairs: Poland

The coalition took shape after a political squabble over

taxes. Only 6% of workers paid direct taxes, so more indi-

rect taxes were needed for the government to cope with its budget deficit and implement social programs. In September 1993 the government had imposed a levy of between 16% and 28% on petroleum products. The threat of nationwide demonstrations and a general strike on Feb. 9, 1994, forced Ramos to suspend the tax and then to rescind it on February 23. To make up for the lost revenues, Ramos persuaded Congress to pass a law in May that closed loopholes in a 10% value-added tax (VAT). Popular protests followed, and some LDP senators who had initially voted for it failed to support Ramos. The Supreme Court subsequently rejected challenges to the law. Efforts to reduce the deficit by broadening the VAT were supported by the International Monetary Fund. After a delay of more than two years, the IMF endorsed the Philippines’ economic program and on June 24 approved credits of $684 million. That triggered the rescheduling of debts and the granting of $5.6 billion in aid by various donor countries and agencies. In the first half of 1994 the economy grew 5.1%, more than double the rate of a year earlier. The improvement was due in part to increased electrical power, which industries sorely needed. Ramos’ domestic agenda included birth control programs to reduce the 2.5% annual increase in the country’s population, which stood at 68 million. Ramos, the first Protestant

president in a country that was 87.5% Roman Catholic, was challenged especially by the influential Jaime Cardinal Sin, who led a massive rally in downtown Manila against birth control programs. In January Ramos signed a law restoring the death penalty for 13 crimes, including murder, treason, kidnapping, and corruption. Vice Pres. Joseph Estrada led a campaign against widespread crime. More than 2% of the nation’s policemen were dismissed for crimes, and an additional 5% were under investigation.

The New People’s Army (NPA), long a communist guerrilla threat to stability, continued to weaken. In March Ramos proclaimed a general amnesty for all rebels and for police and soldiers accused of crimes associated with the fighting. The NPA, torn by internal strife, assassinated a former leader planning to accept the amnesty; other leaders were captured in the Manila area and the central islands. The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), an Islamic group fighting for a separate state in the southern Philippines, continued talks that had produced an interim ceasefire agreement on Nov. 7, 1993. During a September meeting in Indonesia, the government and the MNLF resolved several issues, including the right to use Islamic law in Muslim areas. A breakaway group that refused to accept the cease-fire continued to fight the army and to seize foreign hostages, however.

Indonesia put pressure on the Philippine government to prevent a privately sponsored conference on East Timor, a former Portuguese colony seized by Indonesia in 1975. Ramos prevented some foreigners from attending, but the conference opened in Manila on May 31. The government was widely criticized for obstructing free speech and yielding to foreign pressure. U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton visited on November 12-13, partly to help commemorate the anniversary of the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese in World War II. A draft military agreement, due to be signed on December 15, was delayed by the Philippine side, however. (HENRY S. BRADSHER) POLAND A republic of Eastern Europe, Poland is on the Baltic Sea. Area:

312,685 sq km (120,728 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 38,653,000. Cap.: Warsaw. Monetary unit: zloty, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free

rate of 23,114 zlotys to U.S. $1 (36,763 zlotys = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Lech Walesa; prime minister, Waldemar Pawlak.

There were fears by late 1994 that the policies or lack of them espoused by Prime Minister Waldemar Pawlak and his ex-communist coalition, after more than one year in office, had brought Poland’s dynamic reforms grinding to a halt. The economic statistics, though not exciting, did not appear to give undue cause for concern, however. Inflation dropped slightly to 30% per year, while unemployment continued at about three million, a rate of about 17%. Industrial growth

ASIAWEEK PICTURES

increased 11%, largely through improved trade with Russia,

On Basilan Island in the southern Philippines, 20 hostag es are led away after their release by a faction of the Moro National Liberation Front. The Muslim separatist group, which generally targete d Christians,

16 of those it had taken hostage.

killed

while per capita gross domestic product (GDP) grew 4% and the trade deficit was significantly reduced. The budget deficit was 3.5% of GDP, and the zloty remained firm throughout the year, with only a gradual devaluation. Instead, what set the alarm bells ringing for reformers was the commercialization rather than the privatization of stateowned enterprises. Under this formula, 50% of all industrial enterprises appeared set to remain in the governmentowned sector for the foreseeable future. That this slowdown in privatization reflected a strong current in public opinion was to be expected, as the population was now more clearly divided into economic winners and losers. Only after considerable delay did Prime Minister Pawlak sign the privatization bill, enabling 444 enterprises to be privatized through the National Investment Funds. Another 28 were sold into the private sector, compared with 39 in 1993. Only 32 companies were listed on the country’s stock exchange, where the index kept just ahead of inflation. ; Ailing and indebted state enterprises, especially the mining industry and inefficient farms, were receiving cheap credits and state subsidies and were defended by protectionist policies that were, in effect, creating a dual-sector

World Affairs: Portugal

economy. It was no surprise that such enterprises were among the major constituencies that supported the coalition government of Prime Minister Pawlak. The government also shied away from privatizing utilities such as telecommunications and transportation, while businesses that could be sold profitably, such as tobacco, oil refining, and banking enterprises,

remained

in state

hands.

The private sector,

which produced all the economic growth, was burdened by high taxation and the increasing power of lobbies that were distorting the rules of the market. As always, the political scene was punctuated by conflict between Pres. Lech Walesa and the coalition government. The battle was generally fought over the prerogative to fill key ministries, especially those considered to be within the scope of the president. This conflict was exemplified by Walesa’s attempt to dismiss the minister of defense, Piotr

Kolodziejczyk (he finally succeeded in November), which, along with the earlier confrontation between Andrzej Olechowski’s Foreign Ministry and the legislature’s Foreign Affairs Commission, made it obvious to an increasingly cynical population that the presidential campaign for 1995 was under way. With a turnout as low as 28% in the towns and 38% in the countryside, the local government elections in June raised the political temperature only slightly. The coalition parties were seeking to repeat their general-election triumph at the local level. In this they were only partially successful and, in fact, the elections witnessed the rebirth of the political right, which captured seats in the poorer eastern parts of the country. The Roman Catholic Church, which had sought to distance itself from politics in the wake of the 1993 elections to the Sejm (parliament), found itself once again embroiled in conflict with the state over the concordat, which the legislature refused to ratify but chose to defer until the matter of the constitution had been settled. The debate over the Polish constitution provided the backdrop for the country’s politics since it not only would decide how secular Poland was to be but also would define the powers of the president and the legislature. Of the seven draft versions under consideration by the constitutional commission, it was the Solidarity draft backed by a campaign of more than one million signatures that attracted the most attention; it was notable for being accompanied by a rapprochement between Walesa and the Solidarity trade union after a period of estrangement. Tensions within the ruling coalition of the Polish Peasant Party and the ex-communist Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) continued, as did the oft-repeated warnings of a major split in the opposition Democratic Union. The major candidates for president included Aleksandr Kwasniewski of the SLD;

Jacek

Kuron,

regarded

as the nation’s most

popular politician; Olechowski, who as foreign minister succeeded in staying above party politics; former prime min-

isters Hanna Suchocka and Tadeusz Mazowiecki, both of the Democratic Union; and President Walesa, who could

never be discounted as a contender regardless of public opinion polls. It seemed likely that for the first time foreign affairs could be as prominent as the perennial domestic issues of abortion and religious education in the political campaign. Poland’s drive to gain membership in the European Union and NATO was given a significant boost by the visit of USS. Pres. Bill Clinton in July; at that meeting any Russian veto of NATO’s expansion into Eastern Europe was explicitly denied. Subsequent maneuvers held jointly with the Polish military and troops from NATO countries, on Polish territory, seemed to underline the Western commitment

to

the emerging democracies of Eastern Europe. On the other

459

hand, the last-minute postponement of Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin’s visit to Warsaw, where he was

to sign important trade and energy agreements, ostensibly because of the ill-treatment of Russian citizens by Polish police, was followed by official Russian criticisms of the NATO extension into Eastern Europe. This move raised questions as to whether Poland was once again being defined as part of Russia’s “legitimate sphere of influence.” (GEORGE KOLANKIEWICZ) PORTUGAL A republic of southwestern Europe, metropolitan Portugal is on the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with

Spain. Area: 92,235 sq km (35,612 sq mi), including the Azores archipelago and Madeira Islands in the Atlantic. Pop. (1994 est.): 9,814,000. Cap.: Lisbon. Monetary unit: Portuguese escudo, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 157.32 escudos to U.S. $1 (250.21 escudos = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Mario Soares; prime minister, Anibal Cavaco Silva.

Prime Minister Anibal Cavaco Silva and his Social Democratic Party (PSD) continued in power in 1994, though the government was shaken by a series of social and political problems that led to a decline in its popularity. Decisions to raise the tuition for public schools led to several months of sometimes violent and always noisy student protests and opened a more general debate on the declining quality of Portuguese schools. Cavaco Silva was also unable to reach an agreement with the leading labour unions on an increase in public workers’ salaries. Negotiations continued, but it appeared that both sides had reached an insurmountable impasse. The labour troubles resulted in a variety of shortterm strikes, notably among transport workers. Most serious in terms of Cavaco Silva’s public standing was the decision to raise tolls on Lisbon’s April 25th bridge by 50%. That move, made in June just prior to the busy summer travel season, caused a week of commuter protest

that culminated in a complete daylong blockade of the bridge by truckers. The government was forced to call in riot police to clear the bridge. The transport minister later backed off from the toll proposal, offering a free two-month grace period while new payment schemes were developed. Nonetheless, when the tolls came back in September with the increase still in place, the protests followed, and—while the constant blaring of horns and the sporadic blockades had tapered off—traffic on Lisbon’s only bridge across the Tagus River remained problematic. A major reason for the increase in tolls was a need for funds to build a second bridge across the river, from north-

eastern Lisbon to the suburb of Montijo. That bridge, a $1.2 billion project, was scheduled to be built and operating by 1998, when Lisbon was to act as host for the last world exposition of the 20th century. Cavaco Silva’s problems climaxed in late October when the tiny Democratic-Social Centre Party (CDS), led by Manuel Monteiro, introduced a no-confidence motion in the Assembly of the Republic. While the PSD’s absolute majority (135 votes to 95 in the 230-seat Assembly) removed any threat that the legislature would be dissolved, the ensuing two-day debate gave opposition parties a chance to air their frustrations. The opposition Socialist Party (PS), headed by Anténio Guterres, criticized the PSD for “freezing economic reforms” and for failing to reach an agreement on the state workers’ salary increase. The rightleaning CDS—which claimed just five votes in the Assembly—accused Cavaco Silva of waffling on European Union issues and undermining stability by shuffling key ministers, including those for education and finance. But while the

460

World Affairs: Qatar

no-confidence motion failed because of the PSD’s majority, the opposition parties themselves were revealed to be splintered; Guterres’ PS voted for the motion, as did the 17-seat Communist alliance, but both refused to align with the CDS and presented their own reasons for censuring Cavaco Silva. A political modus vivendi had existed between Pres. Mario Soares, a Socialist, and Cavaco Silva of the centre-right PSD for several years, but Soares turned on the prime minister in December, saying that excessive powers had been placed in the hands of one man and warning of a drift toward a “dictatorship of the majority.” Soares likely had his eye on the general election in October 1995 and the presidential election in early 1996. Cavaco Silva was expected to run again for prime minister or seek the presidency himself, but Soares was ineligible for a third term as president. The draft budget for 1995, announced in October, was aimed at reducing the deficit and consolidating the economic recovery through a modest increase in spending and a rise in indirect tax rates. The government expected to take in 3.6 trillion escudos and to increase spending by 5% to 4,380,000,000,000 escudos, optimistically predicting economic growth at between 2.5% and 3.5% of gross domestic product, as compared with 1% in 1994. A one-percentagepoint rise in the standard value-added tax and a continuing crackdown on tax evaders were planned to boost the government’s revenue. Inflation dropped steadily throughout 1994, to an annualized 4.6% at the end of the third quarter, while unemployment for the same period rose to 6.7% from 5.5% at the end of 1993. (ERIK BURNS) See also Dependent States.

QATAR A monarchy (emirate) on the Arabian Peninsula, Qatar occupies a desert peninsula and the nearby small Hawar Islands (also claimed by Bahrain) on the west coast of the Persian Gulf. Area (including Hawar Islands): 11,427 sq km (4,412 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 552,000. Cap.: Doha. Monetary unit: Qatar riyal, with

(Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 3.64 riyals to U.S. $1 (5.79 riyals =

£1 sterling). Emir and prime minister in 1994, Sheikh Khalifah ibn Hamad ath-Thani.

In May 1994 an Israeli delegation invited to weapons-control talks in Doha along with representatives from 42 other countries caused controversy when other delegates attacked the Jewish state for its nuclear policy. The invitation to Israel emphasized Qatar’s independent line in foreign policy. King Hussein I of Jordan, shunned by many of the other Arab Gulf states for his support of Iraq, visited Qatar in March, and other delegations were received from hard-line Arab states, including The Sudan (National Islamic Front) in February and Yemen in April. An Iraqi Information Ministry team visited Doha for a week. The national budget provided for a 19.4% decline in revenues due to lower oil prices. Expenditure was cut to $3,250,000,000 from $3,590,000,000 in 1993, but the budget deficit was also slated to rise from $807 million in 1993 to $953 million in 1994. In a bid to replace oil income with other sources of wealth, new liquefied natural gas (LNG) contracts were negotiated with energy companies in East Asia. Qatar expected to export 24 million metric tons a year of LNG from its North Field by the year 2005. On January 20 Qatar Airways, the Gulf’s youngest airline,

inaugurated its first scheduled passenger flight to the United

Arab Emirates. The airline, which opened for business with two leased aircraft, had traffic rights for Dubayy, ashShariqah, and Khartoum in The Sudan. (soHN WHELAN) This article updates the Macropeedia article ARABIA: Qatar.

ROMANIA A republic on the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe, Romania has a coastline on the Black Sea. Area: 237,500 sq km (91,699 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 22,740,000. Cap.: Bucharest. | Monetary unit: leu, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 1,746 lei to U.S. $1 (2,777 lei = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Ion Iliescu; prime minister, Nicolae Vacaroiu.

In January to sign the in July the ommended

1994 Romania became the first of 22 countries NATO Partnership for Peace agreement, and Commission of the European Union (EU) recthe expansion of its association agreement with

Romania, signed on Feb. 1, 1993, to include wider commer-

cial concessions. At the beginning of September the U.S. Congress accepted Pres. Bill Clinton’s recommendation to extend Romania’s most-favoured-nation trade status for another year. Economic progress continued to be uneven. The inertia that characterized the government’s approach to mass privatization in 1993 led to the shifting of the movement for reform to the International Monetary Fund. As a stimulus for reform the IMF approved a stand-by agreement for Romania on May 11 amounting to $700 million over the next 19 months. This triggered additional external assistance from international financial institutions, with the EU pledging ECU 90 million and the World Bank releasing part of its loan for privatization. In line with the IMF agreement, the government announced its Mass Privatization Plan (MPP) on July 22. The minister for economic reform said that almost 3,000 companies (the majority already profitable) would be privatized. Following the announcement the scheme was amended by the privatization commissions of the national legislature, and it was unlikely that the MPP would be implemented before early 1995. Doubts about the government’s ability to meet the privatization targets stemmed from its dependency for a parliamentary majority on the ultranationalist Romanian National Unity Party (PUNR) and the Greater Romania Party. Both of these parties opposed any significant privatization that involved foreign capital. Foreign companies continued to face legal difficulties in acquiring outright ownership

of land, and there was still doubt as to whether even a Romanian-registered company could acquire such ownership. In 1994 more than 30% of the land confiscated by

the communists in 1949 remained in the hands of the state. These restrictions, coupled with the continued inconsistency in fiscal legislation and its arbitrary application, kept foreign investment—largely restricted to joint ventures—at a modest level in comparison with that in most of the other former communist nations of Eastern Europe; in September

it stood at $953 million. Notable success was achieved in reducing inflation. Figures indicated that the government should meet its target of 75-80% inflation for 1994 (down from 300% in 1993); Exports for the first half of 1994 rose 41% compared with the same period in 1993. Unemployment, at 10.4% (1.2 million) in September 1994, was rising slowly. On the political front the behaviour of the PUNR created problems for the government. The fourth largest party in the

legislature since the September 1992 elections, the PUNR,

under its leader Gheorghe Funar, exploited nationalist sensibilities among the mixed Romanian-Hungarian population in its Transylvanian stronghold of Cluj. One of Funar’s most controversial acts was triggered by the collapse of the pyramid investment scheme Caritas, with which his party was closely linked. In an effort to distract attention from the scandal arising from this affair, Funar in July ordered

World Affairs: Russia

excavations to begin in the town centre that might have resulted in the removal of a statue of the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus, a native of Cluj regarded as a symbolic bridge between Hungarians and Romanians in Transylvania. In response, the Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania (HDUR) organized a protest rally in the city. The situation was defused as a result of government intervention, which led to the site of the excavation being moved. Given the conflicts and tensions in the region, great emphasis was being placed by European governments on the need for Hungary and Romania to normalize their relations. Both countries received numerous signals from abroad to this effect, not least from the EU, which told all Eastern European governments that a resolution of outstanding minority and frontier issues was a precondition of integration into the organization. Further complicating the situation, hard-liners in the HDUR were driving the party toward a radicalization of its policies. At the beginning of August the HDUR demanded special status for areas of Transylvania occupied by “compact Hungarian population,” including greater control over education and culture. The HDUR also requested that Hungary include these demands in the proposed bilateral treaty with Romania. This announcement drew protests from all the major political parties in Romania. (DENNIS J. DELETANT) This article updates the Macropedia Romania.

article BALKAN

capital from the country. Moreover, many having second thoughts about the wisdom the Soviet Union, and Zhirinovsky’s promise the U.S.S.R. successor states to Russia was This vote, however,

in which

461

Russians were of breaking up to subordinate very appealing.

the seats were

allocated

according to proportional representation, applied to only . half of the 450 seats in the Duma. The other half were al-

located according to the “first-past-the-post” principle, and here the pro-reformers did much better. Altogether, radical reformers (Russia’s Choice and others) won 88 seats, mod-

erate reformers (Russian Party of Unity and Accord and the Yavlinsky-Boldyrev-Lukin bloc) received 41 seats; centrists

(New Regional Policy and Democratic Party), 80 seats; procommunist (Agrarian Union, Women

of Russia, and Com-

munist Party), 104 seats; Russian nationalist (Russian Way), 25; and the extreme right (Liberal Democratic Party), 64. Ivan Rybkin of the Agrarian Union, a staunch communist, was elected speaker. Since much of the government’s economic policy was opposed by the Yavlinsky-BoldyrevLukin bloc, there was little prospect that radical legislation would be passed. The tension that had existed between the

STATES:

RUSSIA Russia is a federal republic occupying eastern and northeastern Europe and all of northern Asia. Area: 17,075,400 sq km

(6,592,800 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 148,174,000. Cap.: Moscow. Monetary unit: ruble, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2,927 rubles = U.S. $1 (4,656 rubles = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Boris Yeltsin; prime minister, Viktor Chernomyrdin.

Domestic Affairs. An uneasy truce prevailed during 1994 between Pres. Boris Yeltsin and the opposition, within the State Duma (lower house of parliament) and outside. In elections in December 1993 Yeltsin succeeded in getting a popular mandate for the new constitution, which conferred much greater powers on the president than Yeltsin had enjoyed under the 1978 (Soviet) constitution. The president had wanted the vote on the constitution to be a measure of the confidence of the electorate in him and his policies, but the low turnout (55%) and the fact that only 58.4% voted in favour of the constitution rather undermined the legitimacy of the president. Moreover, in May the results of an analysis of voting published in Izvestiya concluded that voter turnout had been only 46.1%; by these calculations the constitution had not been adopted. Both the president and the Duma ignored the report. More bad news for Yeltsin was that the new Duma did not have a pro-reform majority. Twenty-one parties had applied to contest the election, but only 13 were permitted to do so. Here the pro-Yeltsin forces miscalculated. By banning some of the more extreme parties, they succeeded only in concentrating the antireform vote. Yeltsin, to the consternation of his supporters, refused to support Russia’s Choice openly. As the main pro-reform party, Russia’s Choice had confidently expected about a third of the vote but was shocked to discover that only 15.4% of voters chose it. With 22.8% of the vote, the clear winner, especially among businessmen, was the Liberal Democratic Party (in reality a right-wing nationalist party) of Vladimir Zhirinovsky (see BIOGRAPHIES), who promised to clamp down on crime and corruption and also to exclude Western

A woman waves a communist flag at a May Day rally in Moscow. Beset by severe economic hardships and a growing crime rate, many Russians were turning away from the development of a free market and closer ties to the West and turning toward a militant nationalism. OTTO POHL

legislative (parliament) and the executive (president and government) continued under the new constitutional order. In the Federation Council, the upper house of parliament,

the situation was much more satisfactory from Yeltsin’s point of view. Most of the 178 members were independents, but the pro-reform democrats had the largest group, 48 members. There were 23 moderate reformers. The Liberal Democratic Party was not formally represented. Vladimir Shumeyko, a Yeltsin supporter, was elected speaker. Under the new constitution the president—not the parliament—proposed the prime minister and government. If the Duma rejected his nominees three times, he could dissolve the Duma. The constitution afforded the parliament, the president, the federal government, and the representative bodies of the subdivisions (republics, krays, oblasts) of the federation the right to initiate legislation. There were no legal or procedural means to prevent or mediate clashes between different types of legislation, however, one of the many instances that revealed that the constitution was drawn

462

World Affairs: Russia

up in haste. On the other hand, it was extremely difficult to impeach the president; nothing short of a charge of treason or similar grave crime would suffice. Although Yeltsin’s attitude toward the Duma was conciliatory, the legislature was frustrated by its inability, under the constitution, to make the government accountable to it or even to obtain the information it sought. The opposition saw that the only recourse was to force a vote of no confidence in the government. Such a vote occurred in October, and the government came within 32 votes of losing. From time to time the Duma openly challenged the president. For instance, in February the Duma granted an amnesty to the leaders of the attempted coup of August 1991, those responsible for attacks on the police at a Moscow demonstration on May Day 1993, and the leaders of the parliamentary revolt crushed by Yeltsin in October 1993 (including Yeltsin foes Ruslan Khasbulatov and Aleksandr Rutskoy). Yeltsin responded by phoning Prosecutor General Aleksey Kazannik and instructing him to find a legal device to block the amnesty. Kazannik refused to obey the “telephone law,” declared that the amnesty was legal, and resigned. The defeat of the pro-reform parties in the elections strengthened the hand of Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. Radical deputy prime ministers, except Anatoly Chubais (responsible for privatization), were replaced by more conservative men in order to appeal to the industrial, military-industrial, and agrarian lobbies. A major casualty was Yegor Gaydar, who stepped down as first deputy prime minister, whereupon Boris Fyodorov, the minister of finance, and Aleksandr Shokhin, the minister of economics,

contended for the key reform post. Fyodorov threatened to resign from the Cabinet and demanded the resignation of Aleksandr Zaveryukha, deputy prime minister in charge of agriculture, and Viktor Gerashchenko, chairman of the Russian central bank. Fyodorov was also keen to succeed Gerashchenko. Chernomyrdin asked Fyodorov to withdraw his conditions and return as minister of finance. He refused, and the two main proponents of reform in the government, Gaydar and Fyodorov, were gone. Chernomyrdin also dismissed several of the government’s pro-Western economic advisers and stressed that Russia was not going to adopt a Western economic model. He also pushed for closer ties (1.e., more Russian influence) within the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Regional and local elections resulted in further defeats for the reformist movement and successes for the former communist elites. Many of the elections were declared invalid since less than 25% of the electorate went to the polls, revealing political apathy, which was partly due to the perception that local elected institutions were too weak to deal with pressing local problems. In April the Civic Accord was signed by the president, representatives of the government and the parliament, and regional and republican leaders. Yeltsin had proposed the accord in February as a means for contentious political forces to work together to stabilize Russia’s economic position. The draft had to be amended several times to satisfy the several participants, and the final version deleted provisions for sanctions against signatories who violated the accord. The Agrarian Union, the Communist Party, and the Yavlinsky-Boldyrev-Lukin bloc refused to sign. In June Russia’s Choice announced the formation of a new political party, Russia’s Democratic Choice, headed by

Gaydar. In October Zhirinovsky’s Liberal Democrats boy-

cotted the Duma

in protest against what they called an

official campaign of harassment against the party. They were joined by the Agrarian Union and the Communist Party,

and this led to the Duma’s being deprived for a time of a working majority. Matters took an alarming turn beginning in September when the currency began dropping in value; on October 11, dubbed Black Tuesday, the ruble lost over 20% against the U.S. dollar. The president dismissed the acting minister of finance, Sergey Dubinin, and demanded that the Duma remove Gerashchenko. When the Duma refused, he dismissed the central bank chairman himself, a violation of the

constitution. Chernomyrdin also lost face in the episode, and it appeared that the president might sacrifice him. On October 27 the prime minister narrowly survived a vote of no confidence. Only 54 deputies sided with the government, which revealed how thin support for the reform program was. Opposition was marshaled by the Communists, but the Agrarians were divided in their votes. Yeltsin dismissed the liberal minister of agriculture, Viktor Khlystun, and replaced him with the Agrarian Aleksandr Nazarchuk. This deal appeared to save the day for the government. The fallout from Black Tuesday permitted the president on November 4 to appoint Vladimir Panskov the new minister of finance and accept the resignation of Aleksandr Shokhin as deputy prime minister and minister of economics. Pessimists thought that this meant a lurch to the right by Yeltsin, but he appointed Anatoly Chubais first deputy prime minister and Yevgeny Yasin, an academic who had worked on Mikhail Gorbachev’s 500-day program, minister of economics. It appeared that the president’s tactics were to include in his government all shades of opinion, from radical reformer Chubais to ex-Communist Nazarchuk. The Communist Party was offered a place in government, but it declined. Thus, three levels of executive power evolved: the president, the Security Council (which was concerned mainly with security, defense, and police affairs), and the government. Foreign affairs came directly under the president, while the government was mainly responsible for economic policy. During the year Yeltsin distanced himself from all groups and attempted to placate pro-communists, nationalists, and reformers from time to time. He did not commit himself to a coherent policy of political or economic reform. The main information agencies remained under state control, and major initiatives were still launched by presidential decree. In some ways Yeltsin began to resemble Gorbachev in 1991. A crisis of a different sort beset Yeltsin in the latter half of the year. Following the withdrawal of Russian troops from Eastern Europe and the Baltic states, Moscow signed an agreement with the government of Moldova on the eventual withdrawal of the Russian 14th Army from the territory of the self-declared “Dniester republic.” At the same time, it also began to increase the Support for a group in the southern oil-producing area of Chechnya that opposed that republic’s nationalist president, Dzhokhar Dudayev (see BloGRAPHIES), and his drive to take Chechnya out of the Russian Federation. Dudayev had declared Chechnya’s independence in 1991. Fighting between the Chechen government and the opposition. escalated slowly throughout the fall, then intensified sharply at the end of November, On December 10 Yeltsin ordered the borders of Chechnya sealed, and the following day Russian troops entered the heavily Muslimpopulated republic. They made slow, very costly progress toward Grozny, the capital, amid a growing chorus of criticism of Russian involvement—in Chechnya itself, among many Russian civilians and politicians, as well as some in the military, and almost universally abroad. Russia n troops had not secured Grozny by year’s end, and there seemed to

World Affairs: Rwanda

be confusion among the leaders in Moscow about who was in charge. The Economy. The economy appeared to be in free fall for most of the year. Gross national product declined by 27%, production by 28%, and investment by 27% during the first half of the year. Gross domestic product (GDP) was expected to fall 15% over the year. Agriculture suffered badly, with the private sector accounting for less than 10% of arable farming. Most food on sale in Moscow was imported. About 18% of the population lived below the poverty line. On the other hand, Russia enjoyed a balance of payments surplus, and by autumn about $500 million in venture capital was flowing in monthly. The service sector was booming, and privatization had resulted in about half the labour force working in the private sector. Smalland medium-scale privatization was almost completed, and

Chubais envisaged 1995 as the year when large-scale privatization could really get under way. Most conflict centred on the budget. The 1994 budget was passed by the parliament only in June, but the 1995 budget was already being hotly debated in November. This was an austerity budget, strongly backed by Chernomyrdin, and was tailored to please the International Monetary Fund (IMF) rather than the Duma. The draft abandoned the previous gradualist approach in the battle against inflation. There was to be a pegged exchange rate, strict rules against printing money to cover the budget deficit, and a planned $13 billion in Western aid. Tax revenues would most likely fail to meet targets, however (in 1994 tax revenues were only 11% of GDP). Spending cuts were implied, but the agrarian and military-industrial lobbies fought fiercely for large increases. Budget deficits would be financed by bond sales and help from outside. Demand for government bonds was weak in 1994, as there was little faith in the ruble. Half of all savings were being placed into foreign currencies. Foreign policy. In December, at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe session in Budapest, Yeltsin launched a blistering attack on NATO’s plans to expand eastward and embrace the Eastern European states. He talked about the Cold War giving way to the Cold Peace. After some vacillation, in November Russia declined to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace program, a rude shock for

the U.S., which had doggedly stood behind Yeltsin throughout the year (Pres. Bill Clinton had visited Moscow in January). These moves signaled a toughening of the Russian position on relations with the West and made it clear that Moscow still regarded Eastern Europe as lying within its zone of influence. In the area Russia had called the “near abroad,” Moscow continued

to expand

its political, economic,

and military

influence as well. An Interstate Economic Committee was set up in the CIS (see COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES), which pointed toward gradual economic integration. Russia also moved to improve relations with China and Japan, and a number of agreements were signed, but the key question of Russo-Japanese relations, the fate of the Kuril Islands, remained unsolved. Russia upgraded its relations with Iraq and sought to mediate in the IraqKuwait conflict. Russia strongly opposed an expanded role for NATO in Bosnia and Herzegovina, although it did on occasion sanction NATO bombing of Serb positions and pressed for a negotiated settlement. The conflict between Westernizers (those who favoured an Atlanticist foreign policy and close relations with the West) and nationalists (those who favoured a Eurasian and Russocentric foreign policy) appeared to be tipping in favour of the latter. Several influential scholars known for their Atlanticist position gradually moved toward the nationalists,

463

and in May author Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn returned to his homeland after 20 years in exile. Rumours about Yeltsin’s health, his passion for vodka, and his fitness to rule were

fueled by his failure to keep a date with Irish Prime Minister Albert Reynolds at Shannon Airport on September 30 on his way home from an official visit to the U.S. He was - severely criticized in the Duma, and one deputy claimed that his behaviour had shamed

Russia. Earlier, in Berlin

for the withdrawal of the last Russian troops in August, Yeltsin had seized the bandleader’s baton and delivered a rendition of a Russian folk song. His conspicuous absences and erratic decision making during the Chechen crisis led to speculation about the degree to which Yeltsin was in control of the country. (MARTIN MCCAULEY) RWANDA The landlocked republic of Rwanda is situated in central Africa. Area: 26,338 sq km (10,169 sq mi). Pop. (late August 1994 est.): 6.5 million to 7.2 million, including 2 million to 2.5 million refugees, of whom 1.5 million to 2 million are in Zaire. Cap.: Kigali. Monetary unit: Rwanda franc, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of RF 135.93 to U.S. $1 (RF 216.20 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1994, Maj. Gen. Juvénal Habyarimana to April 6, Theodore Sindikubwabo from April 9, and, from July 19, Pasteur Bizimungu; prime ministers, Agathe Uwilingiyimana until April 7, Jean Kambanda from April 9 to July 19, and, from July 19,

Faustin Twagiramungu.

The worst genocide and mass slaughter Africa had ever seen occurred in Rwanda from April to August 1994. The government had been stockpiling weapons for months and then passing them on to Hutu militias, and the uprising, despite the death in April of Pres. Juvénal Habyarimana that set it off, was not spontaneous but part of a planned massacre of the minority Tutsi. Moreover, those Hutu who favoured genuine democracy and were prepared to work with the Tutsi were targets of killer squads as much as were the Tutsi. Leaders of the opposition Social Democrat Party and Liberal Party were killed along with about 2,300 other people before the events of April 6. On that day Habyarimana and Burundi’s Pres. Cyprien Ntaryarima were killed when the plane in which they were traveling was shot down near the Kigali airport (by Hutu extremists it seemed likely). The next day Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, a Tutsi, was assassinated by Hutu soldiers. The months of horrific massacres that followed appeared to have had several objectives: to eliminate the Tutsi minority and opponents of the military regime established by Habyarimana and to ensure the absolute dominance of Hutu extremists. As the conflict intensified, Kigali collapsed into chaos, though a transitional government was established under the speaker of the National Development Council, Theodore Sindikubwabo. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR), which was dominated by Tutsi and had been fighting a civil war against the government since 1990, rejected his legitimacy and continued fighting; by April 12, FPR troops were invading the outskirts of Kigali. UN attempts to mediate a ceasefire were unsuccessful. On April 22, as the crisis deepened, the UN voted to reduce its presence in the country from 2,500 to 270. On

May

17, however,

the UN

reversed

its

decision and voted to establish a force of 5,500 composed mainly of Africans (Europe and the U.S. refused to contribute troops). On June 23, with UN backing, France sent a military force into Rwanda to establish a safe zone; it was opposed by the FPR, which claimed that France had always supported the government and policies of President Habyarimana. By mid-August the French had withdrawn, but only a small number of African troops under UN auspices had arrived.

464

World Affairs: Saint Kitts and Nevis

ir

=

me

ae

a

Bodies of massacred Rwandans lie amid debris in the Kagera River, along the border with Tanzania. Fighting between the Hutu and the Tutsi in 1994 led to enormous losses of life on both sides, and thousands also died in refugee camps in Tanzania and other neighbouring countries. SEBASTIAO SALGADO

During June and July the FPR continued to make gains on the battlefield, and by the end of August it had taken control of virtually all of Rwanda. One million or more were killed in the fighting from April to August. By September there were some 1.5 million to 2 million refugees, mostly Hutu, in camps in Zaire alone, and a virtual state of war existed between different groups there. An outbreak of cholera in the crowded camps killed thousands. A few refugees began returning to Rwanda as early as July, although some Hutu, especially in rural areas, were reportedly victims of reprisals by the Tutsi-led FPR regime. After some vacillation the UN High Commissioner for Refugees agreed in December to provide assistance to refugees who wished to return. On November 8 the Security Council approved the establishment of an international court to examine charges of genocide. (GUY ARNOLD)

See also Race and Ethnic Relations: Sidebar. This article updates the Macropeedia article CENTRAL AFRICA: Rwanda.

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, St. Kitts and Nevis comprises the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis

in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 269 sq km (104 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 41,800. Cap.: Basseterre. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a par value of EC$2.70. to

USS. $1 (free rate of EC$4.30 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1994, Sir Clement Arrindell; prime minister, Kennedy Alphonse Simmonds.

The dead heat between the incumbent People’s Action Movement (PAM) and the St. Kitts-Nevis Labour Party (SKNLP) in the November 1993 general election created a climate of political and social instability that lasted well into 1994. The SKNLP did not take kindly to the fact that the governor-general had invited PAM to remain in office as a minority government. With the four seats it won and the support promised by the Nevis Reformation Party (NRP)

with one seat, PAM

could count on only five votes in the

11-seat National Assembly. The SKNLP, which also won

four seats, insisted on new elections early in 1994, but that

demand was rejected by the PAM leader, Prime Minister Kennedy Simmonds. Demonstrations by SKNLP supporters in the aftermath of the election forced the government to impose a state of emergency for 10 days. After being sworn in, SKNLP members boycotted all sittings of the Assembly, making it easier for the minority government to function. Political disagreements did not seem to affect the economy, however, as the 1994 sugar harvest promised to reach 22,500 tons, compared with 21,258 tons in 1993. During the year the country “graduated” from World Bank concessionary lending because of its improved level of per capita national income. A prison riot and jailbreak in Basseterre in November after two sons of a prominent official received bail on charges related to drug and arms trafficking called attention to these problems, which were on the rise in the eastern Caribbean. (DAVID RENWICK)

This article updates the Macropeedia article The West INDIEs: Saint Kitts and Nevis.

World Affairs: Sao Tomé and Principe

SAINT LUCIA A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, St. Lucia is the second largest of the Windward Islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 617 sq km (238 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 142,000. Cap.: Castries. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1

(free rate of EC$4.30 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1994, Stanislaus A. James; prime minister, John Compton.

Unrest in the banana industry continued as 1994 began, following a work stoppage by banana farmers in late 1993. The farmers were upset over low prices being paid by the St. Lucia Banana Growers Association (SLBGA). The protests turned violent at one stage, and two people were shot after clashes with the police. The United Workers’ Party government, headed by Prime Minister John Compton, responded to the farmers’ demands by sacking the entire SLBGA board and agreeing to raise prices for various grades of bananas, the island’s main export crop. The farmers’ action was followed in February 1994 by that of the Seamen and Waterfront Workers’ Trade Union. They struck in protest against new loading arrangements that resulted in 35-50% reductions in pay. Britain announced during the year that it would provide another £4.3 million in development aid for the third phase of St. Lucia’s west coast road-improvement project. Additional development funding also became available at midyear, with France

offering a $2 million credit line to

finance small infrastructural projects and the Caribbean Development Bank loaning $8.3 million for road construction to support the continued expansion of the tourism industry. In September Saint Lucia and the other Windward Islands suffered severe damage to agriculture, including the banana crop, and infrastructure from Tropical Storm Debbie. (DAVID RENWICK) This article updates the Macropeedia article The WEsT INDIEs: Saint Lucia.

SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES A constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, St. Vincent and the Grenadines comprises the islands of St. Vincent and the northern Grenadines in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 389 sq km (150 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 110,000. Cap.: Kingstown. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct.

7, 1994) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of EC$4.30 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth I; governor-general in 1994, David Jack; prime minister, James Fitz-Allen Mitchell.

465

in the banana industry. The decline to which the motion referred was evident during the first half of 1994, when banana exports dropped to 17,000 tons, compared with 30,000 tons in 1993. Kuwait, OPEC, and the European Investment Bank agreed in July to help fund a new berth for cruise ships and _ to extend ferry facilities at the Kingstown port. The cost would be about $15 million. (DAVID RENWICK) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West INDtIEs: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.

SAN MARINO The republic of San Marino is a landlocked enclave in northeastern Italy. Area: 61 sq km (24 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 24,500. Cap.: San Marino. Monetary unit: Italian lira, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 1,569 lire to U.S. $1 (2,495 lire = £1 sterling). The republic is governed by two capitani reggenti, or coregents, appointed every six months by a popularly elected Great and General Council. Executive power rests with the Congress of State, headed by the coregents and composed of three secretaries of state and seven ministers.

In April 1994 the Great and General Council elected a schoolteacher and a-state functionary as the new state leaders. Both coregents identified the family and the environment as the focal issues of 1994, the latter having been the subject of a recent treaty with Italy in which San Marino, landlocked though it was, expressed its commitment to share in the effort to protect the Adriatic Sea. Earlier in the year Gabriele Gatti, the state secretary for foreign and political affairs, met with the Italian foreign minister to perfect legislative agreements intended to harmonize banking and financial procedures between the two countries while guarding against tax evasion and the illegal recycling of funds. Gatti also met in Brussels with the European Union (EU) commissioner for external economic affairs, Sir Leon

Brittan, whose

reassurances

concerning

trade between EU countries and San Marino induced Gatti to define the future economic prospects for the tiny republic as truly optimistic. In 1994 San Marino received the credentials of a Russian ambassador for the first time. It also engaged in activities to aid people in former Yugoslavia through the agency of the national Red Cross. Further evidence of San Marino’s commitment to world harmony was provided when one of its representatives traveled to Israel to participate with various European statesmen in discussions on the Arab-Israeli peace process. (GREGORY O. SMITH) This article updates the Micropedia article SAN MARINO.

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE A preelection budget for 1994 promised EC$263.6 million in government spending. Income tax reductions amounting to more than EC$4 million were also announced. A national election was called in February, earlier than constitutionally due, and the New Democratic Party (NDP), headed by Prime Minister James Mitchell, retained its hold on office but with a reduced majority. It won 12 of the 15 seats in the House of Assembly; the other 3 went to a coalition of opposition groups (the Movement for National Unity and the Saint Vincent Labour Party) led by Vincent Beache, who became official opposition leader in the Assembly. The election was marred by polling-eve clashes between supporters of both sides, during which more than 60 people were injured and a young NDP supporter died after being hit on the head with a stone. The NDP government survived a no-confidence motion brought by the opposition in August, accusing it of failing to tackle economic problems, including a production decline

The republic of S40 Tomé and Principe comprises two main islands and several smaller islets that straddle the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, off the west coast of Africa. Area: 1,001

sq km (386 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 128,000. Cap.: Sao Tome. Monetary unit: dobra, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 811.68 dobras to U.S. $1 (1,291 dobras = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Miguel Trovoada; prime ministers, Norberto José d’Alva Costa Alegre until July 2, Evaristo Carvalho from July 7, and, from October 25, Carlos da Graga.

In July Pres. Miguel Trovoada dismissed the prime minister, Norberto Costa Alegre, and replaced him with Evaristo Carvalho. This caused the ruling Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD) to call for the president’s resignation, for it was unhappy with Carvalho’s appointment even though he was a member of the party. The crisis between Trovoada and the PCD led the former to dissolve the National Assembly on July 10 and to set a date for general elections on October 2.

466

World Affairs: Saudi Arabia

In the elections the Movement for the Liberation of Sao Tomé and Principe-Social Democratic Party (MLSTPPSD) won 27 seats in the 55-member National Assembly. The formerly Marxist party, which had at one time been the only legal party, thus came to power some three years after having been defeated in the country’s firstmultiparty elections, in 1991. The PCD and Independent Democratic Action each took 14 seats. President Trovoada appointed Carlos da Graga, head of MLSTP-PSD, as prime minister. In April 1994 the National Assembly began to examine draft legislation that would confer autonomy on the island of Principe, which lies about 150 km (90 mi) from the main Sao Tomé archipelago. The bill provided for the establishment of a regional assembly and a five-member government under a minister, who would be appointed by the president of the republic. In addition, Principe would be empowered to establish “bonds of cooperation” with nearby foreign powers. The Supreme Court legalized two new political parties during the year: the Independent Democratic Action party, which was led by Gabriel Costa (an adviser to President Trovoada), and the People’s Alliance. The National Assembly adopted a law that reinforced the rights of the parliamentary opposition; the government and president must consult all opposition parties on major political issues, including the budget, defense, the organization of elections, and foreign policy. The opposition was also to take part in controlling state media. (GUY ARNOLD) This article updates the Macropedia article CENTRAL AFRICA: Sao Tomé and Principe.

SAUDI ARABIA The kingdom of Saudi Arabia occupies four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula, with coastlines on the Red Sea and the Persian

Gulf. Area: 2,240,000 sq km (865,000 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 17,947,000. Cap.: Riyadh. Monetary unit: Saudi Arabian riyal, with (Oct. 7, 1994) an official rate of 3.75 riyals to U.S. $1 (5.97 riyals = £1 sterling). King and prime minister in 1994, Fahd.

Civil rights, religious issues, and demands for political and economic reform were dominant themes in Saudi Arabia in 1994 as the government faced an organized dissident movement for the first time since the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by young Muslim fundamentalists in 1979. The Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights (CDLR), a broad coalition of Sunni Muslim academics and religious leaders opposed to the as-Sa‘ud regime, moved its headquarters from Riyadh to London in April. Earlier in April Saudi special branch officers had arrested five teachers and clerics in the northern town of Hail and detained leading dissident Anwar Muhammad al-Masa’ari, son of the CDLR’s leading spokesman, Muhammad ibn al-Masa’ari.

In September, during a much wider crackdown on dissidents, police arrested 157 men on charges of undermining security, although 130 were subsequently released. The fate of the remaining 27 detainees was not immediately clear,

At the time of the arrests, Interior Ministry spokesmen said

only 110 individuals had been detained. Saudi Arabia also faced criticism from international human rights groups over the fate of 22,000 Iraqi refugees living at the Rafha camp in northern Saudi Arabia. The London-based human rights organization Amnesty International accused the Saudi authorities of gross mistreatment of the refugees. The Saudi embassy in London claimed that the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Saudi Arabia had praised the Saudi government for its humane treatment of the Iraqi refugees, who fled their own country during the Gulf war. At the end of January, however, the

International Committee of the Red Cross closed its Riyadh office in protest against the Saudi refusal to redesignate the : Iraqi refugees as detainees. While willing to embrace political and economic reform, King Fahd was keen to appease the religious right wing by announcing on March 10 a decree banning the use, manufacture, and importation of television satellite dishes. Some 150,000 satellite dishes were erected by private Saudi citizens during the Gulf war to satisfy their hunger for uncensored news and entertainment. The Ministry of Information declared that the Saudi authorities planned to install their own cable television network throughout the kingdom. The first ordinary session of the all-male majlis ash-shura (Consultative Council) opened on January 22, following a formal address by the monarch some three weeks earlier in which King Fahd referred to the need for a “new framework” of consultation between the government and Saudi citizens. The assembly established committees covering Muslim affairs, foreign affairs, security, finance, society and health, culture and information services, and general

utilities and administration. Meetings of the assembly and its committee were to take place behind closed doors, with no public access to the proceedings. On May 9 King Fahd expressed concern at the low price of oil, which he said was damaging to both producers and consumers alike. He promised a privatization program to sell state assets to the public, which observers took to imply a commitment

to sell shares in state utilities, such as the

national airline and the telephone system. Despite official concern at the weak price of oil, Petroleum and Mineral Resources Minister Hisham Nazer said in November that there were no plans to expand oil-production capacity beyond its current 10 million bbl a day. » Ministers unveiled details of the sixth five-year plan (due to come into effect Jan. 1, 1995), which placed emphasis on the need for self-defense and an assertion of national consciousness, as well as for economic measures to privatize key industries, create jobs, and improve infrastructure. France and Saudi Arabia, meeting in Casablanca, Morocco,

on November 19, signed an agreement for the supply of airdefense frigates and shore bases valued at $3.7 billion. Relations with Iran were soured by bitter diplomatic exchanges over the hajj (pilgrimage). The Saudi government not only sought to limit the number of Iranian. pilgrims to 60,000 instead of the 115,000 allowed

in recent years

but also tried to ban the Iranian contingent from staging an anti-American and anti-Israeli rally under the pretext of a “deliverance-from-infidels” ritual. When the rally took place, on May 23, some 270 were killed in a stampede. The Saudi Health Ministry said that overall 829 people died from natural causes during the hajj. Among the Muslim leaders taking part in the hajj in 1994 were Pakistan’s Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Pres. Alija Izetbegovic: In foreign affairs Saudi Arabia showed strong support for the Middle East peace process and endorsed the May 4 agreement on Palestinian self-rule, describing it as a “practical step on the road to an overall settlement.” Although still cool toward the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Saudi government expressed its willingness to support economic reconstruction in Jericho and the Gaza Strip, but only through the auspices of multilateral aid organizations. No subsidies were to be paid to the PLO. The Saudi government also welcomed the bilateral agreement between Israel and Jordan on October 26, although King Fahd declined to meet King Hussein of Jordan earlier in the year when he visited the holy places to perform wmra (the minor pilgrimage).

World Affairs: Sierra Leone

In a move

that suggested continuing border problems

between Saudi Arabia and Qatar, the Doha authorities on

November 26 boycotted a meeting in Riyadh of interior ministers from the Gulf states. The Saudi authorities denied Qatari claims that several border incidents had occurred, but persistent reports appeared to confirm that the diplomatic agreement of December 1992 had not ended conflict between the two states. (JOHN WHELAN)

This article updates the Macropedia Arabia.

article ARABIA:

Saudi

SENEGAL The republic of Senegal is located in West Africa, on the

Atlantic Ocean; it surrounds the country of The Gambia. Area: 196,712 sq km (75,951 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 8,112,000. Cap.: Dakar. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a par value of CFAF 100 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 526.67 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 837.67 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Abdou Diouf; prime minister, Habib Thiam.

Senegal’s reputation for tolerance and democracy was badly shaken during 1994. Violence on an unprecedented scale broke out on February 16 during a protest rally organized by the opposition coalition Coordination of Democratic Forces, in conjunction with various other groups. Speakers condemned the government both for its attempts to stifle dissent and for its failure to alleviate hardships caused by the January devaluation of the CFA franc. Militant demonstrators attacked security forces. Six police officers were killed, and dozens of people were injured. Members of the opposition charged the government with provoking the violence. During the next week 179 persons, including opposition leaders Abdoulaye Wade and Landing Savané, were arrested for inciting the riot. Most were released on July 4. In September the courts found Wade and Savané innocent of involvement in the February riots. The government’s handling of the situation brought condemnation from human rights organizations, the European Parliament, and the U.S. Congress. Diplomatic relations with Iran were suspended in May, reflecting the government’s anger at reports that Islamic fundamentalists were being funded by that country. Weeks of peaceful protests over proposed reforms in the university system ended when approximately 100 students rioted on June 6. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER) This article updates the Macropeedia article WESTERN AFRICA: Senegal.

SEYCHELLES A republic and member of the Commonwealth, the Seychelles consists of about 100 islands widely scattered over the western Indian Ocean. The main island of Mahé is 1,800 km (1,100 mi) from the east coast of the African continent. Area: 455 sq km (176 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 71,800. Cap.: Victoria. Monetary unit: Seychelles rupee, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of SR 4.93 to U.S. $1 (SR 7.85 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, FranceAlbert René.

In addition, the commission had a regional program to develop tourism, which included training programs, sales, promotion and marketing, and backup operations to assist the transfer of management know-how. Finally, there was an Indian Ocean program for automatization of telecommunications. Tourism remained the largest source of income for Seychelles, with the annual number of visitors exceeding the total population. In 1993 receipts from tourism amounted to $118 million, but the number of visitors was down in 1994. Petroleum products (processed in the country’s oil refinery) earned 53% of the country’s foreign exchange and canned tuna an additional 30%. Seychelles had a per capita gross national product (GNP) of $5,480, which placed it in the World Bank’s uppermiddle-income bracket. Its international debt of $154 million was approximately 40% of GNP. Other indicators of progress were an average life expectancy of 70 years, access to safe water for 99% of the population, and a daily caloric intake that satisfied all recommended requirements. (GUY ARNOLD) This article updates the Micropeedia article SEYCHELLES.

SIERRA LEONE A republic of West Africa and member of the Commonwealth, Sierra Leone lies on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 71,740 sq km (27,699 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 4,616,000. Cap.: Freetown. Monetary unit: leone, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 585.55

leones to U.S. $1 (931.32 leones = £1 sterling). Chairman of the Supreme Council of State in 1994, Capt. Valentine E.M. Strasser; vice chairman (and head of government), Lieut. Julius Maada Bio.

In January 1994 the government claimed a series of successes against the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), the rebel movement that had been mounting attacks from bases in Liberia since 1991. Government forces recaptured rebelheld centres near Pujehun in southern Sierra Leone on January 11. Later in the month, however, it was reported that

100 civilians had been killed when the RUF razed several villages near Bo. On June 30 a rebel attack on the village of Telu led to the deaths of 58 civilians and 2 soldiers. The government launched a series of attacks on RUF positions near the diamond-mining centre of Kenema in August. In November>the government called for a negotiated end to the fighting. In December 1993 the government announced a schedule for the return to democracy and civilian rule, to take place by the end of 1995. The process was to begin with the creation of a National Electoral Commission that would oversee the registration of voters and defining of electoral boundaries. Work on a new constitution began in June 1994, and the finished document was to be put to a public referendum in May 1995. Presidential elections were to be held in November 1995 and general elections in December. In July Sierra Leone took part with Guinea and Liberia in talks on reactivating the largely defunct Mano River Union. The secretary-general of the Commonwealth,

Following his landslide victory in the elections held in July 1993, Pres. France-Albert René and the Seychelles People’s Progressive Front (FPPS) were able to concentrate on problems that were related to development. Of increasing importance to Seychelles was its membership in the Indian Ocean Commission,

to which Comoros,

Madagascar,

and Mauri-

tius also belonged. The commission received substantial aid from the European Union for its various regional activities. Among other things, it was responsible for coastal surveys and for protecting plant life and maintaining biodiversity.

467

Chief Emeka

Anyaoku, visited Sierra Leone during the year to discuss development problems and democracy. Four Asian men from Britain were released in November as their trial on charges of treason began in Freetown. Accused of plotting to overthrow the government, the men

had been held for more than a year. There were many baffling questions about the men and their activities, none of which was answered. (GUY ARNOLD) This article updates the Macropeedia article WESTERN AFRICA: Sierra Leone.

POTLIGHT: Asian Values by Berton Woodward Is there such a thing as “Asian values”? If so, are they superior to Western values? For some time, Southeast Asian leaders, notably Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore and Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Mahathir bin Mohamad, had been highly critical of what they saw as a general moral and economic decline in the West. But as these and other Asian societies became more and more successful, more people in both Asia and the West seemed prepared to listen to what they had to say. The case of American

teenager Michael

Fay, who was

given four strokes of a rattan cane and imprisoned for nearly four months for spray painting cars in Singapore, was not the ideal focal point for an issue of such depth. Nonetheless, it served to spotlight many of the issues that were already being debated in Asia and the West. A Singaporean government spokesman remarked that tough laws had kept his nation relatively crime-free: “We don’t have a situation where acts of vandalism are commonplace as in cities like New York.” The Singaporean embassy in Washington, D.C., reported receiving strong support from Americans for its government’s position in the Fay case. To Singaporeans the issue hinged largely on their belief that their approach was creating a society that was better than those in the West, particularly in the U.S. In Foreign Affairs Samuel P. Huntington of Harvard University had published his essay “The Clash of Civilizations?” which suggested that in the post-Cold War world other cultures— notably those influenced by Islam and Confucianism— would challenge the West. Kishore Mahbubani, who later became permanent secretary of Singapore’s Foreign Ministry, referred to “a fatal flaw that has recently developed in the Western mind: an inability to conceive that the West may have developed structural weaknesses in its core value systems and institutions.” To Mahbubani this explained “the recent rush to embrace the assumption that history has ended with the triumph of the Western ideal: individual freedom and democracy would always guarantee that Western civilization would stay ahead of the pack. Only hubris can explain why so many Western societies are trying to defy the economic laws of gravity.” He pointed to a lack of budgetary discipline, low savings rates, an eroding work ethic, and uncompetitively high wages. He listed the soaring incidence of violent crime in the U.S., single-mother births, divorce rates, and children living in

single-parent homes. He further remarked that “instead of traveling overseas with humility, Americans confidently preach the virtues of unfettered individual freedom, blithely ignoring the visible social consequences.” What then are Asian values? Commonly, they are considered to include strong family values, respect for authority, consensus in decision making, and supremacy of the community over the individual. In an article in the Paris-based International Herald Tribune, Singapore ambassador-at-large Tommy Koh listed 10 values he felt East Asia represented. Topping the list was the point that East Asians do not believe in the extreme form of individualism practiced in the West. Whatever they do or say, they must keep in mind the interests of others. He also mentioned abelief in strong families, education, saving and frugality, hard work, and national teamwork through labour-management cooperation.

He pointed to a “social contract” between citizens and the

state in which the government guarantees basic needs and law and order in exchange for respect for authority and selfreliance without welfarism. He also listed the promotion of

private ownership, a morally wholesome environment, and

a responsible press.

468

Although Koh’s list reflected his Singaporean background, others in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines

have also articulated Asian alternatives to Western values. The Commission for a New Asia, a group of 18 respected thinkers from across the region, produced its first report in 1994, a vision of Asia in 2020. It called for a broad

range of human and political rights but also noted that personal rights in most instances were relative, not absolute. It upheld democracy as by far the best form of government for all societies, but it also endorsed a strong and stable government that did not “sacrifice the public interest on the altar of reelection” and was not preoccupied with shortterm considerations or vested interests. The group also saw virtue in consensual democracy. In all Asian societies, on many key issues, majoritarian democracy—decision making on the basis of the will of a simple majority—was viewed as clearly inadequate. On seriously divisive issues, the Asian emphasis on consensus building was, they believed, “clearly a superior form of democracy.” As for the mass media, the group said that “the first duty of a free press in a productive democracy was to be responsible—and to be responsible to society.” Some analysts have defined Asian values as essentially Confucian. Singapore, for one, makes constant reference to the teachings of Confucius. But support for the concept of Asian values comes from cultures as disparate as those in predominately Hindu India and Islamic Malaysia and Indonesia. Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysia’s deputy prime minister, pointed to harmony in society through good governance, the sanctity of the family, tolerance toward diversity, and compassion for the weak and unfortunate. Asians, he said,

are “convinced of the efficacy of our ways because our cultures have survived largely intact for millennia.” He also cautioned that Asia should not preach about its economic success without tackling such outstanding social problems as

poverty. One Western reaction to the concept of Asian values was expressed by Chris Patten, the British governor of Hong Kong: “Some Asian leaders and journalists define Asian values as a serene quartet—hard work, strong families, home ownership and morality. I happen to believe in all that myself.” Others suggested that the values merely represented the Protestant work ethic in a new guise. The central point of departure,

however,

was

the role of the individual

in

society. Whether or not the West suffered from excessive

individual freedom and insufficient respect for authority, the

Asian view puts the priority on the good of the group over that of a given individual. In this sense Asian values differ from the Western tradition and especially from America’s Jeffersonian view. Asian leaders continued to worry, however, that the pressures of affluence could lead to a more self-centred way of life. “Popular culture, TV, rock music, the buy-now-paylater advertisements,

conspicuous consumption,

the desire

for more material goods, all combine to erode the traditional virtues of hard work, thrift, personal responsibility and family togetherness,” said Singapore’s Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong in a National Day Rally speech. If these

were lost, he said, “we will lose our vibrancy, and decline.

This is the intangible factor in the success of East Asian economies.” Indeed, maintaining what they see as a special cultural edge will be the challenge for these countries as they become ever wealthier.

fee Woodward is assistant managing editor of Asiaweek magazine and is based in Hong Kong.

World Affairs: Slovakia

SINGAPORE Singapore, a republic of Southeast Asia and member of the Commonwealth, consists of the island of Singapore and 58

nearby islets, at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula. Area: 641 sq km (247 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 2,933,000. Monetary unit: Singapore dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of

S$1.48 to U.S. $1 (S$2.36 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Ong

Teng Cheong; prime minister, Goh Chok Tong.

Singapore became the centre of worldwide attention in 1994 as a result of the court-ordered caning of American teenager Michael Fay. In October 1993 Fay and five other resident expatriate teenagers had been charged with vandalism. Fay initially faced 53 counts, mainly spray painting and otherwise damaging 18 vehicles over a 10-day period. Fay pleaded guilty to two counts of vandalism, two counts of mischief, and one count of possessing stolen property. In March 1994 he was sentenced to four months in jail and six strokes of a rattan cane and fined U.S. $2,200. The

sentence provoked heated discussion in the United States, and Pres. Bill Clinton called the punishment “extreme” and asked Singapore to waive the caning. Singapore authorities responded that tough laws kept the nation relatively crimefree and that foreigners and Singaporeans should be treated equally under the law. On May 5, following a recommendation of the Cabinet, Fay was subjected to only four strokes of the cane. A Hong Kong youth arrested with Fay received 6 rather than 12 strokes and had his prison time reduced from eight to six months.

469

Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong maintained Singapore’s assertive approach to social issues in his National Day Rally speech in August, announcing that unwed mothers would no longer qualify for government-subsidized housing and that women civil servants would not gain medical benefits for their families. The latter decision, Goh said, upheld . the principle that the husband was the “primary provider” according to his “pro-family” policies. In September, over protests from The Hague, Dutch engineer Johannes van Damme was hanged for trafficking in heroin. He was the first Westerner executed under a law mandating death for persons dealing in illegal drugs. In March in another high-profile court case, a civil servant, two economists, and two journalists were convicted and fined for violating the Official Secrets Act. The crime involved the publication of quarterly economic growth estimates in the Business Times newspaper in 1992 before their official release. Singapore’s gross domestic product continued to grow at an annual rate of about 9%. The Singapore dollar strengthened by more than 6% against the U.S. dollar. In April the government introduced a 3% tax on goods and services. (BERTON WOODWARD) This article updates the Macropeedia article SOUTHEAST ASIA: Singapore.

SLOVAKIA Slovakia is a landlocked state in central Europe. Area: 49,035 sq km (18,933 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 5,352,000. Cap.: Bratislava. Monetary unit: Slovak koruna, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 31.19 koruny to U.S. $1 (49.61 koruny = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Michal Kovac; prime ministers, Vladimir Meciar until March 11, Jozef Moravcik from March 16, and, from December 13, Meciar.

The stresses of implementing the democratic political system adopted by Slovakia on independence became acute in 1994. Throughout 1993 there had been unease about Prime Minister Vladimir Meciar’s autocratic style of government, and this continued into 1994. Meciar persistently intervened in political and economic processes supposedly governed by law and was seen as undermining democracy. Pres. Michal Kovac and others were concerned about Meciar’s sometimes erratic policies, especially the slowing down of privatization and the international isolation toward which the policies seemed to be leading. Finally in March, exploiting a split in the party dominating the coalition, the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (MDS), a parliamentary vote went against the prime minister, and Meciar had to resign. Led by Jozef Moravcik, the new coalition that took over was shaky and unwieldy. It consisted of Christian Democrats,

the Centre Union (refugees from Meciar’s MDS), and the former communists,

U.S. teenager Michael Fay arrives his sentence for vandalism, which Although the court rejected Fay’s reduced the number of strokes to

at court in Singapore to appeal included six strokes with a cane. appeal, government officials later four.

the Democratic

Left. The main diffi-

culty with the coalition was that it was united on only two broad strategic objectives—to keep Meciar out of power and to accept the general principles of European democracy. In practice this was too narrow a base for a long-term government, not least because there were major differences within the coalition that influenced its attitudes on such issues as the role of the state against the role of the market and the level of public spending. General elections were held on September 30—October 1 and produced an unexpected and, from the Moravcik coalition’s point of view, unwelcome result. Although the polls had forecast that Meciar’s MDS would gain somewhere between 25% and 30% of the vote, in reality it polled nearly 35%. The Slovak National Party gained 5% and, rather surprisingly, the left-wing Association of Slovak Workers won

470

World Affairs: Slovenia

7%. All the coalition parties fared badly, with the Democratic Left suffering a serious loss. The Hungarian minority parties formed a coalition and emerged as the third largest party in the legislature. After trying unsuccessfully to attract dissident deputies from other parties, Meciar accepted that he would have to govern with a simple majority. He immediately moved to reverse the privatization policies launched by his predecessor and reemphasized nationalism, much to the dismay of (GEORGE SCHOPFLIN) the Hungarian minority. This article updates the Macropeedia article CZECH AND SLOVAK REPUBLICS: Slovakia.

SLOVENIA A republic of the extreme northwestern Balkans, Slovenia borders Austria to the north, Hungary to the east, Croatia to the

southeast and south, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, and Italy to the west. Area: 20,256 sq km (7,821 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 2,001,000. Cap.: Ljubljana. Monetary unit: tolar, with (Oct. 7,

1994) a free rate of 121.82 tolarji to U.S. $1 (193.75 tolarji = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Milan Kucan; prime minister, Janez Drnovsek.

Slovenia continued its economic and political advance on a broad front while maintaining its drive for membership in all important world institutions. On September 29 it became a full member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which on Jan. 1, 1995, would be replaced by the

World Trade Organization. Also in September, Slovenia’s prime minister, Janez Drnovsek, L. FREED—MAGNUM Oy aes ii fi

ea

&s RCN

was

elected one

of the

Cd

et

ror)

%,

vice presidents of the Liberal International at its meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland. Slovenia’s main goal of joining the European Union (EU), however, came no closer to being realized in 1994. Italy obstructed Slovenia’s attempt to obtain the EU’s associate membership, demanding that Slovenia make concessions regarding the property of 160,000 former Italian citizens who left or were expelled from Slovenia after 1945. According to official Italian calculations, nearly 7,000 ha (17,300 ac) of land, 300 building plots, 21 companies, and 7,172 buildings belonging to Italians were nationalized between 1945 and 1972 by the Slovene authorities. An attempt to negotiate a compromise made by Slovenia’s foreign minister, Lojze Peterle, and his Italian counterpart, Antonio Martino, in Aquilea, Italy, in October went awry when the government in Ljubljana repudiated its own foreign minister. Peterle, a Christian Democrat whose party was a coalition partner of the prime minister’s Liberal Party, resigned. He had not been replaced by the end of 1994, and his ministry was temporarily taken over by the prime minister himself. Relations with Croatia deteriorated during 1994. No solution was found in disputes over territorial rights in the Bay of Piran and sovereignty over certain inland villages. On October 3 the lower house of the Slovene National Assembly approved the assigning of disputed territory to a Slovene municipality. There was also no resolution of the dispute over savings deposited by Croats with the biggest Slovene bank, Ljubljanska Banka, before the breakup of former Yugoslavia. Local elections held in December showed a swing toward the Christian Democrats, but that party maintained

its coalition with the Liberals. In the first nine months of 1994, Slovenia reported a $250.5 million trade deficit. Its exports in that period increased by 8.1%, and imports grew by the same amount. About 60% of Slovene exports went to EU countries, and 5.7% of its imports came from there. Annual inflation was 19.9%. Privatization was slow, with

26,000 firms accounting for 77% of total output still in the public sector at the end of 1994. (K.F. CVC) This article updates the Macropedia Slovenia.

article BALKAN

STATES:

SOLOMON ISLANDS A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,

the Solomon Islands comprises a 1,450-km (900-mi) chain of islands and atolls in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 28,370 sq km (10,954 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 368,000. Cap.: Honiara. Monetary unit: Solomon Islands dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of SI$3.27 to U.S. $1 (SI$5.20 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governors-general in 1994, Sir George Lepping and,

from June, Moses Pitakaka; prime ministers, Francis Billy Hilly until October 31 and, from November 7, Solomon Mamaloni.

The large casino at Nova Gorica draws many of its customers from neighbouring Italy. Italians and Austrians are also able to buy cigarettes and alcohol duty-free across the border in Slovenia. The country’s aggressive, freewheeling economy was one of the fastest-growing in all of Europe.

The continuing rivalry between Prime Minister Francis Billy Hilly and his predecessor, Solomon Mamaloni, and their respective coalition parties dominated politics in 1994. Hilly’s government survived a short budgetary session of Parliament in January but then remained in office without facing Parliament for several months. In October there was a constitutional crisis when the governor-general ruled that Hilly no longer had a parliamentary majority and tried to swear in Mamaloni as interim prime minister. The High Court held that only Parliament could decide the issue and gave Hilly until October 31 to resign. Hilly stepped down on October 31, and a week later Mamaloni was elected prime minister. Despite the political turmoil, the government took steps to attack the country’s economic problems with increases in indirect taxes and other measures to reduce inflation. Faced with the logging of its hardwood forests at twice the

World Affairs: South Africa

471

sustainable level, the government announced that the export of round logs would be banned beginning in 1997. Receipts from log exports had risen from SI$49 million in 1991 to S1$222 million in 1993, representing half of all export earnings. A moratorium was placed on the issue of new export licenses. With support from Japanese aid and joint ventures, steps were taken to expand local participation in the fishing industry. (BARRIE MACDONALD) This article updates the Macropeedia article PACIFIC ISLANDS: Solomon Islands.

SOMALIA Situated in the Horn of northeastern Africa, Somalia lies on

the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Area: 637,000 sq km (246,000 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 6,667,000 (excluding Somali refugees in neighbouring countries estimated to number about 600,000). Cap.: Mogadishu. Monetary unit: Somali shilling, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2,622 Somali shillings to U.S. $1 (4,171 Somali shillings = £1 sterling). Somalia had no function-

ing government in 1994.

ry Ps

In southern

Somalia

during

1994, a renewal

of violence

accompanied the phased withdrawal of UN troops. The principal contenders for power were two groupings of clan factions: Gen. Muhammad Farah Aydid at the head of the Somali National Alliance (SNA) and Ali Mahdi Muhammad with his “group of 12.” In the northeast region, conditions were more stable, and the breakaway “Republic of Somaliland” in the northwest appeared successful in establishing order until violence broke out at the end of the year. In all parts of the country, the principal problem remained the disarmament of the militias and armed gangs that had controlled the nation since the ouster of Pres. Muhammad Siad Barre in 1991. On February 4 the UN mandate in Somalia was revised by the Security Council. The UN was committed to promoting the establishment of the political process, but the military involvement of the UN Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II) was to be reduced to the role of ensuring the security of communications and transportation. When the contingents of the U.S. and most of the European Union countries left Somalia on March 25, UNOSOM was reduced from a high of about 29,000 to about 19,000. The remaining troops were mostly from African countries and the Indian subcontinent. Efforts to negotiate a peace agreement continued. On March 24 in Nairobi, Kenya, the principal opponents, Aydid and Ali Mahdi, pledged to form a government of national reconciliation. Neither this nor other local peace initiatives had any lasting effect, however. In May fighting broke out in Mogadishu when Aydid’s forces captured the airport from the Hawadle clan. The southern port of Kismaayo was once again disputed between Aydid’s ally Ahmad Omar Jess and his Ogaden clansmen and the militia of Muhammad “Morgan,” the son-in-law of Barre. The conflict was sparked by an attempt by Aydid to ban the militia’s lucrative export trade in scrap metal; this also fueled rebellion within his

own SNA alliance. Although the UN force avoided intervention, 15 of its soldiers were killed in four incidents, as were several journalists. In the northwest the breakaway “Republic of Somaliland” established a de facto autonomy and in the first part of the year appeared to be achieving stability, though its president, Muhammad Ibrahim Egal, did not succeed in his efforts to win international recognition for independence. Some groups in the region opposed secession, however. They were led by ‘Abd ar-Rahman Ahmad Ali Tur, who in April told a press conference that the decision to secede had to be reversed. This was denounced by the breakaway government,

A U.S. medical team examines a Somalian child suspected of having cholera. Although a small UN peacekeeping force remained after the withdrawal of U.S. and most European forces in March, there was an increase in fighting between the country’s warlords. PATRICK ROBERT—SYGMA

and in October fighting broke out in the capital, Hargeysa, over the control of the airport. On December 19 fighting broke out again in Mogadishu between the forces of Aydid and those of Ali Mahdi. At least 20 persons were reported killed and more than 125 wounded, mostly civilians.

In October, as UNOSOM’s mandate came up for renewal, another peace conference was held in Mogadishu. Tur and the antisecessionists from Somaliland

took part; however,

the conference was boycotted by the Ali Mahdi group, and by mid-November it appeared that each group was preparing to set up its own rival government. Meanwhile, the UNOSOM mandate was renewed until March 31, 1995. (VIRGINIA R. LULING) This article updates the Macropeedia article EASTERN AFRICA: Somalia.

SOUTH AFRICA South Africa, a member of the Commonwealth, occupies the southern tip of Africa, with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and

the Indian Ocean to the east. The territory of South Africa in late 1994 excluded Walvis Bay (an exclave of Cape Province after 1910), which was jointly administered with Namibia 1992-94; it became part of Namibia on Feb. 28, 1994. South Africa included the former nominally independent, but not internationally recognized, republics of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda, which were reincorporated in March and April 1994. Area: 1,223,201 sq km (472,281 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 41,749,000. Executive cap., Pretoria; judicial cap., Bloemfontein; legislative cap., Cape Town. Monetary unit: South African rand, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a financial rate of R 4.17 to U.S. $1 (R 6.64

= £1 sterling) and a commercial rate of R 3.57 to U.S. $1 (R 5.68 = £1 sterling). State presidents in 1994, Frederik W. de Klerk and, from May 10, Nelson Mandela.

Domestic Affairs. South Africa’s first one-person one-vote election took place April 26-29, 1994. It was characterized by millions of people waiting patiently for hours in kilometre-long lines to vote for the first time in their lives. Held under rules set by a negotiated interim constitution, the election was won by the African National Congress (ANC), which gained nearly two-thirds of the vote. In a colourful and celebratory ceremony on May 10 attended by hosts of foreign dignitaries, under a new South African flag, ANC

472

World Affairs: South Africa

president Nelson Mandela, Africa for 27 years, was

a political prisoner in South

inaugurated

as president of the

republic and head of a government of national unity. “We pledge ourselves to liberate all our people from the continuing bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender and other discrimination,” he said in his address. ANC

man Thabo Mbeki (see BIOGRAPHIES) F.W. de Klerk of the National Party presidents. U.S. Vice Pres. Al Gore nation that once was a pariah will now hope.”

chair-

and former president (NP) became deputy remarked that “the become a beacon of

The election results were: ANC 62.7%; NP 20.4%; Inkatha

Freedom Party (IFP) 10.5%; Freedom Front 2.2%; Democratic Party 1.7%; Pan Africanist Congress 1.2%; African Christian Democratic Party 0.5%. The election installed a National Assembly of 400 members and a Senate of 90 members, which would also function jointly as the body for writing a final constitution for the country. It also installed parliaments in nine regions. The ANC took office in all regions except the Western Cape, won by the NP, and KwaZulu/Natal, won by the IFP. The postelection euphoria contrasted with the months leading up to the election. They were presided over by a Transitional Executive Council (TEC) in uneasy relationship with the NP government and were fraught with tension, ultraright sabotage, and threats of civil war and secession. A National Peacekeeping Force, which began training in January to police the election, failed dismally, being withdrawn within days of its first deployment in townships in April. It was subsequently dissolved. The parties of the Freedom AlNance—the Afrikaner Volksfront (AVF), Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi’s KwaZulu/Natal-based IFP, Lucas Mangope of the nominally independent Bophuthatswana, and Brig. Joshua Oupa Gqozo of the nominally independent Ciskei—had withdrawn

from constitutional negotiations and declared an election boycott because of dissatisfaction with the insufficiently federal nature of the interim constitution. They threatened a nationwide passive-resistance campaign. Initial concessions made to them by the multiparty negotiating council included a double ballot paper (allowing separate national and regional votes), constitutional establishment of a volkstaat (people’s state) council to consider possible self-determination for Afrikaners, and constitutional recognition of the name KwaZulu/Natal. These, however, did not appease the

Alliance. Events took a dramatic turn in mid-March when Mangope’s government in Bophuthatswana was brought down as the result of strikes by public servants anxious about pension rights in a “new South Africa.” The strikes precipitated a popular uprising joined by the Bophuthatswana police. An attempt by the white ultraright to deploy its forces in defense of the Mangope government failed, and the TEC appointed a temporary administration in the area. As many as 70 people were killed and 300 wounded in the course of these developments. Angered by the role of the paramilitary, ultraright Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) in these events, Gen. Constand Viljoen split the AVF by registering a party for the elections named

the Freedom

Front, and he later

signed an agreement with the NP and ANC on conditions for recognition of a volkstaat. Later in March, Gqozo, head of state in Ciskei, surrendered office to a TEC-appointed administration in the face of a police mutiny. This left the IFP as the main party favouring a boycott (or postponement) of the election. Its opposition posed dangers of violence; during the preceding decade there had been 10,000-20,000

deaths from political violence

in KwaZulu/

Natal, with 2,145 deaths in 1993 alone (according to the Human Rights Commission). In speeches in January and

AFP

tht mildness i

af

cemrtesty| cence

A black soldier in Bophuthatswana stands near three white ne o-Nazis, two of whom had just been executed as 5 roup Some 70 blacks and whites

of

ph were killed, sometimes in racially motivated murders, during a period of government nstabiltyie

nea i pegaeth

World Affairs: South Africa

March, Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini openly supported the IFP, declaring that the interim constitution was “deeply offensive” to the Zulu people, who had “never once been conquered in war.” By proclaiming KwaZulu/Natal as a “sovereign entity,” he appeared to threaten secession. The IFP organized “self-protection units” and occupied stadia in which the ANC was intending to hold election rallies. In a climate of increasing violence (with 311 deaths from political violence in Natal in March and 338 in April) and of demonstrations and counterdemonstrations, the ANC urged the TEC to appoint a new administration in KwaZulu/Natal to ensure free and fair elections. On March 28 a large IFP demonstration in Johannesburg was fired on, resulting in 56 deaths and leaving some 400 people injured. A state of emergency was declared in 10 districts in the Transvaal and in KwaZulu/Natal. High-level

473

the next year, and the release from prison of many juveniles. Complexities of the transition delayed plans in a number of departments, but a national public works program to create 2.5 million jobs over five years was set in motion. Vigorous despite illness, Joe Slovo, Communist Party (SACP) chairman and minister of housing, launched a program to build 80,000 homes in 1994-95 and increase gradually to 300,000

a year by the end of the century. Tito Mboweni, minister of labour, promised a reform of workplace relations, including the reduction of the workweek to 40 hours. The 1994-95 budget allocated R 2.5 billion to the RDP and added R 1.7 billion to it in September. A White Pa-

talks in April between de Klerk, Mandela, Buthelezi, and King Zwelithini failed to resolve the matters in dispute, as

did an attempt at mediation by Henry Kissinger of the U.S. and Lord Carrington of Britain. On April 19, however,

a

week before the election, an agreement was reached that achieved constitutional recognition of the Zulu monarchy and Zulu kingdom and promised further international mediation on any outstanding matters after the election. The IFP agreed to participate in the election, and arrangements were made for its name to be placed on stickers added to the ballots. News emerged shortly after the election that de Klerk had also signed an act passed by the KwaZulu/Natal legislature transferring 1.2 million ha (2.9 million ac) of state-owned land to the sole trusteeship, of King Zwelithini. The TEC and ANC claimed no knowledge of this transaction. Despite a number of bombings in which 21 people were killed and 173 injured in the days leading up to it, the election, administered by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), took place under surprisingly peaceful conditions. On the second day of voting, police arrested 31 members of the ultra-right-wing AWB Ystergarde (Iron Guard) in connection with the bombings. There were numerous bungles, delays, and logistical failures by the IEC in the election process, and final results were not announced until a week after the final voting day. All political parties alleged widespread irregularities, particularly in KwaZulu/ Natal. The result in that region, where the IFP received 50.3% and the ANC 32.2% of the vote, surprised many, as all opinion polls earlier in the year had placed the ANC ahead of the IFP. The elections were proclaimed free and fair by the IEC and the numerous

international monitors,

however. The new ANC-dominated government of national unity included six Cabinet ministers from the NP and three from the IFP. Derek Keys, finance minister in the NP government, was reappointed to that post but later resigned for personal reasons and was replaced by the nonpartisan Chris Liebenberg in September. Parliament took onaless formal and more public character than under the old regime. The ANC campaigned in the election on a Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP), pledging improved conditions for the majority—its election slogan was “a better life for all”—by providing jobs, housing, decent education, and health care. Jay Naidoo, former general secretary of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), was appointed as minister responsible for implementing the RDP. In his initial address to Parliament on May 24, Mandela

pledged, as short-term measures, free medical care for children under six and pregnant mothers, a feeding program for

primary-school children, electrification of 350,000 houses in

Nelson Mandela, head of the African National Congress, campaigns in Sasolburg, Orange Free State. Former political prisoner Mandela and the once-banned ANC won nearly two-thirds of the votes cast in South Africa's first one-person one-vote election, held in April. REUTERS/BETTMANN

per produced in September repudiated nationalization as an instrument for implementing the RDP, mentioned the possible sale of state assets, and called for monetary

and

fiscal discipline. Mandela expressed concerns about high tax levels, the huge government debt and high level of borrowing, and sluggish investment by private companies. In August, Archbishop Desmond Tutu of Cape Town criticized the high salaries awarded to legislators by the previous government’s Melamet Commission. “They stopped the gravy train only long enough to get on. They have set a bad example,” he said. Mandela called on legislators, as well as workers, to “tighten their belts.” Evidence of past government involvement in “death squad” activity continued to mount. In March the Goldstone Commission, investigating the causes of violence, accused three police generals of having sold arms to IFP members and organized violence in the hostels and on trains in what it called “a horrible network of criminal activity.” The three, against their protests, were placed on compulsory leave. In June the reopened inquest into the murder of Matthew Goniwe and three others in 1985 concluded that they had been killed by security forces, but it could not name any

474

World Affairs: South Africa

specific persons responsible. Also in June, 17 members of the IFP were sentenced to terms of 10-18 years in prison for participating in the Boipatong massacre in 1992. ays The government initiated a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate political crimes by all parties between 1960 and December 1993. It would consider violations of human rights, amnesty, and reparations for and rehabilitation of victims. While the commission was widely supported, some people feared that it would reopen old wounds rather than foster reconciliation. A wave of industrial strikes begun in July aroused anxiety and sparked some criticism. Wage increases had been delayed by the election, and workers were agitated by the slow pace of change. On two occasions Mandela called on workers to remember the five million unemployed and not to frighten away investment by their wage demands. Integration of members of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK; “Spear of the Nation”), the armed wing of the ANC, into the new South African National Defense Force proved difficult. In October at least 7,000 MK members went absent without leave from the defense force, complaining of racism, the slow pace of integration, and poor living conditions and demanding the presence of the president. Mandela responded by acknowledging their grievances but also calling for discipline. Foreign Relations. Mandela’s inauguration was attended by a large number of international leaders, including the Duke of Edinburgh from the U.K., Vice Pres. Gore and first

lady Hillary Rodham

Clinton from the U.S., PLO leader

Yasir Arafat, and Cuban leader Fidel Castro. British Prime

Minister John Major, French Pres. Francois Mitterrand, and Zimbabwean Pres. Robert Mugabe subsequently visited South Africa and addressed the National Assembly.

In October Mandela made a triumphant visit to the U.S., where he was praised by Pres. Bill Clinton and addressed the UN General Assembly. A U.S.-South Africa commission was established to promote cooperation and trade; the only other such U.S. commission was with Russia. After the election the UN Security Council lifted all remaining sanctions on South Africa, and the country was readmitted to the General Assembly after a 20-year absence. It was also readmitted to the Commonwealth (which it had left in 1961) and admitted to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the South African Development Community, where it declared its intention of promoting regional cooperation. Foreign Minister Alfred Nzo told the OAU that it “was a wonderful feeling to know that we are at last part of Africa.” Mandela attended the OAU summit in June and was appointed second vice-chairman. The new government resisted insistent demands to become involved in the resolution of foreign conflicts, arguing that this would detract from its priority of domestic reconstruction. It stated that its main aim was to capitalize on postelection goodwill, promote the RDP abroad, and gain foreign investment. It resisted pressure to send troops to Rwanda. Nonetheless, Mandela persuaded Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire to hold discussions with Pres. José Eduardo dos Santos of Angola regarding settlement of the Angolan civil war. Together with the presidents of Zimbabwe and Botswana, he was also instrumental in persuading the king of Lesotho to restore the government of Ntsu Mokhehle, which he had dismissed from office in August. Mandela visited Mozambique in July, and the two countries established

a joint security commission to investigate illegal immigration and arms and drug smuggling.

White Settlement in South Africa

White settlement of South Africa began in 1652, when the Dutch East India Company established a station at Cape Town and soon introduced European settlers and black slaves. By the time Britain annexed the Cape Colony in 1814, white farmers had occupied much of the present-day Western and Eastern Cape. During the 19th century white settlement spread unevenly over much of present-day South Africa and beyond. The 17th- and 18th-century settlers were mainly of Dutch and German origin, ancestors of the Afrikaners. In 1798 the white population was about 20,000, increasing to 43,000 by 1820. Some 5,000 British settlers were

established in the Eastern Cape in 1820, and from the 1840s Natal attracted English immigrants. The discovery of diamonds in 1868 and gold shortly thereafter led to further white immigration, including miners from Australia and the United States and Jews from eastern Europe. In 1911 the white population of South Africa

was 1,250,000 (to nearly 5 million blacks).

In 1899-1902 Britain defeated the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State in the South African (or Boer) War, paving the way for the unification of South Africa in 1910 with a constitution excluding the black majority from the vote (except in the Cape Colony, where there was a limited nonracial

franchise, removed in the 1930s from blacks and in the

1950s from the mixed-race Coloureds). In the 1930s, drawing on a legacy of enmity toward British imperialism, English-speaking capitalists,

and African tribes and seeking to uplift impoverished whites, an exclusivist populist nationalism took shape among the Afrikaner majority of whites. Organized as the National Party (NP), it defeated the mildly reformist United Party government of Jan Smuts in 1948 and ruled South Africa until 1994. The NP implemented the notorious system of racial apartheid, a rigid form of social engineering and repression of blacks that intensified the gap between white prosperity and black poverty. For this policy the NP gained increasing, though never unanimous, support among whites. Apartheid was fiercely resisted in the 1950s by the African National Congress (ANC), banned in 1960, and its allies.

Apartheid reached its peak in the early 1970s but then began to erode under its internal contradictions and challenges from below: the rise of a trade-union movement of black workers and the violent discontent of black youth. In February 1990 Pres. F.W. de Klerk lifted the bans on the ANC and other organizations and released from jail ANC leader Nelson Mandela. The negotiations that followed established a constitution that for the first time in the country’s history removed power from the white minority (now 5 million in a population of nearly 42 million) and gave a vote to all the people. The new freedoms and opportunities were welcomed by nearly all South Africans—black and white alike. (MARTIN LEGASSICK)

World Affairs: Spain

The Economy. The recession that had begun in March 1989 leveled out in the first half of 1993, and recovery began in the third (8.6% growth in gross domestic product [GDP}) and fourth (6.4% growth) quarters. GDP growth in 1993 as a whole was 1.2%. (In 1992 it declined 2%.) During the first quarter of 1994, GDP fell 3.5%, but it recovered in the second quarter to grow by 1.9%, causing economists to lower their growth predictions for the year from 3% to 2-2.5%. The recovery was fueled by favourable weather and increased exports. Manufacturing and mining output, however, fell in the first two quarters of 1994.

From 1989 to the end of 1993, formal employment fell by 364,000

to 7,720,000,

less than half the economically

active population. Fixed investment, which began to decline in mid-1988, fell by 4% in 1993 but began to recover in the third quarter of 1993. It rose by 5.5% in the first quarter of 1994, 7% in the second quarter, and 4.5% in the year to June 1994. The new government’s budget, except for R 2.5 billion raised for the RDP by cuts in department budgets, was largely a holding operation. The deficit before borrowing in 1993-94 was 6.9% of GDP and was projected at 6.6% for 1994-95. The recovery led to a surge of capital-goods imports, leading to a deficit on the current account of the balance of payments by September of R 1 billion for the second month in a row. (In 1993 there was a surplus of R 5.9 billion on the current account.) For the first time in years, however, there was net capital inflow to compensate for the deficit (estimated at R 1 billion a month in August and September), and so foreign-exchange reserves rose. Cumulative net capital outflow since 1985 had amounted to R 58.5 billion to the end of 1993, with a net outflow of R 16.3 billion in

1993 and R 3.7 billion in the first six months of 1994. The bank rate was increased by 1% to 13% in September. To calls for the lifting of foreign-exchange controls, the reserve

bank governor,

Chris Stals, responded

that R 30

billion would first be required in reserves. There could be a gradual phasing out of controls on the basis of a healthy balance of payments, foreign reserves of R 15 billion, and an expansion of foreign debt to 40% of GDP. (MARTIN LEGASSICK) This article updates AFRICA: South Africa.

the Macropedia

article

SOUTHERN

475

The first of several public figures closely linked to the Socialists came under scrutiny in April bya legislative commission investigating allegations of fraud. Mariano Rubio on April 15 denied that he had earned nearly $1 million from insider trading during his 1984-92 term as governor of the Bank of Spain and had failed to declare the earnings to tax authorities. He was subsequently jailed on those charges, along with former Madrid Stock Exchange chairman Manuel de la Concha, who ran an investment firm in

which Rubio held an account. In his April 19 state of the nation address, Prime Minister Gonzalez vowed to fight corruption. He discussed allegations against Rubio and Luis Roldan, the Civil Guard chief accused of having made a fortune in kickbacks from construction contracts. Interior Minister Antoni Asuncion resigned on April 30 after Roldan escaped arrest on embezzlement and tax fraud charges and fled Spain. Judge Juan Alberto Belloch was named Asunci6n’s successor and also became minister of justice. Roldan’s whereabouts remained unknown at the end of 1994. The fall of the most prominent financier of Spain’s late 1980s economic boom, Mario Conde, absorbed the atten-

tion of Spaniards in the early months of 1994 as the Bank of Spain supervised the restructuring and sale of Banco Espanol de Crédito (Banesto) after having removed Conde as chairman on Dec. 28, 1993. A legislative commission investigated possible wrongdoing by Conde’s team in the spring. Conde was jailed on Dec. 23, 1994, on charges of fraud in the resale of Banesto subsidiaries and affiliated companies. The arrest on October

18 of Javier de la Rosa, a man

who had gained immense wealth representing Kuwaiti and other interests during the same boom period, led nearly all Spanish media and politicians to conclude that the country’s “fast-buck culture” of the 1980s was finally over. De la Rosa stood accused of stealing the assets of his Grand Tibidabo real estate company. At the year’s end he remained imprisoned without bond while awaiting trial. The strongest challenge to Gonzalez during his 12 years in power emerged in December as a judge reopened an inquiry into death squads that hunted down suspected Basque separatists from 1983 to 1987. Gonzalez insisted that no proof would be uncovered to substantiate allegations that two Cabinet members knew that the Anti-Terrorist Liberation Groups, or GAL, had been run and funded by mid-

SPAIN A constitutional monarchy of southwestern Europe with coastlines on the Bay of Biscay, the Atlantic Ocean, and the

Mediterranean Sea, Spain shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal; it includes the Balearic and Canary island groups, in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, respectively, and enclaves in northern Morocco. Area: 504,783 sq km (194,898 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 39,193,000. Cap.: Madrid. Monetary unit: Spanish peseta, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 127.62 pesetas to U.S.

$1 (202.98 pesetas = £1 sterling). King, Juan Carlos I; prime minister in 1994, Felipe Gonzalez Marquez.

The Socialist government of Prime Minister Felipe Gonzdlez Marquez survived major challenges to its economic policy and a wave of scandals in 1994. Despite widespread disenchantment, it held on to power thanks to the sustained support’ of the Catalan nationalist grouping Convergence and Union, which provided the minority Socialists with a working legislative majority. Labour unions shut down much of the country in a general strike on January 27 to protest a loosening of labour laws that the Socialists described as essential to Spain’s economic competitiveness. The legislature approved the reforms, which made it easier to hire, fire, and transfer

workers, in several stages through June.

level Interior Ministry officials. A former national security chief, Julian Sancristobal,

and two other former

officials

were in jail at the end of the year, pending a possible trial on charges of running GAL. Opposition politicians called for Gonzalez to resign and call early elections, but the government’s key backers in the legislature maintained their support. Yet another political scandal proved a challenge to the government in early November as Gonzalez faced accusations that a business linked to his brother-in-law, Francisco

Palomino Romero, was favoured in the awarding of public works contracts. Gonzalez denied the charges.

Scandal reached into regional government as well. On November 5, two weeks after his conviction on corruption charges, the regional premier of Cantabria, Juan Hormachea, became the first head of one of Spain’s 17 autonomous communities to resign from office. The economy emerged more strongly than predicted from 1993’s severe recession, with gross domestic product esti-

mated to have risen by more than 2% for the year. Growth was fueled by a near-record tourist season and strong exports, both the result of several devaluations of the peseta in late 1993. Unemployment continued to rise slightly despite the recovery and at the year’s end stood at more than

476

World Affairs: Sri Lanka

22%, the highest rate in the European Union. The government said that its labour-reform

package, which included

contracts designed to promote jobs for young people and the unskilled, was nevertheless meeting with success.

While private-sector firms showed improved results, labour conflict at the government-run Iberia Air Lines erupted in October as management announced plans for several thousand layoffs in order to avoid bankruptcy. The government appealed to the European Union to authorize a 130 billion-peseta bailout after unions and managements reached agreement on arestructuring plan in November. The armed Basque separatist organization Euzkadi ta Azkatasuna (ETA) continued its campaign for independence of Spain’s three Basque provinces throughout 1994, killing 12 people, mainly security force members and police. ETA’s reputed number two leader, Felix Alberto Lopez de la Calle, was

arrested

November

17 in southern

France,

which remained ETA’s traditional haven despite growing cooperation between Spanish and French antiterrorism units. On December 24 Julian Sancristobal and two other former top police officials were arrested in connection with alleged involvement in Anti-Terrorist Liberation Groups in the Basque lands in the 1980s. The Basque Nationalist Party, which had dominated the region’s politics for a century, won a plurality in elections on October 23 and formed a coalition government in December with the Basque branch of the Socialist Party and a splinter Basque party, Eusko Alkartasuna. ETA’s political arm, Herri Batasuna, won

11 seats in the 75-seat Basque

parliament. Algeria’s civil war spilled over into Spain in the autumn with two hijackings of domestic Air Algerie flights to Algeria’s nearest European neighbour. Hijackers surrendered peacefully in both incidents, in Palma de Mallorca and Alicante airports. (GARY ABRAMSON) SRI LANKA A republic and member of the Commonwealth, Sri Lanka occupies an island in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of peninsular India. Area: 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi). Pop. (1994

Lanka they called their homeland. When the government partially lifted an embargo on goods entering the rebel-

controlled Jaffna Peninsula in the north of the country, the

insurgents released 10 policemen they had held captive for four years. Tamil guerrillas invited Kumaratunga to Jaffna to hold peace talks, but wave after wave of violence diminished the prospects for peace. On September 9 at least 35: Tamil rebels were killed by government troops. Several weeks later 13 soldiers died in an ambush. In a retaliatory attack, the army killed 20 guerrillas. The Tamil rebels also attacked and sank the navy’s largest ship, which went down with at least 22 sailors aboard. When opposition UNP leader Garnini Dissanayake was assassinated in October, peace talks were halted, but the rebels proposed a cease-fire in November,

and talks resumed in late December. During the campaign, Kumaratunga had also promised to support a free-market economy. At the same time, she planned to increase the welfare benefits of those who had not shared in the nation’s growing prosperity. Sri Lanka could point to a sustained economic growth rate of between 5% and 7% in recent years. Soon after the new government assumed power, it reported that at least $700 million was missing from the national treasury. Kumaratunga, who also served as the country’s finance minister, complained that so much was missing, “we cannot find the bottom of the well.” The Justice Ministry also reported that it was being deluged with allegations of massive fraud, bribery, and corruption on the part of the previous regime. The treasury, moreover, had been seriously depleted by a sweeping welfare package that Wijetunga had approved two months before the parliamentary elections. His own political future would be decided by the November presidential election. The discovery of financial irregularities forced the new government to suspend payments on all agreements signed by the previous regime, including a $72 million arms deal with Russia. The chaotic financial situation also forced Kumaratunga to postpone ratification of a $291 million deal for five Airbus Industrie A340 jetliners for Air Lanka, which was owned by the state. (DILIP GANGULY)

est.): 17,830,000. Legislative cap., Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte; ad-

ministrative cap., Colombo. Monetary unit: Sri Lanka rupee, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of SL Rs 49.24 to U.S. $1 (SL Rs 78.32 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1994, Dingiri Banda Wijetunga and, from November 12, Chandrika Kumaratunga; prime ministers, Ranil Wickremasinghe, Chandrika Kumaratunga from August 19, and, from November 14, Sirimavo Bandaranaike.

Sri Lanka underwent a change of government in 1994 and found reason to be optimistic that the change might foreshadow the end of a decade-old civil conflict with Tamil separatists. The fighting had already claimed some 34,000 lives. In the August 16 general election, the People’s Alliance— a coalition of nine left-leaning opposition parties headed by Chandrika Kumaratunga—won 105 of the 225 seats in Parliament. It was the first defeat in 17 years for the ruling United National Party (UNP), which captured only 94

seats. Sri Lankan law, however, did not require Pres. Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, the leader of the UNP, to step down. He was not even obliged to name a prime minister from the victorious People’s Alliance. The post, however, was finally offered to Kumaratunga when outgoing Prime Minister

Ranil Wickremasinghe indicated that he would oppose any effort by the UNP to form a new coalition government. Kumaratunga quickly set to work to fulfill her pledge of unconditional negotiations with the Liberation Tigers of

Tamil Eelam, a minority group of ethnic Indians who had been fighting to gain independence for the section of Sri

SUDAN, THE A republic of North Africa, The Sudan has a coastline on the Red Sea. Area: 2,503,890 sq km (966,757 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 25,699,000. Executive cap., Khartoum; legislative cap., Om-

durman. Monetary units: Sudanese pound, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of Lsd 31.13 to U.S. $1 (Lsd 49.51 = £1 sterling), and (from May 1992) the Sudanese dinar (a new unit of currency circulating in parallel with the Sudanese pound at a rate of 1 dinar = Lsd 10). President of the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation, head of state, and prime minister in 1994,

Lieut. Gen. Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir.

— Be

eras Orbe

-.k) OD0.60 1DF =(iesBOUT

The visit of George Carey, archbishop of Canterbury, to southern Sudan in December 1993. and January 1994 as guest of the Episcopal Church soured relations between the governments of The Sudan and the U.K., leading to the reciprocal expulsion of ambassadors. Carey had earlier canceled a visit to Khartoum, fearing that his movements

there would be controlled by the Sudanese government. He

did, however, meet Col. John Garang and Riak Machar, the

leaders of the rival factions of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), in Nairobi, Kenya, and shortly afterward Garang and Machar announced acease-fire between their two groups. No progress was made, however, in negotiations between the Sudanese government and the SPLA, although a government representative was present in Nairobi. On January 24 it was reported that. the government was concentrating troops in the south, possibly with a view to

World Affairs: Sweden

cutting the relief routes from Kenya and Uganda. This conjecture was confirmed when, in early February and in spite of government

denials, reliable sources stated that a

large-scale operation had been launched against the rebels. Thousands of refugees from southern Sudan were soon on the move, many of them making their way into Uganda. On February 14 the UN issued an urgent appeal for humanitarian aid to meet the needs of an estimated 100,000 displaced persons. On March 17 and again in May representatives of the government and the SPLA again assembled in Nairobi for meetings sponsored by the presidents of Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia and the foreign minister of Eritrea. Nothing positive resulted from these initiatives, and the plight of the homeless and starving people in southern Sudan steadily worsened while the despair of finding a peaceful solution dampened the enthusiasm of aid donors. Their disillusionment was compounded when the government declared a cease-fire in July only to find the offer rejected by the SPLA. Two constitutional developments took place during the year. In February it was announced that the country would again be divided into 26 states instead of 9, with important new powers being given to some of the more remote districts. In April the president approved legislation to set up a presidentially appointed commission to supervise elections. (KENNETH INGHAM) SURINAME The republic of Suriname is in northern South America, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 163,820 sq km (63,251 sq mi), not including a 17,635-sq km area disputed with Guyana. Pop. (1994 est.): 423,000. Cap.: Paramaribo. Monetary unit: Suriname guilder, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a floating rate (introduced July 11) of 183.49 guilders to U.S. $1 (291.85 guilders = £1 sterling). President in

477

Like other small countries on the periphery of South Africa, Swaziland in 1994 was reexamining its economic prospects in light of the democratic developments in its giant neighbour. In recent years Swaziland had been relatively untroubled politically and had done well economically. Yet despite . the relative diversity of its economy—divided between agriculture and mining—the development indicators revealed some startling gaps. On the one hand, the nation enjoyed a per capita gross national product of $1,080, an average life expectancy of 57 years, and a daily calorie intake of 105% of requirements; on the other hand, only 30% of the people had access to safe water, and the mortality rate for live births until age five was a high 167 per 1,000. During the 1993-94 fiscal year, Swaziland had a budget deficit for the first time since 1985. Approximately 90% of all imports came from South Africa, a rate of dependence that Swaziland sought to reduce. The nation’s exports were led by sugar, which accounted for 33% of foreign exchange earnings, followed by wood and wood products. In May Swaziland was host to a joint ministerial meeting of the European Union and African, Caribbean, and Pacific

(ACP) states. Production and trade of ACP commodities were discussed. (GUY ARNOLD) This article updates the Macropeedia article SOUTHERN AFRICA: Swaziland.

SWEDEN A constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area:

449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 8,773,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 7.32 kronor to U.S. $1 (11.64 kronor = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime ministers in 1994, Carl Bildt until September 19 and, from October 7, Ingvar Carlsson.

1994, Ronald Venetiaan; prime minister, Jules Adjodhia.

On Jan. 3, 1994, a high-ranked officer of the army was arrested for suspicion of trafficking in cocaine. Two days later he was released for lack of proof. It was not the first indication of the involvement of the Suriname military with the cocaine trade. In May and June a Dutch antidrug team organized 81 house searches throughout the world in an effort to gain evidence of criminal activities by a former president of Suriname, Dési Bouterse. No action against Bouterse was initiated in Suriname because a treaty with The Netherlands had not been ratified by Suriname Pres. Ronald Venetiaan. On March 21 rebels of unclear affiliation occupied the Afobaka Dam and threatened to destroy it. Destruction of the dam could cut off power to Paramaribo, housing half of the country’s population. The occupation was generally considered a consequence of the desperately poor living conditions in the rural regions. The rebels demanded the resignation of the government, better education for the rural areas, and decentralization of power. On March 25 government troops drove the rebels from the dam. (KLAAS J. HOEKSEMA) SWAZILAND Swaziland is a landlocked monarchy of southern Africa and a member of the Commonwealth. Area: 17,364 sq km (6,704 sq

mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 883,000. Administrative cap., Mbabane; royal and legislative cap., Lobamba. Monetary unit: lilangeni (plural: emalangeni), at par with the South African rand, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 3.57 emalangeni to US. $1 (5.68 emalangeni = £1 sterling). King, Mswati III; prime minister in 1994, Jameson Mbilini Dlamini.

Swedes made their most important decision since World War II when they voted to join the European Union (EU) in a referendum on Nov. 13, 1994. The move, which was due

to take effect on Jan. 1, 1995, ended a long period during which Sweden deliberately distanced itself from mainstream Europe, cherishing its neutrality and championing the cause of small Third World countries. The referendum endorsed EU entry by a margin of 52.2% to 46.9%. The political establishment and business leaders strongly advocated membership, but they faced determined opposition from left-wing groups and environmentalists. The country was also split along geographic lines, with southern urban areas broadly favouring membership while sparsely populated rural and Arctic communities opposed it. Sweden’s accession to the EU alongside its Nordic neighbour Finland would tilt the union’s axis northward, coun-

tering the southern shift that took place in the 1980s when Spain, Portugal, and Greece joined. It also cleared the way for the next, eastward, phase of expansion that could bring

such countries as Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic into the EU. Sweden was expected to be a net contributor to the EU budget. It believed that price was worth paying because of the influence it would gain in Europe’s future political, economic, and military development. The referendum result was a personal triumph for Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson, who had led the Social Democrats back to power in September’s general election after three years of rule by a centre-right coalition. The Social Democrats won 162 seats in the 349-seat Riksdag (parliament), 13 short of a majority. Carlsson decided to form a minority government rather than establish a formal coalition with left-wing or centrist parties.

478

World Affairs: Switzerland

The

Social Democrats,

who

had governed

Sweden

for

most of the past six decades, returned to power on hopes that they could achieve economic stability, substantially reduce unemployment, and preserve the welfare state. They also benefited from a reaction against some of the unpopular policies pursued by the previous government in the face of deep recession. The Swedish economy remained weak. The good news was that the gross national product was positive for the first time since 1990, owing mainly to the success of the country’s big exporters. They had an exceptional year because of the weak krona, productivity gains, and a recovery in most of their main markets. Inflation remained below 3%. The legacy of the three recession years was a heavy one, however. The crisis manifested itself in the size of the Swedish budget deficit, which—at 13% of gross domestic product—was among the highest in the Western world, and in the rapid growth in the national debt. The difficulties resulted in a turbulent year in the bond markets, with Swedish long-term interest rates among the highest in Europe. One leading Swedish insurer, Skandia, refused to buy any more state bonds until the government had put its finances in order. In November the Social Democrats announced 57 billion kronor in tax increases and spending cuts in a drive to stabilize the growth of the national debt by 1998. They promised to announce a further 20 billion kronor package of measures in January 1995. Business leaders said that too much emphasis was being placed on tax increases, which could endanger the country’s long-term competitiveness. The financial stock market remained convinced that tougher measures would have to be taken to prune the country’s lavish cradle-to-grave welfare state. Unemployment remained a serious problem for Sweden in 1994, although economic recovery brought the first indications that the problem was easing. Unemployment was about 13% of the workforce, including those in training

programs. The new government was particularly eager to reduce the number of long-term and young unemployed to prevent the problem from becoming entrenched at a per(CHRISTOPHER BROWN-HUMES) manently high level. SWITZERLAND A landlocked federal state in west central Europe, Switzerland consists of a confederation of 26 cantons (6 of which are demicantons). Area: 41,284 sq km (15,940 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 6,991,000. Administrative cap., Bern; judicial cap., Lausanne.

Monetary unit: Swiss franc, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of Sw F 1.28 to U.S. $1 (Sw F 2.03 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Otto Stich.

.

With political maneuvering for the next general elections— scheduled for Oct. 22, 1995—already apparent by late 1994, the year was a troubling one for those Swiss feeling themselves faced with fateful decisions. Judging by frequent opinion polls, views on the burning question of the country’s relationship with the European Union (EU) remained about as evenly divided between for and against membership as in the Dec. 6, 1992, referendum. On that occasion the govern-

ment’s plans for entry into the European Economic Area— a stepping-stone to full Union membership—were blocked by the slimmest of margins, a mere 0.3% of the votes. While bilateral discussions, started early in 1994, with the

European Commission in Brussels on such issues as road transport regulations were unsatisfactory, the year closed with more hopeful prospects in a new round of negotiations whereby Switzerland could avoid increased political and economic isolation. As in previous negotiations, an evident stumbling block was the EU proviso on free movement of people to work anywhere in member nations, a concept on which the Swiss were markedly unenthusiastic. Economic recession and industrial streamlining had increased the number of unemployed workers to just under 150,000, despite the return to their own countries of many

AFP

ae A chalet belonging to the religious cult Order of the Solar Tem ple burns ina mountainous resort area of southwestern Switzerland. Other homes nearby, as well as two in Canada, also burned, and investigat ors found the bodies of 53 cult members in all, including leader Luc Jouret.

World Affairs: Syria

thousands of foreign workers whose jobs also were lost. Swiss companies that moved some of their facilities to regions that had lower labour costs included the national airline, Swissair. It announced major savings by shifting its accounting department to Bombay, where it employed 250 Indians who were paid at less than a tenth of the Swiss rate. It seemed for a time that the country might be retreating farther inside its neutralist shell when a June 12 national referendum rejected proposals for a 600-strong volunteer force to help in United Nations peacekeeping operations and for making it easier for resident foreigners to acquire Swiss nationality. The government breathed asigh of relief, however, when a September 25 referendum produced a 54.7% majority for its antiracism law penalizing racial and religious discrimination. Nonetheless, in a referendum on December 4 an almost 73% majority approved increased powers for the po-

lice to deal with foreigners who entered the country illegally and then broke the law. Critics said the measure violated both the Swiss constitution and the European Convention on Human Rights. (See POPULATION AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS: International Migration.) The prevailing uncertainty, especially regarding the EU, was reflected in reported differences of opinion within the seven-member Federal Council (Cabinet), functioning on the collegiate system and by consensus. This, in turn, raised a question concerning the validity in changing circumstances of the “magic formula,” devised by the legislature in 1959, in which the Radical Democrats, Christian Democrats, and

Social Democrats had two seats each and the Swiss People’s Party one. Despite savings, Switzerland’s 1995 budget showed a deficit of some Sw F 6 billion, making further cuts imperative, including a freeze on the pay of government officials. With the private sector similarly disposed, talk of strike action was in the air. Attention continued to be focused on the country’s serious drug problem, especially on the Letten, a disused railway station near the centre of Ziirich that had become a centre for addicts. Several dealers died in shootouts: there. The public was also aghast at the murders and suicides in Switzerland and Quebec during October 4-5 of 53 persons, women and children among them, who belonged to the Order of the Solar Temple, a quasi-religious sect. (ALAN MCGREGOR) SYRIA

On January 16 President Assad met Pres. Bill Clinton in Geneva in what was only the fourth meeting between Assad and a U.S. president since 1970. Clinton followed up with a second meeting with Assad in Damascus on October 27, the first time in 20 years a U.S. president had traveled to the Syrian capital. Neither meeting resulted in breakthroughs, however. Throughout most of 1994 Syria declined to negotiate directly with Israel in protest against the killing of some 29 Palestinians by an Israeli gunman at Hebron in late February. In September, however, Foreign Minister Farouk

ash-Shara gave his first-ever interview to Israeli television, and in Washington, D.C., in December an unnamed Syrian general joined Israeli and Syrian diplomats and the Israeli chief of staff, Lieut. Gen. Ehud Barak, for talks. In Octo-

ber the jamming of Jordanian television was abandoned by the Syrian government, an apparent sign that the Syrians regarded the peace process as unstoppable. A number of tangible benefits, nevertheless, accrued to Syria from the general move toward peace. On November 28, for example, apparently as a reward for not obstructing peace talks, the European Union lifted its eight-year embargo on sales of weapons by its member states to Syria. The move drew protests from Israel. President Assad was forced to pay close attention to domestic political issues in 1994. On January 21 his eldest son, Basel al-Assad, who had been thought of as a possible successor, was killed at the age of 33 when his automobile, which he apparently was driving at a high rate of speed, crashed in thick fog near the Damascus airport. Assad, who had ruled Syria since taking power in a coup in 1970, seemed keen to groom

Basel for high office, but his hopes for a

smooth succession appeared dashed at his son’s death. Basel had been head of the presidential security force and had been able to make some inroads against institutionalized corruption in the country. With Assad’s estranged brother Rifaat, nominally vice president, apparently out of contention, attention switched to Assad’s second son, Bashar,

aged 28, as a likely successor to his father. A further shock for the elite was the sacking of special forces commander Brig. Gen. Ali Haider on allegations of drug trafficking and his replacement by the Persian Gulf war veteran Gen. Ali Habib. The general election held on August 24-25 resulted in a victory for the ruling National Progressive Front and its allies, but with a low turnout of only 49% of the electorate. A Ba'thist, “Abd al-Qadir Qaddoura, was elected speaker of

A republic of southwestern Asia, Syria is on the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 13,853,000. Cap.: Damascus. Monetary unit: Syrian pound, with

(Oct. 7, 1994) a par value (official rate) of LS 11.22 to US. $1 (LS 17.85 = £1 sterling) and a nonessential rate of LS 23 to USS. $1 (LS 36.58 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Gen. Hafez

al-Assad; prime minister, Mahmoud Zuabi.

Although Syria remained aloof stream moves toward peace with that Pres. Hafez al-Assad’s aides mutual security arrangements with

479

in 1994 from the mainIsrael, signs did emerge were prepared to discuss the Israelis at the highest

levels. Nonetheless, neither side held out great hopes for an

early breakthrough, largely because little progress had been made toward filling Syrian demands for a complete Israeli withdrawal from the occupied Golan Heights or Israel’s insistence on early normalization of relations. Israel, however,

appeared to be offering a three-year timetable for complete withdrawal amid indications that Egypt was urging Syria to adopt for the Golan Heights an arrangement similar to that which Egypt had accepted from Israel over the Sinai.

the parliament, one-third of whose members were directly elected. The government budget, approved on June 8, provided for a 17.2% increase in spending to LS 144 billion. On November 14 Prime Minister Mahmoud Zuabi promised the new parliament that his government would introduce a program of economic reforms to implement changes to the banking system, unify exchange rates, and establish an export investment bank. The Arab boycott of Israel, which was headquartered in Damascus and whose main supporter was the Syrian government, appeared to be crumbling in 1994. The six-member Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) decided in October to abandon the secondary and tertiary aspects of the boycott, thereby agreeing to do business with foreign companies that dealt with Israel as well as the Arab states. The April and October council meetings of the boycott members were canceled through lack of a quorum. Foreign ministers of the eight Damascus Declaration countries, the GCC plus Egypt and Syria, met in January and agreed to increase political and economic cooperation, but few tangible benefits emerged. (JOHN WHELAN)

480

World Affairs: Taiwan

Carrying a banner reading “Murderer of Taiwanese,” advocates of independence for Taiwan protest the arrival of Tang Shubei (T’ang Shu-pei) from China. Others in Taiwan, however, warmly welcomed the delegation, proclaiming that “blood is thicker than water. AFP

TAIWAN Taiwan, which consists of the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands off the coast of China, is the seat of the Republic of China (Nationalist China). Area: 36,179 sq km (13,969 sq mi), including the island of Taiwan and its-86 outlying islands, 22 in the Taiwan group and 64 in the Pescadores group. Pop. (1994 est.): 21,073,000. (Area and population figures include the Quemoy and Matsu groups, which are administered as an occupied part of Fujian [Fukien] province.) Cap.: Taipei. Monetary unit: New Taiwan dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of NT$26.16 to US. $1 (NT$41.61 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Lee Tenghui; president of the Executive Yuan (premier), Lien Chan.

In December 1994 the Republic of China on Taiwan passed another milestone on its remarkable march toward full democracy. The results of the gubernatorial and mayoral elections, pitting the ruling Nationalist Party (KMT) against the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), its main rival, and the upstart New Party, indicated that Taiwan’s eight-yearold democracy was settling into what was basically a twoparty system. Voters delivered a split verdict. DPP candidate Chen Shui-bian’s election as mayor of Taipei gave his party its greatest electoral victory yet, but KMT incumbent Wu Tun-yi triumphed in Kao-hsiung, Taiwan’s secondlargest city. In the first election ever held for provincial governor of Taiwan, KMT incumbent James Soong was returned to office by a comfortable majority. The election also indicated that in media-saturated Taiwan, personality and image might be more important than party affiliation. The DPP’s reaffirmation of its commitment to the formal independence of Taiwan elicited another warning from the government that Taiwan and the People’s Republic on the mainland were juridically equal parts of a single China. Taiwan’s ongoing efforts to gain international political status and recognition commensurate with its economic strength

were stymied by China’s stubborn opposition. Taipei’s bid to rejoin the UN again failed to get on the agenda. China,

moreover, pressured Japan to cancel an invitation to Pres.

Lee Teng-hui to attend the Asian Games in Hiroshima, and at the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) summit in Bogor, Indon., in November, Taiwan was represented by economic planning chief Vincent Siew rather than by the president. To Beijing’s (Peking’s) dismay, however, Lee’s “vacation diplomacy” was quite successful. On unofficial visits he met with the leaders of Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. In addition, the Clin-

ton administration responded to congressional pressure and eased some of the irksome restrictions placed on Taiwan’s unofficial embassy in Washington, D.C. The brutal murders in Zhejiang (Chekiang) province of 24 tourists from Taiwan on March 31 and the attempt at a cover-up by local authorities created an uproar. Taiwan’s Straits Exchange Foundation suspended talks with China’s Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Strait. Agreements, however, were later reached regarding air piracy, illegal immigration, and fishing disputes. Expanded trade made China Taiwan’s second largest export market. On April 26 a China Airlines Airbus A-300 crashed in flames at the Nagoya airport in Japan after an uneventful flight from Taipei. Only 7 of the 271 persons aboard sur-

vived. A minute before the crash, a pilot had informed the

tower that he was aborting the landing and would make a second approach. Although the cause of the crash was not immediately known, Japanese police reported that both pilots had been drinking. Taiwan’s export-led economy slowly picked up steam in the second half of the year, expanding at an annual rate of

just over 6%, a very respectable rate for a mature and devel-

oped national economy. Looking to the future, Lien Chan emphasized the need to rely on private-sector investment to achieve the nation’s most important large-scale development goals. Despite considerable opposition from antinuclear ac-

tivists and environmentalists, and over the objections of the

DPP, the KMT majority in the Legislative Yuan approved

World Affairs: Tanzania

construction of Taiwan’s fourth nuclear power plant on the crowded and resource-poor island. Unemployment in Taiwan hovered around 1.5%. The China External Trade Development Council pointed to a severe labour shortage, only partly relieved by foreign workers, as one of Taiwan’s weaknesses in competing with such export rivals as South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore. To avoid U.S. sanctions, Taiwan took steps to ban trade in endangered species, including the elephant, rhinoceros, and

tiger. For political rather than economic reasons, Taiwan’s long-standing application to join the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and become a founding member of the successor World Trade Organization was held hostage to China’s own efforts to join GATT. Taiwan’s sometimes volatile stock market finished the year quite strongly, up 17% from the beginning of the year. At midyear, the country’s foreign exchange reserves stood at an impressive $90.1 billion. Once again Taiwan had demonstrated that political democratization was fully consistent with economic growth and social stability. (STEVEN I. LEVINE) TAJIKISTAN A landlocked republic of Central Asia, Tajikistan borders Kyrgyzstan on the north, Uzbekistan on the north and west, Afghanistan on the south, and China on the east. Area: 143,100 sq km (55,300 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 5,813,000. Cap.: Dushanbe. Monetary unit: Tajik ruble (introduced May 1994 as interim currency to replace the Russian ruble; in January 1994 Tajikistan had introduced the Russian ruble as its own currency to replace the pre-1993 Russian [or Soviet] ruble), with (Oct. 13, 1994) an official rate of 2,900 Tajik rubles to U.S. $1 (4,612 rubles = £1 sterling). Chief of state in 1994 (chairman of the National Assembly and president), Imomali Rakhmonovy; prime ministers, Abdujalil Samadov (acting) and, from December 2, Dzamshed Karimov.

Throughout 1994 armed groups of the banned Tajik Islamic opposition and their Afghan supporters carried out almost daily attacks on Russian and Tajik border troops guarding the Tajik-Afghan frontier. Even though Tajikistan’s neoCommunist regime was almost completely dependent on Russian military and economic assistance to remain in power, Russia had difficulty persuading the Tajik government to begin negotiations with the armed opposition to end the fighting that had dragged on since 1992. Although Russian forces were heavily engaged in protecting the border with Afghanistan, which Moscow viewed as the most important line of resistance against the spread of Muslim fundamentalism, Russia refused to become involved in Tajikistan’s internal conflict. During the summer, when a number of journalists, government officials, and Russian officers assisting the Tajik Ministry of Defense were assassinated in Dushanbe, the opposition was accused of the murders. Foreign human rights activists protested when two prominent journalists were arrested for distributing an opposition Tajik-language newspaper that was printed in Moscow but never banned in Tajikistan. In July a group of armed oppositionists inside Tajikistan succeeded in seizing control of an important highway east of Dushanbe for several days; it was one of the most significant opposition successes since the restoration of the communists at the end of 1992. In April Russian and UN officials brought together representatives of the Tajik leadership and the Islamic and

democratic opposition-in-exile for talks in Moscow that, it was hoped, would lead to a cease-fire. Two rounds of talks ended inconclusively. In September, after the government met opposition demands for an amnesty for political prisoners, a temporary cease-fire under UN supervision was finally agreed to. A third round of talks to establish a permanent

481

cease-fire was held in Islamabad, Pak., in late October. The talks began with an opposition charge, supported by Helsinki Watch, that the government had not fulfilled its promise to release a number of political prisoners.

In April the government released the draft of a new constitution, which was approved by the voters on November 6. In the presidential election held the same day, Imomali Rakhmonoy,

who had been acting president, was declared

the victor despite charges of electoral fraud and voter intimidation. The Western-oriented Democratic Party broke with the rest of the opposition in accepting Rakhmonov’s election, but the Islamic opposition refused to recognize it. Rakhmonov was formally ‘installed in office on November 16. There was considerable criticism of the election both inside and outside Tajikistan because the two candidates,

Rakhmonov and former prime minister Abdumalek Abdulajanov, represented only one region of Tajikistan. The election, therefore, was seen as further dividing the country. Officials of the Russian border guards in Tajikistan claimed that despite a cease-fire agreement, opposition forces were preparing a major offensive for the spring of 1995. Tajikistan’s government remained dependent on Russia not only to protect the border but also to support the country’s economy, which had been weakened by two years of fighting. In January Tajikistan adopted the Russian ruble as the first step toward complete integration of the Tajik economy with that of Russia. Russian financial officials, however, were less than enthusiastic about the proposed monetary union, and Tajik pleas to speed up the planned union went unheeded. (BESS BROWN) This article updates the Macropedia Tajikistan.

article CENTRAL

ASIA:

TANZANIA The republic of Tanzania, a member of the Commonwealth, consists of Tanganyika, on the east coast of Africa, and Zanzibar, just off the coast in the Indian Ocean, which includes Zanzibar Island, Pemba Island, and small islets. Area: 942,799 sq km

(364,017 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 27,296,000. Cap.: government in process of being transferred from Dar es Salaam; legislature meets in Dodoma, the new capital. Monetary unit: Tanzania shilling, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 535 shillings to U.S. $1 (850.92 shillings = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Ali Hassan Mwinyi; prime ministers, John Malecela and, from December 7, Cleopa Msuya.

A World Bank report published on March 14, 1994, evaluated Tanzania’s performance in carrying out its economic reform program as second only to Ghana’s among 29 subSaharan African countries. This result had been achieved through close adherence to a stern structural-adjustment schedule, and in 1994 additional measures to curb expenditure and encourage production were introduced. In February the charges for electricity supplied by the Tanzania Electric Supply Corporation to domestic users were increased by 68%, while charges for street lighting, paid for by town councils, municipalities, and districts, were raised by 233%. However, charges to industrial users were reduced. Hopes of cheaper electricity in the future were raised by the announcement that the government planned to construct a trial plant to produce methane by treating solid waste. The plant, costing $3.9 million, was to be financed by the Global Environment Facility, and if it proved successful

other plants would be constructed in different parts of the country. The electricity generated would then be sold to the Tanzania Electric Supply Corporation. As if to underscore the extent of Tanzania’s problems, on January 11 Pres. Ali Hassan Mwinyi warned of the imminent danger of famine resulting from the prolonged drought

482

World Affairs: Thailand

from which the country had recently suffered, a warning reiterated in April by the Agency for International Development. Then, adding to the troubles caused by nature, a man-made catastrophe occurred when the violence that had burst out in Rwanda in April caused a flood of refugees to seek sanctuary in Tanzania. Although the government officially closed

the border

on

May

1, within

a 24-hour

period some 250,000 Rwandan refugees occupied a camp near Ngara in northwestern Tanzania, making it the second most densely populated area in the country. An urgent appeal was made to the international community to assist in making provision for the refugees, a task that was beyond any resources immediately available in Tanzania itself. The limitations that poverty imposed on the country were reflected in the decision, made reluctantly in June, to

withdraw the Tanzanian contingent from the peacekeeping operation in Liberia. The UN, Tanzania complained, had failed to provide the funds needed to enable the troops to carry out their task effectively. Yet not all was gloom. In March it was announced that the petroleum company Caltex had decided to use Zanzibar as its storage centre and distribution point for oil to be sold in eastern, central, and southern Africa. This, it was hoped, would cut the cost of petroleum products, and Zanzibar

also anticipated that the beneficial effect on commodity prices would make the island more attractive to investors. Soon afterward five international investment corporations announced that they intended to fund three safari lodges on the mainland. In a Cabinet reshuffle in early December, Mwinyi reappointed former prime minister Cleopa Msuya. (KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropcedia article EASTERN AFRICA: Tanzania.

ae

THAILAND Thailand is a constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia, on the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. Area: 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 57,586,000. Cap.: Bangkok. Monetary unit: baht, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 25.03 baht to U.S. $1 (39.81 baht = £1 sterling). King, Bhumibol Adulyadej; prime minister in 1994, Chuan Leekpai.

Internal differences within two of the five governing coalition parties repeatedly threatened political stability during 1994. While Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai’s Democrat Party was free of dissension, the New Aspiration Party (NAP) headed by Interior Minister Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth was disrupted by factional rivalry. Even less united was the Righteous Force, led by Chamlong Srimuang, the pivotal figure in the overthrow of the autocratic regime in 1992. Chamlong, who entered the Cabinet as deputy prime minister only in October, insisted on replacing the foreign and communications ministers with unelected outsiders, causing much bitterness among parliamentarians. For months the government was at odds with the opposition over a proposed revision of the constitution, which would reduce the size and power of the appointed Senate, lower the voting age to 18, and modify several clauses related to local government and parliamentary procedures. Though there were no substantial ideological differences involved, the opposition refused to endorse the Cabinet’s draft bills. The impasse prompted democracy advocate Chalard Vorachat, who had been prominent in the 1992 turmoil, to go on a 68-day hunger strike outside the National Assembly. Chalard’s protest was reported even by international media. Rallies in the provinces supporting Chalard and the army’s

REUTERS/BETTMANN

an

serene ET

Chalard Vorachat, on a hunger strike over proposed chan ges to the Thai constitution, takes refuge inside a metal cage so that he cannot be filer to a hospital. When the pro-democracy activist went on a similar fast in 1992, his action fueled riots that brought down the government

World Affairs: Tonga

483

strong objections to the tactics he used raised the spectre of new unrest. The constitutional question had not been resolved by the beginning of December, despite numerous attempts at compromise. On December 9 Chaovalit pulled the NAP out of the coalition, thus increasing the likelihood of elections in early 1995. The opposition Thai Nation was embarrassed when the — U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) identified one of its members as a coconspirator in drug-smuggling operations. Foreign Minister Prasong Sunsiri told the Cabinet that he believed 16 other members of the National Assembly were on an agency list. The furor was further fueled on June 30 when it was revealed that Thai Nation’s deputy leader had been refused a U.S. entry visa on the recommendation of DEA officials. An even greater scandal erupted over the whereabouts of some 90 kg (198 Ib) of jewelry, reportedly

Gnassingbé Eyadéma’s presidency survived another turbulent year in 1994. On the evening of January 5, approximately 100 armed men, possibly former commandos dismissed from the army in Eyadéma’s 1993 purge, attacked the Toikin army barracks, where the president resided. The ensuing struggle with soldiers loyal to Eyadéma resulted in 67 deaths and dozens of injuries. The government accused the opposition of instigating the attack, which it regarded as an attempted coup. After several postponements, elections to the national legislature were finally held on February 6 and 20. French observers were brought in to ensure the army’s neutrality. Although the voting was generally calm and the elections judged to be fairly conducted, the process was overshadowed first by the abduction and murder of three opposition

worth $20 million, that had been stolen from a Saudi prince’s

munications Minister Benjamin Agbeka, and finally by the murder of Gaston Edeh, one of only 19 deputies to receive an outright majority in the first round of the elections. Opposition parties won 43 of the 81 seats, but two months passed before Edem Kodjo was appointed prime minister by Eyadéma. Kodjo, however, was unable to form a coalition government until June 24. He allotted more than half the ministries to members of Eyadéma’s Rally of the Togolese People and the pro-Eyadéma Union for Justice and Democracy. This led to bitter conflict, and in November members of the main opposition party, the Action Committee for Renewal, boycotted the legislature. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

palace in 1989 by a Thai servant and shipped to Bangkok. The jewels had been recovered, but they disappeared while in the custody of police. After five years of investigation, Chuan, pressed by Saudi authorities, ordered investigators to report directly to him. Among those arrested were the current police chief, his predecessor,

two police generals,

and several civilians. Charges ranged from negligence to possession of stolen property and to the kidnapping and murder of the family of a key witness. It was taken for granted that senior politicians and civil servants were under investigation for possession of some of the jewels. Another furious row brewed all year long over three proposed mass transit projects in Bangkok. The previous government had awarded rights to build elevated commuter railways to private consortia. Opponents charged that the tracks would be unsightly when finished and would disrupt Bangkok’s already congested traffic during construction. In May international consultants hired by the government advised that inner-city lines be built underground. The Cabinet offered to pay the additional cost. In August, after a court validated one original contract, trees were felled on some of the city’s finest avenues despite protests by environmentalists. Thailand seemed set to record perhaps the world’s best overall economic performance in 1994. With a modest 1.5% population increase, gross national product growth was forecast to be 9% and exports were expected to rise 16%, while inflation was steady at less than 5%. A clampdown on intellectual property infringements pleased the United States, but claims by Washington that the Thai military had broken a commitment to cut its links to Khmer Rouge guerrillas irked army commander Gen. Wimol Wongwanich. In April, Cambodian First Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh accused Thailand of helping “Pol Potists” escape government’s troops. After a July coup attempt was foiled near Phnom Penh, some 14 Thais, including a police colonel, were accused of involvement. The U.S. Congress in October moved to cut $100 million in military aid. (ROBERT WOODROW) This article updates the Macropeedia article SOUTHEAST ASIA: Thailand.

TOGO A republic of West Africa, Togo is situated on the Bight of Benin. Area: 56,785 sq km (21,925 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.):

3,922,000. Cap.: Lomé. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a par value of CFAF 100 to the French franc and a free

rate of CFAF 526.67 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 837.67 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Gen: Gnassingbé Eyadéma; prime ministers, Joseph Kokou Koffigoh until March 21 and, from April 23, Edem Kodjo.

leaders, then by the firebombing of Eyadéma’s ally, Com-

This article updates the Macropeedia article WESTERN AFRICA: Togo.

TONGA A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Tonga comprises about 170 islands split into three main groups in the Pacific Ocean east of Fiji. Area: 750 sq km (290 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 99,700. Cap.: Nuku’alofa. Monetary unit: pa’anga, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 1.35 pa’anga (T$) to U.S. $1-(2.15 pa’anga = £1 sterling). King, Taufa’ahau Tupou IV; prime minister in 1994, Baron Vaea.

The continuing challenge to the government—largely controlled by the king, his nominees, and a small group of hereditary nobles—posed by the pro-democracy movement went a step farther in September 1994 with the formation of the Tonga Democratic Party. The new party’s supporters controlled six of the nine people’s (commoners’) seats in the Legislative Assembly. ‘Akilisi Pohiva, the movement’s leader,

remained

under

pressure

from

the

government,

losing a defamation action over allegations of improper payments within Tonga’s highly profitable squash export industry. In 1993 squash exports to Japan reached 17,000 tons with a value of 15 million pa’anga, which represented Tonga’s largest source of foreign exchange. Income from tourism (23,000 visitors) accounted for 11 million pa’anga. In foreign affairs Tonga remained active in regional organizations. Late in 1993 the government announced a joint venture with the Malaysian

Borneo

Finance

Bank, which

opened a branch in Tonga; it was owned 51% by Asia Capital Corp., 25% by Crown Prince Tupouto’a, and 10% by Tongan business interests; the balance was offered to local investors. The king also announced a joint venture with Sarawak state in Malaysia, under which it was proposed that Tongans establish village settlements there to produce bananas and other crops for Malaysian consumption. (BARRIE MACDONALD) This article updates the Macropcedia article PACIFIC ISLANDs: Tonga.

484

World Affairs: Trinidad and Tobago

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Ne e ee 2eee nate Site , Trinidad and Commonwealth the of A republic and member Tobago consists of two islands in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela. Area: 5,128 sq km (1,980 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 1,273,000. Cap.: Port of Spain. Monetary unit: Trinidad and Tobago dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of TT$5.58 to U.S. $1 (TT$8.88 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Noor Mohammad Hassanali; prime minister, Patrick Manning.

In legislative by-elections held in 1994 to replace three sitting members of the legislature who had died early in the year, the People’s National Movement party lost two seats to the opposition. Prime Minister Patrick Manning, concerned over his party’s losses, hinted that he might call elections in 1995, a year early.

Amoco Trinidad Oil Co. identified an additional 56.6 billion cu m (2 trillion cu ft) of natural gas in its east coast offshore fields in June and August. As a result, the company gained enough gas reserves to fulfill almost all the requirements of its proposed 12 million-cu m (425 millioncu ft)-per-day liquefied natural gas plant in Trinidad, which would be the first in the Western Hemisphere. In July, against the background of a deteriorating crime situation, the government ended its self-imposed 15-year moratorium on hanging and executed convicted murderer Glen Ashby. The move drew international protests, in part because Ashby was put to death only minutes before the Privy Council in London agreed to a stay of execution on constitutional grounds. The amnesty granted to the 114 members of the Jamaatal-Muslimeen sect who had stormed the legislature in July 1990 and held Prime Minister A.N.R. Robinson and several of his ministers hostage for five days was declared invalid in September. The court, however, ruled that the group should not be rearrested or tried for the offenses they committed. (DAVID RENWICK)

president warned that now that there was an opposition presence in the legislature, unauthorized attempts to create new opposition groupings would not be permitted. The presidential elections were marred by government irritation at attempts to contest them. Moncef Marzouki, a veteran human rights campaigner who resigned his post as head of the Tunisian human rights organization just before the election, warned that he intended to challenge the incumbent, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, in the election.

However, Marzouki was not able to obtain the support of 30 parliamentary deputies or mayors, so his application as a candidate lapsed. Ben Ali, therefore, ran unopposed and obtained some 99.9% of the votes cast; about 95.5% of the electorate participated in the election. The political tensions that had marked the election period bubbled to the surface immediately afterward. Marzouki was arrested for allegedly defamatory remarks he made to a Spanish newspaper after the election and released only some months later. Nearly three weeks after the elections, Hamma

Hammami,

the leader of the banned Communist

Workers’ Party, was sentenced to 9/2 years in prison for trying to form an illegal opposition party. In foreign affairs Tunisia continued to press for a regional approach. It handed over the presidency of the Maghreb Arab Union to Algeria in April, four months later than scheduled because of the unstable political situation there. One old foreign policy issue was resolved during the year when the Palestine Liberation Organization officially moved its headquarters from Tunis to the Gaza Strip on July 11. (GEORGE JOFFE) This article updates the Macropeedia Tunisia.

article NORTH

AFRICA:

TURKEY A republic of Asia Minor and southeastern Europe, Turkey has coastlines on the Aegean, Black, and Mediterranean seas. Area:

779,452 sq km (300,948 sq mi), including 23,764 sq km in Europe. Pop. (1994 est.): 61,183,000. Cap.: Ankara. Monetary unit:

This article updates the Macropedia article The WEST INDIEs: Trinidad and Tobago.

Turkish lira, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 34,441 liras to

TUNISIA

USS. $1 (54,779 liras = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Suleyman Demirel; prime minister, Tansu Ciller.

A republic of North Africa, Tunisia lies on the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 164,150 sq km (63,378 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 8,757,000. Cap.: Tunis. Monetary unit: Tunisian dinar, with (Oct.

7, 1994) a free rate of 0.98 dinar to U.S. $1 (1.56 dinars = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Gen. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali; prime minister, Hamed Karoui.

During 1994 the Tunisian government had to deal with repeated attacks on its human rights record, beginning with a critical Amnesty International report in January. Most of the accusations focused on the issue of the government’s attitude toward the major Islamic movement, the outlawed Nahda party, which, according to government sources, was implicated in violent opposition to the authorities. Tunisia reacted furiously to a British government decision to grant political asylum to Nahda leader Rachid Ghannouchi. It warned that Britain, together with the United States and Germany, did not understand the true nature of the Islamist threat to North Africa. Needless to say, Nahda was not allowed to participate in the presidential and legislative elections that were held in March. All but 19 of the 163 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by the ruling Constitutional Democratic Assembly, with the opposition parties gaining only about 2.3% of the vote. The other 19 seats, reserved for the Opposition as a result of a new electoral law, were distributed between four parties. In the wake of the elections, the

The coalition government of the centre-right True Path Party (DYP) and the centre-left Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) had to contend with successive crises in 1994. A collapse in the value of the Turkish lira at the end of January forced Prime Minister Tansu Ciller to abandon her expansionary economic policy and introduce an austerity program on April 5. Bolstered by a standby agreement con-

cluded with the International

Monetary Fund in July, the

government succeeded in cutting the public-sector deficit, moving into surplus in external payments and servicing its foreign debt. This was achieved, however, at the cost of a domestic recession, which reduced the gross national product by a record 11% in the second quarter of the year. In local government

elections on March

27, the DYP’s

share of the vote dropped to 22% and that of the SHP to 13%, while the Islamic-based Welfare Party (RP) advanced to 18% and won control of the Istanbul and Ankara metropolitan areas. The Motherland Party, representing the mainstream centre-right opposition, received 21% of the total vote. Terrorists of the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK) continued their attacks in southeastern Turkey and, to a lesser extent, in tourist resorts and cities outside the main Kurdish areas. The national security forces responded with an all-out offensive, which involved the forcible evacuation of hundreds of mountain villages as well as repeated attacks on PKK bases

World Affairs: Turkmenistan

485

pressed reservations about an agreement with a Western-led consortium to pipe oil from Azerbaijan through Turkey to the Mediterranean. Friction was also caused by the imposition of new rules on July 1 on commercial ships navigating the Turkish straits (the Bosporus and the Dardanelles). Although the case for better protection for the Istanbul metropolitan area had been demonstrated by the collision of two oil tankers at the northern entrance to the Bosporus in March, Russia argued that the new rules violated the

1936 Montreux Convention. The first-ever visits by a president of Israel to Turkey, in January, and by the Turkish prime minister to Israel, in November, signaled closer Turkish involvement in the Middle Eastern peace process. At the same time, relations with Syria, already strained by the facilities afforded by the latter to the PKK terrorists, were further soured by the opening in November of the first tunnel to carry water from the newly built Ataturk dam on the Euphrates River to irrigate the Harran plain in Turkey, north of the Syrian frontier. Turkey’s role in the UN and NATO was highlighted by the dispatch of a Turkish peacekeeping contingent to Bosnia and Herzegovina in June, following a visit by Ciller to Sarajevo on February 2. This displeased Greece, with which Turkey’s relations were strained by the continuing impasse over Cyprus, the murder of a Turkish diplomat in Athens on July 4, and the continuing dispute over territorial waters in the Aegean. (ANDREW MANGO) TURKMENISTAN A republic of Central Asia, Turkmenistan borders Uzbekistan on the northeast, Kazakhstan on the northwest, the Caspian Sea on the west, Iran on the southwest, and Afghanistan on the

A Turkish helicopter hovers in support of government troops assembling for an attack against Kurdish strongholds in the eastern part of the country. Turkish forces kept up their pressure on the Kurds

southeast. Area: 488,100 sq km (188,500 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 4,044,000. Cap.: Ashgabat (formerly Ashkhabad). Monetary unit: manat, with (Oct. 7, 1994) an official rate of 10 manat to U.S.

$1 (15.91 manat = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Saparmurad

Niyazov.

throughout the year, entering Iraq for a short time in April in pursuit. AFP.

in northern Irag. The conduct of the security forces, the decision made by the Grand National Assembly in March to revoke the parliamentary immunity of eight radical Kurdish deputies, the subsequent arrest of the deputies, who were sentenced to up to 15 years in prison on December 8, and the closing of the Democracy Party in June by order of the Constitutional Court strained relations with the West. The U.S. Congress decided that the disbursement of part of U.S. aid to Turkey should be made subject to improvements in human rights in Turkey and to progress in the dispute with Greece over Cyprus. Within the government the two coalition partners found it difficult to work together. On August 5, when the Social Democratic leader, Deputy Prime Minister Murat Karayalcin, changed his party’s ministers in the government, the Foreign Ministry was given to Mumtaz Soysal, until then a leading critic of the coalition’s policies. A privatization law, earlier opposed by Soysal, was passed on November 24. Four days later Soysal resigned from the government. Domestic preoccupations did not prevent Turkey from pursuing an active foreign policy. After visits to Ankara by leaders of the Turkic republics of the former Soviet Union, a Turkic summit was held in Istanbul on October 18. Later that month Pres. Suleyman Demirel visited Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, and took part in the inauguration of the construction of a pipeline to carry natural gas from Turkmenistan through Iran to Turkey. Turkey’s attempts at common action with the Turkic republics were ill-received in Russia, which had earlier ex-

There were no serious challenges to Pres. Saparmurad Niyazov’s authoritarian rule in 1994, but his personality cult, which rivaled that of Joseph Stalin, suffered from a

lack of visible improvement in the country’s economy. In January 99.9% of Turkmenistan’s voters approved a parliamentary proposal made by Niyazov’s Democratic (formerly Communist) Party to exempt the president from facing reelection in 1997 so that he could oversee completion of a 10-year prosperity scheme. Political opponents of Niyazov were persecuted inside Turkmenistan,

and in October the

state prosecutor asked the Russian Federation to extradite Turkmen dissidents in exile in Moscow. Turkmenistan, a major natural gas producer, put its own well-being before that of the Commonwealth of Independent States, turning off the supply to several of its neighbours to force them to pay their debts. Niyazov incurred the wrath of Western countries through his courtship of Iran, which promised financial support for a project to ship Turkmen natural gas across Iran to Turkey and Western Europe. Nonetheless, in May Turkmenistan became the first Central Asian state to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace. For a country with good economic prospects, Turkmenistan’s currency, the manat, launched in November 1993, proved surprisingly unstable, declining from 2 to the dollar in late 1993 to 125 to the dollar a year later. In May Niyazov began the privatization of state-owned companies, starting with auctions of small enterprises, but the process (BESS BROWN) moved very slowly. This article updates the Macropeedia article CENTRAL ASIA: Turkmenistan.

POTLIGHT: The New Middle East by Robert D. Kaplan Does the normalization of relations between Israel and its Arab neighbours constitute the great change that will allow the Middle East—as the storybooks say—to “live happily ever after”? Probably not. A wider Arab-Israeli peace could be just one of several epochal shifts about to transform the region in years and decades to come. Nor is it clear that the future Middle East will be any more stable than the Middle East to which the world has been accustomed since the end of World War II. Important shifts could likely emanate from Iran and Turkey. In late 1994 Iran was being blamed for terrorist attacks on Israeli and Jewish installations in Latin America and Europe. There were also fears that it was trying to acquire a nuclear weapon. Iran thus appeared as a strategic threat to Israel, to its new friends in the Arab world, and to the West. However, that threat could evaporate

upon political changes inside Iran itself, where the regime is increasingly weak and unpopular as it tries to satisfy a population that has grown from 35 million during the 197879 Iranian revolution to 65 million in 1994. Whether it is the availability of hospital beds, the incidence of disease, or the memory of sons killed in the 1980-

88 Iran-Iraq war, the revolution has brought hardship to the working poor it promised to uplift. Mosque attendance has dwindled. Tehranis have set up satellite dishes to watch American television shows such as “Baywatch” and the MTV network. Persian Americans have been returning to Iran in increasing numbers. In 1994 Iranian officials admitted that the United States was Iran’s fourth biggest trading partner. Unofficially it may be the biggest, since U.S. goods often arrive in Iran by way of third countries. The so-called battle between East and West is being fought inside Iran itself. The historical parentheses opened by the Iranian revolution in 1978 may be starting to close. Whatever the specific destiny of Iran’s present clerical regime, to think that Iran’s diplomatic estrangement from the U.S. (which has adversely affected Iran’s ties to other Western countries) will continue indefinitely is to have no regard for history. In 1829 a crowd led by radical clerics stormed and destroyed the Russian embassy in Tehran, killing the ambassador. Russian-Iranian relations were later restored; the incident was forgotten. In the fullness of time, the 1979 siege of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, in which no American diplomats were killed or

seriously wounded, will likely be similarly obscured. Meanwhile, 1994 saw Turkey engaged in its ultimate crisis of identity as the nation grappled with the ethnic duality of its Anatolian land mass, which is both Turkish and Kurdish. The on-again, off-again war between the Turkish army and Kurdish guerrillas in southeastern Turkey stems ultimately from the inflexible border arrangements of the post-World War I Middle East peace treaties that denied the Kurds a state of their own and split them up among Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Roughly half of the world’s 20 million Kurds live in Turkey. Its ability, or inability, to solve the Kurdish problem will determine whether Turkey will be able to release its considerable dynamism—born of industrialization, a large middle class, an 81% literacy rate, and four decades of experience with democracy—upon the adjacent Arab world and Turkic Central Asia. Turks led the House of Islam for nearly 850 years, from the Seljuq conquest of Anatolia in 1071 to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. In a world of eroding borders, it goes against both history and geography not to expect Turkey to exert increasing influence upon the Middle East’s Arab heartland especially as the one-man dictatorships governing Turkey’s Arab neighbours, Iraq and Syria, must 486

ultimately give way to more flexible, even chaotic regimes, whose ability to control the movement of people and ideas cis will be less. Turkey and Iran are in the midst of crises that significant parts of the Arab world have yet to face. Syria, Iraq, and Jordan had their borders drawn by European colonialists. None of these states has ethnic boundaries that configure with official ones. Unlike Turkey or Israel, they have had little or no legitimizing, democratic tradition behind them.

Their identity has been largely dependent upon two factors that are disappearing: the struggle with Israel, which created a siege mentality that fortified repressive regimes in Iraq and Syria, and a world of hard state borders controlled by military and economic elites. These borders and elites are under slow siege. The Arab population is doubling about once every 22 years. In 1994 more than two-thirds of all Arabs were under the age of 25. Many Arab states have gross national products that are declining relative to population growth. Politicized Islam, which respects no state borders, is, on one very important level, a symptom of the demographic and economic stress that is experienced as it becomes harder for creaky, overly bureaucratized governments in places such as Cairo and Algiers to deliver such basic services as sanitation, electricity, and clean water to their populations. As populations increase yearly, the ability to control them centrally decreases. This is especially true in places where the regime is afforded little respect, whether because it is undemocratic or because it represents a hostile tribe or ethnic group. Meanwhile, property prices have soared in Tel Aviv as greater Israel—in the sense of a regional economic magnet—comes into being. Israel, which has experienced just over a dozen democratic elections since its creation in 1948, without any riots or coup attempts, is a credible entity. But what of Jordan after King Hussein? What of Syria after Pres. Hafez al-Assad or Iraq after Pres. Saddam Hussein? What of Algeria and Egypt, whose populations continue to climb and whose secular governments become more repressive in the face of an Islamic resurgence? From the standpoint of the period from 1945 to 1994, progress toward Arab-Israeli peace has been dramatic. But from the standpoint of future decades, the meeting in July in Washington, D.C., between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Jordan’s King Hussein may symbolize no more than a tidying-up exercise left over from the Cold War—that idyllic time frame when policy-making elites in Washington, Europe, and elsewhere enjoyed more power to influence events than they ever would again. Surprises beckon. Just consider: from antiquity through 1978 Iran maintained good ties with Jews in Palestine, using them as a lever against Arabs and others whom Iran always feared. The chances of a tectonic shift in Iran’s political orientation appear more logical now than in the mid1970s, prior to the Iranian revolution. A new Middle East, in which relatively coherent states such as Israel, Iran, and Turkey maintain close ties as a defense against an Arab world threatened by chaos, is easily imagined. So is the dissolution of Iran itself, if its regime collapses without a stable replacement and advantage is taken by Kurds and Turkic ethnics in Iran’s border areas. So are other scenarios. The big, unimaginable surprise will be if things stay as they are, and the region lives “happily ever after.” That would confound all the rules of history.

|Robert D. Kaplan is a contributing editor of The Atlantic Monthly and author of The Arabists and Balkan Ghosts.

World Affairs: Ukraine

TUVALU A constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, Tuvalu comprises nine main islands and their associated islets and reefs in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 24.4 sq km (9.4 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 9,300. Cap.: Fongafale, on Funafuti Atoll. Monetary

unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of $A 1.35 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.15 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governors-general in 1994, Tomu Sione and, from June, Tulaga Manuella; prime minister, Kamuta Laatasi.

487

draft constitution before the assembly contemplated the suspension of all political party activity for at least five more years. Changing that would require a two-thirds majority in the assembly. In a Cabinet reshuffle on November

18,

Museveni appointed a new prime minister, Kintu Musoke. Assisted by fears of a marked decline in the production Of coffee in South America, by the political instability in some other African coffee-producing countries, and by the plan to hold back exportable production introduced by a large number of coffee-growing countries in 1993, Uganda increased its exports of coffee in 1994. Thus, its main for-

The government of Prime Minister Kamuta Laatasi dismissed Gov.-Gen. Tomu Sione, maintaining that he was a political appointee of the previous regime. The new governor-general was Tulaga Manuella, a former civil service accountant and secretary of the Tuvalu Christian Church and the Pacific Council of Churches. As two of its major priorities, the Laatasi government declared its intention to reduce the number of government workers, which stood at approximately 500 in a total pop-

that was already showing a marked upturn as aresult of generous foreign aid and a strict adherence to a structuralreform program advocated by the International Monetary Fund. The main thrust of the program had been to establish a liberal economic environment that would encourage private enterprise while at the same time severely reducing government expenditure. Defense, which in 1993 accounted for 30% of the government’s budget, was one obvious tar-

ulation of 9,300, and to decentralize government, with the

get, and in April 10,000 members of the armed forces were

Departments of Education and Health to be located on the island of Vaitupu and that of Fisheries on Nukufetau. The government was facing a shortage of land on the headquarters atoll of Funafuti, where some 43% of the population lived. One-third of the main islet was unusable for agriculture or settlement because of pits created by wartime excavations for the construction of the country’s

pensioned off, bringing the total reduction to 33,000, with more to follow. The number of civil servants also continued

main airfield. Urbanization, resulting in the encroachment

of settlement onto agricultural land, was being resisted by the indigenous people of Funafuti. The problem was likely to escalate in four to five years with the exhaustion of phosphate mining at Nauru and the consequent return home of some 700 Tuvaluans currently living there. To counter this, the government was seeking to expand work opportunities for Tuvaluans in Australia and New Zealand. (BARRIE MACDONALD) This article updates the Macropedia article PACIFIC ISLANDS: Tuvalu.

UGANDA A landlocked republic and member of the Commonwealth, Uganda is located in eastern Africa. Area: 241,040 sq km (93,070 sq mi), including 44,000 sq km of inland water. Pop. (1994 est.): 18,194,000. Cap.: Kampala. Monetary unit: Uganda shilling, with

(Oct. 7, 1994) a priority rate of 921 shillings to U.S. $1 (1,465 shillings = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Yoweri Museveni; prime ministers, George Cosmas Adyebo and, from November

eign-currency

earner

gave a strong boost

to an economy

to be cut, and as a result of these initiatives, the value of

the Uganda shilling rose steadily on the foreign-exchange market, reflecting the growing confidence in the country’s economic performance. Nevertheless, much remained to be done to improve educational and health standards. In February Museveni, with the support of their tribal elders, called upon Karamojong rebels in the northeast to hand in their arms in return for the promise of an amnesty. The rebels had harassed the region intermittently since the overthrow of Pres. Idi Amin in 1979. Trouble arose elsewhere in May when three districts on the shore of Lake Victoria had to be declared disaster areas because of the pollution caused by thousands of bodies floating down the Kagera River from neighbouring war-torn Rwanda. Farther north there was rejoicing among the Nyoro people when the office of mukama (king) was restored in June and the son of the previous mukama was crowned, though without the powers formerly enjoyed by the holder of that office. (KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropeedia article EASTERN AFRICA: Uganda.

UKRAINE A republic in eastern Europe, Ukraine borders Russia to the

18, Kintu Musoke.

north and east, the Black Sea to the south, Romania and

Elections for members

the west. Area: 603,700 sq km (233,100 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 52,304,000. Cap.: Kiev. Monetary unit: karbovanets (Ukrainian coupon), with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 30,028 karbovantsy = US. $1 (47,760 karbovantsy = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1994,

Moldova to the southwest, and Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland to

of a constituent assembly to con-

sider a draft constitution

were

held on March

28, 1994,

with some 1,500 candidates competing for 214 elected seats.

In addition, Pres. Yoweri Museveni would nominate 10 members, and approximately 64 others would be appointed

by special interest groups. Although the elections officially took place on a nonparty basis, voting was very much along party lines, as was implied, though unintentionally, by the official announcement that the president’s supporters had won more than half the seats. Other observers were of the opinion that members of the Uganda People’s Congress and the Democratic Party together outnumbered the president’s supporters among the successful candidates. Nonetheless, even if the opposition parties had been prepared to cooperate, their majority was whittled away when the nominated and appointed members joined the assembly. , The president had no intention of encouraging the return of party politics to Uganda in the foreseeable future. The

Leonid Kravchuk and, from July 19, Leonid Kuchma; prime

ministers, Yukhim Zvyahilsky (acting) and, from June 16, Vitaly Masol.

Politically, 1994 in Ukraine was dominated by election campaigns. The parliamentary elections of March 27 were indecisive because of the election law that required participation by at least 50% of the electorate and stipulated that a candidate had to receive over 50% of the vote to win aseat. In the Donetsk and Luhanske regions, the elections also saw referenda on the status of the Russian language, with heavy support for the adoption of the latter as a second state language. An attempt to attain the same provision for the whole country was defeated in the parliament after strong opposition from nationalists and several skirmishes between deputies. By April 11, 337 of 450 deputies had been elected,

488

World Affairs: Ukraine

and by August the figure had risen to 393; most (219) of the deputies elected were nonaligned. The Communists, with 91 seats, maintained a plurality and formed a powerful faction with the Socialists and Agrarians. The democratic segment of the parliament was dominated by Rukh members, with some 30 seats; the remaining parties together elected some 20 deputies by the April runofts. A stalemate in the parliament led Pres. Leonid Kravchuk to try—unsuccessfully—to postpone the June 26 presidential elections. The incumbent president was defeated in the second round on July 10 by former prime minister Leonid Kuchma (see BIOGRAPHIES), who received 52.14% of the votes cast, compared with Kravchuk’s 45.06%. The voting divided the country along the Dnieper River, with the eastern regions backing Kuchma and western Ukraine voting heavily in favour of Kravchuk. Kuchma acted quickly to subordinate the Cabinet of Ministers and local councils to his control. Visits to Canada and the U.S. (in October and November, respectively) raised his international profile significantly. The volatile Crimean oblast elected a separatist proRussian president, Yury Meshkoy,

in a runoff election on

January 30, and a series of constitutional disputes between Kiev and the autonomous oblast ensued. The Crimean parliament voted on May 20 to resurrect a 1992 constitution weakening its ties with Ukraine. The dispute also centred on the question of Ukrainian or Russian control of the Black Sea Fleet and the status of the city of Sevastopol, which declared itself a Russian city on August 23. The decision was rescinded immediately by the Ukrainian parliament, and Meshkov’s impending revolt soon collapsed. On September 7 the parliament voted to curtail his powers and to institute a collective leadership. On October 6 Anatoliy Franchuk was appointed prime minister of Crimea. In the meantime, Kiev demanded that the Crimeans bring their constitution and laws into line with those of Ukraine by November

1. This was not carried out, and on November

17 the Ukrainian parliament rescinded a long list of laws adopted by Crimea. Deep economic recession and shortages of power and heating plagued Ukrainians during 1994. Throughout the

year Russia and Turkmenistan restricted fuel supplies to Ukraine because of the nonpayment of some $2 billion of debts. The gross national product in Ukraine fell by 18% in the first nine months of the year compared with the corresponding period in 1993. Industrial output dropped 31%, and there was a corresponding 24% fall in labour productivity. In the main, these dramatic figures reflected the

decline in traditional heavy industries, such as metallurgy, machine building, chemicals, building materials, and light industry. In addition, coal industry production was expected to be down. Ukraine’s temporary currency, the karbovanets, plunged against the dollar, from 47,000 in May to around 140,000 in early December. By July only about 5% of all production was fully in private hands, and on July 29 the parliament resolved to postpone further privatization on the grounds that the shadow economy was in the hands of criminal elements. On October 11 the new president announced a new economic program based on the freeing of prices, the privatization of land and property, and a monetary reform that would see the belated introduction of a new currency, the hryvnya, and prompt payment of salaries. At the end of the year, however, the economic prognosis for the country remained gloomy. On March 21 the director of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Hans Blix, declared that the Chernobyl nuclear power plant failed to meet international standards. The Ukrainian authorities were reluctant to close the plant,

however, without alternative power sources and adequate compensation. The key question was the cost of shutting down Chernobyl and commissioning new reactors at the Khmelnytsky, Rivne, and Zaporizhzhya atomic stations. A referendum at the giant Zaporizhzhya nuclear station on June 26, however, rejected a proposal to adda sixth reactor

and establish a nuclear-waste site there. By late November Ukrainian nuclear officials had agreed on the need to close down Chernobyl eventually but rejected what they perceived as the relatively paltry sums offered for assistance by the international community. Ukraine also reached an agreement with the International Monetary Fund—conditional upon the introduction

LISE SARFATI—CONTACT PRESS IMAGES

Members of the Russian majority on the Crimean Peninsula, officially a part of Ukraine, demonstrate in favour of union with Russia. Annexed by Russia in 1783, Crimea was given to the former Ukrainian S.S.R. in 1954. by Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev.

World Affairs: United Kingdom

of market reforms and control over inflation and debts—for the receipt of $2 billion in loans over a three-year period. An initial loan of $360 million was granted on September 29. Both the U.S. and Canada pledged significant aid to Ukraine: $900 million on the part of the U.S. to support privatization and food and fuel imports, and $17.6 million in technical assistance from Canada. A further $5.5 billion was committed by a Group of Seven conference in Winnipeg, Man., on October 27 to assist Ukraine’s reforms, shut down Chernobyl, and harness new nuclear reactors.

Ukraine made significant progress on disarmament when the parliament ratified the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks Treaty (START I) on February 3, decided to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace Program on February 8, and ratified and signed on December 5 the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. The year was also notable for Kuchma’s campaign against corruption, which

resulted

in the order for the arrest of

former acting prime minister Yukhim Zvyahilsky in midNovember on charges of embezzlement. A horrific outbreak of cholera in southern Ukraine in September claimed at least 17 lives, with over 650 recorded cases.

(DAVID R. MARPLES) UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Consisting of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubayy, al-Fujayrah, Ra’s alKhaymah, ash-Sharigqah, and Umm al-Qaywayn, the United Arab Emirates is a federation of seven largely autonomous emirates located on the eastern Arabian Peninsula. Area: 83,600 sq km (32,280 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 2,125,000. Cap.: Abu Dhabi. Monetary unit: United Arab Emirates dirham, with (Oct. 7,

1994) a free rate of 3.67 dirhams to U.S. $1 (5.84 dirhams = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan an-Nahayan; prime minister, Sheikh Maktum ibn Rashid al-Maktum.

A call for dialogue between the United Arab Emirates and Iran over the future of Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunb, islands located in the Persian Gulf between the two

nations, was made by Egypt, Syria, and the other Gulf Cooperation Council states but to little avail. Iran appointed Hassan Rezai as the new governor of Abu Musa. In March Pres. Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan an-Nahayan called for the matter to be settled by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In December the government repeated its intention to refer the matter to the ICJ, but Iran still refused to negotiate. On February 19 the minister for petroleum and mineral resources, Youssef Omair ibn Youssef, formerly a banker,

resigned in protest against the federal Oil Ministry’s lack of authority over the constituent emirates. Emphasizing its independence in oil policy, Dubayy established Emirates National Oil Co., a new holding company to carry out hydrocarbons projects. An Abu Dhabi court sentenced former Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) founder Agha Hassan Abedi in his absence to eight years in prison on fraud charges in connection with the BCCI collapse. Creditors of the collapsed BCCI initially rejected a $1.8 billion settlement with Abu Dhabi but in November agreed in principle to the settlement. In mid-February Sheikh Zaid agreed on legislation to make a wide range of crimes that were formerly tried in civil courts punishable by Islamic law. Included were murder, manslaughter, assault causing bodily harm, theft, adultery, and drug trafficking. The decree applied to all emirates and emphasized the president’s concern about the rise of (JOHN WHELAN) Islamic fundamentalism. This article updates the Macropedia Arab Emirates.

article ARABIA:

United

489

UNITED KINGDOM A constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe and member of the Commonwealth, the United Kingdom comprises the island of Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) and Northern Ireland, together with many small islands. Area: 244,110 sq km

. (94,251 sq mi), including 3,218 sq km of inland water but excluding the crown dependencies of the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. Pop. (1994 est.): 58,422,000. Cap.: London. Monetary unit: pound sterling, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of £0.63 to U.S. $1 (U.S. $1.59 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth IJ; prime minister in 1994, John Major.

Domestic Affairs. In two important respects the Conservative government of Prime Minister John Major could proclaim 1994 as a year of success. It presided over steady, noninflationary economic growth and brought peace to Northern Ireland. Yet these successes were more than offset by a series of problems that dented the government’s reputation and saw the Conservatives slide in May to their worst defeat in any national election in the 20th century. Much of the damage was done byaseries of incidents that, cumulatively, provoked widespread criticism of government “sleaze.” On January 5 Tim Yeo, who had previously endorsed Major’s call for the Conservatives to be the party of “family values,” resigned as a junior minister after having admitted being the father of his mistress’s child. On February 7 a backbench Conservative MP, Stephen Milligan, was found dead at his London flat; he had apparently asphyxiated himself accidentally while performing a dangerous autoerotic act. In May the National Audit Office condemned the U.K.’s biggest overseas aid project—£234 million for the Pergau Dam in Malaysia—as a waste of money. On December 7 Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd admitted that ministers had broken the law in agreeing to fund the dam from the U.K.’s overseas aid budget. In July Lord Archer (the novelist Jeffrey Archer and a close friend of Major) was subjected to an official inquiry into insider trading in a television company where his wife was a director. Archer, who was subsequently cleared of the charges, admitted he bought shares shortly before a takeover bid and sold them a few days later, thus making an £80,000 profit on behalf of a friend. After each incident Major hoped that the “sleaze” factor would die away, but each time a new allegation soon emerged. On July 10 The Sunday Times reported that two backbench Conservative MPs had broken parliamentary rules by agreeing to accept money from a reporter (posing as a businessman) to present, or table, questions to ministers. The “cash for questions” row gained fresh impetus on October 20 when The Guardian disclosed that two junior ministers, Tim Smith and Neil Hamilton,

had

accepted payment in cash or hospitality for tabling parliamentary questions some years earlier (when both were backbenchers) on behalf of Mohamed al-Fayed, the owner of Harrods department store in London. Both Smith and Hamilton resigned their posts. On October 25 Major set up an independent inquiry to reconsider the rules governing standards of conduct by MPs, ministers, and civil servants.

Few people were surprised when a Gallup Poll in late October found that 73% of those questioned considered the Conservatives “sleazy and disreputable.” Later the same

month, the government

feared that an-

other backbench rebellion would defeat its European Communities (Finance) Bill, the main purpose of which was to sanction increases in the U.K.’s contribution to the European Union (EU). To minimize the rebellion, Major announced that he would regard the Commons vote as a vote of confidence,

and if he lost, he would call an early

490

World Affairs: United Kingdom

general election. Major secured his immediate objective, the government won the vote on November 28 by 27 votes with the aid of Northern Ireland’s Ulster Unionist MPs. Eight Conservative MPs abstained, however, and were promptly suspended from the party in Parliament. The following week the eight rebels retaliated by opposing the government’s plans to increase the value-added tax on domestic fuel from 8% to 17.5%. This time the Ulster Unionists voted against the government, which lost by 319-311. The episode reinforced the image of a government unable to secure parliamentary approval for all its policies. The Conservatives’ problems caused the party to lose ground electorally. In the elections to the European Parliament in June, the party won only 28% support and held only 18 seats. Labour, with 44% of the vote, amassed 62 seats. The Liberal Democrats, with 17% support, won two

seats—their first in the European Parliament. The Scottish Nationalists doubled their representation from one to two. By December opinion polls showed the Conservatives holding barely half the support that they had won in the 1992 general election. Their 22% rating was the lowest in their history. On December 15 they lost a by-election in Dudley West when Labour achieved a majority of 50%, compared with a Conservative majority of 8% in 1992. The shift in votes was the biggest between the two parties in modern times. During the early months of 1994, the Conservatives’ troubles had provoked speculation that Major might be replaced as party leader and prime minister. In the event, however, it was the opposition Labour Party that was forced to choose a new leader. On May 12 John Smith (see OBITUARIES) died of a heart attack. On July 21 Tony Blair was elected to succeed him. Blair obtained 57% of the vote of Labour MPs, party members,

and trade unionists, defeating John

Prescott (see BIOGRAPHIES), who took 24%, and Margaret Beckett (19%). In a parallel contest for the deputy leadership, Prescott (57%) defeated Beckett (43%), who had served as Smith’s deputy. Blair campaigned for the leadership on an uncompromising policy of reform. On October 4, in his first speech as party leader to Labour’s annual conference, he announced a review of the party’s constitution. This announcement signaled his intention to bury Labour’s long-standing consti-

tutional commitment to work for “the common ownership of the means of production, exchange and distribution.” That commitment—known as Clause IV from its position in Labour’s constitution—had lasted since 1918. Blair argued that Labour needed to make clear its acceptance of the principles of a market economy. Blair’s strategy won wide public approval and posed a dilemma for the Conservatives: should they seek to fight Labour on the centre ground or move to the right and (in the words of Michael Portillo, one of Major’s most rightwing Cabinet ministers) establish “clear blue water” between the parties? On October 14, in a speech to his party’s annual conference, Major made clear his intention to disre-

gard Portillo’s advice. He announced that in the near future there would be no further big changes to two government services that had been through aseries of recent upheavals: health and education. Three significant social reforms were implemented in 1994. On February 21, MPs voted to reduce the age of homosexual consent to 18. This decision represented a compromise between those who wanted to keep the age of consent at 21 and those who wanted to reduce it to 16, in line with the age of heterosexual consent. On August 26 the Sunday Trading Act came into force. This allowed small shops in England and Wales to open at any time on Sunday and large shops to open for any six hours between 10 AM and 6 pM. The previous, far more restrictive, Sunday trading laws had been widely ignored. The third reform was enacted not by Parliament but by the General Synod of the Church of England, which voted on February 22 to allow women to be ordained as priests. The monarchy had another turbulent year. Details surfaced of extramarital affairs by both the Prince and Princess of Wales prior to their separation in December 1992. Royal rumours and revelations filled the tabloid press and provided grist for the book-publishing industry as well. Prince Charles sought (with some success) to rebuild his reputation by cooperating with a two-hour television documentary about his life. During interviews given during the making of the film, which was shown in June, the prince insisted that

he would become king (rather than allow the succession to pass straight to his elder son, Prince William) and that he wanted to create a more modest and open monarchy, with

MARTIN BEDDALL—THE TIMES NEWSPAPERS LTD.

Actor Sean Caffrey provides a voice-over for Gerry Adams, head of Sinn Fein, a way of skirting the British ban on broadcasting by the Irish Republican Army. In September, British Prime Minister John Major lifted the ban and also opened border crossings with Ireland.

World Affairs: United Kingdom

fewer “minor royals” performing public functions. He also said that he wanted to be amend the coronation oath so that he would become “defender of faith” (meaning all religions) rather than just “defender of the faith,” the traditional title accorded to the monarch as formal head of the Church of England. Economic Affairs. The U.K.’s main economic indicators in 1994 told a story of steady progress. Gross domestic product grew by 3%; prices rose by only 2%; the value of sterling held steady; and unemployment fell by 300,000 to 2.5 million, or 9% of the workforce. Throughout the year Kenneth Clarke sought to convince

voters and investors alike that the United Kingdom was overcoming the problems of the early 1990s—recession, high inflation, a rising tax burden, and record levels of government borrowing. The public-sector borrowing requirement for the year to March 31, 1994, reached £46 billion. This

exceeded the previous record, set in 1993, by £10 billion. Tax increases and higher-than-expected economic growth helped to reduce the level of borrowing during 1994, however. By the end of 1994 the rate of borrowing had fallen to £30 billion a year. Through the year Clarke and Eddie George, the governor of the Bank of England, stressed their

determination to ensure that the U-.K.’s recovery did not provoke higher inflation. On February 8 they reduced the bank’s minimum lending rate to 5.25%, the lowest since 1977. On September 12, however, following the publication of data showing faster-than-expected economic growth, the rate was raised to 5.75%. Some economic problems remained. Consumer confidence recovered only slowly. The housing market proved more fragile than the government either hoped or wanted. On average, house prices did not change through the year. Although this helped first-time buyers, it both reflected and reinforced consumer nervousness. One contributory cause was mounting insecurity in the labour market. Although the unemployment figures fell, so did the figures for the number of employees in full-time jobs. Foreign Affairs. A brief but bitter dispute flared up in March between the U.K. and 10 of the other 11 members of the European Union (EU) over the enlargement of the Union. The dispute concerned the formula governing decisions taken by qualified majority voting (QMV) among the EU’s Council of Ministers. The U.K. wanted to change the rules to increase the majority needed to adopt QMV decisions. On March 22, following an inconclusive meeting of the EU’s foreign ministers, Major told the House of Commons that he would veto EU enlargement unless the QMV

tules were changed. One week later, however, after

a further meeting of foreign ministers, Major backed down, amid widespread criticism that he said one thing one week and did the opposite the next. Major survived his next test rather better. On June 25 he vetoed the nomination of Belgian Prime Minister JeanLuc Dehaene as the next president of the European Commission. Major considered Dehaene, who had the backing of the other 11 states, as too much of a European federalist. On this occasion Major stuck by his veto. Eventually, on July 15, the heads of government unanimously chose Jacques Santer (see BIOGRAPHIES), the prime minister of Luxembourg, as the next president of the commission. During the year Major developed his belief that Europe should resist becoming a federal state. Instead, in a speech on May 31 during the European Parliament election campaign, he advocated a “multitrack, multispeed, multilayered” approach, in which the diverse interests of different member states would be recognized. On September 7, during avisit to Leiden, Neth., Major went farther and warned against

491

Germany, France, and the Benelux countries trying to create an inner group starting to construct a federal Europe regardless of the wishes of the rest. Major said, “I see a real danger in talk of a hard core, inner and outer circles, a two-tier Europe. . .. There is not, and should never be, an

exclusive hard core either of countries or of policies.” A more tangible symbol of the U.K.’s links with the rest of Europe came when on May 6 the queen and French Pres. Francois Mitterrand officially opened the new Channel Tunnel (Eurotunnel), which was built to carry rail traffic between England and France. After overcoming some teething difficulties, the passenger service opened on November 14, allowing rail passengers to travel between London and Paris in three hours. At the end of February, Major visited Washington, D.C., and sought to quell speculation that his relationship with U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton had been strained by reports that the Conservative Party had sought to help Pres. George Bush in his election campaign against Clinton in 1992. As a symbolic gesture, Clinton allowed Major to occupy the Lincoln bedroom at the White House—the first British leader to sleep there since Winston Churchill. Major and Clinton appeared to establish a good rapport, and later in the year Major acknowledged Clinton’s supportive role in securing a cease-fire in Northern Ireland. The two leaders continued to disagree over policy in the former Yugoslavia, however, with Major opposing Clinton’s call for the UN to lift its arms embargo on Bosnia and Herzegovina. Northern Ireland. Hopes of an end to 25 years of violence rose dramatically in 1994 when the principal terrorist groups—both nationalist and unionist—announced ceasefires within seven weeks of each other. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) cease-fire came into effect on September 1 and that of the unionist groups on October 14. The cease-fires followed months of intensive debate within the terrorist groups following a joint peace initiative in December 1993, when Major and Irish Prime Minister Albert Reynolds set out their common position on the future of Northern Ireland. The Downing Street Declaration (as the initiative came to be called) included an offer to include terrorist groups in political and constitutional negotiations within three months of a permanent end to violence. During the nine months following the Downing Street Declaration, the IRA leadership came under considerable private pressure, both from Dublin and from the leadership of Northern Ireland’s main (and nonviolent) nationalist party, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, to announce a cease-fire. On August 31 the IRA made its longawaited announcement of “a complete cessation of military operations.” Although the statement did not use the word “permanent,” Reynolds immediately stated that he was satisfied with the IRA’s wording. Major’s initial reaction was regret that the IRA had failed to commit itself to a permanent end to violence. He did, however, seek to maintain the momentum toward peace. On September

16, during a visit to Belfast, he lifted the

broadcasting ban that had prevented the voices of terrorists and their supporters from being heard on British radio and television. The ban had been widely criticized for laying the U.K. government open to criticisms of censorship—without achieving its declared purpose of denying publicity to terrorist groups. During the six-year ban, broadcasters had employed Irish actors to speak the words that terrorists had used in speeches and interviews. The effect was akin to a badly dubbed foreign-language film. Major also announced that the results of any negotiation over the future of Northern Ireland would be subject to a referendum in the province. This announcement was

492

World Affairs: United States

designed to satisfy unionists that Ulster would remain part of the U.K. as long as a majority of its electors so wished. Major’s assurance helped to pave the way for the announcement by the main unionist (or “loyalist”) terrorist groups on October 13 that they, too, would end “all operational hostilities” at midnight that day. By October 21, with the IRA cease-fire 51 days old and holding firm, Major was able to state that he was making a “working assumption” that the IRA intended a permanent end to hostilities. During a visit to Belfast, the prime minister announced that government officials would seek exploratory talks with Sinn Fein, the political arm of the IRA, before the end of the year. In addition, Major lifted the exclusion orders that had prevented Sinn Fein’s two most prominent members, Gerry Adams (see BIOGRAPHIES) and Martin McGuinness, from traveling to the British mainland. The cease-fires followed 25 years of conflict, during which 3,169 people had been killed, including 2,224 civilians. The last major atrocity occurred on June 18, when six Roman

Catholics watching the Ireland association football (soccer) team on television were killed by gunmen from the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The UVF said the attack was in retaliation for the murder of one of their own prominent members the previous week. The momentum for peace was strong enough to survive two awkward episodes in November: the fall of Reynolds’ government in Ireland and the murder of a postal worker in Newry. The IRA claimed that its members had carried out the murder in violation of orders to observe the ceasefire. On December 9, British civil servants opened negotiations with leading members of Sinn Fein in Belfast. No government ministers were involved in the opening round of talks. Among the issues discussed was the government’s insistence that the IRA surrender its weapons before fullscale political negotiations could begin. No progress was made on this issue by year-end. (PETER KELLNER) See also Commonwealth of Nations; Dependent States.

UNITED STATES The United States of America is a federal republic composed of 50 states. Area: 9,372,571 sq km (3,618,770 sq mi), including 205,856 sq km of inland water but excluding the 156,492 sq km of the Great Lakes that lie within U.S. boundaries. Pop. (1994 est.): 260,967,000. Cap.: Washington, D.C. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of U.S. $1.59 to £1 sterling. President in 1994, Bill Clinton.

US. Pres. Bill Clinton must have been hard pressed to discern much cause for cheer by the time 1994 wore toa close. Battered by allegations of sexual and financial misconduct— the latter focused as well on first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton—the president also saw the centrepiece of his legislative program, health care reform, die in Congress. Within the

White House, a new chief of staff failed to bring much-

needed discipline or prevent a steady string of resignations by top aides under attack for alleged improprieties or conflicts of interest. By the end of the year, the president was deemed anathema even by considerable numbers of fellow Democrats, who declined his campaign support during the November elections. Paradoxically enough, the man elected in 1992 to solve the nation’s festering domestic problems could take solace as 1994 ended chiefly in a string of foreign policy successes and a hard-won victory in expanding the global free-market system. For the first time since 1954, the Democrats lost control of both houses of Congress. (See Sidebar.) Newt Gingrich of Georgia, who would become the new speaker of the House,

Newt Gingrich speaks to reporters after the Republicans won control of both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years. As the new speaker of the House of Representatives, Gingrich would attempt to enact the conservative policies set forth in his “Contract with America.” RICK REINHARD—IMPACT VISUALS

was hailed as the chief architect of the Republican triumph. The trend continued among the states, where Republicans had a net gain of 11 governorships, boosting their total to 30. and ousting such powerful figures as Mario Cuomo of New York and Ann Richards of Texas. The Economy. The sentiment that seemed to motivate voters was not, on the surface, inspired by dire economic

facts. The economic outlook in 1994 generally appeared to be good. The unemployment rate in December, 5.4%, was at a four-year low, down dramatically from a high of 7.8% two years earlier, and the economy was generating an average of some 275,000 new jobs every month, some 3.5 million for the year. The U.S. share of world manufactured exports, a

time-honoured measure of national economic strength, was rising toward 16%, while those of Japan and Germany were in decline. Per capita disposable income was rising steadily, and so were corporate profits. General Motors, for example, the world’s biggest industrial company, which had reported a titanic $4.9 billion loss in 1991, was showing a $2.8 billion profit by mid-1994, more than for all of 1993. A new wave of mergers and acquisitiveness gripped a number of U.S. business sectors, notably the telecommunications

and

health care industries. Inflation remained under control— the consumer price index rose 2.7% during the year—and price stability seemed more or less assured, at least for the short term. There was, however, a steady ratcheting up of interest rates by the Federal Reserve Bank (Fed), from a short-term figure of 3% at the beginning of the year to 5.5% at yearend. Between February and November the Fed raised rates six times, and at one point it hiked its key interest rate twice in little more than a month. The main reason for the Fed’s action was the feeling on the part of its chairman, Alan Greenspan, and a majority of the members of the Open Market Committee that the continuing economic expansion might lead to eventual overheating and supply bottlenecks, which would, in turn, refuel inflation. By making money more expensive and thereby slowing the rate of expansion, the Fed aimed to keep the underlying potential for inflation under control. The moves spread turmoil in the financial markets,

however,

always sensitive

to interest-rate

hikes,

and early in the year there occurred the biggest single-day drop in the Dow Jones industrial average since 1991. The effects were even more parlous in the bond markets, which had become highly dependent on mathematically

World Affairs: United States

complicated forms of futures contracts, known as derivatives,

that offered substantial gains—and equally severe losses— depending on how successfully investors bet on the prevailing financial bellwethers. With the change in Fed policy, large numbers of institutional investors—from corporate treasurers to managers of college endowment funds—bet spectacularly wrong. In a move that rocked the municipal bond market, Orange county, in southern California, filed

for bankruptcy protection after highly leveraged investments went sour and cost the county $2 billion. Lesser shocks were felt by millions of individual investors who had moved money out of traditional, low-interest forms of insured savings into mutual funds that held derivatives. The effect was to dispel some of the feeling of security and well-being that might have been inspired by the economic performance of goods, services, and jobs.

As is common in economic recoveries, U.S. productivity and profitability increased in important measure because workers stayed on the job for more overtime hours—more so in 1994 than in previous business cycles. In the third quarter of the year, for example, the factory workweek reached a near-record 42 hours, including almost 5 hours of overtime.

Among

debt-laden

consumers,

however,

the

resulting income gains were offset by hikes in the interest costs for credit card purchases, mortgages, and car payments. Too, despite the swelling number of available jobs, many corporations continued to cut payrolls to maintain their competitive advantage. Consumer spending remained strong through most of the year, with an annual rise of 7.6% in 1994, but retail sales unexpectedly slumped in December. Overall the improved economic picture was marred by a continuing, deep-rooted sense among individuals that all was not as well as it should have been or as secure as it had been in the past. Health Care. It was just such a feeling of insecurity that Clinton had addressed during his successful 1992 election

493

campaign and that his proposal for universal health care seemed designed to allay. At first the nation seemed willing to make the changes required for providing health coverage for the 37 million or more Americans said to be uninsured. At the same time, there was a strong feeling that the patchwork U.S. health care system—with its welter of private in. Surers, employer-sponsored insurance plans, private doctors and hospitals, plus a government subsidy system for the poor and elderly—was far too expensive. Nonetheless, the plan the Clintons had unveiled in September 1993—with Mrs. Clinton as the overseer—ran into a minefield of opposition after it was presented to Congress. Its sheer complexity—the original document weighed in at 1,368 pages and included radical innovations such as national price controls, huge mandatory health care alliances, and government-mandated coverage by employers—brought together a broad array of opposition forces. In fact, a number of dramatic changes had been occurring in the health care system. Spurred by the notion of widespread government intervention, private care providers had begun to rein in spiraling costs. More and more employers had enrolled workers in health maintenance organizations (HMOs)—-networks of doctors and hospitals that closely monitored costs and rewarded caregivers for keeping them under control. The HMOs were sometimes bureaucratic and unwieldy, but their rapid expansion through startups, mergers, and acquisitions was one of the salient features of economic activity during the year. Further, the more large-scale employers began to get their costs under control, the less enthusiastic they became about endorsing enhanced government control. For example, the Business Roundtable,

a group of 200 of the largest U.S. corporations, endorsed a rival congressional scheme that did not place emphasis on controlling prices or on universal coverage. There was also opposition from other groups, including small businesses, insurance companies, and the elderly.

JACK KURTZ—IMPACT VISUALS

er, who was killed by a boyfriend. The problem was At a rally in Lansing, Mich., against domestic violence, a woman remembers her granddaught passed by Congress in August. and Clinton Bill Pres. by proposed legislation in with dealt one of many crime-related issues

494

World Affairs: United States

As the president faced an increasing number of opponents to the proposal, he frequently tried to be conciliatory to all sides at once, even while trying to talk Congress into doing his bidding on the issue. At various times he declared almost every aspect of the Clinton health care plan to be negotiable. Universal coverage itself, however, the president declared to be inviolable—until he eventually gave a nod to a competing proposal that would settle for 95% coverage over several years’ time. Opponents came up with even more alternative schemes to bleed momentum from the reform movement, and at one point more than 150 different health care bills clogged the congressional system. Eventually none of the proposals picked up the legislative support necessary to force a bill through Congress. Welfare Reform and Crime. In his state of the union address, Clinton also turned his attention to two other social issues of long-standing concern, welfare reform and crime. Welfare reform in particular was a notion that stirred enthusiasm across the country, where it was assumed to mean a cutback in support payments to the poor and near poor, including such programs as Medicaid and food stamps. Of particular concern in the public mind was Aid to Families with Dependent Children, a program that cost $16 billion annually—not much in the overall budget but symbolic to many of the culture of welfare dependency, involving unwed mothers, neglected children, and unemployed teenagers. Various states were already experimenting with “workfare” programs involving mandated employment when Clinton announced in his address that he would propose asimilar scheme, including a welfare payment cutoff after two years coupled with aggressive programs of job training and retraining. Traditional constituencies within his party objected, however, and Congress took no action. Even though various violent crime rates were still declining, Americans continued to see a growing threat to their way of life and to demand ever more draconian punishments. By 1994 the number of people sentenced to federal, state, and local prisons had far outstripped the nation’s capacity to jail them. Federal and state prisons held some 925,000 STEPHEN JAFFE—JB PICTURES

A former CIA agent, Aldrich Ames, charged along with his wife with spying for the Soviet Union beginning in 1985, arrives at court. The case led to congressional hearings on the agency's security procedures and to the resignation of CIA director R. James Woolsey.

inmates, about double the population of a decade earlier. Local jails held another 450,000, or triple the capacity 10 years earlier. The average cost of holding that population

was $23,500 per inmate, yet the public demanded

more:

more police, more prisons, and more mandatory sentences.

Clinton’s 1994 crime bill attempted to ride the lawand-order wave by endorsing the controversial proposal of mandatory life sentences for violent offenders found guilty of three consecutive offenses. It also included $28 billion for additional prisons and police, which Congress speedily bid up to $33.5 billion—and, after a series of horrifying massacres around the country, a proposal for the first time to ban outright 19 different so-called assault weapons, firearms capable of rapid, automatic fire. The ban was virulently opposed by the National Rifle Association but was supported by law-enforcement agencies, and it narrowly passed the House 216 to 214. It eventually became law separate from the crime bill. The overall bill, however, went down to

defeat when Republicans attacked it for containing excessive amounts of pork-barrel funding. After lobbying by the White House, a slightly trimmed version became law. Personnel and Personal Problems. Such near disasters only contributed to the Clinton White House’s reputation for ill discipline, fecklessness, and lack of attention to the

minutiae of pushing a program through Congress. The Clintons, loyal to the team of Arkansans and other friends they had brought to Washington, resolutely rejected the idea of a major administrative shake-up until the clamour grew too strong to ignore. The president in effect fired his boyhood chum, White House Chief of Staff Thomas (“Mac”) McLarty, and replaced him with the head of the Office of Management and Budget, Leon Panetta. The anticipated broader shake-up failed to take place, however. Instead, the heads of top administration officials began to roll in connection with a variety of alleged scandals—none involving much hard evidence of wrongdoing—that had mostly been over long before the Clintons went to Washington and that were collectively known as the Whitewater affair. The details of Whitewater rivaled, in their numbing complexity, the details of the Iran-contra scandal of the Reagan era but without the grave implications for the institution of the presidency, since most of the Whitewater action had taken place during 1978-91, while Clinton mainly occupied the attorney general’s office and the governor’s mansion in Little Rock, Ark. The finger-pointing mostly revolved around the Clintons’ failed investment in a small-scale rural land development north of Little Rock in partnership with James McDougal, owner of the Madison Guaranty Savings and Loan. Madison Guaranty eventually went bankrupt, costing taxpayers $45 million, and McDougal was charged with, but eventually acquitted of, bank fraud. There was no evidence that the Clintons, who claimed to have lost almost $69,000 in the land deal, were aware of any wrongdoing, but critics made much of their association with McDougal at a time when Clinton was ultimately responsible for banking oversight in the state and when his wife, then an attorney with the Rose Law Firm in Little Rock, at one point performed minor legal work for Madison Guaranty. The accusations of scandal had percolated without much result in 1993 until the apparent suicide that July of Vincent Foster, a Rose Law Firm partner who had gone to Washington as Clinton’s personal counselor and the family lawyer. It was discovered that in the suicide’s wake a num-

ber of top Clinton aides, including White House Counselor Bernard Nussbaum, had entered Foster’s office and taken

files related to the Clinton family’s personal affairs. As critics cried cover-up, the Clintons spent much of 1994 in a determined effort to protect the privacy of their past deal-

World Affairs: United States

ings—which only convinced many, particularly in the press, that they had something to hide. The situation became even more difficult when a number of White House officials _ were subpoenaed to appear before Congress to explain their attempts to ride herd on the Whitewater scandal. Many of the officials suffered lapses of memory during their testimony, and one of them, Deputy Secretary of the Treasury

Roger Altman, resigned after being accused of intentionally misleading Congress about his reports to the White House while serving as the acting head of the Resolution Trust Corporation, which was investigating the Madison Guaranty failure. An independent prosecutor continued investigation of Whitewater throughout the year. Another matter that continued in the news was a series of investments in 1978 and 1979 by Mrs. Clinton in cattle futures, which netted a profit of about $100,000 on an investment of $1,000, less than the usual minimum

for such

high-risk trading. She had been advised in her moves by an attorney associated with the Tyson food-processing empire, Arkansas’s largest private company and one regulated by both state and federal governments.The clamour went up that the investment was an apparent conflict of interest, and eventually the stain spread to include Secretary of Agriculture Mike Espy, who resigned after it was revealed that he

had accepted favours from Tyson while in office. On December 28 a federal district court judge ruled that a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Clinton bya former Arkansas state employee should not proceed to trial until after the president left office. Other Developments. One domestic triumph that stood out was the president’s choice to replace Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun, who stepped down from the bench at age 85. In seeking a successor, Clinton first looked to Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell, who had decided to

retire, but Mitchell declined. A month later Clinton named Boston federal appeals court judge Stephen Breyer (see BIOGRAPHIES) to the post. Breyer, a onetime chief counsel to the Senate Judiciary Committee, an antitrust specialist, and an expert on administrative law, was almost universally

applauded for his intellect and his consensus-making skills. On three occasions during 1994, the White House was the object of physical attacks. In September a small plane crash-landed on the grounds, killing the pilot. A month later a man, subsequently charged with several felonies, fired on the residence with a semiautomatic weapon. Near the end of the year, in December, shots were fired that reached the grounds and the White House itself, one bullet piercing a window in the State Dining Room. In none of them was the president injured or in immediate danger. Foreign Affairs. In his first year in office, Clinton had gone to great lengths to avoid involvement in foreign affairs while pursuing his domestic agenda. In 1994, however, the sense of priorities was gradually reversed. The president began the year at a foreign policy summit, meeting with Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin in Moscow in January and scoring a major national security triumph when the U.S. and Russia formally ended their mutual nuclear terror by agreeing to point their strategic missiles at empty oceans rather than at any country’s territory. Ukrainian Pres. Leonid Kravchuk added further lustre to the trip when he agreed to dismantle about 175 former Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles on his territory, along with their attendant 1,800 nuclear warheads, in exchange for $1 billion in aid. Soon thereafter, Clinton ended another decades-old enmity when he formally dropped the 19-year U.S. trade (and investment) embargo against Vietnam, citing the Hanoi government’s cooperation in the search for U.S. servicemen still missing in action in Southeast Asia. Clinton then cauterized the

The 1994 Midterm Elections

Forty years of Democratic dominance in the U.S. Congress came to a stunning end on November 8, when the Republican Party rode a tidal wave of anti-incumbent sentiment to victory in the midterm elections. The Republicans took control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954 as voters delivered a strong rejection of Pres. Bill Clinton and his policies. The Republicans picked up a net gain of 53 seats in the House of Representatives and 7 in the Senate. The last time such carnage had been seen in Congress was in 1958, when Republicans lost 48 House and 13 Senate seats. Moreover, the Republicans won a majority of congressional seats from the South for the first time since the Civil War. Not a single Republican incumbent was defeated, while 37 Democratic incumbents were denied reelection. The most prominent casualty was Rep. Thomas Foley of Washington, the first speaker of the House to lose since 1862. The election results underscored not only a shift in party control but an ideological and generational transformation as well. The Republican triumph was seen by many analysts as having been fueled by the “angry white male” vote, so-called because conservative white men, protesting higher taxes, affirmative action, and gun control and advocating tougher measures on crime, had voted in large numbers for the GOP. More than half of the new House would consist of members with four years of service or less.

495

The winds of change were most in evidence in the House, which had been continuously controlled by the Democrats since 1954 and for all but four years since the first term of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. The new House would be composed of 230 Republicans, 204 Democrats,

and 1 independent. In addition

to Foley, other prominent

Democrats

who

lost in-

cluded 18-term veteran Dan Rostenkowski of Illinois,

the former chairman of the powerful Ways and Means Committee who was under federal indictment, and, after a 42-year run, Jack Brooks of Texas, chairman of

the Judiciary Committee. The Senate reverted to Republican control for only the second time in 40 years. With the defection of Democratic Sen. Richard Shelby of Alabama one day after the election, the Republican majority stood at 53 to 47. Republicans won nine seats vacated by retiring senators and defeated Democratic incumbents in Tennessee, where 18-year veteran Jim Sasser lost to Bill Frist, a heart surgeon who had never held

elective office, and in Pennsylvania, where Rep. Rick Santorum defeated Harris Wofford. A few prominent Democratic incumbents survived. Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts and Dianne Feinstein of California turned back well-financed challengers. In Virginia, Sen. Charles Robb defeated Oliver North, a former Reagan

White House aide best known for his role in the 1986 (MELANIE ANNE COOPER) Iran-contra scandal.

496

World Affairs: United States

Jordan and Israel, and it left the issue of the Golan Heights and peace between Israel and Syria as the major unmet goal of diplomacy in the region. Clinton himself made a bid to move the process along at a meeting with Syrian Pres. Hafez al-Assad, but to little effect. Yet when

it seemed

appropriate to draw the sword in the Middle East, Clinton reacted with energy and dispatch. After Iraqi Pres. Saddam Hussein ordered 50,000 heavily armed troops toward the frontier with Kuwait, in October Clinton airlifted thousands

Chilean Pres. Eduardo Frei speaks at a news conference as (from left) U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien,

and Mexican Pres. Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon look on. It was announced that Chile would begin talks on joining the North American free-trade zone. AFP

embarrassment of the intervention in Somalia, undertaken by his predecessor, George Bush, by ordering U.S. troops out of the warlord-riddled country. As much

as possible,

nomics rather than at the centre of his scrapped almost all telecommunications ern Europe,

Clinton

installed

trade and eco-

military and ideological considerations foreign policy. Among other things he export controls on previously sensitive devices and computers to Russia, East-

and China.

In the case of China, he ended

the linkage between human rights and most-favoured-nation trading status. Later in the year he met again with the other leaders of the 18-nation Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and he agreed to join in the creation of an enormous trans-Pacific free-trade zone by 2020. Similar action for the Western Hemisphere was taken at the 34-nation Summit of the Americas held in December. In the wake of the pun-

ishing midterm election results, the president successfully lobbied for passage by Congress of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Throughout the year the administration kept up arduous and often frustrating negotiations with North Korea. (See SPOTLIGHT: East Asia and the Transition in North Korea.) The U.S. tried a wide variety of blandishments and threats to persuade the North Koreans to once again allow international inspections of their nuclear facilities. After Pres, Kim Il Sung died (see OBITUARIES) and was replaced by his son Kim Jong Il (see BioGRAPHIES), former U.S. president Jimmy Carter resumed talks he had begun in June and successfully brokered an arrangement whereby North

Korea would turn over outmoded equipment in exchange

for less dangerous power reactors and agree to inspections in 10 years’ time. In December, however, another crisis developed when a U.S. helicopter was downed on North Korean territory. One crew member was killed in the crash, while the other was released unharmed after 13 days of tense negotiations. In the Middle East, long a focus of U.S. preoccupat ion, Clinton did not have a major role to play in 1994, yet for the second year in a row, he witnessed the signing of a historic peace accord. This time the pact was between

of U.S. troops to the region, and the Iraqi dictator quickly backed away. The same could not be said for the warring sides in the Balkans, who scoffed at half-hearted efforts by NATO forces to impose limits on the long-running war in Bosnia and Herzegovina through ineffectual air strikes at nearly valueless targets. The NATO effort reflected a deep split between the U.S. and its chief European allies, notably Britain and France, which had peacekeeping forces on the ground in Bosnia, as the U.S. did not. The rift deepened and even threatened the foundations of the North Atlantic alliance as the year wore on, and the U.S., prompted by sentiment in Congress, tried to redress the military balance between the beleaguered Bosnian Muslim forces and the Bosnian Serbs, who had essentially won the genocidal war. The U.S. unilaterally ended its own arms embargo against both sides (which meant effectively against the Muslims) and said that it would not help its allies to enforce their ban. Later, the U.S. pressed for NATO air strikes. Finally, however, Washington acknowledged that NATO solidarity was more important than the integrity of Bosnia and backed down amid admissions from Secretary of State Warren Christopher that the entire crisis had been bungled. At the invitation of the Bosnian Serbs, Carter went to the area in

December to broker a tentative cease-fire. The president was faced with equally thorny choices in

defending U.S. borders from a flood of Cuban and Haitian refugees who took to the Caribbean in virtually anything that would float in order to escape conditions at home. In the case of the Cubans, Clinton at first hesitated and then reversed decades of U.S. policy that embraced such escapees automatically as legitimate seekers of political asylum. Some 30,000 were interned at U.S. bases at Guantanamo Bay and in Panama while the White House negotiated with the regime of Fidel Castro (see BIOGRAPHIES) to stanch the flow, to which the Cuban government had turned a blind eye. The two sides eventually agreed to an increase of 20,000 per year in the quota of Cubans allowed into the U.S. through proper channels. The Haitian tide was harder to stem. Throughout much of the year, the Clinton administration hoped that an effective economic embargo of Haiti would cause the regime of Gen. Raoul Cédras, the Haitian army commander, to accept the

return of ousted Pres. Jean-Bertrand Aristide (see BloGRAPHIES). For his part, Aristide fumed that the U.S. did not object to Cédras’ remaining in control. As thousands of boat people washed up on the coast of Florida, however, the administration came to the view that only military intervention would work. In September the U.S. assembled a fleet of 23 warships and 20,000 troops and set out for Port-au-Prince. Once again a last-minute intercession by Carter proved to be decisive. With U.S. warships in sight, Cédras and his cohorts agreed to allow the troops ashore. The U.S. soldiers quickly took control, ferried the top military leadership into

exile, reinstalled Aristide, and began the longer-term, and

more difficult, task of helping to rebuild the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere from the ground up. (GEORGE RUSSELL) See also Dependent States.

POTLIGHT: The New Caribbean Basin Identity by David Renwick Traditionally, the English-speaking islands in the Caribbean Sea, the Spanish-speaking countries in Central America and northern South America, and the remnants of the Dutch and French empires in the region have gone their separate political and economic ways. In 1994, however, a “Caribbean Basin” approach to hemispheric and international affairs began to emerge. The 13 English-speaking countries had grouped themselves into a Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom) to further their trading and economic interests. The Dutch territories had maintained varying relations with The Netherlands, ranging from internal self-government (the Netherlands Antilles) to full independence (Suriname). The French islands had remained a constitutional part of France. Five Central American nations had formed the Central American Common Market (CACM). Venezuela, Colombia, and Mexico, whose Yucatan Peninsula juts into the Caribbean, had organized themselves into the Group of Three. There was loose cooperation among most of these countries within the Organization of American States (OAS), but no “Caribbean Basin identity” was apparent until recent months. The discovery of such an identity in 1994 served well the interests of the two main groups. For the Spanishspeaking countries, it strengthened their hand in international affairs to have the well-established democracies of the English-speaking part of the region in their camp. For the Caricom territories, the relationship added considerably to the potential regional market for their goods. It created a trading and economic bloc much larger than Caricom itself, at a time when the world was coalescing into such blocs and membership in one was rapidly becoming mandatory. The new Caribbean Basin identity was formalized in Cartagena, Colombia, on July 24 with the signing of an agreement for an Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Caricom (which had taken the initiative in achieving the agreement), the Group of Three, the six Central American countries, the Dominican

Republic,

Suriname,

Haiti, and

Cuba all became part of the ACS. The laying of the groundwork for the agreement included ministerial meetings between Caricom and Central American nations beginning in 1992, special trade and investment agreements with Venezuela and Colombia and one planned with Mexico, and a summit between the Group of Three presidents and Caricom leaders in Port of Spain, Trinidad, in October 1993. The ACS secretariat was located in Port of Spain. This placed a Caricom country at the focal point of the movement and gave the English-speaking states the opportunity to have a major influence within the new bloc. The Caribbean Basin approach achieved by the ACS was timely in light of issues facing the region that required a collective response. They included the threat to Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) privileges posed by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) especially after a fourth state, Chile, was

admitted

in December,

the ever

simmering question of Cuba, and the crisis in Haiti. The CBI, initiated by former U.S. president Ronald Reagan in the wake of the ousting of the Marxist regime in Grenada by U.S. troops in 1983, guaranteed duty-free entry into the U.S. market for such crucial Caribbean Basin exports as garments and textiles. It facilitated a 50% increase in Caribbean exports to the U.S. and helped create thousands of new jobs annually. Although the CBI was extended indefinitely in 1990, Mexico’s entry into NAFTA was seen as posing powerful new competition for CBI products in the

U.S. market. Jamaica was particularly eager to protect its annual $450 million garment trade with the U.S., on which 28,000 local jobs depended. Under pressure from Caribbean Basin countries, the U.S. agreed to an Interim Trade Program (ITP), lasting for three years, during which CBI beneficiaries would continue to enjoy tariff parity with Mexico in the U.S. Mexico’s involvement with the ACS ensured its support for the interim measure. Canada, which had its own free-trading arrangements with Caricom, also supported the ITP. The Cuban question received new impetus with the advent of a Caribbean Basin viewpoint within the hemisphere. The paramount question, of course, was Cuba’s role in the region under vastly changed circumstances. Would Cuba now join in regional initiatives? There were conflicting reports as to whether the U.S. government had attempted to keep Cuba out of the ACS. Caricom’s secretary-general, Edwin Carrington, insisted that it had not and also stated that “Cuba is a Caribbean state and has a full right to membership in Caribbean institutions.” This was not a view with which the U.S. was sympathetic, although most observers believed that a U.S.-Cuban rapprochement was inevitable. Political and public opinion in the Caribbean Basin held to the view that the isolation of Cuba was arelic of “Cold War mentality” and should be abandoned. Many English-speaking Caribbean countries became aware of the Cuban problem at a direct level for the first time during the year. Jamaica, The Bahamas, and the Cayman Islands, for example, were all unwilling hosts to Cuban refugees. The Caricom-Cuba Mixed Commission, set up in 1993, was expected to hold its first formal meeting before the end of 1994 to advance political and economic relations within the framework of the Caribbean Basin system. The Caribbean Basin countries let it be known that while they would continue to press the U.S. to end its embargo of Cuba, they also expected Cuba to “take steps” toward “political liberalization” in the same way that it had tentatively begun to introduce some small market reforms. The other point of divisiveness was Haiti and the U.S. plan to reinstate

democracy,

by force if need be. While

the Caribbean Basin nations disagreed with the U.S. over Cuba and some voiced objections to plans to invade Haiti, they ultimately supported the U.S. position on Haiti and participated in postinvasion peacekeeping and rehabilitation activities. Even the Caribbean Congress of Labour (CCL), traditionally a critic of U.S. government policy in the region, agreed that “the circumstances in Haiti made the use of force legitimate.” Caricom countries sent more than 300 soldiers and scores of policemen to Haiti. The Caricom troops were the first non-U.S. soldiers to arrive. U.S. Secretary of State Warren Christopher praised the

role played by the Caricom countries in helping restore to power Haitian Pres. Jean-Bertrand Aristide. (See BIoGRAPHIES.) Prior to the exodus of Haitian boat people, the English-speaking states within the OAS had been influential in transforming the Haitian crisis from a regional to an international concern by encouraging the UN Security Council to take up the matter. The Caribbean Basin clearly flexed its muscles in 1994.

It remained to be seen how it would apply its newfound collective will in the years to come. David Renwick is editorial director of Daily News Ltd. in

Trinidad and Tobago. 497

*

498

World Affairs: United States

State and Local Affairs The sweeping change wrought by voters in the 1994 midterm elections seemed to be a

stark repudiation of U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton and of the Democratic Party. Voter rejection of Democrats did not stop in Washington, D.C., however,

but filtered down

to give state Republicans their biggest legislative victory in a generation as well as impressive gains in gubernatorial contests. Whether,

as some

pundits

believed,

the

Republicans’ victory presaged the eventual transfer of increased authority from Washington, the states continued in 1994 to be the real innovators in social policy. Party Strengths. The political tidal wave that produced the Republican takeover of the U.S. Congress for the first time in 40 years produced a similar upheaval in the states. Republicans won control of a majority of state legislatures for the first time since

the Eisenhower

landslide

in 1956,

gaining 472 new legislative seats, compared with only 11 for the Democrats. They also captured a majority of the nation’s governorships, with ‘a net gain of 11. In all, Republicans made net gains in 45 of the 46 states holding elections in 1994. Legislative strength changed dramatically. Before the elections Democrats had a 24-8 lead in the control of state legislatures, with 17

others split. After the balloting Republicans controlled both chambers of 19 legislatures and Democrats controlled 18, with

12 others split. (Nebraska had a unicameral, nonpartisan legislature.) In 15 states Republicans controlled both the governorship and the legislature, compared with 7 for the Democrats. In New York arelatively unknown Republican state senator, George Pataki, denied Mario Cuomo’s bid for a fourth term as governor. Cuomo’s opposition to the death penalty and his liberal philosophy benefited the challenger. In California incumbent Republican Goy. Pete Wilson handily defeated State Treasurer Kathleen Brown. In Texas, George W. Bush, son of the former president, rode a wave of anti-

Clinton sentiment to victory against incumbent Ann Richards. Bush’s brother Jeb was unsuccessful

in Florida, where

incumbent

Democrat Lawton Chiles was reelected. Postelection results gave Republicans 25 statehouses to 23 for the Democrats, with

one tied and one independent. Previously, Democrats had controlled 29 statehouses and Republicans 20, with one independent. Government Structures and Powers. In those states where citizens were permit-

ted to put initiatives on

the ballot, they

voted on a record 142 measures in Novem-

ber. Hot topics included taxes, term limits,

gambling, and crime. The most heatedly discussed ballot initiative was California’s Proposition 187, denying public services to illegal immigrants. The measure passed by 59% to 41%, but a federal court issued a restraining order to stop the state from

implementing its provisions. If it survived

court tests of its constitutionality, the measure would deny education, health, and social services to illegal aliens, and it would

require people to report suspected illegals to federal and state authorities. Officials estimated that education, emergency health care, and prison expenses for illegal immi-

grants cost the state more than $2.5 billion a year, and California, as well as Florida

and New York, had sued the federal government for reimbursement for such costs. By aslim margin Oregon voters approved the so-called death with dignity measure. The law gave terminally ill patients the right to get prescriptions for lethal drugs that would enable them to end their lives. Opponents, arguing that the law would encourage suicide for primarily financial reasons, initiated legal action. The issue of term limits was prominent once again in 1994. Measures setting term limits passed in seven of the eight states where they were on the ballot. In Colorado, where the issue started in 1990, voters imposed term limits on local officeholders and toughened limits on members of its con-

gressional delegation. Alaska, Maine, and Oklahoma put limits on federal lawmakers, and Idaho, Massachusetts,

Nebraska,

and

Nevada passed limits on both state and federal officials. Only in Utah did a termlimits measure fail, but the failure might be partly explained by the fact that Utah was the first state in which legislators had passed a law limiting themselves to 12 consecutive years in office. Voters were as tough on criminals as politicians. Georgians approved a “twostrikes” measure mandating life in prison without parole for a second violent felony, which gave that state the toughest sentencing law in the country. Oregon voters passed a measure that would toughen sentences for violent crimes and require state prison inmates to work full-time. Violent felons in Colorado would no longer be able to post bail while awaiting trial, and Ohio voters toughened death penalty appeals. Oklahoma and Wyoming passed constitutional amendments instructing their legislatures to crack down harder on crime. Lawmakers in Oklahoma would be able to set minimum prison terms with no parole for convicted felons. Wyoming voters limited the governor’s power to commute death sentences and gave legislators the authority to create a sentence of life imprisonment without parole. Measures guaranteeing victims’ rights passed in Alaska, Idaho, Maryland, Ohio, and Utah. With voters, animals fared better than ei-

ther politicians or criminals. Arizona eliminated leghold traps, and bears and cougars in Oregon could no longer be hunted with bait or dogs. Florida limited marine net fishing. In other issues, two wineries in Oklahoma got voter approval to use out-ofstate grapes, and in Washington voters gave denture makers the right to sell false teeth directly to the public rather than through a dentist. Finances. For the second consecutive year, once-embattled state governments

breathed alittle easier on finances. The continuing national economic recovery, combined with several years of state tax increases and spending cuts, resulted in a measure of stability not seen since the economic downturn in 1990. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimated that state tax changes would generate a net increase of $3.9 billion in fiscal year 1995, a modest

1.1% more than 1994, Net

increases in 20 states and reductions in 15 others were a misleading measure of tax activity, however. Excluding a huge increase in Michigan, the net tax increase among

the other 49 states was a paltry $800 mil-

lion. Without the extension of some taxes

already in place, moreover, taxpayers would actually have seen their net liability drop by $1.3 billion. . 4 ; Only six states levied significant tax increases. Michigan voters approved a major overhaul of state taxes in a March special election. As a result, local school property taxes were reduced by $4.5 billion, but a statewide property tax was enacted, and the sales tax increased by one-half, from 4% to

6%. The net effect was a $3.1 billion tax increase. Although personal income taxes rose in 12 states and declined in 10, most of the

changes were insignificant. In fact, for the first time in several years, no states increased personal income tax rates. New York, however, postponed a scheduled rate reduction, resulting in a whopping $800 million tax increase. Personal rates were reduced in Arizona, Michigan, New Mexico,

and New Jersey, where the new governor, Christine Todd Whitman, redeemed a cam-

paign pledge by signing a $480 million tax cut. Reductions in New Mexico and Pennsylvania were largely targeted to low-income taxpayers. Business tax activity was minor. Michigan and Pennsylvania reduced rates; Arizona, Minnesota, New York, and Wis-

consin increased net business The vast majority of net came as the result of higher lated taxes. Louisiana raised in revenues by continuing the

tax receipts. tax increases sales and re$410 million suspension of

an exemption for food, utilities, and other

items from the sales tax. Maine increased its sales tax on automobile

rentals, while

Florida lowered the pari-mutuel tax on jai alai gambling by 28%. Oklahoma imposed a 1% entertainment tax (subject to voter approval), and South Dakota increased its video lottery tax. New York and Tennessee increased taxes on health care providers, and Kentucky made its health care tax permanent. Connecticut adopted its first health care provider tax and raised $300 million in revenues by extending its sales tax to medical services. Taxes on cigarettes and tobacco products continued

to rise, although not as drasti-

cally as in previous years. Only three states increased cigarette taxes, compared with 16 in 1993. The largest tax hikes were in Michigan, which imposed a new 16% tax on the wholesale price of tobacco products and tripled the cigarette tax from 25 to 75 cents per pack. Oregon, on the other hand, reduced the cigarette tax by 26%. The downward trend in state taxation was expected to accelerate with the continuation of the taxpayers’ revolt nationwide. Efforts to limit the power of state legislatures to raise taxes by such means as requiring a mandatory referendum on any tax hike or demanding a supermajority vote for taxincrease bills were growing in popularity. Education. Changes in school financing continued in 1994. Although property taxes had traditionally been the mainstay of public-school financing, during the year more than two dozen states faced court challenges because of the inequities between wealthy districts and poor ones. In New York state, for example, the richest district spent almost $46,000 per student, while in

New York City, the average was $6,644 per student. Michigan voters approved a constitutional amendment to replace property taxes as the method of financing school systems, choosing instead to raise the state

World Affairs: United States

sales tax and taxes on cigarettes. Although lawmakers in Colorado, Vermont, and Wisconsin advanced similar plans, no legislation was passed in 1994. Education funding, which had been par-

ticularly hard hit in the preceding few years, showed signs of improvement in 1994. With the exception of California, state governments generally increased their funding by about 5%. The extra money came at a time when schools had seen an influx of Asian and Latin-American immigrants, resulting in eight consecutive years of enrollment increases. Texas enrolled more than 100,000 new public-school students in the early 1990s, and New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North

Carolina, and Tennessee also had large numbers of new students. Total enrollment in public schools reached 42,550,000.

Declaring that in some school districts “the wrong combination of clothes can get you killed,” California passed a bill giving public schools the authority to require students to wear uniforms.

The new

law,

which came into force as a result of a pe-

tition drive started by an eighth grader, allowed all decisions about uniforms or dress codes to be made by local school officials and made provisions for those families who could not afford uniforms. Health and Welfare. While the federal government’s attempts to reform health care and welfare fell apart, the states con-

tinued their role as the real innovators in these areas. Many governors and state legislators, who viewed themselves as being on the front lines, had never really counted on Washington to solve their problems. With Washington’s failure, however, the impetus to develop policy at the state level grew even more urgent.

Oregon began a five-year experiment extending Medicaid to 91,000 people who were not eligible for other medical programs; two-thirds were families with children. Tennessee’s new plan, known as TennCare, included people with chronic illnesses, 803,000 former Medicaid

recipi-

ents, and 335,000 people with no health insurance. The federal government gave permission for Florida to conduct a Medicaid experiment that officials hoped would provide coverage for 1.1 million uninsured Floridians. At least a dozen other states

in lieu of food stamps and would be expected to work for private employers for up to nine months at the minimum wage. Employers were to be reimbursed by the state with money that previously had been distributed as welfare benefits. Jobs Plus participants who had not been

hired after six months got one day a week to look for an unsubsidized job. If after nine months they were still not employed, they would be offered another governmentfunded job. In addition, a $1-per-hour educational fund was to be established for every worker to be used for community college classes or job training. Jobs Plus required employers to develop training programs and allowed welfare recipients to work without losing their health and child care benefits. Benefits would be reduced for anyone failing to participate or dropping out of the program. Los Angeles county became the first place in the nation to require fingerprint checks for parents applying for welfare for their children. More than 850,000 people in the AFDC program would be affected. State officials estimated that first-year savings in Los Angeles county alone would be $4.2 million. If the program proved successful in combating welfare fraud, it would be implemented statewide, where savings could be as much as $750 million. Laws and Justice. With crime the number one issue on voters’ minds, punishment took top priority in many states. In just one year after voters in Washington state

approved

the Persistent

Offender

Act—

commonly known as Three Strikes You’re Out—about half of all the states had introduced similar legislation. Thirteen states— California, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, Vir-

ginia, and Wisconsin—passed new “threestrikes” laws. In addition,

seven

others—

Alaska, Illinois, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Vermont—had

legislation pending.

Although the basic premise was the same, there were variations in sentencing, prison

terms, and the number and types of crimes to which the laws applied. Connecticut, Kansas, and Maryland, for example, permitted judicial discretion; elsewhere, courts were required to impose mandatory sentences as defined by statute. In Maryland and Virginia, prisoners 65 and older who had served a certain number of years were eligible for a “release mechanism.” California, New Mexico, and Colorado offered

parole eligibility after 25, 30, and 40 years, respectively, but other states had no provision for parole. The perception that juvenile crime was not only on the rise but also more violent led to legislative action in several states. A Florida law created the Department of Juvenile Justice, as well as a basic-train-

ing program for youthful offenders in the Department of Corrections, including postrelease plans and a recidivism-tracking system. North Carolina created a boot-campstyle program for 16- to 25-year-olds. A new Washington law established the Learning and Life Skills Program for juvenile

offenders. Lawmakers

also showed a heightened awareness of and sensitivity to domestic violence, with several states increasing penalties for abusers. New York enacted the omnibus Family Protection and Domestic Violence Act, and Maryland passed three new domestic-violence laws. Colorado

passed five domestic-violence bills, including one that mandated arrest for the violation of a restraining order and jail time for a second offense. Virginia passed a ‘number of laws with stiffer penalties for domestic violence, while Michigan had 14 new laws that would help in prevention and prosecution. Gun-control measures on the ballot in several cities failed to pass, but Alaskans voted to amend their constitution to -allow citizens to bear arms,

and Tennessee

became the 18th state to permit adults to carry concealed handguns. Georgia and Utah joined at least 13 other states in making car jacking a crime. The death penalty was reinstated in Kansas as a possible sen-

LILIANA NIETO DELRIO—JB PICTURES a a ea

applied or had plans to apply for federal waivers of Medicaid law, enabling them to develop their own reforms. With a record 15 million people on assistance, the eagerness with which states ap-

plied for federal waivers to deal with welfare reform was, if anything, even more intense. In all, more than 30 states had requested waivers, but plans for reform differed drastically. Oklahoma, for example, began a three-year pilot program to make children and teenage parents enrolled in the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program stay in school or have their benefits reduced. The state’s Learnfare program followed several other state experiments to make welfare recipients stay in school or be properly immunized in order to keep their benefits. Oregon received a federal waiver and launched a pilot welfare-reform program called Jobs Plus, designed to help welfare recipients work for their benefits. One thousand families in six counties would be affected. Participants were to receive cash

499

Mexicans hoping to enter the United States wait at a fence along the border for the chance to cross over. Voters in California, home to more illegal immigrants than any other U.S. state, approved a resolution to deny public services to anyone found not to be a legal resident.

500

World Affairs: United States

tence for anyone 18 or older convicted of capital murder. Ethics. Judge Rolf Larsen became the first state Supreme Court justice ever to be impeached in Pennsylvania. By a two-thirds vote, the Senate also barred Larsen from holding public office again. One charge to which Larsen admitted was a scheme to have tranquilizers prescribed in the names of Supreme Court employees in an effort to conceal his own battle with depression. The judge said that he feared disclosure of his illness would destroy his career. The former director of the Michigan House Fiscal Agency was convicted in both state and federal courts of embezzlement,

conspiracy, racketeering, and tax evasion. John Morberg was sentenced to 612 years in federal prison and 6-10 years in state prison. The federal court judge ordered Morberg to repay the state $406,200, but two days later a county judge ordered him

to pay $834,000, saying, “You

The results of a November 1993 state Senate election in Pennsylvania were invalidated by a federal court judge in February when evidence of vote fraud was uncovered. The court found that campaign workers for Democrat William G. Stinson had stolen the election from Bruce Marks by engaging in “massive absentee ballot fraud, deception, intimidation, harassment and forgery”

in Philadelphia’s 2nd Senatorial District. Stinson himself was later acquitted of election-law violations, despite his testimony that he had helped unlock voting machines and opened sealed absentee ballots. Pennsylvania’s state Senate reverted to Republican control when Stinson was stripped of his seat. Prisons. Total state appropriations for corrections grew 9.7% in fiscal year 1994, the biggest percentage increase in any spending category. In the decade from 1982, state corrections budgets went from

onment drew increased scrutiny. An aging prison population guaranteed higher health costs, for example, and in Connecticut part

of the double-digit increase in the 1994 corrections budget went to pay for more health care facilities. Overcrowding also continued to plague the penal system. The U.S. Department of Justice reported that the average state-prison population exceeded institutional capacity by at least 18%. Not content with longer, harsher sentences, politicians in at least nine states found additional ways to placate citizens’ rage. In Wisconsin the governor ordered an end to prisoners’ use of free weights and to their access to tennis. California gave prison officials the authority to bar inmates from receiving what were considered obscene publications, and Florida, Louisiana, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, and South

Carolina proposed various measures banning amenities such as network television,

have de-

$6 billion to $20 billion. As mandatory

cable television, basketball, weight rooms,

stroyed something money cannot replace— public trust in government.”

sentencing laws got tougher, the financial implications of lengthy or lifetime impris-

boxing, and wrestling. By far the worst place to get locked up was Mississippi, where Republican Gov. Kirk Fordice expressed the desire to make his state “the capital of capital punishment.” In a special legislative session called to address prison overcrowding, debate centred on such punitive measures as caning. A law banning private television sets, radios, tape or compact disc players, computers, and weight-lifting equipment was passed. In a move reminiscent of the days of chain gangs, prisoners also were to be dressed in striped uniforms with the word “convict” written on the back. Gambling. Gambling initiatives were on more state ballots than any other issue in 1994, but their luck in winning passage was mixed. Florida voters rejected the Proposition for Limited Casinos; off-track betting lost in Minnesota; and various other pro-

STEVE BERMAN—GAMNA LIAISON

posals were

rejected

in Colorado,

Rhode

Island, and Wyoming. In South Dakota voters revived the state’s video lottery, which had been ruled illegal by the state Supreme Court. Missouri approved the use of slot machines on riverboat casinos, and New Mexico approved a state lottery and video gambling. State legislators in Connecticut overrode the governor’s veto and gave themselves the final authority on gambling contracts between the state and Connecticut’s Indian tribes. Equal Rights. Ten states attempted to put antigay initiatives on their ballots during 1994. Most proposals were based on the measure that had passed two years earlier in Colorado prohibiting antidiscrimination laws protecting gays and lesbians, a measure that was subsequently declared unconstitutional. Only in Idaho and Oregon did the petition drives succeed. Backers in Arizona,

“Sack Gay and lesbian marchers carry a mile-long “unity” flag through the streets of Manhattan in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the Stonewall uprising. The 1969 Ne ri ede . w York ity

was seen by many as the beginning of the modern gay and lesbian rights movbinent 5a

Maine,

Missouri,

Nevada,

Ohio,

and Washington did not get the required number of signatures. In Florida the ballot language was ruled invalid, and in Michigan backers were forced to abandon their effort when it was determined that the measure contained the same language that had been declared unconstitutional in Colorado. In Idaho and Oregon voters rejected measures that would have restricted civil rights protection for homosexuals. Vermont became the first state to offer health insurance to domestic partners of state workers without regard to whether they were heterosexual or homosexual. (MELANIE ANNE COOPER)

World Affairs: Vanuatu

URUGUAY A republic of eastern South America, Uruguay lies on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 176,215 sq km (68,037 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 3,168,000. Cap.: Montevideo. Monetary unit: peso uruguayo, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of Ur$5.61 to U.S. $1 (Ur$8.92 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Luis Alberto Lacalle.

The lack of a stable alliance with other parties continued to plague the outgoing administration of Pres. Luis Alberto Lacalle and his National (Blanco) Party in 1994, and little progress was made with economic reforms. In February the government faced a motion of censure against its industrial policies from opposition members in the Senate. The practice of delaying currency devaluation behind the rise in the rate of inflation was particularly criticized; it was deemed responsible for a doubling of the trade deficit to $590 million in 1993 and for a nearly 9% decline in manufacturing output. Manufacturing activity continued to decline in 1994, and by November unemployment reached 9.9%, compared with a level of 7.4% in 1993. Fears that the impending implementation of Mercosur (the Southern Cone Common Market) would have a negative impact on Uruguay’s economy prompted the national Chamber of Commerce and opposition parties to call for a pause in the implementation process in order to allow Uruguay a further five-year adjustment period. Their pleas were unsuccessful, but Uruguayan negotiators did manage to secure some minor concessions from Argentina and Brazil on bilateral trade agreements. On August 28 the government called for, and lost, a national referendum on constitutional reform. A key proposal would have allowed voters to choose a multiparty slate when electing the president and congressional, municipal, and local legislators. The opposition centre-right Colorado Party and its leading candidate, Julio Maria Sanguinetti Cairolo, won congressional and presidential elections held on November 27 by an exceptionally narrow margin. The Colorados gained 32.2% of the vote, compared with 31.4% for the Blancos and 30.8% for the left-wing Progressive Encounter (EP). Uruguay’s three-way political split was emphasized by the fact that the EP’s presidential candidate, Tabaré Vazquez of the leftist Broad Front, retained the key position of mayor of Montevideo for a second consecutive term. Sanguinetti,

who had been president in 1985-90, was due to take office (JANET KRENGEL) in March 1995. UZBEKISTAN A republic of Central Asia, Uzbekistan borders the Aral Sea

to the north, Kazakhstan to the north and west, Turkmenistan

to the southwest, Afghanistan to the south, and Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to the east. Area: 447,400 sq km (172,700 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 22,382,000. Cap.: Tashkent (Uzbek: Toshkent). Monetary unit: sum (introduced July 1, 1994, to replace the sum-coupon at a rate of 1 sum to 1,000 sum-coupons; the sumcoupon had been introduced as an interim currency in November 1993 to replace the Russian ruble), with (Oct. 3, 1994) a free rate of 16 sumy to U.S. $1 (25.45 sumy = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Islam Karimov; prime minister, Abdulhashim Mutalov.

ee ee eee Se ke e e oo S .

In late January 1994 Pres. Islam Karimov launched privatization with a decree authorizing auctions of small shops and service enterprises. Price increases of up to 300% for basic goods and energy were announced in May, together with wage and pension increases. The Uzbek authorities appeared to be trying to avoid provoking the kind of popular discontent and disturbances that had accompanied the first postindependence price rises in 1992. In July the country’s

501

new currency, the sum, went into circulation. It was later de-

clared Uzbekistan’s sole legal tender, effective October 15. In April, Chinese Premier Li Peng (Li P’eng) discussed an exchange of Chinese consumer goods for Uzbek cotton and natural resources, but he complained that none of the existing Uzbek-Chinese joint ventures was succeeding be' cause a Soviet-era bureaucracy still prevailed in Uzbekistan and its currency was weak. Karimov heard similar criticism in Japan. Repression of the Uzbek democratic opposition continued throughout 1994. In May opposition leaders were arrested, and the National Security Committee attempted to kidnap five exiled oppositionists while they attended a human rights conference in Kazakhstan. In late June two members of the banned democratic opposition Erk (Freedom) Party were reported to have been seized in Almaty, Kazakhstan, by Uzbek law-enforcement officials and taken to Tashkent; in October six Erk activists were put on trial-on charges of antigovernment activity. All genuine opposition groups were excluded from the parliamentary election on December 25; only Karimov’s People’s Democratic Party (PDP), formerly the Communist Party, and the National Progress Party, a grouping of government officials and intellectuals set up with Karimov’s blessing, were permitted to nominate candidates. In the first round of voting, the PDP and its supporters took 205 of the 250 seats. Uzbekistan continued to support the neocommunist regime in Tajikistan and was accused by Afghan officials of interfering in Afghanistan’s internal affairs through active support of Uzbek Gen. “Abd ar-Rashid Dostam, who was fighting the forces of Pres. Burhanuddin Rabbani. Although Uzbek authorities denied the charges, foreign journalists in northern Afghanistan confirmed the report. In January the leaders of the Central Asian states met in Nukus, the capital of Karakalpakstan, to set up a fiveyear program to improve the environmental situation in the Aral Sea basin. Foreign experts were concerned. that Uzbekistan’s leaders were interested only in limiting the ecological damage resulting from the dessication of the sea. Uzbekistan needed the cotton grown with water from the Aral feeder rivers, however, and only a drastic reduction in

irrigation could restore the sea. This article updates the Macropcedia Uzbekistan.

(BESS BROWN) article CENTRAL

ASIA:

VANUATU The republic of Vanuatu, a member of the Commonwealth,

comprises 12 main islands and some 60 smaller ones in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area: 12,190 sq km (4,707 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 164,000. Cap.: Vila. Monetary unit: vatu, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 113.50 vatu to U.S. $1 (180.52 vatu = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1994, Fred Timakata, Alfred

Masseng (acting) from January 31, and, from March 2, JeanMarie Leye; prime minister, Maxime Carlot Korman.

Political instability remained throughout 1994, with difficulties within and between the government coalition partners—Prime Minister Maxime Carlot Korman’s Union of Moderate Parties (UMP) and former prime minister Walter Lini’s National United Party. When Lini withdrew from the coalition in April, three of his ministers remained and were expelled from the party. Led by Sethy Regenvanu, they formed the People’s Democratic Party and joined in a new governing coalition with Carlot Korman. In February an electoral college composed of 46 members of Parliament and 10 presidents of local government bodies failed on two occasions to elect a new president with the required two-thirds majority. On a third attempt, in March,

502

World Affairs: Vatican City State

Jean-Marie Leye, Carlot Korman’s nominee and a former vice president of the UMP, was elected. In its 1994 budget the government announced a 5% increase in public service salaries and at the same time determined that more than 200 public service jobs would be eliminated. The number of public service workers had increased from 3,300 in 1985 to 4,800 in 1993. Government

revenue for 1994 was estimated at 5,354,000,000 vatu, with

the growth of gross domestic product projected at 2%. (BARRIE MACDONALD) This article updates the Macropeedia article PACIFIC ISLANDS: Vanuatu.

VATICAN CITY STATE The independent sovereignty of Vatican City State is surrounded

by but is not part of Rome. As a state with territorial limits, it is properly distinguished from the Holy See, which constitutes the worldwide administrative and legislative body for the Roman Catholic Church. Area: 44 ha (109 ac). Pop. (1994 est.): 1,000. As sovereign pontiff, John Paul II is the chief of state. Vatican City is administered by a pontifical commission of five cardinals headed by the secretary of state, in 1994 Angelo Cardinal Sodano.

The intense round of activities required by international and domestic commitments placed heavy demands on the chief of state, Pope John Paul II, in 1994, especially after a

fall in April incapacitated the pontiff for some weeks. The Holy See reported that the previous financial year had closed with an income surplus, reversing the previous negative trend. This welcome achievement was attained in spite of continued expenditures of well over $1 million to aid the victims of human violence and natural disasters. In January the pope received the mayor of Rome to discuss the Jubilee scheduled for the year 2000. Later he met with the provincial authorities of Rome and urged that they devote more attention to the housing needs of the urban poor. Farther afield, the Vatican City State continued its determined participation in world events, forging historic diplomatic ties with Israel, Jordan, and the Palestine

Liberation Organization. The pontiff also received many international visitors, including Czech Pres. Vaclav Havel and U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton. The pope’s only visit out of Italy during the year was a first-ever journey to Croatia for the Zagreb diocese’s 900th anniversary; during the stay he addressed a crowd of almost a million and prayed for peace in the Balkans. (GREGORY O. SMITH) See also RELIGION: Roman Catholic Church. This article updates the Micropedia article VATICAN CIty.

VENEZUELA ee eeeFae eat ee A republic of northern South America, Venezuela lies on the Caribbean Sea. Area: 912,050. sq km (352,144 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 21,177,000. Cap.: Caracas. Monetary unit: bolivar, with

(Oct. 7, 1994) a fixed rate of 170 bolivares to U.S. $1 (270.38 bo-

livares = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1994, Ramoén José Velasquez (interim) and, from February 2, Rafael Caldera.

Pres. Rafael Caldera’s first months in office were beset by

serious economic problems. Even before he took office, in

February 1994, the outlines of difficulties ahead were apparent, first with the imposition by the previous president, Ramon José Velasquez, of price controls on basic items and then with the collapse of Venezuela’s second largest commercial bank, Banco Latino. A crisis in the financial

community followed when many depositors made substantial withdrawals. By June it was apparent, that government financial assistance was being misused; one finance house and seven banks were closed before the government took

effective control of the entire system by decree. Eight additional institutions were given temporary assistance in August. At the root of the financial problems was the central bank’s policy of high interest rates, which had caused the banks to suffer from a shortage of liquidity. In order to reduce borrowing costs, and thus help cut inflation, the government lowered interest rates. This forced the resignation of the central bank president, Ruth de Krivoy, who maintained that high interest rates prevented capital flight and that government intervention compromised the bank’s independence. i Unfortunately for Caldera, the efforts to solve the economic crisis postponed the plans that had won him the 1993 elections. His aim was to improve employment and living standards, but by midyear some austerity measures had to be introduced. Of chief concern was a rapid decline in the value of the bolivar against the dollar. From a rate of 106 bolivares to $1 at the end of 1993, it fell to 155 to $1 by the end of May. By June 23 the bolivar had fallen to 200 to the dollar. All foreign exchange trading was then suspended, to be partially restored in mid-July, when a new fixed exchange rate of 170 bolivares = $1 was set. Exports and imports were severely disrupted, threatening the chances for economic recovery. To ease the budget deficit, new taxes on luxuries, wholesale trading, and debt transactions at banks were announced in April, along with a higher ceiling on income taxes for corporations and individuals. In September an economic recovery program for 1995 proposed a further increase in taxes and the raising of gasoline prices in order to convert the budget deficit from an estimated 3.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1994 to a surplus in 1995 (not including the huge drain on finances to support the banking sector). GDP was forecast to grow by 0.5% in 1995, compared with a 3.3% decline in 1994, while the rate of inflation would be

cut from 65% in 1994 to 25%. In February Caldera assumed emergency powers in order to abolish the value-added tax. Congressional opposition was

short-lived,

and

the administration

was

granted

a month to draw up new tax measures. In June Caldera suspended constitutional guarantees concerning the seizure of assets and the possession and trading of property; he also imposed restrictions on foreign travel. In the face of strikes and demonstrations, the right to free assembly and immunity from arbitrary arrest were also suspended. The congress voted to restore all these rights on July 21, but Caldera reimposed them the next day to prevent capital flight and speculation in essential goods. He also offered

to hold a national referendum on his actions, which the congress declined. On the other hand, the president’s action

did not inspire confidence in those foreign investors who would have preferred to enter a less controlled market. In this regard the failure to obtain a single offer to buy the Aeropostal airline prompted a Cabinet reshuffle, with a new head of the privatization program. In March Caldera released from prison Hugo Chavez Frias, who

had led the military rebellion

against former

president Carlos Andrés Pérez in February 1992. Chavez expressed his support for Caldera without actually joining his coalition. Both shared the opinion that economic deprivation was behind political unrest, but it was open to question how long Chavez and his military supporters would refrain from intervention should the austerity that Caldera was forced to impose continue for a prolonged period. In May, Pérez, who had been removed from office in 1993, was arrested and imprisoned on charges of embezzlement and misuse of public funds in 1989. Formal hearings into the case began in November. (BEN BOX)

World Affairs: Western Samoa

VIETNAM The socialist republic of Vietnam occupies the eastern part of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia and is bounded on the south and east by the South China Sea. Area: 331,041 sq km (127,816 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 72,342,000. Cap.: Hanoi. Monetary unit: dong, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 11,053 dong to U.S. $1 (17,581 dong = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Le Duc Anh; prime minister, Vo Van Kiet.

Two of Vietnam’s major policies seemed in conflict in 1994. One was its push to reform and open up the economy, especially after the U.S. lifted its trade embargo in February. The other was the Communist Party’s refusal to liberalize politics—a position it reiterated at conferences in January and July. Officials had long feared that ending the embargo would increase contacts with Westerners and returning émigrés. Even so, in August Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet urged officials to learn foreign languages, preferably English, because “in coming years contacts with foreigners will become more and more necessary and popular.” In January Do Muoi, general secretary of the Communist Party, stressed the importance of economic reforms and continued opposition to political pluralism. He warned of “hostile forces” advocating democracy and encouraged efforts to combat corruption and improve social services— two problems that could undermine popular support for the party. Only one of the four new members promoted to the Politburo had any reform experience. Nguyen Ha Phan, director of the party’s economic commission and vice-chairman of the National Assembly, was viewed as a possible successor to Vo Van Kiet. Although he came from the enterprising south, he was not seen as an advocate of reform.

503

embargo. Over 40 U.S. firms had set up local offices by mid-1994, many of which had earlier worked out deals for implementation as soon as the embargo ended. In March the U.S. Agency for International Development set up an orphanage andatraining centre for disadvantaged children in Dalat. In April came the first postembargo shipment of Vietnamese rice to the U.S., and in May came the first U.S. commercial loan—Bank of America’s $5 million share in a $100 million Thai-led syndication. There was no sudden surge in trade, however. Because the U.S. had not yet granted most-favoured-nation status to Vietnam, it was limiting big-ticket imports. Hanoi took steps to remedy social ills and lessen its dependence on other nations. In February it jailed a corrupt former minister of energy. Later in the year Vo Van Kiet, who had called for tougher graft penalties in 1993, sacked two top officials in Ba Ria-Vung Tau. In July the government threatened civil servants with substantial fines and possible loss of jobs for gambling, drunkenness, or prostitution. An official report in October said corruption was rampant, but smuggling and tax evasion were also commonplace. In August regulations to curb the widespread use of U.S. dollars were announced, but many establishments ignored them. That same month party chief Do Muoi warned against excessive reliance on foreign capital. Eight years after Vietnam had launched doi moi (economic renewal), it appeared to be repeating the progress China had experienced after adopting reforms in 1978. Overseas investment and a new north-south power line helped fuel Vietnam’s overall economic expansion of 8.5%. The increase was 13% in industry and 20% in exports, but agriculture, which supported 80% of the population, grew only 3-4%. Some 90% of the poor, however, lived in rural

the

areas, and two-thirds of the affluent resided in cities. For

first companies to act when the United States ended its

Do Muoi the key was to promote rural industry and ally “peasantry and intelligentsia.” Two things helped: an inflation rate of less than 10% and a budget deficit down to 7% of the gross national product. Only food prices rose by double digits, and that increase was helpful to farmers. In June Do Muoi confirmed that Vietnam was prepared to establish full diplomatic relations with the U.S.—but not with human rights conditions. In the following month, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Winston Lord expressed appreciation in Hanoi for its cooperation in helping to determine the fate of U.S. military personnel still officially

PepsiCo,

Inc., and American

Express were

among

GREG GIRARD—CONTACT PRESS IMAGES

A Vietnamese salesperson stands amid cartons of imported U.S. soft drinks. When the U.S. government lifted its trade embargo in February, U.S. companies immediately entered Vietnam in an attempt to compete with Asian and European firms in the country’s potentially huge market.

listed as missing in action. The prime ministers of Japan,

South Korea, and Canada subsequently visited Hanoi. Late in the year Vietnam formally applied for membership in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, with acceptance expected in 1995. China, which had fought a brief war with Vietnam in 1979, improved ties between the two countries in November with the visit of Pres. Jiang Zemin (Chiang Tse-min). (RICARDO L. SALUDO) This article updates the Macropeedia article SOUTHEAST ASIA: Vietnam.

WESTERN SAMOA A constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Western Samoa occupies an island group in the South Pacific Ocean. Area: 2,831 sq km (1,093 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 164,000. Cap.: Apia. Monetary unit: Western Samoa tala, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2.54 tala to U.S. $1 (4.04 tala = £1

sterling). Head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) in 1994, Malietoa Tanumafili II; prime minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana.

Throughout 1994 the government of Prime Minister Tofilau Eti Alesana faced resistance to the value-added goods and service tax introduced at the beginning of the year.

504

World Affairs: Yemen

Following public demonstrations in March, the government announced that as a compensatory measure it would eliminate import duties from a range of food items and drugs and reduce duties on other items by two-thirds. Despite this concession, public opposition continued. Resistance to the new taxes was heightened by difficult economic conditions. Despite a partial recovery of agricultural exports after Cyclones Ofa (1991) and Val (1992), exports in 1993 totaled only half those of 1988. Exports of coconut products fell especially sharply, from 19 million tala in 1988 to 3.4 million tala in 1993. Exports of taro, the

other major agricultural export, were reduced bya blight that could be eliminated only by the forgoing of an entire growing season. The export value of car parts assembled from imported components had increased in recent years, but even so, exports in 1994 were expected to pay for only 4% of imports (down from 20% in 1988). The deficit was covered by foreign aid and by remittances from Western (BARRIE MACDONALD) Samoans working overseas. This article updates the Macropedia article PACIFIC ISLANDS: Western Samoa.

YEMEN A republic of the southwestern Arabian Peninsula, Yemen has coastlines on the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian

Sea. Area: 531,869 sq km (205,356 sq mi), including 59,770 sq km of undemarcated area bordered by Saudi Arabia claimed by the former Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen). Pop. (1994 est.): 12,961,000. Cap.: San‘a’. Monetary unit: Yemen rial, with

(Oct. 7, 1994) a par value of 12.01 rials to U.S. $1 (free rate of

19.10 rials = £1 sterling); a truer value of the rial was on the black market, where in October about 84 rials = U.S. $1 (about 134 rials = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Gen. Ali Abdallah

and moral support. On June 1 the UN, at the prompting of several Gulf states, adopted a resolution condemning the northern authorities and calling for an immediate cease-fire. Despite southern forces’ acquisition of MiG-29s from Moldova,

northern forces drove the rebels back to their

stronghold in Aden. With the oil fields at Masila in northern hands, on July 7 the cities of Aden and Mukallah surrendered. The leaders of the putative secessionist state had fled into exile in Saudi Arabia and Oman. Jifri vowed to fight on, but Baidh was said to have “retired from politics.” Northern leaders moved to heal the wounds of the civil war, which resulted in some

5,000 dead. On July 13 the

council of ministers started a 10-day session, which adopted a reconciliation plan offering a general amnesty, compensation for losses, and a pledge to restore democracy and safeguard political pluralism. In a gesture to the south, the government proclaimed Aden the nation’s economic capital. Subsequent talks between Planning and Development Minister ‘Abd al-Karim al-Iryani and Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, prime minister of the rebel state, held in Geneva under UN auspices, failed to make progress. In Cabinet changes announced in September, members of the YSP were dropped from the government. The Islamic fundamentalist party al-Islah gained six new seats in the Cabinet in what was seen as a sign of growing Islamic influence in the north. During a special session of the 301-seat Council of Representatives on September 28, all 235 delegates present approved a new constitution that abolished the presidential council and stipulated that the Shari‘ah would henceforth be the source of all legislation in Yemen. Al-Islah was given credit for the change. (JOHN WHELAN) This article updates the Macropeedia article ARABIA: Yemen.

Salih; prime ministers, Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, Muhammad

Said al-Attar (acting) from May 9, and, from October 6, ‘Abd alAziz al-Ghani.

Civil war erupted in Yemen on May 5, 1994, after weeks of skirmishes between troops from the south and the north. Southern secessionists, headed by Ali Salim al-Baidh of the

YUGOSLAVIA A federal republic comprising the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, Yugoslavia borders Hungary to the north, Romania to the northeast, Bulgaria to the southeast, Macedonia and Albania to the south, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, and Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west. Area: 102,173 sq km

Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP) and ‘Abd ar-Rahman al-Jifri of the Sons of Yemen League, proclaimed the breakaway Democratic Republic of Yemen on May 21 and appealed to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf states for diplomatic

(39,449 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 10,515,000. Cap.: Belgrade. Monetary unit: new dinar (second) or “super dinar,” with (Sept. 26, 1994) a par value (from January 24) equal to the Deutsche Mark (free rates of 1.56 new dinars [second] = U.S. $1 and 2.47 new dinars [second] = £1 sterling); hyperinflation caused major ongoing devaluations in 1993, but inflation was close to zero

CHRISTOPHER MORRIS—BLACK STAR

a 1994. President in 1994, Zoran Lilic; prime minister, Radoje

ontic.

Slobodan

Milosevic,

the president

of Serbia

since

1989,

strengthened his grip on power in Yugoslavia in 1994. Internationally, Milosevic, for so long condemned as a warmonger and even a war criminal, completed his truly breathtaking metamorphosis, begun in 1993, into a champion of peace in former Yugoslavia. Although Milosevic’s Socialist (former Communist) Party of Serbia had secured only 123 seats in the country’s 250-seat single-chamber assembly in the December

Northern Yemeni troops advance on Aden, the stronghold of the opposing southern forces. Bitter fighting broke out during the year

between northern groups, led by Pres. Ali Abdullah Salih, and those of the south, led by his former vice president, Ali Salim al-Baidh.

1993 election, it

managed to attract to its side eight opposition deputies. After lengthy negotiations, on March 15 the Socialists formed a government with Mirko Marjanovic, a Socialist deputy, as prime minister. The Socialists came under strong attack from their erstwhile ally, Vojislav Seselj, a Bosnian Serb and leader of the ultranationalist Serbian Radical Party. Following a fight with another deputy in the Belgrade assembly, Seselj was deprived of his parliamentary immunity, arrested, and charged with defaming the president of Serbia and incitement to disorder and unrest. Several trials of Serbs charged with having committed atrocities while serving with Serb paramilitary units (in-

World Affairs: Zaire

cluding Seselj’s) in Croatia in 1991 and Bosnia in 1992-93 were held as part of Milosevic’s policy of distancing himself from those wars. This implied no relaxation of government control over the mass media. Purges were carried out in both state-controlled television and the Politika newspaper and magazine publishing house. Belgrade continued to keep a firm grip on Kosovo, the former autonomous province with an Albanian majority, reannexed to Serbia in 1989. In Sandzak, a Muslim-majority region in Serbia contiguous to Bosnia, 24 local members of the mainly Muslim Party of Democratic Action were sentenced on October 13 to jail terms of up to six years for “plotting to violate the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia.” Milosevic also succeeded in maintaining indirect political control over the Serbs in the occupied territories in Croatia and obtained the reelection of his man, Milan Martic, as

president in January. Milosevic was, however, less successful in imposing his will on Radovan Karadzic, leader of the socalled Serbian Republic in Bosnia. Milosevic repeatedly appealed in July to Karadzic and his army commander, Gen. Ratko Mladic, to accept the plan for Bosnia prepared by the “contact group” (Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and the U.S.) that offered 49% of the republic’s territory to the Serbs and 51% to the Muslim-Croat federation. Karadzic’s rejection of the plan led to the imposition by Serbia on August 4 of an embargo on deliveries to Bosnian Serbs of all but essential medical and humanitarian supplies. Serbia’s media links with the Bosnian Serbs were also cut. On September 24 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 943, partially lifting for a period of 100 days sanctions originally imposed on Yugoslavia by the UN Security Council in May 1992 for its role in the war against Bosnia. This diplomatic success for Milosevic helped increase his popularity at home. His stock had already risen after the introduction on January 24 of the economic plan prepared by Dragoslav Avramovic, a former official of the International Monetary Fund. The plan introduced a high degree of financial and fiscal responsibility and tempered Serbia’s hyperinflation, which had reached an annual percentage rate of 313 million by January 1994. The “super dinar” (unofficially called “avram”) pegged to the Deutsche Mark became Yugoslavia’s new currency. Yugoslavia’s relations with Hungary improved following a visit to Belgrade in January by Geza Jeszenszky, Hungary’s foreign minister. The slow thaw in the relations with Croatia continued with the establishment of diplomatic missions in Zagreb and Belgrade. Following elections on December 19, the Socialist Party of Serbia was three seats short of a majority in the parliament. Ethnic Hungarians, however, hesitated to join the government, fearing that their participation in a coalition would weaken their demand for autonomy in the (K.F. CVIIC) province of Vojvodina. This article updates the Macropeedia article BALKAN STATES: Yugoslavia.

ZAIRE The republic of Zaire is located in central Africa with a short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,345,095 sq km (905,446

sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 43,775,000 (excluding 1.5 million to

announced

505

that the National Assembly, which he himself

had created, and the High Council of the Republic (HCR), the brainchild of the former national sovereign conference, would be reconstituted as a single body, the High Council of the Republic—Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT), and that the new body would choose either his own candidate, Mulumba Lukoji, or Etienne Tshisekedi, leader of one of the

Opposition parties, as prime minister. Tshisekedi opposed the announcement on two counts. The president, he said, had no authority to disband the HCR, and he himself was

already prime minister, having been legally elected to that office by the national conference in August 1992. On the first count Tshisekedi had the backing of other opposition parties, and when he summoned an all-out one-day strike in Kinshasa for January 19, his call met with an almost total response. Nevertheless, the HCR-PT met the same week and appointed Msgr. Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya, the former chairman of the HCR, as its president. After prolonged discussion a new Transitional Constitutional Act was endorsed on April 8 and was promulgated by Mobutu the following day. The act stated that the period of transition to a democracy should not exceed 15 months. During that time a constitutional referendum as well as presidential and legislative

elections

would

take place, and the HCR-PT

rather than the president would have control of the armed forces and the central bank. The HCR-PT also decided to call on all parties to submit the names of candidates for the office of prime minister. This latter proposal caused a split among the opposition groups constituting the Sacred Union coalition because Tshisekedi and his Union for Democracy and Social Progress were angered when other parties proposed their own candidates in opposition to him. However, Tshisekedi’s candidacy was rejected by the HCR-PT because he had not applied to be a candidate for election but had sought reconfirmation as prime minister. The choice of a former prime minister, Joseph Kengo Wa Dondo, to hold office was vigorously challenged by opposition parties, which again organized a 24-hour strike, for July 8. This was the political background to a series of economic disasters, outbreaks of unrest, and the invasion of the

country by more than a million refugees from neighbouring Rwanda. In spite of the monetary reforms introduced in October 1993, the Bank of Zaire had to be closed to the

public on January 31 because of a shortage of banknotes in its vaults. The governor of the bank, Buhendwa Bwa Mushaba, was dismissed by Mobutu the following day. He was succeeded by Ndiang Kaboul, who was himself suspended by the government of Kengo Wa Dondo in July after millions of newly minted Zairean notes flooded the black market, reducing the value of the new zaire, introduced in October 1993 at a rate of three to the U.S. dollar,

to 1,300 to the dollar. As a countermeasure the government decided in September to cancel all currency-printing contracts and to suspend the printing of banknotes. The World Bank, despairing of any improvement in the government’s handling of Zaire’s economy, had already closed its office in Kinshasa on February 1, declaring the country insolvent. Friction between the rebel Movement of Farmers and Workers and government troops in the eastern Kivu region led to a flight of refugees to Uganda in January. Mean-

2 million Rwandan refugees in late August). Cap.: Kinshasa. Monetary unit: new zaire, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2,022 new zaires to U.S. $1 (3,216 new zaires = £1 sterling). President

while, ethnic warfare continued

With the economy of Zaire plunging into ever deeper trouble in 1994, the struggle for political power continued unabated. On January 14 Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko

southeast, resulting in an additional movement of refugees to the Kasai region. Still worse was the influx of refugees from Rwanda, which began in July when supporters of the former Hutu government fled before the advance of their rivals, the Tutsi. Inadequate provision for the vast numbers involved led to an outbreak of cholera in the refugee camps.

in 1994, Mobutu Sese Seko; first state commissioners (prime ministers), Faustin Birindwa until January 14 and, from July 6, Joseph Kengo Wa Dondo.

in Shaba

province in the

506

World Affairs: Zambia

Many relief agencies, finding it increasingly difficult to carry on their work, threatened to depart because Hutu sol-

diers were terrorizing fellow refugees, stealing supplies and forcibly recruiting young men to swell their ranks. In late November Zairean commandos moved into Katale camp after 19 Rwandans had been killed. The troops deported 37 Hutu to Rwanda, but the military force was too small to handle hundreds of thousands of refugees. The UN considered, then rejected, a plan to send peacekeepers to the camps, but it agreed to support Zaire’s own personnel. (KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropeedia article CENTRAL AFRICA: Zaire.

ZAMBIA A landlocked republic and member of the Commonwealth, Zam-

bia is in eastern Africa. Area: 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 9,132,000. Cap.: Lusaka. Monetary unit: kwacha,

with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 671 kwacha to U.S. $1 (1,067 kwacha = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Frederick Chiluba.

Faced with an inflation rate in 1993 of 140.6% and with a warning from the Paris Club of creditor nations that it would receive the full amount of aid requested only when it had dealt effectively with the drug trafficking for which the country was believed to be an important channel, the government pledged to continue its efforts to increase economic stability, to encourage the expansion of the private sector, and to improve basic services for the poor. As a demonstration of its good intentions, it proposed to make cuts amounting to 6 billion kwacha in its expenditure on the civil service, and an additional 63 government-owned companies were scheduled for privatization. In response to these efforts the Paris Club agreed in March to release the whole sum

requested.

Meanwhile,

a number

of ministers

had resigned in order, they said, that false claims of their having been involved in drug trafficking could be thoroughly investigated. On the agricultural front there were prospects of a good corn (maize) crop, and the government paid farmers 17 billion kwacha of the 27 billion owed them for their crops. But it issued a warning that no government buying agents would be appointed in the future and that corn imports would be unrestricted. The farmers, many of whom had already suffered because millers had been buying cheaper corn imported from South Africa, joined forces with manufacturers who had been complaining vigorously against unfair competition from subsidized foreign imports. The copper-mining industry was also in a perilous state, the cost of production greatly exceeding the price offered on the world market. Drastic cuts in manpower seemed inevitable if the industry was to survive, and the question of privatization was carefully considered. In spite of pressure from external donors, however, the privatization program in general was not proving successful because potential foreign investors were wary of committing themselves to what they deemed to be unreliable ventures. In April the University of Zambia was closed after 300 lecturers and research workers were dismissed for taking part in a strike to demand equality of pay with university lecturers and researchers from other countries. During the following month a local newspaper claimed that because of unpaid bills, acute shortages of teaching aids, and endless strikes by teachers for better pay, the education provided in government schools had deteriorated. (KENNETH INGHAM)

This article updates the Macropeedia article SOUTHERN AFRICA : Zambia.

ZIMBABWE neta) eee

ee

oe

A republic and member of the Commonwealth, Zimbabwe is a

fandocked state in eastern Africa. Area: 390,757 sq km (150,872 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 10,971,000. Cap.: Harare. Monetary

unit: Zimbabwe dollar, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of Z$8.36

to U.S. $1 (Z$13.30 = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Robert Mugabe.

On Jan. 1, 1994, Zimbabwe’s currency was devalued by 17%.

At the same time, it was announced that foreign companies that had invested in the country before independence and that had previously been allowed to remit 25% of pretax profits would now be permitted to remit 50%. Those that had invested after 1993 would be permitted to remit 100%. Although intended as a liberalizing reform, the change, favouring newcomers, was unlikely to please companies with a long-standing commitment to Zimbabwe. It did, however, provoke some of the reaction it was intended to stimulate because 67 new investment projects were approved in the first quarter of the year. A disappointing aspect of the growth in investment was its failure to generate new job opportunities on any significant scale, an issue of exceptional importance to a country with an unemployment rate of 30% and 200,000 students leaving school each year in search of work. By linking a loan of $90 million in January to boost the country’s energy output to a call for greater autonomy in the management of the Hwange power station and freedom to conduct its business on fully commercial lines, the

World Bank indicated its interest in further reducing bureaucratic controls. This was a theme developed by Pres. Robert Mugabe during a visit in May to the United Kingdom, where he was seeking additional Western investment in Zimbabwe. His concern, already aroused by fears that the interest of potential Western investors was being diverted from Africa to Eastern Europe, was enhanced by the prospect that the democratic elections recently held in South Africa might have made that country more attractive to foreign investment than its less economically advanced neighbours. At the World Economic Forum held in Cape Town, South Africa, in June, Mugabe made it clear that the

small African countries would not welcome domination by the economic power of South Africa. There were indications during the year that Mugabe’s attitude toward economic and political liberalization remained ambivalent. While pressure for reform was building up inside Zimbabwe, he insisted that his ruling party would continue to redefine its socialist ideology in a manner consistent with the country’s culture and historical experience. His acquisition in June of 17 farms without any mention of compensation caused grave anxiety among the country’s white commercial farmers. All the farms were fully productive, even though the 1992 law under which they were seized had stressed that only underused or derelict farms would be confiscated. Another victim of the government’s policy was opposition leader Ndabaningi Sithole, who, along with 1,000

tenants, was forcibly evicted from his farm by riot police and government officials in October. This followed the earlier seizure of the 325-ha (800-ac) farm of another opposition politician, James Chikerema. Three white farmers who had

been dispossessed and had taken their cases to court had their fears confirmed when the High Court ruled that the forcible seizure of their land for resettlement by landless blacks did not violate the nation’s constitution. (KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropcedia article SOUTHERN AFRICA: Zimbabwe.

BRITANNICA UPDATE

Major Revisions from the 1995 Macropedia This» section of the Britannica Book of the Year consists of articles or parts of articles reprinted from the Macropedia. The articles appearing here have been selected from among those recently revised or rewritten and have been chosen for their general interest or their timeliness. The section on the 20th century from the Macropedia article AMERICAN LITERATURE has been revised for the 1995 printing in light of current scholarship and trends. The latter part of this article, discussing developments after World War II, has been thoroughly updated. EASTERN AFRICA: Eritrea, the text of which is reprinted here in full, commemorates the birth in 1993 of that new country. The introductory section of the MARKETING AND MERCHANDISING article includes a new chapter on the marketing process, while the Macropedia discussion of the Amazon River Basin, from the SoUTH AMERICA article, has also been

brought up to date and now includes, for example, an important section on ecological concerns. Past issues of the Britannica Book of the Year have included instructions for subscribers to order update sheets designed to be inserted into their encyclopedia to signal that a revision has been printed. This year we are including with the yearbook a single sheet that contains this update information for owners of the 14th and 1Sth editions and the various printings of Encyclopedia Britannica. The sheet is designed to be cut apart into strips that can be pasted into the appropriate pages in the Macropedia and thereby provide a reference to the updated article in the yearbook. If you did not receive this article update sheet with your 1995 yearbook, please write and request one from the editors at Yearbooks Department, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 310 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604. There is no charge.

American Literature The 20th century WRITING FROM 1914 TO 1945 Important movements in drama, poetry, fiction, and criticism took form in the years before, during, and after World War I. The eventful period that followed the war left its imprint upon books of all kinds. Literary forms of the period were extraordinarily varied, and in drama,

poetry, and fiction leading authors tended toward radical technical experiments. Although drama had not been Experiments in drama. a major art form in the 19th century, no type of writing was more experimental than a new drama that arose in rebellion against the glib commercial stage. In the early years of the 20th century, Americans traveling in Europe encountered a vital, flourishing theatre; returning home, some of them became active in founding the Little Theatre movement throughout the country. Freed from commercial limitations, playwrights experimented with dramatic forms and methods of production, and in time producers, actors, and dramatists appeared who had been trained in college classrooms and community playhouses. Some Little Theatre groups became commercial producers; for example, the Washington Square Players, founded in 1915, which became the Theatre Guild (first production in 1919). The resulting drama was marked by a spirit of innovation and by a new seriousness and maturity. Eugene O’Neill, the most admired dramatist of the pe-

riod, was a product of this movement. He worked with the Provincetown Players before his plays were commercially produced. His dramas were remarkable for their range. Beyond the Horizon (first performed 1920), Anna Christie (1921), Desire Under the Elms (1924), and The Iceman Cometh (1946) were naturalistic works, while The Emperor Jones (1920) and The Hairy Ape (1922) made use of the Expressionistic techniques developed in German drama in the period 1914-24. He also employed a

stream-of-consciousness form in Strange Interlude (1928) and produced a work that combined myth, family drama, and psychological analysis in Mourning Becomes Electra (1931). No other dramatist was as generally praised as O’Neill, but many others wrote plays that reflected the growth of

a serious and varied drama, including Maxwell Anderson, whose verse dramas have dated badly, and Robert E. Sherwood, a Broadway professional who wrote both comedy (Reunion in Vienna [1931]) and tragedy (There Shall Be No Night [1940]). Marc Connelly wrote touching fantasy in a Negro folk biblical play, The Green Pastures (1930). Like O’ Neill, Elmer Rice made use of both Expressionistic

techniques (The Adding Machine [{1923]) and naturalism (Street Scene [1929]). Lillian Hellman wrote powerful, well-crafted melodramas in The Children’s Hour (1934) and The Little Foxes (1939). Radical theatre experiments included Marc Blitzstein’s savagely satiric musical The Cradle Will Rock (1937) and the work of Orson Welles

507

The plays of Eugene

O’Neill

508

American Literature and John Houseman for the government-sponsored Works Progress Administration (WPA) Federal Theatre Project. The premier radical theatre of the decade was the Group Theatre (1931-41) under Harold Clurman and Lee Strasberg, which became best known for presenting the work

of Clifford Odets. In Waiting for Lefty (1935), a stirring

plea for labour unionism, Odets roused the audience to an intense pitch of fervour, and in Awake and Sing (1935),

perhaps the best play of the decade, he created a lyrical work of family conflict and youthful yearning. Other important plays by Odets for the Group Theatre were Paradise Lost (1935), Golden Boy (1937), and Rocket to the Moon (1938). Thornton Wilder used stylized settings and poetic dialogue in Our Town (1938) and turned to

fantasy in The Skin of Our Teeth (1942). William Saroyan shifted his lighthearted,

Robinson and Frost

anarchic

vision from

fiction to

drama with My Heart’s in the Highlands and The Time of Your Life (both 1939). The new poetry. Poetry ranged between traditional types of verse and experimental writing that departed radically from the established forms of the 19th century. Two New England poets, Edwin Arlington Robinson and Robert

Frost, who were not noted for technical experimentation, won both critical and popular acclaim in this period. Robinson, whose first book appeared in 1896, found sonnets, ballad stanzas, and blank verse satisfactory to his thought. In the 1920s he won three Pulitzer Prizes—for his Collected Poems (published 1921), The Man Who Died Twice (1925), and Tristram (1927). Like Robinson, Frost used traditional stanzas and blank verse in volumes such as A Boy’s Will (1913), his first book, and North of Boston (1914), New Hampshire (1923), A Further Range (1936), and A Masque of Reason (1945). The best-known poet of his generation, Frost, like Robinson, saw and commented upon the tragic aspects of life in poems such as “Design,” “Directive,” and “Provide, Provide.” Just as modern American drama had its beginnings in little theatres, modern American poetry took form in little magazines. Particularly important was Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, founded by Harriet Monroe in Chicago in 1912. The surrounding region soon became prominent as the home of three poets: Vachel Lindsay, Carl Sandburg, and Edgar Lee Masters. Lindsay’s blend of legendary lore and native oratory in irregular odelike forms was well adapted to oral presentation, and his lively readings from his works contributed to the success of such books as General William Booth Enters into Heaven, and Other Poems

(1913) and The Congo, and Other Poems (1914). Sandburg wrote of life on the prairies and in Midwestern cities in Whitmanesque free verse in such volumes as Chicago Poems (1916) and The People, Yes (1936). Masters’ very popular Spoon River Anthology (1915) consisted of freeverse monologues by village men and women, most of whom spoke bitterly of their frustrated lives. Writing traditional sonnets and brief, personal lyrics, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Sara Teasdale were innovative in being unusually frank (according to the standard of their time) for women poets. Three fine black poets— James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, and Countee Cullen—also found old molds satisfactory for dealing with new subjects, specifically the problems of their race. While Conrad Aiken experimented with poetical imitations of symphonic forms often mingled with stream-of-consciousness techniques, e.e. cummings used typographical novelties to produce poems that had surprisingly fresh impact. Marianne Moore invented and brilliantly employed a kind of free verse that was marked by a wonderfully sharp and idiosyncratic focus on objects and details. Robinson Jeffers used violent imagery and modified free or blank verse to express perhaps the most bitter views voiced by a major poet in this period. Except for a period after World War II, when he was confined in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Wash-

Pound, Eliot, and the influence of the 17thcentury

ington, D.C., Ezra Pound lived outside the United States after 1908. He had, nevertheless, a profound influence on 20th-century writing in English, both as a practitioner of verse and as a patron and impresario of other writers. His

Meta-

most controversial work remained

physical poets

installment of which appeared in 1926 and the latest in

The Cantos, the first

1959 (Thrones: 96-109 de los cantares).

Like Pound, to whom he was much indebted, T.S. Eliot lived abroad most of his life, becoming a British subject

in 1927. His first volume, Prufrock and Other Observations, was published in 1917. In 1922 appeared The Waste Land, the poem by which he first became famous. As a poet and critic, Eliot exercised a strong influence, especially in the period between World Wars I and II. In what some critics regard as his finest work, Four Quartets (1943), Eliot explored through images of great beauty and haunting power his own past, the past of the human race, and the meaning of human history. Eliot was an acknowledged master of a varied group of poets whose work was indebted to 17th-century English Metaphysical poets, especially to John Donne. Eliot’s influence was clear in the writings of Archibald MacLeish, whose earlier poems showed resemblances to The Waste Land. A number of Southern poets (who were also critics) were influenced by Eliot—John Crowe Ransom,

Donald

Davidson, and Allen Tate. Younger American Metaphysicals who emerged later included Louise Bogan, Léonie

Adams,

Muriel

Rukeyser,

Delmore

Schwartz,

and Karl

Shapiro. But there were several major poets strongly opposed to Eliot’s influence. Their style and subjects tended to be romantic and visionary. These included Hart Crane, whose long poem The Bridge (1930) aimed to create a Whitmanesque American epic, and Wallace Stevens, a lush and sensuous writer who made an astonishing literary debut with the poems collected in Harmonium (1923). Another opponent of Eliot was William Carlos Williams, who invested his experimental prose and magically simple

lyrics—in works such as Spring and All (1923)—with the mundane details of American life and wrote about American myth and cultural history with great sweep in In the American Grain (1925). Fiction. The little magazines that helped the growth of the poetry also contributed to a development of the fiction of the era. They printed daring or unconventional short stories and published attacks upon established writers. The Dial (1880-1929), the Little Review (1914-29), the Seven Arts (1916-17),

and others encouraged modernist

innovation. More potent were two magazines edited by the ferociously funny journalist-critic H.L. Mencken—The Smart Set (editorship 1914-23) and American Mercury (which he coedited between 1924 and 1933). A powerful

influence and a scathing critic of puritanism,

Mencken

helped launch the new fiction.

Mencken’s major enthusiasms included the fiction of Joseph Conrad and Theodore Dreiser, but he also promoted minor writers for their attacks on gentility, such as James Branch Cabell, or their revolt against the narrow, frustrated quality of life in rural communities, including Zona Gale and Ruth Suckow. The most distinguished of these writers was Sherwood Anderson. His Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and Triumph of the Egg (1921) were collections of short stories that showed villagers suffering from all sorts of phobias and suppressions. Anderson in time wrote several novels, the best being Poor White (1920). In 1920 critics noticed that a new school of fiction had risen to prominence with the success of books such as

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s This Side of Paradise and Sinclair Lewis’ Main Street, fictions that tended to be frankly psychological or modern in their unsparing portrayals of contemporary life. Novels of the 1920s were often lyrical and personal, but also, in the despairing mood that followed World War I, apt to express disillusionment. Novels of the

1930s inclined toward radical social criticism, in response to the miseries of the Great Depression, though some of the best, by writers such as William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Henry Roth, and Nathanael West, continued to explore the modernist vein of the previous decade.

Critics of society.

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s

This Side of

Paradise (1920) showed the disillusionment and moral disintegration of post-World War I America. The book initiated a career of great promise that found fruition in The Great. Gatsby (1925), a spare but poignant novel about the promise and failure of the American Dream. Fitzgerald was to live out this theme himself. Though damaged by drink and by a failing marriage, he went on to do some

of his best work in the 1930s, including numerous stories

The influence of the little

magazines

American Literature

Novels of

satire and protest

and essays as well as his most ambitious novel, Tender Ts the Night (1934). Unlike Fitzgerald, who was alyric writer with real emotional intensity, Sinclair Lewis was best as a social critic. His onslaughts against the “village virus” (Main Street [1920]), average businessmen (Babbitt [1922]), materialistic scientists (Arrowsmith [1925]), and the racially prejudiced (Kingsblood Royal [1947]) were satirically sharp and thoroughly documented, though Babbitt is his only book that still stands up brilliantly at the

Hemingway’s great rival as a stylist and mythmaker was William Faulkner, whose writing was as baroque as Hemingway’s was spare. Influenced by Sherwood Anderson, Melville, and especially James Joyce, he combined streamof-consciousness techniques with rich social history. Works such as The Sound and the Fury (1929), As I Lay Dying (1930), Light in August (1932), and The Hamlet (1940) were parts of the unfolding history of Yoknapatawpha County, a mythical Mississippi community, which de-

end of the 20th century. Similar careful documentation, though little satire, characterized James T. Farrell’s natu-

picted the transformation and the decadence of the South. Faulkner’s work was dominated by a sense of guilt going back to the American Civil War and the appropriation of Indian lands. Though often comic, his work pictured the disintegration of the leading families and, in later books

ralistic Studs Lonigan trilogy (1932-35), which described the stifling effects of a lower-middle-class family and a street-corner milieu in the Chicago of the 1920s. The ironies of racial identity dominate the stories and novels produced by writers of the Harlem renaissance, including the portraits of the black middle class in Nella Larsen’s Quicksand (1928) and Passing (1929) and the powerful

stories of Langston Hughes in The Ways of White Folks (1934), as well as the varied literary materials—poetry, fiction, and drama—collected in Jean Toomer’s Cane (1923).

Richard Wright’s books, including Uncle Tom’s Children (1938), Native Son (1940), and Black Boy (1945), were works of burning social protest, Dostoyevskyan in their intensity, dealing boldly with the plight of American blacks especially in the urban ghetto. Zora Neale Hurston’s training in anthropology and folklore contributed to Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), her powerful feminist novel about the black Florida town in which she had grown up. A number of authors wrote proletarian novels attacking capitalist exploitation, including several novels based on a 1929 strike in the textile mills in Gastonia, N.C., such as

Fielding Burke’s Call Home the Heart and Grace Lumpkin’s To Make My Bread (both 1932). Other notable proletarian novels included Jack Conroy’s The Disinherited (1933), Robert Cantwell’s The Land of Plenty (1934), and Albert Halper’s Union Square (1933), The Foundry (1934), and The Chute (1937), as well as some grim evocations of the drifters and “bottom dogs” of the depression era, such as Edward Anderson’s Hungry Men and Tom Kromer’s Waiting For Nothing (both 1935). The radical movement, combined

with a nascent feminism,

encouraged the tal-

ent of several politically committed women writers whose

work was rediscovered later; they included Tillie Olsen, Meridel Le Sueur, and Josephine Herbst.

John Dos Passos

Particularly admired as a protest writer was John Dos

Passos, who first attracted attention with an anti-World

War I novel, Three Soldiers (1921). His most sweeping indictments of the modern social and economic system, Manhattan Transfer (1925) and the U.S.A. trilogy (The 42nd Parallel, 1919, and The Big Money [193036]), employed various narrative innovations such as the “camera eye” and “newsreel” to attack society from the left. Nathanael West’s novels, including Miss Lonelyhearts (1933), A Cool Million (1934), and The Day of the Locust (1939), used black comedy to create a bitter vision of an inhuman and brutal world. West evoked the tawdry but rich materials of mass culture and popular fantasy to mock the pathos of the American Dream, a frequent target during the depression years.

Three authors Hemingway, Faulkner, and Steinbeck. ionment were disillus from shift a whose writings showed John Steinand , Faulkner William ay, Hemingw Emest beck. Hemingway’s early short stories and his first novels, The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A Farewell to Arms (1929), were full of the existential disillusionment of the “lost generation” expatriates. The Spanish Civil War, however, led him to espouse the possibility of collective action to solve social problems, and his less effective novels, including To Have and Have Not (1937) and For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), embodied this new belief. He regained some of his form in The Old Man and The Sea (1952) and his posthumously published memoir of Paris between great the wars, A Moveable Feast (1964). Hemingway’s simple, vely decepti his impact on other writers came from and stripped-down prose, full of unspoken implication, created which ity, masculin le vulnerab but tough from his the World a myth that imprisoned the author and haunted War II generation.

509

such as Go Down, Moses (1942) and Intruder in the Dust (1948), showed a growing concern with the troubled role of race in Southern life. Steinbeck’s career, marked by uneven achievements, be-

gan with a historical novel, Cup of Gold (1929), in which he voiced a distrust of society and glorified the anarchistic individualist typical of the rebellious 1920s. He showed his affinity for colourful outcasts, such as the paisanos of the Monterey area, in short novels like Tortilla Flat (1935), the fable Of Mice and Men (1937), and Cannery Row (1945). His best books were inspired by the social struggles of migrant farm workers during the Great Depression, including the simply written but ambiguous strike novel, In Dubious Battle (1936), and his flawed masterpiece, The Grapes of Wrath (1939). The latter, a protest novel interrupted by prose-poem interludes, tells the story of the migration of the Joads, an Oklahoma Dust Bowl family,

to California. During their almost biblical journey, they learn the necessity for collective action among the poor and downtrodden to prevent them from being destroyed individually. Lyric fictionists. An interesting development in fiction, abetted by modernism, was a shift from naturalistic to poetic writing. There was an increased tendency to select

details and endow them with symbolic meaning, to set down the thought processes and emotions of the characters, and to make use of rhythmical prose. In varied ways, Crane, Norris, Cabell, Dos Passos, Hemingway, Steinbeck,

and Faulkner all showed evidence of this—in passages, in short stories, and even in entire novels. Faulkner showed the tendency at its worst in A Fable (1954), which, ironically, won a Pulitzer Prize. Lyricism was especially prominent in the writings of Willa Cather. O Pioneers! (1913), The Song of the Lark (1915), and My Antonia (1918) contained poetic passages about the disappearing frontier and the creative efforts of frontier folk. 4 Lost Lady (1923) was elegiac in form and spare in style, though it also depicted a historic social transformation, and Death Comes for the Archbishop (1927) was an exaltation of the past and of spiritual pioneering. Katherine Anne Porter, whose works took the form of novelettes and stories, wrote more in the style of the Metaphysical poets. Her use of the stream-ofconsciousness method in Flowering Judas (1930) as well

as in Pale Horse, Pale Rider (1939) had the complexity, the irony, and the symbolic sophistication characteristic of these poets, whose work the modernists had brought into fashion.

Two of the most intensely lyrical works of the 1930s

were autobiographical novels set in the Jewish ghetto of New York City’s Lower East Side before World War I: Michael Gold’s harsh Jews Without Money (1930) and Henry Roth’s Proustian Call It Sleep (1934), one of the

greatest novels of the decade. They followed in the footsteps of a prolific writer of the 1920s, Anzia Yezierska, whose passionate books about immigrant Jews, especially Bread Givers (1925), have been rediscovered by contem-

porary feminists. Another lyrical and autobiographical writer, whose books have faded badly, was Thomas Wolfe, who put all his strivings, thoughts, and feelings into works such as Look

Homeward, Angel (1929) and Of Time and the River (1935) before his early death in 1938. These Whitmanesque books, and posthumously edited ones such as The Web and the Rock (1939) and You Can't Go Home

Willa Cather

510

American Literature Again (1940), dealt with a figure much like Wolfe—echoing the author’s youth in the South, young manhood in the North, and eternal search to fulfill a vision. Though grandiose, they influenced many young writers, including Jack Kerouac. (WALTER BLAIR/MORRIS DICKSTEIN) AFTER

WORLD

WAR

e.e.

cummings,

William

Carlos

Williams,

and

Gwendolyn Brooks published important poetry. Eugene O’Neill’s most distinguished play, Long Day’s Journey into Night, appeared posthumously in 1956. Before and after World War II, Robert Penn Warren published influential fiction, poetry, and criticism. His A// the King’s Men, one of the best American political novels, won the 1947

Pulitzer Prize. Mary McCarthy became a widely read social satirist and essayist. Henry Miller’s fiction, influential primarily because of its frank exploration of sexuality, first appeared in the United States in the 1960s. Still, impressive new novelists, poets, and playwrights emerged after the war. There was, in fact, a gradual changing of the guard. Not only did a new generation emerge from the war, but its ethnic, regional, and social character was quite different from that of the preceding one. Among the younger writers were children of immigrants, many of them Jews; blacks, only a few generations away from slavery; and, eventually, women, who, with the rise of feminism, were to speak in a new voice. Though the social climate of the postwar years was conservative, even conformist, some of the most hotly discussed writers were homosexuals or bisexuals, including Tennessee Williams, Truman Capote, Gore Vidal, and James Baldwin, whose dark themes and experimental methods cleared a path for Beat writers like Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac. The novel and short story. Two distinct groups of novelists responded to the cultural impact, and especially the technological horror, of World War II. Norman Mailer’s

The Naked and the Dead (1948) and Irwin Shaw’s The Young Lions (1948) were realistic war novels, though Mailer’s book was also a novel of ideas, exploring fascist thinking and an obsession with power as elements of the

military mind. James Jones, amassing a staggering quantity of closely observed detail, documented the war’s hu-

man cost in an ambitious trilogy (From Here to Eternity [1951], The Thin Red Line [1962], and Whistle [1978]) that centred on loners who resisted adapting to military discipline. Younger novelists, profoundly shaken by the bombing of Hiroshima and the real threat of human annihilation, found the conventions

of realism inadequate

for treating the war’s nightmarish implications. In Catch22 (1961) Joseph Heller satirized the military mentality

with surreal black comedy but also injected a sense of Kafkaesque horror. A sequel, Closing Time (1994), was an elegy for the World War II generation. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., in Slaughterhouse-Five (1969), described the Allied firebombing of the German city of Dresden with a mixture of dark fantasy and numb, loopy humour. Later

this method was applied brilliantly to the portrayal of the Vietnam War—a conflict that seemed in itself surreal— by Tim O’Brien in Going After Cacciato (1978).

In part because of the atomic bomb, American writers turned increasingly to black humour and absurdist fantasy. Many found the naturalistic approach incapable of communicating the rapid pace and the sheer implausibility of contemporary life. A highly self-conscious fiction emerged, laying bare its own literary devices, questioning

the nature of representation, and often imitating or parodying earlier fiction rather than social reality. Russianborn Vladimir Nabokov and the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges were strong influences on this new “metafiction.” Nabokov, who became a U.S. citizen in 1945, pro-

Metafiction

ciality, his best novels, written in English, have a strong

emotional thread running through them, including Lolita (1955), Pnin (1957), and Pale Fire (1962). In an important essay, “The Literature of Exhaustion” (1967), John Barth declared himself an American

II

The literary historian Malcolm Cowley described the years between the two world wars as a “second flowering” of American writing. Certainly American literature attained a new maturity and a rich diversity in the 1920s and ’30s, and significant works by several major figures from those decades were published after 1945. Faulkner, Hemingway, Steinbeck, and Katherine Anne Porter wrote memorable fiction; and Frost, Eliot, Wallace Stevens, Marianne Moore,

duced a body of exquisitely wrought fiction distinguished by linguistic and formal innovation. Despite their artifi-

disci-

ple of Nabokov and Borges. After dismissing realism as a “used up” tradition, Barth described his own work as “novels which imitate the form of the novel, by an author who imitates the role of Author.” In fact, Barth’s earliest

fiction, The Floating Opera (1956) and The End of the Road (1958), fell partly within the realistic tradition, but in later, more ambitious works he simultaneously imitated and parodied conventional forms—the historical novel in The Sot-Weed Factor (1960), Greek and Christian myths in Giles Goat-Boy (1966), and the epistolary novel in LETTERS (1979). Similarly, Donald Barthelme mocked the fairy tale in Snow White (1967) and Freudian fiction in The Dead Father (1975). Barthelme was most successful in his short stories and parodies that solemnly caricatured contemporary styles, especially the richly suggestive pieces collected in Unspeakable Practices, Unnatural Acts (1968),

City Life (1970), and Guilty Pleasures (1974). Thomas Pynchon emerged as the major American practitioner of the absurdist fable. His novels and stories were elaborately plotted mixtures of historical information, comic-book

fantasy, and countercultural suspicion.

Using paranoia as a structuring device as well as a cast of mind, Pynchon worked out elaborate “conspiracies” in V. (1963), The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), and Gravity's Rainbow (1973). The underlying assumption of Pynchon’s fiction was the inevitability of entropy—i.e., the disintegration of physical and moral energy. Pynchon’s technique was later to influence writers as different as Don DeLillo and Paul Auster. In Naked Lunch (1959) and other novels, William S. Burroughs, abandoning plot and coherent char-

—

acterization, used a drug addict’s consciousness to depict a hideous modern landscape. Vonnegut, Terry Southern,

and John Hawkes were also major practitioners of black humour and the absurdist fable. Other influential portraits of outsider figures included the Beat characters in Jack Kerouac’s On the Road (1957), The Dharma Bums (1958),

Desolation Angels (1965), and Visions of Cody (1972), the

young Rabbit Angstrom in John Updike’s Rabbit, Run (1960) and Rabbit Redux (1971), Holden Caulfield in J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye (1951), and the troubling madman in Richard Yates’s powerful novel of suburban life, Revolutionary Road (1961). Though writers such as Barth, Barthelme, and Pynchon

rejected the novel’s traditional function as a mirror reflecting society, a significant number of contemporary novelists were reluctant to abandon Social Realism. In such novels

as The Victim (1947), The Adventures of Augie March (1953), Herzog (1964), Mr. Sammler’s Planet (1970), and Humboldt’s Gift (1975), Saul Bellow tapped into the buoyant, manic energy and picaresque structure of black humour, while proclaiming the necessity of “being human.” Though few contemporary writers saw the ugliness of urban life more clearly than Bellow, his central characters rejected the “Wasteland outlook” associated with mod-

ernism. A spiritual vision, derived from sources as diverse

as Judaism, Transcendentalism, and Rudolph Steiner’s cultish theosophy, found its way into Bellow’s late novels, but he also wrote darker fictions like the novella Seize the Day (1956), a study in failure and blocked emotion that was perhaps his best work. Four other Jewish writers— Bernard

Malamud,

Grace Paley, Philip Roth, and Isaac

Bashevis Singer—treated the human condition with humour and forgiveness. Malamud’s gift for dark comedy and Hawthornean fable was especially evident in his shortstory collections The Magic Barrel (1958) and Idiots First (1963). His first three novels, The Natural (1952), The Assistant (1957), and A New Life (1961), were also impressive

works of fiction; The Assistant had the bleak moral intensity of his best stories. Grace Paley’s stories combined an offbeat, whimsically poetic manner with a wry understanding of the ironies of family life and progressive. politics. While Roth was known best for the wild satire and sex-

The novel

of Social Realism

American Literature

ual high jinks of Portnoy’s Complaint (1969), a hilarious stand-up routine about ethnic stereotypes, his most: lasting achievement may be his later novels built around the misadventures of a controversial Jewish novelist named Zuckerman, especially The Ghost Writer (1979), The Anatomy Lesson (1983), and, above all, The Counterlife (1987). Like all his later works, from My Life as a Man (1974) to Operation Shylock (1993), The Counterlife plays ingeniously on the relationship between autobiography and fiction. The Polish-born Singer won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978 for his stories, written originally in Yiddish. They evolved from fantastic tales of demons and

angels to realistic fictions set in New York City’s Upper West Side, showing him to be one of the great storytellers of modern times. i The sexual and moral confusion of the American middle class was the focus of the work of J.D. Salinger and Richard Yates, as well as John Updike’s Rabbit se-

Southern

writers

ries (four novels from Rabbit, Run [1960] to Rabbit At Rest [1990]), Couples (1968), and Too Far to Go (1979), a sequence of tales about the quiet disintegration of a civilized marriage. Updike’s mentor, John Cheever, long associated with The New Yorker magazine, created in his _Short stories and novels a gallery of memorable eccentrics. He documented the anxieties of wpper-middle-class New Yorkers and suburbanites in the relatively tranquil years after World War II. In sharp contrast, Nelson Algren (The Man with the Golden Arm [1949]) and Hubert Selby, Jr. (Last Exit to Brooklyn [1964]) documented lower-class urban life with brutal frankness. Similarly, John Rechy portrayed America’s urban homosexual subculture in City of Night (1963). As literary and social mores were liberalized, Cheever himself dealt with homosexuality in his prison novel Falconer (1977) and even more explicitly in his personal journals, published posthumously in 1991. Post-World War II Southern writers inherited Faulkner’s rich legacy. Three women, specialists in the grotesque—Eudora Welty, Flannery O’Connor, and Carson McCullers— contributed greatly to Southern fiction. O’Connor, writing

as a Roman

Catholic in the Protestant South, created a

high comedy of moral incongruity in her incomparable short stories. Welty, always a brilliant stylist, first came to prominence with her collections of short fiction, A Curtain of Green (1941) and The Wide Net (1943). Her career culminated with a large family novel, Losing Battles (1970), and a fine novella, The Optimist’s Daughter (1972), which was awarded the 1973 Pulitzer Prize. Initially known for his lyrical portraits of Southern eccentrics (Other Voices, Other Rooms [{1948]), Truman Capote published In Cold Blood (1966), a cold but impressive piece of documentary realism that contributed, along with the work of Tom Wolfe and Norman Mailer, to the emergence of a “new journalism” using many of the techniques of fiction. William Styron’s overripe first novel, Lie Down in Darkness (1951), clearly revealed the influence of Faulkner. In two controversial later works Styron fictionalized the dark side of modern history: The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967) depicted an antebellum slave revolt and Sophie’s Choice (1979) unsuccessfully sought to capture the full horror of the Holocaust. Inspired by Faulkner and Mark Twain, William Humphrey wrote two powerful novels set

in Texas, Home from the Hill (1958) and The Ordways (1965). The Moviegoer (1961) and The Last Gentleman (1966) established Walker Percy as an important voice in Southern fiction. Their musing philosophical style broke sharply with the Gothic tradition, influencing later writers such as Richard Ford in The Sportswriter (1986). Equally impressive were the novels and stories of Peter Taylor, an impeccable Social Realist, raconteur, and genial novelist of manners, bringing back a bygone world in works such as “The Old Forest” (1985) and A Summons to Memphis (1986). Black writers

Black writers of this period found

alternatives

to -the

Richard Wright tradition of social protest. James Baldwin and Ralph Ellison, both protégés of Wright, wrote polemical essays calling for a literature that reflected the full complexity of black life in the United States. In his first and best novel, Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953), Baldwin portrayed the Harlem world and the black church

511

through his own adolescent religious experiences. Drawing on rural folktale, absurdist humour, and a picaresque realism, Ralph Ellison wrote a deeply resonant comic novel that dealt with the full range of black experience: rural sharecropping, segregated education, northward migration, ghetto hustling, and the lure of such competing ideologies as nationalism and communism. Many considered Invisible Man (1952) the best novel of the postwar years. Later two black women novelists published some of the most important post-World War II American fiction. In The Bluest Eye (1970), Sula (1973), Song of Solomon (1977), Beloved (1987), and Jazz (1992), Toni Morrison created a strikingly original fiction that sounded different notes from lyrical recollection to magic realism. Like Ellison, Morrison drew on diverse literary and folk influences

and dealt with important phases of black history—i.e., slavery in Beloved and the Harlem renaissance in Jazz. She was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993. Alice Walker, after several volumes of poetry and an in-

teresting novel dealing with the Civil Rights Movement (Meridian [1976]), received the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for her black feminist novel The Color Purple. Black male writers whose work gained attention during this period included Ishmael Reed, whose wild comic techniques resembled Ellison’s, James Alan McPherson, a subtle shortstory writer, Charles Johnson, whose novels, such as The

Oxherding Tale (1982) and The Middle Passage (1990), showed a masterful historical imagination, and Randall Kenan, a gay writer with a strong folk imagination, whose style descended from both Ellison and Baldwin.

The horrors of World War II, the Cold atomic bomb, the bizarre feast of consumer the cultural clashes of the 1960s prompted to argue that reality had grown inaccessible,

War and the culture, and

many writers undermining the traditional social role of fiction. Writers of novels and short stories therefore were under unprecedented pressure to discover, or invent, new and viable kinds of fiction. One response was the postmodern novel of William Gaddis, John Barth, Donald Barthelme, Thomas Pynchon, Robert Coover, Paul Auster, and Don DeLillo—technically sophisticated and highly self-conscious about the construction of fiction and the fictive nature of “reality” itself. These writers dealt with themes such as imposture and paranoia; their novels drew attention to themselves

as artifacts and often used realistic techniques ironically. Other responses involved a heightening of realism by means of intensifying violence, amassing documentation, or resorting to fantasy. A brief discussion of writers as different as Norman Mailer and Joyce Carol Oates may serve to illustrate these new directions. In his 1948 World War II novel, The Naked and the Dead, Mailer wrote in the Dos Passos tradition of social protest. Feeling its limitations, he developed his own brand of surreal fantasy in fables such as An American Dream (1965) and Why Are We in Vietnam? (1967). As for many of the postmodern novelists, his subject was the nature of power, personal as well as political. However, it was only when he turned to “nonfiction fiction”

or “fiction as history” in The Armies of the Night and Miami and the Siege of Chicago (both 1968) that Mailer discovered his true voice—grandiose yet personal, comic yet shrewdly intellectual. He refined this approach into a new objectivity in the 1980 Pulitzer Prize “true life novel” The Executioner’s Song. When he returned to fiction, his work was of less interest. In her early work, especially A Garden of Earthly Delights (1967) and them (1969), Joyce Carol Oates worked naturalistically with violent urban materials, such as the Detroit riots. Incredibly prolific, she later experimented with surrealism in Wonderland (1971) and Gothic fantasy in Bellefleur (1980) before returning in works such as Marya (1986) to the bleak blue-collar world of her youth in upstate New York. While Mailer and Oates refused to surrender the novel’s gift for capturing reality, both were compelled to search out new fictional modes to tap that power. The surge of feminism in the 1970s gave impetus to many new women writers, including Erica Jong in her sexy and funny Fear of Flying (1974), Rita Mae Brown’s exploration of lesbian life in Rubyfruit Jungle (1973), Ann

The postmodern novel

512

American Literature Beattie’s account of the post-1960s generation in Chilly Scenes of Winter (1976) and many short stories, Gail Godwin’s highly civilized The Odd Woman (1974), Mary Gordon’s portraits of Irish Catholic life in Final Payments (1978), and the many social comedies of Alison Lurie and

Anne Tyler. Perhaps the most influential fiction writer to emerge in the 1970s was Raymond Carver. He was another realist who dealt with blue-collar life, usually in the Pacific Northwest, in powerful collections of stories such as What We Talk About When We Talk About Love (1981) and Cathedral (1983). His self-destructive characters were life’s losers, and his style, influenced by Hemingway and Samuel Beckett, was spare and flat but powerfully suggestive. It was imitated, often badly, by minimalists like Frederick Barthelme, Mary Robison, and Amy Hempel. More talented writers whose novels reflected the influence

of Carver in their evocation of the downbeat world of the blue-collar male included Richard Ford (Rock Springs [1987]), Russell Banks (Continental Drift [1984] and Affliction [1989]), and Tobias Wolff (The Barracks Thief [1984] and This Boy’s Life [1989]). Another strong maleoriented writer in a realist mode who emerged from the 1960s counterculture was Robert Stone. His Dog Soldiers (1974) was a grimly downbeat portrayal of the drugs-andVietnam generation, and A Flag for Sunrise (1981) was a bleak, Conradian political novel set in Central America.

New multicultural

writing

Finally, the dramatic loosening of immigration restrictions in the mid-1960s set the stage for the rich multicultural writing of the 1970s and ’80s. New Jewish voices were heard in the fiction of E.L. Doctorow, whose charac-

ters in The Book of Daniel (1971) were based on convicted spies Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and their family, and in the work of Cynthia Ozick, whose characters in her best story, “Envy; or Yiddish in America” (1969) were modeled on leading figures in Yiddish literature. David Leavitt introduced homosexual themes into his portrayal of middleclass life in Family Dancing (1984). Novels such as N. Scott Momaday’s House Made of Dawn, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1969, James Welch’s Winter in the Blood (1974) and Fools Crow (1986), Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony (1977), and Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine (1984) and The Beet Queen (1986) were powerful and ambiguous explorations of Native American history and identity. Mexican-Americans were represented by works such as Rudolfo Anaya’s Bless Me, Ultima (1972), Richard Rodriguez’s autobiographical Hunger of Memory (1981), and Sandra Cisneros’ House on Mango Street (1983). Some of the best immigrant writers, while thoroughly assimilated, nonetheless had a subtle understanding of both

the old and the new culture. These included the CubanAmerican writers Oscar Hijuelos (The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love [1989]) and Cristina Garcia (Dreaming in Cuban [1992]), and the prolific Jamaica Kincaid, the Antigua-born author of Annie John (1984) and Lucy (1990),

whose work appeared frequently in The New Yorker. Chinese-Americans found an extraordinary voice in Maxine Hong Kingston’s The Woman Warrior (1976) and China Men (1980), which blended old Chinese lore with fascinating family history. While many multicultural works were merely representative of their cultural milieu, some made

remarkable contributions to a new American literature. Poetry. The post-World War II years produced an abundance of strong poetry but no individual poet as dominant and accomplished as T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, or William Carlos Williams, whose long careers were coming to an end. The major

poetry from 1945 to 1960 was modernist in its ironic texture yet formal in its insistence on regular rhyme and metre. Beginning in the late 1950s, however, there were a variety of poets and schools who rebelled against these constraints and experimented with more open forms and more colloquial styles. The leading figure of the late 1940s was Robert Lowell, who, influenced by Eliot and such Metaphysical poets as John Donne

and Gerard Manley Hopkins, explored his

spiritual torments and family history in Lord Weary’s Castle (1946). Other impressive formal poets included Theodore

Roethke, influenced by William Butler Yeats,

who revealed a genius for ironic lyricism and a profound

empathy for the processes of nature in The Lost Son and Other Poems (1948), the masterfully elegant Richard Wilbur (Things of This World [1956]), two war poets, Karl Shapiro (V-Letter and Other Poems [1944]) and Randall Jarrell (Losses [1948]), and a group of young poets influenced by W.H. Auden, including James Merrill, W.S. Merwin, James Wright, Adrienne Rich, and John Hollander. Although they displayed brilliant technical skill, they lacked Auden’s strong personal voice. By the mid-1950s, however, a strong reaction developed. Poets began to turn away from Eliot and metaphysical poetry to more romantic or more prosaic models, inWilliam Carlos Williams, Hart Crane, and D.H. Lawrence. A group of poets associated

cluding Walt Whitman,

with Black Mountain College in western North Carolina, as, for example, Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, Edward Dorn, and Denise Levertov, treated the

poem as an unfolding process rather than a containing form. Olson’s Maximus Poems (1953-68) show a clear affinity with the jagged line and uneven flow of Pound’s Cantos and Williams’s Paterson. Allen Ginsberg’s incantatory, prophetic “Howl” (1956) and his moving elegy for his mother, “Kaddish” (1961), gave powerful impetus to the Beat movement. Written with extraordinary intensity, these works were inspired by writers as diverse as the biblical prophets, William Blake, and Whitman, as well as by the dream-logic of the French Surrealists and the spontaneous jazz aesthetic of Ginsberg’s friend, the novelist Jack Kerouac. Other Beat poets included Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Gregory Corso, and Gary Snyder, a student of Eastern religion, who, in Turtle Island (1974), continued the American tradition of nature poetry. The openness of Beat poetry and the prosaic directness of William Carlos Williams encouraged Lowell to develop a new autobiographical style in the laconic poetry and prose of Life Studies (1959) and For the Union Dead (1964). Lowell’s new work influenced nearly all. American poets but especially a group of “confessional” writers,

The Beat movement

some of them once students of his, including Anne Sexton

in To Bedlam and Part Way Back (1960) and All My Pretty Ones (1962) and Sylvia Plath in the posthumously published Arie] (1965), who in her poetry joined an icy sarcasm to white-hot emotional intensity. Another poet influenced by Lowell was John Berryman, whose Dream Songs (1964, 1968) combine autobiographical fragments with minstrel-show motifs to create a zany style of selfprojection and comic-tragic lament. Deeply troubled figures, Sexton, Plath, and Berryman all took their own lives.

Through his personal charisma and his magazine The Fifties (later The Sixties and the The Seventies), Robert Bly encouraged a number of poets whose work shifted toward

the individual

voice

and

open

form,

including

Galway Kinnell, James Wright, David Ignatow, and, less directly, Louis Simpson, James Dickey, and Donald Hall. Sometimes called the “deep image” poets, Bly and his friends sought spiritual intensity and transcendence of the self rather than confessional immediacy. Their work was influenced by the poetry of Spanish and Latin American writers such as Federico Garcia Lorca, Juan Ramon

Jiménez, César Vallejo, and Pablo Neruda, especially their surreal association of images, as well as by the “Greenhouse poems” (1946-48) and the meditative poetry of the later Roethke, with its deep fealing for nature as a vehicle of spiritual transformation. Yet, like their Hispanic models, they were also political poets, instrumental in organizing protest and writing poems against the Vietnam war. Kinnell was a Lawrentian poet who, in poems such as “The Porcupine” and “The Bear,” gave the brutality of nature the power of myth. His vatic sequence, The Book of Nightmares (1971), and the quieter poems in Mortal Acts, Mortal

Words (1980) are among the most rhetori-

cally effective works in contemporary poetry. James Wright was another writer whose

style changed

dramatically in the early 1960s. He abandoned his stiffly formal verse for the stripped-down, meditative lyricism of The Branch Will Not Break (1963) and Shall We Gather at the River (1968), which were more dependent on the emotional tenor of image than on metre, poetic diction,

or rhyme. In books such as Figures of the Human (1964)

“Deep

image” poets

American Literature

and Rescue the Dead (1968), David Ignatow wrote brief but razor-sharp

poems

that made

their effect through

swiftness, deceptive simplicity, paradox, and personal immediacy. Another poet whose work ran the gamut from prosaic simplicity to Emersonian transcendence was A.R. Ammons. His Briefings (1971) were close to autobiographical jottings, small glimpses, and observations, but, like his longer poems, they turned the natural world into a source of vision. Like Ignatow, he made it a virtue to seem unliterary and found illumination in the pedestrian and the ordinary. Both daily life and an exposure to French Surrealism helped inspire a group of New York poets, among them Frank O’Hara, Kenneth Koch, James Schuyler, and John

Ashbery. Whether O’Hara was jotting down a sequence of ordinary moments or paying tribute to film stars, his poems had a breathless immediacy that was distinctive and unique. Koch’s comic voice swung effortlessly from the trivial to the fantastic. Strongly influenced by Wallace Stevens, Ashbery’s ruminative poems can seem random, discursive, and enigmatic. Avoiding poetic colour, they do their work by suggestion and association, exploring the interface between experience and perception. -Other impressive poets of the postwar years included Elizabeth Bishop, whose precise, loving attention to objects was reminiscent of her early mentor, Marianne Moore. Though she avoided the confessional mode of her friend Lowell, her sense of place, her heartbreaking decorum, and her keen powers of observation gave her work a strong

personal cast. In The Changing Light at Sandover (1982),

James Merrill, previously a polished lyric poet, made his mandarin style the vehicle of a lighthearted personal epic, in which he, with the help of a Ouija (trademark) board, called up the shades of all his dead friends, including the poet Auden. In aprolific career highlighted by such poems

as Reflections on Espionage (1976), “Blue Wine” (1979),

and Powers of Thirteen (1983), John Hollander, like Merrill, displayed enormous technical virtuosity. Richard Howard imagined witty monologues and dialogues for famous people of the past in poems collected in Untitled Subjects (1969) and Two-Part Inventions (1974). With the autobiographical knots and parables of Reasons for Moving (1968) and Darker (1970), Mark Strand’s paradoxical language achieved a resonant simplicity. Other strongly autobiographical poets working with subtle technique and intelligence in a variety of forms included Philip Levine, Charles Simic, Robert Pinsky, Louise Gliick, and Sharon Olds. With the sinuous sentences and long flowing lines of Tar (1983) and Flesh and Blood (1987), C.K. Williams perfected a narrative technique founded on distinctive voice, sharply etched emotion, and cleanly observed detail. Adrienne Rich’s work gained a burning immediacy from her lesbian feminism. The Will to Change (1971) and Diving Into the Wreck (1973) were turning points for women’s poetry in the wake of the 1960s. That decade also enabled some older poets to become more loosely autobiographical and freshly imaginative, among them Stanley Kunitz, Robert Penn Warren, and W.S. Merwin. The 1960s invigorated gifted black poets such as Robert Hayden, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Michael S. Harper. It formed the background for the work of the younger poets of the 1980s, such as Edward Hirsch, Alan Shapiro, Jorie Graham, Cathy Song, and Rita Dove, whose sequence about her grandparents, Thomas

Arthur Miller

and Beulah, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1987. Drama. Two post-World War II playwrights established reputations comparable to O’Neill’s. Arthur Miller wrote eloquent essays defending his modern, democratic concept of tragedy; despite its abstract, allegorical quality and portentous language, Death of a Salesman (1949) came close to vindicating his views. Miller’s intense family dramas were rooted in the works of the socially conscious ethnic dramatists of the 1930s, especially Clifford Odets, but he

ing of the McCarthy era. Though his work was uneven, Tennessee Williams must be viewed as a more important playwright than Miller. Creating stellar roles for actors, especially women, Williams brought a passionate lyricism and a tragic Southern vision to such plays as The Glass Menagerie (1944), A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), and The Night of the Iguana (1961). He empathized with his characters’ dreams and illusions and with the frustrations and defeats of their lives, and he wrote about his own dreams and disappointments in his beautifully etched short fiction, from which his plays were often adapted. Miller and Williams dominated the post-World War II theatre until the 1960s, and few other playwrights emerged to challenge them. Then, in 1962, Edward Albee’s reputation, based on short plays such as The Zoo Story (1959) and The American Dream (1960), was secured by the stunning power of Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. A master of absurdist theatre who assimilated the influence of European playwrights like Samuel Beckett and Eugéne Ionesco, Albee established himself as a major figure in American drama. His reputation with critics and audiences, however, began to decline with enigmatic plays such as Tiny Alice (1964) and A Delicate Balance (1966), but, like Eugene O’Neill, he eventually returned to favour with a complex autobiographical drama, Three Tall Women, which won.the Pulitzer Prize in 1994. When the centre of American drama shifted from Broadway to Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway with works such as Jack Gelber’s The Connection (1959), American playwrights, collaborating with the Living Theatre, the Open Theatre, and other adventurous new companies, were increasingly free to write radical and innovative plays. David Rabe’s The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel (1971) and Sticks and Bones (1972) satirized America’s militaristic nationalism and cultural shallowness. David Mamet won a 1976-77 New York Drama Critics Award for American Buffalo. In plays such as Glengarry Glen Ross (1984) he showed brilliantly how men reveal their hopes and frustrations obliquely, through their language, and in Oleanna (1992) he fired a major salvo in the gender wars over sexual harassment. Imamu Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Ed Bullins inspired an angry black nationalist theatre. Baraka’s Dutchman and The Slave (1964) effectively dramatized racial confrontation, while Bullins’ In the Wine Time (1968) made use of “street” lyricism. Maria Irene Fornes’s Fefu and Her Friends (1977) proved remarkable in its exploration of women’s relationships. A clear indication of OffBroadway’s ascendancy in American drama came in 1979 when Sam Shepard, a prolific and experimental playwright, won the Pulitzer Prize for Buried Child. Shepard’s earlier work, such as The Tooth of Crime (1972), was rooted both in the rock scene and counterculture of the 1960s and in the mythic world of the American West. But he reached his peak with a series of offbeat family dramas including Curse of the Starving Class (1976), True West (1980), Fool For Love (1983), and A Lie of the Mind (1986). Other important new voices in American drama were the prolific Lanford Wilson, the 1980 Pulitzer winner for

Talley’s Folly, John Guare, who created serious farce in The House of Blue Leaves (1971) and fresh social drama in Six Degrees of Separation (1990), and Ntozake Shange, whose “choreopoem,” For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow Is Enuf, moved to Broadway in 1976. Other well-received women playwrights included Marsha Norman, Beth Henley, Tina Howe, and

Wendy Wasserstein. In a series of plays that included Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1984), Fences (Pulitzer Prize, 1987), and Joe Turner's Come and Gone (1986), August Wilson emerged as the most powerful black playwright of the 1980s. The anguish of the AIDS epidemic proved a dark inspiration to many gay playwrights, especially Tony

gave them a metaphysical turn. From A/] My Sons (1947) to The Price (1968), his work is at its strongest when he

Kushner, who had gained attention with 4 Bright Room

deals with father-son relationships, anchored in the harsh

cally ambitious two-part drama Angels in America (1993), which combined comedy with pain, symbolism with per-

realities of the Great Depression. Yet Miller could also be an effective protest writer, as in The Crucible (1953), which used the Salem witch trials to attack the witch-hunt-

Called Day (1991) and won Broadway fame with his episonal history, and invented characters with historical ones. (JAMES R. GILES/MORRIS DICKSTEIN)

513

The ascendancy

of OffBroadway

514

Eastern Africa Literary histories include ROBERT E. SPILLER BIBLIOGRAPHY. et al. (eds.), Literary History of the United States, 4th ed., rey., 2 vol. (1974), a standard general work; MARCUS CUNLIFFE (ed.), American Literature to 1900, new ed. (1986, reissued 1993), and American Literature Since 1900, new ed. (1987, reissued 1993); VERNON LOUIS PARRINGTON, Main Currents in American Thought: An Interpretation of American Literature

from the Beginnings to 1920, 3 vol. (1927-30, reissued 1987), essential background reading; and ALFRED KAZIN, An American Procession (1984), from:Emerson to Fitzgerald. Since the 1980s, anthologies have shifted to a multicultural viewpoint with broad coverage of writing by women and minorities. The most controversial example has been PAUL LAUTER and RICHARD YARBOROUGH (eds.), The Heath Anthology of American Literature, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1994). Recent full-scale literary

histories representing the work of younger scholars include EMORY ELLIOTT et al. (eds.), The Columbia Literary History of the United States (1991); and SACVAN BERCOVITCH and CYRUS R.K. PATELL (eds.), The Cambridge History of American Literature (1994- ). Studies that focus on specific periods or trends of American literary history include the following: on the colonial era, PERRY MILLER, The New England Mind: From Colony to Province (1953, reprinted 1983), and The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (1939, reissued 1983), two authoritative works; SACVAN

BERCOVITCH,

The American

Jeremiad

radically different viewpoint, RICHARD SLOTKIN, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1800 (1973), and The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the

Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (1985). Major work on the romance tradition in American fiction begins with D.H. LAWRENCE,

Studies in Classic American

Literature

(1923, reissued 1977); and is developed in RICHARD CHASE, The American Novel and Its Tradition (1957, reprinted 1978); and LESLIE FIEDLER, Love and Death in the American Novel, rev. ed. (1966, reissued 1992). Among later studies on this subject, see MICHAEL DAVITT BELL, The Development of American Romance (1980). Recent work on American realism, stressing the social and historical context, includes ERIC J. SUNDQUIST (ed.), American Realism: New Essays (1982); and PHILIP FISHER, Hard Facts: Setting and Form in the American Novel (1985). The role of race in American literature is the ambitious subject of ERIC J. SUNDQUIST, To Wake the Nations (1993). The wide range of neglected novels by 19th-century women has been mapped by NINA BAYM, Woman’s Fiction: A Guide to Novels By and About Women, 1820-70, 2nd ed. (1993). Feminist criticism of American fiction can be found in JUDITH FETTERLEY, The Resisting Reader (1978). Radical and ethnic writing between the two world wars has been studied by MARCUS KLEIN, Foreigners: The Making of American Literature, 1900-1940 (1981). The long history of African-American literature has been explored by ROBERT A. BONE, The Negro Novel

The Puritan Ordeal (1989);

in America, rev. ed. (1965); and HENRY LOUIS GATES, JR., The

on the period of the American Revolution, closer to cultural history than criticism, KENNETH SILVERMAN, A Cultural His-

Signifying Monkey (1988). Critical studies of post-World War II fiction include TONY TANNER, City of Words (1971), useful for understanding contemporary metafiction, MORRIS DICKSTEIN, Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties (1977, reprinted 1989), which places postwar writers in their cultural context; and FREDERICK R. KARL, American Fictions, 1940-1980 (1983), a comprehensive study. Studies of postwar poetry can be found in

(1978); and ANDREW

DELBANCO,

tory of the American Revolution (1976, reprinted 1987), and EMORY ELLIOTT, Revolutionary Writers (1982); on the period of the American Renaissance, F.0. MATTHIESSEN, American Renaissance (1941, reprinted 1980), a classic study of the great writers of the 1850s; and DAVID Ss. REYNOLDs, Beneath the American Renaissance (1988), a comprehensive view of the popular culture of the day; and; on the period from 1890 to 1940, ALFRED KAZIN, On Native Grounds: An Interpretation of Modern American Prose Literature (1942, reprinted 1982), a brilliantly written critical history. Important studies of the pastoral and frontier traditions in American literature are HENRY NASH SMITH, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (1950, reissued 1978);

LEO MARX,

The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the

CHARLES MOLESWORTH,

The Fierce Embrace (1979); and HELEN

VENDLER, Part of Nature, Part of Us: Modern American Poets (1980). Studies of the period’s drama include C.w.E. BIGSBY, A

Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama, 3 vol. (1982-85). Studies of 20th-century American critics can be found in FRANK LENTRICCHIA, After the New Criticism (1980); and MORRIS DICKSTEIN, Double Agent: The Critic and Society (1992). (WALTER BLAIR/JAMES R. GILES/MORRIS DICKSTEIN)

Pastoral Ideal in America (1964, reprinted 1972); and, from a

Eastern Africa Eritrea Eritrea (Tigrinya: Ertra) is a small country of the Horn of Africa, located on the Red Sea. Its 600 miles (1,000 kilometres) of coastline extend from Cape Kasar, in the north, to the Strait of Mandeb, separating the Red Sea

from the Gulf of Aden in the south. It is bounded on the northwest by The Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. Total land area (including islands off the coast) is 45,300 square miles (117,400 square kilometres). Eritrea’s capital and largest city is Asmera.

Eritrea’s coastal location has long been important in its history and culture—a fact reflected in its name, which is an Italianized version of Mare Erythraeum, Latin for “Red Sea.” The Red Sea was the route along which Christianity and Islam reached the area and took firm hold among the people, and it was an important trade route that such powers as Turkey, Egypt, and Italy hoped to dominate by seizing control of ports on the Eritrean coast. Those ports promised access to the gold, coffee, and slaves sold by traders in the Ethiopian highlands to the south, and in the second half of the 20th century Ethiopia became the power from which the Eritrean people had to free themselves in order to create their own state. In 1993, after a war of independence that lasted nearly

a poverty made worse by years of drought, neglect, and

war. PHYSICAL

, AND

HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY

The land. Relief. _Eritrea’s land is highly variegated. Running on a north-south axis through the middle of the country are the central highlands, a narrow strip of country some

6,500 feet (2,000 metres) above sea level

that represents the northern reaches of the Ethiopian Plateau. Geologically, this plateau consists of a foundation

of crystalline rock (e.g., granite, gneiss, micaschist) that is overlain by sedimentary rock (limestone and sandstone) and then capped by basalt (rock of volcanic origin). The upper layers have been highly dissected by deep gorges and river channels, forming small steep-sided, flat-topped tablelands known as ambas. The highest point in the plateau is Mount Soira, at 9,885 feet (3,013 metres). In the north of Eritrea the highlands narrow and then end. in a system of hills, where erosion has cut down to

the long struggle, the people of Eritrea managed to forge a common national consciousness, but, with peace established, they now face the task of overcoming their ethnic

the basement rock. To the east the plateau drops abruptly into a coastal plain. North of the Gulf of Zula, the plain is only 10 to 50 miles wide, but to the south it widens to include the Denakil Plain. This barren region contains a depression known as the Kobar Sink (more than 300 feet below sea level), the northern end of which extends into Eritrea. The coastal plain and the Denakil Plain are part of the East African Rift System and are sharply delimited on the west by the eastern escarpment of the plateau, which, although deeply eroded, presents a formidable obstacle to travelers from the coast.

and religious differences in order to raise the country from

The western flank of the central highlands is a broken

three decades, Eritrea became a sovereign country. During

The central highlands

Eastern Africa and undulating plain that slopes gradually toward the border with The Sudan. It lies at an average elevation of 1,500 feet. The vegetation is mostly savanna, consisting of scattered trees, shrubs, and seasonal grasses. Off the coast in the Red Sea is the Dahlak Archipelago,

a group of more than 100 small coral and reef-fringed islands. Only a few of these islands have a permanent population. Drainage. The Eritrean highlands are drained by four major rivers and numerous streams. Two of the rivers, the Gash and the Tekeze, flow westward into The Sudan. The

Tekeze River (also known as the Satit) is a major tributary of the Atbara River, which eventually joins the Nile. The Gash River reaches the Atbara only during flood season. As it crosses the western lowlands, the Tekeze forms part of Eritrea’s border with Ethiopia, while the upper course of the Gash, known as the Mereb River, forms the border on the plateau. The other two major rivers that drain the highlands of Eritrea are the Barka and the Anseba. Both of these rivers flow northward into a marshy area on the eastern coast of The Sudan and do not reach the Red Sea. Several seasonal

streams that flow eastward from the plateau reach the sea on the Eritrean coast. Climate. Eritrea has a wide variety of climatic conditions, produced mainly by differences in altitude. The effects of elevation are seen most clearly in the wide range of temperatures experienced throughout the country. On the coast, Mitsiwa has one of the highest averages in the world (86° F, or 30° C), while Asmera, only 40 miles away

yet more than 7,500 feet higher on the plateau, averages 62> F (17); Mean annual rainfall on the plateau is 16 to 20 inches (400 to 500 millimetres), while on the western plain it is less than 16 inches. In both the highlands and the western lowlands, rainfall comes in summer,

carried on a south-

westerly airstream that decreases in amount of precipitation and length of rainy season as it proceeds toward the northeastern extremes of the plateau. The eastern edges of the plateau and, to a lesser extent, the coastal fringes re-

ceive much smaller quantities of rain from a northeasterly airstream that arrives in winter and spring. The interior regions of the Denakil Plain are practically rainless. Settlement patterns. The environment is a determining factor in the distribution of Eritrea’s population. Although Highland agriculturalists and lowland pastoralists

the plateau represents only one-quarter of the total land area, it is home to approximately one-half of the popu-

lation, most of them sedentary agriculturalists. The lowlands on the east and west support a population mainly of pastoralists, although most of them also cultivate crops when and where weather conditions permit. As a rule, pastoralists follow various patterns of movement set by the seasons. Only the Rashaida, a small group in the northern hills, is truly nomadic. Under Italian colonial rule from 1889 to 1941, Eritrea’s

urban sector flourished with the establishment of Asmera as the capital city, Aseb as a new port on the Red Sea, and a host of smaller towns on the plateau. In addition, Mitsiwa, an old and cosmopolitan port with strong links

to Arabia, was expanded considerably. By the end of the colonial period, Eritrea had by far the highest urbanization rate in the Horn of Africa—approximately 15 percent— although a large part of the urban population was Italian nationals who eventually left the country. Subsequently, a population drift from the countryside to the towns was offset by emigration of Eritreans abroad, so that at the time of independence in 1993 the relative size of the urban sector remained unchanged. The people. Language groups. Eritrea’s population consists of several ethnic groups, each with its own language and cultural tradition. The Eritrean highlands are an extension of the Ethiopian Plateau to the south, and the

bulk of the peasantry on the plateau belong to the Tigray, a group that also occupies the adjacent Ethiopian province of Tigray. The Tigrayan language, called Tigrinya, is spoken on both sides of the border and is the speech of nearly one-half of all Eritreans. Inhabiting the northernmost part of the Eritrean plateau, as well as lowlands to the east and west, are people who

515

speak the other major Eritrean language—Tigre. Tigre and Tigrinya are written in the same script and are descended from the same mother tongue (the ancient Semitic language of Ge‘ez), but they are mutually unintelligible. Also occupying the northern plateau are Bilin speakers, whose language belongs to the Cushitic family. The Rashaida are a group of Arabic-speaking nomads who traverse the northern hills. On the southern part of the coastal region live Afar nomads, whose relatives live across the borders in Djibouti and Ethiopia; they are also called the Denakil, after the region that they inhabit. The coastal strip south of Mitsiwa, as well as the eastern flanks of the plateau, are occupied by Saho pastoralists. In the western plain, the dominant people are pastoralists of the Beja family, whose kin live

across the border in The Sudan. Two small Nilotic groups,

the Kunama and the Nara, also live in the west.

Religions. Historically, religion has been a prominent symbol of ethnic identity in the Horn of Africa. Christianity was established in the 4th century aD on the coast and appeared soon afterward in the plateau, where it was embraced by the Ethiopian highlanders. The Monophysite creed of the Ethiopian Orthodox church remains the faith of about half of the population of Eritrea, including nearly all the Tigray. Following the rise of Islam in Arabia, Muslim power flowed over the Red Sea coast, forcing the Ethiopians to retreat deep into their mountain fastness.

Islam displaced other creeds in the lowlands of the Horn,

and it remains the faith of nearly all the people inhabiting the eastern coast and the western plain of Eritrea, as well as the northernmost part of the plateau. Thus, while Islam claims nearly all pastoralists, Christianity is dominant among the peasant cultivators. (Muslims are significantly represented also in all towns of Eritrea, where they are prominent in trade.) In the perennial competition between cultivators and pastoralists over land, water, control of trade, and access to ports, religion has played an ideological role, and it remains a potent political force.

During the colonial period, Catholic and Protestant European missionaries introduced their own version of Christianity into Eritrea. They had considerable success among the small Kunama group, and they also attracted a few townspeople with the offer of modern education. The economy. Natural resources. Salt mining, based

on deposits in the Kobar Sink, is a traditional activity in Eritrea. Deposits of gold, copper, potash, and iron have been exploited at times in a minor way, and numerous other minerals have been identified, including zinc,

feldspar, gypsum, asbestos, mica, and sulfur. The area of cultivation is limited by climate and the uneven surface of the plateau, so that, of the 8 million acres (3.2 million hectares) of land considered cultivable, only 5 percent is being worked. There is room for expansion, however, especially if the country’s considerable water resources are harnessed for irrigation. In normal times, livestock is a valuable resource, and it has the potential to play a role in Eritrea’s foreign trade.

During the long war of independence, however, livestock was severely depleted. The fishing potential of the Red Sea is another underutilized resource. Soil erosion, an age-old process, is particularly severe on the plateau. Encouraged by the steady expansion of cultivation, it has left few wooded areas and has created a shortage of fuel. The proximity of the oil-rich Arabian basin has occasionally raised expectations of discovering petroleum in Eritrea, but intermittent exploration since

the days of Italian rule has failed to produce results. Agriculture. Agriculture is by far the most important sector of the country’s economy, providing a livelihood for about 80 percent of the population and normally accounting for the bulk of Eritrea’s exports. Peasant cultivation and traditional pastoralism are the main forms of agricultural activity. These are not mutually exclusive occupations, since most peasants also keep animals and most pastoralists cultivate grains when possible. Both peasants and pastoralists produce primarily for their own subsistence, and only small surpluses are available for trade. The staple grain products are an indigenous cereal named teff (Eragostis abyssinica) as well as corn (maize), wheat,

Christian highlanders and Muslim lowlanders

516

Eastern Africa barley, sorghum, and millet. Vegetables and fruit also are produced. Under Italian rule, modern irrigated plantations produced vegetables, fruit, cotton, sisal, bananas, tobacco, and coffee for the growing urban markets. This sector continued to operate under Ethiopian rule until it was disrupted by the long period of warfare. Industry. A generation of war also damaged Eritrea’s modest manufacturing sector, which also appeared during the Italian colonial period and provided many Eritrean workers with skills that enabled them later to find work abroad. Industry was based largely on the processing of agricultural products. Asmera was the main industrial cen-

Red Sea

ports

tre, concerned with food products, beer, tobacco, textiles, and leather. A petroleum refinery in the Red Sea port of Aseb, built by the Soviet Union for Ethiopia, is the prime industrial enterprise in Eritrea. Aseb also has a salt works, and there are a salt works and a cement works near the port of Mitsiwa.

Trade and transportation. Aseb and Mitsiwa have long been major ports of entry to Ethiopia, and that country, now landlocked, still has guarantees of access to the port

facilities at Aseb. As a result, the bulk of Eritrea’s trade is in the transit of goods to Ethiopia. A paved road links Aseb with Addis Ababa, and another paved road begins in Mitsiwa, climbs the plateau to Asmera, and continues south to the Ethiopian town of Adigrat. A railway was built by the Italians from Mitsiwa to Asmera, Keren, and Akordat, but it was rendered useless by the war of independence.

There are an international airport in Asmera and major airfields in Aseb and Mitsiwa. Administration and social conditions. Government. After liberation from Ethiopia in May 1991, Eritrea was ruled by a provisional government that consisted essentially of the central committee of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF). On May 19, 1993, shortly after a national referendum, this body proclaimed the Transitional Government of Eritrea, which was to rule for four years until the promulgation of a constitution and the election of a permanent government. The transitional government’s

legislative body, called the National Assembly, consisted of the original 30-member central committee of the EPLF augmented by 60 new members. At least 20 seats were to be reserved for women. The National Assembly sets the policies of the govern-

ment and elects the president. The president is assisted in implementing the government’s policies by a State Council, containing cabinet ministers and the governors of Eritrea’s provinces. In order to discourage ethnic rivalry, seats on the State Council are divided equally between Muslims and Christians, and political parties based on language or religion are banned.

Health and education.

Chronic drought and decades of

war have taken a toll on the health of Eritreans. The mortality rate at birth is 15 percent, and almost half of

all infants die during their first year. The average life expectancy is about 50 years. Only about 20 percent of Eritreans are literate, though the new government is intent on expanding education. Children are taught in their native languages, and in the

higher grades they also are taught foreign languages, especially Arabic and English. There is a university in Asmera. HISTORY

Precolonial Eritrea. Rule from the highlands. Beginning about 1000 Bc, Semitic peoples from the South Arabian kingdom of Saba’ (or Sheba) migrated across the Red Sea and absorbed the Cushitic inhabitants of the Eritrean coast and adjacent highlands. These Semitic invaders, possessing a well-developed culture, established the kingdom of Aksum, which, by the end of the 4th century AD, ruled the northern stretches of the Ethiopian Plateau and the eastern lowlands. An important trade route led from the port of Adulis, near modern Zula, to the city of

Aksum, the capital, located in what is now the Ethiopian province of Tigray. After extending its power at times as far afield as modern Egypt and Yemen, Aksum began to decline into obscurity

in the 6th century AD. Beginning in the 12th century, however, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held sway to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast. Eritrea’s central highlands, known as the mereb melash (“land beyond the Mereb River”), were the northern frontier region of the Ethiopian kingdoms and were ruled by a governor titled bahr negash (“lord of the sea”). The control exercised by the crown over this region was never firm, and it became even more tenuous as the centre of Ethiopian power moved steadily southward to Gonder and Shewa. Highland Eritrea became a vassal fiefdom of the lords of Tigray, who were seldom on good terms with the dominant Amhara branch of the Ethiopian family. Contesting for the coastlands. Off the plateau, the pastoralist peoples in the west and north knew no foreign master until the early 19th century, when the Egyptians invaded the Sudan and raided deep into the Eritrean lowlands. The Red Sea coast, owing to its strategic and commercial importance, was contested by many powers. In the 16th century the Turks occupied the Dahlak Archipelago and then Mitsiwa, where they maintained, with occasional interruption, a garrison for more than

The “land

beyond the Mereb”

three centuries. Also in the 16th century, Eritrea as well as Ethiopia were affected by the invasions of Ahmad Graf, the Muslim leader of the sultanate of Adal. After

the expulsion of Ahmad’s forces, the Turks temporarily occupied even more of Eritrea’s coastal area. In 1865 the Egyptians obtained Mitsiwa from the Ottoman Porte. From there they pushed inland to the plateau, until in 1875 an Egyptian force that reached the Mereb River was annihilated by Ethiopian forces. Meanwhile, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 had made the Red Sea a scene of rivalry among the world’s most powerful states. Between 1869 and 1880 the Italian Rubattino Navigation company purchased from the local

Afar sultan stretches of the Red Sea coast adjoining the village of Aseb. In 1882 these acquisitions were transferred to the Italian state, and in 1885 Italian troops landed at Mitsiwa, Aseb, and other locations. There was no resistance by the Egyptians at Mitsiwa, and protests made by the Turks and Ethiopians were ignored. Italian forces then systematically spread out from Mitsiwa toward the highlands. This expansion onto the plateau was initially opposed by Emperor Yohannes IV, the only Tigray to wear the Ethiopian crown in modern times, but Yohannes’s successor, Menilek II, in return for weapons that he

needed to fight possible rivals, acquiesced to Italian occupation of the region north of the Mereb. In the Treaty of Wichale, signed on May 2, 1889, Menilek recognized “Italian possessions in the Red Sea,” and on Jan. 1, 1890, the Italian colony of Eritrea was officially proclaimed. From here, the Italians launched several incursions into Ethiopia, only to be decisively defeated by Menilek’s army at the Battle of Adwa

on March

1, 1896. Menilek

did

not pursue the defeated enemy across the Mereb. Soon afterward, he signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, obtaining Italian recognition of Ethiopia’s sovereignty in return for his recognition of Italian rule over Eritrea. Colonial Eritrea. Ruled by Italy. In precolonial times there were no towns on the Eritrean plateau, urban cen-

tres being limited to the Red Sea coast. Under Italian rule, however, Eritrea’s urban sector flourished. Tens of thousands of Italians arrived, bringing with them modern skills and a new lifestyle. Asmera grew into a charming city in Mediterranean style, the port of Mitsiwa was modernized and the port of Aseb improved, and a number of smaller towns appeared on the plateau. Road and rail construction linked the various regions of the colony, and a modest manufacturing sector also appeared, so that Eritreans acquired industrial skills. At the same time, a sizable portion of Eritrea’s best agricultural land was reserved for Italian farmers (although only a few actually settled on the land), and a small plantation sector was established to grow produce for the urban market. Eritrea’s population grew rapidly during this period. Combined with the appropriation of land for Italian use, population growth created a shortage of land for the peasantry. This in turn stimulated a drift to the

Economic growth and modernization

Eastern Africa cities, which further expanded the urban population and produced an Eritrean working class. Still, Eritrea had no valuable resources for exploitation and was not a wealth-producing colony for Italy. In fact, the colony was subsidized by the Italians, an extraneous factor that gave the local economy an artificial glow. Investment in education for Eritreans was negligible. There were

very

few schools

for them,

and

even

these were

limited to the primary level. Also, Eritreans were not employed in the colonial service except as labourers and soldiers. As preparations for the invasion of Ethiopia got under way in the mid-1930s, several thousand Eritreans were recruited to serve in the invading army. From Italian to Ethiopian rule. The invasion and occupation of Ethiopia beginning in 1935 marked the last chapter in Italian colonial history—a chapter that came to an end with the eviction of Italy from the Horn of Africa by the British in 1941. The following decade, during which Eritrea remained under British administration, was a period of intense political and diplomatic activity that shaped the future of Eritrea. Landlocked Ethiopia, coveting Eritrea’s two seaports, launched an early campaign to annex the former colony, claiming that it had always been part of Ethiopia’s domain. Lobbying of the Allied powers was carried out, and within Eritrea support for annexation was mobilized on the basis of religious loyalty by utilizing the services of Ethiopian Orthodox clergy. In order to promote the union of Eritrea with Ethiopia, a Unionist Party was formed in 1946; it was financed and guided from Addis Ababa. Eritrea’s Muslims had every good reason to oppose union with Ethiopia, where Christianity was the official religion and Muslims suffered discrimination in many areas of life. In order to counter Christian mobilization for union, a Muslim League was founded in 1947 to campaign for Entrean

independence.

Thus, although there were

some

Christians who favoured independence and a few Muslims who were favourable to union with Ethiopia, the political division was drawn largely along sectarian lines. Federation with Ethiopia. Adoption of the federal scheme. In 1950 the United Nations (UN), under the prompting of the United States, resolved to join Eritrea to Ethiopia within two years in a federation that would provide the former colony with autonomy under its own constitution and elected government. Elections to a new Eritrean Assembly in 1952 gave the Unionist Party the largest number of seats—but not a majority, so that it formed a government in coalition with a Muslim faction. The Eritrean constitution, prepared by the UN in consultation with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, was adopted by the Eritrean Assembly on July 10, 1952, and ratified by Haile Selassie on August 11. The act of federation was ratified by the emperor on September 11, and British authorities officially relinquished control on September 15.

Failure of the federal scheme. The federal scheme was short-lived, mainly because the imperial government in Suppression of Eritrean nationalism

Addis Ababa

was

unwilling to abide by its provisions.

First, the Eritrean constitution sought to establish an equilibrium between ethnic and religious groups. It made Tigrinya and Arabic the official languages of Eritrea, and it allowed local communities to choose the language of education for their children. In the spirit of the constitution, the practice evolved of ensuring parity between Christians and Muslims in appointment to state office. This delicate balance was destroyed by Ethiopian interference, and Muslims were the initial losers, as Arabic was elim-

inated from state education and Muslims were squeezed out of public employment. Furthermore, the Ethiopians were anxious to eliminate any traces of separatism in Eritrea, and to that end they harrassed the leaders of the independence movement until many of them fled abroad. With the collaboration of their Unionist allies and in express violation of the constitution, they also suppressed all attempts to form autonomous Eritrean organizations. Political parties were banned in 1955, trade unions were banned

in 1958, and in 1959 the name

Eritrean Gov-

ernment was changed to “Eritrean Administration” and Ethiopian law was imposed. Eventually, even Ethiopia’s

517

Eritrean allies were alienated by crude intervention in the running of the Eritrean administration, financial disputes between Asmera and Addis Ababa, and mounting pressure on the Eritreans to renounce autonomy. The federation was already dead when, on Nov. 14, 1962, the Ethiopian parliament and Eritrean Assembly voted unanimously for

the abolition of Eritrea’s federal status, making Eritrea a

simple province of the Ethiopian empire. Soon afterward, Tigrinya was banned in education; it was replaced by Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia. The war of independence. Beginning of armed revolt. Muslims had been the first to suffer from Ethiopia’s intervention in Eritrea, and it was they who formed the first opposition movement. In 1960, leaders of the defunct independence movement who were then living in exile announced the formation of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). The founders, all Muslims, were led by Idris Mohammed Adam, a leading political figure in Eritrea in the 1940s. By the mid-1960s the ELF was able to field a small guerrilla force in the western plain of Eritrea, and

thus began a war that was to last nearly three decades. In the early years, the ELF drew support from Muslim communities in the western and eastern lowlands as well as the northern hills. It also sought support from The Sudan, Syria, Iran, and other Islamic states, used Arabic as its official language, and adopted Arab nomenclature in its organization. Ethiopian authorities portrayed the movement as an Arab tool and sought to rally Eritrean Christians to oppose it. Deteriorating economic and political conditions in Eritrea, however, combined to produce the opposite result. During the 1930s and ’40s the Eritrean economy had been stimulated by Italian colonial activity and by the special conditions created by World War II. After the war the local economy deflated, and it remained stagnant during the entire period of federation with Ethiopia. Many thousands of Eritreans were forced to emigrate to Ethiopia and the Middle East in search of employment. The suppression of the nascent trade-union movement further embittered this class, and many Eritrean workers— Muslims and Christians alike—rallied to the nationalist movement. In addition, the banning of Tigrinya in state education helped to turn an entire generation of Eritrean Christian students toward nationalism. Christians began to join the ELF in significant numbers at the end of the 1960s. Among them were students who had become politically radicalized in the Ethiopian student movement, which itself became a centre of opposition to the regime of Haile Selassie in the 1960s and 70s. The spreading revolution. The ELF was now able to extend it operations to the central highlands of Eritrea— the home of the Tigray. However, the arrival of the radical students coincided with the emergence of a serious rift between the leadership of the ELF, which was permanently resident in Cairo, and the rank and file, which remained in the field. The newcomers joined the opposition to the leadership, and in 1972 several groups that had defected

from the ELF joined forces to form the Eritrean Liberation Front—People’s Liberation Forces (ELF—PLF). For several years the two rival organizations fought each other as well as the Ethiopians. After a series of splits and mergers, the ELF-PLF came under the control of former students, among whom Christians predominated, and was renamed the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF). Religion was of no concern to the EPLF, a highly committed and

disciplined organization that adopted Marxism as its guide and proclaimed its intention to carry out a social as well as a national revolution in Eritrea. The EPLF had made its presence felt by 1974, when the

imperial regime in Ethiopia collapsed. While a power struggle for the succession was waged in Addis Ababa, the two Eritrean fronts liberated most of the territory and towns of Eritrea. By 1977 the nationalist revolution seemed on the verge of victory. It was not to be. A military dictatorship emerged

in Addis

Ababa,

also espousing

Marxism

but

finding a powerful new patron in the Soviet Union. Since World War II, the Red Sea had become a vital conduit through which oil from the Persian Gulf passed, and it thus became an object of intense competition between the

Highlanders

join the rebellion

518

Marketing and Merchandising United States and the Soviet Union. Neither superpower favoured Eritrean nationalism, and the United States had been the first to oppose it directly by assisting Ethiopia to

build the largest army in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1960s. The United States now cut off its support, opening a gap that was quickly filled by the Soviets. Armed and assisted by the Soviet bloc, the new Ethiopian regime was able to regain most of Eritrea in 1978, and warfare on a scale unprecedented in black Africa raged for the next decade. The Ethiopians made enormous efforts with massive land attacks and heavy weaponry, but they had no success against the small and lightly armed guerrilla forces. The violence of war and indiscriminate oppression in their homeland turned most Eritreans against Ethiopia, thereby producing a steady stream of young recruits for the nationalist movement. Throughout the 1980s the fighting was carried out by the EPLF, which by 1981 had succeeded in eliminating the ELF and had emerged as the

unchallenged champion of Eritrean nationalism. In the latter part of the decade, the Soviet Union terminated its

military aid to Ethiopia. Unable to find another patron and faced with armed rebellion in other parts of the country, the regime in Addis Ababa began to falter. The final act occurred in 1991, when a rebel military offensive, led by the Tigray People’s Liberation Front, swept toward the capital. The Ethiopian army disintegrated, and in May the EPLF assumed complete control of Eritrea. Three decades of war had produced among Eritreans a sense of unity and solidarity that they had not known before. Indeed, an entire generation had come of age during the struggle for independence, which was now to become a reality. The new regime in Ethiopia supported Eritrea’s independence, so that a separation was effected amicably. In a referendum held two years after liberation, on April 23-25, 1993, the overwhelming majority of Eritreans voted for independence. On May 21, Isaias Afwerki, the secretary-general of the EPLF, was made president of a transitional government, and on May 24 he proclaimed Eritrea officially independent.

Independence

(GEOFFREY CHARLES LAST/JOHN MARKAKIS)

Marketing and Merchandising arketing is a process whose principal function to promote and facilitate exchange. Through marketing, individuals and groups obtain what they need and want by exchanging products and services with other parties. Such a process can occur only when there are at least two parties, each of whom has something to offer. In addition, exchange cannot occur unless the parties are able to communicate about and to deliver what they offer. Marketing is not a coercive process: all parties must be free to accept or reject what others are offering. So defined, marketing is distinguished from other modes of obtaining desired goods, such as through self-production, begging, theft, or force. Marketing is not confined to any particular type of economy, because goods must be exchanged and. therefore marketed in all economies and societies except perhaps in the most primitive. Furthermore, marketing is not a function that is limited to profit-oriented business; even such institutions as hospitals, schools, and museums engage in some forms of marketing. Within the broad scope of marketing, merchandising is concerned more specifically with promoting the sale of goods and services to consumers (.e., retailing) and hence is more characteristic of freemarket economies. Based on these criteria, marketing can take a variety of

M:

forms: it can be a set of functions, a department within an

organization, a managerial process, a managerial philosophy, and a social process. For coverage of related topics in the Macropedia and Micropedia, see the Propedia, sections 532 and 533, and

the Index.

The evolving discipline of marketing The marketing discipline had its origins in the early 20th century as an offspring of economics. Economic science had neglected the role of middlemen and the role of func-

tions other than price in the determination of demand levels and characteristics. Early marketing economists examined agricultural and industrial markets and described them in greater detail than the classical economists. This examination resulted in the development of three approaches to the analysis of marketing activity: the commodity, the institution, and the function. Commodity analysis studies the ways in which a product or product group is brought to market. A commodity analysis of milk, for example, traces the ways in which

milk is collected at individual dairy farms, transported to and processed at local dairy cooperatives, and shipped

to grocers and supermarkets for consumer purchase. In-

stitutional analysis describes the types of businesses that play a prevalent role in marketing, such as wholesale or

retail institutions. For instance, an institutional analysis of clothing wholesalers examines the ongoing concerns that wholesalers face in order to ensure both the correct supply for their customers and the appropriate inventory and shipping capabilities. Finally, a functional analysis examines the general tasks that marketing performs. For example, any marketing effort must ensure that the product is transported from the supplier to the customer. In some industries, this transportation function may be handled by a truck, while in others it may be done by mail,

facsimile, television signal, or airline. All these institutions perform the same function. As the study of marketing became more prevalent throughout the 20th century, large companies—particularly mass consumer manufacturers—began to recognize the importance of market research, better product design, effective distribution, and sustained communication with consumers in the success of their brands. Marketing concepts and techniques later moved into the industrialgoods sector and subsequently into the services sector. It

soon became apparent that organizations and individuals market not only goods and services but also ideas (social marketing), places (location marketing), personalities (celebrity marketing), events (event marketing), and even the organizations themselves (public relations).

Roles of marketing As marketing developed, it took a variety of forms. It was noted above that marketing can be viewed as a set of functions in the sense that certain activities are traditionally associated with the exchange process. A common but incorrect view is that selling and advertising are the only marketing activities. Yet, in addition to promotion, marketing includes a much broader set of functions, including product development, packaging, pricing, distribution, and customer service. Many organizations and businesses assign responsibility for these marketing functions to a specific group of individuals within the organization. In this respect, marketing is a unique and separate entity. Those who make up the marketing department may include brand and product managers, marketing researchers, sales representatives, ad-

vertising and promotion managers, pricing specialists, and customer service personnel. As a managerial process, marketing is the way in which an organization determines its best opportunities in the marketplace, given its objectives and resources. The mar-

Rise of marketing

Marketing and Merchandising keting process is divided into a strategic and atactical phase. The strategic phase has three components—segmen-

tation, targeting, and positioning (STP). The organization must distinguish among different groups of customers in the market (segmentation), choose which group(s) it can serve effectively (targeting), and communicate the central benefit it offers to that group (positioning). The marketing process includes designing and implementing various tactics, commonly referred to as the “marketing mix,” or the “4 Ps”: product, price, place (or distribution), and

promotion. The marketing mix is followed by evaluating, controlling, and revising the marketing process to achieve the organization’s objectives (see below the section Marketing-mix planning). The managerial philosophy of marketing puts central emphasis on customer satisfaction as the means for gaining and keeping loyal customers. Marketers urge their organizations to carefully and continually gauge target customers’ expectations and to consistently meet or exceed

Relation to supply and demand

these expectations. In order to accomplish this, everyone in all areas of the organization must focus on understanding and serving customers; it will not succeed if all marketing occurs only in the marketing department. Marketing, consequently, is far too important to be done solely by the marketing department. Marketers also want their organizations to move from practicing transaction-oriented marketing, which focuses on individual exchanges, to relationship-driven marketing, which emphasizes serving the customer over the long term. Simply getting new customers and losing old ones will not help the organization achieve its objectives. Finally, marketing is a social process that occurs in all economies, regardless of their political structure and orientation. It is the process by which a society organizes and distributes its resources to meet the material needs of its citizens. However, marketing activity is more pronounced under conditions of goods surpluses than goods shortages. When goods are in short supply, consumers are usually so desirous of goods that the exchange process does not require significant promotion or facilitation. In contrast, when there are more goods and services than consumers need or want, companies must work harder to convince customers to exchange with them.

The marketing process The marketing process consists of four elements: strategic marketing analysis, marketing-mix planning, marketing implementation, and marketing control.

STRATEGIC MARKETING ANALYSIS The aim of marketing in profit-oriented organizations is to meet needs profitably. Companies must therefore first define which needs—and whose needs—they can satisfy. For example, the personal transportation market consists of people who put different values on an automobile’s cost, speed, safety, status, and styling. No single automobile can satisfy all these needs in a superior fashion; compromises have to be made. Furthermore, some individuals may wish to meet their personal transportation needs with something other than an automobile, such as a motorcycle, a bicycle, or a bus or other form of public transportation. Because of such variables, an automobile company must identify the different preference groups, or segments, of customers and decide which group(s) they can target profitably. Segments can be divided into even smaller groups, called

subsegments or niches. A niche is defined as a small target group that has special requirements. For example, a bank may specialize in serving the investment needs of not only senior citizens but also senior citizens with high incomes and perhaps even those with particular investment preferences. It is more likely that larger organizations will serve the larger market segments (mass marketing) and ignore niches. As a result, smaller companies typically emerge that are intimately familiar with a particular niche and ! specialize in serving its needs.

A growing number of companies are now trying to serve “segments of one.” They attempt to adapt their

519

offer and communication to each individual customer. This is understandable, for instance, with large industrial companies that have only a few major customers. For example, The Boeing Company (United States) designs its 747 planes differently for each major customer, such as United Airlines, Inc., or American Airlines, Inc. Serving individual customers is increasingly possible with the advent of database marketing, through which individual customer characteristics and purchase histories are retained in company information systems. Even mass-marketing companies, particularly large retailers and catalog houses, compile comprehensive data on individual customers and are able to customize their offerings and communications. A key step in marketing strategy, known as positioning, involves creating and communicating a message that clearly establishes the company or brand in relation to competitors. Thus, Volvo Aktiebolaget (Sweden) has positioned its automobile as the “safest,” and Daimler-Benz

AG (Germany), manufacturer of Mercedes-Benz vehicles, has positioned its car as the best “engineered.” Some products may be positioned as “outstanding” in two or more ways. However, claiming superiority along several dimensions may hurt a company’s credibility because consumers will not believe that any one offering can excel in all dimensions. Furthermore, although the company may communicate a particular position, customers may perceive a different image of the company as a result of their actual experiences with the company’s product or through word of mouth. MARKETING-MIX

PLANNING

Having developed a strategy, a company must then decide

which tactics will be most effective in achieving strategy goals. Tactical marketing involves creating a marketing mix of four components—product, price, place, promotion—that fulfills the strategy for the targeted set of cus-

tomer needs. Product. The first marketing-mix element is the product, which refers to the offering or group of offerings that will be made available to customers. In the case of a physical product, such as a car, a company will gather information about the features and benefits desired by a target market. Before assembling a product, the marketer’s role is to communicate customer desires to the engineers who design the product or service. This is in contrast to past practice, when engineers designed a product based on their own preferences, interests, or expertise and then

expected marketers to find as many customers as possible to buy this product. Contemporary thinking calls for products to be designed based on customer input and not solely on engineers’ ideas. In traditional economies, the goods produced and consumed often remain the same from one generation to the next—including food, clothing, and housing. As economies develop, the range of products available tends to expand, and the products themselves change. In contemporary industrialized societies, products, like people,

go through life cycles: birth, growth, maturity, and decline. This constant replacement of existing products with new or altered products has significant consequences for

professional marketers. The development of new products involves all aspects of a business—production, finance, research and development, and even personnel administration and public relations. Packaging and branding are also substantial components in the marketing of a product. Packaging in some instances may be as simple as customers in France carrying long loaves of unwrapped bread or small produce dealers in Italy wrapping vegetables in newspapers or placing them in customers’ string bags. In most industrialized countries, however, the packaging of merchandise has become a major part of the selling effort, as marketers now specify exactly the types of packaging that will be most appealing to prospective customers. The importance of packaging in the distribution of the product has increased with the spread of self-service purchases—in wholesaling as well as in retailing. Packaging is sometimes designed to facilitate the use of the product, as with aerosol containers for room deodorants. In Europe such condiments as mustard,

Consumer input in product development

520

Marketing and Merchandising mayonnaise, and ketchup are often packaged in tubes. Some packages are reusable, making them attractive to

customers in poorer countries where metal containers, for instance, are often highly prized. The same general marketing approach about the product applies to the development of service offerings as well. For example, a health maintenance organization (HMO) must design a contract for its members that describes which medical procedures will be covered, how much physician choice will be available, how out-of-town medical costs will be handled, and so forth. In creating a successful service mix, the HMO must choose features that are preferred and expected by target customers, or the service will not be valued in the marketplace. Price. The second marketing-mix element is price. Ordinarily companies determine a price by gauging the quality or performance level of the offer and then selecting a price that reflects how the market values its level of quality. However, marketers also are aware that price can send a message to a customer about the product’s presumed quality level. A Mercedes-Benz vehicle is generally considered to be a high-quality automobile, and it therefore can command a high price in the marketplace. But, even if the manufacturer could price its cars competitively with economy cars, it might not do so, knowing that the lower price might communicate lower quality. On the other hand, in order to gain market share, some companies have moved to “more for the same” or “the same for less” pricing, which means offering prices that are consistently lower than those of their competitors. This kind of discount pricing has caused firms in such industries as airlines and pharmaceuticals (which used to charge a price premium based on their past brand strength and reputation) to significantly reevaluate their marketing strategies. Place. Place, or where the product is made available, is the third element of the marketing mix and is most commonly referred to as distribution. When a product moves along its path from producer to consumer, it is said to be following a channel of distribution. For example, the channel of distribution for many food products includes food-processing plants, warehouses, wholesalers, and supermarkets. By using this channel, a food manufacturer makes its products easily accessible by ensuring that they are in stores that are frequented by those in the target market. In another example, a mutual funds organization makes its investment products available by enlisting the assistance of brokerage houses and banks, which in turn establish relationships with particular customers. However, each channel participant can handle only a certain number of products: space at supermarkets is limited, and investment brokers can keep abreast of only a limited number of mutual funds. Because of this, some marketers may decide to skip steps in the channel and instead market directly to buyers through direct mail, telemarketing, door-to-door selling, shopping via television (a growing trend in the late 20th century), or factory outlets. Promotion. Promotion, the fourth marketing-mix element, consists of several methods of communicating with and influencing customers. The major tools are sales force, advertising, sales promotion, and public relations. Sales representatives are the most expensive means of promotion, because they require income, expenses, and supplementary benefits. Their ability to personalize the promotion process makes salespeople most effective at selling complex goods, big-ticket items, and highly personal

Types of advertising

goods—for example, those related to religion or insurance. Salespeople are trained to make presentations, answer objections, gain commitments to purchase, and manage account growth. Some companies have successfully reduced their sales-force costs by replacing certain functions (for example, finding new customers) with less expensive methods (such as direct mail and telemarketing). Advertising includes all forms of paid, nonpersonal communication and promotion of products, services, or ideas by a specified sponsor. Advertising appears in such media as print (newspapers, magazines, billboards, flyers) or broadcast (radio, television). Print advertisements typically consist of a picture, a headline, information about

the product, and occasionally a response coupon. Broad-

cast advertisements consist of an audio or video narrative that can range from short 15-second spots to longer segments known as infomercials, which generally last 30 or 60 minutes. While advertising presents a reason to buy a product, sales promotion offers a short-term incentive to purchase. Sales promotions often attract brand switchers (those who are not loyal to a specific brand) who are looking primarily for low price and good value. Thus, especially in markets where brands are highly similar, sales promotions can cause a short-term increase in sales but little perma-

nent gain in market share. Alternatively, in markets where brands are quite dissimilar, sales promotions can alter market shares more permanently. The use of promotions has risen considerably during the late 20th century. This is due to a number of factors within:companies, including an increased sophistication in sales promotion techniques and greater pressure to increase sales. Several market factors also have fostered this increase, including a rise in the number of brands (especially similar ones) and a decrease in the efficiency of traditional advertising due to increasingly fractionated consumer markets. Public relations, in contrast to advertising and sales pro-

motion, generally involves less commercialized modes of communication. Its primary purpose is to disseminate information and opinion to groups and individuals who have an actual or potential impact on a company’s ability to achieve its objectives. In addition, public relations

specialists are responsible for monitoring these individuals and groups and for maintaining good relationships with them. One of their key activities is to work with news and information media to ensure appropriate coverage of the company’s activities and products. Public relations specialists create publicity by arranging press conferences, contests, meetings, and other events that will draw attention to a company’s products or services. Another public

relations responsibility is crisis management—that is, handling situations in which public awareness of a particular issue may dramatically and negatively impact the company’s ability to achieve its goals. For example, when it was discovered that some bottles of Perrier sparkling water might have been tainted by a harmful chemical, Source Perrier, SA’s public relations team had to ensure that the general consuming public did not thereafter automatically associate Perrier with tainted water. Other public relations activities include lobbying, advising management about public issues, and planning community events. Because public relations does not always seek to impact sales or profitability directly, it is sometimes seen as serving a function that is separate from marketing. However, some companies recognize that public relations can work in conjunction with other marketing activities to facilitate the exchange process directly and indirectly. These organizations have established marketing public relations departments to directly support corporate and product promotion and image management. (PHILIP KOTLER/KENT A. GRAYSON/JOHN D. HIBBARD) MARKETING

IMPLEMENTATION

Companies have typically hired different agencies to help in the development of advertising, sales promotion, and

publicity ideas. However, this often results in a lack of

coordination between elements of the promotion mix. When components of the mix are not all in harmony, a confusing message may be sent to consumers. For example, a print advertisement for an automobile may emphasize the car’s exclusivity and luxury, while a television advertisement may stress rebates and sales, clashing with

this image of exclusivity. Alternatively, by integrating the marketing elements, a company can more efficiently utilize its resources. Instead of individually managing four or five different promotion processes, the company man-

ages only one. In addition, promotion expenditures are likely to be better allocated, because differences among promotion tools become more explicit. This reasoning has led to integrated marketing communications, in which all promotional tools are considered to be part of the same

effort, and each tool receives full consideration in terms

of its cost and effectiveness.

South America MARKETING

EVALUATION

AND

CONTROL

No marketing process, even the most carefully developed, 1s guaranteed to result in maximum benefit for a company. In addition, because every market is changing constantly, a strategy that is effective today may not be effective in the future. It is important to evaluate a marketing program periodically to be sure that it is achieving its objectives.

There are four types of marketing control, each of which has a different purpose: annual-plan control, profitability control, efficiency control, and strategic control. ‘ The basis of annual-plan control is managerial objectives—that is to say, specific goals, such as sales and profitability, that are established on a monthly or quarterly basis. Organizations use five tools to monitor plan performance. The first is sales analysis, in which sales goals are compared with actual sales and discrepancies are explained or accounted for. A second tool is market-share

analysis, which compares a company’s sales with those of its competitors. Companies can express their market share in a number of ways, by comparing their own sales to total market sales, sales within the market segment, or sales of the segment’s top competitors. Third, marketing expense-to-sales analysis gauges how much a company spends to achieve its sales goals. The ratio of marketing expenses to sales is expected to fluctuate, and companies usually establish an acceptable range for this ratio. In contrast, financial analysis estimates such expenses (along with others) from a corporate perspective. This includes a comparison of profits to sales (profit margin), sales to assets (asset turnover), profits to assets (return on assets), assets to worth (financial leverage), and, finally, profits to worth (return on net worth). Finally, companies measure customer satisfaction as a means of tracking goal achievement. Analyses of this kind are generally less quantitative than those described above and may include complaint and suggestion systems, customer satisfaction surveys, and careful analysis of reasons why customers switch to a competitor’s product. Profitability control and efficiency control allow a company to closely monitor its sales, profits, and expenditures. Profitability control demonstrates the relative profitearning capacity of a company’s different products and consumer groups. Companies are frequently surprised to find that a small percentage of their products and customers contribute to a large percentage of their profits. This knowledge helps a company allocate its resources

and effort. Efficiency control involves micro-level analysis of the various elements of the marketing mix, including sales force, advertising, sales promotion, and distribution. For example, to understand its sales-force efficiency, a company may keep track of how many sales calls a representative makes each day, how long each call lasts, and how much each call costs and generates in revenue. This type of analysis highlights areas in which companies can manage their marketing efforts in a more productive and cost-effective manner. Strategic control processes allow managers to evaluate a company’s marketing program from a critical long-term perspective. This involves a detailed and objective analysis of a company’s organization and its ability to maximize its strengths and market opportunities. Companies can use two types of strategic control tools. The first, which a company uses to evaluate itself, is called a marketingeffectiveness rating review. In order to rate its own marketing effectiveness, a company examines its customer philosophy, the adequacy of its marketing information, and the efficiency of its marketing operations. It will also closely evaluate the strength of its marketing strategy and the integration of its marketing tactics. The second evaluation tool is known as a marketing audit. This is a comprehensive, systematic, independent, and periodic analysis that a company uses to examine its strengths in relation to its current and potential market(s). Such an analysis is comprehensive because it covers all aspects of the marketing climate (unlike a functional audit, which analyzes one marketing activity), looking at both macro-environment factors (demographic, economic, ecological, technological, political, and cultural) and microor task-environment factors (markets, customers, competitors, distributors, dealers, suppliers, facilitators, and publics). The audit includes analyses of the company’s marketing strategy, marketing organization, marketing systems, and marketing productivity. It must be systematic in order to provide concrete conclusions based on these analyses. To ensure objectivity, a marketing audit is best done by a person, department, or organization that is independent of the company or marketing program. Marketing audits should be done not only when the value of a company’s current marketing plan is in question; they must be done periodically in order to isolate and solve problems before they arise. (KENT A. GRAYSON/JOHN D. HIBBARD/PHILIP KOTLER)

South America AMAZON RIVER BASIN The Amazon

Extent of

the basin

(Portuguese and Spanish: Amazonas) is the

greatest river of South America and the largest drainage system in the world in terms of the volume of the river’s flow and the area of its basin. The total length of this great river—measured from the headwaters of the UcayaliApurimac river system in Peru—is about 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometres), which is slightly shorter than the Nile River but still the equivalent of the distance from New York City to Rome. Its westernmost source is high in the Andes Mountains, within 100 miles of the Pacific Ocean, and its mouth is in the Atlantic Ocean. The vast Amazon basin (Amazonia), the largest lowland in Latin America, has an area of about 2.3 million square miles (6 million square kilometres) and is nearly twice as large as that of the Congo River, the Earth’s other great equatorial drainage system. Stretching some 1,725 miles from north to south at its widest point, the basin includes the greater part of Brazil and Peru, significant parts of Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, and a small area of Venezuela; roughly two-thirds of the Amazon’s main stream and by far the largest portion .of its basin are within Brazil. The Tocantins-Araguaia catchment area in Para state covers another 300,000 square miles. Although

521

considered a part of Amazonia by the Brazilian government and in popular usage, it is technically a separate system. It is estimated that about one-fifth of all the water that runs off the Earth’s surface is carried by the Amazon. The flood-stage discharge at the river’s mouth is about 6,180,000 cubic feet (175,000 cubic metres) per second, which is four times that of the Congo and more than 10 times the amount carried by the Mississippi River. This

immense volume of fresh water dilutes the ocean’s saltiness for more than 100 miles from shore. The extensive lowland areas bordering the main river and its tributaries, called vdrzeas, are subject to annual flooding, with consequent soil enrichment; however, most

of the vast basin consists of upland, well above the inundations and known as terra firme. More than twothirds of the basin is covered by an immense rain forest, which grades into dry forest and savanna on the higher northern and southern margins and into montane forest in the Andes to the west. The Amazon Rain Forest, which represents about half of the Earth’s remaining rain forest, also constitutes its largest reserve of biological resources. The first European to explore the Amazon, in 1541, was the Spanish soldier Francisco de Orellana, who is said to have given the river its name after reporting pitched

Strategic control tools

§22

South America battles with tribes of female warriors, whom he likened to the Amazons of Greek mythology. Although the name Amazon is conventionally employed for the entire river, in Peruvian and Brazilian nomenclature it properly is applied only to sections of it. In Peru the upper main stream (fed by numerous tributaries flowing from sources in the Andes) down to Iquitos (Peru) is called Marafion (Portuguese: Maranhido), and from there to the Atlantic

it is called Amazonas. In Brazil the name Solimées is used from Iquitos to the mouth of the Negro River and Amazonas only from the Negro to the sea. Physical features. Landforms and drainage patterns. The Amazon basin is a great structural depression, a subsidence trough that has been filling with immense quantities of sediment of Cenozoic age (i.e., from the past 66.4 million years). This depression, which flares out to its greatest dimension in the Amazon’s upper reaches, lies between two old and relatively low crystalline plateaus, the rugged Guiana Highlands to the north and the lower Brazilian Highlands (lying somewhat farther from the main river) to the south. The Amazon basin was occupied by a great freshwater sea during the Pliocene Epoch (5.3 to 1.6 million years ago). Sometime during the Pleistocene Epoch (1,600,000 to 10,000 years ago) an outlet to the Atlantic was established, and the great river and its tributaries be-

came deeply entrenched into the former Pliocene seafloor. The modern Amazon and its tributaries occupy a vast system of drowned valleys that have been filled with alluvium. With the rise in sea level that followed the melting of the Pleistocene glaciers, the steep-sided canyons that had been eroded into the Pliocene surface during the period of lower sea levels were gradually flooded. In the upper part of the valley—in eastern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia—more recent outwash from the Andes

has covered many of the older surfaces. Physiography of the river course. The Amazon River has its main outlet north of Marajé Island, a lowland somewhat larger in size than Denmark, through a cluster of half-submerged islets and shallow sandbanks. Here the mouth of the river is 40 miles (64 kilometres) wide. The port city of Belém is on the deep water of the Para River, an estuary marking the south side of Marajo, which is fed chiefly by the Tocantins River entering it southwest of Belém. The port city’s link with the main Amazon channel is either north along the ocean frontage of Maraj6 or following the deep but narrow furos (channels) of Breves that bound the island on the southwest and link the Para River with the Amazon. There are more than 1,000 tributaries of the Amazon that flow into it from the Guiana

Major tributaries

Highlands and from the Brazilian Highlands, as well as from the Andes. Seven of these tributaries—the Japura (Caqueta in Colombia), Jurua, Madeira, Negro, Purus, Tocantins, and Xingu rivers—are more than 1,000 miles long; and one, the Madeira River, exceeds 2,000 miles from source to mouth. The largest oceangoing ships can ascend the river 1,000 miles to the city of Manaus, while

lesser freight and passenger vessels reach Iquitos, Peru, 1,300 miles farther upstream, at any time of year. The sedimentary axis of the Amazon

basin comprises

two distinct groups of landforms: the vdrzea, or floodplain of alluvium of Holocene age (i.e., up to 10,000 years old), and the terra firme, or upland surfaces of Pliocene and Pleistocene materials (those from 10,000 to 5,300,000 years old) that lie well above the highest flood level. The

floodplain of the main river is characteristically 12 to 30 miles wide. It is bounded irregularly by low bluffs 20 to

60 feet high, beyond which the older, undulating upland

extends both north and south to the horizon. Occasionally these bluffs are undercut by the river as it swings to and fro across the alluvium, producing the terra caida, or “fallen land,” so often described by Amazon travelers. At the city of Obidos, where the river narrows to a width of 1.25 miles, a low range of relatively hard rock interrupts the otherwise continuous floodplain.

The streams that rise in the ancient crystalline high-

Blackwater rivers

lands—the Jari, Trombetas, and Negro to the north and the Tocantins-Araguaia, Xingu, and Tapajos to the south—are so-called “blackwater” streams; they are acidic

and rich in humus.

Because these streams originate in

nutrient-poor, often sandy uplands, they carry little or no silt or dissolved solids. Where such blackwater tributaries enter the main river, they are sometimes blocked off to form funnel-shaped, freshwater lakes or estuaries, as at the mouth of the Tapajés. In contrast, the Madeira River, which joins the Amazon some 50 miles downstream from Manaus, and its prin-

cipal affluents—the Purus, Jurua, Ucayali, and Huallaga on the right or southern bank and the Japura (Caqueta), Ic4 (Putumayo), and Napo from the northwest—have their source in the youthful and tectonically active Andes. There they pick up the heavy sediment loads that account for their “whitewater” designation. Where the silt-laden waters of the Amazon (SolimGes in Brazil), derived from these streams, meet those of the Negro at Manaus, the darker and hence warmer and sediment-free waters of the latter tend to be overrun by those of the Amazon, creating a striking colour boundary which is erased by turbulence downstream.

The mother river, the Marafién above Iquitos, rises in

the central Peruvian Andes at an elevation of 15,870 feet in a small lake in the Cordillera Huayhuash above Cerro de Pasco. The Huallaga and Ucayali, major nght-bank affluents of the Marafion, originate considerably farther south. The headwaters of the deeply entrenched Apurimac and Urubamba, tributaries in turn of the Ucayali, reach to within 100 miles of Lake Titicaca (elevation 12,500 feet) on the Peru-Bolivia border, the farthest of any stream in

the system from the great river’s mouth. The Negro River, the largest of all the Amazon tributaries, accounts for about one-fifth of the total discharge of the Amazon and 40 percent of its aggregate volume measured just below the confluence at Manaus. Its drainage area of 292,000 square miles includes that of the Branco, its major

left-bank tributary, with its source in the Guiana Highlands. Another of the Negro’s affluents, the Casiquiare, is a product of the bifurcation of the Orinoco River; it forms a link between the Amazon and the Orinoco’s drainage system. The Branco watershed, approximately coincident with the state of Roraima, includes extensive tracts of sandy, leached soils that support a grassy and stunted arboreal cover (campos). Other tributaries of the Negro,

such as the Vaupés and Guainia, drain eastward from the Colombian Oriente. The river traverses some of the least populous and least disturbed parts of the Amazon basin, including several national parks, national forests, or

indigenous reserves. In its lower reaches it becomes broad and island-filled, in places reaching widths of 20 miles. The Madeira River, second largest affluent of the Amazon, has a discharge of perhaps two-thirds that of the Negro. Silt from its turbid waters has choked its lower valley with sediments; where it joins the Amazon below Manaus,

it has contributed to the formation of the 200-mile-long island of Tupinambarana. Beyond its first cataract 600 miles up the river, its three major affluents—the

Madre

de Dios, the Beni, and the Mamoré—gave easy access to the rubber-rich forests of the Bolivian Oriente, while

the Mamoré’s tributary, the Guaporé, opened the way to the goldfields of Mato Grosso. Even more important to the rubber tappers were the meandering Purus and Jurua rivers that flank the Madeira on the west.

Hydrology.

Most of the estimated

sediment that the Amazon

1.3 million tons of

pours daily into the sea is

transported northward by coastal currents to be deposited along the coasts of northern Brazil and Guiana. As a consequence, the river is not building a delta. Normally, the effect of the tide is felt as far upstream as Obidos, 600 miles from the river’s mouth. A tidal bore called the pororoca occurs at times in the estuary prior to spring tides. With an increasing roar it advances upstream at 10 to 15 miles per hour, forming a breaking wall of .water from 5 to 12 feet high. At the Obidos narrows, the flow of the river has been measured at 216,000 cubic metres per second; its width is constricted to little more than a mile. Here the average depth of the channel below the mean watermark is more than 200 feet, well below sea level; in most of the Brazilian part of the river its depth exceeds 150 feet. Its gradient is extraordinarily slight. At the Peruvian border, some 2,000

The Negro River and its affluents

South America miles from the Atlantic, the elevation above sea level is less

than 300 feet. The maximum free width (without islands) of the river’s permanent bed is 8.5 miles, upstream from

the mouth of the Xingu. During great floods, however, when the river completely fills the floodplain, it spreads out in a band 35 miles wide or more. The average velocity of the Amazon

The Amazon

floods

is about 1.5 miles per hour, a speed that

increases considerably at flood time. The rise and fall of the water is controlled by events external to the floodplain. The floods of the Amazon are not disasters but rather distinctive, anticipated events that define the calendar and the rhythm of life much as seasons do elsewhere. Their marked regularity and the gradualness of the change in water level are due to the enormous size of the basin, the gentle gradient, and the great temporary storage capacity of both the floodplain and the estuaries of the river’s tributaries. The upper course of the Amazon has two annual floods, and the river is subject to the alternate influence of the tributaries that descend from the Peruvian Andes (where rains fall from October to January) and from the Ecuadorian Andes (where rains fall from March to July). This pattern of alternation disappears farther downstream, the two seasons of high flow gradually merging into a single one. Thus, the rise of the river progresses slowly downstream in a gigantic wave from November to June, and then the waters recede until the end of October. The flood levels are, in places, from 40 to 50 feet above low river. Climate. The climate of Amazonia is warm, rainy, and humid. The length of day and night is equal on the Equator (which runs only slightly north of the river), and

the usually clear nights favour relatively rapid radiation of the heat received from the sun during the 12-hour day. There is a greater difference between daytime and midnight temperatures than between the warmest and coolest months. Hence, night is the winter of the Amazon. At Manaus, the average daily temperature is 89° F (32° C) in September and 75° F (24° C) in April, but the humidity is consistently high and often oppressive. During the winter months of the Southern Hemisphere, a powerful south-polar air mass occasionally pours northward into the Amazon region, causing a sharp drop in temperature, known locally as a friagem, when the mercury may register

as low as 57° F (14° C). At any time of the year, several days of heavy rain can be succeeded by clear, sunny days and fresh, cool nights with relatively low humidity. In the lower reaches of the river basin, cooling trade winds blow

most of the year. The main influx of atmospheric water vapour into the basin comes from the east. About half of the precipitation that falls originates from the Atlantic Ocean; the other

half comes from evapotranspiration from the tropical forest and associated convectional storms. Rainfall in the lowlands typically ranges from 60 to 120 inches (1,500 to 3,000 millimetres) annually in the central Amazon basin (e.g., Manaus). On the eastern and western margins of the Rainfall

basin, rainfall occurs throughout the year, whereas in the

central part there is a definite drier period, usually from June to November. Manaus has experienced as many as 60 consecutive days without rain, but such droughty periods are uncommon. The dry season is not sufficiently intense to arrest plant growth, but it may facilitate the onset and spread of fires, whether arsonous or natural. To the west the Andes form a natural barrier that prevents most of the water vapour from leaving the basin.

Along the southern margin of the Amazon basin the climate grades into that of west-central Brazil, with a distinct dry season during the Southern Hemispheric winter. As elevations increase in the Andes, temperatures fall significantly. Soils. The vast Amazonian forest vegetation appears extremely lush, leading to the erroneous conclusion that the underlying soil must be extremely fertile. In fact, the nutrients in the system are locked up in the vegetation, including roots and surface litter, and are continuously recycled through leaf fall and decay. Generally, the soils above flood level are well-drained, porous, and of variable structure. Often they are sandy and of low natural fertility because of their lack of phosphate, nitrogen, and

523

potash and their high acidity. Small areas are underlain

with basaltic and diabasic rocks, with reddish soils (terra roxa) of considerable natural fertility. The terra preta dos

Indios (“black earth of the Indians”) is another localized and superior soil type. The agricultural potential of the annually flooded vdrzea areas is great. Their soils do not lack nutrients, since they are rejuvenated each year by the deposit of fertile silt left as the waters recede, but use for agricultural purposes is limited by the periodic inundations. It is estimated that these valuable soils occupy some 25,000 square miles.

Plant life. The overwhelmingly dominant feature of the Amazon basin is the tropical rain forest, or selva. From the air the Amazon forest appears to stretch unbroken to the horizon like a tufted green carpet. Closer inspection reveals its bewildering complexity and prodigious variety of trees; as many as 100 arboreal species have been counted on a single acre of forest with hardly any one of them occurring more than once. The Amazon forest has a strikingly layered structure. The sun-loving giants of the uppermost story, the canopy, soar to as much as 120 feet above the ground; occasional individual trees, known as emergents, rise beyond the canopy, frequently attaining heights of 200 feet. Their straight, whitish trunks are splotched with lichens and fungus. A characteristic of these giant trees is the buttresses, or basal enlargements of their trunks, which presumably help stabilize the top-heavy trees during infrequent heavy winds. Further characteristics of the canopy trees are their narrow, downward-pointing “drip-tip” leaves that easily shed water and their cauliflory (the production of flowers directly from the trunks rather than from the branches). Flowers are inconspicuous. Among the canopy species, which capture most of the sunlight and conduct most of the photosynthesis, prominent members include the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), the silk-cotton (Ceiba pentandra), the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), the sapucaia (Lecythis), and the sucupira (Bowdichia). Many creatures, including monkeys and sloths, spend their entire lives in this sunlit canopy. Below it are found two or three levels of shade-tolerant trees, including many species of palms, such as Mauritia, Orbignya, and Euterpe. Myrtles, laurels, bignonias, figs, Spanish cedars, mahogany, and rosewoods are also common. They support a myriad of epiphytes (plants living on other plants)—such as orchids, bromeliads, and cacti—as well as ferns and mosses. The entire system is laced together by a bewildering network of woody ropelike vines known as lianas. In addition to the rain forests of the terra firme, there are two types of inundated rain forests, vdrzea and igapo, which constitute about 3 percent of the total Amazonian rain forest. Vdrzea forests can be found in the silt- and nutrient-rich floodplains of whitewater rivers such as the Madeira and the Amazon, with their ever-changing mosaic of lakes, marshes, sandbars, abandoned channels, and natural levees. They are generally not as high, diverse,

or old as those of the terra firme, being subject to periodic destruction by floods and human manipulation. (The varzea and its flood-free margins are the principal rainforest habitat of human beings.) Wild cane (Gynerium) and aquatic herbs and grasses, as well as fast-growing pioneer tree species such as Cecropia, Ficus, and Erythrina, are conspicuous. Igapo forests grow along the sandy floodplains of blackwater rivers such as the Negro, the Tapajos, and the Trombetas. Because human settlement is limited in these plains, there may be undisturbed, seasonally flooded forests that stand in water for up to half the year, the water reaching heights of up to 40 feet. A canoe can often be paddled between the trunks of trees adapted to such an aquatic environment. The lowland rain forest on the Andean fringe grades into a discontinuous, tangled montane or cloud forest of misshapen trees cloaked with mosses, lichens, and bromeliads. Here one encounters the cinchona or fever-bark tree, once

exploited for its antimalarial agent quinine. At still higher elevations is found the grass and shrub growth of the cold puna and pdramo regions. Along the drier, southern margin of the Amazon basin,

The rain forest

524

South America high forest gives way to the cerrado (savanna and scrub) and caatinga (heath forest). The latter is characteristic of parts of the Mato Grosso Plateau, where taller forest is restricted to the stream courses and swales (marshy depressions) that dissect the upland surface. On the sandy

soils of the lower Negro and the Branco drainage areas and locally in Amapa, grassy savannas dotted with stunted trees replace the high forest. Animal life. To give a succinct overview of the complete fauna of the Amazon is as impossible as it is to adequately describe the great diversity of its flora; in part this is because many of the region’s species have yet to be identified. The rivers and streams of the basin teem with life, and the forest canopy resonates with the cries of birds and monkeys and the whine of insects. There is a notable paucity of large terrestrial mammal species; indeed, many of the mammals are arboreal. More than 8,000 species of insects alone have been collected and classified. Myriads of mosquitoes plague travel-

ers and may transmit such diseases as malaria and yellow fever. Leaf-cutting ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) and other pests may torment the traveler. The most troublesome

Fish

insects of all are the ubiquitous, small, black flies, called piums, whose bite can itch for days. The Amazon and its tributaries, together with the bordering vdrzea lakes and flooded forests, constitute a vast sea of fresh water, much of it slowly flowing, which teems with fish life. About 1,500 fish species have been found within the Amazon system, but many more remain unidentified. Most fish are migratory, moving in great schools at spawning time. Fish represent a critical source of protein in the often meat-poor diet of the peasant (caboclo) population (the term caboclo is used for the peasant population of mixed Indian-European blood). Among the more important commercial species are the pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), one of the world’s largest freshwater fish, and

various giant catfish. The well-known, small, flesh-eating

Large cats

piranha generally feeds on other fish but may attack any animal, including humans, that enters the water; its razorsharp teeth cut out chunks of flesh, stripping a carcass of its meat in a few minutes. The traffic in frozen and dried fish to urban markets has increased to such a degree that some stocks are locally threatened. With the rapid means of transport afforded by jet airplanes, a worldwide market has developed for tropical aquarium fish distinctive to the Amazon. Iquitos, Manaus, and the Colombian port of Leticia are centres of this trade. Crocodiles are hunted for their skins; river turtles and their eggs are considered a delicacy; the giant sea cow, or manatee, is sought for its flesh and for oil. All are threatened by overhunting, and the manatee has been listed as an endangered species. Aquatic animals also include freshwater dolphins (Jnia geoffrensis), the capybara, the largest rodent in the world (weighing up to 170 pounds); and the nutria, or coypu, valued especially for its pelt. Other common rodents are the paca, agouti, porcupine, and local species of squirrels, rats, and mice. The tapir, the white-lipped peccary, and several species of deer are native to the Amazon basin and much sought for their meat. Water buffalo, introduced from Southeast Asia as work and dairy cattle, have run wild in the remote, swampy parts of Marajo Island. Especially characteristic of the Amazon forest are several species of monkeys. Of note are the howler monkeys, which make the selva resound with their morning and evening choruses. The small, agile squirrel monkey, the most ubiquitous of Amazonia’s monkeys, is used in laboratories, as is the larger spider monkey. Among a host of other primate species are woolly monkeys, capuchin monkeys, titis, sakis, and marmosets. All species are used for food and frequently are seen for sale in local markets. As the human population increases and the shotgun replaces the blowgun, pressure on the wild fauna is mounting. Large cats, such as the jaguar and ocelot, are rare, although pumas may be found in larger numbers in the Andean fringe of the basin. Smaller carnivores include coati, grisons, and weasels. Countless bats inhabit the Amazonian night, including the blood-drinking vampire bat. The Amazon basin is exceedingly rich in birdlife. Morn-

ing and evening, the parrots and macaws fly to and from

their feeding grounds, their brilliant plumage flashing in the sunlight and their raucous voices calling out their presence. Through the day the caciques quarrel in trees where their hanging nests swing by the dozens. Hoatzins screech in noisy flocks from streamside brush, while solitary hawks and eagles scream from tree stumps. Everywhere is heard

the twittering of small birds, the sound of woodpeckers,

and the gutteral noises of such waterbirds as herons, cormorants, roseate spoonbills, and scarlet ibises. Parakeets, more common than sparrows in the United States, fly around in great flocks. At dusk, toucans cry a discordant plaint from the treetops and are joined by ground-dwelling tinamous and quail. The ‘night air is filled with the cries of various species of nightjar. The people. Early settlement patterns. At the time of the European conquest, the bottomlands and fringing upland surfaces of the Amazon River and its major tributaries supported relatively dense, sedentary populations of indigenous peoples who practiced intensive root-crop farming, supplemented by fishing and by hunting aquatic mammals and reptiles. The higher areas away from the rivers and their floodplains, were—and

still are in some

of the more remote sectors—inhabited by small, widely dispersed,

seminomadic

tribes of Indians.

These groups

Indians

traditionally have relied predominantly on hunting large and small animals and on gathering wild fruits, berries,

and nuts, while practicing some small-patch agriculture of low yield. In the early 1990s the Indian population of the Amazon basin numbered about 600,000, of whom perhaps close to one-third live in Brazil and the rest in the Oriente of the four Andean countries. The Amazonian Indians early devised means of making the poisonous bitter cassava (manioc) edible; the end product, called farinha, became a food staple widely used today in much of tropical America. Amazonian Indians perfected the use of quinine as a specific against malaria, extracted cocaine from the leaves of the coca tree, and collected the sap of the Brazilian rubber tree (Hevea

brasiliensis). They were skilled navigators in their dugout canoes and sailing rafts (jagandas), and they invented the blowgun and the hammock. One of their ancient arrow poisons, curare (Chondrodendron tomentosum), has been used in modern times in the therapy of a host of paralyses and spastic disorders, such as multiple sclerosis. The early European explorers of the Amazon

provisioned themselves from the food supplies of the Indians they met and commandeered their canoes. Large numbers of Indians were taken into slavery, especially during the organized raids (bandeiras) of the 16th to 18th century; many others succumbed to such European diseases as

influenza, measles, and smallpox. The result was a com-

plete breakdown of native life and a precipitous decrease in the Indian population; survivors fled into increasingly inaccessible sections of the Amazon basin. As late as 1906 there were reports of the wholesale capture of Indians who were enslaved in order to tap rubber, which was plentiful and commanded a high price on the world market but which was difficult to exploit because rubber trees were sparsely scattered over a huge area. Settlement by Europeans and mestizos (those of mixed Indian and European ancestry) did not occur to any appreciable degree until the 1870s and ’80s, when victims of

severe droughts in northeastern Brazil began to move into Amazonia to profit from the rubber boom. Another wave of immigration began at the end of World War II, spurred by the rapid economic development of the region. Modern settlement patterns.

Its vast area notwithstand-

ing, the Amazon basin, in the late 20th century, has a predominantly urban population. Almost one-third of the estimated nine million Brazilians living in the 1.9 millionsquare-mile area officially designated as Legal Amazonia are concentrated in Belém and Manaus, cities with more than one million inhabitants, and in Santarém. These cities, which are logistic bases of operations for cattle ranching, mining, timber, and agroforestry projects, are still growing rapidly, with modern residential towers and shantytowns standing side by side. Even frontier trading centres in the interior such as Maraba, Pérto Velho, and

Decline of Indiar culture

South America Rio Branco have 100,000 or more inhabitants. In the upper reaches of the drainage area, places such as Florencia in Colombia, Iquitos and Pucallpa in Peru, and Santa Cruz in Bolivia have become significant urban

centres with most of the amenities of modern life. Air service effectively connects them with Andean and coastal metropolises and even with the more isolated settlements

and mission stations of the Oriente. The economy. Development of the Amazon basin. Since World War II the economic development of the Amazon basin has been high on the agenda of every country of which it is a part. From the mid-1940s onward, a number of “penetration roads” have been built from the populous highlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia into the Oriente, which have funneled untold num-

bers of landless peasants into the lowlands. They also have served to facilitate development of major oil discoveries and timber resources. Tropical hardwoods, river fish, and, since the 1980s, clandestinely produced cocaine have been objects of commercial exploitation, along with Brahmantype livestock raised on pastures newly carved from the selva. Such activities have led to widespread displacement of indigenous groups, who were either forced onto new reserves or left to survive as best they could. The opening of the Amazon basin has been pursued most aggressively in Brazil. In the mid-1950s the decision was made to refocus the country toward its interior by constructing a new inland capital, Brasilia. One conseBrazilian toad-

building program

quence of this decision was the initiation of a massive road-building program that aimed at integrating the North (consisting of the states of Amazonas, Acre, and Para and the territories of RondG6nia, Roraima, and Amapa)

with the rest of Brazil while establishing an escape valve for the crowded and drought-stricken Northeast. A 1,100mile-long highway linking Brasilia with Belém, the trade centre at the mouth of the Amazon, was completed in 1964. Along with the even more ambitious 3,400-mile allweather Transamazonian Highway from the Atlantic port

of Recife to Cruzeiro do Sul on the Peruvian border— with extensions north to Santarém and Manaus (later to the Venezuelan border) and southward to Cuiaba (Mato Grosso) and Porto Velho (Rond6nia)—it was to provide the frame for a network of nearly 20,000 miles of highways and feeder routes that was to supersede the traditional fluvial transport system. The government

had planned to settle about

100,000

families along the Transamazonian Highway, but this goal was not reached. Indeed, the majority of families who did come abandoned the agrovilas within a few years because of declining crop yields on the poor soils, weed invasions, plant diseases, lack of credit, and the distance to markets. Disillusioned by the Transamazonian experience, the government shifted its emphasis to encouraging largescale, capitalist enterprises. Cheap credit and tax breaks were offered to promote the creation of big cattle ranches within Legal Amazonia.

The completion of the Cuiaba-Pérto Velho highway about 1970 facilitated movement between Mato Grosso

Cattle

pasture

and the Rond6nia area along the Bolivian border with its more fertile terra roxa soils. It brought an unanticipated flood of immigrants from South Brazil, who had become displaced by the shift to large-scale commercial production of export crops (soybeans, citrus, cotton, and wheat). Between 1970 and 1990 the population of Rond6nia increased from roughly 116,000 to more than 1,000,000, and that of Acre to the west reached 400,000 by 1990. Agriculture and forestry. Upland rice, manioc (cassava), and, to a lesser extent, corn (maize) form the mainstay of smallholder agriculture, providing the carbohydrates for the caboclo diet. Jute, heart of palm (from Euterpe oleracea), and guarana (Paullinia cupana, for a favourite Brazilian soft drink) are all minor commercial crops. Black pepper, introduced from Southeast Asia, has become a specialty crop of Japanese colonists. Cattle pasture by far dominates land use on the cleared parts of the Amazon basin, both in areas of large ranches, such as southern Para and Mato Grosso, and in areas ini-

tially cut over by smallholders for annual crops, as along

the Transamazonian Highway. Pasture is even dominant

in areas such as Rond6nia, where government programs have promoted the cultivation of cacao, coffee, Brazil nuts, and other perennial crops for which a ready cash

market exists. Excellent timber is furnished by the mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla and Swietenia humilis), the Amazonian cedar (Cedrela odorata), the Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra), and many other species. Some types, however, are threatened by intensive exploitation. Other trees, such as the coumarou, or tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata), yield perfumes, flavourings, and pharmaceutical ingredients.

The economic kings of trees, however, are the rubber tree and the Brazil nut. The rubber tree has been one of the most important objectives in the penetration and exploitation of the forest. It gave rise to a period of great but temporary prosperity, especially for the city of Manaus. The rubber gathered from both wild trees and those grown in small plantations continues to make a contribution to the Amazonian economy. In Brazil areas within the remaining undisturbed forest have been designated for the use of rubber tappers and nut collectors. Yet the establishment of such “extractive reserve” lands has come into conflict with the claims of both squatters and speculators. The latter often have obtained titles by devious means, and their activities require close monitoring. Corporate farming and agroforestry operations such as Fordlandia, Belterra, and Jari in eastern Brazil and Tournavista in Peru have had little success; the Jari enterprise, for example, was taken over by a consortium of Brazil-

ian investors and the government in 1982. Transnational corporations investing in livestock operations, especially in southern Para and Mato Grosso, included Volkswagen AG, Swift-Eckrich, Inc., King Ranch, Inc., and Liquigas Italiana. All have terminated their activities. Mining and energy. The exploitation of the enormously rich mineral complex of the Serra dos Carajas area west of the boom town of Maraba (population 153,000 in 1991) on the Tocantins River has been highly profitable, but it has also had harmful effects on the environment. The site of one of the world’s largest and richest iron ore deposits, the district also produces gold, copper, nickel, manganese,

tin, and bauxite. The million-acre concession is run by the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD), a partnership between private capital and the federal government. Plans for the local smelting of the iron ore could require the clearing of 490,000 acres (200,000 hectares) of forest annually to provide charcoal for producing pig iron. A rail line connects the Carajés development with the Atlantic coast. Gold mining reached a feverish pitch in the 1980s, stimulated by high world prices of gold. At the height of the Amazon “gold rush,” as many as a half million transient miners (garimpeireos) came equipped with picks, shovels, and sluice boxes to search for the mineral in the alluvial deposits of the Tocantins valley at Serra Pelada. Brazil’s annual production peaked in 1987 at nearly 90 tons, declining thereafter. The mercury used in extracting the gold polluted waterways, causing the fish that are so important in the local diet to become inedible. On the Madeira River,

teams operating from rafts pump up from the riverbed auriferous sediments, which have to be subjected to a similar treatment. Bauxite mining, both at Carajas and on the Trombetas River north of the Amazon, requires the use of large settling ponds to trap effluents. The energy requirements of both the Carajas development and the city of Belém are met by the giant Tucurui hydroelectric plant on the Tocantins (with a planned power capacity of 7,260 megawatts), the fifth-largest hydroelectric power station in the world. A more modest hydroelectric facility on a small river north of Manaus supplies that city with power. A growing sensitivity to the harmful consequences for both human beings and the environment of the construction of large dams has caused several ambitious projects to be placed on hold. The principal oil developments within Amazonia have taken place in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andean countries. Oil pipelines lead from producing districts in both Colombia (the upper Putumayo) and Ecuador (Lago

Gold mining

525

526

South America Agrio), as well as northeastern Peru, to export terminals on the Pacific coast. Within the Brazilian and Bolivian portions of the basin, developments have been of minimal

known organisms of the world, is threatened by continuing deforestation. Particular emphasis has been placed on the threat to biodiversity and the possible loss of as yet

consequence.

unknown and unexploited pharmaceuticals contained in the forest. Finally, at stake is also the survival of many

Ecological concerns.

International

concern

about

the

ecological consequences of continuing deforestation has been growing and was underscored by the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (“Earth Summit”) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. International calls for conservation are based on the view that the Amazon basin is a global resource, one that serves as a control mechanism for the world’s climate and as a genetic repository for the future. The nations of the region, however, tend to look upon such calls as a challenge to “national sovereignty.” The extent and rate of deforestation have been subject to continuing controversy. The difficulty of distinguishing via satellite imagery between regenerating secondary vegetation and undisturbed forest as well as the persistence of cloud cover and sometimes smoke have frustrated investigators. The employment of radar has made investigations more precise. It has been suggested that by 1990 some 10 percent of the Amazon selva may have been cleared for pasture, crops, lumber, and firewood. In Brazil deforestation was initiated in Mato Grosso and southern Para in the 1960s and became widespread over the next two decades in Rond6nia and Acre. Already in 1988 Rondénia was estimated to have been deforested by 17 percent, and the process is continuing. In Colombia the upper Putumayo and Caqueta river areas, in Ecuador the province of Napo, and in Peru the Tingo Maria—Pucallpa district have been among the more notable foci of clearing. The cultivation of coca for illicit production of cocaine continues to stimulate such activities. The consequences of continuing deforestation have been much discussed. Although the forest is an efficient absorber of carbon dioxide, scientists believe that the volume of gas released when substantial parts of the forest are cleared and burned may contribute to global warming through the greenhouse effect. Continued conversion of tropical forest to cropland, pasture, or second-growth forest (capoeira) may reduce the region’s evapotranspiration, thereby interrupting the hydrologic cycle and the recycling of soil nutrients; a likely consequence is an increase in the amount of water running off the surface and greater extremes in water levels. The unique gene pool of the Amazon Rain Forest, with perhaps two-thirds of the

indigenous peoples who, through long residence, have become integrated into the ecosystem of the rain forest and have learned some of its many secrets.

Study and exploration. tury,

the

German

At the outset of the 19th cen-

explorer

Alexander

von

Humboldt

mapped the connection between the Amazon and Orinoco systems through the Casiquiare River. The English naturalist H.W. Bates spent the years from 1848 to 1859 along the Amazon, collecting thousands of species of animals and recording his notes of animals, local peoples, and natural phenomena in a charmingly objective manner. His book, The Naturalist on the River Amazons, originally published in two volumes in 1863, is still regarded as one of the great classics on the Amazon River. An official expedition was sent from the United States to Amazonia in the mid-19th century; in 1854 in Washington, D.C., William Lewis Herndon published as a public document the report that he and Lardner Gibbon—both lieutenants in the U.S. Navy—had made to Congress under the title of Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon. The 20th century. The period since 1900 has been one of numerous exploratory and scientific expeditions. In 1913-14, the former U.S. president Theodore

Roosevelt

and Brazilian Colonel Candido Rondon headed an expedition that explored a tributary of the Madeira and made natural history collections and observations. A party spon-

sored by Harvard University’s Institute of Geographical Exploration did important scientific work in the years 1910-24. The American Geographical Society compiled data for and published detailed maps of this vast region. Since World War II, the international scientific community has been increasingly attracted to Amazonia. British,

International

French, German, Japanese, and North American

concern

groups

have carried out detailed biophysical and cultural surveys; a large number of international workshops, conferences, and symposia on Amazonian problems have been held. Brazilian scientists have also contributed significant research on issues concerning the area. Particularly important has been the work of the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA) at Manaus and the Goeldi Museum in Belém. (RAYMOND E. CRIST/

ALARICH R. SCHULTZ/JAMES J. PARSONS)

Bibliography: Recent Books

The following list encompasses some 150 recent books in English that have been judged significant contributions to learning in their respective fields. Each citation includes a few lines of commentary to indicate the tenor of the work. The citations are organized by broad subject area, with the 10 parts of the Propedia as an outline. Matter and Energy Arthur I. Miller, Early Quantum Electrodynamics: A Source Book (1994), a collection of landmark papers by eminent physicists, with an introductory chapter on the history of scientific ideas that traces the development of theoretical nuclear physics. Murray Gell-Mann, The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex (1994), personal reflections of a Nobel laureate on the dynamic relationship between the simple (quark) and the complex (jaguar) and between fundamental laws of nature and chance. Philip Ball, Designing the Molecular World: Chemistry at the Frontier (1994), a survey of recent developments in chemistry, including crystallography, spectroscopy, and such burgeoning fields as nanotechnology (molecular engineering) and fractals. Ronald J. Gillespie, Donald R. Eaton, David A. Humphreys, and Edward

A. Robinson, Atoms,

Molecules,

and Reactions:

An Introduction to Chemistry (1994), a textbook that leads, step-by-step, through the processes, elements, and functions of chemistry. Steven Vogel, Life in Moving Fluids (2nd ed., revised and expanded, 1994), an application of fluid mechanics to biological organisms, describing, in the terminology of physics, the relationship between the properties of fluids and biological form. Sven Kullander and Bérje Larsson, Out of Sight! From Quarks to Living Cells (1994), a study of the microworld and the chemical, physical, and biological forces that operate within it. Michio Kaku, Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes,

Time

Warps,

and the Tenth Dimension

(1994), an

introduction to the 10 dimensions in which superstring theory predicts that the universe exists, a precursor to the unified theory sought by scientists. Kip S. Thorne, Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein’s Outrageous Legacy (1994), a close look at black holes as a way of examining how scientists evaluate a theory and how the human mind grapples with complex cosmic questions. Neil de Grasse Tyson, Universe Down to Earth (1994), an account of the universe—its population of constellations, their chemical composition, and brief “biographies” of selected elements. Peter Cattermole, Venus: The Geological Story (1994), an account of Venus’ atmosphere, topography, weathering, and more, all based on the high-resolution imagery beamed to Earth by the Magellan spacecraft. The Earth

Stephen James O’Meara and Donna Donovan-O’Meara, Volcanoes: Passion and Fury (1994), photographs, apposite epigraphs, and text describing some 20 active volcanoes worldwide in various stages of quiescence or fury. Yves Guéguen and Victor Palciauskas, Introduction to the Physics of Rocks (1994), a description of how the physical properties (e.g., porosity, magnetism) of different types of rocks affect industrial technology (e.g., well drilling, nuclear-waste disposal,

and prospecting for geothermal energy). David E. Fisher, The Scariest Place on Earth: Eye to Eye with Hurricanes (1994), accounts of hurricanes since the time of Genghis

Khan, their genesis and composition, forecasting and warning systems, and the author’s firsthand encounter with Hurricane

Andrew in 1992. E.C. Pielou, A Naturalist’s Guide to the Arctic (1994), a comprehensive account of the Arctic environment—its climate and topography—and the wide array of plants and animals that have adapted their habits and structures in order to flourish there. Donald R. Prothero, The Eocene-Oligocene Transition: Paradise Lost (1994), a review of the geologic events of the past 50 million—55 million years that obliterated the dinosaur, chilled the Earth, and culminated in conditions favourable to the emer-

gence of early hominids. Peter Ward, The End of Evolution: On Mass Extinctions and the Preservation of Biodiversity (1994), a paleoscholar’s argument, using geologic and fossil evidence, that the present era marks the onset of the third great mass extinction. Life on Earth

Karl J. Niklas, Plant Allometry: The Scaling of Form and Process (1994), an examination of how the interaction of size, form and

structure, and metabolism can introduce evolutionary changes in plants. Jonathan Weiner, The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time (1994), a study of 20 generations of Charles Darwin’s Galapagos finches, using contemporary biochemical techniques to show how evolution can be a rapid-response phenomenon. Benjamin Lewin, Genes V (1994), an up-to-date, occasionally technical review of gene research, noting that genetics is approaching a unified theory of its own. Peter Wainwright and Stephen M. Reilly, eds., Ecological Morphology: Integrated Organismal Biology (1994), an exploration of the ways in which organisms are constructed to maximize their adaptive capacity and of the effect their form has on their place in the evolutionary and ecological scheme. Steve Madge and Hillary Burn, Crows and Jays: A Guide to the Crows, Jays, and Magpies of the World (1994), a complete guide, both a field-identification manual and a concise natural history of the large and widely dispersed family Corvidae. T.M. Caro, Cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains: Group Living in an Asocial Species (1994), a study that examines the normally solitary cheetah’s occasional forays into group living and evaluates the causes and consequences of such altered behaviour. Peter Steinhart, Two Eagles/Dos Aguiles: The Natural World of the United States—Mexico Borderlands (1994; photographs by Tupper Ansel Blake), a verbal and photographic pilgrimage through the desert border country of the Southwest, documenting the area’s immense biological diversity. Bert Hélldobler and Edward O. Wilson, Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration (1994), an in-depth observation of ant species, using the authors’ lifelong study of ants as a model of how (and why) to pursue ascientific discipline. Mark Jaffe, And No Birds Sing: The Story of an Ecological Disaster in a Tropical Paradise (1994), the story of a zoological calamity averted by a courageous and persistent biologist whose initially scorned evidence for the disappearance of the bird population of Guam was vindicated. William Balée, Footprints of the Forest: Ka’apor Ethnobotany—the Historical Ecology of Plant Utilization by an Amazonian People (1994), an ethnographic account of the plant-centred culture of a group of Indians in the eastern Amazon region. William H. MacLeish, The Day Before America: Changing the Nature of a Continent (1994), a biography of the North American continent from the end of the last ice age to the arrival of Columbus.

527

528

Bibliography: Recent Books

Human

Life

Rod Caird, Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution (1994), a richly illustrated history of human evolution that envisions the process as ongoing and that proposes possible future evolutionary directions for the human race. Pat Shipman, The Evolution of Racism: Human Differences and the Use and Abuse of Science (1994), a paleoanthropological view of the volatile standoff between politics and science with respect to matters of evolution and the differences between human beings. Robert Cook-Deegan, The Gene Wars: Science, Politics and the Human Genome (1994), an account of the Human Genome Project by a former participant, based on primary source documents and interviews with scientists currently involved. Paul W. Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease (1994), a Darwinian approach to the evolution of pathogens that seeks to learn why some disease-causing organisms are virulent (cholera) while others remain relatively benign (the common cold). Emily Martin, Flexible Bodies: Tracking Immunity in American Culture from the Days of Polio to the Age of AIDS (1994), an account of the changed view of what constitutes the body’s immune system.

Mary Winkler and Letha B. Cole (eds.), The Good Body: Asceticism in Contemporary Culture (1994), the moral and clinical implications of Western culture’s use of self-denial to achieve the perfect female (or male) body. Harold J. Cook, Trials of an Ordinary Doctor: Joannes Groenevelt in 17th-Century London (1994), one of the early recorded malpractice cases—against a Dutch physician who challenged the authority of the medical establishment by prescribing experimental remedies. Sheila M. Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Experience of Illness in American History (1994), firsthand accounts of patients’ experience of “consumption,” its impact on families and the wider community, and the changes in treatment that transformed the tubercular from “invalid” to “patient.” Karen

Minden, Bamboo

Stones: Evolution of a Chinese Medical

Elite (1994), an account of the Western-style medical training offered to a select group of aspiring students in western China since the 19th century, with an evaluation of its success then

and now. Francis Crick, The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul (1994), a Nobel Prize-winning biophysicist’s attempt to penetrate the “jungle of the brain sciences,” concentrating on the mystery of consciousness, with particular emphasis on visual

awareness. Stanley Finger, Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Exploration into Brain Function (1994), a history of brain study, describing theories of brain function and discussing such brain-directed apparatuses as the intellect, the senses, and the emotions. Clive Gamble, Timewalkers: The Prehistory of Global Colonization (1994), a hypothesis asserting that radical changes in behaviour were a cause, not a consequence, of the major migrations that dispersed the human race across the globe. Vern L. Bullough, Science in the Bedroom: A History of Sex Research (1994), a defense of sexology as a respectable interdisciplinary science, showing how it synthesizes biology and the social sciences and provides worthwhile data for both laypeople

and professionals, John Boswell, Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe (1994), a history of European marriage rites from the time of the Greeks

to the 14th century, especially those performed between men, with evidence that such ceremonies were widespread. Stephen M. Kosslyn, Image and Brain: The Resolution of the Imagery Debate (1994), a study of the role of the “mind’s eye” in the processing of information, showing how the disciplines of psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive studies collaborate in this field. Jonathan

Shay, Achilles in Viet Nam:

Combat

Trauma

and the

Undoing of Character (1994), a doctor’s imaginative approach to posttraumatic stress disorder, using the concept to reveal how similarly soldiers in Homer’s Iliad and those in Vietnam reacted to two wars 2,700 years apart.

Human Society Peter Canby, The Heart of the Sky: Travels Among the Maya (1994), the account of a yearlong odyssey through the land of the Maya that reveals the transcendent vitality of their way of life. Danah

Zohar

and Jan Marshall,

The Quantum

Society: Mind,

Physics, and a New Social Vision (1994), a prescription for altering the way in which society functions, promoting pluralism and diversity, by using the approach of quantum physics. Richard Scheinin, Field of Screams: The Dark Underside of America’s National Pastime (1994), a history of the seamier side of baseball that redresses its sentimentality by revealing how the game faithfully mirrors American culture, warts and all. Joel Davis, Mother Tongue: How Humans Create Language (1994), an attempt to answer several basic questions about the origin and history of language and about human cognition and linguistic memory. J.E. Lighter (ed.), Historical Dictionary of American Slang, vol. 1: A-G (1994), the collected “underbelly language” of the United States, unflinchingly compiled, defined, and given full lexicographical treatment. David Elkind, Ties That Stress: The New Family Imbalance (1994), a study tracing the development of the postmodern family, in which competence and autonomy are more evident than love and intuition. Mary Ann Schwartz and BarBara Marliene Scott, Marriages and

Families: Diversity and Change (1994), a textbook study of the institutions and activities connected to marriage and the family, with discussion of such family-related topics as race, class, sex

and gender, divorce, and the elderly. Thomas Sowell, Race and Culture: A World View (1994), a challenge to conventional assumptions about race and ethnicity, taking a historical perspective with emphasis on the history of culture. Harry S. Ashmore, Civil Rights and Wrongs: A Memoir of Race and Politics, 1944-1994 (1994), a sweeping view of race relations and civil rights issues from World War II to the present, by a veteran Southern journalist and civil rights activist. W.K. Barger and Ernesto M. Reza, The Farm Labor Movement in the Midwest: Social Change and Adaptation Among Migrant Farmers (1994), an account of the rise of the Farm Labor Organizing Committee and its influence on the structure of agribusiness, with a description of the everyday life of the migrant family. Anthony Downs, New Visions for Metropolitan America (1994), a description of the ills that beset. metropolitan areas nationwide—traffic congestion, pollution, and concentration of poverty—with suggestions for solutions. John Kenneth Galbraith, A Journey Through Economic Time: A Firsthand View (1994), a brief economic history from World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917 through the Reagan years and the collapse of Soviet communism. John Burnett, Idle Hands: The Experience of Unemployment, 17901990 (1994), a historical study, based on firsthand accounts, of unemployment in Britain, portraying both its emotional and its

economic cost.

Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and Patients in the English Market for Medicine, 1770-1911 (1994), the economics of medicine in England, describing the difficulties of reconciling the art with the business of patient care. Joseph Nocera, A Piece of the Action: How the Middle Class Joined the Moneyed Class (1994), a history of the “money revolution,” showing how the middle class has taken control of its financial destiny with the credit

card, the mutual

fund, and

discount

brokerage. Gary Dymski and Robert Pollin (eds.), New Perspectives in Monetary Macroeconomics: Explorations in the Tradition of Hyman P. Minsky (1994), a collection of essays taking the “Wall Street view” that, among other things, capitalist markets are inherently unstable and unemployment is the norm. James Fallows, Looking at the Sun: The Rise of the New East Asian Economic and Political System (1994), observations on the effect of Western ignorance about Japan on that nation’s growing economic dominance, suggesting ways to restore Western commercial vitality.

Bibliography: Recent Books

Donald A. Schén and Martin Rein, Frame Reflection: Toward the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies (1994), an exploration of possible approaches to insoluble public-policy controversies, using philosophical reflection as a way to begin promoting respect for differences. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (1994), a history of the development of the concept of “nation” since the era of Richelieu and of the U.S. role in international affairs, with personal reminiscences illustrating the meaning and uses of diplomacy. Frank M. Coffin, On Appeal: Courts, Lawyering, and Judging (1994), a close-up view of the appellate system by a senior appellate judge, who describes how judges study and analyze briefs and how lawyers argue cases. Michael J. Perry, The Constitution in the Courts: Law or Politics?

(1994), a study of the U.S. Supreme Court’s role in resolving constitutional conflicts related to the Bill of Rights and the 14th Amendment. Barry Murcombe and David F. Partlett, Child Mental Health and the Law (1994), the history of child mental health law: the rights of handicapped children, mental health clinicians as expert witnesses, custody disputes, and juvenile delinquency, inter alia. Kim Hays, Practicing Virtues: Traditions at Quaker and Military Boarding Schools (1994), a comparison of two seemingly disparate types of schools, offering insights into their contrasting educational philosophies and the ideals they have in common. Myra Sadker and David Sadker, Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls (1994), an effort to expose and eliminate the gender disparity in school performance that preadolescent girls suffer as they lose their earlier testing advantage and with it their self-esteem. George Roche, The Fall of the Ivory Tower: Government Funding, Corruption, and the Bankrupting of American Higher Education (1994), a critical look at U.S. colleges and universities, assigning the blame for their mismanagement and their failure as educators to government funding that places competition for grants ahead of the mission to teach. James Moffett, The Universal Schoolhouse: Spiritual Awakening Through Education (1994), a holistic, user-driven approach to educational reform, promoting the importance of personal development, lifelong educational opportunity for all, and the separation of schools from government oversight.

Art Hans Belting, Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art (1994), reflections on the visual image’s loss of the mythic capacity to influence nature and embody the Christian saints’ sacred power when it became an object to be viewed in a museum. Barbara Stafford, Artful Science: Enlightenment, Entertainment, and the Eclipse of Visual Education (1994), a study of the blossoming and the withering of scientific entertainments in the 18th century, suggesting that 20th-century computer games and graphics are reincarnations of such pastimes. Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann

and the Origins of

Art History (1994), a penetrating reexamination of the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, placing them in a modernist tradition that seeks the problematic and the perverse in classical Greek art. Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (1994), an argument for the continued study of the great writers of the Western world from Dante to Samuel

Beckett,

with a hierarchy of the greatest authors and lists of “essential” writers and books. Sylvia Shorris and Marion Abbott Bundy, Talking Pictures with the People Who Made Them (1994), anecdotal interviews with nearly 40 people who conceive, write, produce, direct, act in, and edit motion pictures. Paul F. Berliner, Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation (1994), an ethnomusicologist’s analysis of what jazz is, what kind of musicianship it demands, and the training in technique that is implicit in improvisation, the heart of jazz. Humphrey Burton, Leonard Bernstein (1994), an account of the career and personal life of one of the outstanding U.S. composers, who was also a prominent pianist and conductor.

529

Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Col-

lage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (1994), a juxtaposition of the visual component of collage with the aural component of music, illustrating an interaction that has revolutionized musical ideas and textures and introduced greater cultural pluralism. John Milnes Baker, American House Styles: A Concise Guide (1994), a compendium of historical information on American architectural styles, with both exterior renderings and plans for the layout of interior spaces. Jeffrey Chipps Smith, German Sculpture in the Later Renaissance, c. 1520-1580: Art in an Age of Uncertainty (1994), a study of the impact of the Reformation on German sculpture, showing how philosophical iconoclasm contributed to the expanding market for secular sculpture of all kinds. John House et al., Impressionism for England: Samuel Courtauld as Patron and Collector (1994), a catalog of the modern French paintings in Samuel Courtauld’s private collection, with a glance at cultural politics and the role of patronage as an arbiter of taste. Philippe Perrot, Fashioning the Bourgeois: A History of Clothing in the Nineteenth Century (1994; originally published in French, 1981), a study of the “vestimentary landscape,” exploring the role of dress in all its permutations as a marker for economic and social class. Leonard Helfgott, Ties That Bind: A Social History of the Iranian Carpet (1994), a history of Iranian weavers and their products from the 15th century, when the carpet first became a commodity, to its present status, second only to oil as a major export to the West. Technology Elizabeth Wayland Barber, Women’s Work: The First 20,000 Years. Women, Cloth, and Society in Early Times (1994), the origins of what may well be the first human technology—originally practiced by women—weaving and the fibre arts. Richard L. Hills, Power from Wind: A History of Windmill Technology (1994), a history of wind-driven technology in Europe, Persia, and the Far East and of the uses of wind for locomotion

in the sailing ships of antiquity. Frances Gies and Joseph Gies, Cathedral, Forge, and Water Wheel:

Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages (1994), a defense of medieval mechanical innovation, including evidence that the Middle Ages were not the Dark Ages of technology. Robert Freidel, Zipper: An Exploration in Novelty (1994), a story of American ingenuity and persistent optimism: the invention and marketing of the zipper, with a cast of mountebanks, rubes, engineers, and more. Joseph V. Rees, Hostages of Each Other: The Transformation of Nuclear Safety Since Three Mile Island (1994), the story of the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), a powerful but little-known industry-created regulatory agency that was established following the Three Mile Island accident. David Gelernter, The Muse in the Machine: Computerizing the Poetry of Human Thought (1994), an argument supporting the possibility that computers can be given minds through the direction of research in artificial intelligence toward creativity, the philosophy of the mind, and literary theory. Steven R. Holtzman, Digital Mantras: The Language of Abstract and Virtual Worlds (1994), a forecast of one future direction for the computer: its own language in which it would create abstract and virtual worlds for exploring emotion and meaning. Peter Katz, The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of Community (1994), a presentation of design ideas for buildings and communities, emphasizing compact, close-knit living patterns as an alternative to inner-city ills and suburban sprawl. Ronald Florence, The Perfect Machine: Building the Palomar Tele-

scope (1994), the story of the conception and construction of

the 5-m (200-in) Palomar telescope in California, now superseded but still a favourite of astronomers. Eric J. Chaisson, The Hubble Wars: Astrophysics Meets Astropolitics in the Billion-Dollar Struggle over the Hubble Space Telescope

(1994), an account of the embarrassments and triumphs of the Hubble telescope, described by the author, an astrophysicist, as the best ever built.

530

Bibliography: Recent Books

Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton, Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon (1994), the story of the United States in space—from the first orbits around Earth to the Moon landing, told by two of the pioneer spacemen who were at Mission Control during the first Moon journey.

Religion Roberto Calasso, The Marriage of Cadmus and Harmony (1993), an interweaving of Greek myths and legends that is a suggestive, imaginative, and scholarly history of the gods and their mortal cohorts. Reginald A. Ray, Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values (1994), an effort to restore the Buddhist saints of the forest—who are as old as Buddhism itself—to their rightful place in the pantheon. Rabbi Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla, Sha’are Orah, Gates of Light

(1994), the first English translation of a 13th-century text in the Jewish mystical tradition known as the Kabbalah, regarded as a

key to the secrets of the Torah. John Shelby Spong, Resurrection: Myth or Reality? A Bishop’s Search for the Origins of Christianity (1994), a study of the historical and social context of the Easter miracle for clues as to when some of the legends it spawned first surfaced and to reconstruct “what really happened.” Frank J. Tipler, The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God, and the Resurrection of the Dead (1994), an argument by a cosmological scientist—and former atheist—claiming that the laws of physics appear to verify the eschatological claims of Judeo-Christian theology. Jan Goodwin, Price of Honor: Muslim Women Lift the Veil of Silence on the Islamic World (1994), an account of the effect on Muslim women of the rising tide of religious fundamentalism in the principal Islamic nations, in contravention of the teachings of the Qur’an. Yitzhak Nakash, The Shiis of Iraq (1994), a history of the Iraqi Shi'ites that explains the difference between Persian (Iranian) Islam, a state religion, and the shrine-centred practices of the formerly nomadic Iraqi Shi‘ites. Steven Barboza, American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X (1994), “portrait interviews” of representatives from American Muslim groups, not all native born or black, offering a more balanced view of Islam in the United States.

The History of Mankind David Braund, Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and

Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562 (1994), an introduction to

recent archaeological findings in the “Greek periphery,” locus of the Golden Fleece and of the Achaemenid and Seleucid empires. Clifford Orwin, The Humanity of Thucydides (1994), a reevaluation of the History of the Peloponnesian War and its author bya political scientist who celebrates the little-recognized humanistic ethos in the most readable of classical Greek writers.

David M. Olster, Roman Defeat, Christian Response, and the Liter-

ary Construction of the Jew (1994), the uses of anti-Jewish literature as a Roman compensatory device when the Roman Empire was decaying and being replaced by Byzantine hegemony.

John E. Wills, Jr., Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History

(1994), nearly 4,000 years of Chinese politics, civilization, and culture portrayed through the lives of 120 distinguished individuals from before Confucius to Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-33 (1994), an account of the merchant fleet deployed by China in the Far East almost 90 years before Columbus. Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (1994), a history of the religions, languages, and cultures of Ethiopia since prehistoric times, offered as a pointed warning that without a restoration of the art of compromise, the people of the Horn of Africa are doomed. J.D. Omer-Cooper, History of Southern Africa (2nd ed., 1994; originally published in 1987), the story of South Africa from the Iron Age to 1993, describing the collapse of apartheid, Nelson

Mandela’s release from prison, and the calling of the first free all-race elections. Roger G. Kennedy, Hidden Cities: The Discovery and Loss of Ancient North American Civilization (1994), an account of a 6,000year-old civilization of the Mississippi Valley, in whose excavation Thomas Jefferson took a scholarly interest. Robert J. Sharer, The Ancient Maya (Sth ed., 1994), a muchexpanded history—the first revision since 1980—that includes new discoveries about Mayan history, language, and culture made in the past decade. John Hale, The Long Century: The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (1994), an in-depth exploration of Renaissance thought, politics, science, religion, and society, emphasizing “what was then said and done.” Susan Dunn, The Deaths of Louis XVI: Regicide and the French Political Imagination (1994), a cautionary tale about what happens when idealistic ends collide with brutal means, using the example of an innocuous monarch’s violent death and its indelible stain on French (and European) literature, philosophy, and politics. Roger A. Mason (ed.), Scots and Britons: Scottish Political Thought and the Union of 1603 (1994), insight from the Scottish point of view into the union with Britain, analyzing the events and political thinking in the formative 90-year period 1560-1650. Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in 17th-Century England (1994), a view of the practice of science that identifies the gentlemanly virtues of birth, wealth, and civility, personified by Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle, with the principled pursuit of scientific truth. Peter N. Miller, Defining the Common Good: Empire, Religion and Philosophy in Eighteenth-Century Britain (1994), an analysis of changes in Britain’s perception of “community” as the breakaway American colonies sought to establish their own rule of public good. Michael Mason, The Making of Victorian Sexuality (1994), a reassessment of 19th-century sexual mores, suggesting that the stereotype of Victorian hypocrisy and prudery was exaggerated and that virtue lay in restraining the libido to prevent overpopulation. C.I. Hamilton, Anglo-French Naval Rivalry, 1840-1870 (1993), an account of the transformation from conflict to alliance in the Crimean War, thanks to such technological developments as the change from wooden sailing vessels to screw-propelled ironclads. Kevin McAleer, Dueling: The Cult of Honor in Fin-de-Siécle Germany (1994), a description of one aspect of late 19th-century German culture that embodied national and personal ideals of courage,

honour,

and character

and that foreshadowed

their

later perversion in the Third Reich. Carolyn Johnston Pouncy (ed. and trans.), The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible (1994), the rules by which noble Russian households were regulated in the 16th century, with an introduction that provides a scholarly

and informative social history of Moscow during this period. W. Bruce Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians (1994), the story of the vast and little-known territory of Siberia, from the time of the Mongols through the 16thcentury wars of Christians and Muslims and into the present. Fernando Cervantes, The Devil in the New World: The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain (1994), a study of the devil in New World popular culture and of the unanticipated changes in life and conduct he inspired among the colonizers. Thomas P. Lowry, The Story the Soldiers Wouldn’t Tell: Sex in the

Civil War (1994), a sampling of letters, diaries, and documents revealing the pure and the prurient in attitude and behaviour among the soldiers and those at home during the War Between the States.

Elizabeth D. Leonard, Yankee Women: Gender Battles in the Civil

War (1994), narratives of the wartime work of three middleclass Northern women as field physician, public health activist, and battlefield nurse. Joanne Punzo Waghorne, The Raja’s Magic Clothes: Re-Visioning Kingship and Divinity in England’s India (1994), a study of a South Indian state where, during the Victorian era, a prince’s

divinity was expressed through ornament, which exerted a sig-

Bibliography: Recent Books

nificant influence on English style and culture in the mother country. J.A.S. Grenville, A History of the World in the 20th Century (1994), an ambitious attempt to record, both geographically and chronologically, world events and personalities, and the social and economic forces associated with them, through 1993. Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994), a massive history that weaves the several war theatres into a comprehensive entity and assesses the war’seconomic and human cost. Ryszard Kapusinski, Imperium (1994), an account of the author’s childhood in the Soviet Union, his later wanderings—often without official permission—throughout the country, and his experiences during the breakup of the U.S.S.R. Thomas G. Paterson, Contesting Castro: The United States and. the Triumph of the Cuban Revolution (1994), a history of the vexed relationship between Cuba and the United States that questions the U.S. failure to defeat Castro. James Ridgeway, The Haiti Files: Decoding the Crisis (1994), a hastily assembled collection of documents that tell the story of Haiti after the emergence

of Jean-Bertrand

Aristide in 1990,

depicting the tumultuous, often brutal events that continue to plague Haitian politics. Han Suyin, Eldest Son: Zhou Enlay and the Making of Modern China, 1898-1976 (1994), a history of 20th-century China and its communist revolution, portrayed through the biography, based on interviews, of one of China’s most influential leaders. Sidney Giffard, Japan Among the Powers, 1890-1990 (1994), an account of Japan’s launch into modern history, examining, from the Japanese viewpoint, the events and institutions that transformed it into a Great Power and a model of industrial success. Marie Alexandrine Martin, Cambodia: A Shattered Society (1994; originally published in French, 1989), a review of the complex history of modern Cambodia, whose political and social chaos continued even after the end of Vietnam’s 10-year occupation. Milton Viorst, Sandcastles: The Arabs in Search of the Modern World (1994), a look at the people of the Arab world, 200 million strong, who, though they share language, experience, and religion, are still in search of their destiny after centuries of Ottoman rule. Barry Rubin, Revolution Until Victory? The Politics and History of the PLO (1994), a political history of the Palestine Liberation Organization, its up-and-down fortunes, and its controversial leader, Yasir Arafat, emphasizing strategic triumphs and failures along the road to Middle Eastern peace. William

F.S. Miles, Hausaland

Divided:

Colonialism

and Inde-

pendence in Nigeria and Niger (1994), a former Peace Corps volunteer’s view that their common language is helping the people compensate for the mistaken policy that has separated the Republic of Niger from the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Mark Mathabane, African Women: Three Generations (1994), the lives, told in their own words, of the author’s South African grandmother, mother, and sister and the story of their courage

in overcoming violence, oppression, and apartheid.

The Branches of Knowledge Jody Azzouni, Metaphysical Myths, Mathematical Practice: The Ontology and Epistemology of the Exact Sciences (1994), a detailed and technical approach to the philosophy of mathematics that grapples with the epistemological conundrum How does one know what one knows about an object? William Dunham, The Mathematical Universe: An Alphabetical Journey Through the Great Proofs, Problems,

and Personalities

(1994), a collection of notable historic disputes, unsolved mysteries, and mathematical proofs from the time of the Greek geometers on.

531

Keith Devlin, Mathematics: The Science of Patterns (1994), a characterization of mathematics as a science of patterns that can be perceived in such functions as counting, shape, and position. Ken Binmore, Game Theory and the Social Contract, Vol. 1: Playing Fair (1994), an application of game theory to politics, philosophy, and economics, using this mathematical theory to analyze the moral and ethical attitudes of politicians, philosophers, and economists. Thomas Levenson, Measure for Measure: A Musical History of Science (1994), an explanation of the way science works by means of a comparison to music, taking as an example Pythagoras and the mathematically expressed harmony of the spheres. George Saliba, A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam (1994), the history of nonPtolemaic astronomy in Islam from the 11th to the 15th century, emphasizing its intellectual vigour in a period of so-called decline. Raphael Patai, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book (1994), a chronology of the Jewish practitioners of the “Great Art” from Talmudic times to the 19th century, noting alche-

my’s influence on chemistry, medicine, and philosophy and its strikingly modern assertion that all substances are fundamentally one. Hugh Thurston, Early Astronomy (1994), a world history of astronomy from the astronomers of megalithic Stonehenge to Johannes Kepler, including stargazers of Babylonia, India, China, Egypt, and pre-Columbian Central America, as well as the Arabs and Greeks. Bruce Stephenson, The Music of the Heavens: Kepler's Harmonic Astronomy (1994), an analysis of astronomer Kepler’s harmonic principles, a type of early unified theory that related the harmony of planetary orbits to the harmony of eternal geometric relationships. Edward Speyer, Six Roads from Newton: Great Discoveries in Physics (1994), a history and philosophy of science that examines the six areas of inquiry that are either extensions, challenges, or descendants of the physics of Isaac Newton. Philip Stehle, Order,

Chaos,

Order:

The

Transition from Classi-

cal to Quantum Physics (1994), a history of the second major revolution in the physical sciences, led by Max Planck, Albert Einstein,

and others, which

brought

about

a new,

coherent

theory of physics. Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart, The Collapse of Chaos: Discovering Simplicity in a Complex World (1994), a study of the ways in which simplicity is the distillation of complexity and chaos, exemplified by the reduction of the complexity of DNA through a series of simplifying laws of physics. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind (1994), a panoramic study of the evolution, biology, and anthropology of language, its uniquely human design, and its almost limitless permutations and nuances. Joyce Appleby, Lynn Hunt, and Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History (1994), a history of historiography, pointing out that skepticism and relativism about truth have coloured society’s attitudes toward science, politics, and history. Martha C. Nussbaum, The Therapy of Desire (1994), an analysis of the relationship between emotion and belief, a distinction that originated with the Hellenistic philosophers. Martin Heidegger, Basic Questions of Philosophy: Selected “Problems” of Logic (1994; originally published in German, 1984), a study of the relation of history to a system of philosophy and to the “essence of truth.” Paula

Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums,

Collecting,

and the

Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (1994), a study of the beginnings of the museum in 17th-century Italy, where Aristotelianism and the scientific revolution collided. (JEAN S. GOTTLIEB)

CONTRIBUTORS Abramson, Gary. Reporter on Spain for Businessweek, the Chicago Tribune, and the

Associated Press. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spain Adams, Andy. Editor and Publisher, Sumo World. Author of Sumo and Sumo World Record Book. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Judo; Wrestling: Sumo Allaby, Michael. Writer and Lecturer. Author of Ecology Facts; A Guide to Gaia.

* ENVIRONMENT: Jnternational and National Activities; Issues of Concern Allan, J.A. Professor of Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of

London. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Libya Anderson, D.F. Director, Department of Economic Affairs, International Iron & Steel Institute. Author of Steel Demand Forecasting and others. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Metals and Materials: Iron and Steel Archibald, John J. Retired Feature Writer,

St. Louis Post-Dispatch; Adjunct Professor, Washington University; Member of Professional Bowlers Association Hall of Fame. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Bowling: U.S. Tenpins Arnold, Guy. Freelance Writer. Author of

Modern Nigeria; Aid in Africa; and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Botswana; Burundi; Cape

Verde; Chad; Comoros; Djibouti; Equatorial

Guinea; Gambia, The; Ghana; Guinea-Bissau; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Maldives; Mauritius; Nigeria; Rwanda; Sao Tomé and Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Swaziland Arnold, Mavis. Freelance Journalist, Dublin.

* WORLD AFFAIRS: Ireland Arrington, Leonard J. Formerly Church Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-

day Saints. * RELIGION: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Bacani, Cesar. Associate Editor, Asiaweek. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Cambodia; Malaysia Bakker, Martinus A. Professor of Germanic

Languages, Calvin College. Editor of Studies in Netherlandic Culture and Literature. * LITERATURE: Netherlandic Balaban, Avraham. Professor of Modern

Hebrew Literature, University of Florida. Author of Between God and Beast: An Examination of Amos Oz’s Prose. * LITERATURE: Jewish: Hebrew Baptist, Ines T. Freelance Writer. * woRLD AFFAIRS: Belize Barford, Michael F. Editor and Director,

Tabacosmos. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Tobacco; Tobacco: Sidebar

Barlow, Margaret. Freelance Writer. Associate Editor, Women’s Art Journal. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); NOBEL PRIZES (in part) Barrett, David B. Hon. Research Adviser,

United Bible Societies; Church Missionary Society, Church of England. Author of Schism and Renewal in Africa: * RELIGION: Tables Barrett, John C.A. Headmaster, The Leys School; Secretary, British Committee, World Methodist Council. Author of Family

Worship in Theory and Practice. * RELIGION: Methodist Churches

Bass, Howard. Journalist and Broadcaster; formerly Editor, Winter Sports; Ice Hockey

Bisman, Ronald W. North Island Editor,

New Zealand Harness Racing Weekly. Author of Cardigan Bay; Salute to Trotting. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Harness Racing Blair, Walter. Professor Emeritus of English, University of Chicago. Author of Mark

Cameron, Sarah. Freelance Writer and Editor, AFFAIRS: Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; El Salvador; Guatemala; Haiti; Honduras; Nicaragua

Campbell, Rabert. Architect and Architecture

Sport. Full Member, Guild of Motoring Writers. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Automobile Racing: Grand Prix Racing

Critic. Author of Cityscapes of Boston; Coauthor of American Architecture of the 1980s. * ARCHITECTURE

Boden, Edward. Publications Adviser, British

Veterinary Association; formerly Editor, Veterinary Record. * HEALTH AND DISEASE: Veterinary Medicine Booth, John Nicholls. Lecturer and Writer.

Author of The Quest for Preaching Power. * RELIGION: Unitarian (Universalist) Churches Bossler, John D. Director and Professor at the

Center for Mapping, Ohio State University. * EARTH SCIENCES: Sidebar Boswall, Jeffery. Senior Lecturer in Biological Imaging, University of Derby. ° LIFE SCIENCES: Ornithology Box, Ben. Editor, Trade and Travel Publi-

cations (South American Handbook and Others). * WORLD AFFAIRS: Bolivia; Chile; Colombia; Panama; Peru; Venezuela Boye, Roger. Formerly Coin Columnist,

Chicago Tribune. * AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS: Numismatics Boylan, Patrick J. Professor and Head,

Department of Arts Policy and Management, City University, London. Author of Museums 2000: Politics, People, Professionals and Profit and others. * MUSEUMS (international) Bradsher, Henry S. Foreign Affairs Writer. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Philippines Braidwood, Robert J. Professor Emeritus of

Old World Prehistory, Oriental Institute and Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. Author of Prehistoric Men. * ARCHAEOLOGY: Eastern Hemisphere Brazee, Rutlage J. Geophysical Consultant. * EARTH SCIENCES: Geophysics Brecher, Kenneth. Professor of Astronomy

and Physics, Boston University. Coauthor and coeditor of Astronomy of the Ancients. * ASTRONOMY; ASTRONOMY: Sidebar

Brokopp, John G. Specialist in publicity, public relations, and writing about horse racing. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing (U.S. and Canada) Brooks, Tony. Retired Secretary-General,

International Table Tennis Federation. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Table Tennis Brown, Bess. Senior Research Analyst, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Tajikistan; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan

Brown, Maggie. Media Editor, The Independent Newspapers. * PUBLISHING: Magazines (international); Newspapers (international) Brown-Humes, Christopher. Stockholm

Burks, Ardath W. Professor Emeritus of

Study of Ethics and Public Policy, Queens College, City University of New York. * LITERATURE: Jewish: Yiddish

532

Trade and Travel Publications. * WORLD

Boddy, William C. Founder and Editor, Motor

World Forest Institute. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Wood Products: Wood

Faculty of Finance, College of Business, Ohio State University. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: /nsurance Bird, Thomas E. Director, Council for the

Author of Spaceship Earth; Giotto to the Comets. * SPECIAL REPORT: Seafaring and History in the English Channel

Twain; Coauthor of America’s Humor: Poor

Burdin, Joel L. Coordinator of Educational

Bickelhaupt, David L. Professor Emeritus,

Sunday Times. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Chess Calder, Nigel. Independent Science Writer.

Richard to Doonesbury. * MACROPEDIA: American Literature (in part) Bleibtreu, Hermann K. Professor of Anthropology, University of Arizona. * ANTHROPOLOGY

Correspondent, Daily Telegraph; Skiing and Skating Correspondent, Daily Mail. Author of 16 books on winter sports. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); SPORTS AND GAMES: Ice Hockey: International; Ice Skating; Skiing

-Battistella, Alexandre. Information Specialist,

Cafferty, Bernard. Associate Editor, British Chess Magazine; Chess Columnist, The

Correspondent, Financial Times. * WORLD

AFFAIRS: Sweden

Administration, Frostburg State University. Author of Diversity and Leadership in Education. * EDUCATION (U.S.) Asian Studies, Rutgers University. Author of Japan: A Postindustrial Power. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Japan

Burns, Erik. Freelance Writer. * woORLD

AFFAIRS: Portugal Butler, Frank. Formerly Sports Editor, News of the World. Author of The Good, the Bad and

the Ugly: A Story of Boxing. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Boxing

Cantrell, Scott. Classical Music Editor, Kansas

City Star. «Music: Classical Carter, Robert W. Journalist, London. * sPORTS

AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Show Jumping and Dressage; Steeplechasing; Thoroughbred Racing (Europe and Australia) Chapman, Kenneth F. Formerly Editor,

Stamp Collecting and Philatelic Magazine. * AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS: Philately Chappell, Duncan. Research Fellow,

United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute. * CRIME, LAW ENFORCEMENT, AND PENOLOGY: Crime; Law

Enforcement Chapple, Abby. Writer and Consultant, Consumer Communications (Annapolis, Md.) * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Home Furnishings: Furniture Cheuse, Alan. Writing Faculty, English

Department, George Mason University; Book Commentator, National Public Radio. Author of The Light Possessed and others. ° LITERATURE: English: United States Clapham, Christopher S. Professor of Politics and International Relations, University of

Lancaster. Author of Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. * woRLD AFFAIRS: Eritrea; Ethiopia Clark, David D. Managing Editor, World Literature Today. * LITERATURE: English: Other Clarke, Douglas L. Captain, U.S. Navy (ret.). Military Analyst. Author of The Missing Man: Politics and the MIA. * MILITARY AFFAIRS Clarke, R.O. Lecturer and Consultant on Industrial Relations, London. * LABOUR-

MANAGEMENT RELATIONS

Cogle, T.C.J. Consultant, Electrical Review.

* BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Electrical Collins, Cheryl L. Freelance Writer. * BIOGRAPHIES

(in part)

Cooper, Melanie Anne. Senior Editorial Assis-

tant, Newsweek. * PUBLISHING: Newspapers (U.S.); WORLD AFFAIRS: United States: State and Local Affairs; United States: Sidebar

Corzine, Robert. Oil and Gas Correspondent,

Financial Times. * ENERGY: Natural Gas; Petroleum Cosgrave, Bronwyn. Fashion Editor, The European, * FASHION AND DRESS Coveney, Michael. Theatre Critic, The Observer. Author of The Aisle Is Full of Noises and others. * THEATRE: Great Britain and Ireland

Craine, Anthony G. Copy Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part)

Crampton, Richard J. Fellow, St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, England; formerly Professor of

East European History, University of Kent at Canterbury. Author of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Bulgaria Crist, Raymond E. Formerly Research Professor of Geography, University of Florida.

Author of The Cauca Valley, Colombia.

* MACROPDIA: South America (in part)

Crowley, Edward. Journalist; Director, Technical Writing Services, Maritime

Monitor. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW:

Shipbuilding; TRANSPORTATION: Shipping and Ports

Contributors

Cunningham, Susan M. Economic and Political Analyst; Freelance Writer. Author of

Latin America Since 1945 (in preparation). * WORLD AFFAIRS: Argentina; Brazil; Mexico

Curwen, Peter J. Reader in Business Policy, Sheffield Business School. Author of The U.K. Publishing Industry and others.

* PUBLISHING: Books (international) Cviic, K.F. East European Specialist, Royal Institute of International Affairs. * woRLD AFFAIRS: Bosnia and Herzegovina; Croatia; Macedonia; Slovenia; Yugoslavia Czerwinski, Edward J. Professor Emeritus of

Slavic and Comparative Literature, State University of New York at Stony Brook. Author of A Dictionary of Polish Literature and others. Area Editor, Theater Companies

of the World. * LITERATURE: Eastern European (in part); Russian (in part) Davis, Donald A. Editor, Drug & Cosmetic Industry and Cosmetic Insider’s Report. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Pharmaceuticals Deam, John B. Retired Technical Director, AMT—The Association for Manufacturing Technology, McLean, Va. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Machinery and Machine Tools de la Barre, Kenneth. Director, Katimavik.

* WORLD AFFAIRS: Arctic Regions Deletant, Dennis J. Senior Lecturer in

Romanian Studies, University of London. Author of Studies in Romanian History; Colloquial Romanian and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Romania Denselow, Robin. Rock Music Critic, The Guardian; Current Affairs Reporter, BBC Television. Author of When the Music’s

Over: The Politics of Pop. «music: Popular (international) de Puy, Norman R. Minister, American Baptist Churches; Editor and Publisher,

Engels, Jan R. Retired Director, Centre Paul

Hymans. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Belgium Farr, D.M.L. Professor Emeritus of History,

Carleton University. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Canada Fendell, Robert J. Columnist, Sport Scene Florida. Author of How to Make Your Car Last and others. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Automobile Racing: U.S. Racing Finkelstein, Ellen. Product Coordinator, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES

(in part) Flagg, Gordon. Senior Editor, American Libraries. * LIBRARIES (U.S.)

Flanders, Douglas L. Director of Education and Information, The United Church of

Canada. * RELIGION: The United Church of Canada Fleming, Arlene K. Cultural Resource Management Consultant. Author of Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992-94. * ARCHITECTURE: Sidebar Fletcher, Charmaine. Media and Press

Officer, The Salvation Army. * RELIGION: Salvation Army Flores, Ramona Monette S. Professor, Univer-

sity of the Philippines; Editorial Consultant, Masks and Voices. * TELEVISION AND RADIO

(international) Follett, Christopher. Denmark Correspondent, The Times; Danish Correspondent, Radio Sweden; Newscaster, Radio Denmark; Freelance Correspondent, Reuters. Author

of Fodspor paa Cypern. *WORLD AFFAIRS: Denmark Fossli, Karen L. Oslo Correspondent, Financial Times. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Norway Freeman, Laurie. Freelance Writer and Editor. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW:

Advertising Friday, Elbert W., Jr. Assistant Administrator for Weather Services, National Oceanic

Cabbages and Kings newsletter. * RELIGION: Baptist Churches Dicks, Geoffrey R. U.K. Economist, NatWest Markets. Author of Sources of World Financial and Banking Information. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: (Introduction)

and Atmospheric Administration. * EARTH SCIENCES: Meteorology Fridovich, Irwin. James B. Duke Professor of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center. * LIFE SCIENCES: Molecular Biology (in part)

Dickstein, Morris. Director, Center for the Humanities; Professor of English,

Fridovich-Keil, Judith L. Assistant Professor,

Queens College and Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York. Author of Gates of Eden: American Culture in the Sixties and others. * : American Literature (in part) Dirnbacher, Elfriede. Austrian Civil Servant. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Austria Dixon, Bernard. Science Writer; Consultant. European Editor, Bio/Technology; Editor,

Medical Science Research. Author of Health and the Human Body and others. * HEALTH AND DISEASE: Medicine (international); Mental Health Dooling, Dave. Consultant and Writer, D? Associates. * SPACE EXPLORATION Dormer, Albert G. Bridge Correspondent,

The Times. Coauthor of Complete Book of Bridge and others. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Contract Bridge Dorsey, Learthen. Assistant Professor, Depart-

ment of History, University of Nebraska. Author of Historical Dictionary of Rwanda. * RACE AND ETHNIC RELATIONS: Sidebar Duke, Michael S. Professor of Chinese,

University of British Columbia. Author of Blooming and Contending the Iron House. * LITERATURE: Chinese

Earp, John H. Director, Halcrow Fox and Associates. * TRANSPORTATION: Introduction;

Freight and Pipelines; Intercity Rail; Roads and Traffic; Urban Mass Transit ;

Ehringer, Gavin Forbes. Rodeo Columnist,

Western Horseman. * SPORTS AND GAMEs: Rodeo Eisenhammer, John. Chief Correspondent

on Germany, The Independent. * WORLD

AFFAIRS: Germany Ellis, Roger. Editor, Mining Journal. * MINING Emerson, Warren K. Writer and Photographer.

¢ SPORTS AND GAMES: Badminton

Department of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine. * LIFE SCIENCES: Molecular Biology (in part) Friedrich, Mary Jane. Assistant Editor, Ency-

clopeedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Friskin, Sydney E. Hockey Correspondent, The Times. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Billiard Games;

Field Hockey; Snooker Frost, David. Formerly Rugby Union Writer, The Guardian. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Rugby Fuller, Amanda E. Assistant Editor, The Great

Ideas Today, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Fuller, Elizabeth. Senior Research Analyst,

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research

Institute. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia Gaddum, Anthony H. Chairman, H. T. Gaddum and Company; Deputy Vice President, International Silk Association.

* BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Textiles: Silk Ganado, Albert. Lawyer, Malta. Coauthor of

Malta in British and French Caricature 17981815. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Malta Ganguly, Dilip. Senior Correspondent, The Associated Press, South Asia Bureau (New

Delhi). * WORLD AFFAIRS: Bangladesh; Bhutan; Myanmar (Burma); Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka Garland, Irene. Freelance Writer and Lecturer

on Norwegian Matters, * BIOGRAPHIES (in

part)

Gibbons, Anne R. Freelance Writer. * LIFE

SCIENCES: Entomology Gibbons, J. Whitfield. Professor of Zoology, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia. Author of Keeping All the Pieces. * LIFE SCIENCES: Zoology

533

Giles, James R. Professor of English, Northern

Illinois University. Author of Confronting the Horror: The Novels of Nelson Algren and others. * MACROPA:DIA: American Literature (in part) Gill, Martin J. Editor, World Fishing Magazine. * AGRICULTURE AND FOOD

SUPPLIES: Fisheries Girnius, Saulius A. Senior Research Analyst, Open Media Research Institute. * woRLD AFFAIRS: Latvia; Lithuania

Goldsmith, Arthur. Editor-at-Large, Popular Photography. * ART: Photography; BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Photography; Photography: Sidebar Gottfried, Martin. Drama Critic, New York

City. Author of Sondheim; Nobody’s Fool: The Lives of Danny Kaye; and others. * THEATRE: U.S. and Canada Gottlieb, Jean S. Freelance Editor; Historian

of Science. Author of A Checklist of the Newberry Library’s Printed Books in Science, Medicine, Technology, and the Pseudosciences,

ca. 1460-1750. * BIBLIOGRAPHY Grayson, Kent A. Assistant Professor of Marketing, London Business School.

* MACROPZEDIA: Marketing and Merchandising (in part) Greeman, Adrian Lee. Editor, Civil Engineer

International. * ENGINEERING PROJECTS: Bridges Green, Anthony L. Senior Copy Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Greskovic, Robert J. Dance Reviewer, Arts &

Entertainment Monthly; Freelance Writer. * DANCE: North America Gribbin, John. Visiting Fellow in Astronomy, University of Sussex. Author of In the Beginning; In Search of the Edge of Time. * PHYSICS Griffiths, A.R.G. Senior Lecturer in History, Flinders University of South Australia. Author of Contemporary Australia; Beautiful Lies. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Australia; Nauru; Papua New

Guinea Grossman, Joel W. Archaeologist. * ARCHAEOLOGY: Western Hemisphere Guthridge, Guy G. Manager, Polar Information Program, U.S. National Science Foundation. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Polar Regions: Antarctica Hafez, Sabry. Professor of Modern Arabic, School of Oriental and African Studies,

University of London. Author of The Genesis of Arabic Narrative Discourse; Arabic Cinema. * LITERATURE: Arabic Halman, Talat S. Research Professor; Chairman, Department of Near Eastern

Languages and Literatures, New York University. * LITERATURE: Turkish Hanaway, William L. Associate Professor of Persian, University of Pennsylvania. Author

of Chapbook Publishing in Pakistan. * LITERATURE: Persian Hannen, Mark. Competitions Officer, English Basket Ball Association. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Basketball: International Harakas, Stanley S. Archbishop Iakovos Professor of Orthodox Theology, Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology. Author of Health and Medicine in the Eastern Orthodox Tradition and others. * RELIGION: Oriental Orthodox Church; The Orthodox Church Haub, Carl V. Demographer, Population Reference Bureau. Author of The U.N. Long-Range Population Prosections: What They Tell Us. * POPULATIONS AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS: Demography; POPULATIONS AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS: Sidebar Haufler, Daniel A. Journalist, Die Zeit.

* LITERATURE: German Havard-Williams, P. Professor of Library and Information Studies, University of Botswana.

Professor Emeritus, Loughborough

University. * LIBRARIES (international) Hawkland, William D. Chancellor Emeritus of Law and Boyd Professor, Louisiana State

University. * LAW: Court Decisions

534

Contributors

Hebblethwaite, Peter. Vatican Affairs Writer,

National Catholic Reporter. Author of Paul VI, The First Modern Pope. * RELIGION: Roman Catholic Church Hébert, Pierre. Professor titulaire, University

of Sherbrooke. * LITERATURE: French: Canada Heinzl, John. Business Reporter, The Globe and Mail. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Retailing Hendershott, Jon. Associate Editor, Track & Field News. Author of Track’s Greatest Women. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Track and

Field Sports Hendershott, Myrl C. Professor of Oceanography, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. * EARTH SCIENCES: Oceanography Hennelly, James. Researcher, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Henschel, Milton. President, Watch Tower

Information Science and Policy, State University of New York at Albany. * PUBLISHING: Magazines (U.S.)

Angola; Kenya; Malawi; Mozambique; Sudan, The; Tanzania; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia; Zimbabwe Ingram, Derek. Consultant Editor, Gemini News Service. Author of Commonwealth

fora Colour-Blind World; The Imperfect Commonwealth, * WORLD AFFAIRS: Commonwealth of Nations Jardine, Adrian. Company Director. Member, Guild of Yachting Writers. * sPORTS AND GAMES: Sailing Jaspert, W. Pincus. Technical and Editorial Consultant. International Editor, American Printer and World-Wide Printer. Author of

State of the Art and others. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Printing Jessell, Harry A. Executive Editor, Broadcasting

and Cable. * TELEVISION AND RADIO (U.S., in part); Amateur Radio (in part) Joffé, George. Journalist and Writer on North African and Middle Eastern Affairs. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia Johnsson, William G. Editor, Adventist Review.

Author of Behold His Glory and others. * RELIGION: Seventh-day Adventist Church Jones, D.A.N. Novelist and Critic. Author of Parade in Pairs; Never Had It So Good. * LITERATURE: Introduction; English: United

Kingdom Jones, W. Glyn. Professor Emeritus of Scandinavian Studies, University of East

Anglia. Author of Colloquial Danish and others. * LITERATURE: Danish Jotischky, Helma. Principal Research Officer, Paint Research Association. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Paints and Varnishes Juban, Yann. Jurist, International Wine and Vine Office. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY

REVIEW: Beverages: Wine Kaplan, Robert D. Contributing Editor, The Atlantic Monthly. Author of The Arabists;

Balkan Ghosts. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: The New Middle East Karsten, Peter. Past President, [UDZG—

The World Zoo Organization. * BOTANICAL GARDENS AND ZOOS: Zoos

South Africa: Sidebar Legum, Colin. Formerly Associate Editor, The Observer; Consultant Editor, Africa Contem-

porary Record; Editor, Third World Reports. Author of more than 20 books, mainly on

Africa. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: Africa’s Second Liberation Lennox-Kerr, Peter. Editor, High Performance

AND FOOD SUPPLIES; International Issues;

Textiles and OE Report & Fibre News;

European Editor, Textile World. Author of World Fibres Book, * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Textiles: Introduction;

Rouault; Geometry as Abstract Art; and

others. * MUSEUMS (U.S.) Knox, Richard A. Managing Editor, Power

History, University of Bristol. Author of Politics in Modern Africa: The Uneven Tribal Dimension and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS:

Cape. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Namibia; South Africa;

Agricultural Commodities Kind, Joshua B. Professor of Art History, Northern Illinois University. Author of

Netherlands, The; Suriname Hope, Thomas W. Chairman, Hope Reports, Inc. * MOTION PICTURES: Nontheatrical Films

Economy; Stock Exchanges (international)

Department, University of the Western

* BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: United Kingdom Kennedy, Richard M. Agricultural Economist, Agriculture and Trade Analysis Division,

Kirchhoff, H.J. Theatre Critic, The Globe and

Ingham, Kenneth. Professor Emeritus of

Niger; Senegal; Togo Legassick, Martin. Professor, History

Kellner, Peter. Political Commentator, BBC Television. Author of The Civil Servants: An Inquiry into Britain’s Ruling Class and others.

Hoeksema, Klaas J. Staff Member, Institute for Polytechnics, Amsterdam. * WORLD AFFAIRS:

IEIS. International Economic Information Services. * ECONOMIC AFFAIRS: World

Central African Republic; Congo; Cote d'Ivoire; Gabon; Guinea; Mali; Mauritania;

Rebellion: British Policy in Cyprus 1939-1955. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Cyprus

Department of Agriculture. * AGRICULTURE

Hunnings, Neville March. Editor, Encyclopedia of European Union Laws—Constitutional Texts. * LAW: International Agreements

AFFAIRS: Benin; Burkina Faso; Cameroon;

Relations Officer, Wilford Hall Air Force Medical Center. Author of Countdown to

Jehovah’s Witnesses

DIA: Marketing and Merchandising (in part) Hobbs, Greg. Editor, The Football Record. Author of 12 books on Australian Football. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Australian

Oakton Community College. Author of Soldiers of Misfortune and others. * WORLD

Sunday Times (Wellington). * WORLD AFFAIRS: New Zealand Kelling, George H. Historian and Media

Economic Research Service, U.S.

Marketing, Boston University. * MACROPA-

Lawler, Nancy Ellen. Professor of Economics,

Kelleher, J.A. Journalist, New Zealand. Formerly Editor, The Dominion and Dominion

Bible and Tract Society. * RELIGION: Hibbard, Jonathan D. Assistant Professor of

Lavallée, H.-Claude. Director, Pulp and Paper Research Centre, University of Quebec at Trois-Riviéres. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Wood Products: Paper

Katz, William A. Professor, School of

Cotton; Man-made Fibres

Lerner, Dietlind. Journalist. Author of television documentaries on German culture

Mail. * THEATRE: Sidebar

and politics. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Levine, Beth S. Freelance Writer. Author of Divorce: Young People Caught in the Middle and others. * PUBLISHING: Books (U.S.)

Technology International and Power Generation Technology. * ENERGY: Nuclear Kolankiewicz, George. Lecturer in Sociology, University of Essex; Research Director, Research Programme on East-West Studies,

U.K. Economic and Social Research Council. Coauthor of Social Groups in Polish Society and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Poland Kotler, Philip. S.C. Johnson and Son Distinguished Professor of International Marketing, Northwestern University. Author of Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control and others. * MACROP/EDIA: Marketing and Merchandising (in part) Kovel, Ralph and Terry. Authors; Publishers. Authors of Kovels’ Antiques & Collectibles Price List 1995. * AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS: Antiques and Collectibles Krengel, Janet. Senior Economist, Kleinwort

Benson Securities. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Paraguay; Uruguay Kroll, Thomas E. Lecturer, Roosevelt University and Northwestern University; President, Thomas Kroll Associates. Author of Introduction to Data Processing; C Language Programming. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Microelectronics; Telecommunications Kuhn, Howard A. Vice President; Chief Technical Officer, Concurrent Technologies

Corporation. Author of Powder Forging; Powder Processing. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY

REVIEW: Metals and Materials: Metalworking Kuptsch, Christiane. Research Officer, ISSA. * SOCIAL PROTECTION (international) Kushnick, Louis. Senior Lecturer, Department of American Studies, University of Manchester, England. * POPULATIONS AND

POPULATION MOVEMENTS: /nternational Migration; RACE AND ETHNIC RELATIONS

Lamb, Kevin M. Special Projects Writer, Dayton Daily News. Author of Quarterbacks, Nickelbacks & Other Loose Change. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Canadian, U.S. Laqueur, Walter. Chairman, International

Research Council, Center for Strategic & International Studies. Author of Europe in Our Time and others. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Introduction Larsson, Gerd. Japan Correspondent, Dagens

Industri. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Laskey, Elizabeth. Formerly Senior Copy Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Last, Geoffrey C. Formerly Adviser, Imperial Ethiopian Ministry of Education and Fine Arts. * MACROPADIA: Eastern Africa (in part)

Latham, Arthur. Associate Editor, Encyclo-

pedia Britannica. * CHRONOLOGY OF 1994

©

Levine, Steven I. Director, Center for Slavic, Eurasian, and East European Studies,

University of North Carolina. Author of Anvil of Victory: The Communist Revolution in Manchuria and others. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: China; Taiwan

Litsky, Frank. Sportswriter, New York Times. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Ice Hockey: North America Litweiler, John. Jazz Critic; Contributor to

Down Beat, Chicago Tribune, and others. Author of Ornette Coleman: A Harmolodic Life. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); MUSIC: Jazz Logan, Robert G. Sportswriter, Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Ill.). Author of Cubs Win! and others. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Basketball (U.S.) Longmore, Andrew. Freelance Sportswriter, The Times; formerly Assistant Editor, The Cricketer. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part);

SPORTS AND GAMES: Cricket; Introduction Luling, Virginia R. Social Anthropologist. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Somalia McCauley, Martin. Senior Lecturer in Politics,

School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Commonwealth of Independent States; Russia Macdonald, Barrie. Professor of History, Massey University. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: The South Pacific Forum; Dependent States (Pacific); Fiji; Kiribati; Marshall Islands; Micronesia, Federated States of; Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Western Samoa McElroy, John. Editor-in-Chief, Automotive Industries. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Automobiles McGregor, Alan. Freelance Contributor,

The Times; The Lancet; Swiss Radio International; CBS Radio. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Switzerland McLachlan, Keith S. Professor, School of

Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Author of Boundaries of Modern

Tran. *WORLD AFFAIRS: Iran

Mallett, H.M.F. Editor, Wool Record Weekly

Market Report. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Textiles: Wool Mango, Andrew. Foreign Affairs Analyst. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Turkey

Markakis, John. Professor of African Studies,

University of Crete. Author of Ethiopia:

Anatomy of a Traditional Polity and others. * MACROPARDIA: Eastern Africa (in part)

Contributors Marples, David R: Associate Professor of History, University of Alberta. Author

of Stalinism in Ukraine and others. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Belarus; Ukraine Martin, Marvin. Freelance Writer. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Mathews, John H. Copy Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Matthiasson, Bjérn. Economist, Ministry of Finance, Iceland. * woRLD AFFAIRS: Iceland Maunder, Michael. Head of Conservation

Unit, Living Collections Department, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. » BOTANICAL GARDENS AND ZOOS: Botanical Gardens Mazie, David M. Staff Writer, Reader’s Digest;

Freelance Writer. * SOCIAL PROTECTION (U.S.) Mermel, T.W. Consultant; formerly Chairman,

Committee on World Register of Dams, International Commission on Large Dams. * ENGINEERING PROJECTS: Dams Michael, Tom. Writer, Encyclopedia

Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Millikin, Sandra. Architectural Historian. * ART: Art Exhibitions Miwa, Takuji. Associate Professor, Daito College of Medical Technology; Director,

International Health Evaluation Association. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Modiano, Mario. Formerly Athens Correspondent, The Times. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Greece

Morris, Jacqui M. Editor, Oryx. * ENVIRONMENT: Wildlife Conservation Morrison, Donald. Editor, Time Asia.

* WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: East Asia and the Transition in North Korea Moutet, Anne-Elisabeth. Journalist,

The European. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: France Mullin, John J. Analyst, Smith Barney. Author of Emerging Equity Markets in the Global Economy. * SPECIAL REPORT: Emerging Equity Markets Munns, Thomas E. Senior Program Officer, National Materials Advisory Board, National

Research Council. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Metals and Materials: Advanced Composites (in part) Nagy, Joseph L. Senior Editor, Asiaweek. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Korea, Democratic People’s

Republic of; Korea, Republic of Naylor, Ernest. Lloyd Roberts Professor of

Marine Zoology, University College of North Wales. * LIFE SCIENCES: Marine Biology Neher, Stephen. Assistant Editor,

Encyclopedia Britannica. * WORLD AFFAIRS:

Palau; Political Parties (in part) Neusner, Noam. Reporter, Tampa Tribune. Coauthor of To Grow in Wisdom:

An Anthology of Abraham J. Heschel. * RELIGION: Judaism Newby, Donald J. Bowls Correspondent, Daily Telegraph; formerly Editor, World Bowls. Author of various bowls publications. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Lawn Bowls Niesz, Dale E. Director, Center for Ceramic

Research, Rutgers University. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Ceramics Nitecki, Matthew H. Curator, Fossil Invertebrates, Field Museum of Natural

History. Author of Evolutionary Ethics; Evolutionary Innovations. * LIFE SCIENCES: Paleontology Norman, Geraldine. Art Market Correspondent, The Independent. Author of Nineteenth Century Painters and Painting; Coauthor of The Fake’s Progress. * AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS: Art Auctions and Sales; Books;

AUCTIONS AND COLLECTIONS: Sidebar

Nugent, Ann. Editor, Dance Now; Dance Critic,

The Stage. Author of Swan Lake: Stories of the Ballets. * DANCE: Europe O'Donoghue, Michael. Lecturer in Gemmology, London Guildhall University. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Gemstones Ogden, Shepherd. President, The Cook’s Garden. Author of Step by Step Organic Veg-

etable Gardening and others. * GARDENING (international); GARDENING: Sidebar

Olson, Kay Melchisedech. Executive Editor,

Flower & Garden. * GARDENING (U.S.)

Orr, Jay. Entertainment Writer, Nashville

Banner. * Music: Popular (U.S.)

Osborne, K.L. Editor, British Rowing Almanack. Author of Boat Racing in Britain, 1715-1975. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Rowing

Palmer, John. European Editor, The Guardian. * WORLD AFFAIRS: European Union Parker, Sandy. Publisher, newsletter on fur industry; Copublisher, Fur World. * BUSINESS

AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Apparel: Furs Parming, Ténu. President, Estonian Publishing Co. Author of A Case Study of a Soviet Republic: The Estonian SSR. * WORLD AFFAIRS; Estonia Parsons, James J. Professor Emeritus of

Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Author of Antioquefio Colonization in Western Colombia and others. *MACROPADIA: South America (in part)

Paul, Charles Robert, Jr. Consultant, U.S.

Olympic Committee. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Gymnastics; Weight Lifting Penfold, Robin C. Freelance Writer on

industrial topics. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Plastics Perlinska, Agnieszka. Ph.D. in Comparative Literature, New York University. * LITERATURE: Eastern European (in part); Russian (in part) Pertile, Lino. Professor of Italian, University of

Edinburgh. ¢ LITERATURE: Italian

Robinson, David. Film Critic and Historian.

Author of A History of World Cinema; Chaplin: His Life and Art. * SPECIAL REPORT: The Hollywood Conquest; MOTION PICTURES: General Roby, Anne. Freelance Writer and Editor. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Andorra; Liechtenstein;

Luxembourg; Monaco Rocky, Marilyn E. Executive Director, CHILDHOPE. ° SPECIAL REPORT: Street Children Rollin, Jack. Association Football Columnist,

Sunday Telegraph. Editor, Rothmans Football Yearbook. Author of World Cup 1930=1990 and others. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); SPORTS

AND GAMES: Football: Association (Soccer); Football: Sidebar Rusch, William G. Director, Department for Ecumenical Affairs, ELCA. Author of

Reception: An Ecumenical Opportunity. * RELIGION: Lutheran Communion Russell, Cristine. Freelance Science Writer

and Special Health Correspondent, The Washington Post. * HEALTH AND DISEASE: Medicine (U.S.) Russell, George. Senior Editor, Time

International. Author of Eyewitness: A History of Photojournalism. * WORLD AFFAIRS: United States Rutherford, Andrew. Reader, Faculty of Law, University of Southampton. Author of Criminal Justice and the Pursuit of Decency and others. * CRIME, LAW ENFORCE-

Petherick, Karin. Reader Emeritus in Swedish,

MENT, AND PENOLOGY: Prisons and

University of London. * LITERATURE: Swedish Pfeffer, Irving. Attorney. Author of The Financing of Small Business. * ECONOMIC AFFAIRS: Stock Exchanges (North America) Pinfold, Geoffrey M. Director, NCL Stewart Scott. Author of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers. * ENGINEERING PROJECTS: Buildings Poirié, Frangois. Writer and Critic. Author of La Passade légendaire; Ils dansent. * LITERATURE: French: France

Penology

Polonsky, Naomi Bernards. Freelance Writer;

Freelance Editor. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Prasad, H.Y. Sharada. Formerly Information Adviser to the Prime Minister of India. * WORLD AFFAIRS: India Prince, Greg W. Senior Editor, Beverage

World. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Beverages: Beer; Soft Drinks; Spirits Rapp, Susan. Freelance Editor.

* BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Réamonn, Paéraic. Communications Director, World Alliance of Reformed Churches.

* RELIGION: Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregational Churches Rebelo, L.S. Reader Emeritus; Visiting Professor, Department of Portuguese Stud-

ies, King’s College, University of London. * LITERATURE: Portuguese: Portugal Reed, Arthur. Senior Editor, Europe, Air Transport World. Author of Britain’s Aircraft Industry; Coauthor of RAE Farnborough. * TRANSPORTATION: Aviation Reid, Philip D. Louise C. Harrington Professor of Biological Sciences, Smith College. * LIFE SCIENCES: Botany

Renwick, David. Editorial Director, Daily News

(Trinidad). * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: The New Caribbean Basin Identity; Antigua and Barbuda; Bahamas,

The; Barbados;

Dependent States (Caribbean and Bermuda); Dominica; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent

and the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago Restak, Richard. Clinical Professor of

Neurology, George Washington University Medical School. Author of The Modular Brain. * SPECIAL REPORT: Prozac Reynaud, Bérénice. Faculty Member, California

Institute of the Arts. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Roach, Suzanne. Director, AIUSA Women’s

Human Rights Program. * SOCIAL PROTECTION: Sidebar Roberts, John. Tennis Correspondent, The

Independent. Author of The Team That Wouldn’t Die. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Tennis

535

Saeki, Shoichi. Professor Emeritus, Tokyo

University. Author of Japanese Autobiographies. * LITERATURE: Japanese Salisbury, Jonathan M. Publisher, World Toy News. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Games and Toys Saludo, Ricardo L. Senior Editor, Asiaweek.

* BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Indonesia; Vietnam

Sanders, Alan J.K. Lecturer in Mongolian Studies, School of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London. Author of Mongolia: Politics, Economics and Society.

* WORLD AFFAIRS: Mongolia Sarahete, Yrjé. General Secretary, Fédération

Internationale des Quilleurs. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Bowling: World Tenpins Sarmiento, Sergio. Editor in Chief, Encyclopedia Britannica Publishers, Inc. (Latin America). * SPORTS AND GAMES: Baseball: Latin America; Football:

Association (Soccer): Latin America Schafrik, Robert E. Director, National Materials Advisory Board, National Research

Council. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Metals and Materials: Advanced Composites (in part) Scherer, Allan D. Director, United States Polo Association; Editor, Polo Newsletter. * SPORTS

AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Polo Schneider, Johanna. Assistant Editor,

Amateur Wrestling News. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Wrestling ; Schoenfield, Albert. Formerly Member,

U.S. Swimming Olympic International Committee. Formerly Publisher, Swimming World. Honouree, International Swimming Hall of Fame. Author of The Saga of the Exterminators Squadron. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Swimming Schépflin, George. Lecturer in East European Political Institutions, London School of Economics and School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: Perils of Postcommunism in Eastern Europe; Czech Republic; Hungary; Slovakia Schultz, Alarich R. Professor of Botany, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. Author of Estudo Pratico da Botanica Geral. * MACROPADIA: South America (in

part)

Sego, Steve. Formerly Director, Radio Free

Afghanistan; Freelance Writer. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Afghanistan

536

Contributors

Shackleford, Peter. Chief of Environment, Planning, and Finance, World Tourism

Swift, Richard N. Professor Emeritus of Politics, New York University. * WORLD

Organization. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Tourism Sheahan, John. Professor Emeritus of

zations; United Nations Synan, Vinson. Dean, School of Divinity,

Economics, Williams College. Author of

Patterns of Development in Latin America: Poverty, Repression, and Economic Strategy. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: Latin America’s New Economic Strategy Shelley, Andrew. Events Manager, Squash Rackets Association (England). * SPORTS AND GAMES: Squash Rackets Shepherd, Melinda C. Associate Editor,

Encyclopedia Britannica. * SPECIAL REPORT: The XVII Olympic Winter Games; OBITUARIES (in part); SPORTING RECORD; WORLD

AFFAIRS: Dependent States (Europe and the Atlantic); Political Parties (in part) Sherry, Paul H. President, United Church of Christ. * RELIGION: United Church of Christ Smith, Donald. Editor, Rubber World. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Rubber Smith, Gregory O. Dean of Academic Affairs, American University of Rome. * WORLD AFFAIRS: San Marino; Vatican City State Smith, Peter N. Information Officer,

British Glass. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Glass Smith, Reuben W. Professor of History,

University of the Pacific. * RELIGION: Islam Spangenberg, N. Earl. Professor, College of

Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point. Editor, HYDATA—News

and Views. * EARTH SCIENCES: Hydrology Sparks, Karen J. Senior Editor, Encyclopzdia

Britannica. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Apparel: Clothing; Footwear and Leather Goods; Home Furnishings: Housewares; DISASTERS; OBITUARIES (in part) Spencer, Peter L. Editor, Consuwmer’s Research.

* CONSUMER AFFAIRS (U.S.) Starke, Edgar A., Jr. Professor, University of Virginia. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Metals and Materials: Light Metals Stern, Irwin. Senior Lecturer in Portuguese,

Columbia University. * LITERATURE: Portuguese: Brazil Stewart, Ian. Professor of Mathematics,

University of Warwick. Author of Does God Play Dice?; The Collapse of Chaos. * MATHEMATICS Steverud, Torbjgrn. Honorary Research

Fellow, University College, London. * LITERATURE: Norwegian Sullivan, H. Patrick. Dean Emeritus of the

College and Professor of Religion, Vassar College. * RELIGION: Hinduism Summerhill, Edward M. Part-Time Staff Member, Reuters; Freelance Writer, Finnish

AFFAIRS: Multinational and Regional OrganiRegent University. Author of In the Latter Days; Pentecostal Churches. * RELIGION:

Pentecostal Churches Taishoff, Lawrence B. Chairman, Broadcasting and Cable; Adviser, Cahners Consumer/

Entertainment Publishing Division. + TELEVISION AND RADIO (U.S. in part); Amateur Radio (in part) Tateishi, Kay K. Freelance Writer and Translator, Tokyo. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Taylor, Thomas F. General Secretary, Friends World Committee for Consultation. Formerly Editor, Friends World News. * RELIGION: Religious Society of Friends Thomas, Robert Murray. Professor Emeritus

of Education and Head, Program in International Education, University of California at Santa Barbara. Author of International Comparative Education and others. * EDUCATION (international) Tugend, Alina. Press Officer, International

Organisation of Consumers Unions.

* CONSUMER AFFAIRS (international) Turner, Darrell J. Writer on Religion;

Formerly Editor and Writer, Religious News Service. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); RELIGION: Introduction UNHCR. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. * POPULATIONS AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS: Refugees Ustinov, Peter. Actor, Director, Author, Playwright, Commentator, and Chancellor of

Durham University. *» COMMENTARY: Toward the Age of Common Sense Utt, Roger L. Editor, Puerta del Sol; formerly Assistant Professor of Spanish, Department

of Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. * LITERATURE: Spanish; Spain Venzke, Bruce H. Associate Editor, Pool &

Way, Diane Lois. Historical Researcher. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Westberg, M. Victor. Manager, Committees on Publication, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston. * RELIGION: Church of Christ, Scientist Whelan, John. Editor, Waters Information Services. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Bahrain; Egypt;

Iraq; Jordan; Kuwait; Lebanon; Oman;

Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Syria; United Arab Emirates; Yemen Whitney, Barbara. Copy Supervisor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES (in part); ENVIRONMENT: Sidebar Wilkinson, John R. Sportswriter, Coventry

Newspapers. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Cycling Williams, Michael. Golf Correspondent,

Daily Telegraph. Author of Official History of the Ryder Cup. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Golf Williams, Raymond Leslie. Professor of Spanish, University of Colorado. Author of The Colombian Novel, 1844-1987. * LITERATURE: Spanish: Latin America Willis, Clifford L. Director of News and Information, Office of Communication,

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). * RELIGION: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Wilson, Derek. Correspondent, BBC, Rome.

* WORLD AFFAIRS: Italy Wilson, Michael. Freelance Aviation Writer

and Consultant; Managing Editor, Testimony. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Aerospace Woodrow, Robert. Assistant Managing Editor,

Asiaweek. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Laos; Thailand Woods, Elizabeth. Writer. Author of Jf Only Things Were Different (I): A Model for a Sustainable Society; Bird Salad; and others.

* LITERATURE: English: Canada Woods, Michael. Science Editor, Toledo Blade.

Author of Science in Antarctica. * CHEMISTRY; NOBEL PRIZES (in part)

Woodward, Berton. Assistant Managing Editor, Asiaweek. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Spotlight: Asian Values; Brunei; Dependent States (East Asia);

Billiard Magazine. Member, Statistics and Records Committee, Billiard Congress of America; Past President, Billiard Congress of Wisconsin. * SPORTS AND GAMES: Billiard

Singapore Woollen, Anthony. Formerly Editor, Food

Games: Carom Billiards; Pocket Billiards

Processing Wright, Andrew G. Associate Editor, Engineering News-Record. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Building and Construction Wyllie, Peter John. Professor, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences,

Verdi, Robert William. Sports Columnist, Chicago Tribune. Author of Once a Dodger, Always a Bum and others. * SPORTS AND

GAMES: Baseball: Little League; U.S.; Baseball: Sidebar Wallenfeldt, Jeff. Copy Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica. * BIOGRAPHIES

(in part);

Music: Sidebar Wallis, Shani. Independent Technical Journalist. * ENGINEERING PROJECTS: Tunnels

Manufacture. Editor, Food Industries Manual.

* AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SUPPLIES: Food

California Institute of Technology. Author of The Dynamic Earth; The Way the Earth Works. * EARTH SCIENCES: Geology and Geochemistry Wyllie, Robert J.M. Editor, Engineering & Mining Journal. * ENERGY: Coal Yapko, Michael D. Clinical Psychologist, private practice. Author of Essentials of Clinical Hypnosis and others. * SPECIAL REPORT: Repressed Memories

News Agency. * WORLD AFFAIRS: Finland Sumner, David E. Columnist; Contributor to Episcopal Church periodicals. Author of The Episcopal Church’s History: 1945-1985. * RELIGION: Anglican Communion Susser, Leslie D. Diplomatic Correspondent,

Wanninger, Richard S. Director of External Affairs, Colorado Sports Council. * spoRTS

Israel Suzuki, Toshihiko. Senior Editor, Dobunshoin International. * SPORTS AND GAMES:

AND GAMES: Volleyball Warner, Edward S. Editor, FCC Report, Telecom Publishing Group. * INFORMATION PROCESSING AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Young, M. Norvel. Chancellor Emeritus,

Warren, J. Robert. Editor, Asia-Pacific Report,

Zanga, Louis. Analyst, Radio Free Europe/

The Jerusalem Report. * WORLD AFFAIRS:

Baseball: Japan

Swan, Russ. Editor, World Highways.

* ENGINEERING PROJECTS: Roads

Walters, Jonathan S. Assistant Professor of

Religion, Whitman College. ¢ RELIGION: Buddhism

Chemical Marketing Reporter. * BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY REVIEW: Chemicals

Pepperdine University. Author of Preachers of Today. * RELIGION: Churches of Christ Radio Liberty Research Institute. * woRLD AFFAIRS; Albania

1995 Britannica World Data

Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Chicago Auckland/London/Madrid/Manila/Paris/Rome Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto

Editor Associate Editors Research Editors

Consultant

Manager, Copy Department Product Coordinator Copy Staff Manager, Production Control Production Control Staff Manager, Composition/Page Makeup Supervisor, Composition/Page Makeup Coordinator, Composition/Page Makeup Composition/Page Makeup Staff

William A. Cleveland Sujata Banerjee, Marino P. PeBenito,

Joseph R. Sturgis Rosaline Jackson Keys, W. Peter Kindel, Stephen Neher, Edward F. Vowell M. C. MacDonald, Director World Economics, London

Sylvia Wallace Dennis Skord Glenn Jenne, Judith West

Mary C. Srodon Marilyn L. Barton, Noelle M. Borge Melvin Stagner Michael Born, Jr.

Danette Wetterer Griselda Chaidez, Carol A. Gaines,

Thomas J. Mulligan, Gwen E. Rosenberg, Tammy Yu-chu Wang Vice President, Management Information Systems Publishing Technology Group

Lawrence J. Merrick Steven Bosco, Philip Rehmer, Vincent Star,

Mary Voss Creative Director, Art

Manager, Map Group Supervisor, Cartography Cartography Staff

Manager, Index Department Librarian Associate Librarian

Curator/Geography Assistant Librarian

ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bob Ciano

Barbra A. Vogel Brian L. Cantwell Steven Bogdan, Dione E. Fortin, Amelia R. Gintautas, Michael D. Nutter Carmen-Maria Habuleac Hetrea

Terry Passaro Shantha Uddin David W. Foster Robert M. Lewis

BRITANNICA,

INC.

President and Chief Executive Officer, Peter B. Norton

Encyclopedia Britannica North America Executive Vice President, Operations, Karen M. Barch Vice President, Finance and Administration, Elizabeth P. O’Connor

Director of Yearbooks, Charles P. Trumbull

© 1995 BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC, Copyright Under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved Under International and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopzdia Britannica, Inc. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by _ any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

CONTENTS 540 = Introduction

541

546 546 547 548

549 550 551 552 553. 554 556

Glossary

The Nations of the World Afghanistan Albania Algeria

598 599

Dominican Republic Ecuador

653 Liberia 654 = Libya

600

Egypt

655

~—Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives

705

San Marino

706 707 708 709 710 711 712

Sao Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia

France

663.

Mali

713

Slovenia

Gabon Gambia, The

664 665

Malta Marshall Islands

714 715

Solomon Islands Somalia

601 — El Salvador 602 Equatorial Guinea 603 ‘Eritrea 604 ~=Estonia 605 Ethiopia 606 Fiji 607 Finland

557.

Azerbaijan

608

558 559

Bahamas, The ‘Bahrain

610 611

612 Georgia 613. Germany 615 Ghana 616 Greece 617 Grenada 618 Guadeloupe 619 Guatemala 620 Guinea 621 Guinea-Bissau 622 Guyana 623 —-Haiti 624 Honduras 625 Hong Kong 626 Hungary 627 ~— Iceland 628 India 630 Indonesia 631 Iran 632 Iraq 633 Ireland 634 Israel 635 Italy 637 Jamaica 638 Japan Jordan 641. 642 Kazakhstan Kenya 643 ‘Kiribati 644 Korea, North 645 Korea, South 646 Kuwait 647 Kyrgyzstan 648 Laos 649 650 = Latvia Lebanon 651 Lesotho 652 eee

756

666 Martinique 667 Mauritania 668 Mauritius 669 Mexico 671 Micronesia 672 Moldova 673 Mongolia 674 Morocco 675 Mozambique 676 Myanmar (Burma) 677 Namibia 678 Nepal 679 — Netherlands, The 680 New Zealand 681 Nicaragua 682 Niger 683. Nigeria 684 Norway 685 Oman 686 Pakistan 687 Palau 688 Panama 689 Papua New Guinea 690 Paraguay Peru 691 692 Philippines Poland 693 Portugal 694 Puerto Rico 695 Qatar 696 Réunion 697 Romania 698 Russia 699 Rwanda 701 St. Kitts and Nevis 702 -‘St. Lucia 703 a

ee

a

716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 741 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755

South Africa ~~ Spain Sri Lanka Sudan, The Suriname

Swaziland Sweden Switzerland ~~ Syria Taiwan ~—-Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia ‘Turkey

Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Western Samoa Yemen Yugoslavia = Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe

aerseeaneEeEnSTIn EUR aEEERIE

EET ERE

STE

EE

Comparative National Statistics

World and regional summaries Government and international organizations Area and population 764 770 — Major cities and national capitals Language 778 Religion 783 Vital statistics, marriage, family 786 National product and accounts 792 Employment and labour 798 756 758

894

Liechtenstein

St. Vincent and the Grenadines

656 657 658 659 660 661 662

Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Austria

560 Bangladesh 561 Barbados 562 Belarus 563 Belgium 564 Belize 565 Benin 566 Bhutan 567 _ Bolivia 568 Bosnia and Herzegovina 569 Botswana 570 _—Brazil 572 Brunei 573 Bulgaria 574 Burkina Faso 575. Burundi 576. Cambodia 577 Cameroon 578 Canada 580 Cape Verde 581 Central African Republic 582 Chad 583 Chile 584 China Colombia 586 587 Comoros Congo 588 Costa Rica 589 Céte d’Ivoire 590 Croatia 591 Cuba 592 Cyprus 593 Czech Republic 594 Denmark 595 Djibouti 596 Dominica 597

704

|

804 ~ Agriculture and land use Crops and livestock 810 Extractive industries 816 Manufacturing industries 822 Energy 828 Transportation 834 840 | Communications 846 _— Trade: external Trade: domestic 852 (wholesale and retail)

858 864 870

876 882 888

Finance Housing and construction Household budgets and consumption Health services Social protection and defense services (social security, crime, military) Education

Bibliography and sources 559

INTRODUCTION

Britannica World Data provides a statistical portrait of some 216 countries and dependencies of the world, at a level appropriate to the size and importance of each. It contains 194 country statements (the “Nations of the World” section), ranging in length from one to four pages, and permits, in the 24 major thematic tables (the “Comparative National Statistics” section), simultaneous comparisons among all of these larger countries and 22 additional smaller dependent states. Updated annually, Britannica World Data can be consulted as a separate work of reference developing a particular body of subject matter, but it is particularly intended as direct, structured support for many of Britannica’s other reference works—encyclopaedias, yearbooks, atlases—at a level of detail that their editorial

style or design do not permit. Like the textual, graphic, or cartographic modes of expression of these other products, statistics possess their own inherent editorial virtues and weaknesses. Two principal goals in the creation of Britannica World Data were up-to-dateness and comparability, each possible to maximize separately, but not always possible to combine. If, for example, research on some subject is completed during a particular year (x), figures may be available for 100 countries for the preceding year (x — 1), for 140 countries for the year before that (x — 2), and for 180 countries for the year before that (x — 3 ). Which year should be the basis of a thematic compilation for 220 countries so as to give the best combination of up-to-dateness and comparability? And, shouldx — 1 be adopted for the thematic table, ought up-to-dateness in the country table (for which year x is already available) be sacrificed for agreement with the thematic table? In general, the editors have opted for maximum up-to-dateness in the country statistical boxes and maximum comparability in the thematic tables, so as to take the best advantage of recent information. Comparability, however, also resides in the meaning of the numbers compiled, which may differ greatly from country to country. The headnotes to the thematic tables explain many of these definitional problems; the Glossary serves the same purpose for the country statistical pages. Published data do not always provide the researcher or editor with a neat, unambiguous choice between a datum compiled on two different bases (say,

railroad track length, or route length), one of which is

wanted and the other not. More often a choice must be made among a variety of official, private, and external intergovernmental (UN, FAO, IMF) sources, each re-

porting its best data but each representing a set of problems: (1) of methodological variance from (or among) international conventions; (2) of analytical completeness (data for a single year may, successively, be projected [based on 10 months’ data], preliminary [for 12 months], final, revised or adjusted, etc.); (3) of time frame, or accounting interval (data may represent a full Gregorian calendar year [preferred], a fiscal year, an Islamic or 540

other national or religious year, a multiyear period or average [when a one-year statement would contain unrepresentative results]); (4) of continuity with previous data; and the like. Finally, published data on a particular subject may be complete and final but impossible to summarize in a simple manner. The education system of a single country may include, for example, public and private sectors; local, state, or national systems; varying grades, tracks, or forms within a single system;.or opportunities for double-counting or fractional counting of a student, teacher, or institution. When no recent official data exist, the tables may show unofficial estimates,

a range (of published opinion), analogous data, or no data at all. For certain subjects, especially population, the editors have prepared their own estimates. The entrance of more than a score of newly independent countries onto the world stage since 1990 has displaced a number of smaller dependent states for which pages had been provided in past editions of Britannica World Data. These new countries, by virtue of their population, economic importance, and independent status, must, naturally, be assigned coverage commensurate with their importance, but, their present status being only recently acquired, most have not yet been assimilated by the information systems of international organizations like the UN. Thus, certain information provided must remain in the form published by the country itself, rather than the more-familiar international statistical presentations available for older states. The published basis of the information compiled is the statistical collections of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.,

some of the principal elements of which are enumerated in the Bibliography. The information contained in those works is supplemented by unpublished data received in correspondence from the countries concerned. Usual holdings for a country with a well-developed statistical program may include any of the following kinds of

documents:

the national statistical abstract; the consti-

tution; the most recent censuses of population; periodic

or occasional reports on vital statistics, social indicators,

agriculture, mining, labour, manufacturing, domestic and foreign trade, finance and banking, transportation, and communications. The great majority of the social, economic, and financial data contained in this work should not be interpreted in isolation. Interpretive text of long perspective, such as that of the Encyclopedia Britannica itself: political, geographic, and topical maps, such as those in the Britannica Atlas; and recent analysis of political

events and economic trends, such as that contained in

the articles of the Book of the Year, will all help to supply balance, physical framework, and ‘analytic focus that numbers alone cannot provide. By the same token, study of those sources will be made more concrete by use of Britannica World Data to supply up-to-date geographic, demographic, and economic data to illuminate the methodology of those works.

GLOSSARY

A number of terms that are used to classify and report data in the “Nations of the World” section require some explanation. Those italicized terms that are used regularly ‘ in the country compilations to introduce specific categories of information (e.g., birth rate, budget) appear in this glossary in italic boldface type, followed by a description of the precise kind of information being offered and how it has been edited and presented. All other terms are printed here in roman boldface type. Many terms have quite specific meanings in statistical reporting, and they are so defined here. Other terms have less specific application as they are used by different countries or organizations. Data in the country compilations based on definitions markedly different from those below will usually be footnoted. Terms that appear in small capitals in certain definitions are themselves defined at their respective alphabetical locations. Terms whose definitions are marked by an asterisk (*) refer to data supplied only in the larger two- to four-page country compilations. access to services, a group of measures indicating a population’s level of access to public services, including electrical power, treated

public drinking water, sewage removal, and fire protection.* activity rate, see participation/activity rates. age breakdown, the distribution of a given population by age, usually reported here as percentages of total population in 15-year age brackets. When substantial numbers of persons do not know, or state, their exact age, distribu-

tions may not total 100.0%. area, the total surface area of a country or its administrative subdivisions, including both land and inland (nontidal) water area. Land area is usually calculated from “mean low water” on a “plane table,” or flat, basis.

area and population, a tabulation usually including the first-order administrative subdivisions of the country (such as the states of the United States), with capital (headquarters, or administrative seat), area, and population. When these subdivisions are especially numerous or, occasionally, nonexistent, a planning, electoral,

census, or other nonadministrative scheme of

regional subdivisions has been substituted.

associated state, see state. atheist, in statements of religious affiliation, one who professes active opposition to religion; “nonreligious” refers to those professing only no religion, nonbelief, or doubt.

balance of payments, a financial statement for a country for a given period showing the balance among: (1) transactions in goods, services, and income between that country and the rest

of the world, (2) changes in ownership or valuation of that country’s monetary gold, SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHTS, and claims on and liabilities

to the rest of the world, and (3) unrequited transfers and counterpart entries needed (in an accounting sense) to balance transactions and changes among any of the foregoing types of exchange that are not mutually offsetting. The System of National Accounts (SNA, pub-

lished under the joint auspices of the UN,

a framework for international comparability in classifying such transactions, but detail of local law as to what constitutes a transaction, the

basis of its valuation, and the size of a transaction visible to fiscal authorities all result in differences in the meaning of a particular national statement.* balance of trade, the net value of all international goods trade of a country, usually excluding reexports (goods received only for transshipment), and the percentage that this net represents of total trade. Balance of trade refers only to the “visible” international trade of goods as’ recorded by customs authorities and is thus a segment of a country’s BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, which takes all visible and invisible trade with other countries into account. (Invisible trade refers to imports and exports of money, financial instru-

ments, and services such as transport, tourism,

and insurance.) A country has a favourable balance of trade when the value of exports exceeds that of imports.

barrel (bbl), a unit of liquid measure.

The

barrel conventionally used for reporting crude petroleum and petroleum products is equal to 42 U.S.

gallons,

or

159 litres. The

number

of barrels of crude petroleum per metric ton, ranging typically from 6.20 to 8.13, depends upon the specific gravity of the petroleum. The world average is roughly 7.33 barrels per ton.

birth rate, the number of live births annually per 1,000 of midyear population. Birth rates for individual countries may be compared with the estimated world annual average of 26.0 births per 1,000 population between 1990 and 1995. budget, the annual receipts and expenditures— of a.central government for its activities only;

Abbreviations Measurements

cubic metre(s)

kilogram(s) kilometre(s) kilowatt(s) kilowatt-hour(s) metric ton-km metric ton-kilometre(s) mi mile(s) passenger-km _ passenger-kilometre(s) passenger-mi _ passenger-mile(s) short ton-mi._ short ton-mile(s) sq km square kilometre(s) sq m square metre(s) sq mi square mile(s) troy oz troy ounce(s) yr year(s) Political Units and International Organizations CACM Central American Common Market Caribbean Community Caricom and Common Market Communauté FinCFA anciére Africaine Comptoirs Frangaises CFP du Pacifique Commonwealth of Independent States Customs Union of Southern Africa East Germany European Economic Community European Union United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization International Monetary Fund Organization of Eastern Caribbean States United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Union of Soviet Socialist Republics West Germany

Months Jan. January Feb. February Aug. August

Sept.

Oct. Nov. Dec.

October November December

September

Miscellaneous AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome avg. average caf

cost, insurance, and

commun. CPI

freight communications consumer price index

est.

estimate(d)

excl. f.o.b. GDP GNP

excluding free on board gross domestic product gross national product

govt. incl. mo. n.a.

government including month(s) not available (in text)

N.€.S. NMP no: pl. pos.

not elsewhere specified net material product number plural position public administration Polyvinyl Chloride Special Drawing Right Standard International Trade Classification services teacher training transportation vocational dollar (of any currency area) pound (of any currency area) not available (in tables) none, less than half the smallest unit shown, or not applicable (in tables)

pub. admin. PVC SDR SITC Svcs. teacher tr.

transp. voc. $ £

IMF, OECD, EEC, and World Bank) provides

541

542

Britannica World Data does

not

include

state,

provincial,

or

local

governments or semipublic (parastatal, quasinongovernmental) corporations unless otherwise specified. Figures for budgets are limited to ordinary (recurrent) receipts and expenditures, wherever possible, and exclude capital expenditures—i.e.,

funds for development and

other special projects originating as foreign-aid grants or loans. When both a recurrent and a capital budget exist for a single country, the former is the budget funded entirely from national resources

of it; a non-self-governing territory. A colony has a charter and may have a degree of selfgovernment. A crown colony is a colony originally chartered by the British government.

commonwealth (U.K. and U.S.), a self-governing political entity that has regard to the common weal, or good; usually associated with the United Kingdom or United States. Examples include the Commonwealth of Nations (composed of independent states [from 1931 onward]), Puerto Rico since 1952, and the Northern Marianas since 1979.

recur

communications, collectively, the means avail-

(be generated by economic activity) every year.

able for the public transmission of information within a country. Data are provided for daily newspapers, their number and total circulation, and the per capita rate of circulation implied by

(taxes, duties, excises, etc.) that would

It funds the most basic governmental services,

those least able to suffer interruption. The capital budget is usually funded by external aid and may change its size considerably from year to year.

capital, usually, the actual seat of government and administration of a state. When more than one capital exists, each is identified by kind;

when

interim arrangements

exist during the

creation or movement of a national capital, the

de facto situation is described. Anomalous cases are annotated, such as those

in which (1) the de jure designation under the country’s laws differs from actual local practice (e.g., Benin’s designation of one capital in constitutional law, but another in actual practice),

(2) international recognition does not validate

that total; for radio, television, and telephone receivers, total numbers and rates of availabil-

ity are supplied. Telephone receiver data refer to the number of sets (stations) having access to the public switched network. Data for a few

countries refer to the number of “main lines” through which subscribers’ equipment is connected to the network. constant prices, an adjustment to the members of a financial time series to eliminate the effect of inflation year by year. It consists of referring all data in the series to a single year so that “real” change may be seen.

constitutional monarchy, see monarchy.

a country’s claim (as with the proclamation by Israel of a capital on territory not fully recog-

consumer price index (CPI), also known as

nized as part of Israel), or (3) both a state and a capital have been proclaimed on territory recognized as part of another state (as with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). capital budget, see budget. causes of death, as defined by the World Health Organization, “the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly

dex, a series of index numbers assigned to the

to death, or the circumstances of accident or

violence which produced the fatal injury.” This principle, the “underlying cause of death,” is the basis of the medical judgment as to cause; the statistical classification system according to which these causes are grouped and named is the International List of Causes of Death, the latest revision of which is the Tenth. Reporting is usually in terms of events per 100,000 population. When data on actual causes of death

the retail price index, or the cost-of-living inprice of a selected “basket,” or assortment, of basic consumer goods and services in a country,

region, or city to measure changes over time in prices paid by a typical household for those goods and services. Items included in the CPI are ordinarily determined by governmental sur- veys of typical household expenditures and are assigned weights relative to their proportion of those expenditures. Index values are period averages unless otherwise noted. coprincipality, see monarchy.

current prices, the valuation of a financial aggregate as of the year reported.

daily per capita caloric intake (supply), the calories equivalent to the known average daily

supply of foodstuffs for human consumption in

a given country divided by the population of the country (and the proportion of that supply provided, respectively, by vegetable and animal

sources). The daily per capita caloric intake of a country may be compared with the corresponding recommended minimum daily requirement.

The latter is calculated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations from the age and sex distributions, average body weights, and environmental temperatures in a given region to determine the calories needed to sustain a person there at normal levels of activity and health. The daily per capita caloric requirement ranges from 2,200 to 2,500.

de facto population, for a given area, the population composed of those actually present at a particular. time, including temporary residents and visitors (such as immigrants not yet granted permanent status, “guest” or expatriate workers, refugees, or tourists), but excluding

legal residents temporarily absent.

de jure population, for a given area, the population composed only of those legally resident at a particular time, excluding temporary residents and visitors (such as “guest” or expatriate workers,

refugees, or tourists), but including

legal residents temporarily absent. deadweight tonnage, the maximum weight of cargo,

fuel, fresh water,

stores, and persons

that may safely be carried by a ship. It is customarily measured in long tons of 2,240 pounds each, equivalent to 1.016 metric tons. Deadweight tonnage is the difference between the tonnage of a fully loaded ship and the fully unloaded tonnage of that ship. See also gross ton. death rate, the number of deaths annually per 1,000 of midyear population. Death rates for individual countries may be compared with the estimated world annual average of 9.2 deaths per 1,000 population between 1990 and 1995.

density (of population), usually, the DE FACTO POPULATION of a country divided by its total area. Special adjustment is made for large areas of inland water or other uninhabitable areas— e.g., excluding the ice cap of Greenland. department, a first-order civil administrative subdivision. The overseas department (France) is an overseas subdivision of the French Republic, almost equivalent to a department of

are unavailable, information on morbidity, or

illness rate, usually given as reported cases per 100,000 of infectious diseases (notifiable to

Dependent states!

WHO as a matter of international agreement), may be substituted. chief of state/head of government, paramount national governmental officer(s) exercising the highest executive and/or ceremonial roles of

Australia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Norfolk Island Denmark

a country’s government. In general usage, the chief of state is the formal head of a national state. The primary responsibilities of the chief of state may range from the purely ceremonial— convening legislatures and greeting foreign of-

ficials—to the exercise of complete national executive authority. The head of government, when this function exists separately, is the officer nominally charged (by the constitution) with the majority of actual executive powers, though they may not in practice be exercised,

especially in military or single-party regimes in which effective power may reside entirely outside the executive governmental machinery provided by the constitution. A prime minister, for example, usually the actual head of government, may in practice exercise only cabinet-level authority. In communist countries an official identified as the chief of state may be the chairman of

the policy-making organ, and the official given as the head of government the chairman of the

nominal administrative/executive organ. c.i.f. (trade valuation): see imports. colony, an area annexed to, or controlled by,

an independent state but not an integral part

Faeroe Islands Greenland France French Guiana

French Polynesia Guadeloupe Martinique Mayotte New Caledonia Réunion

Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna

Netherlands, The Aruba Netherlands Antilles

New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Tokelau

Portugal Macau

United Kingdom Anguilla Bermuda

British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Hong Kong Isle of Man Jersey Montserrat Pitcairn Island

Saint Helena and Dependencies Turks and Caicos Islands

United States American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico

Virgin Islands (of the U.S.)

Norway Jan Mayen Svalbard "Excludes territories (1) to which Antarctic Treaty is applicable in whole or in part, (2) without permanent civilian population, (3) without internationally recognized civilian government (Western Sahara, Gaza Strip), or (4) representing unadjudicated unilateral or multilateral territorial claims.

Glossary metropolitan France, with elected representa-

tion in the French Parliament.

dependent state, constitutionally or statutorily

organized political entity outside of and under the jurisdiction of an independent state (or a federal element of such a state) but not for-

mally annexed to it (see Table). direct taxes, taxes levied directly on firms and

individuals, such as taxes on income, profits,

and capital gains. The immediate incidence, or

burden, of direct taxes is on the firms and individuals thus taxed; direct taxes on firms may,

however, be passed on to consumers and other economic units in the form of higher prices

for goods and services, blurring the distinction

between direct and indirect taxation. distribution of income/wealth, the portion of personal income or wealth accruing to households or individuals constituting each respective decile (tenth) or quintile (fifth) of a country’s households or individuals.* divorce rate, the number of legal, civilly recognized divorces annually per 1,000 population. doubling time, the number of complete years required for a country to double its population at its current rate of natural increase. earnings index, a series of index numbers comparing average wages in a collective industrial sample for a country or region with the same industries at a previous period to measure changes over time in those wages. It is most commonly reported for wages paid on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis; annual figures represent averages of these shorter periods. The scope of the earnings index varies from country to country; the index is often limited to earnings in manufacturing industries. The index for each country applies to all wage earners in a designated group and ordinarily takes into account basic wages (overtime is normally distinguished), bonuses, cost-of-living allowances, and contributions toward social security. Some countries include payments in kind. Contributions toward social security by employers are usually excluded, as are social security benefits received by wage earners.

economically active population, see population economically active. education, tabulation of the principal elements of a country’s educational establishment, clas-

sified as far as possible according to the country’s own system of primary, secondary, and higher levels (the usual age limits for these lev-

els being identified in parentheses), with total number of schools (physical facilities) and of teachers and students (whether full- or parttime). The student-teacher ratio is calculated whenever available data permit. educational attainment, the distribution of the population age 25 and over with completed educations by the highest level of formal education attained or completed; it must sometimes

be reported, however, for age groups still in school or for the economically active only.

emirate, empire, see monarchy. enterprise,

a legal entity formed to conduct

a business, which it may do from more than one establishment

(place of business or ser-

vice point). ethnic/linguistic composition, ethnic, racial, or linguistic composition of a national population, reported here according to the most reliable breakdown available, whether published in official sources (such as a census) or in external analysis (when the subject is not addressed in national sources). exchange rate, the value of one currency compared with another, or with a standardized unit of account such as the SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHT, or as mandated by local statute when one currency is “tied” by a par value to another. Rates given usually refer to free market values when the currency has no, or very limited, restrictions on its convertibility into other currencies.

exports, material goods legally leaving a country (or customs area) and subject to customs regulations. The total value and distribution by percentage of the major items (in preference to groups of goods) exported are given, together with the distribution of trade among major trading partners (usually single countries or trading blocs). Valuation of goods exported is free on board (f.0.b.) unless otherwise specified. The value of goods exported and imported f.0.b. is calculated from the cost of production and excludes the cost of transport.

external debt, public and publicly guaranteed debt with a maturity of more than one year owed to nonnationals of a country and repayable in foreign currency, goods, or services. The debt may.be an obligation of a national or subnational governmental body (or an agency of either), of an autonomous public body, or of a private debtor that is guaranteed by a public entity. The debt is usually either outstanding (contracted) or disbursed (drawn).

external territory (Australia), see territory. federal, consisting of first-order political subdivisions that are prior to and independent of the central government in certain functions.

federal republic, see republic. federation, union of coequal, preexisting political entities that retain some degree of autonomy and (usually) right of secession within the union. fertility rate, see total fertility rate. financial aggregates, tabulation of seven-year time series, providing principal measures of the financial condition of a country, including: (1) the exchange rate of the national currency against the U.S. dollar, the pound sterling, and the International Monetary

Fund’s sPE-

CIAL DRAWING RIGHT (SDR), (2) the amount and kind of international reserves (holdings of SDRs, gold, and foreign currencies) and reserve position of the country in the IMF, and (3) principal economic rates and prices (central bank discount rate, government bond

yields, and industrial stock [share] prices). For BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, the origin in terms of component balance of trade items and balance of invisibles (net) is given.*

fish catch, the live-weight equivalent of the aquatic animals (including fish, crustaceans, mollusks, etc., but excluding whales, seals, and

other aquatic mammals) caught in freshwater or marine areas by national fleets and landed in domestic or foreign harbours for commercial, industrial, or subsistence purposes.

f.o.b. (trade valuation): see exports. food, see daily per capita caloric intake. form of government/political status, the type of administration provided for in a country’s constitution—whether or not suspended by extralegal military or civil action, although such de facto administrations are identified—together with the number of members (elected, appointed, and ex officio) for each legislative house, named according to’ its English rendering. Dependent states (see Table) are classified according to the status of their political association with the administering country.

global social product, see material product.

gross

domestic

product

(GDP),

the total

value of the final goods and services produced by residents and nonresidents within a given country during a given year. The GDP excludes the value of net income earned abroad, which

is included in the GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT. Unless otherwise noted, the value is given in

current prices of the year indicated.

gross national product (GNP), the total value of final goods and services produced both from within a given country and from external (foreign) transactions in a given year. Unless otherwise noted, the value is given in current prices of the year indicated. GNP is equal to GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT adjusted by net factor income from abroad, which is the in-

come residents receive from abroad for factor services (labour, investment, and interest) less similar payments made to nonresidents who contribute to the domestic economy. gross ton, volumetric unit of measure (equaling 100 cubic feet [2.83 cu m]) of the permanently enclosed volume of a ship, above and below

decks

available for cargo,

stores,

or passenger accommodation. Net, or register,

tonnage exempts certain nonrevenue spaces— such as those devoted to machinery, bunkers, crew accommodations, and ballast—from the

gross tonnage. See also deadweight tonnage.

head of government, see chief of state/head of government. health, a group of measures including number of accredited physicians currently practicing or employed and their ratio to the total population; total hospital beds and their ratio; and

INFANT MORTALITY RATE. household, economically autonomous individual or group of individuals living in a single dwelling unit. A family household is one composed principally of individuals related by blood or marriage. household income and expenditure, data for average size of a HOUSEHOLD (by number of individuals) and median household income. Sources of income and expenditures for major items of consumption are given as percentages. In general, household income is the amount

of funds, usually measured in monetary units, received by the members (generally those 14 years old and over) of a household in a given time period. The income can be derived from

(1) wages or salaries, (2) nonfarm or farm SELF-EMPLOYMENT, (3) transfer payments, such as pensions, public assistance, unemployment benefits, etc., and (4) other income, including interest and dividends, rent, royalties, etc. The

income of a household is expressed as a gross amount before deductions for taxes. Data on expenditure refer to consumption of personal or household goods and services; they normally exclude savings, taxes, and insurance; practice with regard to inclusion of credit purchases differs markedly.

immigration, usually, the number and origin of those immigrants admitted to a nation in a legal status that would eventually permit the granting of the right to settle permanently or to acquire citizenship.*

imports, material goods legally entering a country (or customs area) and subject to customs regulations; excludes financial movements. The total value and distribution by percentage of the major items (in preference to groups of goods) imported are given, together with the direction of trade among major trading partners (usually single countries), trading blocs (such as the European Union), or customs areas (such as Belgium-Luxembourg). The value of goods imported is given free on board (f.0.b.) unless otherwise specified; f.o.b. is defined above under EXPORTS.

The principal alternate basis for valuation of goods in international trade is that of cost, in-

surance, and freight (c.i-f.); its use is restricted to imports, as it comprises the principal charges needed to bring the goods to the customs house in the country of destination. Because it

inflates the value of imports relative to exports, more countries have, latterly, been estimating

imports on an f.o.b. basis as well. incorporated territory (U.S.), see territory. independent, of a state, autonomous and controlling both its internal and external affairs. Its date usually refers to the date from which the country was in effective control of these affairs within its present boundaries, rather than the date independence was proclaimed or the date recognized as a de jure act by the former administering power. indirect taxes, taxes levied on sales or transfers of selected intermediate goods and services, in-

543

544

Britannica World Data cluding excises, value-added taxes, and tariffs,

that are ordinarily passed on to the ultimate consumers of the goods and services. Figures given for individual countries are limited to indirect taxes levied by their respective central governments unless otherwise specified.

infant mortality rate, the number of children per 1,000 live births who die before their first birthday. Total infant mortality includes neonatal

mortality,

which

is deaths

of children

within one month of birth. invisibles (invisible trade), see balance of

labour force, portion of the POPULATION ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE (PEA) comprising those most fully employed or attached to the labour market (the unemployed are considered to be “attached” in that they usually represent persons previously employed seeking to be reemployed), particularly as viewed from a shortterm perspective. It normally includes those who are self-employed, employed by others (whether full-time, part-time, seasonally, or on some other less than full-time basis), and, as

noted above, the unemployed (both those previously employed and those seeking work for the first time). In the “gross domestic product and labour force” table, the majority of the labour data provided refer to population economically active, since PEA represents the longer-term view of working population and, thus, subsumes more of the marginal workers

who are often missed by shorter-term surveys. land use, distribution by classes of vegetational cover or economic use of the land area only (excluding inland water, for example, but not marshland), reported as percentages.

leisure, the principal monetary

expenditures,

uses, or reported preferences in the use of the individual’s free time for recreation, rest, or self-improvement.*

life expectancy, the number of years a person born within a particular population group (age cohort) would be expected to live, based on actuarial calculations. literacy, the ability to read and write a language with some degree of competence; the precise degree constituting the basis of a particular national statement is usually defined by the national census and is often tested by the census enumerator. Elsewhere, particularly where much adult literacy may be the result of literacy campaigns rather than passage through a formal educational system, definition and testing of literacy may be better standardized. major cities, usually the five largest cities proper whose population is at least one-tenth that of the primate (largest) city; fewer will be listed if the size disparity is very great or there are fewer urban localities in the country. For multipage tables, 10 or more will be listed without regard for the size of the primate city.* All populations will refer to the most specific administrative or demographically defined city proper, unless a municipality or METROPOLITAN AREA is specified.

manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises/retail sales and service enterprises, a detailed tabulation of the principal industries in these sectors, showing for each industry the

of enterprises and employees, wages industry as a percentage of the general wage, and the value of that industry’s in terms of value added or turnover.*

marriage rate, the number of legal, civilly recognized marriages annually per 1,000 population. material (or social) product, in the national accounting systems of the socialist countries,

the aggregate (sometimes “global”) value of all “productive” economic activity, generally omitting personal (nonpublic) services, financial activities, and the like that in conventional

Western

national

to the GROSS

accounts

DOMESTIC

report gross domestic, and national, product

according to the System of National Accounts that forms the basis of international standardization of national accounts.

material well-being, a group of measures indicating the percentage of households or dwellings possessing certain goods or appliances, including automobiles, telephones, television receivers, refrigerators, air conditioners,

trade.

kingdom, see monarchy.

number in that average output

comprehensive measure that includes not only material output but also every identifiable service element of a national economy. Socialist countries that are members of the International Monetary Fund have begun, however, to

would PRODUCT,

and washing machines.*

merchant marine, the privately or publicly owned ships registered with the maritime authority of a nation (limited to those in Lloyd’s of London statistical reporting of 100 or more GROSS TONS) that are employed in commerce, whether or not owned or operated by nationals of the country. metropolitan area, a city and the region of dense, predominantly urban, settlement around the city; the population of the whole usually has strong economic and cultural affinities with the central city.

military expenditure, the apparent value of all identifiable military expenditure by the central government on hardware, personnel, pensions, research and development, etc., reported here

both as a percentage of the GNP, with a comparison to the world average, and as a per capita value in U.S. dollars.

military personnel, see total active duty personnel.

mobility, the rate at which individuals or households change dwellings, usually measured tween censuses and including international well as domestic migration.” monarchy, a government in which the CHIEF STATE holds office, usually hereditarily and

from the country’s constitution or from other official documents. The English-language form is usually the protocol form in use by the country, the U.S. Department of State, and the United Nations.

official religion, generally, any religion prescribed or given special status or protection by the constitution or legal system of a country. Identification as such is not confined to constitutional documents utilizing the term explicitly. organized territory (U.S.), see territory. overseas department (France), see department.

overseas territory (France), see territory. parliamentary state, see state. part of a realm, a dependent Dutch political entity with some degree of self-government and having a special status above that of a colony (e.g., the prerogative of rejecting for local application any law enacted by The Netherlands).

participation/activity rates, measures defining differential rates of economic activity within a population. Participation rate refers to the percentage of those employed or economically active who possess a particular characteristic (sex, age, etc.); activity rate refers to the fraction of the total population who are economically active.

passenger-miles,

or passenger-kilometres,

aggregate measure of passenger carriage by a

specified means of transportation, equal to the number of passengers carried multiplied by the number of miles (or kilometres) each is transported. Figures given for countries are often calculated from ticket sales and ordinarily exclude passengers carried free of charge. people’s republic, see republic.

beas

place of birth/national origin, if the former,

OF for

latter, any of several classifications, including

life, but sometimes electively for a term. The state may be a coprincipality, emirate, empire, kingdom, principality, sheikhdom, or sultanate. The powers of the monarch may range from absolute (Ze. the monarch both reigns and tules) through various degrees of limitation of authority to nominal, as in a constitutional monarchy, in which the titular monarch reigns but others, as elected officials, effectively rule.

monetary unit, currency of issue, or that in official use in a given country; name, spelling, and abbreviation in English according to International Monetary Fund recommendations or local practice; name of the lesser, usually decimal, monetary unit constituting the main currency; and valuation in U.S. dollars and

U.K. pounds sterling, usually according to freemarket or commercial rates. See also exchange rate. natural increase, also called natural growth, or the balance of births and deaths, the excess

of births over deaths in a population; the rate of natural increase is the difference between the BIRTH RATE and the DEATH RATE of a given population. Natural increase is added to the balance of migration to calculate the total growth of that population.

net material product, see material product. nonreligious, see atheist. official language(s), that (or those) prescribed by the national constitution for day-to-day conduct and publication of a country’s official business or, when no explicit constitutional provision exists, that of the constitution itself, the

national gazette (record of legislative activity), or like official documents. Other languages may have local protection, may be permitted in parliamentary debate or legal action (such as a trial), or may be “national languages,” for the protection of which special provisions have been made, but these are not deemed official.

contribute

official name, the local official form(s), short

a more

or long, of a country’s legal name(s) taken

numbers of native- and foreign-born population of a country by actual place of birth; if the those based on origin of passport at original admission to country, on cultural heritage of family name, on self-designated (often multiple) origin of (some) ancestors, and on other systems for assigning national origin.*

political status, see form of government/political status. population,

the

number

of persons

present

within a country or other civil entity at the date of a census of population, survey, cumulation of a civil register, or other enumeration. Unless otherwise specified, populations given are DE FACTO, referring to those actually present, rather than DE JURE, those legally resident but not necessarily present on the referent date. If a time series, noncensus year, or per capita ratio referring to a country’s total population is cited, it will usually refer to midyear of the calendar year indicated. Populations for cities will usually refer to the city proper—ie., the legally bounded corporate entity, or the most compact, contiguous, demographically urban portion of the entity defined by the local authorities. Occasionally figures for METROPOLITAN AREAS are cited when the relevant civil entity at.the core of a major agglomeration had an unrepresentatively small population.

population economically active, the total number of persons (above a set age for economic labour, usually 10-15 years) in all employment statuses—self-employed, wage- or salary-earning, part-time, seasonal, unemployed, etc. The International Labour Organisation defines the economically active as “all persons of either sex who furnish the supply of labour for the production of economic goods and services.” National practices vary as regards the treatment of such groups as armed forces, inmates of institutions, persons seeking their first job, unpaid family workers, seasonal workers and persons engaged in part-time economic activities. In some countries, all or part of these groups may be included among the economically active, while in other countries the same groups

Glossary may be treated as inactive. In general, however, the data on economically active population do not include students, persons occupied solely in family or household work, retired persons, persons living entirely on their own means, and persons wholly dependent upon others. See also labour force. population projection, the expected population in the years 2000 and 2010, embodying the country’s Own projections wherever possible. Estimates of the future size of a population are usually based on assumed levels of fertility, mortality, and migration. Projections in the tables, unless otherwise specified, are medium (i.e., most likely) variants, whether based on external estimates by the United Nations, World

Bank, or U.S. Department of Commerce or on those of the country itself.

price and earnings indexes, tabulation compar-

ing the change in the CONSUMER PRICE INDEX over a period of seven years with the change in the general labour force’s EARNINGS INDEX for the same period. principality, see monarchy. production, the physical quantity or monetary value of the output of an industry, usually tabulated here as the most important items or groups of items (depending on the available detail) of primary (extractive) and secondary (manufactured) production, including construction. When a single consistent measure of value, such as VALUE ADDED, can be obtained, this is given, ranked by value; otherwise, and

more usually, quantity of production is given.

public debt, the current outstanding debt of all periods of maturity for which the central government and its organs are obligated. Publicly guaranteed private debt is excluded. For countries that report debt under the World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS), figures for outstanding, long-term EXTERNAL DEBT are given.

quality of working life, a group of measures including weekly hours of work (including overtime); rates per 100,000 for job-connected injury, illness, and mortality; coverage of labour

force by insurance for injury, permanent disability, and death; workdays lost to labour strikes and stoppages; and commuting patterns (length of journey to work in minutes and usual method of transportation).*

railroads,

mode

of transportation

by self-

driven or locomotive-drawn cars over fixed rails. Length-of-track figures include all mainline and spurline running track but exclude

switching sidings and yard track. Route length, when given, does not compound multiple running tracks laid on the same trackbed. recurrent budget, see budget.

religious affiliation, distribution of nominal religionists, whether practicing or not, as a percentage of total population. This usually assigns to children the religion of their parents.

republic, a state with elected leaders and a centralized presidential form of government, local subdivisions being subordinate to the national government. A federal republic (as distinguished from a unitary republic) is a republic in which power is divided between the central government and the constituent subnational administrative divisions (e.g., states, provinces, or cantons) in whom the central government itself is held to originate, the division of power being defined in a written constitution and jurisdictional disputes usually being settled in a court; sovereignty usually rests with the authority that has the power to amend the constitution. A unitary republic (as distinguished from a federal republic) is a republic in which power originates in a central authority and is not derived from constituent subdivisions. A people's republic, in the dialectics of Communism, is the

first stage of development toward a communist state, the second stage being a socialist republic. An Islamic republic is structured around social,

ethical, and religious precepts central to the

Islamic faith.

retail price index, see consumer price index. retail sales and service enterprises, see manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises/retail sales and service enterprises. roundwood, wood obtained from removals from

forests, felled or harvested (with or without bark), in all forms. rural, see urban-rural.

self-employment, work in which income de-

tives from direct employment in one’s own business, trade, or profession, as opposed to work in which salary or wages are earned from an employer. self-governing, of a state, in control of its internal affairs in degrees ranging from control of most internal affairs (though perhaps not of public order or of internal security) to complete control of all internal affairs (ie., the state is autonomous) but having no control of external affairs or defense. In this work the term self-governing refers to the final stage in the successive stages of increasing self-government that generally precede independence. service/trade enterprises, see manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises/retail sales and service enterprises. sex distribution, ratios, calculated as percent-

ages, of male and female population to total population.

sheikhdom, see monarchy. social deviance, a group of measures, usually reported as rates per 100,000, for principal cat-

egories of socially deviant behaviour, including specified crimes, alcoholism,

drug abuse, and

suicide.* social participation, a group of measures indicative of the degree of social engagement displayed by a particular population, including rates of participation in such activities as elections, voluntary work or memberships,

trade

unions, and religion.* social security, public programs designed to protect individuals and: families from loss of income owing to unemployment, old age, sickness or disability, or death and to provide other services such as medical care, health and welfare programs, or income maintenance.

socialist republic, see republic. sources of income, see household income and expenditure.

Special Drawing Right (SDR), a unit of ac-

sultanate, see monarchy. territory, a noncategorized political dependency; a first-order administrative subdivision; a dependent political entity with some degree of self-government, but with fewer rights and less autonomy than a colony because there is no charter. An external territory (Australia) is a territory situated outside the area of the country. An organized territory (U.S.) is a territory for which a system of laws and asettled government have been provided by an act of the United States Congress. An overseas territory (France) is an overseas subdivision of the French Republic with elected representation in the French

Parliament,

having

indi-

vidual statutes, laws, and internal organization

adapted to local conditions. An unincorporated territory (U.S.) is a dependency of the United States with limited self-government, whose in-

habitants can claim the fundamental but not

all of the procedural rights (e.g., trial by jury) guaranteed by the United States Constitution.

ton-miles, or ton-kilometres, aggregate mea-

sure of freight hauled by a specified means of transportation, equal to tons of freight multi-

plied by the miles (or kilometres) each ton is transported. Figures are compiled from waybills (nationally) and ordinarily exclude mail, specie, passengers’ baggage, the fuel and stores of the conveyance, and goods carried free.

total active duty personnel, full-time active duty military personnel (excluding militias and parttime, informal, or other paramilitary elements),

with their distribution by percentages among the major services.

total fertility rate, the sum of the current agespecific birth rates for each of the child-bearing years (usually 15-49). It is the probable number of births, given present fertility data, that would occur during the lifetime of each woman should she live to the end of her childbearing years. tourism, service industry comprising activities connected with domestic and international

travel for pleasure or recreation; confined here to international travel and reported as expenditures in U.S.$ by tourists of all nationalities visiting a particular country and, conversely, the estimated expenditures of that country’s nationals in all countries of destination. transfer payments, see household income and expenditure. transport, all mechanical methods of moving persons or goods. Data reported for national establishments include: for railroads, length of

count utilized by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to denominate monetary reserves available under a quota system to IMF members to maintain the value of their national currency unit in international transactions.* state, in international law, a political entity possessing the attributes of: territory, permanent civilian population, government, and the capacity to conduct relations with other states. Though the term is sometimes limited in meaning to fully independent and internationally recognized states, the more general sense of an entity possessing a preponderance of these

unincorporated territory (U.S.), see territory. unitary republic, see republic.

characteristics is intended here. It is, thus, also a first-order civil administrative subdivision, es-

urban-rural, social characteristic of local or national populations, defined by predominant

pecially of a federated union. An associated state is an autonomous state in free association with another that conducts its external affairs

group of largely nonagricultural pursuits, “rural” to agriculturally oriented employment pat-

and defense; the association may be terminated

in full independence at the instance of the autonomous state in consultation with the administering power. A parliamentary state is an independent state of the Commonwealth that is governed by a parliament and that may recognize the British monarch as its titular head. structure of gross domestic product and labour force, tabulation of the principal elements of the national economy, according to standard industrial categories, together with the corresponding distribution of the labour force (when possible POPULATION ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE) that generates the GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT,

track and volume of traffic for passengers and cargo (but excluding mail, etc.); for roads, length of network and numbers of passenger cars and of commercial vehicles (ie. trucks and buses); for merchant marine, the number

of vessels of more than 100 gross tons and their total deadweight tonnage; for air transport, traffic data for passengers and cargo and the number of airports with scheduled flights.

economic

activities,

“urban”

referring

to a

terns. The distinction is usually based on the country’s own definition of urban, which may depend only upon the size (population) of a place or upon factors like employment, administrative status, density of housing, etc.

value added, also called value added by manufacture, the gross industry minus the rials, supplies, and required to produce

output value of a firm or cost of inputs—raw matepayments to other firms— it. Value added is the por-

tion of the sales value or gross output value that is actually created by the firm or industry. Value added generally includes labour costs, administrative costs, and operating profits.

545

The Nations of the World

Tourism: receipts (1988) U.S.$1,000,000; expenditures (1987) U.S.$1,000,000. Gross national product (1988): U.S.$3,100,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita).

Afghanistan Official name: Islamic State of Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari [Persian] long-form names, n.a.). Form of government}: Islamic state with an interim parliament? (250). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kabul. Official languages: Pashto; Dari (Persian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 afghani (Af )= 100 puls (puli); valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1989-90.

Agriculture Manufacturing, mining, and public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Public administration } Public services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$=Af 2,605; 1 £=Af 4,144.

in value Af '000,00010 65,600

1981-82

% of total value 52.6

labour force 2,194,770

100.011

466,860 48,880 65,650 126,100 79,260 204,940 642,360 3,828,820

35,600 7,200 4,400 9,900 2,000

124,700

" % of labour force

57.3

Land use (1992): forested 2.9%; meadows and pastures 46.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.4%; other 38.7%.

Area and population+

population

Foreign trade !2, 13

1988

sq mi

Regions Eastern North-central North-east North-west South-central South-east Western TOTAL

28,664 20,461 29,911 50,581 32,963 12,546 76,699 251,825

sq km_ _estimate_ 74,240 52,994 77,468 131,005 85,375 32,494 198,649 652,225

Balance of trade (current prices)

2,050,400 2,584,400 1,478,400 2,157,100 1,215,700 4,252,000 1,666,400 15,404,400

Af ‘000,000 % of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

=—33;826 37.8%

—17,917 25.7%

— 19,642 33.0%

— 24,217 50.4%

—27,000 53.2%

-17,600 48.0%

Imports (1991): U.S.$616,400,000 (1989-90; machinery 37.7%, basic manufactures 18.3%, minerals and fuels 10.9%). Major import sources (1990): U.S.S.R. 56.3%; Japan 9.4%; Singapore 5.6%; India 2.9%; South Korea 2.2%.

Exports (1991): U.S.$188,200,000 (dried fruits and nuts 49.6%, carpets and

Demography

rugs 23.6%, karakul wool and hides 6.7%, cotton 1.3%). Major export destinations (1990): U.S.S.R. 72.4%; Western Europe 11.0%; India 3.1%.

Population (1994): 16,903,0005. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 67.1, persons per sq km 25.9. Urban-rural (1993): urban 19.0%; rural 81.0%. Sex distribution (1990): male 51.42%; female 48.58%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 42.0%; 15-29, 27.3%; 30-44, 15.8%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 25,725,000; (2010) 32,889,000. Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Pashtun 52.3%; Tadzhik 20.3%; Uzbek 8.7%; Hazara 8.7%; Chahar Aimak 2.9%; Turkmen 2.0%; Baluchi 1.0%; other 4.1%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Sunni Muslim 84%; ShTI Muslim 15%; other 1%. Major cities (1988): Kabul 700,000; Kandahar (Qandahar) 225,500; Herat 177,300; Mazar-e Sharif 130,600.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1988): length 10 km. Roads (1988): total length 19,200 km (paved 47%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 38,000; trucks and buses 35,000. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 265,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,000,000; airports (1994) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 14; total circulation 180,000; circulation per 1,000 population 11.3. Radio (1993): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 14 persons). Television (1993): 100,000 receivers (1 per 203 persons). Telephones (1984): 31,200 (1 per 443 persons).

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 51 (world avg. 26.0).

Education (1988-89)

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 22 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.7.

Primary Secondary Voc., teacher tr. Higher

Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 44.0 years; female 43.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, in the early 1990s,

injuries and poisoning, infectious and parasitic diseases, and diseases of the respiratory system were the leading causes of death reported in hospitals.

National economy Budget (1987-88). Revenue: Af 79,800,000,000 (1984-85; tax revenue 45.4%, nontax revenue 54.6%). Expenditures: Af 105,800,000,000 (1981-82; govern-

mental ministries 50.0%, developmental budget 31.9%, debt service 13.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$5,269,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): wheat 1,700,000, corn (maize) 350,000, grapes 330,000, rice 300,000, potatoes 228,000, barley 170,000; livestock (number of live animals) 14,200,000 sheep, 2,150,000 goats, 1,500,000 cattle, 1,180,000 asses, 320,000 horses, 265,000 camels, 7,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 7,314,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 1,500. Mining and quarrying (1992): salt 12,000; copper 5,000; gypsum 3,0007; barite 2,000. Manufacturing (by production value in Af 000,000,000;

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

553 819 33 5

16,756 5,715 556 198

586,014 271,000 8,537 1,491

35.0 47.4 15.4 75

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 88.5%; some primary education 6.8%; complete primary 0.3%; some secondary 1.2%; postsecondary 3.2%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 29.4%; males 44.1%; females 13.9%.

Health: physicians (1989-91) 2,233.(1 per 6,866 persons); hospital beds (1981— 82) 6,875 (1 per 2,054 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 161. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,290 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 91% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): no identifiable military units appear to represent the central government. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1984): 9.1% (world 5.6%); per capita expenditure U.S.$24.

1987-88): pharmaceutical products 462.5; food products 203.0; industrial chemicals (including fertilizers) 123.4; cement

104.0; textiles 15.6; salt 15.4.

Construction (Af ’000,000; 1985): 1,094. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 703,000,000 (834,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992)

8,000 (8,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (302,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 188,947,000 (188,947,000). Population economically active (1989-90)8: total 6,009,000; activity rate of total population 38.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 10-59, 43.1%; female

7.9%; unemployed 3.07%). Price index (1990= 100) Consumer price index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

19929

28.1

33.6

40.2

70.5

100.0

156.7

233.6

‘Central government in Kabul unites a number of Sunni mujahedin guerrilla groups, who, following traditional deliberative and legislative models, have established a state, a parliament, and a constitution (through September 1993), though none is fully established in all of Afghanistan. But as of October 1994, there was no effective central authority. 2Consisting of a nonelective body (named by the previous Shura, or constituent assembly), having the purpose of establishing a constitution and restoring civilian government. 3Office vacant from June 1994. 4In the early 1990s an administrative reorganization created 31 provinces (wilayah), but detailed breakdown of area and population is unavailable. SExcluding Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1.5 million in Pakistan and 1.8 million in Iran. 61993 estimate. 71991. 8Based on settled population only. °First quarter. 10At prices of 1978-79. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 13Trade figures are year ending March 20 of the following year.

Nations of the World

Albania

electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 3,357,000,000 (2,797,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 676,000 (576,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 3,858,000 (7,596,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 506,000 (541,000); natural gas

Official name: Republika e Shqipérisé (Republic of Albania). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (People’s Assembly [140])!. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tirané. Official language: Albanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 lek= 100 qindars; ~ valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

(cu m; 1992) 246,000,000 (246,000,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$1,163,000,000 (U.S.$340 per capita). Structure of net material product and labour force 1990 value '000,000 leks Agriculture

Manufacturing, mining, public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$ = 100.09 leks;

1 £=159.20 leks.

Area and population Provinces Berat

Dibér

Durrés Elbasan Fier

Gjirokastér Gramsh Kolonjé Korgé Krujé Kukés

Berat

Peshkopi

Librazhd

Durrés

Sarandé Skrapar Tepelené Tirané Tropojé Vioré TOTAL

Se

Population

1990

ag bin

396

180,489

1,568

327

251,029

Fier

454

248,676

VATS

251,115

Kukés

Lezhé

Librazhd

Lushnjé Burrel Rréshen Pérmet Pogradec Puké

439 268 314 842 234

1,137 695 805 2,181 607

514

479

391

1,013

712 1,028 867 929 725

137,830 78,754 51,701 40,419 73,333

399

1,034

50,286

424

1,097

Shkodér

976

2,528

Vioré

299 315 478 403

1,609 28,748

674,000

47.0

5,486 845

41.8 6.4

435

338,000 97,000

3.3

23.6 6.8

29,000

2.0

10.1

26,000

1.8

318

2.5

269,000

18.8

13,122

100.0

1,433,000

100.0

economically active (1993): total 1,540,000; activity rate of total

1987 ee

1988 es

96.0

96.4

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

97.6 97.2

100.0 100.0

204.1 117.4

441.7 ay

c. 176.7 ae

Foreign trade

89,456

Balance of trade (current prices) 1985 1986 1987

47,605 51,022 374,483 45,965

‘000,000 leks % of total

180,725 3,255,891 2

—420 9.1%

—175 3.4%

—160 3.1%

1988

1989

1990

— 668 11.6%

—763 11.2%

— 1,522 25.1%

Imports (1992): U.S.$671,000,000 (1990; machinery and transport equipment

30.9%; fuels, minerals, and metals 24.5%; organic raw materials 15.7%; food

products 10.1%; chemical products 9.3%; consumer products 8.4%). Major

Demography

import sources:

Sex distribution (1990): male 51.40%; female 48.60%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 33.0%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 18.5%; 45-59, 11.7%; 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 2.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,610,000; (2010) 4,016,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Albanian 98.0%; Greek 1.8%; Macedonian 0.1%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1992): a significant portion of the population are nonreligious; believers identify themselves as Muslim 65%, Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 13%, other 2%. Major cities (1990): Tirané 243,000; Durrés 85,400; Elbasan 83,300; Shkodér

81,800; Vloré 73,800.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 23.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 18.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 70.0 years; female 76.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, in 1983 the leading causes of death were cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, malignant neoplasms (cancers), and injuries.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: 31,599,000,000 leks (taxes 71.5%, of which turnover tax 15.8%, income tax 14.7%, excise tax 13.8%, enterprise profits tax 49,958,000,000 leks (economy 34.4%, transfer pay-

Public debt (1993): U.S.$861,000,000.

_

,

“
Much electricity is imported from Spain. In Spanish pesetas. 7May. 8Trade, tourism (including winterseason sports, fairs, and festivals), and the banking system (of some importance as a tax haven for foreign financial investment and transactions) are the primary sources of GNP. °Students attending universities in other countries. 101988-89. 11Composite values derived from Spanish and French food data.

550

Britannica World Data

180,205,000 (10,973,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 1,309,000 (343,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 166,576,000 (166,576,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1989): U.S.$6,010,000,000 (U.S. $620 per capita).

Angola Official name: Reptblica de Angola (Republic of Angola). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [220!)). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Luanda. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

in value NKz ’000,0005

Agriculture Mining

Transportation and communications Pub. admin., defense

Services

area

Area and population Capitals Caxito Benguela

Bié

Kuito

Cabinda N'Giva Huambo Lubango Menongue N’Dalatando Sumbe Luanda Lucapa Saurimo Malanje

Kuando Kubango Kuanza Norte Kuanza Sul Luanda Lunda Norte Lunda Sul Malanje

Lwena

Moxico Namibe Uige

Namibe

Uige

sq mi

sq km

12,112 12,273 27,148 2,807 34,495 13,233 28,958 76,853 9,340 21,490 934 39,685 17,625 37,684 86,110 22,447

31,371 31,788 70,314 7,270 89,342 34,274 75,002 199,049 24,190 55,660 2,418 102,783 45,649 97,602 223,023 58,137 58,698 40,130 1,246,700

22,663

M’Banza Kongo

Zaire

15,494

4813543

TOTAL

Population 1994 estimate2

178,000 686,000 1,215,000 181,000 242,000 1,644,000 926,000 136,000 402,000 679,000 1,892,000 307,000 158,000 953,000 341,000 129,000 921,000 234,000 11,233,0003

Demography Population (1994): 11,233,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 23.3, persons per sq km 9.0.

Urban-rural (1990): urban 28.3%; rural 71.7%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.80%; female 51.20%. Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 45.0%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60 and over, 5.5%. Population projection: (2000) 13,400,000; (2010) 18,082,000.

Doubling time: 22 years. (Luena) 3.4%; Luchazi 2.4%; Ambo (Ovambo) 2.4%; Lunda 1.2%; Mbunda 1.2%; Portuguese 0.5%; mestizo 0.5%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 90.0%, of which Roman Catholic 68.7%, Protestant 19.8%; traditional beliefs 9.5%; other 0.5%.

(1988) 1,134,000; Huambo

(1983) 203,000; Benguela

(1983) 155,000; Lobito (1983) 150,000; Lubango (1984) 105,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 51.3 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 19.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1972): 4.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 44.9 years; female 48.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1973): accidents, poisoning, and violence

89.0; infectious

and parasitic diseases 73.2; diseases of the

respiratory system 24.6; diseases of the circulatory system 19.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 6.5.

NKz

186,383,000,000 (1989; tax revenue 82.8%, of

which petroleum taxes 53.1%, income and property taxes 11.6%, domestic production taxes 9.5%, import duties 6.3%; nontax revenue 17.2%). Expen-

ditures: NKz 275,468,000,000 (defense and internal security 36.9%; administration 23.9%; education 17.5%; health 7.5%; energy 3.6%; other 10.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$7,628,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$75,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cassava 1,870,000, sugarcane 290,000, bananas 280,000, corn (maize) 274,000, sweet potatoes 170,000, millet 40,000, palm oil 40,000, dry beans 36,000,

peanuts (groundnuts)

CS

726,000

18.4

2.3

au

mes

i 276,105

se 100.0

100.0

3,936,000

Population economically active (1988): total 3,936,000; activity rate of total population 41.5% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 71.8%; female 39.7%; unemployed, n.a.). Price and earnings indexes: n.a. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.8; annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Land use (1992): forested 41.6%; meadows and pastures 23.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.8%; other 32.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1987

1988

+953 26.6%

+1,081 28.1%

+ 1,191 25.1%

+1,276

25.1%

+2,080 43.6%

+1,160.5 19.0%

Imports (1991): U.S.$1,347,000,000 (current consumption goods 50.2%, capital goods 20.2%, intermediate consumption goods 18.9%, transport equipment

6.8%). Major import sources: Portugal 29.8%; United States 10.5%; France 9.7%; Japan 7.8%; Brazil 7.3%. Exports (1991): U.S.$3,427,000,000 (mineral fuels 89.8%, diamonds 5.5%). Major export destinations: United States 56.6%; Germany 5.6%; Brazil 4.9%; The Netherlands 4.2%; United Kingdom 3.4%; Belgium-Luxembourg 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1988): route length 1,739 mi, 2,798 km; passenger-

metric ton-km cargo 1,720,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 72,626 km (paved 25%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 120,000; buses 40,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons 113; total deadweight tonnage 123,479. Air transport (1991)6: mi 771,000,000, passenger-km

45,118 mi, trucks and and over) passenger-

1,241,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 28,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 42,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 17. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 4; total circulation 84,5007; circulation per 1,000 population 7.77. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 450,000 (1 per 24 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 50,500 (1 per 216 persons). Telephones (1991): 78,000 (1 per 132 persons).

Education and health Education (1990-91) Primary (age 7-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

6,3088 5,2768

31,062 5,1389 5669 439

18

students

990,155 166,812 19,687 6,534

teacher ratio

31.9 Re 14.9

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 41.7%; males literate 55.6%; females literate 28.5%.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:

Other TOTAL

OU OeD

0.3

6,255

}

% of labour force 71.4

mi 203,000,000, passenger-km 326,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,178,000,000,

Ethnic composition (1983): Ovimbundu 37.2%; Mbundu 21.6%; Kongo 13.2%; Luimbe-Nganguela 5.4%; Nyaneka-Humbe 5.4%; Chokwe 4.2%; Luvale

Major cities: Luanda

;

6.4

818

Public utilities

labour plorcomea 2,810,000

25 :2

16,803

Trade

1 £=NKz 221,548,

Provinces Bengo Benguela

10.3 58.2

as 2,36

Finance

Monetary unit: 1 new kwanza (NKz) = 100 Iwei; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =NKz 139,294;

28,558 160,750

6,935

Manufacturing Construction

1988

% of total value

Health (1990): physicians 662 (1 per 15,136 persons); hospital beds 11,857 (1 per 845 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 127.0. Food (1985): daily per capita caloric intake 1,969 ({1979-81] vegetable products 92%, animal products 8%); (1984) 84% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 82,000 (army 91.5%, navy 1.8%, air force 6.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1986): 23.9% (world 5.4%)

per capita expenditure U.S.$173.

>

18,000, coffee 5,000; livestock (number of live ani-

mals) 3,200,000 cattle, 1,550,000 goats, 810,000 pigs, 250,000 sheep, 6,000,000

chickens; roundwood (1992) 6,378,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 75,062. Mining and quarrying (1992): diamonds 900,000 carats. Manufacturing (1990): fresh meat 93,000; bread 45,000; corn flour 35,000; wheat flour 22,000; laundry soap 7,556; sugar 3,1904; pasta 3,1904; leather shoes 132,000 pairs4; beer 410,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 69,050 hectolitres4; matches 6,357,000 boxes4.

Construction (value in NKz ’000,000; 1986); residential 608; nonresidential 1,977. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 1,840,000,000 (1,840,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991)

‘Excludes 3 seats for Angolans abroad not filled at October 1992 elections. 2Unified national estimates and projections based on sample surveys, partial censuses, and analysis of provincial vital statistics. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 41989. 5At official prices of 1980. STAAG Airline only. 7Circulation for three newspapers only. 81985-86. 91989-90.

Nations of the World

Antigua and Barbuda

clothing and footwear 7.5%, energy 5.5%, alcoholic beverages and tobacco

3.6%, other 7.2%.

Official name: Antigua and Barbuda. Form of government: constitutional

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$428,000,000

(U.S.$6,390 per capita).

monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [17]; House of Representatives [17]). Chief of state: British Monarch

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 19918

represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Saint John’s. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 East Caribbean dollar

% of total value

labour force?

% of labour force?

39.0 18.0 32.0 95.9 34.0

41 1.9 3.4 10.2 3.6

2,090 60 1,718 2,577 340

9.0 0.3 7.4 aA 1.5

178.9

19.0

2,575

al

238.8 136.8 170.4

25.3 14.5 18.1

5,201 778

22.4 3.3

— 63,610 944,011

—6.710 100.011

_— 23,222

Services

Area and population

area

Parishes!

1991 census

sq km_

George John’s Mary Paul Peter

i

63.7

Other TOTAL

population

1982

in value EC$'000,000

Agriculture, fishing Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, restaurants, and hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

(EC$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =EC$2.70; 1 £=EC$4.30.

Saint Saint Saint Saint Saint

551

67

ess

8 — 100.0

Land use (1992): forested 11.0%; meadows and pastures 9.0%; agricultural

26.4 67.9 65.0

and under permanent cultivation 18.0%; other 62.0%. Public debt (external, outstanding; end of 1993): U.S.$309,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$329,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad U.S.$19,000,000.

Saint Phillip Islands Barbuda Redonda

Foreign trade!2 Balance of trade (current prices)

TOTAL

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (1994): 66,000. _ Density (1994): persons per sq mi 387.1, persons per sq km 149.5. Urban-rural (1991): urban 31.0%; rural 69.0%. Sex distribution (1985): male 48.00%; female 52.00%.

— 280.0 80.5%

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

=S16.8 83.4%

=325.0 83.0%

=317.0 83.2%

—364.0 84.3%

— 403.6 84.9%

Imports (1992): U.S.$398,000,000 (13agricultural products 11.0%, unspecified 89.0%). Major import sources (1989)13; United States 27.0%; United Kingdom 16.0%; Canada 4.0%; OECS 3.0%; Italy 3.0%.

Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 37.2%; 15-29, 30.8%; 30-44, 12.8%; 45-59, 11.5%; 60-74, 6.4%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 66,000; (2010) 66,000. Doubling time: 58 years.

Ethnic composition (1988): black 89.0%; mixed 10.0%; other (mostly British, Portuguese, and Lebanese) 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Anglican 44.5%; other Protestant (largely Moravian, Methodist, and Seventh-day Adventist) 41.6%; Roman Catholic 10.2%: Rastafarian 0.7%; other 3.0%.

Major cities (1986): Saint John’s 36,000; Codrington 1,2003.

Exports (1992): U.S.$34,000,000 (13reexports [significantly, petroleum products] 82.0%, domestic exports 18.0%). Major export destinations (1989)13: United States 41.0%; United Kingdom 19.0%; Germany 19.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads!4. Roads (1990): total length 724 mi, 1,165 33%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 13,500; trucks and buses chant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 292; total tonnage 997,381. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 121,000,000,

km (paved 3,500. Merdeadweight passenger-

km 195,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 137,000, metric ton-km cargo 200,000;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.5 (world avg. 26.0); (1988) legitimate 23.4%; illegitimate 76.6%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 4.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 70.8 years; female 74.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the circulatory system 237.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 44.5; diseases. of the respiratory system 44.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 25.4; ill-defined conditions 68.6.

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none!5. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 75,000 (1 per 0.9 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 28,000 (1 per 2.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 19,39016 (1 per 3.4 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Higher

student/ schools

teachers

43 12 1

549 353 45

students _ teacher ratio

10,770 4,373 590

~

19.6 12.5 13.1

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 45,000 (90.0%).

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: EC$259,700,000 (current revenue 94.7%, of which consumption taxes 26.0%, nontax revenue 17.3%, import duties 16.3%, taxes on goods and services 16.3%; grants 3.6%; development. revenue 1.7%). Expenditures: EC$261,200,000 (current expenditures 93.8%; development expenditures 6.2%). : Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables 2,000, mangoes 2,000, cantaloupes and other melons 1,000, limes

2494, sweet potatoes 2194, “Antiguan Black” pineapples 1264; livestock (number of live animals) 16,000 cattle, 13,000 sheep; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1991) 2,300 (of which spiny lobster 200). Mining and quarrying:

Health: physicians (1991) 59 (1 per 1,119 persons); hospital beds (1987) 373 (1 per 207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 19,2. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,307 (vegetable products 64%, animal products 36%); 98% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1990): an almost 100-member defense force is part of the Eastern Caribbean regional security system. Military expenditure as percentage of central government current expenditure (1990-91): 1.4%17.

crushed stone for local use. Manufacturing (1988): rum 4,000 hectolitres; wine and vodka 2,000 hectolitres; other manufactures include bedding,

paints, and furniture. Construction (1988): gross value of building applications EC$221,800,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 95,000,000

(95,000,000);

coal, none

(none); crude petroleum,

none

(none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) negligible (94,000); natural gas, none (none). ee Population economically active (1985): total 32,254; activity rate of total population 42.6% (participation rates: over age 16 [1983] 56.2%; female 40.1%; unemployed, n.a.°). Price and earnings indexes (1987= 100) Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

- 1986

1987

1988

1989

1991

1992

96.5

100.0 100.0

103.4 110.0

108.9 122.1

119.7 122.1

134.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1984) 3.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1974)7: food and nonalcoholic beverages 42.9%, housing 23.3%, transportation 10.0%,

1Community councils on Antigua and the local government council on Barbuda are the organs of local government. ?Uninhabited. 31982. 41988. >In 1990-92 unemployment increased, particularly in the depressed construction sector. “Construction only. TWeights of consumer price index components. 8At factor cost. °Wage earners and self-employed only. 10Less imputed bank service charges. !!Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. !?Exports f.0.b.; imports c.if. !3Estimated percentages. 14Privately owned track are mostly nonoperative. !5Three weekly newspapers and one twice-weekly newspaper had a total circulation of 12,200 in 1990. 16Number of lines. 17May not agree with military expenditure as percentage of GNP because of different bases used.

552

Britannica World Data

; Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$46,835,000,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$244,091,000,000 (U.S.$7,290 per capita).

Argentina Official name: Reptblica Argentina (Argentine Republic). Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [48]; Chamber of Deputies [259]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Buenos Aires. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: 1 peso (pl. pesos)! (Ps) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Ps 1.00;

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Capitals La Plata Catamarca Resistencia Rawson

Cordoba Corrientes Parana

Cérdoba

Corrientes Entre Rios Formosa Jujuy La Pampa La Rioja Mendoza Misiones

Formosa

San Salvador de Jujuy Santa Rosa La Rioja Mendoza Posadas Neuquén

Neuquén Rio Negro

Viedma

Salta San Juan San Luis

Salta San Juan San Luis Santa Cruz Santa Fe Santiago del Estero Tierra del Fuego2

Rio Gallegos Santa Fe

Santiago del Estero Ushuaia San Miguel de Tucuman

Tucuman

Other federal entity Distrito Federal TOTAL

1,200,992 47,171

12.0 0.5

21.9 5.3

19.9 10.1

jee Dre 15.4 16.8

103,256 460,476 1,702,080 395,704

1.0 4.6 17.0 4.0

Pub. admin. defense | 59991.5 Services

26.0

2,399,039

24.0

Other TOTAL

—0.15 100.0

691,302 9,989,190

6.9 100.0

49,541.1 12,107.4

Buenos Aires

sq mi

sq km

307,571 102,602 99,633 224,686 165,321 88,199 78,781 72,066 53,219 143,440 89,680 148,827 29,801 94,078 203,013 155,488 89,651 76,748 243,943 133,007 136,351 21,571 22,524

12,594,974 264,234 839,677 357,189 2,766,683 795,594 1,020,257 398,413 512,329 259,996 220,729 1,412,481 788,915 388,833 506,772 866,153 528,715 286,458 159,839 2,798,422 671,988 69,369 1,142,105

200 2,780,400

2,965,403 32,615,528

ats 1,073,5183

‘

3,825.8 11,718.6 34,929.0 38,132.6 — 282.95 226,637.63

Population economically active (1990): total 12,305,346; activity rate of total population 38.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.6%; female 28.2%; unemployed [1989] 7.3%).

population. 1991 _census_

118,754 39,615 38,469 86,752 63,831 34,054 30,418 27,825 20,548 55,382 34,626 57,462 11,506 36,324 78,384 60,034 34,614 29,633 94,187 51,354 52,645 8,329 8,697

% of labour force

1,985,995 1,003,175

Manufacturing Construction

area

labour force

6.0 1.8

Public utilities Transp, and commun. Trade Finance

Area and population

% of total value

13,577.4 4,067.0

Agriculture Mining

1 £=Ps 1.59.

Provinces Buenos Aires Catamarca Chaco Chubut

1980

in value #'000,0001

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)! Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0 100.0

272 194.3

339 238.4

375

Household size and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.8; expenditure (1985-86): food 38.2%, transportation 11.6%, housing 9.3%, energy 9.0%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, health 7.9%, recreation and culture 7.5%, education 2.6%, other 5.9%.

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$3,090,000,000; expenditures U.S.$2,211,000,000.

Foreign trade® Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Imports

+4,051 29.3%

+5,706 42.5%

+8627 53.7%

(1992): U.S.$14,863,950,000

1991

1992

1993

+4,572 23.6%

— 1,388 5.4%

— 1,576 5.7%

(machinery

and transport equipment

47.8%, manufactured products 15.1%, chemical products 13.7%, food prod-

ucts and live animals 5.0%, petroleum and petroleum products 1.6%). Major import sources: Brazil 22.5%; U.S. 21.7%; Germany 7.3%; Italy 5.1%; Japan 4.7%; Chile 4.3%; France 3.9%. 5

Demography Population (1994): 33,880,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 31.6, persons per sq km 12.2. Urban-rural (1991): urban 86.9%; rural 13.1%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.90%; female 51.10%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 30.6%; 15-29, 23.3%; 30-44, 19.3%; 45-59, 13.9%; 60-74, 9.6%; 75 and over, 3.3%. Population projection: (2000) 36,239,000; (2010) 40,170,000.

Doubling time: 63 years. Ethnic composition (1986): European 85%; mestizo, Amerindian, and other 15%. Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 91.6%; other 8.4%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$12,234,949,000 (food products and live animals 44.1%, manufactured products 11.8%, vegetable and animal oils 9.0%, petroleum and petroleum products 8.5%, machinery and transport equipment 7.5%, chemical products 5.7%). Major export destinations: Brazil 13.7%; U.S. 11.0%;

The

Netherlands

9.9%;

Germany

6.0%;

Chile 4.7%;

Italy 4.3%;

Spain 4.1%; Japan 3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads (1992): route length (1990) 34,059 km; passenger-km

6,705,059,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,707,489,600. Roads (1986): total length

Major cities (1991): Buenos Aires 2,960,976 (Greater Buenos Aires 12,582,321); Cérdoba 1,179,067; Rosario 1,078,3744; La Plata 542,567.

131,338 mi, 211,369 km (paved 27%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 4,417,882; commercial vehicles and buses 1,552,893. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 423; total deadweight tonnage 1,173,105. Air transport (1993)7: passenger-km 7,751,369,000; metric ton-km cargo

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 19.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1982) legiti-

Communications, Daily newspapers (1990): total number 159; total circulation

mate 67.5%; illegitimate 29.8%; unknown 2.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994); 2.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 5.8. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 68.1 years; female 74.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): circulatory diseases 358.1; neoplasms (cancers) 142.5; accidents 51.5; respiratory diseases 50.8.

National economy Budget

(1993). Revenue:

U.S.$51,885,200,000

(current revenue

97.2%,

of

which tax revenue 90.5%, nontax revenue 6.1%, other 0.6%; captial revenue

2.8%). Expenditure: U.S.$52,151,000,000 (1989; social security 35.3%; economic services 16.0%; education

9.9%; defense

9.9%; transportation

and

communications 8.8%; debt service 7.4%). Land use (1992): forested 21.6%; meadows and pastures 51.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 9.9%; other 16.6%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 17,000,000, corn (maize) 10,897,000, soybeans 10,673,000, wheat 9,153,000, sunflower seeds 3,250,000, sorghum 2,860,000, potatoes 2,000,000,

grapes 1,821,000, tomatoes 730,000; livestock (number of live animals) 50,320,000. cattle, 24,500,000 sheep; roundwood (1992) 11,865,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 692,110. Mining and quarrying (1992): silver 1,478,932 troy oz; gold 41,796 troy oz. Manufacturing (by value of production in U.S.$’000;

1990): petroleum and petroleum products 6,069,000; food products 4,695,-

000; textiles 2,209,000; transport equipment 2,140,000; industrial chemicals 1,844,000;

iron

and

steel

1,651,000;

metal

products

1,611,000.

Construc-

tion (authorized; 1990): 7,750,600 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 56,273,000,000 (58,865,000,000); coal (metric tons;

1992) 215,000 (1,393,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 204,582,000 (182,-

120,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 22,214,000 (18,035,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 25,876,000,000 (28,256,000,000).

176,407,000; airports (1994) 42.

4,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 124. Radio (1993): 21,582,456 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1993): 7,165,000 receivers (1 per

4.7 persons). Telephones (1990): 4,622,360 (1 per 7.0 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-17)8.9 Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

21,703 7,224 1,54010

259,5798 262,000 89,609

4,874,306 1,862,000 1,077,212

teacher ratio

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 5.7%; less than primary education 22.3%; primary 34.6%; incomplete secondary 12.5%; complete secondary 12.8%; higher 12.0%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 95.3%; males literate 95.5%; females literate 95.1%.

Health: physicians (1988) 96,000 (1 per 326 persons); hospital beds (1987) 150,000 (1 per 205 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 34.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,068 (vegetable products 69%; animal products 31%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 69,800 (army 57.9%, navy 29.4%, air force 12.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.9% (world 4.2%) 3 per capita expenditure: U.S.$75. !On Jan. 1, 1992, the austral was replaced by the peso at a ratio of 10,000'to 1. 2Area

of Tierra del Fuego (province since 1991) excludes claims to British-held islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, 4Municipio. “Import duties. “Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 7Aerolineas Argentina only. 81988-89. °Secondary includes vocational and teacher training, 101987.

Nations of the World

Armenia

(1992): cement 1,500,000; caustic soda 14,900; synthetic plastic 7,300; paper 4,400; chemical fibres 4,100; cotton fabrics 17,600,000 sq m; silk fabrics 9,300,000 sq m; wool fabrics 3,600,000 sq m; watches 2,200,000 pieces; car

Official name: Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun (Republic of Armenia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Council [185]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Yerevan. Official language: Armenian. Official religion: none.

tires 900,000 units; metal-cutting equipment 7,100 units; automobiles 6,800

units; leather shoes 11,300,000 pairs. Construction

(1,860,000,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$2,462,000,000 (U.S.$660 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1 £=562.06 dram.

Public utilities

Area and population

area

;

Capitals

ami

Cities2

Gyumri

Kirovakan Yerevan

sakm

1987,

_estimate 228,400

169,400 1,184,500

Rural districts Abovyani Akhuryani Amasiayi Anii Aparani Aragatsi

Abovyan Akhuryan Amasia Maralik Aparan Tsaghkahovit

Ararati Artashati

313 223 235 166 228 148

810 577 609 429 591 382

Vedi Artashat

108,200 39,500 19,300 19,700 19,900 14,100

540 200

1,399 517

85,100 95,500

Art'ik

Ashtaraki Azizbekovi Baghramyani

187

Ashtarak Azizbekov Baghramyan

Ejmiadzini Ghap’ani Ghukasyani Gorisi Gugark’i Hoktemberyani Hrazdani Ijevani Kalininoyi Kamoyi Krasnoselski Martunu

Ejmiadzin Ghap’an Ghukasyan Goris Gugark’ Hoktemberyan Hrazdan Ijevan Kalinino Kamo Krasnoselsk Martuni

Masisi

267 453 175

-

Masis

141 529 eat 290 297 163 366 516 266 269 269 458 70

484

44,800

692 1,172 453

36,400 17,000 16,100

366 1,371 547 752 770 423 948 1,336 690 697 697 1,185

121,000 61,500 9,800 38,000 31,000 109,900

182

64,400

Meghri

256

664

15,100

Nairii Noyemberyani Sevani Shamshadini Sisiani Spitaki Step’anavani

Yeghvard Noyemberyan Sevan Berd Sisian Spitak Step’anavan

133 208 152 318 664 212 246

344 538 393 824 1,719 549 637

47,200 29,700 42,700 34,200 34,600 46,300 36,500

421

1,091

35,100

433 444 438

1,121 1,159 1,134

58,200 60,200 35,400

Talini

Talin

Tumanyani Vardenisi Yeghegnadzori

Alaverdi Vardenis Yeghegnadzor

TOTAL

11,5003

29,8003

1991 % of total value 39.9

ee ceu

labour force

S68

2,700 842 2,923 — — — 605

TOTAL

fey) 1.6 5.7 — — — 1.2

51,050

100.0

% of labour force

389,000

20.5

458,000

52,000

24.2

177,000 80,000 101,000 8,000 25,000 349,000 257,0006

9.3 4.2 5.3 0.4 1.3 18.4 13.76

27

1,896,000

100.0

Land use (1992): forest 9.5%; pasture 21.8%; agriculture 18.1%; other 50.6%.

Population economically active (1991): total 1,896,000; activity rate of total population 52.0% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 94.5%; female [1990] 49.4%; unemployed [1990] 3.6%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

102.0 76.5

103.0 79.2

103.0 81.7

104.0 91.2

100.0 100.0

274.1 262.2

2,271.5 1,503.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.7; income per household (1990) 11,100 rubles; sources of income (1992); salaries and wages 55.8%, social benefits 31.9%, agricultural income 12.3%; expenditure (1992) 8,100 rubles: retail goods 70.5%, taxes 6.2%, services 16.2%.

Foreign trade

78,600 46,600 39,100 56,400 27,900. 67,900

Meghru

i

Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population

—

Art'iki

1992 in value __'000,000 rubles _ 20,360

Agriculture

Manufacturing, mining

subdivisions

(1991): 1,910,000 cu m.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 9,000,000,000 (9,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (141,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 292,000 (4,346,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none

Monetary unit!; 1 dram= 100 lumas; valuation (Oct. 3, 1994) free rate, 1 U.S.$ = 356.68 dram;

Administrative

553

Balance of trade (current prices) 000,000 rubles % of total

1987 —135 1.6%

1988 -1,110 12.8%

1989 -1,207 14.1%

1990 -1,0389 12.7%

1991 -1,808 12.2%

1992 -4,784 4.8%

Imports (1992): 51,905,000,000 rubles (1991; basic manufactures 52.5%, lightindustrial products 22.5%, machinery and transport equipment 11.8%, food products 4.6%, chemical products 2.3%). Major import sources (1990): Russia 30.0%; Ukraine 18.7%; Belarus 7.2%. Exports (1992): 47,121,000,000 rubles (1991; basic manufactures 35.3%, ma-

chinery and transport equipment 18.9%, ferrous metals 11.2%, light-industrial products 10.6%, chemical products 6.3%). Major export destinations (1990): Russia 60.9%; Ukraine 12.2%; Kazakhstan 11.1%; Uzbekistan 4.1%; Turkmenistan 3.3%.

3,411,9003

Transport and communications Demography

Population (1994): 3,553,0004. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 309.0, persons per sq km 119.2. Urban-rural (1991): urban 69.5%; rural 30.5%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.50%; female 50.50%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 30.3%; 15-29, 25.7%; 30-44, 20.8%; 45-59, 13.6%; 60-69, 6.4%; 70 and over, 3.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,870,000; (2010) 4,463,000. Doubling time: 54 years. Lite Ethnic composition (1989): Armenian 93.3%; Azerbaijani 2.6%; other 4.1%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Armenian Apostolic. Major cities (1991): Yerevan

1,283,000; Gyumri 163,000; Kirovakan

76,0005.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 20.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 92.1%; illegitimate 7.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 13.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 68.4 years; female 75.4 years. : Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): circulatory diseases 305.9; cancers 98.3; accidents and violence 55.6; respiratory diseases 50.3.

Budget (1992). Revenue: 9,556,000,000 rubles (tax revenue 97.4%, of which value-added tax 49.2%, income tax 34.0%, excise taxes 10.5%; nontax réyenue 2.6%). Expenditures: 10,746,000,000 rubles (education 29.97%; national

economy 23.7%; health 18.3%; police 5.3%; defense 2.3%). ' Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables (except potatoes) 413,000, potatoes 350,000, cereals 305,000, milk 200,000, wheat 165,000, grapes 100,000; livestock (number of live animals)

roundwood

and goats, 549,000

1,678,000; circulation per 1,000 population

469. Radio

(1992): 642,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 5.6 persons). Television (1992): 722,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1991): 650,000 (1 per 5.3 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

}

Schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

54,000

592,000

11.0

40,600. 66,100

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 7.4%; some secondary 18.6%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.7%; higher 13.8%. Health (1992): physicians 13,600 (1 per 254 persons); hospital beds (1990) 30,482 (1 per 117 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 17.9.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994)7: c. 32,700 (army 100%). About 9,000 Russian troops remained in Armenia in late 1994. Military expenditure as

National economy

868,000 sheep

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 823 km; (1990) passenger-km 316,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,884,000,000. Roads (1991): length 7,700 km (paved 99%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 230,100. Air transport (1990): passenger km 5,556,900,000; metric ton-km cargo 49,000,000; airports (1994) 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 82; total circulation

cattle, 243,000

pigs, 9,000,000 poultry;

(1991) 44,100 cu m; fish catch (1992) 4,480. Manufacturing

percentage of GNP (1992): 2.3%; per capita expenditure (1992): U.S.$20. !The Armenian

dram was introduced Noy. 22, 1993, to replace the Russian ruble, at

a rate of 200 Russian rubles to 1 dram. 218 additional cities of republic jurisdiction exist. 3Estimated total includes areas of Lake Sevan and cities and 86,700 persons not distributed by administrative subdivision. De jure figure; 1994 de facto population is estimated to be 2,800,000 owing to displacement resulting from war with Azerbaijan. 51989; reduced in population by evacuation following Dec. 7, 1988, earthquake. 6Includes self-employed and unemployed. 7Total mobilization for war with Azerbaijan is not available; however, total reserve strength is 300,000.

554

Britannica World Data

industrial illness, n.a.; death, n.a. Proportion of employed persons insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000

Australia

workdays (1990): 0.5. Means of transportation to work (1986): private au-

Official name: Commonwealth of Australia. Form of government: federal parliamentary state (formally a constitutional monarchy) with two legislative houses (Senate [76]; House

tomobile 69.4%; public transportation 10.1%; motorcycle and bicycle 3.2%; foot 6.6%; other 10.7%. Discouraged job seekers among persons not in the labour force (considered by employers to be too young or too old, having language or training limitations, or no vacancies in line of work; 1991): 1.5% of labour force.

of Representatives [148]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Canberra. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Distribution of family income (19904) percentage of family income by decile

1.4%

Area and population

area

Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia

Brisbane Adelaide Hobart Melbourne Perth

Territories Australian Capital Territory Northern Territory TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

|

309,500 666,900 379,900 26,200 87,900 975,100

801,600 1,727,200 984,000 67,800 227,600 2,525,500

_estimate_

Social deviance (1988-89). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder

6,041,300 3,178,100 1,468,600 472,200 4,473,600 1,695,700

760.4; burglary and housebreaking 1,969.4; fraud and forgery 760.4. Incidence per 100,000 in general population of: alcoholism, n.a.; drug offenses

and attempted

murder

4.2; sexual assault 53.3; assault 401.9; auto theft

(1985) 388.2; suicide (1990) 16.7.

Material well-being (1983). Households possessing: automobile 86.0%; telephone 85.0%; refrigerator 99.6%; air conditioner 32.3%; washing machine 91.7%; hot water 98.7%; central heating 3.9%; swimming pool 10.1%.

Canberra Darwin

900 519,800 2,966,200

2,400 1,346,200 7,682,300

300,300 170,800 17,800,600

National economy Gross national product (1993): U.S.$310,050,000,000 (U.S.$17,510 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93

Population (1994): 17,875,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 6.0, persons per sq km 2.3. Urban-rural (1986): urban 85.4%; rural 14.6%.

in value $A '000,000

Sex distribution (1993): male 49.82%; female 50.18%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 21.7%; 15-29, 23.3%; 30-44, 23.4%; 45-59, 16.0%; 60-74, 11.0%; 75 and over, 4.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 19,236,000; (2010) 21,598,000. Doubling time: 87 years. Ethnic composition (1986): white 95.2%; aboriginal 1.5%; Asian 1.3%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1991): Christian 74.0%, of which Roman Catholic 27.3%, Church

13.3%

(highest)

(1992): 39.6%.

population

Demography

Anglican

10 29.2%

Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (1993): 95.3%; voting is compulsory. Population age 16 and over participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce

19931

Sydney

9 17.2%

96.0%; flush toilet 92.2%; kitchen 97.9%; public sewer :

99.5%; bathroom 73.4%.

1 £=$A 2.15.

Capitals

8

Access to services (1976). Proportion of dwellings having access to: electricity

1994) 1 U.S.$=$A 1.35;

States New South Wales

10.6%

86%

69%

55%

4.2%

3.1%

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

of Australia

23.8%,

other

Protestant

20.1%

(Uniting

Church and Methodist 8.2%, Presbyterian 4.3%), Orthodox 2.8%; Muslim 0.9%; Buddhist 0.8%; Jewish 0.4%; Hindu 0.3%; no religion 12.9%; other 10.7%.

Major cities (1991): Sydney 3,538,900; Melbourne 3,022,200; Brisbane 1,334,700; Perth 1,143,300; Adelaide 1,023,600; Newcastle 427,703; Canberra 278,900; Wollongong 236,000; Hobart 181,800; Gold Coast 157,800.

Place of birth (1991): 77.3% native-born; 22.7% foreign-born, of which Europe 13.9% (United Kingdom 7.1%2, Italy 1.5%, Yugoslavia 1.0%, Greece 0.8%, East and West Germany 0.7%, other Europe 1.9%), Asia and Middle

East 4.8%, New Zealand 1.7%, Africa and the Americas 1.5%, other 0.8%.

12,869 17,315 59,771 28,177 14,076

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

labour force

% of total value

% of labour force

398,000 91,600 1,106,200 526,900 105,400

3.2 4.3 14.7

490,600 1,594,700 898,800 346,200 2,120,900 906,4006 8,585,700

30,384 70,707 95,432 16,355 70,735 —9,9615 405,860

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: $A 99,100,000,000 (1991-92; income tax 68.9%, of which

individual

51.1%,

corporate

17.8%;

excise duties

and sales tax

23.5%). Expenditures: $A 115,100,000,000 (1991-92; social security and welfare 34.2%; transfers to state governments 25.2%; transfers to the nonbudget sector 9.1%; interest on public debt 5.6%).

Public debt (1993): $A 80,948,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,992,000,000; nationals abroad U.S.$3,994,000,000.

expenditures by

Mobility (1988). Population age 15 and over living in the same residence as in 1987: 84.1%; different residence,

same

state 14.4%; different state

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1991-92)7

or territory 1.5%. Households (1991-92). Total number of households 5,852,518. Average house-

hold size 3.0; (1986) 1 person 19.5%, 2-3 persons 47.1%, 4-5 persons 28.2%, 6 or more persons 5.2%. Family households (1992): 4,298,710 (74.5%); nonfamily 1,553,808 (26.5%). Immigration (1991): permanent immigrants admitted Kingdom and Ireland 16.2%, Hong Kong 12.4%,

116,650, from United Vietnam 9.2%, New

Zealand 5.7%, Philippines 5.5%, India 5.0%, Malaysia 3.8%, China 2.9%, Lebanon 2.0%. Refugee arrivals: 7,095.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 76.0%; illegitimate 24.0%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.87. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.7. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 307.8; cancers 179.9; diseases of the respiratory system 56.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 40.3; diseases of the digestive system 22.0; diseases of the nervous system 14.9; endocrine, nutritional, and

metabolic diseases 13.5.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 15 to 69 hav-

ing: no formal schooling 0.3%; incomplete secondary education 41.3%;

completed secondary 14.8%3; postsecondary, technical, or other certificate/ diploma 34.0%; university 9.6%.

Quality of working life (1991-92). overtime). Annual

Average

workweek:

40.1

hours

Manufacturing Food, beverages, and tobacco Basic metal products Machinery and equipment Transport equipment Chemical, petroleum, and coal products Paper, printing, and publishing Fabricated metal products Miscellaneous manufacturing Wood, wood products, and furniture Nonmetallic mineral products Clothing and footwear Textiles Mining? Coal, oil, and gas

Metallic minerals

Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 74.5 years; female 80.8 years.

(17%

rate per 100,000 workers for: injury or accident, n.a.;

no. of employees

Avg. annual wages8 as a % of all wages

($A '000,000)

4,228 889 5,910 2,099

166,000 62,100 114,200 81,600

O17 133.5 99.3 103.3

35,768 20,521 15,902 14,153

1,213 4,913 6,528 3,843

50,500 100,300 88,800 58,200

126.8 106.0 89.9 92.0

23,462 14,332 11,555 8,402

no. of establishments

Nonmetallic minerals Construction

annual turnover

6,590

71,700

777

7,638

1,757 2,574 936

37,600 49,800 26,200

107.6 74.8 93.6

7,319 4,847 4,121

257

34,111 31,667 8,799 518,200

269 699 98,100

191.8 163.9 116.0 104.010

16,901 11,985 2,240 34,407

Production (gross value in $A ’000 except as noted), Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992-93): livestock slaughtered 6,074,700 (cattle 3,860,400, poultry 827,900, sheep and lambs 674,600, pigs 672,900); wool 2,604,400, wheat 2,139,900, sugarcane 803,200, cotton 744,400, barley 703,900, grapes 355,800, potatoes 274,600, tomatoes 274,600, bananas 233,100, apples 168,700, oats 166,900, oranges 148,200, rice 137,200, pears 80,800, sorghum 71,500, carrots

65,700, tobacco

63,600, onions 54,100, pineapples 36,900, peaches 36,700,

cauliflower 33,700, corn (maize) 31,300; livestock (number of live animals)

138,102,000 sheep, 24,062,000 cattle, 2,646,000 pigs, 63,722,000 poultry; roundwood (1991) 19,315,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 233,900 metric tons. Mining

and quarrying (metric tons [tons of contained metal]; 1992-93): iron ore

Nations of the World

555

115,703,000; bauxite 40,946,000; copper 1,254,000; zinc 1,179,000; lead 856,-

2.4%, nonferrous metals 0.7%; transport equipment 13.0%, of which road

(metric tons except as noted; 1993-94): pig iron 7,209,000; cement 6,649,000;

and lubricants 5.6%; food and live animals 3.6%; crude materials [inedible]

000; tin 12,387; gold 275,331 kg; diamonds 40,000,000 carats. Manufacturing

iron and steel slabs 2,246,000; beef and veal 1,824,500; sulfuric acid 833,000;

lamb and mutton 642,200; pork 344,400; woven cotton cloth 48,992,00 0 Sq m; textile floor coverings 45,918,000 Sq m; woven woolen cloth 7,893,000 sq m;

beer 22,660,000 hectolitres; electric motors 2,928,000 units; motor vehicles 298,000 units; colour television receivers 163,000 units. Construction (build-

ings completed, by value in $A ’000; 1993-94): new dwellings 15,097,400; alterations and additions to dwellings 2,289,000; nonresidential 8,785,600.

motor vehicles 9.5%; chemicals

no. of _ estab-

no. of

total wages and salaries

annual turnover

lishments

employees

($A '000,000)

($A '000,000)

37,305

220,661

Retail Motor vehicle dealers,

excluding fuels 2.4%; beverages and tobacco 0.7%). Major import sources:

US. 23.1%; Japan 17.6%; U.K. 6.3%; Germany 5.7%; New Zealand 4.2%; Taiwan 4.0%; France 2.7%; South Korea 2.7%; Italy 2.3%. Exports (1992-93): $A 57,822,000,000 (mineral fuels and lubricants 17.0%,

of which coal, coke, and briquettes 11.9%, petroleum, petroleum products,

and natural gas 5.1%; crude materials excluding fuels 15.6%, of which metalliferous ores and metal scrap 7.1%, textile fibres and their waste 7.1%;

and transport equipment 9.2%; chemicals 2.8%). Major export destinations:

Japan 24.6%; U.S. 10.9%; South Korea 5.8%; New Zealand 5.7%; U.K. 4.3%; Singapore 4.0%; Taiwan 3.3%; Indonesia 3.2%; Hong Kong 3.1%.

Trade by commodity group (1992-93)

gasoline and tire dealers

Food stores Department and general stores Clothing, fabrics, and

53,166 459

furniture stores

Household appliances and hardware stores Services 12 Real estate agents Architectural services Surveying services Engineering and technical services Legal services Accounting services Computing services

2,57211

406,299 87,148

2,46111 1,17511

40,811 9,880

91,138

96511

14,268

75,355

629

12,012

5,741 4,534 1,104

42,196 17,717 6,872

835 354 116

2,201 1,030 309

5,190 6,459 6,048 3,691

28,326 55,363 49,479 24,067

682 500 503 585

2,390

1,716 3,069 2,334 1,628

16,048

423

4,675

Debt collecting and credit reporting

imports

44,954

21,688

Advertising services

8,495

services

Security/protection

and business services

234

2,658

52

142

565 4,181

2,902 44,322

44 330

135 622

1,087

25,483

365

839

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 159,116,000,000

00 01 02 03

04 05 06 07

09

U.S.$'000,000

Food and live animals Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, excluding fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials Animal and vegetable oils, fat, and waxes Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. Basic manufactures Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles Goods not classified by kind

1992) 196,429,000

(202,793,000);

petroleum

products

000,000 (17,053,000,000).

Population economically active (1993-94): total 8,788,900; activity rate of total population 49.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 63.8%; female 42.5%; unemployed 9.3%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1988 1989 1990 Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

86.7 85.2

93.2 92.1

100.0 100.0

1991

1993

199413

103.2 105.1

106.1 111.3

107.8 114.1

Household income and expenditure (1991-92). Average household size 3.0; average annual income per household $A 53,800 (U.S.$41,157); sources of income (1992-93): wages and salaries 62.9%, transfer payments 17.4%, self-employment 7.0%, other 12.7%; expenditure (1992-93): housing 18.2%, transportation and communications 14.5%, food and beverages 14.4%, health 7.3%, household durable goods 6.6%, clothing and footwear 5.5%, education 5.0%, energy 2.2%, other 26.3%. 1988

1989

0.78 0.44 0.64

0.79 0.48 0.60

13,598 334 Reserve pos. in IMF ('000,000) 275

13,780 307 322

12,989 7.93

0.8

Foreign exchange ('000,000) Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices

(1990 = 100)

1991

1992

199414

Balance of visible trade Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.0.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

6,968

15:5

0.7

238

0.6

1,035

2.4

7,052

2,392

5.6

7,674

ad

—

=

9.0

16,997 6,247 4,296 42,821

TOTAL

Direction of trade (1992-93)

imports U.S.$'000,000

Africa

Asia Japan South America North and Central America United States former U.S.S.R. Other Europe Oceania New Zealand Other TOTAL

exports U.S.$'000,000

%

171

0.4

675

16,230 7,536 428 10,620 9,892

37.9 17.6 1.0 24.8 23.1

24,270 11,122 450 5,854 4,908

11,133 9,078

26.0 21.2

7,024 6,259

2,055 2,098 1,799 2,141 42,821

= 4.8 4.9 4.2 5.0 100.0

765 3,917 2,567 2,838 45,028

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991)16: route length 23,174 mi, 37,295 km; passengermi 1,359,051,00017, passenger-km 2,187,120,00017; short ton-mi cargo 36,414,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 53,163,000,000. Roads (1990): total length

503,474

mi, 810,264 km

(paved 36%).

Vehicles

(1992): passenger

cars

7,913,200; trucks and buses 2,041,300. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 (1990-91): passenger-mi 25,649,600,000, passenger-km 41,279,000; short tonmi cargo 1,765,800,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,578,029,000; airports (1991)

with scheduled flights 428. 0.44 0.53

0.45 0.50

\

16,534 290 351

11,208 96 420

13,150 7.93

15,605 7.93

15,894 7.93

10,536 7.93

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.8

13.20 12.18

17.23 15.14

15.24 13.46

11.0 9.94

6.25 7.00

93.4

97.6

100.0

96.4

100.3

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 62; total circulation 4,200,000; circulation per 1,000 population 249. Radio (1993): 20,000,000 receivers (1 per 0.9 persons). Television (1993): 8,000,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Telephones (1992): 8,540,000 (1 per 2.1 persons).

Education and health Education (1993) H

5.7513 7.1713 110.813

Balance of payments

(U.S.$'000,000)

3.8

304

gross tons and over) 695; total deadweight tonnage 3,857,271. Air transport

Financial aggregates Exchange rate, $A 1.00 per: U.S. dollar = SDR International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; 000,000) SDRs ('000,000)

%

1,563

3,867 6,120

(159,116,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 225,788,000 (103,406,000); crude (metric tons; 1992) 31,531,000 (31,906,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 23,089,-

exports

SITC Group

08

Pest control services Cleaning services

(barrels;

fuels

food and live animals 15.4%, of which meat 6.0%, cereals 3.6%; machinery

Retail and service enterprises (1991-92)

petroleum

and related products 9.0%; mineral

—710 -—3,436 +366 +3,511 33,892 40,329 38,966 38,494 33,182 36,893 39,332 42,005 —9,652— 14,231 — 15,465 — 13,782—

+1,554 40,820 42,374 12,499 — 10,792

— 10,362— 17,667— 15,099 — 10,271—10,945

—10,780

=95 10,759 10,664 — 2,351 —2,256

Land use (1992): meadows and pastures 54.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 6.7%; other 39.0% !5.

Primary (age 6-12) } Secondary (age 13-17) Vocational 18 Higher21

schools

teachers

students

9,865 23419

98,526 103,385 52,587 19 25,916

1,816,066 1,282,309 985,94220 420,640

95

student/ teacher ratio

18.4 12.4 ry 16.2

Literacy (1980): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 99.5%. Health: physicians (1986) 38,527 (1 per 438 persons); hospital beds (1990) 86,036 (1 per 199 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 6.1. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,302 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%); 124% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 61,600 (army 46.4%, navy 24.0%, air force 29.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 2.4% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$408.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

1989

$A '000,000 % of total

—4,100 41%

1990

1991

1,194 1.2%

4,144 4.0%

2,898 2.6%

— 2,302 2.0%

Imports (1992-93): $A. 55,520,000,000 (machinery 25.8%, of which office machines and automatic data-processing equipment 6.7%; basic manufactures 14.2%, of which textile yarn and fabrics 3.5%, paper and paper products

{March 31. 2Includes both Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland. 3Completed highest level of secondary school available. December. >Less imputed bank service charges. 6Mostly unemployed. 7Excludes operations of single-establishment enterprises employing fewer than four persons. 8Excludes the drawings of working proprietors.

91990-91. 101985. 111985-86. 121987-88. 13Second quarter. 14September. !5Urban areas, state forests and mining leases, unoccupied land (mainly desert). 1©Government railways only. 171978-79. 18Includes special education. 191986. 201992. 211989.

556

Britannica World Data

Austria

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: Republik Osterreich

ice iindex Consumer price Monthly earnings index

(Republic of Austria). Form of government: federal multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Federal Council [63]; National Council [183]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Chancellor. Capital: Vienna. Official language: German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Austrian Schilling (S)=100 Groschen; valuation

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

94.4 89.4

96.8 93.3

100.0 100.0

103.3 105.2

107.5 110.3

111. 4 115.85

114.14

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$174,767,000,000

(U.S.$22,110 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992 in value ‘% of total $000,000 _ value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=S 10.85;

1£=S 17.25.

States Burgenland Karnten Niederdsterreich Oberosterreich Salzburg Steiermark Tirol Vorarlberg Wien (Vienna) TOTAL

Capitals Eisenstadt Klagenfurt Sankt Polten Linz Salzburg Graz Innsbruck Bregenz =

sq mi

sqkm_

1992 estimate

1,531 3,681 7,403 4,626 2,762 6,327 4,883 1,004 160 32,3781

3,965 9,533 19,174 11,980 7,154 16,388 12,648 2,601 415 83,8591

269,000 551,000 1,479,000 1,342,000 490,000 1,188,000 637,000 338,000 1,568,000 7,863,0001

153,600 55,600

7.6 a7

350,400 286,800 86,400 59,8006 2,028,600

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

population

2.5 25.9

S '000,000 % of total

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 17.4%; 15-29, 23.7%; 30-44, 21.6%; 45-59, 17.2%; 60-74, 13.4%; 75 and over, 6.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 8,181,000; (2010) 8,294,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population is stable. Ethnic composition (national origin; 1991): Austrian 93.4%; citizens of former Yugoslavia 2.5%; Turkish 1.5%; German 0.7%; other 1.9%.

Catholic 78.3%; nonreligious and athe-

traditions 4.9%; Muslim 2.1%; Jewish 0.1%},

other (mostly Christian) 2.8%; unknown 3.5%. Major cities (1991): Vienna 1,539,848; Graz 237,810; Linz 203,044; Salzburg 143,978; Innsbruck 118,112.

813,400 40,200 3,596,1001

— 47,910 5.9%

1989

1990

1991

— 62,180 6.8%

— 65,190 6.5%

— 86,300 8.3%

—79,700 7.6%

— 72,500 7.2%

Imports (1993): S 593,900,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 39.5%, of which road vehicles 12.7%, electrical machinery and apparatus 6.3%; chemicals and related products 9.8%; clothing 4.8%; food products 4.5%). Major import sources: Germany 42.9%; Italy 8.6%; Japan 4.7%; France 4.4%; Switzerland 4.0%; United States 3.9%.

Exports (1993): S 487,600,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment of which electrical machinery and apparatus 6.7%, road vehicles machine tools 5.9%; paper and paper products 5.9%; iron and steel Major export destinations: Germany 39.8%; Italy 8.8%; Switzerland France 4.4%; United Kingdom 3.6%; Hungary 3.2%.

38.9%, 6.5%, 5.3%). 5.9%;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length (1991) 4,136 mi, 6,657 km; passenger-

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 75.2%; illegitimate 24.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 72.9 years; female 79.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 555.3, of which ischemic heart diseases 211.3, cerebrovascular disease 134.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 246.1.

National economy (1993)2.

6.6 2 aoe 1.0 100.01

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices)

Budget

6.3 19.1

ing 13.6%, cafe and hotel expenditures 10.8%, clothing and footwear 9.2%.

Demography

ist 8.3%; Reformed-Lutheran

228,200 688,300

236,300

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 2.6; net income per household7 (1991) S 262,080 (U.S.$21,930); sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 55.6%, transfer payments 24.5%, other 19.9%; expenditure (1991): food and beverages 17.8%, transportation 16.9%, hous-

Population (1994): 8,027,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 247.9, persons per sq km 95.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 64.5%; rural 35.5%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.15%; female 51.85%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman

6.2 16.4

17.3 14.1 4.3 3.06 100.0

126,300 333,700

Trade, restaurants

Area and population

50,100 525,900

1991 labour % of labour force force Te 258,600 0.3 12,200 26.9 966,400 8.7 312,200 ea 40,400

Revenue:

S 624,300,000,000

(social-security

contributions

28.0%, direct taxes 27.5%, turnover taxes 19.5%, income from federal en-

terprises 14.9%). Expenditures: S 688,400,000,000 (social affairs and health 25.8%, public debt 23.1%, federal enterprises 13.9%, education 8.4%, de-

fense 2.8%). National debt (end of year 1991): S 945,610,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): silage 4,252,0003, sugar beets 2,265,000, barley 1,342,000, wheat

3,244,920; trucks and buses 278,643. Merchant

marine (1992): vessels (100

gross tons and over) 26; total deadweight tonnage 208,504. Air transport10 (1993): passenger-mi 4,328,000,000, passenger-km 6,965,000,000; short tonmi cargo 89,970,000, metric ton-km cargo 131,354,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 27; total circulation 3,108,357; circulation per 1,000 population 394. Radio (1993): total receivers 4,700,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 2,706,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1992): 4,956,000 (1 per 1.6 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-18)

3,702 1,607

Voc., teacher tr.

1,318

35,603 52,545 24,607 14,809

401,974 431,027 315,376 216,765

11.3 8.2 12.8 14.6

Higher

94

1,325,000,

corn (maize) 1,118,000, potatoes 738,000, grapes 410,000, rye 278,000, apples 233,000, turnips 173,0003, rapeseed 115,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,629,000 pigs, 2,532,000 cattle, 13,000,000 chickens; roundwood

13,875,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 4,500. Mining and quarrying (1992): iron ore 1,632,000, magnesite 985,000, high-grade graphite 19,547, zinc ore 14,900. Manufacturing (value added in S ’000,000,000; 1990): electrical machinery and apparatus 44.6; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 37.4; fabricated metal products 28.8; food products 26.2; iron and steel 23.7; transport equipment 18.8; cement, bricks, and tile 16.7. Construction (completed; 1991): residential 3,981,000 sq m; nonresidential, n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 52,656,000,000 ({1991] 52,249,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 1,788,000 ([1991] 6,926,000); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1993) 8,194,000 ([1991] 61,101,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 7,750,000 (10,414,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 1,555,000,000

({1991] 5,394,000,000). Land use (1991): forested 39.0%; meadows and pastures 24.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 18.4%; other 18.5%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$14,832,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$8,371,000,000. Population economically active (1991): total 3,596,100; activity rate of total population 46.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.9%; female 41.0%;

unemployed [1993] 6.8%).

mi 5,988,000,0009, passenger-km 9,636,000,0009; short ton-mi cargo 8,080,-

000,0009, metric ton-km cargo 11,796,000,0009. Roads (1992): total length 68,400 mi, 110,000 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: lower-secondary education 38.2%; vocational education ending at secondary level 45.2%; completed upper secondary 5.4%; higher vocational 5.1%; higher 6.1%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health (1992): physicians 24,049 (1 per 327 persons); hospital beds 74,871 (1 per 105 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,486 (vegetable products 64%, animal products 36%); 133% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 52,000 (army 88.5%; navy, none; air force 11.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.0% (world 4.2%) per capita expenditure U.S.$213.

?

‘Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Federal income and expenditure only. 31991. 4March. 5Average of 2nd and 3rd quarters. 6Value-added tax plus import duties (S 184,500,000,000) less imputed bank service charges (S 124,700,-

000,000). 7Two-person households without children only. 8Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 9Federal railways only. 0Austrian Airlines, Lauda Air, and Tyrolean Airways.

Nations of the World

Azerbaijan

Structure of net material product and labour force

Official name: Azarbayjan Respublikasi (Azerbaijani Republic). Form of government: federal multiparty republic with a single legislative body (National Council [50]).

1993 in value ‘000,000 manats Agriculture Mining Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Baku (Azerbaijani: Bak1). Official language: Azerbaijani. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 manat1 = 100 gopik; valuation (Oct. 7,.1994) free rate, 1 U.S.$ =292.70 manat; 1 £= 465.60

manat.

Area and population Republics Naxgivan (Nakhichevan) Qarabag2 (Nagorno Karabakh) Regions under republican jurisdiction _

557

population 1991

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

estimate

Naxgivan (Nakhichevan)

2,100

5,500

305,700

Xankandi (Stepanakert)

1,700

4,400

193,300

29,600

76,700

4,924,300

33,400

86,600

1,713,300 7,136,600

Population (1994): 7,424,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 222.3, persons per sq km 85.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 53.7%; rural 46.3%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.31%; female 50.69%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 32.8%; 15-29, 29.7%; 30-44, 16.8%; 45-59, 12.8%; 60-74, 5.7%; 75 and over, 2.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 8,324,000; (2010) 9,445,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Azerbaijani 82.7%; Russian 5.7%; Armenian 5.6%; Lezgin 2.4%; Avar 0.6%; Ukrainian 0.5%; Tatar 0.4%; other 2.1%.

Religious affiliation (1991): ShiT Muslim 70%; Sunni Muslim 30%. Major cities (1991): Baku 1,080,500; Ganca (formerly Kirovabad) 282,200; Sumqayit (Sumgait) 236,200; Mingacevir (Mingechaur) 90,900; Naxeivan (Nakhichevan) 61,700.

% of labour force

29.4

978,000

26.6

53,985

456 }

459,000

12.4

16,247

13.7

110,000 246,000

3.0 6.7

9,111 2,595 —

Gat 2.2 =

— 1,655 118,395

— 1.4 100.0

213,000 174,000 10,000 53,000 414,000 1,021,000 3,678,000

Population economically active (1991): total 3,687,000; activity rate of total population 51.7% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 92.1%; female [1989] 42.6%; unemployed [1991] 3.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987

1988

1989

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1990

1991

1992

100.0 100.0

211.8 163.1

2,463.7 1,288.7

Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Land use (1992): forest 21.9%; pasture 25.4%; agriculture 11.0%; other 41.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

Demography

labour force

34,802

1986

Cities Baku (Baki) TOTAL

1991 % of total value

‘000,000 rubles % of total

1,209

1,110"

1,933

1990

1991

1992

1993

678

2,502 12.3%

78,818 18.9%

3,838 1.7%

Imports (1993): 117,427,000,000 rubles (petroleum products 39.0%, ferrous metals 30.0%, textiles 10.6%, nonferrous metals 5.9%, chemical products

3.0%). Major import sources: Russia 24.7%; Turkey 12.8%; Turkmenistan 10.6%; Ukraine 10.4%; Iran 8.5%; Kazakhstan 6.8%.

Exports (1993): 113,589,000,000 rubles (food products 33.2%, machinery 20.1%, chemical products 16.1%, consumer products 16.0%, textiles 7.2%). Major export destinations: Iran 29.1%; Russia 26.9%; Turkey 9.1%; Ukraine

7.0%; Georgia 4.5%; Kazakhstan 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 1,299 mi, 2,090 km; passenger-mi 3,025,400,000, passenger-km 4,868,900,000; cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1991): total

length 22,800 mi, 36,700 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars

Vital statistics

235,600; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 97.5%; illegitimate 2.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate. (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 66.7 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 292.4; diseases of the respiratory system 88.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 72.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 42.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 42.1; diseases of the digestive system 25.6; diseases of the nervous system 9.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.6.

over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi

3,025,400,000, passenger-km 4,868,900,000; cargo traffic, n.a.; airports (1994)

with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 168; total circulation 520,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 73. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 1,174,000 (1 per 6.1 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 1,522,000 (1 per 4.8 persons). Telephones (1991): 1,174,000 (1 per 6.1 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools Primary (age 6-13) } Secondary (age 14-17)

National economy

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

139,000

1,375,000

99:

60,100 108,000

Voc., teacher tr.

Budget (1993). Revenue: 61,549,000,000 manats (tax revenue 96%, of which value-added tax 23.1%, excise tax 21.0%, enterprise profits tax 19.7%, individual income tax 5.8%; nontax revenue 4.0%). Expenditures: 74,601,000,000 manats (1992; social welfare and culture 82.1%, of which education 27.3%, pensions 14.1%, health 11.2%; national economy 17.9%; defense 10.5%).

Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. ¢ Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Higher

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 12.2%; some secondary 19.2%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 58.1%; higher 10.5%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population 15 and over literate 97.3%; males literate 98.9%; females 95.9%.

000, vegetables (except potatoes) 700,000, cotton 336,000, potatoes 200,000,

Health (1992): physicians 29,100 (1 per 251 persons); hospital beds (1990) 72,700 (1 per 98 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 25.0.

tobacco 70,000, tea 4,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,255,000 sheep and goats, 1,570,000 cattle, 123,000 pigs, 33,000 horses, 26,000,000 poultry;

Military

fruit (except grapes) 1,358,000, cereals 1,105,000, grapes 900,000, wheat 780,-

roundwood (1993) 17,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 39,700. Mining and quarrying (1989): iron ore 718,200. Manufacturing (1993): steel 236,000; steel pipes 146,000; sulfuric acid 141,000; pesticides 120,000; detergents and soaps 50,000;

caustic

soda

49,000;

electric

motors

1,355

units;

air conditioners

179,000 units; pumps 161,000 units; drilling equipment 53,000 units; bicycles

Total active duty personnel (1994): 56,0004 (army 87.4%, navy> 5.4%, air force 3.6%, CIS centrally controlled and other 3.6%). About 500 Russian troops remained in Azerbaijan in late 1994. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): c. 1.9% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure (1992) U.S.$17.

51,000 units; radios 30,000 units. Construction (1991): 2,600,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 20,000,000,000 (20,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (27,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 77,698,000 (91,273,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 400,-

000 (400,000); natural - Household income and come per household: 70.2%, social benefits

gas (cu m; 1992) 7,800,000,000 (11,553,000,000). expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.8; inn.a.;. sources of income (1992): salaries and wages 19.0%, agricultural income 10.8%; expenditure: retail

goods 73.7%, services 7.4%, taxes 10.2%.

;

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$5,428,000,000

(U.S.$730 per capita)3.

1The

manat

was

introduced

Aug.

15, 1992,

at a 10 to 1 ratio with

the Russian

ruble and circulated parallel with it; on June 20, 1993, the manat became the sole legal tender. 2In November 1991 the Azerbaijan Supreme Soviet abolished Nagorno Karabakh’s autonomous status. 3Ruble-area GNP and exchange-rate data are very speculative. 4Total mobilization data for war with Armenia is not available; however, total reserve strength is 560,000. 5Azerbaijan shares a portion of the Caspian Flotilla.

558

Britannica World Data

Bahamas, The

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

in value B$'000,000

Official name: The Commonwealth of The Bahamas. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [16]; House of Assembly [49]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Nassau.

Mining Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

Official language: English.

88

2g)

3.0 7.4 23.0 19.9 5.8 1We

=,

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=B$1; 1 £=B$1.59.

13

7,730 9,093 36,711 11,201 40,543

5.6 6.6 26.8 8.2 29.6 13,510 100.03

18,46710 136,900

14.59 100.03

Price and earnings indexes (1986= 100) Area and population

population 1990 ee

484 290 1,373 8 1,551 596 285 207 36 78 163 26 23 13,9393

OS 10,034 405 8,187 628 1,639 1,698 412 7,993

3,556 40,898 1,219 985 2,954 312 172,196

89 53 465 1,372 — 255,095

Demography Population (1994): 272,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 50.5, persons per sq km 19.5. Urban-rural (1990): urban 64.3%; rural 35.7%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.00%; female 51.00%. Age breakdown

3.6

4,785

Population economically active (1993): total 136,900; activity rate of total population 51.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1990] 63.1%; female 47.5%; unemployed 13.1%). .

(B$) = 100 cents; valuation

Islands and Island Groups2 Abaco, Great and Little Acklins Andros Berry Islands Bimini Islands Cat Island Crooked and Long Cay Eleuthera Exuma, Great, and Exuma Cays Grand Bahama Harbour Island Inagua, Great and Little Long Island Mayaguana New Providence Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador Spanish Wells Other uninhabited cays and rocks TOTAL

% of labour force 4.7

4,935

}

91 227 705 610 179 523 4439 3,0593

Other TOTAL

labour force 6,435

2.9 3.4

89 105

Agriculture, fishing Manufacturing }

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Bahamian dollar

1993

% of total value

(1990): under 15, 32.2%; 15-29, 30.8%; 30-44, 19.7%; 45-59,

10.5%; 60 and over, 6.8%. Population projection: (2000) 295,000; (2010) 327,000. Doubling time: 48 years. Ethnic composition (1988): black 80.0%; mixed 10.0%; white 10.0%.

Religious affiliation (1980): non-Anglican Protestant 55.2%, of which Baptist 32.1%, Methodist 6.1%, Church of God (Anderson 20.1%; Roman Catholic 18.8%; other 5.9%.

Ind.) 5.7%; Anglican

Major cities (1990): Nassau 172,1964; Freeport/Lucaya 26,574; Marsh Harbour 3,611; Bailey Town 1,490; Dunmore Town (Harbour Island) 1,219.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 42.8%, illegitimate 57.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 20.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992); 9.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.2. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 68.0 yéars; female 75.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): ischemic heart diseases 95.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 79.2; cerebrovascular disease 28.6; pneumonia 23.2.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: B$568,700,0005 (import taxes 47.1%, stamp taxes

Consumer price index Annual earnings index 12

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

110.4 105.6

116.4 146.2

121.8

130.5 146.6

138.0 165.3

141.6 171.313

143.011

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1993) 3.9; income per household (1993) B$26,373 (U.S.$26,373); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1988) 14: food and beverages 19.8%, housing 19.2%, transportation and communications 7.8%.

18.9%, household :

furnishings

10.2%, education

Land use (1991): forested 32.4%; meadows and pastures 0.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.0%; other 66.4%.

Foreign trade!5 Balance of trade (current prices) 1986 1987 1988

1989

1990

1991

B$’000,000 % of total

— 534 9.4%

—327 5.9%

— 284 81%

—588 9.8%

—309 5.4%

—99 2.4%

Imports (1991): B$1,801,000,000 (petroleum for storage 34.3%, machinery and transport equipment 14.5%, food products 11.3%, chemicals and chemical products 9.1%). Major import sources (1990): Saudi Arabia 36.9%; United States 35.6%; United Kingdom 3.7%; Nigeria 3.1%; Iraq 2.8%. Exports (1991): B$1,517,000,000 (chemicals [mostly pharmaceuticals] 50.8%, distillate fuels 24.4%, hormones 4.3%, crayfish 3.0%, rum 2.2%). Major export destinations (1990): United States 76.5%; Puerto Rico 17.3%; Belgium 1.0%; Canada 0.9%; United Kingdom 0.8%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1990): total length 1,450 mi, 2,334 km

(paved 56%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 66,696; trucks and buses 14,322. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,061; total deadweight tonnage 33,081,652. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 215,000,000, passenger-km 346,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 205,000, metric ton-km cargo 300,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 24. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 35,000; circulation per 1,000 population 135. Radio (1993): total receivers 200,000 (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 60,000 (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1991): 141,844 (1 per 1.8 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary/Secondary (age 5-16) Higher 16

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

227 1

3,161 300

60,058 3,201

19.0 10.7

Educational attainment; n.a. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 139,000 (95.0%).

Health (1992): physicians 357 (1 per 714 persons); hospital beds 1,020 (1 per 250 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 23.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,777 (vegetable products 66%, animal products 34%); 115% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

15.6%, departure taxes 10.4%, fines and forfeits 7.0%, business and pro-

Military

fessional licenses 4.7%). Expenditures: B$638,300,0006 (education 20.1%, health 13.4%, general administration 13.4%, interest on public debt 12.2%,

Total active duty personnel (1993): 850 (all paramilitary coast guard). Military

public order 10.0%, tourism 5.9%, defense 2.9%). National debt (March 1994): U.S.$1,401,000,000.

expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992)1!7: 2.1% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$248.

Production (value of production in B$’000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): crayfish 45,200, other marine products (mostly sponges, groupers, conchs) 6,900, fruits and vegetables 22,8007, poultry products 20,200; roundwood

(1992) 115,000 cu m. Mining and quarrying

(value of export production; 1993): salt 13,500; aragonite 4,800. Manufacturing (value of export production; 1993): pharmaceuticals and other chemical products 84,600; rum 12,600. Construction (gross value of buildings started

in B$’000,000; 1993)8: residential 101; nonresidential 20. Energy production (consumption); electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 965,000,000 (965,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) negligible (634,000); natural gas, none (none). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,296,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$195,000,000. Gross national product (1992): U.S.$3,161,000,000 (U.S.$12,020 per capita).

‘Land area only of individual islands or island groups. 2Family (Out) Islands (all islands other than New Providence) are administered by commissioners assigned by the central government. Extent of commissioner districts varies from part of an island to island groups. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ‘Population cited is for New Providence Island. 5Current revenue only. 6Of which current expenditure 92.5%, development expenditure 7.5%. 71990. 8New Providence and Grand Bahama islands only. °Includes net indirect taxes (B$430,000,000) and statistical discrepancy (B$13,000,000). 10Includes 517 not adequately defined and 17,950 unemployed. ''!March. !2Annual mean household income. 13May. 14Domestic purchases by resident households only; data for expenditures in restaurants and hotels are not available. !5Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 161992-93; College of The Bahamas only. !7Includes police.

Nations of the World

Bahrain

559

tion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 3,510,000,000 (3,5 10,000,000);

coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 14,655,000 (94,501,000);

Official name: Dawlat al-Bahrayn (State of Bahrain). Form of government: monarchy (emirate) with an advisory Consultative Council (30).

petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 10,705,000 (665,000); natural gas (cu

m; 1992) 5,177,000,000 (5,177,000,000).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1991): U.S.$6,910,000,000

(U.S.$6,310 per capita).

Chief of state: Emir. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Manama.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Bahrain dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils; valuation (Oct. 7,

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

1994) 1 BD=U.S.$2.63 = £1.67.

1992 value in BD '000,0007 15.1 293.2 270.9 92.5 26.5 211.0

% of total value 0.9 17.9 16.5 5.6 1.6 12.9

labour force

% of labour force

5,108 3,638 26,618 26,738 2,898 13,789

2.3 1.6 11.8 11.6 1.3 61

173.4

10.6

280.0 330.0

29,961

17.1 20.1

13.2

17,256

76

Trade

Cape : ub. admin., defense

Area and population area

Regions

sq mi

al-Gharbiyah (Western) al-Hadd Jidd (Judd) Hafs al-Manamah al-Muharraq ar-Rifa® ash-Shamaliyah (Northern) ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern) Sitrah | al-Wusta (Central)

60.3 2.3

8.3 10.0 6.2 112.6 14.2 95

tt 13.6

Services

population

sq km

1991 census

156.1 6.0

22,034

21.6 25.8 16.0

8,610 44,769 136,999 74,245

291.6 36.8 er:

49,752 33,763 3,242

28.8 35.2

Hammad_

Islands Hawar and other TOTAL

ol

13.1

29,055

12.4

34,509

19.5 268.02

50.6 694.22,3

54 }

oa

Other

=135.7,

=—8.3

16,498

TOTAL

1,640.9

100.0

226,448

Sel 7.3

100.03

ing 21.2%, household durable goods 9.8%, transportation and communications 8.5%, recreation 6.4%, clothing and footwear 5.9%, education 2.7%,

health 2.3%, energy and water 2.2%. Land use (1992): meadows and pastures 5.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; built-on and wasteland (mostly sand plains and salt marshes) 91.2%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$177,000,000; expenditures by na-

36,755 34,304

48

84.0

Households. Average household size (1991) 5.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1984): food and tobacco 33.3%, hous-

Towns with special status Madinat ‘Isa

1991

tionals abroad U.S.$141,000,000.

Foreign trade’

1 508,037

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

BD ’000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 552,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 2,059.7, persons per sq km 795.2. Urban-rural (1991): urban 88.4%; rural 11.6%. . Sex distribution (1993): male 56.99%; female 43.01%.

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

tou 1.4%

+1567 5.9%

=73.1 2.7%

=119.0 4.4%

+913 3.4%

Imports (1992): U.S.$4,144,718,000 (crude petroleum products 36.5%, transport equipment and machines 26.0%, chemicals 7.0%, food and live animals

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 36.5%; 15-29, 21.6%; 30-44, 25.8%; 45-59, 11.6%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 653,000; (2010) 831,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1981): Bahraini Arab 68.0%; Persian, Indian, and Pakistani 24.7%; other Arab 4.1%; European 2.5%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1981): Muslim 85.0% (Shi1 60.0% and Sunni 40.0%); Christian 7.3%; other 7.7%. Major cities (1991): al-Manamah 120,937; ar-Rifa‘ 45,956; al-Muharraq 45,337; Madinat ‘Isa 34,509.

Vital statistics

6.5%). Major import sources: United States 8.3%; United Kingdom 6.9%; Japan 6.6%; Germany 6.5%; Australia 3.9%; Saudi Arabia 3.6%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$3,417,315,000 (petroleum products 76.2%, basic manufactured goods 16.0%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 4.2%; South Korea 2.9%; Japan 2.2%; United States 2.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992): total length 1,660 mi, 2,671 km (paved 75%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 107,657; trucks and buses 24,523. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 87; total deadweight tonnage 192,487. Air transport (1993)9: passenger-mi 1,089,000,000, passenger-km 1,753,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 47,920,000, metric ton-

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 100%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 68.7 years; female 72.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 100.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 34.1; diseases of the respiratory system 29.7; accidents and violence 28.5; endocrine, nutritional,

and metabolic diseases 17.4; congenital anomalies 13.8; diseases of the genitourinary system 13.4; diseases of the digestive system 10.7.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: BD 580,000,000 (1991; petroleum company dividends and oil field receipts 59.8%, non-oil revenue including grants and loans 40.2%). Expenditures: BD 643,000,000 (1991; government services 30.7%, defense 17.8%, 11.8%, health 9.2%).

education

15.5%,

transport

and

communication

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S$1,810,000,0004. Population economically active (1991): total 226,448; activity rate of total population 44.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 66.1%; female 17.5%; unemployed 6.3%).

km cargo 69,962,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 29,000; circulation per 1,000 population 60. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 320,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 270,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 182,520 (1 per 2.8 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

114 3510 910 410

3,085 2,118 809 55711

students

66,694 42,435 6,165 6,868 11

student/ teacher ratio

21.6

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal education 14.1%; knowledge of reading and writing 20.3%; primary education 31.6%; secondary 22.3%; higher 11.7%. Literacy (1991): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 69.7%; males literate 76.5%; females literate 58.6%.

Health (1991): physicians 542 (1 per 953 persons); hospital beds 1,187 (1 per 435 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 24.5.

Food: n.a.

Military

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1988 eotcuu 1.6%

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

19935

97.3 cx

97.6 ee

99.1 de

100.0

100.8

100.6

103.0

Total active duty personnel (1994): 8,100 (army 84.0%, navy 7.4%, air force 8.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 6.5% (world 4.5%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$389.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): fruit (excluding melons) 23,000, cow’s milk 19,000, dates 19,000, tomatoes 4,000, hen’s eggs 3,000, onions 1,000, cucumbers 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 17,000 goats, 16,000 cattle, 9,000 sheep, 1,000 camels, 1,000,-

000 chickens; fish catch (1991) 7,553. Manufacturing (barrels; 1992): gas oil 28,000,000; fuel oil 23,500,000; naphtha 12,263,000; kerosene 10,500,000; gasoline 7,900,000; jet fuel 7,500,000; heavy lubricant distillate 2,613,0006; petroleum bitumen 523,000; other manufactures include methanol, ammo-

nia, aluminum metal and forms, plastics, and paper products. Construction (permits issued; 1991): residential 5,931; nonresidential 718. Energy produc-

!Population of Hawar and other islands included with Eastern Region. 2Total area includes numerous small uninhabited islands and dependencies of Bahrain. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes long-term private debt

not guaranteed by the government. 5Fourth quarter. ©1991. 7In purchasers’ value at current prices. §Import figures are f.o.b. in balance oftrade and c.if, for commodities and trading partners. 9One-fourth apportionment of international flights of Gulf Air (jointly administered by the governments of Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates). 101987-88. 111990-91.

560

Britannica World Data

Bangladesh

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$12,226,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 14.5%; meadows and pastures 4.6%; agricultural

Official name: Gana Prajatantri

Gross national product (at current market prices, 1993): U.S.$25,674,000,000

and under permanent cultivation 69.5%; other 11.4%.

Bangladesh (People’s Republic of

(U.S.$220 per capita).

Bangladesh). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93

(Parliament [3301)). Chief of state: President.

in value Tk '000,000

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dhaka.

5.8 Az

662,000 17,000

1.3 _—

113,395

Wat,

1,278,000

2.5

78,575 19,295 49,020

8.1 2.0 5.0

4,130,000 238,000

8.1 0.5 93

Construction Public utilities

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public admin., defense

‘

area sq mi

sq km

18,153 12,038 13,800 13,304 57,295

47,016 31,178 35,742 34,457 148,393

Services and other

220,795

22.8

TOTAL

970,192

2

13.8

6,977,000

Ae e00

100.09

50,700,000

als abroad U.S.$111,000,000.

Foreign trade

28,811,446 33,593,103 20,804,515 26,667,913 109,876,977

Balance of trade (current prices) Tk '000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1994): 117,404,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 2,049.1, persons per sq km 791.2. 50-64,

a

% of labour force ene Y

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$8,000,000; expenditures by nation-

population 1991 census3

Urban-rural (1989): urban 24.4%; rural 75.6%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.47%; female 48.53%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 43.6%; 15-49, 45.0%; and over, 3.7%.

33.5

eee

Manufacturing

Area and population

Administrative centres Chittagong D haka Khulna Rajshahi

56,758 16,650

Mining

Official language: Bengali. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Bangladesh taka (Tk) = 100 paisa; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Tk 39.50; 1 £=Tk 62.82.

Divisions2 Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi TOTAL

4

labour force na 89,000

324,804

Agriculture

1989

% of total value

7.7%;

65

Population projection: (2000) 132,402,000; (2010) 161,775,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Bengali 97.7%; tribal (Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Santal, etc.) 1.0%; other 1.3%. Religious affiliation (1991): Muslim 86.8%; Hindu 11.9%; other 1.3%. Major cities (1991)4: Dhaka 6,105,160; Chittagong 2,040,663; Khulna 877,388; Rajshahi 517,136; Mymensingh 185,5175.

1988

1989

—39,386 32.5%

-63,910 43.1%

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 23.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 11.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1981): 3.6. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 55.0 years; female 54.4 years. Major causes of death (1990; percentage of recorded deaths): typhoid fever 19.8%; old age 14.8%; tetanus 10.1%; tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases 8.7%; diarrhea 6.4%; suicide, accidents, and poisoning 5.1%; high

blood pressure and heart diseases 5.0%.

1991

1992

1993

—48,564 28.2%

—55,276 25.3%

—52,113 22.5%

Imports (1992-93): Tk 156,010,000,000 (textile yarn, fabrics, and made-up articles 23.3%; machinery and transport equipment 9.3%; petroleum and petroleum products 8.9%; chemicals 4.7%; iron and steel 2.7%; dairy products and eggs 1.7%). Major import sources (1990-91): Japan 10.5%; South Korea 9.4%; United States 7.0%; Hong Kong 6.8%; Singapore 6.6%; India 6.3%; China 5.8%; Yemen 3.9%.

Exports (1992-93): Tk 83,710,000,000 (ready-made garments 57.4%; jute manufactures 12.5%; fish and prawns 9.5%; hides, skins, and leather 7.1%; raw

jute 3.5%; tea 1.8%). Major export destinations (1990-91): United States 28.9%; West Germany 9.6%; United Kingdom 7.7%; Italy 5.5%; Belgium 4.5%; Singapore 3.8%; Japan 3.4%; The Netherlands 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991-92): route length 1,706 mi, 2,746 km; passenger-mi 3,323,000,000, passenger-km

Vital statistics

-55,550 32.4%

5,348,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 492,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 718,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 120,100 mi, 193,283 km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 67,000; trucks and buses 63,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 301; total deadweight tonnage 566,775. Air transport (1992)10: passenger-mi 1,506,000,000, passenger-km

2,424,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 208,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 303,000,000; airports with scheduled flights (1994) 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 51; total circulation 710,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6. Radio (1993): 4,500,000 receivers (1 per 26 persons). Television (1993): 350,000 receivers (1 per 329 persons). Telephones (1991): 261,738 (1 per 427 persons).

Education and health

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: Tk 91,001,000,000 (customs duties 30.7%, sales

tax 17.3%, excise duties 14.9%, dividends and profits from public enterprises

11.0%, business tax 10.2%, income taxes 3.8%). Expenditures: Tk 80,833,-

000,000 (transfer payments 36.2%, employee compensation 33.6%, goods and services 27.8%, capital formation 2.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): paddy rice 28,000,000, sugarcane 7,507,000, wheat 1,176,000, jute 898,000, bananas 640,000, pulses 517,000, oilseeds 378,0006, condiments and spices 322,000, jackfruit 254,000°, mangoes 184,000, pineapples 150,000, tea 49,000; livestock (number of live animals) 25,967,000 goats, 23,923,000 cattle, 989,000 sheep, 866,000 buffalo, 109,000,000 chickens, 14,000,000 ducks; roundwood

(1992) 31,907,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 966,727. Mining and quarrying (1991): marine salt 300,000; industrial limestone 42,484. Manufacturing (1992-93): chemical fertilizers 2,162,189; jute manufactures 445,500; sugar 187,464; food products 55,143; newsprint 44,830; paper 43,454; iron and steel 23,318; glass sheet 1,314,000 sq m; cotton yarn 324,000 bales; matches 12,-

415,000 gross boxes. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 9,554,000,000 (9,554,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (338,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 224,000 (7,930,000);

petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 903,000 (2,048,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 5,570,000,000 (5,570,000,000). Household income. Average household size (1991) 5.3; average annual income per household (1985-86) Tk 30,933 (U.S.$1,035); sources of income (1985— 86): self-employment 50.8%, wages and salaries 26.1%, transfer payments

Education (1990-91) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

48,146 9,731 153 997

202,847 110,313 1,440 23,332

13,035,000 3,662,000 27,891 767,385

64.3 33.2 19.4 32.9

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 70.4%; primary education 24.1%; secondary 4.2%; postsecondary 1.3%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate 34.8%; males literate 45.2%; females literate 23.7%.

Health (1991): physicians 21,004 (1 per 5,264 persons); hospital beds 34,353 (1 per 3,218 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 109.2. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,037 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 88% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 115,500 (army 87.5%, navy 6.9%, air force 5.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.4% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$3.

0.5%, other 22.6%; expenditure (1985-86): food and drink 63.3%, housing and rent 8.8%, fuel and light 8.4%, clothing and footwear 5.9%, other 13.6%.

Population economically active (1989): total 50,700,000; activity rate of total population 46.9% (participation rates: over age 10, 71.6%; female 41.4%; unemployed 1.2%’). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Daily earnings index®

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

121.6 148.4

133.0 158.1

146.3 164.5

158.1 180.6

169.5

176.8

176.7 a

Includes 30 seats reserved for women, 2Geographic reorganization at the district level took place in 1984; each division is now divided into the following number of new districts: Chittagong 15, Dhaka 17, Khulna 16, and Rajshahi 16. 3Adjusted for underenumeration. 4Metropolitan population. SMunicipal population. 61989-90. 7Excluding underemployment. 8Skilled wage earnings in manufacturing. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. !0Bangladesh Biman only.

Nations of the World

Barbados

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.7; income per household (1988) BDS$13,455 (U.S.$6,690); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1978-79): food 43.2%, housing 13.1%, household operations 9.6%, alcohol and tobacco 8.4%, fuel and light 6.2%, clothing and

Official name: Barbados. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative

footwear 5.1%, transportation 4.6%, other 9.8%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,622,000,000

houses (Senate [21]; House of Assembly [28]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General.

(U.S.$6,240 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bridgetown. Official language: English.

Official religion: none.

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=BDS$2.01; 1 £=BDS$3.20.

Area and population

communications Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population 1990 census

Parishes!

Christ Church

. John . Joseph

Lucy Michael2 Peter Philip Thomas

TOTAL

Balance of trade (current prices) BDS$’000,000 % of total

17.5%;

Roman

Catholic

Major cities (1990): Bridgetown 6,070 (urban area 97,517); no other bounded localities exist.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.3 (world avg. 26.0); (1979) legitimate 26.9%; illegitimate 73.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.3, Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 72.9 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the cirdisease

103.9, ischemic

heart diseases 89.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 160.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 79.8.

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—703.9 49.8%

—856.7 53.4%

—858.8 50.5%

—984.6 53.6%

—568.8 42.6%

icals 6.0%, fuels 4.7%; reexported imports 8.0%). Major import sources (1992): United States 31.0%; Trinidad and Tobago 15.9%; Netherlands Antilles 9.1%; United Kingdom 8.9%; Venezuela 7.0%; Canada 4.2%;

(domestic exports 74.8%, of which sugar

13.1%, chemicals 11.6%, electrical components

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: BDS$1,006,259,0004 (tax revenue 92.7%, of which goods and services taxes 36.9%, personal income and company taxes 29.2%, import duties 7.5%; nontax revenue 7.3%). Expenditures: BDS$1,064,126,000 (current expenditure 89.7%, of which education 22.1%, general public services 15.1%, health 13.1%, economic services 10.9%; development

expenditure 10.3%). ; ; Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): raw sugar 48,500, carrots 1,521, yams 1,152, sweet potatoes 773, cucumbers

599, onions 556, tomatoes 360; livestock (number of live animals) 66,000 sheep, 45,000 pigs, 38,000 goats, 33,000 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch

(1992) 2,852. Manufacturing (value added in BDS$°000; 1993): food, beverages, and tobacco (mostly sugar, molasses, rum, beer, and cigarettes) 104,500; paper products, printing, and publishing 26,000; metal products and assembly-type goods (mostly electronic components) 36,100; textiles and wearing apparel 9,100. Construction (value added in BDS$; 1993): 116,300,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 537,000,000 (none); crude petroleum

(barrels;

1991)

454,000 ([{1991] 2,055,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 266,000 (265,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 22,000,000 ({1991] 23,000,000). Population economically active (1993): total 126,300; activity rate of total population 48.5% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 66.5%; female 59.87%; unemployed 24.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100)

1989

116.6 116.9

1992

120.2 122.7

127.7

135.4

1993

13.4%, rum 4.3%, clothing

2.5%; reexports 25.2%). Major export destinations (1992): United Kingdom 17.0%; United States 13.0%; Trinidad Dominica 1.9%; Jamaica 1.3%.

and Tobago

8.4%; Canada

2.3%;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1989): total length 977 mi, 1,573 km (paved 95%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 39,406; trucks and buses 9,3189. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 37; total deadweight tonnage 84,000. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals 584,900, passenger departures 590,300; cargo unloaded 7,261 metric tons, cargo loaded 4,594 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total circulation 41,008; circulation per 1,000 population

158. Radio

(1993): total number

of receivers 200,000 (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 69,350 (1 per 3.7 persons). Telephones (1991): 108,825 (1 per 2.4 persons). Education and health schools

1988

31.4 30.57 100.0

1987

Education (1989-90)

National economy

109.8 113.8

39,100 38,1007 124,8003

-—631.2 50.4%

Germany 3.5%. Exports (1993): BDS$363,982,000

Religious affiliation (1980): Anglican 39.7%; other Protestant 25.6%, of which

104.7 106.0

3.3 11.4 3.3

and beverages 17.3%, machinery 15.1%, construction materials 7.3%, chem-

Ethnic composition (1988): black 80.0%; mixed 16.0%; white 4.0%.

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

4,100 14,200 4,100

59 1.4

Imports (1993): BDS$1,153,881,000 (retained imports 92.0%, of which food

Population projection: (2000) 270,000; (2010) 279,000. Doubling time: n.a.; doubling time exceeds 100 years.

coal, none

8.0

7,400 1.700

Foreign trade’

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 24.1%; 15-29, 27.0%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59, 11.4%; 60 and over, 15.4%.

([1991] 527,000,000);

40,000

tionals abroad U.S.$41,000,000.

Urban-rural (1990): urban 37.9%; rural 62.1%.

cerebrovascular

6,000

Land use (1992): forested, negligible; meadows and pastures 4.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 37.2%; other 58.1%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 47.89%; female 52.11%.

338.9, of which

% of labour force 48

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$463,000,000; expenditures by na-

Population (1994): 264,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 1,590, persons per sq km 615.

system

labour force

Public debt (1992): U.S.$400,000,000.

Demography

Pentecostal 7.6%, Methodist 7.1%; nonreligious 4.4%; not stated 2.7%; other 10.1%.

1992 % of total value

255.1 868.7 437.1 509.2 110.6 509.96 3,280.63

TOTAL

44,993 6,426 18,390 20,827 10,206 7,619 9,454 97,517 10,388 19,755 11,508 257,083

. Andrew . George . James

culatory

in value BDS$'000,000 146.7 15.25 210.0 116.3 101.65

Agriculture, fishing

Monetary unit: 1 Barbados dollar (BDS$) = 100 cents; valuation

. . . . St.

561

Primary (age 3-11) 10 Secondary (age 12-16) Vocational 11

Higher 12

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

104

1,602

29,539

18.4

33 8

1,406 79

21,259 996

1

153

1,314

15.1 12.6 8.6

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.8%; primary education 63.5%; secondary 32.3%; higher 3.3%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate13 180,000 (98.0%).

Health: physicians (1986) 243 (1 per 1,042 persons); hospital beds (1987) 2,111 (1 per 121 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 10.1. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,217 (vegetable products 73%, animal products 27%); 133% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1989): 154 (paramilitary marine and coast guard components only). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1988): 0.7% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$41.

iParishes and city of Bridgetown have no local administrative function. 2Includes city of Bridgetown. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Current revenue only. 5Mining excludes natural gas; Public utilities includes natural gas. 6Net indirect taxes. 7Includes 28,700 unemployed persons. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. %Includes taxis. 10Includes preprimary. 111987-88. !2University of the West Indies, Cave Hill campus. 13National literacy standard based solely on school attendance. Functional literacy may be appreciably lower.

562

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$29,306,000,000 (U.S.$2,840 per capita).

Belarus Official name: Respublika Belarus (Republic of Belarus).

Structure of net material product and labour force 1992

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body

in value 000,000 rubles5

(Supreme Council [360!]).

Capital: Minsk.

Official language: Belarusian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit?: Belarusian rubel (plural rubli) valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 £=9,312 rubli.

Area and population

; area

population

Mahilyoti (Mogilyov) Minsk (Mensk) Vitebsk

sq km

estimate

32,300 40,400 25,000 29,000 40,800 40,100 207,6004

1,494,000 1,611,000 1,199,000 1,267,000 3,272,000 1,438,000 10,281,000

sq mi

Capitals Brest Homel Hrodno Mahilyot Minsk Vitebsk

12,500 15,600 9,700 11,200 15,700 15,500 80,2004

TOTAL

23.9

945,000

19.8

46.7

1,364,000

28.6

i 93,753

12.0

374,000

7.9

28,940 50,586 =_

3.7 6.5

308,000 271,000 34,000

6.5 5.7 0.7

157,500 817,000 489,500 4,760,000

3.3 17.2 10.3 100.0

od

55,923 780,049

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$1,300,000,000.

19923 Provinces Brest Homel (Gomel) Hrodno (Grodno)

% of labour force

364,268

Finance Public administration, defense Services Other TOTAL

free rate, 1 U.S.$ =5,854 rubli;

labour force

186,579

Agriculture Mini Paap } Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and commununications Trade

Head of state and government: President.

1993

% of total value

,

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.2; income per household (1991) 8,000 rubles; sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 66.5%, transfers 23.6%, agricultural income 9.9%; expenditure

(1992): retail goods 76.0%, services 5.6%, housing 1.1%, taxes 6.4%, other 10.9%.

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 10,404,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 129.7, persons per sq km 50.1. Urban-rural (1992): urban 70.0%; rural 30.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 47.00%; female 53.00%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 23.2%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59,

16.5%; 60-69, 10.1%; 70 and over, 6.6%. Population projection: (2000) 10,634,000; (2010) 11,028,000.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

1991

1992

1993

‘000,000,000 rubles = + 2.1 % of total 5.6%

=1,8 2.3%

=3,7 4.7%

+670.0 5.3%

+1.0 2.5%

—0.8 2.1%

Imports (1993): 5,919,000,000,000 rubles> (energy products 38.7%, machine building and metalworking machinery 18.5%, chemical and petrochemical products 13.8%, semimanufactured products 12.3%, ferrous metals 9.2%). Major import sources: Russia 56.6%; Ukraine 8.7%; Germany 8.1%; Kazakhstan 4.4%; U.S. 4.0%; Switzerland 2.3%.

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Belarusian 77.9%; Russian 13.5%;

Ukrainian

3.0%; Jewish 0.7%; other 4.9%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Belarusian Orthodox; there is a Roman Catholic minority. Major cities (1992): Minsk 1,671,000; Homel 517,000; Vitebsk 373,000; Mahilyoti 364,000; Hrodno 291,000.

Exports (1993): 6,589,000,000,000 rubles5 (machine building and metalworking machinery 48.9%, light industry 12.7%, chemical and petrochemical products 12.2%, semimanufactured products 8.3%, energy products 4.6%). Major export destinations: Russia 33.3%; Ukraine 4.1%; Kazakhstan 2.3%; U.S. 1.6%.

8.2%; Poland

4.3%;

Germany

Transport and communications

Vital Statistics

Transport. Railroads (1992): length 3,459 mi, 5,567 km; passenger-mi 9,815,-

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 12.4 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 91.0%; illegitimate 9.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.8 Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 66.0 years; female 75.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 563.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 167.6; accidents and violence 96.5; diseases of the respiratory system 79.8; diseases of the digestive system 21.3; diseases of the nervous system 7.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 7.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 5.8.

000,000,

passenger-km

15,795,000,000;

short ton-mi

cargo

mi 3,487,000,000, passenger-km 5,611,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 23,200,000,

metric ton-km cargo 34,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 28; total circulation 2,937,000; circulation per 1,000 population 286. Radio (1992): 8,755,000 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1992): 3,538,000 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,862,000 (1 per 5.5 persons).

Education (1991-92)

16,470,000,000,000

rubli (tax revenue

77.0%, of

which enterprise profits tax 22.8%, excise tax 20.1%, value-added tax 19.3%; social security contributions 19.9%). Expenditures: 19,701,000,000,000 rubli

(administration and defense 28.8%; national economy 22.3%; health 18.5%;

education 10.3%).

Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Land use (1992): forested 30.2%; meadows and pastures 15.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.6%; other 21.1%.

Production (metric tons except as noted), Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): potatoes 11,600,000, grain 7,355,000, sugar beets 1,568,000, other vegetables 1,000,000, wheat 400,000, fruit 290,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,221,000 cattle, 4,308,000 pigs, 380,000 sheep and goats, 215,000 horses,

47,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1991) 6,700,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 15,500. Mining and quarrying (1992): dolomite 8,400,000; potash 3,900,000;

salt 360,000. Manufacturing steel 946,000; lime 939,000; tric motors 1,430,000 units; units; cameras 495,000 units;

30,600 mi, trucks and over) n.a.; passenger-

Education and health

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

44,974,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 65,551,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 49,300 km (paved 96%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 700,000; buses 46,200. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and total deadweight tonnage 18,373,000,000. Air transport (1992):

(1993): fertilizers 2,500,000; cement 1,908,000; synthetic fibres 293,000; cotton 35,200; elecradio receivers 768,000 units; bicycles 603,000 light bulbs 180,000 units; motorcycles 128,000

Primary (age 6-13)

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

uae 148 33

123,300

1,488,500

12.1

}

Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

139,000 184,600

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 23.0%; some secondary 16.8%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 49.4%; higher 10.8%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 7,690,000 (97.9%); males literate 3,661,000 (99.4%); females literate 4,029,000 (96.6%). Health (1992): physicians 42,700 (1 per 242 persons); hospital beds 127,100 (1 per 81 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) per 1,000 live births 12.4. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 92,500 (57% army, 30%

air force and

air defense, 13% CIS controlled and other). About 35,000 Russian troops

units. Construction (1991): 5,395,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 37,600,000,000 (47,700,000,000); coal (1992) none (1,600,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 14,600,000 (158,300,000); petroleum products (1992) 18,320,000 (18,300,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

remained in Belarus in late 1994; they were scheduled to leave by the end of 1995. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 1.8%; per capita

Population economically active (1992): 4,887,000; activity rate of total population 47.3% (participation rate: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 81.6%; female [1991] 53.3%; unemployed 7.5%).

‘Includes 50 nonelective seats. The 1994 constitution established a new 260-member Supreme Soviet, elections to which had not been held by year-end 1994. 2The Belarusian rubel was introduced May 25, 1992, at a rate of 1 rubel to 10 Russian rubles and circulated parallel with the Russian ruble; the fixed rates to the Russian ruble were adjusted on Aug. 15, 1993 (2 Belarusian rubli to 1 Russian ruble), and on Oct. 14, 1993 (3 Belarusian rubli to 1 Russian ruble), An April 12, 1994, agreement on monetary union between Belarus and Russia never went into effect. The Belarusian

expenditure U.S.$50.

.

261,000,000 (15,900,000,000).

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1988

1989

1990

1992

1993

94.1 78.5

95.6 86.2

100.0 100.0

1,961.6 1,847.7

—c. 25,200 c. 22,200

rubel was declared the sole legal tender

in October

1994; it is unofficially known

as the zaichik, or “hare.” 3January 1. 4Rounded area figures; exact area figures are 80,153 sq mi (207,595 sq km). 5Russian rubles.

Nations of the World

Belgium

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$209,594,000,000 (U.S.$20,880 per capita).

Official name: Koninkrijk Belgié (Dutch); Royaume de Belgique (French) (Kingdom of Belgium). Form of government: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [1851]; House of Representatives [212]). Chief of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Brussels.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Belgian franc

(BF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=BF 31.70; 1 £=BF 50.42.

Provinces

area

Capitals

Brussels Flanders Antwerp Brabant5

— _— Antwerp — Ghent Hasselt Brugge _ —_ Mons Liege

East Flanders Limburg West Flanders Wallonia Brabanté Hainaut Liege

Luxembourg Namur TOTAL

Arlon Namur

population

;

1a922

Bo ies C/Khleres SUITOR 62 §,2174 1,107 813

162 13,511 2,867 2,106

951,217 5,794,857 1,610,695 976,956

1,151 935

2,982 2,422

1,340,056 755,593

1,210 6,5044 421 1,461 1,491

3,134 16,845 1,091 3,786 3,862

1,11 458% 3,275,923 325,621 1,283,252 1,006,081

4,440 3,666 30,518

234,664 426,305 — 10,021,997

1,714 1,416 11,783

2 21.4

246,600 44,300 269,100 670,800 327,500

6.0 11 6.6 16.4 8.0

1,232,300

30.1

316,00011 4,088,600

7.711 100.0

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

100.0 100.0

103.2 105.1

105.7 110.1

108.6 112.4

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 +96,400 1.4%

+177,300 2.3%

1990

1991

1992

+61,200 0.8%

+21,700 0.3%

+65,200 0.8%

of which petroleum and petroleum products 5.4%; nonindustrial [gem] diamonds 5.9%). Major import sources: Germany 23.9%; The Netherlands 17.5%; France 16.5%; U.K. 7.7%; Italy 4.5%; U.S. 4.4%.

Exports (1992): BF 3,969,811,000,000

(machinery and transport equipment

27.0%, of which passenger cars 15.3%; chemicals

French

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 90.0%; Muslim 1.1%; Protestant 0.4%; nonreligious and atheist 7.5%; other 1.0%.

Major cities (19922): Brussels 136,4247 (951,2178); Antwerp 465,783; Ghent 230,232; Charleroi 206,903; Liége 196,303.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.1 (world avg. 26.0); (1987) legitimate 90.8%; illegitimate 9.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (1988-90): male 72.4 years; female 79.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): diseases of the cirdisease

+124,300 2.0%

ucts 11.9%; food and live animals 8.7%; mineral fuels and lubricants 7.6%,

Population projection: (2000) 10,338,000; (2010) 10,717,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years.

1.4%;

102.6; malignant

neoplasms (cancers) 275.5.

14.7%, of which plastics

5.1%; food and live animals 9.7%; iron and steel 6.3%; nonindustrial [gem] diamonds 6.2%; textiles 5.2%; petroleum and petroleum products 3.2%). Major export destinations: Germany 22.8%; France 19.2%; The Netherlands 13.7%; U.K. 7.8%; Italy 5.9%; U.S. 3.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 2,132 mi, 3,432 km; passenger-mi 4,224,000,000, passenger-km 6,798,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,540,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 8,089,000,000. Roads (19902): total length 85,672 mi,

137,876 km (paved 97%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 4,109,601; trucks and buses 389,812. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 232; total deadweight tonnage 218,506. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 4,026,000,000, passenger-km 6,480,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 287,440,000, metric ton-km cargo 419,650,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 76; total circulation 3,609,00012; circulation per 1,000 population 36112. Radio (1993): 5,000,000

receivers (1 per 2.0 persons). Television (1993): 4,200,000 receivers (1 per 2.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 5,898,300 (1 per 1.7 persons). Education and health

National economy

Education (1991-92)

BF 1,981,428,000,000

expenditures by

Imports (1992): BF 4,023,293,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 25.6%, of which road vehicles and parts 9.3%; chemicals and chemical prod-

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 18.1%; 15-29, 21.8%; 30-44, 22.5%; 45-59, 16.9%; 60-74, 14.1%; 75 and over, 6.6%.

cerebrovascular

96.7 95.8

Foreign trade?

Sex distribution (19922): male 48.88%; female 51.12%.

Moroccan

93.8 90.7

and under permanent cultivation 23.9%; other 33.9%.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 96.5%; rural 3.5%.

Nationality (1991): Belgian 91.0%; Italian 2.4%; 0.9%; Turkish 0.8%; Dutch 0.6%; other 2.9%.

92.7 90.0

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,053,000,000; nationals abroad U.S.$6,603,000,000.

Demography

(direct taxes 37.0%; value-

added, stamp, and similar duties 10.3%; customs and excise duties 8.47%).

Expenditures: BF 2,486,676,000,000 (public debt 27.3%; government departments 25.4%; pension 10.1%; defense 3.97%). Public debt (19942): U.S.$209,300,000,000. : Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993)?: sugar beets 5,829,000, potatoes 2,100,000, wheat 1,415,000, apples 536,000, barley 530,000, tomatoes 345,000, corn (maize) 168,000, carrots 105,000, oats 80,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,963,000 pigs, 3,303,000 cattle, 156,000 sheep, 21,000 horses; roundwood (1992) 4,730,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 40,226, of which European plaice (flounder) 17,954, common sole 5,658, Atlantic cod 3,504. Mining and quarrying (1991): quartz 419,000;

barite 35,000; marble 358 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in BF ’000,000;

1990): metal products and machinery 422,238; chemical and plastic products

344,743; food, beverages, and tobacco 198,942; pig iron, steel, and nonferrous metals 136,244; paper, printing, and publishing 96,623; textiles 94,861; furniture and fixtures 61,626. Construction (1991): residential 29,050,100 cu m; nonresidential 54,044,400 cu m. Energy production (consumption): elec-

tricity (KW-hr; 1992) 72,259,000,000 (72,387,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,197,000 (14,387,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (211,646,000);

petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 26,311,000 (17,165,000); natural gas

(cu m; 1992) 6,945,000 (13,230,000,000).

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1991) 2.7; sources of income (1992): wages 49.6%, transfer payments 20.7%, property income

18.8%, self-employment

109,200 872,800

Land use (1992)9: forested 21.3%; meadows and pastures 20.9%; agricultural

Population (1994): 10,118,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 858.7, persons per sq km 331.5.

Budget (1992). Revenue:

i 12.6 11.8 — 2,810 100.04

% of labour force

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

BF ’000,000 % of total

414.1, of which

130,800 17,200 1,462,600 409,300 203,800 562,900 1,439,800 1,168,800 867,700 808,500 —194,40010 6,877,000

1992

labour __force

Population economically active (1992): total 4,088,600; activity rate of total population 40.6% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 61.1%; female 40.7%; unemployed 7.7%).

Area and population Regions3

% of total value

BF '000,000

Official languages: Dutch; French;

culatory system

563

10.9%; expenditure (1990): food 22.07%, housing

161%, transp. 13.5%, health 11.5%, durable goods 9.4%, clothing 7.8%.

schools Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. 14 Higher 14

4,158 2,055 14 397 21

teachers 13

72,58913 110,599 14,54815 10,51715

students

711,521 765,672 137,175 111,845

student/ teacher ratio a 6.9 =

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than secondary education 44.4%; lower secondary 26.5%; upper secondary 17.0%; vocational 2.9%; teacher’s college 0.6%; university 3.5%.

Literacy (1991): virtually 100% literate. Health (1993): physicians 36,178 (1 per 278 persons); hospital beds (1991) 80,549 (1 per 124 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 8.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,925 (vegetable products 60%, animal products 40%); 149% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 63,000 (army 76.2%, navy 4.6%, air force

19.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.4% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$463. lIncludes one ex officio member from the royal family. 2January 1. 3On May 8, 1993, the legislature approved constitutional establishment of federal regions. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. SComposed of Brabant districts Hal-Vilvorde and Louvaine. Composed of Brabant district Nivelles. 71991.

8Région Bruxelloise. °Includes Luxembourg. 10Includes imputed bank service charges. 11Unemployed.

151987-88.

!2For 40 newspapers only. 13Includes preschool teachers.

141990-91.

564

Britannica World Data

Belize

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: Belize. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [9]; House of Representatives

Consumer price index Earnings index

Orange Walk Stann Creek Toledo

Capitals Belize City San Ignacio Corozal Orange Walk Dangriga Punta Gorda

TOTAL

1990

1991

1992

1993

97.0 Ki

100.0

105.6

108.6

110.2

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

population

sq mi

sq km

1992 estimate

1,663 2,006 718 1,790 986 1,704

4,307 5,196 1,860 4,636 2,554 4,413 22,9653

58,504 39,346 30,617 32,867 18,829 18,837 199,000

Med 13.4 9.6 3.7

labour forces 18,256 326 5,951 4,059 721

12.1 16.3 10.5 12.2 6.0 —4.37 100.0

2,925 10,013 1,771 5,352 5,967 48,2268 103,567

171,866 9,786 119,314 84,866 32,696

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

107,000 145,001 93,549 108,343 52,841 — 38,0127 887,250

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate, insurance

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

.

% of labour forces

Land use (1991): forested 44.4%; meadows and pastures 2.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.5%; other 51.0%. ‘ Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$108,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$14,000,000.

Foreign trade?

Demography Population (1994): 210,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 23.7, persons per sq km 9.1. Urban-rural (1992): urban 46.6%; rural 53.4%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.75%; female 49.25%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 43.9%; 15-29, 27.9%; 30-44, 14.9%; 45-59, 7.2%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 235,000; (2010) 268,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1991): mestizo (Spanish-Indian) 43.6%; Creole (predominantly black) 29.8%; Mayan Indian 11.0%; Garifuna (black-Carib Indian) 6.7%; white 3.9%; East Indian 3.5%; other or not stated 1.5%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman

Catholic 57.7%; Protestant 34.3%, of

which Anglican 7.0%, Pentecostal 6.3%, Methodist 4.2%, Seventh-day Adventist 4.1%, Mennonite 4.0%; other Christian 1.7%; other 0.3%; none or

not stated 6.0%. Major cities (1992): Belize City 45,158; Orange Walk 11,728; San Ignacio/ Santa Elena 9,533; Corozal 7,104; Belmopan 3,687.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 42.5%; illegitimate 57.5%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 67.0 years; female 72.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): accidents 92.6; ischemic heart diseases 84.7; diseases of the respiratory system 57.1; malignant neo-

plasms (cancers) 52.4; cerebrovascular disease 47.6; diabetes mellitus 37.0.

Balance of trade (current prices)

1988

BZ$'000,000 % of total

-96.6 17.2%

©=-1989 Ss 1990S:

-—143.1 223%

-1260 19.6%

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: BZ$284,600,000 (current revenue 92.5%, of which taxes on international trade 41.0%, taxes on income and profits 20.5%, non-

tax revenue 18.6%, excise taxes 6.8%; grants 4.8%). Expenditures: BZ$350,800,000 (current expenditures 53.0%; development expenditures 47.0%, of which from foreign sources 28.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$153,100,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 1,159,000, oranges 73,200, bananas 40,800, grapefruits 36,800, corn (maize) 27,200, rice 9,700, red kidney beans 3,600, coconuts 3,000, cocoa

72, honey 55; livestock (number of live animals) 58,000 cattle, 26,000 pigs,

1,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 188,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,639, of which lobsters 544, shrimp 447, freshwater and marine fish 415, conchs

229. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 300,000; sand and gravel 300,000. Manufacturing (1993): sugar 101,800; molasses 28,700; fertilizer

13,000; flour 12,300; orange concentrate 52,700 hectolitres; beer (1992) 36,-

000 hectolitres; grapefruit concentrate 21,300 hectolitres; cigarettes (1992) 114,000,000 units; garments 4,276,000 units. Construction (publicly financed buildings under construction; 1991): residential 180 units; nonresidential,

n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 110,000,000 (110,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (86,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.9; me-

dian annual income per employed person (1991) BZ$6,1504 (U.S.$3,0754); n.a.; expenditure (1980): food and beverages 51.5%,

clothing and footwear 11.1%, household furnishings 10.1%, transportation

and communications 6.5%, energy and water 6.0%, health care 3.4%, housing 2.3%, other 9.1%.

Population economically active (1991): total c. 65,000; activity rate of total population, c. 34.0% (participation rates: over age 15, c. 63.0%; female

[1983-84] 32.5%; unemployed 19.6%).

1991

1992

1993

-203.9 28.8%

—214.0 27.5%

— 247.6 32.0%

Imports (1992): BZ$545,900,000 (!9machinery and transport 25.3%; food and live animals 18.0%; manufactured goods 16.0%; mineral fuels 13.4%). Major import sources: United States 57.0%; Mexico 8.8%; United Kingdom 8.5%; The Netherlands 2.9%; Guatemala 2.3%.

Exports (1992)'1: BZ$282,200,000 (domestic exports 77.0%, of which sugar 26.6%, orange concentrate 14.6%, garments 11.6%, bananas 7.3%, grapefruit concentrate 4.6%; reexports 23.0%). Major export destinations: United States 47.2%; United Kingdom 23.6%; Mexico

many 2.5%.

12.5%; Canada 4.4%; Ger-

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1991): total length 1,684 mi, 2,710 km

(paved 18%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 12,075; trucks and buses 2,800. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 32; total deadweight tonnage 45,706. Air transport (1991)12: passenger arrivals 165,858, passenger departures 166,972; cargo loaded 304 metric tons, cargo unloaded 1,705 metric tons. Airports (1994) with scheduled flights 8. Communications. Daily newspapers: none!3. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 100,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers, 27,048 (1 per 7.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 24,84014 (1 per 8.0 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

sources of income:

1991 % of total value

in value BZ$'0005

area

8,867

1989

95.1 an

(U.S.$2,440 per capita).

Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Belmopan. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Belize dollar (BZ$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =BZ$2.002; 1 £=BZ$3.18.

Districts Belize Cayo Corozal

1988

92.1 aa

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$500,000,000

[291}).

Area and population

1987

Primary (age 5-14) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. } Higher

237 31 815

teachers

1,804 782 es

students

student/ teacher ratio

47,210 8,901

26.2 11.4

1,72615

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 13.0%; primary education 64.3%; secondary 15.0%; higher (not university) 3.6%; university 3.0%; other/unknown 1.1%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate 99,000 (93%). Health (1991): physicians 96 (1 per 2,021 persons); hospital beds 585 (1 per 332 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 36.5. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,575 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 950 (army 94.7%, maritime wing 3.7%, air wing 1.6%); British troops 60016, Military expenditure as percentage of GNP

(1990): 2.6% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$51.

1Excludes speaker of the House of Representatives, who may be elected by the House from outside its elected membership. 2The Belize dollar is officially pegged to the U.S. dollar. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Estimated figure for 36,346 employees. 5At factor cost. 6Data based on total population over age 15. 7Less imputed bank service charges. 8Includes not available and not “Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and stated, ing partners. !0Based on imports through September only, totaling BZ$265,000 tradExports (1993): BZ$263,100,000 (domestic exports 86.9%, of which sugar ,000. garments 15.4%, orange and grapefruit concentrate 10.6%, marine products 31.5%, bananas 9.2%; reexports 13.1%). 12Belize international airport only. 13Four 9.9%, weekl newspapers had a total circulation in 1992 of 24,200. 14Number of lines, 151991—99. ‘6Most British troops are scheduled to withdraw in late 1994,

Nations of the World

565

Benin

Land use (1992): forested 30.7%; meadows and pastures 4.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.0%; other 48.3%.

Official name: République du Bénin (Republic of Benin). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [64]). Head of state and government: President. Capital!: Porto-Novo. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF 837.67.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$2,182,000,000

Area and population

(U.S.$420 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

in value CFAF'000,000,000

Mining and manufacturing Public utilities Construction Trade and finance Transportation and communications Pub. admin., defense TOTAL

1992

end TO eo TOE 12,050 31,200 1,250 3,200 19,700 51,000 1,500 3,880 1,800 4,700 7,200 18,700 43,500 112,680

199.0

39.0

1,333,000

60.7

45.1 5.0 17.6 153.3

8.8 1.0 3.4 30.0

194,000

8.8

40.3 50.6 510.9

“9 9.9 100.0

oe

2,195,000

100.08

Foreign trade? Balance of trade (current prices) 1984 1985 CFAF '000,000 % of total

— 81,830 46.2%

1986 — 98.23 55.5%

— 100.47 42.9%

1987 — 61.23 13.3%

1988 — 80.84 14.5%

1989 —59.00 40.7%

Imports (1991): U.S.$605,800,000 (1989; manufactured goods 30.7%, of which cotton yarn and fabric 16.9%; food products 19.4%, of which cereals 10.3%;

Population (1994): 5,235,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 120.3, persons per sq km 46.5. Urban-rural (1992): urban 39.6%; rural 60.4%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.72%; female 51.28%.

machinery and transport equipment 14.5%, of which transport equipment 5.8%, nonelectrical equipment 5.3%, electrical equipment 3.4%; chemical products 7.1%; beverages and tobacco 7.1%). Major import sources (1989):

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.6%; 15-29, 25.7%; 30-44, 14.7%; 45-59, _ 8.4%; 60-74, 3.8%; 75 and over, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 6,269,000; (2010) 8,357,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1982): Fon 25.0%; Yoruba (Nago) 13.5%; Goun 11.8%; Bariba 11.8%; Adjara 10.7%; Somba (Otomary) 7.0%; Aizo 4.4%; Mina 2.9%; Dendi 2.0%; other 10.9%.

Religious affiliation (1991): traditional beliefs 62.0%; Christian 23.3%, of which Roman Catholic 21.0%, Protestant 2.3%; Muslim 12.0%; other 2.7%. Major cities (1992): Cotonou 533,212; Porto-Novo 177,660; Djougou 132,192; Abomey-Calavi 125,565; Parakou 106,708; Bohicon 81,121; Kandi 74,169; Abomey 65,725; Ouidah 64,068; Natitingou 57,535; Lokossa 52,909.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 44.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 15.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 12.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 49.0 years; female 52.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): n.a.; however, of the 184,310 reported cases of infectious diseases (notifiable to the World Health

Organization): 82.0% were malaria, 4.2% dysentery, 4.0% measles, 2.6% pneumonia, 2.2% chicken pox, 1.4% mumps, 1.3% schistosomiasis.

India 23.4%; France 15.9%; The Netherlands 5.0%; Céte d’Ivoire 4.6%; Thailand 4.6%; United States 3.7%; West Germany 3.4%; Italy 3.2%; Taiwan 2.9%; Korea 2.7%.

Exports (1991): U.S.$350,300,000 (1989; cotton 63.7%; energy 21.3%; palm kernel oil and palm oil 4.6%; manufactured goods 4.4%). Major export destinations (1989): Portugal 15.2%; Italy 9.9%; Thailand 9.6%; Taiwan 9.0%; United States 7.4%; Niger 6.2%; France 6.1%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1991): length!0 359 mi, 578 km; passenger-mi

397,000, passenger-km

63,400,000;

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: CFAF

137,200,000,000 (current receipts 55.4%, of

which fiscal receipts and customs duties 46.4%, other current receipts 9.0%;

loans 28.7%; aid 13.7%). Expenditures: CFAF 155,200,000,000 (current expenditures 59.0%; public-investment program 30.1%; debt service 10.9%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,322,000,000. ‘ Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): yams 1,233,000, cassava 992,000, corn (maize) 550,000, seed cotton 146,000, sorghum 124,000, tomatoes 75,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 72,000, dry

beans 52,000, millet 30,000, sweet potatoes 29,000, coconuts 20,000, bananas 13,000, mangoes 12,000, oranges 12,000, paddy rice 10,000, palm kernels 9,000, karité (a butter from the nut of the shea tree) 8,0002, pineapples 3,000, coffee beans 1,000, cacao beans 9003, tobacco 2722; livestock (number of live animals) 1,180,000 goats, 1,100,000 cattle, 940,000 sheep, 550,000 pigs, 26,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 5,371,000 cu m; fish

catch (1991) 41,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 500,000, marine salt 100. Manufacturing

(1990): cement

275,000; meat 64,000; cotton fibre

58,0285; sugar 52,0004; palm oil and palm kernel oil 13,140. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 5,000,000 (203,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 1,423,500

(negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (139,000); ; 4, gas, none (none). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$32,000,000; expenditures ws tionals abroad U.S.$12,000,000. Population economically active (1991): total 2,195,000; activity rate population 46.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.2%4; female unemployed, n.a.). ‘ Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1985 1986 1987

100.0

100.0

100.0

short ton-mi

cargo

111,313,000,

39,-

metric

ton-km cargo 162,500,000. Roads (1992): total length 3,770 mi, 6,070 km (paved 20.0%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 25,000; trucks and buses 13,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total deadweight tonnage 210. Air transport (1991)1!!: passenger-mi 126,000,000, passenger-km 203,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 11,000,000, cargo 16,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1.

metric

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total 12,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.6. Radio (1993): total receivers 350,000 (1 per 14 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 20,000 (1 per 254 persons). Telephones (1992): 18,100 persons).

ton-km

circulation number of number of (1 per 272

Education and health Education (1991) schools

Hourly earnings index?

pee ee

73.7%, wages and salaries 26.3%; expenditure: n.a.

SRCCnSUSES 648,330 1,060,310 816,278 646,954 869,492 813,985 4,855,349

Demography

Consumer price index

% of labour force

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 5.4; income per household (1983) U.S.$240; sources of income: self-employment

___area_——_population

Capitals Natitingou Cotonou Parakou Lokossa Porto-Novo Abomey

labour force

Agriculture

3

Provinces Atacora Atlantique Borgou Mono — Oueme Zou TOTAL

% of total value

Primary Secondary Voc., teacher tr.13 Higher 12

2,952

teachers

13,180 12 2,178 687 956

students

505,970 76,672 6,879 10,873

student/ teacher ratio 34.712 35.2 10.0 11.4

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 89.2%; primary education 8.3%; some secondary 1.4%; secondary 0.8%; postsecondary 0.3%. Literacy (1990): total percentage of population age 15 and over literate 23.4%; males literate 31.7%; females literate 15.6%. Health: physicians (1986) 363 (1 per 11,306 persons); hospital beds (1982) 4,902 (1 per 749 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 119.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,383 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 104% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 4,800 (army 93.8%, navy 3.1%, air force 3.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 2.0% (world 4.5%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$8.

natural

by naof total

46.0%;

1988

1989

1990

1991

1000

1000

100.0

100.0

1Porto-Novo, the official capital established under the constitution, is the seat of the legislature, but the president and most government ministers reside in Cotonou. 21991-92. 31988-89. 41986. SExport figures. “No consumer price index is published, but inflation was estimated by the World Bank at an annual average of 8.0% during 1980-88. 7January. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. °Figures do not include unaccountable reexports of black-market goods, which originate mainly in Nigeria and amounted to an estimated 90% of Benin’s actual exports in 1981. 101993, 11Air Afrique only. 121990. 131987-88.

566

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$263,000,000

Bhutan

(U.S.$340 per capita).

Official name: Druk-Yul (Kingdom of Bhutan). Form of government: constitutional! monarchy with one legislative house (National Assembly [1542]). Head of state and government: Monarch (druk gyalpo).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

___Nu ‘000,000_ Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Thimphu.

Official language: Dzongkha (a Tibetan dialect). Official religion: Mahayana Buddhism. Monetary unit: 1 ngultrum3 (Nu) = 100

2,326.4 53.8 467.7 456.5

Trade

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

1 U.S.$=Nu 31.37; 1 £=Nu 49.89.

}

TOTAL

Area and population

|

Capitals

Jakar Damphu Chhukha Dagana Gaylegphug Ha Lhuntshi Mongar Paro Pema Gatsel Punakha Samchi Samdrup Jongkhar Shemgang Tashigang Thimphu Tongsa Wangdi Phodrang

sq km

1,150

2,990

310 aa 540 1,020

800 his 1,400 2,640

830 1,120 710 580 150 2,330 830 900 980 1,640 630 570 1,160 18,1505,6

2,140 2,910 1,830 1,500 380 6,040 2,140 2,340 2,540 4,260 1,620 1,470 3,000 47,0005,6

Consumer price index Earnings index

Buddhist

69.6%; Hindu

23,0008 56,0008

601.6

11.0

— 78.710 5,450.0

— 1,410 _ 100.0

3.4 8.59

664,000

100.0

110.0

115.3

127.5

1989

1990

1991

1992

139.0

154.1

172.3

195.1

als abroad, n.a.

Foreign trade!! Balance of trade (current prices)

g00,0004

Nu 000,000 % of total

1986-87

1987-88

-908.4 54.6%

—4894 25.8%

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

-—833.8 28.6%

— 481.6 17.5%

—583.5 18.3%

— 687.9 17.4%

Imports (1991-92): Nu 2,319,910,000 (198912; petroleum products 8.5%, rice 5.8%, motor vehicles and parts 5.7%, machinery parts 2.9%, iron and steel

products 2.9%, fabrics 2.3%). Major import source: India 84.6%.

Exports (1991-92): Nu 1,632,010,000 (198912; electricity 28.4%, minerals 18.5%, timber and wood manufactures 17.4%, cement 13.7%, fruit and vegetables

(1988): under 15, 40.3%; 15-29, 26.4%; 30-44, 16.5%; 45-59,

over, 1.1%. 900,000; (2010) 1,100,000. . Bhutia (Ngalops) 50.0%;

% of labour force 87.2

Land use (1992): forested 54.5%; meadows and pastures 5.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; other 36.8%. : Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,000,000; expenditures by nation-

Demography

10.5%; 60-74, 5.2%; 75 and Population projection: (2000) Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1993): 35.0%; Sharchops 15.0%. Religious affiliation (1980):

6.9 7.8

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1986 1987 1988

Population (1994): 800,0004. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 44.1, persons per sq km 17.0. Urban-rural (1985): urban 13.1%; rural 86.9%. Sex distribution (1988): male 50.97%; female 49.03%. Age breakdown

375.7 426.1

labour force 580,0008

Population economically active (1984)4: total 664,000; activity rate of total population 52.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 94.8; female 55.0; unemployed 6.5).

population 1994 estimate

sq mi

404.5

1.0 8.6 8.4 7.6 74

416.4

Public utilities Transportation and communications

chetrum; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Districts Bumthang Chirang Chhukha Dagana Gaylegphug Ha Lhuntshi Mongar Paro Pema Gatsel Punakha Samchi Samdrup Jongkhar Shemgang Tashigang Thimphu Tongsa Wangdi Phodrang TOTAL

1984 % of total value

in value

10.7%, alcoholic beverages 1.9%). Major export destination: India 90.2%.

Transport and communications Nepalese

(Gurung)

24.6%; Muslim

other 0.8%. Major cities (1985): Thimphu 20,000; Phuntsholing 10,0007.

5.0%;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 39.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 16.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 23.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 5.5. Marital status of population 15 years and over (1985): married 71.2%; single 19.7%; widowed 7.5%; divorced 1.6%.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 50.7 years; female 49.6 years. Major causes of death (percentage distribution; 1989): respiratory tract infections 19.5%; diarrhea/dysentery 15.2%; skin infections 12.2%; parasitic worm infestations 10.0%; malaria 9.4%.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: Nu 2,919,000,000 (internal revenue 47.3%, grants from UN and other international agencies 33.1%, grants from government of India 19.6%). Expenditures: Nu 2,813,000,000 (capital expenditures 55.2%, current expenditures 44.8%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$82,700,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): oranges 58,000, rice 43,000, corn (maize) 40,000, potatoes 34,000, sugarcane 13,000, green peppers and chilies 8,000, millet 7,000, wheat 5,000, apples 5,000, barley 4,000, pulses 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 429,000

cattle, 74,000 pigs, 54,000 sheep, 41,000 goats; roundwood (1992) 1,610,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 190,000; dolomite 90,000; gypsum 20,000. Manufacturing (value in Nu; 1980— 81): distillery products 47,000,000; cement 36,000,000; chemical products 19,000,000; processed food 14,000,000; forest products 3,000,000. Construction (number of buildings completed; 1977-78): residential 10; nonresidential

(guest house) 1. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,627,000,000 (185,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 2,000 (18,000); crude

petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (27,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.44; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (L979): food 72.3%, clothing 21.2%, energy 3.7%, household durable goods 0.7%, personal effects and other 2.1%.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 1,600 mi, 2,500 km (paved 72%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 2,590; trucks and buses 1,367. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 2,722,000, passenger-km 4,381,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: none13. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 30,000 (1 per 26 persons). Television (1983): total number of receivers 200 (1 per 6,180 persons). Telephones (1989): 2,105 (1 per 669 persons).

Education and health Education (1990) Primary (age 7-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voce., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

156 31 8

1,757 662 149

52,029 15,984 1,822 519

2

57

teacher ratio

29.6 244 12.2 9.1

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1977): total population age 15 and over literate 124,000 (18.0%); males literate 98,000 (31.0%); females liter-

ate 26,000 (9.0%).

Health (1991): physicians 141 (1 per 5,335 persons); hospital beds 922 (1 per 816 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 0125.3. Food (1975-77): daily per capita caloric intake 2,058 (vegetable products 98%, animal products 2%); 89% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): about 7,000 (army 100%).

'There is no formal constitution, but a form of constitutional monarchy is in

place. 7Includes 49 nonelective seats occupied by representatives of the King and religious groups. 3Indian currency is also accepted legal tender; the ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee. 4The figure stated is an estimate based on recent reported figures resulting from the repudiation of the 1980 census by the King and from the existence of a large number of Nepalese refugees; as such the actual population could range from 800,000 to 1,600,000. 52,700 sq mi (7,000 sq km) are not included in the district area totals. Includes Chhukha area. 71982. 8Derived value. Includes 6.5%

with no occupation. !0Imputed bank service charges. ‘Import figures are c.if. in balance of trade, commodities, and trading partners. 12Trade data with India only. 13A weekly newspaper tion

is published from Thimphu in Dzongkha, Nepalese, and English, circula(1989) 10,500.

Nations of the World

Bolivia

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$5,084,000,000

(U.S.$680 per capita).

Official name: Reptblica de Bolivia (Republic of Bolivia).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Form of government: unitary multiparty

1993

republic with two legislative houses (Chamber of Senators [27]; Chamber of Deputies [130]). Head of state and government:

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade

President.

Official languages: Spanish, Aymara, Quechua. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: 1 boliviano (Bs) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Oruro Pando

La Paz Oruro

Potosi

Cobija Potosi

Santa Cruz Tarija

Santa Cruz Tarija

TOTAL

1992 census

sq km

82,458 19,893 21,479 51,732 20,690 24,644 45,644 143,098 14,526 424,164

213,564 51,524 55,631 133,985 53,588 63,827 118,218 370,621 37,623 1,098,581

labour force5

% of labour force5

2,400,446 1,092,737 2,262,772 726,208 183,251

17.0 77 16.0 5.1 1.3

984,407 52,623 222,485 129,409 6,086

1,588,580 1,425,021 1,322,761

11.2 10.1 9.4

116,800 232,429 54,711

16.4

406,928

821,6996 14,147,404

5.86 100.0

324,531 2,530,409

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992): 3.8; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1988): food 35.5%, transportation and communications 17.7%, housing 14.8%, household durable goods 7.3%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, bever-

population sq mi

% of total value

} 2,323,929

TOTAL

1 U.S.$=Bs 4.66; 1 £=Bs 7.41.

Capitals Trinidad Sucre Cochabamba

1992

in value Bs '0004

Capitals: La Paz (administrative); Sucre (judicial).

Departments Beni Chuquisaca Cochabamba La Paz

567

ages and tobacco 4.5%, recreation 2.7%, health 2.1%, education 0.3%.

276,174 453,756 1,110,205 1,900,786 340,114 38,072 645,889 1,364,389 291,407 6,420,792

Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$90,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$63,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 51.2%; meadows and pastures 24.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.2%; other 22.1%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

Demography

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 7,888,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 18.6, persons per sq km 7.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 57.7%; rural 42.3%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 49.25%; female 50.75%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 41.2%; 15-29, 26.6%; 30-44, 16.8%; 45-59, 8.9%; 60 and over, 6.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,038,000; (2010) 11,087,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1982): mestizo 31.2%; Quechua 25.4%; Aymara 16.9%; white 14.5%; other 12.0%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 92.5%; Baha'i 2.6%; other 4.9%. Major cities (1992): La Paz 711,036; Santa Cruz 694,616; El Alto 404,367; Cochabamba 404,102; Oruro 183,194; Sucre 130,952.

— 85.4 7.0%

+99.2 9.0%

+301.8 22.5%

1990

1991

1992

+326.6 21.4%

+59.0 3.6%

— 294.4 17.2%

Imports (1992): U.S.$543,100,000 (raw materials 47.4%, of which raw materials for industry 36.9%; capital goods 31.0%, of which capital goods for industry 19.2%, transport equipment 10.1%; consumer goods 21.0%, of which nondurable consumer goods 10.9%, durable consumer goods 10.1%). Major import sources: United States 26.0%; Brazil 14.3%; Japan 12.3%; Argentina 11.2%; Germany 8.4%; Chile 6.4%; Peru 2.2%. Exports (1992): U.S.$340,100,000 (zinc 22.3%; natural gas 22.2%; tin 13.3%; soybeans 7.1%; silver 7.0%; timber 6.1%; sugar 4.1%; gold 3.6%; hides and skins 1.5%). Major export destinations: Argentina 25.3%; United Kingdom 17.2%; United States 13.3%; Belgium France 3.2%; Chile 2.2%.

12.0%; Peru 8.3%; Germany 5.9%;

Transport and communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 32.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1980): 4.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 60.3 years; female 65.3 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total registered deaths; 1980-81): infectious and parasitic diseases 23.9%; diseases of the circulatory system 19.5%; diseases of the respiratory system 14.0%; accidents, homicides, and violence 9.8%; diseases of the digestive system 8.6%.

Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 2,264 mi, 3,643 km; passenger-mi 244,000,000, passenger-km 393,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 414,500,000, metric ton-km cargo 605,200,000. Roads (1991): total length 26,612 mi, 42,828

km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 265,000; trucks and buses 60,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 15,765. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 739,000,000, passenger-km

1,190,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 99,927,000, metric ton-km

cargo 145,891,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 21. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 17; total circulation 400,000; circulation per 1,000 population 55. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 4,000,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 610,000 (1 per 12 persons). Telephones (1991): 198,180 (1 per 38 persons).

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Bs 3,377,700,000 (taxes on goods and services 36.8%, income of government enterprises 28.7%, property taxes 8.7%, social-secu-

Education and health

rity contributions 8.4%, taxes on international trade 6.9%, income taxes 5.2%). Expenditures: Bs 4,460,600,000 (education 16.6%, public services

Education (1990-91)

15.6%, social security 12.6%, transportation and communications

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17)

12.4%,

defense 9.8%, health 8.2%, public order and safety 6.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,694,000,000.

‘

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 3,306,798, potatoes 603,101, bananas and plantains 468,796, corn

Voc., teacher tr. Higher?

student/ schools8

teachers

students

teacher ratio

9,758 724 47 10

51,763

1,278,775

24.7

12,434

219,232

17.6

4,261

109,503

25.7

(maize) 405,469, soybeans 338,439, cassava 324,498, rice 229,292, wheat 95,726, coffee 26,828; livestock (number of live animals) 7,300,000 sheep, 5,779,000 cattle, 2,226,000 pigs, 1,440,000 goats, 634,000 asses, 323,000 horses;

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 23.3%; some primary 20.3%; primary education 21.7%; some secondary 9.0%; secondary 6.5%; some higher 5.0%; higher 4.8%; not specified 9.4%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over

18,624; silver 46,344 kg; gold 6,563 kg. Manufacturing (value added in Bs;

Health: physicians (1991) 2,868 (1 per 2,561 persons); hospital beds (1990) 6,190 (1 per 1,183 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990—

ing 3,770,000; wood products 3,160,000; nonferrous metals 2,760,000; textiles 2,740,000; drugs and medicines 2,710,000. Construction (1985)?: residential

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,013 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 84% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

roundwood (1991) 1,632,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 5,367. Mining and quarrying (metric tons of pure metal; 1993): zinc 122,640; lead 21,240; tin 1989)1; food products 19,650,000; beverages 19,340,000; printing and publish-

dwellings 226. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991)

2,150,000,000 (2,148,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels;

1991) 8,110,000 (7,503,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 1,168,-

000 (1,142,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 2,878,000,000 (699,000,000).

Population economically active (1992): total 2,530,409; activity rate of total

population 33.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 63.67%; female 39.0%; unemployed [1990] 19.0%).. Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

431.2 255.8

500.1 366.9

575.2 432.8

674.7 525.4

819.4 608.6

918.3 637.3

996.7 a

literate 77.5%; males literate 84.7%; females literate 70.7%. 95) 75.1.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 33,500 (army 74.6%, navy 13.4%, air force 12.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.4% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$16.

Establishments with 20 or more employees. 2National government sponsored only. 3Private-sector earnings in La Paz. 4In 1988 prices. 5Population 7 years and over. ©Net import duties, 7Import figures are f.o.b, in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 81986-87. 91991—92.

568

Britannica World Data 1,287,000 sheep, 826,000 cattle, 590,000 pigs, 8,000,000 poultry; roundwood

Bosnia and Herzegovina!

(1990) 5,379,000 cu m; fish catch (1990) 3,606. Mining (1992): iron ore 500,000; bauxite 200,000; lead-zinc ore 50,000. Manufacturing (1990): crude steel 1,421,000; pig iron 1,284,000; cement 797,000, alumina 735,000; paper 281,000. Construction (residential units constructed; 1990): 26,568. Energy

Official name: Republika Bosna i Hercegovina (Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with bicameral legislature (National Assembly [2402])3. Chief of state: President of collective presidency3. Head of government: Prime Minister3. Capital: Sarajevo. Official language: Serbo-Croatian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 4.

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 13,000,000,000 (13,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 15,000,000 (15,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (14,836,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,590,000 (1,590,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (435,000,000). Gross national product (1990): U.S.$10,667,000,000 (U.S.$2,454 per capita). Structure of gross material product and labour force

1989 Agriculture Manufacturing, mining

Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

Area and population (1991 census) Districts

area sq km

population

1,232

195,139

—_Livno

994

734 633

96,796 13,269 31,577

Lopare Lukavac Maglaj

429 350 384

Mostar

1,300

Banja Luka

Banovici Bihac

176 689

Bijeljina Bileca

499

762

60,062

Bosanska Krupa

780

58,212

Bosanski Brod Bosanski Novi

234 554

33,962 41,541

853 219 780 793 493

15,552 32,835 8,303 33,575 87,332

Breza Bugojno

83 366

Caplijina Cazin

249 381 365 181

17,266 46,843 18,883 8,919 27,852 63,406 18,666 14,709 56,328 102,546 24,232 40,513 16,227 10,844 12,421 37,505 25,130 59,050 56,378 15,976 6,346 12,664 44,903 55,857 41,795 4,657 24,081 16,028 37,233 43,636 36,670 6,699 10,728 29,910 26,437

Bosanska Gradiska

Bosanski Petrovac Bosanski Samac Bosansko Grahovo Bratunac Brcko

Busovaca Cajni¢e

145 275

Celinac Citluk Derventa

516

Doboj Donji Vakuf

684 338

Foca

Fojnica Gacko Glamoé Gorazde Gornji Vakuf

Graéanica Gradatac Grude Han Pijesak Jablanica

Jajce

1,270 308 736 1,096 383 402 387 405 218 342 289

398

Kakanj Kalesija Kalinovik Kiseljak Kladanj Kljuc Konjic

462 272 732 165 325

850

Kotor Varos KreSevo

574 149

Kupres Laktasi

622 387

Listica

area sq km

Districts

26,507 — Ljubinje 70,896 — Ljubuski

Bosanska Dubica

326 289

Modrica

297

= Mrkonji¢ Grad Neum ~—Nevesinje

679 230

923 205 408 166 372

Odzak

Olovo

Orasje Posusje

Prijedor Prnjavor Prozor Pucarevo Rogatica Rudo Sanski Most Sarajevo

834 631 477 232 664 344 984 2,049

Sekovici

195

Sipovo Skender Vakuf Sokolac Srbac Srebrenica Srebrenik Stolac

470 360 723

Teslié Titov Drvar Tomislavgrad

846 950 967

447 527 249 541

TeSanj

Travnik Trebinje Tuzla Ugljevik

223

563 1,205 307 199

Vares Velika Kladusa ViSegrad

356 304 448

Visoko Vitez Vlasenica

242 156 532

Zavidovici Zenica Zepce

540 500 210

Zivinice Zvornik TOTAL

281 500 51,1295

population

39,526 4,162 27,182 32,400 56,830 43,294 35,413 126,067 27,379 4,268 14,421 30,651 16,901 28,201 16,659 112,470 46,894 19,601 30,624 21,812 11,572 60,119 525,980 9,639 15,553 19,416 14,833 21,660 37,211 40,769 18,845 48,390 59,632 17,079 29,261 70,402 30,879 131,861 25,641 22,114 52,921 21,202 46,130 27,728 33,817 57,153 145,577 22,840 54,653 81,111 4,365,639

Demography Density (1994): persons per sq mi 225.3, persons per sq km 87.0. Age breakdown (1981): under 15, 27.5%; 15-29, 29.0%; 30-44, 19.2%; 45-59, 15.8%; 60-74, 6.3%; 75 and over, 1.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,601,000; (2010) 4,871,000. Doubling time: 99 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Muslim 49.2%; Serb 31.3%; Croat 17.3%. Religious affiliation (1992): Muslim 40%; Serbian Orthodox 31%; Roman Catholic 15%; Protestant 4%; other 10%. Major cities (1991): Sarajevo 415,631; Banja Luka 142,634; Zenica 96,238.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 13.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.6. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 72.1 years; female 77.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): circulatory diseases 344.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 122.6; accidents, violence, and poisoning 47.1; digestive system diseases 29.2.; respiratory diseases 29.0.

National economy Tourism (1991): total tourist nights 2,360,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): 873,000,

wheat

834

% of labour forces

34 155,411 1,026,258

Population economically active (1991): total 992,000; activity rate of total population 22.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female [1990] 37.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1984 1985 1986 1987

1988

1989

19907

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index8

1,188 86

16,169 109

109,000 87

58 99

100 100

188 106

400 99

Land use (1990): forest 41.2%; pasture 19.6%; agricultural 18.4%; other 20.8%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.4; income per household (1990) Din 72,850 (U.S.$6,437); sources of income (1990): wages 53.2%, transfers 18.2%, self-employment 12.0%, other 16.6%; expenditure (1988): food 41.3%, clothing 8.3%, fuel and lighting 7.8%, housing 7.8%, transportation 6.0%, beverages and tobacco 5.7%, household durable goods 4.1%, education and entertainment 3.5%, health care 3.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1985 1986 1987 Din 000,000 % of total

—4 4.5%

2 1.2%

15 6.2%

Imports (1990): Din 21,130,000,000 (fuels 31.6%; raw materials and semifinished goods 26.8%; basic manufactures 17.5%; consumer goods 13.3%).

Exports (1990): Din 23,271,000,000 (machinery 20.8%; chemicals 9.4%; clothing 9.2%; furniture 5.0%).

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 646 mi, 1,039 km; passenger-mi 883,000,000, passenger-km

1,421,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,205,000,000,

metric

ton-km cargo 4,679,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 13,153 mi, 21,168

km (paved 54%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 438,080; trucks and buses 50,578. Airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 4; circulation 165,000; circulation per 1,000 population 37. Radio (1990): number of receivers 733,000 (1 per 5.9 persons). Television (1990): number of receivers 629,000 (1 per 6.9 persons). Telephones (1990): 727,316 (1 per 6.0 persons).

Education (1990-91)

Urban-rural (1981): urban 36.2%; rural 63.8%.

Sex distribution (1981): male 49.73%; female 50.27%.

(maize)

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1990 labour forces 39,053 496,190 74,861 22,345 68,798 130,914 38,686

% of total value 10.9 57.6 TA > 1.5 5.9 13.9

Education and health

Population (1994): 4,447,000.

corn

in value Din ‘000,000 2,963 15,589 1,918 403 1,600 3,777

352,000,

potatoes

296,000;

livestock

(head)

Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,205 238 44

23,369 9,030 2,802

539,875 172,063 37,541

23.1 19.1 13.4

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 49.5%; primary 24.2%; secondary 21.7%; postsecondary and higher 4.3%. Literacy (1981): total population age 10 and over literate 2,962,400 (85.5%); males 96.5%; females 76.6%. Health: physicians (1989) 6,929 (1 per 624 persons); hospital beds (1990) 19,858 (1 per 219 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 13.2.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994)9: 110,000 (army 100%). Data given refer to conditions prior to outbreak of civil war and subsequent de facto partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 2161 seats occupied as of April 1994, 3Government assumed interim status as of June 1994, 4No national currency of issue exists. The principal currency in de facto use is the Yugoslav new dinar Din), for which no exchange rate is offered, owing to persistent inflation since the late 1980s

and to the current state of belligerency, in which extreme inflation, demonetizati on of

transactions, barter, and use of external hard currencies prevent a simple character-

ization of the situation at year’s end. SDetail adds to 554 sq km more than total given; the reason for the discrepancy is unknown. 6Excludes 28,000 workers in the private

sector.

70n Jan. 1, 1990, the new dinar, equal to 10,000 old dinars, was introduced.

8Based on worker real net personal income. %Excludes 130,000 foreign combatants and the 16,300-member UN protection force.

Nations of the World

Botswana

88): food products 295.4; textiles 93.5; chemicals 68.6; paper and paper products 35.3; wood products 22.5. Construction (1985): residential 70,200 sq m; nonresidential 80,700 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 929,000,000 (929,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 901,452 (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.).

Official name: Republic of Botswana. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative body! (National Assembly [402]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Gaborone. Official language: English3. Official religion: none.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$537,500,000. Tourism (1991): receipts U.S.$79,000,000; expenditures U.S.$40,000,000.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,631,000,000 (U.S.$2,590 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991-92

Monetary unit: 1 pula (P)=100 thebe;

in value P '000,0009

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1US.$=P 2:71; 1 £=P 4.32,

Agriculture

population 1991 sq mi

sq km

census4

Serowe Ghanzi Tsabong Mochudi Molepolole Masunga

425 57,0395 45,525 41,290 3,073 13,857 NOVT:

1,100 147,7305 117,910 106,940 7,960 35,890 5,120

18,365 284,264 24,695 30,873 57,168 169,835 43,361

8,031

20,800

—... Ramotswa

42,135 10,568 5 6875

109,130 27,370 5 1,7805

14,186 94,322 129,474

Capitals

Francistown

31 37 39 12 4 8 19

Gaborone Jwaneng Lobatse Orapa Palapye Selebi-Pikwe Sowa Tlokweng TOTAL

10 224,607

5.2

100,446 13,287

196.5 atte

4.6 5.0

26,635 57,001

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

96.5 150.1

2.3 3.5

6,425 10,094

1.4 2.3

Trade

642.5

15.2

34,322

oe

Finance and business services Pub. admin., defense

217.8 839.1

Syl 19.8

Services

116.4

26

a 100.0

6.0 12.9

3.0

eae

ae

78,808 10 443,455

17.810 100.0

ture: food, beverages, and tobacco 39.4%, household durable goods 14.0%, rent and services 13.3%, transportation 13.1%, clothing 5.6%, health 2.3%.

Land use (1992): forested 19.2%; meadows and pastures 58.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.1%; other 20.5%.

Foreign trade!! Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

1991

1992

1993

P ’000,000 % of total

492.1 5.0%

518.2 5.5%

526.7 6.7%

831.2 18.4%

1,174.9 18.6%

231.1 3.6%

Imports (1992): P. 3,958,000,000 (1990; transport equipment 19.2%; machinery and electrical goods 18.5%; food, beverages, and tobacco 14.1%; chemical and rubber products 8.5%; metal and metal products 8.4%; textiles and

Demography

footwear 8.4%; mineral fuels 6.4%; wood and paper 4.3%). Major import sources (1988): Customs Union of Southern Africa 77.4%; European

Population (1994): 1,448,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 6.4, persons per sq km 2.5. Urban-rural (1992): urban 27.3%; rural 72.7%. Sex distribution (1990): male 47.70%; female 52.30%.

countries 10.2%, of which U.K. 6.1%; U.S. 2.3%. Exports (1992): P 3,638,000,000 (diamonds 78.8%; copper-nickel matte 5.9%;

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.1%; 15-29, 27.5%; 30-44, 14.1%; 45-59, 7.0%; 60-74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 1,713,000; (2010) 2,210,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Tswana 75.5%; Shona 12.4%; San (Bushman) 3.4%; Khoikhoin (Hottentot) 2.5%; Ndebele 1.3%; other 4.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): traditional beliefs 49.2%; Protestant 29.0%; African Christian 11.8%; Roman Catholic 9.4%; other 0.6%.

Major cities (1991): Gaborone 133,791; Francistown 65,026; Selebi-Pikwe 39,769; Molepolole 36,928; Kanye 31,341.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 33.2 (world avg. 26.0); (1986) legitimate 28.8%7; illegitimate 71.2%7. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 5.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 27.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 4.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1986): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 59.5 years; female 65.6 years. Major causes of death (as percentage of total registered deaths; 1986): diseases of the circulatory system 17.3%; infectious and parasitic diseases 16.6%; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 13.4%; diseases of the respiratory system 12.2%; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 6.1%.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: P 3,907,000,000 (1992-93; mineral royalties 44.7%, customs and excise taxes 24.4%, nontax revenue 19.2%, other [nonmineral]

income taxes 8.9%). Expenditures: P 4,294,000,000 (1992-93; recurrent ex-

penditure 51.1%, development expenditure 34.9%, net lending 13.0%). Population economically active (1991): total 443,455; activity rate of total population 33.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.6%; female 38.4%; unemployed 13.9%).

beef products 5.4%). Major export destinations (1988): European countries 85.9%, of which U.K. 1.1%; African countries 13.5%; U.S. 0.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 551 mi, 887 km; passenger-km 257,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo 972,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 11,933 mi, 19,204 km (paved 13%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 17,399; trucks and buses 30,348. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1992)13: passenger-km 84,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 648,000; airports (1994) 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1; total circulation

48,000; circulation per 1,000 population 27.5. Radio (1993): total receivers 1,100,000 (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 13,800 (1 per 102 persons). Telephones (1992): 66,100 (1 per 21 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

654 169

9,708 3,743

40 1

759 370

308,840 68,137 7,057 3,352

31.8 18.2 9.3 9.1

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 54.7%; some primary education 31.0%; complete primary 9.4%; some secondary 3.1%; complete secondary 1.3%; postsecondary 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population over age 15 literate 486,500 (73.6%); males literate 253,300 (83.7%); females literate 233,200 (65.1%). Health (1990): physicians 240 (1 per 5,417 persons); hospital beds 3,212 (1 per 395 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 39.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,260 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 7,500 (army 93.3%,

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index®

3.0

,

13,392

2.7 }

ee 4,240.0

22.7

Household income and expenditure (1985-86). Average household size 5.0; average annual income per household P 3,910 (U.S.$2,080); sources of income: wages and salaries 59.9%, transfers 30.8%, self-employment 9.3%; expendi-

65,026 133,791 11,199 25,992 8,853 17,131 39,769 2,220 12,366 1,325,291

581,730

% of labour force

36.6

Other TOTAL

111,300 31,101

79 O7, 100 30 10 21 50

labour force

219.9

Manufacturing Construction

Area and population

1991

% of total value

1,550.0

Mining

Districts Barolong Central Ghanzi Kgalagadi Kgatleng Kweneng North East North West Chobe Ngamiland Ngwaketse Serowe/Palapye South East Towns6&

569

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

74.3 76.1

80.5 81.5

89.8 90.2

100.0 100.0

111.8

1992 129.8 ie

1993 148.4 at

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

cereals 34,000 (of which sorghum 25,000, corn [maize] 7,000, millet 2,000), vegetables and melons 16,000, pulses 13,000, fruits 11,000, roots and tubers 9,000, seed cotton 3,000, cottonseed 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,700,000 cattle, 2,300,000 goats, 325,000 sheep, 156,000 mules and asses, 34,000 horses; roundwood (1992) 1,398,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,900.

Mining and quarrying (1993): diamonds 14,726,000 carats, copper 20,197;

nickel 17,808; cobalt 205. Manufacturing (value added in P °000,000; 1987—

navy, none

[land-

locked], air force 6.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 4.9% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$120. 1In addition, the House of Chiefs, a 15-member body consisting of chiefs, subchiefs, and associated members, serves in an advisory capacity to the government. 2Including four specially elected members and two nonelective seats. 3Tswana is the national language. 4Preliminary. SAreas for Central district and South East district include the area for Serowe/Palapye. Areas are included with respective district totals; population

figures are not included with district totals. 7Registered births only. 8Excludes gov-

ernment sector. 9At 1985-86 prices. 10Includes 61,638 unemployed. 1!Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 121986— 87. 13Air Botswana only.

570

Britannica World Data diseases 61.8, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart

Brazil

disease 52.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 72.3; diseases of the respiratory

system 60.7; accidents 51.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 41.5; homicide and other violence 39.2; birth trauma and other conditions originating in the perinatal period 37.7; diseases of the digestive system 29.5; ill-defined

Official name: Republica Federativa do Brasil (Federative Republic of Brazil). Form of government: multiparty federal republic with 2 legislative houses (Senate [81]; Chamber of

conditions 136.3.

Social indicators

Deputies [513]).

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling or ,less than one year of primary education 18.1%; incomplete primary 56.8%; complete primary 6.9%; incomplete secondary 12.4%; complete secondary or higher 5.7%; unknown 0.1%.

Chief of state and government: President. Capital: Brasilia. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 real!=100 centavos;

Distribution of income (1988) 11, 13 percentage of national income by decile

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$=0.89 real; 1 £=1.34 reais. Area and population

States Acre

Capitals Rio Branco

Alagoas

Maceid

Amapa

Macapa

Amazonas Bahia

Manaus Salvador

Ceara Espirito Santo Goias

Fortaleza Vitoria Goiania

Maranhao Mato Grosso Mato Grosso do Sul Minas Gerais Para Paraiba Parana Pernambuco Piaui

Sao Luis Cuiaba Campo Grande Belo Horizonte

Belém Joao Pessoa Curitiba Recife Teresina Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro Rio Grande do Norte Rio Grande do Sul

Natal

PGrto Alegre Pdrto Velho

Rond6nia Roraima Santa Catarina Sao Paulo Sergipe Tocantins Federal District Distrito Federal Disputed areas3 TOTAL

area

Boa Vista Floriandpolis Sao Paulo Aracaju Palmas Brasilia

population 1991

sq mi

sq km

59,132 10,785 55,388 609,200 219,034 56,505 17,836 131,772 128,713 350,120 138,286 227,176 483,850 21,848 77,108 38,200 97,444 16,954 20,582 108,905 92,090 86,918 36,851 96,066 8,514 107,499

153,150 27,933 143,454 1,577,820 567,295 146,348 46,194 341,289 333,366 906,807 358,159 588,384 1,253,165 56,585 199,709 98,938 252,379 43,910 53,307 282,062 238,513 225,116 95,443 248,809 22,050 278,421

2,248 1,149 3,300,1714,5

5,822 2,977 8,547,4044,5

census2

417,165 2,512,991 288,690 2,102,901 11,855,157 6,362,620 2,598,505 4,012,562 4,929,029 2,022,524 1,778,741 15,731,961 5,181,570 3,200,677 8,443,299 7,122,548 2,581,215 12,783,761 2,414,121 9,135,479 1,130,874 215,950 4,538,248 31,546,473 1,491,867 920,116 1,598,415 — 146,917,45:

2

3

4

17

22

34

Demography

159

my (highest)

505

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1986): 79.97% of the labour force works 40 or more hours per week. Annual estimated rate per 100,000 insured workers (1990) for: on-the-job injury 2,032; industrial illness 17; death 4. Proportion of labour force participating in national social insurance system (1990): 50.1%. Proportion of formally employed population receiving minimum wage (1993): 25.0%. Access to services. Proportion of households having access to: electricity (1990) 87.8%, of which urban households having access (1989) 97.2%, rural households having access (1989) 53.2%; safe public (piped) water supply (1990) 73.3%, of which urban households having access (1986) 88.7%, rural house-

holds having access (1986) 11.6%; public refuse collection (1990) 64.5%.

Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (October 1990) national election: c. 64%; although voting is mandatory, about 15% of the electorate did not vote and about 25% of those who did spoiled their ballots or cast blank votes. Trade union membership in total workforce (1989): 7,437,251. Practicing Roman Catholic population in total affiliated Roman

Catholic population (1990): 25%. Social deviance (1990). The incidence of crime is not accurately reported.

Crimes resulting in imprisonment: 159,071, of which murder 7.3%, assault 11.0%, theft, burglary, and housebreaking 26.6%, robbery and extortion 12.2%, narcotics trafficking 6.3%, narcotics usage 4.5%. Suicide: 5,142.

Leisure. Favourite leisure activities include: playing soccer, rehearsing all year in neighbourhood samba groups for celebrations of Carnival, and competing in water sports, volleyball, and basketball.

Material well-being (1990)11. Households

possessing: radio receiver 84.3%;

television receiver 73.7%; refrigerator 71.1%; stove 96.4%.

National economy (U.S.$3,010 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Urban-rural (1991): urban 75.5%; rural 24.5%.

1992

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.37%; female 50.63%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 34.7%; 15-29, 28.0%; 30-44, 19.2%; 45-59, 10.6%; 60-74, 5.7%; 75 and over, 1.7%; unknown 0.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 172,777,000; (2010) 194,002,000. Doubling time: 42 years.

Ethnic composition (1990): white 54.0%, mulatto and mestizo 39.0%; black and black/Amerindian 5.9%; Asian 0.9%; Amerindian 0.2%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic c. 76%6; evangelical Protestant c. 11%; other c. 13%. Major cities and metropolitan areas (1991)2: Sao Paulo 9,393,753 (15,416,416); Rio de Janeiro 5,473,909 (9,796,498); Salvador 2,070,296 (2,493,224); Belo Horizonte 1,529,566 (3,431,755); Brasilia? 1,492,542 (1,598,4158); Recife 1,296,995 (2,871,261); Pérto Alegre 1,237,223 (3,026,029); Manaus7 1,005,634; Goiania? 912,136; Curitiba 841,882 (1,998,807); Belém 765,476 (1,332,723);

Campinas’ 748,076; Fortaleza 743,335 (2,303,645). Other principal cities (1991)2 population

Maceio

9

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$470,511,000,000

Population (1994): 159,000,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 48.4, persons per sq km 18.7.

Aracaju Campo Grande Guarulhos Joao Pessoa Juiz de Fora Londrina

9

‘CumualG!

401,676 516,403 544,698 10 497,306 377,538 355,062 554,727

population Natal

Niterdi Nova Iguagu Osasco Ribeirao Preto

Santo André Santos

population

459,827 400,5869 562,0629 566,949 10 416,186 518,27210 415,554

Sao Bernardo do Campo Sao Jose dos Campos Sorocaba Teresina Uberlandia

550,03010 385,879 348,952 556,073 354,710

Place of birth/national origin: n.a. Mobility: n.a. Families (1990)11. Average family size 3.9; 1-2 persons 26.2%, 3 persons 21.3%, 4 persons 21.5%, 5-6 persons 22.3%, 7 or more persons 8.7%. Immigration: n.a.

93,321 111,563 15 418,578 168,627 235,526 17 — 147,195 18 1,645,931

1990 % of total value 11.41 1.6 3.6 22.9 7.3

5.7 6.815 25.4 10.2 14.317 — 8.918 100.0

labour force11 14,180,519

% of labour force 22.0

860,453

1.3

9,410,712 3,823,154

14.6 5.9

2,439,920 7,975,67015 1,715,598 16 3,117,005 18,577,468 17 2,367,48219 64,467,981

Budget (1992). Revenue: Cr$478,409,000,000,000 (current receipts 48.9%, of which social contributions 22.4% [including social security 12.2%], taxes 18.7% [including income taxes 10.1%]; development receipts 51.1%, of which credits 44.0%). Expenditures: Cr$478,409,000,000,000 (current expenditures 41.9%; development expenditures 57.8%, of which amortization of domestic debt 41.6%; contingency reserve 0.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$86,251,000,000. Production (000 metric tons except as noted; 1993). Agriculture, forestry, fishing: sugarcane 251,408, corn (maize) 29,967, soybeans 22,710, cassava 21,719, oranges 19,64029, rice 10,193, bananas 5,65020, coffee 2,550, dry beans

2,464, potatoes 2,365, tomatoes 2,314, wheat 2,201, papayas 1,40020, seed cotton 1,139, cottonseed 1,12520, coconuts 87820, pineapples 80020, grapes 74120, tobacco leaves 663, apples 61120, cacao 346, peanuts (groundnuts)

150, cashews 9720; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 153,000,000 cattle, 33,050,000 pigs, 19,500,000 sheep, 6,200,000 horses; roundwood (1992)

268,905,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 790, of which freshwater fishes 210. Mining and quarrying (value of production in Cr$’000,000,000; 1990): iron ore 100.9; gold 100.7; granite 68.2; calcites 54.9; bauxite 22.6; natural phosphate

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 25.3 (world avg. 26.0).

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.6 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 18.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 5.2, Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 63.5 years; female 69.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989) 12: diseases of the circulatory system 210.0, of which cerebrovascular

Agriculture Mining Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value Cr$’000,000,0001. 14 182,639 25,899 58,821 377,680 120,472

disease 71.4, ischemic heart

fertilizers 15.5; zinc ore 12.9; manganese 12.7; kaolin (clay) 12.6; diamonds 10.6. Manufacturing (value added in Cr$’000,000,000; 1991): food products

4,801; industrial chemicals 4,397; nonelectrical machinery 4,191; basic and

fabricated metals 4,152; electrical machinery 2,794; transport equipment 2,687; textiles 1,799; nonmetallic mineral products 1,565; paper and paper

products 1,456; clothing and footwear 1,372; printing and publishing 1,227.

Construction (authorized?!; 1987): residential 20,090,000 sq m; nonresidential 8,180,000 sq m. Land use (1991): forested 57.7%; meadows and pastures 22.1%; agricultur al and under permanent cultivation 7.0%; other 13.2%.

Nations of the World

Manufacturing enterprises (1 985)

Food products Chemical products (excl. pharmaceuticals) Nonelectrical machinery Fabricated metals, iron and steel, and nonferrous metals Electrical machinery Transport equipment

Paper and paper products Clothing and footwear Publishing and printing

number of

43,034

733,199

68.4

4,801

5,066 11,088

287,742 552,163

19 1E7, 146.5

4,397 4,191

18,964

565,036

117.4

4,573 4,184

315,767 341,621

4,152

5.8%,

138.5 154.8

2,794 2,687

3.3%, crude aluminum 2.3%, wood and wood products 2.2%, orange juice 2.1%). Major export destinations: United States 20.3%; Argentina 9.4%;

1,565

The Netherlands 6.4%; Japan 6.0%; Germany 4.7%; Italy. 3.4%; BelgiumLuxembourg 3.0%; United Kingdom 2.9%; Chile 2.9%; Mexico 2.6%.

value added in producer's prices

5,570

351,360

75.1

365,643

2,107 23,200 9,053

132,948 655,234 164,523

120.7 49.6 100.1

2,975 2,798 930 1,421

1,456 1,372 1,227

146,151 77,167

85.1 ar

49,048 71,656

849 782

173.7 136.3

680 472

17,129

218,059

13,759

48.4

186,467

406

a

331

65.7

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

541.3 515.0

6,002 5,859

134,800 97,000

2,670,50023 ae

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,307,000,000; nationals abroad U.S.$1,332,000,000.

Food, beverages, and tobacco Hardware, appliances, and construction materials Domestic goods, equipment, kitchenware, and antiques Pharmaceutical and cosmetic products Agricultural and industrial equipment and machinery Books, magazines, newspapers

products

4.7%,

textiles 3.6%,

mi 9,394,000,000, passenger-km

beans

12,974,991; trucks and buses 1,371,127. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100

gross tons and over) 635; total deadweight tonnage 9,348,339. Air transport (1993)28: passenger-mi 18,491,000,000, passenger-km 29,758,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 882,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,288,000,000; airports (1993) with scheduled flights 110.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 205; total circulation 7,815,40029; circulation per 1,000 population 5129. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 60,000,000 (1 per 2.6 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 30,000,000 (1 per 5.2 persons). Telephones (1991): 14,426,673 (1 per 11 persons).

expenditures by

45,385

406,568

annual wage as a % of all trade wages 152.1

10,180

368,590

116.7

1,324

147,671 24,881

634,713 211,689

94.7 106.0

1,124 1,067

228,922

606,341

53.1

1,059

57,577

338,519

99.1

775

28,636

202,146

115.3

567

49,435

213,118

79.9

377

9,897 14,383

90,900 69,771

154.1 81.8

289 116

total no. of employees

coffee

15,118,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 79,842,-

Education and health Education (1991)

no. of enterprises

Gas stations

soya

000,000, metric ton-km cargo 116,567,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 934,566 mi, 1,504,041 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars

Retail trade enterprises (1985)

Vehicles, new and used; parts General merchandise stores (including food products) Clothing, footwear, and apparel

5.0%,

Transport. Railroads: route length (1992) 18,816 mi, 30,282 km; passenger-

Price and earnings indexes (1988 = 100) 100.0 100.0

footwear

Transport and communications

Population economically active (1990)11: total 64,467,981; activity rate of total population 43.8% (participation rates: ages 15-59, 68.5%; female 35.5%; unemployed [1993] 14.9%).

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index24

Japan 5.5%; Saudi Arabia 5.3%; Italy 3.6%; France 2.5%; Canada 2.4%; Switzerland 2.0%; United Kingdom 1.9%.

Exports (1993): U.S.$38,783,000,000 (machinery and equipment 11.9%, iron and steel fabricated products 10.3%, transport equipment 8.7%, iron ore

1,799

28,974

Pharmaceuticals Rubber products Wood and wood products

(excl. furniture)

of labourers as a % of avg.

Ptises labourers ofallmfg.wages (in Cr$'000,000,000)22

Plastics Beverages

Furniture

Imports (1992): U.S.$20,607,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 25.8%, nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 15.7%, electrical machinery and apparatus 8.9%, organic chemical products 6.6%, motor vehicles and parts 4.3%, professional goods and scientific equipment 4.0%). Major import sources (1993): United States 21.9%; Argentina 9.5%; Germany 8.2%;

no. of enter-

Textiles

Nonmetallic mineral products

wages

571

annual values of sales in Cr$’000,000 1,685

Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

206,526

1,253,029 248,705 133,135

28,742,471 3,558,946 1,565,056

22.7 14.3 11.8

10,16030 91830

Literacy (1990)31: total population age 15 and over literate 79,100,000 (81.7%); males literate 38,500,000 (82.1%); females literate 40,600,000 (81.2%).

Health (1988): physicians 169,500 (1 per 848 persons); hospital beds 532,000 (1 per 270 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 60.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,730 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 336,800 (army 65.0%, navy 17.3%, air force 17.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.3% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$35.

Family income and expenditure (1987-88)?5. Average family size 4.0; annual income per family 516,528 (old) cruzados! (U.S.$1,233); sources of income: wages and salaries 54.3%, self-employed 27.3%, transfers 7.8%, other 10.6%; expenditure: n.a. Financial aggregates26 1990

Exchange rate, cruzeiros reais’ per: U.S. dollar £

1993.

199427

2.00

326.11 913:35 483.03 1,353.76

.252

1.53

447.92 1,290.19

7,441

8,033

2.98 0.32

7,430 4.57 0.49

8,020 2.02 0.21

38,341

1,083

+16,112 18,263 34,375 — 15,067 +1,025

International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; 000,000)

SDRs (’000,000)

current account

1992

341

SDR

Reserve pos. in IMF (000,000) Foreign exchange ('000,000) Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices Balance of payments (U.S.$'000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.0.b. Exports, f.0.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments,

1991

30,604

36,672

22,520 2.23 0.24

30,602 2.93 0.32

36,671 3.36 0.37

2,494

1,489

5,757

9,610

+ 10,747 20,661 31,408 — 14,537

+ 10,604 21,017 31,621 — 10,994

+15,610 20,540 36,150 -9,010

-3,790

—390

+6,600

11

13

2

1

IThe real replaced the cruzeiro real on July 1, 1994, at a rate of 2,750 cruzeiros reais to 1 real (a rate par to the U.S.$ on that date). Previously, the cruzeiro real

replaced the cruzeiro (Cr$) at a rate of 1,000 cruzeiros to 1 cruzeiro real on Aug. 2,

roduction (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 237,623,000,000 Ener, Aecor 265SE HOOO00) coal (metric tons; 1992) 4,728,000 ([1992] 16,041,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 243,820,000 ([1992] 430,659,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 50,661,000 (51,754,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 3,924,000,000 ([1992] 3,731,000,000), carburant alcohol (cu m;

1992) 11,530,000 (8,052,000).

1989

+16,112 30.6%

13As of 1992, 33,000,000 Brazilians lived

in extreme poverty (more than half of whom lived in the east). 14At factor cost. SExcludes restaurants and hotels. not adequately defined. !7Includes restaurants and hotels. vice charges. 19Unemployed. 201992. 2!Urban construction

Balance of trade (current prices) + 19,168 39.6%

metropolitan area. 8Pop. of federal district. )Within Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area. 10Within Sao Paulo metropolitan area. 11Excludes rural economically active population of Acre, Amapa, Amazonas, Para, Rond6nia, and Roraima states. !2Projected rates based on about 74% of total deaths.

Foreign trade

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1993; the cruzeiro replaced the new cruzado (NCz$) at a rate of 1 to 1 on March 16, 1990; and the new cruzado replaced the (old) cruzado (Cz$) at a rate of 1,000 (old) to 1 new on Jan. 15, 1989. 2Revised preliminary. 3Area in dispute between Ceara and Piauf. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Land area excluding inland water is 3,265,076 sq mi (8,456,508 sq km). Includes syncretic AfroCatholic cults having Spiritist beliefs and rituals. 7City has no officially designated

+10,747 20.6%

+ 10,604 20.1%

1992

1993

+ 15,239 27.4%

+13,131 20.4%

nine states of the north!¢Includes classifications !8Less imputed bank seronly for 74 cities. 271991.

23May. 24Minimum wages. 25Based on 3,888,185 families in Sao Paulo metropolitan area. 26End-of-period figures. 27March. 28Brasil Central, Transbrasil, VARIG, and

VASP airlines only. 29184 newspapers only. 301990. 31By official estimate; functional literacy, however, may be as low as 42% of total population over age 15.

572

Britannica World Data Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992)6: U.S.$3,912,000,000

Brunei

(U.S.$14,650 per capita).

Official name: Negara Brunei

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Darussalam (State of Brunei, Abode

1992

of Peace). Form of government: monarchy (sultanate) !. Head of state and government: Sultan. Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan. Official language: Malay?.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Services Other TOTAL

Official religion: Islam.

Monetary unit: 1 Brunei dollar

(B$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 U.S.$ =B$1.48; 1 £=B$2.36. Area and population

Districts Belait Brunei and Muara Temburong Tutong TOTAL

; -population_ 1991

1991 labour force

% of labour force

in value B$’000,000 191.5

% of total value 3.0

2,162

1.9

2,654.4

41.7

9,397

8.4

311.7 64.1

49 1.0

14,145 2,223

12.6 2.0

309.5 782.4 459.8 1,754.8 = 156.2 6,372.0

4.9 12.3 7.2 27.5 =2:9 100.0

5,392 15,404 5,807 52,121 5,3047 111,955

4.8 13.8 5.2 46.6 4.77 100.0

Land use (1991): forested 40.8%; meadows and pastures 1.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.3%; other 56.8%.

census

Capitals Kuala Belait Bandar Seri Begawan Bangar

52,957 170,107 7,688 29,730 260,482

Tutong

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 B$'000,000 % of total

Demography

+2,655. 49.6%

+1,939 39.3%

+1,998 37.4%

1990

1991

+2,197 37.7%

+2,417 39.2%

Imports (1990): B$1,813,160,000 (machinery and transport equipment 34.4%,

Population (1994): 283,000.

manufactured goods 27.0%, food and live animals 15.3%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 10.2%, chemicals 6.7%, beverages and tobacco 3.5%,

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 127.1, persons per sq km 49.1. Urban-rural (1993): urban 90.0%; rural 10.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 52.76%; female 47.24%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 34.5%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 24.7%; 45-59, 8.2%; 60-69, 2.5%; 70 and over, 1.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 334,000; (2010) 432,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1992): Malay 67.1%; Chinese 15.4%; other indigenous 6.0%; Indian and other 11.5%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Muslim 67.2%; Buddhist 12.8%; Christian 10.0%; other religions and nonreligious 10.0%. Major cities (1981): Bandar Seri Begawan 52,3003; Seria 23,511; Kuala Belait 19,281; Tutong 6,161.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 27.2 (world avg. 26.0); (1982) legitimate 99.6%; illegitimate 0.4%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 23.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 69.3 years; female 72.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): cardiovascular disease 55.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 37.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 30.6; cerebrovascular diseases 19.0; pneumonia 12.3; hypertensive diseases 9.7; congenital anomalies 9.7.

crude materials 1.3%, mineral fuels 0.9%). Major import sources: ASEAN 41.9%, of which Singapore 25.9%, Malaysia 10.3%; EEC 17.4%; United States 15.3%; Japan 14.6%.

Exports (1990): BS4,010,150,000 (crude petroleum 50.9%, natural gas 40.0%, petroleum products 5.6%, other 3.5%). Major export destinations: Japan 58.1%; South Korea 12.4%; ASEAN

20.9%, of which Thailand 7.7%, Sin-

gapore 7.1%, Philippines 4.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993)8: length 12 mi, 19 km. Roads (1992): total length 1,502 mi, 2,417 km (paved 51%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 122,104; trucks and buses 13,658. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 51; total deadweight tonnage 349,718. Marine transport (1992): cargo loaded 20,411,000 metric tons, cargo unloaded 1,377,000 metric tons.

Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 1,008,000,000, passenger-km 1,623,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 44,394,000, metric ton-km cargo 64,814,000; airports

(1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total 30,000; circulation per 1,000 population 9.2. Radio (1992): total receivers 108,000 (1 per 2.5 persons). Television (1992): total receivers 78,000 (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 67,293 persons). Education and health Education (1992)

student/ ~ schools

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: B$2,729,570,000 (indirect taxes 47.3%; government property 43.6%4; commercial receipts 8.9%). Expenditures: B$3,057,190,000 (current expenditure 69.9%, of which finance 15.5%, defense 13.4%, education 9.1%; development expenditure 15.1%; charged expenditure 15.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding): none. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$35,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): vegetables and melons 8,000, fruits (excluding melons) 5,000, eggs 3,000, rice 1,000, cassava 1,000, pineapples 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 14,000 pigs, 10,000 buffalo, 1,000 cattle, 2,000,000 chickens; roundwood

(1991) 295,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,652. Mining and quarrying (1992): other than petroleum and natural gas (see below), none except sand and gravel for construction. Manufacturing (1991): gasoline 152,000; diesel oils

circulation number of number of (1 per 4.0

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-20) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

161 23 6 4

teachers

students

teacher ratio

3,047 1,939 340 289

50,434 25,309 1,756 1,372

16.6 13.1 5.2 47

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 32.1%; primary education 28.3%; secondary 30.1%; postsecondary and higher 9.4%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 121,281 (85.1%); males literate 67,714 (90.9%); females

literate 53,567 (78.7%). Health (1992): physicians 197 (1 per 1,359 persons); hospital beds 967 (1 per 277 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 9.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,854 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 128% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

109,000; jet fuels 41,000; naphtha 5,000; kerosene 3,000. Construction (num-

Military

ber of buildings completed; 1984): residential 195; nonresidential 5. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,257,000,000 (1,257,-

Total active duty personnel (1993): 4,4009 (army 77.3%, navy 15.9%, air force 6.87%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1983): 5.8% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,200.

000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 58,470,000 (15,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 813,000 (808,000); natural

gas (cu m; 1992) 8,648,000,000 (2,207,000,000). Population economically active (1991): total 111,955; activity rate of total

population 43.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.6%; female 32.9%; unemployed 4.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index5

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

101.8 87.9

103.1 88.8

104.3 87.5

105.7

107.9

109.6 76.9

111.0 87.5

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 5.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1977): food 45.1%, transportation and communications

17.2%, recreation, educa-

tion, and cultural services 8.9%, household furnishings 8.3%, clothing and footwear 6.1%, rent and utilities 5.0%.

‘A nonelective 21-member body advises the sultan on legislative matters. 2All official documents that must be published by law in Malay are, however, also required to be issued in an official English version as well. 31988 metropolitan area population estimate. 4In 1983 more than 98% of state revenue was derived from exports of oil and gas. 5Nonagricultural sectors only. GDP data. 7Mostly unemployed. 8Privately owned. °All services form part of the army.

Nations of the World

Bulgaria

573

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

Official name: Republika Bilgaria

in value ‘000,000 leva

(Republic of Bulgaria).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative body

Agriculture

(Parliament [240]). Chief of state: President.

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Sofia. Official language: Bulgarian. Official religion: none}. Monetary unit: 1 lev (leva) = 100 stotinki; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = 62.84 leva; 1 £=99.95 leva.

% of total value3

26,273

9.2

Manufacturing, mining } 119,258 Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Public utilities, housing 136,170 Pub. admin., defense Services Other 4,433 TOTAL 286,134

417

labour force 160,952 826,381 113,796 192,879 123,040 48,460 597,546

5.9 30.6 4.2 7.1 4.6 1.8 22.1

639,817 2,701,971

23.7 400.0

47.6

1.5 100.0

% of labour force

Population economically active (1993): total 2,701,971; activity rate of total population 31.9% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 57.0%; female 47.4%; unemployed 23.2%).

Area and population area Regions Burgas Khaskovo Lovech Montana Plovdiv Ruse Sofiya Varna

Capitals Burgas Khaskovo Lovech Mikhaylovgrad Plovdiv Ruse Sofia (Sofiya) Varna

sq mi

sq km

population 1994 estimate

5,659 5,364 5,849 4,095 5,262 4,186 7,328 4,606

14,657 13,892 15,150 10,607 13,628 10,842 18,978 11,929

850,003 903,928 1,009,196 626,205 1,221,449 765,719 980,588 914,079

City Commune Sofiya TOTAL

Sofia (Sofiya)

506 42,855

1,311 110,994

1,188,556 8,459,723

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

100.0 100.0

438.5 267.7

786.6 541.6

1,227.5 831.9

78.4 65.0

78.8 70.0

80.8 75.9

Land use (1992): forested 35.0%; meadows and pastures 16.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 39.2%; other 9.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

SCS 000,000 leva % of total

Demography

+489.4 1.7%

OO pet 0 SereOe

+877.1 3.3%

+2446 1.2%

+12,235.9 11.9%

1992 +1,049.1 0.6%

1993 — 20,245 9.3%

Imports (1993): 119,288,100,000 leva (1991; machinery and equipment 38.9%; fuels, mineral

Population (1994): 8,452,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 197.2, persons per sq km 76.1. Urban-rural (1993): urban 67.6%; rural 32.4%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.07%; female 50.93%. Population projection: (2000) 8,361,000; (2010) 8,212,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population is declining. Ethnic composition (1992): Bulgarian 85.8%; Turkish 9.7%; Gypsy 3.4%; other 1.1%. oe affiliation (1992)2: Eastern Orthodox 87.0%; Muslim 12.7%; other 0.3%.

Major cities (1991): Sofia 1,140,795; Plovdiv 379,112; Varna 316,231; Burgas 211,579; Ruse 190,229.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 88.0%; illegitimate 12.0%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): — 1.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 12.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 69.6 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 768.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 181.4; diseases of the respiratory system 70.7; accidents, poisoning, and violence 68.5; diseases of the digestive system 37.6; endocrine and metabolic disorders 22.3.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: 62,967,000,000 leva (national economy 69.1%, taxes 29.9%). Expenditures: 70,476,500,000 leva (social security 28.2%, education

and health 18.8%, economy 11.8%, administration and other 34.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$11,923,000,000. y

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$49,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$23,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): wheat 3,638,000, corn (maize) 1,038,000, barley 958,000, grapes 550,000, potatoes 500,000, tomatoes 444,000, sunflower seeds 378,000, apples 155,000;

673,000 cattle; roundwood

and metals

15.8%;

chemical

products

and

Germany 6.1%; Italy 4.8%; Greece 3.7%; Ukraine 3.5%.

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 18.6%; 15-29, 20.9%; 30-44, 20.9%; 45-59, 18.8%; 60-74, 16.3%; 75 and over, 4.5%.

livestock (number of live animals;

raw materials,

rubber 5.1%; consumer goods 4.4%). Major import sources: C.1.S. 35.1%;

1994) 4,293,000 sheep, 1,998,000 pigs,

(1993) 4,232,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 27,000.

Mining and quarrying (1992): iron ore 239,000; manganese 6,900. Manufacturing (1993): cement 2,006,000; crude steel 1,941,000; pig iron 1,027,000; fertilizers 315,200; paper 124,600; cotton fabrics 70,298,000 sq m; beer 4,226,000 hectolitres; wine 1,093,000 hectolitres; wearing apparel 6,333,000 pieces; refrigerators 81,300 units; television sets 19,800 units. Construction

Exports (1993): 99,043,100,000 leva (1991; machinery and equipment 30.6%; consumer goods 22.3%; food and beverages 15.3%; chemicals and rubber 10.9%; fuels, minerals, and metals 10.5%). Major export destinations: C.1.S. 18.0%; Turkey 7.8%; Germany 6.9%; Greece 5.9%; Italy 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): track length 4,073 mi, 6,556 km; passenger-mi 3,627,000,000, passenger-km _5,837,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,275,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 7,702,000,000. Roads (1993): length 22,943 mi, 36,922

km (paved 92%). Vehicles (1990): cars 1,300,000; trucks and buses 200,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 222; deadweight tonnage 1,962,345. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 2,592,000,000, passenger-km 4,173,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 34,300,000, metric ton-km cargo

50,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 34. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 17; total circulation 2,396,000; circulation per 1,000 population 267. Radio (1993): 2,917,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1992): 3,127,000 receivers (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1993): 2,838,800 (1 per 3.0 persons). Education and health Education (1993-94)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-14) } Secondary (age 15-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

3,360 494 87

teachers

students

teacher ratio

70,131

987,999

14.1

18,991 21,148

214,558 203,601

11.3 9.6

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 7 and over having: incomplete primary education 24.6%; primary 30.4%; secondary 37.0%; higher 8.0%. Literacy (1980): total population age 15 and over literate 95.5%. Health (1993): physicians 28,457 (1 per 298 persons); hospital beds 90,372 (1 per 93 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.5. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,695 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 148% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 101,900 (army 75.9%, navy 2.9%, air force 21.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 6.0% (world 5.0%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$70.

(1993): residential 836,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electric-

ity (kW-hr;

1992) 35,587,000,000

(38,292,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992)

30,340,000 (33,621,000); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1992) 389,000 (17,736,-

000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 2,030,000 (4,655,000); natural

gas (cu m; 1992) 7,543,000 (5,263,000,000).

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size (1992) 2.8; income per household (1993) 23,828 leva (U.S.$856); sources of income (1993): wages and salaries 42.9%, transfer payments 20.9%, self-employment in agriculture 20.2%; expenditure (1993): food 42.9%, clothing 8.1%, transportation 7.9%, household durable goods 4.7%, housing 4.2%, education and culture 3.5%, health care 2.5%.

'

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$9,812,000,000 (U.S.$1,160 per capita).

1Bulgaria has no official religion; the 1991 constitution, however, refers to Eastern

Orthodoxy as the “traditional” religion. 2Census data reflect the traditional religious identity of Bulgaria but apparently disregard the nonreligious, who may exceed half the adult population. 3Data are based on estimates. 4International only; the number of domestic airports is not available.

574

Britannica World Data

Burkina Faso

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

Official name: Burkina Faso (Burkina Faso). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [107])!. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ouagadougou. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing ; Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Finance Trade Pub. admin., defense Services Other

TOTAL

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF

1985 % of total value

in value CFAF ’000,000

255,966 7,517 121,206 45,102 7,415 34,789 15,607 124,610 84,086 94,868 25,8713 817,037

labour force

% of labour force

3,739,000

92.3

113,000

28

199,000

100.0

4,051,000

Tourism: receipts (1992) U.S.$9,000,000; expenditures U.S.$36,000,000.

837.67.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$994,000,000.

Area and population Provinces Bam

Bazéga Bougouriba Boulgou Boulkiemde

Comoe Ganzourgou

Gnagna

Gourma Houet Kadiogo

Kénédougou Kossi

Kouritenga Mouhoun Nahouri Namentenga Oubritenga Oudalan Passoré Poni

Sanguie

Sanmatenga

Séno

Sissili Soum Sourou Tapoa Yatenga

Zoundwéogo

population 1991

Capitals Kongoussi

Kombissiri Diébougou Tenkodogo Koudougou

Banfora Zorgho

Bogandé

Fada N’Gourma Bobo-Dioulasso

Ouagadougou

sqmi

1,551 2,051 2,736 3,488 1,598 7,102 1,578 3,320 10,275 6,438

451

Orodara

3,207

Nouna

5,088

Koupéla Dédougou PO

628 4,032

Boulsa Ziniaré Gorom Gorom Yako Gaoua

1,484 2,994 1,812 3,879 1,575 4,000

Kaya

3,557

Léo Djibo Tougan

5,303 5,154 3,663

Réo

Dori

1,994

5,202

Diapaga Ouahigouya

Manga

5,707 4,746

1,333

TOTAL

105,946

sq km

4,017 5,313 7,087 9,033 4,138 18,393 4,087 8,600 26,613 16,672 1,169 8,307 13,177 1,627 10,442 3,843 7,755 4,693 10,046 4,078 10,361 5,165 9,213 13,473 13,736 13,350 9,487 14,780 12,292 3,453 274,400

estimate

173,516 352,104 242,986 465,845 393,900 296,083 223,555 272,203 350,336 724,803 652,377 162,010 389,360 227,060 329,115 119,144 214,564 328,682 123,495 232,278 258,647 234,079 404,563 269,892 297,598 217,972 313,355 187,785 558,318 175,166 9,190,791

Demography Population (1994): 10,044,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 94.8, persons per sq km 36.6. Urban-rural (1991): urban 14.0%; rural 86.0%.

Sex distribution (1991): male 48.88%; female 51.12%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 49.1%; 15-29, 23.6%; 30-44, 13.3%; 45-59, 8.3%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 11,884,000; (2010) 15,549,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Mossi 47.9%; Mande 8.8%; Fulani 8.3%; Lobi 6.9%; Bobo 6.8%; Senufo 5.3%; Grosi 5.1%; Gurma 4.8%; Tuareg 3.3%;

other 2.8%. Religious affiliation (1980): traditional beliefs 44.8%; Muslim 43.0%; Christian

mo

Population economically active: total (1985) 4,051,000; activity rate 51.0% (participation rates: over age 15, 83.0%; female 49.1%; unemployed 0.9%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index4

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

94.8 100.0

98.6 1140

98.8 1146

97.8 1146

102.5 114.6

100.5 114.6

101.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 6.2; average annual income per household CFAF 303,000 (U.S.$640); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1985)5: food 38.7%; transportation

18.6%; elec-

tricity and fuel 13.7%; beverages 9.0%; health 5.2%; housing 5.1%. _ Land use (1991): forested 23.9%; meadows and pastures 36.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 13.0%; other 26.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986 1987 1988 CFAF '000,000 % of total

— 80.25 58.3%

— 55.23 37.2%

— 63.31 43.0%

1989

1990

—91.40 39.9%

— 78.70 32.2%

Imports (1991): CFAF 150,255,200,000 (machinery and transport equipment 22.9%, of which road transport equipment 7.2%, electrical machinery 7.0%; manufactured goods 20.4%; petroleum products 12.4%; chemicals 11.8%; cereals 9.9%; dairy products 3.8%; beverages and tobacco 2.3%; raw materi-

als 2.0%). Major import sources: France 24.4%; Céte d’Ivoire 19.4%; United States 4.9%; Japan 4.2%; The Netherlands 4.0%; Nigeria 2.8%. Exports (1991): CFAF 29,891,600,000 (raw cotton 62.7%; live animals 10.0%; manufactured goods 7.5%; hides and skins 4.0%). Major export destinations: Japan 20.3%; France 13.4%; Céte d’Ivoire 11.2%; Thailand 8.3%; Taiwan 6.2%; Togo 2.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1984)6: route length? 308 mi, 495 km; passenger-km 679,790,000; metric ton-km cargo 469,675,000. Roads (1991): total length 8,161 mi, 13,134 km (paved 12%8). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 12,000; trucks and buses 13,000. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1991):

passenger-km 235,000,000; metric ton-mi cargo 16,000,000; airports (1994) 2.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation

17,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.8. Radio (1993): 200,000 receivers

(1 per 49 persons). Television (1993): 45,500 receivers (1 per 215 persons). Telephones (1988): 15,000 (1 per 569 persons).

12.2%, of which Roman Catholic 9.8%, Protestant 2.4%.

Major cities (1985): Ouagadougou 441,514; Bobo-Dioulasso 228,668; Koudougou 51,926; Ouahigouya 38,902; Banfora 35,319.

Education (1991-92)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 46.7 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 17.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 29.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 46.6 years; female 49.9 years. Major causes of morbidity (percentage of reported cases of infectious disease; 1984): measles 39.6%; malaria 12.4%; tetanus 5.7%; diarrheal diseases 5.3%.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

Education and health

Primary Secondary Vocational Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,587 173 22 9

8,565 2,419 537 437

530,002 60,629 8,022 7,387

61.9 25.1 14.9 16.9

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 86.1%; some primary 7.3%; general secondary 2.2%; specialized secondary and postsecondary 3.8%; other 0.6%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 18.2%; males 27.9%; females 8.9%.

CFAF

199,797,000,000 (1990; import duties 32.4%,

sales taxes 26.7%, personal income taxes 11.1%, administrative fees 2.3%). Expenditures: CFAF 234,866,000,000 (1990; education 19.4%, defense 16.9%, debt service 16.6%, health 7.2%, agriculture 5.1%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

Health (1991): physicians 341 (1 per 27,158 persons); hospital beds 5,041 (1 per 1,837 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 118.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,219 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 94% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

sorghum 1,292,100, millet 783,500, corn (maize) 341,300, sugarcane 340,000, seed cotton 172,400, peanuts (groundnuts) 143,400, pulses 120,000, rice 46,700, sweet potatoes 15,000, sesame 9,400, cassava 5,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,860,000 goats, 5,350,000 sheep, 4,096,000 cattle, 18,000,000

Military

soap 25,611; wheat flour 21,402; cotton yarn 305; bicycle and motorcycle tires 29,674,000 units; motorcycles and bicycles 46,189 units; footwear 1,271,000 pairs; beer 393,681 hectolitres; soft drinks 99,307 hectolitres. Construction

‘Ruling political party defeated a fragmented opposition (26 other political parties) at multiparty legislative elections of May 1992. 2Officially marketed gold only does not include substantial illegal production. 3Includes indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges and subsidies. 4January 1; index refers to the S.M.LG. (salaire minimum interprofessionnel guaranti), a form of minimum professional wage. 5Weights of consumer price index components; Ouagadougou only. 6Passenger-km and metric ton-km cargo figures are based on traffic between Abidjan, Céte d'Ivoire, and Ouagadougou. 71989, 81986.

chickens; roundwood (1991) 8,995,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 7,012. Mining and quarrying (1992): gold 900 kg?; silver 100 kg. Manufacturing (1991):

(value added in CFAF; 1992): 45,102,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 157,000,000 (157,000,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (182,000).

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$2,908,000,000 (U.S.$290 per capita).

Total active duty personnel (1993): 7,200 (army 97.2%, navy, none, air force 2.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.7% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$11.

Nations of the World

Burundi

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$1,193,000,000 (U.S.$210 per capita).

Official name: Republika y’u Burundi (Rundi); République du Burundi (French) (Republic of Burundi). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic! with one legislative house (National Assembly [81]). Head of state and government: Interim president, assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Bujumbura. Official languages: Rundi; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=FBu 248.44; 1 £=FBu 395.15.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value FBu '000,0005 Agriculture

Mining

Public utiities

Bururi Cankuzo Cibitoke

Gitega Karuzi Kayanza Kirundo Makamba Muramvya Muyinga Ngozi Rutana Ruyigi

Muramvya Muyinga Ngozi Rutana Ruyigi

sq km

593

1,535 1,836

709 569 756 903 10,019 721 10,740

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

TOTAL

1,089 1,319 2,465 1,965

1,636 1,979 1,457

1,233 1,703

1,960 1,474 1,959 2,339

1990 census

93.1

1,419

=

11672

0.1

26,160.5 8,922.5

12.0 41

33,867 19,737

1.2 0.7

communications Trade

6,650.8 19,770.6

3.1 9.1

8,504 25,822

0.3 0.9

a 24,084.6

ray atl

2,005

01

3,844.4 20,362.4 217,548.8

Consumer price index Monthly earnings indexs

1.8 } 9.3 100.0

peace 13,270 2,765,9452

ca 0.5 100.0

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

109.3 101.8

114.0

127.3

136.3

148.5

155:2

170.3 wee

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure?: food 59.6%, clothing and footwear 11.1%, furniture and household goods 6.0%, energy and water 5.8%, housing 4.4%, other 13.1%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

5,292,7932

FBu ’000,000 % of total

Demography

12,273 37.0%

Imports (1992): FBu 35.1%,

food

and

P1136 16.6%

— 13,719 35.8%

46,105,700,000

food

products

1990

1991

1992

— 26,583 51.0%

—28,144 45.8%

—30,751 50.0%

(machinery 13.8%,

and transport equipment

mineral

oil 10.2%,

construction

materials 6.2%). Major import sources: Belgium-Luxembourg 14.8%; France 11.1%; Tanzania 8.9%; Japan 8.1%; Germany

Urban-rural (1990): urban 6.3%; rural 93.7%.

China 3.7%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 48.63%; female 51.37%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.4%; 15-29, 25.3%; 30-44, 15.4%; 45-59, 7.0%; 60-74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 1.7%; not determined 0.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 6,674,000; (2010) 8,437,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Rundi 97.4%, of which Hutu 81.9%, Tutsi 13.5%; Twa Pygmy 1.0%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 65.1%; nonreligious 18.6%; Protestant 13.8%; Muslim 1.6%; traditional beliefs 0.3%; other 0.6%.

Major cities (1990): Bujumbura 236,334; Gitega 20,708; Bururi 15,816; Ngozi

14,511; Cibitoke 8,280.

Exports

(1992): FBu

15,354,800,000

7.6%; United States 4.3%;

(coffee 65.3%,

animal

hides and skins

12.4%, cotton fabric 2.3%). Major export destinations: Germany 15.5%; United States 7.6%; Rwanda 7.6%; United Kingdom 5.8%; Kenya 4.9%; Zaire 3.4%; Switzerland 3.4%; France 2.8%; Zimbabwe 2.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 3,893 mi, 6,265 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 14,483; trucks and other vehicles 14,914. Merchant marine (1979): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total gross tonnage 385. Air transport (1992)9: passenger arrivals 33,176, departures 34,439; cargo loaded 1,780 short tons (1,615 metric tons), unloaded

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 47.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 15.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 32.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 6.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 50.0 years; female 54.0 years. Major causes of death: n.a.; however, major health problems include malaria,

National economy erty tax 9.6%, administrative receipts 5.2%). Expenditures: FBu 46,609,700,-

000 (goods and services 55.6%, subsidies and transfers 21.2%, public debt 10.9%).

Public seb (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$947,000,000. ; Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$21,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): potatoes

697,600,

cassavas

Education and health student/ schools 10

Budget (1993). Revenue: FBu 44,683,300,000 (excise duties 20.7%, customs duties 20.1%, taxes on goods and services 19.5%, income tax 14.2%, prop-

sweet

4,151 short tons (3,766 metric tons); airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation 20,000; circulation per 1,000 population 3.5. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 11 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 4,500 (1 per 1,259 persons). Telephones (1991): 10,857 (1 per 259 persons).

Education (1991-92)

influenza, diarrheal diseases, measles, and AIDS.

1,625,600,

2,574,443

ise

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100)

222,953 608,931 385,490 142,707 279,843 565,174 287,905 443,116 401,103 223,799 441,653 373,382 482,246 195,834 238,567

Population (1994): 5,799,0003. ' Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 578.8, persons per sq km 230.4.

bananas

% of labour force

Population economically active (1991): total 2,779,777; activity rate of total population 52.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 91.4%; female 52.6%; unemployed, n.a.).

25,949

1,867 27,816

labour force

Manufacturing Construction

Services Other TOTAL

en 420 509 952 759 631 764 563 476 658 757

48.5

Bele

Finance Pub. admin., defense

population Capitals Bubanza Bujumbura Bururi Cankuzo Cibitoke Gitega Karuzi Kayanza Kirundo Makamba

1990 % of total value

105,535.5

}

Transportation and

Area and population

Provinces Bubanza Bujumbura

575

598,300,

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Higher

1,342 113 8

teachers

students

9,582 2,02610 492

631,039 46,508 3,830

teacher ratio

65.9 21.810 7.8

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 7 and over literate 3,934,806 (74.3%); males literate 1,897,284 (73.7%); females literate 2,037,522 (74.9%).

Health (1990): physicians 168 (1 per 31,777 persons); hospital beds 10,370 (1 per 515 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 111.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,948 (vegetable products 98%, animal products 2%); 84% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

dry beans

345,900, corn (maize) 176,300, yams and taros 149,000, pumpkins 69,400, sorghum 66,800, potatoes 46,700, rice 40,400, coffee 37,100, palm kernels 14,900, peanuts (groundnuts) 14,200, millet 13,700, wheat 8,900, sugarcane 8,200; livestock (number of live animals) 932,000 goats, 440,000 cattle, 370,000 sheep, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 4,343,000 cu m; fish catch

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 5,650 (army 97.3%, air force 2.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.4% (world 4.2%); per capita

expenditure U.S.$5.

(1991) 23,094. Mining and quarrying (1991): peat 10,026; kaolin clay 6,682, lime 86; gold 804 troy oz. Manufacturing (1993): beer 1,188,607 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 179,300 hectolitres; cigarettes 523,990,000 units; blan-

kets 242,669 units; footwear 405,248 pairs. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 99,600,000 (142,500,000);

coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (58,000); natural gas, none (n.a.); peat (metric tons; 1992) 12,000 (12,000). ’ Land use (1991): forested 2.6%; meadows and pastures 35.77%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 52.6%; other 9.1%.

1A multiparty political system was approved by constitutional amendment of March 1992; presidential elections were

held on June

1, 1993, and legislative elections on

June 29, 1993. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Population

is not adjusted for casualties or refugees of the recent civil war. 4Based on land area. 5Estimate. “Nonagricultural employees in Bujumbura only; includes family allowances. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.if. in commodities and trading partners. 9Figures for Bujumbura airport only. 191990-91.

576

Britannica World Data

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.6. Gross domestic product (1993): U.S.$1,580,000,000 (U.S.$170 per capita).

Cambodia Official name: Preah Reach Ana Pak Kampuchea (Kingdom of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force Jan.

Cambodia)!. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Chief of state: King. Heads of government: First Prime Minister assisted by Second Prime Minister. Capital: Phnom Penh. Official language: Khmer. Official religion: Buddhism. Monetary unit: 1 riel=100 sen; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =2,587 riels; 1 £=4,115 riels.

1993 in value ‘000,000 riels

Agriculture Mining and manufacturing

Bantéay Méanchey

a

Batdambang

Batdambang

Kampong Cham Kampong Chhnang

Kampong Cham Kampong Chhnang

Kampong Spoe Kampong Thum

Other

sq mi

population 1987 estimate

sqkm 2

2

7,3532

19,0442

2 837,0002

2,709 4,730

7,016 12,251

396,000 441,000

Kréng Ka6dh Kong Krachéh

1,472 4,301 4,283

3,813 11,140 11,094

838,000 30,000 182,000

M6ndél Kiri Phnom Penh

Senmonorom Phnom Penh

5,517 18

14,288 46

18,000 564,000

Pouthisat

Preah Vihéar Prey Véng

Poiithisat

Phnum Tbéng Meanchey Prey Véng

4,900

12,692

204,000

Rotanokiri |

Lumphat

4,163

10,782

Kampot

Siémréab-Otdar Méanchey3 Siémréab Stdeng Tréng Stdeng Tréng Svay Riéng Svay Riéng Takév TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

Takév

27

69

3,808

9,862

5,541 1,885

14,350 4,883

4,207 4,328 1,145 1,474 68,045 2,192 70,2384

61,000

412,000

80,000 782,000 52,000

10,897 11,209 2,966

555,000 46,000 340,000

3,818 176,238 5,678 181,916

618,000

7,957,000

1,100,000

30.6

100.0

3,595,000

100.0

850.0

Consumer price index Earnings index

100.0

41.4 Pe

297.0

1992

1993

519.7

1,113.9

Land use (1992): forested 65.7%; meadows and pastures 11.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 13.6%; other 9.4%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

1991

1992

1993

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

—32.5 7.1%

— 86.2 14.0%

— 184.8 29.7%

(cigarettes

14.1%,

Imports

— 124.5 58.2%

(1993):

—96.8 37.9%

Te 31.2%

U.S.$403,900,000

construction

materials

12.1%, petroleum products 11.7%, electronics 8.2%). Major import sources: Singapore 24.3%; Vietnam 17.5%; Japan 8.2%; Australia 5.1%. Exports

(1993)9:

U.S.$219,100,000

(felled

and

sawn

timber

52.1%;

rub-

ber 22.5%; fish and fish products 4.5%; soybeans 1.1%). Major export destinations®: Singapore 65.8%; Japan 10.6%; Hong Kong 5.0%.

Transport and communications

Demography

Transport.

Population (1994): 9,525,000.

Density (1994)5: persons per sq mi 140.0, persons per sq km 54.0. Urban-rural (1991): urban 12.6%; rural 87.4%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50%; female 50%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 34.9%; 15-29, 29.6%; 30-44, 21.0%; 45-59, 9.6%; 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,931,000; (2010) 13,357,000. Ethnic composition (1979): Khmer 94.1%; Chinese 3.1%; Cham 2.3%; other (Thai, Lao, Kola, and Vietnamese) 0.5%.

Religious affiliation (1993): Buddhist 95%; Muslim 2%; other 3%. Major cities (1987): Phnom Penh 900,0006; Batdambang 45,000; Kampdéng Cham 33,000; Pursat 16,000; Kampong Chhnang 15,000.

Mariage rate per 1,000 population: n.a.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 49 years; female 52 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major health problems include tuberculosis, malaria, and pneumonia.

Railroads (1988): length 403 mi, 649 km; passenger-mi 33,554,-

00019, passenger-km 54,000,00019; short ton-mi cargo 6,850,00019, metric ton-km cargo 10,000,00019. Roads (1989): total length 9,200 mi, 14,800

km (paved 18%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 4,000; trucks and buses 7,100. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 3; total deadweight tonnage 3,839. Air transport (1977): passenger-mi 26,098,800, passenger-km 42,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 274,000, metric ton-km cargo 400,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1. Radio (1993): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 9 persons). Television (1993): 70,000 receivers (1 per 133 persons). Telephones (1991): 5,500! (1 per 1,600 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 40 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.6.

Violence, acts of

war, and unexploded military ordnance (especially mines) remain hazards.

National economy Budget. Revenue

69.4

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1990 1991 1989

Kampong Spoe Kampong Thum

Kampot

2,495,000

5.4 8.2 0.8 21 16.8 41 153

5,548.0

% of labour force

Population economically active (1992): total 3,964,000; activity rate of total population 43.1% (participation rates: ages 16-60, 91.2%; female 55.7%).

1,244,000 257,000

Kandal Kadh Kong Krachéh

47.3

302.2 453.9 46.0 114.8 930.8 226.4

}

TOTAL

10,498 5,520

Kampong Sadm

2,623.9

Public admin., defense Services

4,053 2,131

Kampong Sadm

labour force

Trade

area

Capitals

% of total value

Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

Area and population

Provinces

1992

(1993): 290,000,000,000 riels (customs duties 59.4%, state

enterprises 23.3%, private enterprises 15.3%). Expenditures (1994): 890,000,000,000 riels (public works and transport 19.2%, defense 18.4%, domes-

tic affairs 9.7%, education and sports 8.6%, agriculture 7.8%, health 5.6%, postal and telecommunications services 3.8%, other 26.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$1,564,000,0007.

Tourism (1st quarter 1991): total number of tourist arrivals 8,989. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 2,500,000, roots and tubers 227,000 (of which cassava 150,000, sweet potatoes 60,000), sugarcane 140,000, bananas 125,000, corn (maize) 60,000,

rubber 40,000, soybeans 40,000, mangoes 25,000, pineapples 13,000, tobacco

leaves 9,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,468,000 cattle, 2,043,000

pigs, 804,000 buffalo, 14,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1992) 6,840,000 cu m (the Khmer Rouge market additional quantities to Thailand); fish catch (1991) 110,100. Mining and quarrying (1993): legal mining is confined to fertilizers, salt, and construction materials; smuggling of gemstones from Khmer Rouge-controlled areas is believed extensive. Manufacturing (value of production in ’000,000 riels; 1988): cigarettes 1,064.5; food 116.9; chemical

products (including rubber) 83.5; light industries (including textiles) 63.2; mechanical equipment and parts 46.8; building materials 4.5. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 150,000,000 (150,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (155,000).

Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

4,539 440 65 9

42,405

1,465,958 239,363 15,537 22,182

34.6 12.2 5.9 82.8

19,540 2,618 268

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1987): total population age 15 and over literate 3,778,042 (74.3%); males literate 2,001,084 (85.0%); females literate

1,776,958 (65.0%).

Health: physicians (1990) 600 (1 per 14,300 persons); hospital beds (1988) 12,95312 (1 per 63212 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births

(1993) 112.

Food (1986-88): daily per capita caloric intake 2,174 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 81% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Military Total active duty personnel

(1994):

88,50013

(army

40.7%,

navy

2.3%,

air

force 0.6%, provincial 56.4%). Armed Khmer Rouge guerrillas may number 10,000-12,000. About 22,000 UNTAC!

government was reestablished in 1993.

troops were withdrawn after civilian

'The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) assumed administrative responsibility for Cambodia in March 1992. Cambodian sovereignty, however, was retained by a Supreme National Council (SNC) until UN-supervised elections were held May 23-29, 1993. The Kingdom of Cambodia was proclaimed from Sept. 24, 1993, 2Bantéay Méanchey included in Batdambang. 3The province of Otdar Méanchey has been combined with Siémréab, and area and population figures reflect the change. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Based on land area. ©1991. 7Includes long-term debt not guaranteed by the government. 8Trade

Statistics do not indicate whether imports are c.i.f. or f.0.b.; illegal or undeclared trade is not accounted for in the foreign-trade figures shown here. 9Figures include reexports of U.S.$181,400,000 and direct exports of U.S.$37,700,000; percentage breakdowns are derived from direct exports and exclude reexports. 101981, 11Number of telephone lines. 12Public hospitals only. 3Figures include provincial, and exclude paramilitary, forces.

Nations of the World

Cameroon

Population economically active (1991): total 4,740,000; activity rate of total population 40.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-69, 66.3%; female 38.5%; unemployed, n.a.).

Official name: République du Cameroun (French); Republic of Cameroon (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [180]).

Consumer price index Earnings index

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

sugarcane

Area and population

area Sima

Ngaoundéré Yaoundé

Population:

42,089

Douala Garoua Bamenda Bafoussam Ebolowa Buea

13,223

INLAND WATER TOTAL

63,691 68,926

cassava

1,300,000,

plantains

860,000,

vegetables

and

109,011

petroleum (barrels; 1992) 50,565,000 (5,007,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 618,000 (609,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Land use (1992): forested 52.3%; meadows and pastures 17.8%; agricultural

517,200

34,246

1,855,700

7,814 25,319 6,877 5,356 18,189 9,448 179,519

20,239 65,576 17,810 13,872 47,110 24,471 464,952

1,354,800 832,200 1,237,400 1,339,800 373,800 838,000

4,051 183,5691

10,492 475,4421

and under permanent cultivation 15.1%; other 14.8%.

Foreign trade5 Balance of trade {current prices) 1987 1988

10,495,700

CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

Demography

—2283 32.1%

—68.8 11.1%

1989 +403 5.2%

1990 +1415 14.8%

1991 +198.6 22.3%

1992 +197.6 25.9%

Imports (1991): CFAF 650,610,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 27.2%, of which road vehicles 5.5%; chemical products 14.7%; food and live

animals 13.6%; iron and steel 4.6%; paper and paper products 3.5%; textiles 3.5%; nonmetallic minerals 3.0%). Major import sources: France 27.3%: Germany 8.6%; United States 6.6%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.1%; Guinea

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.88%; female 50.12%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 46.4%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 8.6%; 60 and over, 5.5%. Population projection: (2000) 15,293,000; (2010) 20,225,000.

Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fang 19.6%; Bamileke and Bamum 18.5%; Duala, Luanda, and Basa 14.7%; Fulani 9.6%; Tikar 7.4%; Mandara 5.7%; Maka 4.9%; Chamba 2.4%; Mbum 1.3%; Hausa 1.2%; French 0.2%; other 14.5%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman

Catholic 34.7%; animist 26.0%; Muslim

21.8%; Protestant 17.5%. Major cities (1987): Douala 810,000; Maroua 123,000; Bafoussam 113,000.

Yaoundé

649,000;

Garoua

142,000;-

4.7%; Italy 4.6%; Spain 3.8%.

Exports (1991): CFAF 815,994,000,000 (crude petroleum 47.4%; cocoa 12.5%; sawn wood and logs 5.3%; cotton 3.8%; coffee 3.0%). Major export destinations: The Netherlands 24.8%; France 16.8%; Italy 8.0%; Gibraltar 7.9%; Spain 6.3%; Morocco 5.1%; Gabon 3.5%; Germany 2.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990-91): route length 686 mi, 1,104 km; passengermi 268,000,000, passenger-km 431,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 401,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 585,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 30,074 mi,

48,400 km (paved 8%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 95,000; trucks and buses 80,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 47; total deadweight tonnage 39,797. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 40.7 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 12.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 28.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 5.7. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.5 years; female 57.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major health problems include measles, malaria, tuberculosis of respiratory system, anemias, meningitis, and intestinal obstruction and hernia.

187,000,000, passenger-km 301,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 6,800,000, metric

ton-km cargo 10,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): 1; total circulation 20,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 2,000,000 (1 per 6.3 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 15,000 (1 per 836 persons). Telephones (1991): 53,000 (1 per 224 persons).

Education and health Education (1990-91)

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: CFAF 545,000,000,000 (direct taxes 36.0%; customs duties 28.3%; petroleum royalties 22.0%). Expenditures: CFAF 545,000,000,000 (current expenditure 69.4%, of which education 13.0%, defense

8.8%, administration 4.6%, health 4.5%, finance 3.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$5,465,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$9,710,000,000

(U.S.$770 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value CFAF ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

1985 % of labour force

Agriculture

749

23.9

2,900,871

Mining

406

12.9

1,793

0.1

Manufacturing Construction

424 165

13,5 5.3

174,498 66,684

45 1.7

Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public admin., defense Services

38 195 368 417 310 66

1.2 6.2 11,7 13.3 9.9 21

3,522 51,688 154,014 8,009 292,922

0.1 1.3 3.9 0.2 75

TOTAL

1,350,000,

2,720,000,000 (2,720,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,000 (1,000); crude

495,200 1,651,600

Population (1994): 12,905,000. Density (1994)2: persons per sq mi 71.9, persons per sq km 27.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 41.2%; rural 58.8%.

Other

103.3

hectolitres4. Construction (1983): residential 230,400 sq m; nonresidential 51,100 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992)

esqkm) _icensus
, 47,000 cattle5, 15,000 sheep5; roundwood,

n.a.; fish catch (1991) 6,4555, of which

specified commodities 40.4%). Major import sources (1992)16: France 59.0%; Bahrain 5.0%; Singapore 5.0%; Japan 5.0%; India 4.0%. Exports (1993): CF 6,200,000,000 (vanilla 77.5%, ylang-ylang 13.0%, cloves 4.3%). Major export destinations: United States 46.2%; France 41.7%; Germany 8.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992): total length 466 mi, 750 km (paved 28%). Vehicles (1989)5: passenger cars, 1,000; trucks and buses, 4,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 6; total deadweight tonnage 3,579. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 1,900,000, passenger-km 3,000,000; short ton-mi cargo, n.a., metric ton-mi cargo, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers: none!7, Radio (1993): total number of receivers 50,000 (1 per 10 persons). Television: no local television broadcasting in 1992. Telephones (1993): 4,01018 (1 per 128 persons). Education and health Education (1989-90)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-11) 19 Secondary (age 12-18)

Higher

257 ae ey

teachers

aes 557 32

students

teacher ratio

64,737 14,472 248

36.4 26.0 7.8

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 56.7%; Qur’anic school education 8.3%; primary 3.6%; secondary 2.0%; higher 0.2%; not specified 29.2%. Literacy

(1990): total population age 15 and over literate, about 125,000 (slightly more than 50%). Health: physicians (1990) 57 (1 per 8,135 persons); hospital beds (1982) 813 (1 per 437 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 81.8. Food (1988-90)°: daily per capita caloric intake 1,760 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 75% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 98920. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1987): 1.9% (world 5.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$7.

tuna 3,205. Mining and quarrying (1992): sand, gravel, and crushed stone from coral mining for local construction. Manufacturing: products include processed vanilla and ylang-ylang, cement, handicrafts, soaps, soft drinks,

woodwork, and clothing. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 28,200,000 ([1992] 16,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (21,000); natural gas, none (none). th Population economically active (1985): total 117,216; activity rate of total

population 29.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 53.1%; female 26.2%; unemployed [1993]: unofficially more than 70%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index8 Earnings index

dat

114.0

117.6

1990

1991

122.3

1992

1993

9

10

. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$15,800,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$5,700,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$165,100,000.

Y

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 5.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1983)1!: food and beverages 56.0%, energy 14.4%, clothing and footwear 10.0%, transportation and communications 6.6%, health care 5.0%, recreation 3.0%, tobacco 3.0%, other 2.0%.

1Excludes Mayotte, a collectivité territoriale (“territorial collectivity”) of France, unless otherwise indicated. 2Island names in Comorian (French), respectively. 3Each island is administered locally by a governor and island council. 4Preliminary 1991 census results equal 446,817. 5Includes Mayotte. In the early 1990s, 20% of adult men had more than one wife. 7Exported production only. 8GDP price deflator. 90.4% decrease compared with 1991. 100.4% increase compared with 1992. 11Weights of consumer price index components. 12The wage labour force was very small in 1993; total of 8,800 including government employees, and less than 2,000 excluding them.

13Not adequately defined. 14Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ‘Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 16Estimated figures for 1992. 17Weekly newspapers (1992): 2. 18Number of lines. 19198788. 20Includes police.

588

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$2,307,000,000

Congo

(U.S.$920 per capita).

Official name: République du Congo (Republic of the Congo).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

Form of government: multiparty

in value CFAF ’000,0005

republic with two legislative houses (Senate [60]; National Assembly [125]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Brazzaville. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) =

Agriculture Mining

100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 U.S.$ =CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF

837.67.

Area and population Regions Bouenza Cuvette Kouilou

Lékoumou Likouala Niari Plateaux Pool Sangha

Capitals Madingou Owando Pointe-Noire

Sibiti

Impfondo Loubomo Djambala Kinkala Ouesso

area

12,258 74,850 13,650 20,950 66,044 25,9181 38,400 33,955 55,7952

177,357 151,839 89,296 74,420 70,675 120,077 119,722 182,671 35,961

39 7 21 3 22 17 132,047

100 18 51 8 52 44 342,000

937,579 83,605 16,405 42,465 16,171 576,206 2,694,449

Brazzaville Loubomo Mossendjo Nkayi Pointe-Noire

14.8 21.0

471,000

59.1

69,200 10,900 15,500

9.1 1.4 2.0

101,000

12.7

225,000

28.2

+

93,800

12.3

86,700 6,400 133,000 73,200 762,000

11.4 0.8 17.5 9.6 100.06

797,000

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

102.4

104.0

109.0

113.1

113.4

117.5

120.0

ss

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1984) 5.2; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

Foreign trade’

Communes

Ouesso

estimate

sq km

4,733 28,900 5,270 8,089 25,500 10,0071 14,826 13,110 21,5422

% of labour force

Population economically active (1992): total 886,000; activity rate of total population 37.4% (participation rates [1984]: ages 15-64, 54.0%; female 45.6%; unemployed 2.3%7).

population 1992

sq mi

labour force

113,000 160,300

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

Trade Transportation and communications Finance Pub. admin., defense Services TOTAL

% of total value

aa es ge Jie

TOTAL

Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF '000,000,000 % of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

+64.8 16.2%

+26.0 9.1%

+87.2 23.5%

+ 155.0

+105.4 14.9%

+61.7 10.9%

36.3%

Imports (1991): CFAF 155,161,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 38.0%, basic manufactures 27.4%, food and live animals 11.2%, chemicals

Demography

and chemical products 8.4%, mineral fuels 3.2%, beverages and tobacco 2.3%). Major import sources (1990): France 48.1%; Cameroon 6.4%; Italy

Population (1994): 2,856,000.

Density (1993): persons per sq mi 21.6, persons per sq km 8.4. Urban-rural (1991): urban 41.1%; rural 58.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.27%; female 50.73%.

6.1%; West Germany 4.2%; Zaire 4.1%; The Netherlands 3.9%.

Exports (1991): CFAF 225,688,000,000 (petroleum and petroleum products 90.6%, basic manufactures 4.4%, inedible crude materials 2.4%, food and

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.1%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 8.5%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2000) 3,374,000; (2010) 4,390,000.

Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Kongo 51.5%; Teke 17.3%; Mboshi 11.5%; Mbete 4.8%; Punu 3.0%; Sango 2.7%; Maka 1.8%; Pygmy 1.5%; other 5.9%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 53.9%; Protestant 24.9%; African Christian 14.2%; traditional beliefs 4.8%; other 2.2%. Major cities (1992): Brazzaville 937,579; Pointe-Noire 576,206; Loubomo

83,-

605; Nkayi 42,465; Mossendjo 16,405. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.7 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 30.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 49.1 years; female 54.0 years. Morbidity (reported cases of infectious disease per 100,000 population; 1988): diarrhea 1,144; malaria 874; gonorrhea 160; schistosomiasis 133; hookworm 69.5.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: CFAF 175,000,000,000 (petroleum revenue 50.2%; nonpetroleum receipts 48.4%; aid 1.4%). Expenditures: CFAF 314,200,000,000 (current expenditure 85.1%, of which salaries 42.9%, transfers, subsidies, goods, and services 22.4%, interest 19.8%; restructuring expenditure 10.9%;

capital expenditure 4.0%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$83,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cassava 632,000, sugarcane 400,000, plantains 85,000, bananas 43,000, corn

(maize) 28,000, peanuts (groundnuts)

25,000, avocados

24,000, palm oil

15,500, yams 13,000, pineapples 12,000, cacao beans 1,000, coffee 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 305,000 goats, 111,000 sheep, 67,000 cattle;

roundwood (1992) 3,624,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 45,577. Mining and quarrying (1990): zinc concentrate 1,000; lead 1,000; gold 16 kg. Manufac-

live animals 1.9%). Major export destinations (1990): United States 42.9%; France

16.1%;

Belgium-Luxembourg

8.3%;

Italy 7.8%; The

Netherlands

7.2%; Spain 6.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 494 mi, 795 km; passenger-mi 340,000,000, passenger-km

547,000,000;

short ton-mi cargo 273,000,000,

metric ton-km

cargo 399,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 7,920 mi, 12,745 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 28,000; trucks and buses 17,418. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 22; total deadweight tonnage 10,840. Air transport: n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 3. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5; total circulation 17,000; circulation per 1,000 population 7.0. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 250,000 (1 per 11 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 8,500 (1 per 326 persons). Telephones (1989): 25,800 (1 per 85 persons). Education and health Education (1990) schools Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

1,655 2389 609 129

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

7,626 4,924 1,927 1,112

502,918 170,465 12,558 10,671

65.9 34.6 6.5 9.6

Educational attainment (1984). Percentage of population age 25 and over haying: no formal schooling 58.7%; some primary education 21.4%; secondary education 16.9%; postsecondary 3.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 56.6%; males literate 70.0%; females literate 43.9%.

Health (1989): physicians 567 (1 per 3,873 persons); hospital beds 4,817 (1 per 456 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 65. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,295 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 103% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 10,000 (army 80.0%, navy 8.0%, air force 12.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 3.8% (world [1991]

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$47.

turing (1990): distillate fuel oils 103,000, cement 58,000; raw sugar 36,0003; wheat flour 16,0004; soap 1,5004; cigarettes 1,000; beer 878,000 hectolitres; veneer sheets 60,000 cu m; plywood 2,000 cu m; footwear 171,000 pairs.

Construction:

n.a. Energy production (consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 428,000,000 (536,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (none); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1992) 63,400,000 (9,160,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 527,000 (502,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 2,950,000 (2,950,000).

Land use (1992): forested 61.8%; meadows and pastures 29.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.5%; other 8.5%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,878,000,000.

'Mossendjo is included with Niari. 2OQuesso is included with Sangha. 31993. 41988. SAt current factor cost. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Previously employed only. 8Import figures f.o.b. in balance of trade and trading partners, c.i.f. in commodities. 91989.

Nations of the World

Costa Rica

alcoholic beverages 11,210; paper and paper products 3,940; plastic products

3,154; cement, cement products, bricks, and tiles 3,125; petroleum products 3,065; paints, varnishes, and soaps and other toiletries 2,986. Construction

Official name: Repiblica de Costa Rica (Republic of Costa Rica). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [57]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: San José. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: 1 Costa Rican col6n (€) = 100 céntimos; valuation (Oct. 7,

(completed; 1989): 1,914,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 4,385,000,000 (3,890,000,000); coal, none (none); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (3,936,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 501,000 (1,116,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1992): total 1,086,988; activity rate of total population 37.0% (participation rates: ages 15-69, 58.1%; female 29.9%: unemployed [1993] 4.1%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index?

1994) 1 U.S.$=€159.70;

1£=€254.00.

Capitals

Alajuela Cartago Guanacaste Heredia

Alajuela Cartago Liberia Heredia

Limon

area

population

sami >esq km

estimate

3,766 1,207 3,915 1,026

Limon

9,753 3,125 10,1414 2,657

84.3

1991

1992

1993

19948

128.7 116.8

156.8 144.5

172.1

187.3 5

3,548

Puntarenas

- San José

9,188

Land use (1991): forested 32.1%; meadows and pastures 45.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.4%; other 11.9%.

344,063

Foreign trade10

4,354

mote

4,959

1,183,572

19,7301

51,100

3,232,526

1,915

and footwear 8.0%, education 8.0%, transportation 8.0%, other 26.0%.

562,781 375,356 216,688 296,342 253,724

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 3,308,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 165.6, persons per sq km 64.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 44.1%; rural 55.9%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.55%; female 49.45%.

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 35.2%; 15-29, 27.5%; 30-44, 20.6%; 45-59, 10.0%; 60-74, 5.2%; 75 and over, 1.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,798,000; (2010) 4,534,000. Doubling time: 32 years. Ethnic composition

(1990): white 85.0%; mestizo 8.0%; black/mulatto 3.0%;

East Asian (mostly Chinese) 3.0%; Amerindian 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 81.3%; other (mostly Protestant and nonreligious) 18.7%. Major cities (1992): San José 280,6132.3 (metropolitan area 921,7263); Desamparados 54,6684; Limon 50,9395; Alajuela 45,442; Puntarenas 38,274.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1984) legitimate 62.8%; illegitimate 37.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 21.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 71.9 years; female 77.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 115.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 77.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 41.0; diseases of the respiratory system 39.8; diseases of the

digestive system 20.5.

National economy Budget (1992)®. Revenue:

17.7%,

€£142,670,000,000 (customs duties 49.0%, general

income

taxes

11.2%,

consumption

taxes 5.6%). Ex-

penditures: €:158,717,000,000 (current expenditure 89.8%, development ex-

penditure 10.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,207,000,000.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$6,261,000,000

(U.S.$2,000 per capita).

1993 in value

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other

1,159 1,469 189 295 424 1,613 841 1,045 538

1992 % of total value7 15.3

=

7A ae

7,573

100.0

labour force 259,052 1,554 204,016 65,904 13,416 50,205 179,960 38,538

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—28.3 1.1%

-136.4 4.6%

-3492 10.8%

-97.5 3.0%

-3864 9.5%

1993 © -540.7 11.5%

Imports (1992): U.S.$2,441,500,000 (basic manufactures for industry 38.0%; nondurable consumer goods 16.3%; capital goods for industry 15.1%; refined petroleum and derivatives 9.9%). Major import sources: United States 53.6%; Japan 6.7%; Venezuela 4.6%; Mexico 3.6%; Guatemala 3.4%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$1,828,900,000 (bananas 27.0%; coffee 11.1%; ornamental plants, leaves, and flowers 3.7%; pineapples 2.5%; fresh bovine meat 2.3%). Major export destinations: United States 55.2%; Germany 7.5%; Italy 5.3%; Canada 3.4%; Guatemala 3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (1992) 590 mi, 950 km; (1990) passenger-

mi 26,500,000, passenger-km 42,600,000; (1987) short ton-mi cargo 102,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 150,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 22,096 mi,

35,560 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 194,846; trucks and buses 100,356. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight tonnage 8,368. Air transport (1993) 12: passengermi 885,000,000, passenger-km

1,425,000,000; short-ton mi cargo 25,946,000,

metric ton-km cargo 37,881,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 13. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 4; total circulation 314,000; circulation per 1,000 population 102. Radio: n.a. Television (1993): total number of receivers 340,000 (1 per 9.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 485,680 (1 per 6.5 persons). Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-17) Vocational Higher 14, 15

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

3,317

14,078 4,968 2,281 7,534

453,297 108,344 30,959 60,145

32.2 21.8 13.6 8.0

17913 7713 5

Educational attainment (1984). Percentage of economically active population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 8.3%; incomplete primary education 28.6%; complete primary 26.3%; secondary 22.6%; postsecondary and higher 14.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 1,798,000 (92.8%); males literate 913,000 (92.6%); females literate 885,000 93.1%).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

70.7

1990 100.0 100.0

tionals abroad U.S.$266,000,000.

TOTAL

sales taxes

1989 84.0

Family income and expendityre. Average household size (1993) 4.2; (1983) income per urban family £181,416 (U.S.$4,415), income per rural family £98,328 (U.S.$2,393); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1980-85): food and beverages 33.0%, household furnishings 9.0%, housing 8.0%, clothing

1993

Provinces

Puntarenas

1988 72.1

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$577,000,000; expenditures by na-

Area and population

San José

589

% of labour force

Health (ee physicians 3,362 (1 per 962 persons); hospital beds 6,126 (1 per 528 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,711 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.4% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$7. The army was officially abolished in 1948. Paramilitary and police forces had 7,500 members in 1993.

258,370 15,973 1,086,988

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 2,840,000, bananas 1,633,000, rice 209,000, coffee 168,000, pineap-

ples 154,000, oranges 134,000, plantains 86,000, palm oil 75,000, corn (maize) 40,000, dry beans 36,000, other products include other tropical fruits, cut

flowers, and ornamental plants grown for export; livestock (number of live animals) 1,741,000 cattle, 224,000 pigs, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood 4,306,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 17,905, of which shrimps 3,492. Mining and

quarrying (1992): limestone 1,300,000, gold 17,700 troy oz. Manufacturing (value added in ¢°000,000; 1990): food products 26,153; alcoholic and non-

1Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Population of San José canton. 31993. 4Within San José metropolitan area. 51991. 6Excludes social security revenue and contributions. 7Estimated figures. 8April. July wages only, for nonagricultural employees. !Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and cif. for commodities and trading partners. !!Breakdown based on 1991 imports totaling U.S.$1,852,700,000.

151992.

12Lacsa (Costa Rican Airlines) only. 131990.

14Universities only.

590

Britannica World Data

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Cote d’Ivoire

1993

Agriculture Manufacturing and mining Construction and public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, pub. admin., defense, and services

Capital designate: Yamoussoukro (de

TOTAL

jure; administrative). Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation

area Abengourou Abidjan Aboisso

Adzopé Agboville

Agnibilékrou Bangolo

Béoumi

Biankouma Bondoukou Bongouanou

Bouaflé Bouaké Bouna Boundiali

Dabakala Daloa

Danané Daoukro Dimbokro Divo

Duékoueé

Ferkessedougou Gagnoa Grand-Lahou

5,200 8,550 6,250 5,230 3,850 1,700 2,060 2,820 4,950 10,040 5,570 3,980 4,700 21,470 7,895 9,670 5,450 4,600 3,610 4,920 7,920 2,930 17,728 4,500 2,280

population 216,058 2,485,847 225,895 237,870 203,493 84,349 79,979

90,327 98,236

Consumer price index Hourly earnings indexs

Guiglo Issia Katiola Korhogo Lakota Man Mankono M'bahiakro

Odiénné Oumé

224,958

Sakassou

450,594

Sassandra

135,813

127,847

San-Pédro Séguéla Sinfra

81,820

Soubré

359,753 222,839

Tabou Tanda

141,968

Tiassalé

387,106 102,168

Touba Toumodi

172,893 276,217

Vavoua Yamoussoukro

86,494

52,559

area sq km

population

11,220 3,590 9,420 12,500 2,730 4,990 10,660 5,460 20,600 2,400 1,880 6,900 5,190 11,240 1,690 8,270 5,440 6,490 2,200 3,370 8,720 2,780 6,160 6,160 2,830 320,7632

170,321 195,663 130,635 390,229 116,771 294,724 123,362 102,531 169,764 141,268 59,362 170,669 108,090 121,235 121,903 310,790 58,147 204,070 54,847 133,708 107,886 80,802 168,292 281,442 114,027 10,815,694

Department

174,251

165,822

% of labour force

897.0

34.1

2,723,900 149,200

63.9 3.5

542.0

20.6 89,500

2.1

123,600

2.9

1,194.0

45.3

558,400

13.1

618,100

14.5

2,633.0

100.0

4,262,700

100.0

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100)

Area and population (1988 census) sq km

labour force

0.6%).

837.67.

Department

% of total value

Population economically active (1992): total 4,826,000; activity rate 37.4% (participation rates [1988]: ages 15-54, 66.4%; female 33.9%; unemployed

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF

1988

in value CFAF ‘000,000,000

Official name: République de Cote d'Ivoire (Republic of Céte dIvoire [Ivory Coast]'). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [175]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Abidjan (de facto; legislative).

Tengréla

Zuénoula TOTAL

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

114.3 100.0

122.3 100.0

123.5 100.0

122.5 100.0

124.5 100.0

128.9 100.0

132.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 5.4; average annual income per household (1980) CFAF 500,000; sources of income: self-employment 49.9%, wages 44.9%,’ transfers and other resources 5.2%;

expenditure (1992)6; food 48.0%, clothing 10.1%, energy and water 8.5%, housing 7.8%, transportation 6.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) +1,118.3 23.4%

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

+1,078.1 24.1%

+1,067.4 23.5%

+1,417.0 29.4%

Imports (1993): CFAF 452,600,000,000 (1992; crude and refined petroleum 22.5%; machinery and transport equipment 21.2%; food and food products 16.6%; pharmaceuticals 5.7%; plastics 3.3%; paper and paper products 2.9%; chemicals 2.6%; iron 2.5%). Major import sources (1992): France 34.2%; Nigeria 18.7%; Japan 4.2%; Germany 3.9%; The Netherlands 3.9%.

Exports (1993): CFAF 755,600,000,000 (1992; food products 53.1%, of which cocoa

beans

and products 33.8%,

coffee

and coffee products

7.3%, fish

products 3.4%; petroleum products 11.2%; wood and wood products 9.7%; cotton and cotton cloth 5.2%). Major export destinations (1992): France 15.0%; The Netherlands

11.5%; Germany 5.8%; Italy 5.6%; Burkina Faso

5.3%; Mali 4.5%; Nigeria 4.3%; Belgium-Luxembourg 4.3%; United States 4.2%.

Demography Population (1994): 13,895,000.

Transport and communications

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 112.2, persons per sq km 43.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 42.0%; rural 58.0%. Sex distribution (1988): male 51.10%; female 48.90%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 46.8%; 15-29, 27.3%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 7.5%; 60-74, 2.8%; 75 and over 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 17,065,000; (2010) 23,657,000. Ethnolinguistic composition3 (1988): Akan 41.8%; Voltaic 16.3%; Malinke 15.9%; Kru 14.6%; Southern Mande 10.7%; other 0.7%.

Religious affiliation (1988): Muslim 38.7%; Catholic 20.8%; animist 17.0%; atheist 13.4%; Protestant 5.3%, excluding Harrism (1.4%), an indigenous form of Methodism; other 3.4%.

Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 660 km; passenger-km 1,210,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 680,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 42,250 mi, 68,000 km (paved 8%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 175,000; trucks and buses 95,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 51; total deadweight tonnage 98,618. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 286,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 16,000,000; airports (1994) 7.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation 90,000; circulation per 1,000 population 8. Radio (1993): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 8.9 persons). Television (1993): 810,000 receivers (1 per 17 persons). Telephones (1992): 206,610 (1 per 62 persons).

Major cities (1988): Abidjan 1,929,0794; Bouaké 329,850; Daloa 121,842; Korhogo 109,445; Yamoussoukro

106,786.

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 49.9 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 35.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.4. Life expectancy at birth (1988): male 53.6 years; female 57.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the major infectious diseases include malaria, dysentery, yaws, pneumonia, leprosy.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: CFAF 840,100,000,000 (current revenues 81.7%, of which duties 28.1%, taxes on income, goods, and services 16.8%). Expenditures: CFAF 789,800,000,000 (current expenses 79.1%; investments 20.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$13,300,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$53,000,000; expenditures U.S.$228,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): yams 2,480,000, sugarcane 1,450,000, cassava 1,388,000, plantains 1,199,000, cacao beans 775,000, rice 675,000, corn (maize) 540,000, coconuts 225,000, coffee 200,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,219,000 sheep, 1,205,000 cattle, 940,000 goats; roundwood (1992) 13,302,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 87,026. Mining and quarrying (1992): diamonds 15,000 carats. Man-

ufacturing (1986): cement 770,000; beer 1,300,000 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 495,000 hectolitres; synthetic fibres 5,000,000 metres.

Education (1992) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19)7 Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

6,844

39,237 9,263 1,9478 1,20410

1,447,785 289,510 3,094 19,6604

student/ teacher ratio

36.9 31.3

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 60.0%; Koranic school 3.6%; primary education 24.8%; secondary 10.7%; higher 0.9%. Literacy (1988): percentage of popuyee age 15 and over literate 34.1%; males literate 44.4%; females literate 24.4%.

Health: physicians (1990) 1,020 (1 per 11,745 persons); hospital beds (1982) ae (1 per 891 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (199095). O49

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,568 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 111% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 8,400 (army 81.0%, navy 10.7%, air force 8.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 0.8% (world avg. [1991] 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$6.

Construc-

tion (in CFAF; 1984): 62,000,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr,; 1992) 2,311,018,000 (1,946,170,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 2,382,000 (14,917,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,787,000 (1,763,000). Land use (1992): forested 22.3%; meadows and pastures 40.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 11.7%; other 25.1%. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$8,416,000,000 (U.S.$630 per capita).

‘From 1986, Céte d’Ivoire has requested that the French version of the country’s name be utilized as the official protocol version in all languages. 2Total area per

more recent survey is 322,463 sq km; area breakdown by department is not available.

3“Ivoirian” nationals only, representing about 65% of the de facto population. 41990:

2,168,000. ‘January 1; index refers to the S.M.L.G. (salaire minimum interprofessionel garanti), a form of minimum professional wage. 6Weights of consumer price index components for a worker’s family living in the capital city. 7Data do not include 208 private schools with 107,096 students. 81991, 91980, 101982.

Nations of the World

Croatia

120,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 12,775,000 (n.a.); petroleum

products

Official name: Republika Hrvatska

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Neca i

Kastela

Brac

13,824

Buje Buzet

23,877 7,439

Kostajnica Krapina

Gabar Gakovec Cazma

5,169 119,866

Klanjec Knin Koprivnica

Koréula

Krizevci Krk Kutina

19,154 52,954 30,092 17,848

Lastovo Ludbreg Makarska Metkovic

Donja Stubica Donji Lapac

30,760 8,054

Nasice Nova GradiSka

Donji Miholjac Dris Dubrovnik Duga Resa Durdevac Dvor GareSnica Glina

20,365 24,169 71,419 30,485 40,901 14,555 18,442 23,040

Crikvenica Dakovo Daruvar Delnice

Gospic Gracac Grubi§no Polje

Hvar Imotski

lvanec

Ivanié-Grad Jastrebarsko Karlovac

11,796

29,049 10,434

14,206 11,459 39,052 41,680 25,592 32,422 81,319

Labin

Novi Marof Novska Obrovac Ogulin

Omis Opatija

Orahovica Osijek

Otocac Ozalj

Trade

population

Districts

32,286

Pozega

10,917

Pregrada

42,954 61,052 19,651 14,851 26,382 39,248 16,402 39,520 25,983 1,228 21,848 21,041 22,818 40,829 60,749 29,254 24,696 11,557 29,095 25,784 29,799 15,631 165,253

Pag Pakrac Pazin

Petrinja

Ploée Podravska Slatina

population

Pula Rab Rijeka Rovinj Senj Sibenik Sinj Sisak Slavonski Brod Slunj Solin Split Sveti Ivan Zelina Titova Korenica Trogir Valpovo Varazdin Vinkovci Virovitica Vis Vojnic Vrbovec Vrbovsko Vrginmost Vrgorac Vukovar

19,006 35,565 13,008

Zabok Zadar Zagreb

31,227 22,988

Zlatar Zupanja

TOTAL

71,745 16,939 85,326 9,205 206,229 No72r 9,205 85,002 60,210 84,348 114,249 18,962 27,402 207,147

17,152 11,393 22,168 33,108 94,373 98,445 46,661 4,354 8,236 28,074 7,528 16,599 7,497 84,189 36,309 136,572 953,607 31,291 49,026 4,785,336

% of labour force

54,003

3.5

391,052

25.6

6.6

71,751

4

28,044

47

9.4

93,890

1.8 6.2

1,113,900

20.2

195,767

176,512

12.8

3.2

49,350

51,329

0.9

48,519 184,758

3.2 3.2 12.1

5,520,603

100.0

Finance

24,992 14,787 7,969 27,589

Porec

520,125

Other TOTAL

15,263

Cres-LoSinj

59,237

Transp. and commun.

labour force

44.4

363,045

Public utilities

Pub. admin., defense Services

Districts

% of total value 14.2

2,451,469

Construction

Area and population (1991 census) population

in value Din '000,0003 784,986

Agriculture

1 U.S.$=5.68 kune; 1 £=9.04 kune.

Beli Manastir 54,265 Benkovac 33,378 Biograd na moru__—_17,661 Bjelovar 66,039

(metric tons; 1992) 2,997,000 (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

1,820,000,000 (n.a.). Gross national product (1991): U.S.$26,300,000,000 (U.S.$5,600 per capita).

(Republic of Croatia). Form of government: multiparty republic with a two-chambered legislature (House of Counties [681]; House of Representatives [1382]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Zagreb. Official language: Croatian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 kuna (plural kune)3= 100 lipa; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Districts

591

408,8015 1,525,935

26.95 100.0

Population economically active (1992): total 1,525,935; activity rate of total

population 31.8% (participation rates [1991]: ages 15-64, 57.1%; female 42.9%; unemployed 18.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Annual earnings index6

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

0.4 95

1 98

14 120

100 100

225 75

1,652 43

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.1; income per household (1990) Din 165,8133 (U.S.$14,650); sources (1990): selfemployment 40.8%, wages 40.2%, transfers 12.1%, other 6.9%; expenditure (1988): food 34.2%, transportation 9.3%, clothing 8.6%, housing 8.3%, energy 7.6%, drink and tobacco 5.1%, durable goods 4.5%, health care 4.3%.

ck

18.7%.

(1990): forest 39.0%; pasture 24.1%; agricultural 18.2%; other

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) HrD '000,0003 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—40 8.5%

—34 7.3%

—63 11.5%

= )i] 127%

—49 7.8%

+21 2.2%

Imports (1992): HrD 468,679,0003 (basic manufactures 19.1%, chemicals 16.8%, machinery 16.6%, consumer goods 15.1%, food 12.0%). Major import sources: Germany 17.8%; Italy 16.7%; former U.S.S.R. 6.1%; Czech and Slovak republics 5.9%; Austria 4.6%. Exports (1992): HrD

489,497,0003

(consumer goods 20.8%, basic manufac-

tures 19.2%, machinery 17.1%, chemicals 12.8%, food 12.0%). Major export destinations: Italy 20.1%; Germany 18.1%; Sweden 6.5%; China 2.6%; Aus-

Demography

tria 2.5%.

Population (1994): 4,788,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 219.3, persons per sq km 84.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 50.8%; rural 49.2%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.46%; female 51.54%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 19.4%; 15-29, 20.7%; 30-44, 22.7%; 45-59, 18.3%; 60-74, 12.9%; 75 and over, 4.5%; not stated 1.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,786,000; (2010) 4,782,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population is declining. Ethnic composition (1991): Croat 78.1%; Serb 12.2%; Bosnian 0.9%; Magyar 0.5%; Slovene 0.5%; other 7.8%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 76.5%; Eastern Orthodox 11.1%; Muslim 1.2%; other 11.2%4. Major cities (1991): Zagreb 706,770; 104,761; Zadar 76,343.

Split 189,388;

Rijeka

167,964;

Osijek

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.8 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 92.4%; illegitimate 7.6%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): —1.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 1.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1989-90): male 66.8 years; female 74.8 years. _ Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 571.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 226.1; accidents, violence, and poisoning 91.8; diseases of the digestive system 53.2.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: HrD 651,518,000,0003 (sales tax 48.6%, income tax 19.0%, import duties 15.3%). Expenditures: 649,336,000,000 (development 22.8%, social services 8.1%, education 2.5%, health 0.4%, defense 0.4%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 1,676 mi, 2,699 km; passenger-km 981,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,770,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 26,928

km (paved 81%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 669,761; trucks and buses 35,452. Merchant marine (1992): fishing vessels 315. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 145,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,261,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications, Daily newspapers (1990): 9; total circulation 715,000; circulation per 1,000 population 150. Radio (1992): 1,090,000 receivers (1 per 4.4 persons). Television (1992): 1,045,000 receivers (1 per 4.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,107,000 (1 per 4.3 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)7 Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr.8

Higher’

schools

teachers

students

1,906 485

22,785 11,893

3

104

58

6,276

418,586 174,588 2,326 73,188

student/ teacher ratio

18.4 14.7 22.4 NA7,

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population having: no schooling or unknown 10.1%; less than full 21.2%; primary 23.4%; secondary 35.9%; postsecondary Literacy (1991): total population age 10 and over literate

age 15 and over primary education and higher 9.4%. 3,734,000 (97.0%);

males 98.8%; females 95.3%.

Health (1992): physicians 9,261 (1 per 517 persons); hospital beds 29,093 (1 per 165 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 11.6.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 103,300 (army 92.0%, navy 3.9%, air force and air defense 4.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.

corn (maize) 1,358,000, wheat 658,000, sugar beets 525,000, potatoes 480,-

000, grapes 380,000, barley 107,000, plums 62,000; livestock (number of live

Includes 5 nonelective seats. 2Includes 14 seats reserved for, and elected by, minority

animals) 1,182,000 pigs, 590,000 cattle, 539,000 sheep, 13,142,000 poultry; roundwood 3,244,000 cu m; fish catch 25,022, of which freshwater 6,246.

communities.

Mining and quarrying (1992): lime 261,000; bauxite 6,878. Manufacturing (1992): ammonia 426,000; crude steel 102,000; aluminum 20,000; detergents

50,882; cotton fibre 12,132. Construction (1992): residential 623,000 sq m;

nonresidential 1,081,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electric-

ity (kW-hr; 1992) 8,860,000,000

(11,902,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992)

3On Jan. 1, 1990, the Yugoslav new dinar (Din), equal to 10,000 Yu-

goslav old dinars (Din), was introduced. On Dec. 23, 1991, the Croatian dinar (HrD) was introduced at parity with the Yugoslav new dinar, which it replaced as Croatia’s official currency.

On

May 30, 1994, the kuna, equal to 1,000 Croatian

dinars, was

introduced. 4Includes a significant minority of adherents of the Croatian Old Catholic Church, as well as small communities of Protestant Christians and Jews. 5Includes unemployed and private sector. *Based on worker real net personal income. 7Data exclude private (combined) primary and secondary schools. 81992-1993.

592

Britannica World Data 60.5%, transportation services 5.4%, energy 2.7%, value of self-produced and consumed food 1.5%, household repairs 1.3%, other 1.9%.

Cuba

Population economically active (1988): total 4,570,236; activity rate of total population 43.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 56.9%; female 36.1%;

Official name: Reptiblica de Cuba (Republic of Cuba). Form of government: unitary socialist republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People’s Power [589]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Havana. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Cuban peso (CUP) =

unemployed 6.0%).

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Implicit consumer price deflator index Monthly earnings index

1983

1984

1985

94.9 95.9

98.0 99.0

100.0 100.0

Public debt (hard currency to the West; 1989): U.S.$6,800,000,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$216,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.$48,000,000.

100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1991): U.S.$17,000,000,000 (U.S.$1,580 per capita).

1 U.S.$=1.00 CUP!; 1 £=1.59 CUP.

Structure of global social product and labour force Area and population Provinces Camagiey Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos Ciudad de la Habana3 Granma

Guantanamo

Holguin La Habana4 Las Tunas Matanzas

sq mi

Capitals Camagiiey

sq km

6,174 2,668 1,613 281

15,990

Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos —

Bayamo

3,232

8,372

Holguin

3,591

9,301

Havana Las Tunas Matanzas

2,213 2,544 4,625

5,731 6,589 11,978

4,218 2,604

10,925 6,744 6,170

Guantanamo

2,388

Pinar del Rio Sancti Spiritus

Pinar del Rio Sancti Spiritus

Santiago de Cuba Villa Clara

Santiago de Cuba Santa Clara

Special municipality Isla de la Juventud TOTAL

Nueva Gerona

2,382 3,345 926 42,804

1989

population 19892

in value CUP ’000,000 4,273 1,039 10,617 733 2,510 2,151 = 5,401 a = 191 26,915

estimate

8,662

732,056 358,059 358,589 2,077,938 781,331 491,422 982,722 636,889 485,136 602,996 684,725 424,243 980,002 801,456

2,398 110,861

71,097 10,468,661

6,910 4,178 727

6,186

Agriculture Mining? Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Finance, insurance Trade Public administration Services Other TOTAL

% of labour force

721,100

20.4

767,500 344,300 235,900 21,700 395,300 151,700 835,700 53,400 3,526,600

Land use (1992): forested 20.9%; meadows and pastures 27.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.4%; other 21.7%.

Foreign trade’ 1984

Population (1994): 10,994,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 256.8, persons per sq km 99.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 72.8%; rural 27.2%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.35%; female 49.65%.

CUP ‘000,000 % of total

Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 23.3%; 15-29, 31.7%; 30-44, 19.5%; 45-59, 13.7%; 60 and over, 11.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 11,502,000; (2010) 12,181,000. Doubling time: 65 years. Ethnic composition 1.0%.

=o 13.8%

1985

— 2,043 14.6%

1986

1987

1988

=—2;275 17.6%

— 2,181 16.8%

— 2,062 15.7%

1989 — 2,732 20.2%

Imports (1989): CUP 8,124,200,000 (mineral fuels and lubricants machinery and transport equipment 31.2%, food and live animals basic manufactures 10.3%, chemicals 6.5%, inedible crude materials Major import sources: U.S.S.R. 68.0%; East Germany 4.4%; China

32.4%, 11.4%, 3.8%). 3.1%;

Czechoslovakia 2.7%; Spain 2.3%; Argentina 2.2%.

(1994): mixed 51.0%; white 37.0%; black 11.0%; other

Religious affiliation (1980): nonreligious 48.7%; Roman Catholic 39.6%; atheist 6.4%; Protestant 3.3%; Afro-Cuban syncretist 1.6%; other 0.4%. Major cities (19892): Havana 2,077,938; Santiago de Cuba 397,024; Camagiiey 278,958; Holguin 222,794; Guantanamo 197,868.

Exports (1989): CUP. 5,392,000,000 (sugar 73.2%, minerals and concentrates 9.2%, citrus and other agricultural products 3.9%, fish products 2.4%, raw tobacco and tobacco products 1.6%). Major export destinations: U.S.S.R. 59.9%; East Germany 5.3%; China 4.0%; Bulgaria 3.3%; Czechoslovakia

2.5%.

Transport and communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 17.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 6.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 17.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.2. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 73.9 years; female 77.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 251.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 125.2; accidents, violence, and suicide 69.4; diseases of the respiratory system 34.0; diabetes mellitus 20.6.

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 3,033 mi, 4,881 km; passenger-km 3,025,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,368,000,000. Roads (1986): total length 28,928 mi, 46,555 km (paved 27%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 241,300; trucks and buses 208,400. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 393; total deadweight tonnage 924,591. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 3,070,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 34,794,000; airports with

scheduled flights (1994) 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 17; total circulation 1,315,000; circulation per 1,000 population 124. Radio (1993): 2,140,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1993): 2,500,000 receivers (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 614,220 (1 per 18 persons).

Education and health

National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: CUP 12,463,200,000. Expenditures: CUP 14,448,400,-

Education (1991-92)

000 (capital investment 37.7%; education and public health 20.4%; social, and

labour forces

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

cultural,

% of total value 15.9 3.9. 39.4 uhh 9.3 8.0

scientific activities

17.3%;

defense,

internal

security

9.5%;

housing, community services 6.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 44,000,000, oranges and tangerines 440,000, grapefruit 310,000, bananas and plantains 295,000, cassava 290,000, potatoes 216,000, tomatoes 200,000, sweet potatoes 200,000, rice 186,000, tobacco leaves 44,000, coffee beans 22,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,500,000 cattle, 1,603,000 pigs, 25,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 3,140,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 165,236. Mining and quarrying (1993): chromite 50,000; nickel (metal content of ores) 36,5005. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000;

1990): tobacco products 2,629; food products 1,033; beverages 358; chemical products 354; transport equipment 225; nonelectrical machinery 176; textiles (excluding ready-made clothing) 109; wearing apparel 88; rubber products 83. Construction (gross value of construction in CUP 000,000; 1989): residential 227; nonresidential 872. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 12,492,000,000 (12,492,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (151,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 6,036,000 (36,501,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 4,557,000 (8,350,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 37,005,000 (37,005,000).

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 3.7; average annual income per household (1982) CUP 3,680 (U.S.$4,330); sources

of income (1982): wages and salaries 57.3%, bonuses and other payments 42.7%; personal consumption (1989): food 26.7%, other retail purchases

schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

9,346 2,1759 6189 359

teachers

74,354 61,804 33,892 24,668 10

student/ students

917,889 597,997 314,168 242,434 10

teacher ratio

12.3 9.7 9.3 9,810

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or some primary education 39.6%; completed primary 26.6%; secondary 29.6%; higher 4.2%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 7,200,000 (96.0%). Health: physicians (1992) 46,860 (1 per 231 persons); hospital beds (1991) 79,997 (1 per 134 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 9.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,129 (vegetable products 78%, animal products 22%); 135% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 106,000 (army 80.2%, navy 5.7%, air force 14.17%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 4.2% (world 4.5 %); per capita expenditure: U.S.$132. ‘Official rate; the black-market rate is about 50 pesos (CUP) to U.S.$1. 2January 1. 3Province coextensive with the city of Havana. 4Province bordering the city of Havana

on the east, south, and west. 5Includes cobalt. 6State sector only; excludes military and

unemployed. 7Mining includes metallurgy and refined petroleum products. 8Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b, 91989-90. 101990-91,

Nations of the World

Cyprus

593

34.6; food 50.9; cement, bricks, and tiles 32.4; beverages 31.5; fabricate d

metals 27.9. Energy production: electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,404,000,000.

Island of Cyprus

Foreign trade’

Area: 3,572 sq mi, 9,251 sq km.

Imports (1993): £C 1,316,100,000 (consumer goods 26.4%; transport equipment 10.7%; capital goods. 10.4%; mineral fuels 9.7%). Major import sources: U.K. 12.1%; Italy 10.0%; U.S. 8.9%; Greece 8.0%; Japan 7.8%. Exports (1993): £C 431,500,000 (domestic exports 46.3%, of which clothing 11.8%, potatoes 4.7%; reexports 43.4%; ships’ stores 10.3%). Major export

Population (1994): 769,0001.

destinations: U.K. 15.7%; Lebanon 12.8%; Greece 7.7%; Germany 5.2%.

Transport and communications Two de facto states currently exist on the island of Cyprus: the Republic of Cyprus (ROC), predominantly Greek in character, occupyi ng the southern two-thirds of the island, which is the original and still the internationally recognized de jure government of the whole island; and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), proclaimed unilaterally Nov. 15, 1983, on territory originally secured for the Turkish Cypriot populat ion by the July 20, 1974, intervention of Turkey. Only Turkey recognizes the TRNC, and the two ethnic communities have failed to reestablish a single state. Provision of separate data below does not imply recognition of either state’s claims but is necessitated by the continuing lack of unified data.

Transport. Roads (1992): total length 10,448 km (paved 55%). Vehicles (1992): cars 197,779; trucks and buses 84,3269. Merchant marine (1992): vessels 1,416; deadweight tonnage 36,198,083. Air transport (1993)10: passenger-km 2,541,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 33,336,000; airports (1994) 2.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): 10; total circulation 86,000; circulation per 1,000 population 150. Television (1993): 234,000 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Telephones (1991): 348,810 (1 per 1.6 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/ schools _ teachers

Primary (age 5-12) Secondary (age 12-18)

Republic of Cyprus

Vocational

Official name: Kipriaki Dimokratia (Greek); Kibris Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Republic of Cyprus). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (House of Representatives [802]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Nicosia. Official languages: Greek; Turkish. _ Monetary unit: 1 Cyprus pound (£C)=100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1£C=US.$2.13 = £1.33.

Area and population glee

Populations 19924

Districts Famagusta Larnaca Limassol Nicosia Paphos TOTAL

Capitals Famagusta Larnaca Limassol Nicosia Paphos

9. Ms en 433 538 Be 539 2,2765

pes Kies Ks 1,121 1,393 S, 1,396 5,8965

Peesiiiiees 30,700 97,900 170,100 233,200

Higher

390

3,257

63,454

19.5

113

3,848

47,908

12.5

29

485

5,952

12.3

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling 6%; higher education 15%. Literacy (1991): population age 15 and over literate 94%; male 98%; female 90%.

Health (1991): physicians 1,265 (1 per 457 persons); hospital beds 3,391 (1 per 170 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 11.0.

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Official name: Kuzey Kibris Tiirk Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). Capital: Lefkoga (Nicosia). Official language: Turkish. Monetary unit: 1 Turkish lira (LT)=100 kurush; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=LT 34,441; 1 £=LT 54,779. Area and population

area

49,400 581 ,3006

Districts Lefkoga (Nicosia)

Gazimagusa (Famagusta) Girne (Kyrenia)

Population (1994): 614,0003.

TOTAL

Ethnic composition: Greek Cypriot c. 95%; other c. 5%. Religious affiliation (1990): Cypriot Orthodox 82.0%; Maronite 1.5%; other

1989

Seana Lefkoga

gg

Gazimagusa

Cotaae 78,772

af

64,190

247

640

26,310

1,295

3,355

169,272

Population (1994): 155,000 (Lefkoga 39,49611; Gazimagusa 20,51611). Ethnic composition (1985): Turkish 98.7%; other 1.3%. Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Major urban areas (1991): Nicosia 166,500; Limassol 129,700.

in value LT 000,000,000 Agriculture

Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin.

Services Other

National economy

SS KOT

ay

Girne

16.5%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 20.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.1 (world avg. 16.8), Life expectancy at birth (1987-91): male 74.1 years; female 78.6 years.

population1

aie

Demography Urban-rural (1992): urban 76.7%; rural 23.3%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 26.1%; 15-29, 22.5%; 30-44, 22.5%; 45-59, 15.0%; 60-74, 9.8%; 75 and over, 4.1%.

students _ teacher ratio

1992 % of total value

427

11.5

397 265 65 317 779 310

10.7 Tal ed 8.5 20.9 8.3

721

19.3

232 21712

6.2 5.812

labour force

% of labour force

18,690

25.2

16,267

22.0

7,000 7,862 1,231 5,913 7,185 2,092 7,025 80013

9.4 10.6 1.7 8.0 OF 2.8 35 1.113

Budget (1992). Revenue: £C 874,900,000 (indirect taxes 38.1%, direct taxes 25.9%, social-security contributions 15.1%). Expenditures: £C 1,023,200,000 (current expenditures 88.6%, development expenditures 11.4%). Tourism: receipts (1993) U.S.$1,400,000,000; expenditures (1992) U.S.$132,-

Budget (1992). Revenue:

Household expenditure (1991): food, beverages, and expenditures in restaurants 26.9%, transportation and communications 17.7%. /

Imports (1992): U.S.$371,400,000 (machinery and equipment 32.7%, petroleum {all forms] 9.2%). Major import sources: Turkey 48.1%; U.K. 12.3%. Exports (1992): U.S.$54,600,000 (citrus fruits 40.7%). Major export destinations:

000,000.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$6,946,000,000 (U.S.$11,860 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense

Other ae TOTAL

183.5 9.3 401.7 322.3 67.7 267.1 621.7 516.4 ae ‘ 194.9 3,223.6

3,730

100.0

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

; 0.3 12.5 10.0 21 8.3 19.3 16.0 ee

35,000 700 45,500 23,300 1,500 16,200 67,800 19,400 57,600

12.1 0.2 15.8 8.1 0.5 5.6 23.5 6.7 19.9

6.0 100.0

21,8007 288,800

7.67 100.0

Production. Agriculture (value of production in £C ’000,000; 1991): potatoes 31.4, milk 23.7, pork 18.2, poultry 16.3, sheep and goat meat 15.8, grapes 12.0. Manufacturing (value added in £C 000,000; 1991): wearing apparel

74,065

100.0

LT 1,028,000,000 (tax revenue 70.9%, foreign aid

14.7%, other 14.4%). Expenditures: LT 1,323,000,000 (current expenditure 86.6%, development expenditure 7.0%, defense 6.4%).

U.K. 66.5%; Turkey 16.7%. Education (1991-92)

1993 in value £C '000,000

TOTAL

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Vocational Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

155 28 10

849 963 254

19,400 16,719 2,761

22.9 17.4 10.9

4

201 14

6,145

26.114

Health (1989): physicians 250 (1 per 677 persons); hospital beds 1,042 (1 per 162 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1987-89 avg.) 6.3. ‘Includes “settlers” from Turkey in the TRNC; excludes 30,000 Turkish military in the TRNC, 4,100 British military in the Sovereign Base Areas in the ROC, and 1,200 UN peacekeeping forces. ?Twenty-four seats reserved for Turkish Cypriots are not occupied. 3Population excludes British and UN military forces. 4January 1. 5SArea includes 99 sq mi (256 sq km) of British military Sovereign Base Areas and c. 107 sq mi (c. 278 sq km) of the UN Buffer Zone. 6Population per October 1992 census is 602,025. 7Includes 7,600 unemployed. Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. 91991. 10Cyprus Airways. 111989. 12Customs duties. !3Unemployed. 141989-90.

594

Britannica World Data

Population economically active (19933): total 5,270,433; activity rate of total population 51.5% (participation rates: [1992] ages 15-59 [male], 15-54 [female] 86.3%; female 47.2%; unemployed 3.5%).

Czech Republic Official name: Cesk Republika. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [81!]; Chamber of Deputies [200]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Prague. Official language: Czech. Official religion: none. Monetary unit?: 1 Czech koruna

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Annual earnings index

population

19923 Ceské Budéjovice Brno

Severni Cechy

Usti nad Labem Ostrava Prague

Severni Morava Stredni Cechy

Hradec Kralové Pizen

Vychodni,Cechy Zapadni Cechy Capital city Prague TOTAL

1990 1901 170.0

100.0 100.0

116.6

1992

1993

174.7 127.3

210.3 177.7

1991

Area and population Capitals

91.4 97.3

Structure of net material product and labour force

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =27.80 Ke; 1 £=44.22 Ke.

Regions

1989

89.9 94.0

Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Gross national product (1992): U.S.$25,313,000,000 (U.S.$2,440 per capita).

(Kc) = 100 halura; valuation

Jizni Cechy Jizni Morava

1988

sq km

estimate

4,380 5,802 3,019 4,273 4,245 4,340 4,199

11,345 15,027 7,820 11,067 10,994 11,240 10,875

698,474 2,051,742 1,174,721 1,964,288 1,111,244 1,234,566 860,624

192 30,450

496 78,864

1,216,889 10,312,548

sq mi

1992

in value

% of total

labour

% of labour

Kés ’000,0002

value

force

force

Agriculture Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

42,038

5.9

427,457

8.0

391,598 45,441

54.6 63

1,797,567 408,033

33.9 7.7

29,114 92,289 5,914 19,927 78,568 11,674 716,563

41 12.9 0.8 2.8 11.0 1.6 100.0

365,787 617,440 50,932 123,448 1,136,472 382,6314 5,309,767

6.9 11.6 1.0 23 21.4 7.24 100.0

Land use (1991): forested 33.3%; meadows and pastures 11.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 43.4%; other 12.3%.

Foreign trade Demography Population (1994): 10,345,185.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 339.7, persons per sq km 131.2. Urban-rural: n.a.

Sex distribution (1992): male 48.55%; female 51.45%. Age breakdown

(1991): under 15, 21.2%; 15-29, 21.7%; 30-44, 22.8%; 45-59,

16.6%; 60-74, 12.5%; 75 and over, 5.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,449,000; (2010) 10,536,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population growth is negligible. Ethnic composition (1991): Czech 81.2%; Moravian 13.2%; Slovak 3.1%; Polish 0.6%; German 0.5%; Silesian 0.4%; Gypsy 0.3%; Hungarian 0.2%; Ukrainian 0.1%; other 0.4%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 39.0%; Protestant 4.3%, of which Czechoslovak Brethren Reformed 2.0%, Czechoslovak Hussite 1.7%, Silesian Evangelical 0.3%; Eastern Orthodox 0.2%; Greek Catholic 0.1%; other Christian 0.3%; undenominational 39.9%; other 16.2%. Major cities (1991): Prague 1,212,010; Brno 387,986; Ostrava 327,553; Plzeii 173,129; Olomouc

105,690.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 Ke '000,0002 % of total

Imports

(1993):

+18,310 3.8%

+13,460 2.8%

-—14,410 2.8%

Ke 366,359,000,000

35.8%, manufactured

+41,680 5.9%

(machinery

goods 27.6%, chemicals

— 60,368 6.8%

and transport

Vital statistics mate 90.3%; illegitimate 9.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.9. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 68.5 years; female 76.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 673.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 274.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 85.2; diseases of the respiratory system 50.6; diseases of the digestive system 45.3; diseases of the genitourinary system 22.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 18.1.

11.4%). Major import sources: Norway 25.1%; former U.S.S.R. 22.3%, of which Russia 9.9%; Slovakia 17.5%; Austria 7.7%.

Exports (1993): Ke 372,301,000,000 (manufactured goods 43.1%, machinery and transport equipment

27.4%, chemicals

9.3%, food and live animals

6.5%, fuels and lubricants 6.2%). Major export destinations: Norway 26.7%; Slovakia

20.0%;

former

U.S.S.R.

17.8%,

of which

Russia

4.2%;

Austria

6.2%; Italy 5.1%.

Transport and communications

55,896 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,522,369; trucks and buses 362,732. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (oceangoing) 17; total deadweight tonnage 402,462. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 1,572,000, passenger-km 2,531,000; short ton-mi 52,475,000, metric ton-km 76,612,000;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): 3,788,000; circulation per 1,000 population of receivers 2,883,000 (1 per 3.6 persons). of receivers 3,184,476 (1 per 3.2 persons). per 3.2 persons).

total number 17; total circulation 368. Radio (1992): total number Television (1992): total number Telephones (1992): 3,238,051 (1

Education and health Education (1992-93)

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: Ke 381,800,000 (taxes 62.2%, of which value-added

taxes 39.8%, income taxes 32.6%, sales taxes 17.7%, other taxes 9.9%; other

revenue 37.8%). Expenditures: Ke 381,800,000 (current expenditures 88.6%;

capital expenditures 9.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$6,580,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): cereals 6,565,000 (of which wheat 3,413,000, barley 2,512,000, corn [maize] 104,000, rye 240,000), sugar beets 3,874,000, potatoes 1,969,000; livestock

(number of live animals; 1993) 4,052,000 pigs, 2,170,000 cattle (of which

9,850,000 cu m; fish

catch (1992) 19,553. Mining and quarrying (1993): lead-zinc 180,000; iron ore 153,000. Manufacturing (1992): crude steel 7,334,000; cement 6,111,000; rolled steel 5,770,000; flour 722,000; plastics and resins 561,000; phosphate fertilizers 44,553; cotton fabrics 357,632,000 m; beer 18,564,000 hectolitres; other alcoholic beverages 999,170 hectolitres; bicycles 328,991 units; tractors

16,016 units; trucks 14,127 units. Construction (1992): residential 2,212,000 sq _m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 59,132,000,000 (41,263,000,000); coal (1992) 68,084,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 549,000 (n.a.); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 1,552,000,000 (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 2.7; in-

come per household (1992) K&s 129,1902 (U.S.$4,567); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 49.8%, transfer payments 27.4%, other 22.8%;

expenditure (1992): food and beverages 26.1%, taxes 13.4%, clothing and footwear 7.3%, housing and utilities 5.5%, household durable goods 4.5%,

other 43.2%.

equipment

12.0%, fuels and lubricants

Transport. Railroads (1992): length 5,865 mi, 9,439 km; passenger-mi 6,694,000,000, passenger-km 10,773,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 17,566,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 25,646,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 34,734 mi,

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legiti-

830,000 dairy cows), 23,988,000 poultry; roundwood

+28,600 2.8%

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

4,142 285 708 23

65,186 8,574 14,537 12,907

1,115,027 117,765 201,209 114,185

17.1 13.7 eae 8.9

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of adult population having: primary and incomplete secondary 33.1%; complete secondary 22.8%; higher 7.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 8,170,442 (100%); males literate 3,914,080 (100%); females literate 4,256,362 (100%). Health (1992): physicians 31,935 (1 per 323 persons); hospital beds 105,412 a per 98 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 8.5. Food (1990): daily per capita caloric intake 3,303 (vegetable products 57%, animal products 43%); 134% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 106,500 (army 66.6%, air force 33.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a. Per capita expenditure: U.S.$77.

‘Seats not yet occupied as of September 1994. 2The Czech koruna (Ke) was introduced Feb. 8, 1993, at par with the former Czechoslovak koruna (Ks), which it replaced. For settlement of obligations existing prior to February 8 between the Czech and Slovak republics, an interim currency, the clearing koruna XCS) was introduced. January 31. 4Includes 134,788 unemployed and 247,843 women on maternity leave.

Nations of the World

Denmark

000 cu m; fish catch 1,816,000 metric tons. Mining and quarrying (1992): sand and gravel 20,000,000 cu m; chalk 355,000 metric tons. Manufacturing

Official name: Kongeriget Danmark

(value added; 1992): food products 28,174; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 19,609; chemicals and chemical products 17,300; metal products

(Kingdom of Denmark). Form of government: parliamentary state and constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Folketing [179]). Chief of state: Danish Monarch.

12,210; printing and publishing 9,919; transport equipment 7,831; electrical

machinery and apparatus 7,638. Construction (completed; 1992): residential 1,449,000 sq m; nonresidential 4,195,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 31,608,000,000 ([1992] 34,595,000,000);

coal (metric tons; 1992) none (11,044,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 59,636,000 (64,272,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 8,310,000

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Copenhagen. Official language: Danish. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: 1 Danish krone (Dkr; plural kroner) = 100 gre; valuation

(7,365,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 4,025,000,000 (2,284,000,000).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$137,613,000,000

(U.S.$26,510 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Dkr 6.03; 1 £=Dkr 9.59.

1992

in value Dkr '000,0009

Area and population!

area

population

; Counties

Capitals

Arhus Bornholm Frederiksborg Fyn

Kobenhavn

—Sq mi

,

Alborg

526

609,890 45,224 346,108 465,239

2,383

603,883

6,173

486,993

203

Soro

Viborg

_estimate _

4,561 588 1,347 3,486

Ringkobing Roskilde Abenra Nykgbing Falster Vejle

Vestsjeelland

—sg km_

1,761 227 520 1,346

Ribe

Ringkabing Roskilde Senderjylland Storstrom Vejle :

19932

Arhus Ronne Hillerod Odense

aS

Nordjylland

Ribe

595

1,209 1,874 344 1,520 1,312 1,157

4,853 891 3,938 3,398 2,997

268,990 221,401 251,306 257,097

1,592

334,282 286,290

4,122

229,888

34 3

88 9

466,129 87,173

16,6393

43,0943

5,180,614

Communes Copenhagen (Kabenhavn) Frederiksberg

— —

TOTAL

Agriculture, fishing

Demography

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

Services Other TOTAL

labour force

3.5

% of labour force

160,647

5.5

6,377

0.9

141,850 41,834 14,327 67,522 107,424 148,497 166,360

3,183

19.0 5.6 1.9 oA 14.4 19.9 22.3

0.1

586,413 199,335 19,841 194,596 422,723 252,749

20.1 6.8 0.7 6.7 14.5 8.7

—20,81010 745,739

— 2.810 100.0

45,965

62

Te oe

aoa

51,65911 2,912,010

Pazs

1.811 100.0

Land use (1992): forested 10.5%; meadows and pastures 4.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 60.0%; other 24.6%.

Foreign trade!2 Balance of trade (current prices) Dkr 000,000 % of total

1987 +8,891 2.6%

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+19,061 5.4%

+18,764 4.8%

+26,404 6.5%

+32,060 75%

+44,642 10.3%

Imports (1992): Dkr 203,003,000,000 (intermediate goods for industries 44.6%,

machinery 10.5%, food products 8.8%, transport equipment 6.7%). Major import sources: Germany 23.0%; Sweden 10.8%; United Kingdom 8.2%;

Population (1994): 5,205,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 312.8, persons per sq km 120.8. Urban-rural (1992): urban 84.9%; rural 15.1%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.31%; female 50.69%.

United States 5.7%; France 5.6%; The Netherlands 5.5%.

Exports (1992): Dkr 238,718,000,000 (nonelectrical and electrical machinery

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 17.0%; 15-29, 22.1%; 30-44, 21.7%; 45-59, 19.0%; 60-74, 13.2%; 75 and over, 7.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,303,000; (2010) 5,310,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population is stable. Ethnic composition (1993): Danish 96.5%; Asian 1.5%, of which Turkish 0.6%; other Scandinavian 0.5%; British 0.2%; German 0.2%; other 1.1%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Evangelical Lutheran 88.2%; other Christian 1.6%; Muslim 1.3%; other/nonreligious 8.9%. f Major cities (1992): Greater Copenhagen 1,342,6794; Arhus 204,139; Odense 140,886; Alborg 114,970; Frederiksberg 87,1734: 5.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 13.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 53.5%; illegitimate 46.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992); 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1991-92): male 72.4 years; female 77.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 292.2; ischemic heart disease 277.6; cerebrovascular disease 109.4.

National economy Budget (1993)®. Revenue: Dkr 307,403,000,000 (income and property taxes 47.6%, customs and excise duties 41.1%, other 11.3%). Expenditures: Dkr 351,348,000,000 (social affairs 22.8%, education 6.3%, defense 4.1%, other/

unspecified 66.8%). National debt (end of year; 1992): Dkr 575,328,000,000.

26,393

Mining

220,721

2,984

1,152

Viborg

3,131

|

1991

% of total value

}

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,784,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,779,000,000. eo Population economically active (1991): total 2,912,428; activity rate of total population 56.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 82.4%; female 46.5%; unemployed [September 1993—August 1994] 12.5%).

23.3%, chemical products 10.0%, fresh or frozen swine meat 6.6%, textiles

and clothing 4.8%, furniture 4.3%). Major export destinations:

Germany

23.6%; Sweden 10.5%; United Kingdom 10.1%; Norway 5.8%; France 5.7%;

United States 4.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length (1991) 1,763 mi, 2,838 km; passenger-mi

2,858,000,000, passenger-km 4,600,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,281,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 1,870,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 44,186 mi, 71,111 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,674,939; trucks and buses 260,833. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 456; total deadweight tonnage 7,569,069. Air transport (1993)13: passenger-

mi 2,714,000,000, passenger-km 4,368,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 91,243,000,

metric ton-km cargo 133,212,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 42; total circulation 1,710,000; circulation per 1,000 population 332. Radio (1993): 2,235,000 receivers (1 per 2.3 persons). Television (1993): 2,500,000 receivers (1 per 2.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 3,003,00014 (1 per 1.7 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary/lower secondary (age 7-15) Upper secondary (age 16-18) Vocational Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

2,127 154 204 235

59,800 7,500 o a

613,329 74,000 149,000 156,000

10.3 9.9 ae

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25-69 having: primary education 3.0%; completed lower secondary 23.4%; completed upper secondary or vocational 48.0%; advanced vocational 5.0%; undergraduate 7.4%; graduate 3.9%; unknown 9.3%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1990) 14,277 (1 per 360 persons); hospital beds (1991) 28,072 (1 per 184 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 5.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,639 (vegetable products 54%,

animal products 46%); 135% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1988 1989 1990

1991

1992

1993

19947

Military

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

102.4 103.9

104.5 106.9

105.9

107.9 en

Total active duty personnel (1994): 27,000 (army 60.4%, navy 17.0%, air force 22.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.1% (world 4.2%);

93.0 92.6

97.4 96.2

100.0 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1993) 2.2; in- come per household (1988) Dkr 199,354 (U.S.$29,613); principal sources of income (1988)8: wages and salaries 48.2%, self-employment 33.6%, transfers 18.2%; expenditure (1991): housing 22.2%, food and beverages 18.4%,

transportation and communications 16.0%, recreation 8.4%, household fur-

nishings 6.3%, cafe and hotel expenditures 5.8%. _ Production (in Dkr ’000,000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value added; 1992): pork 17,299, milk 11,739, beef 4,422, wheat 3,550, barley 2,585, flowers and plants 2,583, furs 1,022, poultry 1,144; roundwood 2,300,-

per capita expenditure U.S.$518.

1Excludes the Faeroe Islands and Greenland. 7January 1. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 41993. [Within Greater Copenhagen. Projections. 7July. 8Excludes interest and dividends. 9At factor cost. 10Imputed bank service charges less other producers. !1Includes 42,933 activities not adequately defined. !2Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 13Danish share of Scandinavian Airlines System; scheduled air service only. !}4Number of lines.

596

Britannica World Data

Djibouti

10.4%, housing 6.4%, clothing 1.7%, personal effects 1.4%, health care

1.0%, household goods 0.3%, other 15.4%.

(U.S.$780 per capita). Structure of gross national product and labour force 1991 in value DF '000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

1 £=DF 282.93.

TOTAL

Area and population

; population

1982

1,281

2.4

= 1,911 2,588 Siz

3.6 48

labour force 212,000

% of labour force

75.2

31,000

11.0

282,000

Land use (1992): forested 0.3%; meadows

and pastures 8.6%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation’; built-on, wasteland, and other 91.1%.

estimate

Capitals ‘All Sabih Dikhil Djibouti Obock

15,000 30,000 200,000 15,000 30,000 335,0002

Tadjoura

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) DF ‘000,000 % of total

Imports

Demography Population (1994): 569,0003. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 64.1, persons per sq km 24.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 81.1%; rural 18.9%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.37%; female 49.63%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.2%; 15-29, 24.9%; 30-44, 16.1%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60 and over, 4.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 680,000; (2010) 916,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Somali 61.7%, of which Issa 33.4%, Gadaboursi 15.0%, Issaq 13.3%; Afar 20.0%; Arab (mostly Yemeni) 6.0%; European

4.0%; other (refugees) 8.3%. Religious affiliation (1988): Sunni Muslim 96%; Christian 4%, of which Roman Catholic 2%, Protestant 1%, Orthodox 1%.

Major city and towns (1989): Djibouti 450,0004; ‘Ali Sabih 4,000; Tadjoura 3,500; Dikhil 3,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 45.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 16.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 29.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 6.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1982): 6.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1982): 1.9. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 47.4 years; female 50.7 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total deaths; 1984)5: diarrhea and acute dehydration 16.0%; malnutrition 16.0%; poisoning 11.0%; tuberculosis 6.0%; acute respiratory disease 6.0%; malaria 6.0%; anemia 6.0%; heart disease

2.0%; kidney disease 1.0%; other ailments 19.0%; no diagnosis 11.0%.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: DF 29,011,000,000 (1990; current receipts 80.2%, of which indirect and direct taxes 72.9%, nontax revenue 7.3%; external

development

% of total value

10,896 8,718 3,574 17,620 1,903 53,608

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=DF 177.89;

Districts ‘All Sabih (Ali-Sabieh) Dikhil Djibouti Obock Tadjoura (Tadjourah) TOTAL

3

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$448,000,000

Official name: Jumhiriyah Jibiti (Arabic); République de Djibouti (French) (Republic of Djibouti). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [65]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Djibouti. Official languages: Arabic; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Djibouti franc (DF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct.

receipts 19.8%). Expenditures:

DF 28,990,000,000 (defense

17.5%; education 9.4%; health 7.2%; debt service 5.2%; agriculture 1.6%;

commerce 0.4%; industry 0.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992); U.S.$173,800,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1990) U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables and melons 22,000, of which tomatoes 1,000, eggplant (1985— 86) 66; livestock (number of liye animals) 507,000 goats, 470,000 sheep, 190,000 cattle, 62,000 camels, 8,000 asses; fish catch (1991) 380. Mining and

quarrying: mineral production limited to locally used construction materials and evaporated salt. Manufacturing (1988): detail, n.a.; main items produced include furniture, nonalcoholic beverages, meat and hides, light electromechanical goods, and mineral water. Construction (1989): 53,900 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 180,000,000 (180,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (424,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

—27,624 35.0%

—29,735 32.0%

—31,509 32.9%

—31,188 35.7%

—30,669 34.1%

(1991): DF

38,103,000,000

(food, beverages,

and

tobacco

32.7%;

textiles and footwear 11.7%; fossil fuels 9.2%; machinery and electrical machinery 8.5%; transport equipment 7.1%; chemical products 6.2%; base metals and base metal products 6.2%). Major import sources: France 26.1%; Ethiopia 8.3%; Japan 7.2%; Italy 6.5%; Saudi Arabia 5.0%; United States

3.7%. Exports (1991): DF 3,083,000,000 (unspecified special transactions 71.7%; live animals [including camels] 15.5%; food and food products 12.8%). Major export destinations: France 57.1%; Yemen malia 4.1%; Italy 3.2%.

16.0%; Saudi Arabia 5.5%: So-

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989): length 66 mi, 106 km; passenger-mi 182,000,000, passenger-km 293,000,000; short ton-mile cargo 81,700,0009, metric ton-km cargo 119,300,0009. Roads (1991): total length 1,789 mi, 2,879 km (paved 13%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 13,000; trucks and buses 3,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 10; total deadweight tonnage 4,090. Air transport (1989)10: passenger arrivals 64,000, passenger departures 66,000; cargo loaded 1,100 metric tons, cargo unloaded 7,100 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Weekly newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation 4,000; circulation per 1,000 population 7.6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 30,000 (1 per 19 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 17,000 (1 per 33 persons). Telephones (1992): total number of receivers 14,000 (1 per 40 persons).

Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18)

Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ teacher ratio

schools

teachers

students

69

737

31,926

43.3

9,363

28.6

108

8.3

26 1

13

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1987): percentage of population age 20 and over literate 33.7%. Health (1989): physicians 97 (1 per 5,258 persons); hospital beds! 1,383 qd ee 369 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 112.

ood, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 8,40012 (army 95.2%, navy 2.4%, air force 2.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1984): 9.0% (world 5.6%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$67.

Population economically active (1991): total 282,000; activity rate of total

population 54.2% (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 67.0%; female 40.0%; unemployed [1987] c. 40-50%). Price and earnings indexes (1988 = 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index Earnings index

94.0 ee

100.0

103.0

1990

1991

1992

107.6

111.9

118.7

‘Original figures are those given in sq km; sq mi equivalent is rounded to appropriate level of generality. 2Including 45,000 not distributed by district. 3Excludes about 130,000 Somali refugees, 4Not including 20,000 people categorized as transients. 5Infants and children to age 10, district of Djibouti only. 6City of Djibouti only. 7In 1988-89 only 1,005 acres (407 hectares) of land were cultivated. 8The value of imports includes

merchandise

Household income and expenditure. Average household size6 (1985) 7.2; in-

come

per household:

n.a.; sources of income

(1976): wages and salaries

51.6%, self-employment 36.0%, transfer payments 10.5%, other 1.9%; expen-

diture (expatriate households; 1984): food 50.3%, energy 13.1%, recreation

destined for Ethiopia and northern

Somalia;

that of exports excludes

reexports coming from those areas. In 1980 the value of reexports from Ethiopia and northern Somalia was approximately five times greater than the value of domestic exports. Import figures are c.if. °Based on total weight of Ethiopian exports and imports transported to and from the port of Djibouti. 10Djibouti International Airport only. !!Public health facilities only. 12Excludes 3,800 French troops.

Nations of the World

Dominica

Price and earnings indexes (1 990 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

Official name: Commonwealth of Dominica. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Assembly [311]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Roseau. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 East Caribbean

Consumer price index Earnings index

88.1 a

90.7 ot

(1991) 590 metric tons. Mining and quarrying (1990): pumice and volcanic ash 100,000 metric tons. Manufacturing (1990): coconut-based soaps 9,586

1991 Parishes2 St. Andrew St. David

census

11,106 6,977 20,365 4,990 6,183 1,552 1,943 8,929 7,495 1,643 71,1835

St. George St. John St. Joseph St. Luke . Mark . Patrick . Paul t. 2 Peter TOTAL

tons; edible coconut

oil 2,904

Foreign trade!! Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 EC$’000,000 % of total

Demography

— 49.6 16.1%

— 89.9 23.5%

— 167.3 40.7%

1990

1991

_1902_

— 129.3 29.9%

eeitilOLS) 26.9%

—110.0 26.3%

Imports (1992): EC$264,000,000 (12machinery and transport equipment 26.1%;

Population (1994): 72,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 248.3, persons per sq km 96.0. Urban-rural: n.a. Sex distribution (1991): male 50.04%; female 49.96%.

basic manufactures

24.5%; food 17.3%; chemicals

11.1%). Major import sources'!3:

United

and chemical products

States 30.0%;

United Kingdom

13.0%; China 6.0%; St. Lucia 5.0%; Italy 5.0%; France 5.0%.

Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 35.1%; 15-29, 28.1%; 30-44, 14.5%; 45-59, 9.5%; 60 and over, 11.7%; unknown, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 73,000; (2010) 74,000. Doubling time: 45 years. Ethnic composition (1981): black 91.2%; mixed race 6.0%; Amerindian 1.5%; white 0.5%; not stated 0.6%; other 0.2%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 79.2%; other 20.8%.

Major towns (1991): Roseau 15,853; Portsmouth 3,621; Marigot 2,919; Atkinson 2,518; Mahaut 2,372.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 20.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 3.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 73.9 years; female 79.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 273.5, of which ischemic heart diseases 120.8, hypertensive disease 88.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 116.6; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 51.4; diseases of the respiratory system 43.0; infec-

tious and parasitic diseases 37.5.

Exports (1992): EC$154,000,000 (bananas 52.7%, coconut-based laundry and toilet soaps 20.5%). Major export destinations'3: United Kingdom 42.0%; Jamaica 8.0%; Italy 7.0%; Taiwan 6.0%; Thailand 6.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 466 mi, 750 km (paved, 49%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 4,700; trucks and buses 5,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 3,153. Air transport (1991): passenger arrivals 43,312, passenger departures, n.a.; cargo unloaded 259 metric tons, cargo loaded 415 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none!4. Radio (1993): 45,000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1993): 5,200 receivers (1 per 14 persons). Telephones (1992): 17,190 (1 per 4.2 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary

Secondary Higher

schools

teachers

students

65

605

12,120

1315

19915

215

40

5,983 658

student/ teacher ratio 20.0

22.015 16.5

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and oyer having: no formal schooling 6.6%; primary education 80.6%; secondary 11.1%; higher 1.7%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over liter-

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: EC$286,500,000 (current revenue 58.7%, external loans and sales of securities 22.9%, grants 15.1%, other 3.3%).

Expendityres: EC$286,500,000 (current expenditures 54.7%, development expenditures 38.7%, debt repayment 3.5%, other 3.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 1993): U.S.$93,100,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$25,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$6,000,000. é Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$193,000,000

(U.S.$2,680 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

active

156 metric

hectolitres; rum (1987) 2,614 hectolitres; bottled spring water 323,000 cases; other products include garments, furniture, paint, and cardboard boxes. Construction (value of starts; 1990): U.S.$29,800,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kKW-hr; 1992) 31,000,000 (31,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (19,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use (1992): forested 41.0%; meadows and pastures 3.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.0%; other 33.0%.

population

economically

1993 113.1

9,200, tanias 6,400, cassava 4,300), coconuts 4,600, plantains 3,700, grapefruit 3,500, oranges 3,300, cinnamon 2,400; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 10,000 goats, 9,000 cattle, 8,000 sheep; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch

metric tons10; pasta products

Population

1992 Alrite

Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in EC$’000; 1991): bananas 39,600, root crops 32,800 (of which yams 9,800, dasheens

Area and population

TiN

1991 105.5 ae

43.1%, housing and utilities 16.1%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, alcoholic beverages and tobacco 2.0%, other 32.3%.

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =EC$2.70: 1 £=EC$4.30.

Agriculture Minin Manufactiiing Construction Public utilities Transportation and Parana nications Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1990 100.0 as

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 4.3; income per household: n.a.; expenditure (1984)9: food and nonalcoholic beverages

dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation

in value EC$'000,0006 98.5 3.2 31.3 32.5 13.4

96.9 as

597

% of total value

22.9 0.7 7.3 7.6 3.1 18.0

(1989): total 30,600;

ate, c. 49,000 (94.4%).

Health (1990): physicians (1991) 38 (1 per 1,889 persons); hospital beds 292 (1 per 247 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 18.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,911 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1990): none16,

1989

labour force 7,900 3.400 a 2,800 300

% of labour force 25.8 444 9.2 1.0

1,600

5.2

3,700

12.1

800

2.6

5,800

19.0

4,3008 30,600

14.18 100.04

activity rate of total

pooulatici 37.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 62.3%; female 41.8%; unemployed [1992] 20.0%).

1Includes 10 nonelective seats. Nine of the 10 nonelective seats are potentially elective according to the constitution. Dominica is divided into 10 parishes for statistical purposes only. Local government is based on city, town, or village councils. 3Includes inland water area. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Preliminary figure; excludes institutionalized population. 6At factor cost. 7Less imputed service charges. 8Activities not specified. )Weights of consumer price index components. !0Coconut-based soap products were the main contributor to total value added of manufacturing sector in 1992. 'Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Based on 1990 imports totaling EC$318,400,000. 13Estimated data. 14Weekly newspapers (1991): total number 2; total circulation 5,050; circulation per 1,000 population 14. 15199091.

16300-member police force includes a coast guard unit.

598

Britannica World Data

Dominican Republic

(barrels; 1992) none (13,993,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,865,000 (3,040,000); natural gas, none (none). / Gross national product (1993): U.S.$8,043,000,000 (U.S.$1,080 per capita).

Official name: Reptblica Dominicana (Dominican Republic). Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [30]; Chamber of Deputies [120]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Santo Domingo. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none}. Monetary unit: 1 Dominican peso

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

(RD$) = 100 centavos; valuation

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=RD$13.94; 1 £=RD$22.18.

Dajabon

population 1990 sq mi

Capitals Azua Neiba Barahona

Dajabon San Francisco de Macoris

Duarte

El Seibo Espaillat

sq km

938 531 976

344 499

El Seibo Moca

2,430 1,376 2,528

890 1,292

641 386

1,659 1,000

Hato Mayor Jimani Higiiey Elias Pina La Romana

514 719 191 690 209

1,330 1,861 3,084 1,788 541

Monte Cristi Monte Plata Pedernales

Nagua Bonao Monte Cristi Monte Plata Pedernales

506 388 768 841 373

Peravia

Bani

626

Puerto Plata Salcedo

Puerto Plata Salcedo

726 206

1,310 1,004 1,989 2,179 967 1,622 1,881 533

Samana San Cristobal

382 604

989 1,564

1,375

3,561

Hato Mayor Independencia La Altagracia La Estrelleta La Romana La Vega

La Vega

Maria Trinidad Sanchez Monsenor Nouel

Samana San Cristdbal San Juan San Pedro de Macoris

Sanchez Ramirez

916

San Juan

San Pedro de Macoris

450

Cotui

Santiago Santiago Rodriguez Santo Domingo? Valverde

Santiago de los Caballeros Sabaneta — Mao

TOTAL

2,373

1,166

453

1,174

1,205 394 570 220

3,122 1,020 1,477 570

18,7043

48,4433

estimate

195,420 87,376 152,405 64,123 261,725 97,590 182,248 77,823 43,077 111,241 72,651 169,223 303,047 125,148 124,794 92,678 174,799 18,896 186,810 229,738 110,216 73,002 320,921 266,628 197,862 140,635 704,835 61,570 2,411,895 111,470 7,169,8464

labour force

Finance, real estate

597

Pub. admin., defense Services Other

497 275 —

% of labour force

420,463 4,743 224,437 80,850 13,891 40,470 192,181 22,369

811 141 929 542 111 493 788

TOTAL

Area and population Provinces Azua Bahoruco (Baoruco) Barahona

1981 % of total value

in value U.S.$'000,0009

5,184

22.0 0.2 11.7 4.3 0.7 el 10.0 qe

363,125

18.9

552,859 10 1,915,388

28.9 100.0

Population economically active (1991)11: total 2,758,000; activity rate of total population 37.6% (participation rates: age 10 and over, 50.3%; female 29.0%; unemployed [1994] 28.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

i987

19881989

1990

1991

1992

29.9 39.7

43.1 50.2

100.0 100.0

153.9 125.3

161.0 150.8

62.7 64.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 5.1; average income: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1980-85): food and beverages 46.0%, housing 10.0%, household goods 8.0%. Land use (1991): forested 12.7%; meadows and pastures 43.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 29.9%; other 14.2%.

Foreign trade !2 Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

=118 28.8%

— 1,039 36.0%

— 1,058 41.9%

1991

1992

1993

—1,071 44.8%

—1,613 58.9%

— 1,588 60.0%

Imports (1992): U.S.$2,175,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 22.4%; agricultural products 16.1%, of which cereals 5.2%; forest products 3.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 40.3%; Venezuela 11.0%; Japan 8.3%; Mexico 5.7%. Exports (1992): U.S.$562,000,00013 (ferronickel 31.9%; raw sugar 20.4%; cacao 6.3%; coffee 4.6%; gold alloy 4.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 53.9%; The Netherlands 13.3%; Puerto Rico 7.1%; South Korea 4.5%.

Demography

Transport and communications

Population (1994): 7,803,0004. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 417.2, persons per sq km 161.1. Urban-rural (1990): urban 60.4%; rural 39.6%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.82%; female 49.18%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 37.9%; 15-29, 29.9%; 30-44, 17.6%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 8,621,000; (2010) 9,903,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Ethnic composition (1990): mixed 70%; white 15%; black 15%. Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 91.2%; other 8.8%. Major urban centres (1993): Santo Domingo 2,100,000; Santiago de los Caballeros 690,000; La Vega 189,0005; San Pedro de Macoris 137,0005.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.7 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4 (world ayg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 19.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.9 years; female 70.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 100.3; infectious and parasitic diseases 51.4; diseases of the respiratory system 35.4; accidents, poisoning, and violence 33.7.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

RD$20,715,000,000 (tax revenue 87.0%, of which

taxes on goods and services 38.7%, import duties 32.3%, income taxes 15.0%; nontax revenue 6.7%; grants and loans 6.3%). Expenditures:

RD$20,257,-

000,000 (development expenditure 58.4%; current expenditure 41.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,761,000,000.

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$1,223,000,000; expenditures by

nationals abroad (1992) U.S.$115,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted)..Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in RD$’000,000; 1992): rice 3,020, beef 2,554, sugarcane 2,301, chicken meat 1,816, coffee 1,454, milk 1,307, plantains 1,036, eggs 755, beans

623, coconuts 493, cacao beans 410, bananas 343, cassava 317, tobacco 286,

fish 92; roundwood

982,000 cu m. Mining (1993): ferronickel 35,400; gold

11,400 troy oz®. Manufacturing

(1993)7:; cement

1,271,000; refined sugar

102,800; beer 1,958,000 hectolitres; rum 441,000 hectolitres; cigarettes 218,300,000 20-unit packs; cigars 65,000,000 units’. Construction (value of authorized construction in RD$’000,000; 1987): residential 352; nonresidential

253. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 4,926,000,000 (3,321,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (58,000); crude petroleum

Transport. Railroads (1991)14: length 994 mi, 1,600 km. Roads (1990): total length 12,000 km (paved 48%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 150,000; trucks and buses 110,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 28; total deadweight tonnage 10,369. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 1,431,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 75,000,000; airports (1994) 5.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 12; total circulation 230,000; circulation per 1,000 population 31. Radio (1993): 1,150,000 receivers (1 per 6.7 persons). Television (1993): 728,000 receivers (1 per 11 persons). Telephones (1992): 631,450 (1 per 12 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 7-14) 15 Secondary (age 15-18) 16 Teacher tr. 16

schools

teachers

4,854

21,850 9,963 108

ie

Higher 17

5,041

student/ students __ teacher ratio 1,032,055 426,962 3,602 68,301

47.2 42.9 Nee 13.5

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 48.0%; incomplete primary education 31.7%; complete primary 4.0%; secondary 14.0%; higher 2.3%. Literacy (1990): total

population age 15 and over literate, c. 3,710,000 (83.3%); males literate, c. 1,922,000 (84.8%); females literate, c. 1,788,000 (81.8%). Health: physicians (1988) 7,332 (1 per 934 persons); hospital beds (1987) 13,169 (1 per 508 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 53.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,310 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 102% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 24,500 (army 61.2%, navy 16.3%, air force 22.57%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.8% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$7.

‘Roman Catholicism is the state religion per concordat with Vatican City. 2National district. 3Total includes 63 sq mi (163 sq km) of offshore islands not shown separately. 4Preliminary

1993

census

total released

in late

1994 was

7,089,000.

51989.

6Goid

production was halted in early 1993 and resumed in mid-1994. 7Excludes free-zone

sector for reexport (mostly ready-made garments) employing (1994) 164,000;

value added of free-zone sector equaled RD$3,800,000,000.

1992

8Export production for

1992. °At prices of 1988. 10Not adequately defined (421,628) and those seeking work for first time (131,231). “Estimated figures. 12Excludes free zones. 131992 reexports

of free zones were

estimated

to equal U.S.$1,191,000,000.

14Most track serves

the sugar industry only, except for 65 mi (104 km) for public transport. 151989-90; public schools only. 161986-87. 17Universities only.

Nations of the World

Ecuador

599

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$11,843,000,000 (U.S.$1,070 per capita).

Official name: Repitblica del Ecuador

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(Republic of Ecuador).

1992 in value % of total U.S.$'000,0007 value

Form of government: unitary multiparty

republic with one legislative house (National Congress [77]).

Agriculture

Head of state and government: President.

Capital: Quito. Official language: Spanish.

Public utilities

population 1990

Regions

Sucumbios

Nueva Loja

Zamora-Chinchipe Costa

Zamora

El Oro Esmeraldas Guayas Los Rios Manabi Insular

Machala Esmeraldas Guayaquil Babahoyo Portoviejo

-

Galapagos

Puerto Baquerizo Moreno

Sierra Azuay Bolivar

Cuenca Guaranda Azogues

Canar Carchi Chimborazo

Tulcan Riobamba

Cotopaxi Imbabura Loja Pichincha Tungurahua TOTAL

Latacunga Ibarra Loja Quito Ambato

census

sq km

Capitals

‘Oe 13,100 9,918 11,496 7,076 8,923

33,930 25,690 29,774 18,327 23,111

84,216 103,387 41,811 76,952 66,167

2,259 5,884 7,916 2,770 7,289

5,850 15,239 20,503 W175 18,879

412,572 306,628 2,515,146 527,559 1,031,927

3,093

8,010

3,137 1,521 1,205 1,392 2,536 2,344 1,760 4,257 4,987 1,288 105,0371,2

9,785

8,125 3,940 3,122 3,605 6,569 6,072 4,559 11,026 12,915 3,335 272,0452

506,090 155,088 189,347 141,482 364,682 276,324 265,499 384,698 1,756,228 361,980 9,648,1893

% of labour force

1,035,712

9.0 19.6 3.6

30.8

20,870 370,338 196,716

0.6 11.0 5.9

10

0.1

1,588

12,660

‘ile!

0.4

131,084

3.9

2,983 1,412 873

20.8 9.8 6.1

re 14,3441

ie 100.01

Services

654

Other TOTAL

Area and population

15.4

1,286 2,807 523

Trade Pre ub. admin., defense

centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 US.$=S/. 2,201; 1 £=S/. 3,501.

Macas Tena Puyo

,

Transp. and commun.

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Sucre (S/.) = 100

Provinces Amazonica Morona-Santiago Napo Pastaza

2,209

Mining Manufacturing Construction

1990 labour force

46 }

476,730 81,357

14.2 2.4

EERIE)

ae

196,1718 3,359,767

5.88 100.01

Population economically active (1990): total 3,359,767; activity rate of total population 34.8% (participation rates: ages 8 and over, 44.0%; female 26.4%; unemployed 1.3%).

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index9

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

159.3 170.6

252.1 258.8

442.8 376.5

657.6 376.5

978.0 470.6

1,512.1 705.9

2,191.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.1; average annual income per household (1982) S/. 28,747 (U.S.$956); sources of income (1989): self-employment 74.9%, wages 17.4%, transfer payments 4.5%, interest, dividends, and rent 3.2%; expenditure (1991): food and tobacco 38.2%, transportation and communications

12.4%, clothing 10.4%,

household furnishings 7.7%, housing and utilities 5.3%, health care 4.1%.

Land use (1991): forested 38.3%; meadows and pastures 18.7%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 9.9%; other 33.1%.

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

+232.2 6.1%

+674.8 18.2%

1989

1990

1991

1992

+719.7 18.0%

+1,077.7 24.7%

+736.0 14.1%

+41,031.9 20.7%

Demography

Imports (1992): U.S.$2,500,403,600 (industrial raw materials 33.4%, industrial capital goods 21.9%, transport equipment 13.9%, nondurable consumer goods 9.5%, durable consumer goods 9.2%). Major import sources: United

Population (1994): 11,221,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 106.8, persons per sq km 41.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 55.4%; rural 44.6%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.25%; female 49.75%.

Japan 13.0%. Exports (1992): U.S.$3,007,577,000 (crude petroleum 41.6%, bananas 21.7%, shrimp 17.5%, petroleum products 2.8%, coffee 2.7%, cocoa 2.5%). Major

States 32.5%; EEC 21.4%; Latin American Integration Association

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 36.9%; 15-29, 29.0%; 30-44, 18.3%; 45-59, 9.4%; 60-74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 12,646,000; (2010) 14,899,000.

19.3%;

export destinations: United States 46.8%; EEC 15.5%; Latin American Integration Association 13.4%; Andean Group 5.8%; Taiwan 2.1%.

Doubling time: 34 years.

Transport and communications

Ethnic composition (1989): Amerindian 40.0%; mestizo 40.0%; white 15.0%;

Transport. Railroads (1990): route length (1992) 965 km; passenger-km 82,-

black 5.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 93.0%; other 7.0%. Major cities (1990): Guayaquil 1,508,844; Quito Machala 144,197; Portoviejo 132,937.

1,100,847; Cuenca

000,000; metric ton-km

194,981;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 26.54 (world avg. 26.0); (1982) legitimate 67.9%; illegitimate 32.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.84 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 20.74 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.44.5.

Education and health Education (1989-90) Secondary (age 12-18) 12, 13

production and sales tax 22.7%, import duties 9.1%, income taxes 6.5%). Expenditures:

S/. 3,102,440,000,000

(debt

service

33.1%,

public services

23.7%, education 19.5%, health 6.4%, transport and communications 4.1%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 6,500,000, bananas 3,600,000, rice 981,000, plantains 930,000, corn (maize) 500,000, potatoes 375,000, soybeans 158,000, cacao 78,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,665,000 cattle, 2,434,000 pigs, 1,511,000 sheep, 59,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 7,762,000 cu m; fish catch (1991)

383,600. Mining and quarrying (1991): limestone 3,885,000; gold 96,900 troy oz. Manufacturing (value added in S/. 000,000; 1990): food products 175,126, of which beverages (including liquors) 25,606; textiles 72,554; chem-

~ ical products 71,241; metal products 33,686. Construction (in S/.; 1992)6: residential 93,166,704,000; nonresidential 58,102,274,000. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 6,952,000,000 (6,952,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 111,506,000 (44,705,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 6,318,000 (5,034,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 91,350,000 (91,350,000). ; Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$192,000,000; expenditures U.S.$178,000,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$9,831,000,000.

(1993): 3,000,000

receivers (1 per 3.7 persons). Television (1993): 900,000 receivers (1 per 12 persons). Telephones (1991): 540,533 (1 per 20 persons).

Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 67.1 years; female 72.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases 93.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 66.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 52.0; neoplasms (cancers) 50.0; respiratory diseases 40.6.

National economy

(1991): total length 43,709

tion 920,000; circulation per 1,000 population 87. Radio

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.64.5.

Budget (1992). Revenue: S/. 3,008;560,000,000 (income from petroleum 51.1%,

cargo 5,000,000. Roads

km (paved 12%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 335,903; trucks and buses 48,348. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 154; deadweight tonnage 504,127. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 948,393,000; metric ton-km cargo 146,376,000; airports (1994) 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 25; total circula-

student/ schools 11

Primary (age 4-12)

Vocational 13 Higher

16,146

} 2,207 24

teachers

students

teacher ratio

60,608 36,730 16,838 12,856

1,843,819 504,481 260,850 206,541

30.4 13.7 15.5 16.1

Educational attainment (1990), Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 17.0%; primary 43.7%; secondary 22.6%; postsecondary 12.7%; not stated 4.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 5,217,543 2,601,351 (86.2%).

(88.3%); males 2,616,192

(90.5%); females

Health (1992): physicians 12,853 (1 per 836 persons); hospital beds 17,253 (1 per 623 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 36.9. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,399 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 105% of FAO minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 58,000 (army 86.2%, navy 7.8%, air force 6.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.1% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$22.

1Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Includes 884 sq mi (2,289 sq km) in nondelimited areas. 3Total includes 70,621 persons in nondelimited areas. 4Excluding nomadic Indian tribes. 5Based on incomplete registration. 6Authorized construction in Cuenca, Guayaquil, and Quito only. 7At constant 1988 prices. 8Includes unemployed persons not previously employed. °General minimum wage. 10[mport figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. !11986-87. 12Includes teacher training. 131987-88.

600

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$36,792,000,000 (U.S.$660 per capita).

Egypt

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-937 1989

Official name: Jumhiriyah Misr

al-‘Arabiyah (Arab Republic of Egypt). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (People’s Assembly [4541]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Cairo. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

in value LE '000,000 Agriculture Mining (petroleum) Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense, services Other TOTAL

Monetary unit: 1 Egyptian pound (LE) = 100 piastres; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =LE 3.39; 1 £=LE 5.39. Area and population Regions Governorates Frontier al-Bahr al-Ahmar Matrih

Janib Sina’ Shamal Sina’ al-Wadi al-Jadid Lower Egypt al-Buhayrah ad-Dagahliyah Dumyat al-Gharbiyah al-lsmathyah (Ismailia) Kafr ash-Shaykh al-Mindfiyah al-QalyGbiyah ash-Sharqiyah Upper Egypt Aswan Asyit Bani Suwayf al-Fayyim al-Jizah al-Minya Qina Sawhaj Urban Bur Said (Port Said) al-lskandariyah (Alexandria) al-Qahirah (Cairo) al-Ugsur (Luxor) as-Suways (Suez)

Capitals al-Ghurdagah Marsa Matrih at-Tur al-‘Arish al-Kharijah Damanhtr al-Manstrah Dumyat

Tanta

= Kafr ash-Shaykh Shibin al-Kawm

Banha az-Zaqaziq

sq mi

sq km

78,643 81,897 12,796 10,646 145,369

203,685 212,112 33,140 27,574 376,505

111,000 179,000 34,000 213,000 134,000

3,911 1,340

10,130 3,471

227

589

3,895,000 4,144,000 879,000 3,373,000 665,000 2,209,000 2,619,000 2,983,000 4,125,000

750

1,942

557 1,327 592

1,442 3,437 1,532

387 1,614

1,001 4,180

Aswan Asytt

262 600

679 1,553

Bani Suwayf al-Fayyim

510 705

1,322 1,827

al-Jizah al-Minya Qina Sawhaj

TOTAL

population 19942 estimate

32,878 873 7153 597

85,153 2,262 1,8513 1,547

28 1,034 83 eat 6,888

72 2,679 214 ad 17,840

385,229

997,739

1,017,000 2,762,000 1,785,000 1,943,000 4,400,000 3,288,000 2,694,000 2,982,000

460,000 3,382,000 6,849,000 155,000 393,000 57,673,000

Population (1994): 58,466,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 151.8, persons per sq km 58.6. Urban-rural (1986): urban 43.9%; rural 56.1%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 51.76%; female 48.24%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 38.7%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 17.7%; 45-59, 10.3%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over; 0.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 65,556,000; (2010) 77,251,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Egyptian 99.9%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1990): Sunni Muslim c. 90%; Christian c. 10%4. Major cities (1994): Cairo 6,849,000; Alexandria 3,382,000; al-Jizah 2,096,0005.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 30.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.2. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 65.0 years; female 69.3 years. ; Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): diseases of the circulatory system 314.4; diseases of the respiratory system 140.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 98.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 22.0.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: LE 46,501,000,000 (general taxes 58.7%, of which sales taxes 15.5%, customs duties 10.8%; oil revenue 9.9%; Suez Canal fees

6.4%). Expenditures: LE 51,813,000,000 (debt servicing 26.3%; wages and salaries 18.9%; defense 10.8%; pensions and benefits 6.8%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$35,724,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 11,800,000, corn (maize) 5,300,000, wheat 4,786,000, tomatoes 4,700,000, rice 3,800,000, oranges 1,650,000, sorghum 652,000, cotton (lint) 370,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,707,000 sheep, 3,537,000 cattle, 3,017,000 goats, 2,527,000 buffalo>, 37,000,000 chickens, 10,380,000 pigeonss;

roundwood (1992) 2,352,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 298,013. Mining and quarrying (19926): iron ore 2,400,000; salt 890,000; clay 670,000. Manufac-

turing (1992-93): cement 16,000,000; nitrate fertilizers 5,437,000; reinforcing iron 1,650,000; sugar 1,074,000; phosphate fertilizers 970,000; cotton yarn 336,000; refrigerators 373,000 units; automobiles 6,800 units. Construction

(1990-91): urban residential units 160,613. Energy production (consump-

tion): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 47,500,000,000 (39,320,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) n.a. (1,155,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 333,200,000

(178,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 24,209,000 (19,269,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 11,620,000,000 (11,620,000,000).

22,300 13,536 22,3088 5,934 2,748 15,4279 24,655 7,253

6,335,200 43,300 1,958,700 990,200 99,900 780,200 1,340,000 255,300

16.6 10.1 16.78 4.4 2.0 11.59 18.4 5.4

9,745 10,349 134,255

% of labour force

3,115,500 1,107,90019 16,033,600 12

7.3 Tod 100.011

19.4 6.910 100.012

Population economically active (1992-93): total 15,571,000; activity rate 27.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 48.7%; unemployed 10.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

199413

70.6 73.6

85.6 91.0

100.0 100.0

119.7 120.3

136.1 137.6

152.5

162.0

Consumer price index Annual earnings index 14

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 4.9; expenditure (1986-87) 15: food 55.7%, clothing 10.9%, housing 10.5%. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$2,730,000; expenditures U.S.$918,000,000. Land use (1991): agricultural 2.7%; other 97.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 16 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

— 6,608 54.4%

—5,933 50.5%

=-6,699 48.2%

1991

1992

1993

-—5,975 43.6%

=5,501 44.7%

—7,315 51.7%

Imports (1992-93) 17; U.S.$10,731,800,000 (machinery and transport equipment 23.7%; foodstuffs 17.5%; chemical products 10.3%; base metals 8.5%). Major import sources: EEC 36.2%; U.S. 19.5%; other western European countries 10.4%; eastern Europe 3.3%. Exports (1992-93): U.S.$3,417,300,000 (petroleum and petroleum products 52.8%; cotton yarn, textiles, and fabrics 13.2%; engineering and metallurgical

goods 10.9%). Major export destinations: EEC 39.8%; Arab League 14.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990-91): length 8,831 km; passenger-km 43,185,000,000; metric ton-km

Demography

labour force

% of total value

cargo 3,162,000,000.

Roads

(1993): length 47,387 km

(paved 73%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,119,727; trucks and buses 466,650. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 444; total deadweight tonnage 1,685,245. Inland water (1993): Suez Canal, number

of transits 16,946; metric ton cargo 380,800,000. Air transport (1993)18: passenger-km 5,276,718,000; metric ton-km cargo 122,769,000; airports (1994) 9.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 17; total circulation 3,307,100!8; circulation per 1,000 population 6219. Radio (1993): 14,000,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Television (1993): 5,000,000 receivers (1 per 11.4 persons). Telephones (1991): 2,500,000 (1 per 22 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-11) 20, 21 Secondary (age 12-17)20 Vocational Teacher training Higher21

16,481 655822

51924 41225

teachers

279,315 155,941 23 79,167 6,159 34,55326

students

teacher ratio

6,964,306 4,165,362 1,110,184 25,335 600,680

24.9 3 14.0 44 Sy

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education 70.6%, of which literate 14.7%; primary and secondary 25.3%; higher 4.1%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 15,470,000 (48.4%); males 62.9%; females 33.8%.

Health: physicians (1990) 31,312 (1 per 1,698 persons); hospital beds (1991) 108,425 (1 per 504 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 59.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,310 (vegetable products 92%, animal products 8%); 132% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 430,000 (army 72.0%, navy 4.7%, air force [including air defense] 23.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 6.0% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$60. ‘Includes 10 nonelective seats. January 1. 3The area of al-Ugqsur (Luxor) is included with Qind governorate. 4According to the 1986 census, the Christian population of Egypt was 5.9% of the total; this figure is considered by some external authorities to understate the Christian population by as much as 60%. 51991. 6Year-end. 7At factor cost. $Manufacturing includes mining but excludes petroleum. °Transportation includes earnings from traffic on the Suez Canal. !0Unemployed and those seeking work for the first time. 1!Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Total includes 7,400 persons not classifiable by sector. 13April. M4Average nominal wages for each fiscal year (e.g., 1990-91). 1SWeight of consumer price components; urban households only. 16Import figures are f.o.b. 17Figures are c.i.f. \8Egypt Air only. Based on 12 dailies only. 20Data exclude 1,399 primary and 1,290 secondary schools in the al-Azhar education system. 211990-91. 22198990, 231987-88. 241983; includes vocational. 25Universities only. 26Excludes al-Azhar University.

Nations of the World

El Salvador

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: Republica de El Salvador (Republic of El Salvador).

Consumer price index Annual earnings index?

Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [84]). Chief of state and government: President.

Capitals

Cusgmy

Ahuachapan

1,240

426 779 292 638 473

La Unién

Usulutan TOTAL

sq km

479

Sensuntepeque Chalatenango Cojutepeque Nueva San Salvador Zacatecoluca

San Salvador San Vicente Santa Ana Sonsonate

1992

1993

19948

114.4 111.9

127.2 128.6

150.9 3

166.0 Gt

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1,104 2,017 756 1,653 1,224

801

San Francisco San Miguel San Salvador

559 802 342

San Vicente

457

Santa Ana Sonsonate

781 473

Usulutan

822

2,074

1,447 2,077 886 1,184 2,023 1,226 2,130 21,041

Population 1992 census2 260,563 136,293 180,627 167,290 522,071 246,147 251,143 166,772 380,442 477,766 135,471 451,620 354,641 317,079 5,047,925

1991

in value ¢'000,000 5,244

% of total value 9.6

labour force? 100,451

99 10,300 1,584

0.2 18.9 2.9

1,269

863 212,843 53,292

2.3

7,270

10.4 0.1 22.1 5.5 0.8

2,634 19,253 4,442 4,007 5,666 — 54,498

4.8 35.3

50,596 237,196

5.3 24.6

27,633

2.9

ee 22,335

260) 2.3

962,801

100.0

8.2 74 10.4 } — 100.0

% of labour force7

Tourism: receipts (1992) U.S.$49,000,000; expenditures (1991) U.S.$57,000,000.

Land use (1992): forested 5.0%; meadows and pastures 29.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 35.2%; other 30.3%.

Foreign trade!0 Balance of trade (current prices) ¢'000,000 % of total

Demography

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

=1,991 24.6%

—3,717 40.0%

-5,170 36.9%

-—6560 41.0%

-9,383 48.0%

—10,379 44.7%

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 694.5, persons per sq km 268.1.

Imports (1992): ¢14,475,000,000 (consumer goods 28.8%, capital goods 25.4%, crude petroleum 7.5%). Major import sources: United States 44.0%;

Sex distribution (1992): male 47.97%; female 52.03%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 43.0%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 13.6%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Exports (1992): €5,092,000,000 (coffee 25.3%, raw sugar 7.5%, shrimp 3.3%, unspecified 63.6%). Major export destinations: United States 50.3%; Guatemala 16.1%; Costa Rica 6.7%; Germany 6.3%; Nicaragua 3.5%.

' Population (1994): 5,642,000.

Guatemala 9.7%; Mexico 7.0%; Japan 5.2%, Venezuela 5.1%.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 50.0%; rural 50.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 6,425,000; (2010) 7,772,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1990): mestizo (white and Indian) 90.0%; Indian 5.0%; white 5.0%. Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 75.0%; other (mostly fundamentalist Protestant, Mormon, or Jehovah’s Witness) 25.0%. Major cities (1992)3: San Salvador 422,570 (metropolitan area 1,522,126); Soyapango

145,0004.

251,8114;

Santa Ana

202,337;

San Miguel

182,817; Mejicanos

Vital statistics

Marnriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 4.3.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 63.0 years; female 68.0 years. 5 Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990)5: diseases of the circulatory system 120.1; violence 73.3; accidents 63.3; infectious and parasitic diseases 52.4; diseases of the respiratory system 49.1; ill-defined conditions 92.8.

Transport.

Railroads

(1992): route length 374 mi, 602 km; passenger-mi

3,900,000, passenger-km 6,300,000; short ton-mi cargo 26,200,000, metric ton-km cargo 38,200,000. Roads (1991): total length 9,371 mi, 15,081 km

(paved 12%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 221;870; trucks and buses 33,229. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 15; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1992)11: passenger-mi 801,000,000, 1,289,000,000;

short ton-mi

National economy stamp duties 30.3%, income taxes 15.9%, import duties 13.0%, consumption

taxes 8.9%; other revenue 16.6%). Expenditures: U.S.$930,400,000 (defense and police 14.6%; education 11.7%; public works 8.9%; health and welfare 6.7%). ee (value added in £000,000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): coffee 1,323, sugarcane 444, aviculture 363, fish catch 233, beans 216, maicillo (variety of millet) 208, rice 95, forest products 87, corn (maize) 82, tobacco 60, oranges 124,000 metric tons, bananas 68,000

metric tons; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 1,345,000 cattle, 325,000 pigs. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 1,900,000 metric tons. Manufacturing (1992): food products 3,807; beverages 1,458; textiles 651; petroleum products 619; chemical products 564; nonmetallic mineral products 532; clothing and footwear

477; tobacco products 456. Construction

(1992): private residential 694; private nonresidential 271; total public 619. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,316,000,000 (2,113,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (5,937,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 762,000 (1,017,000); natgas, none

ee

(none).

;

cargo

4,800,000,

metric

ton-km

cargo 7,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 6; total circulation 255,100; circulation per 1,000 population 48. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,935,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 500,700 (1 per 11 persons). Telephones (1992): 296,910 (1 per 18 persons). Education and health Education (1991)

student/ schools

Primary (age 7-15)

Secondary (age 16-18) Vocational

teachers

3,516

22,622 12

3 }

students

teacher ratio

1,000,671

38.012

fa ee Ou

ook

Higher 14

Budget (1992). Revenue: U.S.$741,800,000 (current revenue 83.4%, of which

ural

Transport and communications

passenger-km

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 33.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 30.6%; illegitimate 69.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 27.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.8.

-

1991

100.0 100.0

1992

Area and population

La Union Morazan San Miguel

1990

80.7 85.7

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1US.$=€8.77; 1 £=€13.95.

La Libertad La Paz

1989

(U.S.$1,320 per capita).

Official religion: none}. Monetary unit: 1 col6n (¢) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Cuscatlan

1988 68.6 85.7

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,016,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$7,230,000,000

Capital: San Salvador. Official language: Spanish.

Departments Ahuachapan Cabanas Chalatenango

601

4,216

78,211

os 18.6

Educational attainment (1990)15. Percentage of population over age 25 having: no formal schooling 13.9%; primary education 52.9%; secondary 19.7%; higher 13.5%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 2,127,000 (73.0%); males literate, c. 1,048,000 (76.2%); females literate, c. 1,079,000 (70.0%).

Health (1991): physicians 2,483 (1 per 2,126 persons); hospital beds 5,726 (1 per 922 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 41.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,152 (1979-81; vegetable products 88%, animal products

mum requirement.

12%); 94%

of FAO

recommended

mini-

Military Total active duty personnel (1994); 30,700 (army 91.2%, navy 2.3%, air force 6.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.9% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$32.

;

une ae expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.9; in-

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1976-77)°: food and beverages 42.8%, housing 11.7%, education and recreation 8.7%,

household furnishings 8.5%, clothing and footwear 8.4%. _ Population. economically active (1991)7: total 962,801; activity rate of total

population 40.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 64.8%; female 45.1%; urban unemployed [1993] 8.1%).

1Roman Catholicism, although not official, enjoys special recognition in the constitution, 2Preliminary figure. 3Population of municipios (second-order administrative units). 4Within San Salvador metropolitan area. 5Projected rates based on about 75% of total deaths. “Based on middle-income urban families. 7Urban areas only. 8June. °Miminum wages in manufacturing and services in San Salvador metropolitan area. 10Imports c.if., exports f.o.b. 1!TACA International Airlines. 12Public schools only. 131989. 141990, 15San Salvador metropolitan area only.

602

Britannica World Data

Equatorial Guinea

lead, zinc, manganese, and molybdenum are present; the new offshore Alba

gas-condensate field has started commercial production at a rate of 4,500 barrels of condensate per day. Manufacturing (1992): veneer sheets 6,000.

Official name: Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial (Republic of Equatorial Guinea). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Chamber of People’s Representatives [801]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Malabo. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation

Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 19,000,000 (19,000,000); coal, none (n,a.); crude petroleum4, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (38,000); natural gas,

none (n.a.). Pie »oneal active (1989): total 144,000; activity rate of total population 41.7% (participation rates [1983]: ages 15-64, 66.7%; female 35.7%; unemployed 24.27%).

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF 837.67.

Bioko Norte Bioko Sur Continental Centro-Sur Kie-Ntem Litoral Wele-Nzas TOTAL

1991

1992

78.0 a

76.0 ane

70.1 *

estimate

7

17

300 479 10,0454 3,834 1,522 2,573 2,115 10,8313

776 1,241 26,017 9,931 3,943 6,665 5,478 28,051

Balance of trade (current prices) 1985 1986 1987 CFAF '000,000 % of total

—3,819 15.5%

Population projection: (2000) 448,000; (2010) 573,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Fang 82.9%; Bubi 9.6%; Ndowe 3.8%; Annobonés 1.5%; Bujeba 1.4%; other 0.8%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) 88.8%; traditional beliefs 4.6%; atheist 1.4%; Muslim 0.5%; other 0.2%; none 4.5%. Major cities (1983): Malabo 30,418; Bata 24,308; Ela-Nguema 6,179; Campo Yaunde 5,199; Los Angeles 4,079.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 41.1 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 26.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 5.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 49.6 years; female 53.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria (affecting about 60% of the population), cholera, leprosy, trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and waterborne (especially gastrointestinal) diseases.

National economy 7,520,000,000 (fiscal receipts 68.4%; other CFAF 8,105,000,000 (current expenditure salaries 26.1%; capital expenditure 14.1%). 1992): U.S.$205,500,000. 1993): U.S.$161,000,000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture, forestry Manufacturing, mining Construction

Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

23,328 597 1,299

50.2 1g 2.8

59,390 1,616 1,929

29

224

1,358 855 3,319 1,005 6,354 5,817 2,497 46,429

1.8 tal 2.2 13.7 12.5 } 5.4 100.03

1,752 3,059 409

8,977 25,809 102,565

% of labour force

17,000, coconuts

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1989): total length 1,667 mi, 2,682 km (paved 19%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 5,500; trucks and buses 3,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 3; total deadweight tonnage 6,699. Air transport (1985): passenger-mi 4,000,000, passenger-km 7,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 700,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 2,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6.0. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 100,000 (1 per 3.8 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 2,500 (1 per 151 persons). Telephones (1987): 2,000 (1 per 163 persons).

Education and health Education (1987-88) schools Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr.5 Higher

Educational having: no secondary percentage

703 9 es 5

teachers

1,065 319 3 133

students

student/ teacher ratio

61,009 9,226

57.3 28.9

1,542

11.6

attainment (1983). Percentage of population age 15 and over schooling 35.4%; some primary education 46.6%; primary 13.0%; 2.3%; postsecondary 1.1%; not specified 1.6%. Literacy (1983): of total population age 15 and over literate 62.2%; males literate

77.8%; females literate 48.6%.

Health: physicians (1990) 99 (1 per 3,532 persons); hospital beds (1982) 3,200 (1 per 89 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 117. Food (latest): daily per capita caloric intake 2,230; 68% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,320 (army 83.3%, navy 9.1%, air force 7.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1981): 1.8% (world 5.8%); per capita expenditure U.S.$9.

57.9 1.6 1.9

0.2 Ae 3.0 0.4

oie 25.2 100.03

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): roots and tubers 82,000 (of which cassava 47,000, sweet potatoes 35,000), bananas

54.8%; Spain 13.5%; Nigeria 10.4%; Gabon 2.8%; The Nether-

lands 2.4%; Sao Tomé and Principe 2.3%; Italy 1.9%; France 1.7%.

Military 1983

in value CFAF '000,000

25.7%; Liberia 19.4%; Spain 10.3%; France 5.2%; Italy

live animals 10.9%, of which cocoa 10.3%). Major export destinations (1991): Cameroon

1991

—8,522 29.7%

inedible crude materials 32.4%, of which cork and wood 20.8%; food and

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 42.6%; 15-29, 26.4%; 30-44, 14.2%; 45-59, 10.5%; 60-74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 1.0%.

prices;

1989 — 4,083 12.1%

2.6%; Japan 0.8%; Gabon 0.7%. Exports (1990): U.S.$61,705,000 (machinery and transport equipment 39.8%;

Sex distribution (1991): male 48.54%; female 51.46%.

market

1988 — 2,949 9.5%

food, beverages, and tobacco 12.2%; fuels and lubricants 7.7%; basic manu-

Urban-rural (1991): urban 37.0%; rural 63.0%.

(at current

-—3,426 12.8%

factures 6.4%; chemicals 3.9%). Major import sources (1991): United States

Population (1994): 386,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 35.6, persons per sq km 13.8.

Budget (1990). Revenue: CFAF receipts 31.6%). Expenditures: 85.9%, of which interest 28.6%, Public debt (external, outstanding;

-—6822 22.2%

Imports (1990): U.S.$61,601,000 (machinery and transport equipment 58.2%; 29.4%; Cameroon

(U.S.$360 per capita).

73.0 i

Foreign trade

70,280 2,360 56,600 11,320 259,950 55,970 74,050 75,640 54,290 330,230

Demography

Gross national product

72.0 tes

1987

aes ed a 7853 2,034

Annobon

1990

78.0 5

82.0 en

and under permanent cultivation 8.2%; built-on, wasteland, and other 41.9%.

population

:

Provinces Insular

1989

Consumer price index Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Tourism: tourism is a government priority but remains undeveloped. Land use (1992): forested 46.2%; meadows and pastures 3.7%; agricultural

Area and population Regions

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1986

8,000, coffee 7,000, cacao beans 5,000, palm oil

5,000, palm kernels 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 36,000 sheep, 8,000 goats, 5,000 pigs, 5,000 cattle; roundwood (1992) 613,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 3,500. Mining and quarrying: details, n.a.; however, in addition

to quarrying for construction materials, unexploited deposits of iron ore,

!Conduct of November 1993 legislative elections was unacceptable to internationa l observers. 2As of Jan. 1, 1985, Equatorial Guinea became a member of the franc zone, substituting the CFA franc for the previous monetary unit, the ekwele; the CFA franc has a par value of 100 CFA francs to the French franc. 3Detail does total given because of rounding. 4Equatorial Guinea’s offshore prospectivenot add to oil-lease

areas total about 13,450 sq km. 5Efforts are being undertaken to provide the training necessary to qualify nondegree teachers for service. Also, teacher-training to be expanded in order to increase the number of primary-school teachers.schools are

Nations of the World

Eritrea

603

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): c. U.S.$393,415,000

(U.S.$115 per capita).

Official name: State of Eritrea.

Form of government: transitional . regime! with one legislative house (National Assembly [60]2). Head of state and government: President assisted by State Council. Capital: Asmara. Official language: none. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Ethiopian birr (Br) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Manufacturing value added and employment (current prices) 1983-84 % of total value

in value ‘000 birr Apparel

Chemical products Food and beverages Metal products Nonmetallic products Petroleum products Plastic products Textiles Other

TOTAL

1994) 1 U.S.$=Br 5.41; 1 £=Br 8.60.

labour force

% of labour force

4,275

1.4

9,641 114,348

796

Sal 36.5

52

531 3,267

3.4 21.3

3,830

it.2

5,057 120,513 9,423 23,699 22,818

313,604

611

4.0

1.6

511

38.4 3.0 9 7.3

1,070 813

7.0 3

6,341 1,370

41.4 8.9

100.0

3.3

15,310

100.04

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1984) 4.5; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure:

Area and population areas

Population

;

Provinces

Capitals

Akele Guzai Asmara Barka Dankalia Gash and Setit

Same

Adi Qayeh Asmara (Asmera) Agordat (Akordat) Asseb (Aseb) Barentu

3,200 100 10,700 9,400 7,200

Hamasien

ts

Sahel Semhar Senhit Seraye TOTAL

1994

and under permanent cultivation 3.5%; meadows and pastures 57.2%; other

—sakm_——__estimate_

(predominantly barren land) 33.3%.

8,400 200 27,800 24,300 18,600

1,000

Nakfa Massawa (Mitsiwa) Keren Mendefera

na. Land use (1993): forested 0.5%; woodland and scrubland 5.5%; agricultural

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices): n.a. Imports (1992): Br 367,000,000 (manufactured goods 58.0%, food products 31.0%, chemical products 9.0%, raw materials 2.0%). Major import sources:

2,700

6,300 2,400 2,300 2,600

16,400 6,300 5,900 6,800

45,3004

117,400

eae Arabia 49.0%7; Ethiopia 17.0%; United Arab Emirates 10.0%; Italy 8.0%.

3s

Exports (1992): Br 46,000,000 (raw materials 75.0%, food products 14.0%, manufactured goods 10.0%, chemical products 1.0%). Major export desti-

3,779,000

nations: Ethiopia 87.0%; Italy 7.0%; United Arab Emirates 1.0%; United

Kingdom 1.0%.

Demography Population (1994): 3,779,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 83.4, persons per sq km 32.2. Urban-rural (1989): urban 15.4%; rural 84.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.90%; female 50.10%.

Transport and communications

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 46.0%; 15-29, 23.1%; 30-44, 16.0%; 45-59, 8.9%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,523,000; (2010) 6,104,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Linguistic composition (1976): Tigrinya 47.9%; Tigré 31.0%;

Transport. Railroads (1994): none; a 190-mi (306-km) rail line that formerly connected Massawa and Agordat is under reconstruction. Roads (1994): total length 621 mi, 1,000 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles: n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a. Air transport (1993)8: passenger arrivals 47,6459, passenger departures 42,5489; short ton cargo handled 25,90710, metric ton cargo handled 28,55710; airports (1994) with scheduled

Afar

4.2%;

Hedareb 3.9%; Bilen 3.1%; Saho 3.0%; Kunama 2.7%; Nara 2.1%; Amharic 1.7%; Rashaida 0.4%.

Religious affiliation (1993): believers are c. 50% Christian and c. 50% Muslim; there are also a few animists. Major cities (1992): Asmara 400,000; Asseb 50,000; Keren 40,000; Massawa 40,000; Mendefera 14,8335.

flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none; (1994) 2 biweekly newspapers published; circulation c. 26,00011; circulation per 1,000 population 7.811. Radio (1994): the government operates a station in Asmara. Television (1994): the government operates a station in Asmara. Telephones (1993): 13,356 (1 per 275 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 47.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (ayg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1992): 46 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; morbidity (principal causes of illness) arises mainly in malaria and other infectious diseases, parasitic infections, malnutrition, diarrheal diseases, and dysenteries.

Education (1992-93)

student/ schools

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 12

447 86 4 1

teachers

students

teacher ratio

4,954 1,759 53 144

184,492 59,962 774 2,032

37.2 34.1 14.6 144

Literacy (1993): total population literate c. 20%. Health: physicians (1993) 69 (1 per 36,000 persons); hospital beds (1986-87): 2,449 (1 per 1,100 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 135;

Food (1993): daily per capita caloric intake 1,750 (vegetable and animal products, n.a.); 93% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

| National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Br 310,800,000. Expenditure: Br 350,200,000. Public debt: n.a. Tourism (1993): 12 major hotels. ‘ , Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing:

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): estimated strength of Eritrean forces (predominantly former guerrillas) is some 42,000.

armed

(1993): roots and tubers 109,000, cereals 73,000, sorghum 51,000, vegetables and melons 25,000, pulses 13,000, millet 8,000, corn (maize) 6,000, barley 4,000, wheat 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,550,000 cattle, 1,510,000 sheep, 1,400,000 goats, 69,000 camels; Red Sea fisheries landed G 2,000 tons annually in the early 1990s, including lobster, prawns, sardines,

sharks, anchovies, groupers, and snappers. Mining and quarrying: detail, n.a.; salt and sand and aggregate for construction are the principal minerals exploited;

deposits of copper,

zinc, mica, gold, iron, manganese,

nickel,

and lead exist but remain unexploited. Manufacturing (value added in Br 000; 1983-84): petroleum products 120,513; beverages 60,868, of which beer 54,275; food products 53,480; textiles 23,699, ofwhich spinning, and weaving 14,404, knitting products 5,816, rope and twine 3,479; chemical products 9,641; plastic products 9,423; tobacco products 6,262; nonmetallic mineral

products 5,057; footwear 4,249; metal products 3,830;'glass and glass products 3,258. Construction: reconstruction, after some 30 years of civil war,

is a principal concern of the government. Energy production: energy resources include hydroelectricity, fossil fuels, geothermal power, coal, biogas, solar power, and wind; commercial electricity production for 1986-87 was ~ 148,664,000 kW-hr. Persons economically active: n.a. Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index6 Earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

90.2

88.0

94.2

101.6

106.8

145.0

160.3

Se

a

si

!1Transitional regime (independent May 24, 1993) to govern for up to four years pending the drafting of a constitution and holding of multiparty elections. *Excludes members of the Central Council of the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice, who are ex officio members of the Assembly. 3Approximate figures. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 51989. Ethiopian CPI; no separate data available as yet. 7Saudi Arabia is a transshipment point; not all goods included here are of Saudi Arabian origin. 8Asmara airport only. 9January to June only. 101987-88. 111992. 12199394; full-time students only.

604

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$4,297,000,000 (U.S.$2,750 per capita).

Estonia Official name: Eesti Vabariik (Republic

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

of Estonia).

1992

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [101]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tallinn. Official language: Estonian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 kroon (EEK) = 100

in value EEK ’000,000

Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Trade, restaurants Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$=EEK 12.32; 1 £=EEK

19.60.

Area and population sled’ Counties Harju

Hiiu Ida-Viru

Jarva Jogeva Laane Laane-Viru Parnu Polva Rapla Saare Tartu Valga

Viljandi Voru

Population 19941 estimate

sq mi

sq km

1,673 395

4,333 566,853 1,023 11,986 3,364 209,827 2,623 43,746 2,604 42,549 2,383 32,756 3,464 76,099 4,806 99,869 2,165 36,544 2,980 40,111 2,922 40,822 3,089 155,568 2,047 40,342 3,589 64,793 2,305 45,062 45,2272,3 |1,506,927

Johvi

1,299

Paide Jogeva Haapsalu Rakvere Parnu Polva Rapla Kuressaare Tartu Valga

1,013 1,005 920 1,337 1,856 836 1,151 1,128 1,193 790

Viljandi

1,386

Voru

890 17,4622

Demography

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 21.1%; 15-29, 20.9%; 30-44, 21.8%; 45-59, 17.8%; 60-74, 13.6%; 75 and over, 4.8%. Population projection: (2000) 1,450,000; (2010) 1,450,000.

Ethnic composition (1989): Estonian 61.5%; Russian 30.3%; Ukrainian 3.1%;

Major cities (1994): Tallinn 442,679; Tartu 105,844; Narva 79,094; Parnu 51,963; Kohtla-Jarve 28,3104.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.2 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 66.1%; illegitimate 33.9%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): —3.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 3.8. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 65.0 years; female 75.0 years.

Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system, 746.7, of which ischemic heart diseases 465.9, cerebrovascular disease 233.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 194.2; accidents 90.4; suicide

26.8.

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index?

100.0

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

80 ue

84 &

100 100

332 218

3,904 1,340 10

7,410

11,0278

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,500,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,400,000. Land use (1989): forested 42.6%; meadows and pastures, n.a.; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 32.5%; other 24.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Imports

1991

1992

1993

+65 6.8%

+421 3.9%

—1,212 5.4%

(1993): EEK

11,848,000,000

mineral

fuels

15.1%,

15.0%, motor vehicles 12.8%, nonelectrical machinery

food products

10.6%, textiles and

clothing 10.5%). Major import sources: Finland 27.9%; Russia 17.2%; Germany 10.7%; Sweden 8.9%; Japan 4.2%; The Netherlands 3.6%; Lithuania

3.3%. Exports (1993): EEK 10,636,000,000 (food products 23.5%, base metals 10.5%, motor vehicles 10.1%, wood and wood products 7.5%, mineral fuels 7.0%). Major export destinations: Russia 22.6%; Finland 20.7%; Sweden 9.5%;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 633 mi, 1,018 km; passenger-mi 590,000,000, passenger-km 950,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,497,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,646,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 9,194 mi, 14,797 km

(paved 54%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 283,400; trucks and buses 83,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (1,000 gross tons and over) 234; total deadweight tonnage 680,367. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 118,700,000, passenger-km 191,100,000; short ton-mi cargo (1991) 4,100,000, metric tonkm cargo (1991) 6,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: total number (1992) 7; total circulation 239,000; circulation per 1,000 population 155. Radio (1989): total number of receivers 926,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 600,000 (1 per 2.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 386,000 a per 4.0 persons).

Education and health schools

Budget (1992). Revenue: EEK 3,667,245,000 (sales taxes 24.6%, personal income taxes 23.4%, income taxes on enterprises 19.6%, subsidies 8.8%). (education

601,753

1988

Education (1992-93)

National economy 3,667,245,000

% of labour force 17.8 2.4 26.3 2.6 6.2 8.9 9.5 43 18.4 3.6

Latvia 8.6%; Germany 8.0%; The Netherlands 4.1%; Ukraine 3.6%.

Belorussian 1.8%; Finnish 1.1%; other 2.2%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Evangelical Lutheran, with Orthodox and Baptist minorities.

EEK

14,247

labour forces 107,283 14,656 158,008 15,377 37,551 53,423 57,438 25,699 110,824 21,494

Population economically active (1989): total 856,000; activity rate of total population 54.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 79.7%; female 50.0%; unemployed [April 1994] 2.3%).

EEK '000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 1,499,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 85.8, persons per sq km 33.1. Urban-rural (1994): urban 70.3%; rural 29.7%. Sex distribution (1994): male 46.69%; female 53.31%.

Expenditures:

12.5

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Capitals Tallinn Kardla

TOTAL

1,779 349 4,019 614 654 2,064 1,698 581 279 1,393 8177

Agriculture, fishing Mining

senti; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

% of total value

21.1%, housing 9.2%, social

security 9.0%, subsidies 8.8%, transportation 6.6%, public health 2.7%, defense 1.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$26,500,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

potatoes 669,100, hay 593,200, barley 300,800, rye 153,400, wheat 89,400, vegetables 78,400, fruits and berries 30,600; livestock (number of live animals) 615,000 cattle, 541,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 1,653,000 cu m; fish

catch (1991) 317,400. Mining and quarrying (value of production in EEK 000,000; 1992): oil shale 389, peat 34. Manufacturing (value of production in EEK ’000,000; 1992): textiles, clothing, and footwear 1,388; chemicals and

chemical products 891; meat 839; dairy products 788; furniture 532; non-

metallic mineral products 461; electrical machinery and components 454. Construction (completed; 1992): residential 239,700 sq m; nonresidential, n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 11,831,-

Primary Secondary Vocational Higher

student/ teachers

students

teacher ratio

15,783

216,427

13.7

3,16811

30,687

24.464

8.211

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of persons age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 2.2%; primary education 39.7%; secondary 45.1%; higher 13.7%. Literacy (1989); 99.7%. Health (1992): physicians 5,360 (1 per 288 persons); hospital beds 14,843 ( per 103 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.8. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 2,50012. Military expenditure as a percentage of GNP: n.a. .

000,000 (5,916,000,000); oil shale (metric tons; 1992) 18,849,000 (20,502,000);

coal and coke (metric tons; 1992) none (239,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (890,000,000).

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1994) 3.1; aver-

age annual income per household (1993) EEK 27,805 (U.S.$2,102); sources of income (1993): wages and salaries 66.0%, social security 9.0%, other

25.0%; expenditure (1992)5: food, beverages, and tobacco 47.3%, housing 13.8%, clothing and footwear 9.2%.

‘January Ist. 2Total includes 590 sq mi (1,528 sq km) not distributed by county, largely the Estonian portion of Lake Peipus. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 41992. SUrban areas only. ©Wage earners only. 7Taxes on products less subsidies. Average of June-July. °Manufacturing sector only. l0Average of first quarters. 111990-91. 12The last Russian military personnel left Estonia in August three 1994,

Nations of the World

Ethiopia

Land use (1992): forest 24.4%; pasture 40.7%; agriculture 12.7%; other 22.2%.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$5,329,000,000 (U.S.$100 per capita).

Official name: \tyop’iya (Ethiopia). Form of government: transitional regime with one nonlegislative deliberative body (Constituent Assembly [545])1. Chief of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Addis Ababa. Official Language: Amharic. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 birr (Br) = 100 cents;

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991-92

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Br 5.41; 1 £=Br 8.60. Area and population Regions?

Capitals

Addis Ababa Arsi

ve Asela

Asosa Bale Borena

Eastern Gojam

Kefa

5,381 34,981

a Mefa

5,188

2,657,559 2,157,227

es Awasa

si Nekemte

Gojam

Aseb3

ae Mekele

723,746

1,699,460

90,600

2,774,346

12,754 26,065 35,059

15,476

40,083

30,481

% of total value

Agriculture Manufacturing, mining Construction Public utilities

6,311.3 1,177.5 346.2 163.4

50.3 9.4 2.8 1.3

Transp. and commun. Mi inance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

678.5 1,279.5 414.2 909.4 960.2 303.3 12,543.5

5.4 10.2 3.3 7.2 Teil 2.4 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

14,900,000

74.2

2,065,000

10.3

SRS C00

ie

20,068,000

100.0

1,026,180 195,023 3,117,220

Price index (1990 = 100) 1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index

88.2

95:1

100.0

135.7

150.0

155.3

82.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1984) 4.5; income per household (1981-82) Br 1,728 (U.S.$835); sources of income (1981-82): self-employment 79.5%, wages and salaries 0.2%, other 20.3%; expenditure

1,148,596

416,380

(1988): food 66.7%, fuel and power

15.9%, clothing and footwear 6.8%,

23,946

62,020

2,038,164

11,553 10,436

29,923 27,030

11,906 8,009

3,046,859 2,570,128

30,835 20,742

1,621,520 2,980,044

6,594

17,079

8,494 6,486 7,993 16,460 6,675

1,867,766

22,000 16,799 20,702 42,632 17,289

269,197 3,235,768 2,675,995 2,673,652 2,210,466

8,964

23,218

2,934,434

Imports (1991-92): Br 1,810,900,000 (petroleum products 10.7%, machinery

17,786

46,065

246,373

29,244 179,327 53,498 1,133,882

521,691 906,632 2,999,948 51,831,290

2.7%, pharmaceuticals 2.7%). Major import sources: U.S. 6.9%; Saudi Arabia 5.9%; Japan 5.1%; Germany 4.7%; Italy 4.6%; U.K. 4.2%.

12,814

Western Shewa Autonomous regions

570,910 1,063,382

13,936

4,924 10,064 12,905 11,768

1993 estimate

23,710 94,018

Western Harerge

Dire Dawa Ogaden Tigray TOTAL

9,155

sq km

36,301

Southern Gonder

Omo Shewa Welo

2,003

1991

in value Br '000,000

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$4,168,000,000. Population economically active (1992): total 23,518,000; activity rate of total population 41.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 70.1%; female 41.1%; unemployed [1990] 44.2%).

_population_

a

Northern Omo Northern Shewa

Southern Southern Southern Welega Western

f

23,067 67,330

Northern Gonder Northern Welo Sidamo

sq mi

8,906 25,996

Jima

Metekel

area

A. Goba

Eastern Harerge

Eastern Shewa Gambela llubabor

605

11,291 69,239 20,656 437,7944

33,188

health care 3.1%, education 2.5%, household goods 2.1%.

Foreign trade5 Balance of trade (current prices) Br 000,000 % of total

1,482,628

1987

1988

—1,124.7 43.3%

—1,081.2 60.8%

1989 ato 29.1%

1990 eT .6 50.8%

1991

1992

—433.1 55.5%

—1,360.5 60.3%

[including aircraft] 10.5%, motor vehicles 9.9%, textiles 4.1%, metal wares

Exports (1991-92): Br 318,400,000 (coffee 52.9%, hides 18.4%, gold 12.4%,

petroleum products 5.9%). Major export destinations: Japan 24.6%; Germany

15.7%; Saudi Arabia 12.5%; Italy 7.3%; France 6.4%; U.K. 5.9%; U.S. 4.2%.

Demography

Transport and communications5

Population (1994): 53,384,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 121.9, persons per sq km 47.1.

Urban-rural (1993): urban 12.3%; rural 87.7%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.27%; female 49.73%.

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 46.5%; 15-29, 22.8%; 30-44, 15.6%; 45-59, 8.9%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 1.7%. Population projection: (2000) 63,726,000; (2010) 85,605,000.

Ethnolinguistic composition (1983)5: Amhara 37.7%; Galla (Oromo) 35.3%; Tigrinya 8.6%; Gurage 3.3%; Ometo (Omotic) 2.7%; Sidamo 2.4%. Religious affiliation (1980)>: Ethiopian Orthodox 52.5%; Muslim 31.4%; traditional beliefs 11.4%; other Christian 4.5%; other 0.2%. Major cities (1988): Addis Ababa 1,673,060; Dire Dawa 95,000; Nazret 90,975.

117,734;

Gonder

Transport. Railroads (1990-91)9: length 782 km; passenger-km 277,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 126,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 27,972 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 37,799; trucks and buses 20,939. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 27; total deadweight tonnage 84,326. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 1,568,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 79,000,000; airports (1994) 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): 3; circulation 107,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.1. Radio (1993): 3,000,000 receivers (1 per 17.3 persons). Television (1993): 100,000 receivers (1 per 518 persons). Telephones (1992): 154,450 (1 per 326 persons). Education and health Education (1991)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 49.1 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 18.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 30.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.0. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 45.4 years; female 48.7 years. Major causes of death (1987-88)®: infectious and parasitic diseases 33.1%; respiratory diseases 15.7%; digestive system diseases 10.7%.

schools Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr.11 Higher

8,434 1,20910 F 1112

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

68,399 23,110 763 1,697

2,063,636 775,211 8,243 22,538

30.2 33.5 10.8 13.3

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1984)!3:; total population age 15 and over literate 24.3%; males 32.7%; females 16.4%. Health: physicians (1988) 1,466 (1 per 30,195 persons); hospital beds (1986-

and profit tax 28.2%, sales tax 22.7%, import duties 19.5%, export duties

87) 11,745 (1 per 3,873 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 122.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,699 (1979-81; vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); (1984) 72% of FAO recommended minimum.

vices 34.0%; social services 24.5%, of which education 15.5%, public health

Military

National economy>5 Budget (1991-92). Revenue: Br 2,176,100,000 (taxes 72.8%, of which income 0.4%; nontax revenue 27.2%). Expenditures: Br 3,124,100,000 (general ser4.4%; debt payment 9.7%).

:

Tourism: receipts (1992) U.S.$23,000,000; expenditures (1991) U.S.$7,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): corn (maize) 1,694,000, sugarcane 1,450,000, sorghum 950,000, barley 946,000, wheat 897,000, pulses 802,000, potatoes 349,000, millet 262,000, yams 180,000, coffee 180,000, seed cotton 46,000; livestock (number of live animals) 29,450,000 cattle, 21,700,000 sheep, 16,700,000 goats, 8,580,000 horses, mules, and asses, 1,000,000 camels; roundwood (1992) 45,603,000 cu m;

fish catch (1991) 4,500. Mining and quarrying (1992): cement 320,000; salt - 110,000; limestone 100,000; gold 71,503 troy oz; platinum 16 troy oz. Man-

ufacturing (gross value in Br 0007; 1991-92): food and beverages 555,800; textiles 251,400; leather and shoes 162,300; cigarettes 106,000; chemicals 53,400. Construction (authorized; 1987-88)8: residential 260,251 sq m; nonres-

idential 63,346 sq m, of which commercial 16,994 sq m. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,257,000,000 (1,257,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) n.a. (5,498,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 739,000 (893,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).

Total active duty personnel (1994): following the independence of Eritrea in May 1993, the estimated strength of Ethiopian armed forces was some 120,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 21.9% (world 4.9%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$28.

‘Constitution of July 1991 created a formally transitional government and legislature (Council of Representatives). Elections were held June 5, 1994, for a nonlegislative Constituent Assembly, which replaced the Council of Representatives in June 1994. The Constituent Assembly has the sole purpose of drafting a permanent constitution. 2In December 1991 the Council of Representatives established a regional administrative system comprising 13 ethnically based “national local administrations” and a single region made up of the towns of Addis Ababa and Harare. >Estimates adjusted to exclude the Eritrean portion of Aseb area. +Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ‘Includes Eritrea. “Percentage of illnesses in a sample population of hospital outpatients. 7At constant prices of 1978-79. 8Addis Ababa only. °Includes 62 mi (100 km) of the Chemin de Fer Djibouti-Ethiopién (CDE) in Djibouti; excludes 190 mi (306 km) of Northern Ethiopia Railway, not in use since 1978. 101985-86. 111988. 121983-84. 13Adult illiteracy was 37% in 1987.

606

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,510,000,000 (U.S.$2,010 per capita).

Fiji Official name: Sovereign Democratic Republic of Fiji. Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Senate [341]; House of Representatives [70]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Suva. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Fiji dollar

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance

(F$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =F$1.44; 1 £=F$2.30.

Area and population

area

Divisions Provinces Central Naitasiri Namosi Rewa Serua Tailevu Eastern

Capitals Suva _ oa = — — Levuka

Lomaiviti Rotuma Northern Bua Cakaudrove Macuata Western

Ba Nadroga-Navosa Ra

population

sq mi

sq km

IDES

643

1,666

570

105 320 369

272 830 955

100,227 4,836 97,442 13,356 44,249

185 188 159 18

478 487 411 46

9,805 14,203 16,066 2,688

532 1,087 774

1,379 2,816 2,004

13,986 40,433 74,735

1,017 921 518

2,634 2,385 1,341 18,274

197,633 54,431 31,285

36,619 19,6685 241,160

11.3%, clothing and footwear 10.2%, household durable goods 7.8%.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$223,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$44,000,000. Land use (1991): forested 64.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 13.2%; meadows and pastures 3.3%; other 18.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) F$’000,000 % of total

715,375

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—61.76 5.6%

— 253.87 18.7%

=251.325 14.1%

279-57 20.1%

=2/9.00 20.9%

Imports (1993): F$1,109,807,000 (machinery and transport equipment 27.6%; durable manufactures 22.7%; food, beverages, and tobacco 15.9%; mineral fuels 12.0%; miscellaneous manufactured

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.65%; female 49.35%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 37.3%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 18.7%; 45-59, 10.0%; 60-74, 4.1%; 75 and over, 1.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 826,000; (2010) 917,000. Doubling time: 32 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Fijian 48.5%; Indian 46.6%2; other 4.9%. Religious affiliation

(1986): Christian

Sikh 0.7%; other 0.5%.

52.9%;

Hindu

38.1%;

Muslim

1.8%;

Major cities (1986): Suva 69,665; Lautoka 28,728; Lami 8,601; Nadi 7,679; Ba

8.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1978) legitimate 82.7%; illegitimate 17.3%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 19.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 3.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 8.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1979): 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1987): male 61.0 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): diseases of the circulatory system 153.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 35.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 32.2; diseases of the respiratory system 31.7; diabetes mellitus 27.3; infectious and parasitic diseases 18.2; birth trauma 16.5.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: F$642,687,000 (income taxes, estate taxes, and gift customs

duties and port dues 27.9%;

fees, royalties, and

sales 8.7%). Expenditures: F$678,656,000 (departmental expenditure 73.6%; public-debt charges 22.5%; pensions and gratuities 3.9%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 3,704,000, paddy rice 20,180, copra 10,688, ginger 4,068; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 160,000 cattle, 124,000 goats, 15,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 413,329 cu m; fish catch (1991) 31,089. Mining and

quarrying (1993): gold 3,783 kg; silver 1,112 kg. Manufacturing

(1993):

refined sugar 442,000; cement 79,500; flour 33,314; stock feed 22,601; soap 7,002; coconut oil 6,231; beer 167,300 hectolitres; paint 27,950 hectolitres.

Construction (1993): residential 64,000 sq m; nonresidential 33,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 477,000,000 (477,000,000);

151,581 — 35,9514 899,577

and salaries 81.57%, self-employment 9.1%, other 9.4%; expenditure (1988): food 31.3%, housing and energy 11.9%, transportation and communications

Population (1994): 771,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 109.2, persons per sq km 42.2. Urban-rural (1987): urban 38.7%; rural 61.3%.

duties 53.8%;

13,151 26,010 6,016

per household (1980) F$2,837 (U.S.$3,546); sources of income (1973): wages

Demography

”

106,305 1,345 18,106 11,786 2,154

131,606 183,157 119,981 }

% of labour force

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$306,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.7; income

peer SUSEy

220

7,056

TOTAL

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1986 labour force

% of total value

in value F$’0003 184,629 1,681 108,002 42,557 12,334

coal (metric tons;

1992) none

(20,000); crude

petroleum,

none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (200,000); natural

gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1986): total 241,160; activity rate of total population 33.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 56.0%; female 21.2%; unemployed [1990] 6.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Daily earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

107.6 105.3

120.2 108.0

127.7 105.3

138.1

147.1

consumer

articles 11.4%; chem-

icals 7.4%). Major import sources: Australia 32.8%; New Zealand 19.2%: Japan 11.0%; United States 7.6%; Singapore 5.6%; Taiwan 3.4%; Hong Kong 3.3%; United Kingdom 3.1%. Exports (1993): F$588,389,000 (sugar 39.2%; gold 11.3%; fish 5.3%; timber 5.3%; molasses

1.7%; coconut oil 0.6%). Major export destinations?: Aus-

tralia 25.6%; United Kingdom 24.2%; United States 12.2%; Japan 8.6%: Canada 7.2%; Malaysia 6.4%; New Zealand 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990)8: length 370 mi, 595 km. Roads (1991): total length 2,996 mi, 4,821 km (paved 13%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 43,979; trucks and buses 30,899. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 64; total deadweight tonnage 60,444. Air transport (1992)9: passenger-mi 146,947,000, passenger-km 236,490,000; short ton-mi cargo 20,003,000, metric ton-km cargo 29,204,000; airports (1994) with scheduled

flights 13. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 1; total 27,000; circulation per 1,000 population 36. Radio (1993): total receivers 450,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1990): total receivers 10,000 (1 per 73 persons). Telephones (1991): 77,718 persons).

circulation number of number of (1 per 9.6

Education and health Education (1991) schools

Primary (age 5-15)

68110

Secondary (age 16-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

14011 4411 512

student/

teachers

students

4,664

144,924 55,622 5,992 7,908

2,684 10 369 10 277

teacher ratio

31.1 19,610 8.910 28.5

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 28.3%; primary only 19.1%; some secondary 44.1%; secondary 4.1%; postsecondary 3.3%; other 1.1%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 87.0%; males literate 90.0%; fe-

males literate 84.0%. Health (1990): physicians 300 (1 per 2,438 persons); hospital beds 1,747 (1 per 413 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 27.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,769 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): (army 92.3%, navy. 7.7%, air force, none). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.2% (world 4.2%); per

capita expenditure U.S.$44.

‘All seats are appointed. 2The emigration of Indian population after the has resulted in the reemergence of a Fijian majority. 3Constant 1977 coup in 1987 imputed bank service charges. 5Not stated and unemployed. Excludesprices. 4Less valued at F$104,013,000. 7Based on exports of local products only. 8Ownedreexports, by the Fiji Sugar Corporation. °Air Pacific only. 101990. 111986. 121983,

Nations of the World

Finland

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$116,309,000,000

(U.S.$22,980 per capita).

Official name: Suomen Tasavalta (Finnish); Republiken Finland (Swedish) (Republic of Finland). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

in value Fmk '000,000

(Parliament [200]).

Services

1 U.S.$=Fmk 4.74; 1 £=Fmk 7.53. Area and population

land area

population

,

Provinces

Capitals

squint

Hame ; Keski-Suomi

Hameenlinna Jyvaskyla

Kuopio Kymi.

Kuopio Kouvola

Lappi ; Mikkeli f

Pohjois-Karjala

:

688,355 255,879

16,510 10,783

258,712 335,093

35,930 6,302

Oulu

93,057 16,323

21,957

56,868

6,866

17,782

177,803

7,705 3,822

19,955 9,898

10,200

731,792 1,277,801

26,418

448 363

1,527

25,008

Turku Helsinki

Vaasa

19,224 16,249

6,375 4,163

Rovaniemi Mikkeli Joensuu

Turku ja Pori Uusimaa

Vaasa

Autonomous Province Aland (Ahvenanmaa) — Mariehamn (Maarianhamina)

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

590 117,6043 12,954 130,5593

202,434 207,875 445,632

0.4

5,000

22.3 27 6.3 8.7 12.2 18.0 21.9

0.2

488,000 27,000 208,000 177,000 357,000 206,000

19.3 teal 8.2 7.0 14.41 8.2

Teer

Sg

304,5933 33,551 338,1453

3.0

— 2,508 414,225

—0.6 100,03

eo

58,0006 2,526,000

2.36

ee

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

127.3 148.2

132.6 157.6

136.0 160.6

138.9 161.9

107.1 114.4

112.6 124.7

120.0 135.7

National debt (1992): Fmk 175,282,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 76.2%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 8.3%; other 15.1%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices)

5,054,747

Fmk '000,000 % of total

Demography

Population (1994): 5,083,000.

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1983

+784 0.4%

—5,732 2.8%

-1,700 0.8%

+5,098 2.8%

+12,516 6.2%

+30,849 13.0%

Imports (1993): Fmk 103,078,000,000 (raw materials 53.1%; consumer goods 20.4%; mineral fuels 10.6%). Major import sources: Germany 16.4%; Sweden

Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 43.2, persons per sq km 16.7. Urban-rural (1993): urban 62.5%; rural 37.5%. Sex distribution (1993): male 48.61%; female 51.39%.

10.2%; United

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 19.2%; 15-29, 20.3%; 30-44, 24.2%; 45-59, 17.6%; 60-74, 13.0%; 75 and over, 5.7%. Population projection: (2000) 5,159,000; (2010) 5,226,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; population is stable. Linguistic composition (1992): Finnish 93.4%; Swedish 5.9%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1992): Evangelical Lutheran 87.3%; Finnish (Greek) Orthodox 1.1%; nonreligious 10.6%; other 1.0%.

Major cities (19932): Helsinki 501,741 (urban area [1990]: 1,009,000); Espoo

Kingdom

8.9%; Russia 7.6%; United

States 7.3%; Japan

5.8%; Norway 4.9%. Exports (1993): Fmk 133,927,000,000 (metal products and machinery 35.9%; paper, paper products, and publishing 27.9%; chemicals and chemical products 10.6%). Major export destinations: Germany 13.2%; Sweden 11.1%; United Kingdom 10.5%; United States 7.8%; France 5.3%; The Netherlands 5.0%; Russia 4.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (1992) 3,637 mi, 5,853 km; passenger-mi

178,8995; Tampere 175,202; Turku 160,320; Vantaa 159,4625.

1,543,000,000, passenger-km 2,484,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,375,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 7,848,000,000. Roads (1993): total length8 47,693 mi,

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 13.2 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 72.6%; illegitimate 27.4%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 71.3 years; female 79.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): ischemic heart diseases 274.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 197.1; cerebrovascular disease 120.8;

diseases of the respiratory system 68.8; accidents 55.7.

Budget (1993), Revenue: Fmk 175,277,000,000 (tax revenue 59.6%, of which sales taxes 22.9%, income and property taxes 15.8%, excise duties 12.7%; loans 27.7%). Expenditures: Fmk 175,275,000,000 (social security and health 29.5%; education 15.4%; state debt 7.8%; pensions 6.6%; agriculture 5.4%;

transportation 5.2%; defense 5.1%). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,239,000,000;

A expenditures by

nationals abroad U.S.$1,617,000,000.

)

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): silage 4,589,000, barley 1,331,000, sugar beets 1,049,000, oats 998,000, potatoes 673,000, peas 29,100; livestock (number of live animals) 1,273,000 pigs, 1,252,000 cattle, 215,000 reindeer; roundwood (1991) 34,091,000 cu m; fish

catch (1991) 82,813. Mining and quarrying (1992): chromite concentrate 499,000; talc 371,000. Manufacturing (value added in Fmk ’000,000; 1991):

wood pulp, paper, and paperboard 11,076; nonelectrical machinery 9,984; food products 9,667; printing and publishing 7,548; electrical machinery and chemical

76,755 km (paved 62%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 1,936,345; trucks and buses 271,230. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 263; total deadweight tonnage 989,270. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 5,333,000,000,

passenger-km

8,582,000,000;

short ton-mi

products 5,894; fabricated

metal

products

4,546. Construction (completed; 1992): residential 13,830,000 cu m; nonresidential 23,310,000 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 54,888,000,000 (60,270,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) none

cargo

77,547,000,

metric ton-km cargo 113,216,000; airports (1994) 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 60; total circulation 2,640,381; circulation per 1,000 population 524. Radio (1993): 4,950,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 1.0 person). Television (1993): 1,900,000 receivers (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1991): 3,800,000 (1 per 1.3 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

National economy

7,153; chemicals

203;000

1,678

Population economically active (1992): total 2,526,000; activity rate of total population 50.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 74.2%; female 46.9%; unemployed [March 1993—February 1994] 18.3%).

19932

sqkm "= _estimate_

7,422 6,274

% of labour force

92,432 11,172 26,016 36,163 50,574 74,645 90,851

12,320

Other TOTAL

labour force

7 23

Mining

Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

% of total value

11,315 9,567

Agriculture, fishing Forestry

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Helsinki. Official languages: Finnish; Swedish. Official religion: none}. Monetary unit: 1 markka (Fmk) = 100 pennia; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Oulu :

607

Primary (age 7-15)9 Secondary (age 16-18) 10 Voce. (incl. higher) Higher

schools

teachers

students

4,819 465 541 20

42,178 6,262

591,252 106,511 180,019 115,358

7,802

student/ teacher ratio 14.0 17.0 a 14.8

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: incomplete upper-secondary education 48.3%; complete upper secondary or vocational 40.0%; some postsecondary 4.6%; undergraduate 2.2%;

graduate 4.4%; postgraduate 0.5%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health (1991): physicians (1992) 12,929 (1 per 390 persons); hospital beds 61,752 (1 per 81 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.9. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,066 (vegetable products 59%, animal products 41%); 113% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 32,800 (army 83.2%, navy 7.6%, air force 9.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.0% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$492.

- (5,626,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (72,963,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 9,987,000 (8,870,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) none (2,849,000,000).

;

F

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.3; available income per household Fmk 131,800 (U.S.$24,728); sources of gross income: wages and salaries 59.7%, transfer payments 24.1%, self-employment 11.1%, other 5.1%; expenditure (1991): food 17.9%, transportation and communications 17.0%, housing 15.8%, recreation and education 10.6%.

!The Evangelical Lutheran and Finnish (Greek) Orthodox churches have special recognition. 2January 1. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Based on land area only. 5Within Helsinki urban area. Includes 51,000 unemployed persons not previously employed and 7,000 not adequately defined. 7Imports c.if., exports f.o.b. 8Excludes Aland Islands. 9Includes lower secondary. 10Excludes lower secondary.

608

Britannica World Data

France

Area and population (continued) Pays de la Loire Loire-Atlantique Maine-et Loire Mayenne

Official name: République Frangaise (French Republic). Form of government: republic with

Sarthe Vendée

two legislative houses (Parliament;

Senate [321], National Assembly

Picardie Aisne Oise Somme Poitou-Charentes Charente Charente-Maritime

[577]).

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Paris. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 franc (F )= 100 ICESb= Forge

—Fook

Area and population population

area

Regions Departments Alsace Bas-Rhin Haut-Rhin Aquitaine Dordogne Gironde Landes Lot-et-Garonne

Pyrénées-Atlantiques

Auvergne Allier Cantal Haute-Loire

Puy-de-Dé6me

Basse-Normandie Calvados Manche Orne Bretagne

Cotes-d’Armor Finistére Ille-et-Vilaine Morbihan Bourgogne

Cote-d’Or Niévre Sadne-et-Loire Yonne Centre Cher Eure-et-Loir Indre Indre-et-Loire Loiret Loir-et-Cher Champagne-Ardenne Ardennes Aube Haute-Marne Marne

Corse Corse-du-Sud Haute-Corse

Franche-Comté Doubs

Haute-Sadne Jura Territoire de Belfort Haute-Normandie Eure

, Seine-Maritime Ile-de-France Essonne Hauts-de-Seine Paris Seine-et-Marne Seine-Saint-Denis Val-de-Marne Val-d’Oise Yvelines

Languedoc-Roussillon Aude Gard Hérault Lozére

Pyrénées-Orientales Limousin

Corréze Creuse Haute-Vienne

Lorraine Meurthe-et-Moselle Meuse Moselle Vosges

Midi-Pyrénées Ariege

Aveyron Gers Haute-Garonne

Haute-Pyrénées

Lot Tarn Tarn-et-Garonne Nord-Pas-de-Calais Nord Pas-de-Calais

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

19921 estimate

6,815 7,166 5,175 6,206 6,720

1,071,359 713,790 281,277 518,117 520,680

Laon Beauvais Amiens

2,845 2,263 2,382

7,369 5,860 6,170

540,247 748,150 552,766

2,300 2,650 2,316 2,699

5,956 6,864 5,999 6,990

342,301 538,607 346,228 387,125

2,674 1,660

6,925 4,299 5,087 5,549 5,973 3,567

133,745 994,940 ,784,855 115,850 849,740 478,452

5,762 5,529 6,530 4,388 7,431 4,781 3,249 6,028 543,965

487,431 279,793 420,543 596,392 1,038,241 748,003 1,527,264 363,413 57,373,641

ult Angouleme La Rochelle

Deux-Sévres

Niort

Vienne

Poitiers

Provence-Alpes-Cote d’Azur Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-Maritimes Bouches-du-Rh6éne

centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Laval Le Mans La Roche-sur-Yon

2,631 2,767 1,998 2,396 2,595

Nantes Angers

Digne i Nice Marseille

1,964

Hautes-Alpes Var Vaucluse

Gap Toulon Avignon

Ain

Bourg-en-Bresse

RhOne-Alpes

2,142 P

Privas

Valence Annecy Grenoble Saint-Etienne

Haute-Savoie

2,306 1,377

2,225 2,135 2,521 1,694 2,869 1,846

Strasbourg Colmar

1,836 1,361

4,755 3,525

961,020 681,443

Périgueux Bordeaux Mont-de-Marsan Agen Pau

3,498 3,861 3,569 2,070 2,952

9,060 10,000 9,243 5,361 7,645

388,669 1,234,434 315,605 305,945 589,415

Moulins Aurillac Le Puy Clermont-Ferrand

2,834 2,211 1,922 3,077

7,340 5,726 4,977 7,970

355,438 157,984 206,010 597,985

Population (1994): 57,982,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 276.1, persons per sq km 106.6.

Caen Saint-L6 Alengon

2,142 2,293 2,356

5,548 5,938 6,103

625,665 482,457 295,199

Age breakdown (19931): under 15, 19.9%; 15-29, 21.9%; 30-44, 22.5%; 45-59, 16.0%; 60-74, 13.4%; 75 and over, 6.3%. ‘

Saint-Brieuc Quimper Rennes Vannes

2,656 2,600 2,616 2,634

6,878 6,733 6,775 6,823

539,508 839,663 816,111 627,919

Dijon

3,383 2,632 3,311 2,868

8,763 6,817 8,575 7,427

500,742 231,826 557,316 327,656

2,793 2,270 2,622 2,366 2,616 2,449

7,235 5,880 6,791 6,127 6,775 6,343

322,945 400,317 237,996 538,680 592,387 308,963

Chalons-sur-Marne

2,019 2,318 2,398 3,151

5,229 6,004 6,211 8,162

295,784 292,066 202,636 559,974

Ajaccio Bastia

1,550 1,802

4,014 4,666

119,427 132,675

Besangon Vesoul Lons-le-Saunier Belfort

2,021 2,070 1,930 235

5,234 5,360 4,999 609

490,637 229,790 251,790 136,111

Nevers

Macon Auxerre

Bourges Chartres

Chateauroux

Tours

Orléans Blois

Charleville-Méziéres Troyes Chaumont

Evreux Rouen

2,332 2,424

525,253 1,229,154

1,804 176 105 5,915 236 245 1,246 2,284

1,117,764 1,402,837 2,155,137 1,130,058 1,403,136 1,232,407 1,080,938 1,339,661

6,139 5,853 6,101 5,167 4,116

303,634 598,897 823,589 72,724 372,622

Limoges

5,857 5,565 5,520

236,744 128,729 353,070

Nancy Bar-le-Duc Metz Epinal

5,241 6,216 6,216 5,874

708,658 194,713 1,009,645 383,192

Foix Rodez Auch Toulouse Tarbes Cahors Albi Montauban

4,890 8,736 6,257 6,309 4,464 5,217 5,758 3,718

136,867 268,606 174,579 955,113 225,256 157,679 340,899 203,385

Lille

5,742 6,671

2,540,359 1,438,839

Créteil Pontoise Versailles Carcassonne

Nimes Montpellier Mende Perpignan

Tulle

Guéret

Arras

Loire

Rhone

6,040 6,278

Evry Nanterre Paris Melun Bobigny

Isére Savoie TOTAL

Lyon

1,254

Chambéry

2,327 210,026

Demography Urban-rural (1992): urban 72.7%; rural 27.3%.

Sex distribution (19931): male 48.70%; female 51.30%. Population projection: (2000) 59,908,000; (2010) 63,263,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1990): French (mother tongue) 93.6%, of which fully or substantially bilingual in Occitan 2.7%, German (mostly Alsatian) 2.3%, Breton 1.0%, Catalan 0.4%; Arabic 2.5%; other 3.9%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman

Catholic 76.4%; other Christian 3.7%;

atheist 3.4%; Muslim 3.0%; other 13.5%.

Major cities (1990): Paris 2,152,423 (metropolitan area 9,060,257); Marseille

800,550 (1,231,082); Lyon 415,487 (1,262,223); Toulouse 358,688 (608,430);

Nice 342,439 (475,507); Strasbourg 252,338 (338,483); Nantes 244,995 (492,-

255); Bordeaux 210,336 (685,456); Montpellier 207,996 (236,788).

National origin (1990): French 93.6%, of which Martiniquais 0.2%, Guadeloupian 0.2%, Réunionese 0.2%; Portuguese 1.1%; Algerian 1.1%; Moroccan 1.0%; Italian 0.4%; Spanish 0.4%; Turkish 0.3%; other 2.1%.

Mobility (1990). Population living in same residence as in 1982: 51.4%; same region 89.0%; different region 8.8%; different country 2.2%. Households (1990). Average household size 2.6; 1 person 27.1%, 2 persons 29.6%, 3 persons 17.7%, 4 persons 15.7%, 5 persons 6.7%, 6 persons or more 3.2%. Family households: 14,118,940 (72.1%); nonfamily 5,471,460 (27.9%, of which 1-person 24.6%). Immigration (1991): permanent immigrants admitted 65,310 (Morocco 20.6%, Algeria 9.7%, Turkey 9.3%, Tunisia 5.1%, Portugal 1.4%, Yugoslavia 1.3%).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.3 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legiti-

mate 68.2%; illegitimate 31.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 3.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 1.9. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 72.9 years; female 81.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): heart disease and other circulatory diseases 307.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 244.2; respiratory diseases 63.1; digestive-tract diseases 46.7.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary 22.1%; lower secondary 7.8%; higher secondary and vocational 29.4%; postsecondary 11.6%; undeclared attainment 29.1%.

Distribution of income (1984) percentage of household income by quintile

1

2

3

4

7.1%

12.3%

17.1%

23.2%

5 (highest) 40.3%

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1993): 39.0 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (1991) for: injury or accident 5,383 (deaths 7.4); accidents in transit to work 338 (deaths 3.1); industrial illness 16.62; death 4.82.

Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury, permanent disability, or death, n.a. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (1992): 21.0. Average length of journey to work (1990)3: 8.7 mi (14 km). Social deviance. Offense rate per 100,000 population (1991) for: murder 4.7; rape 8.9; other assault 93.1; theft (including burglary and housebreaking)

Nations of the World

(ate Lae i ee in general population of: alcoholism, n.a. eaths aeons. related ica to alcoholism; 1991) ) 5.0; dru g and d substance sub abuse, n.a.; g Access to services (1990). Proportion of dwellings having: central heating piped water 99.7%; indoor plumbing 93.5%; natural gas (1982) 48.9%. 78.9%; Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (March 1993) national election: 78.0%. Population over 15 years of age participating in voluntary associations: 28.0%. Leisure (1987-88). Participation rate for favourite leisure activities: watching television 82%; reading magazines 79%; listening to radio 75%; entertain ing

relatives 64%; visiting relatives 61%; attending fairs/expositions 56%. Material well-being (1991). Households possessing: automobile 76.8%; television receiver 94.7%, of which colour 89.1%: videocassette recorder 37.1%;

refrigerator 97.9%; washing machine 88.4%.

in value F ‘000,000 197,326 52,563 1,413,399 367,476 164,269

1992 % of total value

288,572

Budget (1993). Revenue:

% of labour force

1,311,000

5.3

4,725,000 1,639,000 3h 1,365,000 2,607,000

fo'0) 6.6 nt 5:5) 10.5

41

1,138,188 1,643,067

711,000

16.3 23.5

252,7944 6,987,221

4,744,000 5,228,000

3.64 100.0

19.1 214

2,496,0005 24,826,000

10.05 100.0

F 1,461,600,000

(value-added

2.9

900,000 (current expenditures

17.9%; capital ex-

annual salaries as a annual % of avg. of value added all salaries _ (F '000,000) 87 190,443

Food products

no. of enterprises 55,197

Electrical machinery

15,620

453,400

118

156,885

Transport equipment Mechanical equipment Iron and steel Petroleum refineries Printing, publishing Textiles and wearing

4,293 32,134 27,847 180 30,359

543,500 437,900 453,000 51,400 238,800

108 104 96 174 125

154,115 122,101 119,642 112,454 78,109

29,701

340,900

78

68,417

5,875 1,442 1,916 442 1,536. 4,236

210,600 120,000 104,000 90,400 54,400 69,500

94 128 102

55,748 51,734 34,773 34,331 17,246 13,877

apparel Rubber products Industrial chemicals Paper and paper products Metal products Glass products Footwear

no. of employees 569,100

1991

1992

1993

100.0 100.0

103.2 104.2

105.7 108.0

107.9 a

Public debt (1992): F 2,070,100,000,000 (U.S.$351,130,000,000). _i989_ 1990

1991

1992

_1993

199411

19,320,000;

103 104 15:

1,414 1,428 28,910 21,868 81.85 . 81.85 8.7 8.7

5.90

8.73 8.10

31,284 1,326

27,028 163

22,649 331

2553612 352

1,666 28,292 81.85 8.7

2,482 24,384 81.85 8.7

2,310 20,008 81.85 8.7

2,350 22,82812 81.8512 8.712

9.50 7.55

9.50 8.79

9.50 9.96

9.50 9.05

9.50 8.60

9.50 6.91

103.7

100.0

97:5

uylO48

116.2

—10,651

—13,667 — 10,139 217,233 207,084

1,661

8,418

223,561 225,222

187,873 196,291

181,412 170,761

220,339 206,672

5,031

-105

3,991

1,819

3,503

—5,620 —13,772

-—6,148

3,480

11,921

current account

5.44

9.37 7.57

8.31 7.85

Land use (1991): forested 27.0%; meadows and pastures 20.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 35.0%; other 17.7%.

Retail trade enterprises (1990)

628,8007; rubber products

no. of

employees

all wages

44.2 1.9%

$1.3 2.1%

1991

1992

1993

=81°5 3.2%

—31.1 1.3%

+90.4 4.0%

Transport and communications

2,0006; gold 64,300 troy oz®.

weekly wages as a % of

—32.8 1.6%

bourg 8.6%; U.S. 7.1%; Spain 6.6%; The Netherlands 4.8%.

struction (dwelling units completed; 1992) 248,400.

Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 34,074 km; passenger-km 58,380,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 45,864,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 811,200 km (paved [1985] 92%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 24,020,000; trucks and buses 5,040,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 729; total deadweight tonnage 4,981,027. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 43,082,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,801,300,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 63. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): number 116; circulation 10,096,00013; circulation per 1,000 population 17513. Radio (1993): 49,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1993): 29,300,000 receivers (1 per 2.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 30,200,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

annual

Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

turnover

(F ’000,000) 576,722

401,091 227,607

131,607

6,531 11,270 21,987

55,930 55,962 58,441

120,676 62,099 100,685 58,161 52,688 45,398 29,610

2,995

12,599

19,918

85,599 41,664 23,557 1,932

36,778 1,283

5.51

8.1%; Spain 5.5%; The Netherlands 5.1%; Japan 4.1%.

crude steel 17,112,000; pig iron

13,056,0007; sulfuric acid 4,187,0008; aluminum

4,454 75,901

9.67 7.A1

24,611 1,329,

Foreign exchange Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices (1990 = 100) Balance of payments (U.S.$'000,000) Balance of visible trade

5.18

9.89 7.30

Exports (1993): F 1,173,948,000,000 (machinery 27.1%; agricultural products 16.8%; transport equipment 13.0%, of which automobiles 6.6%). Major export destinations: Germany 17.4%; Italy 9.4%; U.K. 9.4%; Belgium-Luxem-

486,360, of which tires 62,520,000 units; automobiles 3,103,200 units. Con-

no, of enterprises

§.13

9.30 7.80

Imports (1993): F 1,142,748,000,000 (machinery 24.1%; agricultural products 12.2%; transport equipment 10.8%; fuels 8.8%). Major import sources: Germany 17.6%; Italy 10.0%; Belgium-Luxembourg 8.9%; U.S. 8.7%; U.K.

fish catch (1991) 812,793. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 1,066,0006; potash salts 950,000; zinc 13,8006; uranium (1993): cement

5.79

£ SDR International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; 000,000) SDRs (’000,000)

F ’000,000,000 % of total

wheat 32,600,000, sugar beets 31,334,000, corn (maize) 14,613,000, barley 10,474,000, grapes 8,514,000, potatoes 6,495,000, apples 2,324,000, sunflower seeds 2,158,000, rapeseed 1,862,000, tomatoes 760,000, oats 690,000, sorghum 577,000, cauliflower 572,000, peaches 520,000, pears 394,000, rye 207,000, soybeans 77,000; livestock (number of live animals) 20,928,000 cattle, 12,384,000 pigs, 10,597,000 sheep, 1,221,000 goats; roundwood (1992) 44,840,000 cu m;

219,705 121,966 125,635 62,645

coal (metric tons; 1992) 11,056,000

(28,565,000);

teachers

44,13114

277,82615

re 1,062.16

365,417 57,429

student/

secs.

teacher ratio

4,068,000 2,511,300 1,777,200 1,700,800

29.6

14.614 11.7

Literacy (1980): total population literate 41,112,000 (98.8%); males literate 19,933,000 (98.9%); females literate 21,179,000 (98.7%).

Health: physicians (1991) 152,096 (1 per 374 persons); hospital beds (1990) 702,184 (1 per 81 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 6.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,593 (vegetable products 61%, animal products 39%); 143% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;, 1992) 462,263,000,000 crude

petroleum (barrels; 1992) 21,014,000 (543,301,000); petroleum products (met_ric tons; 1992) 69,773,000 (77,165,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 2,385,630,000

:

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.6; average annual income per household (1991) F 205,400 (U.S.$37,720). Sources

of income (1991): wages and salaries 51.7%, social security 26.9%, selfemployment 21.2%; expenditure (1992): housing 20.3%, food and tobacco 18.9%, transportation and communications 16.3%, health 10.0%, recreation

7.6%, clothing 6.2%.

1990

96.7 98.5

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

~_(33,750,289,000).

1989

93.5 94.1

Foreign trade

Manufacturing enterprises (1991)

(408,467,000,000);

1988

91.0 91.2

Balance of invisibles Balance of payments,

taxes 48.5%, direct

86.0%, of which defense

penditure 14.0%).

Large food stores Clothing stores Small food stores butcher shops Pharmacies Department stores Furniture stores Electrical and electronics stores Publishing and paper Gas, coal, and other energy products

1987

Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b.

contributions 40.3%, customs taxes 9.6%). Expenditure (1993): F 1,369,-

Manufacturing

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

Reserve pos. in IMF ('000,000) labour force

2.8 i eae } 5.3 2.4 6.0 15.0

419,462 1,050,105

Other TOTAL

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

U.S. dollar

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Finance

nationals abroad U.S.$13,910,000,000.

Population economically active (1992): total 24,826,000; activity rate of total population 43.2% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 66.9%10:; female 43.3%; unemployed 10.0%).

Financial aggregates

National economy

Pub. admin., defense Services

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$25,000,000,000; expenditures by

Exchange rate, F per:

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$1,289,054,000 (U.S.$22,360 per capita).

Nome inin wenutecelig Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

609

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 409,600 (army 58.9%, navy 15.7%, air force 21.9%, other 3.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.6% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$744.

1Annual average population; effective date would refer to early August. 21989. 3Distance measured “as the bird flies.” 4Includes value-added taxes, customs duties,

and imputed bank service charges. 5|Unemployed. ®Metal content of ores. 71992. 81989. 9AIl energy statistics include Monaco.

101991.

1July, unless otherwise noted.

12June.

13For 90 newspapers only. 141990-91. 15Includes preprimary teachers. 161988—89.

610

Britannica World Data Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$5,002,000,000

Gabon

(U.S.$4,050 per capita).

Official name: République Gabonaise (Gabonese Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Chief of state: President.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

(CFAF)= 100 centimes; valuation

1 £=CFAF 837.67.

526.67;

Area and population

: area

Haut-Ogooué Moyen-Ogooue Ngounié Nyanga

Ogooué-lvindo Ogooué-Lolo Ogooué-Maritime Woleu-Ntem

TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

estimate!

8,008 14,111 7,156 14,575 8,218 17,790 9,799 8,838 14,851 103,3472

20,740 36,547 18,535 37,750 21,285 46,075 25,380 22,890 38,465 267,667

359,000 213,000 49,000 118,000 98,000 53,000 49,000 194,000 166,000 1,300,0002

Capitals Libreville Franceville

Lambaréné Mouila Tchibanga Makokou Koulamoutou Port-Gentil

Oyem

144 .

61,500 93,430 73,900 156,770 15,530 974,4702

100.02

504,000

footwear 17.5%, housing 13.0%, transportation and communications

6.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF '000,000 % of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

+279,000 37.0%

+466,000 52.6%

+397,000 45.7%

+384,000 45.5%

Imports (1992): CFAF 230,000,000,000 (1989; machinery and mechanical equipment 29.2%, food and agricultural products 14.6%, transport equip-

Demography

ment 12.5%, manufactured products 12.1%, metal and metal products 11.2%,

Population (1994)3: 1,139,000. Density (1994)3: persons per sq mi 11.0, persons per sq km 4.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 45.7%; rural 54.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.23%; female 50.77%.

chemical

Population projection3: (2000) 1,244,000; (2010) 1,445,000. Doubling time: 41 years.

(1983): Fang 35.5%; Mpongwe

15.1%; Mbete

products 5.4%, mining

products

1.6%). Major import sources:

France 50.0%; other EEC 22.0%; United States 9.0%; Japan 7.0%; Africa 5.0%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 32.5%; 15-29, 30.4%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45=59, 12.9%; 60-74, 7.3%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Ethnic composition

;

% of labour force 67.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1983): private sector 73.4%, public sector 26.6%; expenditure (1983)5: food and tobacco 54.7%, clothing and

population

1978 Provinces Estuaire

labour force

338,000

85,920 297,880 71,730 90,410 27,410

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub, admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital; Libreville. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF

% of total value

in value CFAF ‘000,000

14.2%;

Punu 11.5%; other 23.7%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 96.2%, of which Roman Catholic 65.2%, Protestant 18.8%, African indigenous 12.1%; traditional religion 2.9%; Muslim 0.8%; other 0.1%.

Major cities (1988): Libreville 352,000; Port-Gentil 164,000; Franceville 75,000. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 51.9 years; female 57.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, measles, shigellosis (infection with dysentery), trypanosomiasis, and tuberculosis.

Exports (1992): CFAF 614,000,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 80.0%, wood 9.0%, manganese ore and concentrate 7.0%, uranium ore and concentrate 2.0%). Major export destinations (1989): France 36.2%;

United States 26.1%; The Netherlands 6.2%; Japan 3.3%; Céte d'Ivoire 2.9%; Italy 2.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 414 mi, 668 km; passenger-mi 21,000,000°, passenger-km 34,000,0006; short ton-mi cargo 126,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 184,000,000°. Roads (1991): total length 5,338 mi, 8,590 km (paved 8%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 23,000; trucks and buses 17,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and oyer) 29; total deadweight tonnage 30,186. Air transport (1990)7: passenger-mi 276,679,000, passengerkm 445,273,000; short ton-mi cargo 17,863,000, metric ton-km cargo 26,079,-

000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 16. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total 20,000; circulation per 1,000 population 17. Radio (1993): total receivers 250,000 (1 per 4.5 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 40,000 (1 per 28 persons). Telephones (1990): 25,940 persons). Education and health Education (1991)

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: CFAF. 398,500,000,000 (customs duties and other current revenues 46.0%; oil revenues 41.9%; loans and grants 12.1%). Expenditures: CFAF 398,500,000,000 (current expenditure 78.8%, of which

running costs 58.7%, public debt 20.1%; capital expenditure 21.2%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,998,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$5,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$143,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): roots and tubers 381,000 (of which cassava 200,000, yams 115,000), sugarcane

260,000, plantains 245,000, corn (maize) 25,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 16,-

000, bananas 9,000, palm oil 5,000, cacao beans 1,000, coffee 1,000; livestock

(number of live animals) 170,000 sheep, 165,000 pigs, 83,000 goats, 30,000

cattle, 3,000,000. chickens;

roundwood

(1992) 4,344,000

cu m; fish catch

(1992) 21,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): manganese 1,600,000; uranium 680. Manufacturing (1990): cement 115,000; flour 36,000; refined sugar 18,000; beer 1,095,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 721,000 hectolitres; cigarettes

344,000,000 units; textiles CFAF 2,420,000,0004. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 919,000,000 (919,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 107,802,000 (6,890,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 760,000 (620,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

circulation number of number of (1 per 42

Primary Secondary Voc., teacher tr. Higher 10

student/ schools

teachers

students

1,024 518 298 2

4,782 1,3569 7609 299

210,000 42,871 13,862 3,000

teacher ratio

43.9 iat ay) 10.0

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 60.7%; males literate 73.5%; females literate 48.5%.

Health: physicians (1989) 448 (1 per 2,337 persons); hospital beds (1984) 10,980 (1 per 103 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 94.8. Food (1984-86): daily per capita.caloric intake 2,700 (vegetable products 88%, animal products. 12%); (1984) 104% of FAO recommended minimum

requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 4,700 (army 68.1%, navy 10.6%, air force 21.37%), not including 600 French troops. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 3.6% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$143.

50,700,000 (50,700,000); fuelwood (cu m; 1992) 2,711,000 (2,711,000).

Land use (1992): forested 74.2%; meadows and pastures 17.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.7%; other 6.5%. Population economically active (1992): total 534,000; activity rate of total population 43.2% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 68.2%; female 38.4%; unemployed, n.a.). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

102.3

104.6

109.7

103.2

111.1

118.7

100.8

‘Population distribution by province is based on a mid-1978 national estimate that is substantially higher than either the July 1993 preliminary census total of 1,011,710 or the

current consensus of external analysts. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3U.S. Bureau of the Census estimate. 41984, Libreville only. 61987. 7Air Gabon only. 81984-85. 9Data refer to public schools only. !0Universities only.

Nations of the World

Gambia, The

food and beverages 58.0%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, energy and water

5.4%, housing 5.1%, education, health, transportation and communications, recreation, and other 14.0%.

Official name: Republic of The Gambia. Form of government: military regime}. Head of state and government: Chairman of Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council. Capital: Banjul.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$339,900,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$366,000,000

(U.S.$360 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-9310 in value % of total D’000,000 value

Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 dalasi (D)=100 butut; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1U.S.$=D

9.53; 1 £=D

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

15.16.

Transportation and communications

Area and population

area

population 1983

F Divisions Kombo St. Marys.4 Lower River

Capitals Kanifing Mansakonko

MacCarthy Island North Bank

City Banjul4 TOTAL

CE 29 625

Kuntaur/Georgetown Kerewan

Upper River Western

Basse Brikama a

.

asq kmir 76 1,618

pecolisUse 101,504 55,263

1,117 871

2,894 2,256

799 681

126,004 112,225

2,069 1,764

111,388 137,245

5 4,1275

12 10,6895

44,188 687,817

Urban-rural (1988): urban 21.5%; rural 78.5%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 50.16%; female 49.84%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.1%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-44, 16.1%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60 and over, 4.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 1,227,000; (2010) 1,546,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Malinke 40.4%; Fulani 18.7%; Wolof 14.6%; Dyola 10.3%; Soninke 8.2%; other 7.8%.

Religious affiliation (1983): Muslim 95.4%; Christian 3.7%; traditional beliefs and other 0.9%. Major cities/urban areas (1986): Serekunda 102,6003; Banjul 44,1884. 7 (Greater Banjul 145,6924,7); Brikama 24,300; Bakau 23,6003; Farafenni 10,1687.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.1 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 19.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 24.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 43.4 years; female 46.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major infectious diseases include malaria, gastroenteritis and dysentery, pneumonia and bronchitis, measles, schistosomiasis, and whooping cough.

National economy (1992-93). duties

18.9 _ 5.8 6.0 0.6

93.7

Aico

Revenue:

and

excises

D 890,500,000 37.4%,

(tax revenue

sales tax 27.8%,

78.9%, of which

income

taxes

13.7%;

nontax revenue and grants 21.1%). Expenditures: D 847,800,000 (administrative expenses 19.0%; interest payments 15.6%; goods and services 14.6%; transportation and communications 13.2%; education and culture 5.4%;

agriculture 3.2%; public services 2.6%). / Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): peanuts (groundnuts) 65,000, millet 53,000, corn (maize) 20,000, paddy rice 17,000, seed cotton 10,000, cassava 6,000, pulses (mostly beans) 4,000, palm oil 2,500, palm kernels 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 400,000

cattle, 150,000 goats, 121,000 sheep; roundwood catch (1992) 22,718, of which Atlantic Ocean

(1992) 946,000 cu m; fish 20,218, inland water 2,500.

Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel are excavated for local use. Manufacturing (value of production in D ’000; 1982): processed food, including

1983 % of labour force

labour force

239,940 66 8,144 4,373 1,233

73:7 0.0 2.5 1.3 0.4

16.4

8,014

2.5

19.5

16,551

5.4

Finance

34.2

6.0

4,577

1.4

Public administration Services

58.8 18.0

10.3 3.1

8,295 9,381

2.5 2.9

Other

76.711

TOTAL

13.411

572.5

25,049 12

100.0

7.712

325,623

100.0

Land use (1992): forested 14.5%; meadows and pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 18.0%; built-on area, wasteland, and other 58.5%.

Foreign trade 13

D ’000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 1,060,000. Density (1994)®: persons per sq mi 318.8, persons per sq km 123.1.

import

Trade

108.4 — 33.3 34.4 3.5

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988

Demography

Budget

611

—615.9 52.3%

— 530.7 40.6%

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 1,023.0 72.1%

—1,195.3.. 61.2%

=1,561.4 67.8%

— 1,675.9 59.7%

Imports (1992-93): D 2,363,486,000 (food 29.1%; machinery and transport equipment 23.2%; basic manufactures 19.8%; mineral fuels and lubricants 5.9%; chemicals and related products 5.2%). Major import sources (1992): Hong

Kong

16.0%;

China

14.8%;

United

Kingdom

10.1%;

Italy 7.1%;

France 6.3%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.7%. Exports (1992-93): D 543,751,000 (domestic exports 53.5%, of which fish and fish preparations 4.4%; reexports 46.5% !4). Major export destinations (1992): Belgium-Luxembourg 51.5%; Italy 19.7%; Japan 14.3%; Guinea 3.5%; Hong Kong 2.2%; United Kingdom 2.1%; Spain 2.0%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1990): total length 1,483 mi, 2,386 km

(paved 32%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 6,000; trucks and buses 2,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 11; total deadweight tonnage 2,029. Air transport (1990): passenger arrivals and departures 199,350; cargo 2,233 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total circulation 2,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.2. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 180,000 (1 per 5.7 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1991): 11,000 (1 per 80 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 8-14) Secondary (age 15-21)15 Postsecondary 16

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

245 32 9

3,193 1,054 ae

97,262 25,929 1,489

30.5 24.6 8.4

Educational attainment (1973). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling 90.8%; primary education 6.2%; secondary 2.6%; higher 0.4%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 27.2%; males literate 39.0%; females literate 16.0%. Health (1990-91): physicians 61 (1 per 14,536 persons); hospital beds 601 (1 per 1,475 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 132. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,290 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 96% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 800. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 0.7% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$1.

peanut and palm-kernel oil 62,878; beverages 10,546; textiles 3,253;, chemicals and related products 1,031; nonmetals 922; printing and publishing 358;

leather 150. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 71,000,000 (71,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum,

none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (64,000); natural gas, none (none). Jf Population economically active (1983): total 325,623; activity rate of total population 47.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 78.2%; female 46.3%; unemployed, n.a.). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 Consumer price index Daily earnings index®

193.4 90.2

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

, 216.0

233.9 i

262.5 ie

285.0 a

312.1 al

1993 332.2 ee

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$56,000,000; expenditures by na-

: : tionals abroad U.S.$13,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 8.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1986)9:

1Constitutional government overthrown July 22, 1994. 2Preliminary. 3kombo St. Mary includes the urban areas of Serekunda and Bakau. 4Kombo St. Mary and Banjul city make up Greater Banjul. ‘Includes inland water area of 2,077 sq km (802 sq mi). Based on land area only. 71983. 8December; nonagricultural employees only. %Lowincome population in Banjul and Kombo St. Mary only; weights of consumer price index components. !9At factor cost in constant prices of 1976-77. Indirect taxes. 12Not adequately defined. !3Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14Mostly unofficial trade with Senegal. 15Includes teacher training and vocational. 161984-85.

612

Britannica World Data

Georgia

Structure of net material product and labour force 1992

Official name: Sakartvelos Respublikis (Republic of Georgia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [222]). Head of state: Chairman of Parliament. Head of government: Prime Minister.

in value ‘000,000 rubles Agriculture Minin: Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transportation and communications Trade Finance

Capital: Tbilisi. Official language: Georgian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Georgian coupon! (decimal unit, n.a.); valuation (Sept.

Sokhumi (Sukhumi) Bat’umi

Ts'khinvali

TOTAL

47.0

28,201

34.1

6,452

7.8

2,457 2,766

3.0 3.3

487,700 110.100 224'800

area sq mi

3,300 1,200 1,500

sq km

population 19912 estimate

8,600 3,000

533,800 381,500

3,900 | 4,548,900

20,900 26,900

54,200 69,700

5,464,200

% of labour force 27.1

19.4

103,500 227,000 12,000 48,100 538,900 79,700 2,514,000

TOTAL

Area and population Capitals

38,909

1991 labour force 682,200

Public administration, defense Services Other

27, 1994) free rate, 1 U.S.$ =2,478,000 coupons; 1 £=3,864,000 coupons.

Autonomous republics Abkhazia3 Ajaria (Adzharia) Autonomous region South Ossetia4 Regions under republican jurisdiction

% of total value

Population economically active (1991): total 2,514,000; activity rate of total population 45.9% (participation rates [1990]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 91.1%; female [1989] 45.9%; unemployed [1989] 3.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1986 1987 1988 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

70.5

73.2

Vian

1989

1990

87.5

100.0 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 68.1%, benefits 22.7%, agricultural income 9.2%; expenditure (1992): retail goods 55.4%, savings 22.9%, services 12.1%, taxes 6.9%, housing 2.7%.

Demography Population (1994): 5,503,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 204.6, persons per sq km 80.0. Urban-rural (1991): urban 55.8%; rural 44.2%. Sex distribution (1991): male 47.6%; female 52.4%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 19.2%; 45-59, 17.5%; 60-74, 10.8%; 75 and over, 3.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,569,000; (2010) 5,680,000. Doubling time: 77 years.

Ethnic composition (1989): Georgian 70.1%; Armenian 8.1%; Russian 6.3%; Azerbaijani 5.7%; Ossetian 3.0%; Greek 1.9%; Abkhazian 1.8%; other 3.1%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Georgian Orthodox (65%); minorities include Muslims (11%), Russian Orthodox (10%), and Armenian Orthodox (8%). Major cities (1991): T’bilisi 1,283,000; K’ut’aisi 238,200; Rust’avi 161,900; BaPumi 137,500; Sokhumi (Sukhumi) 120,000.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) ‘000,000 rubles % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

=592 4.8%

Ȥ=385 3.1%

—855 6.7%

—1,154 8.6%

Imports (1991): 7,266,000,000 rubles (machinery and equipment 18.4%, lightindustry products 16.5%, food 14.6%, oil and gas 9.6%, chemicals 9.6%, ferrous metals 4.1%, nonferrous metallurgical products 3.3%). Major import sources: former Soviet republics 89.6%; other countries 10.4%. Exports (1991): 6,112,000,000 rubles (food 34.5%, light-industry products 19.3%, machinery and metalworking equipment 13.7%, ferrous metallurgy 5.8%, chemicals 3.5%, building materials 1.1%). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics 98.0%; other countries 2.0%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990): 17.0 (world avg. 27.0); (1989) legitimate 82.3%; illegitimate 17.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.4 (world avg. 9.7). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.6 (world avg. 17.3). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 68.9 years; female 76.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 553.2; diseases of the respiratory system 513.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 98.6; accidents, poisoning, and violence 58.2; diseases of the digestive system 32.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 13.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 12.0; diseases of the nervous system 4.1.

Transport. Railroads (1990): length 976 mi, 1,570 km; (1989) passenger-mi

10,600,000, passenger-km 17,000,000; cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1989): length

21,000 mi, 33,900 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 427,400; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (1,000 gross tons and over) 54; total deadweight tonnage 1,108,068. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 3,290,500,000, passenger-km 5,295,600,000; short ton-mi cargo, n.a., metric

ton-km cargo, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 147; total circulation 3,677,000; circulation per 1,000 population 671. Radio and television (1990): total number of receivers 3,760,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,002,000 (1 per 5.5 persons), Education and health

Education (1989-90)

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: 18,872,000,000 rubles (profit tax 37.6%, value-added

tax 26.37%, individual income tax 10.5%, turnover tax 4.5%). Expenditures:

42,672,000,000 rubles (national economy 48.7%, social and cultural affairs

28.8%, government administration 15.3%, other 6.9%).

Public debt (external; 1994): U.S.$1,000,000,000.

schools

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

3,788 6 19

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

924,700

93,100

Land use (1992): forest 38.7%; pasture 28.7%; agriculture 14.8%; other 17.8%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): fruit (other than grapes) 1,267,000, vegetables (other than potatoes) 1,100,000, grapes 500,000, milk 400,000, corn (maize) 225,000, potatoes 190,000,

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no. formal schooling 12.3%; some secondary 15.2%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.4%; higher 15.1%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate

beans 6,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,440,000 sheep and goats, 1,130,000 cattle, 688,000 pigs, 18,000,000 poultry; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1991) 56,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): manganese ore 491,000. Man-

Health (1990): physicians 32,100 (1 per 170 persons); hospital beds 60,000 (1 per 90 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.9. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

plastics 26,400; synthetic fibres 20,000; soap 6,900; bricks 170,600,000 pieces;

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 4,500 (army 95.5%, navy®, air force 4.5%).

wheat 128,000, barley 35,000, sugarbeets 15,000, sunflower seeds 10,000, soy-

ufacturing (1991): crude steel 961,700; rolled ferrous metals 818,100; rolled steel 817,900; cast iron 500,800; steel tubes 452,800; canned food 385,300; mineral fertilizers 134,500; meat and sausage 43,900; synthetic resins and

cement tiles 12,600,000 pieces; footwear 13,300,000 pairs; knitwear 24,300,-

000 units; colour television sets 39,200 units; machine

tools 1,417 units:

prefabricated concrete structures 1,451,000 cu m; ceramic tiles 348,300 cu

m; silk fabrics 27,100,000 sq m; cotton fabrics 16,700,000 sq m; wool fabrics 6,100,000 sq m; carpets 500,000 sq m; grape wine 1,261,600 hectolitres; beer 600,100 hectolitres; cognac 146,000 hectolitres; vodka and liqueurs 77,400 hectolitres. Construction (1990): 1,313,000,000,000 rubles. Energy production (consumption): electricity (KW-hr; 1992) 9,300,000,000 (9,300,000,000);

coal (metric tons; 1992) 500,000 (736,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992)

733,000 (5,658,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 2,215,400 (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (4,856,000,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,055,000,000 (U.S.$560 per capita)5.

99.0%; males literate 99.5%; females literate 98.5%.

About 6,000 Russian troops remained in Georgia in late 1994. Military ex-

penditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$16.

‘Georgian coupon introduced April 5, 1993, at par with Russian ruble and circulated parallel with it; on Aug. 20, 1993, the coupon became sole legal tender, floating against all currencies. The coupon is to function as an interim currency unit until its eventual replacement by a new national currency, the lari, when the economic situation has stabilized. 2January 1. 3Abkhazia adopted a constitution declaring it an independent state on Nov. 26, 1994; Georgia has rejected its legality. 4In 1990 the Supreme Soviet of the Republic of Georgia abolished the South December Ossetian autonomous oblast. SRuble-area GNP and exchange-rate data are very speculative °A portion of the former U.S.S.R. Black Sea Fleet has been allocated to Georgia. .

Nations of the World

Germany

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 595.1, persons per sq km 229.8. Urban-rural (1990): urban 85.3%; rural 14.7%. Population projection: (2000) 86,503,000; (2010) 93,324,000. Sex distribution (1993): male 48.54%; female 51.46%.

Official name: Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of _ Germany). Form of government: federal multiparty

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 16.4%; 15-29, 21.2%; 30-44, 22.4%; 45-59, 19.7%; 60-74, 13.8%; 75 and over, 6.5%.

republic with two legislative houses

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 1990): German 93.4%; Turkish 2.1%, of

(Federal Council [68]; Federal Diet

[672]).

which

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Chancellor. Seat of government: Bonn (Berlin is capital-designate). Official language: German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Deutsche Mark (DM) = 100 Pfennige; valuation (Oct. 7,

Administrative districts Stuttgart Freiburg Karlsruhe

Stuttgart

Tubingen

Tiibingen

Bayern Mittelfranken

Munich Ansbach

Niederbayern Oberbayern Oberfranken Oberpfalz Schwaben Unterfranken

Landshut Munich Bayreuth Regensburg Augsburg Wurzburg

Berlin Brandenburg Bremen

a Potsdam Bremen

Hamburg Hessen

Hamburg Wiesbaden

or more persons 4.9%,

area

population

—sami__sqkm_—___

estimate_

13,8041 3,613 2,671

4,076

3,443 27,241 2,798

35,7511 9,357 6,919

10,558

1993

10,148,700 2,041,100 2,612,800

3,807,400

8,918

1,687,400

70,5541 7,246

3,989 6,768 2,792 3,742 3,858 3,294

11,770,400 1,641,300

10,331 17,529 7,231 9,691 9,993 8,532

1,109,200 3,919,200 1,094,300 1,032,200 1,684,500 1,289,700

343 11,219 156

889 29,053 404

3,465,700 2,542,700 685,800

292 8,1521

755 21,114

1,688,800 5,922,600

2,875

7,445

3,649,600

5,381 8,288 23,598 47,3641 8,097

1,032,100 1,240,900 1,865,000 7,577,500 1,670,200

Hannover Liineburg

3,493 5,891

2,108,600 1,535,500

Oldenburg Dusseldorf Arnsberg Detmold Dusseldorf

5,775 13,1551 3,088 2,516 2,042

Giessen Kassel Schwerin Hannover Braunschweig

2,844

9,048 15,260 14,958 34,070 7,999 6,517 5,288 7,365

Minster Rheinland-Pfalz Koblenz

Munster Mainz Koblenz

2,664 7,664 3,125

6,901 19,846 8,093

2,531,900 3,881,100 1,445,100

Rheinhessen-Pfalz Trier Saarland Sachsen Sachsen-Anhalt

Mainz Trier Saarbriicken Dresden Magdeburg

2,637 1,902 992 7,080 7,893

6,830 4,923 2,570 18,338 20,443

1,941,600 494,400 1,084,000 4,641,000 2,797,000

Dessau Halle/Saale

1,642 1,880

4,254 4,869

586,700 997,300

11,320 15,731 16,251 356,7331

1,213,000 2,679,600 2,545,800 80,974,900

Hannover Liineburg

Weser-Ems Nordrhein-Westfalen Arnsberg Detmold Disseldort

Koln

Kin

Dessau Halle Magdeburg Schleswig-Holstein Thiringen TOTAL

Magdeburg Kiel Erfurt

4,371 6,074 6,275 137,7351

2,263,200 17,679,200 3,786,500 1,954,000 5,293,300 4,113,500

Population (1994): 81,966,000.

;

respiratory system 60.2, of which pneumonia 18.9, chronic bronchitis 15.6; chronic liver disease and cirrhosis 23.3.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: less than full primary education 0.9%; primary and lower (junior) secondary 67.2%; primary and intermediate secondary 17.7%; vocational postsecondary and certification for higher education 14.2%, of which postsecondary vocational degree 6.6%, university graduates (all levels) 5.7%. Quality of working life. Average workweek (1993)2: 38.2 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (1992) for: injuries or accidents at work 7,655; deaths, including commuting accidents, 10.5. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury, virtually 100%; permanent disability, virtually 100%; death, virtually 100%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (1993): 3.1. Distribution of income (1984)2 percentage of household income by quintile 1 2 3 4 5 (highest)

Cee

owes

24.0

38.7

Access to services. Proportion of dwellings (1992) having: electricity, virtually 100%; piped water supply, virtually 100%; flush sewage disposal 98.1%; public fire protection, virtually 100%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (October 1994) national election 79.1%. Trade union membership in total workforce (1993): . 32.0%. Practicing religious population (1992): 7% of Protestants and 20% of Roman Catholics “regularly” attend religious services. Social deviance (1991). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder and manslaughter 3; sexual abuse 53, of which child molestation

18, rape and

forcible sexual assault 12; robbery 61; assault and battery 96; larceny 4,072. Incidence per 100,000 in general population (late 1970s) of: alcoholism 2,500

population 244,600 261,900 104,600 323,300 399,800 297,400 118,800 258,400 131,100 285,700 122,900 140,900 483,400 203,100 102,600

Mainz

Freiburg 194,700

Mannheim

Furth

106,600

Moers

Gelsenkirchen

294,700

Mdnchenglad-

125,600 127,200 214,200 301,000 180,700 139,900

bach Mulheim an der Ruhr Minster Neuss Nirnberg

Recreational and leisure activities (Monthly household expenditures, 1993; median income)2 DM

population Heilbronn Herne Hildesheim _—_Ingolstadt Jena Kaiserslautern Karlsruhe Kassel Kiel Koblenz Krefeld Leverkusen Liibeck Ludwigshafen am Rhein Magdeburg

machine 88.8%; home freezer 53.8%.

Activity

Other principal cities (1992)

Hagen Halle an der Saale Hamm Heidelberg

colon, and rectum 58.0, bronchial, lung, and tracheal 42.5; diseases of the

phone 88.3%; colour television receiver 93.0%; refrigerator, 76.6%; washing

520,900; Leipzig 500,000.

Gera Gottingen

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): —0.9 (world avg. 16.8), Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.7. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 73.20 years; female 79.80 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 516.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 259.3, of which stomach,

Material well-being (1993). Households possessing: automobile 73.6%; tele-

Major cities (1992): Berlin 3,454,200; Hamburg 1,675,200; Munich 1,241,300; Cologne 958,600; Frankfurt am Main 660,800; Essen 627,800; Dortmund 600,700; Stuttgart 596,900; Diisseldorf 577,400; Duisburg 538,300; Hannover

im Breisgau

(1992): 10.4 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

85.1%; illegitimate 14.9%.

to 3,000; drug and substance abuse 650; suicide 16.5.

Demography

Aachen Augsburg Bergisch Gladbach Bielefeld Bochum Bonn Bottrop Braunschweig Bremerhaven Chemnitz Cottbus Darmstadt Dresden Erfurt Erlangen

1987) Roman Catholic 42.9%,

1990) Protestant 47.0%, Roman Catholic 7.0%, unaffiliated and other 46.0%. Households (1992). Number of households 35,700,000; average household size 2.3; 1 person 33.7%, 2 persons 31.3%, 3 persons 16.9%, 4 persons 13.2%, 5

2,078 3,200 9,111 18,2871 3,126

Darmstadt

Darmstadt

Giessen Kassel Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Niedersachsen Braunschweig

0.4%; Polish

Lutheran-Reformed and Lutheran traditions 41.6%, Muslim 2.7%, Reformed tradition 0.6%, Jewish 0.1%, other 12.1%; (former East Germany;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population

Capitals

Stuttgart

0.5%; Yugoslav 0.8%; Italian 0.7%; Greek

Religious affiliation: (former West Germany;

Area and population

Baden-Wiirttemberg Freiburg Karlsruhe

Kurdish

0.4%; Spanish 0.2%; other 2.0%.

1994) 1 U.S.$=DM 1.54; 1 £=DM 2.45.

States

613

118,800 179,600 105,900 107,700 100,200 100,900 279,900 197,900 248,000 109,600 247,300 161,700 216,500 166,600

274,000 183,300 316,900 105,800

population Oberhausen Offenbach am Main Oldenburg Osnabriick Paderborn Pforzheim Potsdam Recklingshausen Regensburg Remscheid Reutlingen Rostock Saarbriicken Salzgitter Schwerin

Siegen

Solingen

Ulm Wiesbaden

Witten Wolfsburg Wuppertal 176,900 265,800 Wirzburg Zwickau 148,000 498,500 263,900

225,300 116,600 145,800 165,400 127,000 116,000 138,700 126,200 123,700 123,600 106,100 243,300 192,000 116,000 125,400

110,700

166,600

113,000 265,700

105,400 129,100 386,600 128,600 111,400 ct

Vacations Expenditures for motor vehicles Sporting and camping equipment and sporting events Televisions, radios, and their fees

Books, newspapers, and magazines Gardening and pets Games and toys Photographic and moviemaking equipment and film Visits to theatre and cinema Tools Other activities

percentage

203 99

26.9 13.2

98 88

13.0 11.7

59 47 38

7.8 6.2 oa

20 17 7 76

2.7 2.3 1.0 10.1 100.0

TOTAL

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: DM 1,549,713,000,000 (taxes 84.8%). Expenditures: DM 1,682,186,000,000 (1991; consumption 43.5%, current transfers 40.1%,

debt interest payments 6.1%). Total national debt (19933): DM

Production

651,180,000,000.

(value of production in DM

culture,

forestry, fishing: cereal

flowers

and ornamental

i

except as noted; 1992-93). Agri-

grains 7,227,000,000,

plants 2,725,000,000,

fruits 4,038,000,000,

sugar beets 2,682,000,000,

grapes for wine 2,085,000,000, vegetables 1,864,000,000, nurseries 1,610,000,-

614

Britannica World Data

000, potatoes 1,138,000,000, oilseed crops 738,000,000; livestock (number of live animals): 26,466,000,000 pigs, 16,200,000,000 cattle, 1,732,000,000 chicken

eggs, 1,273,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1992) 27,759,000 cu m; fish catch (metric tons; 1992) 258,500. Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 1993): potash 30,434,000; iron ore 180,000; zinc 14,300; lead 2,100. Manufacturing

(value added at factor cost in DM; 1992): capital equipment 319,988,000,000, of which electrical equipment 85,418,000,000, machinery 81,338,000,000,

transport equipment 79,522,000,000; chemicals (including pharmaceuticals) 57,581,000,000; food and beverages 39,411,000,000; calculators and computers 25,274,000,000; plastics and other synthetic products 20,029,000,000; fur-

niture and other wood products 15,506,000,000; stone and ceramic products 14,370,000,000; printing and copy machines. 12,811,000,000; iron founding 11,903,000,000; textiles 11,409,000,000; precision instruments 10,280,000,000; paper and cardboard products 8,919,000,000; office equipment 8,317,000,000; clothing 7,433,000,000; musical instruments and toys 3,578,000,000; fine

pottery and ceramic products 2,549,000,000. Construction (1992): residential 34,400,000 sq m; nonresidential 4,049,000 sq m. Service enterprises (1991)

Gas Water Electrical power Transport air buses rail shipping Communications press film4 Postal services Hotels and restaurants Wholesale trade Retail trade

Energy production

no. of enterprises

no. of employees

151 183 462

37,000 40,000 296,000

42,228 3,443 147,076

133 6,054 1 1,449

57,390 192,869 416,199 9,076

20,270 12,586 14,697

2,452 615 17,6165 135,141 36,6055 152,629

240,075 3,000 652,573 652,251 1,214,000 2,241,000

(consumption):

000 (531,814,000,000);

weekly wage as a % of all wages

annual turnover

(DM '000,000)

DM '000,000,000 % of total

1992) 537,134,000,-

1992) 72,153,000

(82,000,-

gas (cu m;

1992)

16,144,000,000

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1992) no. of enterprises

Manufacturing 44,788 of which Road motor vehicles 2,226 Machinery (nonelectric) 6,340 Machinery and appliances (electric) 3,555 Chemical 1,412 Food and beverages 4,701 Petroleum and natural gas 59 Calculators, computers 2,496 Plastics 2,642 Iron and steel 123 Textiles 1,335 Wood and wood products 5,554 Mining and quarrying 2,388 Construction 20,959

annual gross production value

no. of tradesmen and professionals

wages as a % of avg. of all wages2, 6

8,082,000

101.1

2,037,084

919,000 1,206,000 1,179,000 659,000 601,000 mi 363,000 293,000 198,000 217,000 481,000 420,000 1,377,000

110.9 101.2 91.9 109.8 95.1 138.2 95.4 96.2 101.5 81.0 91.7 105.1 105.5

292,675 224,625 242,287 205,960 218,691 7 70,899

(DM 000,000)

85,248 47,865

1.5830 2.4283 2.2719

58,528 1,857

60,709 1,804

67,902 1,880

63,001 1,917

90,967 841

77,640 962

94,001 1,096

3,346 53,324 95.18 10.04

3,043 ‘55,862 95.18 10.10

3,056 62,967 95.18 10.12

3,567 57,517 95.18 10.13

4,239 85,877 95.18 10.24

3,951 72,727 95.18 10.43

4,022 88,883 95.18 10.31

3.5

6.0

6.0

8.0

8.3

48

4.59

6.1

eee

8.9

8.6

er

6.3

7.39

68.3

87.3

100.0

89.1

86.2

87.8

+79.75 228.87 308.62 —28.97

+77.71 247.24 324.95 —20.04

+71.05 320.24 391.29 —24.81

+23.23 355.40 378.63 —42.30

+32.76 373.91 406.66 -54.91

+4454 318.84 363.38 —64.50

+24.529 165.08 189.60 —34.139

+50.78

+57.67

+46.24

+19.01

—2215

-—19.96

-—9.619

106.8

1987

1988

1989

+127.88 13.8%

+139.23 13.9%

+ 147.85 13.0%

+118.90 9.9%

+15.31 1.2%

1992

1993

+29.46 2.7%

+59.13 5.2%

Imports (1993): DM 544,843,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 34.5%, of which transport equipment 9.4%, electrical machinery other than office equipment 5.8%, office equipment 5.0%; chemicals and chemical products 8.3%, of which organic chemical products 1.9%, unfabricated plastics 1.6%; food and beverages 8.3%, of which fruits and vegetables 2.8%, meat and meat products 1.4%, milk and milk products 0.9%; mineral fuels

8.3%, of which crude petroleum and petroleum products 6.0%, natural gas 1.7%; clothing and wearing apparel 6.8%; thread, yarn, and finished spinning goods 3.0%; iron and steel 2.5%). Major import sources; France

11.2%; The Netherlands 8.3%; Italy 8.1%; United States 7.4%; Japan 6.3%; United Kingdom 6.0%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.7%; Austria 4.8%;

Switzerland 4.4%. Exports (1993): DM_ 603,973,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 49.5%, of which transport equipment 15.9%, electrical machinery other than office equipment 7.4%, office equipment 2.4%; chemicals and chemical products 13.1%, of which organic chemical products 2.6%, unfabricated plastics 2.1%, medical and pharmaceutical products 2.1%). Major export destinations: France 11.7%; United Kingdom 7.7%; United States 7.7%; The

Netherlands 7.4%; Italy 7.2%; Belgium-Luxembourg

6.6%; Austria 6.2%;

Switzerland 5.6%; Spain 2.6%; Japan 2.6%; Sweden 2.1%.

Transport and communications

Roads (1989)2: total length 308,614 mi, 496,652 km (paved 99%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 32,652,000; trucks and buses 1,752,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,574; total deadweight tonnage 5,636,000. Air transport (1992)1!1: passengers carried 71,000,000; passenger-mi 12,633,000,000, passenger-km 20,331,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 260,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 379,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 40. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991)2: total number 352; total circula-

1993 in value DM '000,000

% of total value

labour force2

29,300 74,140 753,250 168,430 155,770 230,120 394,480 559,920 298,520 29,270 138,800 2,832,000

1.0 2.6 26.6 6.0 5.5 8.1 13.9 19.8 10.6 1.0 49 100.0

880,000 441,000 8,400,000 1,982,000 1,630,000 3,965,000 951,000 5,026,000 4,323,000 3,387,300

2.8 1.4 271 6.4 5.3 12.8 3.1 16.2 14.0 10.9

30,985,300

100.0

% of labour force2

Population economically. active (1992): total 40,126,000; activity rate of total

population 49.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 72.2%; female 41.2%; unemployed 6.6%).

Railroads (1992): length 56,813 mi, 91,432 km: passengers car-

ried 1,564,000,000; passenger-mi 35,567,000,000, passenger-km 57,240,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 46,254,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 72,848,000,000.

tion 25,427,000; circulation per 1,000 population 402. Radio (1992); 35,302,-

000 receivers (1 per 2.3 persons). Television (1992): 31,516,000212 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 45,711,000 (1 per 1.7 persons).

Education and health

Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 10-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

}

schools

teachers

students

43,941

656,809

9,345,162

8,951 314

105,546 171,0252, 13

1987

1988

1989

1990

1992

1993

93.6 87.6

94.8 91.0

97.4 94.9

100.0 100.0

107.6 114.8

112.0 121.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 2.3; average annual income per household (1993) DM 74,952 (U.S.$43,418); sources of take-home income (1993): wages 81.9%, self-employment 10.7%, transfer payments 7.4%; expenditure (1993): rent 21.8%, transportation 15.0%,

food 14.4%, entertainment and education 11.1%, household operations and maintenance 8.2%, clothing and footwear 7.8%.

Land use (1991): forest 29.7%; pasture 15.3%; agriculture 33.8%; other 21.2%.

student/ teacher ratio 14.2

2,470,837 1,858,455

23.4 10.72, 13

Health (1993): physicians 259,981 (1 per 313 persons); dentists 58,194 (1 per 1,397 persons); hospital beds 646,995 (1 per 126 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 6.1.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

1.7263 2.1988 2.3712

228,430

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Other (accounting) TOTAL

1.6140 2.4404 2.2193

Transport.

000 (U.S.$23,630 per capita).

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other (productive)

1.5160 2.8360 2.1685

40,387 109,293 83,977

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,908,570,000,-

Agriculture Public utilities, mining Manufacturing Construction

1.4940 2.8804 2.1255

Foreign trade

(barrels; 1992) 23,763,000 (728,599,000); petroleum products (metric tons; (67,322,000,000).

1.6978 2.7258 2.2312

nationals abroad U.S.$35,865,000,000.

31,096 836 68,346 60,257 1,015,984 605,755

electricity (kW-hr;

natural

1.7803 3.2215 2.3957

Balance of trade (current prices)2 ae 2 ie

hard coal (metric tons;

(117,119,000);

Exchange rate, DM per: U.S. dollar £ SDR International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; 000,000) SDRs ('000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF ('000,000) Foreign exchange Gold (000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices (1990 = 100) 10 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.0.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$10,186,000,000; expenditures by

000); lignite (metric tons; 1991) 241,807,000 (245,500,000); crude petroleum 1992) 93,632,000

Financial aggregates®

.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,522 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 132% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 367,300 (army 69.2%, navy 8.2%, air force 22.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 1.6% (world 5.0%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$416.

Detail does not add to total given because of rounding.

2Former West

Germany only. 3August. 41984. 51990. 61993. 7Data withheld for reasons of confidentia lity. ’End-of-period figures unless footnoted otherwise. °Through June. 10Period ''Domestic service only. !2Data include officially registered sets only. 131991. averages.

Nations of the World

Ghana

615

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Republic of Ghana. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Parliament [200]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Accra. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 cedi (¢) = 100 pesewas; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1992

1984

in value

% of total

¢'000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

% of labour

force

force

48.6 1.9 8.7 3.5 24 4.4

3,310,967 26,828 588,418 64,686 15,437 122,806

§50,131.5 108,222.6

59.4 0.5 10.5 1.2 0.3 2.2

18.3 3.6

792,147 27,475

14.2 0.5

Pub. admin., defense

225,463.8

Services

1 U.S.$=€996; 1 £= 1,585.

value

1,461,005.1 Did :5 261,537.9 105,216.5 63,129.8 132,272.1

Trade Finance

61,131.8

Other TOTAL

labour

— 16,449.45 3,008,779.2

75

97,548

2.0

376,168

—0.65 100.0

ef 6.7

157,6246 5,580,104

2.86 100.0

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$167,000,000; expenditures by naArea and population Regions2 Ashanti

Brong-Ahafo Central Eastern Greater Accra

alee ;

Capitals

_sami_-

Kumasi

Northern

Tamale

Upper East Upper West Volta Western

Bolgatanga Wa Ho Sekondi-Takoradi

estimate_

9,417

24,389

2,485,766

39,557 9,826 19,323 3,245

Zt

70,384

1,432,971 1,359,861 2,003,235 1,696,170 1,389,105 921,196 526,398

3,414 7,134 7,942 9,236 92,0983

TOTAL

Population economically active (1984): total 5,580,104; activity rate of total population 45.4% (participation rates: over age 15, 82.5%; female 51.2%; unemployed 2.8%).

19911

_sqkm_—_

15,273 3,794 7,461 1,253

Sunyani Cape Coast Koforidua Accra

tionals abroad U.S.$17,000,000.

Population

8,842 18,476 20,570 23,921 238,533

Price and earnings indexes (1989= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

60.8 43.4

79.9 56.9

100.0 106.0

137.2

162.0

178.3

222.6

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,096,000,000.

1,432,971

Land use (1992): forested 34.9%; meadows and pastures 22.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.0%; other 31.1%.

1,374,483 14,622,156

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 16,050,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 174.3, persons per sq km 67.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 34.9%; rural 65.1%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.64%; female 50.36%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.8%; 15-29, 26.2%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59,

8.0%; 60-74, 3.8%; 75 and over, 0.8%. Population projection: (2000) 18,749,000; (2010) 24,293,000.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1984 1985 1986 ¢'000,000 +637.1 — 4,070.0 +11,578.0 % of total

1.6%

5.8%

8.1%

1987

1988

1989

+7,594.0 2.6%

+32,080 8.5%

= 49,087 8.2%

Imports (1989): €£346,218,000,000 (1987; machinery and transport equipment

Doubling time: 23 years.

28.1%; mineral fuels and lubricants 14.0%; chemicals 12.0%; food and live animals 5.2%; beverages and tobacco 0.4%). Major import sources (1987):

Ethnolinguistic composition (1983): Akan 52.4%; Mossi 15.8%; Ewe 11.9%;

United

Ga-Adangme 7.8%; Gurma 3.3%; Yoruba 1.3%; other 7.5%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 62.6%, of which Protestant 27.9%, Roman

Catholic 18.7%, African indigenous 16.0%; traditional beliefs 21.4%;

Muslim 15.7%, of which Ahmadiyah 7.9%; other 0.3%. Major cities (19882): Accra 949,100; Kumasi 385,200; Tamale

Kingdom

41.4%; Nigeria 13.2%; West

Germany

11.5%; United

States 11.1%; Japan 4.3%; France 3.8%. Exports (1989): €:274,784,000,000 (1986; food and live animals 60.4%, of which cocoa 53.9%; logs and sawn timber 17.9%; gold 15.5%; manganese ore

1.1%; industrial diamonds 0.7%). Major export destinations (1987): United 151,100; Tema

110,000; Sekondi-Takoradi 103,600.

Kingdom

27.0%; United States 18.6%; The Netherlands

9.2%; Japan 9.0%; West Germany 8.3%.

13.5%; U.S.S.R.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 43.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate,

Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 592 mi, 953 km; passenger-mi 839,500,000,

n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 12.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 30.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.1. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 53.3 years; female 57.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major infectious diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and onchocerciasis (river blindness).

National economy Budget

(1992).

Revenue:

€396,143,200,000

(excise and value-added

taxes

35.3%, of which petroleum tax 6.0%; import-export duties 31.1%; income

passenger-km

Education and health Education (1991-92)

220,000, cacao 215,000, green peppers 169,000, sugarcane 111,000, tomatoes 107,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 100,000, oranges 50,000, palm kernels 34,000, lemons and limes 30,000, pulses 20,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,200,000 sheep, 2,200,000 goats, 1,200,000 cattle, 450,000 pigs, 12,000,000

chickens; roundwood (1992) 17,211,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 364,959 (of which anchovies 74,668). Mining and quarrying (1993): bauxite 364,642;

manganese ore 309,122; gold 38,224 kg; diamonds 590,821 carats. Manufac-

turing (1992): cement 1,023,900; kerosene, gasoline, and diesel fuel 806,600; wheat flour 121,000; soap 37,400; iron rods 26,200; cocoa cake, cocoa butter, and cocoa liquor 21,300; edible fats and oils 19,000; toothpaste 556; textiles 19,000,000 metres; soft drinks 3,300,000 hectolitres; beer 649,000 hectolitres;

evaporated milk 231,000 hectolitres; ice cream 10,540 hectolitres; cigarettes 1,687,000,000 units. Construction (value added in ¢; 1992): 105,216,500,000.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 6,152,000,000 (5,870,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 3,000 (3,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (7,145,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 877,000 t (1,037,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 4.9; average annual income per household (1978) €9,600 (U.S.$4); sources of income: n.a.;-expenditure (1978): food and beverages 57.4%, clothing and footwear 14.3%, housing and energy 11.5%, transportation and communications 3.3%, health care 1.3%.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$6,992,000,000 (U.S.$430 per capita).

cargo

74,380,000,

metric

km cargo 19,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 240,000; circulation per 1,000 population 23. Radio (1993): 4,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.8 persons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 61 persons). Telephones (1992): 81,340 (1 per 187 persons).

and property taxes 18.4%; divestiture of government assets 9.2%). Expendi-

roots and tubers 6,436,000 (of which cassava 4,200,000, taro 1,236,000, yams 1,000,000), cereals 1,645,000 (of which corn [maize] 961,000, sorghum 328,000, millet 198,000, rice 157,000), bananas and plantains 1,326,000, coconuts

short ton-mi

000, passenger-km 331,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 13,000,000, metric ton-

tures: €£498,813,000,000 (education 23.9%, debt service 12.2%, health 7.8%, social security and welfare 7.0%, defense 3.6%, transportation and commu-

nications 0.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

135,100,000;

ton-km cargo 108,600,000. Roads (1992): total length 22,800 mi, 36,700 km (paved 32%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 57,897; trucks and buses 30,125. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 155; total deadweight tonnage 130,977. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 206,000,-

schools

Primary (6-12) Secondary (13-20) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

teachers 66,068 43,3497 4227 7007

11,056 5,513 57 16

students

1,796,490 861,6307 13,2327 9,2747

student/ teacher ratio

27.2 19.97 31.47 13.27

Educational attainment (1984). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 60.4%; primary education 7.1%; middle school 25.4%; secondary 3.5%; vocational and other postsecondary 2.9%; higher 0.6%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 4,960,000 (60.4%); males literate 2,835,000 (70.0%); females literate 2,125,000 (50.9%).

Health: physicians (1989) 628 (1 477 (1 per 791 persons); infant Food (1988-90): daily per capita animal products 5%); 93% of

per 22,452 persons); hospital beds (1991) 18,mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 83. caloric intake 2,144 (vegetable products 95%, FAO minimum recommended requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 6,850 (army 73.0%, navy 12.4%, air force 14.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.6% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$2.

1January 1. 2Government

administration has been decentralized to the local level

of 103 district assemblies,

4 municipal

assemblies,

and 3 metropolitan

assemblies.

3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Unofficial 1978 exchange rate (7.5 to 9.9 times the official rate) does not permit meaningful conversion into other currencies. Import duties and statistical adjustments less imputed bank service charges. “Unemployed only. 71989-90.

616

Britannica World Data tobacco 37.0%, transportation 14.9%, housing 9.8%, clothing and footwear 8.7%, other 29.6%. ;

Greece

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$76,679,000,000 (U.S.$7,390 per capita).

Official name: Elliniki Dhimokratia (Hellenic Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Greek Chamber of Deputies [300]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Athens. Official language: Greek. Official religion: Eastern Orthodox. Monetary unit: 1 drachma (Dr) = 100 lepta; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992 % of total value

labour force

1,880,774 162,185 1,940,848 849,180 338,480 859,755 1,650,000 457,357 2,399,858 1,111,173 946,1594 12,595,7686

7 1.3 15.4 6.7 27 6.8

806,500 19,300 699,000 245,700 36,600 252,400 660,400 192,700

_Dr '000,000_ Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$=Dr 235.24; 1 £=Dr 374.15. Area and population

area

population

1991

in value

3.6 19.1 8.8 7.54 100.06

% of labour force

719,800 301,1005 3,933,500

1991

Regions

Anatoliki Makedhonia kai Thraki Attiki

Dhytiki Ellas

Dhytiki Makedhonia lonioi Nisoi Ipiros

Kedriki Makedhonia Kriti

Notion Aiyaion Peloponnisos Sterea Ellas Thessalia Voreion Aiyaion

TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

census

5,466 1,470 4,382 3,649 891 3,553 7,393 3,218 2,041 5,981 6,004 5,420 1,481 50,949

14,157 3,808 11,350 9,451 2,307 9,203 19,147 8,336 5,286 15,490 15,549 14,037 3,836 131,957

570,261 3,522,769 702,027 292,751 191,003 339,210 1,737,6231 536,980 257,522 605,663 578,876 731,230 198,241 10,264,156

Population economically active (1991): total 3,933,500; activity rate of total

(Eastern Macedonia

and Thrace) (Attica) (Western Greece) (Western Macedonia) (lonian Islands) (Epirus) (Central Macedonia) (Crete) (Southern Aegean) (Peloponnesos) (Central Greece) (Thessaly) (Northern Aegean)

Population (1994): 10,365,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 203.4, persons per sq km 78.5. Urban-rural (1992): urban 63.5%; rural 36.5%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.26%; female 50.74%.

1987

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

19881989

64.3 58.7

73.0 69.5

83.1 83.8

1990

1991

1992

100.0 100.0

119.5 116.7

138.4 132.8

Land use (1992): forested 20.3%; meadows and pastures 40.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.3%; other 8.6%.

Foreign trade

Dr '000,000,000 % of total

Population projection: (2000) 10,493,000; (2010) 10,518,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Greek 95.5%; Macedonian 1.5%; Turkish 0.9%; Albanian 0.6%; other 1.5%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian

98.1%,

of which

Eastern

Orthodox

Catholic 0.4%, Protestant 0.1%; Muslim 1.5%; other 0.4%.

Major cities (1991): Athens 748,110; Thessaloniki 377,951; Piraeus (Piraiévs) 169,622; Patrai 155,180; Peristérion 145,854.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 96.1%; illegitimate 3.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.1. Dworce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 74.6 years; female 79.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 199.5; cerebrovascular disease 178.4; diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 150.4; ischemic heart disease 121.1.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Dr 6,956,515,000,0002 (indirect and excise taxes 41.5%, direct taxes 16.9%, European Community 1.2%). Expenditures: Dr 6,828,276,000,000 (1989; health and social insurance 20.4%, defense 10.2%, education and culture 9.0%, police and other sectors 2.6%).

Public debt (1992): U.S.$16,503,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,268,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,186,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 2,989,000, wheat 2,143,000, olives 1,900,000, corn (maize)

2,099,000, tomatoes 1,886,000, grapes 1,400,000, potatoes 1,006,000, oranges 906,000, barley 415,000, cotton 320,000, tobacco 168,000, rice 146,000, onions 141,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,659,000 sheep, 5,830,000 goats,

1,040,000 pigs, 631,000 cattle, 110,000 asses, 27,000,000 chickens; roundwood

2,546,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 149,020. Mining and quarrying (1993):

bauxite 2,200,000; nickel ore 1,300,000; zinc ore 42,0003; lead ore 37,0003;

ore 25,0003. Manufacturing

(value added

in Dr; 1992): food,

beverages, and tobacco 492,276,000,000; chemicals 274,191,000,000; textiles

227,507,000,000; paper and printing 147,484,000,000;

transport equipment

141,563,000,000; clothing and footwear 129,732,000,000. Construction (authorized; 1990): residential 46,434,236 cu m; nonresidential 12,535,570 cu

m. Energy production

000,000 (38,015,000,000);

(consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

coal (metric tons;

1992) 55,051,000

— 688.4 28.1%

1988

1989

— 861.4 33.8%

— 1,199.2 30.8%

— 1,613.3 44.3%

— 1,886.1 37.3%

— 2,113.5 36.8%

Imports (1992): Dr 4,441,848,500,000 (machinery and transport equipment

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 18.5%; 15-29, 22.0%; 30-44, 20.6%; 45-59, 18.6%; 60-74, 14.0%; 75 and over, 6.3%.

chromium

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

97.6%, Roman

population 38.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 55.6%; female 35.7%; unemployed 7.7%).

1992) 37,410,(56,424,000);

crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 4,687,000 (98,390,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 14,949,000 (14,352,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 147,714,000 (147,714,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 3.1; income per household (1982) Dr 252,300 (U.S.$3,777); sources of income (1991): property and entrepreneurial income 46.0%, wages and salaries 37.2%, transfer payments 16.8%; expenditure (1991): food, beverages, and

34.1%, of which

automobiles

8.7%; food, beverages, and tobacco

11.7%,

of which meat products 1.4%, dairy products 1.2%, coffee 0.3%; chemical products 10.6%, of which medicinal and pharmaceutical products 0.5%; crude petroleum 7.4%). Major import sources: Germany 20.2%; Italy 14.2%; France 7.8%; The Netherlands 6.9%; Japan 6.4%; United Kingdom 5.5%; United States 3.6%; Belgium-Luxembourg 3.5%. Exports (1992): Dr 1,816,406,800,000 (food, beverages, and tobacco 27.8%, of which tobacco 6.7%, olive oil 5.2%, olives 1.1%; clothing 21.5%; petroleum

products 4.9%; textiles 3.5%; furs and raw skins 1.0%). Major export desti-

nations: Germany 23.1%; Italy 18.0%; France 7.2%; United Kingdom 7.0%; United States 4.0%; Cyprus 3.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 1,570 mi, 2,527 km; passenger-mi 1,245,000,000, passenger-km

2,004,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 386,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 563,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 72,170 mi, 116,150 km (paved 92%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,958,544: trucks and buses 831,497. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,872; total deadweight tonnage 45,276,567. Air transport (1992): passengermi 4,512,624,000, passenger-km 7,262,379,000; short ton-mi cargo 73,294,000,

metric ton-km cargo 107,008,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 34. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 144; total circulation, n.a. Radio (1993): 4,085,492 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Television (1993): 2,300,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 5,289,560 (1 per 1.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

7,634 2,988 695 17

teachers

37,549 45,794 14,319 13,0077

students

745,666 700,488 190,443 187,6447

student/ teacher ratio

19.9 15.3 13.3

14.47

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over haying: no formal schooling (illiterate) 11.4%; some primary education 16.8%; completed primary 44.1%; lower secondary 6.0%; higher secondary 13.5%; some postsecondary 2.5%; a degree from institution of higher education 4.9%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 7,550,000

(93.2%); males literate 3,925,000 (97.6%); females literate 3,625,000 (89.1%). Health: physicians (1990) 34,336 (1 per 303 persons); hospital beds 51,329 (1 per 199 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 8.5.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,775 (vegetable products 75%,

animal products 25%); 142% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 159,300 (army 70.9%, navy 12.3%, air force 16.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 5.5% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$379.

‘Includes Mount Athos (Ayion Oros), an autonomous, self-gove gion; 1991 population 1,557. 2Includes Dr 2,436,147,000,000 of rning monastic redomestic borrowing. 3Metal content of ore. 4Income from ownership of buildings. SUnemplo yed. SDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. 71988-89.

Nations of the World

Grenada

1,49711, mace 13610, other crops include soursop, sapodilla plums, cinnamon, cloves, and pimiento; livestock (number of live animals) 12,000 sheep, 11,000 goats, 4,000 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1991) 1,990. Mining

Official name: Grenada. Form of government: constitutional

and quarrying: excavation of gravel for local use. Manufacturing

monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [13]; House of Representatives [151]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General.

hectolitres!2; cigarettes 20,000,000 units; clothing (1989) EC$3,800,000 in export sales; other products include edible coconut oil, paints, pharmaceu-

tical products, and aerated beverages. Construction: n.a. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 62,000,000 (62,000,000); coal, none

(none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (39,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.7; income per household (1988) EC$7,097 (U.S.$2,629); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1987): food 38.7%, housing 11.9%, transportation 9.1%, per-

(EC$) =100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

sonal effects and medical care 8.6%, household furnishings 8.3%, household operations 5.4%.

1994) 1 U.S.$ =EC$2.70; 1 £=EC$4.30.

Population economically active (1988): total 38,920; activity rate of total population 39.9% (participation rates: ages 15-65, 72.7%; female 48.6%; unemployed [1994] 15.0%).

Area and population

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Population. 1991

Local Councils Principal towns Carriacou Hillsborough Petite Martinique... Grenville St. Andrew ee St. David St. George Gouyave St. John Victoria St. Mark Sauteurs St. Patrick

—oensuse= 4,595 720 23,531 10,703 24,719

Consumer price index

1991

1992

1993

1994

100.0

102.7

106.5

109.5

112.413

100.0

108.0

118.8

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988

Demography

Imports

Population (1994): 91,800. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 690.2, persons per sq km 266.9. Urban-rural (1991)4: urban 32.2%; rural 67.8%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.35%; female 50.65%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 35.9%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 14.2%; 45-59,

_ 8.5%; 60 and over, 11.3%; not stated, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 93,000; (2010) 95,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1991): black 84.9%; mixed 11.0%; Indo-Pakistani 3.0%; other 1.1%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 53.0%; Anglican 14.0%; Seventhday Adventist 8.5%; Pentecostal 7.2%; other 17.3%.

Major localities (1991): St. George’s 4,439; Gouyave 3,0005; Grenville 2,0005.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 30.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 67.8 years; female 72.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1984): diseases of the circulatory system 290.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.5; endocrine and metabolic diseases 62.9; diseases of the respiratory system 54.1; accidents and violence 47.9; diseases of the digestive system 39.5.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: EC$246,900,000 (current revenue 71.7%; development revenue 28.3%, of which foreign loans 13.0%, foreign grants 10.4%, special fund based on the sale of national assets 4.9%). Expenditures: EC$277,700,000 (current expenditures 70.2%; development expenditures

29.8%).

pe (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$97,700,000.

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$38,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad (1991) U.S.$5,000,000.

market prices; 1993): U.S.$219,000,000

(U.S.$2,410 per capita).

bs

47.1%

—59.4 47.5%

(1992): U.S.$103,200,000

24.2%;

food

13.2%;

mace

23.9%;

1989

1990

1991

1992

Ow 55.5%

=79.7 60.0%

—90.5 66.1%

67.6%

(machinery

basic manufactures

and transport

20.2%;

chemicals

equipment

and chemical

products 8.5%). Major import sources: United States 26.6%; Trinidad and Tobago 23.7%; United Kingdom 10.9%; Germany 5.9%; Japan 4.1%. Exports (1992): U.S.$20,000,000 (bananas 14.3%; nutmeg 11.1%; cocoa beans 3.0%; other exports include

fresh fruit, electronic

compo-

nents, and pharmaceuticals). Major export destinations: United States 34.7%; United Kingdom 26.9%; St. Lucia 6.6%; Switzerland 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 700 mi, 1,127 km (paved 51%). Vehicles: n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 3; total deadweight tonnage 484. Air transport (1991)17: passenger arrivals 101,694, passenger departures 104,695; cargo loaded 1,275 metric tons, cargo unloaded 457 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled

flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): none!8. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 80,000 (1 per 1.1 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 30,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 24,300 (1 per 3.8 persons). Education and health Education (1993-94) schools

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Vocational Higher

57 19 ae 1

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

781 352 re 66

21,311 6,939

27.3 19.7

651

9.9

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 2.2%; primary education 87.8%; secondary 8.5%; higher 1.5%. Literacy (1988): total population age 15 and over literate 49,000 (85.0%).

Health (1990): physicians 56 (1 per 1,617 persons); hospital beds 409 (1 per 222 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 12.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,400 (vegetable products 77%, animal products 23%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

1990

97.3

Foreign trade15

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Gross national product (at current

1989

92.2

Land use (1992): forested 9.0%; meadows and pastures 3.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 32.0%; other 56.0%.

4,439 90,691

TOTAL

1988 Annual earnings index 14

8,547 3,785 9,652

Town St. George’s

Agriculture Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

(1991):

wheat flour 8,00012; beer 20,177 hectolitres; rum 3,345 hectolitres; malt 3,000

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: St. George’s. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 East Caribbean dollar

Public

617

in value EC$’000,0006 63.7 1.9 25.5 48.0

% of total value 13.9

69.8 94.4

15.3 :

16.0

Services Other TOTAL

0.4

5.6 10.5

3.5

Total active duty personnel (1993): 19. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.; per capita expenditure, n.a.

1988

labour force

% of labour force

5,560 111 2,835 3,531 389

14.3 0.3 73 9.1 1.0

1,696 5,421 778

44 13.9 2.0

5,949

15.3

12,6508 38,920

32.58 100.09

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): bananas 10,000, coconuts 7,000, sugarcane nutmeg. 2,235.10, mangoes 2,000, avocados

7,000, roots and tubers 4,000, 2,000, grapefruit 2,000, cacao

Excludes the speaker, who may be elected from outside its elected membership. 2Preliminary; excludes 434 institutionalized residents and 33 Grenadians in foreign service. 3St. George local council includes St. George’s town. *Urban defined as St.

George’s town and St. George local council. 51987. “Current prices atfactor cost.

7Less imputed bank service charges. 8Includes 1,752 persons in activities not adequately defined and 10,898 unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 101992. 111993-94. 121990. 13June. !4Private sector only. !*Imports c.i.f; exports f.0.b. 16Based on imports for 1991 equaling U.S.$117,200,000. !7Point Salines airport. 18Weekly newspapers (1993): 5. !9The 750-member police force includes a paramilitary unit.

618

Britannica World Data

Guadeloupe

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1989 1990

Official name: Département de la Guadeloupe (Department of Guadeloupe).

in value F '000,000 Agriculture Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub, admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Political status: overseas department (France) with two legislative houses

(General Council [42]; Regional Council [41]). Chief of state: President of France. Heads of government: Commissioner of the Republic (for France); President of the General Council (for Guadeloupe); President of the Regional Council (for Guadeloupe). Capital: Basse-Terre. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 French franc (F) = 100

labour force

% of total value

% of labour force

1,177.4

9.2

8,391

49

758.4 949.3 38.7

5.9 7.4 0.3

9,630 13,976

5.6 8.2

6.1 19.6 6.6 33.2 16.1 — 4.412 100.0

6,950 15,020 26,533

41 8.8 15.5

773.3 2,499.6 848.8 4,242.4 2,056.6 — 563.3 12,781.2

37,025

21.6

53,500 13 171,025

31.313 100.0

Population economically active (1992): total 181,000; activity rate of total population 44.0% (participation rates [1990]: ages 15-64, 68.0%; female 45.5%; unemployed [1993] 22.2%).

centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=F 5.27; 1 £=F 8.38.

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 14

Area and population

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index 15

1

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

104.9 102.0

106.9 105.0

109.9 107.0

114.0 112.2

116.0 114.4

117.6 115.8

population

1990 Capitals Basse-Terre Pointe-a-Pitre

Arrondissements Basse-Terre!

Pointe-a-Pitre2

esqukme 861

769

151,979 192,643

75 1,7804

33,556 378,1785

Saint-Martin—-Saint-

Barthélemy3

Marigot

TOTAL

Land use (1992): forested 38.9%; meadows and pastures 7.1%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 18.1%; other 35.9%.

census

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 426,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 620.1, persons per sq km 239.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 48.4%; rural 51.6%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.88%; female 51.12%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 29.5%; 30-44, 21.4%; 45-59, 12.5%; 60-74, 8.3%; 75 and over, 3.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 473,000; (2010) 541,000. Doubling time: 58 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Creole (mulatto) 77.0%; black 10.0%; Guadeloupe mestizo (French—East Asian) 10.0%; white 2.0%; other 1.0%. ; Religious affiliation (19916): Roman Catholic 88.1%; other 11.9%. Major communes (1990): Les Abymes 62,605; Saint-Martin 28,518; Pointe-aPitre 26,029 (141,0007:8); Le Gosier 20,708; Basse-Terre 14,000 (53,0007).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population 39.3%; illegitimate 60.7%.

(1992): 17.8 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 12.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 70.0 years; female 77.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 186.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 121.2; accidents and violence 72.9; diseases of the respiratory system 30.5; diseases of the digestive system 29.7.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: F 2,509,000,000 (1991; receipts from French central government and local administrative bodies 38.2%, new loans 21.5%, subsidies for investments

10.6%, taxes on motor fuels 7.4%). Expenditures: F

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

1991

1992

1993

F '000,000 % of total

— 8,209 79.8%

—7,505 83.8%

—7,309 83.2%

—6,260 77.5%

-—6,995 83.8%

—8,439 86.3%

Imports (1993): F 8,044,223,000 (consumer goods 27.4%, food and agriculture products 23.4%, machinery and equipment 16.8%, transport vehicles and parts 11.3%). Major import sources: France 65.8%; other EEC 13.8%; United States 3.4%; Martinique 3.3%; Japan 2.5%. Exports (1993): F 735,381,000 (agricultural products 74.7%, consumer goods 12.2%, machinery and equipment 6.4%, chemical products 2.2%). Major export destinations: France 78.0%; Martinique

other EEC 1.4%.

14.1%; French Guiana 2.8%;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992): total length 1,480 mi, 2,384 km (paved [1986] 80%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 95,962; trucks and buses 28,134. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 20; deadweight tonnage 4,430. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals and departures 1,356,500; cargo loaded 8,677 metric tons, cargo unloaded 5,999

metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation 25,000; circulation per 1,000 population 60. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 100,000 (1 per 4.2 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 150,000 (1 per 2.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 138,504 (1 per 3.0 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-17) } Vocational Higher 16

students

student/ teacher ratio

3,135

39,075

12.5

3,813

49,295

12.9

310

4,296

13.9

schools

teachers

340 78

1

services 23.1%, debt amortization 7.4%).

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 10.7%; primary education 54.6%; secondary 29.5%; higher 5.2%. Literacy (1982): total population age 15 and over literate 225,400 (90.1%); males literate 108,700 (89.7%); females literate

sugarcane

Health (1991): physicians 590 (1 per 680 persons); hospital beds 3,230 (1 per 122 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 10.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,777 (vegetable products 74%, animal products 26%); 115% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

4,978,000,000 (1991; capital investments and works 30.8%, health and social Public debt (external, outstanding; 19889): U.S.$41,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$269,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): 516,000,

bananas

148,300,

yams

10,000,

sweet

potatoes

7,000,

plantains 7,000, pineapples 4,400, tomatoes 4,000, melons 3,500, mangoes 2,000, limes 1,200, eggplants 1,000, foliage and plants 6019.11, cut flowers 2910, 11; livestock (number of live animals) 56,100 cattle, 47,500 pigs, 39,500

goats; roundwood (1991) 17,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 8,444. Mining and quarrying (1988): pozzolana 240,000. Manufacturing (1993): cement 275,956;

116,700 (90.5%).

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 8,200 French troops!7,

rum 65,921 hectolitres; raw sugar 50,084; other products include clothing,

wooden furniture and posts, and metalware. Construction (buildings authorized; 1992): residential 358,474 sq m; nonresidential 160,084 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kKW-hr; 1993) 958,700,000 (826,700,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (341,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.4; income per household (1988) F 105,400 (U.S.$17,700); sources of income (1988): wages and salaries 78.9%, self employment 12.7%, transfer payments 8.47%; expenditure (1984-85): food and beverages 29.8%, housing, household furnishings, and energy 26.3%, transportation and communications

clothing and footwear 8.2%, other 22.4%.

Gross national product (at current market

(U.S.$3,200 per capita).

prices;

13.3%,

1987): U.S.$1,170,000,000

‘Comprises Basse-Terre 327 sq mi (848 sq km), pop. 149,943, and fles des Saintes 5 sq mi (13 sq km), pop. 2,036. 2Comprises Grande-Terre 228 sq mi (590 177,570; Marie-Galante 61 sq mi (158 sq km), pop. 13,463; La Désirade sq km), pop. km), pop. 1,610; and the uninhabited Tles de la Petite-Terre. 3Comprise8 sq mi (20 sq s the French part of Saint-Martin 20 sq mi (52 sq km), pop. 28,518; Saint-Barthélemy 8 sq mi (21 sq km), pop. 5,038; and the small, uninhabited island of Tintamarr includes 29 sq mi (75 sq km) not allocated by arrondissement. 5Prelimine. 4Total area census total was 386,987. “January 1. 7Urban agglomeration. Includesary; final 1990 Les Abymes. “Includes external long-term private debt not guaranteed by the government. 191989. MExport only. 12Less imputed bank service charges. Unemployed. dexes: are end of year unless footnoted. SBased on minimum-level 14Base and inwage of public employees. !6University of Antilles-—French Guiana, Guadeloupe campus. !7Includes Martinique and French Guiana.

Nations of the World

Guatemala

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Reptblica de Guatemala (Republic of Guatemala).

1992

Form of government: republic with one

legislative house (Congress of the Republic [80]).

ri —O© 9117,

Retalhuleu

Sacatepéquez San Marcos Santa Rosa

Solola Suchitepéquez Totonicapan Zacapa TOTAL

928.6

25.8

1,625,125

0.2 14.9

58.1

23797 380,408

2.0 25 8.1 24.0 9.3 7.1 } 6.1

0.1 13.6

114,682 8,391 69,928 204,190

41 0.3 25 7.3

335,654

12.0

55,9425 2,797,117

2.05 100.0

741 101.1 309.8 874.7 340.4 267.2 218.6 = 3,662.8

— 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,104,000,000.

Area and population

Petén

% of labour force

11.2 537.1

Other TOTAL

1994) 1 U.S.$=Q 5.76;

Quiché

labour force

Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Guatemalan quetzal (Q)=100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7,

Quetzaltenango

% of total value

Mining ; Manufacturing

President. Capital: Guatemala City. Official language: Spanish.

1990

in value Q '000,0003

Agriculture

Head of state and government:

Departments Alta Verapaz Baja Verapaz Chimaltenango Chiquimula El Progreso Escuintla Guatemala Huehuetenango Izabal Jalapa Jutiapa

619

population sq mi

Capitals

Coban Salama

sq km

3,354 1,206

Chimaltenango Chiquimula Guastatoya (Progreso) Escuintla Guatemala City Huehuetenango Puerto Barrios Jalapa Jutiapa Flores Quetzaltenango

764 917 742 1,693 821 2,857 3,490 797 1,243 13,843 753

Santa Cruz del Quiché

3,235

Retalhuleu Antigua Guatemala San Marcos Cuilapa

8,686 3,124 1,979 2,376 1,922 4,384 2,126 7,400

9,038 2,063 3,219 35,854 1,951

8,378

717 180 1,464 1,144

Solola Mazatenango

Totonicapan

1,856 465 3,791 2,955

410

1,061

969

2,510

410

Zacapa

1,061

1,039

42,0422

2,690

108,889

1994 estimate? 650,127 200,019 374,898 268,379 115,469 592,647 2,188,652 790,183 359,056 206,355 378,661 295,169 606,556 631,785 261,136 196,537 766,950 285,456 265,902 392,703 324,225 171,146 10,322,011

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987

Consumer price index Annual earnings index7

57.4 54.7

1988

63.6 73.3

1989

70.8 86.9

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0 100.0

133.2 126.6

146.5 162.1

163.9 oe

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.4; income per household (1989) Q 4,306 (U.S.$1,529); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981): food 64.4%, housing and energy 16.0%, transportation and communications 7.0%, household furnishings 5.0%, clothing 3.1%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

—391.5 16.1%

— 389.2 14.9%

=207.4 8.0%

197.3 7.5%

— 1,190.8 35.7%

— 1,096.2 29.0%

Imports (1992): U.S.$2,462,757,400 (primary and intermediate materials for industry 41.5%, capital goods 22.4%, nondurable consumer goods 13.9%, petroleum 9.1%). Major import sources: United States 43.9%; Japan 6.0%; Mexico 5.8%; El Salvador 5.7%; Germany 4.6%; Venezuela 4.1%. Exports (1992): U.S.$1,295,291,800 (coffee 19.2%, sugar 12.2%, bananas 8.0%,

Demography

fish and other seafoods 3.5%, cardamon 2.5%). Major export destinations:

Population (1994): 10,322,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 245.5, persons per sq km 94.8. Urban-rural (1994): urban 38.5%; rural 61.5%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.52%; female 49.48%.

United States 35.0%; El Salvador 14.1%; Costa Rica 6.9%; Nicaragua 4.8%; Honduras 4.7%; Mexico 4.5%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.4%; 15-29, 26.7%; 30-44, 14.6%; 45-59, 8.2%; 60-74, 4.1%; 75 and over, 1.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 12,222,000; (2010) 15,827,000.

Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1987): Amerindian 45%; Ladino (Hispanic/Amerindian) 45%; white 5%; black 2%; other mixed race and Chinese 3%.

Religious affiliation (1986): Roman Catholic c. 75%, of which Catholic/traditional syncretist c. 25%; Protestant (mostly fundamentalist) c. 25%. Major cities (1994): Guatemala City 1,150,452; Mixco 413,002; Villa Nueva 154,508; Chinautla 59,349; Amatitlan 38,682.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 36.2 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 28.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 61.5 years; female 66.7 years. nM Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): infectious and parasitic diseases 121.6; diseases of the respiratory system 110.8; perinatal causes 58.7; malnutrition 50.2; dehydration 18.5.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Q 5,524,000,000 (tax revenue 81.87%, of which taxes

on goods and services 36.5%, customs duties 21.9%, income taxes 19.1%; nontax revenue 18.2%). Expenditures: Q 4,570,000,000 (1990; education

14.3%; defense 12.7%; transportation 8.2%; health 8.1%; agriculture 3.7%).

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$243,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$103,000,000. Land use (1991): forested 33.8%; meadows and pastures 13.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.4%; other 35.8%.

;

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

sugarcane 9,788,000, corn (maize) 1,250,000, bananas 465,000, coffee 207,000, tomatoes 140,000, dry beans 100,000, sorghum 80,000, plantains 56,000, seed cotton 55,000, cottonseed 29,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,097,000 cattle, 1,110,000 pigs, 676,000 sheep; roundwood (1991) 8,049,000

cu m; fish catch (1991) 6,733. Mining and quarrying (1991): gypsum 51,519; ~ iron ore 5,103; antimony ore 609. Manufacturing (value added in Q 000,000; 19893): food products 138.0; beverages

Population economically active (1990): total 2,797,117; activity rate of total population 31.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 46.5%; female [1989] 25.5%; unemployed 2.9%).

66.2; clothing and footwear 47.6; tex-

tiles 43.2; metal products 30.2. Construction (value of buildings authorized in Q ’000,000; 1991)4: residential 170.2; nonresidential 127.5. Energy produc-

tion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 2,330,000,000 (2,330,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 1,226,000 (4,939,000); petroleum products 5 (metric tons; 1991) 606,000 (973,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$11,123,000,000 (U.S.$1,110 per capita).

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990)9: route length 570 mi, 917 km; passenger-km 10,099,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,700,000. Roads (1992): total length 7,477 mi, 12,033 km (paved 26%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 145,000; trucks and buses 105,000. Merchant, marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 8; total deadweight tonnage 353. Air transport (1991)10: passengerkm 230,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,200,000; airports (1994) 2.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5; total circulation 190,000; circulation per 1,000 population 21. Radio (1993): 400,000 receivers (1 per 25 persons). Television (1993): 475,000 receivers (1 per 21 persons). Telephones (1990): 250,000 (1 per 36 persons). Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher11

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

9,362 1,274 626 5

36,757 13,588 7,129 4,346

1,249,413 207,935 94,485 69,532

34.0 15.3 13.3 16.0

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 50.0%; incomplete primary education 21.6%; complete primary 16.2%; secondary 9.2%; higher 3.0%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 2,809,000 (60.3%); males literate 1,544,000 (69.7%); females literate 1,265,000 (51.7%). Health (1987): physicians 3,579 (1 per 2,356 persons); hospital beds 13,667 (1 per 602 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 55.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,254 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 103% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 43,900 (army 95.7%, navy 2.7%, air force 1.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.0% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$9.

Population of departments and cities taken from official projections based on 1973— 81 intercensal growth rates and subsequent vital (birth and death) rates. *Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3At prices of 1958. 4Private construction in Guatemala City metropolitan area only. 5Persons in activities not adequately defined. Officially unemployed; 63% of economically active population is estimated to be underemployed. 7Based on employees entitled to social security. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 9%Guatemala Railways only. !0Aviateca Airlines only. 111989.

620

Britannica World Data 375,154; cement 326,138; printed matter 216,511; fruit juice 75,763; beer 69,934; matches 22,449. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 531,000,000 (531,000,000); coal, none (n.a.);

Guinea Official name: République de Guinée (Republic of Guinea). Form of government: transitional

crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (334,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). : Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,260,000,000 (U.S.$520 per capita).

government (composed of a

15-member Transitional Committee for National Recovery)!. Head of state and government: President!. Capital: Conakry. Official language: French. Official religion: none.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

Monetary unit: 1 Guinean franc

(GF) = 100 cauris; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=GF 978.66; 1 £=GEF 1,557. Area and population

J area

population

1983

in value GF '000,000,000

% of total value

labour force

1,423,615 12,241 AG2TS 9,115 3,205 29,496 37,309 3,556

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

506.38

23.2

480.74

22.0

95.54 131.95 4.88 107.78 518.30 110.97 192.60 33.15

4.4 6.0 0.2 4.9

% of labour force

137,600 155,679 1,823,031

100.03

2,182.29

1983 Regions Beyla Boffa Boké2 Conakry

Capitals Beyla Boffa Boké

Coyah (Dubréka) Dabola Dalaba Dinguiraye Fria Gaoual

Faranah2 Forécariah

Guéckédou Kankan

Kérouané Kindia Kissidougou Koubia Koundara Kouroussa Labé

Lélouma

Lola

sq mi

6,738

sq km

census

1,932 3,881

17,452 5,003 10,053

Coyah Dabola Dalaba Dinguiraye

2,153 2,317 1,313 4,247

5,576 6,000 3,400 11,000

Fria Gaoual

840 4,440

2,175 11,500

1,605

4,157

Conakry

Faranah Forécariah

Guéckédou Kankan

119

4,788 1,647

308

12,400 4,265

7,104

18,400

Kindia

3,409

8,828

Kissidougou

3,425

8,872

Koubia Koundara Kouroussa Labé

571 2,124 4,647 973

1,480 5,500 12,035 2,520

Lola

1,629

4,219

3,363

8,710

Kérouané

Lélouma

3,070

830

7,950

2,150

Macenta

Macenta

Mali

Mali

3,398

8,800

Mamou Mandiana

Mamou Mandiana

2,378 5,000 1,460

6,160 12,950

Pita

Pita

4,000

Siguiri

Siguiri

1,544 7,626

Nzerékoré

Télimélé

Nzérékoré

Télimélé

Tougué

Tougué

Yomou TOTAL

Yomou

3,119 2,394 843 94,9263

3,781

19,750 8,080

6,200 2,183 245,857

161,347 141,719 225,207 705,280 134,190 97,986 132,802 133,502 142,923 116,464 70,413 135,657 204,757 229,861 106,872 216,052 183,236 98,053 94,216 136,926 253,214 138,467 106,654 193,109 210,889 190,525 136,317 216,355 227,912 209,164 243,256 113,272 74,417 5,781,014

Population economically active (1992): total 2,590,000; activity rate of total

population 42.3% (participation rates [1983]: ages 15-64, 63.5%; female 39.4%; unemployed, n.a.).

Price index (1987 = 100) 1988

1989

1990

1991

Consumer price index

163.3

194.2

233.1

129.6

1992

19934

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 6.7; av-

erage annual income per capita (1984) GS 7,660 (U.S.$305); sources of

income: n.a.; expenditure (1985): food 61.5%, health care 11.2%, clothing and footwear 7.9%, housing and energy 7.3%, transportation 5.1%.

Land use (1992): forested 58.8%; meadows and pastures 22.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.0%; other 15.8%.

Foreign trade5 Balance of trade (current prices) 1985 1986 1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

+10 0.7%

+146 10.6%

+177 11.8%

+33.2 2.7%

+111 11.0%

+147 12.6%

+120 9.6%

Imports (1990): U.S.$693,000,000 (1988; intermediate goods 33.7%, capital goods

13.1%, petroleum

products

10.5%, food products 9.8%, consumer

goods 9.7%). Major import sources: France 36.0%; U.S. 9.0%; BelgiumLuxembourg 9.0%; Germany 6.0%; Italy 5.0%. Exports (1990): U.S.$788,000,000 (bauxite 56.9%, alumina 20.7%, diamonds 8.9%, gold 5.8%, coffee 4.5%, fish 1.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 23.0%; France 14.0%; Germany 14.0%; Spain 13.0%; Ireland 9.0%.

Demography Population (1994): 6,501,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 68.5, persons per sq km 26.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban 25.6%; rural 74.4%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.17%; female 49.83%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.7%; 15-29, 25.9%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 8.0%; 60 and over, 4.4%. Population projection: (2000) 8,879,000; (2010) 11,451,000.

Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Fulani 40.3%; Malinke 25.8%; Susu 11.0%; Kissi 6.5%; Kpelle 4.8%; other 11.6%. Religious affiliation (1988): Muslim 85.0%; traditional beliefs 5.0%; Christian 1.5%; other 8.5%. Major cities (1983): Conakry 705,280; Kankan

55,904.

88,760; Labé 65,439; Kindia

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 47.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 21.0 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 26.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 6.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 44.0 years; female 45.0 years.

Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, venereal disease, tuberculosis, and measles.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: GF 415,200,000,000 (mineral sector 46.3%; other 53.7%). Expenditures: GF 593,100,000,000 (capital spending 52.3%; current expenditure 47.7%, of which personnel 22.4%, services 14.7%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,466,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): roots and tubers 997,000 (of which cassava 781,000, yams 73,000), rice 733,000, plantains 429,000, vegetables and melons 420,000, sugarcane 225,-

000, bananas 115,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 105,000, corn (maize) 95,000,

pineapples 87,000, pulses 60,000, palm kernels 40,000, palm oil 40,000, cof-

fee 29,000, coconuts 18,000, eggs 14,490; livestock (number of live animals) 1,650,000 cattle, 580,000 goats, 435,000 sheep, 33,000 pigs, 14,000,000 chick-

ens; roundwood (1992) 4,235,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 37,500. Mining and quarrying (1991): bauxite 17,800,000; alumina 640,000; diamonds 200,-

000 carats; gold 2,500 kg. Manufacturing (value of production in GF ’000; 1985): corrugated and sheet iron 571,081; plastics 462,242; tobacco products

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 411 mi, 662 km; (latest) passenger-

mi 25,800,000, passenger-km 41,500,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,000,000, met-

ric ton-km cargo 7,300,000. Roads (1992): total length 9,974 mi, 16,051 km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 23,155; trucks and buses 13,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 23; total deadweight tonnage 1,749. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 17,873,000, passenger-km 28,764,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,684,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,458,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): 1; total circulation 13,000; circulation per 1,000 population 2.0. Radio (1993): 130,000 receivers (1 per 49 persons). Television (1993): 65,000 receivers (1 per 97 persons). Telephones (1991): 18,720 (1 per 317 persons). Education and health Education (1990) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

2,476 2256 356 106

8,699 4,846 1,130 8057

students

teacher ratio

346,807 75,674 10,268 6,2457

39.9 15.6 9.1 7.87

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 24.0%; males 34.9%; females 13.4%.

Health: physicians (1990) 773 (1 per 7,445 persons); hospital beds (1988) 3,382 (1 per 1,934 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 134.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,242 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 9,700 (army 87.6%, navy 4.1%, air force 8.37%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.3% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

'Transitional government established January 1991 was to end with the advent of both the multiparty presidential elections held in December 1993 and legislative elections scheduled for December 1994. 2The provinces of Boké and Faranah were abolished by presidential decree in January 1988. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Inflation, measured by the consumer price index, was 10.2% the year ending March 31, 1993. 5Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. 61987-88. 7Universitiefor s only.

Nations of the World

Guinea-Bissau

Gross national product (at current

(U.S.$233 per capita).

Official name: Républica da

Guiné-Bissau (Republic of Guinea-Bissau).

1993 in value % of total U.S.$'000,000 value

(National Assembly [100]).

Agriculture

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bissau. Official language: Portuguese.

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Guinea-Bissau peso (PG) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 1 £=PG 19,856.

Finance

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

12,484;

Area and population

area

1979

Capitals

Bafata

Bafata

2,309

5,981

Bissau Bolama Cacheu Gabu Farim Fulacunda Catio

324 1,013 1,998 3,533 2,086 1,212 1,443

840 2,624 plas) 9,150 5,403 3,138 3,736

Gabi Oio Quinara Tombali

1993): U.S.$241,700,000

—sami_

Autonomous Sector Bissau2 TOTAL

_sqkm_

30

78

13,948

36,125

111.2

46.0

29.0

12.0

1991 labour force

% of labour force

362,000

78.0

21,000

4.5

ake

oe

81,000

17.5

241.7

100.0

464,000

100.0

Tourism: n.a. Land use (1992): forested 38.1%; meadows and pastures 38.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.1%; other 11.4%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 4.1; in-

population

Regions Biombo2 Bolama Cacheu

prices;

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=PG

market

621

census!

115,656 51,796 25,449 127,514 103,683 131,271 35,567 55,088

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 PG'000,000 % of total

107,281 753,305

—46,297 56.7%

-—96,304 65.2%

1990

1991

—120,821 58.9%

-166,698 52.7%

-—530,592 85.5%

—378,141 54.0%

Imports (1991): U.S.$90,000,000 (1988; transport equipment 28.7%, building materials 17.9%, foodstuffs 8.6%, fuel and lubricants 8.6%, other 36.2%).

Demography

Major import sources (1989): Italy 27.3%; Portugal 23.0%; Thailand 7.6%;

Population (1994): 1,050,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 75.3, persons per sq km 29.1.

The Netherlands 7.2%; France 4.3%; Senegal 4.2%; U.S.S.R. 3.0%.

Exports (1991): U.S.$23,000,000 (1988; cashews 52.8%, peanuts [groundnuts] 11.3%, frozen fish 3.1%). Major export destinations (1989): Portugal 34.4%;

Urban-rural (1991): urban 20.3%; rural 79.7%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.17%; female 50.83%.

Spain 19.2%; France 18.1%; Japan 6.7%; The Netherlands 6.1%; Italy 6.0%;

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 40.9%; 15-29, 24.9%; 30-44, 16.7%; 45-59, 10.9%; 60-74, 5.6%; 75 and over, 1.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 1,192,000; (2010) 1,473,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1979): Balante 27.2%; Fulani 22.9%; Malinke

Transport and communications 12.2%;

Mandyako 10.6%; Pepel 10.0%; other 17.1%.

Religious affiliation (1992): traditional beliefs 54%; Muslim 38%; Christian 8%. Major cities (1979): 5,390; Catid 5,179.

Bissau

125,0003;

Bafata

13,429;

Gabi

Belgium-Luxembourg 4.5%.

7,803; Manséa

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 42.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 18.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 24.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 6.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 41.9 years; fernale 45.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis of the respiratory system, whooping cough, typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery and amebiasis, malaria, pneumonia, and meningococcal infections.

National economy Budget (1989). Revenue: PG 42,740,000,000 (1988; tax revenue 43.7%, of which excise tax 15.4%, export duties 14.1%; grants from abroad 38.5%;

nontax revenue 17.8%). Expenditures, (1989): PG 190,431,000,000 (capital expenditures 61.4%4; current expenditures 38.6%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$580,100,000. ‘ Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

rice 126,000, fruits 66,000, roots and tubers (sweet potatoes and cassava) 65,000, plantains 34,000, cashews 30,000, millet 26,000, coconuts 25,000, vegetables 20,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 18,000, sorghum 14,000, corn (maize) 13,000, palm kernels 8,000, sugarcane 6,000, bananas 6,000, copra 5,000, palm oil 5,000, seed cotton 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 475,000

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total km (paved 9%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross deadweight tonnage 1,846. Air transport (1985): passenger-km

length 2,579 mi, 4,150 3,500; trucks and buses tons and over) 19; total passenger-mi 6,000,000,

9,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 700,000, metric ton-km

cargo

1,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation

6,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 40,000 (1 per 26 persons). Television: n.a. Telephones (1991): 15,000 (1 per 67 persons). Education and health Education (1988) Primary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr.

student/ schools

teachers

6327 128 47

3,0657 8248 107

students

teacher ratio

79,035 5,505 825

24.67 7.88 Cate

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 7 and over having: no formal schooling or knowledge of reading and writing 90.4%; primary education 7.9%; secondary 1.0%; technical 0.5%; higher 0.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 211,200 (36.5%); males literate 138,800 (50.2%); females literate 72,400 (24.0%). Health (1986): physicians 274 (1 per 3,263 persons); hospital beds 2,430 (1 per 368 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 140. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,278 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 84% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 7,250 (army 93.8%, navy 4.8%, air force 1.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1987): 2.4% (world 5.4%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$6.

cattle, 310,000 pigs, 270,000 goats, 255,000 sheep, 1,000,000 chickens; round-

wood (1992) 572,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 5,000. Mining and quarrying:

extraction of construction materials only. Manufacturing (in PG ’000,000;

1982): beverages 143.7, of which beer 122.3, orangeade and lemonade 16.5; clothing 14.05; peanut oil 7.0; palm oil 2.4. Construction (value added in Esc®; 1987): 520,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 41,000,000 (41,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (68,000); natural gas, none (none). e _ Population economically active (1992): total 461,000; activity rate of total population 45.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1979] 41.0%; female 3.6%; unemployed, n.a.). i Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 Consumer price index Earnings index

i

“ee

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

41.6 ae

75.2 a

100.0

157.6

267.3

1993 395.8

1Preliminary. 2Biombo region excludes Bissau tures were divided: economic affairs 40%, of 20.1%; general public services 25.5%; health 5Production figure for first three quarters only. escudo. 71987. 81986.

city. 31988. 4In 1987 capital expendiwhich agriculture, forestry, and fishing 5.4%; education 5.2%; defense 4.4%. °Esc is the abbreviation for Portuguese

622

Britannica World Data

Guyana

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

Official name: Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [65!]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Georgetown. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Guyana dollar

Sugar Other agriculture, forestry Fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction

Public utilities Transportation and

1994) 1 U.S.$=G$142.13; Area and population

area

population 1986

Capitals Mabaruma Anna Regina

(Barima/Waini) (Pomeroon/Supenaam) (Essequibo Islands/West Demerara) Region 4 (Demerara/Mahaica) Region 5 (Mahaica/Berbice) Region 6 (East Berbice/Corentyne) Region 7 (Cuyuni/Mazaruni) Region8 ( (Potaro/Siparuni) Region 9 (Upper Takutu/Upper Essequibo) Region 10 (Upper Demerara/Berbice) TOTAL

Vreed-en-Hoop Paradise Fort Wellington New Amsterdam Bartica Mahdia Lethem Linden

mi

sq km

estimate

7,853 2,392

20,339 6,195

18,516 41,966

1,450 862 1,610 13,998 18,229 7,742

3,755 2,233 4,170 36,255 47,213 20,052

102,760 310,758 55,556 148,967 17,941 5,672

22,313 6,595 83,0442

57,790 17,081 215,0832

15,338 38,598 756,0723

sq

23.6 15.3 7.1 17.3 4.210 3.6

__value

:

50,316 9,669 28,980 7,024 2,850 9,412 15,231 2,944 29,948 29,295 61,00211 246,671

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,665,000,000.

Population economically active (1987): total 270,074; activity rate of total population 35.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.4%; female 29.9%; unemployed [end of 1991] 13.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index Earnings index

66.3 ad

92.7 ae

96.4 re

1990

1991

1992

100.0

102.3

104.9

Land use (1992): forested 83.2%; meadows and pastures 6.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.5%; other 8.1%.

Foreign trade !2 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1994): 733,000. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 9.6, persons per sq km 3.7. Urban-rural (1992-93): urban 31.0%; rural 69.0%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.50%; female 50.50%.

G$’000,000 % of total

Population projection: (2000) 710,000; (2010) 767,000. Doubling time: 54 years5. Ethnic composition (1992-93): East Indian 49.4%; black (African Negro and Bush Negro) 35.6%; mixed 7.1%; Amerindian 6.8%; Portuguese 0.7%; Chinese 0.4%. Religious affiliation (1990): Christian 52.0%, of which Protestant 34.0% (including Anglican 17.0%), Roman Catholic 18.0%; Hindu 34.0%; Muslim 9.0%; other 5.0%. Major cities (1985): Georgetown 195,000; Linden 30,000; New Amsterdam 20,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 20.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 62.0 years; female 68.0 years.

Major. causes of death per 100,000 population (1984): diseases of the circulatory system 202.5, of which cerebrovascular disease 79.0; diseases of the digestive system 74.0; accidents and violence 56.5; diseases of the respiratory system 39.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 37.1.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: G$25,966,000,000 (current revenue 87.3%, of which consumption taxes 25.2%, income taxes on coinpanies 17.0%, import duties 10.3%, personal income taxes 10.2%; development revenue 12.7%, of which external grants 4.9%). Expenditures: G$29,292,000,000 (current

expenditure 74.3%, of which interest payments on debt 33.4%, personal emoluments 12.2%; development expenditure 25.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

raw sugar 246,500, rice 210,200, coconuts 48,000, roots and tubers 32,000, plantains 23,000, bananas 21,000, oranges 15,000; livestock (number of live animals) 160,000 cattle, 130,000 sheep, 79,000 goats; roundwood 237,000 cu

m; fish catch 37,100, of which shrimps and prawns 4,700. Mining and quartying (1993): bauxite 897,300; gold 309,800 troy oz; diamonds 44,700 carats9.

Manufacturing (1993): flour 35,800; rum 252,000 hectolitres; beer and stout cigarettes 302,000,000

units; refrigerators

4,779 units;

pharmaceuticals 11,700,000 tablets; other products include cotton cloth and dyed and printed fabrics. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consump-

tion): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 235,000,000 (235,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (272,000); natural gas, none (none).

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$31,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.1; income

per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1970)7: food, beverages, and tobacco 42.5%, rent and water 21.4%, clothing and footwear

8.6%, education and recreation 6.4%, fuel and light 5.2%, other 15.9%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$268,000,0008

(U.S.$3308 per capita).

1988

1989

Oger 4.4%

ihi se 1, OOn 5.9% 74%

1990

1991

1992

1993

—4,444 6.9%

—7,623 74%

—7,754 TA%

Imports (1993): G$61,376,000,000 (capital goods 35.0%, of which transporta-

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 33.4%; 15-29, 33.2%; 30-44, 18.8%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60-74, 4.6%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

145,000 hectolitres;

11,139 7,203 3,344 8,150 1,97710 1,673 10

% of labour force

labour force

2,645 2,323 3,922 3,996 746 — 47,118

communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 £=G$226.06.

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

% of total

_G$'000,0009

(G$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Administrative Regions

1980

in value

tion 9.7%, agricultural 7.8%; consumer

goods 21.3%; fuels and lubricants

16.7%). Major import sources (1992)13: United States 37.0%; Trinidad and Tobago 13.0%; United Kingdom 11.0%; Italy 8.0%; Japan 4.0%. Exports (1993): G$53,622,000,000 (domestic exports 97.3%, of which sugar 27.6%, gold 23.8%, bauxite 21.5%,

rice 7.7%, shrimps 2.7%, rum

2.2%;

reexports 2.7%). Major export destinations (1992) 13: United Kingdom 33.0%; United States 30.0%; Canada 9.0%; France 5.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1991) 116 mi, 187 km. Roads (1993): total length 4,474 mi, 7,200 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 24,000; trucks and buses 9,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 82; total deadweight tonnage 13,509. Air transport (1993): passengermi 229,000,000, passenger-km

369,000,000;

short ton-mi cargo

metric ton-km cargo 2,800,00014; airports (1994) with scheduled Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total 78,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1993): total receivers 310,000 (1 per 2.4 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 15,000 (1 per 49 persons). Telephones (1990): 16,003 persons).

1,900,00014,

flights 115, circulation number of number of (1 per 46

Education and health Education (1989-90) schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 17, 18

423 93 8 1

teachers

4,01016 a 176

220

students

118,01516 72,096 16 5,388 2,297

student/ teacher ratio

en 30.6 10.4

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 8.1%; primary education 72.8%; secondary 17.3%; higher 1.8%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 490,000 (96.4%); males literate, c. 245,000 (97.5%); females literate, c. 245,000 (95.4%).

Health: physicians (1990) 286 (1 per 2,552 persons); hospital beds (1987) 2,204

(1 per 341 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 49.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,495 (vegetable products 86%,

animal products 14%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,700 (army 82.3%, navy 11.8%, air force 5.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.1% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$4.

‘Includes 12 indirectly elected seats. 2Includes inland water area equaling c.

sq mi (c. 18,000 sq km). 3Official estimate of June 1992 was 733,236. 4Based7,000 on land area only. SNet migration nearly equals natural-increase rate, 61992, 7Weights of consumer price index components for Georgetown, New Amsterdam, and Linden only. 8Excludes considerable illegal and quasi-legal economic activity. 9At factor cost. l0Manufacturing includes Public utilities. 11Represents “not stated.” 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. !3Estimated figures. 141991. 15International only; domestic air service is provided on a charter basis. 161988-89. 17University of Guyana only. 18199293,

Nations of the World

Haiti

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 4.4; average annual income of wage earners (1984): urban (G 1,545 [U.S.$309]), rural (G 629 [U.S.$126]); expenditure (1986-8710; ) food, beverages, and

Official name: Repiblik Dayti (Haitian Creole); République d’Haiti (French) (Republic of Haiti). Form of government: multiparty republic! with two legislative houses (Senate [27]; Chamber of Deputies [83]2). Chief of state: President.

tobacco 51.1%,

household

furnishings 9.2%, clothing and footwear

transportation and communications 7.6%. Gross national product (1992): U.S.$2,479,000,000 (U.S.$370 per capita).

in value G ’000,00011 1,689 6 504 208

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

area4

population

;

a

Gonaives Hinche

Grande Anse Nord Nord-Est

Jérémie Cap-Haitien Fort-Liberté

Nord-Ouest Quest Sud Sud-Est

Port-de-Paix Port-au-Prince Les Cayes Jacmel

4,984 3,675

1,278 813 697 840 1,864 1,079 781

TOTAL

10,695

616,151 724,084 239,734

2,176 4,827

395,442 2,285,044 630,007 444,323

2,794 2,023 27,700

4.0 }

1712 4,601

UE

0.412 100.0

57.3 0.9 5.6 1.0 0.1 0.8 13.2 0.2

2

403,654 13 2,679,140

15.113 100.0

and under permanent cultivation 33.0%; other 47.7%.

961,447 467,514

3,310 2,106 1,805

2,577 20,691 352,970 5,057,

% of labour force

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$625,900,000. Land use (1992): forested 1.3%; meadows and pastures 18.0%; agricultural

1992

ee SeRE estimate

1,924 1,419

labour force 1,535,444 24,012 151,387 28,001

0.9 2.0 16.2 7.4 16.8

182

Other TOTAL

Area and population

% of total value 36.7 0.1 11.0 4.5

40 93 747 341 | 774

Services

Artibonite Centre

1990

1992

centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1U.S.$=G 19.02; 1 £=G 30.25.

Capitals

8.7%,

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port-au-Prince. Official languages: Haitian Creole; French. Official religion: none3. Monetary unit: 1 gourde (G)= 100

Departements

623

Foreign trade 14, 15 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

6,763,7465

1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

—201.4 42.2%

— 162.9 34.8%

—172.4 33.8%

— 156.1 35.9%

= 221 43.9%

=192.0 57.6%

Imports (1992-93): U.S.$262,200,000 (food and live animals 34.3%, mineral

Demography

fuels 24.2%, basic manufactures

11.5%, chemicals

and chemical products

8.7%). Major import sources (1992)16: United States 56.0%; Netherlands

Population (1994): 6,491,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 606.9, persons per sq km 234.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 30.3%; rural 69.7%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 40.2%; 15-29, 27.7%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59,

Exports (1992-93): U.S.$70,200,000 (local manufactures—mostly processed foods, electrical equipment, textiles, and clothing—65.6%, coffee 10.4%,

Population projection: (2000) 7,102,000; (2010) 8,121,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (1985): black 95.0%; mulatto 4.9%; white 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1982): Roman Catholic 80.3%; Protestant 15.8%, of

Transport and communications

9.6%; 60-74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

which Baptist 9.7%, Pentecostal 3.6%; nonreligious 1.2%; other 2.7%.

Major cities (1992): Port-au-Prince

752,600 (metropolitan

area

1,255,078);

Carrefour 241,2237; Delmas 200,2517; Cap-Haitien 92,122; Gonaives 63,291.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 40.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 19.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 21.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 43.0 years; female 47.0 years. b Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1982)8: infectious and parasitic diseases 46.0; diseases of the circulatory system 11.9; diseases associated with malnutrition 8.5; diseases of the respiratory system 8.3; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.0; ill-defined conditions 115.2.

National economy

essential oils 7.8%, wood and sisal handicrafts 6.6%, sisal and twine 2.6%).

Major export destinations (1992)16: United States 75.0%; France 7.0%; Italy 5.0%; Germany 4.0%.

Transport. Railroad (1990)17: route length 25 mi, 40 km. Roads (1990): total length 2,485 mi, 4,000 km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 33,000; trucks and buses 22,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 4; total deadweight tonnage 429. Air transport (1991) 18: passenger arrivals and departures 545,000; cargo unloaded and loaded 21,100 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 4; total circulation 45,000; circulation per 1,000 population 7.2. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 3,000,000 (1 per 2.1 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 255 persons). Telephones (1990): 82,000 (1 per 79 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) } Voc., teacher tr.

7,306 19

Higher20

Budget (1992). Revenue:

G 1,106,200,000 (excises 17.0%; general sales taxes

16.7%; import duties 15.4%; income taxes 14.6%). Expenditures: G 700,000 (current expenditures 97.1%, of which extrabudgetary 40.5%; opment expenditure 2.9%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$46,000,000; expenditures tionals abroad (1991-92) U.S.$21,000,000. , Production (mettic tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing sugarcane 2,250,000, plantains 270,000, mangoes

(1993):

neroli, and vetiver) 227; cigarettes 953,000,000 units; beer 4,300,000 units;

articles assembled for reexport (export value in U,S.$°000,000) 104.4, of which garments 76.3, sports equipment and toys 9.9, electronic components 8.1, luggage and handbags 2.7. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992-93) 412,700,000 (227,700,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (223,000); natural gas, none (none). 14 . - Population economically active (1990): total 2,679,140; activity rate of total population 41.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 64.8%; female 40.0%; unemployed [1993] unofficially 70.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1989

1990

1991

95.2 100.0

101.8 108.4

123.7 as

142.8 ate

1992 162.3, zs

787,553

10,174

193,624

19:0

554

6,678

12.1

28.5

Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 2,096,900 (53.0%); males literate 1,128,000 (59.1%); females literate 968,000 (47.4%). Health (1992): physicians 623 (1 per 10,060 persons); hospital beds 5,192 (1 per 1,207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 109.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,005 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 89% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

(1992) 5,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 220,000; marble 500 cu m. Manufacturing (1992-93): cement 84,000; essential oils (mostly amyris,

1988

27,607

by na-

dry beans 50,000, coffee 34,000, oranges 26,000, lemons and limes 22,000, sisal 8,000, cacao 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 910,000 goats, 800,000 cattle, 200,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 6,051,000 cu m; fish catch

91:5 100.0

students

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 59.5%; primary education 27.6%; secondary 8.6%; vocational and teacher training 0.7%; higher 0.7%; unknown 2.9%.

230,000, bananas 230,000,

1987

student/ teacher ratio

teachers

1,835,devel-

corn (maize) 200,000, sweet potatoes 190,000, rice 105,000, sorghum 80,000,

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

Antilles 7.0%; Malaysia 6.0%; France 4.0%; United Kingdom 3.0%.

1993 207.29 nis

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 7,300 (army 95.8%, navy 2.1%, air force 2.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.0% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$8.

1UN-brokered agreement of July 1993 to end military rule (begun September 1991) was not put into effect until October 1994. 2New legislative elections planned for March 1995. 3Roman Catholicism has special recognition. 4Estimated. 5Official population projection based on 1982 census. About 80% of all Roman Catholics also practice voodoo. 7Within Port-au-Prince metropolitan area. 8Public health facilities only. July. !0Based on nationwide sample survey of 3,120 households. !!At prices of 1976. 12Import duties. 13Includes 63,975 not adequately defined and 339,679 officially unemployed. 14The import and export value of preassembled and assembled U.S.made components is excluded. Virtually all components used in the export assembly plants are imported. !Import figures c.i.f., export figures f.0.b. for fiscal year ending March 31. 1¢Estimated figures. !7The only railway is privately owned and used intermittently to haul sugarcane. !8Port-au-Prince Airport only. 191990-91. 20Port-auPrince universities only.

624

Britannica World Data Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$3,142,000,000

Honduras

(U.S.$580 per capita).

Official name: Republica de Honduras (Republic of Honduras). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Congress [128]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Tegucigalpa!. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Honduran lempira (L) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7,

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

1994) 1 U.S.$=L 8.91; 1 £=L 14.17. Area and population

at area

Departments Atlantida

sq mi

Administrative centres

La Ceiba Choluteca Trujillo Comayagua

Choluteca

Colén Comayagua

Copan Cortés El Paraiso Francisco Morazan Gracias a Dios

Intibuca Islas de la Bahia La Paz Lempira Ocotepeque Olancho

Santa Rosa de Copan San Pedro Sula

Yuscaran

Tegucigalpa Puerto Lempira La Esperanza

Roatan

Valle Yoro

1,641 1,626 3,427 2,006 1,237 1,527 2,787 3,068 6,421

4,251 4,211 8,875 5,196 3,203 3,954 7,218 7,946 16,630

1,186

3,072

900 1,656 649 9,402 1,975 604 3,065 43,277

2,331 4,290 1,680 24,351 5,115 1,565 7,939 112,088

Nueva Ocotepeque Juticalpa Santa Barbara Nacaome Yoro

TOTAL

79,900; El Progreso 73,600; Choluteca 66,200.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.8 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29.4 (wotld avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.9. Marriage rate per 13000 population (1983): 4.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1983): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 64.8 years; female 69:2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1983): diseases of the circulatory system 48.4; infectious and parasitic diseases 46.6; accidents and

violence 42.2; diseases of the respiratory system 26.3.

National economy 97.3%, of which

taxes on production and consumption 20.7%, incoitie taxes 15.3%, import duties 14.3%; capital revenue 2.7%). Expenditures: L 6,440,800,000 (current expenditure 69.0%; capital expenditure 15.9%; public-debt service 15.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,192,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): plantains

182,000, coffee 135,000, palm oil 78,000, sorghum 69,000, dry bears 46,000,

rice 41,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,351,000 cattle, 750,000 pigs;

roundwood (1991) 6,288,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 20,989. Mining and quarrying (1991): zinc concentrate 38,280; lead (metal content) 8,719. Man-

ufacturing (1992): cement 760,000; raw sugar 395,000; wheat flour 209,000; beer 5,778,000 hectolitres; milk 594,000 hectolitres; cigarettes 2,145,000,000

units. Construction

(value of private construction

in L 000,000;

1992)3;

residential 151.4; nonresidential 126.3. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr, 1991) 1,105,000,000 (1,273,000,000); coal, none (none);

crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (1,966,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 244,000 (512,000); natural gas, none (none). per household:

n.a.; sources of income

(1985): wages and salaries

58.8%, transfer payments 1.8%, other 39.4%; expenditure (1986): food 44.4%, utilities and housing 22.4%, clothing and footwear 9.0%, household

furnishings 8.3%, 3.0%, other 5.9%.

health

care

7.0%,

transportation

and

244.3

122.8 100.0

:

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

+5.4 0.1%

—29.8 0.8%

+11.9 0.7%

— 129.3 7.5%

—99.0 2.8%

—47.3 1.3%

Exports (1992): U.S.$806,000,000 (bananas 35.5%, coffee 18.3%, shrimp and lobsters 12.0%, lead and zinc 5.4%, frozen meats 4.4%). Major export destinations: United States 53.9%; Germany 11.3%; Belgium 8.3%; United

Kingdom 4.7%; Italy 3.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989): length (1993) 488 mi, 785 km; passenger-km 7,700,000; metric ton-km cargo 30,200,000. Roads (1992): total length 8,825 mi, 14,203 km (paved 17%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 65,430; trucks and buses 101,986. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 966; total deadweight tonnage 1,437,321. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 321,000,000, passenger-km 516,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,000,000, metric

ton-km cargo 3,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 8: Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5; total circulation 199,000; circulation per 1,000 population 39. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,800,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 160,000 (1 per 32 persons). Telephones (1992): 104,559 (1 per 48 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

8,074 590 57 5

26,420 9,708 5817 2,512

959,466 144,456 76,388 36,870

teachér ratio

36.3 14.9 13.77 14.7

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 33.4%; primary education 50.1%; secondary education 13.4%; higher 3.1%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 2,082,000

(73.1%);

males literate

1,078,000 (75.5%);

females

literate 1,004,000 (70.6%). Health: physicians (1990) 2,900 (1 per 1;586 persons); hospital beds (1992) soon (1 per 900 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births C1993 Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,210 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 98% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 16,800 (army 83.3%, navy 6.0%, air force 10.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.7% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$10.

=

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 5.4; income

1993

220.6 151.1

111.8 100.0

8.8%; Guatemala 4.3%; Japan 3.8%; El Salvador 2.8%.

Major cities (1992): Tegucigalpa 703,5002; San Pedro Sula 339,600; La Ceiba

582,000,

1992

202.8 132.9

106.9 100.0

Imports (1992): U.S.$1,028,500,000 (machinery and transport equipment 21.8%, chemical products 16.9%, mineral fuels 16.5%, paper products 8.4%, plastics and resins 7.8%). Major import sources: United States 52.1%; Mexico

damentalist, Moravian, and Methodist) 10.0%; other 5.0%.

(maize)

1991

151.4 100.0

L ‘000,000 % of total

Population projection: (2000) 6,251,000; (2010) 7,890,000. Doubling time: 24 years. ; Ethnic composition (1987): mestizo 89.9%; Amerindian 6.7%; black (including Black Carib) 2.1%; white 1.3%. Religious affiliation (1986): Roman Catholic 85.0%; Protestant (mostly fun-

corn

1990

Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

Foreign trade

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.6%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 7.8%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over; 1.0%.

1,086,000,

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

tionals abroad U.S.$37,000,000.

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.07%; female 49.93%.

bananas

330,900 1,586,400

and under permanent cultivation 16.5%; other 32.1%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 122.5, persons per sq km 47.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 41.7%; rural 58.3%.

3,004,000,

44,600 165,100 29,900

954 1,755 2,278 GC 1,612 15,863

Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$31,000,000; expenditures by na-

Demography

sugarcane

302 2,724 1,042 528

Land use (1991): forested 28.4%; meadows and pastures 23.0%; agricultural

Population (1994): 5,302,000.

Budget (1992). Revenue: L 5,621,400,000 (current revenue

3,491

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services TOTAL

% of labour force

population 31.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 58.3%; female 31.7%; unemployed [1990] 40.0%).

255,000 309,000 164,000 257,000 226,000 706,000 277,000 878,000 37,000 130,000 24,000 112,000 180,000 77,000 309,000 291,000 121,000 355,000 4,708,000

261

Agriculture

labour force 718,100 4,100 187,100 95,400 11,200

Population economically active (1992): total 1,586,400; activity rate of total

* population 1991 estimate

sq km

100

La Paz Gracias

Santa Barbara

% of total value

in value

communications

Tegucigalpa and adjacent city of Comayagiiela jointly form the capital according to the constitution. 2Population cited is for Central District (Tegucigalpa and Comayagiiela). >Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, and 10 other urban centres. 4At factor cost. *Official minimum wages in all sectors. Minimum wages were fixed from June 1981 to Jan. 1, 1990, when new minimum wages were introduced. 6Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 71989.

Nations of the World

Hong Kong

residential 714,000 sq m; nonresidential 1,578,000 sq m. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 31,807,000,000 (28,746,000,000); coal

Official name: Hsiang Kang (Chinese); Hong Kong (English). Political status: Crown Colony (United Kingdom)! with one legislative house (Legislative Council [602]). Chief of state: British Monarch. Head of government: Governor. Capital: none3. Official languages: Chinese; English. Official religion: none.

(metric tons; 1991) none (9,635,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (2,784,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) none (385,800,000).

Population economically active (1992): total 2,793,000; activity rate of total population 48.1% (participation rates: over age 15, 62.3%; female 46.2%; unemployed 2.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Daily earnings index 10

Monetary unit: 1 Hong Kong dollar (HK$) = 100 cents; valuation

1 £=HK$12.29.

Area and population

area4

Area

_sq km_

Hong Kong Island

79.9

Kowloon and New Kowloon New Territories Marine

42.7 953.1

TOTAL

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

108.6 115.8

116.6 125.1

128.4 139.8

140.8 157.0

157.3 173.3

171.9 190.6

186.5 209.1

Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size 3.4; monthly income per household HK$9,964 (U.S.$1,282); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1989-90): food 34.2%, housing 25.6%, transportation and vehicles 7.6%, clothing and footwear 7.5%, durable goods 3.8%.

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =HK$7.73:

1,075.7

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$6,886,000,000; nationals abroad, n.a.

population 1991 census

expenditures

by

Land use (1993): forested 20.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 6.0%; fishponds 1.5%; built-on, scrublands, and other 72.1%.

1,214,253 1,975,265 2,321,661 11,102 5,609,9515

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 HK$’000,000 % of total

Demography

Sled 0.6%

+7,728 0.7%

— 2,656 0.2%

1991

1992

1993

—13,096 0.1%

-—30,342 1.6%

-26,347 1.2%

Population (1994): 5,979,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 14,396.0, persons per sq km 5,557.9. Urban-rural (1993): urban 100.0%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.95%; female 49.05%.

Imports (1993): HK$1,072,597,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 35.2%, of which electrical machinery 10.8%, telecommunications equipment

Population projection: (2000) 6,350,000; (2010) 7,020,000. Doubling time: 87 years. Linguistic composition (1991)7: Chinese 96.8%, of which Cantonese 88.7%; English 2.2%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1993): predominantly Buddhist and Taoist; however,

pore 4.5%; Germany 2.3%; United Kingdom 2.0%. Exports (1993): HK$223,027,000,00011 (clothing accessories and apparel 32.2%; electrical machinery 10.2%; office and automatic data-processing machines

Age breakdown (1993)6: under 15, 20.0%; 15-29, 24.2%; 30-44, 28.7%; 45-59, 13.9%; 60-74, 10.0%; 75 and over, 3.2%. “

there are about 258,000 Protestants, 249,000 Roman Catholics, 50,000 Muslims, and 12,000 Hindus.

Major cities: no bounded localities exist within Hong Kong.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate (1985) 94.5%; illegitimate 5.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 1.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.0. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 75.1 years; female 80.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 157.2; diseases of the circulatory system 141.5; diseases of the re-

spiratory system 93.9; accidents and poisoning 29.2; diseases of the digestive system 22.6; diseases of the genitourinary system 18.0.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: HK$164,412,000,000 (earnings and profit taxes 39.4%; 17.7%,

indirect taxes 28.0%, of which entertainment and stamp duties duties 4.3%; capital revenue 16.0%). Expenditures: HK$158,499,-

000,000 (education 15.87%; transportation and public works 14.9%; general services support 14.0%; health 11.7%; law and order 11.0%; housing 10.6%; social welfare 6.3%; culture and recreation 4.9%). Public debt: n.a. Gross domestic product _ current market prices; 1992): U.S.$89,274,000,000

(U.S.$15,380 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992 in value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, insurance, and real estate Pub. admin., defense, and services Other

TOTAL

:

HK$'000,000 1,468 236 93,041 36,467 15,639 67,599 187,241 191,276

110,729 48,7778 752,473

% of total value

labour

force 19,000 400 666,600 237,800 20,100 299,600 762,600

% of labour force

234,900 546,100 5,900 2,793,000

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): “te

625

vegetables 91,000, fruits and nuts 4,150, field crops 670, milk 520, eggs 47,800,000 units; livestock (number of live animals) 169,000 pigs?, 410 cattle,

10,718,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 193,000 cu m; fish catch 223,690. Mining and quarrying (1990): clay and kaolin 16,587; feldspar 3,820. Manufacturing (value added in HK$; 1991): wearing apparel 18,424,000,000;

textiles 14,009,000,000; electrical and electronic products 11,464,000,000; publishing and printed material 7,049,000,000; basic metals and fabricated metal

products 5,922,000,000; plastic products 5,238,000,000. Construction (1992):

8.7%; textile yarn and fabrics 9.2%; apparel and accessories 8.5%; chemicals

and related products 6.2%; photographic apparatus, watches, and clocks 4.5%; food and live animals 4.0%). Major import sources: China 37.5%;

Japan 16.6%; Taiwan 8.8%; United States 7.4%; South Korea 4.5%; Singa-

7.7%; watches

and clocks 7.2%; textile fabrics 7.2%; telecommunications

equipment 5.9%; metal products 2.7%; articles of artificial resins and plastics 2.1%; paper and paper products 1.3%). Major export destinations: China 28.4%; United States 27.0%; Germany 6.3%; Singapore 5.1%; United Kingdom 4.8%; Japan 4.3%; Taiwan 2.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 21 mi, 34 km; passenger-mi 1,939,000,000, passenger-km 3,120,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 41,000,000, metric

ton-km cargo 60,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 1,010 mi, 1,625 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 291,913; trucks and buses 159,891. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 387; total deadweight tonnage 11,688,605. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals 9,339,000, passenger departures 9,492,000; airports (1994) with scheduled

flights 1. oe Daily newspapers (1993): total number 77; total circulation 2,951,00012; circulation per 1,000 population 49812. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 3,000,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 1,749,000 (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 3,600,000 (1 per 1.6 persons). Education and health Education (1993-94) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational Higher

schools

teachers 13

students

633 489 9 12

19,346 20,360 2,488 14 1,42214

485,061 472,200 53,604 70,426

student/ teacher ratio 13 26.7 22.5 18.514 32.414

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 12.8%; primary education 25.2%; secondary 45.8%; matriculation 4.9%; nondegree higher 5.4%; higher degree 5.9%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 3,668,000 (88.1%); males literate 2,040,000 (94.7%); females literate 1,628,000 (80.9%).

Health (1993): physicians 7,62515 (1 per 776 persons); hospital beds 27,389 (1 per 216 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,860 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 6,50016 (army 87.7%, navy 7.7%, air force 4.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1984): 0.6% (world 5.9%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$39.

!On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong will revert to China as a Special Administrative Region in which the existing socioeconomic system would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years.

2Includes

21 nonelective

seats.

3Victoria,

for some time, had

been

regarded as the capital because it is the seat of the British administration of the Crown Colony. 4Excludes the surface areas of reservoirs. *Includes 35,823 transients and 51,847 Vietnamese migrants not enumerated by area. ®Excludes transients and Vietnamese refugees. 7Excludes about 59,900 Vietnamese refugees, about 1% of the

population. *Indirect taxes less subsidies. toirs. 10September. 11Excludes reexports newspapers only. 131991—-92. 141987-88. ent and working in the country. !6British

Excludes local pigs not slaughtered in abatvalued at HK$823,224,000,000. !2Thirty-two |5Registered personnel; all may not be presforces with a few locally enlisted personnel.

626

Britannica World Data

Hungary

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

4992

Official name: Magyar K6ztarsasag (Republic of Hungary). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [3941]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Budapest. Official language: Hungarian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 forint (Ft) = 100 filler; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Ft 107.76; 1 £=Ft 171.39.

in value Ft '000,000

TOTAL

Bacs-Kiskun Baranya

Beékés Borsod-Abatjj-Zemplén Csongrad Fejér Gy6r-Moson-Sopron Hajdi-Bihar Heves

Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok Komarom-Esztergom

Miskolc Szeged

Székesfehérvar Gyér Debrecen Eger Szolnok

Nograd

Tatabanya Salgotarjan

Pest Somogy

Budapest3 Kaposvar

sq mi

3,229 1,732 2,175 2,798 1,646 1,688 1,549 2,398 1,404 2,165

869 982

Vas

Szombathely

Veszprém

Zala

Zalaegerszeg

1,461

Veszprém

Nyiregyhaza Szekszard

population 19932 sq km

588,900 1,286,2006 272,800

Wee 27.76 5.9.

6

6

372,900

8.0

564,200

12.1

1,156,800 406,1008 4,647,900

24.9 8.78 100.0

8,362 4,487 5,632 7,247 4,263 4,373 4,012 6,211 3,637 5,607

2,251 2,544

6,394 6,036 5,938 3,704 3,337 4,689 3,784

203 35,920

525 93,033

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

estimate

541,000 417,000 404,000 749,000 438,000 422,000 427,000 550,000 330,000 421,000 313,000 223,000 958,000 340,000 564,000 251,000 274,000 378,000 303,000

Capital City Budapest3 TOTAL

% of labour force2

population 44.3% (participation rates: working age 89.1%; female 47.4%; unemployed 10.9%). ;

2,469 2,331 2,293 1,430 1,288 1,810

Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg Tolna

7.4 23.3 5.3 4.3 73 15.9 8.6 15.3 12.67 100.0

labour force2

Population economically active (19942): total 4,552,200; activity rate of total

area Capitals Kecskemét Pécs Bekéscsaba

207,900 653,300 149,300 121,700 205,200 444,700 239,700 ° 429,300 354,0007 2,805,100

Agriculture i Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Services Other

Area and population Counties

% of total value

2,009,000 10,312,0004

196719881969

1990

1991

1992

1993

57.4 51.9

100 100

135.1 133.4

166.1 165.8

203.4 201.6

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

66.3 66.7

77.6 78.6

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.8; income per household (1990) Ft 376,195 (U.S.$5,900); sources of income (1992): wages 46.1%, social income 22.4%, self-employment 11.9%; expenditure (1991): food and beverages 38.1%, transportation and communications 15.1%, household durable goods 8.7%, clothing 7.4%, culture and recreation 5.9%, housing 5.7%.

;

Land use (1993): forested 18.9%; meadows and pastures 15.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 50.7%; other 15.2%.

Foreign trade? Balance of trade (current prices) Ft '000,000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+314 3.3%

+478 44%

+58.7 5.1%

—91.4 5.6%

—34.9 2.0%

—342.6 17.3%

Imports (1993): Ft 1,162,500,000,000

Demography Population (1994): 10,257,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 285.6, persons per sq km 110.3. Urban-rural (1993): urban 63.2%; rural 36.8%. Sex distribution (1993): male 47.95%; female 52.05%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 19.0%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30-44, 22.2%; 45-59,

18.0%; 60-74, 14.3%; 75 and over, 5.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,170,000; (2010) 9,951,000. The population has declined at an average annual rate of 0.3% since 1980. Ethnic composition (nationality; 1990): Magyar 97.8%; Gypsy 1.4%; German 0.3%; Croatian 0.1%; Romanian 0.1%; Slovak 0.1%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Christian 92.9%, of which Roman Catholic 67.8%, Protestant 25.1%; atheist and nonreligious 4.8%; other 2.3%. Major cities (19932): Budapest 2,008,546; Debrecen 217,287; Miskolc 191,005;

Szeged 178,501; Pécs 171,562.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.3 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 81.5%; illegitimate 18.5%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): —3.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 64.6 years; female 73.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 738.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 316.5; accidents and selfinflicted injuries 126.8.

Budget (1993). Revenue: Ft 939,662,000,000 (value-added tax 28.4%, income tax 22.4%, payments by enterprises 22.1%, excise duties 15.8%). Expenditures: Ft 1,139,329,000,000 (social security 21.6%, health 15.9%, education

15.7%, defense 11.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): corn (maize) 4,301,000, wheat 3,444,000, sugar beets 2,974,000, barley 1,723,000, potatoes 925,000, apples 819,000, sunflower seeds 757,000, grapes

607,000, rye 136,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 5,001,000 pigs, 1,252,000 sheep, 999,000 cattle; roundwood (1993) 3,489,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 29,378. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 3,703,000; bauxite 1,721,000; manganese ore 18,000. Manufacturing (1993): cement 2,533,000; rolled steel 1,835,000; crude steel 1,752,000; pig iron 1,407,000; alumina 548,000; fertilizers 201,630; cotton fabrics 91,942,000 sq m; leather footwear 11,963,000 pairs; buses 3,211 units. Construction (in Ft ’000,000; 1992):

residential 6,6625; nonresidential 51,837. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 31,396,000,000 (35,050,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 15,943,000 (17,539,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 12,316,000 (49,465,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 6,711,000 (7,169,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 5,057,000,000 (9,870,000,000).

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,260,800,000; nationals abroad U.S.$673,200,000.

expenditures by

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$19,152,000,000.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$30,894,000,000 (U.S.$3,000 per capita).

industrial goods 33.4%,

export destinations: Germany 26.6%; former U.S.S.R. 15.3%; Austria 10.1%;

Italy 8.0%; U.S. 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 8,200 mi, 13,200 km; passenger-mi 5,706,000,000, passenger-km 9,183,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 6,860,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 10,015,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 18,610 mi, 29,950

km (paved 99%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 2,058,334; trucks and buses 229,191. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 15; total deadweight tonnage 93,204. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 923,978, passenger-km

1,487,000; short ton-mi cargo 6,986,000, metric ton-

km cargo 10,200,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 29; total circulation 2,759,300; circulation per 1,000 population 266. Radio (1992): 6,000,000

ad

per 1.7 persons). Television (1992): 4,261,600 (1 per 2.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 2,052,210 (1 per 5.0 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Vocational

National economy

(intermediate

machinery and transport equipment 26.9%, industrial consumer goods 21.2%, fuels and electrical energy 12.6%, food and live animals 5.9%). Major import sources: former U.S.S.R. 22.2%; Germany 21.6%; Austria 11.6%; Italy 6.0%; Czech and Slovak republics 4.0%. Exports (1993): Ft 819,900,000,000 (intermediate industrial goods 36.4%, industrial consumer goods 25.2%, food and live animals 21.4%, machinery and transport equipment 13.9%, fuels and electrical energy 3.4%). Major

Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

3,959 876 343

96,223 26,335 6,624 17,743

1,092,563 335,153 212,932 119,828

11.4 12.7 32.2 6.8

91

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 1.2%; primary education 78.1%; secondary 29.2%; higher 10.1%. Literacy (1984): total population age 15 and over literate 8,269,850 (98.9%); males literate 3,934,250 (99.2%); females literate

4,335,600 (98.6%).

Health (1992): physicians 40,869 (1 per 252 persons); hospital beds 101,809 dd per 101 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 14.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,608 (vegetable products 63%; animal products 37%); 137% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 80,800 (army 78.6%, air force 21.4%), Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 6.3% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$391. Includes 8 nonelective seats. 2January 1. 3Budapest has separate county status. The area and population of the city are excluded from the larger county (Pest), which it administers. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Includes hotel construction. Mining and manufacturing includes Public utilities. 7Taxes on products. SUnemployed. °Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners.

Nations of the World

Iceland

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$6,178,000,000

(U.S.$23,670 per capita).

Official name: Lydhveldidh fsland

(Republic of Iceland). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Althing [63]!). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Reykjavik. Official language: Icelandic. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: 1 kréna (ISK) = 100

Structure of gross national product and labour force ISK '000,0008

Agriculture Fishing

Fish processing Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

Transportation and communications

population 19932 estimate

Administrative

sq mi

centres

Austurland

Egilsstadhir Reykjavik Akureyri Saudharkrokur Selfoss

Hofudhborgarsveedhi Nordhurland eystra Nordhurland vestra Sudhurland Sudhurnes Vestfirdhir Vesturland TOTAL

sq km

8,636 5,055

21,991 1,9823 22,368 13,093

9,735

25,214

8,491 7653

Keflavik

3

lsafjordhur Borgarnes

13,023 154,268 26,751 10,442 20,778 15,551 9,606 14,503 264,922

3

3,657

9,470

3,360 39,699

8,701 102,819

Other TOTAL

labour

value

% of labour

force?

force

2.8

33,900

6,700

9.2

45

7,400

5.0

18,400 46,500 31,000

5.0 12.6 8.4

15,900

8,800 14,000 9,000

4.3

5.9 9.4 6.1

1,400

0.9

7.9

50,600

9,800

13.7

6.6

62,400 60,200

25,700

16.9 16.3

17.3

13,000 8,200

8.7 5:5

22,900

6.2

— 12,200 10 369,100 12

—3.310 100.0

37,000 7,70011 148,700

24.9 5.211 100.0

Finance, real estate Public administration Health, education, other services area

% of total

10,300

29,200

Trade

Area and population Regions

1993

1991

in value

aurar; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=ISK 67.83; 1 £=ISK 107.89.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 13 3.6; an-

nual income per household (1990) 13 ISK 2,605,563 (U.S.$44,712); sources of

income (1992): wages and salaries 72.5%, pensions 9.4%, self-employment 3.0%, other 15.1%; expenditure (1990): food 19.7%, transportation 17.5%, housing 11.2%, household furnishings 7.6%, recreation 7.4%, expenditures

in restaurants and hotels and on package tours 6.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1994): 267,000. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 29.1, persons per sq km 11.2. Urban-rural (1993): urban 91.4%; rural 8.6%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.16%; female 49.84%.

ISK 000,000 % of total

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 23.7%; 30-44, 22.7%; 45-59, 13.9%; 60-74, 10.2%; 75 and over, 4.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 278,000; (2010) 294,000. Doubling time: 63 years. Ethnic composition (1993)5: Icelandic 96.1%; Danish 0.8%; Swedish 0.5%; persons born in the United States 0.5%; German 0.3%; other 1.8%.

Religious affiliation (1993): Protestant 96.3%, of which Evangelical Lutheran 92.0%,

627

other Lutheran

3.2%; Roman

Catholic 0.9%; nonreligious

1.4%;

other 1.4%. Major cities (1993): Reykjavik 101,855 (urban area 154,268); Képavogur 17,1766; Hafnarfj6rdhur 16,7876; Akureyri 14,799; Keflavik 7,581.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 17.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 42.7%; illegitimate 57.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.6 (world avg, 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.0. Life expectancy at birth (1991-92): male 75.7 years; female 80.9 years. : Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 290.4, of which ischemic heart diseases 177.0, cerebrovascular disease 56.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 164.4; diseases of the respira-

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

—576 0.5%

+6943 4.5%

+4540 2.5%

—-—3,253 1.7%

—392 0.2%

+ 12,082 6.8%

Imports (1993): ISK 82,576,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 12.1%; transport equipment 9.0%; food products 9.0%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 8.9%; electrical machinery and apparatus 8.9%). Major import sources 14: Norway 12.4%; Germany 11.9%; Denmark 9.4%; United States 9.3%; United Kingdom 9.0%; Sweden 6.8%; The Netherlands 6.0%.

Exports (1993): ISK 94,658,000,000 (marine products 78.9%, of which frozen cod fillets 16.9%, frozen shrimp 9.0%, uncured salted fish 7.7%, fresh whole

fish chilled or on ice 6.6%; aluminum 8.7%; ferrosilicon 2.5 %). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 21.6%; United States 15.9%; Germany 11.1%; Japan 9.3%; France 8.2%; Denmark 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993): total length 7,067 mi, 11,373 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 116,195; trucks and buses 15,644. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 394; total deadweight tonnage 114,851. Air transport (1993)15: passenger-mi 1,273,000,000, passenger-km: 2,049,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 24,948,000, metric ton-km cargo 36,424,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 24.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): 132,700; circulation per 1,000 population of receivers 155,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). of receivers 76,250 (1 per 3.5 persons). per 1.9 persons).

total number 6; total circulation 514. Radio (1993): total number Television (1993): total number Telephones (1992): 140,03116 (4

Education and health

tory system 91.2. Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: ISK 103,220,000,000 (sales tax 39.2%, income tax 19.3%, import duties 8.8%, taxes on alcohol and tobacco 6.0%). Expenditures: ISK 112,863,000,000 (health and welfare 47.0%, education general services 10.1%, communications 8.3%, agriculture 6.9%).

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-20) Higher

15.1%,

Public debt (external, outstanding; September 1993): U.S.$2,209,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): potatoes 3,900, dried hay 1,788,000 cu m, silage 1,069,000 cu m; livestock (number of live animals) 488,800 sheep, 76,700 horses, 73,900 cattle; fish catch (value in ISK ’000,000; 1992) cod 18,474, redfish 6,391, shrimp 4,728,

haddock 3,982. Mining and quarrying (1992): diatomite 20,000. Manufacturing (value added in ISK ’000,000; 1990): food, beverages, and tobacco products 17,996; fabricated metal products 4,927; printing and publishing 4,904; nonmetallic mineral products 2,424; wood furniture 2,416. Construc-

tion (completed): residential (1992) 568,000 cu m; nonresidential (1991) 729,000 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993)

teachers

students — teacher ratio

25,809 29,985 6,161

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1989) 715 (1 per 355 persons); hospital beds (1990) 3,20417 (1 per 80 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 4.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,473 (vegetable products 60%, animal products 40%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 130 coast guard personnel; NATOsponsored U.S.-manned Iceland Defense Force (1993): 3,000 (navy 60.0%, air force 40.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): none (world average 4.2%).

4,726,000,000 ([1992] 4,540,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) none (60,000);

crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (493,000); natural gas, none (none). i Land use (1991): forested 1.2%; meadows and pastures 22.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.1%; other 76.0%. ve Population economically active (November 1993): total 148,900; activity rate of total population 56.2% (participation rates: ages 16-74, 81.6%; female 45.9%; unemployed [May 1993—April 1994] 4.97%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) ice i Consumer price index Hourly nae index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

19947

71.3 81.9

87.2 92:9)

100.0 100.0

105.6 108.4

111.3 111.9

115.9Y 113.6

117.3 114.5

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$132,300,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$265,000,000.

‘Meets as single chamber since dissolution of the Upper House in May 1991. 2December 1. HOfudhborgarsveedhi includes Sudhurnes. 4Population density calculated with reference to 9,191 sq mi (23,805 sq km) area free of glaciers, lava fields, and lakes. *By country of birth. (Within Reykjavik urban area. 7May. 8Data estimated from percentage distribution of sectors. 9April. 19Net of imputed bank service charges and income not classified elsewhere. !'Unemployed. 12GDP (1991) equals ISK 384,100,000,000. 13Based on sample survey. !4Import sources based on a c.i.f. total of ISK 91,307,000,000. !5Icelandair only. 16Number of subscribers. !7Excludes nursing

wards in old-age homes.

628

Britannica World Data

8.2%, Shit 2.8%; Christian 2.4%, of which Roman Catholic 1.4%, other (mostly Protestant) 1.0%; Sikh 2.0%; Buddhist 0.7%; Jain 0.5%; Zoroastrian ; 0.01%; other 3.1%.

Official name: Bharat (Hindi); Republic of India (English).

Households (1981)12. Total households 119,230,710. Average household size 5.6; 1 person 5.6%, 2 persons 8.3%, 3 persons 11.0%, 4 persons 14.6%, 5 persons 15.9%, 6 or more persons 44.6%. Average number of rooms

Form of government: multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses

(Council of States [245]!, House of the People [545]2). Chief of state: President.

per household 2.0; no exclusive room 0.6%, 1 room 44.7%, 2 rooms 28.6%, 3 rooms 12.2%, 4 rooms 6.3%, 5 rooms 2.7%, 6 or more rooms

Bihar

Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim

Madras

Tripura

Agartala Lucknow Calcutta

Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Lakshadweep Pondicherry TOTAL

Port Blair Chandigarh Silvassa Daman Delhi Kavaratti

Pondicherry

sq mi

sq km

population 1991 census

106,204 32,333 30,285 67,134 1,429 75,685 17,070 21,495 38,830 74,051 15,005 171,215 118,800 8,621 8,660 8,140 6,401 60,119 19,445 132,140 2,740 50,216 4,049 113,673 34,267

275,068 83,743 78,438 173,877 3,702 196,024 44,212 55,673 100,569 191,791 38,863 443,446 307,690 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 155,707 50,362 342,239 7,096 130,058 10,486 294,411 88,752

66,508,008 864,558 22,414,322 86,374,465 1,169,793 41,309,582 16,463,648 5,170,877 7,718,7003 44,977,201 29,098,518 66,181,170 78,937,187 1,837,149 1,774,778 689,756 1,209,546 31,659,736 20,281,969 44,005,990 406,457 55,858,946 2,757,205 139,112,287 68,077,965

3,185 44 190 43 572

8,249 114 491

280,661 642,015 138,477 101,586 9,420,644

112 1,483

12

32

51,707

190

492

807,785

3,165,5964

846,302,688

1,222,2434

Demography

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 29.3 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 9.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 19.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.9. Marital status of male (female) population age 25 and over (1981): single 6.4% (1.1%); married 87.4% (79.4%); widowed 5.7% (18.8%); divorced or separated 0.5% (0.7%). Life expectancy at birth (1992-93): male 60.4 years; female 61.2 years. Major causes of death (rural areas only; 1991) 12: senility 23.7% 13; infectious and parasitic diseases 17.1%; diseases of the respiratory system 13.4%; causes peculiar to infancy 10.2%, of which prematurity 4.9%; diseases of the circulatory system 8.1%; accidents and injuries 6.7%; diseases of the digestive system 4.9%; diseases of the nervous system 4.4%; cancers 3.1%; anemias 3.0%; suicide 1.4%; diabetes 0.7%.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1981)14. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 64.8%; no formal schooling (literate) 1.0%; some primary education 7.1%; completed primary 10.9%; some secondary 6.2%; completed secondary 7.1%; higher vocational 0.4%; completed undergraduate degree 2.5%. Distribution of expenditure (1989-90) percentage of household expenditure by quintile 1 2 3 4 5 (highest) 8.8%

12.5%

16.2%

21.3%

41.2%

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1989): 42 hours. Rate of fatal (nonfatal) injuries per 100,000 workers: industrial workers (1989) 17 (3,625); miners (1990) 32 (172); railway workers (1989) 15 (1,059). Employees covered under Employee’s State Insurance Scheme

Population (1994): 913,747,000. Density (1993)4: persons per sq mi 747.0, persons per sq km 288.4. Urban-rural (1991): urban 25.7%; rural 74.3%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.90%; female 48.10%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 36.0%; 15-29, 27.7%; 30-44, 18.0%; 45-59, 11.2%; 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 1,018,673,000; (2010) 1,189,396,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Linguistic composition (1981)5: Hindi (lingua franca) 45.00%; Hindi (including associated languages and dialects) 38.77%; Telugu 7.96%; Bengali 7.56%; Marathi 7.28%; Tamil 6.56%; Urdii 5.18%; Gujarati 4.87%; Kannada 3.95%; Malayalam 3.81%; Oriya 3.36%; Punjabi 2.73%; English (lingua franca) 2.50%; Assamese 1.64% 6; Bhili/Bhilodi 0.65%; Santhali 0.62%; Kashmiri 0.47%; Gondi 0.29%; Sindhi 0.29%; Konkani 0.23%; Dogri 0.22%; Tulu 0.20%; Kurukh 0.19%; Nepali 0.18%; Khandeshi 0.17%; Manipuri 0.13%; other 2.69%. Place of birth (foreign born; 1981): other Asia 7,875,399, of which Bangladesh 4,170,524, Pakistan 2,736,038, Nepal 501,292, Sri Lanka 211,514, Myanmar 134,783; Africa 42,726; Europe 13,046; United States and Canada 5,923. Major cities (urban agglomerations; 1991): Greater Bombay 9,925,891 (12,596,243); Delhi 7,206,704 (8,419,084); Calcutta 4,399,819 (11,021,915); Madras 3,841,396 (5,421,985); Bangalore 3,302,296 (4,130,288); Hyderabad 3,145,939

National economy Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$76,980,000,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$261,574,000,000 (U.S.$290 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93 16 in value Rs '000,000,000

Nagpur 1,624,752 (1,664,006); Lucknow 1,619,115 (1,669,204); Pune 1,566,651

(2,493,987); New Delhi? 301,297. Other principal cities (1991) 891,790 806,486 708,835 573,272 590,661 1,062,771 510,565 582,588 816,321 617,717 584,342 690,765 950,435 648,298

population Indore Jabalpur Jaipur Jalandhar (Jullundur) Jodhpur Kalyan9 Kota Ludhiana Madurai

Meerut Mysore Nashik (Nasik) Patna Pimpri-Chinchwad 10

1,091,674 764,586 1,458,183 509,510 666,279 1,014,557 537,371 1,042,740 940,989 753,778 606,755 656,925 917,243 517,083

population

Rajkot Ranchi Sholapur (Solapur) Srinagar Surat

Thane (Thana)9 Trivandrum Vadodara (Baroda) Varanasi (Benares) Vijayawada Vishakhapatnam

612,458 599,306 604,215 594,77511 1,505,872 803,389 699,872 1,061,598 932,399 701,827 752,037

(1991) 6,070,000; number

of beneficiaries 26,749,000. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workdays (1991): 6. Access to services. Proportion of urban (rural) population having access to: electricity for lighting purposes (1988-89) 75.1% (26.9%); safe water supply (1992) 84.9% (78.4%); safe sewage disposal (1990) 46.0% (2.0%). Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (May/June 1991) national election: 53%. Trade union membership (1988): 5,079,000. Social deviance (1986)15. Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 3.5; dacoity (gang robbery) 1.3; theft and housebreaking 57.9; riots 12.0. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population (1990): 6.9. Availability of consumer durables. Local production in 1980 (1991): automobiles 31,000 (165,000); motorcycles 102,000 (431,000); black and white television receivers 369,000 (3,100,000); colour television receivers, none (880,000); refrigerators 278,000 (1,322,000); air conditioners 44,000 (80,000).

(4,253,759); Ahmadabad 2,954,526 (3,312,216); Kanpur 1,879,420 (2,029,889);

population

12,697,000 (accepting

United Kingdom 789,000 (395,000); Mauritius 701,000 (700,000); United States 500,000 (287,000); Trinidad and Tobago 430,000 (430,000); Fiji 339,000 (339,000); Myanmar 330,900 (50,000); Canada 229,000 (129,000). area

Tamil Nadu

(1987 estimation): persons living abroad

foreign citizenship 8,200,000), of which in Nepal (1980) 3,800,000 (2,388,000); Malaysia 1,170,000 (1,029,000); Middle Eastern countries 1,064,000 (102,000); Sri Lanka 1,028,000 (457,000); South Africa 850,000 (850,000);

Area and population

Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland

;

a

than 100,000,000.

Emigration

1£=Rs 49.89.

Capitals Hyderabad Itanagar Dispur Patna Panaji Gandhinagar Chandigarh Shimla Srinagar Bangalore Trivandrum Bhopal Bombay Imphal Shillong Aizawl Kohima Bhubaneshwar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok

of persons

per room 2.8. Shelterless (homeless) population estimated (1987) at more

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$= Rs 31.37;

States Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam

1.8%. Average number

3.1%, unspecified number of rooms

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: New Delhi. Official languages: Hindi; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Indian rupee (Re, plural Rs)=100 paise; valuation

Agra Allahabad Amritsar Aurangabad Bareilly Bhopal Chandigarh Cochin (Kochi) Coimbatore Faridabad Guwahati Gwalior Howrah (Haora)& Hubli-Dharwad

11.0%, of which Sunni

Religious affiliation (1991): Hindu 80.3%; Muslim

India

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun, Trade, restaurants

1,998 141 1,098 347 137 497 796

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

514 360 391

Other TOTAL

6,279

% of total value 31.8 2.3 17.5 5.5 2.2

1981 14 labour % of labour force force 172,713,291 66.4 1,301,632 0.5 26,554,517 10.2 3,864,104 1.5 989,490 6,206,697 12,638,204 1,822,229 18,514,810

100.0

15,670,14417 260,275,118

6.017 100.0

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: Rs 1,308,500,000,000 (tax revenue 59.8%, of which excise taxes 26.2%, customs duties 21.2%, corporation taxes 8.0%; nontax revenue 40.2%, of which economic services 22.4%, interest receipts

11.1%). Expenditures: Rs_1,484,800,000,000 (interest payments and debt servicing 25.67%; transportation 13.7%; grants to state governments 13.2%;

defense 9.7%; communications 5.3%; agriculture 3.7%; social services 3.0%)

Nations of the World

Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of produc except as noted; 1989-90): rice 239,120, wheat 115,270 tion in Rs ’000,000 , sugarcane 78,760, peanuts (groun

dnuts) 53,950, kapoks 42,320, rapeseed and mustar d 31,350, chick-peas 31,020, sorghum 27,140, corn (maize) 19,180, potatoes 19,140, coconuts 18,790, pigeon peas 18,210, bananas 13,230, pearl millet 12,330, tea 11,080, urd beans 10,670, mung beans 10,560, chilies 9,320, soybeans 8,470, tobacco. 6,890, sesame seeds 6,740, finger millet 5,810, jute 5,790, rubber 4,650, betel

nuts 4,420, red lentils 4,390, sunflower seeds 4,340, onions 4,270, tapioca 4,160, guar seeds 3,670, cashews 3,600, turmeri c 3,600, coffee 3,600, safflower seeds 3,170, barley 3,110; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 192,650,000 cattle, 117,000,000 goats, 78,550,000 water buffalo, 44,407,000 sheep;

roundwood (1992) 282,359,000 cu m; fish catch (metric tons; 1991) 4,036,931, of which freshwater fish 1,700,800. Mining and quarryi ng (in ’000

metric tons except as noted; 1992-93): limestone 70,0001 8: iron ore 57,600; bauxite 4,980; manganese 1,40018; chromite 1,00018; zinc ore 127; copper

(metal content) 45; lead (primary metal) 39; gold 60,300 troy 0z!9; gem diamonds 15,000 carats18. Manufacturing (in ’000 metric tons except as noted; 1992-93): cement 54,300; finished steel 14,33018; steel ingots 13,250; refined sugar 10,589; nitrogenous fertilizers 7,407; paper and paperboard 2,152;

soda ash 1,391; jute manufactures 1,310; aluminum 483: nylon and polyest er yarns 278; bicycles 6,963,000 units; motorcycles and scooters 1,496,000 units; power-driven pumps 525,000 units; passenger cars and jeeps 198,100 units; passenger buses and trucks 132,600 units; cotton cloth 13,054,000,000 metres;

other important manufactured products include drugs and pharmaceutical s, computer software, gold jewelry, and silk goods. Construction (value of new construction in Rs; 1989-90): 563,670,000,000. Manufacturing enterprises (1987-88) 20

Chemicals and chemical products, of which paints, soaps, etc.

drugs and medicine industrial chemicals

fertilizers and pesticides

Textiles (excl. clothing) Iron and steel Food products

no. of persons engaged

avg. wages as a % of avg. of all wages

annual value added (Rs 000,000) 16

148.6 92.7

37,368 10,487

no. of factories 6,578 3,171 1,497 1,049 515 12,029

1,414,000

5,147 18,333

564,000 1,025,000

4,241 1,070 7,584 3,318 1,463

376,000 109,000 447,000 485,000 173,000

149.1 130.8 129.1 147.9 171.4

96 7,595

21,715 5,131 19,455 18,810 9,879

3,187 7,483

18,000 350,000 209,000 94,000 164,000

243.7 67.0 100.2 120.8 TA

390,000

12,488 9,286 7,147 5,333 4,828

1,909 1,037 2,023

135,000 60,000 66,000

29.5 100.0 148.1 84.5

3,807 3,508 2,568

Electrical machinery/apparatus, of which radios and televisions Nonelectrical machinery/apparatus Transport equipment, of which motor vehicles Refined petroleum Bricks, tiles, cement Metal products Rubber products Printing and publishing

555,000 215,000

6,390 1,762

Tobacco products Paper and paper products Nonferrous metals Plastic products

135,000 84,000

170.0 166.7

78,000

207.7

8,631 7,429 6,805

87.8

28,581

131.0 56.7

22,202 21,721

4,419

transportation 9.9%, of which purchase of transport services 6.4%; clothing 9.1%; housing and water charges 6.1%; energy 4.7%.

Service enterprises (net value added at factor cost in Rs 000,000; 1989-90): wholesale and retail trade 468,450; community, social, and personal services 226,320; construction 211,520; finance and insurance 172,770; transport and storage 169,630; real estate and business services 115,140; communication 30,780; electricity, gas, and water 29,050; restaurants and hotels 25,390.

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$1,540,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.$425,000,000.

Foreign trade27, 28 Balance of trade (current prices) Rs ’000,000 % of total

1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

— 43,326 12.1%

— 49,417 10.9%

— 40,249 6.8%

— 61,163 8.6%

+12,031 1.4%

— 30,841 2.8%

Imports (1992-93): Rs 633,750,000,000 (mineral fuels and lubricants 27.0%;

machinery, transport equipment, and fabricated metals 20.7%; pearls and precious and semiprecious stones [mostly diamonds] 11.2%; industrial chemicals 6.5%; fertilizers 4.5%). Major import sources: U.S. 12.8%; Belgium 11.0%; Germany 10.0%; Saudi Arabia 9.0%; Japan 8.5%; U.K. 8.4%; Kuwait 5.8%; Australia 5.0%. Exports (1992-93): Rs 536,880,000,000 (cut and polished diamonds and jewelery 16.6%; machinery, transport equipment, metal products, iron and steel, and electronic components 13.3%; ready-made garments 12.9%; chemicals and chemical products 7.4%; cotton yarn, fabrics, and thread 7.3%; leather and leather manufactures 6.9%; fish products 3.2%; oil cakes 2.9%). Major export destinations: U.S. 18.8%; Japan 7.7%; Germany 7.7%; U.K. 6.5%; Belgium 3.7%; former U.S.S.R. 3.2%; France 2.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992-93): route length 38,800 mi, 62,500 km; passenger-

mi 186,500,000,000, passenger-km 300,100,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 176,100,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 257,100,000,000. Roads (1990-91): total

length 1,266,000 mi, 2,037,000 km (paved 49%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,806,533; trucks and buses 2,396,738. Merchant marine (1992): vessels

(100 gross tons and oyer) 888; total deadweight tonnage 10,365,939. Air

transport (1993)29: passenger-mi 8,897,000,000, passenger-km 14,318,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 245,168,000, metric ton-km cargo 357,939,000; airports

(1993) with scheduled flights 95.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3,805; total circulation 18,800,000; circulation per 1,000 population 21. Radio (1993): 55,000,000 receivers (1 per 16 persons). Television (1993): 20,000,000 receivers (1 per 45 persons). Telephones (1992): 6,705,600 (1 per 131 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93)

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992-93) 300,972,000,000 ([1992] 329,340,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 254,600,000 (256,750,-

000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992-93) 205,000,000 ([1992] 389,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 42,217,000 (52,019,000); natural gas

(cu m; 1992-93) 14,500,000,000 ([1992] 12,102,000,000). Financial aggregates2! Exchange rate, Rs per: U.S. dollar

z SDR International reserves (U.S.$)

4

:

: ‘

:

Total (excl. gold; '000,000)

1992

1993

199422

39.61 36.02

31.38 46.48 43.10

31.37 47.35 44.59

5,757

10,199

15,436

4

100

109

SDRs ('000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF

(000,000) Foreign exchange ('000,000) Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves

Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Advance (prime) rate (%) Industrial share prices

(1990 = 100) 23

4,148

3,105

10.449 1.1

10.449 1.1

10.0 16.5

10.0 16.5

47.7

721

11.282 1.2

Z

292 5,461

292 9,807

302 15,025

11.348 1.2

11.457 1.3

11.800 1.3

12.0 18.9

12.0 16.3

12.0 15.0

247.3

202.9

288.5

12.0 17.9. 134.8

629

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-10)

Secondary (age 11-17) Higher 18

teachers

students

teacher ratio

572,541

1,681,970

105,370,216

62.6

235,793 7,513

2,435,293

59,255,258 4,610,000

24.3 a

Literacy (1991): total population age 7 and over literate 352,080,000 (52.1%); males literate 224,290,000 (63.9%); females literate 127,790,000 (39.4%). Health: physicians (1991) 394,068 (1 per 2,189 persons); hospital beds (1992) 642,103 (1 per 1,357 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 88.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,229 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,265,000 (army 87.0%, navy 4.3%, air force 8.7%); personnel in paramilitary forces for internal or border security 442,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.7% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$8.

Balance of payments

(U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

—6,110 22,254 16,144 —716 — 6,826

Land use (1992): forested 23.0%; meadows and pastures 3.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 57.1%; other 16.1%. nip Population economically active (1991)24: total 314,903,642; activity rate of total population 37.6% (participation rates: over age 15 [1981] 60.7%; female

29.0%; unemployed25 [December 1991] 13.57%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1988. 1989 1990 86.4 91.8 100.0 Consumer price index

1991

1992

1993

113.9

127.3

135.4

199422 144.4

Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size?6 (1981) 5.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1984-85): salaries and wages 42.2%, self-employed 39.7%, interest 8.6%, profits and dividends 6.0%, rent

3.5%; expenditure (1990-91): food 50.8%, of which cereals and bread 14.77%;

1Council

of States can

have a maximum

number

of 250 members;

a maximum

of

12 of these members may be nominated by the president. 2Includes 2 nonelective seats. 3Census not conducted; population based on projection of 1989 official estimate. 4Excludes 46,976 sq mi (121,667 sq km) of territory claimed by India as part of Jammu and Kashmir but occupied by Pakistan or China. 5Mother tongue

unless otherwise noted. Percentage based on 1971 census. 7Within Delhi urban agglomeration. SWithin Calcutta urban agglomeration. 9Within Greater Bombay urban agglomeration. !0Within Pune urban agglomeration. 111981 census. !2Percentage breakdown based on 22,629 deaths recorded at 1,303 nationally dispersed primaryhealth-centre villages. Deceased over age 60 with no apparent sickness. 14Excludes Assam. 15Crimes reported to National Crime Records Bureau by police authorities of state governments. 16At factor cost. 17Not adequately defined. 18199192. 191993. 20 stablishments with 10 or more workers using electrical power or 20 or more workers not using electrical power. 2!End-of-period unless otherwise noted. 22April. 23Annual average. 4Based on preliminary census data. 2>Applicants registered at employment exchanges. 26Excludes shelterless population. 27Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 28Fiscal year beginning April 1. 29Air-India and Indian Airlines only.

630

Britannica World Data

Indonesia

157,000; cigarettes 148,000,000,000 units5. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 45,760,000,000 (45,760,000,000); coal (metric tons;

Official name: Republik Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia).

(312,546,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 33,173,000 (26,684,-

1992) 21,146,000 (5,520,000); crude petroleum

000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 51,809,000,000 (20,623,000,000).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (House of People’s Representatives [5001]; People’s Consultative Assembly [1,0002]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Jakarta. Official language: Bahasa Indonesia. Official religion: monotheism. Monetary unit: 1 Indonesian rupiah (Rp) =100 sen; valuation (Oct. 7,

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

Finance, real estate

Area and population

Riau

Sulawesi Selatan Sulawesi Tengah Sulawesi Tenggara Sulawesi Utara Sumatera Barat Sumatera Selatan Sumatera Utara Timor Timur3 Special autonomous districts Aceh Yogyakarta

TOTAL

invalue * Rp ’000,000,000 49,284.2 32,279.9 53,894.9 15,393.2 1,887.4 16,728.3 42,540.5 18,784.6 17,292.4 8,422.6

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

1 £=Rp 3,456.

Provinces Bali Bengkulu Irian Jaya Jambi Jawa Barat Jawa Tengah Jawa Timur Kalimantan Barat Kalimantan Selatan Kalimantan Tengah Kalimantan Timur Lampung Maluku Nusa Tenggara Barat Nusa Tenggara Timur

area Capitals Jakarta

Denpasar Bengkulu Jayapura Jambi Bandung Semarang Surabaya Pontianak

Banjarmasin Palangkaraya Samarinda Tanjung Karang Ambon Mataram Kupang Pakanbaru Ujung Pandang Palu Kendari Menado Padang Palembang Medan Dili

population 1990 census

megikmis 590

8,259,266

2,147 8,173 162,928 17,297 17,877 13,207 18,502 56,664 14,541 58,919 78,162 12,860 28,767 7,790 18,485 36,510 28,101 26,921 10,690 7,345 19,219 40,034 27,331 5,743

5,561 21,168 421,981 44,800 46,300 34,206 47,921 146,760 37,660 152,600 202,440 33,307 74,505 20,177 47,876 94,561 72,781 69,726 27,686 19,023 49,778 103,688 70,787 14,874

2,777,811 1,179,122 1,648,708 2,020,568 35,384,352 28,520,643 32,503,991 3,229,153 2,597,572 1,396,486 1,876,663 6,017,573 1,857,790 3,369,649 3,268,644 3,303,976 6,981,646 1,711,327 1,349,619 2,478,119 4,000,207 6,313,074 10,256,027 747,750

21,387 1,224 741,052

55,392 3,169 1,919,317

3,416,156 2,913,054 179,378,946

228

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Demography Population (1994): 191,340,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 258.2, persons per sq km 99.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 31.4%; rural 68.6%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.88%; female 50.12%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 36.5%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 18.1%; 45-59, 10.7%; 60-74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 210,625,000; (2010) 236,841,000. Doubling time: 43 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1990): Javanese 39.4%; Sundanese 15.8%; Indonesian (Malay) 12.1%; Madurese 4.3%; Minang 2.4%; other 26.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Muslim 87.2%; Christian 9.6%, of which Roman Catholic 3.6%; Hindu 1.8%; Buddhist 1.0%; other 0.4%. Major cities (1990): Jakarta 8,259,266; Surabaya 2,421,016; Bandung 2,026,893; Medan 1,685,972; Semarang 1,005,316.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.2 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 16.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 3.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990-91): 8.54. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990-91): 0.44. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 58.2 years; female 61.9 years. Major causes of death: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis, malaria, dysentery, cholera, and plague.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: Rp 58,168,000,000,000 (royalties from energy production 26.4%, income tax 20.5%, aid for development 18.4%, valueadded tax 18.4%, nontax revenues 5.1%, import duties 4.6%). Expenditures: Rp 58,166,000,000,000 (development 41.5%, debt service 26.2%, civil service

16.3%, subsidies for autonomous regions 9.1%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$49,289,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$2,729,000,000; expenditures U.S.$1,166,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): rice 47,770,000, sugarcane 23,121,000, cassava 16,318,000, corn (maize) 7,987,000, palm oil 3,162,000, rubber 1,294,000, copra 1,135,000; livestock (number of live animals) 11,400,000 goats, 11,000,000 cattle, 5,900,000 sheep, 3,400,000 buffalo; roundwood 185,629,000 cu m; fish catch 3,314,366. Min-

ing and quarrying (1993): nickel ore 1,970,000; bauxite 1,320,000; copper

concentrate 928,189; iron sand 341,335; tin concentrate 28,585; silver 90,300

kg. Manufacturing (1990): cement 15,972,000; fertilizer 6,991,000; newsprint

% of total value 19.2

256,508.0

labour force

% of labour force

42,853,000 595,000 7,848,000 2,363,000 173,000 2,512,000 11,100,000 562,000

53.4 0.7 9.8 3.0 0.2 3.1 13.8 0.7

9,970,000

12.4

2,323,0006 80,299,000

2.96 100.0

Population economically active: total (1992) 80,299,000; activity rate 43.5%

(participation rates: ages 15-64 [1989] 68.6%; female [1989] 39.9%; unemployed 2.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Earnings index?

100.0 100.0

109.4 109.6

TLZ

128.5 oe

80.7 80.5

87.2 85.4

92.8 92.5

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.5; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1976): wages 42.1%, self-employment

41.5%,

transfer

payments

2.5%;

expenditure

(1990):

food

51.4%,

housing and utilities 20.1%, clothing 5.5%, durable goods 2.9%. Land use (1991): forested 60.3%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.3%; other 20.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Imports Banda Aceh Yogyakarta

!

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$136,620,000,000 (U.S.$730 per capita).

1994) 1 U.S.$=Rp 2,173;

Metropolitan district Jakarta Raya

(barrels; 1992) 557,266,000

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+7,419 23.5%

+7,229 19.6%

+6,240 13.8%

+6,075 11.6%

+4,937 9.2%

+8,872 13.4%

(1992): U.S.$27,279,600,000

42.9%, chemicals

(machinery

and transport

equipment

13.8%, crude materials 8.8%, mineral fuels 7.7%). Major

import sources: Japan 22.0%; U.S. 14.0%; Germany 7.8%. Exports (1992): U.S.$33,966,900,000 (crude petroleum 15.9%, natural gas 11.9%, plywood 9.5%, garments 9.4%, preparation rubber 3.2%). Major export destinations: Japan 31.7%; U.S. 13.0%; Singapore 9.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 6,583 km; passenger-km 10,532,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,775,000,000. Roads (1990): length 283,516 km (paved 44%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 1,876,230; trucks and buses 1,666,195. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2,014; deadweight tonnage 3,130,175. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 14,919,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 460,220,000; airports (1994) 126. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 64; total circulation 3,010,000; circulation per 1,000 population 28. Radio (1993): 22,000,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 8.5 persons). Television (1993): 11,000,000 receivers (1 per 17 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,621,650 (1 per 114 persons). Education and health Education (1990-91)8 Primary (age 7-12)

Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

147,064 28,834 3,823 962

1,331,993 707,987 108,536 128,652

26,308,423 8,236,018 1,352,009 1,503,196

19.8 11.6 12.5 11.7

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 30.3%; less than complete primary 32.2%; primary 22.8%; some secondary 6.4%; secondary 7.1%; higher 1.2%. Literacy (1987): total population age 15 and over literate 80,233,132 (77.6%); males literate 43,062,304 (85.6%); females literate 37,170,828 (70.0%). Health: physicians (1989-90) 25,752 (1 per 6,861 persons); hospital beds (1991-92) 111,460 (1 per 1,643 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 65. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,605 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 270,900 (army 74.9%, navy 16.2%, air force 8.97%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.6% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$10.

‘Includes 100 nonelective seats reserved for the military. 2Includes the 500 members of the House of People’s Representatives plus 500 other delegates. 3The legality of Indonesian administration of this province is disputed by the United Nations, ‘Muslim population only. 51989. Includes unemployed. 7Based on daily wage rate of production workers in manufacturing. 8Refers to schools under the Department of Education and Culture only.

Nations of the World

Iran

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,065,000,000.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$130,910,000,000 (U.S.$2,190 per capita).

Official name: Jomhiri-ye Eslami-ye fran (Islamic Republic of Iran). Form of government: unitary Islamic republic with one legislative house (Islamic Consultative Assembly [270]).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93 in value

Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate

Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Azarbayjan-e Gharbi Azarbayjan-e Sharqi2 Bakhtaran Bushehr Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari Esfahan 2

Hamadan

Hormozgan llam a

area

Ordmiyeh Tabriz Bakhtaran Bushehr Shahr Kord Esfahan Shiraz Rasht

Hamadan

Bandar ‘Abbas lam

Kerman Kerman Khorasan Mashhad Khizestan Ahvaz Kohkillyeh va Buyer Anmadi = Yasj Kordestan Sanandaj

Lorestan Markazi Mazandaran

Semnan Sistan va Baliichestan Tehran

Yazd Zanjan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

Khorramabad Arak Sari

Semnan Zahedan Tehran

Yazd Zanjan

23.3

5,669 362 9,218 2,619 834

3,208,613

8.6 0.5 14.0 4.0 1.3

25.0

5,274 11,308 8,095

82:37 1,460,132 1,207,459 91,064

8.0 Ved 12.3

O38 11.4 9.4 0.7

630,704 875,919 114,302

4.9 6.8 0.9

Sam 14,517 25,421 9,121 9,792 5,722 40,852 46,334 5,722

7,508

25,243 7,369

population

1991

esgikon— fSceustisiiey 37,599 65,842 23,622 25,360 14,820 105,805 120,005 14,820 19,445

65,379 19,086

71,690 121,887 25,688 5,289

185,675 315,687 66,532 13,699

10,756 11,027 11,402 18,010 35,345 70,066 10,896

27,858 28,560 29,530 46,645 91,544 181,471 28,221

26,875 14,047 630,5783 1,8804 632,4573

69,605 36,382 1,633,1893 4,8684 1,638,057

2,283,707 4,390,303 1,600,568 692,211 722,504 3,657,040 3,480,112 2,203,560

1,649,269

923,965

425,336

1,789,992 5,997,468 3,155,453 476,564 1,233,264 1,470,524 1,182,611 3,792,772 458,125 1,440,251 9,981,878

691,067 1,774,645

55,473,1895

Demography Population (1994): 59,614,0006. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 94.3, persons per sq km 36.4. Urban-rural (1991): urban 57.3%; rural 42.7%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.52%; female 48.48%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 44.3%; 15-29, 26.6%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 8.2%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 0.8%; unknown 0.2%. Population projection: (2000) 68,329,000; (2010) 85,775,000.

Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Persian 45.6%; Azerbaijani 16.8%; Kurdish 9.1%; Gilaki 5.3%; Luri 4.3%; Mazandarani 3.6%; Baluchi 2.3%; Arab Bakhtiari 1.7%; Turkmen 1.5%; Armenian 0.5%; other 7.1%.

2.2%;

Religious affiliation (1994): Muslim 99.1% (ShiT 93.4%, Sunni 5.7%); Baha? 0.6%; Christian 0.1%; Zoroastrian 0.1%; Jewish 0.1%. Major cities (1991): Tehran 6,475,527; Mashhad 1,759,155; Esfahan 1,127,030; Tabriz 1,088,985; Shiraz 965,117; Ahvaz 724,653; Qom 681,253.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 43.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 34.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 8.1. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 64.4 years; female 66.2 years, Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989)7: diseases of the circulatory system 249.2; accidents and violence 101.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 58.8; diseases of the respiratory system 48.9.

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: Rls 33,592,000,000,000 (oil revenue 65.8%, taxes 19.1%, other 15.1%). Expenditures: Rls 33,768,000,000,000 (current expen-

diture 62.6%, development expenditure 37.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): wheat 10,800,0008, sugar beets 5,800,0008, barley 3,700,000, rice 2,600,0008, grapes 1,650,000, sugarcane 1,600,000, apples 1,520,000, oranges 1,300,000, dates 635,000, pistachios 170,000; livestock (head) 45,000,000 sheep, 6,900,000 cattle; roundwood 6,840,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 277,444. Mining

and quarrying (1993): copper ore (concentrate) 10,800,000; iron ore (concentrate) 9,900,000. Manufacturing (value added, in Rls ’000,000; 1989-90):

value

6,505 1,403 —674"1

TOTAL

Capitals

15,392

etroleum, natural gas Other mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

1 U.S.$=Rls 1,7321; 1 £=Rls 2,7551,

Provinces

labour

eg

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Tehran. Official language: Farsi (Persian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 rial (Rls); valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1986 % of total

Rls '000,000,00010

Supreme leader: Rahbar (religious guide).

Fars Gilan

631

9.9 21 —1.011

66,005

% of labour

force

force

SEE ee 2,183,189 12

100.03

12,854,702

ee 17.012 100.03

Tourism (1992-93): receipts U.S.$38,000,00013; expenditures U.S.$1,166,000,000.

Pop. economically active (1986): total 12,854,702; activity rate 26.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 46.87%; female 10.3%; unemployed [1993] 30%). Price and earnings‘indexes (1987-88 = 100) 1987-88

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

100.0 100.0

128.9 121.9

151.4 144.0

164.9 157.5

197.2 181.2

239.9 216.9

Consumer price index Daily earnings index 14

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.1; income per urban household (1988) Rls 1,339,970 (U.S.$19,536); sources of urban income (1988): wages 37.4%, self-employment 30.5%, other 32.1%; expenditure (1990-91): food and hotels 46.0%, housing and energy 25.6%. Land use (1991): forested 11.0%; meadows and pastures 26.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 9.2%; other 52.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1987-88 — 1,320 5.2%

1988-89 —810 3.6%

1989-90 —367 1.4%

1990-91 +975 2.6%

1991-9215 —5,526 13.0%

1992-9315 — 1,871 4.6%

Imports (1992-93)15: U.S.$21,150,000,000 (16motor vehicles and machinery 28.5%, iron and steel 15.0%, food and medicine 11.5%). Major import sources (1992): Germany 24.0%; Japan 13.0%; Italy 10.0%; U.A.E. 5.0%; U.K. 5.0%. Exports (1992-93)15: U.S.$19,279,000,000 (petroleum and natural gas 84.8%, carpets 5.97%, pistachios 1.9%, copper bars 0.8%, leather 0.4%). Major export destinations (1992): Japan 15.0%; Italy 10.0%; The Netherlands 9.0%: Brazil 7.0%; France 6.0%; South Korea 6.0%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads (1992): route length 2,838 mi, 4,567 km; (1991) pas-

senger-km 4,584,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,704,000,000. Roads (1991):

length 94,130 mi, 151,488 km (paved [1989] 34%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 1,557,000; trucks and buses 561,000. Merchant marine (1992):

vessels (100 gross tons and over) 403; total deadweight tonnage 8,345,269.

Air transport (1993)17: passenger-km 4,830,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 59,963,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 19. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): 21; circulation 1,500,000; circulation per 1,000 population 27. Radio (1993): 12,000,000 receivers (1 per 4.9 persons). Television (1993): 2,250,000 receivers (1 per 26 persons). Telephones (1993-94): 3,598,000 (1 per 16 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary (age 7-11)

Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

59,280 18

Re 4418,19

teachers

students

teacher ratio

312,273

9,787,593

31.3

199,451 19,480

5,311,988 307,069

26.6 15.8

25,208

636,255

25.2

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over hav-

ing: no formal schooling 12.8%; secondary education 38.0%; higher 7.8%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 18,200,000 (54.0%); males literate 11,600,000 (64.5%); females literate 6,600,000 (43.3%). Health (1993-94): physicians 29,000 (1 per 2,000 persons); hospital beds 90,000 (1 per 650 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 62.1. Food (1986-88): daily per capita caloric intake 3,317 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 473,000 (revolutionary guard corps 25.4%, army 67.6%, navy 3.8%, air force 3.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 5.7% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$102.

textiles (excl. wearing apparel) 375,200; food products 235,700; bricks, tiles, and cement 211,500; nonelectrical machinery 160,000; iron and steel 133,200; nonindustrial chemical products 131,500. Construction (completed; 1990-

91): residential 15,818,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992-93) 68,400,000,000 (49,175,000,0009); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,500,000 (2,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 1,254,300,000

(340,500,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 42,246,000 (46,135,000); natural’gas (cu m; 1992-93) 34,400,000,000 (33,900,000,000).

‘Official floating rate. 7The former province of Azarbayjan-e Sharqi (East Azerbaijan) was divided into Ardabil and Azarbayjan-e Markazi (Central Azerbaijan) provinces in 1993. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Area of Lake Urmia. 5De jure figure. ©De jure estimate excluding refugees. 7Projected rates based on about 21% of total deaths. 81993. 91991-92. 10At factor cost. 1Less imputed bank service charge. 12Includes 1,818,740 unemployed. 1311 months only. !4Construction sector only. 15Estimated figures. 16Based on 1991-92 imports equaling U.S.$23,941,000,000. 17Tran Air, 181990-91. 19Universities only.

632

Britannica World Data

re

Iraq

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

»

Official name: al-Jumhiriyah al-Traqiyah (Republic of Iraq). Form of government: unitary

1991

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Baghdad. Official language: Arabic2. Official religion: Islam.

Pub. admin., defense, and services Other

Monetary unit: 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) =20

Area and population

area4

LAND AREA

pace

53,208 2:163 1,572 7,363 4,981 6,828 1,944 6,205 19,977 11,129 14,410 3,148 9,407 3,737 6,623

population sq km

1991 estimate

137,808 5,603 4,071 19,070 12,900 17,685 5,034 16,072 51,740 28,824 37,323 8,153 24,363 9,679 17,153

865,500 1,221,100 3,910,900 1,168,800 1,030,900 1,037,600 567,600 524,200 350,000 666,400 1,618,700 595,600 772,200 605,900 605,700

2,530 5,820 6,573 167,618

OTHERS

TOTAL

6,553 15,074 17,023 434,128

357

924

167,975

435,052

309,300 928,400 1,124,200 17,903,000

Demography Population (1994): 19,869,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 118.3, persons per sq km 45.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 70.4%; rural 29.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.59%; female 49.41%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 44.6%; 15-29, 29.3%; 30-44, 14.0%; 45-59, 7.0%; 60-74, 3.8%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 23,521,000; (2010) 30,761,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 77.1%; Kurd 19.0%; Turkmen 1.4%; Persian 0.8%; Assyrian 0.8%; other 0.9%. : Religious affiliation (1993): Sh¥1 Muslim 61.5%; Sunni Muslim 34.0%; Christian 3.7%, of which Eastern-rite Roman Orthodox 0.4%; Yazidi syncretist 0.8%.

Catholic 2.5%, Nestorian 0.8%,

Major cities (1985): Baghdad (1990; urban agglomeration) 4,044,000; Basra 616,700; Mosul 570,926; Irbil 333,903; as-Sulaymaniyah 279,424.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 36.5 (world avg, 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992)7: 6.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 30.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 5.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.1. Life expectancy at birth (1991)8: male 46.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death (1993). Deprivation of medical care (because of acute medical supply shortages) and malnutrition.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: ID 13,935,000,000. Expenditures: ID 13,935,000,000.

Details of more recent proposed budgets were not released. Special emphasis was to be placed on the reconstruction of the infrastructure. Tourism (1989): receipts U.S.$59,000,000; expenditures, n.a.

Public debt (external, outstanding; April 1991): U.S.$109,000,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): barley 1,562,000, wheat 1,187,000, dates 550,000, watermelons 490,000, toma-

toes 460,000, grapes 450,000, cucumbers 350,000, corn (maize) 315,000, rice 215,000, oranges 180,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,000,000 sheep, 1,200,000 cattle; roundwood

(1992) 155,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 12,100.

Mining and quarrying (1992): phosphate rock 900,000; sulfur 600,000; gypsum 380,000. Manufacturing (value added in ID ’000,000; 1990): petroleum products and chemical products 668; nonmetal mineral products 152; food

114; textiles 91; paper products, printing, and publishing 78; beverages 56;

footwear 56; electrical machinery 54; nonelectrical machinery 53; tobacco

products 53. Construction (authorized; 1991): residential 4,558,000 sq m; nonresidential 410,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 25,300,000,000 (25,300,000,000); coal, none (none); crude

petroleum

Price and earnings indexes (1988= 100) 1988 1989 1990 1991

(barrels; 1992) 191,900,000 (156,000,000); petroleum products

(metric tons; 1992) 16,020,000 (13,755,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 3,010,-

000,000 (3,010,000,000).

Gross national product (1991): U.S.$12,640,000,000 (U.S.$710 per capita).

100.0

Consumer price index Earnings index

161.2

199210

461.9

605.4 P=

Household income and expenditure (1988). Average household size 8.9; sources of income: self-employment 33.9%, wages and salaries 23.9%, transfers 23.0%, rent 18.6%; expenditure: food and beverages 50.2%, housing and energy 19.9%, clothing and footwear 10.6%. ‘ Land use (1992): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 9.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.5%; built-on, wasteland, and other 74.1%.

Foreign trade, 12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Dahik (roi as-Sulaymaniyah

4,127,294

Population economically active (1988): total 4,127,294; activity rate of total population 24.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 45.3%; female 12.0%).

(Oct. 1, 1994) 1 U.S.$=500 ID3; 1 £=795.25 ID.

Kurdish Autonomous Regions Dahik Irbil as-Sulaymaniyah

% of labour force

2,160,406

TOTAL

dirhams = 1,000 fils; valuation

Capitals ar-Ramadi al-Hillah Baghdad Basra an-Nasirilyah Ba‘qibah Karbala’ al-‘Amarah as-Samawah an-Najaf Mosul ad-Diwaniyah Tikrit Kirkak al-Kit

labour force 477,264 60,701 337,293 460,788 41,200 266,233 281,877 41,532

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing ~ Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate

multiparty! republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [250]).

Governorates al-Anbar Babil Baghdad al-Basrah4 Dhi Qar Diyala Karbala’ Maysan al-Muthanna an-Najaf Ninawa al-Qadisiyah Salah ad-Din at-Ta’mim Wasit

1988 % of total value

in value ID '000,0002

1987

1988

1989

+7,662 49.9%

+5,092 29.9%

+7,644 35.5%

1990 13 +4,700 33.0%

199113 0 0.0%

199213 —800 28.6%

Imports (1992): U.S.$1,800,000,00013 (agricultural products 60.0%, of which cereals 26.0%; fish and forestry products 7.0%; unspecified 33.0%). Major import sources14; Australia 19.0%; Jordan 17.0%; Turkey 14.0%; United Kingdom 10.0%; Indonesia 7.0%. Exports (1992): U.S.$1,000,000,00013 (agricultural products 2.2%, of which dates 1.8%; other [mostly crude petroleum and petroleum products] 97.8%). Major export destinations'5: Jordan 71.0%; Portugal 15.0%; Greece 13.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 1,493 mi, 2,403 km; passenger-mi 572,000,000, passenger-km 920,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 79,000,000, met-

ric ton-km cargo 115,000,000. Roads (1989): total length 28,305 mi, 45,554 km (paved 84%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 672,000; trucks and buses 368,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 131; total deadweight tonnage 1,578,822. Air transport: 16. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 6; total circulation 650,000; circulation per 1,000 population 37. Radio (1993): 3,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.5 persons). Television (1993): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 19

persons). Telephones (1990): 712,109 (1 per 25 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

8,875 2,746 296 20

127,578 43,937 9,957 10,520

3,316,036 1,084,715 152,903 197,786

26.0 24.7 15.4 18.8

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 6,030,000 (59.7%); males literate 3,570,000 (69.8%); females literate

2,460,000 (49.3%).

Health: physicians (1991) 9,366 (1 per 1,922 persons); hospital beds (1990) 31,227 (1 per 568 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 56.3. Food (1991)8: daily per capita caloric intake 2,300-2,400; 93-97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 382,000 (army 91.6%, navy 0.5%, air force 7.97%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 74.9% (world 4.2%) >

per capita expenditure U.S.$528.

'Multipartyism authorized by a September 1991 law, but political power is in fact concentrated in a single-party apparatus. 2Kurdish is official in the Kurdish Autonomous Region only. 3Official rate per government announcement of Oct. 1, 1994; the blackmarket rate on the same date was about 600 Iraqi dinars per U.S.$. 4Includes territory ceded to Kuwait as of Jan. 15, 1993, per UN resolution of May 1992. Iraq recognized Kuwait and its borders per official announcement

of Nov. 10, 1994, 5De facto self-

government as of May 1992 elections. Territorial water at the mouth of the Shatt

al‘Arab. 7Excludes c. 400,000 deaths (between 1990 and the end of 1993) caused by UN sanctions. 8Postwar estimate. 9At factor cost. 10February. Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. !2UN-imposed trade sanctions begun August 1990 continued through October 1994. 13Estimated figure(s). !4Based on estimated imports equaling U.S.$647,000,000. ‘Based on estimated exports equaling U.S.$557,000,000; 16UN sanctions stopped international service from March 1991; lack of spare parts ended domestic service from June 1992.

Nations of the World

Ireland

sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 000,000 (15,147,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) 1,000 (3,120,000); 15,147,crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (13,106,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 1,728,000 (4,137,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 3,763,000 ,000

Official name: Eire (Irish); Ireland! (English).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [602]; House of Representatives [166]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dublin. Official languages: Irish; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Irish pound (£Ir) = 100 new pence; valuation (Oct. 7,

({1990] 3,671,000,000).

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$42,798,000,000 (U.S.$12,100 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Provinces Counties Connacht

Trade

Galways Leitrim Mayo Roscommon Sligo

Leinster Carlow Dublin3 Kildare Kilkenny

Laoighis Longford Louth Meath Offaly Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster Clare Cork3 Kerry Limerick3 Tipperary North Riding Tipperary South Riding Waterford Ulster Cavan Donegal

Monaghan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

area sq

in value £lr 000,000 2,140

Agriculture vo anufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

1994) 1 £Ir=U.S.$1.56 = £0.99. Area and population

mi

:

6,611

2,293 581 2,084 951

population sq km

1991 census

17,122

423,031

5,940 1,525 5,398 2,463

180,364 25,301 110,713 51,897

693

1,796

7,580 346 356

19,633 896 922

1,860,949 40,942 1,025,304

654 796

1,694 2,062

122,656 73,635

54,756

664 403 318 902 771 681 908 782 9,315 1,231 2,880 1,815 1,037 771 872

1,719 1,044 823 2,336 1,998 1,763 2,351 2,025 24,127 3,188 7,460 4,701 2,686 1,996 2,258

52,314 30,296 90,724 105,370 58,494 61,880 102,069 97,265 1,009,533 90,918 410,369 121,894 161,956 57,854 74,918

710 3,093 730 1,865

1,838 8,012 1,891 4,830

498

1,291

91,624 232,206 52,796 128,117

26,600 537 27,137

633

68,8954 1,390 70,285

51,293 3,525,719.

Pub. admin., defense Services Finance Other

% of total value 941

ot

Po6

ues

Nae

1,593

232/0007

6.8

6,514

TOTAL

labour force 150,000 6,000 223,000 74,000 13,000 68,000

17.27

68,000 291,000 7 225,0008

27.8

23,4554

% of labour force 11.41 0.4 16.5 55 1.0 5.0

100.0

5.0 21.6 G 16.78

1,350,000

100.0

Population economically active (1992): total 1,350,000; activity rate of total population 38.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.2%9: female 30.5% 9; unemployed 15.5% 10), Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

107.1 113.0

109.4 118.3

113.8 123.1

117.6 127.8

121.4 133.4

125.1 138.8

126.9 179.211

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 58.67%, self-employment 13.3%, interest and dividends 8.2%; expenditure (1992): food 27.2%, rent and household goods 11.6%, transportation 9.9%. Land use (1991): forest 5.0%; pasture 68.1%; agricultural 13.5%; other 13.4%.

Foreign trade!2 Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1989

1990

1991

1992

£lr 000,000 % of total

2,458 9.4%

2,784 10.2%

4,062 13.9%

1988.

2,004 10.3%

2,574 11.7%

2,880 11.0%

Imports (1992): £Ir 13,195,019,000 (machinery and transport equipment 35.6%, manufactured goods 14.7%, chemicals 13.0%, food 9.7%, petroleum and petroleum products 5.2%, crude materials [inedible] 2.2%, beverages and tobacco 1.6%). Major import sources: U.K. 38.9%; US. 14.2%; Germany 8.4%; Japan 5.0%; The Netherlands 4.4%; France 4.4%.

Exports (1992): £Ir 16,628,836,000 (machinery and transport equipment 27.0%,

Demography Population (1994): 3,512,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 129.4, persons per sq km 50.0.

Urban-rural (1991): urban 57.0%; rural 43.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.74%; female 50.26%.

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 26.7%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 20.2%; 45-59, 13.8%; 60-74, 10.6%; 75 and over, 4.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,492,000; (2010) 3,458,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Place of birth (1986): native born 93.7%; England and Wales 3.6%; Northern Ireland 1.0%; United States 0.4%; Scotland 0.4%; other 0.9%.

Religious affiliation (1981): Roman Catholic 93.1%; Church of Ireland (Anglican) 2.8%; Presbyterian 0.4%; other 3.7%. wae Major cities (1991)5: Dublin 477,675; Cork 127,024; Limerick 52,040; Galway 50,842; Waterford 40,345.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population

(1992): 14.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

82.0%; illegitimate 18.0%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (1985-87): male 71.0 years; female 76.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): heart and circulatory diseases 391.0, of which ischemic heart disease 216.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 210.1; respiratory disease 64.6, of which pneumonia 50.2.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: £Ir 10,759,000,000 (income taxes 34.7%, value-added tax 23.6%, excise taxes 19.2%). Expenditures: £Ir 11,021,000,000 (1991; debt service 25.9%, social welfare 19.9%, health 14.8%, education 13.3%).

Public debt (1992): U.S.$46,262,000,000.

;

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$1,620,000,000; expenditures U.S.$1,361,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): '

sugar beets 1,397,000, barley 1,167,000, wheat 713,000, potatoes 642,000, oats 136,000, milk 52,270,000 hectolitres; livestock (number of live animals) 8,909,000 sheep, 6,976,000 cattle, 1,386,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 1,677,000

cu m; fish catch (1991) 240,703. Mining and quarrying (1992): gypsum 343,000; zinc ore 194,1006; lead ore 42,9006. Manufacturing (value added in £Ir; 1990): metals and engineering goods 3,237,500,000; food products 1,828,300,000; chemical products 1,492,600,000; paper, printing, and publishing 452,900,000; nonmetallic mineral products 441,400,000; textiles 192,400,000. Construction (1992): residential 2,499,000 sq m; nonresidential 2,067,000

food 22.1%, chemical products 19.3%, manufactured goods 7.6%). Major export destinations: U.K. 26.5%; Germany 12.8%; France 9.6%; U.S. 8.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 2,814 km; passenger-km 1,225,600,000; metric ton-km cargo 663,300,000. Roads (1992): length 92,327 km (paved 94%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 858,498; trucks and buses 149,355. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 189: total deadweight tonnage 208,573. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3,804,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 431,618,000; airports (1994) 10.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): 8; total circulation 652,350; circulation per 1,000 population 186. Radio (1993): 2,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1993): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.5 persons). Telephones (1990): 916,207 (1 per 3.8 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

3,425 474 317

48

teachers

20,43013 12,034 9,004

3,934 14

students

542,898 216,740 132,117 76,809

teacher ratio

ror 18.0 14.7 16.014

Educational attainment (1981), Percentage of population age 25 and over haying: primary education 52.3%; secondary 23.3%; some postsecondary 16.5%: university or like institution 7.9%. Literacy (1987): virtually 100% literate. Health (1991): physicians (1984) 5,180 (1 per 681 persons); hospital beds 13,80615 (1 per 255 persons); infant mortality rate 9.1. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,952 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 157% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 13,000 (army 86.1%, navy 7.7%, air force 6.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.3% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$145. 1As provided by the constitution; the 1948 Republic of Ireland Act provides precedent for this longer formulation of the official name but, per official sources, “has not changed the usage Jreland as the name of the state in the English language.” 2Includes 11 nonelective seats. 3Includes county borough(s). 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. SCounty boroughs. ‘Metal content of ores. 7Trade includes Finance. 8Unemployed. 91988. 191991, !!August. 12Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. !3National schools only. 141988-89. 15Acute-care public hospitals only.

634

Britannica World Data

Israel

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: Medinat Yisra’el (Hebrew); Israil (Arabic) (State

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

of Israel).

Tourism

Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Knesset [120]). Chief of state: President.

133 130

1993

(1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,891,000,000; expenditures by :

1991

in value NIS '000,000 Agriculture Manufacturing, mining Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public and community services Services } Other

TOTAL

2,398 21,488 7,777 2,299 7,560 9,665 24,065 4,110 23,481

22.8 100.0

% of labour force

62,000 371,300 118,300 17,500 106,100 250,700 183,900 500,200 131,800 204,3009 1,946,0008

2.3 20.9 76 pee 74 9.4 23.4 4.0

102,843

1993

labour force

% of total value

3.2 19.1 6.1 0.9 5.5 12.9

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 3.7; monthly income per household! NIS 5,580 (U.S.$2,268); sources of income (1992) 10; salaries and wages 86.9%, allowances and assistance

Area and population ogee 1,242 854 557 3,490 14,387 170

20,700

tion 4.3%, energy 4.2%.

estimate

Foreign trade

1,112,300 691,000 616,000 877,400 651,700 1,142,200 5,090,5003, 4

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Imports

(1993):

— 2,841.8 13.1%

— 2,358.1 10.0%

—3,504.0 13.1%

U.S.$20,517,600,000

— 6,135.0 19.8%

—5,473.3 19.6%

(investment

goods

— 5,692.4 16.1%

17.4%;

diamonds

17.2%; consumer goods 12.3%; fuel and lubricants 8.5%). Major import sources: U.S. 17.7%; Belgium 12.2%; Germany 10.4%; U.K. 8.6%; Switzerland 7.5%; Italy 7.3%; Japan 5.1%; France 4.1%. Exports (1993): U.S.$14,825,500,000 (machinery 34.0%; worked diamonds

Demography Population (1994): 5,331,0003; 5. Density (1994)5,6: persons per sq mi 629.9, persons per sq km 243.2. Urban-rural (1993): urban 90.4%; rural 9.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.6%; female 50.4%.

19.2%; chemicals 12.7%; textiles 6.3%; food, beverages, and tobacco 3.7%;

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 30.2%; 15-29, 25.0%; 30-44, 20.2%; 45-59, 11.9%; 60-74, 8.8%; 75 and over, 3.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,990,000; (2010) 6,647,000. Doubling time: 47 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Jewish 81.3%; Arab and other 18.7%. Religious affiliation (1993): Jewish 81.3%; Muslim (mostly Sunni)

10.6%, self-

employment 2.4%; expenditure (1992): food, beverages, and tobacco 25.1%, housing 21.7%, household durable goods 6.7%, clothing 5.4%, transporta-

population 19932

rubber and plastic 3.2%). Major export destinations: U.S. 31.2%; U.K. 5.5%; Belgium 5.4%; Germany 5.3%; Japan 5.2%; Hong Kong 4.9%; France 3.9%; The Netherlands 3.7%; Italy 3.0%.

Transport and communications 14.2%;

Christian 2.8%; Druze and other 1.7%. Major cities (1993): Jerusalem 556,500; Tel Aviv-Yafo 356,900; Haifa 249,800; Holon 162,800; Petah Tiqwa 150,900; Bat Yam 145,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 21.3 (world avg. 26.0); (1990)7 legitimate 98.5%; illegitimate 1.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 75.1 years; female 78.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 249.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 125.6; accidents 38.5; diseases of the respiratory system 44.4. :

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: NIS 102,447,000,000 (income tax and property tax 25.2%, value-added tax 18.1%, internal loans 18.0%, external loans 12.8%). Expenditures: NIS 102,447,000,000 (defense 17.5%, debt 16.4%, interest on loans 13.2%, labour and social welfare 10.2%, education and culture 8.8%).

Public debt (1991): U.S.$81,938,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): fodder 1,391,000, grapefruit 378,000, tomatoes 328,000, wheat 180,000, potatoes 173,000, watermelons 110,200, seed cotton 34,000; livestock (number of live animals) 360,000 sheep, 349,000 cattle, 111,000 goats, 23,000,000

chickens; roundwood (1992) 110,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 19,200. Mining and quarrying (1992): phosphate rock 2,372,000; potash 1,300,000; lime 208,-

000; bromine 135,000; bromine compounds

1992

119 116

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1994) 1 U.S.$=NIS 3.01; 1 £=NIS 4.79.

TOTAL

1991

100 100

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$72,667,000,000 (U.S.$13,760 per capita).

but recognition of its status as capital by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of territorial and other issues through peace talks between Israel and the Arab parties concerned. Official languages: Hebrew; Arabic. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 New (Israeli) sheqel (NIS)= 100 agorot; valuation (Oct. 7,

Tiberias Beersheba Tel Aviv—Yafo

1990

85 85

58

and the actual seat of government,

Capitals Ramla Haifa Jerusalem

1989

nationals abroad U.S.$1,953,000,000.

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Jerusalem is the proclaimed capital of Israel (from Jan. 23, 1950)

Districts Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Hefa) Jerusalem (Yerushalayim) Northern (Ha Zafon) Southern (Ha Darom) Tel Aviv

1988

125,000. Manufacturing (1992):

cement 3,960,000; sulfuric acid 137,600; polyethylene 128,739; paper 98,702; cardboard 92,072; chlorine 33,912; ammonium sulfate 12,444; wine 12,373,-

000 litres. Construction (1992): residential 7,620,000 sq m; nonresidential 1,450,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 24,475,000 (24,125,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (4,945,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 65,000 (72,977,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 8,958,000 (8,178,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 23,320,000

(23,320,000).

Land use (1990): forested 5.5%; meadows and pastures 7.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%; other 65.8%. Population economically active (1993)8: total 1,946,000; activity rate of total population 36.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 52.8%; female 47.1%; unemployed 10.0%).

Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 356 mi, 573 km; passenger-mi 123,000,000, passenger-km

198,000,000;

short ton-mi cargo 751,000,000,

metric

ton-km cargo 1,096,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 8,364 mi, 13,461 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 923,000; trucks and buses 186,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 58; total deadweight tonnage 723,418. Air transport (1992)11: passenger-mi 5,332,000,000, passenger-km 8,581,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 534,832,000, metric

ton-km cargo 860,731,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 30; total circulation 1,200,000; circulation per 1,000 population 261. Radio (1991): 2,250,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,200,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Telephones (1991): 2,545,000 (1 per 2.0 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Vocational Higher

1,735 816 386 7

student/ teachers

51,321 50,392

6,15012

students

teacher ratio

661,063 449,407 122,223 84,990

12.9 8.9 =

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 6.7%; primary education. 22.5%; secondary 39.6%; postsecondary, vocational, and higher 31.2%. Literacy (1992): total population age 15 and over literate 3,390,027 (94.8%); males literate 1,698,696 (97.1%); females literate 1,692,331 (92.7%),

Health (1993): physicians (1987) 11,895 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 30,695 (1 per 177 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,220 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 176,000 (army 76.1%, navy 5.7%, air force 18.27%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 9.4% ({1991] world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,337. ‘Excluding West Bank (2,270 sq mi [5,879 sq km]), Gaza Strip (146 sq mi [378 sq km Golan Heights (444 sq mi [1,150 sq km]), and East Jerusalem (27 sq mi [70 sq km). January 1. 3Includes population of Golan Heights (28,100) and East Jerusalem. 4Excludes Israelis in Jewish localities (pop. 105,400) in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Includes Israelis in Jewish localities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Includes area and population of East Jerusalem and Golan Heights. 7Jewish population only. 8Excludes armed forces; includes Israelis in occupied territories. °Mostly unemployed. 10Urban population only. EJ Al only. 12199199.

Nations of the World

Italy 2 3 Officia: l name: Z Repubblica Italiana (Italian Republic).

Area and population

(continued)

Toscana

Florence

Arezzo Firenze

Form of government: republic with

Grossete

two legislative houses (Senate [3261];

Chief of state: President.

Massa-Carrara

Official religion: none.

Valle d'Aosta

1 £=Lit 2,495.

ii

age ong population

area

population

a ie Abruzzi

Chieti L’Aquila Pescara Teramo

Basilicata

Matera

aos aliabria

a

Reggio di Calabria

i ae L'Aquila

sq mi 4,168

sq km 10,794

estimates 1,249,156

Pescara

473

1,225

289,355

Chieti L’Aquila

999 1,944

Teramo

752

Potenza

3,858

oe atanzaro

oe ;

Matera

rect

Reggio di Calabria

1,229

i

— Napoli

oe Naples

800 1,019 452

Bologna

8,542

Salerno

Emilia-Romagna

Somes

Forli

Modena

ne

sa nell’Emilia

eee it

Salerno

eae?

Udine

ee

Roma

iguria

Genova

Imperia

paepe za feroane Bergamo Brescia

tina

ee

Rieti

Rome

Genoa

Imperia

pespeea Mion Bergamo Brescia

Como

come

one

Pavia

Sondrio

es

Rome ee

bowen

Milano

ree

Ravenna Reggio nell’Emilia

asi e Udine Rieti

1,123

1,039

soil Trieste oa

Latina

hoe

Modena

Friuli-Venezia Giulia Core Lazio Frosinone

1,900

Forli

Milan

Pavia

Sondrio Varese

3,447

ae

Bio

—

: 718 885

382,034 297,832

1,948

9,992

1,331

Campania peo

2,587 5,034

nein ,

279,935

610,018

208,884

recone 7

A

1,420 827 691

956

950

Verona

Vicenza es TALa

1,195

Vicenza

1,051

116,324 ,

aoaiees

3,262

115,958

18,364

4,379,932

3,678 2,142 1,789 ;

211,925 820,530 247,801 :

2,477

744,025

2,460

819,607

3,096

787,910

2,722

748,134

301,277 =~ 56,757,236 , 757,

Demography

Population

(1994): 57.313.000

Jf,

?

Hires

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 492.7, persons per sq km 190.2.

Urban-rural (19922): urban 66.8%; rural 33.2%. . : 5 o

ee

.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 83.2%; nonreligious 13.6%; athe. 6%: other 0.6%

3,015,195

22,123

3,906,702

4,922

ee

2,910

ane

607,192

aoe

eel

i 1,859 2,292

Y 350,227 420,236

Saas

eT ed

17,203 aoe

5,141,731 ea

1,061

2.149

rae

;

8 5,3

i

1,836

1,155

ee 23,857 2,760 4,782

s

at

903

2,339

1,145

Boe

es

1,259

7,090

811,638

1,066,714

1,171

ae 521,918

1,066

es

Doublingfeo time: ; ? populatio:n stable. Me not applicable e Ethnolingu

6,642 ee

1,066 1,846

oa

450,026

: 292,559 815,351

ae 4,893

Fe apit

iene =

6,218

2,071 2,639

. 1,889

446

8,456

2,401

576,642

1,196,494 oe

709

3,265

3,183

eo ee

7,845 bok

:

Perugia

Geen | deatteakicom VidkehaiceeatLe

3,029 ~~

2,066

440,727

Venice

Verona

;

890,753

7,400

Treviso

Venezia

19922

204,480

385,048

;

2,857

Belluno Padova Rovigo 9

Treviso

peeton

Regions

x265

Bolzano

Venice

Belluno Padova Rovigo g

200,1 13

13.618

Aosta

Veneto

376.879

1,157

2,448

5,258

Trento

Umbria a P

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Lit 1,569;

,

Bolzano

Trento

Monetary unit: 1 lira (Lit, plural lire) = 100 centesimi; valuation (Oct.

215,907

314,330 1,183,413

ia

: a8

iena

Bolzano-Bozen

4,504

945

iistols

Trentino-Alto Adige

3,526,752

3,232 3,879

447

Pisa

iena

22,992

ena

Massa-Carrara

nist

ital: Capital: Rome. oa BBE OYfficia TI anguage: Ital allan.

1,739

ee

Pisa

Head of government: Prime Minister.

1,248 1,498

Grosseto

oe

Chamber of Deputies [630]).

8,877

Arezzo Florence

635

2,762

fibers '

’

18.6%; 60-74, 13.5%; 75 and over, 5.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 57,274,000; (2010) 56,270,000. rig 4 istic composition (1983): Italian 94.1%; Sardinian 2.7%; Rhaetian 1.3%; other 1.9%. y x

ist 2.6%; other

0.6%.

Major cities (1992?,3): Rome 2,773,889; Milan 1,367,733; Naples 1,068,927: Turin 961,512; Palermo 698,141; Genoa 676,069; Bologna 403,397; Florence

402,211; Bari 342,710; Catania 333,485; Venice 309,041.

;

j National origin (1980): Italian 98.8%; foreign-born ee of bee Austrian

0.4%, French 0.2%, Slovene 0.2%, Albanian i 0.1%, 0 ther 0.3%. ). Mobility (1981). Population living in the same residence as in 1976: 92.4%.

Households. Average household size (1990) 2.8; composition of households: 1 person 20.2%, 2 persons 23.9%, 3 persons 23.0%, 4 persons 22.9%, 5 or more persons 10.0%. Family households (1983): 15,205,000 (85.3%); nonfamily 2,617,000 (14.7%), of which 1-person 13.0%.

Immigration (1989); immigrants admitted 81,201, from Europe 48.2%, of which West Germany 16.2%, Switzerland 7.8%; Africa 14.0%; Argentina ’ : : 9.3%; Asia 9.2%; U.S. 5.4%.

2888 | Vital statistics 761,

672,

948,012

213,617

eee 8,853,461

:

E

Ke Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.4 (world avg. 26.0); : (1990) legit imate

93.7%; illegitimate 6.3%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.1 (world avg. 16.8).

932,370 1,044,699

Total fertility rate (avg. births per eo woman; 1992): 1.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991); 5.4.

369,314

Life expectancy at birth (1990): male. 73.6 years; female 80.2 years.

paling

3,920,626

Genre ee 5

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: (1990): 0.4.

Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991):

;

ee esthe a

culatory system 420.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 276.0; acci ents an

violence 68.8; diseases of the respiratory system 59.2; diseases of the digesi

Mache.

Ancona

3,743

9,693

1,428,593

Ancona

Ancona

749

1,940

437,114

Risener a

1 O71

Pesaro

3774

28 348

Social indicators

Campobasso

1,117

1,713

2,892

335,698

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over

Campobasso

ee 590

vee 1,529

et 91,881

ar Pepe une

Molise

Campobasso lsernia

Piemonte

Alessandria Asti

Cuneo

Novara

Isernia

Turin

Alessandria Asti

Cuneo

Novara

Torino

Tan

Vercelli ‘

Vercelli

Brindisi

Brindisi

Puglia

he Foggia Lecce

serenty

Seeolart

Nuoro

Oristano oaror

“as soy)

Caltanissetta Catania nes

Palonnd Bioee Siracusa Trapani

ay‘

Foggia ae

Lecce hone

Cagliari

Nuoro

Oristano Paleen

ak

Gattaniesstia

Catania peatia

tiene Ragusa Siracusa irapan|

9,807 1,375

583

tS

25,399

4,299,912

3,560

437,794

Vo

2G

oe

rots

ee

,

:

OEE

,

A

aoa

ine Y

eercae f

031,759 Teli

tive system 49.9,

having: no formal schooling 19.3%4; primary education 47.4%; lower sec-

ondary 18.0%; upper secondary 11.2%; higher 4.1%.

a

;

Distribution of income (1986) percentage of household income by quintile 5 : c B (highest) Bigh oe8 ones) 255

;

Seep

68

120

167

235

41.0

411,359

ee 9,301

7,185

2,759 2437

696,449 804,179 588.630

aeslife. Average workwee Quality of: working Qn). 36.6 hours. Annual k (1985): rate Der 100,000 workers (1988) for: injury or accident 3,697; industrial illness 4055;

24,090

2,662

1,646,771

6,895

*cahyili 100%; (1992) resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability %: death 100%0. dea Number of working days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (1991):

ous ry

aah 25,709

(one

710

2,774

Gia

1,175

62a

pa 1284

1,927 623 B14 es

Sian

1,838

Lpoe

3,042

2.128

aoe 3,248

4,992 1,614 aie Be

death 5.7. Percentage of labour force insured for damages or income loss ee : er a

762,400

862. Average duration of journey to work: n.a. Rate per 1,000 workers of

pete 4,966,118

Material well-being. Rate per 1,000 of population possessing (1991): telephone 579; automobile 494; television 299 (colour 188°). Households possessing

pie ee 476,083

“cee

186.112 646,854

1,224,083 a ae eae :

discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work; 1990): 1.1.

(1979): television 72%; refrigerator 91%; washing machine 88%. iaigaee

Social participation. Eligible voters participating in lasta

i,ection

(1992): 67.0%. Population participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce (1990): c. 28%, RGR aa oR aneSee

population in total affiliated population which attended church weekly (early 1990s) 25.0%. ‘ i aeeps! Social deviance (1992). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 2.9; rape 2.4; assault 240.5; theft, including burglary and housebreaking 2,958.

636

Britannica World Data

Access to services (1981). Proportion of dwellings having access to: electricity 99.5%; safe water supply 98.7%; toilet facilities 98.5%; bath facilities 86.4%.

Leisure (1988). Favourite leisure activities (as percentage of household spending on culture): sporting events 19.0%; cinema 18.5%; theatre 13.7%.

National economy Gross national product (1993): U.S.$1,134,800,000,000 (U.S.$19,620 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

46,369 305,100

3.4 20.2

4,823,000 227,000 4,731,000

87,635, 82,594 90,949 277,814 200,450 194,081 212,347 9,8517 1,507,190

5.8 5:5 6.0 18.4 13.3 12.9 14.1 0.77 100.0

1,957,000

: ; y Financial aggregate

1,372.1 2,249.8 1,669.6

1,198.1 2,138.1 1,607.8

1,240.6 2,195.1 1,646.5

1,232.4 2,175.8 2,022.4

1,573.7 2,363.7 2,340.5

1,564.5 2,417.5 2,301.6

Total (excl. gold; '000,000) 46,720 SDRs (000,000) 998 Reserve pos. in IMF ('000,000) 1,444

44,278 66.67

62,927 1,037 1,714 60,176 66.67

48,679 930 2,255 45,495 66.67

27,643 238 2,439 24,966 66.67

27,545 241 2,164 25,140 66.67

34,089 120 2,133 31,836 66.67

7.1

7.1

7A

7A

7.3

7.3

14.21 11.61

12.50 11.87

12.00 11.37

12.00 11.99

8.00 9.60

7.0017

99.3

100.0

84.7

70.5

83.5

109.917

Foreign exchange ('000,000) Gold (000,000 fine troy oz)

4,660,000 1,003,000 6,042,000

24.9

2,653,0008 24,245,000

10.98 100.0

% world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%)

Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices

Budget (1991). Revenue: Lit 444,820,000,000,000 (1990; income taxes 37.7%, of which individual 30.9%, corporate 6.7%; value-added and excise taxes

30.0%; social-security taxes 29.5%; property taxes 1.4%). Expenditures: Lit 583,620,000,000,000 (1988; social security and welfare 39.7%; debt service 16.3%; health 11.8%; education and culture 9.7%; transportation 7.4%;

defense 3.8%). Public debt (1993): U.S.$1,038,200,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$21,577,000,000; expenditures U.S.$16,617,000,-

199416

1991

International reserves (U.S.$)

4,149,000

1993

1990

£ SDR

% of labour force

Wd

1989

Exchange rate, Lit per: U.S. dollar

1991

in value (Lit '000,000,000)

expenditure (1992). Average household size 2.7; avHousehold income and erage annual income por household (1984) Lit 19,692,000 (U.S.$11,208); sources of income (1991): salaries and wages 41.7%, property income and self-employment 38.0%, transfer payments 20.3%; expenditure (1991): food and beverages 20.2%, housing 15.4%, transportation and communications 12.1%, recreation and education 9.1%.

(1990 = 100) Balance of payments (U.S.$'000,000)

8.9217

— 2,167 724 — 895 3,088 —142,285 — 169,216 —169,701 —175,067 140,118 169,940 168,806 178,155 —8,719 -—14,946 -—20,556 -—31,082

Balance of visible trade

Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments,

—10,886

current account

14,222

-21,451

-27,994

Land use (1990): forested 22.4%; meadows and pastures 16.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 39.4%; other 22.0%.

000.

Foreign trade

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1989) hourly no. of

wages aS a

no. of employees 10

enter-

prises?

Manufacturing Machinery (nonelectrical) Transport equipment Electrical machinery Textiles Iron and steel Food products Pottery, ceramics, and glass Metal products Industrial chemicals Printing, publishing Wearing apparel Plastic products Paper and paper products Petroleum and gas Mining and quarrying Construction

392,000 319,000 267,000 240,000 151,000 160,000 153,000 174,000 146,000 86,000 2,921 163,000 1,474 93,000 719 63,000 16 7,000 343 18,000 326,00012 1,849,00013 4,652 899 1,742 3,410 1,027 1,762 1,847 2,945 848 1,062

% of avg. of all wages11

annual value added (Lit 000,000,000)

24,127 18,090 16,422 11,929 10,706 10,062 10,027 8,989 8,168 7,009 5,983 5,299 4,201 2,483 1,022 53,465 13

98.0 117.7 112.1 84.4 122.6 92.2 coh 86.7 119.7 103.2 75.0 84.4 102.2 136.6 es

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugar beets 14,960,000, grapes 10,538,000, wheat 9,037,000, corn (maize) 7,799,000, tomatoes 5,956,000, potatoes 2,736,000, olives 2,489,000, apples 2,469,000, barley 1,759,000, peaches 1,316,000, pears 1,189,000, soybeans 1,057,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,435,000 sheep, 8,549,000 pigs, 8,004,000 cattle, 139,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 8,423,000 cu m;

fish catch 355,358. Mining and quarrying (1992): rock salt 3,365,946; potash 1,615,064; feldspar 1,387,968; barite 80,709; zinc 62,558; magnesium 35,565 !4;

lead 27,475. Manufacturing (1992): cement 41,043,085; crude steel 25,100,622; pig iron 11,561,849; plastics 2,809,871; sulfuric acid 2,773,478; caustic soda 964,834; textiles 496,195 15; wine 61,680,000 hectolitres®; beer 11,502,571 hectolitres1!3; olive oil 7,527,000 hectolitres!4; 5,028,676 washing machines!4; 4,155,481 refrigerators!4; 2,653,952 motorized road vehicles!4, of which 1,631,943 automobiles!4, 775,884 motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds!4, 246,725 trucks and buses!4; 2,434,484 televisions!4, of which 2,433,067 colour!4. Construction (1991): residential 93,213,740 cu m; commercial, industrial, and other 103,628,468 cu m.

Balance of trade (current prices) Lit 000,000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 6,533 2.2%

—1,012 0.3%

—3,358 0.8%

+724 0.2%

~1,913 0.4%

2,229 0.5%

Imports (1992): Lit 232,111,000,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 34.1%, of which transport equipment 14.8%, precision machinery 6.1%; chemicals and chemical products 15.0%; metal and semiprocessed metal 8.0%; food and live animals 6.7%; crude petroleum 5.4%; textiles 3.8%).

Major import sources:

Public utilities Transportation } Communications Finance Wholesale and retail trade Pub. admin., services

Energy production

petroleum

(barrels;

hourly wage as a % of

employees 15

all wages

1,398

annual value added (Lit 000,000,000)

230,0006

82,594

132,164

1,146,000

90,949

89,092 1,495,702

895,000 4,537,000 5,986,000

200,450 277,814 194,081

(consumption):

000 (261,543,000,000);

no. of

electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 226,243,000,-

coal (metric tons; 1992) 825,000 (18,389,000); crude

1992) 30,694,000

(598,165,000);

petroleum

products

(metric tons; 1992) 85,102,000 (92,982,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 17,996,000,000 (50,216,000,000).

Population economically active (1991): total 24,245,000; activity rate of total population 42.4% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 59.3%; female 37.1%;

unemployed 10.9%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1987

1988

1989

84.1 82.9

88.4 87.9

93.9 93.2

21.6%; France

14.5%; The Netherlands

Exports (1992): Lit 219,436,000,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.2%, of which electrical machinery 4.9%, automobiles 4.0%, precision machinery 3.8%; chemicals and chemical products 10.4%; textiles 8.8%;

wearing apparel 7.7%, of which shoes 2.8%; metal and processed metal 6.3%). Major export destinations: Germany 20.4%; France 14.6%; U.S. 7.0%; U.K. 6.6%; Spain 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 12,176 mi, 19,595 km; passenger-mi 30,050,000,000, passenger-km 48,361,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 15,091,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 22,033,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 188,597 mi, 303,518 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 28,200,000; trucks and buses 2,521,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,636; total deadweight tonnage 10,940,065. Air transport (1993) 18: passenger-mi

15,234,000,000, passenger-km

24,516,000,000; short ton-mi cargo

1,337,514,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,952,737,000; airports (1994) 32. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 123; total circulation 8,838,200; circulation per 1,000 population 154. Radio (1993): 14,817,197 receivers (1 per 3.9 persons). Television (1993): 17,000,500 receivers (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (19912): 32,945,122 (1 per 1.7 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

Service enterprises (1992) no. of enterprises11

Germany

5.9%; U.K. 5.7%; U.S. 5.2%; Switzerland 4.5%.

Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-18) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher 19

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

22,710 9,857 7,930

182,390 105,964 133,685 56,723

2,959,564 2,059,044 2,833,150 1,538,606

16.2 19.4 21.2 27.1

50

Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 47,507,000 (97.1%); males literate 22,832,000 (97.8%); females literate 24,675,000 (96.4%). Health (1992): physicians 296,385 (1 per 193 persons); hospital beds 1991) oe eoe (1 per 148 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births tees Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,498 (vegetable products 74%,

animal products 26%); 139% of FAO recommended ‘minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 322,300 (army 63.6%, navy 13.7%, air force 22.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.1% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$421.

‘Includes 11 nonelective seats. 2January 1. 3Resident population only. 4More than two-thirds are age 55 and over. 51978. 61988. 7Imputed bank charges less duties on imports. Unemployed. %Enterprises with 20 or more persons engaged. 0Total number of persons engaged. 111981. !2AIl enterprises (1982). 131987. 141991. 151990. leJuly. !7June. 18Alitalia only. 19Universities only.

Nations of the World

Jamaica

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Jamaica. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [21]; House of Representatives [60]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by governor-general. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingston. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Jamaica dollar

1993 in value J$’000,000 Agriculture Mining

Trade

Pub. admin., defense Finance, real estate Services Other

Parishes Clarendon Hanover Kingston Manchester Portland Saint Andrew Saint Ann Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth Saint James Saint Mary Saint Thomas Trelawny Westmoreland

area

Capitals

$9km_

May Pen Lucea 2 Mandeville Port Antonio 2 Saint Ann’s Bay Spanish Town Black River Montego Bay

Port Maria Morant Bay

TOTAL

219,400 66,000 3 167,900 77,600 679,1003 151,700 364,400

1,212 595

145,300 161,000

611 743 875 807 10,991

Falmouth Savanna-la-Mar

19921 estimate

1,196 450 22 830 814 431 1,213 1,192

Consumer price index Earnings index

17.7

272,200

25.1

—6.28

95,785

100.0

186,6009

17.29

1,083,000

100.0

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

66.2 Rs

71.7 re

82.0 re

100.0

151.1

267.8

327.0

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000 ~ % of total

Population projection: (2000) 2,642,000; (2010) 2,907,000. Doubling time: 38 years. Ethnic composition (1982): black 74.7%; mixed black 12.8%; East Indian 1.3%; other 11.2%, of which not stated 9.5%.

Religious affiliation (1982): Protestant 55.9%, of which Church of God 18.4%, Baptist 10.0%, Anglican 7.1%, Seventh-day Adventist 6.9%, Pentecostal not

stated

Major cities (1991): Kingston 103,7714 (metropolitan area 587,798); Spanish Town 92,383; Portmore 90,138; Montego Bay 83,446; May Pen 46,785.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 23.9 (world avg. 26.0); (1987) legitimate 14.9%, illegitimate 85.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 18.3 (world avg. 16.8).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 71.4 years; female 75.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 229.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 91.4; diseases of the respiratory system 36.8; endocrine and metabolic disorders 29.1.

National economy (tax revenue

191,100

9.5 1 13} 4.5

Foreign trade10

73,800 128,800

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 31.9%; 15-29, 30.3%; 30-44, 18.1%; 45-59, : 9.5%; 60 and over, 10.2%.

J$34,243,000,000

23.7

9,063 10,772 4,343

9.0 5.8 0.4 3.7

and under permanent cultivation 25.0%; other 40.5%.

Population (1994): 2,497,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 587.9, persons per sq km 227.0. Urban-rural (1991): urban 50.2%; rural 49.8%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.98%; female 50.02%.

Revenue

22,707

97,800 62,100 4,500 40,100

tionals abroad U.S.$64,000,000. Land use (1991): forested 17.0%; meadows and pastures 17.5%; agricultural

Demography

Budget (1993-94).

20.4 0.7

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,596,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$858,000,000; expenditures by na-

2,435,500

17.7%;

220,800 7,800

7.3 18.4 12.9 23 8.0

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

113,000 87,500

5.2%; Roman Catholic 5.0%; nonreligious or atheist 11.2%; other 10.2%, of which Rastafarian c. 5.0%.

8.4

% of labour force

Population economically active (1993): total 1,083,000; activity rate of total population 43.6% (participation rates: ages 14-64 [1990] 71.6%; female 48.0%; unemployed 16.3%).

population

—Sq mi_

labour force

6,961 17,667 12,341 2,193 7,630

—5,9358

TOTAL

1994) 1 U.S.$ =J$32.53; 1 £=J$51.74,

% of total value

8,043

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

(J$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, Area and population

637

85.0%, of which

income taxes 32.5%, consumption taxes 30.67%, stamp duties 4.7%; nontax revenue 15.0%). Expenditures: J$41,256,900,000 (current expenditure 73.2%,

of which debt interest 24.6%; development expenditure 26.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry,

fishing

(1993): sugarcane 2,661,000, yams 221,900, vegetables 147,400, bananas 76,800, plantains 35,800, citrus fruits 27,700, coffee 12,300, legumes 11,100, cacao beans 6,300, pimientos 1,700; livestock (number of live animals; 1992)

440,000 goats, 320,000 cattle, 250,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 180,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 10,430. Mining and quarrying (1993): crude bauxite 3,938,600; alumina 2,989,400; gypsum 152,200. Manufacturing (1993): sugar 219,000; flour 147,800; molasses 102,500; beer and stout 781,200 hectolitres;

rum 218,400 hectolitres; cigarettes 1,298,500,000 units. Construction (1992): residential units completed 5,286; factory space completed 6,989 sq m°®. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,735,000,000 (2,735,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (8,708,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,206,000 (1,028,000);

* natural gas, none (none). : Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.2; average annual income per household (1988) J$8,356 (U.S.$1,525); sources of

income (1989): wages and salaries 66.1%, self-employment 19.3%, transfers

14.6%; expenditure (1988)7: food and beverages 55.67%, housing 7.9%, fuel

and other household supplies 7.4%, health care 7.0%, transportation 6.47%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, household furnishings 2.8%, other 7.8%.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$3,216,000,000 (U.S.$1,340 per capita).

—601 26.5%

—873 30.4%

-785 25.3%

1991 —654 22.2%

1992 —636 23.2%

1993 —1,121 34.9%

Imports (1993): J$53,138,079,000 (raw materials 59.6%, of which fuels 15.5%; capital goods 20.3%, of which machinery and apparatus 7.1%; consumer goods 20.1%). Major import sources (1992): United States 55.9%; Venezuela 5.4%; United Kingdom 4.5%; Mexico 4.0%; Japan 3.6%; Netherlands Antilles 3.2%; Canada 3.1%; Hong Kong 2.8%.

Exports (1993): J$25,545,600,000 (alumina 42.1%; raw sugar 9.3%; bauxite 8.1%; bananas 3.4%; rum 2.1%; coffee 1.9%). Major export destinations (1992): United States 42.7%; United Kingdom 15.0%; Canada 10.4%; Norway 6.7%; Germany 3.7%; Ghana 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1991): route length 129 mi, 208 km; passenger-mi

12,127,0006, passenger-km 19,516,0006; short ton-mi cargo 1,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,482,000. Roads (1991): total length 10,212 mi, 16,435 km

(paved 29%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 97,500; trucks and buses 18,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total deadweight tonnage 16,207. Air transport (1992)11: passenger-mi 888,559,-

000, passenger-km 1,430,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 14,235,000, metric ton-

km cargo 20,783,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 130,40012; circulation per 1,000 population 5312. Radio (1993): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1993): 484,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 278,872 (1 per 8.8 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) 13

student/

schools

Primary (age 6-11) 14 Secondary (age 12-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

78815 126 18 1516

teachers

students

teacher ratio

10,147 7,927 976

386,688 152,367 15,617

38.1 19.2 16.0

1,047 17

19,173 18

17.917

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 3.2%; some primary education 79.8%; some secondary 15.0%; complete secondary and higher 2.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 1,630,000 (98.4%); males literate

800,000 (98.2%); females literate 830,000 (98.6%). Health: physicians!9 (1993) 364 (1 per 6,791 persons); hospital beds (1992) 5,304 (1 per 462 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 27.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,558 (vegetable products 83%,

animal products 17%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military © Total active duty personnel (1993): 3,320 (army 90.4%; coast guard 4.5%; air force 5.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.7% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$10. 1January 1. 2The parishes of Kingston and Saint Andrew are jointly administered from the Half Way Tree section of Saint Andrew. 3Kingston included with Saint Andrew. 4City of Kingston is coextensive with Kingston parish. 551% public sector. ©1990. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8Less imputed service charges. °Includes 176,700 unemployed. !°Import figures are ci. UAir Jamaica only. 12Circulation for 2 newspapers only. 13Public schools only. 14Includes lowersecondary students at all-age schools. 151991—92. 161988-89. 171987-88. 18198990. 19Public health only.

638

Britannica World Data

Japan

Other principal cities (1993')

populies

Official name: Nihon (Japan). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with a National Diet consisting of two legislative houses (House of Councillors [252]; House of Representatives [511]). Chief of state: Emperor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tokyo. Official language: Japanese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 yen (£)=100 sen; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$= ¥100.22; 1 £=¥159.40.

280,795 307,862 496,313 288,291 362,176 850,631 362,088 254,667 282,654

Akashi Akita Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa “Chiba Fujisawa Fukui Fukushima Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu Hachidji Hakodate

370,873 539,740

409,558 488,187 304,286 560,660 515,375 463,197

Regions Prefectures Chibu

_population— 19931

Capitals Nagoya Fukui Gifu

Ishikawa Nagano Niigata Shizuoka Toyama Yamanashi Chugoku Hiroshima Okayama Shimane Tottori Yamaguchi

Kanazawa

Nagano Niigata Shizuoka Toyama Kofu Hiroshima

Okayama Matsue Tottori Yamaguchi

sq mi

sq km

1,984 1,619 4,091 1,621 5,245 4,857 3,001 1,642 1,723

5,139 4,192 10,596 4,198 13,585 12,579 7,773 4,252 4,463

3,269 2,738 2,5592 1,3492 2,358

__estimate__

8,467 7,092 6,6292 3,4942 6,107

6,795,000 825,000 2,085,000 1,171,000 2,170,000 2,478,000 3,712,000 1,121,000 865,000

2,872,000 1,936,000 772,000 615,000 1,562,000

Maebashi Matsudo

Ibaraki Ichihara Ichikawa Ichinomiya

255,500 270,332 447,165 266,648

Kagoshima

539,911

Oita

Hirakata Hiratsuka

Area and population

Kanazawa Kashiwa Kasugai Kawagoe Kawaguchi Kochi Koriyama Koshigaya Kumamoto Kurashiki Machida

Matsuyama Miyazaki Morioka Nagano Nagasaki Naha Nara Neyagawa Niigata

Hamamatsu Higashi-Osaka Himeji

396,867 251,991

Iwaki

359,098 + Nishinomiya

Chiba

Sapporo

Chiba

32,247

83,520

5,666,000

1,989

5,721,000 1,988,000 2,916,000 8,149,000 6,632,000 1,966,000

Kanagawa

Yokohama

Saitama

Urawa

1,467

Tochigi Kinki Hydgo Mie Nara Shiga

Utsunomiya

2,476

5,151 6,356 6,094 2,403 3,799 6,414

Kobe Tsu Nara Otsu Wakayama

3,236 2,231 1,425 1,551 1,824

8,381 5,778 3,692 4,016 4,725

5,490,000 1,818,000 1,413,000 1,258,000 1,079,000

Fukuoka

1,916 3,539 2,860 2,986

4,875,000

1,588 2,447 942

4,963 9,167 7,408 7,735 4,113 6,338 2,440

871

2,255

1,247,000

Matsuyama Takamatsu

2,190 727

Kochi

2,744

Tokushima

1,601

5,672 1,883 7,107 4,146

1,509,000 1,025,000 815,000 830,000

Akita

4,4843 3,7143 5,322 5,898 2,815 3,601

11,6133 9,6193 13,784 15,277 7,292 9,327

1,216,000 1,470,000 2,122,000 1,415,000 2,290,000 1,253,000

Tokyo

836

2,166

11,830,000

Kyoto Osaka

1,781 722 145,8836,7

4,613 1,869 377,8356,7

2,605,000 8,723,000 124,764,000

Gumma Ibaraki

Wakayama Kydshu Fukuoka Kagoshima Kumamoto Miyazaki

Nagasaki Oita Saga Ryukyu Okinawa Shikoku Ehime Kagawa K6chi Tokushima Tohoku Akita Aomori Fukushima Iwate Miyagi

Yamagata Metropolis Tokyo4 Urban prefectures Kydto5 Osaka5 TOTAL

Maebashi Mito

Kagoshima Kumamoto

Miyazaki

Nagasaki Oita Saga Naha

Aomori Fukushima Morioka Sendai

Yamagata

2,454 2,353

928

1,786,000 1,847,000 1,170,000 1,550,000 1,232,000 879,000

Demography Population (1994): 124,960,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 856.6, persons per sq km 330.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 77.5%; rural 22.5%. Sex distribution (19931): male 49.08%; female 50.92%. Age breakdown (19931): under 15, 16.7%; 15-29, 22.1%; 30-44, 20.9%; 45-59, 21.0%; 60-74, 14.0%; 75 and over, 5.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 127,287,000; (2010) 130,344,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Composition by nationality (1992): Japanese 99.0%; Korean 0.6%; Chinese 0.2%; other 0.2%.

Place of birth (1994): 99.2% native-born; 0.8% foreign-born (mainly Korean). Immigration (1992): permanent immigrants/registered aliens admitted 1,281,644, from North and South Korea 53.7%, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China 15.2%, Brazil 11.5%, Philippines 4.8%, United States 3.3%, Peru 2.4%, United Kingdom 0.9%, Thailand 0.8%, Vietnam 0.5%, Canada 0.5%, other 6.4%.

Major cities (19931): Tokyo 8,080,286; Yokohama

3,288,464; Osaka 2,588,-

989; Nagoya 2,158,713; Sapporo 1,731,670; Kobe 1,509,395; Kydto 1,452,240; Fukuoka 1,268,626; Kawasaki 1,199,707; Hiroshima 1,102,047; Kita-Kyisha 1,019,996.

249,390 446,325 316,725 273,116 316,313 451,345 319,243 322,255

Okayama

Okazaki Omiya Otsu Sagamihara Sakai Sendai Shimonoseki

294,966

Shizuoka

639,699 418,450

Suita Takamatsu

358,891 287,912 463,517

Takatsuki Tokorozawa Tokushima

454,374 293,590

Toyama Toyohashi

283,398

Toyonaka

* 352,378

Toyota

441,308

Urawa

301,679

Utsunomiya

355,869 257,137

Wakayama Yamagata

490,237 424,719 420,361

Yao Yokkaichi Yokosuka

604,513 318,983 422,023 268/583 560,366 806,263 950,893 259,898 474,219 339,970 331,031 361,283 315,517 265,243 324,073 349,590 403,224 341,453 442,381 434,029 395,496 251,354 276,324 282,197 435,383

Religious affiliation (1989): Shintd and related religions 39.5%; Buddhism 38.3%; Christian 3.9%; other 18.3%. Households (1990). Total households 40,670,000; average household size 3.0; composition of households 1 person 23.1%, 2 persons 20.6%, 3 persons 18.1%, 4 persons 21.7%, 5 persons 9.3%, 6 or more persons 7.2%. Family households 31,204,000 (76.7%); nonfamily 9,466,000 (23.3%), of which 1

person 9,390,000 (23.1%). Type of household (1988) Total number of dwelling units: 37,413,000 number of dwellings

Hokkaido Hokkaido (Territory) Kanto

population

population

Kakogawa

by kind of dwelling exclusive entry (do not share bathroom or kitchen) combined with nondwelling detached house apartment building tenement (substandard or overcrowded building) other by legal tenure of householder

percentage of total

34,701,000

92.8

2,712,000 23,311,000 11,409,000 2,490,000

7.3 62.3 30.5 6.7

203,000

0.5

22,948,000 14,015,000 450,000

owned rented other

by kind of amenities flush toilet bathroom by year of construction

24,300,000 34,126,000 2,701,000 11,487,000 13,543,000 3,564,000 5,556,000

prior to 1945 1945-70

1971-80 1981-83 1984-88

Mobility (1980). Population living in same residence from birth 24.0%; different residence established prior to October 1975, 44.0%; different residence established after October 1975, 32.0%, of which: same prefecture 24.1%;

different prefecture 7.7%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 99.0%; illegitimate 1.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.1; median age at first marriage (1987) men 28.3 years, women 25.6 years. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 76.1 years; female 82.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 186.5; heart diseases 141.2; cerebrovascular diseases 95.0; pneumonia and bronchitis 64.6; accidents and adverse effects 27.9; senility without

mention of psychosis 18.7; suicide 16.8; nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis 14.7; cirrhosis of the liver 13.8; diabetes mellitus 7.9. Social indicators Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 years and over having: primary 34.3%; secondary education 44.5%; postsecondary 21.2%.

Distribution of income (1992) percentage of average household income by quintile 1

2

3

44

W141

15.4

19.1

, 23.1

__5 (highest) 31.3

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1992): 39.4 hours. Annual rate of industrial deaths per 100,000 workers (1992): 2.8. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from injury, permanent disability, and death (1991): 50.1%. Average man-days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000,000 workdays (1992): 14.1. Average duration of journey to work (1988)8: 26.8 minutes (1983; 26.7% private automobile, 67.4% public

Nations of the World transportation, 5.5% taxi, 0.4% other). Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemp

loyed no longer seeking work; 1987): 100.8.

Access to services (1989). Proportion of households having access to: gas supply 64.6%; safe public water supply 94.0%; public sewage collection 89.4%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (1993): 67.3%. Population 15 years and over participating activities on a voluntary basis (1987): 25.2%. Trade union in social-service membership in

total workforce (1992): 24.4%. Social deviance (1991). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: homicide 1.0; rape 1.3; robbery 1.5; larceny and theft 1,213.9. Incidence population of: alcoholism, n.a.; drug and substance abuse, n.a.in general Rate of suicide per 100,000 population: 16.0. Leisure/use of personal time Discretionary daily activities (1 991) (Population age 15 years and over)

Total discretionary daily time of which Hobbies and amusements Sports Learning (except schoolwork) Social activities Associations Radio, television, newspapers, and magazines Rest and relaxation Other activities

5:567

93.0

Sports

Light exercises Swimming Bowling

Learning (except schoolwork) Travel Domestic Foreign

90.8

84.2

721

30.8 27.1

34.1 20.8

78.0

23.1

27.9

37.0

36.7

72.7 10.4

68.3 7.6

70.4 9.0

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$3,926,375,000,-

000 (U.S.$31,450 per capita).

1993

labour force

% of labour force

3,830,000

5.8

1,081

0.3

60,000

0.1

Manufacturing Construction

130,992 36,972

31.1 8.8

15,300,000 6,400,000

23.1 9if

Public utilities

15,214

3.6

350,000

0.5

Trade

26,299 58,986

6.2 14.0

3,940,000 14,480,000

6.0 21.9

Finance

65,855

15.7

2,600,000

3.9

Pub. admin., defense Services

14,613 78,464

3.5 18.6

2,090,000 15,160,000

3.2 22.9

—17,49310 420,809 12

—4.110 100.0

1,950,00011 66,160,000

Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

eee

2.9 100.0

and

science

promotion

8.0%;

national

defense 6.4%; pensions 2.4%). Public debt (1993): U.S.$1,624,500,000,000. om Population economically active (1993): total 66,160,000; activity rate of total population 53.1% (participation rates: age 15 and over, 63.8%; female 40.5%; unemployed 2.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

SDRs ('000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF ('000,000) Foreign exchange (000,000) Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves

Imports, f.0.b. Exports, f.0.b.

local governments 21.6%; national debt 21.3%; social security 18.2%; public education,

72.1

255,000 295,000 219,000 490,000 153,000 124,000

10,772

102.7 85.5 98.1 52.8 102.4 114.7

165,000

1,093 4,036

33,000 79,000

87.4

780

164.9 76.1

29,000

1,107 516

116.1

227

3,259 2,078

1,936 1,885 1,724 1720 1,312

1992) 895,336,000,000 (116,813,000); crude petroleum products diesel 29.7%, heavy

125.85 228.29 169.36

143.45 226.21 188.52

134.40 258.41 191.21

125.20 234.21 179.09

124.75 188.62 171.53

111.85 172.27 153.63

96,728

83,957

78,501

72,059

71,623

2,936 3,278 90,514 24.23 2.6

98,524 114,559

2,447 3,518 77,992 24.23 2.6

3,042 5,971 69,487 24.23 2.6

2579 7,722 61,758 24.23 2.6

1,094 1,543 1,793 8641 8261 8579 61,888 88,720 104,187 24.23 2423 24.23 2.6 2.6 27

2.50 4.27

4.25 5.05

6.00 7.36

4.50 6.53

3.25 4.94

1.75 3.69

1.75 3.67 18

97.8

117.8

100.0

84.5

62.6

76.5

ike

Balance of visible trade

tax 24.8%; value-added tax 8.5%; liquor and tobacco tax 4.8%; stamp duties culture,

4,066

625,000

99.05 152.56 143.46

(U.S.$'000,000,000)

2.7%; customs duties 1.4%). Expenditures: ¥72,354,800,000,000 (transfers to 11.8%;

10,116 7,373 7,339 5,732 4,953

9,762 25,758 5,959 24,416 4,240 3,492

Balance of payments

Budget (1993). Revenue: ¥64,211,200,000,000 (income tax 42.0%; corporation

works

12,206

97.6 130.0 119.3 100.8 92.2

38,729

Central bank discount (%)17 Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices (1990 = 100)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Other TOTAL

Exchange rate 17, ¥ per: U.S. dollar £ SDR * International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000)

Interest and prices

2.3

79.6

917,000 340,000 595,000 457,000 476,000

Financial aggregates

a

National economy

9,826

12,669

ufacturing 44.4%, residential and commercial 24.4%, transportation 23.1%, agriculture, forestry, and fisheries 3.7%, other 4.4%.

pact disc player 51.8%.

% of total value

406,000

20,936 19,506 14,119

natural gas (cu m; 1992) 2,243,000,000 (56,363,000,000). Composition of energy supply by source (1992): crude oil and petroleum products 58.2%, coal 16.1%, natural gas 10.6%, nuclear power 10.0%, hydroelectric power 3.8%, other 1.3%. Domestic energy demand by end use (1990): mining and man-

32.0 23.8

33.0

94.9 1124 113.1 131.6

1,233,000

52,367 6,406 30,440 20,614 21,840

annual value added (#'000,000,000)

fuel oil 22.6%, gasoline 18.1%, kerosene and jet fuel 13.8% (187,570,000);

91.9

36.3

1992

1,875,000 1,430,000 969,000

annual wages as a % of avg. of all mfg. wages 14

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; (895,336,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 7,613,000 petroleum (barrels; 1992) 6,243,000 (1,541,000,000); (metric tons; 1992) 172,668,000, of which (by volume)

phone, virtually 100%; colour television receiver 99.3%; refrigerator 98.9%; air conditioner 72.3%; washing machine 99.4%; vacuum cleaner 98.7%; videocassette recorder 82.8%; camera 86.8%; microwave oven 81.3%; com-

in value ¥'000,000,0009

35,657 49,753 15,129

Mining 15

Material well-being (1993). Households possessing: automobile 80.0%; tele-

Transportation and communications

Fabricated metal products Iron and steel Printing and publishing Ceramic, stone, and clay Plastic products

Petroleum and coal products Leather products

percentage of participation male female total Hobbies and amusements

avg. no. of persons engaged

49,492

Nonferrous metal products Furniture and fixtures

0:36 0:11 0:12 0:05 0:29 2:23 1:21 0:21

no. of establishments

5,390

tobacco

Precision instruments Apparel products Rubber products

(Population age 15 years and over)

Mining

Electrical machinery Nonelectrical machinery Transport equipment Chemical products Food, beverages, and

Paper and paper products Lumber and wood products

Major leisure activities (1991)

Agriculture, fishing

[ Manufacturing and mining enterprises (1991)

Textiles

weekly average hrs./min.

639

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

199413

94.9 93.4

97.0 96.3

100.0 1000

103.3 103.4

105.1 105.6

106.4 107.8

107.4 109.4

Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size 3.7; average annual income per household ¥6,585,200 (U.S.$48,900); sources of in-

95.00

769

63.6

103.4

132.4

141.6

164.8 259.8

1927 269.6

2168 280.4

2035 3066

198.5 3309

209.7 351.3

-11.3

-15.6

-222

-17.7

=14.8

-10.1

131.5

79.6

57.0

35.9

T2097 = 134.5

and wholesale trade and services (1991)

Retail trade Food and beverages Grocery Liquors General merchandise

no. of

avg. no.

annual

establishments

of employees

sales (*#'000,000,000)

1,519,186 622,751 68,913 106,650 4,347

140,634 41,453 16,404 6,323 19,898

Department stores Motor vehicles and bicycles Apparel and accessories Furniture and home furnishings Gasoline service stations Books and stationery Wholesale trade Machinery and equipment General machinery except electrical Motor vehicles and parts General merchandise Minerals and metals

2,004 93,230 240,989 158,104 72,807 76,730 475,967 111,046 54,612 17,318 705 22,657

6,936,000 2,542,000 643,000 315,000 440,000 427,000 566,000 809,000 587,000 385,000 600,000 4,773,000 1,286,000 577,000 222,000 51,000 264,000

Farm, livestock, and fishery products

43,331

416,000

Food and beverages Textiles, apparel, and accessories Building materials Chemicals

56,656 44,748 63,885 18,140

561,000 506,000 444,000

98,548 61,300 60,273 47,677 38,517 35,698

179,000

24,457

Drugs and toilet goods

21,319

291,000

19,783

Medical services 19 Educational services 19

171,986 84,512

2,026,000 2,065,000

se

19,574 18,984 14,844 11,987 11,234 4,722 572,982 130,512 47,910 32,019

come: wages and salaries 58.5%, transfer payments 18.97%, self-employment 11.6%, other 11.0%; expenditure: food 19.3%, transportation 8.1%, reading

and recreation 7.6%, clothing and footwear 5.7%, housing 4.27%, fuel, light, and water charges 4.1%, education 4.0%, furniture and household utensils 3.2%, medical care 2.0%. y : Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,588,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$26,837,000,000. Land use (1991): forested 66.7%; meadows and pastures 1.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.1%; other 19.5%.

Production (metric tons (1992): rice 13,255,000, bages

2,500,000,

potatoes 000,

sugarcane

1,300,000,

cucumbers

except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing sugar beets 3,823,000, potatoes 3,650,000, cab1,863,000,

onions

870,000,

1,300,000,

wheat

mandarin

apples

800,000,

oranges.

1,025,000,

tomatoes

1,400,000,

raw

740,000,

sweet

sugar

987,-

watermelons

730,000, carrots 640,000, eggplants 500,000, pears 452,000, barley 340,000, grapes 276,000, pumpkins 265,000, strawberries 219,000, soybeans 197,000, peaches

192,000,

dry beans

140,000,

tea 85,000,

green

beans

80,000,

to-

640

Britannica World Data

bacco leaves 77,000, green peas 50,000, cow’s milk 8,300,000, hen’s eggs 2,586,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,966,000 pigs, 4,980,000 cattle (of which 42% dairy cows), 35,000 goats, 29,000 sheep, 26,000

horses, 337,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1992) 28,063,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 9,266,000, of which sardines 2,224,000, Alaska pollack 499,000, squid 394,000, mackerel

ried 75,422,000; passenger-mi 65,699,000,000, passenger-km 105,732,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 4,914,300,000, metric ton-km cargo 7,174,700,000; airports

(1994) with scheduled flights 75. Shares of domestic passenger traffic by mode of transportation (1991): automobiles and light motor vehicles 54.8%; railway 25.2%; buses 9.6%; ships 0.2%; airplanes 0.1%.

269,000, oysters 245,000, crabs 59,000, river eels

36,000, carp 15,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 200,451,000;

Distribution of traffic (1992)

silica stone 18,854,000; dolomite 4,760,000; silica sand 3,884,000; pyrophyllite

cargo carried (000,000 tons)

% of national total

passengers carried (000,000)

% of national total

6,102.0

90.7

50,396.0 22,694.0 17,445.0 8,445.0 9,000.0 158.0 70.0 90,763.0

55.5 25.0 19.2 9.3 9:9) 0.2 0.1 100.0

730,000; pyrophyllite clay 298,000; zinc 118,599; lead 16,470; copper 10,277;

tungsten 57820; silver 136,890 kg; gold 9,350 kg. Manufacturing (1992): crude steel 98,132,000; semifinished

steel 102,727,0002!; cement

95,820,000; hot-

rolled steel products 87,982,0002!; pig iron 73,144,000; paper pulp 11,199,900; sulfuric acid 7,100,000; plastic products 5,516,80021; compound fertilizers 3,186,000; spun yarn 939,1002!; synthetic fabrics 2,591,760,000 sq m2!; cotton

fabrics 1,464,700,000 sq m; finished products (in number of units) 445,845,000 watches and clocks, 69,371,000 electronic desk calculators2!1, 26,058,000 videocassette recorders2!, 18,164,000 telephones2!, 14,478,000 cameras, 12,024,000 television receivers, 9,378,700 passenger cars, 7,447,900 bicycles?!, 6,981,000 vacuum cleaners2!, 5,587,000 automatic washing machines?!, 5,212,000 electric refrigerators2!, 4,547,000 facsimile machines?!, 4,282,000 microwave ovens2!, 4,178,000 stereo recorders, 3,196,500 motorcycles, 2,654,-

700 photocopy machines?2!, 1,456,800 typewriters2!. Construction (value in ¥ ’000,000; 1992): residential 24,540,000; nonresidential 25,610,000.

Road

Rail (intercity) Urban transport road rail Inland water Air TOTAL

82.0

— = = 8.0 0.0

!

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 122; total circulation 72,043,000; circulation per 1,000 population 579. Radio

(1993): 97,000,000

receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): 100,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Telephones (1992): 57,652,00026 (1 per 2.2 persons). Other communications media (1992)

Foreign trade22

traffic (000)

titles

Balance of trade (current prices) *¥'000,000,000 % of total

1.2

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+ 11,903 21.3%

+11,235 17.4%

+10,398 14.3%

+ 13,093 18.3%

+ 15,922 22.7%

+15,591 24.1%

Imports (1992): ¥29,527,000,000,000

(mineral fuels, lubricants, and related

materials 22.6%, of which crude petroleum and petroleum products 15.6%;

food; beverages, and tobacco 16.0%; machinery and transport equipment 14.1%, of which electrical equipment 5.5%, transport equipment 2.3%; chemicals and chemical products 7.4%). Major import sources: United States 22.4%; China 7.3%; Australia 5.3%; Indonesia 5.3%; South Korea 5.0%; Germany 4.6%; Saudi Arabia 4.4%; Taiwan 4.0%; Canada 3.3%; Malaysia 2.8%; Thailand 2.6%; France 2.3%.

Exports (1992): ¥43,011,000,000,000 (motor vehicles 17.8%; office machinery

Print Books (new) of which

Electronic 45,595

Social sciences Fiction

10,415 9,332 3,597

Engineering Arts

Telegram

48,166

Domestic International Telex

47,726 440 14,25021

4,746

Natural sciences History Philosophy Magazines/journals Weekly Monthly

3,574 2,989 2,237 3,851 107 2,656

Cinema Feature films Domestic Foreign

Post Mail Domestic International Parcels Domestic International

24,166,000 23,842,000 324,000 431,500 426,000 5,500

617 240 377

7.5%; chemicals 5.6%, of which plastic materials 1.5%; scientific and optical

equipment 4.0%; iron and steel products 3.9%; power-generating machinery 2.9%; textiles and allied products 2.5%; tape recorders 1.8%; metalworking machinery 1.1%; radio receivers 0.9%; television receivers 0.7%). Major

Radio and television broadcasting (1992): total radio stations 1,288, of which

export destinations: United States 28.2%; Taiwan 6.2%; Hong Kong 6.1%;

radio 13.2%, television 19.5%; education—radio 4.6%, television 12.1%; culture—radio 15.5%, television 24.4%; entertainment—radio 65.8%, television

Getmany 6.0%; South Korea 5.2%; Singapore 3.8%; United Kingdom 3.6%; Trade by commodity group (1992) SITC group

Education and health

imports U.S.$'000,000

exports

%

U.S.$'000,000

01 02

Food and live animals } Beverages and tobacco Crude materials,

03

excluding fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants,

2332623

2,11623

04

and related materials Animal and vegetable

52,739

1,720

05

oils, fats, and waxes Chemicals and

23

23

related products, n.e.s.

37,289

16.0

1,765

06

Basic manufactures

16,847 14,296

07

18,771 22,247

08

Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured

32,801

172,186

34,615

85,309

09

Goods not classified

21,108 233,021

35,536 339,650

articles by kind TOTAL

% 0.5

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

24,676 16,793 1,191

438,000 560,000 157,000

8,769,000 9,861,000 2,975,000

20.0 17.6 18.9

Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate, virtually 100%.

tuberculosis 3.3%, other 1.6%; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.5.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,921 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 237,700 (army 63.1%, navy 18.1%, air force 18.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.0% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$263.

imports

exports

U.S.$'000,000 Africa

U.S.S.R.24 other Europe Oceania TOTAL

Education (1993)

Health (1992): physicians 218,066 (1 per 570 persons); dentists 76,343 (1 per 1,628 persons); nurses 795,810 (1 per 156 persons); pharmacists 141,630 (1 per 878 persons); midwives (1987) 24,056 (1 per 5,082 persons); hospital beds 1,687,000 (1 per 74 persons), of which (1989) general 72.9%, mental 22.2%,

Direction of trade (1992)

Asia South America North America and Central America United States other North and Central Am. Europe EEC

Commercial broadcasting hours (by percentage of programs; 1991): reports—

41.9%. Advertisements (daily average; 1990): radio 168, television 290.

China 3.5%; Thailand 3.0%; Canada 2.1%; Australia 2.1%.

00

commercial 430; total television stations 14,229, of which commercial 7,307.

U.S.$'000,000

3,518 105,076 6,446

6,407 132,268 5,173

62,261 52,693 9,568 40,808 31,399 2,507 6,902 14,848 232,9477

113,747 96,716 17,031 73,736 62,921 1,164 9,651 8,780 339,9917

" 6.4 100.0

%

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 23,690 mi21, 38,125 km21; rolling stock

(199325) locomotives 5,879, passenger cars 46,19219, freight cars 40,95119; passengers carried 22,651,000,000; passenger-mi 249,947,000,000, passengerkm _402,252,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 18,263,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 26,664,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 691,488 mi, 1,112,844 km (paved

71%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 38,963,861; trucks 22,449,421; buses 248,624. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 10,091; total deadweight tonnage 37,815,779. Air transport (1992): passengers car-

‘October 1; preliminary. 2Excludes Lake Naka (38 sq mi [98 sq km]), which is part of both Shimane and Tottori prefectures. 3Excludes Lake Towada 3 sq mi [60 sq km]), which is part of both Akita and Aomori prefectures. 4Part of Kanto geographic region. 5Part of Kinki geographic region. 61987 survey; includes Lake Naka and Lake Towada. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8Applies to

passengers carried within metropolitan areas only. 9At prices of 1985. 10Import duties and statistical discrepancy less imputed bank service charge. '1Includes 1,660,000 un-

employed. !2GDP in current values for 1992 is ¥463,850,000,000,000. 13May. 141992. 151988. l6July. 17End of period. 18June. 191985, 201992, 211991, 22Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 23Crude materials includes Animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes. 24Data refer to U.S.S.R.

as constituted prior to 1991. 25January 1. 26Number of subscribers,

Nations of the World

Jordan

641

Price and &arnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Official name: al-Mamlakah al-Urdunniyah al-Hashimiyah (al-Urdun) (Hashemite Kingdom of

Consumer price index Daily earnings index

Jordan).

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

64.2 94.2

68.5 96.2

86.1 98.1

100.0 100.0

108.2 100.0

112.5 Eo

117.8 5

Form of government: constitutional

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 6.9; in-

comprising two legislative houses

expenditure (1992): food and beverages 40.6%; housing and energy 26.9%;

come per household (1979) JD 1,820 (U.S.$6,055); sources of income: n.a.;

monarchy! with a National Assembly

transportation 11.2%; clothing and footwear 8.2%; education 3.5%; health

(Senate [40 appdinted by king]; House of Deputies [80]).

care 2.2%; other goods and services 7.4%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$4,881,000,000

Head of state and government: King assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Amman: Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Jordan dinar

(U.S.$1,190 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

(JD) = 1,000 fils; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) JD 1.00=U.S.$1.43 = £0.90.

hee

Capitals Amman as-Salt

Irbid

al-Karak Ma‘an al-Mafraq at-Tafilah az-Zarqa’

population 19932 estimate

communications

470.8

585.4 643.8

Services Other TOTAL

111.4 — 74.24 3,077.2

% of labour force

44,400

3.3 14.7 } 5.9 2.4

7.4

G1, 800 60,000. 6,600

10.8 10.0 11

15.3

52,200

9.3

63,000

10.5

19.0 20.9

19,800

3.3

287.6

Finance Pub. admin., defense

labour force

8.0

100.6 451.4 180.2 15.3

Trade

1,625,000 245,000 979,000 169,000 148,000 160,000 64,000 622,000 4,012,000

% of total value

244.9

ining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

Area and population Governorates ‘Amman al-Balqa’ Irbid al-Karak Ma‘an al-Mafraq at-Tafllah az-Zarqa’ TOTAL

1992

in value JD ’000,0003

3.6 } —2.44 100.0

8.7

292,200

48.7

600,000

100.0

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$462,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$350,000,000.

Foreign trade Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)5

Population (1994): 4,230,000. ; Density (1994): persons per sq mi 123.2, persons per sq km 47.6. Urban-rural (1993): urban 78.0%; rural 22.0%. Sex distribution (1993): male 51.89%; female 48.11%.

JD '000,000 % Of total

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 42.7%; 15-29, 32.2%; 30-44, 12.4%; 45-59, 8.4%; 60-74, 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.9%.

' Population projection: (2000) 5,177,000; (2010) 7,572,000. Doubling time: 20 years. b Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 99.2%, of which Palestinian c. 50.0%; Circassian 0.5%; Armenian 0.1%; Turk 0.1%; Kurd 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1980); Sunni Muslim 93.0%;. Christian 4.9%; other 2.1%.

Major cities (1993): Amman 1,272,000; az-Zarqa@ 605,000; Irbid 385,000; asSalt 171,000; al-Mafraq 105,000.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 38.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 3.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 5.8. Marriage rate per 1 dbo population (1993): 9.3. Divorce rate per 1,600 population (1993): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 70.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis, typhoid, paratyphoid fevers, salmonella, hepatitis, and dysentery; nonvenereal syphilis is widespread in the southern desert region.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: JD 1,176,000,000 (direct and indirect taxes 55.2%,

of which custom duties 38.2%; fees from, telecommunication

10.9%). Ex-

penditures: JD 1,623,000,000 (administration 49.4%, defense and security 20.1%, social welfare 13.6%, economic development 11.2%, transportation

and communications 2.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$6,914,000,000. ' Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): tomatoes 490,000, oranges and tangerines 100,000, melons 90,300, olives

81,800, wheat 75,400, barley 68,900, lemons and lime 51,000, grapes 50,200, eggplants 49,400, cucumbers 33,500, cauliflower and cabbage 30,700, bananas 11,400; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 2,000,000 sheep, 600,000 goats, 32,000 cattle, 18:000 camels, 55,000,000 chickens; roundwood

(1992) 11,000 cu _m; fish catch (1991) 22. Mining and quarrying (1993):

phosphate ore 4,222,000; potash 1,511,000. Manufacturing (value added in JD ’000; 1991): chemicals 69,449; nonmetallic mineral products 63,645; tobacco 53,187; food products 38,971; petroleum refining 35,083; basic metal

products 21,054; beverages 20,195; paper and paper products 14,959; fab-

and wood

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Tio 25.8%

—1,237. 36.8%

-—1,173 34.2%

-—1,780 42.2%

—1,899 43.2%

Imports (1993): JD 2,453,600,000 (food and live animals 17.7%, of which cereals 3.9%; machinery and appliances 15.3%; mineral fuels 12.8%; trans-

port [mainly equipment and parts] 11.6%; iron and steel 6.4%; clothing,

textiles, and footwear

5.6%; pharmaceuticals

2.7%; plastics 2.5%). Major

import sources: United States 12.7%; Iraq 12.5%; Germany 8.3%; Italy 5.5%; United Kingdom 5.2%; Japan 5.0%; France 4.0%; The Netherlands 2.6%.

Exports (1993): JD 691,282,000 (phosphate fertilizers 14.2%; potash 12.4%; pharmaceuticals 10.2%; fruits and vegetables 10.0%; fertilizers 8.0%; dairy products and eggs 5.5%; soap and detergents 5.2%; cement 2.5%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 11.6%; Iraq 11.2%; India 9.5%; Indonesia 5.4%; United Arab Emirates 4.4%; Russia 3.7%; Syria 2.8%; Lebanon 2.5%.

Vital statistics

ricated metal products, except machinery

1988 —1,411 41.2%

14,814; textiles 14,327; furniture

products 13,309; plastic and plastic products 13,182; clothing

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 490 mi, 789 km; passengers carried (1988) 31,304; short ton-mi cargo 542,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 791,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 3,958 mi, 6,370 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 177,248; trucks and buses 44,2096. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 5; total deadweight tonnage 113,557. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 2,487,800,000, passengerkm 4,003,700,000; short ton-mi cargo 146,228,000, metric ton-km cargo 213,-

590,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5; total circulation 230,000; circulation per 1,000 population 70. Radio (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 5.8 pétsons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 16.4 persons). Telephones (1991): 350,000 (1 per 10.5 persons). Education dnd health

Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

2,421 662 49 557

teachers

} 44,649 2,105 3,7348

students

student/ teacher ratio

1,065,945

26,175 83,7778

12.4 22.4

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 14 and over having: no formal schooling 47.9%; primary education 19.8%; secondary 26.4%; higher 5.9%. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate, 80.1%; males literate 89.3%; females literate 70.3%.

Health (1991): physicians 6,395 (1 per 574 persons); hospital beds (1992) 4,291 (1 per 920 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 33.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,710 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

9,959; printing and publishing 9,601; nonelectrical machinery 8,516; electrical

machinery 7,389. Construction (1993): 4,205,500 sq m. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 4,422,000,000 (4,422,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 21,600 (21,275,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 2,756,000 (3,349,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Land use (1991): forested 0.8%; meadows and pastures 8.9%; agricultural

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 100,600 (army 89.5%, navy 0.6%, air force 9.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 11.2% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$125.

and under permanent cultivation 4.5%; wasteland (mostly desert), built-on,

and other 85.8%. : if Population economically active (1992): total 706,000; activity rate of total population 19.3% (participation rates: over age 15 [1986] 39.0%; female [1988] 10.9%; unemployed [1992] 15.0%).

1Political parties legalized July 1992; November 1993 legislative elections were multiparty. 2January 1. 3At factor cost. 4Less imputed bank service charges. 5Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. ©Includes vans. 71988—-89. 8Includes community colleges.

642

Britannica World Data

81,293,000,000 (81,293,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 131,033,000 (91,-

Kazakhstan

742); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 159,360,000 (110,780,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 5,683,000 (5,683,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 18,480,000,000 (8,113,000,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$26,440,000,000 (U.S.$1,540 per capita)°®.

Official name; Qazaqstan Respublikasi

(Republic of Kazakhstan).

Form of government}: unitary multiparty republic with a single

Structure of net material product and labour force 1992

legislative body (Parliament [177]).

Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata); Akmola (formerly Tselinograd) is the capital-designate2. Official language: Kazakh. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: tenge3 (T; decimal unit,

in value ‘000,000 rubles Agriculture Manufacturing, mining Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance 4 Public administration, defense Services Other

n.a.); valuation (Oct. 3, 1994) free

rate, 1 U.S.$=56.98; 1 £=90.62 tenge.

population Capitals Akmola Aktyubinsk Alma-Ata (Almaty) Atyrau Auliye-Ata (Dzhambul) Dzhezkazgan Ust-Kamenogorsk Karaganda Kokchetav

Provinces4 Akmola Aktyubinsk Alma-Ata (Almaty) Atyrau Dzhambul Dzhezkazgan East Kazakhstan Karaganda Kokchetav Kustanay Kzyl-Orda Mangistau North Kazakhstan Pavlodar Semipalatinsk South Kazakhstan Taldy-Kurgan Turgay West Kazakhstan TOTAL

Kustanay

Kzyl-Orda Aktau Petropaviosk Pavilodar Semipalatinsk Chimkent Taldy-Kurgan Arkalyk Uralsk

sq mi

sq km

1991 estimate

35,600 115,300 40,600 43,800 55,700 121,000 37,600 45,500 30,200 44,200 88,100 63,800 17,100 49,200 69,300 44,900 45,700 43,200 58,400 1,049,200

92,100 298,700 105,100 113,500 144,200 313,400 97,300 117,900 78,100 114,500 228,100 165,100 44,300 127,500 179,600 116,300 118,500 111,900 151,200 2,717,300

885,400 752,900 2,153,700 447,100 1,056,400 496,200 949,000 1,339,900 669,400 1,074,400 664,900 331,700 610,400 956,900 841,900 1,879,200 731,000 304,600 648,000 16,793,1005

Population (1994): 16,954,000. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.52%; female 51.48%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 31.4%; 15-29, 25.1%; 30-44, 21.3%; 45-59, 12.2%; 60-69, 6.1%; 70 and over, 3.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 17,312,000; (2010) 17,925,000. Doubling time: 58 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Kazakh 41.1%; Russian 37.3%; Ukrainian 5.3%; German 5.0%; Uzbek 2.1%; Tatar 2.0%; other 7.2%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Sunni Muslims (Hanafiyah); there is a Christian minority (mainly Russian Orthodox and Baptist). Major cities (1991): Alma-Ata (Almaty) 1,156,200; Karaganda 608,600; Chimkent 438,800; Semipalatinsk 344,700; Pavlodar 342,500.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 19.9 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 87.6%; illegitimate 12.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 8.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 11.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 63.2 years; female 72.7 years.

Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 361.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 136.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 107.3; diseases of the respiratory system 74.1; diseases of the digestive system (1989) 24.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 24.6; endocrine and metabolic disorders 6.3; diseases of the nervous system 6.1.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: 67,500,000,000 tenge (1993; current revenue 96.8%,

of which taxes on goods and services 29.2%, income and capital-gains taxes 26.8%, taxes on international trade 9.3%, other tax revenue 26.2%, nontax

revenue 5.3%; grants 2.9%; capital revenue 0.3%). Expenditures: 87,700,000,000 tenge (1993; national economy 16.7%; education 16.2%; defense and public safety 11.4%; foreign economic activity 11.0%; health care 8.3%;

social security 6.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): seed cotton 270,000,000, grain 21,500,000, wheat 18,500,000, corn 12,500,000, potatoes 2,300,000, sugar beets 1,300,000, oats 600,000, rye 400,000, rice

400,000, fruit (other than grapes) 230,000, sunflower seeds 192,000, grapes

85,000;

livestock

(number

of live animals)

33,650,000

sheep

and

goats,

8,313,000 cattle, 2,459,000 pigs, 1,500,000 horses, 60,000 camels; roundwood

(1991)

1,974,000

000; chrome

cu

m.

Mining

and

quarrying

(1992):

3,600,000; copper 200,000; manganese

iron ore

23,000,-

130,000. Manufacturing

1,207,000

17.9

47.7

40.6

62,402

6.0

260,000 674,000

14,150

1.3

693,000

15,165 a

1.4

522,000 41,000

1,385,000

114,000 1,845,000

6,741,000

1,059,605

Population economically active (1992): total 7,450,000; activity rate of total

population 43.8% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 80.1%; female [1991] 60.0%; unemployed [1989] 2.2%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

82.6 72.6

84.0 75.1

84.0 80.8

84.4 88.1

100.0 100.0

155.2 187.9

1,200.4 1,256.9

Land use (1989): forested 6.3%; meadows and pastures 68.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 13.1%; other 11.9%.

;

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.0; income per household (1991) 5,290 rubles; sources of income (1992): salaries and wages 65.0%, social benefits 25.3%, agricultural income 8.0%, other 1.7%; expenditure (1992): retail goods 68.1%, services 9.3%, taxes 9.0%, housing 1.5%, other 12.1%.

Foreign trade

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 16.2, persons per sq km 6.2. Urban-rural (1992); urban 57.5%; rural 42.5%.

% of labour force?

505,487

Balance of trade (current prices) 1990 1991

Demography

labour force?

430,360

= _— 32,041

TOTAL

Area and population

1991

% of total value

— 10,280 26.5%

—3,160 13.4%

1992 — 1,670 10.2%

Imports (1992): 781,770,000,000 rubles (1991; machinery and transport equipment 37.6%, food 10.8%, textiles 9.8%, minerals 9.1%, manufactured items 5.8%). Major import sources: China 43.6%; Austria 6.4%: Cuba 6.3%; Hungary 5.8%; Yugoslavia 5.7%. Exports

(1992):

618,283,000,000

rubles

(1991;

semifabricated

metal

27.5%,

chemical products 22.3%; manufactured items 16.9%, clothing 3.9%, textiles 2.0%). Major export destinations: China 15.4%; Sweden 11.8%; Germany 8.0%; Switzerland 6.8%; U.S. 6.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 13,173 mi, 21,200 km; passenger-km 19,400,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 374,200,000. Roads (1992): total length 102,464 mi, 164,900 km (paved 69%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 734,800; trucks and buses, n.a. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 7,800,000,000, passenger-km 12,600,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 70,000,000; airports (1993) with scheduled flights 68. Communications. Newspapers (1989): total number 450; total circulation 6,700,000; circulation per 1,000 population 405. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 4,188,000 (1 per 4.1 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 4,795,000 (1 per 3.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 2,209,000 (1 per 7.8 persons).

Education and health

Education (1991-92) * schools

teachers

students

Primary (age 7-13) } Secondary (age 14-17)

Bei

262,600

3,226,400

Voc., teacher tr. Higher

3,115 61

student/ teacher ratio 12.3

1,091,600 288,000

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 16.2%; some secondary 19.8%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 54.1%; higher 9.9%. Health (1992): physicians? 69,100 (1 per 246 persons); hospital beds 225,600 (1 per 75 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 26.1,

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): about 40,000 (army forces include air forces). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993); 2.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$41. 'On Dec. 10, 1993, the Parliament voted to dissolve itself and called for elections on March 7, 1994. 2Transition is to be completed by the year 2000. 3The Kazakh tenge

(1992): steel 6,377,000; rolled ferrous metals 4,721,000; mineral fertilizers

was introduced Nov.

pairs; bulldozers 11,280 units; metal-cutting machines 2,381 units; forge press machines 1,165 units; excavators 577 units. Construction (1991): residential 6,125,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (KW-hr; 1992)

‘Local government was directly subordinated to the president in January 1992, 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. °Ruble-area GNP and exchangerate data are very speculative. 7State sector only. 8International only; the number of domestic airports is not available. °Data include dentists.

1,516,000; textiles 249,100,000 sq m; carpets 2,048,000 sq m; shoes 34,100,000

18, 1993, to replace the Russian ruble, at a rate of 500 rubles to 1 tenge; on Nov. 25, 1993, the Kazakh tenge became the sole legal Russian tender.

Nations of the World

Kenya

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Official name: Jamhuri ya Kenya

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

(Swahili); Republic of Kenya (English).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade ees ub. admin., defense Services Other

1994) 1 U.S.$=K Sh 44.47; 1 £=K Sh 70.72.

Area and population

Provincial headquarters Nyeri Mombasa Embu Garissa Kisumu Nakuru Kakamega

Nyanza Rift Valley Western

Special area Nairobi TOTAL

—

sq mi

sq km,

population 1990 estimate

5,087 32,279 61,734 48,997 6,240 67,131 3,228

13,176 83,603 159,891 126,902 16,162 173,868 8,360

3,691,700 2,150,400 4,367,900 640,600 4,322,700 5,356,900 2,836,700

264 224,9613

684 582,646

1,504,900 24,871,800

TOTAL

Major cities (1984): Nairobi 1,504,9005; Mombasa Nakuru 101,700; Machakos 92,3006.

19.0%;

Muslim

425,600; Kisumu

6.0%; 167,100;

Vital statistics

diseases include AIDS, malaria, gastroenteritis, venereal diseases, diarrhea

and dysentery, trachoma, amebiasis, and schistosomiasis.

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: K£4,551,140,0002 (indirect taxes 61.5%, of which sales tax 31.2%, custom and excise duties 28.2%; direct taxes 27.3%; other

11.2%). Expenditures: K£7,763,450,0002 (recurrent expenditure 84.9%; development expenditure 15.1%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 4,210,000, corn (maize) 1,748,000, cassava 790,000, sweet potatoes

630,000, plantains 360,000, pineapple 270,000, potatoes 250,000, bananas 220,000, tea 211,000, pulses 200,000, wheat 150,000, sorghum 90,000, coffee 76,000, millet 58,000, coconuts 43,000, barley 37,000, sisal 34,000, tomatoes

32,000, seed cotton 16,000, cashew nuts 15,000, sunflower seeds 15,000, cotton seeds 11,000, copra 7,000; livestock (number of live animals) 11,000,000 cattle, 7,300,000 goats, 5,500,000 sheep; roundwood (1992) 37,311,000 cu m;

fish catch 175,550, of which freshwater fish 95.7%. Mining and quarrying (1993): soda ash 216,890; fluorite 78,725; salt 74,669; limestone

30,349;

garnet 127 kg7. Manufacturing (1990): cement 1,416,200; sugar 385,000; wheat flour 143,100; beer 3,492,000 hectolitres; mineral water 1,323,000 hectolitres; paint 47,000 hectolitres; alcoholic beverages 22,591 hectolitres.

Construction (1986): residential 136,000 sq m; nonresidential 180,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 3,396,000,000

46.5%,

housing

10.0%,

furniture

eee eUn —

a =

1,474,900

100.0

—18;131 31.3%

1990

1991

1992

1993

—18,164 27.7%

—11,890 16.4%

— 5,923 6.2%

— 5,938 3.7%

Emirates 15.0%; United Kingdom 11.9%; Japan 7.6%; Germany 7.1%; U.S. 5.8%; Saudi Arabia 4.6%; Italy 4.5%; France 4.2%; India 2.7%. Exports (1993): K£3,678,250,0002,11 (tea 26.2%, coffee [not roasted] 15.5%,

fruits and vegetables 11.0%, petroleum products 9.4%, cement 1.8%, soda ash 1.7%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 16.0%; Uganda 8.7%;

Tanzania 7.4%; Germany 7.3%; The Netherlands 4.0%; U.S. 3.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 1,885 mi, 3,034 km; passenger-mi 288,000,000, passenger-km 464,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 898,600,000, met-

ric ton-km cargo 1,312,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 39,400 mi, 63,400 km (paved 14%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 157,166; trucks and buses 172,023. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 29; total deadweight tonnage 11,649. Air transport (1992)12: passenger-mi 828,062,000, passenger-km 1,332,639,000; short ton-mi cargo 82,950,000, metric ton-

km cargo 121,105,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 14. Communications. Daily newspapers: total number (1992) 5; total circulation 328,00013; circulation per 1,000 population 1213. Radio (1993): 4,200,000 receivers (1 per 6.3 persons). Television (1993): 260,000 receivers (1 per 102 persons). Telephones (1992): 420,570 (1 per 61 persons). Education and health

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-17)

schools

teachers

students

15,804 2,639

173,002 31,657 1,33214 4,39215

5,428,600 517,577 29,593 88,180

Voc., teacher tr.

63

Higher

14

student/ teacher ratio

31.4 16.3 13.414 8.115

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population over age 25 having:

no formal schooling 58.6%; primary education 32.2%; some secondary 7.9%; complete secondary and higher 1.3%. Literacy (1990): total population over age 15 literate 69.0%; males literate 79.8%; females literate 58.5%. Health (1993): physicians 3,794 (1 per 7,410 persons); hospital beds 38,137 (1 per 737 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95): 66.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,064 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 89% of FAO

recommended

minimum

requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 24,200 (army 84.7%, navy 5.0%, air force

10.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.8% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$9.

(110,000); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1992) none (16,383,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 2,082,000 (1,393,000). - - Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$4,635,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 6.2; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure and

utensils

9.4%,

trans-

portation 8.4%, clothing and footwear 7.7%, energy 2.6%, health 2.2%, Population economically IL active (1985): : total total 8,389,000; 8,389,000; activity rate of total BeRiteans

pagitatioh 40.7%

=115137 22.6%

Education (1993)

National economy

(3,074,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none

% of labour forces 18.6 0.3 13.1 4.9 15 5.3 8.2 49

Imports (1993): K£5,056,420,0002 (machinery and transport equipment 19.5%, crude petroleum 18.7%, iron and steel products 6.0%, pharmaceuticals 5.4%, plastics and plastic products 3.9%). Major import sources: United Arab

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 43.7 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 33.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.3. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 57.1 years; female 60.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major infectious

unemployed, n.a.).

100.0

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989

9.8%; Kamba 9.8%; other 39.7%.

beliefs

labour forces 274,300 4,500 193,600 72,600 22,100 77,300 121,100 72,600

Foreign trade10

Religious affiliation (1987): Christian 73.0%, of which Roman Catholic 27.0%, Protestant 19.0%, other Christian (mostly African Indigenous, Anglican, traditional

1993 % of total value 28.9 0.3 10.4 5.6 1.3 8.2 14.1 16.6 15.1 1.3 — 1.89

in value __k£'000,0002 _ 3,934.0 35.2 1,419.7 759.2 174.8 1,117.7 1,920.7 2,260.4 2,051.3 177.3 — 247.69

and under permanent cultivation 4.3%; other 24.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 33,310,000; (2010) 44,850,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Kikuyu 17.7%; Luhya 12.4%; Luo 10.6%; Kalenjin

(1980): food

1993 370.4 ne

tionals abroad U.S.$29,000,000.

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 51.1%; 15-29, 26.6%; 30-44, 12.6%; 45-59, 6.4%; 60-74, 2.8%; 75 and over, 0.5%.

other 2.0%.

1992 252.1

Land use (1992): forested 4.0%; meadows and pastures 66.9%; agricultural

Demography

27.0%;

1991 1946 168.4

13,602.7

K Sh ’000,000 % of total

Orthodox)

1990 1624 1544

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$442,000,000; expenditures by na-

Population (1994): 27,450,0004. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 122.0, persons per sq km 47.1. Urban-rural (1991): urban 25.3%; rural 74.7%. Sex distribution (1994): male 49.94%; female 50.04%.

Eastern

1989 140.5 1414.4

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(K Sh) =100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Eastern North Eastern

1988 124.4 133.1

(U.S.$270 per capita).

(National Assembly [202!]).

Provinces Central Coast

1987 111.9 116.3

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$6,851,000,000

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Nairobi. Official languages: Swahili; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Kenya shilling?

and

643

eisttepatil rates: ages 15-64, 76.2%; female 40.9%;

[Includes

14 nonelective

seats.

2Kenya pound (K£) as a unit of account

equals 20

K Sh. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Excludes a reported 402,000 refugees. 51990. 61983.

71989.

8Employed persons only. %Indirect taxes less

subsidies and imputed bank service charges.

!°Import figures are f.o.b. in balance

of trade and cif. in commodities and trading partners. Includes K£53,040,000 in reexports. 12Kenya Airways only. 13Circulation for four newspapers only. 141987-88;

teacher training only. 15Universities only; 1990-91.

644

Britannica World Data

and quarrying: none. Manufacturing (1988): processed copra 14,406; other siportant onoeuces are processed fish, baked goods, clothing, and handicrafts. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 7,000,000 none ae pose ai prod(7,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude Pe ucts (metric tons; 1992) none (7,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). ee ean product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$54,000,000

Kiribati Official name: Republic of Kiribati. Form of government: unitary republic with one legislature (House of Assembly [411]). Head of state and government:

(U.S.$710 per capita).

President.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Capital: Bairiki, on Tarawa Atoll.

1992

Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Australian Dollar

($A) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 U.S.$=$A 1.35; 1£=$A 2.15. Area and population

population 1990

Island Groups Islands Gilberts Group Abaiang Abemama Aranuka Arorae Banaba Beru Butaritari Kuria Maiana Makin Marakei Nikunau Nonouti Onotoa Tabiteuea North Tabiteuea South Tamana Tarawa North Tarawa South

Capitals Bairiki Islet Tuarabu Kariatebike Takaeang Roreti Anteeren Taubukinberu Butaritari Tabontebike Tebangetua Makin Rawannawi Rungata Teuabu Buariki Utiroa Buariki Bakaka Abaokoro Bairiki

Line Group Northern Kiritimati (Christmas) Tabuaeran (Fanning) Teraina (Washington) Southern (Caroline, Flint, Malden, Starbuck, Vostok)

Kiritimati London Paelau Washington

census

67,508 5,233 3,218 & 1,002 as~n 1,440 284 2,909 3,774 990 2,180 1,762 2,863 1,994 2,814 2,100 = 3,201 1,331 1,385 3,648 DONNSCHDANNWAAANNW 25,380 4,782

ckoOLe) A QDNj =ao

2,537 1,309 936

ht aro

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1990 labour

in value $A '000

% of total value

force_

11,022 = 920 2,300 800 7,130 6,530 3,210

23.8 —2.0 5.0 ae 15.4. 14.1 6.9

23,1376 = 622 339 301 921 1,341 441

11,935

25.8

ee 2,286

2,413 46,260

5.2 100.03

1,0997 32,610

% of labour force

71.06

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$16,000,000. _ Population economically active (1990): total 32,610; activity rate of total population 45.1% (participation rates: over age 15, 75.6%; female 46.4%; unemployed 2.8%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1989 1987 Consumer price index Earnings index

1988

111.8

120.8

113.8

1990

1991

1992

1993

126.9

131.7

138.3

148.0

nt

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 6.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1978): wages 69.7%, selfemployment 21.4%, transfer payments 6.0%, other 2.9%; expenditure (1982): food 50.0%, tobacco and alcohol 14.0%, clothing 8.0%, transportation 8.0%, housing, energy, and household operation 7.5%.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$2,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Land use (1992): forested 2.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 50.7%; other 46.6%.

Foreign trade

Phoenix Group (Birnie, Enderbury, Kanton [Canton], McKean, Manra [Sydney], Nikumaroro [Gardner], Orona [Hull], Rawaki [Phoenix])

Kanton

Balance of trade (current prices) $A ‘000 % of total

TOTAL

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

— 21,515 61.7%

— 22,161 63.3%

-—30,765 80.7%

-—29,529 80.0%

— 44,017 77.2%

— 29,478 73.8%

Imports (1992): $A 50,530,000 (machinery and transport equipment 47.3%; food 21.1%; manufactured goods 8.0%; mineral fuels 7.8%; beverages and

Demography Population (1994): 78,600. ; Density (1993)4: persons per sq mi 280.7, persons per sq km 108.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 34.8%; rural 65.2%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 40.3%; 15-29, 27.5%; 30-44, 17.3%; 45-59, 9.2%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 0.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 87,700; (2010) 106,000. Doubling time: 35 years.

Ethnic composition (1990): I-Kiribati 97.4%; mixed (part I-Kiribati and other) 1.5%; Tuvaluan 0.5%; European 0.2%; other 0.4%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 53.4%; Kiribati Protestant (Congregational) 39.2%; Bahai 2.4%; Seventh-day Adventist 1.9%; Mormon 1.6%; other 1.5%.

Major cities (1990): Urban Tarawa 25,154. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 32.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 19.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 52.6 years; female 55.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): infectious intestinal diseases 79.4; certain conditions originating in the perinatal period 38.2; pneumonia

26.5; cerebrovascular

disease

23.5; tuberculosis

liver disease and cirrhosis 20.6; meningitis 19.2.

20.6; chronic

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: which

$A 22,800,000 (1988; nontax revenue 46.0%, of

reserve fund drawdown

32.1%, fishing licenses 9.8%; tax revenue

28.4%, of which import duties 9.4%, income tax 4.9%; development revenue

25.6%). Expenditures: $A 22,800,000 (1988; education 16.1%; development

15.9%; health 13.0%; natural resources 7.3%; communications 7.0%; pub-

lic works 6.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

coconuts 65,000, roots and tubers 8,000 (of which taro 1,000), copra 8,000, vegetables and melons 5,000, bananas 4,000; livestock (number of live animals)

9,000 pigs, 191,000

chickens5;

fish catch

(1991) 30,000. Mining

tobacco 5.0%; chemicals 3.5%; crude materials 1.2%). Major import sources: Australia 38.4%; Japan 22.7%; Fiji 11.3%; New Zealand 5.4%; China 3.3%;

United States 2.9%; Hong Kong 1.0%. Exports (1992): $A 6,513,000 (domestic exports 86.7%, of which copra 66.8%, fish and fish preparations 11.3%; reexports 13.3%). Major export. destinations: United States 12.3%; Australia 4.8%; Denmark 4.5%; Fiji 4.1%; New Zealand 1.6%; United Kingdom 0.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Roads (1991): total length 398 mi, 640 km (paved 5%). Vehicles (1982): passenger cars 307; trucks and buses 130. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 2,685. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 5,331,000, passenger-km 8,579,000; short ton-mi cargo 514,000, metric ton-km cargo 750,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 18. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 10,000 (1 per 7.7 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1992): 1,600 (1 per 47 persons). Education and health Education (1992) schools Primary (age 6-13)

Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher?

95

98 68 —

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

545

16,020

194 43 _

29.4

3,069 288 —

15.8 6.7 —

Educational attainment (1990)10. Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no schooling 6.9%; primary 67.8%; secondary 24.5%; higher 0.6%; ae stated 0.2%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate ‘0.

Health (1990): physicians 16 (1 per 4,483 persons); hospital beds 283 (1 per 253 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 98.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,517 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. ‘Includes two nonelective members. 2Includes uninhabited islands. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Density based on inhabited island areas (280 Sq mi, 726 sq km) only. 51982. 6Includes 20,568 persons engaged in “village work” (subsistence agriculture or fishing). 7Includes 900 unemployed. 81990. 954 students overseas. 10For indigenous population.

Nations of the World

Korea, North

tion: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 38,-

000,000 (38,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 70,000,000 (72,050,000); crude

Official name: Choson Minjujuiii In’min Konghwaguk (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary single-party republic with one legislative house (Supreme People’s Assembly [687]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Premier. Capital: P’yOngyang. Official language: Korean. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 won=100 chon; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=2.15 won; 1 £=3.42 won.

petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (18,325,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 2,965,000 (4,505,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size 1987) 4.8; average annual income per household (1980) 3,677 won (U.S. 4,275); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1984)8: food 46.5%, clothing 29.9%, furniture

3.8%, energy 3.3%, housing 0.6%. Gross national product (1992): U.S.$22,000,000,000 (U.S.$990 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1982

in value 000,000 won

Agriculture Mining and manufacturin Construction 2 Public utilities

Chagang-do Hamgyong-namdo

Hamgyong-pukto Hwanghae-namdo Hwanghae-pukto

Kangwon-do

P’yOngan-namdo P’yOngan-pukto Yanggang-do

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population! 1987 estimate

Capitals Kanggye

1,156,000 2,547,000 2,003,000 1,914,000 1,409,000 1,227,000 2,653,000 2,380,000 628,000

Hamhting Ch’dngjin Haeju

Sariw6n W6nsan P’yOngsan Sintiju Hyesan

Kaesong

P’yOngyang

ae

a

% of labour force

3,726,000

441

1 G0;000

33-0

418,000

4.9

2 47,3993

2 122,762

Po 100.0

1,521,000

18.0

8,455,000

100.0

and under permanent cultivation 16.7%; other 8.4%.

Foreign trade? Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

28,000 19,346,000

Demography Population (1994): 23,067,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 486.7, persons per sq km 187.9. Urban-rural (1993): urban 60.0%; rural 40.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.36%; female 50.64%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 29.4%; 15-29, 33.8%; 30-44, 20.4%; 45-59, 10.6%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 25,491,000; (2010) 28,491,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Korean 99.8%; Chinese 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1980): atheist or nonreligious 67.9%; traditional beliefs 15.6%; Ch’6ndogyo 13.9%; Buddhist 1.7%; Christian 0.9%. Major cities (1987): P’yOngyang 2,355,000; Hamhing 701,000; Ch’dngjin 520,000; Namp’o 370,000; Sunch’6on 356,000.

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—391.7 20.0%

—315.2 14.1%

— 433.9 21.0%

— 420.5 21.0%

— 764.7 35.6%

—600.0 18.8%

Imports (1992): U.S.$1,900,000,000 (crude petroleum, coal and coke, industrial machinery and transport equipment [including trucks], industrial chemicals, textile yarn and fabrics, and grain are among the major imports). Major import sources: Russia 37.6%; China 23.0%; Japan 9.8%; Hong Kong 5.4%. Exports (1992): U.S.$1,300,000,000 (minerals [including lead, magnesite, zinc], metallurgical products [iron and steel, nonferrous metals], cement, agricultural products [including fish, grain, fruit and vegetables, tobacco], and manufactured goods [textile fabrics, clothing] are among the major exports). Major export destinations: Russia 45.4%; Japan 22.9%; China 6.8%; Germany 5.8%; Hong Kong 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 5,302 mi, 8,533 km; (latest) passengermi 2,100,000,000, passenger-km 3,400,000,000; (latest) short ton-mi cargo 5,100,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 9,100,000,000. Roads (1991): total length

18,600 mi, 30,000 km (paved 7.5%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 248,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 100; total deadweight tonnage 951,222. Air transport (1994): passenger-mi 52,200,000, passenger-km 84,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,370,000, metric ton-km cargo

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 23 wed avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 18 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 9.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 68 years; female 74 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): diseases of the circulatory system 224.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 69.0; diseases of the digestive system 51.6; diseases of the respiratory system 46.7; injuries and poisoning 38.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 19.4.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

ae

labour force

Land use (1991): forested 74.5%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural

331,000 715,000 2,355,000

Namp’o

TOTAL

ve

es 11,800

TOTAL

Special cities

Special district Hyangsan-chigu

% of total value

Transportation and

Area and population Provinces

645

40,449,900,000

won

(1984; turnover

tax 55.0%,

payments by state enterprises 30.0%). Expenditures: 40,449,900,000 won (national economy 67.8%, social and cultural affairs 19.2%, defense 11.6%, administration 1.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$8,000,000,000. Tourism (1986): total number of tourist arrivals 85,000.

3

Population economically active (1987)4: total 12,517,000; activity rate of total population 61.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female, n.a.; unemployed, n.a.). Price and earnings indexes: n.a. ; ‘ Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): corn (maize) 3,800,0005, rice 2,940,0005, potatoes 1,975,000, cabbages 850,000, sweet potatoes 500,000, soybeans 400,000, wheat 150,0005, pears 122,000, barley 120,0005, peaches 105,000, watermelons 104,000, tomatoes 70,000, cucumbers and gherkins 70,000, tobacco leaves 67,000, millet 60,000,

oats 56,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,300,000’ pigs, 1,300,000 cattle, 390,000 sheep, 300,000 goats, 44,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 4,783,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,700,100. Mining and quarrying (1992): iron ore 10,500,000; magnesite (metal content) 1,600,000; phosphate rock 500,000; sulfur 240,000; zinc 200,000; lead (metal content) 75,000; fluorspar

41,000; graphite 38,000; copper 16,000; gold 5,000 kg;silver 50. Manufacturing (1992): cement 17,000,000; crude steel 8,100,000; pig iron 6,600,000; steel semimanufactures 3,200,0006; coke 3,000,000; chemjeal fertilizers 3,000,0007; gasoline 1,130,500; meat 220,000; textile fabrics 210,000,000 m®. Construc-

2,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 11; total circulation 5,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 230. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 4,700,000 (1 per 4.8 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 338,000 (1 per 67 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,089,30010 (1 per 20 persons).

Education and health Education (1987)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-9) Secondary (age 10-15) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

6,122

ee 47311 281

teachers

138,945 111,000

27,000

students

1,543,000 2,468,000 220,000 390,000

teacher ratio

14 22.2 eee 14.4

Educational attainment (1987-88). Percentage of population age 16 and over having attended or graduated from postsecondary-level school: 13.7%. Literacy (1984): 99%. Health (1989): physicians 57,690 (1 per 370 persons); hospital beds 290,590 (1 per 74 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 24. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,843 (vegetable products 92%,

animal products 8%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,128,000 (army 88.6%, navy 4.1%, air force 7.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 25.5% (world [1992] 4.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$234.

1Civilian population only. 2P’yOngan-pukto includes special district of Hyangsan-chigu. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. “The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea categorizes economically active as including students in higher education, retirees, and heads of households, as well as those in the civilian labour force. 51993. 61990. 71991. 8Workers and clerical workers only. Imports are f.o.b. 10Number of telephone stations. 111986.

646

Britannica World Data

Korea, South

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$337,910,000,000

(U.S.$7,670 per capita).

Official name: Taehan Min’guk

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a National Assembly (299 members).

1993 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun, Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Seoul. Official language: Korean. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 won (W)= 100 chon;

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1U.S.$=W 798; 1 £=W 1,271. Area and population

area

population

Chdlla-namdo ChGlla-pukto Ch’ungch’dng-namdo Ch’ungch’dng-pukto Kangwon-do Kydnggi-do Ky6ngsang-namdo KyOngsang-pukto

sq km

Capitals Cheju Kwangju Chonju Taejon

Ch’ongju Ch’unch’on’ Suwon Masan

Taegu

514,605 2,507,439 2,069,960 2,013,926 1,389,686 1,580,430 6,155,632 3,672,396 2,860,595

317 501 529 605 456 537

1,817,919 1,139,003 3,798,113 10,612,577 2,229,040 1,049,578 43,410,899

Inch’6n Kwangju Pusan Seoul Taegu Taejon

Kwangju-si Pusan-si

Soul-t’kpydlsi Taegu-si

Taejon-si TOTAL

99,274

Population projection: (2000) 46,789,000; (2010) 49,683,000.

Catholic

5.7%,

Confucian

1.0%,

Wonbulgyo

1990

1991

1992

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

100.0 100.0

109.3 116.9

116.1 135.2

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Doubling time: 77 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Korean 99.9%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1991): religious! 54.0%, of which Buddhist 27.6%, ProtesRoman

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987, 1988 1989 81.3 55.6

87.1 66.5

92.1 83.2

Balance of trade (current prices)

Sex distribution (1992): male 50.34%; female 49.66%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 29.3%; 30-44, 23.8%; 45-59, 14.0%; 60-74, 6.5%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

18.6%,

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+8,510 10.6%

+2,875 3.6%

—701 0.8%

—3,968 3.6%

—588 0.4%

Imports (1993): U.S.$83,800,100,000 (machinery and transport equipment 33.9%, mineral fuels and lubricants 18.0%, manufactured goods 14.4%, inedible crude materials 10.6%, chemicals 9.8%). Major import sources: Japan 23.9%; United States 21.4%; Germany 4.7%; Saudi Arabia 4.5%; Australia 4.0%; Indonesia 3.1%; Malaysia 2.3%, Canada 2.0%.; Singapore 1.8%.

Exports

(1993): U.S.$82,235,900,000

(machinery

and transport

equipment

44.9%, manufactured goods 25.2%, chemicals 6.0%, food and live animals

2.5%, mineral fuels 2.2%). Major export destinations: United States 22.1%; Japan 14.1%; Hong Kong 7.8%; Germany 4.4%; Singapore 3.8%; Taiwan

0.3%,

2.8%; Indonesia 2.5%; India 2.2%.

Major cities (1990): Seoul 10,612,577; Pusan 3,798,113; Taegu 2,229,040; Inch’6n 1,817,919; Kwangju 1,139,003.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992); length 4,049 mi7, 6,517 km7; passenger-km 34,787,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 14,256,000,000. Roads (1989): total length

Vital statistics

34,659 mi, 55,778 km (paved 61%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 3,461,057; trucks and buses 1,745,097. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 15.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 9.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69.0 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 166.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 111.4; accidents, poisoning, and violence 90.2; diseases of the digestive system 45.1; diseases of the respiratory system 22.6.

tons and over) 2,138; total deadweight

tonnage

Education and health schools

Budget (1993). Revenue: W 53,127,900,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 34.7%, income taxes 28.8%, nontax revenue 27.8%, customs duties 5.4%). Expenditures: W 52,869,700,000,000 (general expenses 51.0%, defense 17.6%,

economic development 5.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$23,919,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cabbages

2,600,000,

dry onions

1,000,000,

apples

tangerines 619,000, garlic 450,000, barley 400,000, soybeans

700,000,

160,000; live-

stock (number of live animals) 5,928,000 pigs, 2,814,000 cattle, 78,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 6,485,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 3,289,200.

Mining and quarrying (1993): copper ore 221,570; iron ore 218,663; zinc concentrate 27,616; lead concentrate 14,818. Manufacturing (1993): cement

47,313,000; pig iron 21,870,000; urea fertilizers 831,066; newsprint 742,327; caustic soda 506,794; synthetic fabrics 2,459,299,000 sq m; television receivers

15,956,000 units; passenger cars 1,527,753 units. Construction (1993): resi-

dential 69,300,000 sq m; nonresidential 48,487,000 sq m. Energy production

11,724,942. Air transport

(1991): passenger-km 19,957,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,664,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 13. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 63; total circulation 9,736,0008; circulation per 1,000 population 2218, Radio (1993): 42,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.0 persons). Television (1993): 9,101,000 receivers (1 per 4.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 19,021,000 (1 per 2.3 persons).

Education (1993)

National economy

rice 6,597,000,

2.85 100.06

Foreign trade

Population (1994): 44,436,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 1,159.3, persons per sq km 447.6. Urban-rural (1990): urban 74.4%; rural 25.6%.

Ch’ondogyo 0.2%, other 0.6%; nonreligious 46.0%.

14.1

551,0005 19,754,0006

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,272,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,794,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 65.5%; meadows and pastureland 0.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.0%; other 12.6%.

Demography

tant

2,784,000

2.8%).

Special cities

Inch’6n-si

2,845,000 54,000 4,584,000 1,680,000 65,000 1,008,000 4,831,000 1,355,000

(participation rates: ages 15 and over, 61.0%; female 39.9%; unemployed

census

1,826 11,814 8,043 8,318 7,436 16,898 10,773 11,774 19,447

fl 0.4 29.0 » 11.5 2.3 73 12.7 17.3 6.7 5.9 —0.54 100.06

Population economically active (1993): total 19,754,000; activity rate 44.8%

1990 Provinces Cheju-do

16,210.7 885.0 62,997.3 24,901.7 5,069.9 15,961.8 27,486.8 37,505.1 14,458.0 12,860.2 — 1,097.34 217,239.2

% of labour force

labour force

% of total value

in value W ’000,000,0003

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Vocational }

Higher

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

31.2

6,057

139,159

4,336,252

308

194,565

4,497,242

23.1

605

48,535

1,652,665

34.0

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: primary education or less 33.7%, of which no formal schooling (1985) 14.3%; some secondary and secondary 52.1%; postsecondary 14.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 96.3%; males literate 99.1%; females literate 93.5%. Health (1992): physicians 48,390 (1 per 902 persons); hospital beds 115,140 (1 per 379 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 15.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,826 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 147,843,000,000 (147,843,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 11,970,000 (39,814,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (511,319,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 59,726,000 (54,103,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (4,915,000,000). Household income and expenditure (1993). Average household size (1990)

Total active duty personnel (1994): 633,000 (army 82.1%, navy 9.5%, air force 8.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.8% (world 4.2%);

wages 55.7%, other 44.3%; expenditure: food and beverages 29.3%, education and recreation 13.5%, transportation and communications 10.2%,

Refers to persons who have received commandments, accepted baptism, or entered a faith and who participate in a religious function regularly or put the religious idea into practice. 2Excludes farm households. 3At 1990 constant prices. 4Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 5Unemployed. ‘Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 71993. 8Circulation for 20 newspapers only.

3.8; income per household W 27,470,000 (U.S.$34,223); sources of income:

clothing and footwear

7.7%, health care 5.4%, household

5.2%, housing 4.4%, energy 4.3%, other 20.0%.

durable

goods

per capita expenditure: U.S.$244,

Nations of the World

Kuwait |:

34,100; concrete pipes 12,800; liquefied caustic soda 12,200; chlorine gas

10,800; biscuits 1,300; detergents 700; hydrochloric acid 1,427,900 gallons; concrete slabs 695,700 sq m; sodium hydrochloride 7,560 cu m. Construction

Official name: Dawlat al-Kuwayt (State of Kuwait). - Form of government; Constitutional monarchy with one legislative body

(floor area approved for construction; 1989): residential 2,563,000 sq m; nonresidential 416,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16,885,000,000 (14,209,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 388,700,000 (117,400,000); petroleum products

(National Assembly [50]).

Head of state and government: Emir!. Capital: Kuwait City. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Kuwaiti dinar

(metric tons; 1992) 16,059,000 (3,064,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 2,619,800,000 (2,619,800,000).

Population economically active (1990): total 722,495; activity rate of total population 37.2% (participation rates [1988]: ages 15-64, 56.1%; female 18.8%; unemployed 1.9%).

(KD) = 1,000 fils; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 KD=U.S.$3.33 = £2.13.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Area and population2

Consumer price index Earnings index

Governorates3 al-Ahmadi al-Farwaniyah al-Jahra

area

Capitals al-Ahmadi al-Farwaniyah

population _Saikinis 5,138 a

4,372

11,324

Kuwait City

38

178,700

Hawalli

138

98

358

237,900

Islands4

—

347

900

bes

17,818

1,433,300

6,8805

387,000

="

,

:

(by nationality; 1994): Kuwaiti 43.6%; non-Kuwaiti (in-

cluding other Arab, South Asian, Palestinian, and Badoun

grants]) 56.4%.

(1986): Muslim

90.0%,

of which

[stateless immi-

Sunni 63.0%,

Shi‘ah

27.0%; Christian 8.0%; Hindu 2.0%. Major cities (1985): as-Salimiyah 153,220; Hawalli 145,215; al-Jahra’ 111,165;

al-Farwaniyah 68,665; Kuwait City 44,224.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 22.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 74.3 years; female 78.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases 79.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 40.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 22.6; respiratory diseases 17.1; congenital anomalies 9.2; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 8.4; diseases of the nervous system 7.4; infectious

and parasitic diseases 5.7; diseases of the digestive system 4.4.

Revenue:

KD

2,537,000,000

(oil

revenue

88.1%).

Expenditures®: KD 4,000,000,000 (1993-94; defense 30.7%; education 11.9%;

health 9.9%; electricity, water, and public utilities 6.1%; administrative services 5.9%; transportation and communications 3.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$792,000,0007. ‘ Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$273,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,705,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$28,486,000,000

(U.S.$19,875 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in value KD. ‘000,000

Public utilities

199311

110.7

110.8

33.1 2,968.8 586.5 uae

% of total value 0.5 43.4 8.6 3.2

—63.9

-0.9

communications Trade

236.8 377.2

3.5 5.5

Finance and business services

760.6

labour force

i

% of labour force

9,150 6,025 51,948 79,709

1.2 0.8 vf 10.8

28,388 132,1908

3.9 18.08

5,956

0.8

Transportation and

fad

28,397

3.9

eeeace unCe Siac } 1,723.0 Services

25.2

364,123

49.5

Other

—

_—

29,790

4.0

TOTAL

6,839.3

100.05

+»,

735,676

KD '000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+452 11.6%

+1,529 29.2%

+886 27.9%

= 1,045 62.8%

— 198) 4.9%

+1,194 23.1%

Imports (1993): KD 1,986,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 37.6%,

manufactured goods 20.3%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 16.4%, food and live animals 14.3%, chemical products 6.8%, beverages and to-

bacco 1.5%). Major import sources: United States 16.2%; Japan 13.8%; West Germany 8.4%; United Kingdom 7.2%; Italy 6.3%; Saudi Arabia 5.3%; South Korea 4.3%; France 4.2%.

Exports (1993) 14: KD 3,180,500,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 94.9%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 20.8%; United Arab Emirates 18.1%; India 12.1%; Oman 3.0%; Egypt 2.9%; Syria 2.7%; Singapore 2.5%. s

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 2,655 mi, 4,273 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 579,841; trucks and buses 126,754. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 209; total deadweight tonnage 3,188,526. Air transport (1993)15: passenger-mi 2,518,801,000, passenger-km

4,053,626,000;

short ton-mi cargo

174,042,000,

metric ton-km cargo 254,097,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 9; total circulation 655,000; circulation per 1,000 population 550. Radio (1993): total number

of receivers 1,000,000 (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1993): total number

of receivers 800,000 (1 per 1.8 persons). Telephones

per 4.0 persons).

(1992): 345,580

(1

:

Education and health

National economy

Agriculture Mining (oil sector) Manufacturing Construction

1992

110.0

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population projection: (2000) 1,702,000; (2010) 2,177,000.

_- Doubling time (1992): 16 years.

(1994-95).

199119

100.0

Foreign trade!3

Sex distribution (1994): male 57.07%; female 42.93%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 43.0%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 18.4%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60-74, 2.9%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Bo

Budget

19909

98.1 a

and footwear 8.1%, education and recreation 5.2%, health 0.7%.

Demography.

Religious affiliation

1989

94.8 ist

Land use (1992): forested 0.1%; meadows and pastures 7.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.3%; other, built-up, and wasteland 91.9%.

Population (1994): 1,469,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 213.5, persons per sq km 82.4. Urban-rural (1992): urban 96.3%; rural 3.7%.

Ethnic composition

1988

93.5 pat

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.4; annual income per household (1973)12 KD 4,246 (U.S.$12,907); sources of income: wages and salaries 53.8%, self-employment 20.8%, other 25.4%; expenditure (1986-87): food, beverages, and tobacco 28.1%, housing and energy 15.5%, transportation 13.7%, household appliances and services 11.2%, clothing

ea GsHINetesy 266,400 363,300

Hawalli

TOTAL

1987

1993

; agsq:T0l — 1,984 ris

al-Jahra’

Capital

647

100.0 eee

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): tomatoes 35,000, cucumbers and gherkins 17,000, onions 16,000, eggplants

2,000, garlic 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 150,000 sheep, 15,000 goats, 12,000 cattle, 1,000 camels, 10,000,600 chickens; fish catch 8,000. Min-

ing and quarrying (1992): sulfur 150,000; lime 5,000. Manufacturing (1992):

cement 533,500; ammonia (urea) 257,300; flour 104,900; bread 63,500; bran

Education (1993-94) schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

130,877 188,399 2,524 11,284

15.9 10.9 3.9 a

Primary (age 6-9)

239

8,217

Secondary (age 10-17)

390

17,340

Voc., teacher tr. Higher 16

36 4

650 92717

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 44.8%; primary education 8.6%; some secondary 15.1%; complete secondary 15.1%; higher 16.4%. Literacy (1988):

total population age 15 and over literate 961,880 (79.7%); males literate 574,739 (83.3%); females literate 387,141 (74.9%). Health (1992): physicians 2,215 (1 per 515 persons); hospital beds 4,03918 (1 per 347 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 16.4. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,146 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 16,600 (army [including central staff] 69.8%, navy 15.1%, air force 15.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 5.5% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$782.

1Assisted by prime minister. 2Area of governorates reflects situation prior to Amiri Decree No. 156 of 1988, which established al-Farwaniyah governorate; but population estimate accounts for the reorganization. 3Governorates have no administrative function. 4Bubian Island 333 sq mi (863 sq km) and Warba Island 14 sq mi (37 sq km). 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Total includes current and capital expenditure, but 1993-94 breakdown is derived from current expenditure. 7Includes external long-term debt not guaranteed by the government. 8Trade includes restaurants and hotels. °May. !0Fourth quarter. !!Third quarter. 1*Kuwaiti households only. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. !4Total expenditure includes oil and non-oil, but

breakdown. by products and destinations is derived from non-oil exports. !5Kuwait Airways only. 16199293. 171989-90, !8Public hospitals only.

648

Britannica World Data

Kyrgyzstan

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Official name: Kyrgyzstan Respublikasy (Republic of Kyrgyzstan). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a bicameral legislative body (Supreme Council, comprising a Legislative Assembly [35] and an Assembly of People’s Representatives

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1989

1990

1991

1992

95.2 84.5

97.1 90.9

100.0 100.0

279.1 137.3

3,792.3 252.2

Gross national product (at current. market prices; 1993): U.S.$3,745,000,000

(U.S.$830 per capita)5.

Structure of net material product and labour force 1992

Area and population

area

population 19932

sq mi

sq km

estimate

7,200 15,200 16,800 18,300 14,700 4,400

18,700 39,500 43,500 47,300 38,100 11,409

774,000 812,800 429,300 267,900 1,360,900 203,000

76,600

198,500

in value ’000,000 rubles4 58,169.0

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transportation and communications Trade Finance Public administration, defense Services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$=10.20 som; 1 £=16.22 som.

City of republic subordination Bishkek (Frunze) TOTAL

1988

95.2 78.9

72.0%, pensions and stipends 7.5%, other 20.5%; expenditure: consumer goods 33.5%, food 32.9%, taxes 8.2%, alcohol 2.8%, housing 2.0%.

[70]").

Capitals Kara-Balta Dzhalal-Abad Issyk-Kul Naryn Osh Talas

1987

94.3 76.6

Household income and expenditure (1990). Average household size 4.7; income per household (1989) 6,100 rubles4; sources of income: wages and salaries

Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bishkek (formerly Frunze). Official languages: Kyrgyz; Russian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 som= 100 tyiyn; valuation (Oct. 3, 1994) free rate,

Provinces Chu Dzhalal-Abad Issyk-Kul Naryn Osh Talas

1986

1991 % of total value . 42.5

labour __ forces 622,700

% of labour forces 35.5

51,799.0

37.8

318,700

18.2

8,084.3

5.9

147,000

8.4

3,852.5 4,102.5 _

2.8 3.0 —

93,500 87,900 7,200

5.4 5.0 0.4

— 2,769.1 8,196.3 136,972.7

— 2.0 6.0 100.0

36,600 383,400 57,100 1,754,100

2.1 20-7. 3.3 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; October 1991): U.S.$760,000,000. _ Land use (1992): forested 3.5%; meadows and pastures 45.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 6.7%; other 44.5%.

634,100

4,482,000

Foreign trade Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (1994): 4,488,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 58.6, persons per sq km 22.6.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 37.8%; rural 62.2%.

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.10%; female 50.90%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 37.5%; 15-29, 27.0%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59,

10.9%; 60-74, 6.2%; 75 and over, 2.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,653,000; (2010) 4,944,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Kyrgyz 52.4%; Russian 21.5%; Uzbek

12.9%;

Ukrainian 2.5%; German 2.4%; Tatar 1.6%; other 6.7%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Sunni Muslim (Hanafiyah). Major cities (1991): Bishkek (Frunze) 631,300; Osh 218,700; Dzhalal-Abad 74,200; Tokmak 71,200; Przhevalsk 64,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 28.5 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 87.0%; illegitimate 13.0%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.1 (world avg. 9.0). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 21.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearmg woman; 1992): 4.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.8. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 64.6 years; female 72.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 281.4; diseases of the respiratory system 114.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 81.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 78.9; infectious and parasitic diseases 30.6; diseases of the digestive system (1989) 28.7; diseases of the nervous system (1989) 7.9; endocrine and metabolic disorders (1989) 5.3.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: 601,800,000 som (development grants 50.4%3; tax revenue 39.5%, of which sales tax 17.6%, value-added tax 14.1%, enterprise profits tax 12.4%, excise duties 3.5%, individual income tax 5.8%; nontax revenue 10.1%). Expenditures: 869,600,000 som (current expenditure 76.5%,

of which national economy 14.8%; lending to state enterprises 19.4%; education 8.1%; health 4.6%). Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): grain 1,603,000, vegetables (other than potatoes) 305,000, potatoes 300,000,

fruit (other than grapes) 136,000, seed cotton 58,000, grapes 30,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,300,000 sheep and goats, 1,002,000 cattle,

‘000,000 rubles % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 458 9.9%

—435 7.9%

—813 13.8%

—417 7.9%

—958 8.2%

— 17,800 14.4%

Imports (1992): 70,586,200,000 rubles4 (oil and gas 27.8%, machine-building equipment 24.1%, chemicals 11.0%, light industrial products 7.3%, ferrous metals 6.1%, food products 6.0%). Major import sources: Russian Federation 49.0%; Kazakhstan 23.2%; Uzbekistan

9.1%; Ukraine 8.1%; Turkmenistan

6.1%. Exports (1992): 52,785,700,000 rubles4 (machine-building equipment 40.7%, light industrial products 24.1%, nonferrous metals 10.7%, food products 7.1%, electricity 5.8%). Major export destinations: Russian Federation 39.1%; Kazakhstan 22.4%; Ukraine 17.3%; Uzbekistan 10.4%; Belarus 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 490 mi7, 789 km7; passenger-mi 81,500,000, passenger-km

131,200,000; short ton-mi cargo 987,000,000, metric ton-

km _1,588,900,000. Roads (1990): total length 11,900 mi, 19,100 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 173,800; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 1,601,800,000, passenger-

km 2,577,800,000; short ton-mi cargo 144,100,000; metric ton-km cargo 231,-

900,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 128; total circulation 1,622,000; circulation per 1,000 population 367. Radio (1991): 825,000 receivers (1 per 18.5 persons). Television (1991): 875,000 receivers (1 per 19.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 352,000 (1 per 12.8 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

1,862 1,472 or ? 12

student/

teachers

students

teacher ratio

76,300

954,700

12.5

40,922 53,670

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 19 and over haying: primary education 4.7%; some secondary 20.9%; completed secondary 44.4%; some postsecondary 19.3%; higher 10.7%. Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate, n.a.; males literate, n.a.; females literate, n.a.

Health (1993): physicians8 15,758 (1 per 283 persons); hospital beds 52,285 (1

310,000 horses, 264,000 pigs; roundwood (1990) 6,000 cu m; fish catch 1,000.

per 85 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 21.4. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

319,700,000 units; roofing tiles 176,300,000 units; knitted fabrics 22,749,000 units; electrical engines 172,000 units; washing machines 94,000 units;

Military

Mining and quarrying (1992): detail not available; however, antimony, gold, and mercury are mined. Manufacturing (1992): cement 1,100,000; light bulbs

centrifugal pumps 43,100 units; trucks 14,800 units; hay-baling machines 11,900 units; metal-cutting machines 789 units; forge-press machines 245

Total active duty personnel (1994): 12,000 (army 100%). Military expenditure baReianae of GNP (1993): 1.4% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure

units; textiles 121,284,000 sq m; rugs 1,701,000 sq m; window glass 7,700,000

sq m. Construction (1992): residential 1,232,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 11,892,000,000 (9,804,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 3,262,000 (3,577,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 828,300 (198,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,000 (1,471,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 72,000,000 (1,876,000,000). Population economically active (1992): total 1,764,900; activity rate of total population 39.4% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 82.9%; female [1990] 49.5%; unemployed [1989] 2.6%).

'On Oct. 22, 1994, the Great Council was dissolved by referendum and anew tive body, the Supreme Council, was created, elections to which were to be heldlegisla24, 1994. 2January. 3Primarily food and medical aid from the United States. Dec. 4The value of the ruble during 1989-92 ranged from an official 1.61 rubles to more than 300 rubles per 1 U.S.$. SRuble-area GNP and exchange-rate data are very speculative . State sector only. 71990. 8Data include dentists.

Nations of the World

Laos

ufacturing (1991): detergent 566,000; soap 481,300; plastic products 85,000; nails 55,000; clothing 882,500 pieces; cigarettes 29,600,000 packets; plywood 346,600 sheets; electrical wire 101,000 metres; soft drinks 59,800 hectolitres;

Official name: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxax6n Lao (Lao People’s Democratic Republic). Form of government: unitary

beer 68,900 bottles. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 910,000,000 (298,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,000 (1,000); crude petroleum, n.a. (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (88,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).

single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National Assembly! [85]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Vientiane.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,308,000,000

(U.S.$290 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Official language: Lao. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 kip (KN)=100 at;

Agriculture Manufacturing

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=KN 720; 1 £=KN 1,146.

Mining Construction Public utilities

Transportation and

Area and population Provinces Attapu Bokeo Bolikhamxay Champasak

Houaphan Khammouan Louang Namtha Louangphrabang Oudomxay

Phongsali Saravan

Savannakhét

sq mi

Capitals Attapu Houayxay Pakxan

3,985 1,919 6,359 5,952 6,371 6,299 3,600 6,515 8,182 6,282 4,010 8,525 7,718 4,554 2,959 6,685

Pakxé

Xam Nua Thakhek Louang Namtha Louangphrabang Xay Phongsali Saravan

Savannakhét

Vientiane Xaignabouri

Xékong

Vientiane Xaignabouri Thong

Xiangkhoang

Phénsavan

Municipalities Vientiane TOTAL

649

1,514 91,429

sq km

10,320 4,970 16,470 15,415 16,500 16,315 9,325 16,875 21,190 16,270 10,385 22,080 19,990 11,795 7,665 17,315

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

80,000 64,000 145,000 469,000 243,000 249,000 114,000 339,000 291,000 142,000 211,000 640,000 312,000 182,000 58,000 189,000

labour force

% of labour force

58.0 12.6

1,359,000

72.0

34,333 49,415 57,735

5.0 7.2 8.5

31,044

4.6

681,642

100.03

0.1 3.0 14 529,000

1,888,000

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 6.0; average annual income per household KN 3,710 (U.S.$371); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

Land use (1992): forested 54.2%; meadows and pastures 3.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.5%; other 38.8%.

Foreign trade4 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

442,000 4,170,000

3,920 236,800

% of total value

communications Trade Finance

population 1990 estimate

1989

in value KN '000,0002 395,537 85,766 932 19,055 7,825

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+1540 55.4%

=125:0 49.8%

—=162:0 58.7%

—127:8' 46.4%

—131.7 45.8%

=13310 33.3%

Imports (1991): U.S.$209,600,000 (1989; major imports include cereals, other food products, petroleum products, agricultural and general machinery, and transport equipment). Major import sources (1990): Thailand 51.9%; Japan 15.3%; China 8.1%; Hong Kong 0.9%.

Demography Population (1994): 4,743,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 51.9, persons per sq km 20.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 19.0%; rural 81.0%.

Exports (1991): U.S.$77,900,000 (1989; wood 33.3%, electricity 23.8%, coffee

14.3%, tin 3.2%). Major export destinations (1990): Thailand 34.1%; China

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.25%; female 49.75%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 43.7%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 9.2%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 0.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,592,000; (2010) 7,119,000. Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Lao-Lum (Lao) 67.0%; Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) 16.5%; Lao-Tai (Tai) 7.8%; Lao-Soung (Miao [Hmong] and Man [Yao]) 5.2%; other 3.5%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Buddhist 57.8%; tribal religionist 33.6%; Christian 1.8%, of which Roman Catholic 0.8%, Protestant 0.2%; Muslim 1.0%; atheist 1.0%; Chinese folk-religionist 0.9%; none 3.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1985): Vientiane 178,203; Savannakhét 96,652; Louangphrabang

68,399; Pakxé 47,323.

6.4%; Japan 3.9%; Malaysia 0.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none.

Roads (1992): total length 8,780 mi, 14,130 km

(paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 20,233; trucks and buses 12,987. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 1,469. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 27,000,000, passenger-km 44,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 11.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 3; total 14,000; circulation per 1,000 population 3.0. Radio (1993): total receivers 425,000 (1 per 11 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 80,000 (1 per 58 persons). Telephones (1992): 8,230 persons).

circulation number of number of (1 per 543

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 43.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 15.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 6.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 50.0 years; female 53.0 years. , Major causes of death per 100,000 population (incomplete, 1990): malaria 7.6; pneumonia 3.0; meningitis 1.5; diarrhea 1.2; tuberculosis 0.8.

Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher5

teachers

7,140 7505

21,036 8,936

1396

1,262

9

698

students _ teacher ratio

580,792 117,504 8,198 4,730

27.6 13.1 6.5 6.8

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no schooling 49.3%; primary 41.2%; secondary 9.1%; higher 0.4%.

National economy

Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 83.9%; males

Budget (1991). Revenue: KN 79,022,000,000 (1990; taxes 76.0%, nontax rev-

enue 24.0%). Expenditures: KN 147,895,000,000 (current expenditure 55.4%, capital expenditure 44.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,891,000,000. Tourism (1991): total number of tourist arrivals 20,614. sei Population economically active (1989): total 1,888,000; activity rate of total

population 49.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 84.2%; female 45.3%; unemployed 3.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

Education and health

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

143.9

165.2

263.5

357.6

405.5 o

445.2 bee

476.4 a

literate 92.0%; females literate 75.8%.

;

Health (1990): physicians 1,173 (1 per 3,555 persons); hospital beds 10,364 (1 per 402 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 94. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,190 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 37,000 (army 89.2%, navy 1.4%, air force 9.4%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP (1984): 10.5% (world 5.7%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$16.

- Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

rice 1,251,000, sweet potatoes 113,000, sugarcane 90,000, cassava 68,000, corn (maize) 48,000, onions 44,000, potatoes 34,000, pineapples 34,000, melons 33,000, oranges 22,000, bananas 20,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,561,000 pigs, 1,131,000 water buffalo, 993,000 cattle, 104,000 goats, 29,000 horses, 9,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 4,398,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 20,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): gypsum 79,863; rock salt 8,000; tin,(metal content) 300; gemstones (mainly sapphires) 35,000 carats. Man-

1Formerly known as the Supreme People’s Assembly. 2At constant 1990 prices. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Import figures are c.if. in balance of trade and commodities. 51989-90. 61988-89.

650

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$5,254,000,000 (U.S.$2,030 per capita).

Latvia

Structure of net material product and labour force 1992

Official name: Latvijas Republika (Republic of Latvia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Council [100]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Riga. Official language: Latvian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 \ats! (plural lati)= 10 santimi; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=0.55 lats; 1 £=0.87 lats. Area and population

area

Cities of republic jurisdiction Daugavpils Jelgava Jurmala Liepaja

population 19922 estimate

sq km3

72 60 100 60

Rézekne Riga Ventspils

127,279 73,917 60,901 113,815 43,073 897,078 50,435

17 295 46

Rural districts Aizkraukle Altdksne

2,558 2,246 2,384 1,884 3,062 2,526 1,680 1,876 2,998

Balvi Bauska

Césis Daugavpils Dobele Gulbene

Jékabpils

Rural districts Jelgava Kraslava Kuldiga Liepaja

Limbazi

45,093

Ludza Madona Ogre Preili Rezekne

33,576 55,612 63,820 46,329 44,749 30,243

Saldus Talsi Tukums Valka Valmiera Ventspils

28,631

61,435

% of total value

labour force

45,221 70,029 13,049 14,530

24.8 38.5 7.2 6.3

83,000 351,400 82,200

5.7 24.0 5.6

103,700 119,600

7A 8.2

Agriculture Manufacturing and mining Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL area

Riga

TOTAL

sq km3

population 19922 estimate

1,613 2,288 2,503 3,589 2,602 2,566 3,348 1,816 2,042 2,654 3,094 2,134 2,748 2,457 2,444 2,377 2,471 64,610

39,137 41,019 41,361 54,475 41,436 41,747 49,953 66,040 45,342 42,899 152,070 40,235 50,603 59,069 37,119 63,067 15,400 2,656,958

1991

in value ‘000,000 Latvian rubles

’

182,002

100.0

% of labour force

194,000

13.3

528,0006 1,461,900

36.16 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 63.2%, pensions and transfers 16.6%, self-employment 5.3%, other 14.9%; expenditure (1991): food and alcohol 45.2%, consumer goods 34.8%, rent and social services 7.1%.

Land use (1992): forested 43.6%; meadows and pastures 12.7%; agricultural and permanent cultivation 26.5%; other 17.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 =©1989 += 1990 ‘000,000 rubles % of total

—700 6.7%

—617 5.4%

—784 6.5%

1991 +1,396 10.0%

Imports (1992): 108,668,000,000 rubles (1991; textiles 22.0%, chemical prod-

ucts 14.4%, machinery and equipment 13.7%, food and agricultural products 13.6%, fuels 8.8%). Major import sources: Russia 27.8%; Germany 14.9%; Estonia 6.4%; Sweden 3.8%; Belarus 3.7%.

Exports (1992): 115,375,000,000 rubles (1991; machinery and equipment 24.8%, food and agricultural products 21.7%, textiles 12.9%, chemical products 8.2%, forestry products 5.4%). Major export destinations: Russia 25.8%:

Demography

Population (1994): 2,551,000.

Ukraine 8.2%; Germany 7.9%; The Netherlands 7.4%; Belgium 5.6%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 102.3, persons per sq km 39.5. Urban-rural (1992): urban 68.7%; rural 31.3%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 46.46%; female 53.54%.

Age breakdown (19922): under 15, 21.4%; 15-29, 20.7%; 30-44, 21.4%; 45-59, 18.3%; 60-74, 13.1%; 75 and over, 5.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,602,000; (2010) 2,681,000. Ethnic composition (19942): Latvian 54.2%; Russian 33.1%; Belarusian 4.1%; Ukrainian 3.1%; Polish 2.2%; Lithuanian 1.3%; Jewish 0.5%; other 1.5%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, or Roman Catholic. Major cities (19932): Riga 874,000; Daugavpils 125,000; Liepaja 108,000; Jelgava 72,000; Jarmala 60,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.1 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 81.6%; illegitimate 18.4%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 13.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): —1.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.6. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 64.2 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 756.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 204.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 138.9; diseases of the respiratory system 49.6.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: 81,143,000,000 Latvian rubles (social-security taxes 43.6%; value-added taxes 14.9%; profit tax 10.7%; income tax 7.8%; customs duties 6.7%). Expenditures: 80,724,000,000 Latvian rubles (1991; economic affairs 46.8%; social affairs 28.6%, of which education and science 11.1%,

social security 11.1%, health 6.1%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): potatoes 1,272,000, barley 446,000, wheat 305,000, sugar beets 298,000, vegetables 226,000, fruits and berries 85,000; livestock (number of live animals)

1,144,000 cattle, 867,000 pigs, 170,000 sheep, 4,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1991) 1,421,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 369,900. Mining and quarrying (1992): peat 3,500,000; gypsum 350,000. Manufacturing (1992): steel 800,-

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length (1991) 2,397 km; passenger-km 2,388,000,000; metric-km cargo 9,828,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 60,224 km (paved 55%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 340,000; trucks and buses 87,000. Merchant marine (1992): cargo vessels 261; total deadweight tonnage 1,436,899. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 2,999,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 22,000,0007; airports with scheduled flights (1994) 1. Communications. Total newspapers (1991): total number 188; total circulation 3,676,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1,377. Radio (1991): 1,396,000 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1991): 1,126,000 receivers (1 per 2.4 persons). Telephones (1991): 746,000 (1 per 3.6 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary Secondary } Voc., teacher tr.8 Higher

a 57 14

teachers

students

teacher ratio

33,7127

330,468

9.8

36,100 46,279

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of persons age 15 and over having: primary or less 18.7%; incomplete secondary 23.4%; complete secondary 46.4%; some higher 11.5%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 99.5%; males literate 99.8%; females literate 99.2%. Health (1992): physicians 10,700 (1 per 245.9 persons); hospital beds 33,800 (1 per 77.9 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 17.4.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 2,550 (army 58.8%, navy 35.3%, air force 5.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: 0.9%: per capita ex-

penditure U.S.$18. Until 1991, the U.S.S.R. was responsible for Latvia’s external security; final withdrawal of its military personnel was completed on Aug. 31, 1994,

0004; cement 720,0004; processed milk 609,6004; processed meats 253,000; synthetic fibre 39,300; fertilizers 31,000; telephones 885,000 units; diesel

engines 60,000 units; buses

15,100 units; rail passenger

cars 263 units;

beer 900,000 hectolitres4; vodka 220,000 hectolitres4; textiles 44,200,000 sq

m. Construction (1992): new residential 312,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 3,800,000,000 (7,900,000,000); coal (1992) none (663,000); crude petroleum, none

(n.a.); petroleum products

3,057,000 (2,488,000); natural gas (1992) none (2,700,000,000).

Population economically active (1991): total 1,461,900; activity rate of total population 54.8% (participation rates: ages 16-59/555 [1990] 93.4%; female, n.a.; unemployed [1993] 6.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index

Monthly earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

66.0

68.9

67.3

71.4

69.2

74.7

71.8

100.0

78.4

272.0

100.0

2,861

193.0

'The lats (pre-World War II Latvian currency), reintroduced in parallel the Latvian ruble (LR; at 200 LR per lats) on March 5, 1993, became the solewith official currency Oct. 18, 1993. From May 7, 1992, LR circulated in parallel at par with Soviet ruble, serving temporarily as the sole legal tender until introduction of the the lats

on March 5, 1993. 2January 1. 3One sq km is equal to approximately 0.3861 sq mi. 41991. 5Males retire at age 59, females at 55. 6Includes 313,600 employed outside the state

sector, 65,000 unemployed, and 149,300 not allocated by sector. 7Includes part-

time teachers, 81990-91.

Nations of the World

Lebanon

Consumer price index (1990 = 100)

Official name: al-Jumhiriyah al-Lubnaniyah (Republic of Lebanon). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [128])1. Chief of state: President.

1987

Consumer price index3

1990

1991

1992

82.6

100.0

112.0

168.0

1992 in value4 LL '000,0005 575,800

Agriculture

Mining

_—

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

Area and population

population

583,500 703,900 667,400

Pub. admin., defense TOTAL

474,870 203,520 833,055 249,945 364,935 2,126,325

Brabda Sidon (Sayda) Tripoli (Tarabulus)

503,600

Services

_estimate_

Capitals Beirut (Bayrit) Zahlah

823,700 216,300 343,600 246,000 1,853,200

Finance Real estate and business services

1970

6,517,000

1986 % of total value 8.8

labour force

% of labour force

132,211

—

694

19.1

01°

12.6 3.3 5.3 3.8 28.4

123,647 43,357 6,668 48,242 114,706

17.8 6.2 1.0 7.0 16.5

77

24,224

35

9.0 10.8 } 10.2 100.06

200,063

28.8

693,812

100.0

Tourism (1980): number of tourist arrivals 135,5487.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Demography

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 2,965,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 750.6, persons per sq km 289.8. Urban-rural (1990): urban 83.7%; rural 16.3%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.37%; female 49.63%.

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 33.1%; 15-29, 30.8%; 30-44, 17.4%; 45-59, 11.4%; 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 1.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,312,000; (2010) 3,777,000. Doubling time: during the 1970-75 prewar period the average growth rate was 2.6%; however, the dislocation of the population by the civil war between 1976 and 1991 rendered both the absolute size and principal components of population change (births, deaths, migration) highly problematic. Ethnic composition (1993): Lebanese, c. 80%; Palestinian 12%; Armenian 5%; Syrian, Kurd, and other 3%.

Religious affiliation: no official data exist subsequent to the 1932 census, when Christians (predominantly Maronite Roman Catholic) were a slight majority; it is thought that Muslims today constitute the majority, but by what margin is highly uncertain. Unofficial and CIA estimates (1984/1986) indicated the main religious groups as follows: Shit Muslim 32/41%; Maronite Christian 24.5/16%; Sunni Muslim 21/27%; Druze 7/7%; Greek Orthodox 6.5/5%; Greek Catholic 4/3%; Armenian Christian 4%/n.a.; other 1/1%. Major cities (1990): Beirut 1,500,000; Tripoli 160,000; Zahlah 45,000; Sidon

(Sayda) 38,000; Tyre 14,000.

—716 58.6%

— 874 64.9%

—1,419 67.8%

1991

1992

1993

— 2,983 15.2%

—6,182 76.7%

—7,100 76.6%

Imports (1993): LL 8,191,000,000,000 (1982; consumer goods 40.0%, machinery and transport equipment 35.0%, petroleum products 20.0%). Major import sources (1991): Italy 14.0%; France 12.0%; U.S. 6.0%; Turkey 5.0%. Exports (1993): LL 1,091,000,000,000 (1985; jewelry 10.2%, clothing 5.2%, pharmaceutical products 4.9%, metal products 4.8%). Major export destinations (1991): Saudi Arabia 21.0%; Kuwait 12.0%; Switzerland 9.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1982)8: length (1986) 417 km; passenger-km 8,570,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,010,000. Roads (1987): total length 7,370 km (paved 85%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 300,000; trucks and buses 49,560. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 163; total deadweight tonnage 438,165. Air transport (1992)9: passenger-km 1,285,197,000; metric ton-km cargo 37,192,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1986): total number 39; total circulation 572,73410; circulation per 1,000 population 21210, Radio (1993): 2,150,000

receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): 1,100,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Telephones (1993): 351,000 (1 per 8.3 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.2 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 20.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.9. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 72.5 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death: normally, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, including typhoid fever and dysentery; but violence and acts of war were also among the principal causes of mortality between 1975 and 1991.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: LL 2,195,795,000,000 (almost entirely taxation, direct and indirect). Expenditures: LL 4,206,705,000,000 (debt service 35%, 10%).

:

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): grapes 365,000, potatoes 280,000, oranges 270,000, tomatoes 235,000, apples 160,000, cucumbers 155,000, lemons and limes 94,000, onions 68,000, olives

50,000; opium poppies and marijuana were important cash crops in the late 1980s and early 1990s but were reportedly eradicated in 1993; livestock (number of live animals) 450,000 goats, 250,000 sheep, 77,000 cattle, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 488,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 1,800. Mining and quarrying (1992): lime 15,000; salt 3,000; gypsum 2,000. Manufacturing (1991): cement 907,000; paper 36,000; cigarettes 4,000,000,000

units; petroleum refining, dairying, curing of leather, meat cutting, and milling of flour are also significant. Construction (1987): 4,938,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,500,000,000 (2,540,000,000); coal, n.a. (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (2,565,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 317,000 (3,422,000). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$304,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1987) 5.0; aver-

age annual income per household (1985) LL 120,000 (U.S.$6,630; in constant prices, about 75% of 1966 income levels); sources of income (1974): wages and salaries 27.9%, transfers 3.0%, other 69.1%; expenditure (1966)2: food

42.8%, housing 16.8%, clothing 8.6%, health care 7.2%.

¢

Land use (1992): forested 7.8%; meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 29.9%; wasteland and other areas 61.3%. Population

1989

74.5

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1 £=LL 2,647.

government salaries 32%, defense 22%, education

1988

500,000,000—4,000,000,000 (U.S.$1,250-1,425 per capita).

(Oct..7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=LL 1,664;

Bayrit al-Biga‘ Jabal Lubnan al-Janib ash-Shamal TOTAL

i

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1992): estimated at U.S.$3,-

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Beirut. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Lebanese pound (LL) =100 piastres; valuation

Governorates

651

economically active (1988): total 904,000;

activity rate of total

population 26.5% (participation rates: over age 15, 44%, female 16.67; unemployed [1991] reported by the national trade union at 30% but perhaps

as low as 7-8% according to a 1987 study of 60,000 households).

Education (1988-89) Primary (age 5-9) Secondary (age 10-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

Schools 2,13011 1,405 12 18112

1812

student/ teachers

students

22,81012 21,344 12 4,792 5,40013

346,534 241,964 32,708 85,49513

teacher ratio

Te 6.8 15.813

Educational attainment (1970). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 45.6%, of which, ability to read and write 35.6%; incomplete primary education 28.5%; complete primary 10.8%; incomplete secondary 7.1%; complete secondary 4.9%; higher 3.1%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 1,538,800 (80.1%); males literate, c. 798,100 (87.8%); females literate, c. 739,100 (73.1%). Health: physicians (1989-91) 6,638 (1 per 407 persons); hospital beds (1982) 11,400 (1 per 263 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 28.0.

Food (1979-81): daily per capita caloric intake 2,995 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): Lebanese national armed forces 44,300 (army 97.1%, navy 1.1%, air force 1.8%). External regular military forces

include: UN peacekeeping force in Lebanon 5,200; Syrian army 30,000. Most civilian militias were progressively disbanded after the civil war ended in 1991. According

to external analysts, however, only two factions were

still active in 1994, though on a much-reduced scale!4; Shtt Muslim (proIran Hezbollah [Party of God]) 3,000; Maronite Christian (Lebanese Forces

[Phalange]) 2,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (1993): 4.4% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure: U.S.$95. 1The current legislature was elected between August and October 1992; one-half of its membership is Christian and one-half Muslim/Druze. 2Weights based on consumer price index components. For capital city only. 3UN estimate; for Beirut only. 4In purchasers’ value at current prices. ‘The domestic economy reportedly became

increasingly “dollarized” as more transactions were quoted or paid in dollars during the late 1980s and early 90s. By 1993, however, the pound had once again stabilized against the dollar. *Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Approximately one-fourth the annual prewar rates of the early 1970s. 8Apart from a 14-mi (23-km) section delivering oil from the Zahrani refinery to a thermal power station serving Beirut, no passenger or general cargo track is currently in use. SMEAAirliban international flights only. !8For 20 newspapers only. 111984-85. 121981-82. 131991—92. 14Active personnel.

652

Britannica World Data

wages and salaries 22.4%, other 5.1%; expenditure (1989): food 48.0%, clothing 16.4%, household durable goods 11.9%, housing and energy 10.1%,

Lesotho

transportation 4.7%. toad national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,253,000,000

Official name: Lesotho (Sotho); Kingdom of Lesotho (English). Form of government: multiparty republic! with 2 legislative houses (National Assembly [65]; Senate [332]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Maseru. Official languages: Sotho; English. Official religion: Christianity. Monetary unit: 1 loti (plural maloti [M])= 100 lisente; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=M 3.57; 1 £=M

(U.S.$660 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991 Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing

Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

5.68.

;

Quthing Thaba-Tseka

population 1987

Capitals Teyateyaneng

sq mi

sq km

estimate

858 682

2,222 1,767 2,828 2,119 4,279 3,530 4,075 2,349 2,916 4,270 30,355

199,600 103,000 264,600 200,600 319,100 168,600 76,600 65,600 113,200 106,800 1,617,700

Butha-Buthe Hlotse

1,092

Mafeteng Maseru Mohale’s Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha's Nek Quthing Thaba-Tseka

818 1,652 1,363 1,573 907 1,126 1,649 11,720

TOTAL

0.2 12.1

3 F f 5

18.9 1.2 3.3 Ken

;

Pub. admin., defense

; }

Other TOTAL

1,643.85

5.4

,

15.8 8.5

15.24 100.05

labour force 474,171 6,446 19,339 31,516 1,433 5,014 22,204 3,581 17,907 126,780 7,879 716,2706

% of labour force

Land use (1992): meadows and pastures 65.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.5%; other 23.6%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 M '000,000 % of total

Demography Population (1994): 1,929,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 164.6, persons per sq km 63.5.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 20.9%; rural 79.1%. Sex distribution (1990): male 48.08%; female 51.92%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 43.1%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 15.7%; 45-59, 9.8%; 60 and over, 5.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,233,000; (2010) 2,821,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Sotho 85.0%; Zulu 15.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 43.5%;

F :

Finance

Services

Area and population Districts Berea Butha-Buthe Leribe Mafeteng Maseru Mohale’s Hoek Mokhotlong -Qacha’s Nek

1986 % of total value

in value M ‘000,000

Protestant

(mostly

Lesotho Evangelical) 29.8%; Anglican 11.5%; other Christian 8.0%; tradi-

tional beliefs 6.2%; other 1.0%. Major urban centres (1986): Maseru 109,382; Maputsoe 20,000; Teyateyaneng 14,251; Mafeteng 12,667; Hlotse 9,595.

-830.5 81.4%

-1,106.3. 79.2%

-—1,072.4 75.8%

1990

1991

=1,517.0 83.2%

=1)992.9 84.3%

— 2,720.8 88.0%

Imports (1991): M 2,259,690,000 (1990; manufactured goods [excluding chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment] 42.5%; food and live animals 19.1%; machinery and transport equipment 15.3%; petroleum products 8.6%). Major import sources: Customs Union of Southern Africa 94.1%; Asia 3.4%; Europe 1.4%, of which European Economic Community 1.3%; the Americas 0.3%. Exports (1991): M 186,165,000 (manufactured goods 83.1%, of which machinery and transport equipment 2.8%; food and live animals 11.6%, of which preserved vegetables 4.3%, cornmeal 1.6%, wheat flour 1.2%; crude materials 3.7%, of which mohair 2.4%, wool 1.1%; chemicals 1.6%). Ma-

Jor export destinations: Customs Union of Southern Africa 42.1%; Europe 30.0%, of which European Economic Community 27.9%; the Americas 25.4%; Asia 0.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 1.6 mi, 2.6 km. Roads (1993): total length

3,257 mi, 5,242 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 6,000; trucks and buses 14,000. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 34.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, typhoid fever, and infectious and parasitic diseases.

over) none. Air transport (1992)8: passenger-mi 4,767,000, passenger-km 7,671,000; ton-mi cargo 21,200, metric ton-km cargo 31,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 6; total circulation 36,000; circulation per 1,000 population

19, Radio (1993): total number of

receivers 425,000 (1 per 4.4 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 50,000 (1 per 38 persons). Telephones (1992): 22,420 (1 per 82 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92)

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: M 1,400,000,000 (1991-92; tax revenue 74.7%, of

which customs receipts 46.2%3, sales tax 11.0%, income tax 8.0%, company tax 6.2%; grants and other nontax revenue 25.3%). Expenditures: M 1,590,-

000,000 (recurrent expenditure 67.3%, of which education 20.9%, public

works 12.8%, health 7.8%, defense 5.7%; capital expenditure 32.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

corn (maize) 92,000, sorghum 52,000, fruit 18,000, roots and tubers 8,000, peas 2,000, beans 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,665,000 sheep, 1,010,000 goats, 650,000 cattle, 162,000 asses, 123,000 horses, 76,000 pigs,

1,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 635,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 15.

Mining and quarrying (1988): sand and gravel 50,000 cu m. Manufacturing (total value added; 1991): M 193,800,000, of which (1990) food and beverages 47.27, textiles, apparel, and leather 39.8%, chemical products 2.1%, printing and publishing 2.0%, iron and steel products 1.6%, furniture and fixtures 1.2%. Construction (total value added; 1991): M 310,500. Energy

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1988) 1,000,000 (n.a.); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$441,800,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$19,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$11,000,000. Population economically active (1986): total 716,270; activity rate of total population 45.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 79.8%; female 45.5%;

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,198 179 10 1

6,685 2,407 227 204

361,144 46,572 2,167 1,421

54.0 19.3 9.5 7.0

Educational attainment (1986-87). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal education 22.9%; primary 52.8%; secondary 23.2%; higher 0.6%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 655,400 (73.6%); males literate 273,800 (62.4%); females literate 381,600 (84.5%). Health (1992): physicians 139 (1 per 13,209 persons); hospital beds 2,400 (1 per 765 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 71.5. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,121 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 93% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994); 2,0009. Military expenditure as percentage of

GNP (1990): 3.8% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$33.

unemployed [1988] 23%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

70.1

78.1

89.6

0

oe

ra

100.0

117.7

137.9

157.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 4.8; average annual income per household (1986-87) M 2,832 (U.S.$1,297); sources of income (1986-87): transfer payments 44.7%, self-employment 27.8%,

‘New constitution, effective April 1993, ended seven years of military rule. 2Composed of 22 chiefs and 11 nominated members. 3Lesotho’s share of customs revenue from the Southern African Customs Union accounted for 60% of 1994-95 revenue. 4Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges. SDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. Approximately 110,000 to 120,000 persons (45% of Lesotho’s adult male labour force) were employed in South Africa in 1987. ‘Import figures in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 8Lesotho are f.o.b. Airways only. ?Royal Lesotho Defence Force.

Nations of the World

Liberia

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 4.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1963) 14:

Official name: Republic of Liberia. Form of government: republic. Head of state and government: none!. Capital: Monrovia. Official language: English. _. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Liberian dollar

food 34.4%, rent 14.9%, clothing and footwear 13.8%, household goods and

services 6.1%, beverages and tobacco 5.7%, fuel and light 5.0%. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$1,178,000,000 (U.S.$498 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1989

(L$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=L$1.00; 1 £=L$1.59,

cane

Maryland

1,955 8,099 8,759 5,827 17,029 3

19,360 3,263 5,3513 2,740 12,043 4,385 10,254 99,0675

Harper Bensonville

Montserrado Nimba Rivercess Sinoe TOTAL

Sanniquellie Rivercess City

Greenville

67,300 268,100 166,900 83,900 109,000 3 261,000 104,000 137,7003 582,400 325,700 39,900 65,400 2,221 ,3006

labour force

% of labour force

481,177 17,500 10,699 4,072 2,878

68.3 25 1.5 0.6 0.4

13,986 46,850

2.0 6.6

141.8

11.9

yh

0.3

139.4 35.5

Ate7 3.0

Cres

7

6.315

1,193.65

63,874 16

100.0

704,321

9.116

100.0

Land use (1992): forested 17.6%; meadows and pastures 58.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.9%; other 19.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) L$’000,000 % of total

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

+73.8 9.4%

+1376 17.1%

+1894 27.8%

+1841 29.1%

+115.9 17.9%

+160.6 25.4%

Imports (1990): L$294,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 26.9%, petroleum and petroleum products 23.5%, food and live animals 21.1%, basic manufactures 13.9%, chemicals 5.8%). Major import sources (1988):

Demography

United States 21.0%; West Germany 14.5%; United Kingdom 4.7%; Japan 4.4%; China 1.8%; France 1.7%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 62.17, persons per sq km 24.07. Urban-rural (1992): urban 47.5%; rural 52.5%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.60%; female 49.40%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 14.8%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60 and over, 5.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,785,000; (2010) 3,755,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Kpelle 19.4%; Bassa 13.8%; Grebo 9.0%; Gio 7.8%; Kru 7.3%; Mano 7.1%; other 35.6%.

Religious affiliation (1984): Christian 67.7%; Muslim 13.8%8; traditional beliefs and other 18.5%. Major cities (1974): Monrovia 421,0589; Buchanan 23,999; Congo Town 21,495; Yekepa 14,189; Tubmanburg 14,089.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 43.9 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 31.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985)19: complications during pregnancy 632.69; malaria 79.8; pneumonia 64.2; anemia 50.2; malnutrition 23.4; measles 12.7. Violence and acts of war were major causes of both morbidity and mortality from 1990 onward.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: L$249,825,000 (1989; income and profits taxes 33.9%, import duties and consular fees 29.6%; excise tax 12.7%; property taxes L$273,930,000

(1988; current

expenditure

91.1%, of

which wages and salaries 34.1%, interest on public debt 13.1%, goods and services 7.8%, subsidies and grants 5.1%; development expenditure 8.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,101,000,000._ Tourism: receipts from visitors (1986) U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. et Population economically active (1984): total 704,321; activity rate 33.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 56.3%; female 41.0%; unemployed 12.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

% of total value 34.4 10.2 6.8 2.2 1.6 6.6 5.3

74.815

TOTAL

Population (1994): 2,377,0007.

1.9%). Expenditures:

defense

Other

1986 estimate

sq km

Capitals Tubmanburg Gbarnga Buchanan Robertsport Zwedru Barclayville Voinjama Kakata

ae

ub. admin,, Services

population

1984

in value L$'000,000 410.7 122.3 81.6 26.3 19.0 79.1 63.3

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

Area and population Counties Bomi Bong Grand Bassa Grand Cape Mount Grand Gedeh Grand Kru2 Lofa Margibi4

653

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

199011

100.6

100.0

103.6

108.8

119.3

130.6

139.4

Exports timber nations United

(1990): L$365,000,000 (1988; iron ore 55.1%, rubber 28.0%, logs and 8.4%, diamonds 2.1%, gold 1.8%, coffee 1.5%). Major export desti(1988): West Germany 27.3%; United States 18.8%; France 8.4%; Kingdom 1.6%; Japan 1.2%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1991)!7: route

length 306 mi, 493 km; short ton-

mi cargo 1,746,000,00013, 18, metric ton-km cargo 2,549,000,00013, 18. Roads

(1991): total length 3,787 mi, 6,095 km (paved 39%). Vehicles (1991): pas-

senger cars 22,000; trucks and buses 18,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,672; total deadweight tonnage 97,373,965. Air transport (1980): passenger-mi 10,600,000; passenger-km 17,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 68,000, metric ton-km cargo 100,000; airports (1994) 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 8; total circulation 35,000; circulation per 1,000 population 13.6. Radio (1993): 600,000 receivers (1 per 3.9 persons). Television (1993): 45,000 receivers (1 per 53 persons). Telephones (1991): 9,380 (1 per 252 persons). Education and health Education (1980)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

1,651 419 6 3

teachers

9,099 1,129 63 47219

students

teacher ratio

227,431 51,666 2,322 5,095 19

25.0 45.8 36.9 10.819

Educational attainment (1974). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 87.1%; some primary education 4.8%; complete primary 1.5%; some. secondary 5.1%; higher 1.5%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 547,800 (39.5%); males literate 350,200 (49.8%); females literate 197,600 (28.8%). Health: physicians (1985) 227 (1 per 9,687 persons); hospital beds (1981) 3,000 (1 per 653 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 115.9. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,259 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 98% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel: as a result of the civil war, the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) has ceased to exist. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1988): 4.4% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$21.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cassava 310,000, sugarcane 234,000, bananas 80,000, rice 71,000, plantains 33,000, sweet potatoes 18,000, yams 15,000, natural rubber 10,000, oranges

7,000, pineapples 7,000, cacao beans 2,000; livestock (number of live animals)

220,000 goats, 210,000 sheep, 120,000 pigs, 36,000 cattle, 4,000,000 chickens; ~ roundwood (1992) 6,099,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 9,620. Mining and

quarrying (1992): iron ore 6,590,00012; diamonds 150,000 carats; gold 22,500 troy oz. Manufacturing (1990): cement 50,000; palm oil 30,000; cigarettes

22,000,000 units; soft drinks 171,000 hectolitres 13; beer 158,000 hectolitres 13,

Construction:

n.a. Energy production (consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 460,000,000 (460,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none

(n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (90,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

1No effective nationwide executive leadership existed in 1994, The transitional government established in 1993 had no power outside of Monrovia. 2New county created from Kru Coast and Sasstown territories and part of Maryland county. 3Figures for Grand

Kru

included

in Maryland.

4New

county created

from

Marshall

and Gibi

territories. SDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. Includes 10,000 persons not accounted for. 7Includes Liberian refugees residing in surrounding countries, estimated to number

about 700,000.

8Some external sources estimate the

Muslim population to exceed 30%. 91984. 10Hospital inpatient morbidity rates. 1!July 1. 121990. 131988. 14Monrovia only. !5Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 16Includes 34,991 unemployed. !7For iron-ore transport only. !8Lamco and Bong Mining Company railroads only. 191987.

654

Britannica World Data

Libya

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: al-Jamahiriyah al-‘Arabiyah al-Libiyah ash-Sha‘biyah al-Ishtirakiyah (Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya). Form of government: socialist state with one policy-making body (General

Consumer price index Earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

23.8

29.8

44.3

58.8

96.2

100.0

109.0

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$32,000,000,000 (U.S.$6,600 per capita).

People’s Congress [750]).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force ‘ 1991

Chief of state: Muammar al-Qaddafi (de facto)!; Secretary of General People’s Congress (de jure). Head of government: Secretary of the General People’s Committee (prime minister). : Capital: Tripoli2. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Libyan dinar (LD) = 1,000 dirhams; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 Libyan dinar = U.S.$3.23 = £2.04,

in value LD ‘000,000

1988 Capitals Banghazi al-Bayda’ Gharyan Surt al-Kufrah al-Khums Marziq Zuwarah Sabha Tripoli (Tarabulus) Tubruq Awbari az-Zawiyah

sq mi

sq km

estimate

5,800 14,300 33,600 145,200 186,900 11,200 135,100 39,000 31,700 1,200 32,400 40,500 1,500 678,400

15,000 37,000 87,000 376,000 484,000 29,000 350,000 101,000 82,000 3,000 84,000 105,000 4,000 1,757,000

512,200 308,300 204,300 382,100 23,800 408,900 45,200 196,000 121,700 1,083,100 110,900 49,600 326,500 3,772,600

1992

labour force

768 2,681 809

7.5 26.3 79

191,600 23,700 92,200

Construction

1,209

11.8

156,300

Public utilities

population

% of total value

Agriculture Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Transportation and communications Trade Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services TOTAL

Area and population

Baladiyat Banghazi al-Jabal al-Akhdar al-Jabal al-Gharbi Khali] Surt al-Kufrah Margib Marztiq Nikat al-Khums Sabha Tarabulus Tubruq Wadi al-Ha’it az-Zawiyah TOTAL

1985

231

28,500

644 896 1,162 1,079 724

78,500 52,800 15,000 308,000 48,300 994,900

10,203

% of labour force

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1977): food 37.2%, housing and energy 32.2%, transportation 9.4%, education and recreation 8.5%, clothing 6.9%, health care 3.3%.

;

Land use (1992): forested 0.4%; meadows and pastures 7.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.0%; desert and built-up areas 91.0%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$154,000,000.

. Foreign trade5 Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

+2,633 23.5%

+4244 32.5%

+5,212 31.9%

1991

1992

19936

+4,763 28.8%

+4,447 29.6%

—560 3.5%

Imports (1993): U.S.$8,260,000,0006 (1991; manufactured goods 78.3%, agricultural goods 20.3%). Major import sources (1990)6: Italy 13.3%; Germany

Demography

8.6%; United Kingdom 5.0%; France 4.3%.

Population (1994): 5,225,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 7.7, persons per sq km 3.0.

Exports (1993): U.S.$7,700,000,000 (1991; crude petroleum 99.8%). Major export destinations (1990): Italy 49.2%; Germany 21.7%; Spain 11.4%; France 7.5%; United Kingdom 2.5%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.8%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 15.6%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60-74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Transport and communications

Urban-rural (1990): urban 82.4%; rural 17.6%. Sex distribution (1990): male 52.41%; female 47.59%.

Population projection: (2000) 6,386,000; (2010) 8,720,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Libyan Arab and Berber 89.0%; other 11.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Sunni Muslim 97.0%; other 3.0%. Major cities (1988): Tripoli 591,100; Banghazi 446,250; Misratah 121,700; az-

Zawiyah 89,338.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 43.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 8.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 35.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 4.53. Dworce rate per 1,000 population (1988): 0.63. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 61.6 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the major causes of death in the early 1990s were pneumonia, dysentery and diarrhea, cardiovascular disease, accidents, and malignant neoplasms (cancers).

National economy

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992): total length 12,000 mi, 19,300 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 450,000; trucks and buses 330,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 150; total deadweight tonnage 1,223,589. Air transport (1992)7: passenger-mi 693,230,000, passenger-km

1,115,616,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,610,000, met-

ric ton-km cargo 3,810,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 1; circulation 40,000; circulation per 1,000 population 8.2. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,000,000 (1 per 5.0 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 10.1 persons). Telephones (1991)8: 270,000 qd per 17.4 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 10

student/

schools

teachers

2,7449 1,5559 1959 10

99,623 11,429 7,072

students

1,238,986 138,860 76,648 47,300

teacher ratio

12.4 12.1 10.8

13.6%,

Educational attainment (1973). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 72.7%; incomplete primary education 18.8%; complete primary 3.5%; secondary 4.0%; higher 1.0%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 63.8%; males literate 75.4%; females literate 50.4%. Health: physicians (1989-91) 4,749 (1 per 948 persons); hospital beds (1982) ete (1 per 207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,293 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 140% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Budget (1990-91). Revenue: LD 2,640,000,000 (current revenue 55.7%, of which oil revenues 17.7%, income taxes 13.7%, customs duties 9.7%, stamp duties 2.4%; capital revenue 44.3%). Expenditures: LD 2,640,000,000 (cur-

rent expenditures 55.7%, of which allocations to municipal people’s committees 39.4%, education and scientific research 4.3%, health 2.7%; capital

expenditures

44.3%,

of which

agriculture

and

land

industry 5.3%). Public debt (long-term debt; 1991): U.S.$3,500,000,000. watermelons

220,000,

tomatoes

175,000,

potatoes

reclamation

155,000, wheat

95)

150,000,

barley 150,000, oranges 100,000, onions 90,000,-dates 77,000, olives 73,000, almonds 35,000, lemons and limes 4,000; livestock (number of live animals)

5,650,000 sheep, 1,260,000 goats,

160,000 camels,

135,000 cattle, 26,000,000

chickens; roundwood (1992) 646,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 7,833. Mining and quarrying (1992): lime 260,000; gypsum 180,000; salt 12,000. Manufacturing (1992): distillate fuel 3,992,000; cement 2,300,000; jet fuel 1,730,000; gaso-

68.0.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 70,000 (army 57.2%, navy 11.4%, air force 31.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP. (1989): 14.9% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$808.

line 1,464,000; crude steel 822,000; meat 137,0004. Construction (gross value in LD; 1982): residential 127,051,000; nonresidential 200,877,000. Energy

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16,950,000,000 (16,950,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (5,000); crude petroleum (barrels;

1992) 519,400,000 (113,500,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 13,002,000 (6,555,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 6,770,000,000 (5,470,000,000).

Population economically active (1991): total 1,169,000; activity rate of total population 24.9% (participation rates: ages 10 and over, n.a.; female 9.3%; unemployed, n.a.).

'No formal titled office exists. *Policy-making body (General People’s based on IMF Direction of Trade Statistics (DOTS), which are compiled

Congress) meets in Surt. 3Registered events; incomplete to some degree. 41993. SDollar values

from available reports of trading partners (not the subject country’s reports) and may, thus, be substantially incomplete. Import figures are f.0.b. 7Libyan Arab Airlines. 8Main telephone lines. 91982-83. 101988-89,

Nations of the World

Liechtenstein

(1992): whipped cream 1,626; yogurt 74; cheese 5; wine 1,151.3. hectolitres; small-scale precision manufacturing includes optical lenses, electron microscopes, electronic equipment, and high-vacuum pumps; metal manufactur-

Official name: Fiirstentum

Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein).

ing, construction machinery, and ceramics are also important. Construction

(1992): residential 299,128 cu m; nonresidential 193,306 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 59,655,000 (223,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (42); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (56,328); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (21,475,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1991): c. U.S.$978,000,000 (U.S.$33,510 per capita).

Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

(Diet [25]). Chief of state: Prince.

Head of government: Head of the Government. Capital: Vaduz. Official language: German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Swiss franc

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1988 in value Sw F ‘000

(Sw F)= 100 centimes; valuation

Agriculture Mining

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Sw F 1.28;

1 £=Sw F 2.03.

Communes x H

19.6 10.3

Gamprin Mauren Planken Ruggell Schaan Schellenberg Triesen Triesenberg Vaduz TOTAL

; x i x

61 75 5.3 74

.

3.5

3,841 3,336 1,085 2,938 317 1,529 5,129 881 3,776 2,406 5,072 30,310

% of total value tae

;

Transportation and communications Trade Finance, insurance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population 19941 estimate

Sq km_

Balzers Eschen

TOTAL

ae Tes

ee ca

=

ae

age ee

ei a

.

ies

1,700,000

100.0

1993 % of labour force

labour force 335 6 4,713 1,172 158

2.2 = 31.1 Tate ded

467 2,071 1,128 914 3,730 4557 15,149

3.1 13.7 75 6.0 24.6 3.07 100.02

Land use (latest): forested 34.8%; meadows and pastures 15.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 24.3%; other 25.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 Sw F ’000,000

% of total

Demography

Population (1994): 30,500.

+7376 42.0%

+745.2 37.3%

+7428 29.8%

1990

1991

1992

+757.1 27.8%

+8228 31.4%

+9471 30.6%

Imports (1992): Sw F 1,074,566 (machinery and transport equipment 28.9%; other finished goods 28.8%; limestone, cement, and other building materials 15.5%; metal products 11.5%; unrefined and semifabricated metal 5.5%;

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 493.7, persons per sq km 190.6. Urban-rural: n.a. Sex distribution (1993): male 48.74%; female 51.26%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 19.3%; 15-29, 23.7%; 30-44, 25.2%; 45-59, 17.8%; 60-74, 9.7%; 75 and over, 4.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 33,400; (2010) 38,900. Doubling time: n.a.; doubling time exceeds 100 years. National composition (1993): Liechtensteiner 61.7%; Swiss 15.7%; Austrian 7.4%; German 3.7%; other 11.5%.

Religious affiliation (1993): Roman 4.4%; not stated 7.3%.

Catholic 81.0%; Protestant 7.3%; other

chemical products 5.2%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (1992): Sw F 2,021,711 (machinery and transport equipment 45.1%; metal products 17.6%; other finished goods 13.8%; limestone, cement, and other building materials 9.4%; chemical products 5.2%). Major export destinations: European Economic Community countries 44.9%; other European Free Trade Association countries 18.9%; Switzerland 13.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 11.5 mi, 18.5 km; passenger and cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1992): total length 201 mi, 323 km. Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 17,697; trucks and buses 1,787. Merchant marine: none. Air

Major cities (1993): Schaan 5,129; Vaduz 5,072.

Vital statistics

transport: none.

Birth rate per 1,000 population

(1992): 12.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

85.3%; illegitimate 14.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 1.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 73.7 years; female 80.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 160.7, of which heart disease 120.5 (including ischemic heart disease 50.2); malignant neoplasms (cancers) 144.0; diseases of the respiratory system 33.5; accidents, poisoning, and acts of violence 20.1 (in-

cluding suicide 3.3).

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total circulation 17,739; circulation per 1,000 population 611. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 10,831 (1 per 2.7 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 10,445 (1 per 2.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 18,455 (1 per 1.6 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

student/ schools

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Vocational

14 8 1

teachers

118 74 1638

students _ teacher ratio

1,912 1,161 214

16.2 15.7 1.3

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Sw F 471,342,000 (taxes and interest 68.3%; post,

telephone, and telegraph 15.1%; other revenue sources include real estate capital-gains taxes and death and estate taxes). Expenditures: Sw F 448,(financial

ni

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

Area and population

702,000

655

affairs

37.9%;

education

telegraph 12.6%; social affairs 12.6%). Public debt: none.

15.3%;

post, telephone,

,

and

“y

;

Tourism (1993): 148,218 tourist arrivals; receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. es

Population economically active (19933): total 15,149; activity rate of total population 49.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 70.5%; female 37.7%;

unemployed 1.9%).

Military Total active duty personnel: none. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP:

none.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index4 Earnings index

having: no formal schooling 0.2%; primary and lower secondary education 47.6%; higher secondary and vocational 41.0%; some postsecondary 6.6%; university 4.6%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1992) 31 (1 per 956 persons); hospital beds? (1985) 100 (1 per 269 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 5.3. Food (1987-89)10: daily per capita caloric intake 3,530 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 133% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

90.3 ra

91.9 i

94.9 Re

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0

105.8

110.2

113.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.0; in’ come

per household:

n.a.; sources

salaries 92.9%, self-employment

food 17.7%, transportation clothing 7.0%, health 4.7%.

of earned

income

7.1%; expenditure

11.0%, education ,

(1987): wages

and

(1990)>5: rent 20.9%,

and self-improvement :

9.7%,

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): silo corn (maize) 27,880, milk 12,871, potatoes 1,040, wheat 460°, barley 4166; livestock (number of live animals) 6,650 cattle, 2,970 pigs, 2,614 sheep; commercial timber 16,853 cu m. Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing

January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. *December 31. 4The index is for Switzerland, which is united with Liechtenstein in a customs and monetary union. 5Household expenditures are taken from a 1986 Swiss sample survey; a similarity of consumption patterns is assumed. ©1987. 7Includes 156 unclassifiable and 298 unemployed persons. 8Part-time teachers only. °Liechtenstein has one hospital. Agreements with the Swiss cantons of St. Gallen and Graubiinden and the Austrian Federal State of Vorarlberg allow use of certain hospitals. 1!0Figures are derived from statistics for Switzerland and Austria.

656

Britannica World Data

National economy

Lithuania

Budget

a

Official name: Lietuvos Respublika (Republic of Lithuania). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body, the Seimas (141). Head of state: President}. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Vilnius. Official language: Lithuanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit?: 1 litas (plural litai)= 100 centai; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$= 4.00 litai; 1 £= 6.37 litai.

1992): processed foods 95,914; light industry 36,142; machinery 54,266; pa-

per products 19,428. Construction (1992): residential 872,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 18,707,000,000 (13,403,-

800,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (657,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 469,000 (30,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 3,591,000

(3,825,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (3,437,000,000). i Gross national product (1993): U.S.$4,909,000,000 (U.S.$1,310 per capita). population

73,100 4,100 22,500 422,600 204,000 50,500 2,500 19,400 126,500 145,000 582,400

BirStonas

leat) lagre Heap 9) tt} Capitals Naujoji Akmene

37,800 32,700 38,300 38,600 59,000 54,000

AnykSCiai Birzai Ignalina

Jonava

Jurbarkas

KaiSiadorys Kaunas

Kédainiai Kelme Klaipeda Kretinga

Kupiskis Lazdijai Marijampole Mazeikiai Moletai Pakruojis

Panevézys Pasvalys

Plungé Prienai

RadviliSkis

Joniskis Jurbarkas

KaiSiadorys

Kaunas Kédainiai Kelme Gargzdai Kretinga

Kupiskis

Lazdijai

Marijampole Mazeikiai Moleétai Pakruojis

Panevezys Pasvalys Plungé Prienai RadviliSkis

Raseiniai

Raseiniai

Sakiai

Sakiai

Siauliai

Siauliai

Siluté

Silute

Bokiskis

Salcininkai

Silalé

Sirvintos $kuodas

Svencionys Tauragé TelSiai Trakai

Ukmergé Utena Varena VilkaviSkis Vilnius Zarasai TOTAL

1992

aoakee _estimate_

Druskininkai Kaunas

Joniskis

Structure of gross national product and labour force

1989

Alytus

Alytus

tax shee income tax 23.6%). Expenditures: 2,511,000,000 litai (so-

8,258,900 poultry; roundwood (1991) 1,443,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 317,000. Mining and quarrying (1991): limestone 6,370,000; sand 3,390,000; dolomite 990,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value of production, ’000,000 rubles;

Cities of republic jurisdiction

Akmene

thai

29.3%, enterprise

potatoes 1,200,000, wheat 919,000, barley 842,000, sugar beets 700,000, rye 437,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,701,000 cattle, 1,359,800 pigs,

area

Siauliai Vilnius Regions

Hanoi tax

cial programs 45.0%, administration and defense 14.5%, economy 14.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Area and population

Klaipéda Marijampole Neringa Palanga Panevézys

mn

(1993). Revenue: 2,569,000,000 litai (value-added

Bokiskis

Salcininkai

Silalé

Sirvintos §kuodas

Svencionys Tauragé Telsiai Trakai

640

Ukmergé

539

475 933

Utena Varéna Vilkaviskis Vilnius Zarasai

497 855 515 25,2133

65,3013

32,900 40,200 40,200 85,500 69,400 42,900 45,000 44,100 25,900 33,400 49,200 61,200 27,300 30,700 41,900 36,800 53,900 39,500 54,800 46,100 47,800 41,600 41,500 49,900 31,700 69,000 21,500 26,600 37,800 52,600 59,200 81,700 52,500 52,300 38,500 52,200 93,800 25,900 3,690,000

Demography Population (1994): 3,724,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 147.7, persons per sq km 57.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 68.5%; rural 31.5%. Sex distribution (1993): male 47.33%; female 52.67%.

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 22.6%; 15-29, 22.8%; 30-44, 20.9%; 45-59, 17.4%; 60-74, 11.5%; 75 and over, 4.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,725,000; (2010) 3,727,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years.

Agriculture, forestry Manufacturing, mining Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub admin., defense Services Other

in value 000,000 rubles 836.8 611.2 290.9 281.1 421.7 441.3 29.4 258.2 317.1 —219.1

TOTAL

% of total value 25.6 18.7 8.9 8.6 12.9

labour force

" 7.9 7, —6.7 100.0

3,268.6

343,200 535,300 169,400

% of labour force 18.6 29.0 9.2

124,000 227,400 14,000 26,000 344,700 64,400 1,848,400

6.7 12.3 0.8 1.4 18.6 3.5 100.04

Population economically active (1993): total 1,841,000; activity rate of total population 49.4% (participation rates: ages 16—60/556, 91.4%; female [1992] 48.4%; unemployed [1993] 4.2%). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index? Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

107.4

a 117.4

ee 128.4

100.0 149.2

216.4 387.9

2,207.3 2,995.3

9,054.3 3,321.8

Household income and expenditure (1992). Avg. household size (1989) 3.2; sources of income: wages 66.4%, pensions and grants 18.7%, self-employment in agriculture 9.7%, other 5.2%; expenditures: food 50.3%, nonfood goods 23.2%, taxes 9.6%, services 8.4%, agricultural expenses 4.2%,

Land use (1992): forest 30.2%; pasture 7.1%; agricultural 47.0%; other 15.7%.

Foreign trade Imports (1993): U.S.$1,054,400,000 (1992; from Commonwealth of Independent States [CIS]: petroleum and gas 48.9%, machinery 13.3%, chemicals 9.8%, light industry 6.0%, coal 4.6%). Major import sources: CIS-member countries 84.1%; developed market economies 11.7%; Baltic states 1.5%.

Exports (1993): U.S.$1,176,100,000 (1992; to CIS: machinery 29.2%, light industry 20.9%, food products 13.5%). Major export destinations: CIS countries 62.8%; developed market economies 18.9%; Baltic states 12.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 2,996 km; passenger-km 2,740,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,337,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 44,500 km

(paved 80%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 565,320: trucks and buses 92,056. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 52; total deadweight tonnage 373,911. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 917,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 5,253,000; airports (1994) 3. Communications. Daily newspapers (1983): 12; circulation (1990) all newsPapers 5,780,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1,547. Radio (1993): 1,420,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Television (1993): 1,400,000 receivers (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1992): 886,300 (1 per 4.3 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary and secondary Voc., teacher tr. Higher

2,219 104 17

teachers

students

43,900 4,638 9,0038

512,400 42,000 55,000

student/ teacher ratio

Belorussian 1.5%; Ukrainian 1.0%; other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic, about 80%; Russian Orthodox, Old Believer, Evangelical Lutheran, and nonreligious minorities. Major cities (1993): Vilnius 590,100; Kaunas 429,000; Klaipéda 206,400.

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 9.1%; complete primary 21.3%; incomplete secondary 57.0%; postsecondary 12.6%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 98.4%; males literate 99.2%; females literate 97.8%. Health (1992): physicians 13,764 (1 per 274 persons); hospital beds 44,500 (1 per 85 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 16.0.

Vital statistics

Military

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1989): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 9.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 4.1. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 65.3 years; female 76.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992); circulatory diseases 594;

Total active duty personnel (1994): 8,900 (army 93.3%, navy 3.9%, air force 2.8%). Russia withdrew its last military personnel in August 1993,

Ethnic composition

(1994): Lithuanian

81.1%;

Russian

cancers 196; accidents 139; respiratory diseases 41.

8.5%; Polish 7.0%;

'The constitution adopted by referendum on Oct. 25, 1992, provided for a presidential form of government. 2The litas was established as the official currency 1993, and pegged to the U.S. dollar at a rate of 4 to 1 on April 1, on July 20, 1994. 3Total includes 12 sq mi (30 sq km) not distributed by administrative subdivision . 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Males retire at age 60, females at 55. 61990= 100. 71987-88.

Nations of the World

Luxembourg

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$13,716,000,000

(U.S.$35,260 per capita).

Official name: Groussherzogtum Létzebuerg (Luxemburgian); Grand-Duché de Luxembourg (French); Grossherzogtum Luxemburg (German) (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

(Council of State [21]!; Chamber of

Deputies [60]). Chief of state: Grand Duke. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Luxembourg. Official language: none: Luxemburgian (national); French (used for most official purposes); German (lingua franca). Official religion: none.

4,477 997 77,303 23,905 5,264 22,139

Other

52,285 44,236 46,800 48,656 —7,2583

TOTAL

318,804

100.0

ub. admin., defense Services

area

population

Diekirch Clervaux

447 128

1,157 332

56,896 10,263

Diekirch Redange

92 103 21 102

239 267

23,258 11,073

.

Echternach Grevenmacher Remich Luxembourg

Capellen Esch Luxembourg (Ville et Campagne) Mersch TOTAL

census

54

2,720

203

265 525

9,582 42,837

72 82 49 349

186 211 128 904

11,726 18,113 12,998 284,329

TH 94

199 243

31,817 116,389

92

238

116,988

86 999

224 2,586

19,135 384,062

Lux F 000,000 % of total

Population projection: (2000) 407,000; (2010) 415,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population stable. Ethnic composition (nationality; 1993): Luxemburger

69.7%;

Portuguese

10.8%; Italian 5.0%; French 3.4%; Belgian 2.5%; German 2.2%; other 6.4%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 94.9%; Protestant 1.1%; other 4.0%. Major cities (1991): Luxembourg 75,377; Esch-sur-Alzette 24,012; Dudelange 14,677; Differdange 8,489; Schifflange 6,859.

Vital statistics (1992):

13.1 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

87.3%; illegitimate 12.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.8. Life expectancy at birth (1990-92): male 72.6 years; female 79.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases disease

140.0, ischemic heart disease and

myocardial infarction 131.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 255.4; accidents

and suicide 69.2, of which suicide 15.1.

National economy (1994).

Revenue:

19.7 12.8

Bee

oe

2,4414

1.54

164,7135

100.0

Lux F 132,967,000,000

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

91.9 89.9

93.3 92.0

96.4 96.8

100.0 100.0

103.1

106.4 ae

(income

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—24,530 ' 7.0%

—20,549 5.2%

-—31,900 6.8%

-—43,100 9.3%

-—60,500 12.4%

—57,000 12.0%

Imports (1992): Lux F 265,180,000,000 (metal products, machinery, and transport equipment 46.9%, of which transport equipment 12.2%; mineral products 11.5%; food, beverages, and tobacco 10.6%; chemical products 8.0%). Major import sources: Belgium 38.7%; Germany 31.4%; France 11.5%; The

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 17.3%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30-44, 23.8%; 45-59, 17.5%; 60-74, 12.8%; 75 and over, 7.1%.

Budget

32,462 21,137

1987

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (1994): 398,000. Density (1993): persons per sq mi 398.4, persons per sq km 153.9. Urban-rural (1991): urban 85.9%; rural 14.1%. Sex distribution (19932): male 49.11%; female 50.89%.

432.3, of which cerebrovascular

3.4 0.1 18.0 9.3 11 6.9

Foreign trade

Demography

' Birth rate per 1,000 population

5,631 34 29,711 15,347 1,876 11,319

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.6; income per household (1987) Lux F 1,113,000 (U.S.$29,800); sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 88.6%, self-employment 9.1%, transfer payments 2.3%; expenditure (i990): transportation and communications 17.9%, food and beverages 14.2%, housing 14.1%, household goods and furniture 10.3%, health 7.6%, clothing and footwear 6.4%. Tourism (1989): receipts from visitors U.S.$286,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 34.2%; meadows and pastures 25.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.2%; other 17.0%.

199)

sq km

Vianden

% of labour force *

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

sq mi

Wiltz Grevenmacher

labour force

Population economically active (1991): total 164,713; activity rate of total population 42.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.6%; female 35.9%; unemployed 1.5%).

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

Cantona

1.4 0.3 24.3 15 1.6 6.9 16.4 13.9 14.7 15.3 —2.33

Trade ee

Monetary unit: 1 Luxembourg franc (Lux F) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Lux F 31.70; 1 £=Lux F 50.42. Area and population

1991 % of total value

in value Lux F '000,000

Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses

Districts

657

and excise taxes

54.3%, customs taxes 17.7%). Expenditures: Lux F 134,911,600,000 (social security 22.8%, education 13.3%, transportation 9.7%, administration 8.5%,

defense 2.4%, debt service 1.4%). E Public debt (1992): U.S.$227,387,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

barley 70,000, wheat 46,200, potatoes 26,100, rye 19,200, oats 17,600, apples 10,200; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 205,161 cattle, 71,681 pigs;

_ roundwood (1990) 706,000 cu m. Mining and quarrying (1987): metal ores, none; sand and gravel 956,810; gypsum 420,000; crushed stone 344,841. Man-

ufacturing (1992): steel ingots and castings 3,264,000; pig iron 2,255,000; milk 265,100; beef and pork 22,500; wine 271,200 hectolitres. Construction (1991): residential and semiresidential 540,038 sq m; nonresidential 177,767 sq m.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 1,374,000,000 (5,242,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1990) none (197,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) none (1,462,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) none (461,286,000).

Netherlands 4.5%; U.S. 2.1%; Italy 2.0%. Exports (1992): Lux F 208,128,000,000 (metal products, machinery, and transport equipment 54.7%, of which transport equipment 5.9%; plastic materials and rubber manufactures 13.2%; textile yarn, fabrics, and related products 7.1%; food, beverages, and tobacco 6.4%; chemical products 4.8%). Major export destinations: Germany 29.2%; France 16.8%; Belgium 16.2%; U.K. 5.7%; Italy 5.6%; The Netherlands 5.1%; U.S. 3.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 171 mi, 275 km; passenger-mi 175,000,0006, passenger-km 282,000,0006; short ton-mi cargo 460,271,000, metric ton-km cargo 671,985,000. Roads (1991): total length 3,163 mi, 5,091 km

(paved 99%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 209,006; trucks and buses 21,649. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 54; total deadweight tonnage 2,603,611. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals 529,684, departures 531,436; short ton-mi cargo 606,902,0007, metric ton-km cargo 886,062,0007; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 5; total circulation 149,000; circulation per 1,000 population 382. Radio (1992): 230,000 receivers (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1991): 134,845 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1992): 206,502 (1 per 1.9 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 6—-11)8 Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

teachers

students

2,032

26,197 8,465 11,877 4,9579

1,953

student/ teacher ratio 12.9 ce 61 is

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): virtually 100% literate. Health (19932): physicians 814 (1 per 486 persons); hospital beds (1992) 4,438 (1 per 87 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 8.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,925 (vegetable products 60%, animal products 40%); 149% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 800 (army 100.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.8% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure

U.S.$277.

1Has limited legislative authority. 2January 1. 3Imputed bank service charges. 4Unemployed. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 61991. 71987. 8Public schools only. 91990-91.

658

Britannica World Data

Macedonia

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$1,709,000,000 (U.S.$780 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name1: Republika Makedonija (Republic of Macedonia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (Assembly [120]). Head of state: President.

1992 in value Din '000,000

Agriculture Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public admin., defense Services Other

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Skopje.

Official language: Macedonian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit2: denar; valuation (Aug. 1, 1994) 1 U.S.$=denar 82.00; 1 £=denar 126.17.

area

saikm3:

population

Districts

806 1,798 924

20,395 122,173 11,671 26,266 25,531 12,078 35,055 116,107 41,852

Negotino Ohrid Prilep

Berovo Bitolj Brod

Debar

274

Delcevo

589

Demir Hisar

443

Gevgelija

757

Gostivar Kavadarci

1,341 1,132

Kicevo Koéani

854 570

Kratovo Kriva Palanka

55,157 50,122 11,329 25,601 12,620 135,529

376 720

KruSevo

239

Kumanovo

1,212

labour force

17.7 42.1

S71

180,082

705 211,035 632,063

Population economically active (1993): total 632,063; activity rate of total population 30.6% (participation rates? ages 15-64, n.a.; female [1990] 37.7%; unemployed 27.6%).

area

2ahans© ppeulcaions 23,246 65,531 98,327

734 1,069 1,675

Probistip

326

Radovis

Resen Skopje Stip Struga

30,975

739 1,818 815 507

23,203 563,301 51,947 62,950

952 649 1,080 1,536 331 432 25,7134

Strumica Sveti Nikole Tetovo Titov Veles

Valandovo Vinica TOTAL

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1990 1991 1992 Consumer price index Earnings index7

16,556

735

% of labour force 5.4 26.9 5.8

34,212 170,221 36,513

TOTAL

Area and population (1991 census)

Districts

2,835 6,743 1,057 528 97%

1993 % of total value

100.0 100.0

310.8 284.3

5,319 3,358

Tourism (1993): total tourist nights 2,706,000. F Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.9; income per household (1990) Din 75,556 (U.S.$6,676); sources of income (1990): wages and salaries 57.7%, self-employment 17.1%, transfer payments 16.2%, other 9.0%; expenditure (1992): food 43.7%, clothing and footwear 7.9%,

94,517 21,569 180,654 67,535 12,264 19,903 2,033,964

drink and tobacco 6.8%, transportation and communications 6.6%, fuel and

lighting 6.3%, health care 4.8%, education and entertainment 2.8%.

Foreign trade Demography Population (1994): 2,089,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 210.4, persons per sq km 81.2. Urban-rural (1991): urban 58.1%; rural 41.9%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.48%; female 49.52%. Age breakdown (1981): under 15, 29.1%; 15-29, 27.1%; 30-44, 19.6%; 45-59, 14.8%; 60-74, 7.1%; 75 and over, 2.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,185,000; (2010) 2,356,000. Doubling time: 70 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Macedonian 64.6%; 4.8%; Romanian 2.7%; Serb 2.2%; other 4.7%.

Albanian

21.0%;

Turkish

also a substantial Islamic community and a small Jewish community. Major cities (1991)5: Skopje 563,301 (408,143); Tetovo 180,654 (46,523°); Kumanovo 135,529 (60,8426); Bitolj (Bitola) 122,173 (78,5076).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.2 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.5 (world avg, 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 71.2 years; female 75.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 346.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 102.4; diseases of the respiratory system 49.8; accidents, violence, and poisoning 34.5; diseases of the digestive system 18.2.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: 122,895,000 denar. Expenditures: 122,895,000 denar. External debt (1993): U.S.$842,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): wheat 384,000, grapes 205,000, corn (maize) 110,000, potatoes 90,000, plums

16,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,351,000 sheep, 285,000 cattle,

173,000 pigs, 22,000,000 poultry; roundwood 830,362 cu m; fish catch (1990) 1,572 (all freshwater). Mining and quarrying (1992): copper ore 3,000,000;

lead-zinc ore 400,000; gypsum 30,000; lime 20,000; iron ore 20,000; refined iron

slabs 619,000;

(1990): rolled zinc products 6,907,000;

steel plates 507,000;

crude

steel

247,000;

hot fer-

mented tobacco 26,481; hydrochloric acid 24,000; detergents 21,000; cotton

yarn

15,000; household

ceramics

1991

1992

—551 32.3%

—416 24.3%

—74 4.0%

—205 13.4%

—280 17.6%

Imports (1993): U.S.$1,199,000,000 (1990; raw materials and semifinished goods 33.2%; consumer goods 28.4%, of which food, beverages, and tobacco

14.8%, clothing and footwear 4.9%, medicine and pharmaceuticals 0.6%;

the Eastern Orthodox Church; other Christians include members of the Macedonian Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church; there are

rolled

1990

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

mineral fuels 19.1%; basic manufactures

Religious affiliation (1991): most believers are Christians, predominantly of

silver 10,000. Manufacturing

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989

8,872; fancy candies 7,392; woolen

yarn

5,000; chocolate products 2,903; glues 2,700; cosmetics 2,225; rubber goods

348; cotton fabric 40,000,000 sq m; ready-made underwear 30,000,000 sq m; ready-made outerwear 20,000,000 sq m; woolen fabric 9,000,000 sq m;

silk fabric 5,900,000 sq m; upper shoe leather 2,259,000 sq m; domestic animal fur 851,000 sq m; carpets 555,000 sq m; leather outerwear 446,000

Sq m; wine 634,000 hectolitres; brandy 39,000 hectolitres; leather footwear

6,638,000 pairs; jewelry 994 kg; refrigerators 156,000 units; toys 85,000 units; buses 953 units. Construction (residential units constructed; 1992): 6,583.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 5,100,000,000 (5,100,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 5,000,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1992) none (8,160,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,120,000 (1,120,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (256,000,000).

Land use (1992): forested 39.5%; meadows and pastures 27.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.8%; other 9.1%.

10.7%; machinery 6.7%, of which

electrical motors 1.0%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (1993): U.S.$1,055,000,000 (1990; clothing 20.7%; machinery and transport equipment 14.2%, of which transport equipment 1.3%; chemicals 4.6%; food 3.6%; textiles 2.2%; pharmaceuticals 0.8%; furniture 0.5%). Major export destinations: n.a.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 922 km; passengers transported 1,804,000; cargo transported 3,995,000 tons. Roads (1991): total length 10,591 km (paved 48%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 279,861; trucks and buses (1990) 22,594. Merchant marine: n.a. Air transport (19938): passengerkm 292,372,000; metric tons cargo transported 625: airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 52,000; circulation per 1,000 population 26. Radio (1989): 449,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Television (1989): 385,000 receivers (1 per 5.2 persons). Telephones (1990): 356,837 (1 per 5.7 persons). Education and health Education (1990-91) Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,067 90 27

12,976 4,227 2,101

266,813 70,696 26,413

20.6 16.7 12.6

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 45.3%: primary 28.1%; secondary 21.2%; postsecondary and higher 5.1%; unknown 0.3%. Literacy (1981): total population age 10 and over literate 1,365,000 (89.1%); males literate

729,000 (94.2%); females literate 636,000 (83.8%).

Health: physicians (1989) 4,331 (1 per 464 persons); hospital beds (1990) 11,804 (1 per 171 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) per 1,000 live births 24.4.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 10,400 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 1.8% per capita expenditure U.S.$14, ‘Member of the United Nations under the name Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Macedonia, as part of Yugoslavia, utilized the Yugoslav (old) until Jan. 1, 1990, when it was replaced by the Yugoslav (new) dinar (Din) dinar (Din) at a rate of 10,000 old for 1 new. Macedonia left the Yugoslav currency area in September 1991, utilizing a local coupon alone until May 1992, when. a transitiona l local currency,

the denar, was introduced. The denar (valued initially at denar 255=1 established at par with the Yugoslav (new) dinar but ‘circulated in parallelU.S.$) was with the coupon until May 1993, when a differently defined denar was introduced , replacing both the transitional denar and the coupon. 3One sq km is equal to approximately 0.3861 sq mi. 4Total includes 280 sq km of inland water not distribute Populations refer to municipal areas, not cities proper. 6City proper, d by district. 1981 census. 7Based on nominal net wages per worker. 8Palair Macedonian airline only.

Nations of the World

Madagascar

659

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$3,055,000,000

(U.S.$240 per capita).

Official name: Repoblikan’i Madagasikara (Malagasy); République de Madagascar (French) (Republic of Madagascar). Form of government: unitary

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly

labour force

% of labour force

1,488,350

32.6

4,043,000

76.1

12

6e2 00

ae

Agriculture

[138]).

530,560 14,800

Construction

86,950

16.4

497,990

10.9

791,890 284,430

17.4 6.2

1.5

28.000

120

4,565,510

100.0

5,311,000

100.0

Finance

70,020

Services Pub. admin., defense

6MG) = 100 centimes; valuation

TOTAL

3,343;

1.9

747,920

Trade

Monetary unit: 1 Malagasy franc

11.6 0.3

52,600

Public utilities Transportation and communications

Official religion: none.

1 £=FMG 5,317.

% of total value

Manufacturing Mining

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Antananarivo. Official languages: Malagasy; French.

Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =FMG

in value FMG '000,0006

Population economically active (1991): total 5,311,000; activity rate of total population 42.8% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 74.9%: female 39.3%; unemployed [1982] 0.6%).

Area and population

Provinces Antananarivo Antsirahana Fianarantsoa

Capitals Antananarivo Antsiranana Fianarantsoa Mahajanga

Mahajanga Toamasina

Toamasina Toliary

Toliary TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

population 1993 census!

22,503 16,620 39,526 57,924 27,765 62,319 226,658

58,283 43,046 102,373 150,023 71,911 161,405 587,041

3,483,236 942,410 2,671,150 1,330,612 1,935,330 1,729,419 12,092,157

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index Earnings index

64.7 i

82.1 as

89.5 ae

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0

108.6

124.4

136.8

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,805,000,000.

Land use (1992): forested 26.6%; meadows and pastures 58.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 5.3%; other 9.6%.

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 13,702,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 60.5, persons per sq km 23.3. Urban-rural (1991): urban 24.4%; rural 75.6%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.55%; female 50.45%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.6%; 15-29, 26.7%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 7.7%; 60-69, 3.3%; 70 and over, 1.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 16,579,000; (2010) 22,431,000.

Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Malagasy 98.9%, of which Merina 26.6%, Betsimisaraka 14.9%, Betsileo 11.7%, Tsimihety 7.4%, Sakalava 6.4%, Antandroy 5.3%; Comorian 0.3%; Indian and Pakistani 0.2%; French 0.2%; Chinese 0.1%; other 0.3%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 51.0%, of which Roman Catholic 26.0%, Protestant 22.8%; traditional beliefs 47.0%; Muslim 1.7%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1993): Antananarivo 1,052,835; Toamasina 127,441; Autsirabe 120,239; Mahajanga 100,807; Fianarantsoa 99,005.

Balance of trade FMG

'000,000,000

% of total

Imports

(1992):

petroleum

1986

1987

1989

1990

+14.8 3.6%

+85.9 13.8%

+50.8 5.3%

— 244.5 21.0%

FMG

11.3%,

844,935,600,000

machinery

10.4%,

(chemical vehicles

and

products

13.7%,

parts 9.6%,

crude

electrical

equipment 7.2%, metal products 7.1%, textiles 1.5%). Major import sources: France

30.3%;

Germany

6.1%; United

States 5.9%; Japan 5.8%; United

Kingdom 5.0%; Italy 2.9%; The Netherlands 2.2%. Exports (1992): FMG 499,805,900,000 (vanilla 19.1%, shrimp 14.1%, coffee 11.8%, cloves and clove oil 4.2%, cotton fabrics 3.5%, sugar 3.4%). Major

export destinations: France 26.6%; United States 15.5%; Germany 9.9%; Japan 8.6%; Belgium-Luxembourg 3.3%; Italy 3.1%; United Kingdom 2.6%; The Netherlands 2.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 640 mi, 1,030 km; passenger-mi

Vital statistics

152,000,000, passenger-km 245,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 90,000,000, met-

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.9 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 12.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per.1,000 population: n.a. : Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major causes of death include communicable diseases and respiratory diseases.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: FMG 1,470,548,000,000 (1987; taxes 80.27%, of which import duties 14.9%, excises 14.8%, income tax 12.5%; other receipts 19.8%). Expenditures: FMG 2,457,749,000,000 (1987; current expenditure 77.3%, of which education

12.3%, defense 7.5%, health 4.2%, agriculture

: 1.8%, public works 0.7%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$39,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$37,000,000.

i

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 2,550,000, cassava 2,350,000, sugarcane 1,980,000, sweet potatoes 498,000, potatoes 278,000, bananas 230,000, mangoes 205,000, corn (maize) 180,000, taro 125,000, coffee 88,000, oranges 86,000, coconuts 86,000, dry

ric ton-km cargo 132,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 21,593 mi, 34,750 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 50,000; trucks and buses 35,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 85; total deadweight tonnage 82,077. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 268,221,000, passenger-km

431,660,000;

short

ton-mi

cargo

45,245,000,

metric

ton-km

cargo 66,057,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 18. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 5; total circulation 53,0007; circulation per 1,000 population 47. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,500,000 (1 per 8.8 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 130,000 (1 per 102 persons). Telephones (1992): 67,690 (1 per 189 persons). Education and health

Education (1990-91) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

13,791

38,933

1,570,721 322,772 17,419 35,824

40.3 21st aats 38.2

1,1428 619

14,856 1,484

58

939

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 80.2%; males literate 87.7%; females literate 72.9%.

beans 52,000, pineapples 50,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 32,000, seed cot-

Health: physicians (1990) 1,392 (1 per 8,628 persons); hospital beds (1989) 10,900 (1 per 1,067 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births

pigs, 1,270,000 goats, 735,000 sheep, 22,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 8,597,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 120,000. Mining and quarrying (1992):

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,156 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 95% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

kg; in addition, a wide variety of semiprecious stones and gemstones are produced, Manufacturing (1990): raw sugar 111,000; cement 20,000; soap

Military

ton 27,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,280,000 cattle, 1,495,000

chromite concentrate 69,123; salt 30,000; graphite 8,910; mica 798; gold 200

14,900; palm oil 3,800; paint 2,400; cigarettes 1,955; beer 298,000 hectolitres.

Construction (1986)2: residential 19,700 sq m; nonresidential 5,700 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 569,000,000 ~ (569,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) none (13,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (1,356,000); Herne products (metric tons; 1992) 176,000 296,000); natural

Ear

gas, none

(n.a.).

income oe expenditure.

Total active duty personnel (1994): 21,000 (army 95.2%, navy 2.4%, air force 2.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.2% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$2.

,

Average

household

size (1993) 4.63;

average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1975)*: wages and salaries 58.8%, self-employment 14.1%, other 27.1%; expendi-

ture (1983)5: food 60.4%, fuel and light 9.1%, clothing and footwear 8.6%,

household goods and utensils 2.4%.

(1990-95) 110.

1Preliminary. 2Capital city only. 3Antananarivo only. *Malagasy households only. SWeights of consumer price index components in Antananarivo only; housing not included. 6At factor cost. 7For four newspapers only. 81988-89. 91987-88.

660

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$2,046,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita),

MalawWi

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Republic of Malawi. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [177]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Lilongwe. Official language: English}. Official religion: none.

1993

TOTAL

Area and population

area

Capitals Lilongwe Dedza Dowa Kasungu Lilongwe Mchinji Nkhotakota Ntcheu Ntchisi Salima Mzuzu Chitipa Karonga Mzimba Nkhata Bay Rumphi Blantyre

labour force

422.2

39.2

126.8 41.2 27.2 56.7 118.4 112.2 154.2 45.1 —26.97

11.8

2,967,933 7,164 97,776 46,875 8,833 24,863 94,445 5,590

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public administration Services Other

(MK) = 100 tambala; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = MK 13.50; 1 £=MK 21.48.

Regions Districts Central Dedza Dowa Kasungu Lilongwe Mchinji Nkhotakota Ntcheu Ntchisi Salima Northern Chitipa Karonga Mzimba Nkhata Bay Rumphi Southern Blantyre Chikwawa Chiradzulu Machinga Mangochi Mulanje Mwanza Nsanje Thyolo Zomba TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

% of total value

MK °000,0008

Monetary unit: 1 MalaWi kwacha

sq mi

sq km

35,592 3,624 3,041 7,878 6,159 3,356 4,259 3,424 1,655 2,196 26,931 3,504 2,955 10,430 4,090 5,952 31,753

1,322

639 848 10,398 1,353 1,141 4,027 1,579

2,298

Blantyre

12,260 777

Chikwawa Chiradzulu Machinga Mangochi

1,836 296 2,303 2,422

Mulanje

1,332

Mwanza Nsanje

886 750)

Thyolo Zomba

662 996 36,400 9,347 45,747

2,012

4,755 767 5,964 6,272

3,450 3

2,295 1,942

1,715 2,580 94,2762 24,208 118,484

% of labour force

147,039 57,235 3,457,753

1,077.1

Population economically active (1987): ‘total 3,457,753; activity rate 43.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 84.6%; female 51.5%; unemployed 5.4%).

population 1987

13,742 1,399 1,174 3,042 2,378 1,296 1,644

1987

in value

census

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

3,110,986 411,787 322,432 323,453 976,627 249,843 158,044 358,767 120,860 189,173 911,787 96,794 148,014 433,696 138,381 94,902 3,965,734 589,525 316,733 210,912 515,265 496,578 638,062 121,513 204,374 431,157 441,615

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

59.4 61.8

195 70.1

89.4 81.6

100.0 100.0

112.6

138.2

163.7

Household income and expenditure (1979-80). Average household size (1987) 4.3; income

per household

MK

1,934

(U.S.$2,419);

sources

of income:

wages 83.3%, household enterprise 6.0%; expenditure (1990)8: food 55.5%, clothing and footwear 11.7%, housing 9.6%, household durable goods 8.4%, transportation 6.5%. Tourism: receipts (1991) U.S.$13,000,000; expenditures (1990) U.S.$13,000,000.

Foreign trade? Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 MK ‘000,000 % of total

+139.4 10.1%

—96.1 6.1%

+180.1 8.7%

1991

1992

1993

+140.9 5.6%

— 103.4 3.4%

=29.0 1.0%

Imports (1993): MK 2,404,844,000 (1989; basic manufactures 40.6%, machin-

ery and equipment 14.9%, transport equipment 14.3%, consumer goods 11.1%, building and construction materials 5.7%). Major import sources (1989): South Africa 36.8%; U.K. 17.1%; W.Ger. 6.3%; Japan 6.3%. Exports (1993): MK 1,370,661,000 (tobacco 68.4%, tea 11.4%, sugar 5.0%, cotton 0.7%). Major export destinations (1989): U.K. 21.0%; U.S. 12.8%;

7,988,507

W.Ger. 10.5%; South Africa 9.7%.

Demography Transport and communications

Population (1994): 9,732,000. Density (1994)3: persons per sq mi 267.4, persons per sq km 103.2. Urban-rural (1987): urban 10.7%; rural 89.3%. Sex distribution (1987): male 48.40%; female 51.60%. Age breakdown (1987): under 15, 46.0%; 15-29, 25.4%; 30-44, 14.5%; 45-59, 8.1%; 60 and over, 6.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 11,045,000; (2010) 13,233,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Maravi (including Nyanja, Chewa, Tonga, and Tumbuka) 58.3%; Lomwe 18.4%; Yao 13.2%; Ngoni 6.7%; other 3.4%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 64.5%, of which Protestant 33.7%, Ro-

man Catholic 27.6%; traditional beliefs 19.0%; Muslim 16.2%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1987): Blantyre 333,120; Lilongwe 223,318; Mzuzu 44,217.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 54.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 21.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 33.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 4.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1977): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 43.2 years; female 44.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986)4: infectious and parasitic diseases

711, of which

malaria

270, diarrheal

diseases

malnutrition 267; diseases of the respiratory system 265.

148, measles

128;

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: MK 1,549,000,000 (recurrent revenue 79.7%, of which surtax 27.4%, import duties 15.6%). Expenditures: MK 2,343,700,000 (wages and salaries 21.7%; debt service 12.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992); U.S.$1,557,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture (1992) sugarcane 2,100,000, corn (maize) 2,034,000, potatoes 370,000, cassava 216,000, plantains 195,000, tobacco 136,000, bananas 90,000, dry beans 80,000, peanuts

(groundnuts) 59,000, tea 40,000, sorghum 22,000; livestock (number of live

animals) 970,000 cattle, 888,000 goats, 240,000 pigs, 195,000 sheep; round-

Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 495 mi, 797 km: passenger-km 91,680,000; metric ton-km cargo 59,147,000. Roads (1989): total length 7,590 mi, 12,215 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 16,118; trucks and buses 17,394. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 300. Air transport (1992) 10: passengerkm 53,410,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,256,000; airports (1994) 6.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation 20,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.9. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,100,000 (1 per 9.7 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers, n.a. Telephones (1992): 56,820 (1 per 180 persons). Education and health Education (1989-90) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Teacher tr., voc. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,624

20,580

1,325,453 29,326 3,679 2,685

64.4 26.8 14.7 11.4

94 13 4

1,096 250 235

Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 5 and over having: no formal education 54.9%; primary education 41.7%: secondary and higher 3.4%. Literacy (1987): total population age 5 and over literate 2,746,143 (41.6%); males literate 1,665,559 (52.4%); females literate

1,080,584 (31.6%).

Health (1987): physicians (1984) 262 (1 per 27,094 persons); hospital beds 12,617 (1 per 627 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 142.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,049 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 88% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 10,400 (army 96.2%, marines 1.9%, air force 1.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.1% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$3.

wood (1992) 9,706,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 63,726. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 175,000; cement 120,000. Manufacturing (value added in MK °000; 1986): chemicals 30,805; textiles 19,630; food products 11,988; beverages 11,988; tobacco 9,480; printing and publishing 9,250. Construc-

tion (value in MK; 1993): 24,100,0005. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 792,000,000 (792,000,000); coal (metric tons: 1992) none (12,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (183,000). Land use (1992): forested 36.2%; meadows and pastures 19.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 18.1%; other 26.1%.

'Chewa is the national language. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Based on land area. 4Estimates based on reported inpatient deaths in hospitals, constituting an estimated 8% of total deaths, 5Cities of Blantyre, Lilongwe, and Mzuzu only. At constant prices of 1978. 7Less imputed bank service charges. 8Weights of consumer price index components, cities of Blantyre and “Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commoditiesLilongwe only. and trading partners, Reexports included in balance of trade, excluded from commoditi es and trading partners. 10Air Malawi only.

Nations of the World

Malaysia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

Official name: Malaysia. Form of government: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [691]; House of Representatives [180]). Chief of state: Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Paramount Ruler). Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kuala Lumpur. Official language: Malay. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 ringgit, or Malaysian

Area and population States

East Malaysia Sabah Sarawak West Malaysia Johor Kedah Kelantan Melaka Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Pulau Pinang Selangor Terengganu Federal Territories Kuala Lumpur Labuan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

population

Capitals

.

1991

—sqmi___sqkm_ =___ census?_

Kota Kinabalu Kuching

28,425 48,050

73,620 124,449

1,736,902 1,648,217

Johor Baharu Alor Setar

7,331 3,639 5,769 637 2,565 13,886 8,110 307 398 3,072 5,002

18,986 9,426 14,943 1,650 6,643 35,965 21,005 795 1,031 7,956 12,955

2,074,297 1,304,800 1,181,680 504,502 691,150 1,036,724 1,880,016 184,070 1,065,075 2,289,236 770,931

94 35 127,320 264 127,584

243 91 329,758 684 330,442

1,145,075 54,307

Kota Baharu Melaka Seremban Kuantan Ipoh Kangar George Town Shah Alam Kuala Terengganu

=_ =>

in value

% of total

labour

% of labour

M$'000,0004

value

force

force

Agriculture Mining

15,895 7,991

15.8 8.0

1,580,000 35,000

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

30,216 4,013 2,153

30.1 4.0 24

1,766,000 550,000 i

0.4 23.1 7.2 aa

Transp. and commun. Trade

7,132 12,315

Tel 12.3

Finance

10,664

9,892

10.6

9.8

342,000 rt 315,000

862,000

41

11.3

Services Other TOTAL

2,125 —1,9216 100,475

21 —1.96 100.0

1,920,0005 276,000 7,646,000

25.15 3.6 100.0

Pub. admin., defense

dollar (M$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =M$2.56; 1 £=M$4.08.

Regions

17,566,982

20.7

4.5 ses

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$13,346,000,000. Population economically active (1993): total 7,646,000; activity rate 40.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1990] 66.5%; female [1990] 35.5%; unemployed 3.6%). Price index (1990 = 100) 1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index

94.8

97.4

100.0

104.4

109.3

113.2

92.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.2; annual income per household (1987) M$12,890 (U.S.$5,120); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1983): food 28.7%, transportation 20.9%, recreation and education 11.0%, housing 10.2%, household durable goods 7.7%, clothing and footwear 4.3%, health 2.5%.

Land use (1991): forested 57.8%; meadows and pastures 0.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 14.9%; other 27.2%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 M$’000,000 % of total

Imports

(1992):

+12,725 10.3%

+ 16,048 17.0%

+7,947 5.3%

M$101,440,000,000

1991

1992

1993

+3,165 1.7%

+11,446 5.9%

+15,095 6.6%

(machinery

and

transport

equipment

54.9%; basic manufactured goods 16.0%; chemicals 8.0%; food 5.4%; min-

Demography Population (1994): 19,506,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 152.9, persons per sq km 59.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 43.0%; rural 57.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.41%; female 49.59%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 36.4%; 15-29, 28.1%; 30-44, 19.3%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60 and over, 6.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 21,592,000; (2010) 24,280,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Malay and other indigenous (Orang Asli, or Bumiputera) 61.7%; Chinese 29.7%; Indian 8.1%; other nonindigenous 0.5%. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 52.9%; Buddhist 17.3%; Chinese folkreligionist 11.6%; Hindu 7.0%; Christian 6.4%, other 4.8%.

Major cities (1991): Kuala Lumpur 1,145,075; Ipoh 382,633; Johor Baharu 328,646; Melaka 295,999; Petaling Jaya 254,849.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1979): 1.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1979): 0.02. 4 Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 37.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 20.2; infectious and

parasitic diseases 8.8; diseases of the digestive system 8.4; diseases of the

respiratory system 7.8; accidents, homicide, and other violence 7.8.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

M$44,730,000,000

(income tax 43.0%, nontax rev-

enue 21.6%, import duties 12.1%, sales taxes 8.5%). Expenditures: M$33,285,000,000 (social services 33.9%, security 15.2%, administration 10.5%, ’ economic services 8.4%).

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,768,000,000; expenditures by

; nationals abroad U.S.$1,740,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): palm oil 6,374,000,

661

rice 1,860,000,

rubber

1,218,000, bananas 510,000, ca-

cao beans 217,000, pineapples 189,000; livestock (number of live animals)

2,491,000 pigs, 719,000 cattle, 347,000 goats, 310,000 sheep, 184,000 buffalo, 155,000,000 chickens; roundwood 54,008,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 620,000.

Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 222,848; copper concentrates 100,-

129; bauxite 68,824; tin concentrates 10,384. Manufacturing (1992): cement 8,366,000; refined sugar 951,000; wheat flour 602,000; fertilizer 325,000; plywood 1,664,000 cu m; radio receivers 31,360,000 units; automotive tires 8,540,000 units. Construction (completed; 1986)>: residential 8,809,100 sq m; nonresidential 959,900 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity 190,(kW-hr; 1992) 32,082,000,000 (32,066,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992)

000 (2,225,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 239,102,000. (73,109,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 9,919,000 (14,309,000); natural gas ; (cu m; 1992) 20,065,000,000 (7,507,000,000). capita). per 60 (U.S.$3,1 0 41,000,00 U.S.$60,1 (1993): Gross national product

eral fuels 4.2%; inedible crude materials 2.6%). Major import sources: Japan

26.0%; U.S. 15.8%; Singapore 15.7%; Taiwan 5.7%; Germany 4.2%; U-K. 3.4%; South Korea 3.1%; Australia 2.7%.

Exports

(1992):

M$103,657,000,000

(machinery

and

transport

equipment

43.8%; mineral fuels 12.9%; inedible crude materials 10.7%; basic manufactures 8.5%; animal and vegetable oils 6.6%; food, beverages, and tobacco

3.8%). Major export destinations: Singapore 23.0%; U.S. 18.6%; Japan 13.4%; U.K. 4.0%; Germany 4.0%; Hong Kong 3.8%; Thailand 3.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): track length 2,222 km; passenger-km 1,848,000,0008; metric ton-km cargo 1,380,000,0008. Roads (1992): total length 92,545

km (paved 75%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,147,974; trucks and buses 472,414. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 552; total deadweight tonnage 2,916,315. Air transport (1993): passengerkm 15,001,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 585,130,000; airports (1994) 40.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 45; circulation 2,500,000; circulation per 1,000 population 140. Radio (1993): 3,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.4 persons). Television (1993): 2,000,000 receivers (1 per 9.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 2,091,580 (1 per 8.9 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools 6,891 1,336 75 54

teachers

125,916 77,149 3,489 11,4719

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,641,000 1,400,000 33,000 136,0009

21.0 18.1 9.5 11.99

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 36.6%; primary education 42.1%; secondary 19.4%; higher 1.9%. Literacy (1990 est.); total population age 15 and over literate 78.4%; males literate 86.5%; females literate 70.4%.

Health (1992): physicians 7,719 (1 per 2,412 persons); hospital beds 38,662 (1

per 482 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 14. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,671 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 114,500 (army 78.6%, navy 10.5%, air force 10.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.7% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$91.

Includes 43 appointees of the paramount ruler; the remaining 26 are indirectly elected at different times. 2Preliminary results. 3Results of the Central Bank Survey of four major towns: Kuala Lumpur, Shah Alam, Kelang, and Seberang Prai. 4At constant prices of 1978. 5Includes data for Public utilities and Trade. 6Net bank service charges. 7Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade. 8Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. 91991.

662

Britannica World Data

Maldives

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

Official name: Divehi Jumhuriyya

in value Rf 0005 264,300 20,900

(Republic of Maldives).

Form of government: republic with one legislative house (People’s Council [48!]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Male’. Official language: Divehi. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Maldivian Rufiyaa (Rf )=100 laari; valuation (Oct. 7,

Agriculture® Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and

defense

Services Other TOTAL

1£=Rf 18.82.

Population Area and population2 Administrative atolls North Thiladhunmathi (Haa-Alifu) South Thiladhunmathi (Haa-Dhaalu) North Miladhunmadulu (Shaviyani) South Miladhunmadulu (Noonu) North Maalhosmadulu (Raa) South Maalhosmadulu (Baa) Faadhippolhu (Lhaviyani) Male’ (Kaafu) Ari Atoll Uthuru Gofi (Alifu) Ari Atoll Dhekunu Gofi (Alifu) Felidhu Atoll (Vaavu) Mulakatholhu (Meemu) North Nilandhe Atoll (Faafu) South Nilandhe Atoll (Dhaalu) Kolhumadulu (Thaa) Hadhdhunmathi (Laamu) North Huvadhu Atoll (Gaafu-Alifu) South Huvadhu Atoll (Gaafu-Dhaalu) Foammulah (Gnyaviyani) Addu Atoll (Seenu)

area Capitals Dhidhdhoo Nolhivaranfaru Farukolhufunadhoo Manadhoo Ugoofaaru Eydhafushi Naifaru Thulusdhoo Rasdhoo Mahibadhoo

66,300

communications Trade Finance Public administration,

1994) 1 U.S.$=Rf 11.83;

84Miss

population 1990 census

sq km

12,031 12,890 9,022 8,437 11,303 7,716 7,224 6,726 3,998 5,029 1,579 4,186 2,614 4,199 8,189 9,101 7,295 10,417 6,160 15,177 55,130 213,2153

Felidhoo Muli Magoodhoo Kudahuvadhoo Veymandoo Hithadhoo Viligili Thinadhoo Foahmulah Hithadhoo

Male’ TOTAL

1990

% of total value 23.6 1.9

5.9

% of labour force

14,117 496

25.0 0.9

8,441 oe

15.0 fe

100,300

8.9

3,151

5.6

67,400 200,300

6.0 17.9

5,321 8,884 1,058

9.4 15.7 1.9

201,600

35.8 }

11,848

21.0

2,674 56,435

47 100.0

100.0

1,121,100 economically

labour force

active

(1990):

total

56,435;

activity rate

of total

population 26.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 50.2%; female 19.9%; unemployed 0.9%). Land use (1991): forested 3.3%; meadows and pastures 3.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.0%; built-on, wasteland, and other 83.4%.

Foreign trade/ Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

—42.9 41.1%

—41.7 34.2%

—51.0 36.3%

—65.0 38.4%

— 83.3 43.7%

— 126.6 61.3%

—133.7 65.9%

Imports (1992): Rf 2,001,400,000 (consumer products 49.8%; intermediate and capital goods 38.1%; petroleum products 12.1%). Major import sources (1991): India 7.7%; Sri Lanka 7.6%; United Kingdom 5.8%; Singapore 5.7%; Japan 4.0%; Thailand 2.8%. Exports (1992): Rf 403,300,000 (canned tuna 40.1%; apparel and clothing 20.9%; dried skipjack tuna 18.1%; frozen skipjack tuna 8.9%). Major export destinations (1991): United Kingdom 24.6%; United States 22.8%; Sri Lanka 18.9%; Thailand 10.8%; Germany 6.5%; Singapore 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads: total length, n.a. Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 804; trucks and buses

Demography Population (1994): 244,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 2,121.7, persons per sq km 818.8. Urban-rural (1993): urban 30.0%; rural 70.0%. Sex distribution (1990): male 51.28%; female 48.72%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 46.9%; 15-29, 26.7%; 30-44, 12.3%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60-74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 0.8%; not stated, 0.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 286,000; (2010) 369,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition: the majority is principally of Sinhalese and Dravidian extraction; Arab, African, and Negrito influences are also present.

Religious affiliation: virtually 100% Sunni Muslim. Major cities (1990): Male’ 55,130.

illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 30.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 10.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 7.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.0 years; female 62.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): rheumatic fever 106.0; asthma

61.0;

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: Rf 1,021,000,000 (1990; nontax revenue 34.8%, im-

port duties 25.5%, foreign grants 18.2%, tourism tax 15.3%). Expenditures: Rf 1,512,400,000 (economic development 23.9%, atoll development 21.6%, education 14.7%, public order and safety 7.7%, health 7.3%).

marine

(1992): vessels

Education and health Education (1986)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 38.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.;

ischemic heart diseases 65.0; bronchitis, emphysema, and tetanus 23.5; tuberculosis 13.0; accidents and suicide 10.0.

1,114. Merchant

(100 gross tons and over) 44; total deadweight tonnage 78,994. Air transport (1990): passenger arrivals 217,953, passenger departures 217,841; cargo loaded 2,263 metric tons, cargo unloaded 7,711 metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 2: total circulation 4,300; circulation per 1,000 population 18. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 9.5 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 4,750 (1 per 50 persons). Telephones (1992): 8,523 (1 per 27 persons).

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 11-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

243 9 10 —

1,138 291 52 —

41,812 3,581 462 —

36.7 12.3 8.9 —

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no standard passed 25.6%; primary standard 37.2%: middle standard 25.9%; secondary standard 6.3%; preuniversity 3.4%; higher 0.4%; not stated 1.2%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 90,189 (90.4%); males literate 47,412 (90.6%); females literate 42,777 (90.1%).

Health (1992): physicians 35 (1 per 6,560 persons); hospital beds8 174 (1 per 1,320 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 53. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,033 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 92% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel: Maldives maintains a single security force numbering about 700-1,000; it performs both army and police functions.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$92,600,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables and melons 19,000, coconuts 13,000, fruits (excluding melons) 10,000, roots and tubers (including cassava, sweet potatoes, and yams) 8,000,

copra 2,000; fish catch (1991) 80,713. Mining and quarrying: coral for con-

struction materials. Manufacturing: details, n.a.; however, major industries

include boat building and repairing, coir yarn and mat weaving, coconut

and fish processing, lacquerwork, garment manufacturing, and handicrafts.

Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 28,000,000 (28,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric

tons; 1991) none (31,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$113,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad U.S.$22,000,000.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 7.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981)4: food and beverages 61.8%, housing equipment 17.0%, clothing 8.0%, recreation and education 5.9%, transportation 2.6%, health 2.5%, rent 1.6%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$114,000,000

(U.S.$500 per capita).

‘Includes 8 nonelective seats. 2Maldives is divided into 20 administrative corresponding to atoll groups; arrangement shown here is from north to south.districts Total area excludes 34,634 sq mi (89,702 sq km) of tidal waters. 3Includes 4,792 resort and industrial islands. 4Weights of consumer price index components. people in SAt 1985 prices. Primarily fishing. 7Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 8In government establishments only.

Nations of the World

Mali

crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (141,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$2,770,000,000

Official name: République du Mali (Republic of Mali). Form of government: multiparty! republic with one legislative house

(U.S.$300 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(National Assembly [116]).

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bamako. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc : (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =CFAF

1991 in value CFAF '000,000 320,169 10,326 48,260 27,920 9,432 30,974 109,131 8,202

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

526.67;

1 £=CFAF 837.67.

}

Services Other

Area and population Regions2 Gao Kayes Koulikoro Mopti

TOTAL

sq mi

Capitals Gao Kayes Koulikoro Mopti

Ségou

Ségou

Sikasso Tombouctou

Sikasso Timbuktu (Tombouctou)

663

sq km

population 1994 estimate

124,326 46,233 37,007 30,508 25,028 27,135

322,002 119,743 95,848 79,017 64,821 70,280

399,000 1,219,000 1,432,000 1,394,000 1,546,000 1,489,000

191,743

496,611

452,000

97 482,077

252 1,248,574

894,000 8,825,000

1987 % of total value 1.5 6.8 4.0 1.3 4.4 15.5 1.2

105,185

15.0

33,0266 702,625

4.76 100.0

labour force 2,802,722 1,524

% of labour force 82.2 _

186,243

5.5

13,065

0.4

3,157 6,174 158,892 320

0.1 0.2 47 —

158,704

46

78,470 3,409,271

2.3 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1987) 5.6; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure

(1986-87)3;7: food 54.6%, clothing 14.2%, transportation and communica-

tions 11.9%, housing and energy 8.7%, household durable goods 4.2%. Land use (1992): forested 5.7%; meadows and pastures 24.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.8%; other 67.9%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices)

District Bamako TOTAL

Bamako

CFAF '000,000,000 % of total

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

—38.6 25.8%

— 34.2 18.9%

—24.9 18.8%

—41.2 24.4%

Sag 1.4%

Siren 8.0%

e

Demography

Imports (1990): CFAF 187,735,000,000 (machinery, appliances, and transport equipment 29.3%; food products 12.7%; chemicals 9.2%; petroleum prod-

Population (1994): 8,825,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 18.3, persons per sq km 7.1. Urban-rural (1994): urban 26.1%; rural 73.9%.

ucts 9.1%). Major import sources: France 27.2%; Céte d'Ivoire 18.8%; Senegal 5.8%; Germany 5.6%; The Netherlands 4.8%; U.S.S.R. 4.8%; Belgium-

Sex distribution (1994): male 48.87%; female 51.13%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 48.3%; 15-29, 22.5%; 30-44, 14.3%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60-74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,980,000; (2010) 12,252,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Linguistic composition (1987): Bambara-Malinké-Dyula (-Dioula) 50.3%; Fulani (Peulh-Foulfoulbe) 10.7%; Dogon-Kado 6.9%; Songhai-Djerma 6.3%; Soninké-Marka 6.3%; Tamashek-Bella (Berber) 4.2%; Minianka 3.9%; Senufo 2.4%; Bwa- (Bobo-) Dafing 2.3%; Bozo-Somono 2.0%; other 4.7%.

Religious affiliation (1983): Muslim 90%; traditional beliefs 9%; Christian 1%. Major cities (1987): Bamako 73,050; Gao 54,874.

646,163; Ségou 88,877; Mopti 73,979; Sikasso

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 51.7 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 20.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 30.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman, 1993): 7.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990)3: 0.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1987): male 54.7 years; female 58.2 years. _ Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; morbidity ([notified cases of illness] by cause as a percentage of all reported infectious disease; 1985): malaria 62.1%; measles 10.3%; amebiasis 10.3%; syphilis and gonococcal infections

6.0%;

in 1989 included

influenza 4.9%; other principal causes

polio and conditions originating in the perinatal period.

National economy

7m

Population economically active (1987): total 3,437,489; activity rate of total population 44.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.4%; female 37.4%;

unemployed 0.87%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index4

USS.S.R. 12.5%; Algeria 11.6%; Taiwan 10.5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 9.1%; France 7.1%; China 5.2%; Canada 4.9%; Germany 4.4%; Morocco 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): route length 399 mi, 642 km; passenger-mi 304,155,000, passenger-km 489,491,000; short ton-mi cargo 187,176,000, metric ton-km cargo 273,273,000. Roads (1987): total length 11,185 mi, 18,000

km (paved 8%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 23,000; trucks and buses 10,000. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1983): passenger-mi 68,000,000, passenger-km 110,000,000; short ton-mi cargo: 411,000, metric ton-km cargo 600,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation 40,000; circulation per 1,000 population 4.6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 150,000 (1 per 58 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 10,000 (1 per 865 persons). Telephones (1990): 11,165 (1 per 730 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-17) Higher

Budget (1993). Revenue: CFAF 188,300,000,000 (fiscal receipts 60.1%, nontfiscal receipts 4.6%). Expenditures: CFAF 192,400,000,000 (capital expenditure 50.8%, current expenditure 38.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,472,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$45,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$68,000,000.

Luxembourg 4.0%; Italy 3.3%; Saudi Arabia 3.0%; United Kingdom 2.7%; Guinea 2.6%; Hong Kong 2.4%; Spain 1.9%; United States 1.7%. Exports (1990): CFAF 101,920,000,000 (raw cotton and cotton products 44.9%; live animals 24.0%; gold and diamonds 12.5%). Major export destinations:

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

ee 100.0

99.5 100.0

99.4 100.0

100.0 100.0

101.8 100.0

95.4 127.9

95.2

1,514 3079 710

teachers

7,963 5,883 10 701

students

student/ teacher ratio

375,131 88,529 6,703

471 ss, 9.6

Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 86.0%; primary education 12.5%; secondary 1.2%; postsecondary and higher 0.3%. Literacy (1987): percentage of total population age 6 and over literate 1,116,019 (18.8%); males literate 767,981 (26.7%); females literate 348,038 (11.4%). Health (1987): physicians 114 (1 per 67,789 persons); hospital beds 3,430 (1 per 2,253 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 108. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,259 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 96% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 7,350 (army 93.9%, navy 0.7%, air force 5.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 2.0% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$S.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sorghum 694,000, millet 691,000, rice 388,000, seed cotton 317,000, corn (maize) 275,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 135,000, cassava 73,000, sweet potatoes

55,000; livestock

(number

of live animals)

13,942,000 goats and

sheep, 5,554,000 cattle, 610,000 asses, 250,000 camels, 87,000 horses, 84,000

pigs; roundwood (1992) 5,953,000 cu m, fish catch (1991) 60,031. Mining kg. and quarrying (1991): limestone 10,0005; phosphate 8,000; gold 5,352 10,953; cement 29,040; sugar 46,396, fibre cotton Manufacturing (1991): pairs; soft drinks 64,750 hectolitres; beer 37,754 hectolitres; shoes 127,000

cigarettes 141,757 cartons. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 313,000,000 (313,000,000); coal, none (n.a.);

1Multiparty legislative elections of February-March 1992 were boycotted by most opposition parties. 2Kidal region established on May 15, 1991. Separate data not available. 3Bamako only. 4Minimum hourly wages of industrial workers. 51990. 6Less imputed bank service charges. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8Imports c.i.f. 9Excludes vocational. 10199091.

664

Britannica World Data rated enterprises 20.1%, rents, dividends, and interest 17.5%; expenditure

Malta

(1991): food and beverages 28.5%, transportation and communications 16.4%, household furnishings and operations 9.9%, clothing and footwear

Official name: Malta (Maltese); Malta (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Representatives [65]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Valletta. Official languages: Maltese; English. Official religion: Roman Catholicism.

7.6%, recreation, entertainment, and education 7.5%, housing 5.5%, health 3.5%, tobacco 2.7%. ; .

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$568,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$138,000,000. : Gross national product (1992): U.S.$2,606,000,000 (U.S.$7,210 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

Monetary unit: 1 Maltese lira (Lm) = 100 cents = 1,000 mils; valuation! (Oct. 7, 1994)

Agriculture Manufacturing Mining } Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 U.S.$=Lm 0.37; 1 £=Lm 0.58. Area and population

area

k Census regions2 Gozo and Comino Inner Harbour Northern Outer Harbour South Eastern Western TOTAL

mi =a 27 6 30 12 20 27

population 1994 sq km SUT

estimate3

27,258 102,394 35,787 106,312 46,884 47,796 366,431

3164

Lm ‘000,000 % of total

Population projection: (2000) 378,000; (2010) 394,000. Doubling time: 104 years. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 1980): Maltese 95.7%; British 2.1%; other 2.2%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 98.6%; other 1.4%. Major cities (19943): Birkirkara 21,770; Qormi 19,904; Hamrun 13,654; Sliema 13,514; Valletta 9,144.

Vital statistics (1993): 14.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

97.7%; illegitimate 2.3%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearmg woman; 1992): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 73.0 years; female 77.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 362.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 179.4; diseases of the respiratory system 68.6; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs 46.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 31.1; diseases of the digestive system 22.6.

2,768

2.0

34,198

24.4

26511

37 6

5,491

3.9

6

6

10,949 : 3,643 40,9226 15,590 12,3268 139,868

78 10.0 2.6 29.36 11.2 8.88 100.0

41,845 101,374 101,0337 162,3966 65,129

5.9 14.3 14.27 22,96 9.2

709,856

100.0

— 168.1 26.3%

— 169.0 22.3%

—172.8 18.3%

1991

1992

1993

—2145 21.1%

— 182.9 15.7%

=—229:5 18.2%

Imports (1992): Lm 747,770,000 (machinery and transport equipment 48.4%, semimanufactured goods 17.0%, food and live animals 8.9%, chemicals and chemical products 6.8%, mineral fuels 4.7%, nonfuel materials 1.8%, beverages and tobacco 1.0%). Major import sources: Italy 37.7%; U.K. 12.9%; Germany 10.7%; France 6.3%; U.S. 3.2%.

Exports (1992): Lm 490,903,000 (machinery and transport equipment 55.9%, clothing and footwear 11.3%, reexports 8.0%, semimanufactured goods 6.4%, food and live animals 1.6%, beverages and tobacco 0.4%). Major export destinations: Italy 43.6%; Germany 14.6%; France 9.2%; U.S. 6.0%;

Budget (1994). Revenue:

Lm 426,929,000 (1992; customs

and excise taxes

23.6%, national insurance and Central Bank contributions 20.6%, income

Central

Bank

insurance

debt service 4.7%).

profits 5.1%).

Expenditures:

benefits 41.1%, education

Lm

407,303,000

12.3%, health 9.8%,

Public debt (1993): U.S.$882,900,000. Production (wholesale value in Lm except where noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): vegetables 4,589,043 (of which tomatoes 798,617, melons

643,126, cauliflower 377,532, carrots 288,643, onions 133,864), fruits 985,225 (of which peaches 219,120, grapes 160,864), potatoes 580,549; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 107,000 pigs, 23,000 cattle, 6,000 sheep,

5,000 goats, 1,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1992) 745,956. Quarrying (1990): 2,853,000. Manufacturing (value of sales in Lm; 1993): machinery and transport equipment 283,488,000, of which transport equipment 5,306,000; beverages

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992): total length 988 mi, 1,588 km (paved 92%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 120,320; trucks and buses 27,978. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 889; total deadweight tonnage 17,073,207. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 630,197,000, passenger-km

1,014,205,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,840,000, metric ton-

km cargo 5,607,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 68,000; circulation per 1,000 population 192. Radio (1993): 90,000 receivers

(1 per 4.0 persons). Television (1993): 146,107 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 201,780 (1 per 1.8 persons).

Education and health

National economy

97,050,000;

textiles

and wearing

apparel

82,173,000;

paper and publishing 37,934,000; chemicals 28,897,000; metal manufacture 14,771,000.

3.3 26.5

6

% of labour force

U.K. 5.4%; Libya 4.0%; The Netherlands 1.8%.

Birth rate per 1,000 population

and

23,439 188,129

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Age breakdown (19943): under 15, 22.4%; 15-29, 21.2%; 30-44, 23.4%; 45-59, 17.8%; 60-74, 11.4%; 75 and over, 3.8%.

food

labour force

Foreign trade?

Population (1994): 368,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 3,016.0, persons per sq km 1,164.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 85.3%; rural 14.7%. Sex distribution (19943): male 49.46%; female 50.54%.

(1992; national

% of total value

Land use (1991): agricultural and under permanent cultivation 40.6%; other (infertile clay soil with underlying limestone) 59.4%.

Demography

tax 19.2%,

1993

in value Lm '000

Construction

(buildings

completed;

1993):

residential

4,6055;

nonresidential 2,024. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

1991) 1,278,502,000 (954,804,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) none (297,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (320,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1993): total 139,868; activity rate of total population 38.2% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1985] 45.9%; female 32.7%; unemployed 4.2%).

Education (1991-92) schools Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher

168 46 31 1

teachers 1,455 10 1,594 10 738

320

students

student/ teacher ratio

35,626 24,462 7,093 3,150

25.410 16.210 9.6 9.8

Educational attainment (1967). Percentage of economically active population having: no formal schooling 10.8%; primary education 60.4%; lower secondary 3.4%; upper secondary 17.6%; technical secondary 3.9%; postsecondary and higher 3.9%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 250,419 (96.0%); males literate 121,899 (96.2%); females literate

128,520 (95.9%). Health (1993): physicians 860 (1 per 424 persons); hospital beds (1991) 3,326 (1 per 107 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 10.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,169 (vegetable products 72%, animal products 28%); 128% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 1,650 (army 100%). Military expenditure tnPs of GNP (1991): 0.8% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure 5.961.

:

Price and earnings indexes (1987= 100) Consumer price index Annual earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

100.0 100.0

100.9 103.8

101.8 106.9

104.8 108.6

107.4 117.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 3.3; average annual income per household (1982) Lm 4,736 (U.S.$11,399); sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 62.4%, professional and unincorpo-

'The Maltese lira is tied to the currencies of several principal trading partners. 2Data are reported according to census regions as of January 1993; in late 1993 administrative districts (Local Councils) were created. 3January 1. 4Detail does new not total given because of rounding. ‘Dwellings completed. 6Pub. admin., defense add to includes Public utilities. 7Finance includes income from property. 8Includes 5,816 ‘Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commoditi unemployed. es and trading partners, !01990-91,

Nations of the World

Marshall Islands

(45,759,000); coal, none (n.a.); gasoline, oil, and lubricants (barrels; 1988)5

n.a. (84,588); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Official name: Majol (Marshallese); Republic of the Marshall Islands (English). Form of government: unitary republic with two legislative houses (Council of Iroij [12]1; Nitijela [33]).

Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Gross domestic product (1991): U.S.$75,694,000 (U.S.$1,577 per capita). Structure of private (nongovernmental) gross sales and labour force 1981

in value

Head of state and government:

—_US.$'000___

President. Capital: Majuro. Official languages: Marshallese (Kajin-Majol); English. Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 U.S. dollar (U.S.$) = 100 cents; valuation

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 £=U.S.$1.59.

sq mi

Ailinglaplap

5.67

14.69

Ailuk

2.07

5.36

488

5.00

12.95

1,656

Aur

2.17

5.62

Bikini Ebon Enewetak and Ujelang Jabat Jaiuit Kili Kwajalein Lae Lib Likiep

2.32 2.22 2.93 0.22 4.38 0.36 6.33 0.56 0.36 3.97

6.00 5.75 7.59 0.57 11.34 0.93 16.39 1.45 0.93 10.28

Majuro Maloelap Mejit Mili Namorik

3.75 3.79 0.72 6.15 1.07

9.71 9.82 1.86 15.93 Ate

2.42

6.27

3.07

7.95

Utrik

0.94

2.43

Wotho Wotje Other atolls TOTAL

1.67 3.16 4.05

Namu

Rongelap

Ujae

0.72

1,682.7

5.6

537

47

83.8

1,394

12.1

1.7 —

833

oan}

—_—

—

30,003.1

Consumer price index Earnings index

7.3

B.035

as

1,4346

100.0

12.56

11,488

100.0

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

93.6 -

97.1 aa

99.4 a

100.0

103.4

116.8

119.5

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986 1987 1988 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Demography

—31.6 89.2%

—31.7 88.3%

1989

1990

1991

—41.9 89.4%

—53.9 94.0%

—53.5 90.3%

States 58.5%; Guam 16.3%; Japan 9.6%; Australia 1.6%. Exports (1991): U.S.$2,890,000 (crude coconut oil 48.3%, frozen fish 27.0%,

Urban-rural (1988): urban 64.5%; rural 35.5%.

Sex distribution (1994): male 51.01%; female 48.99%. Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 50.4%; 15-29, 25.4%; 30-44, 14.2%; 45-59, 6.2%; 60-74, 3.0%; 75 and over, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 68,400; (2010) 100,000. Doubling time: 18 years. Ethnic composition (nationality; 1988): Marshallese 96.9%; other Pacific is-

Religious affiliation (1973): Protestant 90.1%; Roman

— 29.4 92.7%

Imports (1991): U.S.$56,442,000 (food and live animals 24.3%, machinery and transport equipment 16.2%, mineral fuels and lubricants 11.1%, beverages and tobacco 9.9%, manufactured goods 9.7%). Major import sources: United

Population (1994): 54,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 770.7, persons per sq km 297.6.

Catholic 8.5%; other

1.4%.

Major cities (1988): Dalap-Uliga-Darrit 14,649; Ebeye 8,324; no other urban localities.

live animals 17.9%, trochus shells 6.1%). Major export destinations (1983): United States 79.4%; other 20.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads: n.a. Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 1,332; trucks and buses 75. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 35; total deadweight tonnage 4,182,356. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 52,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,000; airports (1994) with

scheduled flights 23. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): there are no dailies, only weeklies, of which there are two with a total circulation of over 10,000. Radio

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 46.6 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 38.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 7.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 61.3 years; female 64.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988-91)3: circulatory diseases 87.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 74.4; respiratory diseases 62.8; accidents, injuries, and violence 37.5; digestive diseases 37.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 27.6.

National economy

Budget (1990-91). Revenue: U.S.$34,704,774 (U.S. government grants 35.3%,

income tax 21.4%, import tax 17.0%, fishing rights 5.3%, fuel taxes 1.5%). Expenditures:

510.5 =

235.9

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

4.32 8.18 10.49 181.482

landers 1.7%; Filipino 0.5%; all other 0.9%.

18.7 _— 8.2 0.7 9.4

force

Land use (1989)7: forested 22.5%; meadows and pastures 13.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.1%; other 30.9%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 8.7; income per household (1979) U.S.$3,366; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1982): food 57.7%, housing 15.6%, clothing 12.0%, personal effects and other 14.7%. Population economically active (1988): total 11,488; activity rate of total population 26.5% (participation rates: over age 14, 54.1%; female 30.1%; unemployed 12.5%).

PAS

Arno

2,150 2 945 82 1,076

25,150.6

TOTAL

—sqkm_ = __census__

0.1 fet 0.5 = 143

% of labour

force __

hotels Finance, insurance,

Other

population 1988

value

labour

32.5 tl 155.3 — 2,235.6

Services

Area and population

1988

% of total

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and communications Trade, restaurants, Fsestate ublic administration

Election districts

665

U.S.$44,128,786

(health

services

18.9%,

education

17.5%,

public works and social programs 12.5%, transportation and communica; tions 4.4%, internal security 3.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991):

copra 5,545, fruits 1,809 (of which pandanus 836, breadfruit 645, bananas 182), 264, papaya 64), tubers 1,500 (of which taro 1,300, sweet potatoes

vegetables 136 (of which cabbage 36, pumpkins 36); livestock consists mostly of swine and poultry; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1989) 12,1934. Mining and quarrying: high-grade phosphate mining on Ailinglaplap Atoll, quarrying of sand and aggregate for local construction only. Manufacturing: n.a.; however, coconut oil and processed (mostly frozen) fish are the most

important products; the manufacture

of handicrafts and personal items

(clothing, mats, boats, etc.) by individuals is also important. Construction: 45,759,000 n.a: Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991)

(1990): n.a.; but there are two radio stations. Television (1990): n.a.; but there are two television stations. Telephones (1992): 980 (1 per 51 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

102 88 ro

teachers

515 137 ihe

students

student/ teacher ratio

12,248 2,215

23.8 16.2

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 5.1%; elementary education 43.2%; secondary 39.7%; higher 11.4%; not stated 0.6%. Literacy (latest): total population age 15 and over literate 19,377 (91.2%); males literate 9,993 (92.4%); females literate 9,384 (90.0%). Health: physicians (1987) 19 (1 per 2,207 persons); hospital beds (1985) 54 (1 per 698 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 53.0. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military

Under the 1984 Compact of Free Association, the United States provides for the defense of the Republic of the Marshall Islands.

1Council of Iroij is an advisory body only. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Registered deaths only. 4Total for foreign vessels only, including 6,762 metric tons caught by Japanese vessels. SImports only. 6Includes 1,432 unemployed. 7Data are for the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. 81986-87.

666

Britannica World Data

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1989): U.S.$2,835,000,000

Martinique

(U.S.$7,970 per capita).

Official name: Département de la Martinique (Department of Martinique). Political status: overseas department (France) with two legislative houses (General Council [45]; Regional Council [41]). Chief of state: President of France. Heads of government: Commissioner of the Republic (for France); President of the General Council (for Martinique); President of the Regional Council (for Martinique). Capital: Fort-de-France. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 French franc (F)= 100

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1989 in value F ’000,000

Agriculture, fishing Mining, manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

La Trinité

817

49

5.2 6.0

9,298

5.7

6,673

41

8.6

1,008

6.0

3,463

20.7,

13,965

891

5.3

26,489

Pub. admin. and defense

4,922

29.4

2,873

17.2

—1104 16,7386

=0;74 100.06

}

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

population 1990

sq mi

sq km

census

147 158 131 436

381 409 338 1,128

187,275 93,414 78,893 359,579

Consumer price index® Monthly earnings index9

35,541 52,9005 163,017

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993:

106.3 105.2

108.8 108.0

112.4 111.0

116.8 115.9

118.3 118.8

126.6 122.8

131.0 128.3

Land use (1991): forested 44.3%; meadows and pastures 17.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 18.9%; other 18.9%.

Foreign trade!

Demography Population (1994): 381,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 873.8, persons per sq km 338.4.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Urban-rural (1990): urban 80.5%; rural 19.5%.

F 000,000 % of total

Sex distribution (1990): male 48.36%; female 51.64%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 23.1%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 20.5%; 45-59, 13.5%; 60-74, 9.7%; 75 and over, 4.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 415,000; (2010) 458,000. Doubling time: 62 years. Ethnic composition (1983): mulatto 93.7%; French (metropolitan and Martinique white) 2.6%; East Indian 1.7%; other 2.0%.

Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 84.6%; other (mostly Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah’s Witness, Hindu, syncretist, and nonreligious)

Major urban

8,445 9,706 }

2.8

% of labour force

Population economically active (1990): total 164,8707; activity rate of total population 45.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64 68.1%; female 47.5%; unemployed 32.1%). area

TOTAL

6.3 8.0

1990

labour force

communications Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate, insurance Other TOTAL

Area and population Capitals Fort-de-France Le Marin La Trinité

1,063 1,337

475 |

Services

centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=F 5.27; 1 £=F 8.38.

Arrondissements Fort-de-France Le Marin

% of total value

areas

(1990): Fort-de-France

100,072;

Le Lamentin

15.4%.

Imports

(1993):

—6,551, 73.7%

—6,/32 73.5%

—7,970 72.7%

F 8,814,145,000

1991

1992

1993

—-—7,934 78.4%

—7,982 75.6%

—7,744 78.0%

(food products

21.4%,

machinery

15.8%,

chemical products 11.6%, transport equipment 11.6%, metal manufactures 5.8%). Major import sources: France 61.6%; United States 2.9%; Venezuela 1.1%; Guadeloupe 1.1%; other Caribbean

1.8%.

Exports (1993): F 1,081,644,000 (food products 59.0%, refined petroleum 19.5%, machinery 6.3%, chemical products 4.0%). Major export destinations: France 65.1%; Guadeloupe 28.6%; French Guiana 2.6%.

30,026;

Schoelcher 19,825; Sainte-Marie 19,683; Le Robert 17,675.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 34.1%; illegitimate 65.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 74.7 years; female 81.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 208.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 135.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 54.8; diseases of the digestive system 31.3; endocrine and metabolic disorders 30.7.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: F 1,755,000,000 (general receipts from French cen-

tral government and local administrative bodies 49.2%, tax receipts 29.2%, new loans 11.6%, public-works subsidies 6.0%). Expenditures: F 1,755,000,000 (health and social assistance 35.0%, improvements to public works and property 34.0%, other administrative services 16.2%, debt amortization 3.3%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1987)!: U.S.$30,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): bananas 255,000, sugarcane 98,443, pineapples 16,182, plantains 10,000, yams 9,000, cucumbers 4,000, sweet potatoes 3,000, tomatoes 3,000, melons 2,300, avocados 1,000, limes 576, flowers and foliage 1392, pimientos 1702: 3;

livestock (number of live animals) 63,000 sheep, 49,000 pigs, 35,000 cattle; roundwood (1991) 12,000 cu m; fish catch 4,553. Mining and quarrying (1992): pumice 140,000; sand and gravel for local construction. Manufacturing (1993): cement 233,653; processed pineapples 17,276; sugar 6,980; rum 99,001 hectolitres; other products include clothing, fabricated metals, and

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none.

Roads (1992): total length 1,286 mi, 2,069 km

(paved [1988] 75%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 135,269; trucks and

buses 7,328. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 6; total deadweight tonnage 1,121. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals and departures 1,506,730; cargo unloaded 7,635 metric tons, cargo loaded 5,809

metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation 32,000; circulation per 1,000 population 88. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 60,000 (1 per 6.3 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 65,000 (1 per 5.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 140,75211 (1 per 2.6 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational Higher

282 }

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,711

33,170

12.2

3,830

47,295

12.3

71

3,670

51.7

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 9.8%; primary education 62.7%; secondary 21.2%; higher 6.3%. Literacy (1982): total population age 15 and over literate 206,807 (92.5%); males literate 97,538 (91.8%); females literate 109,269 (93.2%). Health (1991): physicians 625 (1 per 584 persons); hospital beds 3,747 (1 per 97 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 6.2. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,768 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 8,200 French troops!2.

yawls and sails. Construction (buildings authorized; 1993): residential permits 5,713; nonresidential 85,279 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 762,000,000 (700,000,000); coal, none (none); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (5,409,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 493,180 (493,180); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 3.3; income per household (1989) F 147,150 (U.S.$24,525); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 80%, other 20%; expenditure (1993): food and beverages 32.1%, transportation and communications 20.7%, housing and energy 10.6%, household durable goods 9.4%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, education and recreation 5.4%, health care 5.2%, other 8.6%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$282,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

‘Includes external long-term private debt not guaranteed by the government. 2Production for export only. 31990, 4Imputed bank service charges less other items. >Unemployed. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Includes military reserve personnel. 8Figures are end-of-year unless otherwise footnoted. °Based on monthly salaries of employees in commerce, banking, and government services. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. '!Telephone lines. !2Includes troops stationed in Guadeloupe and French Guiana.

Nations of the World

Mauritania

667

and beverages 74.5%, housing 9.2%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, health 0.8%, education 0.3%, other 7.6%.

Official name: al-Jumhiriyah al-Islamiyah al-Miritaniyah (Arabic) (Islamic Republic of Mauritania).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$1,109,000,000 (U.S.$530 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Form of government: unitary multiparty

republic with two legislative houses (Senate [56]; National Assembly [79]).

1992

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Nouakchott. Official languages: Arabic}. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 ouguiya (UM)= 5 khoums; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities } Construction Transportation and communications Trade and finance Services Pub. admin., defense Other (indirect taxes net of subsidies) TOTAL

1 U.S.$=UM 123.67; 1£=UM 196.69.

Area and population area

Regions el-Agaba Adrar

Brakna Dakhlet Nouadhibou

Gorgol Guidimaka Hodh ech-Chargui Hodh el-Gharbi Inchiri Tagant Tiris Zemmour Trarza District Nouakchott TOTAL

Capitals Kiffa Atar

Aleg Nouadhibou

Kaédi Sélibaby Nema

‘Ayoin el-Atrois Akjoujt Tidjikdja Zouérate Rosso Nouakchott

population sq km

13,900 83,100 14,000 11,600 5,400 4,000 64,000 22,000 19,000 36,000 98,600), 26,000

36,000 215,300 37,100 30,000 14,000 10,000 166,000 57,000 49,000 93,000 255,300 67,000

185,574 62,906 207,590 83,246 201,301 129,797 234,011 175,089 13,630 67,939 37,534 217,867

1,000 1,030,700

324,037 1,940,521

400 398,000

6,322 5,630

oe

6,255 13,860 6,112 12,412

6.2 13.8 6.1 } 12.4

9,682 100,220

9.7 100.0

82.0 er

83.1 ae

93.8 a

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988

a4 1.0

1,326 42,291

02 21

8,378 73,451

1.4 12.5

86,807

14.8

166,3663 585,809

28.43 100.0

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0

105.6

116.3

127.2

+3,395 5.7%

+4,576 6.4%

1989

1990

1991

1992

+8;277 12.4%

+3838)" 5.8%

1272 1.8%

+ 1,657 2.3%

Imports (1992): UM 35,362,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 10.7%, milk and dairy products 5.3%, sugar 5.2%, tea 4.2%, rice 3.9%,

cement 1.9%). Major import sources (1990): France 45.7%; Belgium 9.8%; West Germany 9.1%; United States 7.4%; Spain 7.3%; Algeria 6.0%; China

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.41%; female 50.59%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,467,000; (2010) 3,307,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Moor 70.0% (of which about 40% “black” Moor [Haratin, or African Sudanic] and about 30% “white” Moor [Bidan, or Arab-Berber]); other black African 30.0% (including [1983] Wolof 6.8%, Tukulor 5.3%, Soninke 2.8%, Fulani 1.1%, other 2.5%).

Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 99.4%; Christian 0.4%; other 0.2%. 72,305; Kaédi 35,241;

5.9%; The Netherlands 4.1%; Japan 2.8%; Thailand 1.9%.

Exports (1992): UM 37,019,000,000 (1991; iron ore 50.6%, fish 49.4%). Major export destinations (1991): Japan 24.2%; Italy 16.4%; U.S.S.R. 11.5%; Belgium 10.5%; France 9.9%; Spain 8.6%; United dIvoire 3.1%; United States 2.3%; Cameroon 1.9%.

Kingdom

5.2%; Céte

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1992): route

length 416 mi, 670 km; passenger-mi

4,350,0005, passenger-km 7,000,0005; short ton-mi cargo 3,860,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,635,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 4,683 mi, 7,536

km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 10,000; trucks and buses 5,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 126; total deadweight tonnage 23,875. Air transport (1991)6: passenger-mi 173,000,000,

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 48.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 16.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 32.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 7.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 45.0 years; female 51.0 years. — Morbidity (notified cases of infectious disease per 100,000 population; 1984): enteritis and diarrhea 10,566; conjunctivitis 7,080; malaria 2,897; scarlet fever 2,476; measles 714.0; chicken pox 306.4.

passenger-km

278,000,000;

32,000,000,000 (1992; tax revenue

77.0%, of

which import and export duties 35.7%, value-added tax 26.8%, excise tax

32,200,000,000 (1992; administrative expenses

26.1%; defense 15.0%; interest on debt 9.0%).

:

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1991) U.S.$13,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad (1988) U.S.$27,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 4.2%; meadows

;

and pastures 38.3%; agricultural

; and under permanent cultivation 0.2%; desert 57.3%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sorghum 50,000, pulses 19,000, rice 18,000, dates 12,000, vegetables (including melons) 11,000, roots and tubers 6,000 (of which sweet potatoes 3,000, yams 3,000), millet 3,000, corn (maize) 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,400,000 sheep, 3,600,000 goats, 1,400,000 cattle, 990,000 camels, 154,000 asses, 18,000 horses, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 13,000

cu m; fish catch (1992) 100,700. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore (gross weight) 9,362,000; gypsum 3,240. Manufacturing (1990): cow's milk 97,000; meat 44,000, of which fresh beef and veal 17,000, fresh mutton and lamb 6,000, goat meat 5,000; hides and skins 4,720; cheese 1,841, butter

680. Construction (1984): 42,478 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 146,000,000 (146,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (6,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (6,802,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 825,000 (907,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1990): food

short ton-mi

cargo

11,000,000,

metric

ton-km

cargo 16,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 10. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation, n.a. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 300,000 (1 per 7.2 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 1,100 (1 per 1,974 persons). Telephones (1991): 17,000 (1 per 120 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17)

National economy UM

225,238

10.6 8.8

Foreign trade+

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.6%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 15.5%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 0.7%.

13.1%). Expenditures:

38.5

26.2

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,855,000,000.

Urban-rural (1988): urban 39.1%; rural 60.9%.

UM

% of labour force

10,625 8,869

6,165

Consumer price index Earnings index .

Demography

Budget (1993). Revenue:

labour force

26,240

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

Population (1994): 2,069,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 5.2, persons per sq km 2.0.

480,408; Nouadhibou

% of total value

Population economically active (1990): total 678,000; activity rate of total population 33.5% (participation rates: over age 10, 49.7%; female 22.1%; unemployed [1988] 50.0%).

1992 estimate

sq mi

UM '000,000 % of total

Major cities (1992): Nouakchott Kiffa 29,2922; Rosso 27,7832.

1988

in value UM '000,000

Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,309 56

3,967 1,905

5 4

169 176

187,202 36,882 1,782 5,850

47.2 19.4 10.5 33.2

Educational attainment (1988): Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 60.9%; primary and incomplete secondary 30.9%; secondary 4.0%; higher 1.4%; other 2.8%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 34.0%; males literate 47.1%; females literate 21.4%. Health: physicians (1991) 135 (1 per 14,259 persons); hospital beds (1988) 1,556 (1 per 1,217 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 85. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,447 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19%); 106% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 15,600 (army 96.2%, navy 2.6%, air force 1.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 3.1% (world 4.9%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$17.

1The 1991 constitution names Arabic as the official language and the following as national languages: Arabic, Fulani, Soninke, and Wolof. 21988. 3Mostly unemployed. 4Import figures are c.i.f. 51984. °Air Afrique traffic only.

668

Britannica World Data

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 5,780,000, green tea 30,162, potatoes 19,155, tomatoes 10,275,

Mauritius

bananas

Official name: Republic of Mauritius. Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [70!]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port Louis. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Mauritian rupee (Mau Re; plural Mau Rs)= 100 cents;

sheep; roundwood

Construction (1991): residential 921,103 sq m; nonresidential 296,755 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 925,000,000 (925,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (62,000); crude petroleum, none

(none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (388,000); natural ai, gas, none (none). Population economically active (1991)7: total 462,600; activity rate of total population 44.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 68.0%; female 34.9%; unemployed 10.6%).

Rs 28.15.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Islands Districts/Dependencies Mauritius Black River Flacq Grand Port

3 eSqimiy 720 100 115 100

89 69

231 179

Plaines Wilhems Port Louis

78 17

203 43

Savanne

95

245

Riviére du Rempart

57

population 19922 estimate

Soke 1,865 259 298 260

Moka Pamplemousses

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index!

1,043,294 45,559 114,670 98,530 66,743 104,495 328,625 134,018 88,691 61,963

148

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

71.6 59.2

78.2 79.9

88.1 94.6

100.0 100.0

107.0 115.8

112.0 128.5

123.7 127.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.57; income per household (1979) Mau Rs 15,540 (U.S.$2,430); sources of income (1990): salaries and wages 48.4%, entrepreneurial income 41.2%, transfer payments 10.4%; expenditure (1986-87)!2: food, beverages, and tobacco 49.1%, housing 13.5%, transportation 9.3%, clothing and footwear 8.4%, recreation, entertainment, education 5.7%, health care 3.0%, other 5.0%.

and

cultural

services

6.0%,

energy

Land use (1991): forested 28.1%; meadows and pastures 3.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 52.2%; other 16.3%.

Mauritian dependencies Agalegas Cargados Carajos Shoals (Saint Brandon)$ Rodrigues4

}

TOTAL

27

71

40 7885

104 2,0405

170

Foreign trade!3

34,379 1,077,843

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Demography Population (1994)6: 1,120,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 1,421.7, persons per sq km 549.2. Urban-rural (1991)7: urban 40.7%; rural 59.3%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.80%; female 50.20%. Age breakdown (1991)8: under 15, 29.6%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 22.8%; 45-59, 10.9%; 60-74, 6.5%; 75 and over, 1.7%. Population projection®: (2000) 1,207,000; (2010) 1,365,000. Doubling time: 48 years. Ethnic composition (1992): Indo-Pakistani 68.0%; Creole (mixed Caucasian, Indo-Pakistani, and African) 27.0%; Chinese 3.0%; white 2.0%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Hindu 50.6%; Roman

Catholic 27.2%; Muslim

16.3%; Protestant 5.2%; Buddhist 0.3%; other 0.4%.

Major cities (1992): Port Louis 142,850; Beau Bassin—Rose Hill 94,299; Vacoas-Phoenix 92,072; Curepipe 74,738; Quatre Bornes 71,534.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 21.1 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 72.8%; illegitimate 27.2%.

‘

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 14.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992)7: 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1989-91): male 65.6 years; female 73.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992)7: diseases of the circulatory system 279.5; diseases of the respiratory system 67.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 62.5; homicide, suicide, and accidents 45.5.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

— 167.8 7.7%

east 9.6%

National economy Expenditures: Mau Rs 12,730,000,000 (social services 35.6%, of which education, art, and culture 14.6%, social security 10.9%, health 8.2%; public-

debt service 27.7%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$299,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$142,000,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$742,000,000.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$3,311,000,000

(U.S.$2,980 per capita).

1993 % of total value

force 10, 11

4,460 55 10,005 3,505 1,180

9.9 0.1 22.3 78 2.6

42,900 200 107,000 14,000 3,600

5,430 7,805 5,415 4,515 2,530

12.1 17.4 12.1 10.1 5.6

13,800 19,800

44,900

400.0

labour

73,800 13,500 288,600

1991

1992

1993

-—2226 8.4%

— 170.8 6.2%

— 254.2 8.9%

mineral fuels and lubricants 7.6%, chemicals 7.5%, inedible crude materials

excluding fuels 3.0%, animal and vegetable oils and fats 1.1%). Major import sources: France 13.3%; South Africa 12.9%; Japan 8.6%; United Kingdom 7.0%; Germany 5.4%; India 4.4%; Taiwan 4.4%; Hong Kong 4.2%.

Exports (1992): Mau Rs 20,072,000,000 (clothing and textiles 52.2%, sugar 28.2%, yarn 2.5%, diamonds and synthetic stones 1.6%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 34.8%; France 21.0%; United States 12.5%;

Germany 8.9%; Italy 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 1,138 mi, 1,831 km (paved 93%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 32,751; buses 2,097. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 35; total deadweight tonnage 152,197. Air transport (1993) 14: passenger-mi 1,658,998,000, passengerkm 2,669,903,000; short ton-mi cargo 63,931,000, metric ton-km cargo 93,-

337,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 7; total circulation 96,000; circulation per 1,000 population 87. Radio (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 4.4 persons). Television 156,850 receivers (1 per 7.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 100,200 (1 per 11 persons). Education and health Education (1992)

student/

Primary (age 5-12) Secondary (age 12-20) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

teachers!5 — students

283 122 19

6,389 3,949 6916

2

38217

129,738 83,784 2,052 2,159

teacher ratio'5

20.2 20.5

5717

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 18.3%; incomplete primary 42.6%; primary 6.1%; incomplete secondary 18.0%; secondary 13.1%; higher 1.9%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 79.9%; males literate 85.2%; females literate 74.7%.

Health (1991): physicians 990 (1 per 1,098 persons); hospital beds 3,094 (1 per 351 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 18.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,897 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 128% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force in value Mau Rs '000,0009

—280.0 10.6%

Imports (1992): Mau Rs 25,313,000,000 (manufactured goods classified chiefly by material 36.1%, machinery and transport equipment 22.6%, food 11.6%,

schools

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: Mau Rs 12,860,000,000 (tax revenue 89.0%, of which import and stamp duties 40.6%, income tax 13.2%, sales tax 9.3%).

TOTAL

17,000 cu m; fish catch 18,200. Mining and quarrying

molasses 170,000; manufactured tea 5,934; beer and stout 291,453 hectolitres.

area

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

3,240, pineapples

(1990): sand 800,000, salt 3,000. Manufacturing (1991): raw sugar 611,340;

Area and population

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

3,320, onions

stock (number of live animals) 95,000 goats, 34,000 cattle, 10,000 pigs, 7,000

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =Mau Rs 17.70;1 £=Mau

8,540, black tea 6,000, cabbages

2,300, corn (maize) 1,850, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,190, tobacco 970; live-

% of labour force 10, 11

Military Total active duty personnel: none; however, a special 1,300-person paramilitary force ensures internal security. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.4% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$9. ‘Includes 8 nonelective seats. 2January 1. 3Administered directly from Port Louis. 4Administered by resident commissioner assisted by local council. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Based on 1990 census figures. 7Island of Mauritius only. 8Excludes Agalega and Cargados Carajos Shoals. 9At factor cost. \0Employed persons in establishments employing 10 or more persons. !1March. '2Current weights of CPI components; Island of Mauritius only. 13Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 14Air Mauritius only. 151991, 161982. 171989,

Nations of the World

Mexico

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no primary education 14.1%; some primary 22.3%; completed primary 20.7%; incomplete secondary 10.4%; complete secondary 24.2%; higher 8.3%.

Official name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States). Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [128]; Chamber of Deputies [500]). Chief of state and head of government: President. Capital: Mexico City. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: nore. Monetary unit: 1 new peso! (Mex$) =

Distribution of income (1983) percentage of household income by quintile

1 U.S.$ = Mex$3.42; 1 £=Mex$5.44.

Area and population

México Michoacan Morelos Nayarit

Nuevo Leon Oaxaca Puebla

Querétaro Quintana Roo

San Luis Potosi Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Veracruz

area

Capitals Aguascalientes Mexicali La Paz Campeche Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chihuahua Saltillo Colima Durango Guanajuato Chilpancingo Pachuca Guadalajara Toluca Morelia Cuernavaca Tepic Monterrey Oaxaca Puebla

Querétaro Chetumal San Luis Potosi

Culiacan Hermosillo Villahermosa Ciudad Victoria Tlaxcala Jalapa (Xalapa)

Yucatan

Mérida

Zacatecas

Zacatecas

sq km

2,112 26,997 28,369 19,619 28,653 94,571 57,908 2,004 47,560 11,773 24,819 8,036 31,211 8,245 23,138 1,911 10,417 25,067 36,275 13,090 4,420 19,387 24,351 22,521 70,291 9,756 30,650 1,551 27,683 14,827 28,283

5,471 69,921 73,475 50,812 74,211 244,938 149,982 5,197 123,181 30,491 64,281 20,813 80,836 21,355 59,928 4,950 26,979 64,924 93,952 33,902 11,449 50,212 63,068 58,328 182,052 25,267 79,384 4,016 71,699 38,402 73,252

719,659 1,660,855 317,764 535,185 3,210,496 2,441,873 1,972,340 428,510 1,349,378 3,982,593 2,620,637 1,888,366 5,302,689 9,815,795 3,548,199 1,195,059 824,643 3,098,736 3,019,560 4,126,101 1,051,235 493,277 2,003,187 2,204,054 1,823,606 1,501,744 2,249,581 761,277 6,228,239 1,362,940 1,276,323

571

1,479

756,066

1,958,201

8,235,744 81,249,645

Federal District Distrito Federal TOTAL

population 1990 census

sqmi

Sees

ASSN

40

224

88

142

(highest)

506

Quality of working life. Average workweek (1992): 45.72 hours. Annual rate (1992) per 100,000 insured workers for: temporary disability 6,426; indemnification for permanent injury 239; death 18. Labour stoppages (1992): 156, involving 91,424 workers. Average duration of journey to work: n.a. Method of transport: n.a. Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work): n.a. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (1991): c. 60%. Population participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce: n.a. Practicing religious population in total affiliated population: national average of weekly attendance (1993) 11%; (1970) weekly 10% of urban dwellers, 25% of rural dwellers; yearly 55% of

100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

States Aguascalientes Baja California Norte Baja California Sur Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila Colima Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco

urban dwellers, 73% of rural dwellers.

Social deviance (1991). Criminal cases tried by local authorities per 100,000 population

for: murder

60.3; rape 22.4; other assault 301.0; theft 703.8.

Incidence per 100,000 in general population of: alcoholism, n.a.; drug and substance abuse, n.a.3; suicide 1.72.

Leisure (1985). Favourite leisure activities (average daily paid attendance): cinema 582,416; sporting events 31,518; live theatre 16,400; museums archaeological sites 12,169; bullfights 3,049.

washing machine 33%; automobile 29%; telephone 27%; refrigerator 23%.

National economy Gross national product (1993): U.S.$325,170,000,000 (U.S.$3,750 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 x in value Mex$’000,0001, 4 419.9 195.0

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing

Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense eenvicns

Demography

}

Expenditures:

Urban-rural (1990): urban 71.3%; rural 28.7%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 48.77%; female 51.23%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 37.8%; 15-29, 28.5%; 30-44, 18.2%; 45-59, 8.9%; 60 and over, 6.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 102,555,000; (2010) 118,455,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1990): mestizo 60.0%; Amerindian 30.0%; Caucasian 9.0%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 89.7%; Protestant (including Evangelical) 4.9%; Jewish 0.1%; other 2.1%; none 3.2%. : Major cities (1990): Mexico City 9,815,795; Guadalajara 1,650,042; Ciudad Netzahualcéyotl 1,255,456; Monterrey 1,068,996; Puebla 1,007,170; Juarez 789,522; Leon 758,279; Tijuana 698,752; Mérida 523,422; Chihuahua 516,153.

Place of birth (1990): 93.1% native-born; 6.9% foreign-born and unknown. — Mobility (1990). Population 5 years and older living in the same state as in 1985: 94.3%; different state 4.9%; unspecified 0.8%. Households. Total households (1992) 17,152,000; distribution by size (1990):

1 person 1.0%, 2 persons 4.3%, 3 persons 8.9%, 4 persons 14.9%, 5 persons

17.4%, 6 persons 15.3%, 7 or more persons 38.2%. Family households (1990): 17,064,507 (98.4%); nonfamily 1,039,738 (1.3%); unspecified 256,554 (0.3%). Immigration (1987): permanent immigrants admitted 72,649. Emigration (1992): legal immigrants into the United States 213,800.

-

Vital statistics

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 31.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1983) legiti9.2). (world avg. 16.8). 1990): 3.7.

73.1 years. diseases of the circulatory system 99.1; accidents 68.2; endocrine and metabolic disorders 53.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 51.3; diseases of the respiratory system 44.9; diseases of the digestive system 39.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 27.9.

Social indicators

;

% of total value 7.4 3.5

1,261.7

22.4

304.7 86.5

5.4 deo:

404.2 1,447.0 642.5

7.2 25.6 11.4

978.6

17.3

—95.65 5,644.5

—1.75 100.0

1992

labour force 6,380,101 244,366

% of labour force 21.1 0.8

5,441,899 2,294,208

18.0 76

138,544

0.5

1,129,786 6,215,741 1,128,511 3,231,842 2,913,180 1,143,4286 30,261,606

Budget (1992). Revenue: Mex$180,170,000,000! (petroleum revenues 28.3%).

Population (1994): 89,998,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 119.0, persons per sq km 46.0.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.6 (world avg. Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 27.1 Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 66.5 years; female - Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992):

and

Material well-being (1985). Households possessing: radio 96%; television 73%;

Other TOTAL

mate 72.5%; illegitimate 27.5%.

669

rt

Access to services (1992). Proportion of dwellings having: electricity 89.3%; piped water supply 81.0%; drained sewage 66.1%.

Mex$164,211,000,000!

(transfers 35.6%, wages

and salaries

26.5%, interest on public debt 22.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$76,087,100,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$6,641,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,964,700,000. Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1988) no. of enterprises 138,835

Manufacturing

no. of employees ('000) 2,640.5

yearly wages as a % of avg. of allwages

value added (Mex$’000,0001)

97.5

20,950,900

Metal products Chemicals

26,414 4,948

759.3 354.9

114.2 152.3

6,605,300 4,228,000

Food, beverages, and tobacco

50,454

543.7

86.4

3,378,700

Textiles and apparel Iron and steel

16,621 871 14,343 7,762 15,951

423.3 100.4 150.9 141.4 135.4

80.0 128.2 98.6 100.0 62.8

2,414,800 1,332,400 1,177,700

7 7

7 7

aA ae es

Nonmetallic mineral products Paper and printing Wood and wood products Nonelectrical machinery and transport equipment Electrical machinery Other manufactures Mining Construction

1,127,900 497,000 cs 7 189,200

161.0 62.1

1,643,800 1,414,800

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane

41,652,000,

corn

(maize)

18,600,000, wheat

2,602,000, oranges 2,530,000, bananas

3,622,000,

1,650,000, mangoes

sorghum

1,130,000, avoca-

dos 786,000, dry beans 700,000, lemons 700,000, cantaloupes 647,000, apples 580,000, barley 551,000, grapes 525,000, soybeans 520,000, rice 325,000, pineapples 300,000, strawberries 67,000, cottonseed 40,000, walnuts 23,000;

livestock (number

of live animals) 30,649,000 cattle, 16,832,000 pigs, 11,-

066,000 goats, 6,185,000 horses, 6,000,000 turkeys, 5,816,000 sheep, 3,210,000 mules, 3,190,000 asses, 285,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 22,966,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 1,125,756, of which sardines 323,832. Mining and

quarrying (metal content of ores; 1993): iron ore 5,850,414; zinc 328,223; copper 293,401; lead 196,337; manganese 121,226; silver 2,288; gold 10.23; (nonmetals;

1993) salt 7,395,1528; gypsum

2,960,1268; sulfur 884,830; fluo-

rite 301,615; barite 149,647. Manufacturing (gross value of production in Mex$’0001; 1992): machinery and equipment 74,385,052; food, beverages, and tobacco products 52,423,025; chemical products 43,431,256; metal prod-

ucts 21,692,652;

mineral

products

13,719,891; paper

and paper products

8,813,992; textiles 8,609,539. Construction (gross value of new construction, in Mex$’000;0001; 1985): residential 154,835; nonresidential 168,096.

670

Britannica World Data 1.9%; Canada 1.7%; France

Trade and service enterprises (1988) no. of

ments

employees

749,827 39,162 710,665 270,137

Trade Wholesale Retail Boutiques (excluding food products) Food and tobacco

speciality stores Automobile, tire, and auto parts dealers

Small supermarkets and grocery stores Gasoline stations Other Services Professional services Food and beverage services Transp. and travel agencies Lodging Automotive repair Educational services (private) Medical and social assistance Amusement services (cinemas and theatres) Recreation Other repair Commercial and professional organizations Other

Energy production

no. of establish-

annual

Trade by commodity group (1992)

income (Mex$'000,000 1)

2,087,945 401,137 1,686,808 712,130

143,925,445 54,068,677 89,856,768 33,492,036

410,111

686,177

20,249,541

21,222

117,649

15,159,881

5,832 2,458 905 410,214 27,731 116,628 2,985 7,671 65,839

100,167 26,588 44,097 1,701,784 276,451 381,251 22,012 125,614 174,738

10,298,664 6,279,858 4,376,788 34,040,415 7,447,871 6,108,983 939,798 2,886,551 2,309,821

10,913

153,034

1,810,869

46,205

110,215

1,681,172

4,029 8,262 47,767

36,006 40,418 80,068

2,431,861 584,315 682,882

4,753 67,431

44,588 257,389

624,443 6,541,849

(consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

(barrels;

1992) 975,000,000

(968,000,000);

00

Food and live animals 01 Beverages and tobacco 02 Crude materials, excluding fuels 03 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 04 Animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes 05 Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. 06 Basic manufactures 07 Machinery and transport equipment 08 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 09 Goods not classified by kind TOTAL 12

exports

%

%o

U.S.$'000,000

4,096

8.6

2,681

9.8

315

0.6

331

1.2

2,431

5.1

1,052

3.9

1,675

3.5

8,114

383

0.8

—

4,397 6,655

9.2

_—

2,079 3,105

76 11.4

23,012

8,604

31.6

4,870

1,152

4.2

44 47,878

58 27,207 13

0.2 100.013

Direction of trade (1992) exports

imports

1992) 131,501,000,petroleum

imports

U.S.$'000,000

SITC group

000 (120,709,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 6,539,000 (6,932,000); crude

petroleum

1.1%; Brazil 0.9%; Belgium-

1.2%; Germany

Luxembourg 0.6%; U.K. 0.5%.

yearly wage as a % of avg. of all wages?

products

(metric tons; 1992) 74,844,000 (80,275,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 21,826,-

000,000 (24,109,000,000).

Population economically active (1992): total 30,261,606; activity rate of total population 35.9% (participation rates: ages 12 and over, 51.6%; female 29.4%; unemployed 2.0%).

Western Hemisphere United States Latin America and the Caribbean Canada Europe EEC EFTA U.S.S.R. Other Europe Asia Japan Africa Other TOTAL

43,433 40,598 2,222 613 8,305 7,305 907 22 71 6,438 3,805 121 248

U.S.$'000,000 36,905 32,624 2,074 2,207 3,557

58,545

42,70013

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

30.7 27.0

65.8 57.3

79.0 76.6

100.0 100.0

122.7 129.1

141.7 292.9

55:5 164.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 4.8; income per household (1989) Mex$3,4611 (U.S.$1,384); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 61.5%, property and entrepreneurship 29.1%, transfer payments 7.8%, other 1.6%; expenditure (1991): food, beverages, and tobacco 34.9%, housing (includes household furnishings) 23.3%, transportation and communications 11.5%, clothing and footwear 7.3%, recreation and entertainment 4.9%, health and medical services 4.1%.

Financial aggregates! 10

1994

1988

1989

1990,

1991

1992

Exchange rate, Mex$ per: U.S. dollar 4.036 5.020 5.114 ie 4.049 3.471 4.190 4.393 SDR 3.070 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; '000,000) 5.279 6329 9,863 17,726 SDRs (000,000) 394 383 417 586 Reserve pos. in IMF (000,000) Foreign exchange 4,885 5946 9446 17,140 Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) 2.56 1.03 0.92 0.92 % world reserves 0.27 0.11 0.10 0.10 Interest and prices 61.95 45.01 34.76 19.28 Treasury bill rate Balance of payments (U.S.$'000,000) Balance of visible trade, +1,752 -645 -—4,433 —11,063 of which: Imports, f.o.b. — 18,905 —23,410 —31,271 —38,184 20,657 22,765 26,838 27,121 Exports, f.0.b. Balance of invisibles —691 -—4,603 —16,153 —24,346 Balance of payments, current account —2,443 —-3,958 —7,117 —13,283

1993

(8 mo.)

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 12,747 mi, 20,515 km; passenger-mi 2,408,000,000, passenger-km 3,875,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 23,973,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 35,001,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 151,309 mi,

243,509 km (paved 35% 14). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 7,497,128; trucks and buses 3,607,282. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 635; total deadweight tonnage 1,495,311. Air transport (1992) !5: passenger-mi 11,901,700,000, passenger-km 19,154,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,240,982,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,811,802,000; airports (1994) 57.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 285; total circulation 11,256,00016; circulation per 1,000 population 14216, Radio (1993): 16,325,000 receivers (1 per 5.5 persons). Television (1991): 12,350,000 receivers (1 per 6.7 persons). Telephones (1992): 11,128,000 (1 per 7.6 persons). Education and health

5.464 4.284

4.680 4.266

5.255 4.910

18,942 548

25,110 223

25,85511 113

18,394 0.69 0.07

24,886 048 0.05

25,7201! 0.4711 0.0511

15.62

15.03

17.07

—20,677 — 18,891 — 48,193 — 48,924 27,516 30,033

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

86,636 25,131 6,571 1,832

481,466 352,865 77,347 128,212

14,500,000 5,980,000 1,076,700 1,256,100

30.1 16.9 13.9 9.8

Literacy (1992): total population age 15 and over literate 45,050,633 (85.9%); males literate 22,181,999 (88.7%); females literate 22,868,634 (83.5%). Health (1991): physicians 97,506 (1 per 885 persons); hospital beds 63,103 (1 per 1,367 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 41.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,062 (vegetable products 82%, animal products 18%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

—43,488 — 42,281 —22,811

Education (1992-93)

Total active duty personnel (1994): 175,000 (army 74.3%, navy 21.1%, air force 4.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.4% (world 4.2%);

—23,390

Land use (1992): forested 21.5%; meadows and pastures 39.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 13.0%; other 26.5%.

per capita expenditure U.S.$13.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 Mex$'000,000,000 % of total

+4,635.0 5.2%

—863.8 6.0%

1990

1991

1992

1993

-7,494.00 4.7%

-27,746 14.4%

-—57,138 25.1%

—53,615 22.2%

Imports (1992): U.S.$62,129,400,000 (metallic products, machinery, and equipment 54.3%; chemical products 7.1%; iron and steel 5.6%; food, beverages,

and tobacco 5.4%; textiles and clothing 4.7%). Major import sources: U.S. 71.4%; Japan 4.9%; Gerriany 1.7%; Italy 1.6%; Spain 1.4%.

4.0%; France

2.1%; Brazil

1.8%; Canada

Exports (1992): U.S.$46,195,600,000 (metallic products, machinery, and equipment

51.3%, of which machinery and electrical 33.4%, automobile

8.6%;

crude petroleum 16.1%; chemical products 5.0%; processed food and beverages 3.0%). Major export destinations: U.S. 81.3%; Spain 2.6%; Japan

‘1 new peso=1,000 (old) pesos; the (old) peso was withdrawn at the beginning of 1995, 2Manufacturing only. 3Through 1982, cannabis remained the most abused drug.

4In constant 1980 prices. SImputed bank service charge. ‘Unemployed. 7Included in Metal products. 81992, 91984. !0Exchange rates and treasury bill rates are expressed in period averages; international reserves are expressed in end-of-period rates. 11End of March. !2Totals include adjustments of unspecified nature. 13Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 141989. 1SAIl scheduled traffic of Mexicana and AeroMexico airlines. 161986.

Nations of the World

Micronesia, Federated States of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1983

in value U.S.$’000,000

Official name: Federated States of Micronesia. Political status: federal republic in free association with the United States

Agriculture and fishing Trade Public administration Manufacturing

with one legislative house (National Congress [14])1. Head of state and government: President.

44.9 12.7 31.5

42.2 11.9 29.6

‘

Transportation, communications, and public utilities

7 Mg

Finance Services Other TOTAL

Official language: none. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 U.S. dollar

labour force

% of labour force

12,700 8 6,300 1,600 1,900

41.6 8 20.7 5.2 6.2

eg 3,7008

* 12.18

4,4009 30,5004

14.49 100.04

ioe

106.5

100.0

Population economically active (1990): total 30,500; activity rate of total population 60.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.6%; female 46.9%; unemployed 13.5%). Price and earnings indexes: n.a.

(U.S.$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 £=U.S.$1.59. Area and population area

States

Foreign trade

population

s =sqm

1991 sq km_

Balance of trade (current prices)

econo.

Chuuk (Truk) Weno (Moen) Islands

49.1 7.0

ete 18.1

48,853 15,2532

Kosrae

42.3

109.6

7,435

42.3 133.3 129.0 45.9 38.7 270.83

109.6 345.2 334.1 118.9 100.2 701.44

Kosrae Island Pohnpei Pohnpei Island Yap Yap Island TOTAL

1990

% of total value

Construction

Capital: Palikir, on Pohnpei.

Major Islands

671

U.S.$'000,000

% of total

7,435 33,346 33,346 10,886 6,6503 100,520

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—41.0 95.6%

—62.7 63.7%

— 55.4 61.6%

—62'2 58.9%

=39.9 51.0%

—57.3 40.8%

Imports (1992): U.S.$98,796,385 (food, beverages, and tobacco 28.1%; manufactured goods 21.8%; mineral fuels 17.1%; machinery and transport equipment 17.0%; chemicals 4.5%). Major import sources: United States 40.3%; Guam 29.2%; Japan 20.0%; Australia 3.2%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$23,319,264 (marine products 86.2%; clothing and textiles 8.8%; agricultural products 4.1%, of which bananas

Demography Population (1994): 104,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 384.0, persons pet sq km 148.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 26.0%; rural 74.0%. ' Sex distribution (1990): male 50.73%; female 49.27%.

1.1%).

Transport and communications

Age breakdown (1980): under 15, 46.4%; 15-29, 26.8%; 30-44, 12.6%; 45-59, 8.5%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 110,000; (2010) 120,000.

Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1980): Trukese 41.1%; Pohnpeian 25.9%; Mortlockese 8.3%; Kosraean 7.4%; Yapese 6.0%; Ulithian, or Woleaian, 4.0%; Pingelapese, or Mokilese, 1.2%; Western Trukese 1.0%; Palauan 0.4%; Filipino 0.2%; other 4.5%.

Religious affiliation: Christianity is the predominant religious tradition, with the Kosraeans, Pohnpeians,

1.2%, copra

Major export destinations: Japan 80.0%; United States 9.3%; Guam 8.3%; South Pacific Region 2.4%.

and Trukese being mostly Protéstant and the

Yapese mostly Roman Catholic.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 140 mi, 226 km (paved 17%). Vehicles: passenger cars, trucks, and buses, n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 17; deadweight tonnage 6,863. Air transport: n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers: there are no private newspapers. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 70,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Television

(1993): total number of receivers 7,000 (1 per 15 persons). Telephones (1992): 5,730 (1 per 18 persons). Education and health Education (1987-88)

Major cities (1989): Weno (Moen) 15,253; Tol 6,7055; Kolonia 6,169.

student/ schools

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 36.7 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 28.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1985-89): 5.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991)6: male 70.6 years; female 77.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991)%: diseases of the cerebrovascular system 89.6; diseases of the respiratory system 42.8, of which tuberculosis 8.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 38.8; homicide, suicide, and accidents 30.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 22.9.

Elementary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) College11

177 16 1

teachers

1,051 10 31410

students

25,139 5,385 12

teacher ratio

22.210 13.210

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 24.8%; some primary education 38.2%; primary 11.7%; some secondary 7.7%; secondary 9.6%; higher 8.0%. Literacy (1980): total population age 15 and over literate 30,074 (76.7%); males literate 13,710 (67.0%); females literate 16,364 (87.2%). Health: physicians (1992) 46 (1 per 2,227 persons); hospital beds (1989) 319 (1 per 309 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990) 52.2. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military External security is provided by the United States.

National economy

,

Budget (1990). Revenue: U.S.$161,988,000 (external grants 73.27%; tax revenue 8.5%; fishing rights fees 7.8%). Expenditures: U.S.$127,779,000 (current expenditures 79.4%, of which education 18.2%, health 11.8%, public works 10.2%, transportation 2.7%, public safety 2.6%; capital expenditure 20.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Tourism (1990): number of visitors 23,171.

:

;

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing: n.a.; however, Micronesia’s major crops include coconuts (which provide annually more than 4,000 tons of copra), breadfruit, cassava, sweet potatoes, and a variety of tropical fruits (including bananas); livestock comprises mostly pigs and poultry; fish catch (1991) 1,411, of which skipjack tuna 400. Mining and quarrying: quarrying of sand and aggregate for local construction only. Manufacturing: n.a.; however, copra and coconut oil, traditionally important products, are being displaced by garment production; the manufacture of handicrafts and personal items (clothing, mats, boats, etc.) by individuals is also important. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 40,000,000 (40,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products’ (metric tons; 1992) none (77,:

000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988-89) 8.5; annual income per houseliold (1989) U.S.$3,435; sources of income: wages and salaries 67.2%,

self-employment

18.0%, operating surplus

penditure (1985): food and beverages 73.5%. Land use (1984)7: ee 22.5%; Bee ae aaron and under

permanent cultivation

33.5%; other

50.3%.

14.8%; ex-

° 2 13.5%; agricultural

Gross penne! product (at current market prices; 1989): U.S.$157,400,000

(U.S.$1,595 per capita).

10n Noy. 3, 1986, the United States unilaterally terminated the UN trusteeship it held over the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), thus formally initiating their free-association political status. On Dec. 22, 1990, the United Nations Security Council joined the Trusteeship Council, which had endorsed the termination of the trusteeship in May 1986. 21989. 31987. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 51980. Registered deaths only. 7Includes all areas formerly constituting the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. 8Services includes Trade. %Includes 4,100 unemployed. 101983-84. 11In 1985, 1,200 students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States. !2In 1989, fewer than 300 students were enrolled in

the College of Micronesia.

672

Britannica World Data

Moldova

Structure of net material product and labour force 1991 in value 000,000 rubles

Official name: Republica Moldova (Republic of Moldova). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [104]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Chisinau. , Official language: Romanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit!: 1 Moldovan leu (plural lei) = 100 bani; valuation (Sept. 27, 1994) free rate, 1 U.S.$=4.21

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun.

Area Administrative subdivisions area sq km2

Balti Cahul

Chisinau Dubasari Orhei

tee 160 as

Rural districts

Rural districts

Anenii Noi Basarabeasca Brinceni Cahul Cainari

Hancesti

Rabnita

Calaras

Soroca

Camenca Cantemir

Tighina (Bendery) Tiraspol Ungheni

Causeni Ciadar-Lunga Cimislia Comrat Criuleni Donduseni Drochia Dubasari Edinet

Falesti

Floresti Glodeni Grigoriopol

% of labour force

41.8

820,000

40.0

7,048

37.6

408,000

19.9

1,296

6.9

120,000

5.9

711

3.8

102,000

9.4 _— — — 0.5 100.0

111,000 9,000 422,000

5.0 5.4 0.4 20.6

58,0005 2,050,000

2.85 100.0

:

Population economically active (1992): total 2,050,000; activity rate of total population 47.1% (participation rates [1991]: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [fe5 male] 84.0%; female [1989] 50.0%; unemployed [1991] 4.27). Land use (1992): forested 12.8%; meadows and pastures 10.9%; agricultural : and under permanent cultivation 66.8%; other 9.5%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.4; income per household (1990) 4,000 rubles; sources of income (1992): wages

Moldovan lei; 1 £=6.69 Moldovan lei.

Cities

labour force

7,836

1,757 —= — _ 105 18,753

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1992 % of total value

and salaries 64.7%, agricultural income 18.6%, social benefits 15.8%, other

(Kotovsk)

0.9%; expenditure (1992): retail goods 76.5%, services 6.6%, taxes 2.7%, housing 1.2%.

laloveni

Leova Nisporeni Ocnita Orhei

Foreign trade

Rabnita Rezina Riscani

Balance of trade (current prices)

Slobozia

000,000 rubles % of total

Sangerei

Soldanesti

Soroca Stefan-Voda (Suvorovo)

Straseni

Taraclia Telenesti Ungheni Vulcanesti TOTAL

1987

1988

1989

1990

— 287.2 2.6%

— 1,023 9.2%

—1,155 9.6%

— 284.7 2.3%

1,030

Imports (1990): 6,461,400,000 rubles (machinery and equipment 39.2%, basic manufactures 12.1%, food products 11.4%, textiles 7.4%, chemicals 5.0%).

me: 860 1,070

Major import sources (1990): Russia 38.7%; Ukraine 17.2%; Belarus 8.6%; Uzbekistan 5.3%; Lithuania 2.7%. Exports (1990): 6,176,700,000 rubles (basic manufactures 34.4%, food products

760

930 33,7003

23.1%, machinery and equipment 10.9%, chemical products 9.4%, textiles 8.9%). Major export destinations (1990): Russia 61.6%; Ukraine 14.1%; Belarus 7.2%; Uzbekistan 3.4%; Kazakhstan 2.9%.

Demography

Transport and communications

Population (1994): 4,358,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 334.9, persons per sq km 129.3.

Transport.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 46.6%; rural 53.4%.

Railroads

(1991): length 1,150 km; passenger-km

8,875,000,000;

metric ton-km cargo 15,007,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 10,300 km

Sex distribution (1992): male 47.08%; female 52.92%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 27.9%; 15-29, 22.9%; 30-44, 21.0%; 45-59, 15.6%; 60-74, 9.7%; 75 and over, 2.9%. Population projection: (2000) 4,381,000; (2010) 4,420,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Moldovan 64.5%; Ukrainian 13.8%;

Russian

13.0%; Gagauz 3.5%; Jewish 2.0%; Bulgarian 1.5%; other 1.7%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Moldoyan Orthodox. Major cities (1991): Chisinau 753,500; Tiraspol 186,000; Balti 164,900; Tighina

(Bendery) 141,500; Rabnita 62,900.

(paved 94%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 221,883. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 2,352,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 19,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 240; total circulation 309,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 71. Radio (1991): 1,421,000 receivers (1 per 3.1 persons). Television (1991): 1,264,000 receivers (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 553,000 (1 per 7.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 15.9 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 89.6%; illegitimate 10.4%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.2 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 9.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 67.9 years; female 71.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the culatory system 452.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 131.6; accidents violence 105.3; diseases of the digestive system 85.4; diseases of the spiratory system 64.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 12.4; endocrine metabolic disorders 8.3; diseases of the nervous system 8.2.

cirand reand

National economy Budget (1995). Revenue: 1,947,400,000 lei (enterprise profits tax 22.1%; valueadded tax 19.5%; property tax 14.1%; income tax 7.7%; excise duties 5.1%). Expenditures: 2,247,400,000 lei (social welfare, health, and culture 44.3%, of which education 20.0%, health services 14.0%, social insurance 6.0%; capital construction 14.3%; domestic debt service 10.4%; national economy

Primary (age 7-13)

}

Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

1,654

53,000

725,000

1

teacher ratio

ee

47,200 52,200

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling or some primary education 24.5%; some secondary 20.4%; secondary or some postsecondary 46.4%; higher 8.7%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 96.4%; males literate 98.6%; females literate 94.4%.

Health (1991): physicians 17,400 (1 per 251 persons); hospital beds 56,400 (1 per 77 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 19.8.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 11,100 (army 88.3%, air force 11.7%). About 7,000 Russian troops remained in Moldova in late 1994. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 0.8% (world, n.a.); per capita

expenditure U.S.$10.

4.6%; foreign debt service 3.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 1,900,000, grain 1,862,000, fruit (except grapes) 1,430,000, vegetables (except potatoes) 1,430,000, wheat 1,394,000, grapes 730,000, potatoes 300,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,600,000 pigs, 1,130,000 sheep, 909,000 cattle, 22,000,000

poultry; roundwood

(1991)

125,000 cu m; fish

catch (1991) 5,200. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 1,500,000, clay 400,000, gypsum 300,000. Manufacturing (’000,000 rubles; 1991): food 3,244;

machinery 2,435; textiles 2,400; building materials 397; wood products 389; chemicals 272; ferrous metals 110. Construction (1990): 433,400,000 rubles.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 11,248,000,000 (11,221,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (2,409,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1990) none (51,625,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (393,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (3,643,000,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$5,140,100,000 (U.S.$1,180 per capita)4.

1On Sept. 22, 1993, the Moldovan coupon was introduced to permit replacement of the Russian ruble by new national currency, the leu. On Noy. 30, 1993, the leu was introduced at a 1,000-to-1 ratio with the Moldovan coupon and circulates parallel with it. 2One sq km is equal to approximately 0.3861 sq mi. 3Total includes 3,190 s km (1,230 sq mi) not distributable by administrative subdivision. 4Ruble-area GN and exchange-rate data are very speculative. SIncludes film, media, forestry, and

computer services.

Nations of the World

Mongolia

112,000 sq m; nonresidential, n.a. Energy production (consumption): elec-

tricity (kW-hr; 1992) 3,300,000,000 (3,370,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992)

Official name: Mongol Uls

7,535,000

(Mongolia).

in value Tug '000,000 Agriculture Manufacturing and mining Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Services2 Other TOTAL

area

Provinces Arhangay Bayan-Olgiy Bayanhongor Bulgan Dornod Dornogovi Dundgovi Dzavhan

Capitals Tsetserleg Olgiy Bayanhongor

Govi-Altay

Altay Ondérhaan Hovd Morén Dalandzadgad Arvayheer Suhbaatar Baruun-Urt Dziiiinmod

Bulgan Choybalsan Saynshand Mandalgovi Uliastay

Ulaangom

Autonomous municipalities Darhan — Erdenet — Ulaanbaatar — TOTAL

petroleum,

none

(n.a.); petroleum

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1989

Area and population

Ovorhangay Selenge Siihbaatar Tov Uvs

crude

products

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$984,800,000 (U.S.$400 per capita).

U.S.$ = Tug 400.38; 1 £=Tug 636.80.

H6vsgél Omnégovi

(7,035,000);

(metric tons; 1992) none (605,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (State Great Hural [76]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator). Official language: Khalkha Mongolian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 tugrik (Tug) = 100 rt valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1

Hentiy Hovd

673

population 1991 estimate

sq mi

sq km

21,000 18,000 45,000 19,000 47,700 43,000 30,000 32,000 55,000 32,000 29,000 39,000 64,000 24,000 16,000 32,000 31,000 27,000

55,000 46,000 116,000 49,000 123,500 111,000 78,000 82,000 142,000 82,000 76,000 101,000 165,000 63,000 42,000 82,000 81,000 69,000

89,200 99,300 78,700 56,700 82,600 58,600 51,900 93,600 65,100 76,700 81,100 106,900 43,500 100,400 92,000 53,500 105,900 91,800

100 300 800

200 800 2,000 1,566,500

88,600 58,200 575,000 2,149,300

604,8001

Demography Population (1994): 2,266,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 3.8, persons per sq km 1.5. Urban-rural (1994): urban 59.0%; rural 41.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.89%; female 51.11%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 41.9%; 15-29, 29.2%; 30-44, 14.6%; 45-59, 8.5%; 60 and over, 5.8%. Population projection: (2000) 2,525,000; (2010) 3,025,000.

Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Khalkha Mongol 188%: Kazakh 5.9%; Dérbed Mongol 2.7%; Bayad 1.9%; Buryat Mongol 1.7%; Dariganga Mongol 1.4%; other 7.6%. Religious affiliation: although formal freedom of worship exists, all traditional forms of religious practice (lamaistic Buddhism, shamanism, Islam, and others) have been greatly reduced during the 20th century; reliable data on the current situation do not exist. Major cities (1991): Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator) 536,600; Darhan 80,100; Er-

denet 48,500; Choybalsan 38,600; Olgiy 29,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 34.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 26.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989): 7.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 63 years; female 65 years. — Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, in the 1980s, major causes of mortality included diseases of the respiratory system, diseases of the cardiovascular system, malignant neoplasms (cancers), diseases of the digestive system, and injuries, accidents, and poisoning.

National economy

Budget (1994). Revenue: Tug 63,304,800,000 (taxes 67.2%, of which income

tax 24.1%, deductions from profits 19.8%, turnover tax 17.6%, other taxes

5.7%; nontax revenue 32.8%, of which social insurance contributions 7.4%). Expenditures: Tug 78,468,100,000 (social and cultural services 69.9%, of

which education 22.2%, health 16.7%, social security 13.2%; defense 9.2%;

administration and other 6.6%). Public debt (external; 1991): U.S.$16,800,000,000.

Tourism (1990): number of international arrivals 147,200.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cereals 510,000 (of which wheat 480,000), potatoes 74,000, vegetables 15,000; livestock (number of live animals) 14,657,000 sheep, 5,603,000 goats, 2,819,-

1,722.9 2,919.8 617.2 903.8 2,327.4 1,285.4 954.43 10,730.9

1990

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

16.1 27.2 5.8 8.4 Zit 12.0 8.93 100.01

191,500 123,400 44,600 55,000 49,200 185,000 45,7004 694,400

27.6 17.8 6.4 79 7.1 26.6 6.64 100.0

Population economically active (1990): total 694,400; activity rate of total population 32.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1985] 82.2%; female [1992]

46.0%; unemployed 6.6%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1985 1986 1987

1988

1989

1990

19915

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

46.4 98.2

46.4 99.7

100.0 100.0

119.3

46.8 96.9

46.4 97.3

46.4 97.9

Household income and expenditure. Average family size (1989) 4.8; income per household (1992) Tug 5,500 (U.S.$140); sources of income (1990): wages and salaries 74.4%7, transfer payments 13.5%, self-employment 3.3%, other 8.8%; expenditure (1990): products 82.1%, services 17.9%.

Land use (1992): forested 8.9%; meadows and pastures 79.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.9%; other 10.5%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)& U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991.

—542 24.9%

—629 27.5%

—744 31.8%

—314 26.1%

—80 10.3%

Imports (1992): U.S.$285,000,000 (1990; machinery and transport equipment 31.1%; fuels, minerals,

and metals

27.2%;

consumer

goods 21.6%;

food

products 8.8%; chemical products and rubber 5.3%). Major import sources (1990): U.S.S.R. 71.5%; Germany 4.1%; Czechoslovakia 3.7%; China 2.4%; Hungary 2.2%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$250,000,000 (1990; minerals and metals 48.1%; raw materials and food products 27.3%; consumer goods 20.1%; construction materials 3.9%). Major export destinations (1990): U.S.S.R. 78.3%; Czechoslovakia 4.5%; Bulgaria 2.5%; Hungary 2.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length (1991) 1,445 mi, 2,325 km; passenger-km 524,100,000; metric ton-km cargo 5,087,800,000. Roads (1988): total length

30,600 mi, 49,200 km (paved 2%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 5,660; trucks and buses 29,794. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 286,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,100,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 222,000; circulation per 1,000 population 106. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 275,000 (1 per 7.8 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 120,000 (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1991): 68,480 (1 per 31 persons).

Education and health Education (1990-91) Primary and secondary (age 8-18) Vocational Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

634 75 9

20,600 2,500 1,465

440,900 47,600 13,829

21.4 19.0 9.4

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: primary education 33.7%; some secondary 31.9%; complete secondary 16.9%; vocational secondary 9.4%; some higher and complete higher 8.1%. Literacy (1989): total population age 10 and over literate 97.9%. Health (1991): physicians 6,318 (1 per 340 persons); hospital beds 26,350 (1 per 83 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 64.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,3619 (vegetable products 61%, animal products 39%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 21,250 (army 93.0%; navy, none; air force

7.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 2.4%; per capita expenditure (1993) U.S.$10.

000 cattle, 2,200,000 horses, 415,000 camels, 49,000 pigs; roundwood (1991)

2,390,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 100. Mining and quarrying (1992): copper 105,100; molybdenum 1,522; silver 18,000 kg; gold 900 kg. Manufacturing (value added by manufacturing, Tug ’000,000; 1990): food products 691.1; textiles 429.8; leather and hides 302.6; construction materials 153.5; cloth-

ing and apparel 140.2; wood products 131.0; chemicals 127.3; printing and publishing 44.4; glass and ceramics 12.2. Construction (1991): residential

1Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Services includes finance,

public administration, and defense. 3Other includes depreciation of fixed capital. 4Unemployed. 5April. “Urban households. 7Includes income from agricultural cooperatives.

8Trade

in convertible

currencies.

9FAO

estimate;

alternate

1988-90

data

reported by World Bank: 2,578 calories. According to Mongolian sources, November 1992 consumption was 1,875 calories (urban) and 2,092 (rural).

674

Britannica World Data

(metric tons; 1992) 5,111,000 (5,907,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 23,987,-

Morocco

000 (23,987,000).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

14.04.

sq km2

population

Provinces!

population

Agadir Azilal Ben Slimane

5,910 10,050 2,760 7,075 14,395

807,000 419,000 204,000 936,000 156,000

Safi Settat Sidi Kacem Tan-Tan Tangier Taounate Taroudannt Tata Taza

848,000 790,000 602,000 55,000 566,000 603,000 658,000 107,000 715,000 864,000 381,000

Kénitra Khémisset Khénifra Khouribga Larache3 Marrakech

Mekneés Nador Quarzazate Oujda er-Rachidia

4,745

8,305 12,320 4,250

363,000 428,000 029,000

108,000

Tétouan

168,000 371,000

Tiznit

116,000 928,000

Prefectures

684,000 920,000 473,000 442,000 547,000 en

14,755 3,995 6,130 41,550 20,700 59,585

1,525,000 753,000

796,000

649,000

35,419 4,872 44,636 11,641 18,994 16,622

14.3 2.0 18.0

2,351,629 63,360 930,615 437,464 22,465 140,981

,

51,659 32,507

% of labour force

498,130

532,803 474,109

31,333 247,683

547,7047 5,999,260

Price index (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index19

Hay Hassani Ain SebaaHay Mohammadi Ben Msik— Sidi Othmane Casablanca-Anfa MohammadiaZnata Rabat

Salé

Skhirate-Temara

503,000

TOTAL

458,730

1991

1992

1993

19949

108.0

114.2

120.1

125.1

Foreign trade !2 Balance of trade (current prices) DH '000,000 % of total

587,000 984,000 1,069,000

} 1,275

-«1990Ss: 100.0 100.0

93.5 79.2

7.5%.

452,000 1,615

1988 ©6-1989S

90.7 72.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 5.8; expenditure (1993)11: food 45.2%, housing 12.5%, transportation 7.6%, clothing

Ain Chok-

974,000

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

— 5,853 9.0%

— 14,130 20.0%

— 16,755 19.3%

— 13,576 15.4%

— 23,192 25.5%

— 28,740 31.1%

Imports (1993): DH _ 61,798,000,000 (capital goods 27.6%; food, beverages, and tobacco 14.5%, of which wheat 5.3%; consumer goods 10.9%; crude oil

219,000 690,000 656,000 199,000 25,344,000

10.8%). Major import sources: France 23.0%; Spain 10.5%; U.S. 10.1%; Italy 6.3%; Germany 5.9%; U.K. 2.7%; Iran 2.5%.

'

Exports (1993): DH 34,266,000,000 (consumer goods 28.8%, of which clothing 11.7%; food 26.1%, of which fresh, canned, and frozen fish 14.4%; minerals 10.2%, of which phosphates 7.0%). Major export destinations: France 33.3%;

Spain 8.8%; Japan 5.6%; Italy 5.2%; Germany 4.4%; India 3.9%; U.K. 3.6%.

Demography Population (1994): 26,544,000.

Transport and communications

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 149.9, persons per sq km 57.9. Urban-rural (1992): urban 49.5%; rural 50.5%.

Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 1,768 km®; passenger-km 1,908,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,416,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 59,474

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.02%; female 50.98%.

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 40.5%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 16.8%; 45-59, 8.4%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 30,351,000; (2010) 37,949,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Arab 70%; Berber 30%; other, less than 1%. Religious affiliation (1982): Muslim (mostly Sunni) 98.7%; Christian 1.1%.

4,395,185,000; metric ton-km cargo 53,252,000; airports (1994) 16.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.6 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 22.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.8. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 66.4 years; female 70.2 years. Major causes of death (1989)4: childhood diseases 22.9%; circulatory diseases 15.4%; accidents 7.3%; infectious and parasitic diseases 6.3%; neoplasms

(cancers) 5.6%.

National economy Budget. Revenue (1993): DH 77,227,000,000 (indirect taxes 27.1%; customs duties 20.4%; stamp duties 3.8%). Expenditures (1993): DH 80,117,000,000 (current expenditure 81.1%, of which debt payments 28.9%; investment expenditure 18.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$20,974,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 17.7%; meadows 46.8%; agricultural 22.1%; builton, wasteland, and other 13.4%.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,360,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$242,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 3,162,000, wheat 1,573,000, barley 1,027,000, sugarcane 946,000, tomatoes 917,000, potatoes 869,000, oranges 860,000, olives 550,000, dates 111,000; livestock (number of live animals) 16,302,000 sheep, 4,773,000 goats, 2,924,000 cattle, 78,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 2,356,000 cu

m; fish catch (1993) 607,000. Mining and quarrying (value of in DH ’000,000; 1993): phosphate rock 3,551.2; mineral water 166.4; copper 137.8; lead 127.4; manganese 75.5; fluorspar 47.2; iron ore 3.1. Manufacturing (1992): cement 6,036,000; refined 435 hectolitres;

passenger

production 217.1; zinc barite 41.3; sugar 520,-

automobiles

km (paved 50%).. Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 811,896; trucks and buses 291,973. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 492; total deadweight tonnage 586,221. Air transport (1992)13: passenger-km Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 13; total circulation 320,00014; circulation per 1,000 population 1314. Radio (1993): 4,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.8 persons). Television (1993): 1,210,000 receivers (1 per 21.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 714,210 (1 per 35 pérsons).

Major cities (1982): Casablanca 2,139,204; Rabat 518,616; Fés 448,823.

0005; olive oil 53,0005; wine

labour force

16.0%).

area Provinces!

Boulemane Chaouen (Chefchaouen) 4,350 Essaouira 6,335 Fes 5,400 Figuig 55,990 Guelmim 28,750 al-Hoceima 3,550 lfrane 3,310 el-Jadida 6,000 el-Kelaa des Srarhna 10,070

% of total value

Population economically active (1991)8: total 4,095,393; activity rate 33.0% (participation rates: over age 15, 49.7%; female 25.5%; unemployed [1993]

Area and population (1992 est.)

Béni Mellal

1982

in value DH '000,000

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services } Other TOTAL

(DH) = 100 Moroccan francs;

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=DH 8.83; 1 £=DH

‘

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$26,736,000,000 (U.S.$1,030 per capita).

Official name: al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyah (Kingdom of Morocco). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Chamber of Representatives [333)). Chief of state: King. Head of government: King assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Rabat. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Moroccan dirham

and

commercial vehicles 20,150° units. Construction (value added in DH; 1991): 8,821,700. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 10,325,000,000 (11,257,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 576,000 (1,791,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 83,600 (47,500,000); petroleum products

Education and health Education (1991-92) *

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-17) 16 Vocational 17

Higher 15

schools 15 4,052 1,080

562

35

teachers

95,206 75,70815 1,19115 7,713

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,578,566 1,151,771 17,147 225,001

27.1 Fs = 29.2

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 47:8%; some primary education 47.8%; some secondary 3.8%; higher 0.6%. Literacy (1990): total population over age 15 literate 49.5%; males 61.3%; females literate 38.0%.

Health: physicians (1992) 6,120 (1 per 4,148 persons); hospital beds!8 (1991) 26,505 (1 per 937 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 49.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,031 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 125% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 195,500 (army 89.5%, navy 3.6%, air force 6.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 5.2% (world 4.5%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$62.

‘

‘Provincial capitals have same name as province. 2One sq km is approximately equal to 0.3861 sq mi. 3Area and population figures included with Tétouan province.

4Registered deaths of urban population only. 51993. 61991. 7Unemployed, not previously employed only. 8Urban labour force only, representing the total urban employed and unemployed. %July. !°Based on minimum hourly wage of workers 18 years of age and older; values reflect adjustments made to the minimum wage during the year. !!Weights of consumer price index components. !2Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 13Royal Air Maroc only. 14Partial data. 151990-91. 16Public institutions only. 17Excludes teacher training. 18Public only.

Nations of the World

Mozambique

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$4,136,000,000.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.2; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

Official name: Republica de Mogambique (Republic of Mozambique). Form of government: multiparty republic! with a single legislative house (Assembly of the Republic [250]).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,353,280,000

(U.S.$80 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value Mt. ‘000,000

Chief of state and head of government: President. Capital: Maputo. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 metical (Mt.; plural meticais) = 100 centavos; valuation

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Finance Trade Pub, admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Mt. 6,342; 1 £=Mt.

10,087.

Area and population area

population 1991

;

Provinces

Capitals

Cabo Delgado

—sami_

Pemba

Gaza Inhambane Manica Maputo

Xai-Xai Inhambane Chimoio Maputo

Nampula Niassa Sofala Tete

Nampula Lichinga Beira Tete

Zambézia

Quelimane

City Maputo

31,902 29,231 26,492 23,807 9,944 31,508 49,828 26,262

82,625 75,709 68,615 61,661 25,756 81,606 129,055 68,018

38,890

100,724

2,841,416 686,650 1,427,493 734,561

40,544

105,008

2,619,281

602

931,591

—

232 308,6422 5,019

799,379 13,000

TOTAL

313,661

812,379

1,202,221

1,401,485 1,156,958 609,512 840,757

1980

labour force

% of labour force

801,780 4,320 504,840 270,000 89,910

39.1 0.2 24.6 13.2 44

4,754,831 73,425 273,369 42,121 9

83.8 1.3 48 0.7 9

194,880 7,370 100,760

9:5, 0.4 49

77,025

1.4

112,244

2.0

62,410

3.1

243,4499

4.39

11,770 2,048,040

0.6 100.0

94,826 10 5,671,290

1.710 100.0

Foreign trade! Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$’000,000 —612 —648 —670 % of total

74.8%

76.1%

71.8%

1991

1992

1993

— 737, 69.5%

—716 72.0%

— 823 75.7%

Imports (1990): U.S.$877,520,000 (foodstuffs 28.9%, capital equipment 22.9%, crude petroleum and derivatives 10.9%, machinery and spare parts 9.5%). Major import sources (1989): South Africa 23.2%; U.S.S.R. 9.8%; United

14,451,9253

States 7.1%; Portugal 6.8%; Italy 6.0%.

Exports (1992): U.S.$139,304,000 (shrimp 46.3%, cashew nuts 12.6%, cotton 7.8%, sugar 4.8%, lobster 3.5%). Major export destinations (1990): Spain

Demography

17.9%; United States 11.6%; Japan 10.4%; Portugal 5.6%.

Population (1994): 17,346,000. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 56.2, persons per sq km 21.7.

Transport and communications

Urban-rural (1991): urban 28.1%; rural 71.9%.

Transport. Railroads (1992): route length (1993) 1,946 mi, 3,131 km; pas-

Sex distribution (1990)5: male 49.32%; female 50.68%. Age breakdown (1990)5: under 15, 44.0%; 15-29, 26.2%; 30-44, 15.4%; 45-59, 9.2%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 20,868,000; (2010) 27,381,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1983): Makua 47.3%; Tsonga 23.3%; Malawi 12.0%; Shona 11.3%; Yao 3.8%; Swahili 0.8%; Makonde 0.6%; Portuguese 0.2%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1980): traditional beliefs 47.8%; Christian 38.9%, of which Roman Catholic 31.4%; Muslim 13.0%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1991): Maputo 931,591; Beira 298,847; Nampula 250,473.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 45.1 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 18.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 26.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1974): 0.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1973): 0.01. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 45.2 years; female 48.4 years. Major infectious diseases (certified cases per 100,000 population; 1980): measles 227.4; pulmonary tuberculosis 55.9; viral hepatitis 19.2; leprosy 13.8; cholera 4.6; tetanus 4.5.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue:

Mt. 660,800,000 (sales tax 42.6%, customs taxes

25.5%, individual income tax 15.6%). Expenditures: Mt. 1,490,100,000 (de-

fense and security 17.4%, wages and salaries 9.67). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

cassava 3,511,000, corn (maize) 533,000, coconuts 425,000, sugarcane 330,000,

143,000, peanuts (groundnuts)

84,000, bananas 80,000; livestock

(number of live animals) 1,250,000 cattle, 385,000 goats, 170,000 pigs, 118,000 sheep, 22,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 15,993,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 34,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): marine

8,340; copper

}

% of total value

Tourism: na. Land use (1992): forested 17.9%; meadows and pastures 56.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 4.1%; other 21.9%.

_sqkm_- —__estimate_

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

sorghum

675

13397;

garnet

1,500 kg; gemstones

salt 40,000; bauxite

8,447 carats.

Manufac-

senger-mi 16,200,000, passenger-km 26,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 421,900,-

000, metric ton-km cargo 616,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 16,955 mi, 27,287 km (paved 17%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 35,000; trucks and buses 35,000: Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 107; total deadweight tonnage 31,645. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 252,900,000, passenger-km 407,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 7,057,000, metric

ton-km cargo 10,303,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 8. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 2; total circulation 81,000; circulation per 1,000 population 5.0. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 600,000 (1 per 27 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 35,000 (1 per 467 persons). Telephones (1991): 69,477 (1 per 211 persons). Education and health Education (1992) schools

Primary (age 5-9) 12 Secondary (age 10-16) 13 Voc., teacher tr. Higher 14

3,384 20714 3214 2

teachers

22,132 3,614 1,126 457

students

1,199,847 144,671 13,749 2,562

student/ teacher ratio 54.2 40.0 12.2 5.6

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 80.7%; primary education 18.2%; secondary 0.9%; higher 0.2%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 32.9%; males literate 45.1%; females literate 21.3%. Health: physicians (1989) 388 (1 per 36,428 persons); hospital beds (1988) 12,129 (1 per 1,227 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 147.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,805 (vegetable products 97%,

animal products 3%); 77% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): n.a.15. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 13.0% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$10.

turing (1990): cement 76,767; wheat flour 49,368; raw sugar 33,141; soap

8,843; cotton threads 4,676; beer 352,900 hectolitres; cigarettes 414,000,000 units; poplin 3,664,000 sq m. Construction (1974): residential 247,000 sq m;

nonresidential 121,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 490,000,000

(815,000,000);

coal (metric tons;

1992) 40,000

(60,000); crude petroleum (1992) none (none8); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none8 (268,000); natural gas, none (none).

- Population economically active (1980): total 5,671,290; activity rate of total

population 48.6% (participation rates: over age 15, 87.3%; female 52.4%; unemployed 1.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1990 1987 1988 1989

1991

1992

1993

100.0

132.9

193.4

275.0

Consumer price index Earnings index eed

32.3 Re

48.5 ce

68.0 a

1Mozambique adopted a new multiparty constitution, which became effective on Nov. 30, 1990; the first multiparty elections took place on Oct. 27-29, 1994. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Excludes refugees in neighbouring countries estimated at about 1,200,000 in 1991; most of these refugees were repatriated between

June 1993 and the fall of 1994. 4Density is based on land area. *Includes refugees in nearby countries. 61990. 7Metal content only. 8Internal disorder and alack of foreign exchange have brought importation of crude petroleum and the production of refined petroleum products practically to a halt. 9Services includes Public utilities. 10Unemployed. !!Import figures are c.i.f. !2Includes initiation classes in which pupils learn Portuguese. 13Includes the two stages of secondary education and the upperlevel primary stage. 141988. !5Under the terms of the 1992 peace agreement, government and Renamo forces are to merge, forming a new army some 30,000 strong.

676

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992-93): U.S.$30,707,000,-

Myanmar (Burma)

000 (U.S.$700 per capita).

Official name: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (Union of Myanmar). Form of government: military regime!. Head of state and government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93

Chairman of the State Law and Order Restoration Council. Capital: Yangon (Rangoon). Official language: Burmese. Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 Myanmar kyat (K)=100 pyas; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=K 5.82; 1 £=K 9.26. Area and population Divisions Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) Magwe (Magway) Mandalay Pegu (Bago)

Sagaing Tenasserim (Tanintharyi)

Yangon

States Chin Kachin Karen Kayah Mon Rakhine (Arakan) Shan

area Capitals Bassein (Pathein) Magwe (Magway) Mandalay Pegu (Bago) Sagaing Tavoy (Dawei)

Yang6n (Rangoon) Hakha Myitkyina Pa-an (Hpa-an) Loi-kaw Moulmein (Mawlamyine) Sittwe (Akyab) Taunggyi

TOTAL

population 1983

Sq mi

sq km

13,567 17,305 14,295 15,214 36,535 16,735 3,927

35,138 44,820 37,024 39,404 94,625 43,343 10,171

4,994,061 3,243,166 4,577,762 3,799,791 3,862,172 917,247 3,965,916

13,907 34,379 11,731 4,530 4,748 14,200 60,155 261,228

36,019 89,041 30,383 11,733 12,297 36,778 155,801 676,577

368,949 904,794 1,055,359 168,429 1,680,157 2,045,559 3,716,841 35,307,9132

census

Urban-rural (1993): urban 25.0%; rural 75.0%.

Consumer price index Monthly earnings indexs

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 36.0%; 15-29, 29.7%; 30-44, 17.8%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 51,567,000; (2010) 61,631,000. Doubling time: 32 years.

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

158.3 199.2

201.3 277.6

236.8

313.2

381.9

503.4 ix

Land use (1992): forested 49.3%; meadows and pastures 0.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 15.3%; other 34.9%.

Foreign trade® Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 —346.8 14.2%

+2749 10.6%

1990

1991

1992

1993

+485.0 13.5%

— 1,055.4 16.7%

—338.1 4.9%

—948.4 11.6%

Exports (1991-92): K 2,584,000,000 (1989-90; agricultural products 31.5%, forest products 23.8%, minerals and gems 8.7%, animal and marine products 4.5%). Major export destinations (1990-91): Singapore 13.2%; Thailand 11.1%; Japan 8.1%; China 7.4%; Hong Kong 6.5%; South

Ethnic composition (1983): Burman 69.0%; Shan 8.5%; Karen 6.2%; Rakhine 4.5%; Mon 2.4%; Chin 2.2%; Kachin 1.4%; other 5.8%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Buddhist. 89.1%; Christian 4.9%; Muslim 3.8%; other 2.2%. Major cities (1983): Yang6n (Rangoon) 2,513,023; Mandalay 532,949; Moulmein (Mawlamyine) 219,961; Pegu (Bago) 150,528; Bassein (Pathein) 144,096.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 33.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 22.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 57.0 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1978): pneumonia 16.1; heart diseases 10.5; enteritis and other diarrheal diseases 10.0; tuberculosis 9.4;

malignant neoplasms (cancers) 6.5; cerebrovascular disease 4.1; malaria 3.5.

K 18,039,000,000

38.0%, capital revenue

000,000 (defense 22.0%, education

(revenue

from

3.9%). Expenditures:

taxes 58.1%,

K 27,621,-

17.4%, general public service

17.1%,

transportation 10.7%, agriculture 7.3%, housing 7.3%, health 6.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$4,974,000,000.

Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$13,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 17,434,000, sugarcane 3,410,000, pulses 842,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 433,000, plantains 275,000, sesame seeds 237,000, corn (maize) 220,000, onions 179,000, potatoes 143,000, millet 140,000, seed cotton 68,000, tobacco leaves 50,000, jute 39,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,584,000 cattle, 2,529,000 pigs, 2,110,000 buffalo, 1,397,000 sheep and goats, 4,000,000 ducks, 25,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 22,733,000 cu m; fish catch (1991)

769,236. Mining and quarrying (1991-92): gypsum 32,898; copper concentrates 18,318; refined lead 2,526; tin concentrates 170; jade 157; refined silver

1,905 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of production in ’000,000 kyats; 1987— 88): food and beverages 23,549.8; clothing and wearing apparel 1,606.6; industrial raw materials 1,468.9; construction materials 1,120.9; transport vehi-

Korea 4.0%;

Sri Lanka 3.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990-91): route length 1,949 mi, 3,137 km; passenger-mi 2,781,000,000, passenger-km 4,476,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 395,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 576,000,000. Roads (1992-93): total length 15,118 mi,

24,330 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 35,000; trucks and buses 35,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 144; total deadweight tonnage 1,354,005. Air transport (1990-91): passenger-mi 137,700,000, passenger-km 221,600,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,649,000, metric

ton-km cargo 8,248,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 20. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 2; total circulation 414,000; circulation per 1,000 population 9. Radio (1993): total receivers 3,200,000 (1 per 14 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 1,000,000 (1

per 45 persons). Telephones (1992-93): 89,318 (1 per 494 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93)

National economy Revenue:

1987

136.4 113.5

5.2%; Australia 4.0%; United States 3.2%; Thailand 2.6%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.56%; female 50.44%.

nontax revenue

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Imports (1991-92): K 3,870,000,000 (1989-90; machinery and equipment 51.4%, industrial raw materials 31.4%, consumer goods 17.1%). Major import sources (1990-91): Singapore 19.7%; Japan 18.3%; China 17.0%; Malaysia

Population (1994): 45,573,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 174.5, persons per sq km 67.4.

Budget (1991-92).

Population economically active (1990-91): total 15,737,000; activity rate of total population 37.2% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1983] 64.2%; female [1987-88] 35.3%; unemployed [1987-88] 4.3%).

K ‘000,000 % of total

Demography

58.8 0.7 74 1.5 0.2 2:5: 22.5 0.2 6.2 = 100.0

110,859 1,264 13,928 2,887 ° 392 4,642 42,355 326 11,693 = 188,346

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public admin., services Other TOTAL

1990-91 % of labour force 69.0 10,867,000 0.5 79,000 7.2 1,132,000 1.2 188,000 0.1 17,000 2.5 388,000 8.9 1,396,000 77 4.205.000 i 2.9 465,000 100.0 15,737,000 labour force

% of total value

in value K 000,000

Primary (age 5-9) Secondary (age 10-15) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

36,499 2,920 112 40

198,909 67,503 2,194 6,696

6,518,800 1,633,700 28,200 260,300

32.8 24.2 12.9 38.9

Educational attainment (1983). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 55.8%; primary education 39.4%; secondary

4.6%; religious 0.1%; postsecondary 0.1%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate 16,472,494 (78.5%); males literate 8,816,031 (85.8%); females literate 7,656,463 (71.6%).

Health (1992-93): physicians 13,353 (1 per 3,306 persons); hospital beds 27,830 (1 per 1,586 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 84. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,454 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 286,000 (army 92.7%, navy 4.2%, air force 3.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 5.8% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$30.

cles 719.0; personal goods 327.8. Construction (units; 1987—88)3: residential 1,193; nonresidential 1,483. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,674,000,000 (2,674,000,000); coal

(metric tons; 1992) 69,000

(73,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 5,313,000 (5,504,000); petroleum

products (metric tons; 1992) 542,000 (543,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 973,000,000 (973,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 5.2; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1978)4: food and beverages 64.4%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, fuel and

lighting 7.8%, household rent and repairs 3.8%, tobacco 3.7%, other 12.3%.

1The military government has refused to hand over power to the National League

for Democracy, which won in the 1990 multiparty elections. 2Includes 7,710 persons not distributed by area. 3Construction Corporation activity only. 4Based on 24 rural townships. 5Wages in manufacturing. 6Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f, in commodities and trading partners.

Nations of the World

Namibia!

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 4.8; av-

erage annual income per household (1980) R 3,223 (U.S.$4,143); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 70.0%, income from property 24.4%, transfer payments 5.2%; expenditure: n.a. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$2,598,000,000 (U.S.$1,660 per capita).

Official name: Republic of Namibia. Political status: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (National Assembly [722]; National Council [26]). Head of state and government: President.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991 in value R ‘000,000

Capital: Windhoek. Official language: English.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Services Public administration and defense TOTAL

Official religion: none. Monetary unit3: 1 Namibian dollar

(Nam$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 U.S.$=Nam$3.57; 1 £=Nam$5.68.

Area and population4 area Regions Erongo4 Hardap Karas Khomas Kunene Liambezi Ohangwena Okavango Omaheke Omusati Oshana Oshikoto Otjozondjupa Other TOTAL

.

Chief towns Omaruru Mariental Keetmanshoop Windhoek Opuwo

Katima Mulilo Oshikango Rundu Gobabis

Ongandjera Oshakati Tsumeb Grootfontein

population

1992

sq km

sqm

24,602 42,428 62,288 14,210 55,697 7,541 4,086 16,763 32,715 5,265 2,042 10,273 40,667 2 318,5805

98,500 80,000 73,000 161,000 58,500 92,000 178,000 136,000 55,600 158,000

36,071 10,062 9,442 12,657 1,273

447 744

460 304

7,880 29,394 4,327 25,167

1,323 6,478

48,520 184,793

19.5 5.5 5.1 6.8 0.7

26,607 105,327 6 825,118

176,000 85,000 1,000 1,511,600

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 §=©1989 1990 R '000,000 % of total

159,000

+496 9.2%

+463 10.7%

1991

1992 =: 1993

err 4.3%

+207 2.8%

-—57 1.0%

+569 7.2%

Imports (1992): R 3,358,000,000 (1988; chemical and petroleum products 21.5%; food and agricultural products 17.1%; machinery and transport Sale 6.6%; other 46.2%). Major import source (1991): South Africa 75-100%. Exports (1992): R 3,673,000,000 (1991; minerals 75.9%, of which diamonds 30.5%; agricultural products 11.0%, of which cattle 5.8%, karakul pelts

0.9%). Major export destinations (1986): United States 25%; South Africa 19%; Japan 15%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1992) 1,480 mi, 2,382 km; passenger-km 2,008,-

Population projection: (2000) 1,957,000; (2010) 2,705,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Ovambo 47.4%; Kavango Damara 7.1%; white 6.1%; Nama 4.6%; other 18.9%.

000,000;

8.8%; Herero

7.1%;

Religious affiliation (1981): Lutheran 51.2%; Roman Catholic 19.8%; Dutch Reformed 6.1%; Anglican 5.0%; other 17.9%.

Major cities (1990): Windhoek 125,000; Swakopmund 15,500; Rundu 15,000; Rehoboth 15,000; Keetmanshoop 14,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 41.6 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 31.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 5.7. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 57.5 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).

National economy R 3,009,000,000 (1991-92; customs and excise

general

700 2,052 265 118 65

% of labour forces, 9

and under permanent cultivation 0.8%; other 31.1%.

8.6%; 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.9%.

of which

labour forces, 9

Land use (1992): forested 21.9%; meadows and pastures 46.2%; agricultural

Population (1994): 1,596,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 5.0, persons per sq km 1.9. Urban-rural (1991): urban 32.8%; rural 67.2%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.78%; female 50.22%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.7%; 15-29, 25.5%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59,

Budget (1993-94). Revenue:

1988 % of total value

estimate

63,719 109,888 161,324 36,804 144,254 19,532 10,582 43,417 84,731 13,637 5,290

Demography

taxes 42.8%,

677

sales tax 13.9%;

individual

income

taxes

10.7%; mining taxes 4.4%; nontax revenues 3.7%). Expenditures: R 3,366,000,000 (education 23.5%; transportation 18.4%; health and welfare 13.1%;

national defense 5.3%; agriculture 5.0%). ; Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$91,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$81,000,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$3,180,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): roots and tubers 250,000, cereals 81,000 (of which millet 36,000, corn [maize]

32,000, sorghum 7,000), fruits 10,000, vegetables and melons 8,000, pulses 7,000, wool 3,400, karakul pelts 770,627 units7; livestock (number of live animals) 2,900,000 sheep, 2,300,000 cattle, 1,800,000 goats; fish catch (1991)

204,517. Mining and quarrying (1993): diamonds

metric

ton-km

1,225,700,000.

Roads

(1992): total length 26,024

mi, 41,882.km (paved 11%). Number of registered motor vehicles (1991): 122,331. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 30; total deadweight tonnage 5,874. Air transport (1991) 10: passenger-km 423,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 5; total circulation 49,500; circulation per 1,000 population 32. Radio (1993): 240,000 receivers (1 per 6.4 persons). Television (1993): 39,500 receivers (1 per 39 persons). Telephones (1992): 92,970 (1 per 16 persons). Education and health Education (1990)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-19)

1,13411

teachers

2,534

Voc., teacher tr.

gi2

14011

Higher 13

6

213

students

313,528 74,331 1,66611 2,507

teacher ratio

ea 29.3 11.911 11.8

Educational attainment (1977). Percentage of labour force having: no formal schooling 59.8%; primary education 33.2%; secondary 5.0%; higher 2.0%.

Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 474,000 (72.5%);

males literate 239,000 (74.2%); females literate 235,000 (70.8%). Health: physicians (1992) 324 (1 per 4,594 persons); hospital beds (1989) 6,997 (1 per 216 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 63.8. Food (1979-81): daily per capita caloric intake 2,197 (vegetable products 77%, animal products 23%); 96% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 8,100 (army 98.8%, navy 1.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1984): 7.7% (world 5.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$113.

1,141,000 carats, mostly

gem quality; zinc 54,000; copper 34,400; lead 31,200; uranium 1,967; silver 2,314,800 troy oz; gold 62,821 troy oz. Manufacturing (1991): n.a.; products

include cut gems (primarily diamonds), fur products (karakul), processed foods (fish, meats, and dairy products), textiles, carved wood products, refined metals (copper and lead). Construction (value of buildings completed in R ’000,000; 1990): residential 44.6; nonresidential 92.4. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,714,000,000 (1,714,000,000); coal, ey none (n.a.);.crude petroleum, none (n.a.). Population economically active: total (1992) 552,000; activity rate of total population, 36.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1984], c. 56%; female 23.9%; unemployed [1988] c. 20%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

1987

Consumer price index Earnings index

68.7 ie

1988 775 ae

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

89.3 ‘al

100.0

111.9

131.7

143.0

1On March 21, 1990, Namibia achieved independence, its constitution (approved Feb. 9, 1990) became effective, the 72-member Constituent Assembly (elected Nov. 7-11, 1989) became the National Assembly, and a president (elected Feb. 6, 1990, by the Constituent Assembly) was sworn in. 272 elected and up to 6 appointed members. 3As of June 1992, the Namibian dollar circulates at par and concurrently with the South African rand (R). 4Includes the 434 sq mi (1,124 sq km) district of Walvis Bay (1992 pop. estimate, 23,000) that was jointly administered with South Africa from November 1992 to March 1994. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ©1992. 71987. 8Employed persons only. 9Formal sector only. !8Namib Air only. 111989, 121988. 131991.

678

Britannica World Data

Nepal

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992-93

Official name: Nepal Adhirajya (Kingdom of Nepal). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (National Council [601]; House of Representatives [205]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kathmandu. Official language: Nepali. Official religion: Hinduism. Monetary unit: 1 Nepalese rupee (NRs) = 100 paisa (pice); valuation

___area————S_ipopullation_

Dhankita

Kathmandu

Pokhara

Surkhet

Bhert Karnal Rapti Far-western Mahakali Seti TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

1991 census

10,987 3,733 3,165 4,089 10,583 3,640 3,733 3,210 11,351 3,146 4,740. 3,465 16,362 4,071 8,244 4,047 7,544 2,698 4,846 56,827

28,456 9,669 8,196 10,591 27,410 9,428 9,669 8,313 29,398 8,148 12,275 8,975 42,378 10,545 21,351 10,482 19,539 6,989 12,550 147,181

4,446,749 1,728,247 1,118,210 1,600,292 6,183,955 2,250,805 2,061,816 1,871,334 3,770,678 490,877 1,266,128 2,013,673 2,410,414 1,103,043 260,529 1,046,842 1,679,301 664,952 1,014,349 18,491,097

Capitals

Koshi Mechi

Sagarmatha Central Bagmati Janakpur Narayan Western Dhawalagiri Gandaki Lumbini Mid-western

Dipayal

Consumer price index Earnings index

7.8%; Muslim

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

119.0 af

131.8

143.6

156.3

169.2

195.5

229.1

employment 63.4%, wages and salaries 25.1%, rent 7.5%, other 4.0%; ex-

care 3.7%, education and recreation 2.9%, transportation and communica-

tions 1.2%, other 2.0%.

Foreign trade+ Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 NRs '000,000 % of total

— 7,659.6... 52.8%

— 10,780 54.6%

— 10,796 56.2%

— 13,037 51.4%

—17,059 46.5%

— 16,255 33.7%

Imports (1992-93): NRs 36,978,500,000 (basic manufactured goods 31.6%; machinery and transport equipment 19.5%; chemicals 12.3%; mineral fuels

Population projection: (2000) 21,094,000; (2010) 23,335,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Nepalese 53.2%; Bihari (including Maithili and Bhojpuri) 18.4%; Tharu 4.8%; Tamang 4.7%; Newar 3.4%; Magar 2.2%;

Buddhist

0.6 3:3 0.3 10.7 2.0 100.0

Be eg we a

penditure: food and beverages 61.2%, housing 17.3%, clothing 11.7%, health

Urban-rural (1991): urban 9.6%; rural 90.4%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.63%; female 48.37%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 42.3%; 15-29, 25.7%; 30-44, 16.7%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 0.9%.

86.2%;

te bee

6.8 6.0 9.4 7.8 6.93

7

9,921 8,721 13,571 11,277 10,1363 144,959

80.5 i 7. 0.8 0.1

Ft bs =

Household income and expenditure (1984-85). Average household size (1991) 5.6; income per household NRs 14,796 (U.S.$853); sources of income: self-

Population (1994): 19,525,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 343.6, persons per sq km 132.7.

Abadhi 1.7%; other 11.6%.

45.9 0.2 7.8 8.2 1.0

% of labour force

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100)

Demography

Religious affiliation (1991): Hindu

66,520 232 11,300 11,824 1,457

labour force

Land use (1991): forested 18.1%; meadows and pastures 14.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 19.4%; other 47.9%. Population economically active (1990): total 8,585,370; activity rate of total population 45.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] 82.5%, female 34.7%; unemployed [1980] 5.5%).

1 £=NRs 78.57.

Development regions Zones Eastern

% of total value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Services Other TOTAL

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=NRs 49.40; Area and population

1991

in value NRs '000,0002

3.8%;

Christian 0.2%; Jain 0.1%; other 1.9%.

Major cities (municipalities; 1991): Kathmandu 419,073; Biratnagar 130,129; Lalitpur 117,203; Pokhara 95,311; Birganj 68,764.

and lubricants 10.5%; food and live animals, chiefly for food 9.3%; crude materials except fuels 8.5%5). Major import sources (1990-91): India 32.1%;

Singapore 14.0%; Japan 12.9%; New Zealand 5.0%; China 4.6%; France 3.0%.

Exports (1992-93): NRs 17,307,400,000 (basic manufactures 59.3%; food and live animals, chiefly for food 11.4%; crude materials except fuels 2.8%; animal and vegetable oils 0.9%). Major export destinations (1990-91): West Germany 35.9%; India 22.4%; United States 18.4%; Switzerland 6.5%; Belgium 2.3%; United Kingdom 2.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991-92): route length 33 mi, 53 km; passengers carried 884,000; freight handled 14,329 metric tons. Roads (1991): total length 5,175 mi, 8,328 km (paved 37%). Vehicles (1990-91): passenger cars 4,949; trucks and buses 3,363. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 439,000,000, passenger-km 706,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 7,500,000, metric

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 38.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 54.0 years; female 53.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the leading causes of mortality are infectious and parasitic diseases, diseases of the re-

spiratory system, diseases of the nervous system, diseases of the circulatory system, and injuries and poisoning.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: NRs 21,595,300,000 (internal revenue 78.7%, for-

eign grants 21.3%). Expenditures: NRs 33,595,200,000 (development 64.3%, regular 35.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,747,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$110,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$52,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

ton-km cargo 11,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 17. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 28; total circulation 150,000; circulation per 1,000 population 7.9. Radio (1993): 600,000 receivers (1 per 33 persons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 77 persons). Telephones (1989): 44,514 (1 per 415 persons).

Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-15) Vocational Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

18,694

74,495

2,884,275

38.7

24,632

773,808

31.4

154,528

21.86

Stes 3

4,6946

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 41.2%; primary education 29.4%; secondary

22.7%; higher 6.8%. Literacy (1991): total population

age 15 and over

literate 4,255,000 (37.7%); males literate 2,975,000 (51.7%); females literate

1,280,000 (23.3%).

tobacco 6,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,246,000 cattle, 5,406,000

Health (1991-92): physicians 1,497 (1 per 12,623 persons); hospital beds 4,848 (1 per 3,898 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 96. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,205 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 100% of FAO recommended.minimum requirement.

goats, 3,058,000 buffalo, 912,000 sheep, 599,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 18,704,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 15,595. Mining and quarrying (1991):

Military

rice 2,509,000, sugarcane

1,291,000, corn (maize) 1,164,000, wheat 779,000,

potatoes 733,000, millet 230,000, pulses 169,000, barley 28,000, jute 10,000,

limestone

221,920; magnesite 25,000; talc 3,500; garnet 22,000 kg. Manu-

facturing (value added in NRs ’000; 1990-91): cigarettes 1,129,465; carpets and rugs 880,026; wearing apparel 694,640; woven textiles 587,484; structural clay products 498,940. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 890,000,000 (854,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) none (67,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (226,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national product (at current market

(U.S.$170 per capita).

prices; 1992): U.S.$3,285,000,000

Total active duty personnel (1993): 35,000 (army 99.4%, air force 0.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.1% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$2.

‘Includes 10 members nominated by the king. 2Preliminary. 3Includes indirect taxes. ‘Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 51991—92. 61989.

Nations of the World

Netherlands, The

tion and communications 12.7%, education and recreation 10.5%, household

furnishings and appliances 7.2%, clothing and footwear 6.9%, other 16.1%. Gross national product (at current market price; 1993): U.S.$316,390,000,000

Official name: Koninkrijk der

Nederlanden (Kingdom of The Netherlands).

(U.S.$20,710 per capita).

Form of government: constitutional monarchy with a parliament (States General) comprising two legislative houses (First Chamber [75]; Second

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Chamber [150]).

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Chief of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Seat of government: The Hague. Capital: Amsterdam. Official language: Dutch. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Netherlands guilder

(f.)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

ISO MOSS —t 73) 1-£=f, 27a

Area and population Provinces Drenthe Flevoland Friesland Gelderland Groningen Limburg Noord-Brabant Noord-Holland Overijssel Utrecht Zeeland Zuid-Holland

TOTAL

1,359 1,796 2,871 33,939 7,587 41,526

% of total value

labour force

20,466 16,523 102,853 30,126 8,961 36,013 83,093 7 if

4.0 3.2 20.1 5.9 1.8 7.0 16.2 7 iG

293,000 14,000 1,169,000 418,000 44,000 403,000 1,138,000 682,000

Services

24,6817

Other TOTAL

— 20,4948 512,230 10

1987 Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

eH

537,0009 7,011,000

7.79 100.0

1988

95.8 94.7

96.6 95.9

1989

1990

1991

1992

97.6 97.2

100.0 100.0

103.9 103.7

107.7 108.2

1993

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) f. 000,000 % of total

Demography

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

13,201 3.6%

17,647 4.5%

19,277 4.4%

22,345 4.9%

26,131 5.6%

22,225 4.7%

Imports (1992): f. 236,159,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 31.6%, of which road vehicles 7.3%; foodstuffs, beverages, and tobacco 12.3%; chemicals and chemical products 10.7%; mineral fuels 8.6%; textiles 7.0%;

Age breakdown (19931): under 15, 18.3%; 15-29, 23.0%; 30-44, 23.7%; 45-59, 17.4%; 60-74, 12.1%; 75 and over, 5.5%. Population projection: (2000) 16,042,000; (2010) 16,769,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; vital rates and net migration in near balance. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 19921): Netherlander 95.2%; Turkish 1.4%; Moroccan 1.1%; German 0.3%; other 2.0%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 33.0%; Dutch Reformed Church 15.0%; Calvinist 8.0%; Muslim 3.2%; other 1.8%; no religion 39.0%. Major cities (19931): Amsterdam 719,856; Rotterdam 596,023; The Hague 444,661; Utrecht 234,170; Eindhoven 195,267.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 87.5%; illegitimate 12.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 3.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.0. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 74.3 years; female 80.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 236.8, of which lung cancer 56.1; ischemic heart diseases 138.9; cerebrovascular diseases 85.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 35.7.

metals and metal products 6.7%; raw materials, oils, and fats 4.7%). Major import sources: Germany 25.2%; Belgium-Luxembourg 14.2%; U.K. 8.6%; France 7.9%; U.S. '7.6%.

Exports (1992): f. 245,861,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 23.8%, of which

road vehicles

3.7%;

31,944,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,488,100,000; airports (1994) 5.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 45; total circulation 4,944,000; circulation per 1,000 population 332. Radio (1991): total number

of receivers 12,146,299 (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 5,618,000 (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1991): 10,500,000 (1

per 1.4 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

teachers 11

students

99,031 89,370 18,613 30,952 12

1,526,000 668,000 498,000 389,000

Primary (age 6-12)

9,333 ade 747 206

.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$5,004,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$9,330,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 8,251,200°, potatoes 7,595,300, wheat 1,034,900, onions 605,900,

barley 252,200; livestock (number of live animals) 14,964,000 pigs, 4,797,(1991) 1,351,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 443,097. Manufacturing (value added in f. 000,000; 1991): foodstuffs 13,314; chemicals and chemical products 12,114; electrical machinery 9,041;

machinery and transport equipment 6,798; publishing and printing 6,244. Construction (buildings completed by value in f. ’000; 1992): residential 10,700,000; nonresidential 10,900,000. Energy production (consumption):

20.5%;

Transport. Railroads (1992): length 2,753 km; passenger-km 15,350,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,764,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 105,800 km (paved 88%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 5,740,000; trucks and buses 685,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,076; total deadweight tonnage 4,190,997. Air transport (1992): passenger-km

Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr.

14.0%, defense

and tobacco

Transport and communications

National economy f. 194,887,000,000 (social security and public

foodstuffs, beverages,

chemicals and chemical products 15.9%; mineral fuels 8.6%; metals and metal products 6.2%; textiles 4.8%). Major export destinations: Germany 28.8%; Belgium-Luxembourg 14.3%; France 10.6%; U.K. 9.2%; Italy 6.4%.

Budget (1992). Revenue: f. 172,962,000,000 (income and corporate taxes 47.3%, value-added taxes 23.2%, excise and import taxes 8.4%, property

000 cattle, 1,916,000 sheep; roundwood

213,000

—4.08 100.0

Land use (1992): forested 10.3%; meadows and pastures 31.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 27.2%; other 31.1%.

15,341,5533

health 26.2%, education and culture 17.7%, debt service 7.6%, transportation 5.6%). Public debt (19935): U.S.$195,935,000,000.

4.2 0.2 16.7 6.0 0.6 5.7 16.2 9.7

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

451,409 253,699 607,016 1,851,402 556,607 1,125,187 2,259,779 2,457,329 1,044,648 1,056,033 363,867 3,313,193

Population (1994): 15,401,000. Density (1994)4 : persons per sq mi 1,175.3, persons per sq km 453.8. Urban-rural (19931): urban 89.0%; rural 11.0%. Sex distribution (19931): male 49.44%; female 50.56%.

taxes 3.5%). Expenditures:

gsr}

% of labour force

unemployed 7.7%).

19941 estimate

1,108 13,1042 2,929 16,033

1991

in value f. '000,000

Population economically active (1991): total 7,011,000; activity rate of total population 46.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 69.6%; female 39.7%;

population

Capitals Assen Lelystad Leeuwarden Arnhem Groningen Maastricht ’s-Hertogenbosch Haarlem Zwolle Utrecht Middelburg The Hague

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

679

Higher

student/ teacher ratio11 15.7 CT 28.0 10.2

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population ages 15-64 having: primary education 17.1%; secondary 65.7%; higher 17.0%; other 0.2%. Literacy (1992): virtually 100% literate. Health: physicians (1991) 37,481 (1 per 400 persons); hospital beds (1992) 87,860 (1 per 172 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 6.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,078 (vegetable products 68%,,

animal products 32%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 70,900 (army 60.9%, navy 20.2%, air force 12.7%, other!3 6.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 2.6% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$524.

electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 77,202,000,000 (85,880,000,000); coal (metric tons;

1992) none (12,140,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 19,497,000 (393,262,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 57,813,000 (27,823,000); natural gas (cum; 1992) 91,013,000,000 (48,934,000,000). 5 F

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 2.4; income per household

f. 58,090 (U.S.$33,040);

sources

of income: wages

58.5%,

transfer payments 28.9%, self-employment 12.6%; expenditure (1990): rent 18.5%, food, beverages, and tobacco 15.4%, medical care 12.7%, transporta-

1January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Includes 1,384 persons having no fixed municipality of residence. 4Based on land area only, June. 61992. 7Services includes Finance and Pub. admin., defense. 8Imputed bank service charge. 9%Unemployed. !0Detail does not add to total given because of statistical discrepencies. 111990-91. 121985-86. 13Includes 3,600 military police.

680

Britannica World Data

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

New Zealand

1990-91

Official name: New Zealand (English); Aotearoa (Maori). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

Manufacturing Construction

Chief of state: British Monarch,

12,790 3,097

17.5 4.2

242,000 79,600

2,081

Oana

11,000

Public utilities

represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Wellington. Official languages: English; Maori.

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 New Zealand dollar

($NZ) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=$NZ 1.65;

% of labour force 9.8 0.2

160,500 3,500.

74 1.4

5,380 1,042

Agriculture Mining

(House of Representatives [99]).

1993

labour force1

% of total value

in value $NZ ‘000,000

14.7 48 0.7

5.4

5,926

8.0

89,500

11,943 17,020 8,613 2,379 3,068 10 73,339

16.4 23.2 11.7 3.2 4.210 100.0

312,500 155,900 417,600 : 173,60011 1,645,700.

(participation rates: over age 15, 63.1%; female 43.57%; unemployed 9.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Islands Regional Councils North Island Auckland

Bay of Plenty Gisborne2 Hawkes Bay Manawatu-Wanganui Northland Taranaki Waikato Wellington South Island Canterbury Nelson-Marlborough2, 3 Otago Southland West Coast Remainder4, 5 Offshore islands& Stewart Island” Chatham Islands8 TOTAL

area

population

1993 sq mi

sq km

44,702

115,777

58,384

151,215

a8 322 674 372

s 854 1,746 963

104,454

270,534

Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

83.8 85.7

89.2 92.2

94.3 95.8

100.0 100.0

102.6 102.6

103.6 103.5

105.0

2,604,100 982,000 213,800 44,400 140,100 230,700 134,000 107,500 344,600 407,000 889,300 451,700 114,400 186,900 102,600 33,700 800

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992-93) 2.8; annual income per household (1991) $NZ 39,600 (U.S.$21,430); sources of income (1987-88): wages and salaries 68.7%, transfer payments 14.1%, self-employment 8.1%; expenditure (1992-93): housing 18.5%, food 17.4%, transportation 16.8%, household durable goods 13.8%, clothing 4.8%. Land use (1992): forested 27.5%; meadows and pastures 50.9%; agricultural

3,494,200

Imports (1993): $NZ 17,332,700,000 (machinery 24.1%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 20.7%; transport equipment 14.0%; basic manufactures 9.4%;

and under permanent cultivation 1.5%; other 20.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) $NZ '000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

+3,215.0 13.6%

+1,380.6 4.8%

+1,349.1 44%

+3,359.6 11.2%

+2,451.0 7.2%

+1,673.4 4.6%

metals and metal products 4.3%; textiles, clothing, and footwear 2.0%). Major import sources: Australia 21.6%; U.S. 18.5%; Japan 15.3%; U.K. 6.1%;

Demography

Germany 4.2%. Exports (1993): $NZ 19,006,000,000 (food and live animals 42.5%; basic man-

Population (1994): 3,525,000,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 33.8, persons per sq km 13.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 68.5%; rural 31.5%.

ufactures 21.9%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 6.9%; metals and metal

Sex distribution (1993): male 49.28%; female 50.72%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 23.1%; 15-29, 24.2%; 30-44, 22.5%; 45-59, 14.6%; 60-74, 11.0%; 75 and over, 4.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,786,000; (2010) 4,097,000. Doubling time: 75 years. Ethnic composition (1991): New Zealand European 73.8%; New Zealand Maori 9.6%; Pacific Island Polynesian 3.6%; multiethnic 4.5%; other 8.5%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Anglican

21.4%; Presbyterian

16.0%; Roman

Catholic 14.8%; Methodist 4.1%; nonreligious 19.7%; other 24.0%. Major cities (1992): Auckland 316,900; Christchurch 293,700; Manukau 229,800; North Shore 153,300; Wellington 150,100.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.2 (world avg. 26.0); (1992) legitimate 63.3%; illegitimate 36.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4.

USS. 11.9%; U.K. 6.4%; South Korea 4.5%; Germany 2.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 2,469 mi, 3,973 km; passenger-km (1984) 458,160,000;

short

ton-mi

cargo

(1992-93)

1,712,000,000,

metric

ton-km

cargo 2,500,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 58,605 mi, 94,315 km (paved 73%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,562,134; trucks and buses 328,510. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 139; total deadweight tonnage 279,805. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 6,591,000,000, passenger-km 10,608,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 227,000,000, metric ton-km

cargo 332,000,000; airports (1994) 36. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 35; total circulation 1,100,000; circulation per 1,000 population 322. Radio (1991): 3,100,000 receivers (1 per 1.1 persons). Television (1991): 1,100,000 receivers (1 per 3.1 persons). Telephones (1988): 2,403,000 (1 per 1.4 persons).

Education (1993)

Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 72.0 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 341.6, of which ischemic heart disease 199.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 201.1; diseases of the respiratory system 73.5; accidents 48.2; diabetes mellitus 11.9.

National economy Budget (1992-93): $NZ 29,874,000,000 (income tax 42.6%, goods and services interest

products 6.9%). Major export destinations: Australia 20.0%; Japan 14.7%;

Education and health

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.7.

tax 19.9%,

10.511 100.0

Population economically active (19931): total 1,645,700; activity rate 47.1%

1 £=$NZ 2.63.

Area and population

19.0 9.5 25.4

and profits 7.8%, excise duties 6.2%). Expenditures:

$NZ 31,468,000,000 (social services 34.0%, education 14.4%, administration

14.0%, health 12.9%). Public debt (year ending June 30, 1992): $NZ 26,378,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$1,032,000,000; expenditures U.S.$977,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): barley 347,000, corn (maize) 171,000, wheat 171,000, peas 80,000, oats 73,000; livestock (number of live animals) 51,000,000 sheep, 8,675,000 cattle, 470,000 goats, 430,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 15,560,000 cu m; fish catch

(1993) 580,874. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 3,720,686; iron ore

schools

Primary (age 5-12) 12 Secondary (age 13-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 13

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

21,247 14,946 5,734 4,088

434,308 230,132 99,299 97,835

20.4 15.4 17.3 23.9

2,412 339 30 7

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary and some secondary education 54.9%; secondary 31.1%;

higher 6.9%; not specified 6.1%. Literacy: virtually 100.0%. Health (1993): physicians 10,787 (1 per 359 persons); hospital beds (1989) 29,352 (1 per 114 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,461 (vegetable products 59%, animal products 41%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 10,000 (army 45.0%, air force 33.0%, navy 22.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 1.5% (world, n.a.);

per capita expenditure U.S.$194.

and sand concentrate 2,934,143; serpentine 23,781; silver 22,000 kg; gold 10,-

000 kg. Manufacturing (1991-92): wood pulp 1,343,300; chemical fertilizers 994,0009; cement 599,000; beer 362,656,000 litres9; carbonated soft drinks 179,378,000 litres; footwear 4,022,000 pairs®. Construction ($NZ ’000; 1992-

93): residential 2,284,800; nonresidential 1,088,500. Energy production (consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 31,271,000,000

(31,271,000,000);

coal

(metric tons; 1992) 2,830,000 (2,430,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 13,959,000 (32,743,000); petroleum

products

(metric tons; 1992) 4,635,000

(4,158,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 6,877,100,000 (4,605,900,000),

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$44,660,000,000 (U.S.$12,900 per capita).

‘Provisional; March 5. 2Reorganized as a unitary authority that is administered by a district council with regional powers. 3Reorganized as three separate unitary authorities: Nelson city, Tasman district, and Marlborough district. 4Includes the population of Kermadec Islands and persons on oil rigs. 5Includes the population of Chatham Islands county and Campbell Island. Excludes islands in Regional Councils. 7Part of Southland Regional Council. 8Chatham Islands county remains outside any Regional Council. 91990—91. 10Includes import duties less imputed bank service charges. Includes 162,300 unemployed. !2Includes 83 composite schools that provide both primary and secondary education. !3Universities only.

Nations of the World

Nicaragua

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1988 1989 1990

Official name: Reptblica de Nicaragua — (Republic of Nicaragua). ; Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [921]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Managua. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 cérdoba oro

Consumer price index Earnings index

Esteli

Granada Jinotega

Leon

Leon

Madriz Managua Masaya Matagalpa Nueva Segovia

Somoto Managua Masaya Matagalpa Ocotal San Carlos

Rio San Juan Rivas

Rivas

Autonomous regions North Atlantic South Atlantic TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

population sq km

4,244 1,050 4,926 6,378 2,335 929. 9,755

1,972

5,107

619 1,418 228 3,291 1,206 2,885

1,602 3,672 590 8,523, 3,123 7,473

832

2,155

1991 estimate

121,561 154,989 335,596 141,676 171,215 154,912 178,195 350,275 98,737 1,108,720 211,123 350,627 124,659 44,576 138,676

Bluefields

1993 4,303

32,159 27,407 121,428 10,242 131,670

1991

in value _C$'000,0008. 9° 4,349 ans 4,060 556 507

% of total value 24.1 0.6 22.5 3.1 2.8

labour force

% of labour force

415,400 9,000 188,200 30,200 10,300

30.0 0.6 13.6 2.2 0.7

942 3,337

5.2 18.5

42,600 195,500

3.1 14.1

589 2,028

3.3 11.2

24,700 98,100

1,570 _ 18,0544

8.7 — 100.0

183,900 188,40010 1,386,300

1.8 71 13.3 13.610 100.04

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$8,994,000,000.

Land use (1992): forested 27.0%; meadows and pastures 46.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.7%; other 16.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000

% of total 12,417 10,582 46,8844 3,954 50,838

1992 3418

1992

Area and population

Boaco Carazo Chinandega Chontales

1991 2,842

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1 U.S.$ = C$6.74; 1 £=C$10.71.

sqm 1,639 405 1,902 2,463 902 359 3,766

100.0

(U.S.$360 per capita).

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Capitals Boaco Jinotepe Chinandega Juigalpa Esteli Granada Jinotega

1.32

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,434,000,000

(C$)2= 100 centavos;

Departments

0.03

681

313,694

— 483.9 51.0%

— 236.6 27.6%

— 236.8 26.4%

1991

1992

1993

—419.1 43.3%

—576.2 57.0%

—393.0 42.4%

Imports (1992): U.S.$793,700,000 (consumer goods 35.0%, petroleum products 14.6%, capital goods for industry 12.9%). Major import sources1!: United States 24.0%; former U.S.S.R. 10.0%; Cuba 8.0%; Guatemala 7.0%; Costa Rica 6.0%; Japan 6.0%.

3,999,231

Demography

Exports (1992): U.S.$217,500,000 (coffee 20.3%, fresh and frozen meat 17.6%, cotton 11.8%, sugar 8.6%, bananas 4.5%, sesame 2.6%). Major export

Population (1994): 4,210,000. Density (1994)5: persons per sq mi 89.8, persons per sq km 34.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 61.6%; rural 38.4%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.16%; female 49/84%.

Transport and communications

destinations |1:; United States 19.0%; Germany 15.0%; Canada 8.0%; Greece 6.0%; Japan 6.0%; Mexico 5.0%.

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 45.4%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,457,000; (2010) 4,900,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1991): mestizo (Spanish/Indian) 69.0%; white

Transport. Railroads: 12,Roads (1993): total length 9,499 mi, 15,287 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 35,000; trucks and buses 35,000. Mer-

chant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 25; total deadweight tonnage 1,295. Air transport (1990)13: passenger-mi 69,000,000, passenger-

17.0%;

black 9.0%; Amerindian 5.0%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 89.3%; other (mostly Baptist, Moravian, and Pentecostal) 10.7%. Major cities (1992)6: Managua 973,759; Ledén 172,042; Masaya 101,878; Chinandega 101,605; Matagalpa 95,268; Granada 91,929.

Vital statistics

km 111,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,470,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,600,-

000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total circulation 113,000; circulation per 1,000 population 28. Radio (1993): 880,000 receivers (1 per 4.8 persons). Television (1993): 210,000 receivers (1 per 20 persons). Telephones (1991): 54,28014 (1 per 76 persons). Education and health

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.6 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 28.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 60.7 years; female 66.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991)7: diseases of the circulatory system 141.9; infectious and parasitic diseases’ 100.1; accidents and violence 94.0; diseases of the respiratory system 73.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 56.6.

Education (1991) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

4,402

18,646

"674,045

36.1

4,191

180,112

43.0

3,469

34,846

10.0

407 10

teacher ratio

National economy

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 74.0%. Health (1991): physicians 2,125 (1 per 1,882 persons); hospital beds 4,974 (1 per 804 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 71.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,472 (vegetable products, n.a., animal products, n.a.); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Budget (1994). Revenue: C$2,538,000,000 (indirect taxes 82.9%, direct taxes 11.0%, unspecified 6.1%). Expenditures: C$2,791,000,000 (current expendi-

Military

ture 79.3%, development expenditure 20.7%). ) Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 2,400,000, corn (maize) 283,000, rice 178,000, bananas 136,000, sorghum 105,000, dry beans 73,000, oranges 70,000, plantains 55,000, cassava 52,000, coffee 50,000, pineapples 45,000, sesame seed 11,000; livestock

Total active duty personnel (1993): 15,200 (army 88.8%, navy 3.3%, air force 7.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 4.0% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

(number of live animals) 1,680,000 cattle, 709,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 3,565,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 5,709, of which crustaceans 3,192. Mining

and quarrying (1992): gold 42,568 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of produc-

tion in C$’000,000; 19918): food 1,579; beverages 945; tobacco products 447; cement, bricks, and tile 236; rubber products 215; textiles 188. Construction

(completed; 1991): 569 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electric-

ity (kW-hr;

1992) 1,601,000,000

(1,636,000,000); coal, none

(none); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (5,212,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 635,000 (720,000); natural gas, none (none). — Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 6.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$21,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$30,000,000.

ae

Population economically active (1991): total 1,386,300; activity rate of total population 34.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 62.0%; female 33.2%; unemployed [1994] more than 60.0%).

1Includes two unsuccessful 1990 presidential candidates meeting special conditions. 2The cérdoba oro (gold cordoba), introduced in August 1990, circulated simultaneously with the new cordoba until April 30, 1991, when the new cérdoba ceased-to

be legal tender; on April 30, 1 cérdoba oro equaled 5,000,000 new cérdobas. The new cérdoba had been introduced in February 1988 at the rate of 1 new cordoba to 1,000 (old) cérdobas. 3Lakes and lagoons are excluded from the areas of departments and autonomous regions. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Based on land area. 6Municipio population. 7Projected rates based on about 50% of total deaths. 8At prices of 1980. 9Estimated figures. 10Unemployed persons previously employed. !1Estimated percentages. !2Railroad service halted in January 1994 because of insufficient revenue. !3Aeronica only. !4Number of lines. :

682

Britannica World Data

camels, 82,000 horses; roundwood (1992) 5,289,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 3,150. Mining and quarrying (1993): uranium 2,914. Manufacturing (1990): oil processed meat 115,000; cement 27,000; butter 3,000; peanut (groundnut)

Niger Official name: République du Niger (Republic of Niger). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative body (High Council of the Republic [83]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Niamey. Official language: French. Official religion: none.

ion 1,000; beer 92,000 hectolitres; cotton fabrics 36,000,000 sq m. Construct

(value added in CFAF; 1991): 15,085,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 171,000,000 (361,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 170,000 (170,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (201,000); natural gas, none (n.a.)._ Population economically active (1992): total 4,130,000; activity rate of total population 50.0% (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 53.5%; female 20.7%; unemployed, n.a.). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc

(CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF 837.67.

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index4

Area and population Departments Agadez3 Diffa Dosso Maradi Tahoua

Capitals Agadez Diffa Dosso Maradi Tahoua

Tillabéry Zinder

Zinder

Tillabéry

TOTAL

sq mi

_sqkm_

1988 census2

244,869 54,138 11,970 14,896 41,188 34,863 56,151 458,075

634,209 140,216 31,002 38,581 106,677 90,293 145,430 1,186,408

205,232 187,230 1,018,058 1,386,549 1,306,948 1,715,118 1,409,417 7,228,552

CFAF '000,000 % of total

Urban-rural (1991): urban 20.2%; rural 79.8%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.7%; 15-29, 25.9%; 30-44, 14.6%; 45-59,

7.8%; 60 and over, 4.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,640,000; (2010) 14,326,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Hausa 52.8%; Zerma-Songhai

21.0%; Tuareg

10.6%; Fulani 9.8%; Kanuri-Nanga 4.5%; Teda 0.5%; Arab 0.3%; Gurma 0.3%; other 0.2%.

Religious affiliation (1988): Muslim, primarily Sunni, 98.6%; other, mostly traditional beliefs, 1.4%. Major cities (1988): Niamey 392,169; Zinder 119,838; Maradi 109,386; Tahoua 49,941; Agadez 49,361.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 51.3 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000. population (1990-95): 18.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 7.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 44.9 years; female 48.1 years. Major causes of death (1989): n.a.; however, among selected major causes registered at medical facilities are measles, diarrhea, meningitis, malaria, pneumonia, tetanus, viral hepatitis, and poliomyelitis.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: CFAF 188,400,000,000 (current revenues 44.3%, foreign loans 31.2%, external aid and gifts 24.5%). Expenditures: CFAF 45.0%, capital expenditures

38.0%,

amortization of public debt 17.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,362,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$17,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$9,000,000. prices; 1993): U.S.$2,279,000,000

(U.S.$270 per capita). 1991 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade and finance

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

26,727 117,083

}

labour force 3,222,000

; Y

% of labour force 86.9

1993 74.6

1987 — 12,000 5.2%

=11,400 4.7%

(1990): CEAF

1988 — 20,900 8.6%

107,200,000,000

— 20,900 8.4%

— 12,300 6.5%

—5,000 2.8%

25.6%,

(food and live animals

ma-

beverages

and tobacco

4.7%). Major export destinations

(1991):

11.1%,

France

81.0%; Nigeria 6.6%; United States 2.0%; Canada 1.9%; Mali 1.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): none®. Roads (1991): total length 12,244 mi, 19,705 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 31,427; trucks and buses 8,768. Air transport (1992)7: passenger-mi 126,000,000, passenger-km 203,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 11,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 16,000,000;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1; total 5,000; circulation per 1,000 population 0.6. Radio (1993): total receivers 400,000 (1 per 21 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 25,000 (1 per 341 persons). Telephones (1992): 14,040 persons).

circulation number of number of (1 per 588

Education and health Education (1990) schools Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

2,807 1058 78 38

teachers 8,759 2,534 190 3419, 10

students

student/ teacher ratio

368,732 74,337 2,424 4,5068

4241 29.3 12.7 11.19.10

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 85.0%; Koranic education 11.2%; primary education 2.5%; secondary 1.1%; higher 0.2%. Literacy (1988): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 10.8%; males literate 16.7%; females literate 5.4%. Health: physicians (1989) 140 (1 per 52,900 persons); hospital beds (1979) 3,261 (1 per 1,633 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 124.0.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,239 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 95% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Total active duty personnel (1994): 5,300 (army 98.1%, air force 1.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 1.0% (world [1991] 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$4.

2.6

389,000

143,557 14,500 656,725

100.0

75.6 100.0.

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force % Of total value

1992

79.1 100.0

3.6%; The Netherlands 3.6%; Italy 3.4%. Exports (1990): CFAF 106,000,000,000 (uranium 79.6%, live animals

,

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.32%; female 50.68%.

in value CFAF '000,000 245,995 34,516 43,921 15,085 15,341

1991

85.8 100.0

chinery and transport equipment 22.3%, basic manufactures 16.7%, mineral fuels 12.9%, chemicals 10.2%). Major import sources (1991): France 23.5%; Céte d’Ivoire 10.0%; West Germany 5.7%; United Kingdom 5.4%; Japan

Population (1994): 8,813,000. Density (1994)1: persons per sq mi 17.7, persons per sq km 6.8.

Gross national product (at current market

1990

86.5 100.0

Balance of trade (current prices)

Imports

(current expenditures

1989

89.0 100.0

Foreign trade5

Demography

188,400,000,000

1988

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 6.4; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1977): self-employment 59.5%, family 30.1%, salary or wages 4.8%, employer 0.7%; expenditure (1983): food and beverages 50.5%, household expenses 19.1%, clothing 7.3%. Land use (1992): forested 1.5%; meadows and pastures 6.97%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.8%; other (largely desert) 88.8%.

population.

areal

1987

3,707,000

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

!The departmental areas and total shown are obsolete. The total area, according to recent official estimates, is 497,000 sq mi (1,287,000 sq km); but subtotals distributing this total among the departments remain unpublished. 2De jure. 3The peace accord signed in October 1994 provided for an eventual limited autonomy for the Tuaregs. 4Guaranteed minimum wage for professionals. ‘Import figures are c.i.f. in balance

millet 1,430,000, pulses 508,000, sorghum 305,000, vegetables and melons 257,000 (of which onions 175,000), roots and tubers 255,000, sugarcane 140,000, rice 72,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 60,000, wheat 4,000, seed cotton

of trade, commodities, and trading partners. ©Niger is a cofounder of the Common Benin-Niger Organization (OCBN) for Railroads and Transport, currently maintaining

3,000, corn (maize) 1,000, tobacco leaf 1,000; livestock (number of live ani-

freight transported between the two countries is carried by truck. 7Air Afrique. 81989. 91988. 10Université de Niamey and Ecole Nationale d’Administration du Niger only.

mals) 5,407,000 goats, 3,505,000 sheep, 1,800,000 cattle, 462,000 asses, 370,000

rail operations only in Benin but having the purpose of extending rail services from the sea at Cotonou, Benin, to Dosso and, ultimately, Niamey, Niger; in the interim,

Nations of the World

Nigeria

000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 11,355,000 (11,509,000); natural

gas (cu m; 1992) 4,900,000,000 (4,900,000,000).

Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria. Form of government: military regime?.

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$29,000,000; expenditures U.S.$348,000,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$32,517,000,000 (U.S.$310 per capita).

Head of state and government: military leader. Capital: Abuja (Federal Capital Territory)2. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Nigerian naira

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value #'000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

(®) = 100 kobo; valuation (Oct. 7,

Public utilities

1994) 1 U.S.$=22.00; 1 £=34.99,

Transp. and commun. Trade cieda ub. admin., defense

Area and population

States

Capitals

Abia

Umuahia

Adamawa Akwa lbom

Yola Uyo

Anambra Bauchi

Awka Bauchi

Benue Borno Cross River Delta

Makurdi Maiduguri Calabar Asaba

Edo

Enugu Imo Jigawa

Taraba Yobe

asq:kmsy.) _censuss2 “

35,2865 2,734

4

91,3905 7,081

2,124,049 2,359,736

13,7079

35,5009

6 4,5754 10

6 11,8504 10

3,161,295 2,485,499 2,829,929

46,053 43,285 10 24,192

3,969,252 5,632,040 3,878,344

" 7,12 25,818 12

"1 7,12 66,869 12

2,062,226 2,099,046 1,566,469

Ikeja Minna

1,292 25,111

3,345 65,037

5,685,781 2,482,367

Abeokuta Akure Oshogbo Ibadan

6,472 8,092 13 14,558 13

16,762 20,959 13

37,70513

2,338,570 3,884,485 2,203,016 3,488,789

22,405 8,436 39,58911

58,030 21,850 =102,53511

3,283,704 3,983,857 4,392,391

Benin City

Enugu Owerri Dutse

Birnin Kebbi Lokoja llorin

Jos Port Harcourt Sokoto

Jalingo Damaturu

Federal Capital Territory Abuja Abuja TOTAL

17,781 16,71210

9,341

2,767,903 4,294,413 2,780,398 2,596,589 1,865,604 2,570,181 2,159,848

5 8

5 8

1,480,590 1,411,481

2,824

7,315

378,671

923,768

88,514,501

356,66914

1986 % of labour force

% of total value

labour force

98,617 120,850

30.7 37.6

18,559 4,900 1,345 6,388

5.8 1.5 0.4 2.0

13,259,000 6,800 1,263,700 545,600

42,386

13.2

18,199 8,800

5.7 2.7

1,072

Other

es

TOTAL

321,116

43.1 0.1 41 1.8

130,400

0.4

1,111,900 7,417,400

3.6 24.1 0.4

120,100

03

even

is

100.014

oe

2,008,500 16

6.516

30,765,500

100.0

Population economically active (1986): total 30,765,500; activity rate 31.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 58.8%; female 33.3%; unemployed [1992] 4.0%).

2,297,978

45,1747 116,4008 20,156 9

Kaduna Kano

Plateau Rivers Sokoto

1991

F

17,4427 44,9428 7,782 9

Katsina

Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo

Sq.

Services

population

17,6756 64,605

Katsina

Lagos Niger

area

6,8246 24,944

Kaduna Kano

Kebbi Kogi Kwara

683

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Earnings index

100.0 a

113.0

163.4

256.8

40.1 bas

61.9 a

93.1 ee

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1983) 5.0; annual income per household (1981) #2,300 (U.S.$3,745)17; sources of income (1979): self-employment 49.4%, wages 36.2%, interest 5.4%, rent 4.7%, transfer payments 4.3%; expenditures (1979): food 53.0%, fuel and light 11.4%, clothing 6.0%, transportation 4.7%, household goods 3.8%, other 21.1%. Land use (1992): forested 12.4%; pastures 43.9%; agricultural 35.6%; other 8.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+15,401 35.2%

+8,283 14.2%

+29,730 34.5%

+68,587 45.4%

+40,696 20.2%

+76,298 22.8%

Imports (1992): 143,151,200,000 (machinery and transport equipment 43.2%; manufactured goods [mostly iron and steel products, textiles, and paper products] 27.8%; chemicals 16.0%; food 8.8%). Major import sources (1991): Germany 13.8%; U.K. 13.6%; U.S. 11.8%; France 8.9%.

Exports (1992): %205,613,100,000 (crude petroleum 97.9%; cocoa beans 0.6%;

Demography

rubber 0.4%; fertilizer 0.2%; other exports include cocoa products, textiles,

and cashew nuts). Major export destinations (1991): U.S. 40.7%; Spain 12.6%; Germany 8.6%; The Netherlands 5.0%; France 5.0%; Italy 4.0%.

Population (1994): 93,472,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 262.1, persons per sq km 101.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 36.8%; rural 63.2%. Sex distribution (1991): male 50.32%; female 49.68%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 8.0%; 60-74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 105,885,000; (2010) 130,344,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Hausa 21.3%; Yoruba 21.3%; Igbo (Ibo) 18.0%; Fulani 11.2%; Ibibio 5.6%; Kanuri 4.2%; Edo 3.4%; Tiv 2.2%; Ijaw 1.8%; Bura 1.7%; Nupe 1.2%; other 8.1%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 49.0%, of which Protestant 26.3%, Roman Catholic 12.1%, African indigenous 10.6%; Muslim 45.0%; other 6.0%. Major cities (1992): Lagos 1,347,000; Ibadan 1,295,000; Kano 699,900; Ogbomosho 660,600; Oshogbo 441,600; Ilorin 430,600.

Transport. Railroads (1987): length 3,557 km18; passenger-km 3,808,277,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,743,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 112,140 km (paved 28%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 785,000; trucks and buses 625,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 271; total deadweight tonnage 733,329. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 996,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,484,000; airports (1994) 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 24; total circulation 1,553,00019; circulation per 1,000 population 1819. Radio (1993): 10,000,000 receivers (1 per 9.2 persons). Television (1991): 4,100,000 receivers (1 per 30 persons). Telephones (1992): 457,600 (1 per 196 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 46.5 (world avg. 26.0), Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.6. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 53.5 years; female 55.9 years.

Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-12) 20 Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher23

schools

teachers

35,446 5,59421 37621

353,600 141,491 15,738 22 19,601

students

13,776,854 3,123,277 391,583 22 335,824

student/ teacher ratio 38.9 22.1 24,922 WA

Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 29,537,300 (50.7%);

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: *¥110,200,000,000 (1992; petroleum royalties and rents 62.0%; petroleum profit tax 12.8%; import duties 11.6%; company income tax 3.9%). Expenditures: $110,200,000,000 (1992; recurrent expenditure 64.3%, of which debt service 53.7%, defense 2.9%, education 2.8%,

police 2.5%, health 1.4%; capital expenditure 35.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$28,458,000,000.

Transport and communications

:

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cassava 21,000,000, yams 20,000,000, sorghum 4,800,000, millet 3,800,000, rice 3,400,000, plantains and bananas 2,450,000, corn (maize) 2,300,000, sug-

arcane 1,250,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,250,000; livestock (number of live animals) 24,500,000 goats, 16,316,000 cattle, 14,000,000 sheep; roundwood

males literate 17,792,300 (62.3%); females literate 11,745,000 (39.5%).

Health (1987); physicians 16,145 (1 per 5,006 persons); hospital beds 95,694 (1 per 844 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 77.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,200 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 93% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 76,500 (army 81.1%, navy 6.5%, air force 12.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.8% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$2.

(1992) 114,289,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 266,562. Mining and quarrying (1991): limestone 1,435,405; marble 52,379; tin 9,85515. Manufacturing

1Civilian government (in place from Aug. 26, 1993) was overthrown by a military coup on Nov..17, 1993. 2Statutory transfer of capital from Lagos to Abuja took place in December 1991, although full transfer remains incomplete (executive offices, e.g., were

chemical products 165; metal products 160; machinery and transport equipment 159; paper products 62; rubber and plastic products 61. Construction (dwellings completed; 1982): 31,038. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 11,800,000,000 (11,700,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992), 95,000. (60,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 669,908,000 (87,780,-

transferred

(value added in U.S.$’000,000; 1990): food and beverages 703; textiles 373;

on Jan 7, 1994). 3Preliminary.

4Imo includes Abia.

5Adamawa

includes

Taraba. “Anambra includes Enugu. 7Benue includes part of Kogi. 8Borno includes Yobe. 9Edo includes Delta. !°Kano includes Jigawa. !!Sokoto includes Kebbi. 12Kwara includes part of Kogi. 13Oyo includes Osun. !4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 151990. 16Includes 1,263,000 unemployed. !7Urban households only. 181992. 19For 15 newspapers only. 201990-91. 211987—88. 221988-89. 231989-90.

684

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$113,525,000,000 (U.S.$26,340 per capita).

Norway

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Kongeriket Norge (Kingdom of Norway). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Parliament [165]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Oslo. Official language: Norwegian. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: 1 Norwegian krone (NKr) = 100 gre; valuation (Oct. 7,

1991

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Services

1. £=NKr 10.65.

Area and population

Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark Hedmark Hordaland More og Romsdal Nordland Nord-Trondelag Oppland Oslo @stfold Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane Sor-Trandelag Telemark Troms Vest-Agder Vestfold

areal

= Arendal Drammen Vadso Hamar Bergen Molde Bodo Steinkjer Lillehammer Oslo Moss Stavanger Leikanger Trondheim Skien Tromso Kristiansand Tonsberg

TOTAL

sq mi

1,898 3,557 5,763 18,779 10,575 6,036 5,832 14,798 8,673 9,753 175 1,615 3,529 7,195 7,271 5,913 10,021 2,811 856 125,050

% of labour force

2.9 0.6

114,000 25,000

5.3 1.2

14.5

a

id

+ 13.5 3.6 3.8

308,000 133,000 20,000

14.5 6.2 0.9

9.0

161,000

76

11.07 9.0 16.3

366,000 157,000

17.2 74

12 ,00e

gee

61,738 |

75,3157 61,709 111,910

98

67,231

=

Population economically active (1993): total 2,131,000; activity rate of total population 49.4% (participation rates: ages 16-64, 79.9710; female 49.2% 10; unemployed 6.0%).

_sqkm _estimate_ 429,709 99,145 227,130 76,442 187,411 419,798 239,786 240,811 127,709 183,320 477,515 238,760 350,729 107,576 255,381 163,152 149,725 148,570 201,908 4,324,5773

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

116.5 128.0

124.3 135.0

130.0 141.0

135.4 149.6

140.0 157.2

143.3 162.3

146.5 167.511

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 2.4; consumption expenditure per household (1991) NKr 180,126 (U.S.$27,785); sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 58.8%, social security 24.27%, self-employment and property income 16.9%; expenditure (1991): housing 19.4%,

transportation

18.4%,

food

12.4%,

6.8%,

Foreign trade

Demography

NkKr ’000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 4,325,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 34.6, persons per sq km 13.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban 75.0%; rural 25.0%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.46%; female 50.54%.

—2,976 1.0%

+27,248 7.9%

Imports (1993): NKr

+48,231 12.9%

170,991,300,000

1991

1992

1993

+59,565 15:9%

+61,730 16.4%

+55,635 14.0%

(machinery and transport equipment

38.9%, of which ships 6.2%, road vehicles 5.9%; metals and metal products

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 19.2%; 15-29, 22.3%; 30-44, 21.8%; 45-59,

:

Population projection: (2000) 4,426,000; (2010) 4,550,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (by country of citizenship; 1993): Norway 96.4%; Denmark 0.4%; Sweden 0.3%; United Kingdom 0.3%; Pakistan 0.3%; United States 0.2%; Iran 0.2%; other 1.9%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Lutheran 87.9%; nonreligious 3.2%; other 8.9%. Major cities (1994)4: Oslo 477,515; Bergen 219,810; Trondheim vanger 102,539; Baerum 94,160.

footwear

and

clothing

household furniture and equipment 6.7%, beverages and tobacco 7.0%.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989 1990

16.1%; 60-74, 13.4%; 75 and over, 7.2%.

3.18 100.0

66,0008 2,130,0009

6.0 100.0

Public debt (1990): U.S.$23,439,000,000.

population 19942

4,917 9,212 14,927 48,637 27,388 15,634 15,104 38,327 22,463 25,260 454 4,183 9,141 18,634 18,831 15,315 25,954 7,281 2,216 323,878

labour force

41,479 686,6869

Other TOTAL

Capitals

99,664

92,591 24,705 26,386

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

Transp. and commun.

% of total value

20,052 3,908

Agriculture Mining Crude petroleum and natural gas

1994) 1 U.S.$=NKr 6.70;

Counties

1992

in value Nkr ’000,000

142,015; Sta-

9.2%, of which iron and steel 4.6%; food products 4.4%, of which fruits and

vegetables 1.5%; petroleum products 2.8%). Major import sources: Sweden 14.1%; Germany 13.5%; U.K. 9.1%; Denmark 7.4%. Exports (1993): NKr 226,626,100,000 (fuels and fuel products 45.9%, of which crude petroleum 39.5%, natural gas 6.5%; machinery and transport equipment

11.8%; metals and metal products 10.6%, of which aluminum

4.4%;

food products 7.9%, of which fish 6.9%). Major export destinations: U.K. 24.6%; Germany 13.0%; Sweden 8.7%; The Netherlands 8.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 4,026 km; passenger-km 2,312,000,-

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 14.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 57.1%; illegitimate 42.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 74.2 years; female 80.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): ischemic heart disease 242.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 224.5; cerebrovascular disease 126.1.

Roads (1994): total length 90,502

km (1991; paved 70%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,633,088; trucks and

buses 396,090. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2,499; total deadweight tonnage 38,298,755. Air transport (1992): passengerkm 8,954,504,000; metric ton-km cargo 617,462,000; airports (1994) 48.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 62; total circulation 2,190,000; circulation per 1,000 population 507. Radio (1993): 3,300,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1993): 1,500,000 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1992) 12: 2,268,486 (1 per 1.9 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

NKr 318,050,000,000 (social-security taxes 24.7%,

value-added taxes 23.5%, taxes on interest and dividends 10.9%, taxes on

petroleum income and activity 3.4%, ordinary income tax 2.9%). Expenditures: NKr 339,977,000,000 (social security and welfare 24.6%, health 8.2%,

debt service 6.3%). Land use (1991): forested 27.1%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.8%; built-up and other 69.7%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,975,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,870,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): barley 663,000, oats 568,000, potatoes 415,000, wheat 246,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 937,500 sheep5, 975,800 cattle, 745,100 pigs; roundwood (1991) 10,987,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 2,374,840, of which capelin 530,400, herring 348,700, cod 271,000, mackerel 227,000. Mining and quarrying (1993)6: iron ore 2,162,000, copper 36,000, zinc 29,000, lead

3,200. Manufacturing (value added in NKr 000,000; 1992): machinery and equipment 27,821, of which transport equipment 6,477, electrical equipment 4,719; food products

000; metric ton-km cargo 2,300,000,000.

19,496; paper

and paper products

12,176; chemical

products 9,967; wood and wood products 4,115. Construction (1993): residential 2,099,000 sq m; nonresidential 2,272,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 110,950,000,000 (108,138,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) 339,000 (690,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 712,436,000 (94,430,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 12,415,000

(8,109,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 27,425,000,000 (2,049,000,000).

student/ teachers 13

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) and vocational Higher

students — teacher ratio 13

3,352

35,416

463,948

13.2

778 199

20,982 8,085

243,797 162,168

11.6 18.4

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 16 and over having: lower secondary education 40.1%; higher secondary 42.8%; higher 17.1%. Literacy (1992): virtually 100% literate.

Health (1992): physicians (1994) 14,497 (1 per 299 persons); hospital beds 23,390 (1 per 183 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.9.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,221 (vegetable products 65%, animal products 35%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 29,400 (army 43.8%, navy 28.2%, air force 27.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.2% (world avg. 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$769. ‘Excludes 3includes idents in and over. previously ‘Second

Svalbard and Jan Mayen (24,360 sq mi [63,080 sq km]). 2January 1. the Norwegian population of Svalbard and Jan Mayen, registered as resmunicipalities on the mainland. 4Population of municipalities. SOne year Metal content of ore. 7Includes hotels. 8Includes 53,000 unemployed not employed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 101992. quarter. 12Main lines only. 131991-92.

Nations of the World

Oman

chemical products 840; food products and beverages 715; wood products 439; paper products 282; other major products include refined petroleum

Official name: Saltanat ‘Uman

products. Construction (1989): number of residential permits 3,408; nonresidential permits 353. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

(Sultanate of Oman).

Form of government: monarchy],

1992) 6,237,000,000 (6,237,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (bar-

Head of state and government: Sultan. Capital: Muscat. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 rial Omani

rels; 1992) 269,869,000 (21,505,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992)

3,043,000 (1,530,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 1,839,200,000 (1,839,200,000).

Population economically active (1990)11; total 680,850; activity rate of total population 39.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] 60.9%; female [1986] 7.5%; unemployed, n.a.).

(RO) = 1,000 baizas; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 RO=U.S.$2.56 = £1.64.

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

1986 Consumer price index Earnings index

Area and population area2

Regions?

Centres4 ar-Rustaq; Suhar Nizwa; Sama’il

al-Batinah ad-Dakhiliyah

al-Janibiyah Masqat Musandam ash-Shargiyah az-Zahirah TOTAL

Salalah

sq mi

sq km

population 1993 census

5,320 29,770

13,770 77,110 117,510 3,670 1,530 41,920 50,490 306,000

538,763 220,403 174,888 622,506 27,669 247,551 169,710 2,017,5915

45,370

Muscat (Masqat)

1,420

Khasab

590

lbra; Sar al-Buraymi; ‘Ibri

16,190 19,490 118,150

1987

1988

93.6 a

94.7 beg

1989

1990

1991

1992

99.4 Pa

100.0

104.6

105.6

Foreign, trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1986 1987 1988 RO '000,000 % of total

Imports

(1991):

+ 142.3 8.0%

+694.2 35.7%

+501.1 24.9%

U.S.$3,193,972,000

1989

1990

1991

+789.1 33.1%

+ 4,197.5 39.4%

+7766 26.2%

(machinery

and

transport

equipment

41.9%, of which road motor vehicles 11.8%, civil-engineering and construction machinery 6.4%; basic manufactured goods 17.5%, of which iron and steel 5.6%; food and live animals 13.8%; miscellaneous manufactured

Population (1994): 2,048,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 17.3, persons per sq km 6.7. Urban-rural (1990): urban 11.0%; rural 89.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 54.68%; female 45.32%.

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 36.0%; 15-29, 27.5%; 30-44, 24.1%; 45-59, 8.0%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,393,000; (2010) 3,119,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Omani Arab 73.5%; Pakistani (mostly Baluchi) 21.0%; other 5.5%.

Religious affiliation (1984): Muslim 86%; Hindu 13%; other 1%. 10,0006.

96.0 a

Land use (1992): meadows and pastures 4.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.3%; other (mostly desert and developed area) 95.0%.

Demography

Major cities (1990): Muscat

685

85,0006; Nizwa 62,880; Sam@il 44,721; Salalah

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 53.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 49.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 69.8 years; female 72.6 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1989): influenza 6,823; malaria 1,235; chicken pox 1,156; mumps 1,048; amebic dysentery 376;

measles 294; bacillary dysentery 206; infectious hepatitis 96; tuberculosis 33; brucellosis 15.

articles 7.8%; chemicals 5.9%; beverages and tobacco 4.0%). Major import sources: United Arab Emirates 25.3%; Japan 20.5%; United Kingdom 10.0%; United States 7.6%; West Germany 5.2%. Exports (1991): U.S.$1,759,564,000 (petroleum 86.1%; road motor vehicles 4.5%; nonferrous metals [copper and aluminum] 0.9%). Major export destinations (1989): Japan 37.2%; South Korea 26.7%; Taiwan 8.6%; Singapore 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.4%; China 3.2%; United States 3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads. (1994): total length 16,372 mi, 26,349 km (paved 20%). Vehicles (1993): automobiles 166,323, trucks and buses 83,888. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 26; total deadweight tonnage 11,727. Air transport (1992)12: passenger-mi 1,194,400,000, passenger-km

1,922,100,000; short ton-mi cargo 47,780,000, metric ton-km

cargo 69,756,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 4; total 61,500; circulation per 1,000 population 39. Radio (1993): total receivers 900,000 (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 1,500,000 (1 per 1.3 persons). Telephones (1992)13: per 15 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: RO 1,732,000,000 (oil revenue 76.0%; other 24.0%). Expenditures: RO 2,033,000,000 (1993; recurrent budget 67.2%, of which defense 29.5%, education 9.1%, general public services 5.3%, fuel and

circulation number of number of 130,110 (1

Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-17) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher

teachers

416 12814

10,839 8,112

2514

425

514

43315

students

student/ teacher ratio

289,911 137,947 2,814 3,61516

26.7 17.0 6.6

energy 5.3%, health 4.6%; capital development projects 32.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,340,000,000.

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 6 and over

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$9,500,000,000

Health (1990): physicians 1,393 (1 per 1,078 persons); hospital beds 3,952 (1 per 380 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 22.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

(U.S.$5,600 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992 1990

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

TOTAL

in value RO '000,0007

% of total value

labour force

143.7 1,887.6

3.3. 42.7

146,400 2,800

ant 0.5

4.3 4.0 1.5

32,800 104,800 4,100

6.2 19.8. 0.8

160.9 615.9 160.9 772.5 287.18 —47,59

3.6 13.9 3.6 17.5 6.58 Se

14,500 87,500 9,400 81,000 45,800

2.7 16.5 1.8 15.3 8.7

529,100

100.0

4,417.4

100.010

Military

% of labour force

190.2 178.6 67.5

literate 41%; males literate 58%; females literate 24%.

Total active duty personnel (1994): 39,200 (army 80.4%17, navy 10.7%, air force 8.9%); foreign troops 3,700. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): 15% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,060.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$85,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$47,000,000.

'

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 3.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; food expenditure (1988): meat and fish 23.9%, fruits and vegetables 22.0%, bread and cereals 17.4%, dairy products and eggs 10.7%, other foods 26.07%. i Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables and melons 163;000 (of which watermelons 30,000), dates 133,000, bananas 26,000, mangoes 11,000, onions 9,000, potatoes 6,000, papayas 3,000, tobacco leaf 2,000, wheat 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 735,000

goats, 148,000 sheep, 142,000 cattle, 94,000 camels, 3,000,000 chickens; fish

catch (1992) 112,313. Mining and quarrying (1992): copper 13,600; silver 2,700 kg; gold 20 kg. Manufacturing (value added in RO 000; 1990): textiles atid apparel 13,957; metal products 2,303; machinery and equipment 1,797;

1The sultan is assisted by an appointed 60-member advisory council consisting of 59 governorate (wilayah) representatives and the sultan’s representative, who leads the body. 2Approximate; no comprehensive survey of surface area has ever been carried out in Oman. 3Regions are divided into 59 governorates. “Centres of the regions are not administrative capitals. SIncludes the population (16,101) of al-Wosta, which is not shown separately. ©1982. 7In purchasers’ value at current prices. 8Services include real estate and business services. 9Other includes import duties less imputed bank service charges. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. !!NonOmani workers constitute approximately 55-60% of the labour force. !2One-fourth apportionment of international flights of Gulf Air. '3Includes main lines. 14198990. 151990; universities and equivalent institutes. 161991—92. 17Including personnel of Royal Household units not formally part of army table of organization.

686

Britannica World Data

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Pakistan

1992-93

Official name: \slam-i Jamhiriya-e Pakistan (Islamic Republic of Pakistan). Form of government: multiparty, federal Islamic republic with two legislative houses (Senate [87]; National Assembly [217]). Chief of state: President. Chief of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Islamabad. Official language: Urdi. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Pakistan Rupee (PRs) = 100 paisa; valuation

PRs 000,000.

Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

51,297 44,774

__value_—»-—_

force

force

a K

15,030,000

44.5 41.

2,100,000 260,000

6.2 0.8

1,660,000 4,200,000

49 12.4

4,510,000

13.3

2,120,0003 33,800,000

6.33 100.0

3.8 3.3

9.2 14.5 6.5 7.0 } 6.8 10.4 100.0

125,219 196,315 88,722 95,372 93,000 141,882 1,359,338

6

0, COU

15.5

210,135

Population economically active (1992-93): total 33,800,000; activity rate of total population 28.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1991-92] 50.8%; female [1991-92] 14.2%; unemployed 6.3%). Price index (1985 = 100)

Area and population

area!

population

1983 Capitals Quetta Peshawar Lahore Karachi

Federally Administered Tribal Areas Federal Capital Area Islamabad TOTAL

304,603 8,019

Manufdewring

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=PRs 30.62; 1 £=PRs 48.70.

Provinces Balochistan North-West Frontier Punjab Sindh

Agriculture Minin

% of labour

labour

% of total

in value

a

sq mi

sq km

estimate2

134,051 28,773

79,284 54,407

347,190 74,521 205,344 140,914

4,611,000 11,658,000 50,460,000 20,312,000

10,509

27,220

2,329,000

350 307,374

906 796,095

359,000 89,729,000

Consumer price index

Demography

Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 46.3%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 14.0%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 154,794,000; (2010) 197,672,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Linguistic composition (1981): Punjabi 48.2%; Pashto Saraiki 9.8%; Urdii 7.6%; other 9.5%.

1989

1990

1991

127.2

138.7

155.0

177.0

169.8

tionals abroad U.S.$679,000,000.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$18,476,000,000.

Foreign trade4 Balance of trade (current prices)

1988

— 37,093 16.1%

— 27,036 14.2%

— 24,896 9.3%

— 54,352 12.6%

— 31,283 7.9%

— 28,537 8.4%

Imports (1992-93): PRs 258,642,900,000 (petroleum products 15.5%, specialized machinery 12.9%, road vehicles 10.1%, vegetable oil and fats 5.9%, wheat 4.7%, organic chemicals 3.6%, iron and steel manufactures 3.2%,

telecommunications equipment 3.0%). Major import sources: Japan 15.9%; US. 9.4%; Germany 7.5%; Saudi Arabia 5.4%; Malaysia 5.1%; U.K. 4.8%; South Korea 4.5%; France 4.2%; China 4.2%.

Exports (1992-93): PRs

177,027,900,000

(textile fabrics 51.4%, ready-made

garments 21.5%, cotton 4.7%, rice 4.7%, leather and leather goods 3.5%,

13.1%; Sindhi 11.8%;

Religious affiliation (1981): Muslim 96.7%; Christian 1.6%; Hindu 1.5%; other 0.2%. Major cities (1981): Karachi 5,208,132; Lahore 2,952,689; Faisalabad 1,104,209; Rawalpindi 794,843; Islamabad 204,364.

fresh fish 2.7%, professional instruments 1.5%). Major export destinations: U.S. 13.9%; Germany 7.8%; U.K. 7.1%; Japan 6.8%; Hong Dubai 5.9%; Saudi Arabia 4.7%; France 4.3%.

Kong 6.6%;

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1991-92):

route

length

(1992-93)

5,453

mi, 8,775

km; passenger-mi 11,285,000,000, passenger-km 18,161,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 4,085,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,964,000,000. Roads (1991-92):

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 40.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1975-80): 10.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1975-80): 0.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 59.3 years; female 60.7 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total deaths; 1987): malaria 18.2%; childhood diseases 12.1%; diseases of digestive system 9.8%; diseases of respiratory system 9.2%; infection of intestinal tract 7.7%.

total length 111,693 mi, 179,752 km (paved 51%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 731,500; trucks and buses 213,000.

Merchant

marine

(1992): vessels

(100 gross tons and over) 73; total deadweight tonnage 513,823. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 10,104,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 408,048,000;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 34. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 274; total circulation 809,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 10,000,000 (1 per 13 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 2,080,000 (1 per 62 persons). Telephones (1991): 1,294,690 (1 per 95 persons). Education and health

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: PRs 288,693,000,000 (nontax receipts 27.1%, customs duties 25.7%, excise taxes 14.5%, income taxes 14.0%). Expenditures: PRs 272,455,000,000 (public-debt service 48.1%, defense 32.7%, subsidies 1.8%, law and order 1.7%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (199293): sugarcane 38,059,000, wheat 16,159,000, rice 3,116,000, corn (maize) 1,178,000, gram 329,000, jowar 238,000, cotton 9,054,000 bales; livestock (number of live animals) 40,200,000 goats, 27,700,000 sheep, 18,700,000 buffalo, 17,800,000 cattle, 1,100,000 camels, 182,600,000 poultry; roundwood

(1992) 26,567,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 553,118. Mining and quarrying (1992-93): limestone 9,015,000; rock salt 895,000; gypsum 533,000; silica sand 158,000; chromite 23,000. Manufacturing (1992-93): cement 8,600,000; chemical fertilizers 3,203,000, of which urea 2,306,000; refined sugar 2,397,000; cotton yarn 1,219,000; chemicals 373,000; vegetable products 319,000;

jute textiles 97,500; paper and paperboard

1988 117.9

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$120,000,000; expenditures by na-

PRs '000,000 % of total

Population (1994)?: 131,434,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 386.9, persons per sq km 149.4. Urban-rural (1993): urban 32.0%; rural 68.0%. Sex distribution (1993): male 52.50%; female 47.50%.

1987

108.4

66,500; cotton

000,000 sq m; cigarettes 33,300,000,000 units; motor-vehicle

textiles 325,-

Education (1992-93) Primary (age 5-9) Secondary (age 10-14) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

124,171 19,117 710 797

360,100 276,400 6,772 29,076

14,120,000 4,770,000 91,000 721,600

39.2 17.3 13.4 24.8

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 78.9%; some primary education 8.7%; some secondary 10.5%; postsecondary 1.9%. Literacy (1993): total population age 15 and over literate 35.0%; males literate 47.3%; females literate 22.3%),

Health (1992); physicians 55,572 (1 per 2,242 persons); hospital beds 76,938 (1 per 1,619 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 104.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,280 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

tires 1,263,000

units; bicycles 573,000 units. Construction (value in PRs; 1984): residential 8,490,000,000; nonresidential 14,579,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 51,972,000,000 (51,972,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 3,188,000 (4,222,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 27,915,000

(53,873,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 6,285,000 (10,653,000);

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 587,000 (army 88.6%, navy 3.7%, air force 7.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 6.1% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$22.

natural gas (cu m; 1992) 13,426,000,000 (13,426,000,000).

Household income and expenditure (1988). Average household size 6.3; income per household PRs 25,572 (U.S.$1,420); sources of income: self-employment 56.0%, wages and salaries 22.0%, other 22.0%; expenditure: food 47.0%, housing 12.0%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, other 33.0%.

Land use (1992): forested 5.3%; meadows and pastures 6.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 27.4%; built-on, wasteland, and other 60.8%.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$54,045,000,000

(U.S.$440 per capita).

1Excludes 32,323 sq mi (83,716 sq km) of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, administered, but not claimed, by Pakistan. 21983 provincial estimates exclude and 1994 estimate includes Afghan refugees and residents of Pakistani-occupied Jammu and Kashmir.

3Includes unemployed. 4Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.if. for commodities and trading partners.

Nations of the World

Palau

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing; n.a.; livestock (number of live animals) n.a.; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1992) 4,068. Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing: n.a. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 22,000,000 (23,288,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$100,000,000. Population economically active (1990): total 6,072; activity rate of total population 40.2% (participation rates: ages 16-64, 64.1%; female 36.9%; unemployed 7.8%). Land use: n.a. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 5.0; income per household (1989) U.S.$8,882; sources of income (1989): wages 63.7%, social security 12.0%, self-employment 7.4%, retirement 5.5%, inter-

Official name: Belwu era Belau

(Palauan); Republic of Palau

(English). Form of government: unitary republic with two legislative houses (Senate [14]; House of Delegates [16]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Koror. Official languages: Palauan; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 U.S. dollar (U.S.$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

est, dividend, or net rental 4.3%, remittance 4.1%, public assistance 1.0%,

1994) 1 £=U.S.$1.59,

other 2.0%; expenditure: n.a.

Foreign trade

Area and population

area States

687

Imports (1993): U.S.$40,000,000 (1984; food and agricultural raw materials

-population

28.9%; machinery and transport equipment 24.5%; chemicals and related

1990

sq mi

sq km

census

products 4.0%). Major import sources (1984): United States 41.8%; Japan

20 17 3 1 1 7 an 14 18 25 18 16 4 10

439 1,234 206 22 137 10,501 244 310 149 281 62 287 354 234 601 61

Exports (1986): U.S.$500,000 (1984; food and agricultural raw materials 69.1%; manufactured goods 30.9%). Major export destinations (1984): Japan 58.8%; United States 8.0%. :

1

52 44 8 3 3 18 28 36 47 65 47 4 10 26 13 3

18 1881

47 4871

ay 15,122

Education and health

Aimeliik Airai Angaur Hatohobei Kayangel Koror Melekeok Ngaraard Ngardmau Ngaremlengui Ngatpang Ngchesar Ngerchelong Ngiwal Peleliu Sonsorol

5

Other Rock Islands TOTAL

38.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993): total length 38 mi, 61 km (paved 59%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars and trucks 1,687. Merchant marine (1991): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 4; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport: n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 9,000 (1 per 67 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 1,600 (1 per 9.4 persons). Telephones (1988): 1,500 (1 per 9.3 persons).

Education (1990) schools4

Demography

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Vocational Higher

Population (1994): 17,200. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 91.5, persons per sq km 35.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 59.6%; rural 40.4%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 53.82%; female 46.18%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 30.3%; 15-29, 27.8%; 30-44, 22.8%; 45-59, 10.5%; 60-74, 6.4%; 75 and over, 2.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 20,300; (2010) 25,500. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1990): Palauan 83.2%; Filipino 9.8%; other Micronesian 2.0%; Chinese 1.2%; white 0.8%; other 3.0%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 40.8%; Protestant 24.8%; traditional beliefs 24.8%; other 9.6%.

Major cities (1990): Koror 9,018.

26 6

16 =

teachers4

students

289 5

2,365 1,275, 8157 382

366

student/ teacher ratio

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 1.8%; some primary education 21.8%; completed

primary 5.5%; some secondary 13.3%; completed secondary 26.6%; some postsecondary 11.1%; higher 19.9%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 10,288 (97.6%); males literate 5,677 (98.3%); females

literate 4,611 (96.6%). Health (1986): physicians 108 (1 per 1,396 persons); hospital beds 70 (1 per 200 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 25. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 21.8 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69 years; female 73 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985-86): diseases of the circulatory system 176.5; diseases of the respiratory system 99.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 95.9; malignant and benign neoplasms (cancers)

Total active duty personnel: n.a.

92.1; diseases of the digestive system 34.5; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 19.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 15.3.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: U.S.$46,660,000 (cash grants from the U.S. 35.4%, tax revenue 26.4%). Expenditures: U.S.$28,871,000. Tourism (1991): total number of visitors 32,700. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.$31,600,0002

(U.S.$2,260 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1985 in value U.S.$'000

Agriculture, fisheries Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and eoheenbinieadions Trade Finance i inistration, wdatenes ha Services Other TOTAL

;

1990 % of total value

labour force

% of labour force

ae dy 4 si me

16.0 as at 1.0 11.0

445 14 100 78 919

Tae 0.2 1.7 1.3 15

a A i

3.0 19.0 4.0

415 1,207 120

6.8 19.9 2.0

36.0 2.0 8.03

870 1,672 232 6,072

14.3 27.6 3.8 100.0

A 2. ee 31,580

1Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Gross national product comprises U.S. government spending only. 3Includes mining and manufacturing. 41987. 5Included with primary. ©1984. 7Figure reflects completed requirements for a program. 8Government-employed health personnel only.

688

Britannica World Data

Panama

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Official name: Reptblica de Panama

Consumer price index Annual earnings index19

(Republic of Panama). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [72]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Vice Presidents. Capital: Panama City. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 balboa (B)=100 cents;

population

_sqmi_

_estimate_ 88,385 396,842 177,070 222.5771 45,020 108,714 82,810 1,168,492 224,676

Penonomé Colon La Palma

6,437

Herrera Los Santos

Chitré Las Tablas

Panama

Panama City Santiago

904 1,470 4,590 4,339

8,745 8,653 4,927 4,890 16,671 2,341 3,806 11,887 11,239

910 29,157

2,357 75,5172

Special territory Comarca de San Blas TOTAL

El Porvenir

1992

_sqkm_

3,376 3,341 1,902 1,888

Veraguas

1 2,514,586

Demography Population (1994): 2,583,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 88.6, persons per sq km 34.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 53.7%; rural 46.3%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.61%; female 49.39%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 34.8%; 15-29, 29.2%; 30-44, 18.2%; 45-59, 10.3%; 60-74, 5.5%; 75 and over, 2.0%. Population projection: (2000) 2,856,000; (2010) 3,266,000. Doubling time: 41 years. \ Ethnic composition (1992): mestizo 64.0%; black and mulatto 14.0%; white

10.0%; Amerindian 8.0%; Asian (mostly Chinese) 4.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 80.0%; Protestant (mostly evangelical) 10.0%; Muslim 5.0%; Baha’ 1.0%; Hindu 0.3%; Jewish 0.3%; other 3.4%.

413,5053; San Miguelito 243,0254; David

65,7635; Col6n 54,654; Bart 46,0935.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 22.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 28.1%; illegitimate 71.9%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 70.6 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 141.5, of which ischemic heart diseases 56.8, cerebrovascular

disease 52.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 73.9; accidents 43.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 31.6; diseases of the respiratory system 27.5.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

103.1

101.3 104.4

B 1,928,600,000 (current revenue

% of labour force’

labour force’

% of total value

23.3 0.3 9.4 5.4 1:2 5.4 19.6 4.2 6.5 19.3 5.414 100.0

214,682 2,357 86,571 49,681 10,774 49,969 180,166 39,174 60,274 177,326 49,567 14 920,541

10.8 0.2 9.2 5.3 3.9 25.012 11.8 14.7 13.0 8.6 —2,513

236.7 4.3 202.8 117.5 86.2 549.212 259.1 322.2 285.8 189.0 —54.113 2,198.7

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin. Services Other TOTAL

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$207,000,000; expenditures by na; tionals abroad U.S.$125,000,000. Land use (1991): forested 42.9%; meadows and pastures 20.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 8.6%; other 27.8%.

Foreign trade15, 16 Balance of trade (current prices) 1990 1989 1988 B ’000,000 % of total

Major cities (1990): Panama Ci

100.0 100.0

1992

Area and population

Chiriqui Coclé Colén Darién

1990

99.2 98.6

in value B '000,00011

1 U.S.$=B 1.00; 1 £=B 1.59.

Capitals Bocas del Toro David

1989

99.1 99.9

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Provinces Bocas del Toro

1988

—453 35.3%

=275 25.7%

—894 50.1%

1991

1992

1993

— 1,071 54.2%

—1,329 57.0%

— 1,426 56.3%

Imports (1992): B 2,019,000,000 (mineral fuels 15.3%, machinery and apparatus 14.9%, transport equipment 12.6%, chemicals and chemical products 10:8%). Major import sources: U.S. 36.2%; Colén Free Zone 15.9%; Japan

8.2%; Ecuador 6.0%; Aruba 3.4%. Exports (1992): B 474,000,000 (bananas 43.4%, shrimps 11.4%, clothing 4.7%, raw sugar 4.2%, fish products 2.7%). Major export destinations: U.S. 29.8%; Germany 26.7%; Italy 8.1%; Costa Rica 6.6%; Sweden 4.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 220 mi, 354 km; (1989) passenger-mi 375,000, passenger-km 600,000; (1992)17 short ton-mi cargo 461,000, metric ton-km cargo 673,000. Roads (1992): total length 6,278 mi, 10,103 km (paved

32%). Vehicles: passenger cars (1990) 150,903; trucks and buses 72,744. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 5,217; total deadweight tonnage 79,255,644. Panama Canal traffic (1993): oceangoing transits 12,257; cargo 157,980,000 metric tons. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 209,000,000, passenger-km 336,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,608,000, metric

ton-km cargo 5,268,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 8. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 8; total circulation 170,000; circulation per 1,000 population 70. Radio (1993): 450,000 receivers (1 per 5.6 persons). Television (1993): 204,539 receivers (1 per 12 persons). Telephones (1992): 283,168 (1 per 8.8 persons). Education and health Education (1992) schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,712

13,751

352,994

25.7

201,047

19.4

63,894

17.3

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

SES 9

10.350 3,684

73.4%, of which

nontax revenue 25.0%; development révenue 26.6%, of which foreign loans 16.8%). Expenditures: B 1,928,600,000 (current expenditure 80.2%, of which public debt payments 25.6%, current transfers 14.0%, education 11.1%, administration 7.8%, health 7.2%; development expenditure 19.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,770,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 1,400,000, bananas 1,110,000, rice 165,000, corn (maize) 95,000, plantains 70,000, tomatoes 30,000, oranges 26,000, coffee 12,000, tobacco

2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,400,000 cattle, 257,000 pigs; roundwood 1,028,000 cu m; fish catch (value of production in B ’000): shrimps 30,400, fish 9,400, lobster 5,600. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 716,000; gold 8,000 troy oz. Manufacturing (value added in B ’000; 1991): food products 133,300; beverages 59,800; paints, soaps, and pharmaceuticals 37,700; wearing apparel 29,800; tobacco products 25,700; cement, bricks, and tiles 24,600. Construction (value of construction in B ’000; 1992): residential

129,000; nonresidential 75,100. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 3,156,000,000 ([1992] 2,311,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (67,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (12,937,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,731,000 (1,214,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) none (59,455,000).

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.4; ayerage annual income per household (1990) B 5,450 (U.S.$5,450); sources of income, n.a.; expenditure (1983-84)7: food and beverages 34.9%, trans-

portation and communications 15.1%, housing and energy 12.6%, education and recreation 11.7%. Population economically active (1991): total 858,5098; activity rate of total population 37.4% (participation rates: ages 15-69, 60.0%; female 33.8%; unemployed [1993] 12.5%).

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 12.3%; incomplete primary education 21.2%; complete primary education 22.9%; secondary 30.4%; higher 13.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 1,385,000 (88.1%); males literate 705,000 (88.1%); females literate 680,000 (88.2%). Health (1992): physicians 2,947 (1 per 844 persons); hospital beds 7,435 (1 per 335 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 17.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,269 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 98% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 11,800 (national police force 93.2%, national maritime

service

3.4%, national

air service 3.4%).

U.S. forces in

former Canal Zone 10,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991):

1.4% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$31.

1Col6n includes Comarca de San Blas. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 31990 estimated pop. of Panama City urban agglomeration including San Miguelito is 821,000. 4Population of urban district. SPopulation of the cabecera, the seat, or “head” of the municipality. 6Projected rates based on about 75% of total deaths. 7Panama City only. 8Excludes nonresidents in former Canal Zone and indigenous areas and institutional households. 9April. 10Public sector only. 1At prices of 1970, !2Includes trans-Panamanian oil pipeline, commission of Panama Canal, and all

activities of Colén Free Zone. 13Net of imputed bank service charges and import fees.

'4Includes 1,455 not adequately defined and 48,112 unemployed without previous employment. !5Import figures are f.o.b, in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 16Excludes Col6n Free Zone (1992 imports f.o.b. B 4,365,000,000; 1992 reexports f.o.b. B 4,833,000,000, of which textiles and clothing 25.8%, nonelec-

trical and electrical machinery and apparatus 21.8%). 17Panama Railroad only.

Nations of the World

Papua New Guinea

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Official name: Independent State of Papua New Giiinea.

Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

Agriculture Mining

(National Parliament [109]).

Manufacturing Construction

Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister.

labour force?

% of labour force7

1,087.6 862.4 364.4

25.8 20.5

564,500 4,300 14,000

77.0 0.6 1.9

222.5

8.7 5.3

21,600

2.9

63.7

1.5

2,800

0.4

Transp. and commun.

275.9

6.6

17,400

2.4

Trade

406.1

9.6

25,100

3.4

42.8

1.0

4,500

0.6

77,100

10.5

See none

}

883.1

Other

1.09;

21.0

—0.68

TOTAL

kina (K) = 100 toea; valuation 1 £=K 1.73.

% of total value

Finance

Monetary unit: 1 Papua New Guinea

1980

in value K ’000,000

Public utilities

Capital: Port Moresby. Official language: English1. Official religion: none.

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=K

689

4,207.9

—

1,500

100.0

732,800

0.2 100.04

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,539,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 84.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.9%; meadows and pastures 0.2%} other 14.5%.

Atea and population Provinces Central Eastern Highlands East New Britain East Sepik Enga Gulf Madang Manus Milne Bay Morobe National Capital District New Ireland North Solomons (Bougainville) Oro (Northern) Sandaun (West Sepik) Simbu (Chimbu) Southern Highlands Western Western Highlands West New Britain TOTAL

area

Administrative centres Port Moresby (Central) Goroka Rabaul Wewak Wabag Kerema Madang Lorengau Alotau (Samarai) Lae Port Moresby Kavieng Arawa (Buka) Popondetta Vanimo Kundiawa Mendi Daru Mount Hagen Kimbe

population 1990 census2

sq mi

sq km

11,400 4,300 6,000 16,550 4,950 13,300 11,200 800 5,400 13,300 100 3,700

29,500 11,200 15,500 42,800 12,800 34,500 29,000 2,100 14,000 34,500 240 9,600

140,584 299,619 184,408 248,308 238,357 68,060 270,299 32,830 157,288 363,535 193,242 87,194

3,600 8,800 14,000 2,350 9,200 38,350 3,300 8,100 178,7044

9,300 22,800 36,300 6,100 23,800 99,300 8,500 21,000 462,840

96,762 135,185 183,801 302,724 108,705 291,090 127,547 3,529,5385

3

Population economically active (1980)7: total 732,800; activity rate 24.6% (participation rates: over age 10, 35.2%; female 39.8%; unemployed 12.8%9).

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Weekly earnings index10

128.4 122.4

137.3 129.9

143.3 135.8

150.4

109:0 109.5

114.9 112.8

120.9 118.6

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.6; income per household (1975-76) K 2,771 (U.S.$3,483); sources of income (1970): wages and salaries 57.3%, transfer payments 1.1%, self-employment and other 41.6%; expenditure (1987)1!: food and beverages 40.9%, transportation and communications 13.0%, housing 12.5%, clothing and footwear 6.2%, heating and lighting 4.9%, services and other 22.5%.

Foreign trade !2 Balance of trade (current prices) K ’000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+214.7 9.4%

—47.2 2.1%

+38.5 1.8%

Ser 2.0%

+475.2 15.7%

+1,318.9 37.3%

Imports (1993): K 1,110,000,000 (1990; machinery and transport equipment

Demography

38.7%; basic manufactures 20.4%; food and live animals 17.9%; chemicals

Population (1994): 4,246,000.

sources (1990): Australia 50.6%; Japan 14.4%; U.S. 10.4%; Singapore 9.2%; New Zealand 3.6%; U.K. 2.5%; China 2.3%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 23.8, persons per sq km 9.2. Urban-rural (1990)2: urban 15.2%; rural 84.8%. Sex distribution (1990)2: male 52.09%; female 47.91%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 40.4%; 15-29, 28.8%; 30-44, 16.9%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,867,000; (2010) 6,023,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1983): New Guinea Papuan 84.0%; New Guinea Melanesian 15.0%; other 1.0%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Protestant 58.4%; Roman Catholic 32.8%; Anglican 5.4%; traditional beliefs 2.5%; Bahai 0.6%; other 0.3%. Major cities (1990)2: Port Moresby 193,242; Lae 80,655; Madang 27,057; Wewak 23,224; Goroka 17,855.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 33.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 10.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.0 (world avg. 16.8): Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 56.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): pneumonia 28.7; conditions originating from perinatal period 17.5; malaria 12.7; meningitis 8.5; tuberculosis 7.0; intestinal infections 6.8.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: K 1,333,000,000 (company tax 27.7%, foreign grants 15.2%, import duties 14.9%, personal income tax 14.2%, nontax revenue

11.4%, excise duties 7.0%). Expenditures: K 1,564,500,000 (administrative 38.5%, transfers to provincial governments 21.8%, interest payments 10.1%, capital works 8.4%). ; ; Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

bananas 1,250,000, coconuts 780,000, sweet potatoes 475,000, sugarcane 450,000, yams 220,000, taro 217,000, palm oil 206,000, cassava 113,000, copra 110,000, palm kernels 57,000, coffee 47,000, cacao 34,000, pineapples 13,000, tea 9,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,010,000 pigs, 105,000 cattle, 3,000,000 chickens; roundwood 8,188,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 25,330.

7.5%; mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 2.7%). Major import Exports (1993): K 2,430,000,000 (gold 28.0%; timber 16.5%; copper ore and concentrates

10.5%; palm oil and copra 4.4%; coffee 3.7%; cocoa beans

1.3%). Major export destinations (1992): Japan 21.3%; Australia 40.9%; Ger-

many 9.7%; South Korea 7.9%; U.K. 4.3%; Singapore 3.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1986): total length 12,263 mi, 19,736 km (paved 6%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 13,150; trucks and buses 24,332. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 87; total deadweight tonnage 40,855. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 439,831,000, passenger-km 707,841,000; short ton-mi cargo 56,587,000, metric ton-km cargo 82,616,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 121. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 49,000; circulation per 1,000 population 13. Radio (1993): 235,000 receivers (1 per 17 persons). Television (1993): 10,000 receivers (1 per 392 persons). Telephones (1990): 63,200 (1 per 59 persons). Education and health Education (1990) schools

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

2,606 135 117

2

teachers

13,105 2,306 13 75113 902 14

students 415,195 55,797 9,846 5,007

student/ teacher ratio 31.7 25.013 12.413 7.114

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 82.6%; some primary education 8.2%; completed primary 5.0%; some secondary 4.2%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 52.0%; males literate 64.9%; females literate 37.8%.

Health: physicians (1990) 301 (1 per 12,874 persons); hospital beds (1989) 15,335 (1 per 234 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 53.0. Food: daily per capita caloric intake (1988) 2,247 (1980-82; vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); (1984) 82% of FAO minimum.

Military

Mining and quarrying (1991): copper 204,500; silver 124,900 kg; gold 60,800

Total active duty personnel (1994): 3,800 (army 84.2%, navy 13.2%, air force 2.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.0% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$20.

K 19,369,000; nonresidetitial K 55,675,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,790,000,000 (1,790,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (1,000); crude petroleum (barrels) none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (735,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Tourism: receipts from Visitors (1992) U.S.$49,000,000; expenditures by na-

1The national languages are English, Tok Pisin (English Creole), and Motu. 2Preliminary results. 3Data unavailable because of civil insurrection. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, 5Excludes an estimated population of 160,000 in the North Solomons, 4,500 people in remote areas, and an estimated foreign population of about 20,000-30,000. 6Completed new buildings. 7Citizens of Papua New Guinea over age 10 involved in “money-raising activities” only. 8Statistical discrepancy. 91977; in six urban centres. 10Minimum wage of urban labourers. 11Weights of retail price index components. !2Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 131989. 141986.

kg. Manufacturing (value added, in K; 1985): food, beverages, and tobacco 162,558,000; metals, metal products, machinery, and equipment 47,493,000; wood products 29,807,000. Construction (value in K; 1986)6: residential

; tionals abroad (1990) U.S.$42,000,000. capita). per (U.S.$1,120 0,000 U.S.$4,646,00 (1993): product national Gross

690

Britannica World Data

Paraguay

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Official name: Republica del Paraguay (Spanish); Teta Paraguaype (Guarani) (Republic of Paraguay). Form of government: multiparty

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

republic with two legislative houses (Senate [45]; Chamber of Deputies [80]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Asuncion. Official languages: Spanish; Guarani. Official religion: none}. Monetary unit: 1 Paraguayan Guarani

1982

% of labour force

in value @’000,000

% of total value

labour force

2,369,044

24.5

445,518

42.9

36,368 1,643,211 558,926 301,697 384,728 2,929,879 203,645

0.4 17.0 5.8 3.1 4.0 30.3 2.1

1,406 124,658 69,900 2,605 30,524 85,961 18,019

0.1 12.0 6.7 0.3 29: 8.3 1%

°

Services

1,243,340

Other TOTAL

9,670,838

28 t

aoe

pane

8.3 100.0

86,444 1,039,2586

100.0

Population economically active (1982): total 1,039,258; activity rate 51.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.5%; female 19.7%; unemployed [1989]

(G) = 100 céntimos; valuation

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=G1,919;

9.2%).

1£=G3,053.

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Area and population Regions Departments Occidental Alto Paraguay

_sqmi_

Capitals

Fuerte Olimpo Filadelfia Pozo Colorado

Boqueron Presidente Hayes Oriental Alto Parana

Ciudad del Este

Amambay Asuncién2 Caaguazu

Pedro Juan Caballero — Coronel Oviedo

Caazapa Canindiyu Central Concepcién Cordillera Guaira ltapda Misiones

Caazapa Salto del Guaira

Asuncion Concepcion Caacupé Villarrica Encarnacion San Juan Bautista Pilar Paraguari

Neembucu

Paraguari

San Pedro TOTAL

San Pedro

_sqkm_

95,338 31,795 35,393 28,150 61,710 5,751 4,994 45 4,430

246,925 82,349

91,669. 72,907 159,827 14,895

12,933 117 11,474

3,666 5,663

952 6,970 1,910 1,485 6,380 3,690

9,496 14,667 2,465 18,051 4,948, 3,846 16,525 9,556

4,690

12,147

7,723 157,048

20,002 406,752

3,361

8,705

population 1992 census

97,208 11,816 26,292 59,100 4,026,342 403,858 97,158 502,426 383,319 128,550 96,826 864,540 166,946 206,097 162,244 375,748 88,624 69,884 203,012 277,110 4,123,5503

Consumer price index Earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

46.7 or

57.2 an

72.4 id

100.0

124.3

143.1

169.2

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 4.7; sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 33.9%, transfer payments 2.5%, other 63.6%; expenditure (1980): food 48.7%, housing 16.4%, clothing 9.7%, household durable goods 6.2%, transportation and communications 4.5%. Land use (1991): forested 33.3%; meadows and pastures 53.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 5.6%; other 7.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

15:1 1.5%

+ 363.8 21.8%

1992

— 580.6 30.7%

Imports (1993): U.S.$1,477,540,000 (machinery and transport equipment 37.0%, of which.transport equipment 14.0%; fuels and lubricants 10.0%; tobacco and beverages 7.6%; chemicals and pharmaceuticals 6.8%; iron products 3.6%). Major import sources: Brazil 23.0%; United States 14.3%;

Population projection: (2000) 5,464,000; (2010) 6,889,000.

Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1980): mestizo (Spanish-Guarani) 90.8%; Amerindian 3.0%; German 1.7%; other 4.5%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 93.1%; other 6.9%. Major cities (1992): Asuncién 5023426; Ciudad del Este 133,893; San Lorenzo 133,311; Lambaré 99,681; Fernando de la Mora 95,287.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 33.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 68.7%4; illegitimate 31.3%4. Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 27.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 4.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.84. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 65.0 years; female 69.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988)5: diseases of the circulatory system 200.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 60.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 56.4; diseases of the respiratory system 52.5. ‘1s

Exports (1993): U.S.$725,218,000 (soybean flour 30.8%; cotton fibres 22.7%; timber 8.8%; hides and skins 7.4%; processed meat 6.5%; vegetable oil 5.6%, of which tung oil 0.6%; oilseed cakes 4.1%; perfume oils 1.1%;

tobacco 1.0%). Major export destinations: Brazil 29.7%; The Netherlands 26.1%; Argentina 8.9%; United States 7.3%; Italy 2.4%; United Kingdom 1.9%; France 1.6%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1990): route

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: 4,254,817,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 30.7%, income on fixed assets 23.3%, customs duties 11.6%, pension funds 6.2%, documentary tax 3.6%, real estate taxes 2.5%). Expenditures: 14.4%, defense

10.5%,

public health 7.5%, interior 7.0%, agriculture 5.8%, housing 5.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,483,000,000. «t Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): cassava 3,300,000, sugarcane 2,788,000, soybeans 1,315,000, seed cotton 670,-

000, corn (maize) 466,000, oranges 355,000, lint cotton 215,000, bananas 140,000, sweet potatoes 86,000; livestock (number of live animals) 7,800,000 cattle, 2,600,000 pigs, 18,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 8,466,000 cu

m; fish catch (1991) 13,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 600,000; kaolin 74,000; gypsum 4,500. Manufacturing (value of production in G’000,000; 1990): woven cotton fabric 207,600; processed meat 162,593; naphtha 76,813; gasoline 74,624; beer 70,054; soft drinks 68,197; cement 43,494; sugar

41,787; wheat flour 25,162. Construction (1985): residential 60,800 sq m; nonresidential 163,200 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 27,136,000,000 (2,523,000,000); coal, none (none); crude

1992) none

(2,308,000); petroleum

products

(metric

tons; 1992) 313,000 (825,000); natural gas, none (none).

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$153,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$120,000,000.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$6,977,000,000 (U.S.$1,500 per capita).

length 273 mi, 439 km; passenger-mi

7,900,000, passenger-km 12,700,000; short ton-mi cargo 7,877,000, metric ton-km cargo 11,500,000. Roads (1988): total length 15,957 mi, 25,681 km

(paved 9%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 117,067; buses 3,375. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 38; total deadweight tonnage 38,513. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 700,000,000, passenger-km 1,127,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,500,0007, metric ton-km cargo 5,100,0007;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 5; total circulation 148,0008; circulation per 1,000 population 328. Radio (1993): 775,000 receivers (1 per 6.0 persons). Television (1993): 350,000 receivers (1 per 13 persons). Telephones (1992): 151,880 (1 per 30 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

G1,726,216,200,000 ‘(education 19.3%, public works

6.2%; South Korea 3.9%; United

Kingdom 3.6%; Germany 2.9%.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 50.5%; rural 49.5%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.19%; female 49.81%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 40.1%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 18.7%; 45-59, 8.3%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 1.1%.

(barrels;

1991

—538.3 26.7%

Argentina 11.7%; Japan 11.6%; Taiwan

Demography Population (1994): 4,732,0003. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 30.1, persons per sq km 11.6.

petroleum

1990 — 234.7 10.9%

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)9 Higher

4,649 812 210

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

29,172 12,218 2,69411

720,983 169,167 32,884

24.7 13.8 ES

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 13.6%; primary education 64.7%; secondary 15.5%; higher 3.4%; not stated 2.8%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 90.1%; males literate 92.1%; females literate 88.1%. Health (1992): physicians 3,161 (1 per 1,423 persons); hospital beds 5,389 (1 per 835 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 47.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,684 (vegetable products 82%, animal products 18%); 116% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

i

Total active duty personnel (1993): 16,500 (army 75.7%, navy 18.2%, air force 6.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.1% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$23.

‘Roman Catholicism, although not official, enjoys special recognition in the 1992 constitution. 2Asunci6n is the capital city, not a department. 3Preliminary 1992 census figure is not adjusted for undercount. The 1994 population figure is adjusted for estimated undercount, 4Civil Registry records only. SReporting areas only (constituting about 50 percent of the total population). Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 71991. 8For four newspapers only, 9Includes vocational education and teacher training. 101990-91. 111985.

Nations of the World

Peru

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Republica del Pert

1992

(Spanish) (Republic of Peru).

in value S/. '000,0007

_ Form of government!: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Congress [80]2). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Lima. Official languages: Spanish; Quechua; Aymara. Official religion: Roman Catholicism.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance

Services TOTAL

Monetary unit3: 1 nuevo sol (S/.)= 1U.S.$=S/. 2.25; 1 £=S/. 3.58. Area and population

area

Regions

Capitals

Andres Avelino Caceres Arequipa Chavin

ee ok

José Carlos Mariategui La Libertad

sq mi

sq km

40,707 24,458

105,430 63,345 40,627 40,562 172,741 103,809 25,570 368,852 88,939 86,728 102,411

1,909,799 924,745 940,481 1,594,922 1,456,122 1,399,508 1,279,472 673,329 1,434,554 2,540,432 307,813

15,661 66,696

40,081 9,873

Loreto Los Libertadores-Wari

142,414 34,340 33,486 39,541

Nor Oriental del Marafién Ucayali

population 1993 census4

15,686

Grau Inca

Departments

Lima San Martin

13,437 19,789

Constitutional Province Callao TOTAL

Callao

57 496,2255

34,802 51,253

6,483,901 545,154

147 1,285,216

638,234 22,128,466

Demography

10.2%; 60-74, 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

437.7 354.6 713.4 218.4 ad ue

13.2 10.7 21.5 6.6 : ee

2,658,000 198,000 840,000 300,000 25,000 355,000

411.5 ver

33.0 2.4 10.4 3.7 0.3 4.4

12.4 a

1,297,000 192,000

35.68 100.0

16.1 2.4

2,199,0009 8,064,000

27.39 100.0

1,180.28 3,315.8

Ethnic composition (1981): Quechua 47.1%; mestizo Aymara 5.4%; other Amerindian 1.7%; other 1.8%.

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

199010

1991 10

199210

199310

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index11

6,727 2,130

34,274 15,041

59,476 24,774

88,369

331 379

2,536 1,406

88,733 39,141

Land use (1992): forest 53.1%; pasture 21.2%; agricultural 2.9%; other 22.8%.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$15,417,000,000.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

4+127.9 2.4%

+1,523.9 27.6%

1990

1991

1992

1993

+585.3. 9.8%

—165.0 2.4%

—566.7 7.5%

— 623.9 8.2%

Imports (1992): U.S.$4,051,000,000 (raw and intermediate materials 44.0%, machinery and transport equipment 27.6%, consumer goods 20.8%). Major import sources: U.S. 27.2%; Colombia 8.1%; Japan 7.7%; Argentina 6.2%; Brazil 5.2%; Germany 4.6%; Venezuela 3.4%. Exports (1992): U.S.$3,484,000,000 (copper 23.1%, fish flour 12.6%, zinc 9.6%,

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 2,157 mi, 3,472 km; passenger-km 319,772,000;

Population projection: (2000) 26,276,000; (2010) 31,047,000. Doubling time: 28 years. 32.0%; white

12.0%;

Religious affiliation (1989): Roman Catholic 92.5%; Protestant 5.5%. Major cities (1993): metropolitan Lima 5,759,676; Callao 637,755; Arequipa 620,471; Trujillo 508,716; Chiclayo 410,468.

metric ton-km

cargo 826,848,000.

Roads

(1992): total length

43,460 mi, 69,942 km (paved 11%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 402,351; trucks and buses 257,884. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 623; total deadweight tonnage 615,582. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 1,292,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 148,000,000; airports (1994) 25.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 59; total circulation 1,590,000; circulation per 1,000 population 71. Radio (1993): 4,400,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 5.2 persons). Television (1993): 2,000,000 receivers (1 per 11 persons). Telephones (1991): 799,000 (1 per 28 persons).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 29.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1977) legitimate 57.8%; illegitimate 42.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 7.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 21.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 3.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1982): 6.06. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 62.7 years; female 66.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 115.3; respiratory diseases 100.2; infectious diseases 84.5; malignant neoplasms 72.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 53.6.

National economy '

% of labour force

export destinations: U.S. 21.4%; Japan 9.8%; China 7.0%; U.K. 6.3%; Italy 6.0%; Brazil 4.7%; Germany 4.1%; Venezuela 3.1%.

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 36.4%; 15-29, 29.0%; 30-44, 18.2%; 45-59,

Revenue:

labour force

gold 6.2%, petroleum and derivatives 5.6%, lead 4.6%, silver 2.2%). Major

Population (1994): 23,383,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 47.1, persons per sq km 18.2. Urban-rural (1993): urban 71.8%; rural 28.2%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.32%; female 49.68%.

(1992).

% of total value

Population economically active (1992): total 8,064,000; activity rate of total population 35.9% (participation rates: over age 15 [1990] 56.4%; female [1985-86] 38.3%; unemployed 8.3%).

100 c€ntimos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Budget

691

Education and health Education (1991)

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

28,265 6,607 1,704 553

138,455 96,969 11,289 44,361

4,053,801 1,996,181 312,669 751,234

29.3 20.6 ht 16.9

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 20.1%; less than primary education 33.2%; primary 21.1%; secondary 20.8%; higher 4.8%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate 89.3%; males 95.9%; females 82.6%.

S/. 5,651,680,000

(taxes on

goods

and

services

58.8%; income taxes 13.3%; import duties 10.1%; nontax revenue 7.6%). Expenditures: S/. 7,526,990,000 (current expenditure 72.7%, of which trans-

fer payments 32.4%, wages and salaries 13.9%; capital expenditure 14.9%; public debt amortization 12.4%).

Health (1990): physicians (1989) 21,856 (1 per 997 persons); hospital beds 35,715 (1 per 625 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990— 95) 75.8.

Foul (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,037 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 87% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$237,000,000; expenditures U.S.$480,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 5,000,000, potatoes 1,475,000, rice 950,000, corn (maize) 785,000, plantains 710,000, cassava 290,000, seed cotton 94,000, coffee 86,000; livestock (number of live animals) 11,915,000 sheep, 3,950,000 cattle, 2,400,000 pigs, 60,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 7,826,000 cu m; fish catch

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 115,000 (army 65.2%, navy 21.7%, air force 13.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.1% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$23.

(1992) 6,842,700. Mining and quarrying (1992): iron ore 1,849,000; zinc 603,000; copper 369,000; lead 194,000; silver 1,572. Manufacturing (value in S/. ’000,0007; 1992): processed foods 163.6; base metal products 157.0; beverages and tobacco 63.6; textiles 58.2; industrial chemicals 46.9; apparel 33.2; wood products 32.6. Construction (value in S/. ’000,0007; 1992): residential 22.4;

nonresidential 14.6. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 13,132,000,000 (13,132,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 90,000 (280,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 42,000,000 (58,000,000); petroleum

products (metric tons; 1992) 7,562,000 (5,988,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 1,314,000,000 (525,000,000).

:

;

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.2; income per household (1988) I/. 1,086,6203 (U.S.$2,173); sources of income (1988): business income 65.1%, wages 31.2%, transfers 3.7%; expenditure (1990):

food 29.4%, recreation and education 13.2%, household durables 10.1%, clothing and footwear 8.5%, transportation 7.5%, health 7.0%, other 24.3%.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$33,973,000,000 (U.S.$1,490 per capita).

1A new constitution promulgated in December 1993 replaced the 1980 constitution, which was suspended in April 1992. 2Interim legislative body elected November 1992. The new constitution provides for a 120-seat legislature. 3A new currency, the nuevo sol, was introduced in January 1991, replacing the inti (abbrev.: I/.) at the rate of one million intis for one

nuevo

sol. It was in effect from July 1, 1991, when

new

bills

and coins became available. 4Preliminary. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. °Excludes Indian jungle population; based on incomplete information. 7At 1979 prices. 8Includes finance, public administration, and other. Includes public

administration and other. 101985=0.1. 1‘Estimate for Lima metropolitan area only.

692

Britannica World Data

Philippines

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Official name: Republika ng Pilipinas (Pilipino); Republic of the Philippines (English). Form of government: unitary republic with two legislative houses (Senate [24]; House of Representatives

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Services

[2001]). Chief of state and head of government: President. Capital: Manila. Official languages: Pilipino; English.

Other

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Philippine peso (2) =100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7,

llocos

National Capital Northern Mindanao Southern Mindanao Southern Tagalog Western Mindanao Western Visayas Autonomous Regions Cordillera Muslim Mindanao TOTAL

24.5 5-1

2,535,000 1,055,000

OF 4.0

33,875 76,543 183,306 53,166

2.5 Si. 13.7 4.0

84,000 1,217,000 3,325,000 ,polepte ,202,

0.3 4.7 12%; vet

eae

eS

2.247,0005

100.0

26,122,0003

area

population 1995 estimate?

sq mi

sq km

6,808 10,362 7,039 5,549 5,773 8,275

17,633 26,838 18,231 14,373 14,951

4,958

12,840

246 10,937 12,237 18,117 6,194 7,808

636 28,328 31,693 46,924 16,042 20,223

4,382,000 2,656,000 7,178,000 2,378,000 5,225,000 3,401,000 3,963,000 9,201,000 4,096,000 5,242,000 9,989,000 2,848,000 6,047,000

7,063 4,493 115,8603

18,294 11,638 300,076

1,304,000 2,103,000 70,011,0003

21,432

104.6 129.4

Consumer price index Monthly earnings indexs

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

113.7 150.2

127.6 176.9

145.7

172.9

188.3

202.6

Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size 5.3; income per family P 90,950 (U.S.$3,310); sources of income: wages 44.9%, business profits 44.0%, self-employment 7.4%, transfers 3.7%; expenditure: food, beverages, and tobacco 58.1%, household furnishings and operations 13.2%, transportation 5.3%, fuel and power 4.2%, clothing 3.7%. _

Land use (1992): forested 33.5%; meadows and pastures 4.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.8%; other 31.4%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) R ’000,000 % of total

1988 —24,023 75%

1989 -57,713 14.6%

1990 -86,604 17.0%

Imports (1992): U.S.$15,465,000,000

Demography

9.3%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 78,414,000; (2010) 94,503,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (by mother tongue of households; 1980): Tagalog 29.7%; Cebuano 24.2%; Ilocano 10.3%; Hiligaynon Ilongo 9.2%; Bicol 5.6%; Samar-Leyte 4.0%; Pampango 2.8%; Pangasinan 1.8%; other 12.5%3. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 84.1%; Aglipayan (Philippine Independent Church) 6.2%; Muslim 4.3%; Protestant 3.9%; other 1.5%. Major cities (1990): Quezon City 1,667,000; Manila 1,599,000; Davao 850,000; Caloocan 761,000; Cebu 610,000; Zamboanga 442,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 30.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1982) legitimate 93.9%; illegitimate 6.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.7. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 64.0 years; female 68.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): heart diseases 74.4; pneumonia 66.3; vascular diseases 54.2; tuberculosis 39.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 35.7; diarrhea 12.0; septicemia 9.4; accidents 6.4.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: P 240,570,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 29.1%, international duties 28.5%, income taxes 26.0%, nontax revenues 12.5%). Expenditures: PB 258,680,000,000 (debt service 30.7%, education 15.4%, transportation and communications 11.0%, defense 10.2%, general

public services 10.0%, agriculture 8.4%, health 4.2%). (1992): receipts U.S.$1,674,000,000;

expenditures U.S.$102,000,000.

Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value in P ’000,000; 1992): rice

43,271, coconuts 22,012, 10,677, pineapples 5,063, 2,655; livestock (number 2,240,000 goats, 1,658,000

— 121,250 19.6%

(machinery

1993 —176,298 22.5%

and transport equipment

Major import sources: Japan 21.2%; U.S. 18.2%; Saudi Arabia 6.0%; South Korea 4.8%; Hong Kong 4.8%; Germany 4.5%; Singapore 3.7%; Australia 3.0%; Malaysia 2.7%; U.K. 2.0%. Exports (1992): U.S.$9,790,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 38.6%; 15-29, 28.6%; 30-44, 18.1%; 45-59,

Production.

— 89,465 15.6%

28.6%, basic manufactures 15.2%, mineral fuels and lubricants 14.0%, chemicals 10.3%, food and live animals 7.2%, inedible crude materials 4.4%).

Population (1994): 68,278,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 589.3, persons per sq km 227.5. Urban-rural (1994): urban 44.0%; rural 56.0%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.23%; female 49.77%.

Tourism

8.65 100.0

Price and earnings index (1985 = 100)

Area and population

Cagayan Valley Central Luzon Central Mindanao Central Visayas Eastern Visayas

327,501 68,695

Population economically active (1992): total 26,122,000; activity rate 40.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 65.0%; female 37.2%; unemployed 8.5%).

1994) 1 U.S.$=P 25.60; 1 £=P 40.72.

Regions Bicol

10,867,000 146,000

1,338,421

}

TOTAL

41.6 0.6

21.7 1.2

290,338 16,263

Agriculture Mining

% of labour force

labour force

% of total value

in value P '000,000

corn (maize) 21,152, sugarcane 13,552, bananas mango 4,539, cassava 3,409, tobacco 3,203, coffee of live animals) 8,022,000 pigs, 2,577,000 buffalo, cattle, 63,127,000 chickens; roundwood 38,652,000

cu m; fish catch 25,987. Mining and quarrying (value in P ’000,000; 1992): gold 6,602; silver 6,505; copper concentrate 5,909; sand and gravel 2,400; salt 2,194; coal 1,738; nickel ore 566. Manufacturing (gross value added in P

’000,000; 1992)4: food products 133,274; petroleum and coal products 35,510; industrial chemicals 27,176; footwear and wearing apparel 22,071; beverages 15,849; electrical machinery 13,211; nonmetallic mineral products 10,182. Construction (authorized; 1992): residential 3,862,000 sq m; nonresidential

17.1%, food and live animals 11.6%, clothing and accessories 8.7%, basic manufactures 7.1%, animal and vegetable oils and fats 5.1%, inedible crude

materials 5.0%). Major export destinations: U.S. 39.3%; Japan 17.8%; Germany 5.3%; Hong Kong 4.7%; U.K. 4.5%; The Netherlands 4.1%; Singapore 2.6%; France 1.8%; South Korea 1.8%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads (1992): route length 658 mi, 1,059 km; passenger-mi

75,200,000, passenger-km

121,100,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,500,000, metric

ton-km cargo 5,100,000. Roads (1991): total length 99,813 mi, 160,633 km (paved 14%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 480,542; trucks and buses 916,559. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,499; total deadweight tonnage 13,807,113. Air transport (1992)8: passenger-mi 8,010,000,000, passenger-km 12,891,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 213,667,000,

metric ton-km cargo 311,948,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 20. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 43; circulation 3,200,000; circulation per 1,000 population 49. Radio (1993): 4,000,000 receivers (1 per 16 persons). Television (1993): 7,000,000 receivers (1 per 9.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,177,870 (1 per 55 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

34,081 5,550 1,261 809

316,182

10,558,105

33.4

129,700

4,208,151

32.4

1,656,815

23.79

56,8809

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 11.7%; elementary education 53.8%; secondary 18.8%; college 15.2%; not stated 0.5%. Literacy (1980): total population age 15 and over literate 25,139,700 (88.7%); males literate 12,772,200 (89.9%)

females literate 12,367,500 (87.5%). Health: physicians (1989) 57,270 (1 per 1,062 persons); hospital beds (1992)

>

83,330 (1 per 780 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 39.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,341 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 104% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 106,500 (army 63.8%, navy 21.6%, air force 14.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.1% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$15.

4,288,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992)

25,682,000,000 (25,682,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,664,000 (2,321,000); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1992) 3,045,000 (92,126,000);

petroleum

products (metric tons; 1992) 10,294,000 (11,684,000). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$26,004,000,000.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$54,593,000,000 (U.S.$830 per capita).

Excludes 20 seats appointed by the president to represent cause-oriented groups. 2Projection. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Manufacturing firms with 10 or more workers. SMostly unemployed. ®Wages in nonagricultural activities. 7Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 8Philippines Airlines only. 91990-91.

Nations of the World

Poland

693

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

Official name: Rzeczpospolita Polska (Republic of Poland). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; Diet [460]).

in value Zt ’000,000,000 Agriculture Mining and manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public administration Services Other TOTAL

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Warsaw. Official language: Polish.

Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 zloty (Zt) =100 groszy; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$ =Zt 23,114; 1 £= Zt 36,763.

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

84,898.2

74

4,037,100

23.3

434,040.9 25,775.0 98,481.4 65,029.8 164,742.1

38.0 2.3 8.6 5:7 14.4

3,882,100

22.4

245,956.3

21.5

23,505.82 1,142,429.5

2.12 100.0

1,066,200 773,100 1,605,300 198,600 296,600 3,115,200 2,394,0003 17,368,200

61 4.5 9:2 ited 1.7 17.9 13.83 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture (value added in Zt ’000,Area and population Provinces Biata Podlaska Biatystok Bielsko-Biata Bydgoszcz Chetm

mi

sq km

2,065 3,882 1,430 3,996 1,493 2,456 2,387 2,356 2,855

5,348 10,055 3,704 10,349 3,866 6,362 6,182 6,103 7,394

3,276

8,484

1,691 2,514 2,568 3,556 1,984 3,270 1,256

4,379 6,512 6,650 9,211 5,139 8,470 3,254

Krosno Legnica Leszno

2,202

5,702

1,559

4,037

1,604

4,154

todz tomza

588 2,581

1,523 6,684

Lublin

2,622

6,792

Nowy Sacz

2,153

5,576

Capitals Biata Podlaska Bialystok Bielsko-Biata Bydgoszcz Chetm Ciechanéw Czestochowa Elblag

Ciechanow

Czestochowa

Elblag

Gdansk Gorzow Jelenia Gora

Gdansk Gorzow Wielkopolski Jelenia Gora

Kalisz Katowice Kielce Konin Koszalin

Kalisz Katowice

Krakow

Krakow

Kielce Konin Koszalin

Krosno Legnica Leszno

todz tomza Lublin Nowy Sacz Olsztyn Opole Ostroteka Pita

Olsztyn

Opole Ostroteka Pita

Piotrkow

Piotrkow Trybunalski

4,759

12,327

3,295 2,509 3,168

8,535 6,498 8,205

6,266

Ptock Poznan

Ptock Poznan

Przemysl

2,419 1,976 3,147 15713

Radom

Radom

Przemysl

5,117 8,151 4,437

2,816

7,294

Rzeszow Siedice Sieradz Skierniewice Stupsk Suwatki Szczecin Tarnobrzeg Tarnow Torun Watbrzych

RzeszOw Siedice Sieradz Skierniewice Stupsk Suwatki Szezecin Tarnobrzeg Tarnow Torun Watbrzych

1,698 3,281 1,880 1,529 2,878 4,050 3,854 2,426 1,603 2,065 1,609

4,397 8,499 4,869 3,960 7,453 10,490 9,982 6,283 4,151 5,348 4,168

Warszawa Wioctawek

Warszawa Wtoctawek Wroctaw

1,463

3,788

1,700 2,427 2,695 3,424 120,728

4,402 6,287 6,980 8,868 312,685

Wroctaw

Zamosé Zielona Gora

Zamosé Zielona Gora TOTAL

population

000; 1992): potatoes 23,400,000, sugar beets 11,100,000, wheat 7,400,000, rye 4,000,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 22,100,000 pigs, 8,200,000

19931 estimate

cattle; roundwood (1992) 20,037,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 457,389. Mining and quarrying (1992): electrolytic copper 387,000; zinc 134,600; lead 54,800;

308,500 697,900 907,300 1,123,000 249,400 434,400 781,900 486,100 1,437,700 506,100 522,000 718,000 3,953,000 1,135,600 475,600 514,400 1,232,400 501,700 519,800 392,700 1,021,400 352,200 1,130,700 716,200 762,500 1,026,000 404,100 487,300 644,100 520,400 1,341,400 411,500 759,600 735,300 658,400 411,500 423,100 421,100 480,100 981,400 606,400 683,400 665,100 742,400 2,409,100 433,400 1,131,600 493,700 667,200 38,418,100

aluminum

43,600. Manufacturing

(value of production

in Zt ’000,000,000;

1992): machinery and transport equipment 230,222.1; chemicals 93,144.7; food 964.2. Construction (1992): 79,289 units, of which residential 40,689. Energy production (consumption): electricity (000,000 kW-hr; 1992) 132,750 (128,718); coal (000 metric tons; 1992) 199,000 (177,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 1,476,000 (1,009,000); petroleum products (’000 metric tons;

1992) 10,959 (11,777); natural gas (‘000,000 cu m; 1992) 2,730 (8,369).

Population economically active (1992): total 17,368,200; activity rate of total population 45.2% (participation rates: ages 18-64 [male], 18-59 [female] 61.0%; female [18-59] 53.5%; unemployed [1992] 13.8%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1986 1987 1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

14.6 21.5

100.0 100.0

170.3 165.4

243.0 208.9

i :

2.6 3

4.2 5.6

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size nual income (1991) Zt 40,521,000 (U.S.$3,830); sources wages 30.3%, transfer payments 20.5%, self-employment expenditure (1991): food 47.9%, clothing 9.5%, housing Tourism

(1992): receipts U.S.$4,100,000,000;

(1991) 3.6; avg. anof income (1992): 5.1%, other 44.1%; 9.9%.

expenditures U.S.$132,000,000.

Land use (1992): forest 28.8%; meadow 13.3%; agric. 48.3%; other 9.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 Zt ‘000,000,000 % of total

Imports

+740 6.6%

+4612 13.4%

(1993): Zt 240,781,000,000

1990

1991

1992

1993

+51,935 25.1%

-—-6543 2.0%

+69,791 18.6%

— 57,609 13.5%

(machinery

and transport

equipment

34.6%, chemicals 17.2%, fuel and power 13.0%, consumer goods 9.4%, food

7.5%). Major import sources

(1992): Germany 23.9%; Russia 8.5%; Italy

6.9%; U.K. 6.7%; The Netherlands 4.7%; Austria 4.5%.

Exports (1993): Zi 183,172,000,000 (1993; machinery and transport equipment 25.8%, light-industrial products 15.4%, steel products 14.7%, fuel and power 10.2%, chemicals 9.6%, food 7.5%). Major export destinations (1992): Germany 31.4%; Netherlands 6.0%; Italy 5.6%; Russia 5.5%; U.K. 4.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 25,254 km; passenger-km 32,571,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 57,762,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 363,116 km (paved 62%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 6,504,716; trucks and buses 1,298,316. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 644; total deadweight tonnage 4,314,308. Air transport (1992): passenger-km

Demography Population (1994): 38,653,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 320.2, persons per sq km 123.6.

3,577,300,000; metric ton-km cargo 51,900,000; airports (1994) 12.

Urban-rural (1994): urban 61.8%; rural 38.2%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 48.70%; female 51.30%.

Population projection: (2000) 39,547,000; (2010) 41,089,000.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): 72; circulation 6,085,000; circulation per 1,000 population 158. Radio (1993): 10,895,500 (1 per 3.5 persons). Television (1993): 10,087,000 (1 per 3.8 persons). Telephones (1993): 5,854,000 (1 per 6.6 persons).

Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 91.1%; Orthodox 1.57%.

Education and health

Age breakdown

(1993): under 15, 24.1%; 15-29, 21.3%; 30-44, 24.2%; 45-59,

15.0%; 60-74, 11.6%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Ethnic composition (1990): Polish 98.7%; Ukrainian 0.6%; other 0.7%.

Major cities (1993): Warsaw

1,644,500; Lodz 838,400; Krakow 744,000.

Education (1992-93)

Vital statistics

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 95.0%; illegitimate 5.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman, 1992): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.7. ; Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 66.7 years; female 75.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 556.7; malignant neoplasms 195.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 78.3; diabetes mellitus 15.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 7.7.

National economy

efits 20.5%, interest on debts 18.9%).

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

19,212 1,762 8,499 124

351,700 28,300 84,100 63,100

5,178,200 607,100 1,651,800 495,700

14.7 eee 19.6 7.8

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling or less than full primary education 6.4%; primary 38.8%; secondary 48.3%; higher 6.5%. Literacy (1988): 98.7%. Health (1993): physicians 83,900 (1 per 459 persons); hospital beds 217,140 (1 per 177 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,426 (vegetable products 66%, animal products 34%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military

Budget (1992). Revenue: Zt 312,800,000,000,000 (1991; turnover tax29.0%, income tax 25.5%). Expenditures: Zt 381,900,000,000,000 (1991; social ben-

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$46,800,000,000.

Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

‘

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$87,272,400,000 (U.S.$2,270 per capita).

Total active duty personnel (1993): 283,600 (army 65.5%, navy 6.7%, air force 27.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: 2.5% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$57. 1January 1. 2Other material activities. 3 Unemployed.

694

Britannica World Data

Portugal

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

Official name: Reptblica Portuguesa (Portuguese Republic). Form of government: parliamentary state with one legislative house (Assembly of the Republic [230]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Lisbon.

in value Esc ’000,000 Agriculture Mining } Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Trade Pub. admin., defense Services Transp. and commun. Finance Other TOTAL

Official language: Portuguese.

Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 escudo (Esc) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$=Esc 157.32; 1 £=Esc 250.21. Area and population Continental Portugal Districts Aveiro Beja Braga Braganga Castelo Branco

Coimbra Evora Faro Guarda Leiria

Lisboa Portalegre Porto

Santarém Setubal

Viana do Castelo Vila Real Viseu Azores (Agores) Autonomous Region Madeira Autonomous Region TOTAL

area Capitals Aveiro Beja Braga Braganga Castelo Branco Coimbra Evora Faro Guarda

| escinis 1,081 3,947 1,041 2,547 2,555

population

49921 sq km

estimate

657,600 166,300 748,300 156,500 213,300 426,400 172,900 340,600 186,400 427,700 2,062,300 133,400 1,626,200 441,100 715,300 247,800 235,300 399,100 236,500

Santarém Setubal

2,590 1,955

Viana do Castelo Vila Real Viseu

853 1,662 1,934

2,800 10,223 2,695 6,597 6,616 3,971 7,396 4,986 5,540 3,508 2,758 6,064 2,341 6,707 5,064 2,210 4,305 5,009

868

2,247

Leiria

Lisbon (Lisboa) Portalegre Porto

Ponta Delgada Funchal

1,533 2,856 1,925 2,139 1,354

1,065 2,341 904

306 35,4562

794 91,8312

253,000 9,846,000

% of total value

1992

labour force

490,787

6.3

530,600

2,275,815

29.2

585,382 250,629 1,352,031

7.5 3.2 17.4

eegut 1,126,100 386,000 34,900 935,600

1,653,845

ale

1,290,900

462,412 720,037

5.9 9.2

}

7,790,9376

% of labour force

224,800 143,100 194,1005 4,888,9006

400.06

Population economically active (1992): total 4,888,900; activity rate of total population 49.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 68.2%; female 44.3%; unemployed 4.0%). : Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

88.2 86.2

100.0 100.0

111.4 113.5

121.3

129.2 a

Consumer price index Daily earnings index

71.5 724

78.3 76.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 41.1%, property and entrepreneurial income 37.0%, transfer payments 21.9%; expenditure (1986): food 34.7%, transportation and communications 15.4%, clothing and footwear 10.3%, cafes and hotels 9.7%, housing 5.0%, health 4.5%, recreation 4.3%, other 16.1%.

Land use (1992): forested 35.9%; meadows and pastures 9.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 34.5%; other 20.5%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 Esc '000,000 % of total

—457,800 15.2%

-—580,000 16.0%

-—705,000 15.2%

— 918,600 16.4%

— 1,144.6 18.8%

— 1,067,800 18.5%

Imports (1992): Esc 4,048,797,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment

Demography Population (1994): 9,814,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 275.1, persons per sq km 106.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 34.7%; rural 65.3%.

Sex distribution (19921): male 48.26%; female 51.74%. Age breakdown (1987): under 15, 22.7%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 18.8%; 45-59, 16.5%; 60-74, 12.6%; 75 and over, 4.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,737,000; (2010) 9,611,000. Nationality (1990): Portuguese 99.5%; Cape Verdean 0.2%; Brazilian 0.1%; Spanish, British, and American 0.1%; other 0.1%.

Religious affiliation (1981): Christian 96.0%, of which Roman Catholic 94.5%, Protestant 0.6%, other Christian (mostly Apostolic Catholic and Jehovah’s Witness) 0.9%; nonreligious 3.8%; Jewish 0.1%; Muslim 0.1%.

Major cities (19881): Lisbon 830,500; Porto 350,000; Amadora 95,518.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 85.5%; illegitimate 14.5%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 7.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 71.1 years; female 78.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases 448.6, of which cerebrovascular diseases 242.2, ischemic heart disease 95.1;

malignant neoplasms (cancers) 190.2; respiratory diseases 68.4.

35.6%, of which

road vehicles and parts 23.3%;

National economy health 9.8%, defense 6.6%, administration 5.3%, public works 2.8%). Public debt (1992): U.S.$39,922,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,210,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,165,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): potatoes 1,352,000, grapes 1,300,000, tomatoes 718,000, corn (maize) 586,000, wheat 367,000, cork 180,0003, olives 146,000, rice 85,000, carrots 83,000, oats 61,000, onions 57,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,601,000 sheep, 2,547,000 pigs, 1,345,000 cattle; roundwood (1992) 10,907,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 325,349. Mining and quarrying (1993): copper pyrites 615,434; kaolin 95,9004; zinc 5,675; tungsten 1,280. Manufacturing (value of production in Esc ’000,000; 1989): cotton and synthetic fibres 222,717; refined petroleum 148,274; clothing 138,659; motor vehicles 113,924; knitted fabrics 105,339; dairy products 90,282; iron and steel 70,919; cement 57,720; alcoholic beverages 47,489. Construction (1990): residential 4,197,912 sq m; nonresidential

and chemical

5.6%; footwear 8.8%; cork and wood products 4.4%; chemicals and chemi-

cal products 4.2%). Major export destinations: Germany 19.2%; Spain 14.7%; France 14.2%; U.K. 10.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 2,066 mi3, 3,325 km3; passengerkm 5,694,000,000;

metric ton-km

cargo

1,867,000,000.

Roads

(1989): total

length 43,605 mi, 70,176 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (19921): passenger cars 3,671,166; trucks and buses 205,568. Merchant

marine (1992): vessels (100

gross tons and over) 332; total deadweight tonnage 1,129,382. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 7,896,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 183,990,000; airports (1994) 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 30; total circulation 525,0007; circulation per 1,000 population 507. Radio (1992): 2,475,000 receivers (1 per 4.0 persons). Television (1992): 1,789,703 receivers (1 per 5.5 persons). Telephones (1991): 3,565,300 (1 per 2.8 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 5-11)

Secondary (age 12-19)

Budget (1992). Revenue: Esc 3,132,600,000,000 (indirect taxes 55.1%, direct taxes 37.2%). Expenditures: Esc 3,362,900,000,000 (1988; education 12.4%,

chemicals

products 8.9%; textiles 6.4%; office machines 2.1%). Major import sources: Spain 16.6%; Germany 15.0%; France 12.8%; Italy 10.2%; U.K. 7.2%; The Netherlands 6.9%. Exports (1992): Esc 2,453,041,000,000 (textiles and wearing apparel 29.4%; machinery and transport equipment 19.9%, of which electrical equipment

Vocational

Higher?

schools

teachers

students

11,771 1,368 220 250

71,788 64,4798

925,936 815,491 84,932 214,403

8

30,998

student/ teacher ratio

12.9 14.08 8 6.9

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 4.4%; primary education 76.2%; secondary 19.0%; postsecondary 0.1%; higher 0.3%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 6,769,270 (86.8%); males literate 3,208,634 (86.7%) > females literate 3,560,636 (86.9%). Health (1992): physicians 28,604 (1 per 344 persons); hospital beds 41,814 (1 per 235 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 9.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,342 (vegetable products 76%, animal products 24%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 50,700 (army 53.7%, navy 24.6%, air force 21.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.3% (world 4.2%) ’

per capita expenditure U.S.$203.

2,045,167 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 30,087,000,000 (31,428,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 221,000 (4,706,000);

crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (82,587,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 10,588,000 (10,968,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$77,700,000,000 (U.S.$7,890 per capita).

‘January 1. Includes 117 sq mi (304 sq km) of water areas comprising the Tagus and

Sado estuaries and the Aveiro Lagoon, 31991, 41992. 5Unemployed. ®Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7For 24 newspapers only. 8Secondary includes Vocational. °Includes teacher colleges.

Nations of the World

Puerto Rico

tion): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16,434,000,000 (16,434,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (154,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (39,216,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 4,945,000 (5,461,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$24,991,200,000 (U.S.$6,902 per capita).

Official name: Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico; Commonwealth

of

Puerto Rico. Political status: self-governing commonwealth in association with the United States, having two legislative houses (Senate [291]; House of Representatives [53]!). Chief of state: President of the United States. Head of government: Governor. Capital: San Juan. Official languages: Spanish; English. Official religion: none.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

in value _U.S.$'000,000 _ Agriculture

Adjuntas Aguada

Municipio

population 22,620 27,914

19,984

Orocovis

41,588

Patillas

Guayanilla Guaynabo Gurabo Hatillo Hormigueros Humacao Isabela

21,581 92,886 28,737 32,703 15,212 55,203 39,147

Penuelas Ponce Quebradillas Rincon Rio Grande Sabana Grande Salinas

22,515 187,749 21,425 12,213 45,648 22,843 28,335

Jayuya Juana Diaz Juncos Lajas Lares

15,527 45,198 30,612 23,271 29,015

San German San Juan San Lorenzo San Sebastian Santa Isabel

34,962 437,745 35,163 38,799 19,318

Las Marias

46,553 17,145 18,084. 35,601 33,837 20,265 33,095 1,542 30,759

Las Piedras Loiza Luquillo Manati Maricao Maunabo Mayaguez Moca Morovis

Cabo Rojo Caguas Camuy Canovanas Carolina

population

Guayama

34,587

Aibonito Anasco Arecibo Arroyo Barceloneta Barranquitas Bayamon

9,306

27,896 29,307 18,100 38,692 6,206 12,347 100,371 32,926 25,288

21,158

19,633

Toa Alta

44,101

Toa Baja Trujillo Alto Utuado Vega Alta Vega Baja Vieques Villalba Yabucoa Yauco

89,454 61,120 34,980 34,559 55,997 8,602 23,559 36,483 42,058

TOTAL

3,522,037

34,000

2.8

168,000 is

14.0 a

58,000

48

3,848.7

Demography Population (1994): 3,653,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 1,039.2, persons per sq km 401.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 71.2%; rural 28.8%. Sex distribution (1990): male 48.43%; female 51.57%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 27.2%; 15-29, 25.1%; 30-44, 20.4%; 45-59, 14.1%; 60-74, 9.2%; 75 and over, 4.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,849,000; (2010) 4,199,000.

Doubling time: 69 years. Ethnic composition (1980): white 80.0%; black 20.0%. Religious affiliation (1984): Roman Catholic 85.3%; Protestant 4.7%; other 10.0%. Major cities (1990): San Juan 426,832; Ponce

159,151; Caguas 92,429; Maya-

giiez 83,010; Arecibo 49,545.

,

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 18.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 63.2%; illegitimate 36.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 9.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 3.9. Life expectancy at birth (1988-90): male 70.2 years; female 78.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): heart disease 169.7, 116.4; diabetes 47.5; cerebrovascular disease 34.0; pneumonia

10.8

16,000

1.4

38,000 201,000 32,000

3.2 16.7 ul,

pou

= 4.0) 100.0

BE

202,0003 1,201,0004

16.83 100.0

Population economically active (1993): total 1,201,000; activity rate 33.2% ne rates: ages 16-64, 46.9%; female [1990] 37.1%; unemployed 16.8%).

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Hourly earnings indexs

112.0 116.4

117.8 121.2

120.3

123.6

100.7 104.6

104.0 107.1

107.7 1414

Household income and expenditure (1993). Average family size 3.6; income per family U.S.$24,094; sources of income: wages and salaries 54.1%, transfers

29.8%, self-employment 6.8%, rent 5.2%, other 4.1%; expenditure (1993): food and beverages 20.6%, housing and energy 11.8%, transportation 11.8%, health care 11.6%, household furnishings 11.2%, recreation 7.9%, clothing 7.4%, education 3.1%, other 14.6%.

Land use (1991): forested 20.0%; meadows and pastures 37.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 14.2%; other 28.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 U.S.$'000,000

% of total

+2,312 7.6%

+1,327 5.3%

+3,584 10.2%

4991

1992

1993

+5,419 14.6%

+5,857 16.2%

+3,405 9.4%

Imports (1993): U.S.$16,385,900,000 (chemicals [all forms] 22.5%, food 12.3%, electrical machinery 11.3%, transport equipment 7.5%, petroleum and petroleum products 6.3%, nonelectrical machinery 6.2%, professional and scientific instruments 4.6%). Major import sources (1990): U.S. 68.7%; Venezuela 4.4%; Japan 3.2%; Dominican Republic 2.0%; The Bahamas

Area: 3,515 sq mi, 9,104 sq km.

cancers

ate

Be 15.0 13.3 10.9

=373i2 35,833.6

% of labour force

39.4 23 ‘

Bo tOe 5,381.8 4,763.0 3,899.8

Services

Guanica

Cayey Ceiba Ciales Cidra Coamo Comerio Corozal Culebra Dorado

Agunas Buenas

}

Other TOTAL

Naguabo Naranjito

Catano

Aguadilla

i

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub, admin., defense

36,882 8,689

Fajardo Florida

19,451 35,911 59,335 25,424 24,971 25,234 93,385 18,910 20,947 25,605 220,262 38,521 133,447 28,917 36,816 177,806

4

labour force

Public utilities

Population (1990 census) Municipio

% of total value

14,132.5 823.2

Construction

(U.S.$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 £=U.S.$1.59.

population

409.6

Manufacturing Mining }

Monetary unit: 1 U.S. dollar

Municipio

695

33.7.

National economy

Budget (1992). Revenue: U.S.$5,857,000,000 (income taxes 36.2%, excise taxes

15.4%, service charges 5.5%, property taxes 1.1%, other receipts 41.8%). Expenditures: U.S.$5,607,000,000 (education 30.3%, public safety and protection 11.4%, welfare 10.8%, health 10.7%, debt service 6.2%).

; Public debt (outstanding; 1993): U.S.$14,242,200,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$1,629,100,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1991) U.S.$798,000,000. Production (in U.S.$'000,000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (gross farm income; 1993): milk 191.1, poultry 90.3, vegetables 72.6, coffee 60.8, beef 43.6, fruit 34.1, pork 33.2, eggs 25.1, sugar 14.7; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 600,000 cattle, 202,000 pigs; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch

(1991) 2,291 metric tons. Mining (value of production in U.S.$°000; 1993): stone 50. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 1993): chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and allied products 6,896; machinery and metal products 2,757; food products 1,761; clothing 520; printing and publishing 167; stone, clay, and glass products 163. Construction (authorized; 1985): residential 1,798,000 sq.m; nonresidential 41,000 sq m. Energy production (consump-

1.8%; U.K. 1.0%. Exports (1993): U.S.$19,790,700,000 (chemicals and chemical products 43.1%, food 15.2%, electrical machinery 10.0%, computers 8.0%). Major export destinations (1990): U.S. 86.9%; Dominican Republic 2.0%; U.S. Virgin Islands 1.4%; U.K. 0.8%; The Netherlands 0.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1988)6: length 59 mi, 96 km. Roads (1992): total length 14,036 mi, 22,588 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 1,380,213; trucks 215,115. Merchant marine: n.a. Air transport (1990-91): passenger arrivals 4,245,137, passenger departures 4,262,164; cargo loaded and unloaded 222,172 metric tons7; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 506,900; circulation per 1,000 population

140. Radio

(1993): 2,000,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1993): 830,000 receivers (1 per 4.4

persons). Telephones (1992): 1,365,520 (1 per 2.6 persons).

Education and health

Education (1985-86) Primary (age 5-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr.

student/ schools

teachers

students

1,542 395 52

18,359 13,612

427,582 334,661 149,191 156,818

Higher

Educational attainment

45

9,045

teacher ratio

23.3 24.6 ba} 17.3

(1990). Percentage of population

age 25 and over

having: primary education 26.8%; some secondary 23.5%; complete secondary 21.0%; higher 28.7%. Literacy (1990): total population age 18 and over literate 2,122,860 (89.7%); males literate 1,001,878 (89.6%); females literate 1,120,982 (89.7%).

Health (1988): physicians 9,422 (1 per 349 persons); hospital beds 13,609 (1 per 254 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 13.0.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 3,518 U.S. personnel. Includes (1992; each house) 2 special at-large seats above usual legally mandated membership of body that were created under a constitutional provision to limit majority party’s control of either house to two-thirds. ?Statistical discrepancy. >3Unemployed. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. SManufacturing sector only. 6Privately owned railway for sugarcane transport only. 7Handled by the Luis Munoz Marin International Airport only.

696

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$8,511,000,000 (U.S.$16,367 per capita).

Qatar Official name: Dawlat Qatar (State of Qatar). Form of government: monarchy (emirate) !; Islamic law is the basis of legislation in the state. Head of state and government: Emir. Capital: Doha. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

dirhams; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=QR 3.64; 1 £=QR 5.79.

}

Other

Area and population

TOTAL

population

4992

ad-Dawhah (Doha) al-Ghuwayriyah Jarayan al-Batinah al-Jumayfiyah al-Khawr ar-Rayyan ash-Shamal Umm Salal al-Wakrah

_estimate_

Capitals

313,639 2,349 3,932 10,414 12,982 132,785 6,323 16,110 34,185 532,719

— al-Ghuwayriyah Jarayan al-Batinah al-Jumayliyah al-Khawr ar-Rayyan Madinat ash-Shamal Umm Salal Muhammad al-Wakrah

TOTAL

% of total value

4,544 7,657 10,627 64,213 3,672 11,877

1,822 2,943

6.7 10.8

6,778

24.9

34,246 6,172 & 149,560

51.1

27,202

100.0

292,568

100.0

:

Ae 2:1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 6.4; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1988): wages and salaries 80.8%, rents and royalties 10.6%, self-employment 5.6%, other 3.0%; expenditure (1988): housing 26.6%, food 24.5%, transportation 13.0%, recreation and Land use (1991): meadows and pastures 4.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.6%; built-up, desert, and other 94.7%.

Tourism (1991): receipts and expenditures, n.a.; total number staying in hotels 142,652.

of tourists

Foreign trade

Population (1994): 552,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 125.1, persons per sq km 48.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 89.5%; rural 10.5%. Sex distribution (1992): male 70.65%; female 29.34%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 23.3%; 15-29, 18.8%; 30-44, 43.8%; 45-59, 12.0%; 60-74, 1.8%; 75 and over, 0.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 614,000; (2010) 732,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (1983): South Asian 34%; Qatari 20%; other Arab 25%; Iranian 16%; other 5%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim

(mostly Sunni) 92.4%; Christian 5.9%;

Hindu 1.1%; Bahai 0.2%; other 0.4%. Major cities (1987): Doha 236,131; ar-Rayyan Umm Sa‘ld 12,111.

99,939;

al-Wakrah

25,747;

QR ‘000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+3,224 28.7%

+ 2,253 19.8%

+4,827 33.9%

+7,992. 39.3%

+5,423 30.2%

+6,644 31.2%

Imports (1992): QR 7,336,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 44.1%; manufactured goods 31.4%; food and live animals 12.7%; chemicals and chemical products 6.3%; raw materials 3.1%). Major import sources: Japan 15.6%; United States 11.4%; United Kingdom 11.2%; Germany 7.3%; Italy 6.6%; France 5.5%; United Arab Emirates 5.0%; Saudi Arabia 3.6%.

Exports (1992): QR 13,600,000,000 (crude petroleum, petroleum products, and liquefied gas 85.7%; non-oil exports 14.3%). Major export destinations (1989): Japan 54.4%; Thailand 5.0%; Singapore 4.0%; South Korea 3.6%; United Arab Emirates 3.4%; Italy 2.7%; India 2.7%; Saudi Arabia 2.5%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 19.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.;

Transport.

illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 17.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 69.7 years; female 74.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 56.9; injuries and poisoning 36.0; neoplasms (including benign neoplasms) 21.4; certain conditions originating in the perinatal period 11.1; diseases of the respiratory system 7.5; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional diseases and immunity disorders 7.3; diseases of the digestive system 3.4; signs, symptoms, and ill-defined conditions 10.9.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1988): total length 671

80,0004; circulation per 1,000 population 2174. Radio (1991): total number

of receivers 250,000 (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1990): total number of receivers 160,000 (1 per 2.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 160,717 (1

per 3.2 persons).

.

Education and health

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: QR 10,373,000,000 (1992-93; crude oil 67.3%). Expenditures: QR 13,076,000,000 (1992-93; wages and salaries 32.8%; state

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Vocational

education 8.3%, social and health services 6.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1989): U.S.$1,100,000,000.

Higher6

capital development projects 23.2%, of which electricity and water 8.5%,

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in QR ’000; 1992): forage 112,395, milk and dairy products 111,769, vegetables and other crops (except cereals) 94,116, beef 41,501, fruits and dates 31,849, poultry meat 28,408, eggs 16,620, cereals 2,986; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 132,000 sheep, 103,000 goats, 29,000

camels, 11,000 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1992) 5,417. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 900,000; sulfur 52,000; gypsum, sand and gravel,

and clay are also produced. Manufacturing (value added in OR ’000; 1991): manufactured products 2,931,999; chemicals and petroleum products 2,428,436; fabricated metal products and machinery 65,767; food, beverages, and

tobacco 45,335; paper and paper products 40,218; furniture and wood products 19,598; clothing and textiles 13,924. Construction (1992): residential 12,420 units; nonresidential 1,416 units. Energy production (consumption): 1992) 4,740,000,000

(4,740,000,000);

coal, none

(n.a.);

crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 153,465,000 (21,075); petroleum products

mi, 1,080 km

(paved 63%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 122,000; trucks and buses 55,079. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 65; total deadweight tonnage 635,580. Air transport (1991)3: passenger-mi 1,042,000,000, passenger-km 1,676,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 35,100,000, metric tonkm cargo 51,245,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 4; total circulation

Education (1991-92)5

National economy

(kW-hr;

- % of labour force 1.6 2.6 3.6 21.9 1.3 44

personal effects 11.1%, clothing 9.1%, education 4.3%, energy and water 1.9%, health 1.0%.

Demography

electricity

labour force

0.9 35.8 2 41 71 3.0

242 9,750 3,450 1,110 309 798

Agriculture Oil sector Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation

Monetary unit: 1 riyal (QR) = 100

Municipalities

1988

in value QR '000,000

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

155 36 3 1

4,250 1,050 101 569

49,770 9,869 843 6,666

11.7 9.4 8.4 11.7

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 having: no formal education 53.3%, of which illiterates 24.3%; 9.8%; preparatory (lower secondary) 10.1%; secondary 13.3%; ondary 13.3%; other 0.2%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15

and over primary postsecand over

literate 201,733 (75.7%); males literate 149,980 (76.8%); females literate

51,753 (72.5%).

Health (1992): physicians 758 (1 per 671 persons); hospital beds 1,081 (1 per 481 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 15.8. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 10,100 (army 84.2%, navy 7.9%, air force 7.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 4.1% (world, n.a.);

per capita expenditure U.S.$1,634.

(metric tons; 1992) 4,980,000 (1,744,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 11,489,-

000,000 (11,489,000,000). Population economically active (1988): total 292,568; activity rate of total population 53.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 80.8%; female 11.2%; unemployed [1986] 0.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

1985

Consumer price index Earnings index

86.1 te

1986

87.5 i

1987

89.8 i

1988 94.0 int

1989

1990

1991

97.1 ih

100.0

104.4

‘Provisional constitution of 1970 provided limited constitutional forms but has not been fully implemented. 2Includes area of unpapulated Hawar Islands (also claimed by Bahrain). 3One-fourth apportionment of international flights of Gulf Air. 41990. ‘Public schools only; available detail for priyate schools (1991-92) included 17,728 primary students, 1,695 secondary students, and 1,465 teachers. 61992-93.

Nations of the World

Réunion

lobster 39, other 52. Mining and quarrying: gravel and sand for local use. Manufacturing (value added in F ’000,000; 1991): construction materials (mostly cement) 275; alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages (mostly rum)

Official name: Département de la

Réunion (Department of Réunion). Political status: overseas department (France) with two legislative houses (General Council [47]; Regional Council [45]). Chief of state: President of France. Heads of government: Commissioner of the Republic (for France); President of General Council (for Réunion); President of Regional Council (for Réunion). Capital: Saint-Denis. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 French franc (F)=100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

206; fabricated metals 186; sugar, molasses, and related products 178; print-

ing and publishing 176. Construction (value of public construction; 1988):

residential F 258,200,000; nonresidential F 1,587,000,000. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 1,129,000,000 (993,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric

tons; 1993) none (434,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1990): total 233,566; activity rate of total population 39.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.3%; female 41.1%; unemployed [March 1993] 35-40%).

Area and population

Saint-Benoit

Saint-Benoit Saint-Denis Saint-Paul Saint-Pierre

Saint-Denis Saint-Paul Saint-Pierre

TOTAL

aSstal

asciad

1990 census

284 164

736 423 467 878 2,5121,2

85,132 207,158 113,071 192,462 597,823

180 339 9701.2

2.2%; white 1.9%; East African 1.1%; other 3.1%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 89.6%; Muslim 2.0%; other 8.4%. Major cities (1990): Saint-Denis 100,926; Le Port 29,190; Le Tampon 27,300; Saint-André 25,237; Saint-Pierre 23,899.

Vital statistics (1992): 22.8 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 17.5 (world avg. 16.8).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 69.0 years; female 78.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 185.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.3; accidents and violence 66.3; diseases of the digestive system 46.1; diseases of the respira-

1991

1992

1993

—11,975 87.6%

— 11,542 83.9%

— 10,765 84.4%

(1993):

=10,067 - —10,747 83.1% 84.1%

F 11,757,000,000

(U.S.$3,080 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

Production

4.14 9,24 6.2 49 5.95

labour forcesa 11,256 10,087 16,519

% of labour force 48 4.3 al

0.6

1,316 " 7,309

3.1

5,5005

19.25

17,689

7.6

6,200

21.9

27,630

11.8

8,100

28.6

54,382

23.3

— 28,500

_ 100.0

87,3786 233,566

37.46 100.0

(metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

sugarcane ee

bananas

% of total Si value Bin

ae

messen (Chinese cabbage) and black nightshade 8,291,

7,000, mangoes

6,517, pineapples 6,300, onions 5,781, eggplant

3,270, pimento 405, ginger 95, vanilla 597, tobacco 147, geranium essence 57; livestock (number of live animals) 89,000 pigs, 31,000 goats, 19,000 cattle; roundwood (1991) 36,000 cu m; fish (value of catch in F ’000,000; 1993)

products

21.1%,

lobster, rum, and geranium essence] 75.6%, electrical and nonelectrical ma-

chinery 7.2%, transport equipment 5.4%). Major export destinations: France 69.5%;

other

EEC

countries

12.3%;

South Africa) 11.4%; Japan 3.8%.

Indian

Ocean

countries

(including

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: 10, Roads (1991): total length 1,750 mi, 2,800 km (paved 79%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 150,000; trucks and buses 50,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 33,476. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals 484,200, passenger departures 480,083; cargo unloaded 11,770 metric tons, cargo loaded 3,500

metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 3; total 55,000; circulation per 1,000 population 90. Radio (1993): total receivers 150,000 (1 per 4.2 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 90,500 (1 per 7.0 persons). Telephones (1993): 191,647 persons).

Education (1993-94)

expenditures 66.4%, development expenditures 33.67%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990)3: U.S.$61,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$157,000,000; expenditures, n.a. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$1,848,000,000

agricultural

Exports (1993): F 992,000,000 (food products [mostly sugar; also includes

National economy receipts 14.2%, new loans 11.9%). Expenditures: F 4,190,000,000 (current

and

69.4%; other EEC countries 9.9%; Indian Ocean countries (including South Africa) 4.6%; Bahrain 4.2%.

Education and health

Budget (1993). Revenue: F 4,190,000,000 (receipts from the French central government and local administrative bodies 47.6%, subsidies and related

(food

electrical and nonelectrical machinery 15.3%, transport equipment 14.2%, chemical products 10.0%, mineral fuels 6.2%). Major import sources: France

tory system 43.0.

1,7005

100.0 100.0

— 8,781 80.6%

Imports

Population projection: (2000) 718,000; (2010) 854,000. Doubling time: 40 years. Ethnic composition (1983): mixed race 63.5%; East Indian 28.2%; Chinese

1,2004 2,6004 1,800 1,400

97.3 91.6

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989 F ‘000,000 % of total

(1990): under 15, 31.3%; 15-29, 29.5%; 30-44, 19.6%; 45-59,

Agriculture Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate, business services Pub. admin., defense, other services Other TOTAL

94.4 86.1

Foreign trade

11.5%; 60-74, 6.2%; 75 and over, 1.9%.

in value F '000,000

90.9 78.7

and under permanent cultivation 20.8%; other 39.2%.

Population (1994): 647,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 667.0, persons per sq km 257.6. Urban-rural (1990): urban 73.4%; rural 26.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.25%; female 50.75%.

Birth rate per 1,000 population 46.1%; illegitimate 53.9%.

106.1 105.3

86.6 75.6

other 16.9%. Land use (1991): forested 35.2%; meadows and pastures 4.8%; agricultural

Demography

Age breakdown

19949

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

cations 24.9%, food and beverages 22.4%, housing 11.8%, recreation and education 10.1%, clothing and footwear 7.9%, household furnishings 6.0%,

population

area

Capitals

Price and earnings indexes (December 1992 = 100)8 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 3.8; income per household (1987) F 89,304 (U.S.$14,858); sources of income (1987): wages and salaries and self-employment 67.5%, transfer payments 29.7%, other 2.8%; expenditure (1986-87): transportation and communi-

1 U.S.$=F 5.27; 1 £=F 8.38.

Arrondissements

697

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Voc., teacher tr. i Higher 11, 12

circulation number of number of (1 per 3.3

teachers

349 20

1

students

teacher ratio

72,513 Ss

91,015)

7,600

Educational attainment (1986-87). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 18.8%; primary education 44.3%; lower secondary 21.6%; upper secondary 11.0%; higher 4.3%. Literacy (1986-87): total population age 15 and over literate 298,965 (78.2%); males literate 141,006 (75.9%); females literate 157,959 (80.3%). Health (1993): physicians 1,062 (1 per 594 persons); hospital beds 2,939 (1 per 215 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 8.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,082 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993); 3,400 French troops!}3.

Includes 3 sq mi (8 sq km) not distributed by arrondissement. 2Indian Ocean islets administered by France from Réunion are excluded from total. Areas of these islets, which have no permanent population, are: Iles Glorieuses 1.7 sq mi (4.3 sq km), fle. Juan de Nova 1.9 sq mi (4.8 sq km), fle Tromelin 0.3 sq mi (0.8 sq km), Bassas da India 0.1 sq mi (0.2 sq km), Ile Europa 7.8 sq mi (20.2 sq km). 3Includes long-term private debt not guaranteed by the government. 4Manufacturing includes sugarcane production. 5Transportation and communications includes hotels and restaurants. Includes 86,118 unemployed. 71993. 8Indexes refer to December. 9March. 10No public railways; railways in use are for sugar industry. 111992-93. !2University only. 13Includes troops stationed on Mayotte.

698

Britannica World Data 9,852,000 pigs, 3,683,000 cattle, 3,186,000 goats, 88,000,000 chickens; round-

Romania

wood (1992) 13,657,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 124,933. Mining (1992):

iron ore 1,229,000; bauxite 175,000; zinc 25,813; copper 24,720; lead 16,697. Manufacturing (1991): raw steel 7,115,500; fertilizers 1,091,626; sulfuric acid 745,400; 389,227 televisions; aluminum and alloys 167,451; synthetic rubber

Official name: Romania (Romania). Form of government: unitary republic with two legislative houses (Senate [143]; Assembly of Deputies [3411!]).

54,583. Construction (1989): residential 5,409,000 sq m. Energy production

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 54,195,000,000 (58,398,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 37,760,000 (40,969,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 49,652,000 (97,368,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 11,974,000

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Capital: Bucharest. Official language: Romanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Romanian leu (plural

(11,236,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 18,509,000,000 (22,143,000,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$24,810,000,000 (U.S.$1,090 per capita).

lei) = 100 bani; valuation (Oct. 7,

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1994) 1 U.S.$ = 1,746 lei;

1991

1 £=2,777 lei.

Area and population

area

population 19922

Capitals Alba lulia Arad Pitesti Bacau Oradea

Botosani

Botosani

Braila

Braila

Bistrita-Nasaud

sq mi

Brasov

Buzau Calarasi Caras-Severin

Buzau Calarasi Resita

Cluj Constanta Covasna

Cluj-Napoca Constanta

Sfantu Gheorghe Targoviste Craiova Galati Giurgiu Targu Jiu Miercurea-Ciuc

Dolj Galati Giurgiu

Gorj

Harghita Hunedoara lalomita lasi

Deva Slobozia lasi ’ Baia Mare Drobeta-Turnu Severin Targu Mures Piatra Neamt Slatina Ploiesti Zalau Satu Mare Sibiu Suceava Alexandria Timisoara Tulcea

Maramures Mehedinti Mures Neamt Olt Prahova Salaj Satu Mare Sibiu Suceava Teleorman Timis Tulcea

Valcea

Ramnicu Valcea

Vaslui Vrancea Muncipality Bucharest TOTAL

sq km

Vaslui Focsani Bucharest

703 91,6993

census

6,231 7,652 6,801 6,606 7,535 5,305 4,965 4,724 5,351 6,072 5,074 8,503 6,650 7,055 3,705 4,036 7,413 4,425 3,511 5,641 6,610 7,016 4,449 5,469 6,215 4,900 6,696 5,890 5,507 4,694 3,850 4,405 5,422 8,555 5,760 8,692 8,430 5,705 5,297 4,863

414,200 487,400 680,600 736,100 634,100 327,200 458,900 392,100 642,500 516,300 338,800 375,800 735,100 748,000 232,600 559,900 761,100 639,900 313,100 400,100 347,700 548,000 304,000 806,800 538,500 332,100 607,300 577,600 521,000 873,200 266,300 400,100 452,800 700,800 482,300 700,300 270,200 436,300 457,800 392,600

1,820 237,500

2,351,000 22,760,500

2,406 2,954 2,626 2,551 2,909 2,048 1,917 1,824 2,066 2,344 1,959 3,283 2,568 2,724 1,431 1,559 2,862 1,708 1,356 2,178 2,552 2,709 1,718 2,112 2,400 1,892 2,585 2,274 2,126 1,812 1,486 1,701 2,093 3,303 2,224 3,356 3,255 2,203 2,045 1,878

Bistrita

Brasov

Dambovita

1

919,500 104,600 95,600 178,500 49,300 202,800 71,000 97,200 2,109,700

and public utilities

Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance

Pub. admin. Services Other TOTAL

labour force

16:5) 43.6 5.0 4.5 8.5 2.3 9.6 } 3.4 46 100.0

% of labour force

2,187,300

20.3

4,152,500 578,500 616,800 694,200 57,100

38.6 5.4 5.7 6.5 0.5

1,528,000

14.2

956,9004 10,771,300

8.84 100.0

Population economically active (1992): total 10,771,300; activity rate 47.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.2%; female 44.2%; unemployed 8.67%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Annual earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

92.7 84.9

95.3 87.0

96.0 90.5

100.0 100.0

274.4 221.3

765.0 597.4

2,720.3 1,804.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 3.1; income per household (1989) 73,500 lei (U.S.$4,940); sources of income (1982): wages 62.6%; expenditure (1989): food 51.1%, housing 16.4%, clothing 15.7%. Land use (1992): forest 29.0%; pasture 21.0%; agricultural 43.2%; other 6.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

+3,750 19.7%

+2,050 10.8%

-3/244 21.7%

1991» °'—1)182"% 12.5%

1992

1993

-=41,420.5 14.0%

_=1,1278 10.3%

Imports (1991): 400,103,000,000 lei (1990; raw materials 47.6%, machinery 23.7%, chemicals 6.4%). Major import sources: U.S.S.R. 23.6%; Germany 11.4%; Saudi Arabia 8.3%; Iran 5.9%; U.S. 4.6%; Poland 4.3%. Exports (1991): 323,693,000,000 lei (1990; raw materials and mineral

fuels

33.7%, machinery and transport equipment 30.8%, manufactured goods 21.2%, chemicals 6.5%). Major export destinations: U.S.S.R. 25.2%; Germany 10.2%; Italy 8.8%; U.S. 5.8%; France 3.4%; Czechoslovakia 3.2%.

Transport. Railroads (1993): length 7,051 mi, 11,348 km; passenger-km 19,404,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 25,176,000,000. Roads (1992): length 95,099

Population (1994): 22,740,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 248.0, persons per sq km 95.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 54.4%; rural 45.6%.

mi, 153,014 km

Sex distribution (1992): male 49.13%; female0.87%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 22.4%; 15-29, 22.9%; 30-44, 20.8%; 45-59, 17.1%; 60 and over, 16.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 22,645,000; (2010) 22,487,000.

Ethnic composition (1992): Romanian 89.4%; Hungarian 7.1%; Gypsy 1.8%; German 0.5%; Ukrainian 0.3%; other 0.9%.

(1992): Romanian

Orthodox

86.8%;

Roman

Catholic

5.0%; Greek Orthodox 3.5%; Pentecostal 1.0%; Muslim 0.2%; other 3.5%. Major cities (1992): Bucharest 2,064,474; Constanta 350,476; Iasi 342,994;

Timisoara 334,278; Cluj-Napoca 328,008.

National economy 787,940,000,000

(1992): cars

1,397,118; trucks and

Education and health schools

Vital statistics

Budget (1991). Revenue:

(paved 51%). Vehicles

buses 332,273. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 439; total deadweight tonnage 4,845,539. Air transport (1993): passengerkm 1,884,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 16,704,000; airports (1994) 16. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 65; total circulation 1,245,000; circulation per 1,000 population 54. Radios (1993): 3,000,000 (1 per 7.6 persons). Televisions (1993): 4,000,000 (1 per 5.7 persons). Telephones (1992): 3,192,180 subscribers (1 per 7.1 persons).

Education (1991-92)

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.9 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): —0.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 7.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1987-89): male 66.5 years; female 72.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory disease 707.7, cancer 163.4, respiratory disease 94.0, diseases of the digestive system 57.9.

corporate

391,200

Agriculture Mining, manufacturing,

% of total value

Transport and communications

Demography

Religious affiliation

1992

in value ’000,000 lei

Counties Alba Arad Arges Bacau Bihor

‘

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,322,000,000.

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

13,730 2,3015 5 56

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

153,187 16,791 41,622 17,605

2,608,914 248,748 959,882 215,226

17.0 14.8 23.1 12.2

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no. schooling 5.4%; primary education 59.8%; secondary 27.4%; postsecondary 7.3%. Literacy (1992): total population age 15 and over literate 96.9%; males literate 98.6%; females literate 95.2%.

Health (1992): physicians 48,502 (1 per 469 persons); hospital beds 215,629 (1 per 105 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 23.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,081 (vegetable products 78%, animal products 22%); 116% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

lei (income tax 35.2%, of which

13.3%; social security 28.9%; value-added

taxes 23.2%; customs

duties 3.1%). Expenditures: 779,980,000,000 lei (social security and welfare 26.5%; defense 10.3%; education 10.0%; health 9.2%).

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$262,000,000; expenditures U.S.$260,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture (1993): corn (maize) 7,988,000, wheat 5,314,000, potatoes 3,709,000, sugar beets 1,776,000, grapes 1,339,000, cabbages 854,000, tomatoes 799,000, oats 554,000, dry onions 344,000, soybeans 95,000; livestock (number of live animals) 12,079,000 sheep,

Military

;

Total active duty personnel (1994): 230,500 (army 69.6%, navy 8.2%, air force 11.9%, paramilitary border guards 10.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 4.0% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$162. Includes 13 nonelective seats. 2Preliminary results of Jan. 7, 1992, census. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes 929,000 unemployed. 5Secondary includes Voc., teacher tr.

Nations of the World

Russia

Area and population (continued) Koryak Nenets Taymyr Ust-Orda Buryat Yamalo-Nenets Sakha (Yakutia) Tatarstan Tuva (Tyva) Udmurtia

Official name: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya

(Russian Federation).

Form of government: federal multiparty republic with a bicameral legislative body (Federal Assembly comprising a Federation Council [178] and a State Duma [450])1. Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Moscow. Official language: Russian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 rable = 100 kopecks; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Penza Perm

Pskov Rostov Ryazan Sakhalin Samara

Saratov Smolensk Sverdlovsk5 Tambov Tomsk Tula

Tver Tyumen Ulyanovsk (Simbirsk) Viadimir Volgograd Vologda5 Voronezh Yaroslavl

Ust-Ordynsky Salekhard Yakutsk Kazan Kyzyl-Orda Izhevsk

301,500 176,400 862,100 22,400 750,300 3,103,200 68,000 170,500 42,100 17,075,400

37,700 52,300 50,700 142,200 464,800 1,073,800 3,723,000 306,000 1,642,800 148,549,000

Demography

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 22.5, persons per sq km 8.7. Urban-rural (1993): urban 73.3%; rural 26.7%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 47.00%; female 53.00%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 22.3%; 15-29, 20.5%; 30-44, 24.5%; 45-59, 16.0%; 60-69, 10.3%; 70 and over, 6.4%.

Area and population

Murmansk Nizhny Novgorod Novgorod Novosibirsk Omsk Orenburg Oryol (Orel)

116,400 68,100 332,900 8,600 289,700 1,198,200 26,300 65,800 16,300 6,592,800

Population (1994): 148,179,000.

1 £=4,656 Rub.

Kemerovo Kirov Kostroma Kurgan Kursk Leningrad Lipetsk Magadan Moskva (Moscow)

Palana Naryan-Mar Dudinka

TOTAL

free rate, 1 U.S.$=2,927 Rub;

Federal Republics Other entities Adygea Bashkortostan Buryatia Chechenia2. 3 Chuvashia Dagestan Gorno-Altay Ingushetia2, 3 Kabardino-BalkariaS Kalmykia (Khalmg Tangch) Karachay-Cherkessia Karelia Khakassia Komi Mari El Mordvinia North Ossetia Russia Regions (Oblasts) Amur§ Arkhangelsk Astrakhan Belgorod Bryansk Chelyabinsk Chita Irkutsk lvanovo Kaliningrad5 Kaluga Kamchatka

699

Capitals Maykop Ufa Ulan-Ude Cheboksary Makhachkala Gorno-Altaisk Grozny Nalchik Elista Cherkessk Petrozavodsk Abakan Syktyvkar loshkar-Ola Saransk Vladikavkaz Moscow Blagoveshchensk Arkhangelsk Astrakhan Belgorod Bryansk Chelyabinsk Chita Irkutsk lvanovo

Kaliningrad Kaluga PetropaviovskKamchatsky Kemerovo Kirov Kostroma Kurgan

Kursk St. Petersburg Lipetsk Magadan Moscow Murmansk Nizhny Novgorod Novgorod Novosibirsk Omsk Orenburg Oryol Penza Perm Pskov Rostov-na-Donu Ryazan Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Samara Saratov Smolensk Yekaterinburg Tambov Tomsk Tula Tver Tyumen Simbirsk Viadimir Volgograd Vologda Voronezh Yaroslav!

Autonomous Region Birobidzhan Yevreyskaya (Jewish) Territories (Krays) Barnaul Altay Khabarovsk Khabarovsk Krasnodar Krasnodar Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Vladivostok Primorye (Maritime)® Stavropol Stavropol Autonomous cities Moscow St. Petersburg5 Autonomous districts (Okrugs)9 Aginskoye Aga-Buryat Anadyr Chukchi (Chukotka) Tyra Evenk Khanty-Mansiysk Khanty-Mansi Kudymkar Komi-Permyak

population 1993

__ sq mi 2,900 55,400 135,600 4 7,100 19,400 35,700 7,4004 4,800 29,400 5,400 66,600 23,900 160,600 9,000 10,100 3,100 4,709,8006

sq km

estimate

7,600 143,600 351,300

446,800 4,041,500 1,056,600 4

4

18,300 50,300 92,600 19,3004 12,500

76,100 14,100

172,400 61,900 415,900 23,200 26,200

8,000 12,198,300

1,359,300 1,925,200 197,600 1,306,4004 785,900 321,700 434,200 799,600 583,500 1,245,700 764,200 964,400 651,500. 124,919,300

140,400 226,800 17,000 10,500 13,500 33,900 166,600 296,500 9,200 5,800 11,500

363,700 587,400 44,100 27,100 34,900 87,900 431,500 767,900 23,900 15,100 29,900

1,062,500 1,561,600 1,012,900 1,422,800 1,468,500 3,634,400 1,375,900 2,871,700 1,308,000 906,100 1,085,800

182,400 36,900 46,600 23,200 27,400 11,500 33,2007 9,300 178,100 18,1008 55,900 28,900 21,400 68,800 53,900 47,900 9,500 16,700 62,000 21,400 38,900 15,300 33,600 20,700 38,700 19,200 75,200 13,200 122,400 9,900 32,500 554,100 14,400 11,200 44,000 56,300 20,200 14,100

472,300 95,500 120,800 60,100 71,000 29,800 85,9007 24,100 461,400 47,0008 144,900 74,800 55,300 178,200 139,700 124,000 24,700 43,200 160,600 55,300 100,800 39,600 87,100 53,600 100,200 49,800 194,800 34,300 316,900 25,700 84,100 1,435,200 37,300 29,000 113,900 145,700 52,400 36,400

456,500 3,176,800 1,700,700 811,900 1,118,100 1,340,700 1,674,200 1,241,000 326,500 6,682,300 1,117,300 3,696,800 751,500 2,803,000 2,175,500 2,219,400 908,400 1,521,800 3,106,400 839,900 4,382,900 1,341,900 713,900 3,312,100 2,721,900 1,165,200 4,697,900 1,314,400 1,008,300 1,839,800 1,663,200 3,120,200 1,462,200 1,654,100 2,660,500 1,362,400 2,487,600 1,466,800

Population projection: (2000) 146,239,000; (2010) 143,477,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Russian 81.5%; Tatar 3.8%; Ukrainian

3.0%;

Chuvash 1.2%; Bashkir 0.9%; Belorussian 0.8%; Mordovian 0.7%; Chechen 0.6%; German 0.6%; other 6.9%.

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Russian Orthodox; there are Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Old Believer, and Jewish minorities.

Major cities (1993): Moscow 8,789,200; St. Petersburg 4,387,400; Nizhny Novgorod 1,432,900; Novosibirsk 1,430,700; Yekaterinburg 1,357,800; Samara 1,231,800; Omsk 1,166,500; Chelyabinsk 1,134,800; Kazan 1,097,700; Ufa 1,096,000; Perm 1,093,000; Rostov-na-Donu 1,025,100. Other principal cities (1993) population Astrakhan Barnaul Irkutsk Izhevsk Kemerovo Khabarovsk Krasnodar

511,400 600,600 635,000 652,900 517,100 612,000 636,100

population Krasnoyarsk Naberezhnye Chelny Novokuznetsk Orenburg Penza Ryazan Saratov

population

919,300 519,900 597,500 555,400 552,500 527,900

Tolyattigrad Tula Ulyanovsk (Simbirsk) Vladivostok Volgograd Voronezh

904,400

Yaroslavl

677,700 538,900 661,100 643,400 1,002,000 903,300 634,500

Mobility (1989). Population living in the same residence as in 1988: 78.8%; different residence, same oblast 11.5%; different republic 9.7%.

Emigration (1992): 618,285.

Households (1989). Total family households 40,246,000; average household size 3.2; 2 persons 34.2%;*3 persons 28.0%; 4 persons 25.2%; 5 persons or more 12.6%. Population in family households: 128,787,000 (87.0%), nonfamily population 19,254,000 (13.0%).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1990) legitimate 85.4%; illegitimate 14.6%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 12.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): —1.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.0. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 59.0 years; female 73.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): circulatory diseases 625.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 197.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 143.5, of which suicide 21.0, murder

11.8; respiratory diseases 56.1;

digestive diseases 29.3; infectious and parasitic diseases 12.1.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: primary or no formal education 19.4%; some secondary 21.0%;. secondary and some postsecondary 48.3%; higher and postgraduate 11.3%. Quality of working life (1990). Average workweek: 40 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers of: injury or accident 569; industrial illness 5.3; death 11.2. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workdays (1992): 1.1. Access to services (1990). Proportion of dwellings having access to: electricity,

virtually 100%; safe public water supply 94%; public sewage collection 92%; central heating 92%; bathroom 87%; gas 72%; hot water 79%.

Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election: 96%. Population participating in voluntary work: n.a. Trade union membership in total workforce (1989): 100%. Practicing religious population in total affiliated population (1991): 32%. Social deviance. Offense rate per 100,000 population (1992) for: murder 10.9; rape 9.5; serious bodily injury 40.9; burglary and housebreaking 76.7; larceny-theft 566.9. Incidence per 100,000 in general population (1992) of:

13,900

36,000

219,400

65,300 304,500 29,300 903,400 64,100 25,700

169,100 788,600 76,000 2,339,700 165,900 66,500

2,682,000 1,621,000 4,879,100 3,048,200 2,301,700 2,580,200

Material well-being (1993). Goods possessed per 100 households: automobile

8,881,200 4,952,300

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue:

8 7

7,300 284,800 296,400 202,000 12,700

8 7

19,000 737,700 767,600 523,100 32,900

78,700 124,300 23,600 1,301,000 161,100

alcoholism 1,727.5; substance abuse 25.1; suicide 26.5. 20; radio receiver 101; television receiver 112; refrigerator 95; camera 37; motorcycle 22; bicycle 54; tape recorder 59.

124,477,000,000,000 Rub (value-added tax 31.8%;

foreign activity 24.0%; enterprise profits tax 17.7%; excise taxes 8.1%). Expenditures: 194,495,000,000,000 (current expenditure 74.3%, of which economy 23.3%, defense 20.9%, education 5.8%, health 3.0%, interest on

foreign debt 2.4%; development expenditure 25.7%). Gross national product (1992): U.S.$397,786,000 (U.S.$2,680 per capita).

700

Britannica World Data fuels 6.4%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 4.2%). Major import sources; : Europe 62.8%; the Americas 21.2%; Asia 13.9%; Africa 2.0%.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

Agriculture

1992

in value 000,000 Rub 100,200

% of total value 16.0

labour force 9,700,000

% of labour force 13.3

228,100

36.4

21,800,000

29.9

57,300 43,100

9.1 6.9

8,300,000 5,600,000 5,700,000

11.4 ate 7.8

14,400,000 2,900,000 4,478,000 72,878,000

19.8 4.0 6.1 100.0

Exports (1992): U.S.$39,900,000,000 (fuels and lubricants 54.37%, raw materials excluding fuels 19.9%, machinery and transport equipment 9.2%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 6.5%, chemicals 6.4%, food 2.7%). Major export destinations: Europe 74.8%; Asia 20.4%; the Americas 3.5%; Africa 1.2%.

Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Services Pub. admin., defense Other

162,900

26.0 }

34,700 626,300

TOTAL

5.6 100.0

Trade by commodity group (1992)

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): wheat 46,200,000, potatoes 38,200,000, barley 27,000,000, sugar beets 25,500,000, hay 24,700,000, rye 13,900,000, oats 11,200,000, vegetables (other than potatoes) 10,000,000, fodder crops 8,700,000, sunflower seeds 3,100,000, peas 2,600,000, corn (maize) 2,100,000, millet 1,500,000, buckwheat 1,038,000, rice 800,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1993): 52,200,000 cattle, 48,200,000 sheep, 31,500,000 pigs, 3,200,000 goats, 2,600,000 horses; roundwood 238,000,000 cu m; fish catch 5,300,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): nickel 215,000,000; chrome ore 121,400,000; iron ore

86,700,000; antimony 10,000,000; tin 6,000,000; molybdenum 5,000,000. Manufacturing (1992): crude steel 67,000,000; cement 61,700,000; rolled steel 46,800,000; pig iron, 46,100,000; mineral fertilizers 12,300,000; sulfuric acid 9,700,000; cellulose 5,676,000; paper 3,608,000; cardboard 2,160,000; caustic soda 1,836,000; synthetic resins and plastics 1,295,000; detergents 532,000; synthetic fibres 474,000; soap 344,000; cotton fabrics 3,292,000,000 sq m; leather 743,000,000 sq m; silk fabrics 731,000,000 sq m; linen fabrics 415,000,000 sq m; wool fabrics 276,000,000 sq m; carpets 34,500,000 sq m; tableware 552,000,000 pieces; hats 4,200,000 pieces; cigarettes 148,000,000,000 units; watches 57,100,000 units; vacuum cleaners 4,320,000 units; washing machines 4,284,000 units; television receivers 3,641,000 units; refrigerators 3,187,000 units; tape recorders 2,758,000 units; bicycles 2,405,000 units; sewing machines 1,624,000 units; cameras 1,607,000 units; passenger cars 963,000 units; motorcycles 604,000 units; video recorders 448,000 units; forge press ma-

chines 15,500 units; machine tools 9,700 units; leather footwear 221,000,000 pairs; beer 27,500,000 hectolitres; vodka and liquors 15,100,000 hectolitres; champagne 7,600,000 hectolitres; grape wine 7,500,000 hectolitres; brandy

195,000 hectolitres. Construction (1992): residential 31,500,000 sq m.

employees

98.2 133.3 124.3 94.1 80.0 100.1

no. of

Manufacturing Machinery and metal products

5,429

Fuel and energy Metallurgy Chemicals, petrochemicals, pulp, and paper Light industry Food Other industries11

1,486 428

9,970,000 1,378,000 1,274,000

4,796 4,725 6,056 2,729 2,217

2,840,000 2,145,000 1,533,000 3,018,000 7,018,000

Building materials

Energy production (992,208,000);

petroleum

(consumption):

coal

(barrels;

(metric

tons;

108.2

electricity (kW-hr; 1992)

1992) 399,337,000

3,105 1,652 6,321

317,006,000

(268,326,000);

petroleum

crude

products

(metric tons; 1992) 219,240,000 (193,581,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 557,677,000,000 (394,714,000,000); peat (metric tons; 1992) 4,436,000 (4,402,000);

oil shale (metric tons; 1992) 3,800,000 (n.a.). Energy production by source (1992): thermal 71.0%, hydroelectric 17.1%, nuclear and other 11.9%. Population economically active (1992): total 72,878,000; activity rate of total population 49.0% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 87.4%; female [1991] 52.4%; unemployed [1993] 10.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1990 1991 1992 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

100.0 100.0

160.3 185.9

2,509.0 2,064.2

Land use (1992): forested c. 58.3%; meadows and pastures 5.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.7%; other 28.9%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.2; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1992): wages 76.0%, pensions and stipends 8.7%, other 15.3%; expenditure (1992): food 39.8%, clothing 19.4%, taxes and other financial payments 7.5%, furniture and household appliances 7.5%, culture 4.6%, alcoholic beverages 2.8%, housing 0.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices; non-ClS) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1990

1991

1992

— 10,603 6.9%

+6,438 6.8%

+4,986 6.7%

exports

Africa

1,701

Asia Japan South America North and Central America United States

17,309 3,583 7,423 4,819 3,674 66,632 9,085

other Europe Oceania TOTAL

49,131 615 98,499

i

8,416

U.S.$'000,000 1,730 15,770 2,460 6,202 1,376 953 60,987 16,513 5,714

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 158,100 km; passenger-km 253,200,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,967,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 918,000 km (paved 76%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 10,499,000; trucks and buses 407,000. Merchant marine (1993): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight tonnage 91,000,000. Air transport (1993): passengerkm 117,700,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,800,000; airports (1994) 58. Distribution of traffic (1992)

Intercity transport Road Rail Sea and river Air Pipeline Urban transport Road Rail

1,923 1,640 398

% of national total

39.2 33.4 8.1 ns 19.3

945

— 100.0

Passengers carried (000,000)

% of national total

27,279

28.7

24,792 2,372 53 62 _— 20,257 266 19,991

26.1 24

95,072

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total 4,808; total circulation 166,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 112. Radio (1992): 48,800,000 receivers (1 per 3 persons). Television (1992): 54,200,000 receivers (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1992): 24,796,000 (1 per 6.0 persons).

1992) 1,008,500,000 (316,058,000);

39 900

imports U.S.$'000,000

TOTAL

4,977 1,044 962

1,100 8,100 21,700 2,500 300 3,700 2,500

Direction of trade (1990)

cargo carried (000,000 tons)

value added (000,000 Rub)

F

39,900 .

TOTAL

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1991) monthly wages as a % of avg. of all wages11

9,300 2,300 1,000 3,400 3,900 13,700 1,300

Machinery and transport eqpt. Misc, manufactured articles Goods, n.e.s.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993) 19: U.S.$72,500,000,000.

no. of enterprises

exports

imports

SITC group Food and live animals Raw materials, excl. fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants Chemicals Textile yarn, fabrics

Imports (1992): U.S.$34,900,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 39.2%, food 26.6%, textiles 11.2%, chemicals 9.8%, raw materials excluding

Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

70,200

1,611,000

20,990,000

13.8

2,609

2,090,000 2,638,000

535

Health (1993): physicians 657,000 (1 per 225 persons); hospital beds 1,998,000 (1 per 74 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 18.1. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,100 (vegetable products, n.a., animal products, n.a.); 82% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 2,030,000 (army 70.1%, navy 20.0%, air force 9.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 9.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$265. 'The president of the Russian Federation dissolved the former Congress of People’s Deputies on Sept. 22, 1993; a new constitution, approved by referendum Dec. 1112, 1993, created a Federal Assembly, elections to which were held at the same time.

°The former Chechen-Ingush republic was split into two*separate republics June 4, 1992; although both are formally recognized by the Russian Federation, details on final status within the federation remain undetermined. 3Republic is not signatory to the March 31, 1992, treaty establishing the Russian Federation. 4Ingushetia’s area

and population include Chechenia. 5Entity has formally proclaimed itself a republic; final status remains undetermined. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Leningrad region includes area of autonomous city of St. Petersburg. 8Moskva region includes area of autonomous city of Moscow. 9With the exception of the Chukchi autonomous district (identified in Roman type), which has formally separated from Magadan region, all autonomous districts are administratively part of

another national administrative subdivision, within which their area and population are included.

10Total as of March

31, 1993; Russia has also assumed

for the governmental and commercial

constitute a further U.S.$88,000,000,000.

responsibility

debts of the former U.S.S.R., estimated to 111990.

Nations of the World

Rwanda

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1987 1988 1989

Official name: Repubulika y’u Rwanda (Rwanda); République Rwandaise (French) (Republic of Rwanda). Form of government: transitional regime of Rwandan Patriotic Front!. Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister and Vice President (Minister of Defense). Capital: Kigali. Official languages: Rwanda; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Rwanda franc (RF); valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=RF 216.20; 1 £=RF 135.93.

Consumer price index Earnings index

Agriculture

1,837 4,761 1,845 2,057 2,050 2,189 4,046 1,705 3,002 116 1,663 25,271

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

1991 census

TOTAL

766,839 783,350 515,129 464,585 734,697 851,516 655,368 470,747 918,869 237,782 766,112 7,164,9943

42.0

2,832,557

90.1

281

0.2

4,691

0.2

16,708 9,660 303

12.3 7.1 0.2

45,089 38,237 2,562

1.4 1.2 01

9,438 23,255 1,947 11,711 5,684 ie

6.9 7A 1.4 8.6 4.2 ry

7,333 80,026 3,128 120,019

0.2 2.6 0.1 3.8

9,414

0.3

136,138

100.0

3,143,056

100.0

RF '000,000

% of total

Sex distribution (1991): male 48.67%; female 51.33%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 49.0%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 13.5%; 45-59, 7.590; 60-74, 3.3%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,377,000; (2010) 12,698,000. Doubling time: 21 years.

— 10,562 37.1%

— 11,403 40.7%

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 10,918 41.7%

—6,834 27.0%

—15,181 39.6%

Soe 49.9%

Imports (1991): RF 38,474,500,000 (machinery and transport equipment 14.5%, of which machinery 11.1%, transport equipment 3.4%; mineral fuels and lubricants

12.8%;

food, beverages,

and

tobacco

11.4%;

construction

materials 3.9%). Major import sources: Belgium-Luxembourg 17.1%; Kenya 13.4%; France 6.8%; Germany 6.0%; Italy 2.8%; The Netherlands 2.7%; United Kingdom 2.1%; United States 1.0%; Zaire 0.7%.

Ethnic composition (1983): Hutu 90%; Tutsi 9%; Twa 1%.

Catholic 65%; traditional beliefs 17%;

Protestant 9%; Muslim 9%.

29,5784;

Butare

28,6454;

Exports (1991): RF 11,971,200,000 (coffee 60.2%; tea 23.4%). Major export destinations: Germany 21.3%; The Netherlands 18.8%; Belgium-Luxembourg 11.8%; United Kingdom 6.4%; United States 5.8%; Italy 1.7%.

Transport and communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 52.1. (world avg. 26.0); (1978) legitimate 94.9%; illegitimate 5.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 18.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 33.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 8.5. Marniage rate per 1,000 population (1984): 2.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 44.8 years; female 47.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1984)6: complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and birth injury 192.4; infectious and parasitic diseases (including malaria, typhoid, trypanosomiasis [sleeping sickness], pneumonia, tuberculosis, bacillary dysentery and amebiasis, diphtheria, meningococcal infection, and poliomyelitis) 11.8; diseases of the digestive system 10.3; diseases of the nervous system 10.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 5.2.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 8,283 mi, 13,330 km (paved 6%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 7,868; trucks and buses 2,048. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1991): passenger arrivals 29,000, passenger departures 30,000; metric ton cargo loaded 2,674, metric ton cargo unloaded 4,794; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 3. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number, none; total circulation per 1,000 population, n.a. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 650,000 (1 per 12 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1992): 21,220 (1 per 347 persons). Education and health Education (1990-91) schools Primary (age 7-15) Secondary (age 16-19)11

Higher 12

National economy (1992). Revenue: RF 28,723,000,000 (taxes on goods and services import and export duties 31.1%; income tax 15.6%; property taxes Expenditures: RF 54,868,000,000 (current expenditure 74.1%, of wages and salaries 26.5%, debt payment 8.7%, capital expenditure

Public 2B (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$804,000,000.

t

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

plantains 2,700,000, roots and tubers 1,377,000 (of which sweet potatoes 700,000, cassava 350,000, potatoes 260,000), cereals 199,000 (of which sorghum 109,000, corn [maize] 70,000), coffee 31,000, tea 14,000, tobacco 4,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,119,000 goats, 610,000 cattle, 402,000 sheep,

130,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 5,660,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 3,551. Mining and quarrying (1990): cassiterite (tin ore) 730; wolframite (tungsten ore) 175; gold (1992) 15,552 troy oz. Manufacturing (1991): cement 57,000;

lye soap 9,000; sugar 2,9697; beer 915,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 101,000 hectolitres; footwear 24,000 pairs; blankets 406,876 units7; matches 70,942,000 boxes7. Construction (1981): residential 59,600 sq m, nonresidential 34,400

sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 185,000,000 (197,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) ~ none (137,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 153,762 (153,762). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,000,000; expenditures by nation‘

als abroad U.S:$17,000,000.

Land use (1992): forested 22.3%; meadows and pastures 18.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 47.4%; other 12.0%.

10.3%, household

Foreign trade10

Urban-rural (1991): urban 5.4%; rural 94.6%.

25.9%).

97,151

ing 13.2%, clothing and footwear 11.4%, transportation

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 801.2, persons per sq km 309.3.

Budget 34.7%; 0.3%). which

% of labour force

equipment 8.4%.

_ Population (1994): 7,817,000.

Ruhengeri

1989 labour force

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988

Kigali 237,7823;

1993 147.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.7; average annual income per household (1983) RF 122,870 (U.S.$1,300); sources of income (1977): self-employment (profits, interest, etc.) 71.0%, salaries and wages 16.5%, transfers 9.5%; expenditure (1982)9: food 44.2%, hous-

Demography

Major cities (1991): Gisenyi 21,9184.

1992 131.1

% of total value

Mining

Butare

Religious affiliation (1988): Roman

1991 119.6

1991 in value RF '000,0008

sq km

9,7572

1990 100.0

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Capitals

Ruhengeri

96.0 ia

(U.S.$200 per capita).

population

Byumba Cyangugu Gikongoro Gisenyi Gitarama Kibungo Kibuye Kigali (city)

95.0 oh

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$1,498,000,000

Area and population Prefectures Butare Byumba Cyangugu Gikongoro Gisenyi Gitarama Kibungo Kibuye Kigali Kigali (city) Ruhengeri TOTAL

92.3 vo

701

Rs

Population economically active (1991): total 3,649,000; activity rate of total population 50.2% (participation rates: ages 14-74 [1989], 46.3%; female 53.5%; unemployed, n.a.).

1,671 313

teachers

students

19,183 2,802

1,100,437 70,400 3,389

646

student/ teacher ratio 57.4 25.1 5.2

Educational attainment (1978). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 76.9%; some primary education 16.8%; complete primary education 4.0%; some secondary and complete secondary education 2.0%; some postsecondary vocational and higher education 0.3%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 50.2%; males literate 63.9%; females literate 37.1%.

Health: physicians (1989) 272 (1 per 24,697 persons); hospital beds (1984) 9,046 (1 per 649 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990— 95)

110.0.

Fool (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,913 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 82% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994); 5,200 (army 96.2%, navy, none, air force 3.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 7.5% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$15.

1Civil war victory against former government

declared by RPF July 18, 1994; new

government established on July 19, 1994. 2Detail does not add to total given because

of rounding. 3The population of Kigali decreased to about 100,000-120,000 because of the 1994 civil war. 4Resident population only. 5Excludes marriages not registered in court. In hospitals only. 71990. 8At factor cost. 9Weights of consumer price index components. !0Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and.c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. !1Includes vocational and teacher training. 121989-90, 131985.

702

Britannica World Data

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.7; in-

Saint Kitts and Nevis

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1978) 11: food, beverages, and tobacco 55.6%, household furnishings 9.4%, housing

Official name: Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis!. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (National Assembly [152]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Basseterre. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation

7.6%, clothing and footwear

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

1987

Consumer price index Earnings index

91.1 Ser

91.3 a

1989

1990

1991

1992

199313

95.9 oA

100.0

104.2

107.2

110.3

Land use (1991): forested 17.0%; meadows and pastures 3.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 39.0%; other 41.0%.

area

TOTAL

1988

Foreign trade!4

Area and population Capitals Charlestown Basseterre

i

Population economically active (1980): total 17,125; activity rate of total population 39.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 69.5%; female 41.0%; unemployed !2).

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =EC$2.70; 1 £=EC$4.30.

Islands3 Nevis5 St. Kitts

7.5%, fuel and light 6.6%, transportation

4.3%, other 9.0%.

sq mi

sq km

population 1991 census4

36.0 68.0

93.2 176.2 269.4

9,130 32,696 41,826

104.0

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 EC$’000,000 % of total

— 138.8 47.9%

— 173.9 51.6%

= 199.3 56.3%

1990

1991

1992

— 188.4 55.8%

— 183.1 53.7%

— 202.4 53.5%

Imports (1992): EC$290,400,000 (15manufactured products 73.0%, agricultural products 16.0%, fuels 6.0%). Major import sources (1989): United States 41.3%;

Caricom

countries

15.6%,

of which

Trinidad

and Tobago

7.4%;

United Kingdom 14.0%.

Demography

Exports (1992): EC$88,000,000 (15raw sugar 37.0%, garments 26.0%, other

Population (1994): 41,800. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 401.9, persons per sq km 155.2.

goods [including beer, nonalcoholic beverages, coconut oil, electronic goods, and transport equipment] 37.0%). Major export destinations (1989): United

Urban-rural (1990): urban 48.9%; rural 51.1%. Sex distribution (1990): male 51.56%; female 48.44%.

Trinidad and Tobago 4.1%.

States 54.6%; United Kingdom 26.1%; Caricom countries 8.9%, of which

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 32.5%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 18.9%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 8.9%; 75 and over, 4.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 42,000; (2010) 42,000. Doubling time: 56 years. Ethnic composition (1991): black 94.9%; mixed/white/Indo-Pakistani 5.1%. Religious affiliation (1985): Protestant 76.4%, of which Anglican 36.2%, Methodist 32.3%; Roman Catholic 10.7%; other 12.9%.

Major towns (1990): Basseterre 15,000; Charlestown 1,200.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 21.9 (world avg. 26.0); (1983) legitimate 19.2%; illegitimate 80.8%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 9.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 12.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 63.0 years; female 69.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 443.2, of which cerebrovascular disease 220.5, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other heart disease 122.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 95.5; diseases of the respiratory system 81.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 50.0; ill-defined conditions 102.3.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: EC$110,800,000 (tax revenue 68.8%, of which income taxes 18.1%, import duties 17.8%, consumption taxes 15.5%; nontax

revenue 29.5%). Expenditures: EC$117,000,000 (current expenditure 89.7%; development expenditure 10.3%). ; Tourism

(1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$67,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad U.S.$5,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 200,000, coconuts 2,000, potatoes 3086, mangoes 2726; livestock (number of live animals) 14,000 sheep, 10,000 goats, 5,000 cattle; roundwood,

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992) 16: length 22 mi, 36 km. Roads (1993): total length 186 mi, 300 km (paved 42%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 4,000; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 550. Air transport: passenger arrivals (1992) 123,19517; passenger departures, n.a.; cargo handled, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications (1992). Daily newspapers!8: none. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 9,500 (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1990): 9,60019 (1 per 4.4

persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 5-12) Secondary (age 13-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

31 F 2 1

342 298 35 3

6,978 4,645 189 36

student/ teacher ratio

20.4 15.6 5.4 12.0

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 1.1%; primary education 29.6%; secondary 67.2%; higher 2.1%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 25,500 (90.0%); males literate 13,100 (90.0%); females literate 12,400 (90.0%). Health (1990): physicians 43 (1 per 972 persons); hospital beds 268 (1 per 156 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 20.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,435 (vegetable products 76%, animal products 24%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): the police force includes a 50-member paramilitary unit.

n.a.; fish catch (1991) 1,750. Mining and quarrying: excavation of sand for local use. Manufacturing (1991): raw sugar 22,5007; molasses 5,6006; aerated beverages 47,000 hectolitres; beer 17,200 hectolitres; other manufactures in-

‘clude garments, electronic components, plastics, and ethanol. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 40,000,000 (40,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum

products (metric tons; 1992) none (24,000); natural gas, none (none). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$39,300,000. Gross national product

(U.S.$4,470 per capita).

(at current

market

prices;

1993):

U.S.$183,300,000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991 in value EC$’000,0008

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate

Pub. admin., defense

Services Other TOTAL

1984 % of total value

labour force9

% of labour force?

Td 0.7 12.8 13.5 1.3

4,380 — 2,170

29.6 — 14.7

400 1,030

2.7 7.0

61.9 88.8 43.7 70.8

15.6 22.4 11.0

450 940 280

3.0 6.3 1:9

—22.010 396.1

5.610 100.0

28.1 2.7 50.7 53.3 5.0

13.1

17.9

3.3

acco

ae

460 14,810

3.1 100.0

‘Both Saint Christopher and Nevis and the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis are officially acceptable, variant, short- and long-form names of the country. 2Includes 4 nonelective seats. 3Parish subdivisions of both islands are for statistical purposes only. 4Preliminary. 5Nevis has full internal self-government. The Nevis legislature is subordinate to the National Assembly only with regard to external affairs and defense. 61990. 71994. 8At factor cost. 9Employed persons only. 10Less imputed bank service charges. 1!Weights of consumer price index components. 12Official data not available. Unemployment rates were thought to be low in 1992 because of labour shortages in the sugar industry and increased job creation in the manufacturing and tourism industries. !3September. !4Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 5Estimated figures. ‘Light railway serving the sugar industry on Saint Kitts. !7Saint Kitts airport only. 18Total circulation of one weekly newspaper and one twice-weekly newspaper is 9,000. 19Number of subscribers.

Nations of the World

Saint Lucia

Population economically active (1992): total 57,797; activity rate of total population 41.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 72.7%; female 46.5%;

Official name: Saint Lucia. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [11]; House of

unemployed [1993] 20.0%).

Price and earnings indexes (1988 = 100)

Assembly [17]).

Consumer price index Earnings index4

Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Castries. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Eastern Caribbean

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

99.2

100.0 100.0

104.1 103.0

109.0 106,1

115.2 109.3

121.0

122.0 $e

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$453,000,000

(U.S.$2,900 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

Dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S,$ = EC$2.70; 1 £=EC$4.30.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications

Area and population

afee

Population

‘

Districts Anse-la-Raye Canaries

Capitals Anse-la-Raye Canaries

Castries Choiseul

Castries Choiseul

31 12

Dennery Gros Islet Laborie Micoud

Dennery Gros Islet Laborie Micoud

27 39 15 30

Vieux Fort

Vieux Fort

Soufriére

703

SINE 18

1992

ccane oe

Soufriére

19

TOTAL

79 31

53,883 6,638,

51

7,962

70 101 38 78

17

44

2381

6171

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

osuimalen 5,218 1,864 11,574 13,996 7,763 15,636

1992

in value EC$'000,0005

% of total value

labour forces

% of labour forces

126.0 6.9 75.7 92.2 35.1

12.3 0.7 7.4 9.0 3.4

2,824 i 4,360 2,197 832

8.9 a 13.8 6.9 2.6

185.0 251.3 143.1 134.6 32.7 — 61.87 1,020.78

18.1 24.6 14.0 13.2 3.2 —6.17 100.08

2,551 8,714 3,488 6,758 ee. =

8.0 27.5 11.0 21.3 Fe ee 100.0

31,724

Land use (1991): forested 13.0%; meadows and pastures 5.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.0%; other 52.0%.

13,617

Foreign trade?

138,151

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

Demography

EC$’000,000 % of total

_ Population (1994): 142,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 596.6, persons per sq km 230.1. Urban-rural (1990): urban 44.1%; rural 55.9%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.49%; female 51.51%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 36.7%; 15-29, 29.4%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60-74, 6.3%; 75 and over, 2.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 151,000; (2010) 169,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (1985): black 87.0%; mixed 9.1%; East Indian 2.6%; white 1.3%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 79.0%; Protestant 15.5%, of which Seventh-day Adventist 6.5%, Pentecostal 3.0%; other 5.5%.

Major city (1992): Castries city proper 2,063 (urban area 13,615).

225.1 34.3%

— 228.9 26.8%

aol .2 39.0%

1990

1991

1992

—321.4 31.9%

— 426.7 41.8%

— 436.7 39.7%

Imports (1992): EC$845,500,000 (consumer goods 58.3%, of which food and live animals 19.6%; machinery and transport equipment 21.3%; chemicals and chemical products 10.0%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 6.8%). Major import sources: United States 33.8%; Caricom countries 17.6%, of which Trinidad and Tobago 9.2%; United Kingdom 13.7%; Japan 6.2%; Canada 3.2%. Exports (1992): EC$331,500,000 (bananas 60.1%; clothing 15.0% 10; paper and paperboard 5.0% 19; beer 4.3%; coconut oil 2.0%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 51.4%; United States 21.4%; Caricom countries 17.0%, of which Dominica 4.1%, Barbados 3.4%; Italy 6.3%.

Transport and communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 26.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 14.2%; illegitimate 85.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 19.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.3. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 68.7 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 205.6, of which ischemic heart diseases 133.2, cerebrovascular disease 34.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 64.4; diseases of the respiratory system 48.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 31.1; ill-defined conditions

130.3.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 500 mi, 805 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 9,863; trucks and buses 9,075. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 2,070. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals 223,46711, passenger departures 226,63011; cargo unloaded

1,393 metric tons, cargo loaded 3,465

metric tons; airports (1994) with scheduled flights Communications. Daily newspapers: none!2. Radio receivers 90,000 (1 per 1.6 persons). Television receivers 25,000 (1 per 5.6 persons). Telephones persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

student/ schools

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: EC$331,100,000 (consumption duties on imported goods 27.0%, income taxes 26.8%, import duties 18.7%, taxes on domestic goods and services 10.7%). Expenditures: EC$344,200,000 (current expenditures 69.7%, development expenditures and net lending 30.3%).

2. (1993): total number of (1993): total number of (1992): 35,990 (1 per 3.8

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voc., teacher tr. } Higher

84 14 1

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,18113 46613

32,204 7,612

27.413 17.513

11313

1125,

6,313

670, cacao beans 4042, pepper 241, plantains 216, pineapple 189; livestock

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 17.5%; primary education 74.4%; secondary 6.8%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1990): about 80%. Health (1992): physicians 64 (1 per 2,235 persons); hospital beds 435 (1 per 318 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 18.3. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,424 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 100% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

excavation of sand for local construction and pumice. Manufacturing (value

Military

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$88,300,000.

:

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$209,300,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad (1991) U.S.$17,000,000.

}

Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (export value in EC$000 except as noted;

1992): bananas

184,0002, copra 2,6032, breadfruit 713, mangoes

(number of live animals) 16,000 sheep, 12,000 cattle, 12,000 pigs, 12,000 goats; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch 958 metric tons. Mining and quarrying:

of production

in EC$’000;

1992): food, beverages,

paper products and cardboard and electronic components

and tobacco

boxes 41,029; garments

72,379;

10,385; electrical

Total active duty personnel (1992):14.

9,501; refined coconut oil 6,981; textiles 4,359.

Construction (buildings approved; 1992): residential 91,900 sq m; nonresidential 43,300 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 152,100,000 (125,500,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none

(none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (325,000); natural ( : gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1982)3: food 46.8%, housing 13.5%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, transportation and communications 6.3%, househoid furnishings 5.8%, fuel and light 4.5%, recreation and education 3.2%, beverages and tobacco 2.8%, health care 2.3%, other 8.3%.

1Total includes the uninhabited 30 sq mi (78 sq km) Central Forest Reserve. 2Value of production. 3Castries administrative area only. ¢Public sector only. >At constant prices of 1990. SData exclude workers (all self-employed and many agricultural workers) not making contributions to the national insurance plan and all unemployed. 7Less imputed bank service charges. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. °Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 10Estimated figure. 111990. 12Two newspapers published once and thrice a week have a total circulation (1992) of 9,000. 131991—92. 14The 497-member police force includes a specially trained paramilitary unit and a coast guard unit.

704

Britannica World Data Gross national product (1993): U.S.$234,000,000 (U.S.$2,130 per capita).

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 199211 in value EC$'000,000

Official name: Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines. monarchy with one legislative house (House of Assembly [211]). Chief of state: British Monarch

represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingstown. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Eastern Caribbean

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =EC$2.70;

population 1993

i 3 estimate

Constituencies2 Island of Saint Vincent4 Barrouallie Bridgetown Calliaqua Chateaubelair Colonarie Georgetown Kingstown (city) Kingstown (suburbs) Layou Marriaqua Sandy Bay Saint Vincent Grenadines Northern Grenadines5 Southern Grenadines5 TOTAL

5,319 7,706 20,760 6,185 8,073 7,472 15,824 11,006 6,132 9,069 2,858

1991

1992

1993

1994

100.0

105.6

109.1

113.8

112.814

—100.9 26.3%

Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 37.4%; 15-29, 32.7%; 30-44, 14.9%; 45-59, 1.5%; 60-74, 5.6%; 75 and over, 1.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 116,000; (2010) 127,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (1986): black 65.5%; mulatto 19.0%; East Indian 5.5%; white (mostly Portuguese) 3.5%; Amerindian/black 2.0%; other 4.5%. Religious affiliation (1980): Protestant 80.5%, of which Anglican 41.6%, Adventist

4.4%;

Roman

Catholic 11.6%; other 7.9%. Major city (1993): Kingstown 15,824. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.7 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 71.0 years; female 74.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 221.2, of which hypertensive disease 110.1, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 44.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 99.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 55.1; homicide, suicide,

and other violence 39.5.

—111.5 21.7%

1990

1991

1992

— 100.0 18.3%

—141.7 28.1%

—95.3 17.5%

Barbados 3.4%; Canada 3.0%. Exports (1992): EC$213,000,000 (domestic exports 96.3%, of which bananas 52.7%, flour 11.2%, varieties of taro roots 3.5%, sweet potatoes 2.3%; re-

exports 3.7%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 41.2%; Trinidad and Tobago

12.0%; Saint Lucia

10.0%

United

States 4.4%; Antigua and

Barbuda 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 586 mi, 943 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 5,000; trucks and buses 2,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 881; total deadweight tonnage 7,044,189. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals 112,574, passenger departures 113,699; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers: none!6. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 55,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 17,700 (1 per 6.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 17,500 (1 per 6.1 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr.

60 21 2

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

1,215 408 it

24,134 7,124 337

19.9 17.5 “i

Educational attainment (1980), Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 2:4%; primary education 88.0%; secondary 8.2%; higher 1.4%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: EC$265,000,000 (current revenue 70.2%; development revenue 29.8%, of which domestic sources 15.8%, foreign loans and

grants 14.0%). Expenditures: EC$263,600,000 (current expenditure 70.0%; development expenditure 30.0%). Land use (1992): forested 36.0%; meadows and pastures 5.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 28.0%; other 31.0%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$52,700,000;

54,000 (85.0%).

Health: physicians (1992) 40 (1 per 2,690 persons); hospital beds (1989) 500 C pes209 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-92 avg.) Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,460 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 102% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

expenditures by na-

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): bananas 61,7008, coconuts 23,000, eddoes and dasheens? 5,240, yams 2,147,

mangoes 2,000, sweet potatoes 1,706; plantains 1,339, lemons and limes 1,000, oranges 1,000, ginger 834, arrowroot starch 63510, soursops, guavas, and papaws are other important fruits; livestock (number of live animals) 12,000 sheep, 9,000 pigs, 6,000 cattle; roundwood,

—69.9 13.2%

Imports (1992): EC$360,600,000 (food products 23.2%; basic manufactures 21.6%; machinery and transport equipment 17.8%). Major import sources: United States 35.5%; Trinidad and Tobago 17.6%; United Kingdom 16.9%;

Urban-rural (1991)7: urban 24.6%; rural 75.4%.

tionals abroad (1991) U.S.$7,000,000.

92:9 Pe

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

Sex distribution (1993): male 49.92%; female 50.08%.

Seventh-day

90.4

Foreign trade!5

EC$’000,000 % of total

5.9%,

21.913 100.0

furnishings 6.6%, housing 6.3%, energy 6.2%, other 13.4%.

5,642 2,919 108,965

Baptist

7,593 13 34,739

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.9; income per household (1988) EC$4,579 (U.S.$1,696); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1975-76): food and beverages 59.8%, clothing 7.7%, household

Demography

20.9%,

7.4 1.0 218

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1990 1989 1988 Consumer price index Annual earnings index

Population (1994): 110,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi,731.9, persons per sq km 282.6.

Methodist

5.4

1,882

2,566 351 7.579

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$61,000,000. Population economically active (1991): total 42,030; activity rate of total population 39.5% (participation rates: over age 15 [1980] 60.9%; female [1980] 36.1%; unemployed [1993] 30-40%).

1 £=EC$4.30.

Area and population

13.2 10.8 16.1 1.8 —5.712

66.4 54.4 81.2 9.3 — 28.912 i

1980 % of labour force 25.7 0.3 ot 10.2 1.2

labour force 8,928 108 1,781 3,549 402

21.4

108.1

communications

Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation

17.8 0.3 9.1 10.4 48

89.8 15 45.9 52.6 24.0 ,

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

Form of government: constitutional

% of total value

n.a.; fish catch (1991)

7,665, of which squid and octopus 4,298. Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel for local use. Manufacturing (value added in EC$’000; 1988): beverages and tobacco products 9,686; food products 9,499; textiles, clothing, and footwear 3,872; metal products and electrical machinery 2,510. Con-

struction (gross floor area planned; 1992): 80,800 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 57,200,000 (52,900,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (27,000); natural gas, none (none).

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 634-member police force includes a coast guard and paramilitary unit. Military expenditure as percentage of central government expenditure (1989-90): 5.6% 17. ‘ ‘Includes6 nonelective seats; excludes speaker who may be elected from within or from outside of the House of Assembly membership. 2For statistical purposes and the election of legislative representatives. 3January 1. 4For local administration, the island of Saint Vincent is divided into five parishes; population by parish is not available.

‘Botha constituency and a parish. °Detail does not add to total given because of

rounding. 7Urban defined as Kingstown and suburbs. 81993. °Varieties of taro roots. 101992-93.

11At factor cost. 12Less imputed bank service charges. 13Not adequately

defined. !4March.

'5Imports f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and

trading partners. 1©Weekly newspapers: 2. 17May not agree with military expenditure as percentage of GNP because of different bases used.

Nations of the World

San Marino

tery, tiles, postage stamps, gold and silver jewelry, paints, synthetic rubber, and furniture. Construction (new units completed; 1993): residential 161; nonresidential 102. Energy production (consumption): all electrical power is imported via electrical grid from Italy (consumption, n.a.); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1987): U.S.$188,000,000

Official name: Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino (Most Serene Republic of San Marino). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Great and General Council [60)). Head of state and government: Captains-Regent (2). Capital: San Marino. Official language: Italian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Italian lira (Lit; plural lire) = 100 centesimi; valuation (Oct.

(U.S.$8,590 per capita).

Structure of labour force (19941)

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =Lit 1,569; 1 £=Lit 2,495,

area

19941

Sen

Acquaviva Borgo Chiesanuova San Marino Domagnano Faetano Fiorentino Montegiardino Serravalle

TOTAL

_sq km_

Agriculture Manufacturing Construction and public utilities Transportation and

294 4,739

2.0 31.9

1,195

8.0

communications Trade Finance and

278 2,499

1:9 16.8

390

2.6

1,239

8.3

1.88 3.48 2.11 2.74 2.56 2.99 2.53 1.28 4.07

4.86 9.01 5.46 7.09 6.62 L15 6.56 3.31 10.53

1,240 5,127 812 4,385 2,146 795 1,716 672 7,706

23.632

61.19

24,599

24.4

6165

TOTAL

4.15

14,874

100.0

Land use (1985): agricultural and under permanent cultivation 74%; meadows and pastures 22%; forested, built-on, wasteland, and other 4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade: n.a. San Marino and Italy form a single customs area; separate figures for San Marino are not available. Imports (1993): manufactured goods of all kinds, oil, and gold. Major import source: Italy. Exports

(1993):

wine,

wheat,

woolen

goods,

furniture,

wood,

ceramics,

building stone, dairy products, meat, and postage stamps. Major export destination: Italy.

Population (1994): 24,500. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 1,036.8, persons per sq km 400.4. Urban-rural (19941): urban 89.8%; rural 10.2%. Sex distribution (19941): male 49.71%; female 50.29%. Age breakdown (19941): under 15, 14.9%; 15-29, 23.6%; 30-44, 24.0%; 45-59, 17.9%; 60-74, 13.9%; 75 and over, 5.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 26,600; (2010) 30,400. Doubling time: not applicable; natural population growth is negligible, aging only 0.3% during 1989-93. Ethnic composition (19941): Sammarinesi 77.7%; Italian 21.1%; other Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 95.2%; no religion 3.0%; 1.8%. Major cities (19941): Serravalle/Dogano 4,749; San Marino 2,399; Borgo giore 2,355; Murata 1,491; Domagnano

3,624

Other

_estimate _

Demography

aver1.2%. other Mag-

1,027.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none (nearest rail terminal is at Rimini, Italy, 17 mi [27 km] northeast). Roads (1987): total length 147 mi, 237 km. Vehicles (19941): passenger cars 22,159; trucks and buses 3,658. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport: airports with scheduled flights, none; there is, however, a heliport that provides passenger and cargo service between San Marino and Rimini, Italy, during the summer months. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): 6; circulation per 1,000 population, n.a. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 12,600 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1990): total number of receivers 8,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Telephones (1988): 15,700 (1 per 1.5 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1989-93): 10.5 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 95.2%; illegitimate 4.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1989-93): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1989-93): 3.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1984): 1.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989-93): 7.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989-93): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1980-85): male 70.7 years; female 76.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989-93): diseases of the circulatory system 324.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 216.4; accidents, violence, and suicide 42.9; diseases of the respiratory system 16.3.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: Lit 379,337,000,000 (mainly receipts from postage stamp sales, tourism, and customs duties [collected by Italy and paid as a subsidy]). Expenditures: Lit 379,337,000,000 (3finance and economic planning 31.0%, internal affairs 11.3%, health and social security 9.0%, education and culture 7.1%, public works 6.3%). ie Public debt: n.a. Tourism: number of tourist arrivals (1993) 3,072,030; receipts from visitors (1983) U.S.$56,454,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a.

Population economically active (19941): total 14,874; activity rate of total population 60.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1992] 72.9%; female 40.8%; unemployed 4.1%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

% of labour force

Services Public administration and defense

population

, Capitals

Acquaviva Borgo Maggiore Chiesanuova Citta Domagnano Faetano Fiorentino Montegiardino Serravalle/Dogano

labour force

insurance

Area and population

Castles

705

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

84.1 ‘x

88.4 ee

94.0 i

100.0 eh

108.0 4%

115.7 te

121.9 a

Education (1993-94) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

14 3 ee Ey

219 133 eat i

students _ teacher ratio

1,166 772 385 is

5.3 5.8 is

Educational attainment (19941). Percentage of the adult labour force having: basic literacy or primary education 22.2%; secondary 39.1%; some postsecondary 32.5%; higher degree 6.1%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 18,135 (98.0%); males literate 8,957 (98.2%); females literate 9,178 (97.7%).

Health (1987): physicians 60 (1 per 375 persons); hospital beds 149 (1 per 151 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989-93) 9.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,498 (vegetable products 74%, animal products 26%); 139% of FAO

recommended

minimum

requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): none’. Military expenditure as percentage of national budget (1987): 0.9% (world 5.4%); per capita expenditure (1987)

U.S.$82.

Household income and expenditure. Total number of households (19941) 9,052; average household size 2.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income:

n.a.; expenditure (1991)4: food, beverages, and tobacco 22.1%, housing, fuel, 17.6%, and electrical energy 20.9%, transportation and communications clothing and footwear 8.0%, education 7.1%, furniture, appliances, and

goods and services for the home 7.2%, health and sanitary services 2.6%,

other goods and services 14.5%.

Production

!

;

(metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing>:

live aniwheat c. 4,400, grapes c. 700, barley c. 500; livestock (number of

mals; 1993) 910 cattle, 725 pigs, 65 sheep. Manufacturing (1993): processed

kg; meats 342,578 kg, of which beef 238,725 kg, pork 89,000 kg, veal 13,840

cheese 80,201 kg; butter 14,793 kg; milke 959,069 litres; yogurt 6,645 litres; other major products include textiles, cement, paper, leather, bricks, pot-

1January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Early 1980s. 4Weighting coefficients for component expenditures are those of the 1991 official Italian consumer price index for the North-Central region of Italy. Unemployed. 6Figures are for Italy. 7Defense is provided by a public security force of about 50; all fit males ages 16-55 constitute a militia.

706

Britannica World Data

Sao Tomé and Principe

Earnings indexes (1981 = 100)

Official name: Republica democratica de Sao Tomé e Principe (Democratic Republic of Sao Tomé and Principe). Form of government: Unitary multiparty!. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Sao Tomé. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 dobra (Db) = 100

Agricultural sector a Nonagricultural sectors

96.3

107.7

107.7

123.8

market

_1986_

prices; 1993): U.S.$43,750,000

3,852

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Public utilities

5,639 5,639 114,507 43,420 11,421 5,541 9,448 13,101 31,576 120,146

Santo Antonio

Sao Tomé Santana

Sao Joao Angolares Neves Guadalupe Trindade

3,801

‘

27.5

ey 3,195 1,200

Hi 23.1 8.7

13,832

100.0

27.6

1,510 269 2,866

3.4

2,186 4,451 176 5,592 2,369 16,2057 49,216

4.4 9.0 0.4 11.4 4.8 32.97 100.0

0.6 58

Land use (1992): meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 38.6%; forest, built-on, wasteland, and other 60.4%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) Db ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (1994): 128,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 331.6, persons per sq km 127.9. Urban-rural (1992): urban 44.1%; rural 55.9%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.42%; female 50.58%.

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

-—571 47.4%

— Sil, 40.5%

—380 35.1%

=397 19.5%

— 1,047 46.1%

—1,261 51.2%

Imports (1992): U.S.$30,800,000 (capital goods 30.8%, food and other agricultural products 14.0%, mineral fuels and lubricants 9.1%). Major import sources (1987): Portugal 33.7%; East Germany 12.1%; Spain 11.3%; Angola

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.6%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 12.1%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60 and over, 6.4%; not stated, 0.8%.

Population projection: (2000) 146,000; (2010) 182,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnolinguistic composition: mestigos, angolares (descendants of Angolan slaves), forros (descendants of freed slaves), servigais (alien contract labourers), and tongas (children of servigais) speak Portuguese; non-Portuguesespeaking Europeans speak French and Spanish. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic, about 80.8%; remainder mostly Protestant, predominantly Seventh-day Adventist and an indigenous Evangelical Church. 11,3883; Santana

62

851

% of labour force

13,592

6.7

933

}

labour force

27.8 ss

Ee

Construction Transportation and } communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

census2 ae eared

1991 % of total value

___Db ‘000,000_

Population.

Major cities (1991): SAo Tomé 43,420; Trindade Neves 5,9193; Santo Amaro 5,8783.

97.2

1985

1992

1991

Lemba Lobata Mé-Zochi TOTAL

103.0

in value

Capitals

Caué

1984

98.5 100.7

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Area and population

Aqua Grande Cantagalo

1983

93.6 101.4

(U.S.$350 per capita).

1 U.S.$=Db 811.68; 1 £=Db 1,291.

Districts Principe Pagué Sao Tomé

1982

Gross national product (at current

céntimos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Islands

1981

100.0 100.0

6,1903;

8.8%; West Germany 8.4%; France 6.5%; The Netherlands 5.4%; Norway

4.2%; Belgium-Luxembourg 3.5%. Exports (1992): U.S.$5,500,000 (cocoa 60.0%). Major export destinations (1988): West Germany 52.3%; East Germany 20.2%; The Netherlands 12.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 149 mi, 240 km (paved 41.7%). Vehicles (1987): passenger cars 2,600; trucks and buses 300. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 4; total deadweight tonnage 2,277. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 5,000,000, passenger-km 8,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 700,000, short ton-km cargo 1,000,000; airports

(1994) with scheduled flights 2.

Communications. Daily newspapers: none; 2 government weeklies (circulation, n.a.). Radio (1993): total number of receivers 31,000 (1 per 4.0 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1991): 3,105 (1 per 39 persons).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.4 (world avg. 26.0); (1977) legitimate 9.8%; illegitimate 90.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 26.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.6. _ Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 63.0 years; female 61.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): malaria 160.6; direct obstetric causes 76.7; pneumonia 74.0; influenza 61.5; anemias 47.3; hyper-

tensive disease 32.1.

National economy Budget (1988). Revenue: Db 975,000,000 (indirect taxes 44.4%; income from property 16.0%; nondurable goods 11.3%; direct taxes 10.2%). Expenditures: Db

1,115,000,000

(current expenditure 82.4%, of which wages

salaries 45.5%; capital expenditure 17.6%).

and

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$168,800,000.

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): coconuts 36,000, cassava 5,000, fruits (other than melons) 5,000, bananas 3,000, palmetto 3,0004, vegetables and melons 3,000, cereals 1,000, taro 7425, palm kernels 500; livestock (number of 4,000 goats, 4,000 cattle, 3,000 pigs, 2,000 sheep; roundwood

cacao 3,000, copra 2,000, live animals) (1992) 9,000

Education and health Education (1989) schools

Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

64 119 29 he

teachers

students

559 318 1810 a

19,822 7,446 289 70011

student/ teacher ratio

35.5 23.4 :

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 56.6%; incomplete primary education 18.0%: primary 19.2%; incomplete secondary 4.6%; complete secondary 1.3%; postsecondary 0.3%. Literacy (1981): total population age 15 and over literate 28,114 (54.27%); males literate 17,689 (70.2%); females literate 10,425 (39.1%). Health (1989): physicians 61 (1 per 1,881 persons); hospital beds (1983) 640 (1 per 158 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 64.9. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,153 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 92% of FAO

recommended

minimum

requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel: a gendarmerie of about 900 men was to be established in the early 1990s. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1980):

1.6% (world 5.4%); per capita expenditure U.S.$6.

cu m; fish catch (1991) 2,996, principally marine fish and shellfish. Mining and quarrying: some quarrying to support local construction industry. Manufacturing (1987): bread 2,459; soap 604; coconut oil 330; ice 1916; palm oil 177; limes 226; corn (maize) flour 186; sawn wood 3,272 cu m; beer 28,540 hectolitres; bottled water 13,750 hectolitres; soft drinks 10,460 hectolitres;

other products include clothing, bricks, and clay products. Construction (1972): buildings authorized 44 (5,561 sq m, of which residential 3,698, mixed residential-commercial 1,361, commercial 502). Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 15,000,000 (15,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (24,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981): 4.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Population economically active (1991): total 49,216; activity rate of total pop-

ulation 41.0% (participation rates [1981]: ages 15-64, 61.1%; female 32.4%; unemployed 30.7%5).

‘Multiparty system effective as of January 1991 elections; National People’s Assembly was dissolved on July 10, 1994. Legislative elections took place on Oct. 2, 1994. ?Preliminary. 31981. 41988. 51987, 61983. 7Includes 15,148 unemployed. 8Import figures are c.i.f, 91984-85. 10Vocational teachers only. 11Students abroad, 1982-83.

Nations of the World

Saudi Arabia

707

Population economically active (1988): total 5,368,804; activity rate of total

population 36.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.1%; female 3.5%). Official name: al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabiyah as-Sa‘tdiyah (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Form of government: monarchy. Head of state and government: King. Capital: Riyadh. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Saudi riyal (SRls) = 100 halalah; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=SRls 3.75; 1 £=SRls 5.97.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

population 1985

SSM,

Sc

ele

—

3,043,189

al-Bahah

al-Bahah

al-Madinah Makkah al-Janibiyah (Southern) ‘Asir Jizan Najran ash-Shamaliyah (Northern) al-Hudid ash-Shamaliyah (Northern Borders)

Medina (al-Madinah) Mecca (Makkah) — Abha Jizan Najran —

al-Wista (Central) Hail al-Qasim ar-Riyad TOTAL

aes

ie 625,017 se ak 679,476

“Ar‘ar Sakakah Tabik

ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern) ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern)

=

— ad-Dammam

3,030,765 a

— Ha’il Buraydah Riyadh (ar-Riyad)

3,632,092 Es ce 865,000

a 2,240,000

mee 11,010,5392

Demography

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 42.6%; 15-29, 27.0%; 30-44, 20.0%; 45-59, 6.9%; 60-74, 2.8%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 21,718,000; (2010) 29,074,000.

Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Saudi 82.0%; Yemeni 9.6%; other Arab 3.4%; other 5.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim (mostly Sunni) 98.8%; Christian 0.8%; other 0.4%. Major cities (1980): Riyadh (ar-Riyad) 1,308,0003; Jiddah 1,500,0004; Mecca

(Makkah) 550,000; at-Ta’if 300,000.

malaria,

diarrheal

diseases,

cholera,

% of total value

27,600

6.2

159,000

35.7

31,000

7.0

37,900

8.5

900 28,900 30,700

0.2 6.5 6.9

27,5007 86,100 8,400

1.9

445,700

1990 % of labour force

569,200 3,500 46,800 374,900 944,100 126,900 262,300 898,300 99,000 624,800

1.78

1,822,000

100.09

5,771,800

7,7008

TOTAL

labour force

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 6.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1988)10: food 37%, housing 21%, transportation and communications 15%, clothing 8%, household furnishings 7%, education and entertainment 2%.

Foreign trade!! Balance of trade (current prices) 1986 1987 1988 +8.6 6.1%

+165 10.5%

load 9.0%

1989

1990

1991

+32.3 17.9%

+82.1 32.8%

+77.2 27.5%

sources: U.S. 20.2%; Japan 13.7%; U.K. 11.3%; Germany 7.8%; Switzerland 4.9%; Italy 4.6%; France 4.0%; South Korea 3.0%; Taiwan 2.0%.

Exports (1991): SRls 178,974,100,000 (crude petroleum 78.1%, refined petroleum products 13.2%, other 8.7%). Major export destinations: U.S. 22.9%; Japan 16.0%; The Netherlands 6.0%; South Korea 5.6%; Singapore 5.1%; France 4.6%; Italy 4.3%; Bahrain 3.3%; Brazil 2.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989-90): route length (1991) 864 mi, 1,390 km; passenger-mi 93,800,000, passenger-km 151,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 487,-

mi, 151,532 km (paved 40%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,762,132; trucks and buses 2,286,541. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons

and over) 301; total deadweight

tonnage

1,381,651. Air transport

(1993)12; passenger-mi 11,540,000,000, passenger-km 18,571,801,000; short ton-mi cargo 492,006,000, metric ton-km cargo 718,316,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 10; total circulation 579,30013; circulation per 1,000 population 3413, Radio (1993): 5,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.5 persons). Television (1993): 4,500,000 receivers (1 per 3.9 persons). Telephones!4 (1992): 1,568,370 (1 per 10.7 persons).

trachoma,

cerebrospinal meningitis, yellow fever, typhoid, tuberculosis, and lung infections. Parasitic infections, motor vehicle accidents, and metabolic disorders

are also significant.

Education and health Education (1992-93)

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

19945 106.5

700,000, metric ton-km cargo 712,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 94,157

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 36.1 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 31.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 5.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 68.9 years; female 72.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, principal ininclude

105.9

Imports (1991): SRls 108,881,300,000 (transport equipment 21.0%, machinery and appliances 19.4%, metals and metal articles 9.1%, textiles and clothing 8.4%, chemicals 7.4%, live animals and animal products 5.2%). Major import

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 20.7, persons per sq km 8.0. Urban-rural (1990): urban 77.3%; rural 22.7%. _ Sex distribution (1992): male 55.86%; female 44.14%.

diseases

1993

104.8

Agriculture Mining Oil sector Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

SRIs 000,000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 17,947,000.

fectious

1992

104.9

in value SRis ‘000,000

—_ Capitals

‘4

1991

100.0

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Geographic Regions

al-Jawf Tabik

1990

98.0

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$126,320,000,000 (U.S.$7,940 per capita).

area

al-Gharbiyah (Western)

1989

97.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$2,893,000,000.

Area and population

Administrative Regions!

1988

SRIs 169,150,000,000 (1990; oil revenues

72.87%).

Expenditures: SRls 196,950,000,000 (defense and security 30.3%, education

17.3%, health and social development 7.2%, transportation and communications 4.6%, economic resource development 4.5%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): wheat 3,600,000, barley 1,100,000, dates 560,000, tomatoes 490,000, watermelons 420,000, grapes 120,000, cucumbers and gherkins 100,000, potatoes

87,000, eggplants 75,000, pumpkins, squash, and gourds 65,000, carrots 24,-

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

10,228 4,64315 19015

141,930 89,171 3,804 11,682.16

2,025,948 1,033,521 39,840 163,688 16

7215

student/ teacher ratio 14.3 11.6 10.5 14.0

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 31.8%; primary, secondary, or higher education 68.2%. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 62.4%; males literate 73.1%; females literate 48.1%.

000, millet 11,000; livestock (number of live animals) 7,100,000 sheep, 3,400,000 goats, 420,000 camels, 210,000 cattle, 100,000 asses, 86,000,000 chickens;

Health (1991): physicians 25,543 (1 per 523 persons); hospital beds 40,923 (1 per 359 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 69.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,929 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 121% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

gold 5,626 kg. Manufacturing (1992): cement 15,300,000; steel 1,900,000; fuel oils 176,000,000 barrels; diesel oil 170,500,000 barrels; gasoline and naphtha 170,000,000 barrels; jet fuel 60,000,000 barrels; asphalt and related products 35,070,000 barrels. Construction (1991): residential 16,077,677 sq

Military

(metric tons; 1992) 88,464,000 (35,022,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 34,407,-

113 administrative regions created September 1993. 2Preliminary 1992 census total 16,927,294; detail, n.a. 31981 estimate. 41983 estimate. 5April. “In purchasers’ value

fish catch (1992) 44,008. Mining and quarrying (1992): gypsum

375,000;

m; nonresidential 2,204,894 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 48,620,000,000 (48,620,000,000); coal, n.a. (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 3,026,000,000 (573,200,000); petroleum products ‘ 000,000 (34,407,000,000). Land use (1992): forested 0.9%; meadows and pastures 55.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.7%; built-on, waste, and other 41.6%.

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1989) U.S.$2,050,000,000; expenditures by

nationals abroad (1988) U.S.$2,000,000,000.

Pilgrims to Mecca from abroad (1989): 774,560.

Total active duty personnel (1994): 104,000 (army 67.3%, navy 11.5%, air force 21.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 16.0% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$897.

at current prices. 7Finance includes real estate and business services. 8Other includes import duties. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. !0Urban middle-income households only. !Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. !2Domestic and international operation of Saudi Arabian Airlines. 13Circulation for 9 dailies only. 14Main telephone lines only. 151990-91. 161991—92.

708

Britannica World Data

Household income and expenditure3. Average household size (1988) 8.8; average annual income per household (1975) CFAF 1,105,800 (U.S.$5,160); sources of income (1975): wages and salaries 51.6%, remittances and gifts

Senegal Official name: République du Sénégal (Republic of Senegal). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [120]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dakar. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF 837.67.

17.5%, pensions, social security, and related benefits 12.5%, other 18.4%;

expenditure (1979): food and tobacco 57.5%, housing, maintenance, and

utilities 18.4%, clothing 11.9%, transport 5.4%, other 6.8%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,932,000,000.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$5,879,000,000

(U.S.$730 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992

in value CFAF '000,000,000

Area and population

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade

population

1992 Regions Dakar Diourbel Fatick Kaolack Kolda

Louga Saint-Louis Tambacounda Thiés Ziguinchor TOTAL

Capitals Dakar Diourbel Fatick Kaolack Kolda Louga Saint-Louis Tambacounda

Thiés

sq mi

sq km

estimate

212 1,683 3,064 6,181 8,112 11,270 17,034 23,012

550 4,359 7,935 16,010 21,011 29,188 44,117 59,602

2,834 75,951

7,339 196,712

1,735,000 705,000 549,000 901,000 656,000 515,000 719,000 427,000 1,054,000 443,000 7,704,000

2,549

Ziguinchor

6,601

Finance Services Pub. admin., defense

TOTAL

% of total value

% of labour force 81.0

labour force

2,120,000

334.2 11.2 226.0 31.6 48.4 169.5

3.2 11.2

415.8

27.4

282.2

18.6

1,519.14

100.04

160,000

6.0

340,000

2,620,000

Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$171,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$103,000,000. : Land use (1992): forested 54.3%; meadows and pastures 16.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.2%; other 17.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988

Demography

CFAF '000,000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 8,112,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 106.8, persons per sq km 41.2. Urban-rural (1988): urban 38.6%; rural 61.4%. Sex distribution (1988): male 48.65%; female 51.35%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 13.6%; 45-59, 7.9%; 60 to 70, 3.0%; 70 and over, 2.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,519,000; (2010) 12,424,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Wolof 43.7%; Peul- (Fulani-) Tukulor 23.2%; Serer 14.0%; Diola 5.5%; Malinke (Mandingo) 4.6%; other 9.0%.

—125.4 25.6%

—145.5 29.2%

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 168.4 27.6%

—150.3 26.6%

—134.4 25.4%

— 152.8 30.0%

Imports (1992): CFAF 330,900,000,000 (machinery and transportation equipment 20.2%, petroleum products 12.7%, rice 7.4%, dairy products 4.8%, pharmaceutical products 3.6%, paper and paper products 3.5%). Major import sources (1990): France 32.9%; Nigeria 7.5%; Italy 6.5%; United States 5.3%; Céte d'Ivoire 4.5%; Spain 4.2%; West Germany 3.6%; Japan 3.6%; The Netherlands 3.1%; Thailand 2.9%; Gabon 2.7%; Pakistan 2.3%.

Exports (1992): CFAF

178,100,000,000 (petroleum products 12.3%, canned

Religious affiliation (1988): Sunni Muslim 94.0%; Christian, predominantly

fish 12.2%, phosphates

Roman Catholic, 4.9%; traditional beliefs and other 1.1%. Major cities (1992): Dakar 1,729,823; Thiés 201,350; Kaolack 179,894; Ziguinchor 148,831; Saint-Louis 125,717.

8.2%, fresh fish 7.5%, peanut oil 7.4%, shellfish

d'Ivoire 2.8%; Cameroon 2.5%; Japan 2.0%; Philippines 1.8%.

7.3%, cotton 4.1%). Major export destinations (1990): France 34.9%; India 10.6%; Mali 7.1%; Italy 7.0%; The Netherlands 5.3%; Spain 2.9%; Céte

Transport and communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 31.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 54.0 years; female 56.0 years. Major causes of death (percentage of officially confirmed deaths from infectious diseases only; 1988): malaria 44.8%; tetanus 17.8%; meningitis 15.3%;

tuberculosis of respiratory system 10.4%.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: CFAF 479,600,000,000 (1990; current revenue 86.0%,

of which import duties 28.0%, personal and corporate income taxes 17.0%, value-added taxes 16.9%, personal property taxes 3.1%; aid, grants, and subsidies 13.9%). Expenditures: CFAF 539,100,000,000 (1990; debt service 22.4%; public services 16.0%; agriculture 13.9%; education

11.0%; defense

6.1%; transportation and communications 4.9%; public order and security 4.5%; industry 3.2%; health 2.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 850,000, millet 657,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 628,000, paddy rice 189,000, corn (maize) 125,000, sorghum 98,000, seed cotton 50,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,400,000 sheep, 3,118,000 goats, 2,750,000

cattle, 320,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 5,098,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 338,335. Mining and quarrying (1992): calcium phosphate 2,283,500; cement 603,100; aluminum phosphate mining ceased in 1989. Manufacturing (1992): paint and varnish 2,774,000; refined peanut oil 164,200; fertilizers 158,900; wheat 250; sugar 42,000; soap 42,000; canned fish 238,000 hectolitres; beer 170,000 hectolitres; Construction (authorized; 1992)!: residential

petroleum products 600,200; flour 136,800; fresh meat 44,23,996; carbonated beverages plastic footwear 644,000 pairs. 338,000 sq m; nonresidential

18,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 762,000,000 (762,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (5,935,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 755,000 (799,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1992): total 2,620,000; activity rate of total population 34% (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 46.2%; female 26.0%; unemployed 12.0%).

Transport. Railroads: (1993) route length 562 mi, 904 km; (1991) passengermi 108,000,000, passenger-km

174,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 418,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 610,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 9,625 mi, 15,490 km (paved 27%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 97,000; trucks and buses 40,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 183; total deadweight tonnage 27,473. Air transport (1990)5: passenger-mi 144,276,000, passenger-km 232,329,000; short ton-mi cargo 26,971,000, metric ton-km cargo 39,374,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation 45,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6.2. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 850,000 (1 per 10.8 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 61,000 (1 per 129 persons). Telephones (1992): 58,100 main lines

(1 per 136 persons).

Education and health Education (1990-91) Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 13-18) Vocational Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,458

13,394

708,299 173,490 6,435 18,862

52.9 34.86 24.66 19.37

321 13 18

4,7916 2596 7707

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 6-34 having: no

formal schooling 62.6%; primary education 25.7%; secondary 8.4%; higher

0.8%; other 2.5%. Literacy (1988): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 28.6%; males literate 38.8%; females literate 19.4%.

Health (1992): physicians 520 (1 per 15,350 persons); hospital beds 7,408 (1 per 1,041 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 86.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,322 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 98% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 13,350 (army 89.9%, navy 5.2%, air force 4.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 2.1% (world [1991]

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$16.

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index2

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

106.4 100.0

101.8 100.0

99.9 100.0

100.4 104.7

100.7 109.5

98.9 109.5

98.8 109.5

‘Capital region only. 2January 1; index refers to the S.M.LG. (salaire minimum interprofessionnel garanti), a form of minimum professional wage. 3Traditional African households in Dakar. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. SAir

Afrique only. 61989. 71988.

Nations of the World

Seychelles

mackerel 6.7%, kawakawa 5.3%. Mining and quarrying (1985): guano 4,500. Manufacturing (1993): canned tuna 4,531; soft drinks 70,450 hectolitres;

Official name: Repiblik Sesel (Creole); Republic of Seychelles (English); République des Seychelles (French).

beer and stout 65,230 hectolitres; cigarettes 65,000,000 units. Energy pro-

duction (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 109,000,000 (109,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (49,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1993): total 25,238; activity rate of total population 35.4% (participation rates [1989]: ages 15-64, 74.3%; female 42.5%; unemployed [1987] 6.3%).

Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

(National Assembly [33]!).

Head of state and government: President.

Capital: Victoria.

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Official languages: none2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Seychelles rupee

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

(SR) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

1994) 1 U.S.$=SR 4.93; Area and population

area

population

Same

escikrta

consues

= Victoria

6 61

15 158

1,926 61,183

— —> — —

16 8 2 83

42 20 4 214

5,002 191 0 296

176

4553

68,598

Silhouette Other islands Outer (Coralline) islands TOTAL

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

93.0

94.8 ae

96.3

100.0 100.0

102.0 103.8

105.3 123.5

106.7 126.0

Household income and expenditure: Average household size (1987) 4.5; average annual income per household (1978) SR 18,480 (U.S.$2,658); sources of income: wages and salaries 77.2%, self-employment 3.8%, transfer payments 3.2%; expenditure (1983-84): food and beverages 53.9%, housing 13.6%, energy and water 9.1%, household and personal goods 6.6%, transportation

1987

Capital

1987

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$147,200,000.

1 £=SR 7.85.

Island Groups Central (Granitic) group La Digue and satellites Mahé and satellites Praslin and satellites

6.4%, clothing and footwear 4.2%, recreation 1.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 SR '000,000 % of total

— 546.4 61.7%

— 627.8 63.9%

Population (1994): 71,800.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 408.0, persons per sq km 157.8.

Urban-rural (1990): urban 59.3%; rural 40.7%. Sex distribution (1989): male 49.96%; female 50.04%.

Population projection: (2000) 75,000; (2010) 80,500. Doubling time: 46 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Seychellois Creole (mixture of Asian, African, and European) 89.1%; Indian 4.7%; Malagasy 3.1%; Chinese 1.6%; English 1.5%.

Religious affiliation (1987): Roman Catholic 88.6%; other Christian (mostly Anglican) 8.5%; Hindu 0.4%; other 2.5%. Major city (1987): Victoria 24,325.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 23.4 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 27.2%; illegitimate 72.8%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 9.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1985): 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 66.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985-89): diseases of the circulatory system 263.5, of which cerebrovascular disease 57.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 116.9; diseases of the respiratory system 77.1, of which

pneumonia 49.0; accidents and adverse effects 44.4; infectious and parasitic diseases 42.9; diseases of the digestive system 40.5.

National economy SR 1,389,200,000 (customs taxes and duties 46.9%,

transfers from Social Security Fund 14.4%, business taxes 9.3%, adminis-

trative fees 6.9%, fees and fines 5.2%, dividends and interest 5.2%, grants

2.6%). Expenditures: SR 1,326,700,000 (debt service 14.0%, capital projects 7.3%, tourism

and

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors SR 607,400,000; expenditures by na1 tionals abroad U.S.$16,000,0004. Land use (1991): forested 18.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 22.2%; built-on, wasteland, and other 59.3%.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$376,000,000

(U.S.$5,450 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force in value SR '000,000

Agriculture Mining, manufacturing, and construction Tourism Transportation and

pac anesian’ Finance Public admin., defense Other TOTAL

1993 % of labour force 8.5

% of total value

labour forces

84.4

3.8

2,153

382.0 386.5

17.2 17.4

4,605 4,570

18.2 18.1

513.1 168.8 295.4 390.9 2,221.1

23.1 7.6 13.3 17.6 100.0

4,092

16.2

9,818

39.0

25,238

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): coconuts 7,000, bananas 2,000, copra 1,000, cinnamon

1992

1993

—760.8 63.0%

—588.4 52.7%

chemicals 6.6%; beverages and tobacco 3.5%). Major import sources: United

Kingdom 13.3%; Yemen 13.1%; Singapore 13.1%; South Africa 12.8%; United States 7.7%; France 6.2%; Japan 5.8%; Germany 3.2%; Italy 2.6%; Thailand 2.1%; India 2.1%.

Exports (1993): SR 263,430,0008 (petroleum products 55.5%°; canned tuna 22.1%; other fish 5.7%; cinnamon bark 0.7%; food, beverages, tobacco, and

chemicals 0.7% 9; copra 0.3%). Major export destinations ‘9; United Kingdom 15.9%; France 4.2%; Réunion 2.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993): total length 199 mi, 321 km (paved 68%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 4,700; trucks and buses 1,600. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 9; total deadweight tonnage 3,337. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals 119,000, passenger departures 120,000; metric ton cargo unloaded 2,982, metric ton cargo loaded 635; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation

3,200; circulation per 1,000 population 47. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 30,000 (1 per 2.4 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 8,200 (1 per 8.7 persons). Telephones (1993): 10,9091! (1 per 6.5 persons). Education and health Education (1994) schools

1992

1991 — 660.0 56.7%

cereals 3.3%, vegetables and fruits 3.0%, dairy products 2.0%; mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 14.2%, of which petroleum products 14.0%;

_ Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 35.1%; 15-29, 31.5%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45-59, 9.2%; 60-74, 6.5%; 75 and over, 2.4%.

13.2%, education 13.0%, social security 8.3%, health transport 6.4%, defense 4.7%).

— 692.3 53.4%

Imports (1993): SR 1,235,883,000 (manufactured goods 32.8%, of which metal manufactures 9.0%, paper products 2.0%; machinery and transport equipment 25.1%, of which vehicles 6.8%, communications equipment 4.0%; electrical machinery and parts 3.7%; food and live animals 15.7%, of which

Demography

Budget (1994). Revenue:

709

7776, tea 2466; live-

stock (number of live animals) 19,000 pigs, 5,000 goats, 2,000 cattle, 185,2007 chickens; fish catch (1993) 5,447, of which (1989) jack 36.9%, snapper 20.8%,

Primary (age 6-15) Secondary (age 16-18) Voc., teacher tr.

2512 47 17

teachers

575 425 201

student/ students _ teacher ratio 9,767 6,315 1,702

17.0 14.9 8.5

Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 12 and over having: no formal schooling 7.8%; primary education 51.5%; some secondary 12.2%; complete secondary 13.4%; vocational 9.9%; postsecondary 3.1%; unspecified 2.1%. Literacy (1987): total population age 15 and over literate 37,984 (84.2%); males literate 18,427 (82.9%); females literate 19,557 85.7%).

Health ane physicians 70 (1 per 1,019 persons); hospital beds 424 (1 per 168 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,356 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 1,10013. Military expenditure as percentage

of GNP (1989): 4.2% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$20614.

Includes 11 nonelective seats (one-half the elected number), which are appointive, allocated according to each party’s share of the popular vote. 2Creole, English, and French are all national languages per 1993 constitution. 3Detail does not add to total iven because of rounding. 41992. 5Excludes self-employed and domestic workers. 61993. 71986. 8Includes SR 184,978,000 of reexports. °Items reexported. !0Domestic export only. 1!Number of lines. 121988. 13All services form part of the army. !4At prices of 1987.

710

Britannica World Data

ings, and household durable goods 2.2%, recreation, entertainment, and

Sierra Leone

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$625,500,000 (U.S.$140 per capita).

Official name: Republic of Sierra Leone. Form of government: military regime. Head of state and government: Chairman, Supreme Council of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992-93

cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$ =Le 585.55; 1 £=Le 931.32.

Area and population

area Capitals Kenema Kailahun Kenema Sefadu Makeni Makeni Kambia Kabala Port Loko

Koinaduga Port Loko Tonkolili Southern Province Bo Bonthe (incl. Sherbro) Moyamba Pujehun Western Area2 TOTAL

Magburaka Bo

Bo Bonthe

sq km

6,005 1,490 2,337

2,665 1,585 215

15,553 3,859 6,053 5,641 35,936 7,985 3,108 12,121 5,719 7,003 19,694 5,219 3,468 6,902 4,105 557

"27,699

71,740

2,178

13,875 3,083 1,200 4,680 2,208 2,704 7,604 2,015

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population

sq mi

1,339

Moyamba Pujehun Freetown

Consumer price index

34,878.9 68,695.7 37,462.5 18,453.1

10.2 20.0 10.9 5.4

0.2

eae

343,503.1

100.05

70,185

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

22.2

29.1

47.4

100.0

202.7

335.4

409.9

Balance of trade (current prices)

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.12%; female 50.88%. Population projection: (2000) 5,395,000; (2010) 6,944,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Mende 34.6%; Temne 31.7%; Limba 8.4%; Kono 3.5%; Yalunka 3.5%;

Religious affiliation (1993): Sunni Muslim 60.0%; traditional beliefs 30.0%;

1988

1989

— 1,260.3 15.9%

— 1,327.9 7.4%

Bo

(customs

and excise taxes

61.8%, direct taxes 24.3%, nontax revenue 13.9%). Expenditures: Le 82,126,-

000,000 (recurrent expenditure 77.9%, development expenditure 22.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$680,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$17,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 486,000, cassava 97,000, sugarcane 70,000, pulses 40,000, coffee 36,000, palm kernels 35,000, plantains 31,000, millet 26,000, sorghum 24,000, cacao

beans 24,000, tomatoes 23,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 21,000, sweet potatoes

12,000; livestock (number of live animals) 333,000

cattle, 278,000 sheep, 153,000 goats, 50,000 pigs, 6,000,000 chickens; round-

wood (1992) 3,225,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 50,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): bauxite 1,164,000; rutile (a titanium ore) 150,302; diamonds 200,300 carats; gold 5,314 oz. Manufacturing (1991): salt 209; nails 80; beer and stout 47,640 hectolitres; soft drinks 28,800 hectolitres; paint 9,000 litres;

cigarettes 706,000,000 units. Construction (value added in Le; 1992-93); 4,972,100,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 230,000,000 (230,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (1,554,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 162,000 (122,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 4.7; average

annual income per household (1984): U.S.$320; sources of income (1984): self-employment 61.6%, wages and salaries 27.9%, other 10.5%; expenditure (1986): food, beverages, and tobacco 67.7%, housing 14.1%, transportation and communications 8.2%, clothing and footwear 2.8%, furniture, furnish-

+3,903.8 4.6%

+14,449.7 10.9%

1993

—7,692.0 5.4%

8.2%; The Netherlands 5.6%.

Exports (1993): Le 65,265,300,000 (rutile 47.0%; bauxite 21.1%; diamonds 17.0%; cocoa 3.2%; coffee 2.0%). Major export destinations: United States 32.2%; United Kingdom 20.2%; Germany 11.0%; The Netherlands 3.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 52 mi, 84 km. Roads (1991): total length 18%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 32,258;

trucks and buses 11,961. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 62; total deadweight tonnage 18,384. Air transport (1985)6: passengermi 68,290,000, passenger-km 109,903,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,400,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,044,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 1; total circulation 10,000; circulation

per 1,000 population

2.3. Radio

(1994):

1,000,000

re-

ceivers (1 per 4.6 persons). Television (1993): 25,000 receivers (1 per 180 persons). Telephones (1992): 56,200 (1 per 77.9 persons). Education and health

Education (1991-92) Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher?

National economy

1992 +1,475.9 3.6%

Imports (1993): Le 84,121,100,000 (food and live animals 38.2%; machinery and transport equipment 15.2%; minerals, fuels, and lubricants 14.8%; basic manufactured goods 10.1%; chemicals 8.5%). Major import sources (1990): Nigeria 29.0%; United Kingdom 14.4%; Germany 10.1%; United States

5,505 mi, 8,860 km (paved 80,000;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 48.1 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 21.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 26.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 41.4 years; female 44.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the major diseases are malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, whooping cough, measles, tetanus, and diarrhea.

Le 54,294,000,000

1987

Foreign trade

Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 41.4%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 17.1%; 45-59, 10.3%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Sembehun

5,058

and under permanent cultivation 7.5%; other 33.2%.

Urban-rural (1992): urban 33.8%; rural 66.2%.

Christian 10.0%3. Major cities (1985): Freetown 469,776; Koidu-New 26,000; Kenema 13,000; Makeni 12,000.

7,718

Land use (1992): forested 28.5%; meadows and pastures 30.8%; agricultural

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 166.6, persons per sq km 64.3.

12,000, corn (maize)

27.5 13.1 11.0 1.4 0.4

Price index (1990 = 100)

Demography

5.2%; Bullom-Sherbro 3.7%; Fulani 3.7%; Kuranko Kissi 2.3%; other 3.4%.

% of labour force4

Population economically active (1985): total 1,352,000; activity rate of total population 36.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 62.9%; female 33.7%; unemployed [registered; 1986] 9.0%).

960,551 233,839 337,055 389,657 1,262,226 315,914 186,231 183,286 329,344 247,451 740,510 268,671 105,007 250,514 116,318 554,243 3,517,530

Le 000,000 % of total

Revenue:

94,401.9 44,938.6 37,642.0 4,972.1 1,436.6

___value

621.7

TOTAL

1985 census?

Population (1994): 4,616,000.

Budget (1992-93).

% of total

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade

Capital: Freetown. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 leone (Le) = 100

1988 labour force4 7,262 5,845 8,616 7,259 2,713

in value

___Le ‘000,000

State.

Provinces Districts Eastern Province Kailahun Kenema Kono Northern Province Bombali Kambia

r

education 1.4%, health 1.1%.

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

1,792 217 30

10,051 3,924 750

2

600

315,146 72,516 6,929 4,752

31.4 18.5 9.2 79

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 5 and over having: no formal schooling 64.1%; primary education 18.7%; secondary 9.7%; higher 1.5%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 477,600 (20.7%); males literate 343,800 (30.7%); females literate 133,800 (11.3%).

Health: physicians (1992) 404 (1 per 10,832 persons); hospital beds (1988) at (1 per 980 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1985— 0) 154.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,899 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 83% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 6,150 (army 97.6%, navy 2.4%, air force, none). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.3% (world 4.2%) > per capita expenditure U.S.$3.

‘Preliminary figures exclude adjustment for underenumeration; adjusted total is 3,700,000. 2Not officially a province; the administration of the Western Area is split among Greater Freetown (the city and its suburbs) and other administrative bodies. 3Christian (1980) 9.1%, of which

Protestant 4.7%, Roman

Catholic 2.2%, Anglican

1.2%. 4Registered employment only. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. International flights only. 71989-90.

Nations of the World

Singapore

1991) none (326,368,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 36,900,000 (11,104,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1984) 3.9; income per household (1987-88) S$26,560 (U.S.$12,900); sources of income (1987—

Official name: Hsin-chia-p’o Kung-ho-kuo (Mandarin Chinese); Republik Singapura (Malay); Singapore Kudiyarasu (Tamil); Republic of Singapore (English).

88): wages 81.2%, self-employment 16.8%, transfer payments and other 2.0%; expenditure (1990): food 18.7%, recreation and education 15.3%, transportation and communications 13.7%, rent and utilities 9.2%, furniture

and household equipment 8.9%, clothing and footwear 7.4%, health 4.4%. Gross national product (1992): U.S.$44,323,000,000 (U.S.$15,790 per capita).

Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [871]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Singapore. Official languages: Chinese; Malay; Tamil; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Singapore dollar

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1993

1994) 1 U.S.$=S$1.48; 1 £=S$2.36.

Agriculture Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

158.5 54.6 19,649.1 4,761.6 1,450.6

Transp, and commun. Trade

Finance Services Other

Population (1990 census) Census population _ division2

% of total value

in value $$'000,0005

(S$) =100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Census division2

711

population

Census _division2

TOTAL

% of labour forces

labour forces

é 0.1

3,900 300 429,500 102,100 7,500

0.2 — 27.0 6.4 0.5

10,427.2 12,752:5

166,800 363,600

10.5 22.8

19,145.1 6,971.7 — 4,159.07

173,400 345,000

10.9 21.7

1,592,100

100.0

71,211.9

population

Alexandra Aljunied Ang Mo Kio Ayer Rajah Bedok Boon Lay Boon Teck

27,245 51,669 35,814 44,977 22,032 39,249 22,652

Henderson Hong Kah Central Hong Kah North Hong Kah South Hougang Jalan Besar Jalan Kayu

18,445 48,379 33,265 37,900 36,774 28,298 34,907

Nee Soon East Nee Soon South Pasir Panjang Paya Lebar Potong Pasir Punggol Queenstown

58,651 49,771 35,824 41,903 32,992 68,270 19,676

Braddell Heights Brickworks Bukit Batok

47,738 10,593 44,918

Joo Chiat Jurong Kaki Bukit

35,777. 74,696 32,782

Radin Mas Sembawang Serangoon Gardens

35,730 28,039 44,702

Bukit Gombak Bukit Merah Bukit Panjang Bukit Timah Buona Vista Cairnhill Changi Changkat Cheng San Chong Boon Chong Pang Chua Chu Kang

46,149 18,666 95,827 47,056 23,873 48,445 50,003 41,995 27,821 32,174 38,613 43,465

Kallang Kampong Chai Chee Kampong Glam Kampong Kembangan Kampong Ubi Kebun Baru Kim Keat Kim Seng Kolam Ayer Kreta Ayer Kuo Chuan Leng Kee

34,178 33,928 29,481 33,510 40,682 36,878 28,538 23,683 22,420 29,631 26,968 28,886

Siglap Tampines East Tampines North Tampines West Tanah Merah Tanglin Tanjong Pagar Teck Ghee Telok Blangah Thomson Tiong Bahru Toa Payoh

36,022 41,474 73,634 38,833 32,314 43,544 29,217 26,622 293157 71,345 27,468 22,811

Clementi Eunos Fengshan

37,635 52,976 27,285

Macpherson Marine Parade Moulmein

23,764 31,003 33,872.

Ulu Pandan West Coast Whampoa

42,923 46,052 18,285

Geylang Serai Geylang West

36,800 34,560

Mountbatten Nee Soon Central

23,891 47,032

Yio Chu Kang Yuhua TOTAL

28,589 32,733 3,016,379

Demography Area: 247.5 sq mi, 641.0 sq km.

Population (1994)3: 2,933,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 11,851, persons per sq km 4,576. Urban-rural: urban 100.0%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 50.45%; female 49.55%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 23.1%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-44, 28.7%; 45-59, 13.9%; 60 and over, 9.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 3,317,000; (2010) 4,072,000. Doubling time: 56 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Chinese 77.5%; Malay 14.2%; Indian4 7.1%; other 1.2%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Buddhist, Taoist, and other traditional beliefs 53.9%; Muslim 15.4%; Christian 12.6%; Hindu 3.6%; nonreligious 14.5%.

Major cities: Singapore has no separately defined cities within its borders.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,090 population (1992): 9.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 73.7 years; female 78.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): malignant neoplasms 123.5; cardiovascular diseases 120.1; diseases of the respiratory system 86.6; cerebrovascular diseases 59.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 19.2.

National economy

Budget (1992-93). Revenue: S$18,577,800,000 (tax revenue 68.8%, development fund account 17.9%, nontax revenue 7.3%, sinking fund account 6.0%). Expenditures: $$16,641,600,000 (administration 28.0%, government development 16.0%, debt servicing 14.6%, manpower 14.2%, grants 10.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$3,481,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

vegetables 5,198, fruits 280; livestock (number of live animals) 3,000,000 chickens, 400,000 ducks; fish catch 9,198. Mining and quarrying (value added in S$; 1992): granite 72,000,000. Manufacturing (value added in S$; 1992): electronic products '8,669,800,000; transport equipment 1,936,900,000; petroleum products 1,791,600,000; metal products 1,641,900,000; chemical products 1,487,000,000; nonelectrical machinery 1,446,300,000; printing and publishing, 1,140,300,000. Construction (1992): residential 4,222,000 sq m;

nonresidential 2,729,700 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electric-

ity (kW-hr; 1991) 16,597,000,000 (16,597,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels;

Population economically active (1991): total 1,554,316; activity rate of total population 56.3% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 73.2%; female 39.8%; unemployed 1.7%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1987 1988 1989 1990 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

994 104.0

100.6 112.6

103.0 123.6

106.6 135.1

Land use (1991): forested 4.9%; agricultural 1.6%; other 93.5%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$5,204,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,340,000,000.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) $$’000,000 % of total

1988 =4159° 2.6%

1989 —4,143 2.3%

1990 ~—8;559 4.3%

1991 ~—5,770 2.7%

1992 —7,490 3.5%

1993 —10,338 4.1%

Imports (1993): S$137,602,800,000 (office machines 8.8%, crude petroleum 7.5%,

telecommunications

apparatus

7.0%,

generators

5.3%,

petroleum

products 3.3%, scientific instruments 3.0%, motor vehicles 2.4%). Major import sources: Japan 21.9%; Malaysia 16.5%; United States 16.2%; Thailand 4.1%; Taiwan 4.0%; Saudi Arabia 3.9%; Hong Kong 3.2%. Exports (1993): $$119,473,400,000 (office machines 22.3%, petroleum products 9.9%, telecommunications apparatus 9.7%, generators 3.3%, optical instruments 2.3%, clothing 2.1%). Major export destinations: United States 20.3%; Malaysia 14.2%; Hong Kong 8.7%; Japan 7.5%; Thailand 5.7%;

Germany 4.0%; Taiwan 3.9%; United Kingdom 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): km (paved 97%). Vehicles 132,455. Merchant marine total deadweight tonnage

length 26 km. Roads (1993): total length 2,989 (1993): passenger cars 321,922; trucks and buses (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 946; 14,929,172. Air transport (1992): passenger-km

37,105,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,306,204,000; airports (1994) 1.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 8; total circulation 916,102; circulation per 1,000 population 325. Radio (1993): 870,000 receivers (1 per 3.3 persons). Television (1993): 650,000 receivers (1 per 4.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,153,0009 (1 per 2.5 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

194

10,188

262,599

25.8

160 21 of

9,278 1,594 3,721

182,149 27,984 65,775

19.6 17.6 ised,

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling or incomplete primary 43.7%; primary education 38.3%; secondary 14.6%; postsecondary 3.4%. Literacy (1990): total population age 10 and over literate 90.7%; males literate 95.7%; females literate 85.6%. Health (1992): physicians 3,962 (1 per 725 persons); hospital beds 9,726 (1 per 295 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,121 (vegetable products 76%,

animal products 24%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 55,500 (army 81.1%, navy 8.1%, air force 10.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 5.1% (world 4.9%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$557.

1[Includes 6 nonelected members. 2The census divisions have no administrative function. 3De jure population. 4Includes Sri Lankan. 5At prices of 1985. ‘Employed only. 7[mputed bank service charges. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.f. for commodities and trading partners. 9Lines installed.

712

Britannica World Data

Slovakia

Structure of net material product and labour force 1991

Official name: Slovenska Republika (Slovak Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Council [150]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bratislava. Official language: Slovak. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Slovak koruna!

Agriculture Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

(Sk) = 100 halura; valuation

1 £=Sk 49.61.

Electoral Regions?

Capitals

Stredné Slovensko

Banska Bystrica KoSice

Vychodné Slovensko Zapadné Slovensko

Bratislava

sqmi

population 19932 estimate

6,943 6,253 5,595

1,623,659 1,523,965 1,719,876

142 18,933

446,655 5,314,155

Capital city Bratislava TOTAL

Demography Urban-rural (1991): urban 56.8%; rural 43.2%. Sex distribution (1993): male 48.81%; female 51.19%.

Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 24.1%; 15-29, 23.1%; 30-44, 23.0%; 45-59, 14.8%; 60-74, 11.4%; 75 and over, 3.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 5,510,000; (2010) 5,774,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population growth is negligible. Ethnic composition (1992): Slovak 85.7%; Hungarian 10.7%; Gypsy 1.5%; Czech 1.1%; Ruthenian 0.3%; Ukrainian 0.3%; German 0.1%; other 0.3%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 60.3%; nonreligious and atheist 9.7%; Protestant 7.9%, of which Slovak Evangelical 6.2%, Reformed Christian 1.6%; Greek Catholic 3.4%; Eastern Orthodox 0.7%; other 18.0%. Major cities (1993): Bratislava 446,655; KoSice 237,336; Nitra 90,866; Presov 90,069; Banska Bystrica 85,631; Zilina 85,005.

% of labour

force

15,931

5.9

247,371

10.1

147,566 20,747

54.6 Teh

585,093 168,431

23.9 6.9

3,259

1.2

45,136

1.8

7.9 8.7 1.9 2.7 9.4 — 100.0

163,206 216,321 145,644 83,591 385,229 412,842 2,452,864

6.7 8.8 5.9 3.4 15.7 16.8

21,357 23,445 5,102 7,305 25,377 _ 270,089

:

(1992): wages and salaries 71.8%, transfer payments 16.3%, other 11.9%; expenditure (1992): food and beverages 26.8%, taxes 14.0%, clothing and footwear 8.9%, housing 7.6%, household durable goods 3.9%, other 42.7%. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$213,000,000; expenditures U.S.$155,000,000.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Birth rate per 1,000 population

(1993): 14.1 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

90.2%; illegitimate 9.8%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 66.6 years; female 75.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 521.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 200.0; diseases of the respiratory system 77.0; accidents, poisoning, and violence 76.0; diseases of the digestive system 52.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 19.0.

National economy Revenue:

Kés

115,876,000,000

(receipts from

enterprises

80.6%; taxes 17.2%). Expenditures: Kés 124,809,000,000 (education, health,

social welfare, and culture 71.9%; defense 3.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): cereals 3,528,000 (of which wheat 1,697,000, barley 1,038,000, corn [maize] 676,000, rye 76,000), sugar beets 1,326,000, potatoes 658,000; livestock (num-

ber of live animals) 2,269,000 pigs, 1,182,000 cattle (of which 429,000 dairy cows), 572,000 sheep, 12,000 horses, 13,267,000 poultry; roundwood

3,956,-

000 cu m; fish catch, n.a. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 930,000; lead-zinc ore 320,000; copper ore 290,000. Manufacturing (1992): crude steel 3,798,000; cement 3,374,000; pig iron 2,952,000; plastic and resins 426,000; flour 409,000; phosphate fertilizers 200,269; cotton fabrics 68,767,000 m; beer 3,686,000 hectolitres; other alcoholic beverages 580,000 hectolitres; refrigerators and freezers 551,695 units; metalworking machines 2,595 units.

Construction (1991): residential 1,147,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

1992) 22,255,000,000

(27,069,000,0004);

coal

1991

1992

— 14,064 6.7%

—5,158 2.4%

Imports (1992): Kés 109,983,000,000! (machinery and transport equipment 32.7%; petroleum and petroleum products 27.8%; chemical products 9.7%; semimanufactured products 8.0%; raw materials 7.0%). Major import sources: former U.S.S.R. 34.7%; Germany 20.8%; Austria 10.1%; Italy 5.6%; Poland

3.2%.

Exports (1992): Kés 104,825,000,000! (semimanufactured products 41.9%; machinery and transport equipment 17.3%; manufactured goods 15.2%; chemical products 11.2%; food, beverages, and tobacco 8.0%). Major export destinations: Germany 24.4%; former U.S.S.R. 16.8%; Poland 8.0%; Austria

7.4%; Hungary 6.9%; Italy 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 2,275 mi, 3,661 km; passenger-mi 3,388,000,000,

Vital statistics

(1992).

force

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.0; income per household (1991) Kés 105,2271,6 (U.S.$3,5956); sources of income

KGs '000,0001 % of total

Population (1994): 5,352,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 282.7, persons per sq km 109.1.

Budget

value

labour

Land use (1992): forested 42.7%; meadows and pastures 20.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 31.9%; other 4.8%. :

Area and population

_

% of total

Kés ’000,0001

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Sk 31.19;

_

1992

in value

passenger-km

5,543,000,000;

short

ton-mi

cargo

11,437,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 16,697,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 11,110 mi, 17,880 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 953,239; trucks and buses 81,350. Merchant marine: n.a. Air transport: n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 21; total circulation 378,000; circulation per 1,000 population 71. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 1,068,185 (1 per 5.0 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 1,279,101 (1 per 4.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,362,178 (1 per 3.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,472

39,867 4,659 7,812 8,103

704,119 63,522 103,793 64,311

17.7 13.6 13.3 7.9

165 234 14

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of adult population having: plete primary education 0.5%; primary and incomplete secondary complete secondary 58.6%; higher 9.4%; unknown 0.9%. Literacy total population age 15 and over literate 3,980,202 (100%); males

incom30.6%; (1990): literate

1,916,410 (100%); females literate 2,063,792 (100%).

Health (1992): physicians 15,767 (1. per 336 persons); hospital beds 52,613 (1 per 100 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 12.6. Food (1990): daily per capita caloric intake 3,335 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%); 135% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 47,000 (army 70.2%, air force 29.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.; per capita expenditure U.S.$53.

(metric tons; 1993) 3,190,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 529,000 (n.a.); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 277,000,000 (n.a.). Population economically active (1993): total 2,548,733; activity rate of total population 47.9% (participation rates [1992]: ages 15-64, 74.5%; female 42.8%; unemployed 14.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index5 Annual earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1991

1992

88.8 88.7

89.0 90.4

89.2 93.4

156.1 115.0

171.7 136.5

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$10,229,000,000

(U.S.$1,930 per capita).

'The Slovak koruna was introduced Feb. 8, 1993, at par with the former Czechoslovak koruna (Kés), which it replaced. For settlement of obligations existing prior to February 8 between the Czech and Slovak republics, an interim currency, the clearing koruna (XCS) was introduced. 2January. 3Until 1990 Slovakia comprised four regions, subdivided into 38 administrative districts. After 1990 only the districts were retained. In 1994 a new system of administration was under discussion. 41991. 5Cost-of-living index; wage earners only. “Worker’s household.

Nations of the World

713

Slovenia

84,809; soap and detergents 36,355; cotton yarn 13,379; leather footwear 9,492,000 pairs; refrigerators 661,000 units; bicycles 190,000 units; telephones

Official name: Republika Slovenija (Republic of Slovenia). Form of government; multiparty republic with two legislative houses (State Council [40]; State Assembly [90]). Head of state: President.

123,000 units. Construction (1991): residential 147,806 sq m; nonresidential 17,547 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 12,033,000,000 (11,645,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 5,556,000 (5,363,-

000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 17,584 (3,680,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 126,000 (1,586,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 19,271,-

000 (837,000,000).

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$12,744,000,000 (U.S.$6,330 per capita).

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ljubljana. Official language: Slovene.

Structure of gross material product and labour force 1991

Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 Slovene tolar

(SIT) = 100 stotin; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 Yugoslav dinar (Din)= 1.11

Agriculture Mining

Area and population (1991 census) area sq km1

Districts

Ajdovscina Brezice

352 268

Celje

230

Gerknica Crnomelj Domzale Dravograd Gornja Radgona Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija llirska Bistrica Izola Jesenice Kamnik

483 486 240 105 210 421 58 425 480 28 375 289

KoGevje

population 22,632 24,724 64,736 15,020 18,374 44,185 8,507 21,315 28,151 11,059 17,207 14,624

Metlika Mozirje

Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo Mesto

Ormoz Pesnica Piran Postojna

8,184 16,533 63,744 59,126 58,970 17,570

304 256

27,377 12,736 15,440

13,770 31,939 18,523 45,391

Sentjur pri Celju Sevnica

240 293

Buse

population

108 508 692 605 759 212 169 45 492 645 346 641

Ptuj _— Radlje ob Dravi Radovijica RavnenaKoroskem Ribnica

28,766

766

area sq km1

Districts

16,768

20,283 68,753 16,929 34,286

273 453

Lasko

250

28,576 19,014

Skofja Loka Slovenj Gradec

512 286

Lenart Lendava

204 256

17,217 26,143

Slovenska Bistrica Slovenske Konjice

369 222

20,976 32,516 21,992

46

58,150 28,351

939 58

31,888 20,975 19,337

Krsko

72,185

345

Litija

Ljubljana-Bezigrad Ljubljana-Center

Ljubljana-Moste Polje

328

18,709

5

Sezana

Smarje pri JelSah

= Tolmin

72,081

Ljubljana-Siska Ljubljana-Vic Rudnik

156 543

Ljutomer Logatec Maribor

179 173

698

400

82,845 i 80,180 Velenje 18,744 = Vrhnika 9,764 Zagorje ob Savi 151,221 Zalec TOTAL

155 182 169 147 349 20,256

114,592

40.9

327,524

36.7

13,015 14,926 22,284 39,480 47,385

4.6 5.3 8.0 141 16.9

5.

11,520

4.0

45,514 11,603 52,654 108,878 44,622 31,235 190,088

280,425

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1986 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

Consumer price index

0.2

0.4

15

100

218

656

Earnings index2

135

129

136

100

86

83

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1992

+192 2.9%

—609 6.9%

+540 4.2%

U.S.$'000,000 % of total

16,960 39,340 1,965,986

+35 0.7%

+364 5.9%

Imports (1992): SIT 502,442,000,000

goods 18.1%, of which food

many 22.7%; Croatia 13.9%; Italy 13.7%; Austria 8.1%; France 8.0%.

Population (1994): 2,001,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 255.9, persons per sq km 98.8. Urban-rural (1991): urban 48.9%; rural 51.1%. Sex distribution (1993): male 48.50%; female 51.50%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 19.6%; 15-29, 22.3%; 30-44, 23.7%; 45-59, 17.6%; 60-74, 12.5%; 75 and over, 4.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,000,000; (2010) 1,975,000.

Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Slovene 87.8%; Croat 2.8%; Serb 2.4%; Bosnian 1.4%; Magyar 0.4%; other 5.2%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 83.6%; other 16.4%, predominantly Christian adherents of the Slovene Old Catholic Church, a few and the Eastern

Orthodox

there

Church;

are

also small Muslim and Jewish communities. Major cities (1991): Ljubljana 276,133; Maribor 108,122; Celje 41,279; Kranj 37,318; Velenje 27,665.

Birth rate per 1,000 population

Exports (1992): SIT 540,803,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 29.4%; consumer goods 28.3%, of which food 5.1%; basic manufactures 27.1%; chemicals 9.1%; raw materials except fuels 2.0%). Major export destinations: Germany 27.0%; Croatia 14.2%; Italy 13.4%; France 9.2%; Austria 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads

(1992): length 746 mi, 1,201 km; passenger-mi

340,-

000,000, passenger-km 547,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,762,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,573,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 9,192 mi, 14,794 km

(paved 75%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 606,820; trucks and buses 33,957. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 22; total deadweight tonnage 596,944. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 259,000,000, passenger-km 417,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,192,000, metric ton-km

cargo 1,918,000; airports (1994) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 4; total circulation 303,000; circulation per 1,000 population 154. Radio (1989): 687,000 receivers

Vital statistics (1992): 10.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate

72.3%; illegitimate 27.7%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.7 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1990-91): male 69.5 years; female 77.4 years. _ Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases

425.6; cancers 248.7; accidents 91.4; respiratory diseases 39.1; digestive diseases 36.6; endocrine and metabolic disorders 33.6.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: SIT 231,215,000,000. Expenditures: SIT 231,199,000,-

000.

(machinery and transport equipment

19.6%; consumer

7.6%; chemicals 12.4%; mineral fuels 10.8%). Major import sources: Ger-

Demography

denominations,

115

Foreign trade

26.4%; basic manufactures

Protestant

892,437

8.5%, energy 7.3%, education and entertainment 6.1%, drink and tobacco 5.2%, health care 5.0%, household durable goods 3.3%.

17,722 14,975 42,674 19,459

308

% of labour force 9.0

Land use (1992): forest 50.2%; pasture 27.7%; agricultural 14.9%; other 7.2%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.1; income per household (1990) Din 161,589 (U.S.$14,277); sources of income (1990): wages 59.4%, transfers 17.5%, self-employment 14.5%, other 8.6%; expenditure (1991): food 30.8%, housing 18.3%, transportation 12.7%, clothing

19,101 18,958 23,925 38,303

Koper Kranj

labour force 80,319

Population economically active (1992): total 892,437; activity rate of total population 45.5% (participation rates: ages 18-64, 68.3%; female 47.7%; unemployed 11.5%).

18,083

209

}

% of total value 6.2

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp, and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

tolarji; 1 U.S.$ = 121.82 tolarji; 1 £=193.75 tolarji.

1992

in value SIT 000,000 17,223

- Tourism (1990): receipts U.S.$852,000,000; expenditures, n.a.

,

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992):

potatoes 368,000, grapes 213,000, corn (maize) 207,000, wheat 178,000, sugar beets 97,000, plums 9,000; livestock (number of live animals) 602,000 pigs, 504,000 cattle, 21,000 sheep, 11,400,000 poultry; roundwood (1991) and 2,098,000 cu m; fish catch 4,706, of which freshwater 938. Mining

quarrying (1991): lead-zine ore 162,000; bauxite 48,000; mercury 9. Manufacturing (1992): cement 801,000; crude steel 297,000; aluminum ingots

(1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1989): 528,500 receivers (1 per 3.7 persons). Telephones (1992): 593,000 (1 per 3.4 persons).

Education3 and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 7-14)

Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

845

14,936

222,339

14.8

226 79 28

8,688 985 2,575

101,880 4,695 36,504

lite 4.7 14.2

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 13.7%; primary 27.9%; secondary 45.6%; postsecondary and higher 12.8%. Literacy (1991): virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1990) 4,086 (1 per 489 persons); hospital beds (1991) 11,816 (1 per 167 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 8.9.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 15,000 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: n.a.; per capita expenditure (1992) US.$171. 1One sq km is equal to approximately 0.3861 sq mi. *Based on worker real net personal income. 3Includes adult education.

714

Britannica World Data

Population economically active (1993): total 29,5776; activity rate of total population 8.3% (participation rates: ages 15-60 [1986] 98.6%; female 22.6%; unemployed, n.a.).

Solomon Islands Official name: Solomon Islands. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

(National Parliament [47]). Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General.

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

Head of government: Prime Minister.

manufacturing, in Honiara;

area sq mi

1993 255.1 309.7

garment

manufacturing, weaving, wood

carving, fibreglass

497 2,060 1,597 1,231

Malaita Temotu

Auki Santa Cruz

1,631 334

1,286 5,336 4,136 3,188 4,225 865

Western

Gizo

3,595

9,312

8

22

10,9541

28,370

7,764,000;

nonresidential.

7,661,000.

Energy

natural gas, none (n.a.). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$89,300,000.

26,865 55,104 20,197 26,037 97,011 19,175 83,978

|

1993): residential

coal, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (52,000);

1994 estimate

sq km

Tulagi Honiara Buala Kira Kira

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 SI$'000 % of total

39,722 368,089

—32,710 8.7%

— 6,646 2.5%

1989

1990

1991

1992

— 45,920 11.7%

— 18,340 5.0%

—73,100 13.9%

—9,300 1.5%

Imports (1991): SI$305,712,000 (machinery and transport equipment 32.5%, manufactured goods 22.8%, mineral fuels and lubricants 20.6%, food 14.9%). Major import sources: Australia 36.0%; Japan 19.8%; Singapore 11.4%; New

Demography

Zealand 8.2%; United States 5.5%; United Kingdom 2.8%.

Population (1994): 368,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 33.6, persons per sq km 13.0. Urban-rural (1986): urban 15.7%; rural 84.3%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.73%; female 48.27%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 46.4%; 15-29, 27.2%; 30-44, 14.5%; 45-59, 7.8%; 60-74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 433,000; (2010) 569,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Melanesian 94.2%; Polynesian 3.7%; other Pacific Islander 1.4%; European 0.4%; Asian 0.2%; other 0.1%.

Religious affiliation (1986): Christian no religion 2.7%.

1992

234.3 304.8

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 48,928,000 (43,473,000);

population

Provinces Central Islands Guadalcanal Isabel Makira

Catholic

1991 211.6 262.8

products, boatbuilding, and leatherworking. Construction (gross value in SI$

Area and population

Roman

1990 183.9 216.9

roundwood 547,000 cu m; fish catch 32,486. Mining and quarrying (1992): gold 1,061 troy oz. Manufacturing (1992): processed fish 36,788; sawn timber 18,400 cu m; other major industries include beer brewing, soap and tobacco

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =SI$3.27; 1 £=SI$5.20.

TOTAL

1989 169.1 248.8

palm oil and kernels 38,029, copra 29,057, coconut oil 4,286, cacao beans 3,297; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 54,000 pigs, 13,000 cattle;

Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Solomon Islands dollar (SI$) = 100 cents; valuation

Capital Territory Honiara

1988 147.2 194.2

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Capital: Honiara.

Capitals

1987

126.1 121.3

96.7%, of which

Protestant

77.5%,

19.2%; Bahai 0.4%; traditional beliefs 0.2%; other and

Major cities (1986)2: Honiara 2,585; Buala 1,913.

35,2883;

Gizo

3,727; Auki

3,262; Kira Kira

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 37.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 33.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 5.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 69.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, influenza, diarrhea, conjunctivitis and yaws4.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: S1$228,400,000 (1991; taxes on foreign trade 46.8%, income taxes 29.2%, nontax revenue 14.3%, foreign grants 9.7%). Expenditures: S1$255,900,000 (1991; administrative 33.2%, interest payments 12.6%,

capital expenditure 10.7%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by nation-

als abroad (1991) U.S.$13,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 91.5%; meadows and pastures 1.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.0%; other 5.1%.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$260,000,000

(U.S.$750 per capita).

Exports (1991): S1$228,713,000 (fish products 46.5%, timber products 24.1%, palm oil products 7.7%, cacao beans 5.9%, copra 4.5%). Major export destinations: Japan 28.2%; United Kingdom 15.3%; Thailand Netherlands 7.6%; South Korea 6.9%; Fiji 5.1%.

13.8%; The

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1987)9:

total

length

1,300

mi, 2,100

km (paved 8%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 2,052; trucks and buses 2,574. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 33; total deadweight tonnage 4,985. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 117,100,000, passenger-km 188,400,000; short ton-mi cargo 25,0001, metric ton-km cargo

37,00019; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 22. Communications. Daily newspapers!!: none. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 38,000 (1 per 9.5 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1989): 7,000 (1 per 44 persons).

Education and health Education (1993) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

}

schools

teachers

students

520

2,357

70,103

23

364

—

—

7,351 se

teacher ratio 29.7

20.2 a

Educational attainment (1986)!2. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 44.4%; primary education 46.2%; secondary 6.8%; higher 2.6%. Literacy (1976): total population age 15 and over literate 55,500 (54.1%); males 33,600 (62.4%); females 21,900 (44.9%). Health: physicians (1988) 31 (1 per 9,852 persons); hospital beds (1986) 1,479 (1 per 193 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 26.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,278 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 100% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel: no military forces are maintained, but a police force of 475 provides internal security.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991 in value SI$'0005 Agriculture Mining

Manufacturing

117,600 —700 9,000

Construction 10,500 Public utilities 2,200 Transportation and communications 17,500 Trade 23,300 Finance 8,000 Pub. admin., defense } 55,800 Services Other 44,300 TOTAL 243,1001

1993 % of total value

labour force

48.4 -0.3 37

8,106

27.4

2,844

9.6

4.3 0.9

977 245

3.3 0.8

7.2 9.6 3.3

1,723 3,390 1,144 4,303 6,845

5.8 11.5 3.9 14.6 23.1

29,577

100.0

23.0 18.2 100.01

% of labour force

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 6.4; av-

erage annual income per household (1983) SI$1,0107 (U.S.$1,160); sources

of income (1983): wages and salaries 74.1%, self-employment, remittances, gifts, and other assistance 25.9%; expenditure (1990)8: food 51.1%, drinks

and tobacco 13.7%, housing 8.8%, transportation 8.4%, clothing 3.9%.

‘Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Ward populations, 31990.

4Reported cases of these diseases

in 1987 were:

malaria

168,196, influenza 63,681,

diarrhea 18,536, and conjunctivitis 10,965. 5At 1984 factor cost. “Persons employed in the monetary sector only. 7Public-service earnings. 8Retail price index components. ‘Includes 500 mi (800 km) of privately maintained roads mainly for plantation use. 101984. 11In 1988 there were three weekly newspapers with a combined circulation of 10,000. !2Indigenous population only.

Nations of the World

Somalia!

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Soomaaliya (Somali)(Somalia). _ Form of government: interim UN-imposed regime2. Head of state and government: Special Envoy assisted by military command of UN-administered operation in Somalia (for United Nations); no effective local government (for Somalia). Capital: Mogadishu. Official languages: Somali; Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Somali shilling (So.Sh.)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

So.Sh. '000,000 Agriculture ee anufacturin

Constiocton. Public utilities Transportation and communications

10,000

Baydhabo Dhuusamarreeb Garbahaarrey Beledweyne Bu’aale

Jubbada Hoose

Kismaayo

Mudug Nugaal Sanaag

Gaalkacyo Garoowe Ceerigaabo = Jawhar Marka Burao Hargeysa

estimate_

27,000

148,700

400

1,000

520,100

27,000

70,000

222,300

15,000 17,000 12,000 13,000 9,000

39,000 43,000 32,000 34,000 23,000

451,000 255,900 235,000 219,300 147,800

Mogadishu (Muqdisho) Boosaaso

Bay Galguduud Gedo Hiiraan Jubbada Dhexe

population 1980

—sami__sqkm___

Xuddur

Banaadir Bari

24,000

61,000

272,400

27,000 19,000 21,000

70,000 50,000 54,000

311,200 112,200 216,500

8,000 10,000 16,000 17,000 246,0003

22,000 25,000 41,000 45,000 637,000

352,000 570,700 383,900 655,000 5,074,000

2,700 59,200

0.2 4.4

51,100

3.8

9,400

0.7

force

2,275,000

70.8

Soe

6.0 9.3 3.4 6.0 2.3 —0.6 100.0

)

604,000

18.8

3,215,000

100.0

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1983 1984 1985 Consumer price index Earnings index

38.0 +d

72.6

100.0

1986

1987

1988

19897

135.8

174.0

316.6

707.1

Land use (1992): forested 14.4%; meadows and pastures 68.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.7%; other 15.4%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

— 382 64.3%

—373 68.7%

=299) 62.4%

1990

1991

1992

—274 61.4%

—274 61.4%

—305 67.0%

Imports (1991): U.S.$360,000,000 (agricultural products 22.1%, of which rice 8.6%; unspecified 77.9%). Major import sources (1990): Italy 30.8%; The Netherlands 8.8%; Bahrain 6.0%; United Kingdom.5.9%; China 4.9%; Germany 4.7%; Thailand 4.6%.

Djibouti 5.9%;

Exports (1991): U.S.$86,000,000 (agricultural products 46.1%, of which live

Demography

sheep and goats 23.3%, live camels 7.0%, live cattle 6.4%, bananas 5.8%;

' Population (1994): 6,667,0004. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 27.1, persons per sq km 10.5.

fishery products 10.7%; other 43.2%). Major export destinations (1990): Italy 28.7%; Saudi Arabia 23.4%; Yemen

Urban-rural (1991): urban 37.2%; rural 62.8%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.46%; female 50.54%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.0%; 15-29, 23.4%; 30-44, 16.6%; 45-59, 8.6%; 60-74, 3.7%; 75 and over, 0.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,176,000; (2010) 12,588,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition

64.5

% of labour

Population economically active (1991): total 3,215,000; activity rate of total population 40.9% (participation rates [1987]: over age 10, 63.1%; female 48.7%; unemployed, n.a.). area

Bakool

867,500

labour

= force a

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,898,000,000.

Area and population Capitals

value

80,700 125,000 45,700 80,700 30,900 —8,100 1,344,9003

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 £=So.Sh. 4,171.

Regions

1991 % of total

in value

1994) 1 U.S.$ =So.Sh. 2,622;

Shabeellaha Dhexe Shabeellaha Hoose Togdheer Wogqpooyi Galbeed TOTAL

715

(1983): Somali

98.3%5; Arab

1.2%; Bantu

0.4%; other

0.1%. Religious affiliation (1980): Sunni Muslim 99.8%; Christian 0.1%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1984): Mogadishu 570,000; Hargeysa 90,000; Kismaayo 86,000; Berbera 83,000; Marka (1981) 60,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 50.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 18.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 31.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 45.4 years; female 48.6 years. _ Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include leprosy, malaria, tetanus, and tuberculosis.

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue: So.Sh. 151,453,000,000 (domestic revenue sources, principally indirect taxes and import duties 60.4%; external grants and transfers 39.6%). Expenditures: So.Sh. 141,141,000,000 (general services 46.97%; economic and social services 31.2%; debt service 7.0%).

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1986) U.S.$8,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1983) U.S.$13,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): fruits (excluding melons) 246,000, sugarcane 200,000, sorghum 150,000, corn

(maize) 120,000, bananas 90,000, sesame seed 30,000, rice 15,000, beans 13,000, dates 9,000, seed cotton 6,000, other forest products include khat, frankincense, and myrrh; livestock (number of live animals) 12,500,000 goats, 6,500,000 sheep, 6,100,000 camels, 1,500,000 cattle; roundwood (1992)

8,755,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 16,100. Mining and quarrying (1992): sepiolite 2,000 kilograms. Manufacturing (value added in So.Sh. 000,000; 1988): food 794; cigarettes and matches 562; hides and skins 420; paper and printing 328; plastics 320; chemicals 202; beverages 144. Construction (value added in So.Sh.; 1991): 51,100,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 258,000,000 (258,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991)'n.a. (806,000); petroleum products (metric tons;

1991) none (59,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

!

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1983)®: food and tobacco 62.3%, housing 15.3%, clothing 5.6%, energy 4.3%, other 12.5%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$946,000,000

(U.S.$150 per capita).

19.1%; United Arab Emirates

10.7%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads:

none.

Roads

(1991): total length

13,500 mi, 21,700

km (paved 28%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 10,500; trucks and buses 11,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 28; total deadweight tonnage 18,496. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 81,000,000, passenger-km 131,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights, n.a. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 1; total circulation, n.a. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 400,000 (1 per 16 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 3,000 (1 per 2,270 persons). Telephones (1991): 9,000 (1 per 741 persons). Education and health Education (1986-87) Primary (age 6-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,125 82 21 1

8,208 2,109

171,830 42,764 4,809 1,692

20.9 20.3 9.7 Pe

498 2629

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 24.1%; males literate 42.7%; females literate 14.0%. Health: physicians (1987) 323 (1 per 19,071 persons); hospital beds (1985) 5,536 (1 per 1,053 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990— D5) i225

ea (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 1,874 (vegetable products 69%, animal products 31%); 81% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994), 10: clan militias and armed gangs have fought for control of the country since the 1991 revolution. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1986): 3.2% (world 5.5%); per capita

expenditure U.S.$6. 1Proclamation of the “Republic of Somaliland” by the Somali National Movement in May 1991 on territory corresponding to the former British Somaliland (which unified with the former Italian Trust Territory of Somalia to. form Somalia in 1960) has received no international recognition. This entity would represent about a quarter of Somalia’s territory and a quarter to a third of its population; a new president was elected in May 1993; a new currency, the Somaliland shilling, was to be introduced in late 1994. 2UN operation in Somalia (begun May 1992) is to end March 31, 1995, per official announcement of November 1994. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Excluding Somali refugees in neighbouring countries, estimated to number about 600,000. 5The Somali are divided into six major clans, of which four are predominantly pastoral (representing c. 70% of the population) and two are predominantly agricultural (representing c. 20% of the population), the remainder are urban dwellers with less clan identification. SCapital city only. 7Third quarter. 8Imports are c.i.f. 91980-81. 10As of September 1994 there were an estimated 18,900 UN-sponsored military personnel in Somalia.

716

Britannica World Data

average white household R 56,148 (U.S.$21,707); sources of income (1991):

South Africa

wages and salaries 74.1%, interest, dividends, rent, etc., 21.1%, transfers

4.8%; expenditure (1991): food 35.1%, transportation 15.0%, household ; goods 10.2%, clothing and footwear 7.57. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$117,960,000,000 (U.S.$2,900 per capita).

Official name: Republic of South Africa (English). Form of government}: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [90]; National Assembly [400]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Executive Deputy Presidents.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Capitals: Pretoria (executive);

Bloemfontein (judicial); Cape Town (legislative). Official languages: 2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 rand (R) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1U.S.$=R 3.57; 1 £=R 5.68. Area and population Provinces Eastern Cape Eastern Transvaal

Gauteng Natal (KwaZulu/Natal) Northern Cape Northern Transvaal North-West Orange Free State Western Cape TOTAL

Capitals Bisho Nelspruit Johannesburg Ulundi and Pietermaritzburg Kimberley Pietersburg Mafikeng Bloemfontein Cape Town

sq mi

sq km

estimate

65,875 31,590 7,243

170,616 81,816 18,760

6,665,400 2,838,500 6,847,000

91,481 363,389 119,606 118,710 129,437 129,386 1,223,201

35,321 140,306 46,180 45,834 49,976 49,956 472,281

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index!2

8,549,000 763,900 5,120,600 3,506,800 2,804,600 3,620,200 40,716,000

1991

labour force7 1,224,434

% of labour force 10.5

840,749 1,417,128 526,373 102,928 497,122 1,358,291 503,971

7.2 12.2, 45

2,640,520 21.610 100.0

2,512,851 10 11,624,367

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

199411

76.3 74.8

87.5 87.5

100.0 100.0

115.3 112.6

131.3

144.1

152.9

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$1,226,000,000; expenditures U.S.$1,544,000,000. Land use (1992): forest 3.7%; pasture 66.6%; agriculture 10.8%; other 18.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

R '000,000

% of total

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.73%; female 50.27%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 38.8%; 15-29, 27.2%; 30-44, 17.9%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2000) 47,912,000; (2010) 58,446,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1991): black 75.8%, of which Zulu c. 22.0%, Xhosa c. 18.0%, Pedi c. 9.0%, Sotho c. 7.0%, Tswana c. 7.0%, Tsonga c. 3.5%, Swazi c. 3.0%, Ndebele c. 2.0%, Venda c. 2.0%; white 13.0%; Coloured 8.7%, of

which Cape Malay 1.0%; Asian 2.5%. Religious affiliation (1990): Christian 78.0%, of which 18.5%,

Afrikaans

Reformed

11.3%,

black independent

Roman

Catholic

7.8%,

Methodist 7.2%, Anglican 5.3%, Lutheran 2.9%; traditional religions 10.5%; Hindu 1.7%; Muslim 1.1%; Jewish 0.4%; other 8.3%. Major cities (1991)3: Cape Town 2,350,157; Johannesburg 1,916,0634; Durban 1,137,378; Pretoria 1,080,187; Port Elizabeth 853,204.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 34.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 26.0 (world avg. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.1. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 62.0 years; female 68.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988)5: diseases culatory system 133.9; accidents and violence 110.6; malignant (cancers) 70.2; diseases of the respiratory system 69.6; infectious

16.8).

R 88,210,000,000

(income taxes 56.3%, sales

and value-added taxes 28.2%, customs duties 5.8%, excise duties 5.5%). Expenditures: R 114,154,000,000 (education 23.9%, interest on debt 19.4%, economic services 14.8%, health 11.3%, defense 9.3%). Public debt (external, December 1993): U.S.$1,480,000,000.

Production (in R 000,000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (in value of production; 1991-92): poultry and eggs 4,236, beef 2,856, corn (maize) 1,537, temperate fruits 1,373, wheat 1,308, hay 1,237, sugarcane 1,141, milk 1,098, sheep and goat meat 884, grapes 750, citrus fruits 679, tobacco 507; roundwood (1992) 19,679,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 498,884

metric tons. Mining and quarrying (in value of sales; 1992): gold 19,525; rough diamonds 14,2496; coal 9,286; platinum-group metals 2,164; iron ore 1,077; manganese

+16,717 15.9%

+ 16,146 14.3%

1992

1993

+ 13,917 11.6%

+20,500 14.8%

Imports (1992): R 52,857,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 26.8%, chemicals and chemical products 11.1%, motor vehicles 8.2%, food 5.9%). Major import sources: Germany 15.1%; U.S. 13.1%; U.K. 9.5%; Japan 9.3%; France 3.8%; not specified 19.7%.

Exports (1992): R 66,774,000,000 (gold 27.1%, base metals and metal products 12.7%, diamonds 9.5%, food 7.0%, coal 6.0%). Major export destinations 13: Italy 8.0%; Germany 6.0%; Japan 6.0%; U.S. 5.0%; U.K. 4.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads!#: route length (1992) 21,617 km; passenger-km (199091) 1,205,400,00015;

metric ton-km

cargo (1990-91) 93,019,000,000.

Roads

(1991): length 182,329 km (paved 30%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 3,488,570; trucks and buses 1,899,721. Merchant marine (1992): vessels 219;

total deadweight tonnage 282,533. Air transport (1993)16: passenger-km 10,521,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 319,957,000; airports (1994) 31.

Education (1992) Primary/Secondary Voc., teacher tr. Tertiary vocational University

National economy Revenue:

1989

+13,458 13.1%

Education and health

of the cirneoplasms and para-

sitic diseases 68.3; ill-defined conditions 97.5.

Budget (1993-94).

1988

+10,240 10.5%

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 19; total circulation 1,311,926; circulation per 1,000 population 32. Radio (1993): 10,000,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Television (1993): 3,445,000 receivers (1 per 12 persons). Telephones (1992): 5,222,090 (1 per 7.6 persons).

Vital statistics

1,128; copper

% of total value 4.0 9.6 24.9 3.0 4.3 8.4 13.7 12.2 fA 1.8 2.4 100.0

Population economically active (1991)7: total 11,624,367; activity rate of total population 37.5% (participation rates: ages 20-64 [1985] 68.3%; female 39.4%; unemployed (1993) 40.0%.

population 1993

Population (1994): 41,749,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 88.4, persons per sq km 34.1. Urban-rural (1992): urban 60.3%; rural 39.7%.

churches

in value R '000,0007,9 11,765 28,410 73,722 8,902 12,668 24,756 40,395 36,056 46,553 5,357 7,257 295,841

600; lime and limestone 503; chrome

364.

Manufacturing (in value added; 1991): food and beverages 10,306; soaps, paints, pharmaceuticals, and refined petroleum 7,742; iron and steel 5,862;

transport equipment 5,043; metal products 4,231; nonelectrical machinery 4,042; paper and paper products 3,349, Construction (buildings completed in value of construction; 1992)7: residential 4,027; nonresidential 4,636. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 148,620,000,000 (163,294,000,0008); coal (metric tons; 1992) 174,000,000 (132,260,0008); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (118,746,0008); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 14,799,0008 (14,802,0008); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure7. Average household size (1983) 4.5; average annual income per household (1990-91) R 16,814 (U.S.$6,500), of which average black household R 9,348 (U.S.$3,614), average Coloured household R 19,284 (U.S.$7,455), average Asian household R 29,712 (U.S.$11,487),

schools

teachers

students

20,648

322,493 14,876 6,865 31,863

8,374,564 147,009 113,870 318,944

197 12 17

student/ teacher ratio

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of all-age population group (black, white, Coloured, Asian) having: no formal schooling (34.4%, 7.8%, 15.5%, 11.4%); primary education (45.2%, 10.3%, 32.6%, 21.8%); secondary (19.8%, 56.4%, 48.9%, 60.3%); technical/teacher training (0.5%, 10.1%, 2.3%, 2.5%); undergraduate (0.06%, 6.7%, 0.3%, 1.7%); graduate (0.05%, 8.7%, 0.4%, 2.3%). Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate (1990), n.a.17 Health: physicians’ (1992) 25,375 (1 per 1,264 persons); hospital beds (1991) 141,977 (1 per 222 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 47.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,133 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 128% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 78,500 (army 73.9%, navy 5.7%, air force 12.7%, intraservice medical service 7.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.7% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$99. ‘Interim constitution in effect from April 27, 1994. 2A frikaans; English; Ndebele; Pedi

(North Sotho); Sotho (South Sotho); Swazi; Tsonga; Tswana (West Sotho); Venda; Xhosa; Zulu. 3Population of urban areas. 41991 population of the Witwatersrand (including East Rand [1,378,792] and West Rand [870,066] urban areas) is 4,164,921. 5Excludes population and causes of death for formerly nominally independent Transkei, Venda, Bophuthatswana, and Ciskei (TVBC). 61993. 7Excludes TVBC. 8Includes Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, and Swaziland.

%At factor cost. 10AIl not ad-

equately defined. !1April. '2Manufacturing only. 13Estimated figures. 14South African

Railways. !5Excludes suburban traffic. 16SAA only. 17Unofficial estimates range from a high of about 65% to a low of less than 50%.

Nations of the World

Spain

717

petroleum (barrels; 1992) 8,054,000 (412,530,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 50,446,000 (41,588,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 1,189,186,000

(6,668,871,000).

Official name: Reino de Espaiia (Kingdom of Spain).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$534,056,000,000 (U.S.$13,650 per capita).

Form of government: constitutional

monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [2551]; Congress of Deputies [350]). Chief of state: King.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

__Ptas '000,000__

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Madrid.

Agriculture Mining d

Official language: Castilian Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 peseta (Pta) = 100 céntimos; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun.

Manufacturing

inal

er

area

Capitals

eee

Seville

Castilla y Leon Cataluna Extremadura Galicia

population

ea

2,906,800.

19.0

85,400 1,530,000 786,800

0.6 10.0 5.1

3,184,600

20.9

8.2 so

36,515,700

60.0

earnatewt 6,983,734

3,473,7006

EanY 7.8

15,318,8002

100.0

5.76

60,881 ,0002

100.0

Uy

Bee UD 1,199,8007

Public debt (19938): Ptas 28,709,000,000,000 (U.S.$210,000,000,000). Population economically active (1993): total 15,318,800; activity rate of total population 39.1% (participation rates: ages [1992] 16-64, 60.0%; female 43.1%; unemployed 14.9%).

1,207,338 1,118,610 685,686 1,501,651 526,400 1,716,665

36,368 12,328 16,063

94,193 31,930 41,602

2,618,228 6,018,154 1,131,195

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.4; in-

11,365

29,434

2,792,802

come per household (1992) Ptas 2,591,000 (U.S.$25,800); sources of income

3,087 4,370

7,995 11,317

4,910,199 1,038,126

4,023

10,421

521,670

2,803 8,998

7,261 23,305

2,129,523 3,797,671

194,885

504,750

38,957,934

Tell 5.4

18.5 14.0

70,746 56,403

5,034

260,282

Enclaves in Northern Morocco — —

Other enclaves (plazas

—

0.26

TOTAL

pe

10,565 5,014 7,242 5,289 79,230

Vitoria (Gasteiz) Valencia

:

22.7

4,987,200 a

87,268

1,944

TOTAL SPAIN

de soberania)

13,800,800

47,650

Pamplona

Ceuta Melilla

9.2 0.4

4,079 1,936 2,796 2,042 30,591

Madrid Murcia

Navarra Pais Vasco (Basque Country) Valencia

1,410,400 67,900

18,398

Valladolid Barcelona Mérida Santiago de Compostela Logrofno

Madrid Murcia

force

3.4

33,694

Zaragoza

Asturias Oviedo Baleares (Balearic Islands) | Palma de Mallorca Canarias (Canary Islands) Santa Cruz de Tenerife Cantabria Santander Castilla-La Mancha Toledo

La Rioja

% of labour

}

TOTAL

1992

Aragon

labour

__force __

2,103,800

Pub. admin., defense Other

Area and population

Andalucia

value

po

1 U.S.$ = Ptas 127.62; 1 £=Ptas 202.98.

Autonomous communities

1993 % of total

in value

194,897.792

0.66

oa

504,783.16

39,085,083

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

83.7 80.5

87.7 85.7

93.7 92.0

100.0 100.0

105.9 108.2

112.2 116.5

117.3 124.4

(1991): wages and salaries 48.5%, profits and self-employment 27.5%, social security 19.5%; expenditure (1992): food 24.2%, housing 22.9%, transportation 13.1%, clothing and footwear 9.3%, household goods and services 6.5%.

Land use (1992): forested 31.9%; meadows and pastures 20.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 39.9%; other 7.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 Ptas ‘000,000 % of total

— 1,954.7 17.2%

— 2,722.0 20.6%

1990

1991

1992

1993

— 2,765.4 19.7%

— 2,724.3 19.6%

— 3,022.5 18.6%

— 1,831.3 10.2%

Imports (1993): Ptas 9,998,840,000,000 (agricultural products 11.6%; machinery 11.0%; energy products 11.0%, of which crude petroleum 10.6%; transportation equipment 8.7%). Major import sources: France 17.0%; Germany

Demography Population (1994): 39,193,0003.

15.5%; Italy 9.1%; U.K. 7.7%; Japan 3.9%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 201.1, persons per sq km 77.6. Urban-rural (1990): urban 78.4%; rural 21.6%.

Sex distribution (1994): male 49.10%; female 50.90%.

Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 17.4%; 15-29, 24.8%; 30-44, 21.3%; 45-59, 16.5%; 60-69, 10.3%; 70 and over, 9.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 39,268,000; (2010) 40,317,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1989): Spanish 72.3%; Catalan 16.3%; Galician 8.1%; Basque 2.3%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 94.9%; Muslim 1.2%; Protestant 0.5%; other 3.4%. Major cities (1991)4: Madrid 2,909,792; Barcelona 1,623,542; Valencia 752,909; Seville 659,126; Zaragoza 586,219.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1988) legitimate 92.0%; illegitimate 8.0%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 1.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.4. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 74.6 years; female 80.5 years. — Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): circulatory diseases 352.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 208.4; respiratory diseases 80.6.

National economy

Budget (19945). Revenue: Ptas 13,217,000,000,000 (direct taxes 45.8%; indirect

taxes 37.5%, of which value-added tax on products 9.0%; other taxes on production 16.7%). Expenditures: Ptas 16,514,000,000,000 (current transfers be-

tween public administrations 53.2%; interest payments 17.3%; wages 16.0%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$22,181,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$5,542,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): barley 9,520,000, sugar beets 8,650,000, wheat 5,002,000, grapes 4,453,000,

potatoes

1,699,000,

3,977,000,

onions

tomatoes

897,000;

2,699,000,

livestock

oranges 2,426,000,

(number

corn

of live animals)

(maize)

24,830,000

sheep, 18,000,000 pigs, 4,800,000 cattle, 2,800,000 goats; roundwood (1992)

17,102,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 894,552. Mining and quarrying (metal

content in metric tons; 1993): iron ore 2,475,000; zinc 170,000; lead 25,000.

Manufacturing (value added, in Ptas ’000,000; 1990): machinery and transport equipment 2,175,761; food products 1,564,469; chemical products 921,075; paper products 662,993; wood and cork products 379,452; clothing and footwear 338,083; textiles 306,572. Construction (1993): dwellings 237,637. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 158,505,000,000 (159,146,000,000);

coal (metric tons; 1992) 33,399,000

(47,496,000);

crude

Exports (1993): Ptas 7,576,522,000,000 (transport equipment 21.1%; agricultural products 15.1%; machinery 7.9%). Major export destinations: France 20.4%; Germany 16.0%; Italy 9.9%; U.K. 8.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 13,050. km; passenger-km 16,352,000,000; metric ton-km

cargo 9,252,000,000,

Roads

(1991): length 331,961

km (paved 99%). Vehicles (1992): cars 13,102,285; trucks and buses 2,696,776. Merchant marine (1992): vessels 2,190; deadweight tonnage 5,077,275. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 26,738,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 599,016,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 23. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 119; total circulation 2,516,2999; circulation per 1,000 population 649. Radio (1993): 12,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.3 persons). Television (1993): 17,000,000 receivers (1 per 2.3 persons). Telephones (1990): 12,603,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational11 Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

38,51210 23,107 2,668 1,415

267,72510 170,144 63,236 67,16611

4,474,775 2,558,717 1,234,045 1,261,012

eo 15.0 19.5 18.8

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 5.2%; less than primary education 40.3%; primary 29.9%; incomplete secondary 8.9%; completed secondary 8,7%; higher 7.0%. Literacy (1991): total population age 10 and over literate 33,338,300 (85.4%); males literate 16,458,400 (85.1%); females literate 16,879,900 (84.3%).

Health (1991): physicians 153,306 (1 per 257 persons); hospital beds 168,514 (1 per 234 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 7.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,472 (vegetable products 68%, animal products 32%); 141% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 206,500 (army 70.2%, navy 16.0%, air force 13.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.7% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$233. 1At the June 1993 elections, 208 seats were directly elected and 47 indirectly elected by

the parliaments of the autonomous communities. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Estimate based on 1991 census. 4For municipios, which may contain rural population. 5Preliminary. Import taxes and value-added tax on products. 7Includes 694,100 unemployed persons not previously employed. 8December. 9For 51 newspapers only. !°Includes preschool. 111988-89.

718

Britannica World Data centrate 36,000; gemstones U.S.$58,000,000. Manufacturing (value added, in SL Rs; 1990): textiles and apparel 27,930,000,000; food and tobacco 21,955,000,000; petrochemicals 21,215,000,000. Construction (1990): residential,

Sri Lanka Official name: Sri Lanka Prajathanthrika Samajavadi Janarajaya

6,262 units completed. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 3,540,000,000 (3,540,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none

(Sinhala); Ilangai Jananayaka Socialisa Kudiarasu (Tamil) (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [225]).

(9,742,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,227,000 (1,575,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$10,573,000,000 (U.S.$600 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

in value *

__SL ‘000,000 Rs _

Head of state and government:

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Official languages: Sinhala; Tamil. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Sri Lanka rupee (SL Rs) = 100 cents; valuation

Services Other TOTAL

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=

SL Rs 49.24; 1 £=SL Rs 78.32. Area and population Districts Amparai Anuradhapura Badulla Batticaloa Colombo Galle Gampaha Hambantota Jaffna Kalutara Kandy Kegalle Kilinochchi Kurunegala Mannar Matale Matara Monaragala Mullaitivu Nuwara Eliya Polonnaruwa Puttalam Ratnapura Trincomalee Vavuniya TOTAL

area

Capitals Amparai Anuradhapura Badulla Batticaloa Colombo

Galle Gampaha Hambantota

Jaffna Kalutara Kandy Kegalle Kilinochchi Kurunegala Mannar Matale Matara Monaragala Mullaitivu Nuwara Eliya Polonnaruwa

Puttalam Ratnapura Trincomalee Vavuniya

sq km

1,705 2,772 1,104 1,102 270 638 536 1,007 396 617 749

4,415 7,179

654

1,693

494 1,859 hl 770 495 2,177 1,010 672 1,271 1,186 1,264 1,053 759 25,332

1,279 4,816 1,996 1,993 1,283 5,639 2,617 1,741 3,293 3,072 3,275 2,727 1,967 65,610

2,861 2,854 699

1,652 1,387 2,609 1,025 1,598 1,940

1991 estimate

482,000 716,000 718,000 417,000 1,965,000 946,000 1,532,000 517,000 871,000 945,000 1,258,000 751,000 101,000 1,428,000 132,000 421,000 776,000 351,000 92,000 541,000 319,000 598,000 941,000 315,000 114,000 17,247,000

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Average wage index2

100.0 100.0

122 111.7

125.0 128.4

139.6 155.4

64.7 58.5

73.8 73.2

82.3 84.3

income per household SL Rs 103,400 (U.S.$2,500); sources of income: wages

48.5%, property income and self-employment 43.3%, transfers 8.2%; expenditure: food and beverages 59.5%, transportation 14.8%, clothing 6.2%,

household furnishings 5.0%, housing and energy 4.6%. Land use (1992): forested 32.5%; meadows

and pastures 6.8%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 29.5%; other 31.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 SL Rs ’000,000 % of total

— 17,058 15.4%

— 15,135 11.9%

1990

1991

— 17,485 9.9%

— 29,612 14.9%

— 36,037 11.5%

— 27,128 11.0%

Imports (1992): SLRs 150,076,000,000 (textiles and textile articles 19.9%, machinery and appliances 13.0%, chemicals and related products 7.2%, vegetable products 6.7%, base metals and base-metal products 5.5%). Major import sources (1991): Japan 11.6%; India 7.1%; U.S. 5.7%; U.K. 5.4%; Iran

Demography

4.7%; China 3.3%; Pakistan 2.4%; Australia 1.2%.

Exports (1992): SL Rs 107,369,000,000 (tea 14.0%, natural rubber 2.7%, desiccated coconut 2.2%, coconut oil 1.0%). Major export destinations (1991):

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 703.9, persons per sq km 271.8. Urban-rural (1993): urban 22.0%; rural 78.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 50.98%; female 49.02%.

USS. 28.4%; Germany 7.6%; U.K. 6.4%; Japan 5.2%; Canada 1.6%; Pakistan

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 35.2%; 15-24, 21.1%; 25-44, 26.5%; 45-59, 10.6%; 60-69, 4.0%; 70 and over, 2.6%. Population projection: (2000) 19,117,000; (2010) 21,222,000.

Doubling time: 50 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Sinhalese 82.7%; Tamil 8.9%; Sri Lankan Moor 7.7%; other 0.7%.

Religious affiliation (1981): Buddhist 69.3%; Hindu

Major cities (1990): Colombo

821,449 989,9211 5,948,221

Household income and expenditure (1991). Average household size (1981) 5.2;

Population (1994): 17,830,000.

Christian 7.5%; other 0.1%.

% of labour force 40.0 0.9 10.7 4.2 0.4

Population economically active: total (1992) 5,948,221; activity rate 40.9% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 56.6%; female 32.6%; unemployed 13.3%).

population

sq mi

1992

labour force 2,379,889 52,452 635,457 248,596 22,621 231,536 530,209 36,091

82,359 4,190 62,734 26,164 6,500 35,293 75,579 19,315 26,634 11,261 19,865 369,894

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

President. Capitals: Colombo (administrative) and Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative).

% of total value

15.5%; Muslim

615,000; Dehiwala—Mount

7.6%;

Lavinia 196,000;

Moratuwa 170,000; Jaffna 129,000; Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte 109,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 20.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1982) legitimate 94.6%; illegitimate 5.4%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 14.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 8.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988): 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 70.0 years; female 74.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): diseases of the circulatory system 101.9; violence and poisoning 77.8; diseases of the nervous system 45.3; respiratory diseases 36.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 32.2.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: SL Rs 85,000,000,000 (sales and turnover tax 30.8%, import duties 25.6%, excise taxes 14.1%, income taxes 11.2%, nontax revenue 9.8%). Expenditures: SL Rs 118,802,000,000 (public-debt service 22.0%, transfer payments 19.4%, administration 16.4%, education 10.1%,

1.6%; Australia 1.1%; India 0.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 1,427 km; passenger-km 2,818,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 168,900,000. Roads (1991): total length 25,952 km (paved 81%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 189,477; trucks and buses

153,745. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 66; total

deadweight tonnage 472,625. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 3,677,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 104,437,000; airports (1994) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 18; total circulation 550,000; circulation per 1,000 population 32. Radio (1993): 2,200,000 receivers (1 per 8.0 persons). Television (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 25 persons). Telephones (1992): 190,000 (1 per 92 persons). Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

9,590 9,041 23 8

173,811 106,792 437 1,937

2,112,723 2,105,959 8,908 31,447

12.2 19.7 20.4 16.2

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling 15.5%; less than complete primary education 12.1%; complete primary 52.3%; postprimary 14.7%; secondary 3.0%; higher 1.1%: unspecified 1.3%. Literacy (1991): percentage of population age 10 and over literate 86.9%; males literate 90.1%; females literate 83.8%.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$5,607,000,000.

Health (1992): physicians 3,345 (1 per 5,203 persons); hospital beds 48,061 (1 per 362 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 23. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,246 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Military

transport 9.0%, defense 8.5%, general public services 8.2%).

Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$199,000,000; expenditures U.S.$111,000,000. rice 2,450,000, coconuts 1,597,000, sugarcane 780,000, cassava 310,000, tea 232,000, rubber 110,000, sweet potatoes 65,000, copra 60,000; livestock

(number of live animals)

1,600,000 cattle, 870,000 buffalo, 500,000 goats;

roundwood (1992) 9,229,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 198,063. Mining and quarrying (1992): quartz stone 1,130,000; limestone 600,000; titanium con-

Total active duty personnel (1994): 126,000 (army 83.3%, navy 8.2%, air force 8.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 4.8% (world 4.2%) 3

per capita expenditure U.S.$25.

‘Includes unemployed. 2Agricultural minimum rates. 3Public schools only.

Nations of the World

Sudan, The

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$8,176,000,000 (U.S.$300 per capita).

Official name: Jumhiriyat as-Sidan (Republic of the Sudan). Form of government: Islamic military regime with one transitional legislative house (Transitional National Assembly [302]!). Head of state and government: President. Capitals: Khartoum (executive); Omdurman (legislative). Official language: Arabic. Official religion: 2.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991-9214 in value Agriculture Mining

% of labour

value

force?

_force10__

2,475 6

33.8 0.1

4,028,705 6,534

63.5 0.1

670 395 155

9.1 5.4 2.1

266,693 139,282 43,728

4.2 2.2 0.7

Boe

Sa

215,474 314,676

3.4 5.0

Transportation and communications Trade and finance Services

Pub. admin., defense

780

Other

10.6 }

ade

TOTAL

1 U.S.$=Sd 31.13; 1 £=Sd 49.51.

area

population 1983

f States4

Capitals

Avali an-Nil (Upper Nile) Bahr al-Ghazal (Bahr el-Ghazal)

Malakal Waw

ea

pec Kien

92,198 77,566

al-Fashir Juba Khartoum al-Ubayyid ad-Damir Kassala Wad Madani

196,404 76,436 10,875 146,817 183,800 128,987 53,675 966,7575,6

'SUS ae

238,792 200,894

1,599,605 2,265,510

508,684 197,969 28,165 380,255 476,040 334,074 139,017 2,503,8906

3,093,699 1,406,181 1,802,299 3,093,294 1,083,024 2,208,209 4,012,543 20,564,3647

Demography

_ Density (1994): persons per sq mi 26.6, persons per sq km 10.3. Urban-rural (1990): urban 22.5%; rural 77.5%.

100.0

and footwear 5.3%, health care 4.1%, energy 3.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

— 397 27.2%

— 667 39.2%

=585 49.0%

—502 44.0%

U.S.$'000,000

% of total

—551 35.1%

—507 38.3%

Imports (1992): U.S.$821,000,000 (petroleum products 28.0%, trucks 9.0%, nonelectrical machinery 5.8%, metal manufactures 5.6%, tractors 4.1% an-

imal and vegetable oils 4.0%). Major import sources: Saudi Arabia 21.3%; 7.8%; United Arab Emirates 6.4%;

Egypt 7.4%; France 6.5%; Thailand 6.0%.

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.23%; female 49.77%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.2%; 15-29, 26.1%; 30-44, 15.4%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 30,253,000; (2010) 43,045,000.

Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Sudanese Arab 49.1%; Dinka 11.5%; Nuba 8.1%; 2.7%; Bari 2.5%; Fur 2.1%; Shilluk 1.7%;

Religious affiliation (1992): Sunni Muslim 74.7%; traditional beliefs 17.1%; Christian 8.2%. Major cities (1983): Omdurman 526,2878; Khartoum 476,2188; Khartoum North 341,1468; Port Sudan (1990) c. 215,0009; Wad Madani (1987) c. 145,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 42.7 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 30.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 53.0 years; female 54.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.

Transport and communications Transport.

National economy Sd _1,553,100,000 (direct taxes 38.6%; indirect

taxes 35.4%; loans and grants 26.0%). Expenditures: Sd 2,337,000,000 (cur-

rent expenditures 69.6%, of which social and welfare expenditure 7.5%; development expenditures 30.4%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$5,000,000; expenditures by nation-

als abroad U.S.$21,400,000.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$8,984,000,000. _ Population economically active (1983)10: total 6,342,981; activity rate of total population 35.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.4%; female 29.1%;

unemployed [1992] c. 30.0%).

Railroads

(1991): route length 2,960 mi, 4,764 km; passenger-

mi 330,000,000, passenger-km 531,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 271,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 396,000,000. Roads (1990): total length c. 14,000 mi, c. 22,500 km (paved 9%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 116,000; trucks and buses 57,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 16; total deadweight tonnage 62,244. Air transport (1993) 18: passenger-mi 360,508,000, passenger-km 580,182,000; short ton-mi cargo 25,265,000, metric ton-km cargo 36,886,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 319; total circulation, n.a. Radio (1993): 7,500,000 receivers (1 per 3.3 persons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 100 persons). Telephones (1992): 91,930 (1 per 269 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

Primary (age 7-12)

8,501

Secondary (age 13-18)

2,578

64,227 20,024 1,648 1,943

2,079,649 446,898 26,953 54,345

32.4 22.3 16.4 28.0

Voc., teacher tr.

Higher

67

24

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 3,750,000 (27.1%); males 2,940,000 (42.7%); females 810,000 (11.7%). Health (1986): physicians 2,40520 (1 per 9,439 persons); hospital beds 18,571 (1 per 1,222 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 102.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,043 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 87% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 72,8002! (army 93.4%, navy 2.5%, air force 4.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 8.6% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$88.

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) i988 }=6.:-'1989—S'«é1990~—S'-s«d1:99 36.3 a

12.215

6,342,981

Exports (1992): U.S.$319,000,000 (cotton 20.4%, sesame seeds 14.5%, sheep and lambs 11.3%, gum arabic 5.9%, hides and skins 5.3%, roselle17 5.3%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 19.3%; Libya 11.7%; Italy 9.0%;

Population (1994): 25,699,000.

Budget (1993-94). Revenue:

oo

777,48015

100.0

United States 7.9%; United Kingdom Yemen 5.2%; Egypt 5.2%.

Beja 6.4%; Nuer 4.9%; Azande Lotuko 1.5%; other 9.5%.

Bees

ate

7,381

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.3; income per household: n.a.16; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1983): food and beverages 63.6%, housing 11.5%, household goods 5.5%, clothing

Area and population

Darfur (Darfur) al-Istiwa’lyah (Equatoria) al-Khartim (Khartoum) Kurdufan (Kordofan) ash-Shamallyah (Northern) ash-Sharqiyah (Eastern) al-Wusta (Central) TOTAL

labour

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1983 % of total

_Sd '000,000__

Monetary unit: 1 Sudanese dinar (Sd)3;

Consumer price index Earnings index

719

60.5 of

100.0 “a3

223.6 a

1992

1993

1994

486.6 ee

979.9 sy

1,497.911 PA

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 4,600,000, sorghum 3,700,000, wheat 895,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 454,000, millet 424,000, sesame seeds 330,000, seed cotton 261,000, cottonseed 170,000, yams 129,000, cotton lint 87,000, gum arabic 25,000!2; livestock (number of live animals) 22,600,000 sheep, 21,600,000 cattle, 18,700,000 goats, 2,800,000 camels; roundwood 24,104,000 cu m; fish catch (1991)

33,303. Mining and quarrying: salt (1992) 75,000; gold (1993) 31,500 troy oz. Manufacturing (1991): wheat flour 733,90013; refined sugar 356,20013; cement 168,000; cattlehides and horsehides 35,000; calfskins, goatskins, and sheepskins 18,000; cigarettes 750,000,000 units. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kKW-hr; 1992) 1,325,000,000 (1,325,(000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (7,477,-

000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 853,000 (1,045,000); natural ; i gas, none (none).

Land use (1991): forested 18.8%; meadows and pastures 46.3 7 agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 5.4%; desert and other 29.57%.

1Appointed interim legislature. Total number of seats includes seats assigned to southern Sudan (area at war with central government). 2Islam was being imposed in 1994. 3A new currency, the Sudanese dinar (introduced May 1992 at a value equal to 10 Sudanese pounds [Lsd]), is gradually replacing the Sudanese pound. 4Local administrative reorganization into 26 states was officially announced in February 1994.

Complete list of these new states was not available in October 1994. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ‘Including c. 50,000 sq mi (130,000 sq km)

of inland water area. 7Preliminary 1993 census figure was 24,900,000, including an estimated 3,850,000 in the southern Sudan. 8Khartoum urban agglomeration: 1993 est. (including Omdurman, Khartoum North, squatters, and displaced persons from southern Sudan) c. 3,500,000. °Excluding about 300,000 refugees from Eritrea. 10Excludes nomads, the homeless, and institutionalized persons. !!February. 121993. 131989. 14At

constant prices of 1981-82. !5Includes 592,759 unemployed not previously employed. 16Average annual income of paid worker (1992) U.S.$216. 17Variety of hibiscus cultivated for its edible parts. !8Sudan Airways only. !9?Government-controlled dailies. Press censorship imposed since military coup of 1989. 20Government-employed only. 21Excludes 30,000-50,000 members of the Islamic paramilitary group.

720

Britannica World Data ‘

Suriname

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$138,000,000.

Official name: Republiek Suriname (Republic of Suriname).

tionals abroad U.S.$12,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 94.9%; meadows and pastures 0.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.4%; other 4.6%.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$11,000,000; expenditures by na-

Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$1,727,000,000

(U.S.$3,690 per capita).

(National Assembly [51]). Head of state and government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

President. Capital: Paramaribo. Official language: Dutch.

1992

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Suriname guilder (Sf )=100 cents; valuation (Oct.

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Sf 183.491;

1 £=Sf 291.85.

% of total

labour

% of labour

Sf '000,0007, 9 684.0 103.5 508.8 349.0 151.0

value 14.7 2.2 11.0 75) 3.2

force 2,890 2,380 8,840 3,910

force 2.9 2.4 8.9 3.9

5,270 13,770 2,550

5.3 13.9 2.6

36,720

37.1

22,6801! 99,010

22.911 100.012

262.9

communications

Area and population Districts2 Brokopondo Commewijne Coronie Marowijne Nickerie Para Saramacca Sipaliwini Wanica

area

Capitals Brokopondo Nieuw Amsterdam Totness Albina Nieuw Nickerie Onverwacht Groningen ie Lelydorp

Town district Paramaribo TOTAL

sain 2,843 908 1,507 1,786 2,067 2,082 1,404 50,412 171

Paramaribo

71 63,2513

Trade

population sq km

7,364 2,353 3,902 4,627 5,353 5,393 3,636 130,566 443

6,621 20,063 2,777 16,125 32,690 12,827 10,808 23,226 60,725

183 163,8203

167,798 355,2404

1,089.4 932.4

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1980 census

843.3 36.2 —316.910 4,643.5 12

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1975): wages and salaries 74.6%, transfer payments 3.2%, other 22.2%; expenditure (1968-69)9: food and beverages 40.0%, household furnishings 12.3%, clothing and footwear 11.0%, transportation and communications 9.5%, recreation and education

8.4%, energy 6.9%, housing 4.4%, other 7.5%.

Foreign trade

Demography

Balance of trade (current prices) 1985 1986 1987

Population (1994): 423,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 6.7, persons per sq km 2.6.

Sf '000,000 % of total

Urban-rural (1992): urban 48.7%; rural 51.3%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.22%; female 50.78%.

Age breakdown

(1993): under 15, 33.8%; 15-29, 30.2%; 30-44, 19.0%; 45-59,

10.1%; 60-74, 5.6%; 75 and over, 1.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 465,000; (2010) 534,000. Doubling time: 43 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Suriname Creole 35.0%; Indo-Pakistani 33.0%; Javanese 16.0%; Bush Negro 10.0%; Amerindian 3.0%; other 3.0%.

Religious affiliation (1983): Hindu 26.0%; Roman

Catholic 21.6%; Muslim

18.6%; Protestant (mostly Moravian) 18.0%; other 15.8%. Major cities (1980): Paramaribo 200,9705; Nieuw Nickerie 6,078; Meerzorg 5,355; Marienburg 3,633.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 22.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 16.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.8, Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 66.6 years; female 71.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987)®: diseases of the circulatory system

178.6, of which

ischemic

heart disease

60.7, diseases

National economy rent expenditures 96.1%, of which general public services 48.9%, transfers 14.0%, debt service 10.4%; capital expenditures 3.9%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): 50,000, sugarcane

45,000, oranges

15,000, plantains

13,000, coconuts 10,000, watermelons 9,000, cucumbers 5,000, cassava 4,000, tomatoes 4,000, palm oil 1,500; livestock (number of live animals) 97,000

cattle, 36,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 154,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 4,100. Mining and quarrying (1992): bauxite 3,160,000; gold 965 troy oz. Manufacturing (1992): alumina 1,573,000; aluminum 32,400; cement 14,339; sugar 2,000; palm oil 1,988; plywood 8,000 sq m; shoes 111,624 pairs; soft drinks 101,680 hectolitres; beer 66,690 hectolitres; cigarettes 419,000,000 units. Con-

struction (value of buildings authorized; 1985): residential Sf 46,500,0007; nonresidential Sf 8,100,0007. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,420,000,000 (1,420,000,000); hard coal (metric tons) none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 1,730,000 (1,240,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (446,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1990)8: total 99,010; activity rate of total population 24.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.2%; female 41.3%; unemployed 15.5%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989 76.0 a

81.5 te

82.1 ad

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0

126.0

181.0

440.7

1988

=5:0 ~ £17.3 ~~ +1036 0.6% 1.6% 14.3%

1989

1990

+ 268.3 16.1%

+93.1 5.8%

Imports (1991): Sf 909,400,0007 (semimanufactured goods 35.1%, machinery and transport equipment 24.5%, fuels and lubricants 15.5%). Major import sources: United States 38.3%; The Netherlands 22.1%; Trinidad and Tobago 11.2%; Netherlands Antilles 3.5%; Brazil 3.0%.

Exports (1991): Sf 641,300,0007 (alumina 69.8%, shrimps 8.9%, aluminum 8.8%, rice 6.0%, bananas 2.5%, wood and wood products 0.2%). Major export destinations: Norway 34.2%; The Netherlands 26.3%; United States 12.9%; Brazil 8.2%; Japan 7.8%; France 2.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 187 mi, 301 km; passengers, not applicable; cargo, n.a. Roads (1990): total length 5,688 mi, 9,153 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 42,561; trucks and buses 15,774. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight tonnage 15,721. Air transport (1990) 13: passenger-mi 251,000,000, passenger-km 404,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 10,300,000, metric ton-km cargo 15,000,000;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total 25,000; circulation per 1,000 population 61. Radio (1993): total receivers 290,256 (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 59,598 (1 per 7.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 63,000 persons).

circulation number of number of (1 per 6.5

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-11)

Budget (1992). Revenue: Sf 1,430,700,0007 (direct taxes 32.6%; indirect taxes 26.8%; bauxite levy 16.8%; aid 4.4%). Expenditures: Sf 1,815,500,0007 (cur-

Consumer price index Earnings index

+54.1 4.8%

of

pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 47.2; homicide, suicide, and other violence 68.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 57.2; diseases of the respiratory system 33.7; ill-defined conditions 67.6.

rice 260,000, bananas

19908

in value

Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. 14 Higher 15

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

301

2,918 1,684 1,283

63,083 26,708 15,996 2,164

21.6 15.8 12.5

89 64 1

:

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 262,700 (94.9%); males literate 128,700 (95.1%); females literate 134,000 (94.7%).

Health: physicians (1990) 299 (1 per 1,348 persons); hospital beds (1989) 1,901 (1 per 212 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1986) 26.5. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,436 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 108% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,80016 (army 77.8%, navy 13.3%, air force 8.97%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.8% (world 4.2%) > per capita expenditure U.S.$186.

‘Floating rate introduced July 11, 1994. 2Districts reorganized in 1985. 3Area excludes 6,809 sq mi (17,635 sq km) of territory disputed with Guyana. 4Detail does not add to total given because of computational discrepancies. 51993. SBased on 71.6% of total deaths. 7Par value prior to July

11, 1994, was Sf 1.79 = U.S.$1.00; Sf 3.03 = 1

£. 8Districts of Wanica and Paramaribo only. 9At factor costs. 10Imputed bank service charges. !Includes 15,360 unemployed. !2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 13SLM (Suriname Airways) only. 141984—85, 151989-90. 16All services are part of the army.

Nations of the World

Swaziland

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1987 1988 1989

Official name: Umbuso weSwatini eeckey Kingdom of Swaziland English). Form of government1: monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [302] > House of Assembly [653]). Head of state and government: King, assisted by Prime Minister. Capitals: Mbabane (administrative); Lobamba (royal and legislative). Official languages: Swazi; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 lilangeni4 (plural emalangeni [E]) = 100 cents; valuation

Consumer price. index Earnings index

TOTAL

1991

1992

1993

110.8

119.9

140.3

sweet potatoes 4,000), pulses 4,000; livestock (number of live animals)

roundwood (1992) 2,297,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 105. Mining and quartying (1993): asbestos 33,862; diamonds 61,686 carats. Manufacturing (value added

in E; 1988): food

and beverages

290,900,000,

beverage

of which

processing 168,402,000, sugarcane milling 94,934,000; paper and paper products 107,490,000; textiles and garments 17,965,000; wood and wood products 11,453,000; machinery and equipment 10,833,000; nonmetallic mineral products 9,464,000. Construction (value in E; 1993)9: residential 38,600,-

000; nonresidential 3,600,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 387,000,000 (815,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 100,220 (1989; 28,454); crude petroleum, n.a. (n.a.); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.7; annual income per household (1985) E 332 (U.S.$151); sources of income (1985):

sq mi

sq km

population 1986 census5

1,378 2,296 1,571 1,459 6,704

3,569 5,947 4,068 3,780 17,364

178,936 153,958 192,596 155,569 681,059

wages and salaries 44.4%, self-employment 22.2%, transfers 12.2%, other 21.2%; expenditure (1985): food and beverages 33.5%, rent and fuel 13.4%, household durable goods 12.8%, transportation and communications 8.8%, clothing and footwear 6.0%, recreation 3.3%. :

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 883,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 131.7, persons per sq km 50.8. Urban-rural (1991): urban 34.3%; rural 65.7%.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.37%; female 50.63%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 14.3%; 45-59, 8.0%; 60 and over, 4.5%.

Population projection: (2000) 984,000; (2010) 1,270,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Swazi 84.3%; Zulu 9.9%; Tsonga 2.5%; Indian 0.8%; Pakistani 0.8%; Portuguese 0.2%; other 1.5%.

Religious affiliation

(1980):

Christian

77.0%,

of which

Protestant

37.3%,

African indigenous 28.9%, Roman Catholic 10.8%; traditional beliefs 20.9%;

other 2.1%. Major cities (1986): Manzini 52,000; Mbabane 38,290; Nhlangano 4,107; Piggs Peak 3,223; Siteki 2,271.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 37.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 26.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 4.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 56.2 years; female 59.8 years. Major causes of death (1992): accidents and injuries 15.8%; infectious intestinal diseases 13.3%; tuberculosis 10.3%; malnutrition 6.2%; respiratory

diseases 5.3%; circulatory diseases 5.0%; digestive diseases 4.6%.

National economy

E 000,000

% of total

Imports

—57.3 2.8%

(1991-92): E 2,057,690,000

1992

1993

— 362.7 9.1%

—406.9 8.7%

(machinery

and transport

14.5%; manufactured

equipment

items 13.2%;

dom 3.3%; Mozambique 2.4%; South Korea 2.2%; Zimbabwe 2.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 199 mi, 320 km; passengers, n.a.; short ton-mi cargo 73,300,00010, metric ton-km cargo 107,000,00019. Roads (1990):

total length 1,740 mi, 2,801 km (paved 26%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 25,283; trucks and buses 7,297. Merchant marine: none; landlocked state.

Air transport (1992)11!: passenger-mi 25,608,000, passenger-km 41,212,000; short ton-mi cargo 101,000, metric ton-km cargo 147,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 20,50012; circulation per 1,000 population 2512. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 65,000 (1 per 13 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 12,500 (1 per 65 persons). Telephones (1991): 19,546 (1 per 40 persons).

Education (1991) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

45.6%;

tax on

income

and

profits 28.6%;

payments 1.8%). ; Land use (1992): forested 6.9%; meadows and pastures 62.2%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 11.1%; other 19.8%. ; Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$32,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$16,000,000.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$932,400,000 (U.S.$1,050 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991 in value E '000 Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1991 —98.6 2.9%

foodstuffs .12.8%). Major import sources: South Africa 95.8%; United Kingdom 1.2%; Singapore 0.3%; Hong Kong 0.3%; Denmark 0.3%; The Netherlands 0.2%. Exports (1991): E 1,711,539,000 (sugar 24.8%; wood and wood products 11.1%; canned fruits 3.9%; diamonds 0.8%; asbestos 0.8%). Major export destinations (1991): South Africa 47.0%; United States 3.6%; United King-

sales tax

Agriculture

-77.5 2.6%

26.9%; minerals, fuels, and lubricants

12.3%; foreign-aid grants 3.2%; property income 2.4%; fees, services, and fines 1.2%). Expenditures: E 1,521,900,000 (recurrent expenditure 61.6%, of which education 18.3%, general administration 13.7%, economic services 9.9%, health 5.9%, justice and police 5.6%, defense 5.3%, public-debt

Africa

— 56.7 2.1%

Education and health

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: E 1,240,100,000 (receipts from Customs Union of Southern

1990 100.0

753,000 cattle, 406,000 goats, 31,000 pigs, 23,000 sheep, 1,000,000 chickens;

Area and population

Lubombo Manzini Shiselweni

90.1 _

sugarcane 3,500,000, corn (maize) 84,000, grapefruit 52,000, seed cotton 50,000, lint cotton 16,000, roots and tubers 10,000 (of which potatoes 6,000,

1£=E 5.68.

Capitals Mbabane Siteki Manzini Nhlangano

83.2 Rs

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$233,400,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=E 3.57;

Districts Hhohho

74.0 Hi

721

299,300 24,400 603,700 53,200 36,800 105,800 193,100 225,100 301,900 _ 42,500 342,2007 2,228,000

1986 % of total value

11

labour force 30,197 5,245 14,742 7,661 1,315 7,526 12,348 1,931

% of labour force

32,309 47,0818 160,355

Population economically active (1986): total 160,355; activity rate of total popation 23.5% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 44.1%; female 34.27%; unemployed 27.0%).

Primary (age 6-13)

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

523

5,015:

183,738

36.6

153 8 1

2,149 280 146

50,676 772 1,705

23.6 2.8 ql.2

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 42.1%; some primary education 23.9%; complete primary 10.5%; some secondary 19.2%; complete secondary and higher 4.3%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 240,171 (67.0%); males literate 112,578 (69.0%); females literate 127,593 (65.0%). Health: physicians (1990) 83 (1 per 9,265 persons); hospital beds (1984) 1,608 (1 per 396 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 73.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,634 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1983): 2,657. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 1.7% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$13.

\The government announced on Oct. 9, 1992, that a new constitution would be forthcoming; nonparty legislative elections took place on Sept. 25, 1993, and Oct. 11, 1993. 2Includes 20 nonelective seats. 3Includes 10 nonelective seats. 4The lilangeni is at par with the South African rand. 5Preliminary. 6Percentage of deaths of known cause at government, mission, and private hospitals. 7Includes indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges and subsidies. 8Includes 43,925 unemployed. Urban areas under the jurisdiction of the Manzini and Mbabane town councils only. 101984. 11Royal Swazi National Airways only; international flights only. 12Circulation for 2 newspapers only.

722

Britannica World Data 1992) 37,000 (3,368,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 7,000 (121,713,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 17,027,000 (16,296,000); natural gas

Sweden

i (cu m; 1992) none (486,913,000). Gross national product (1992): U.S.$233,190,000,000 (U.S.$26,800 per capita).

Official name: Konungariket Sverige (Kingdom of Sweden). Form of government: constitutional monarchy and parliamentary state with one legislative house (Parliament [349]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Stockholm.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

Official religion: Church of Sweden

(Lutheran).

Monetary unit: 1 Swedish krona (SKr) = 100 ore; valuation (Oct. 7,

eee

1 £=SKr 11.64.

Area and population

Vanersborg Karlskrona Gavle Goteborg Visby

Blekinge Gavleborg Goteborg och Bohus Gotland Halland

Halmstad

Jamtland Jénkdping

Ostersund

Jonkdping Kalmar Falun Kristianstad

Kalmar Kopparberg Kristianstad Kronoberg

Vaxjo Malmo

Malmohus

Lulea

Norrbotten Orebro

Orebro Linkdoping Mariestad Nykoping Stockholm Uppsala Karlstad Umea

Ostergotland Skaraborg S6dermanland Stockholm Uppsala Varmland Vasterbotten Vasternorrland Vastmanland TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

Harndsand

Vasteras

sq mi

sq km

4,400 1,136 7,024 1,985 1,212 2,106 19,090 3,839 4,313 10,886 2,350 3,266 1,907 38,191 3,289 4,078 3,065 2,340 2,505 2,698 6,789 21,390 8,370 2,433 158,661 2 15,071 173,732

11,395 2,941 18,191 5,141 3,140 5,454 49,443 9,944 11,170 28,194 6,087 8,458 4,938 98,913 8,519 10,562 7,937 6,060 6,488 6,989 17,584 55,401 21,678 6,302 410,929 39,035, 449,964

19941 estimate

447,437 151,853 289,612 754,438 57,751 264,607 136,073 310,872 242,528 290,515 293,245 179,649 800,122 267,092 275,532 411,212 279,246 259,199 1,686,230 283,006 285,220 258,171 260,567 260,932

Consumer price index

Hourly earnings index

37.1

356,0007 4,320,0002

8.27 100.02

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

80.0 77.0

85.0 83.0

90.6 91.0

100.0 100.0

109.4 105.0

118.5 110.0

orcs 113.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 2.1; median income per household SKr 119,000 (U.S.$18,400); sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 60.3%, transfer payments 24.0%, self-employment 12.6%; expenditure (1991): housing and energy 29.2%, food 21.0%, transportation 17.3%, education and recreation 9.2%.

Land use (1992): forested 59.8%; meadows and pastures 1.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.9%; other 30.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1989 1987 1988 Skr '000,000 % of total

29,827 5.6%

23,098 3.6%

31,208 5.4%

1990

1991

1992

23,272 3.5%

38,343 6.1%

42,894 7.0%

Imports (1993): SKr 331,930,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 36.0%, of which transport equipment 8.6%, electrical machinery 10.9%; chemicals 11.5%; food 7.4%; clothing 5.4%). Major import sources: Germany

8,745,109

19.9%; U.K. 9.4%; U.S. 9.1%; Denmark 7.3%; Norway 6.4%; Finland 6.2%.

Population (1994): 8,773,000.

Density (1994)3: persons per sq mi 55.3, persons per sq km 21.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 84.3%; rural 15.7%. Sex distribution (19941): male 49.41%; female 50.59%. Age breakdown (19941): under 15, 18.7%; 15-29, 20.0%; 30-44, 20.3%; 45-59, 18.7%; 60-74, 14.1%; 75 and over, 8.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 8,973,000; (2010) 9,192,000. Ethnic composition (19941): Swedish 90.1%; Finnish 2.4%; other 7.5%. Religious affiliation (19921): Church of Sweden 88.2% (nominally; about 30% nonpracticing); Roman Catholic 1.7%; Pentecostal 1.1%; other 9.0%. Major cities (19941): Stockholm 692,954; Goteborg 437,313; Malm6

237,438;

Uppsala 178,011; Linképing 128,610.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 13.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 50.5%; illegitimate 49.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.1 (world avg. 9.2), Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 3.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1988-92): male 74.8 years; female 80.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): heart disease 447.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 237.5; cerebrovascular disease 120.2.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: SKr 343,990,000,000 (value-added and excise taxes 55.4%, social-security contributions 15.8%, income and capital gains taxes 11.2%, nontax revenue 10.5%, property taxes 7.1%). Expenditures: SKr 549,662,000,000 (health and social affairs 23.0%, interest on national

debt 17.5%, education and culture 9.9%, defense 7.1%).

Public debt (1993): U.S.$100,950,000,000.

(1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,086,000,000; expenditures by

nationals abroad U.S.$6,794,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 2,136,000, wheat 1,750,000, barley 1,670,000, oats 1,295,000, potatoes 1,260,0004; livestock (number of live animals) 2,276,000 pigs, 1,807,000 cattle, 471,000 sheep; roundwood 46,900,000 cu m; fish catch 334,000, of

which Baltic herring 64,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 11,580,0005; copper 334,000; zinc 301,000; lead 150,000. Manufacturing (value added, in SKr ’000,000; 1991): machinery and transport equipment 101,889; paper and paper products 34,325; food and beverages 23,037; wood and wood products 14,379; textiles and wearing apparel 4,054. Construction (1992): 57,319 dwellings completed. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;

4,602,000

—5.58 100.0

*

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Demography

Tourism

29.7

— 69,1596 1,261,301

% of total value

Population economically active (1993): total 4,320,000; activity rate of total population 49.5% (participation rates: ages 16-64 [1992] 82.0%; female 48.0%; unemployed 8.2%).

population

Alvsborg

}

Services Other TOTAL

1994) 1 U.S.$=SKr 7.32;

Capitals

375,404

29,520 3,407 253,000 42,828 84,086 89,623 137,561 315,031

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun, Trade Finance

Official language: Swedish.

Counties

2.3 0.3 20.1 3.4 6.7 Yet 10.9 25.0

1993 labour % of labour chMORCO. oes, force 3.2 137,000 0.3 11,000 16.8 726,000 35,000 0.8 5.5 236,000 6.4 277,000 567,000 a Sot 368,000 8.5

in value SKr ‘000,000

1992) 146,245,000,000

(144,095,000,000);

coal (metric tons;

Exports (1993): SKr 388,260,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 43.2%, of which transport equipment 15.2%, electrical machinery 10.4%; paper products 10.2%; chemicals 9.9%; wood and wood pulp 6.1%; iron and steel products 5.8%). Major export destinations: Germany 14.4%; U.K. 10.2%; U.S. 8.4%; Norway 8.1%; Denmark 6.6%; Finland 4.6%.

Transport and communications Transport, Railroads (1992): length 6,863 mi, 11,045 km; passenger-mi 3,517,000,000, passenger-km 5,660,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 13,318,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 19,444,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 84,419 mi,

135,859 km (paved 72%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 3,566,040; trucks and buses 315,994. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 664; total deadweight tonnage 3,327,699. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 5,019,234,000, passenger-km 8,077,690,000; short ton-mi cargo 115,470,000, metric ton-km cargo 168,580,000; airports (1994) 45. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 174; total circulation 4,833,000; circulation per 1,000 population 558. Radio (1992): 7,271,556 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1992): 3,750,000 receivers (1 per 2.3 persons). Telephones (1983): 7,410,000 (1 per 1.1 persons). Education and health Education (1993-94) schools

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Highers

4,826 600

teachers

90,234 29,539 27,5239

students

~893,932 313,728 272,718

student/ teacher ratio

9.9

10.6 9.9

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 16-64 having: primary education 37.1%; lower secondary education 29.4%; higher secondary 12.2%; some postsecondary 21.3%. Literacy (1993): virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1992) 22,000 (1 per 394 persons); hospital beds (1991) 48,588 (1 per 177 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 4.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,978 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%); 111% of FAO requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 64,800 (army 67.1%, navy 15.1%, air force 17.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 2.6% (world 4.9%) ?

per capita expenditure U.S.$574.

‘January 1. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Density based on land area only. 41992. SMetal content of ore. Includes statistical discrepancies less imputed bank service charges. 7Unemployed. 81989-90, °Includes graduate assistants.

Nations of the World

Switzerland

coal (metric tons; 1991) none (396,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (33,967,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 4,522,000 (11,089,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 3,150,000 (2,184,000,000).

Official name: Confédération Suisse (French); Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German); Confederazione Svizzera (Italian) (Swiss Confederation). Form of government: federal state with two legislative houses (Council of States [46]; National Council [200)). Head of state and government: President. Capitals: Bern (administrative); Lausanne (judicial). Official languages: French; German; Italian. Official religion: none.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$248,688,000,000 (U.S.$36,230 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 in value Sw F '000,000 Agriculture — Vico

Aargau Appenzell Ausser-Rhoden2 Appenzell Inner-Rhoden2 Basel-Landschaft2 Basel-Stadt2

area

Aarau Herisau Appenzell Liestal Basel

Bern

Bern

Fribourg

Fribourg

Genéve Glarus Graubiinden

Geneva Glarus Chur

Jura Luzern Neuchatel Nidwalden2 Obwalden2 Sankt Gallen Schaffhausen Schwyz Solothurn

Delémont

—sqgmi_

population 19931

__sqkm_—_estimate_

542 94 67 165 14

1,404 243 173 428 37

512,000 53,400 14,500 233,200 196,600

2,336

6,051

953,500

645

1,671

214,600

109 265 2,743

282 685 7,105

383,900 39,000 179,300

323

836

68,300

Luzern Neuchatel Stans Sarnen Sankt Gallen Schaffhausen Schwyz Solothurn

576 310 107 189 782 115 351 305

1,493 803 276 491 2,026 298 908 791

331,800 162,600 34,900 30,200 432,800 73,000 116,100 234,900

Frauenfeld

383

991

213,200

1,086

2,812

294,100

Thurgau Ticino

Bellinzona

Uri

Altdorf

Valais

Sion

Vaud Zug Zirich

Lausanne Zug Zurich

416

1,077

2,017

5,224

1,240 92 668 15,940

3,211 239 1,729 41,284

194,800 858,000

Public utilities

6,011

1.9 }

26,224 18,556

8.4 5.9

5.4 24.0

2aiuh

OW

329,300 218,400

9.2 6.1

Trade

56,531

18.0

735,600

20.6

Finance, insurances Pub. admin., defense }

67,158

21.4

452,100 136,800

12.7, 3.8

2,500 3,572,8008

0.1 100.08

ood

ao

—9,9137 313,990

620,000

-3,27 100.0

17.4

Demography Density (1994): persons per sq mi 438.6, persons per sq km 169.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 68.1%; rural 31.9%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.84%; female 51.16%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 17.4%; 15-29, 21.3%; 30-44, 23.3%; 45-59,

18.6%; 60-74, 12.7%; 75 and over, 6.7%. Population projection: (2000) 7,298,000; (2010) 7,452,000.

Linguistic composition (1990): German 63.6%; French 19.2%; Italian 7.6%; Spanish 1.7%; Portuguese 1.4%; Romansch 0.6%; other 5.9%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 46.2%; Protestant 40.0%; Muslim 2.2%; Orthodox Christian 1.0%; Jewish 0.3%; other 10.3%.

(841,0524); Basel

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

113.2 121.7

119.8 130.9

124.7 138.0

128.8

102.2 106.5

104.1 110.4

107.4 114.8

Household income and_expenditure. Average household size (1992) 2.4; average income per household (1990) Sw F 71,574 (U.S.$51,522); sources of income (1991): wages 64.5%, transfer payments 15.1%, other 20.4%; expenditure (1992): food 19.3%, housing 15.9%, health and personal effects 13.3%, transportation and communications 11.7%. Land use (1991): forested 26.4%; meadows and pastures 40.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.4%; other 22.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 Sw F ’000,000 % of total

-—7,519 4.8%

-9,998 5.6%

-—7,397 4.0%

1991

1992

1993

-—6,144 3.4%

+268 0.2%

+3,721 3.2%

35,500 262,400

593,000 87,100 1,158,100 6,908,0003

Population (1994): 6,991,000.

Major cities (19931): Ziirich 345,200

3 24.4

Population economically active (1992): total 3,572,800; activity rate of total population 51.5% (participation rates: age 15 and over [1988] 62.9%; female 38.3%; unemployed [February 1993—January 1994] 4.7%).

Area and population

Capitals

1992 % of labour force

labour force

Construction Transp. and commun.

Other TOTAL

(Sw F) =100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Sw F1.28; 1 £=Sw F 2.03.

% of total value

9,664 76,722

}

Services

Monetary unit: 1 Swiss Franc

Cantons

723

175,500 (360,3504);

Geneva 170,200 (394,7834); Bern 130,100 (299,4664); Lausanne 117,600.

Imports (1993): Sw F 89,829,000,000 (machinery and electronics 20.0%; chemical products 13.2%; precision instruments, watches, and jewelry 12.6%). Major import sources: Germany 32.6%; France 10.9%; Italy 9.8%; U.K. 7.2%; U.S. 6.2%. Exports (1993): Sw F 93,289,000,000 (machinery and electronics 26.6%; chemical products 24.0%; precision instruments, watches, and jewelry 22.0%). Major export destinations: Germany 22.9%; France 9.1%; U.S. 8.8%; Italy 7.8%; U.K. 6.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1991) 3,125 mi, 5,030 km; passenger-km (1992) 11,748,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo (1992) 7,668,000,000!0. Roads (1992): total length 44,191 mi, 71,118 km. Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 3,085,372;

trucks and buses 291,457. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight tonnage 602,084. Air transport (1992)!!: passenger-km

16,154,000,000;

metric

ton-km

cargo

1,063,000,000;

airports

(1994) with scheduled flights 6. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 103; total circulation 2,851,832; circulation per 1,000 population 415. Radio (1993): 2,685,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Television (1993): 2,300,000 receivers (1 per 3.0 persons). Telephones (1991): 6,227,254 (1 per 1.1 persons).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 12.6 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 93.8%; illegitimate 6.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 9.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.5 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.5. Life expectancy at birth (1991-92): male 74.3 years; female 81.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): heart disease 271.6, of which ischemic 150.9, other 120.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 244.0,

National economy Budget (1993)5. Revenue:

Sw F 36,651,000,000 (turnover taxes 29.9%, direct

federal taxes 21.3%, motor fuel fees 11.9%). Expenditures: Sw F 39,737,000,000 (welfare 23.9%, transportation 15.9%, defense 14.67%).

National debt (end of year; 1992): Sw F 55,296,000,000.

‘

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$9,283,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$6,895,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): milk 3,845,000, sugar beets 907,000, potatoes 737,000, wheat 533,000, apples

396,000, barley 365,000, grapes 164,000; livestock (number of live animals)

1,783,000 cattle, 1,706,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 4,070,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 4,791. Mining (1991): salt 250,000. Manufacturing (value added in

U.S.$7000,000; 1990): nonelectrical machinery 7,544; food products 5,832; electrical goods and electronics 5,713; industrial chemicals 4,800; printing

and publishing 4,222; metal products 3,944. Construction (in Sw F °000,000; 1992): residential 21,250; nonresidential 34,603. Energy production (con-

sumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 55,908,000,000 ({1991] 55,006,000,000);

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

420,089 404,249 197,572 146,288

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of resident Swiss (resident alien) population age 30 and over having completed: lower secondary education or less 33.9% (45.2%); upper secondary 47.5% (31.2%); higher 18.6% (23.6%).

Literacy: virtually 100.0%. Health (1991): physicians c. 22,500 (1 per 311 persons); hospital beds 54,112 (1 per 127 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 6.8. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,508 (vegetable products 61%, animal products 39%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 1,80012. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 1.9% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$667. January

1. 2Demicanton;

functions

as a full canton.

3Includes

1,243,600 resident

aliens. 41991 population of urban agglomeration. >Confederation-level only. Includes consulting services. 7Imputed bank charges less import duties. 8Labour force includes 948,700 foreign workers. 9Import figures are f.0.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. !9Swiss Federal Railways. !!Swissair only. !2Excludes 565,000 army reservists and 60,000 air corps reservists.

724

Britannica World Data

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Syria

wheat 3,625,000, barley 1,553,000, seed cotton 639,000, tomatoes 395,000, grapes 354,000, apples 235,000, eggplants 148,000; livestock (number of live animals) 16,000,000 sheep, 950,000 goats, 770,000 cattle; roundwood (1992)

Official name: al-Jumhiriyah al-‘Arabiyah as-Siriyah (Syrian Arab Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty! republic with one legislative house (People’s Council [250]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Damascus. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: none2. Monetary unit: 1 Syrian pound (LS) = 100 piastres; valuation (nonessential [imports] rate; Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=LS

1 £=LS 17.85.

ity (kW-hr;

1,941,000,000 (1,941,000,000).

i

Population economically active (1991): total 3,845,368; activity rate of total population 27.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] 46.7%; female

10.2%; unemployed 6.1%).

area sq mi

sq km

1,440 12,765 6,962 7,143 3,430 9,009

3,730 33,060 18,032 18,500 8,883 23,334 42,223 6,097 2,297 1,8613 19,616 5,550 1,892

Homs

16,302 2,354

Idlib Latakia al-Qunaytirah ar-Raqqah as-Suwayda’ Tartis

Municipality Damascus TOTAL

1993 estimate

Dara Dayr az-Zawr Damascus

Hims

887 7193 7,574 2,143

730

—

41 71,4983

Consumer price index Earnings index

population

Capitals

Aleppo Hamah al-Hasakah

;

1990

1991

1992

1993

199410

83.8 is

100.0 aa

107.7 a

1179 bs

131.8 a

141.1 sz

and communications 2.4%, education and recreation 2.1%.

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) LS '000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-7,879 20.7%

+12140 21.9%

+19,579 27.3%

+2,835 4.2%

ieee 1.7%

—7,312 9.4%

Imports (1992): LS 39,178,300,000 (machinery and equipment 17.8%, food and beverages 17.5%, basic metals industries 14.7%, transportation equipment 13.1%, resins and artificial rubber 7.6%, textiles 7.5%). Major import

sources:

Population (1994): 13,853,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 193.7, persons per sq km 74.8. Urban-rural (1993): urban 50.0%; rural 50.0%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.60%; female 49.40%.

60.7; accidents

and

adverse

537,000;

18.3; infectious

and

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: LS 93,043,000,000 (taxes and duties 38.0%, foreign revenues 21.0%). Expenditures: LS 93,043,000,000 (defense 26.3%, adminis-

tration 17.5%, education 12.2%, agriculture 10.1%, health 3.1%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$600,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$260,000,000. Land use (1992): steppe and pasture

43.8%;

cultivable

32.1%;

forested

3.6%; other 20.5%.

Gross national product (1991): U.S.$16,204,000,000 (U.S.$1,170 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1992 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

Public utilities Transportation and communications

% of total value

103,476

29.7

916,952

46,778

13.4

6,651

19,143

5.5

456,162

13,505

3.9

340,779

041

8,422 166,965 378,250 24,651

174 32,508

9.3

Trade Finance

79,217

22.8

12,705

3.6

Pub. admin.

33,170

9.5

6,683 130 5646 348,053

1.9 0.1 0.26 100.0

Services Other productive activities Other TOTAL

labour force

}

951,104

235,4327 3,485,368

5.9%,

18.6%; Lebanon 13.0%; Saudi Arabia 4.3%; Spain 3.5%; Germany 2.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 2,261 km; passenger-km 1,248,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,704,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 36,255 km (paved 77%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 119,040; trucks and buses 135,416. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 94; total deadweight tonnage 210,369. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 1,157,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 14,414,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 9; total circulation 236,400; circulation per 1,000 population 19.5. Radio (1993): 3,000,000 receivers (1 per 4.5 persons). Television (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 19.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 718,760 (1 per 18.0 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 14

schools

teachers

students

10,079

106,164 47,889 10,770 5,997

2,573,181 845,631 71,319 178,526

2,07713 23813

4413

student/ teacher ratio 24.2

Educational attainment (1984). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no schooling 31.9%; knowledge of reading and writing 28.3%; primary education 31.2%; secondary 4.8%; certificate 2.0%; higher 1.8%. Literacy (1990): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 64.5%; males literate 78.3%; females literate 50.8%.

Health (1990): physicians 11,682 (1 per 1,037 persons); hospital beds 13,603 (1 per 891 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 44.2. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,122 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 126% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

1991

in valueS LS '000,000

cotton

live animals and meat 3.7%). Major export destinations: Italy 35.0%; France

1,494,000; Homs

effects

6.3%; Turkey

59.8%, fresh vegetables and fruits 7.6%, textiles 7.5%, raw

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 43.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 37.8 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992)4: 8.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992)4: 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 64.9 years; female 67.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1981): diseases of the cirparasitic diseases 15.1.

10.2%; Japan 9.9%; Italy 8.2%; France

Exports (1992): LS 34,719,800,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products

7.0%; 60-74, 3.8%; 75 and over, 0.8%. ; Population projection: (2000) 16,925,000; (2010) 23,634,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1981): Arab 88.8%; Kurdish 6.3%; other 4.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim (mostly Sunni) 89.6%; Christian 8.9%; other 1.5%. Major cities (1993): Damascus 1,497,000; Aleppo Latakia 293,000; Hamah 229,000.

Germany

6.2%; United States 6.1%; Romania 4.3%.

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 48.3%; 15-29, 26.9%; 30-44, 13.2%; 45-59,

system

1989

75.2 as

Average household size (1986): 5.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1987)1!: food 58.8%, rent, fuel, and light 16.0%, clothing and footwear 7.5%, household durable goods 5.8%, transportation

1,497,000 13,393,000

105

185,1803

1988

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$14,341,000,000.

593,000 581,000 1,416,000 2,768,000 1,079,000 1,002,000 1,253,000 903,000 808,000 42,000 495,000 290,000 666,000

Demography

culatory

1992) 13,422,000,000 (13,422,000,000); coal (metric tons) none

(n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 176,027,000 (83,269,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 11,148,000 (9,420,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Governorates Dar‘a Dayr az-Zawr Dimashq Halab Hamah al-Hasakah

Tartus

17,000; rugs 945,000 sq m9. Construction (1988): residential 2,390,000 sq m; nonresidential 339,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electric-

11.22;

Area and population

Idlib al-Ladhigiyah al-Qunaytirah ar-Raqqah as-Suwayda’

95,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 5,400. Mining and quarrying (metric tons

except as noted; 1992): sand and gravel 8,000,000; phosphate rock 1,266,000; gypsum 234,000; salt 127,000; marble 18,000 cu m. Manufacturing (1992): cement 3,700,000; wheat flour 1,171,0009; refined sugar 178,000; nitrogenous fertilizers 105,000; olive oil 103,000; silk and cotton textiles 26,000; soap

% of labour force

27.3

6.87 100.08

Total active duty personnel (1994): 408,000 (army 73.5%, navy 2.0%, air force 24.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 9.3% (world, n.a.);

per capita expenditure U.S.$170.

.

‘Parties ideologically compatible with the Ba‘th Party. 2Islam is required to be the religion of the head of state and is the basis of the legal system. 3Includes territory in the Golan Heights recognized internationally as part of Syria (located between the 1949 Israel-Syria Armistice line [west] and the 1974 UN Disengagement of Forces zone [east]) that has been occupied by Israel since 1967. Israel’s unilateral annexation of this territory in December 1981 has received no international recognition. 4Syrian Arabs only. 5In purchasers’ value at current prices. “Includes import duties and imputed bank service charges. 7Unemployed, previously employed, and never previously employed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 91991. 10March. Weights of consumer price index components for Damascus only. 12Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 13198990. !4University-level institutions only.

Nations of the World

Taiwan

725

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$220,129,000,000 (U.S.$10,566 per capita).

Official name: Chung-hua Min-kuo (Republic of China). Form of government: multiparty republic with a National Assembly (402) and Legislative Yuan (161)i. Chief of state: President.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force5 1993 in value NT$'000,000 197,794

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

Head of government: Premier.

Capital: Taipei. Official language: Mandarin Chinese. Official religion: none.

34,855 1,806,793 316,765 162,461 364,864

Trade

ce ub. admin., defense

Monetary unit: 1 New Taiwan dollar

(NT$) =100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

Services

1 £=NT$41.61.

Other TOTAL

1994) 1 U.S.$=NT$26.16;

% of total value 35

labour force’ 1,005,000

% of labour force8 quo

0.6 31.6 50 2.8 6.4

19,000 2,483,000 879,000 36,000 463,000

0.2 28.0 og 0.4 5.2 20.4

940,905

16.5

1,806,000

1,134,789 638,733

19.9 Ae

482,000

5.4

are000

er

—276,4999 5,712,519

—4.89 100.0

128,000 10 8,874,0003

1.410 100.03

391,059

68

Public debt (1992): NT$370,887,000,000.

Area and population Taiwan area

Counties

population t2ee

Capitals

Chang-hua Chia-i Hsin-chu Hua-lien l-lan Kao-hsiung

peostiimatoms

Chang-hua Chia-i Hsin-chu Hua-lien

1,267,805 558,670 388,551 356,233

I-lan Feng-shan

459,152 1,153,738

Miao-li Nan-t’ou P’eng-hu P’ing-tung T’ai-chung T’ai-nan Tai-pei

Miao-li Nan-t’ou Ma-kung P'ing-tung Feng-yuan Hsin-ying Pan-ch'iao

553,526 542,095 94,879 902,788 1,334,969 1,051,540 3,185,535

T’ai-tung T’ao-ylian Yuin-lin

Tai-tung T’ao-yiian Tou-liu

254,752 1,429,836 753,752

Vistecels aes |e

258,229 360,624 333,540 1,405,041 804,778 697,593 2,675,029

Municipalities Chia-i Chi-lung Hsin-chu Kao-hsiung Tai-chung Tai-nan Taipei non-Taiwan area Counties2 Kinmen (Quemoy) Lienchiang (Matsu)

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)5 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index11

13,9693

179

50,168

36,179

20,872,823

Demography Population (1994)4: 21,151,000. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 1,521.7, persons per sq km 587.5. Urban-rural (1991)5: urban 74.7%; rural 25.3%. Sex distribution (1993)5: male 51.58%; female 48.42%. Age breakdown (1993)5: under 15, 25.1%; 15-29, 27.0%; 30-44, 25.0%; 45-59,

12.3%; 60-69, 6.5%; 70 and over, 4.1%. Population projection: (2000) 22,548,000; (2010) 25,085,000. Doubling time: 67 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Taiwanese 84.0%; mainland Chinese 14.0%; aborigine 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Chinese folk-religionist 48.5%; Buddhist 43.0%; Christian 7.4%; Muslim 0.5%; other 0.6%.

Major cities (1993)5: Taipei 2,675,029; Kao-hsiung 1,405,041; T’ai-chung 804,778; T’ai-nan 697,593; Chi-lung 360,624.

Vital statistics

101.5; cerebrovascular diseases 69.4; accidents and suicide 63.7; heart disease 62.9; diabetes 23.7; liver diseases 18.2; pneumonia 14.1.

National economy Budget (1992), Revenue: NT$1,716,303,000,000 (land tax 12.7%, income taxes

12.6%, business tax 8.6%, surplus of public enterprises 8.27%, commodity tax 6.6%, customs duties 5.2%). Expenditures: NT$1,674,617,000,000 (economic

development 26.7%, administration and defense 25.7%, education 20.1%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

sugarcane 4,577,000, rice 1,820,000, citrus fruits 506,731, corn (maize) 321,-

3227, pineapples 277,263, bananas 212,748, sweet potatoes 188,000; livestock

(number of live animals) 9,844,920 pigs, 293,629 goats, 165,601 cattle; tim-

ber 46,924 cu m; fish catch 1,170,707. Mining and quarrying (1990): silver 3,926 kg. Manufacturing (1993): cement 23,964,134; steel ingots 12,779,fertilizers

102.5 134.2

107.0 153.8

1990

1991

1992

1993

1415

115.5

124.2

176.1

195.7

120.6 213.6

228.2

13.2%, health care 5.3%, furniture 5.1%, clothing 4.6%, other 8.1%.

Land use (1980): forested 55.0%; agricultural 25.2%; other 19.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) NT$'000,000

% of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

306,852 9.7%

359,832 11.5%

330,980 10.1%

350,013 9.4%

231,668 6.0%

199,604 47%

Imports (1993): NT$2,034,746,000,000 (electronic machinery 18.7%, nonelec12.6%, chemicals 9.8%, iron and steel 8.5%, road motor

vehicles 8.2%, crude petroleum 3.8%). Major import sources: Japan 30.1%; US. 21.7%; Germany 5.5%; Korea 3.3%; Australia 2.7%; Malaysia 2.5%.

Exports tronic 5.5%, Kong

(1993): NT$2,234,350,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery 20.1%, elecmachinery 19.1%, plastic articles 5.9%, transportation equipment synthetic fibres 4.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 27.7%; Hong 21.7%; Japan 10.6%; Germany 4.1%; Singapore 3.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): track length 3,887 km; passenger-km 9,542,118,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,964,388,000. Roads

(1993): total length 19,531

km (paved 87%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 3,416,848; trucks and buses 790,712. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 649; total deadweight tonnage 9,241,283. Air transport (1993): passengerkm 28,218,367,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,523,666,000; airports (1994) 12.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 93; total circulation 4,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 202. Radio (1993): 8,620,000 re-

ceivers (1 per 2.4 persons). Television (1993): 7,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 10,115,000 (1 per 2.1 persons). Education and health

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1992)> legitimate 97.7%; illegitimate 2.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992)>: 1.7. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 72.0 years; female 77.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992)5: malignant neoplasms

2,836,623;

101.2 121.0

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 3.9; income per household NT$776,700 (U.S.$30,90012); sources of income: wages 68.3%, self-employment and other 28.1%, transfer payments 3.6%; expenditure: food 27.2%, rent, fuel, and power 19.3%, education 17.2%, transportation

trical machinery

TOTAL

031; paperboard

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$2,449,000,000. Population economically active (1990): total 10,236,324; activity rate 50.5% (participation rates: age 15-64, 72.5%; female 38.5%; unemployed 1.7%).

1,886,902; synthetic fibre 1,170,752;

polyvinyl chloride plastics 1,078,460; electronic calculators 12,833,221 units;

sound recorder 6,193,258 units; sewing machines 3,373,401 units; desktopcomputer systems 3,226,046 units. Construction (1993): total residential and

nonresidential 47,533,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 109,911,000,000 (92,085,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 328,000 ([1992] 16,500,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 400,000 ({1992] 215,400); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 767,000,000 (n.a.).

Education (1993-94) schools Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Vocational Higher

2,525

906 209 125

teachers 13

students

student/ teacher ratio 13

84,052 70,739 18,332 31,430

2,111,037 1,426,030 515,211 689,185

26.2 19.9 27.4 20.8

Educational attainment (1992). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 10.7%; less than complete primary education 6.2%; primary 26.2%; incomplete secondary 20.1%; secondary 23.1%; some

college 7.7%; higher 6.0%. Literacy (1992): population age 15 and over literate 14,384,643 (93.2%); males 7,716,325 (96.9%); females 6,668,318 (89.2%). Health (1992): physicians 24,982 (1 per 829 persons); hospital beds 96,084 (1 per 215 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.2. Food: daily per capita caloric intake (1990) 3,020 (1988; vegetable products 77%, animal products 23%); 118% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 442,000 (army 70.6%, navy 13.6%, air force 15.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 5.4% (world

4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$397.

INational Assembly functions as an electoral college or constituent body; the legislative branch is the formal lawmaking body. 2The Nov. 7, 1992, constitutional reforms replaced the military administrations (established in 1949) on Quemoy and Matsu

with civilian administrations. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes Quemoy and Matsu groups. 5For Taiwan area only, excluding Quemoy and Matsu groups. SGeneral government. 71991. 8Civilian employed persons only. *Import duties Jess imputed bank service charge. !0Unemployed. !1In manufacturing. on the average exchange rate. 131992-93.

!2Based

726

Britannica World Data

Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$3,410,400,000

Tajikistan

(U.S.$600 per capita).

Official name: Jumhurii Tojikistan (Republic of Tajikistan). Form of government: parliamentary republic with one legislative house (Supreme Soviet [230]). Chief of state: Speaker of the Supreme Soviet (de facto President).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990 in value ‘000,000 rubles Agriculture Mining } Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and communications Trade

Head of government: Chairman of

the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister). Capital: Dushanbe.

Official language: Tajik (Tojik). Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Russian ruble = 100 kopecks; valuation! (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ =0.65 rubles; 1 £=1.03 rubles.

% of total value

38.3

831,000

42.9

1,503.0

28.5

260,700

13.5

Tt

14.7

160,800

8.3

4.2

64,700 145,400

3.3 s

38,800 436,900

2.0 22.5

1,938,300

100.0

F

TOTAL

Budget (1992). Revenue:

area

population

sq mi

sq km

1991 estimate

Autonomous republic Badakhshan

Capitals Khorog

24,600

63,700

167,100

Provinces Khudzhand Kulyab Kurgan-Tyube

Khudzhand Kulyab Kurgan-Tyube

10,100 4,600 4,900

26,100 12,000 12,600

1,635,900 668,100 1,113,500

11,000

28,400

1,181,800

Regions under republican juris-

% of labour force2

2,014.6

Finance Public administration, defense Services Other

Area and population

labour force2

16,875,000,000 rubles (value-added

tax 30.5%, ex-

cise tax 30.0%, enterprise profits tax 10.8%, individual income tax 3.1%). Expenditures:

17,978,000,000 rubles (social welfare and culture 54.2%, law

enforcement 23.2%, national economy 7.4%). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 6.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

diction

City

Dushanbe

TOTAL

100

300

55,300

143,100

591,900 5,358,300

1991

512.0 6.3%

‘000,000 rubles % of total

Imports (1991): 3,815,600,000 rubles (machinery 28.1%, basic manufactures

consumer

Demography

products 5.4%). Major import sources: former Soviet republics

90.8%; other 9.2%. Exports (1991): 4,327,600,000 rubles (basic metal manufactures 47.6%, basic manufactures 32.7%, textiles 11.3%, chemical products 4.3%, food products

Population (1994): 5,813,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 105.1, persons per sq km 40.6. Urban-rural (1992): urban 30.9%; rural 69.1%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 49.60%; female 50.40%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 42.9%; 15-29, 28.1%; 30-44, 13.8%; 45-59, 9.0%; 60-74, 4.6%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 6,701,000; (2010) 8,493,000. Doubling time: 25 years.

2.5%). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics 91.2%; other 8.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1990): length 553.6 mi, 891.0 km; passenger-mi 6,094,-

Ethnic composition (1991): Tajik 63.8%; Uzbek 24.0%; Russian 6.5%; Tatar 1.4%; Kyrgyz 1.3%; Ukrainian 0.7%; German 0.3%; other 2.0%.

Religious affiliation (1990): believers are predominantly Sunni Muslim (Hanafiyah). Major cities (1989): Dushanbe 582,400; Khudzhand (formerly Leninabad) 164,500; Kulyab 79,300; Kurgan-Tyube 58,400; Ura-Tyube 47,700.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 34.9 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 93.0%; illegitimate 7.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 28.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 10.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.7 years; female 71.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 197.5; diseases of the respiratory system 138.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 81.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 51.9; violence, poisoning, and accidents 48.4; diseases of the digestive system 23.0; diseases of the nervous system 8.9; endocrine and metabolic disorders 6.9.

National economy Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): seed cotton 580,000, vegetables (except potatoes) 552,000, potatoes 100,000, fruit (except grapes) 220,000, wheat 200,000, grapes 85,000, barley 40,000, corn (maize) 30,000, rice 20,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,310,000 sheep and goats, 1,159,000 cattle, 143,000 pigs, 18,000,000 poultry;

roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1992) 39,000. Mining and quarrying: detail not available; however, antimony, mercury, and molybdenum

and transport equipment

23.2%, chemical products 22.9%, textiles 8.6%,

are mined. Man-

ufacturing (1992): cement 400,000; mineral fertilizers 50,000; vegetable oil 46,500; refrigerators 61,300 units; metal-cutting machines 400 units; leather

footwear 5,500,000 pairs. Construction (1992): residential 400,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16,800,000,000 (16,800,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 200,000 (136,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 733,000 (279,000); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural

400,000, passenger-km 9,808,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 7,617,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 11,121,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,324,000 mi,

13,396,000 km (paved 93%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 209,100; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 3,214,600,000, passenger-km

5,173,400,000;

short ton-mi cargo 22,124,000, metric ton-km

cargo 32,300,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 74; total circulation 1,598,000; circulation per 1,000 population 298.2. Radio (1992): total number of receivers 854,000 (1 per 6.7 persons). Television (1992): total

number of receivers 860,000 (1 per 6.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 285,000 (1 per 19 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) } Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

3,179

99,000

1,310,000

oe 13

teacher ratio

13.2

69,300

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 16.3%; some secondary 21.1%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 55.1%; higher 7.5%. Literacy: percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 97.7%; males literate 98.8%; females literate 96.6%.

Health (1992): physicians 13,500 (1 per 412 persons); hospital beds (1990) 56,500 (1 per 93 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 40.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 6,000 (army 100%); about 24,000 Russian troops remained in Tajikistan in late 1994. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 3.1% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$19.

gas (cu m; 1992) 99,900,000 (1,771,000,000).

Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Land use (1992): forest 2.9%; pasture 24.7%; agriculture 7.0%; other 65.4%. Population economically active (1992): total 2,575,000; activity rate of total population 46.2% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 80.5%; female [1990] 39.0%; unemployed [1990] 2.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

i 78.3

% 80.2

a 85.6

iM 90.9

100.0 100.0

184.8

1,013.0 ree

1Official rate; black-market rate was about 2,900 Russian 4,700 Russian rubles to the pound. 2State sector.

rubles to the dollar and

Nations of the World

Tanzania

(metric tons; 1992) 33,200 (75,00010); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (4,075,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 565,000 (608,000). Gross national product (1992): U.S.$2,848,000,000 (U.S.$110 per capita).

Official name: Jamburi ya Muungano wa Tanzania (Swahili); United Republic of Tanzania (English).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Form of government: unitary!

1991

multiparty? republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [2553]).

Agriculture

Head of state and government: President. Seat of government: Dar es Salaam4

eng anufacturin: Cansiietion Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

(Capital designate, Dodoma).

Official languages: Swahili; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Tanzanian shilling

(T Sh) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=T Sh 535,00; 1 £=T Sh 850.92.

Kigoma

Kigoma

Kilimanjaro Lindi

Moshi Lindi

Mara

Musoma

Mbeya

Mbeya

Morogoro Mtwara Mwanza

Morogoro Mtwara Mwanza

Pemba North Pemba South Rukwa Ruvuma Shinyanga Singida Tabora Tanga Zanzibar North Zanzibar South and Central Zanzibar West

Wete Chake Chake Sumbawanga Songea Shinyanga Singida Tabora Tanga Mkokotoni Koani Zanzibar

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

% of total value SLT 11 oil 3.0 1.6

39,393 65,596 27,206 18,292 17,228 — 26,463 11

8.8 14.6 6.1 4.1 3.8 oro

449,009

100.0

labour force 10,540,000

% of labour force 80.3

614,000

4S

1,969,000

15.0

Ee

ore

13,123,000

100.0

Population economically active (1991): total 13,123,000; activity rate of total population 46.0% (participation rates: over age 10, 74.3% 12; female 47.6%). area

Capitals Arusha Dar es Salaam _Dodoma lringa Bukoba

in value T Sh ‘000,000 259,182 4,820 22,953 13,468 7,334

TOTAL

Area and population Regions Arusha Coast Dar es Salaam Dodoma Iringa Kagera

727

population 1988 census

Price index (1990 = 100) Consumer price index

574 332 68,635 63,498 50,781 49,341 76,151 26,808 470

1,351,675 638,015 1,360,850 1,237,819 1,208,914 1,326,183 854,817 1,108,699 646,550 970,942 1,476,199 1,222,737 889,494 1,878,271 137,399 127,640 694,974 783,327 1,772,549 791,814 1,036,293 1,283,636 97,028

854 230

70,184 208,327

sq mi

sq km

31,778 12,512 538 15,950 21,955 10,961

82,306 32,407 1,393 41,311 56,864 28,388 37,037 13,309 66,046 19,566 60,350 70,799

14,300 5,139 25,501 7,995 23,301 27,336 6,451 7,564 222 128 26,500 24,517 19,607 19,051 29,402 10,351 182

16,707 19,592

89 341,2175

883,749

22,800 364,017

59,050 942,799

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

50.6

66.4

83.5

100.0

122.3

149.3

184.3

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1988) 5.2; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981): food 54.3%, clothing 10.8%, housing 8.6%, energy 6.6%, transportation 6.4%. Land use (1992): forested 46.1%; meadows and pastures 40.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.9%; other 9.3%.

Foreign trade!3 Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990 T Sh 000,000 % of total

—53,787 49.9%

-—116,840 49.5%

-—186,418 54.0%

1991

1992

1993

-—261,226 63.6%

-325,514 56.8%

-306,625 52.2%

Imports (1993): T Sh 446,713,000,000 (1988; machinery and transport equipment 45.6%, basic manufactures 16.3%, fuel 10.2%, chemicals 8.8%, metals

5.5%, food 5.4%). Major import sources (1988): U.K. 16.2%; West Germany 10.5%; Japan 10.5%; Italy 8.5%; Sweden 3.8%; The Netherlands 3.5%. Exports (1993): T Sh 140,088,000,000 (1988; coffee 25.9%, cotton 23.6%, sisal

1.4%). Major export destinations (1988): West Germany 22.6%; U.K. 16.6%;

The Netherlands 6.9%; Singapore 5.9%; Italy 5.2%; Japan 4.8%. 23,174,336

Transport and communications

Demography Population (1994): 27,296,000°. Density (1994)7: persons per sq mi 80.0, persons per sq km 30.9.

Urban-rural (1991): urban 34.2%; rural 65.8%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.44%; female 50.56%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 49.1%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 13.9%; 45-59, 7.6%; 60-74, 3.2%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 31,885,000; (2010) 41,335,000.

Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1987): Nyamwezi and Sukuma 26.3%; Swahili 8.8%; Haya 5.3%; Hehet and Bena 5.0%; Chagga 4.4%; Gogo 4.4%;

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 2,600 km; passenger-km 3,740,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,490,000,000. Roads (1994): length 88,000 km (paved 4.2%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 50,000; trucks and buses 40,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 43; deadweight tonnage 48,465. Air transport (1993)14: passenger-km 150,931,000; metric ton-km 1,893,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers: total number (1992) 3; total circulation 220,000; circulation per 1,000 population 8.5. Radio (1993): 4,000,000 receivers (1 per 6.6 persons). Television (1993): 80,000 receivers (1 per 332 persons). Telephones (1992): 150,680 (1 per 171 persons). Education and health

Makonde 3.7%; other 42.1%.

Religious affiliation (1984): Muslim 35%; animist 35%; Christian 30%. Major cities (1988): Dar es Salaam 1,360,850; 203,833; Tanga 187,634; Zanzibar 157,634.

Mwanza

223,013;

Vital statistics

eases include malaria, bilharziasis, tuberculosis, and sleeping sickness.

National economy Budget (1991-92). Revenue: T Sh 215,162,000,0008 (1988-89; sales tax 46.3%, income tax 23.2%, customs and excise tax 11.8%). Expenditures: T Sh 227,973,000,000 (1988-89; public administration 17.4%, economic services 15.2%, defense 15.1%, education 5.7%, health 4.9%). ' Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$6,280,000,000.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$120,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad (1990) U.S.$19,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture (1993): cassava 6,833,000, corn (maize) 2,284,000, sugarcane 1,470,000, bananas 800,000, plantains 800,000, sorghum 707,000, rice 631,000, coconuts 360,000, sweet potatoes 260,000, millet 221,000, potatoes 220,000; livestock (number of live animals) 13,296,000 cattle, 9,373,000 goats, 3,828,000 sheep, 335,000 pigs, 27,000,000

roundwood

Primary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Teacher training

Higher

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 45.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 19.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 26.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 6.0. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 41.5 years; female 45.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the major dis-

chickens;

Education (1992) 15

Dodoma

(1992) 34,903,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 331,585.

Mining and quarrying (1992): salt 64,000; gold 6; diamonds 68,000 carats. Manufacturing (1993): cement 540,0009; fresh meat and poultry 291,000;

sugar 121,000; hides and skins 48,325; wheat flour 3,00010; soap 23,90010;

cotton textiles 38,000,000 sq m!9. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 901,000,000 (901,000,000); coal

student/ schools

teachers

students

10,451 16 28817 6317

101,306 8,649 16 1,255 16 1,20618

3,603,488 175,776 14,051 6,10019

aie

teacher ratio

35.6 te

Educational attainment (1978). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no schooling 48.6%; some primary education 40.7%; completed primary 8.7%; secondary and higher 1.9%. Literacy (1978): percentage of total

population age 15 and over literate 46.3%; males literate 62.2%; females

literate 31.4%; estimated total literacy in 1987: 94.0%. Health: physicians (1984) 1,065 (1 per 19,775 persons); hospital beds (1986) 22,800 (1 per 924 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 109.7. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,195 (vegetable products 94%,

animal products 6%); 95% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 49,600 (army 90.7%, navy 2.0%, air force 7.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990): 5.3% (world 4.5%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

1Federal governmental structures exist in the Zanzibar constitution and House of Representatives and in 1993 legislation authorizing a similar house in Tanganyika. 2Multiparty system became official May 1992; multiparty elections began locally in 1993 and were scheduled to continue at various levels until completed in 1995. 3Includes 179 directly elected, 35 indirectly elected, 15 presidential nominees, 25 ex officio members, and the president of Zanzibar. 4Government in process of being transferred

from

Dar es Salaam

to Dodoma;

legislative branch

meets

in Dodoma.

5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. “Data exclude about 500,000

Burundian and 300,000 Rwandan refugees in Tanzania. 7Based on land area. 8Includes

foreign grants and loans. 91992. 101991. 11Less imputed bank service charges. 121988. 13Import figures are c.i.f. 14Air Tanzania only. ‘Excludes Zanzibar and Pemba. 161991, 171986-87. 181989. 191990,

728

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$106,559,000,000 (U.S.$1,840 per capita).

Thailand Official name: Muang Thai, or Prathet Thai (Kingdom of Thailand). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [270]; House of Representatives [360]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister!. Capital: Bangkok. Official language: Thai. Official religion: Buddhism. Monetary unit: 1 Thai baht (B)= 100 stangs; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=B 25.03; 1 £=B 39.81.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value B ’000,000

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population

population 1992

Regions2 Bangkok Metropolis Central Eastern Northeastern Northern Southern Western TOTAL

sqmi

sq km

_estimate?_

2,995 6,407 14,094 65,195 65,500 27,303 16,621 198,115

7,758 16,594 36,503 168,854 169,644 70,715 43,047 513,115

8,661,228 2,822,518 3,738,670 20,059,015 11,682,315 7,401,746 3,423,473 57,788,965

321,356 39,331 706,561 170,893 52,941

% of total value

labour force8

12.8 1.6 28.2 6.8 et

14,981,400 50,000 4,299,000 2,055,400 140,400

«

7.0 17.0 8.2 3.4 } 12.9 aie 100.0

175,686 426,233 205,931 86,483 324,012 me 2,509,427

1992 % of labour force®

477 O25) 13.7 6.6 0.4

936,500 3,820,600

3.0 12.2

3,524,900

11.2 5.09

1,563,0009 31,371,200

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$13,238,000,000. — Household income and expenditure (1990). Average household size 4.1; aver-

age annual income per household B 67,452 (U.S.$2,636); sources of income: wages and salaries 35.8%, self-employment 34.2%, transfer payments 5.8%, other 24.2%; expenditure: food, tobacco, and beverages 38.4%, housing 23.8%, transportation and communications 13.3%, clothing 6.1%, medical and personal care 5.5%, education and recreation 3.6%, other 9.3%.

Foreign trade!0 Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 1989 1990

Demography Population (1994): 57,586,0004.

B ‘000,000 % of total

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 290.7, persons per sq km 112.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 17.7%; rural 82.3%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.21%; female 49.79%. Age breakdown (1990): under 20, 44.3%; 20-39, 34.2%; 40-59, 15.4%; 60-69, 3.9%; 70 and over, 2.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 61,202,000; (2010) 66,738,000.

=—59,529 6.9%

—71,417 6.5%

—172,323 12.7%

1991

1992

1993

—139,742 8.8%

— 107,887 6.1%

— 111,602 5.6%

Imports (1992): B 1,033,245,000,000 (nuclear reactors 17.9%, electrical machinery 14.8%, mineral fuels and lubricants 8.2%, iron and steel 8.1%, vehicles 6.5%, plastics 3.5%, organic chemicals 3.0%). Major import sources: Japan 29.3%; United States 11.7%; Singapore 7.3%; Taiwan 5.5%; Germany 5.3%;

South Korea 4.4%; Malaysia 3.9%; China 3.0%; United Kingdom 2.3%.

Doubling time: 50 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Thai 79.5%, of which Siamese 52.6%, Lao 26.9%; Chinese 12.1%; Malay 3.7%; Khmer 2.7%; other 2.0%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Buddhist 94.8%; Muslim 4.0%; Christian 0.5%; other 0.7%. Major cities (1991)3: Bangkok 5,620,591; Nonthaburi 264,201; Ratchasima 202,503; Chiang Mai 161,541; Khon Kaen 131,478.

Nakhon

Exports (1992): B 824,643,000,000 (electrical machinery 14.4%, textiles and apparel 11.7%, nuclear reactors 10.7%, fish and fish preparations 9.6%, precious stones 4.8%, rubber and rubber articles 4.6%, cereals 4.5%, veg-

etables 3.3%). Major export destinations: United States 22.2%; Japan 17.3%; Singapore 8.6%; Hong Kong 4.6%; Germany 4.3%; The Netherlands 4.3%; United Kingdom 3.6%; Malaysia 2.6%; France 2.2%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 20.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 66.0 years; female 71.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991)5: diseases of the heart 206; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 162; accidents, homicide, and other injury 104; diseases of the digestive system 73; diseases of the respiratory

Transport. Railroads (1992)11: route length 2,405 mi, 3,870 km; passenger-mi

system 55; cardiovascular diseases 44.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: B 508,236,000,000 (taxes 88.6%, state enterprises 6.8%, sale of property and services 5.6%). Expenditures: B 425,512,000,000 (economic services 26.2%, education 21.1%, defense 17.2%, health 8.1%,

general public services 5.7%, internal security 5.5%, external debt service 4.2%, social security 4.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 38,500,000, tapioca 19,487,000, rice 19,440,000, corn (maize) 3,300,000, bananas 1,630,000, rubber 1,580,000, coconuts 1,353,000, soybeans 510,000, dry beans 322,0006, cabbages 194,000, sorghum 140,000°; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 6,820,000 cattle, 5,100,000 pigs, 4,793,000 buffalo, 136,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1991) 37,940,000 cu m; fish catch

(1991) 3,065,170. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 25,272,000; gypsum

7,111,000; zinc ore 407,000; marble

27,946; tin concentrates

86,995; fluorite 51,597; lead ore

11,484. Manufacturing (1991): cement

19,210,000;

refined sugar 3,994,828; chemical fertilizer 458,103; synthetic fibre 225,0177;

jute products 152,2637; motorcycles 600,119 units. Construction (1990): residential 16,343,000 sq m; nonresidential 13,449,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 52,486,000,000 (53,041,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) 14,689,000 (14,868,000); crude petroleum (barrels;

1991) 8,839,000 (87,496,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 13,-

532,000 (20,725,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 5,606,000,000 (5,606,000,000).

Land use (1991): forested 27.4%; meadows and pastures 1.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 45.3%; other 25.7%.

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,829,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,590,000,000. Population economically active (1992): total 31,371,200; activity rate of total population 55.9% (participation rates: over age 13, 74.7%; female 44.4%; unemployed 4.9%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1987

1988

1989

1991

1992

1993

86.3 75.6

89.6 84.0

94.4 87.8

105.7 115.3

110.0

114.0

8,784,000,000, passenger-km

14,136,000,000;

short ton-mi cargo 2,112,000,-

000, metric ton-km cargo 3,084,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 44,844 mi, 72,170 km (paved 55%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 890,821; trucks and buses 2,231,518. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 351; total deadweight tonnage 1,194,470. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 12,737,000,000, passenger-km 20,498,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 634,495,000,

metric ton-km cargo 926,347,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 26. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 34; total circulation 4,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 72. Radio (1993): 10,000,000 receivers (1 per 5.7 persons). Television (1993): 3,300,000 receivers (1 per 17 persons). Telephones (1991): 1,553,160 receivers (1 per 36 persons). Education and health Education (1991) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 12

student/ schools

teachers

students

teacher ratio

34,039 1,859 634 43

395,327 109,346 36,934 52,317

7,957,971 1,953,044 653,055 952,012

20.1 17.9 17.7 18.2

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 13 and over having: no formal schooling 7.4%; primary education 73.9%; secondary 10.4%; postsecondary 8.3%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 28,451,390 (88.8%); males literate 14,877,240 (93.2%); females literate 13,574,150 (84.5%). Health (1991): physicians 12,803 (1 per 4,327 persons); hospital beds (1990) 90,740 (1 per 604 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 25.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,280 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 103% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 295,000 (army 64.4%, navy 21.0%, air force 14.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.7% (world

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$44.

'The new constitution requires that future prime ministers be elected members of Parliament. Actual local administration is based on 73 provinces, 3Based on registration records. 4Based on 1990 census results, which are lower than the 1990 registration records estimate. 5Imputed rates calculated from registered deaths. 61992. 71990. 8May; economically active persons 13 years and over. 9Mostly unemployed. 10Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. Traffic data refer to fiscal year ending September 30. 121989.

Nations of the World

Togo

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: République Togolaise (Republic of Togo). Form of government: multiparty

1991

Agriculture Sete janufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

republic! with one legislative body

(National Assembly [812]). Chief of state: President!.

Head of government: Prime Minister.

Capital: Lomé. Official language: French.

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 CFA franc

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=CFAF 526.67; 1 £=CFAF 837.67.

Prefectures

Centrale Sotouboua Tchamba

Tchaoudjo De la Kara Assoli Bassar

Binah Doufelgou Kéran Kozah Des Plateaux Amou Haho

Kloto Ogou Wawa Des Savanes Oti Tone Maritime

area 4

Capitals

population

Sokodé

Pagouda Niamtougou Kandé Kara Atakpamé Amlamé Notsé

Kpalimé Atakpamé Badou Dapaong Sansanné-Mango Dapaong Lomé Vogan Tabligbo Tsévieé

Hourly earnings index7

44,810

2,549

96,691

938 6,330 465 1,120 1,085 1,692

773

2,003

1,406

3,641

1,072 2,349 954

110,768

Vuh 6,083 2,471

1,453 1,869

3,762 4,840

186,778 165,143 109,579 329,144 77,803 251,341 1,040,241

133 275

345 713

447,806 137,855

290 483 1,288 21,925

750 1,250 3,337 56,785

150,575 100,682 203,323

50,081 59,331 44,844 121,036 650,393 78,125

35.0 9.6 6.8 3.6 3.8 6.8 17.4 41 9.4 3.5

991,000

69.2

AS TODO

ive

280,000

19.6

1,432,000

100.0

100.0

force

2,719,567

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

100.0

99.8

105.5

99.0

105.5

100.0

105.5

100.4

105.5

101.8

105.5

100.8

:

a

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

eh 13.2%

— 36.2 19.8%

—52.5 26.7%

=5i.1 24.6%

—63.1 30.2%

— 36.2 20.2%

Imports (1991): CFAF 125,222,000,000 (1990; machinery and transport equipment 22.6%, food products 14.8%, chemicals 12.4%, cotton yarn and fabrics

11.5%, lime and cement 4.2%). Major import sources (1990): France 30.5%;

4

W.Ger. 6.0%; U.S. 5.3%; Japan 4.3%; U.K. 3.8%; China 1.5%.

Exports (1991): CFAF 71,433,000,000 (1990; calcium phosphates 44.5%, cotton [ginned] 20.7%, machinery and transport equipment 7.3%, coffee 6.6%, cocoa beans 5.7%). Major export destinations (1990): Africa 16.2%; France 9.8%; U.S.S.R. 4.7%; W.Ger. 3.7%; U.K. 1.5%; eastern Europe 1.2%.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 178.9, persons per sq km 69.1. Urban-rural (1991): urban 26.4%; rural 73.6%.

Transport and communications

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.3%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60 and over, 5.0%. Population projection: (2000) 4,668,000; (2010) 6,238,000. 3.8%;

150,580 41,420 29,480 15,400 16,000 29,280 75,000 17,800 40,500 14,940

Land use (1992): forested 26.6%; meadows and pastures 32.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.3%; other 28.2%.

Population (1994): 3,922,000.

Kebu-Akposo

% of labour

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$39,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$48,000,000.

Demography

Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1981):

labour

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.6; ayerage annual income per household CFAF 102,000 (U.S.$452); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1970): food and beverages 60.9%, housing 9.9%, transportation 8.2%, clothing 7.7%, household durable goods 3.9%.

426,651 32,425 118,934

362 2,444 180 432 419 653

Lomé Aného

Consumer price index

273,138 131,637

7,491 3,143

984

Kara Bafilo Bassar

force

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

_sqkm_—___census__

2,892 1,214

Tchamba

value

430,400

1981

sami

Sokodé Sotouboua

% of total

Population economically active: total (1992) 1,501,000; activity rate of total population 39.9% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 69.5%; female 37.5%; unemployed [1980] 2.3%).

Area and population Regions

in value

_CFAF '000,000 _

TOTAL

(CFAF) = 100 centimes; valuation

16.1%;

729

Ewe-Adja Ana-Ife

43.1%; (Yoruba)

Tem-Kabre 3.2%;

26.7%;

Gurma

non-African

0.3%;

other 6.8%. Religious affiliation (1981): traditional beliefs 58.9%; Roman Catholic 21.5%; Muslim 12.1%; Protestant 6.8%; other 0.7%.

Major cities (1983): Lomé 366,476; Sokodé 48,0983; Kpalimé 27,6693.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 44.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 12.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 31.7 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 7.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1979): 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 53.2 years; female 56.8 years. Morbidity (reported cases of illness per 100,000 population; 1978): infectious and parasitic diseases 26,926; diseases of the respiratory system 9,296; diseases of the digestive system 8,007; accidents, poisoning, and trauma 7,172.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: CFAF 95,800,000,000 (tax revenue 82.6%, nontax revenue 17.4%). Expenditures: CFAF 95,800,000,000 (1990; general public services 25.4%, education 23.1%, defense

14.9%, debt service 14.1%, eco-

nomic services 7.4%, health 5.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,138,000,000.

:

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): yams 529,000, cassava 389,000, corn (maize) 340,000, sorghum 126,000, millet 75,000, cottonseed 44,000, pulses 43,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 35,000, rice 33,000, coffee 28,000, bananas 16,000, coconuts 14,000, palm oil 14,000, oranges 12,000, tomatoes 9,000, palm kernels 8,000, cacao beans 7,000; live-

Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 326 mi, 525 km; (1991) passengerkm 24,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 6,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 7,545 km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 26,000; trucks and buses 16,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 8; total deadweight tonnage 20,633. Air transport (1990)9: passenger-km 232,329,000; metric ton-km cargo 39,374,000; airports (1994) with scheduled

flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 10,00019; circulation per 1,000 population 2.919. Radio (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 5.4 persons). Television (1993): 150,000 receivers (1 per 25.4 persons). Telephones (1992): 30,670 (1 per 124 persons).

Education and health Education (1990)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational Higher 12

2,494 314 1811 WW

teachers 11,105 4,231 261 2765

students 651,962 117,153 8,392 7,73213

teacher ratio

58.7 20 32.2 26.65

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 76.5%; primary education 13.5%; secondary 8.7%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 821,600 (43.0%); males 56.0%; females 31.0%.

Health: physicians (1988) 268 (1 per 12,299 persons); hospital beds (1988) 5,275 (1 per 625 persons); infant mortality rate (1991) 110.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,269 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 6,950 (army 93.5%, navy 2.9%, air force 3.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.0% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$12.

stock (number of live animals) 1,900,000 goats, 1,200,000 sheep, 850,000 pigs, 246,000 cattle, 7,000,000 chickens; roundwood

(1991) 1,234,000 cu m; fish

catch (1991) 12,524. Mining and quarrying (1992): phosphate rock 2,100,000; marble production ceased in the early 1990s. Manufacturing (1987): cement 399,0004; wheat flour 58,000; beer 452,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 142,000

hectolitres5; footwear 100,000 pairs®. Construction (value added in CFAF; 1991): 15,400,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 60,000,000

(355,000,000); coal, none

(n.a.); crude petroleum,

(n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (175,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$1,329,000,000 (U.S.$330 per capita).

none

1Personal military-supported rule from 1967 continues under constitution approved by referendum in September 1992. 278 seats occupied in mid-1994. 31981. 41991. 51988. 61990. 7January 1. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 9Air Afrique only. !0For one daily only. 111987. 12Universities only. 131989.

730

Britannica World Data 1,576,000; publishing and printing 1,393,000; furniture 632,000. Construction (value in T$; 1984): residential 9,552,300; nonresidential 11,377,100. Energy

Tonga

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 22,000,000 (22,000,000); petroleum (barrels; 1989) none (154,000); petroleum products (metric tons; , 1991) n.a. (24,000).

Official name: Pule’anga Fakatu’i ’o Tonga (Tongan); Kingdom of Tonga (English). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [30]'). Head of state and government: King assisted by Privy Council. Capital: Nuku'alofa. Official languages: Tongan; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 pa’anga? (T$) = 100 seniti; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=T$1.35; 1 £=T$2.15.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$136,000,000 (U.S.$1,350 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993-94

in value Mining

Population

33.7 ey

esqkne 87.4 oe

42.5

410.0

hv ae 9) we

ros i ib

Hihifo

Nuku'alofa

census

5 & er

i TV. tn

260.5

119.2

me 720.33 29.6 749.9

4,393 1,993 2,400 8,919 1,410 891 1,584 885 2,850 1,299 2,368 763 1,605 63,794 15,903 13,115 4,031 7,005 5,863 6,773 11,104 NERAS) 2,299 2,093 2,884 1,384 5,268 1,247

Demography

Population projection: (2000) 103,000; (2010) 105,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Tongan 95.5%; part Tongan 2.8%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (1986): Free Wesleyan 43.0%; Roman Catholic 16.0%; of Tonga

11.0%;

Church

of Tonga

7.3%;

other 10.6%. Major cities (1986): Nukw’alofa 21,383; Neiafu 3,879; Haveluloto 3,070; Vaini 2,697; Tofoa-Koloua 2,298.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.2 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993) 18.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 8.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.5 years; female 70.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992)5: diseases of the circulatory system 158.5; malignant neoplasms 54.9; diseases of the respiratory system 31.5; diseases of the digestive system 18.3; infectious diseases 16.3; nutritional and metabolic disorders 15.2.

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: ernment services revenue

4,665

14.6

Pub. admin., defense

Services

}

Other TOTAL

:

43 a 12.6 126 0

1,257 408 1,821 2,597 1,188

23,200

10.8

7,052

22.0

41,600 214,800

19.4 100.06

1,343 32,013

4.2 100.0

«

3.9 1.3 5:7 8.1 3.7

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$42,300,000.

Population economically active (1990): total 32,013; activity rate 33.6% (participation rates: ages 10 and over, 46.7%; female 33.0%; unemployed 4.27). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) 1989 1988 1987 Consumer price index

Quarterly earnings index?

127.4 101.7

140.0 130.9

145.8 176.2

1990

1991

1992

1993

159.9 175.0

176.8 200.0

190.9 218.0

192.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 6.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1984)8: food 49.3%, household operations 13.3%, housing 10.5%, tobacco and beverages

7.0%, transportation 5.8%, clothing and footwear 5.6%. Land use (1991): forested 11.1%; meadows and pastures 5.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 66.7%; other 16.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 T$’000,000 % of total

—58.0 74.4%

— 50.3 70.9%

1991

— 54.0 73.5%

—421 47 4%

51.6%; U.S. 21.6%; Australia 11.1%; New Zealand 10.0%; Fiji 2.0%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 50.28%; female 49.72%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 40.6%; 15-29, 29.0%; 30-44, 13.8%; 45-59, 10.2%; 60-74, 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.4%.

12.1%; Free Church

fie

4.2

9,200 ra 27,000 27,000 ne

Imports (1992): T$84,280,000 (food and live animals 25.4%, basic manufactures 20.4%, machinery and transport equipment 19.3%, mineral fuels 13.0%, chemicals 6.2%). Major import sources: New Zealand 29.7%; Australia 23.9%; Japan 12.5%; Fiji 11.9%; U.S. 8.5%. Exports (1992): T$17,250,000 (squash 50.3%, vanilla beans 12.1%, fish 8.9%, root crops 3.9%, coconut products 3.2%). Major export destinations: Japan

94,649

Population (1994): 99,700. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 358.5, persons per sq km 138.4. Urban-rural (1986): urban 30.7%; rural 69.3%.

Mormon

force 36.5

ou

Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance y

sq mi

Pangai

force 11,682

9,000

Manufacturing

area Capitals ‘Ohonua

% of labour

value 36.2

77,800

Agriculture

1986

Districts *‘Eua ‘Eua Fo'ou ’Eua Motu’a Ha’apai Foa Ha’ano Lulunga Mu’omu’a Pangai ‘Uiha Niuas Niua Fo’ou Niua Toputapu Tongatapu Kolofo’ou Kolomotu’a Kolovai Lapaha Nukunuku Tatakamotonga Vaini Vava’u Hahake Hihifo Leimatu’a Motu Neiafu Pangaimotu TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

labour

T$'000

Area and population Divisions

1990

% of total

T$52,940,000 (foreign-trade taxes 53.8%, gov15.2%, indirect taxes 12.6%, direct taxes 11.3%,

interest and rent 6.3%). Expenditures: T$52,900,000 (general administration

18.1%, education 17.0%, health 12.3%, law and order 11.5%, public works and communications 11.3%, public debt 7.1%, agriculture 5.5%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$9,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$1,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): yams 33,000, taro 27,000, coconuts 25,000, cassava 15,000, vegetables (including melons) 15,000, sweet potatoes 14,000, fruits (excluding melons) 13,000, copra 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 97,000 pigs, 16,000 goats, 10,000 cattle, 4,000 horses; roundwood (1991) 5,000 cu m; fish catch (1991)

1,889. Mining and quarrying (1982): coral 150,000; sand 25,000. Manufactur-

ing (output in T$; 1992): food products and beverages 6,945,000; chemical products 3,568,000; textile and wearing apparel 3,075,000; metal products

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993): total length 386 km (paved 76%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 3,297, commercial vehicles 3,757. Merchant

marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 15; total deadweight tonnage 13,740. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 68,309,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,126; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): 1; total circulation 7,000; circulation per 1,000 population 74. Radio (1993): 66,000 receivers (1 per 1.5

persons). Television: n.a.°. Telephones (1992): 5,326 (1 per 18 persons).

Education and health Education (1992) schools

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr, Higher

115 40 8 1

teachers

784 862 6510 19

student/ students __ teacher ratio 16,658 15,253 358 226

21.2 17.7 13.410 11.9

Educational attainment (1986). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: complete primary 38.3%; lower secondary 30.3%; secondary 23.4%; postsecondary 4.9%; higher 1.0%; not stated 2.1%. Literacy (1976): total population age 15 and over literate 46,456 (92.8%); males 23,372 (92.9%); females 23,084 (92.8%). Health (1992): physicians 46 (1 per 2,139 persons); hospital beds 307 (1 per 320 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 21.4, Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,967 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1991): Tonga has a national police (defense) force of about 300. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 4.9% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$21. Mncludes

12 nonelective seats and 9 nobles elected by the 33 hereditary nobles of

Tonga. 2The pa’anga was pegged at par to the Australian dollar through Feb. 8, 1991, but beginning Feb. 11, 1991, it has been linked to a weighted basket of foreign currencies. 3Total includes 27.6 sq mi (71.5 sq km) of uninhabited islands. 4Density is

based on land area. 5Reported inpatient deaths at all hospitals. “Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7In manufacturing. 8Current weight of consumer

price index components. °Tonga has no authorized television service, but a “pirate” station began transmitting in mid-1984. 101990.

Nations of the World

Trinidad and Tobago

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [31]; House of

1993

Agriculture? Petroleum8, natural gas,

St. George

St.Patrick Victoria

Other

area

San Fernando

191.0 349.0 360.0

Fo

494.7 903.9 932.4

120,508 36,781 62,944

Siparia Princes Town

354.0

916.9

252.0 315.0

445,620

652.7 815.9

120,129 210,833

Scarborough

116.0

300.4

50,282

4.0

10.4

3.0

50,878

78

30,092

Consumer price index

Weekly earnings index11

—

Arima

Point Fortin

TOTAL

—

4.0

_—

23.0

—

9.0

1,980.13

32,400

6.6

pei

0.810

Ei

1,200

100.0

0.2

492.2003

100.03

10.4

59.6 23.3

5,128.4

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

75.0

80.8

92.2

90.1

93.8

100.0

94.5

103.9

100.0

100.1

110.6

122.5

103.0

104.112

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.1; income per household (1988) TT$17,083 (U.S.$4,444); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1993): food and beverages 25.5%, housing 21.6%, transportation 15.2%, household furnishings 14.3%, clothing and footwear 10.4%, other 13.0%.

Foreign trade!3

Boroughs

Chaguanas

19810

47 10.8 15.1 1.9 6.0 16.8

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

1990

Chaguanas Rio Claro Sangre Grande

=

53,300 74,500 9,200 29,600 82,800

8.7 alajas! 6.9

24,282

SeninEee Consus ees

Cities Port of Spain

23,000

8.7 ale 1.9 13.1 15.5

population

"

Sg)

23.0

% of labour force 10.4

Population economically active (1991): total 492,200; activity rate of total population 39.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.8%; female 36.0%; unemployed [1992] 19.7%).

Unitary State Tobago

2,123 2,751 1,674

TOTAL

Area and population

Caroni Nariva/Mayaro St. Andrew/St. David

2,100 1,857 464 3,181 3,764

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

labour force 51,100

2.4

5,586

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp, and commun. Trade

1 £=TT$8.88.

% of total value

584

quarrying

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=TT$5.58:

Capitals

1991

in value TT$'000,000

Representatives [36!]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port of Spain. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TT$) = 100 cents; valuation

Counties

731

Balance of trade (current prices)

29,695

56,601 20,025

TT$'000,000 % of total

1,234,388

1988

1989

1990

1991

+1414 11.4%

41,517 12.7%

+3,480 24.5%

+1,852 8.7%

1992

1993

+41,842 ~ 41,113 13.1% 7.0%

Imports (1992): TT$6,101,000,000 (capital goods 23.6%; nondurable consumer goods 22.0%, of which food 13.8%; chemical products [mostly medicines and plastics] 12.6%; mineral fuels and lubricants 9.0%). Major import sources (1992): United States 41.4%; EEC 15.7%, of which United Kingdom 7.8%;

Demography Population (1994): 1,273,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 642.9, persons per sq km 248.2. Urban-rural (1990): urban 64.8%; rural 35.2%. Sex distribution (1991): male 53.33%; female 46.67%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 30.5%; 15-29, 26.4%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59, 12.6%; 60 and over, 8.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 1,337,000; (2010) 1,451,000. Doubling time: 60 years. Ethnic composition (1990): East Indian 40.3%; black 39.6%; mixed 18.4%; white 0.6%; Chinese 0.4%; other 0.7%.

Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 29.4%; Hindu 23.8%; Anglican 10.9%; Muslim 5.8%; other 30.1%. Major cities (1990): Chaguanas 56,601; Port of Spain 50,878; San Fernando 30,092; Arima 29,695; Point Fortin 20,025; Scarborough 3,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 5.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991); 1.1. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 68.0 years; female 73.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 260.0, of which ischemic heart diseases 113.5, cerebrovascular

disease 75.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 83.4; diabetes mellitus 83.3.

National economy

Venezuela 9.7%; Japan 6.7%; Caricom 5.3%. Exports (1992): TT$7,943,000,000 (mineral-fuel

lubricants 64.2%; chemicals

and chemical products 15.3%; food 4.7%, of which raw sugar 1.8%). Major export destinations (1992): United States 47.1%; Caricom 13.8%, of which Barbados 3.4%, Guyana 2.3%; Netherlands Antilles 7.1%; EEC 5.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1990): total length 4,970 mi, 8,000 km (paved 50%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 150,196; trucks and buses 60,006. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 53; total deadweight tonnage 17,533. Air transport: (1992) passenger-mi 2,030,000,000, passenger-km 3,267,000,000; (1991) short ton-mi cargo 10,100,000, metric ton-km cargo 14,800,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 96,000; circulation per 1,000 population 76. Radio (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 246,730 (1 per 5.1 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Higher 14

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

471 101 1

7,511 4,844 471

196,333 94,201 4,541

26.1 19.4 9.6

value-added taxes 17.2%, petroleum-sector corporate taxes 10.4%, import duties 9.1%, nontax revenues 8.9%). Expenditures: TT$6,842,000,000 (cur-

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 7.1%; primary education 66.5%; secondary 21.7%; higher 2.7%; other 2.0%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 751,600 (96.1%). Health (1992): physicians 982 (1 per 1,275 persons); hospital beds!5 4,399 (1

tionals abroad U.S.$112,000,000.

per 285 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 17.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,770 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 114% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Budget (1993). Revenue: TT$6,852,000,000 (individual income taxes 19.7%, rent expenditures 94.3%, development expenditures 5.7%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$111,000,000; expenditures by naProduction (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 1,210,0004, coconuts 40,000, rice 22,000, oranges 8,000, bananas 6,000, grapefruit 4,000, corn (maize) 3,000, cocoa 1,140, coffee 706; livestock (number of live animals) 60,000 cattle, 52,000 goats, 50,000 pigs; round-

wood 87,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 10,283. Mining and quarrying (1993): natural asphalt 19,200. Manufacturing (1993): anhydrous ammonia and urea (nitrogenous fertilizers) 2,291,900; cement 527,200; methanol 492,800;

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 2,550 (army 78.4%, coast guard 21.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 0.6% (world 4.2%); per

capita expenditure U.S.$23.

steel billets 492,100; steel wire rods 413,000; raw sugar 116,9005; beer and stout 424,000 hectolitres; rum 128,400 hectolitres. Construction (authorized;

1991): residential 207,400 sq m; nonresidential 32,700 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr;, 1992) 3,945,000,000 (3,945,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 45,203,000 (40,903,000°); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 5,261,000 (1,924,000°); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 7,038,000,000 (4,878,000,000).

;

Land use (1991): forested 42.7%; meadows and pastures 2.17%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 23.4%; other 31.8%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$1,782,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$4,995,000,000 (U.S.$3,940 per capita).

1Excludes speaker, who may be elected from outside the House of Representatives. 2Preliminary data. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 41993. 51994, 61992.

7Includes sugar industry. ‘Includes refined petroleum.

9Excludes re-

fined petroleum and sugar industries. !ONet of value-added taxes less imputed bank

service charges. !!Manufacturing sector only. !?Average of first three quarters only. 13Exports f.0.b.; imports c.i.f. 14University of the West Indies, St. Augustine campus. 15Includes nursing homes.

732

Britannica World Data Gross national product (1993): U.S.$15,152,000,000 (U.S.$1,780 per capita).

Tunisia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: al-Jumhirityah at-Tiinisiyah (Republic of Tunisia). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Chamber of Deputies [163]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tunis. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 dinar (D) = 1,000 millimes; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1992

in value D '000,000

Mining

Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade” Finance

Area and population

area sq mi

Capitals

Governorates al-Arianah

Bajah Banzart Bin ‘Aris Jundubah

al-Kaf Madanin al-Mahdiyah al-Munastir Nabul Qabis Qafsah al-Qasrayn al-Qayrawan Qibill Safaqis Sidi BU Zayd Silianah Stsah Tatauin

al-Arianah Bajah Bizerte (Banzart) Bin ‘Aris Jundiibah al-Kaf Madanin al-Mahdiyah al-Munastir Nabul Qabis Qafsah al-Qasrayn al-Qayrawan Qibili Safaqis

Sidi BO Zayd Silianah Stsah Tatauin

Tawzar Tunis

Tawzar

Tunis (Tinis) Zaghwan

Zaghwan TOTAL

population sq km

602 1,374 1,423 294 1,198 1,917 3,316 1,145

1,558 3,558 3,685 761 3,102 4,965 8,588 2,966

393

1,019

1,076 2,770 3,471 3,114 2,591

2,788 7,175 8,990 8,066 6,712

8,527 2,913

22,084 7,545

2,700 1,788 1,012 15,015

6,994 4,631 2,621 38,889

1,822

4,719

134 1,069 63,3782

346 2,768 164,1502

1994 census!

566,247 301,898 475,053 369,552 402,487 270,996 382,699 334,208 363,126 577,813 310,643 304,665 385,450 528,899 131,661 732,471 374,835 243,536 432,312 133,676 89,088 881,560 143,010 8,735,885

% of labour _ force ___ 23.0

543,100

36,600

16

422,300 295,200

17.9 12.5

787.0

5.7

252.5 2,295.7 529.5 1,006.0 3,388.4

1.8 16.7 3.9 7.3 24.7

349,000

14.8

1,809.2

13.2 }

465,400

19.7

249,0006 2,360,600

10,56 100.0

Pub. admin., defense

Services Other TOTAL

labour force

17.6

2,415.1

Agriculture

D 1.00=U.S.$1.02 = £0.64.

1989

% of total value

91 100.0

1,248.1 13,731.5

Population economically active (1989): total 2,360,000, activity rate of total population 28.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 42.2%; female 20.9%; unemployed 13.4%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index?

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

81.3 86.0

87.2 89.9

93.9 92.2

100.0 100.0

107.8 101.6

113.8 105.5

118.7 113.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1994) come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure food and beverages 39.0%, household durable goods 11.2%, housing transportation 9.0%, recreation 7.1%, clothing and footwear 6.0%, 5.1%, health care 3.0%, education 1.8%, other 7.1%.

Tourism

(1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,074,000,000;

5.1; in(1985): 10.7%, energy

expenditures by

nationals abroad U.S.$167,000,000.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) D '000,000 % of total

Imports

1988 — 898.9 17.9%

1990 — 1,439.7 18.9%

1989 — 1,089.8 16.3%

(1993): D_ 6,237,000,000

1991 — 1,037.5 13.1%

(textiles 13.4%,

1993 — 1,999.2 20.7%

1992 — 1,726.1 24.2%

chemical

products

4.5%,

tubes and pipes 2.9%, clothing and accessories 2.8%, iron and steel products 2.3%, pharmaceutical products 1.9%, plastics and plastic products 1.7%).

Demography Population (1994): 8,757,000.

Sex distribution (1992): male 50.70%; female 49.30%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 36.6%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 16.9%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Major import sources: France 26.9%; Italy 18.2%; Germany 13.0%; U.S. 5.8%; Belgium 4.3%; Spain 3.2%; Japan 2.3%. Exports (1993): D 3,818,000,000 (clothing and accessories 32.0%, petroleum and petroleum products 9.7%, olive oil 4.6%, phosphoric acid 3.2%, chemical products 2.9%, phosphates 2.8%). Major export destinations: France

Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 98.2%; Berber 1.2%; French 0.2%; Italian

Transport and communications

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 138.2, persons per sq km 53.3. Urban-rural (1985): urban 53.0%; rural 47.0%.

Population projection: (2000) 9,781,000; (2010) 11,296,000. 0.1%; other 0.3%.

Religious affiliation

(1980): Sunni

Muslim

99.4%;

Christian

0.3%; Jewish

0.1%; other 0.2%. Major cities (commune; 1989): Tunis 620,149; Safaqis 221,770; Aryanah 131,403; Ettadhamen

111,793; Stisah 101,071.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.3 (world avg. 26.0); (1974) legiti-

mate 99.8%; illegitimate 0.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 19.1 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 3.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 66.9 years; female 68.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, of approximately 12,000 deaths3 for which

30.0%; Italy 17.2%; Germany

Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 1,404 mi, 2,260 km; passenger-mi 670,000,000, passenger-km

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: D 4,925,400,000 (indirect taxes 42.2%, direct taxes 11.4%, investment 9.4%). Expenditures: D 5,662,800,000 (finance 17.9%, education 12.4%, interior affairs 5.8%, national economy 4.9%, health 4.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$7,644,000,000.

Land use (1991): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 27.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 31.4%; other 36.4%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): wheat 1,584,000, olives 630,000, barley 611,000, tomatoes 550,000, watermelons 380,000, sugar beets 290,000, potatoes 218,000, grapes 110,000, oranges 98,000, dates 75,000, alfalfa 46,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,400,000 sheep, 1,300,000 goats, 636,000 cattle; roundwood (1991) 3,320,000 cu m;

fish catch (1991) 90,710. Mining and quarrying (1993): phosphate rock 6,707,0004; iron ore 295,000; zine 2,000. Manufacturing (1993): cement 4,499,000;

phosphoric acid 858,400; flour 626,400; crude steel 192,0005. Construction (1982): residential building authorized 2,679,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 5,750,000,000 (5,746,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (15,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) 38,599,000

(12,648,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,664,000 (3,284,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 314,600,000 (787,500,000).

1,078,000,000;

short ton-mi cargo

1,380,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 2,015,000,000. Roads (1989): total length 18,133 mi, 29,183 km (paved 60%). Vehicles (1989): passenger cars 321,101; trucks and buses 208,596. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 77; total deadweight tonnage 443,290. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 1,000,000,000,

passenger-km

1,668,000,000;

short ton-mi

cargo

11,700,000,

metric ton-km cargo 17,100,000; airports (1994) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 6; total circulation 132,0008; circulation per 1,000 population 158. Radio (1993): 1,700,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Television (1993): 650,000 receivers (1 per 13 persons). Telephones (1992): 337,063 (1 per 24 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93)

a cause was reported in 1992, complications of

pregnancy and childbirth 31.6%; circulatory diseases 22.4%; accidents and poisoning 14.9%; respiratory diseases 7.2%; endocrine and metabolic disorders 5.2%; infectious and parasitic diseases 4.8%.

17.1%; Belgium 7.3%; Libya 5.0%.

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Teacher tr.9, 10 Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

4,044

54,560 26,097 237 5,360

1,440,960 639,403 3,839 87,780

26.4 24.5 16.2 16.4

625 =

Educational attainment (1989), Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 54.9%; primary 26.9%; secondary 14.3%; higher 3.4%; unspecified 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 65.3%; males literate 74.2%; females literate 56.3%. Health (1992): physicians 4,670 (1 per 1,799 persons); hospital beds 16,116 (1 per 521 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 43.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,122 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 131% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 35,500 (army 76.0%, navy 14.1%, air force 9.97%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.4% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$52. ‘Preliminary. ?Total includes 3,714 sq mi (9,620 sq km) of territory in the southwest part of Tunisia that is not distributed by governorate. 3Recorded deaths from urban areas only, including complete figures for Tunis. 41990. 51989. 6Includes 218,300 unemployed. 7Year-end; index refers to the $.M.I.G. (salaire minimum interprofessionel garanti), a form of minimum professional wage. 8Circulation for two dailies only. 91987-88. !0Teacher training only.

Nations of the World

Turkey

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in value LT '000,000’0005 248,356 19,264 326,642 122,261

Official name: Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti

(Republic of Turkey).

Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

house (Turkish Grand National Assembly [450]). Chief of state: President.

Public utilities

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Turkish lira (LT) = 100

Services

kurush; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$=LT 34,441; 1 £=LT 54,779.

area

Dogu Anadolu (East Anatolia) Glineydogu Anadolu (Southeast Anatolia) Ig Anadolu (Central Anatolia) Karadeniz kiyisi (Black Sea Coast) Marmara ve Ege kiyilani (Marmara and Aegean coasts) Trakya (Thrace)

TOTAL

13:3

311,310 124,818

18.3 7.3

203,922

12.0

— 1,700,409

8,914,033 213,210 3,416,822 1,189,541

42.1 1.0 16.1 5.6

67,427

0.3

865,459

44

2,612,669 476,820

12,3 2.3

Eigeuigee

44

68,994

Other

% of labour force

2.9

225,267

TOTAL

labour force

tee 3.76

788,0936

—

21,184,313

100.0

100.0

Population economically active (1992): total 21,184,313; activity rate of total population 36.2% (participation rates [1991]: ages 15-64, 58.4%; female 30.9%; unemployed 7.8%).

Area and population

Bat Anadolu (West Anatolia)

1992 % of total value 14.6 14 19.2 7.2

49,575

Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense

Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ankara. Official language: Turkish.

Geographic regions! Akdeniz kiyis! (Mediterranean Coast)

733

population

sq mi

sq km

1990 census

22,933 29,742 68,074 15,347 91,254 31,388

59,395 77,031 180,180 35,880 236,347 81,295

5,443,867 3,864,661 6,867,415 2,699,776 13,096,179 6,827,304

33,035 9,175 300,948

85,560 23,764 779,452

11,698,384 5,975,449 56,473,035

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Daily earnings index8

;

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

19947

38.2 241

62.4 53.6

100.0 100.0

166.0 243.8

2823 423.9

468.8 750.3

695.9

Land use (1991): forested 26.3%; meadows and pastures 11.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 36.0%; other 26.7%.

Foreign trade? Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989 U.S.$'000,000 % of total

Demography

Population (1994): 61,183,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 203.3, persons per sq km 78.5. Urban-rural (1990): urban 59.0%; rural 41.0%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.66%; female 49.34%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 35.0%; 15-29, 28.6%; 30-44, 18.4%; 45-59, 10.9%; 60 and over, 7.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 69,694,000; (2010) 80,724,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1992): Turkish 92.0%; Kurdish 6.2%; Arabic 1.4%; other 0.4%.

Religious affiliation (1992): Sunni Muslim c. 80.0%; Alevi (nonorthodox Shri sect) c. 19.8%; Christian c. 0.2%. , Major cities (1990): Istanbul 6,620,241; Ankara 2,559,471; Izmir 1,757,414; Adana 916,150; Bursa 834,576; Gaziantep 603,434; Konya 513,346.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 26.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 20.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 8.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990)3: diseases of the circulatory system represented 344; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 75; infectious and parasitic diseases 27; ill-defined conditions 87.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: LT 359,850,000,000,000 (indirect taxes 37.8%; direct taxes 35.7%; nontax revenue 24.1%). Expenditures: LT 489,255,000,000,000

(current expenditures 88.3%, of which interest payments 23.8%; development expenditures 11.7%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 1993): U.S.$48,823,000,000.

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,959,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$934,000,000. i Production (in ’000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): wheat 21,000, sugar beets 15,563, barley 7,500, potatoes 4,650, grapes 3,700, corn (maize) 2,500, apples 2,080, oranges 840, cottonseed 834, sunflower seeds 815, lentils 735, cotton (lint) 556, olives 550, tobacco 324,

—3,204 13.6%

— 1,900 7.5%

—3,316 12.5%

1990

1991

1992

— 8,140 23.9%

—6,318 18.9%

—6,922 19.0%

Imports (1993): U.S.$29,428,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery 17.7%; mineral fuels 13.5%; iron and steel 9.0%; road vehicles 7.3%; electrical and elec-

tronic equipment

7.1%). Major import sources:

Germany

15.4%; United

States 11.4%; Italy 8.7%; former U.S.S.R. 7.8%; France 6.6%; Japan 5.5%.

Exports (1993): U.S.$15,349,000,000 (textiles and clothing 35.5%; iron and steel 11.2%; edible fruits 6.0%; electrical machinery 4.1%). Major export destinations: Germany

23.8%; former U.S.S.R. 6.8%; United States 6.4%;

United Kingdom 5.4%; France 5.0%; Italy 4.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 5,238 mi, 8,430 km; passenger-mi 3,889,000,000, passenger-km 6,259,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,742,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 8,383,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 240,286

mi, 386,704 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 2,181,388; trucks and buses 816,244. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 880; total deadweight tonnage 7,114,289. Air transport (1993) 10: passenger-mi 4,484,000,000, passenger-km 7,217,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 110,518,000, metric ton-km cargo 161,354,000; airports (1994) with scheduled

flights 22. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991)!1: total number 31; total circulation 4,054,000; circulation per 1,000 population 71. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 7,100,000 (1 per 8.4 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 10,530,000 (1 per 5.7 persons). Telephones (1991): 8,199,568 (1 per 7.1 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

50,701

234,961 117,702 57,425 35,132

6,878,923 3,010,672 977,010 759,047

29.3 25.6 17.0 21.6

8,064 2,971 424

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 40.1%; primary education 44.4%; secondary 11.6%; higher 3.9%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 29,106,000 (79.2%); males literate 16,581,000 (89.9%); females literate 12,525,000 (68.5%).

38. Manufactrate) 1,059; pumice 736; chromite 531; celestite (concentrate)

Health (1992): physicians 29,67912 (1 per 1,97412 persons); hospital beds 126,611 (1 per 463 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 49.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,196 (vegetable products 92%, animal products 8%); 127% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

6,723; food products 6,629; motor vehicles 4,034; industrial chemicals 3,957;

Military

hazelnuts 305, sultana raisins 180, attar of roses 800 kg; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 40,433,000 sheep, 11,973,000 cattle; roundwood (1992)

15,252,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 364,640. Mining (1992): boron (concen-

turing (1990)4: refined petroleum 11,805; spinning and weaving of textiles

nonelectrical machinery 3,711. Construction (completed; 1993): residential 65,966,000 sq m; nonresidential 17,133,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 73,727,000,000 ([1991] 60,591,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 48,681,000 ([1991] 57,511,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 27,828,000 ([1991] 165,475,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 20,124,000 (18,726,000); natural gas (cu m; 1991) 219,000,000

(3,540,000,000).

;

4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$99.

;

Household income and expénditure. Average household size (1990) 5.0; income per household (1987) LT 3,680,500 (U.S.$4,294); sources of income (1987): self-employment 51.4%, wages and salaries 24.1%, rent and interest

13.7%, transfers 10.8%; expenditure (1987): food and beverages 33.1%, housing 14.7%, clothing 12.3%, household furnishings 11.5%.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1992): U.S.$114,234,000,000

(U.S.$1,950 per capita).

Total active duty personnel (1993): 480,000 (army 77.1%, navy 10.4%, air force 12.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 5.4% (world

1Administratively divided into 76 provinces in 1993. 2Official data based on mother tongue. Unofficially, Kurds as an ethnic group are estimated to constitute about 20% of the population. 3Projected rates based on about 35% of total deaths. “Value added in LT ’000,000,000. SAt factor cost. (Unemployed persons not previously employed. 7March. 8Private sector only. "Imports are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i-f. in com-

modities and trading partners. !0Turkish Airlines only. !!Principal daily newspapers in Istanbul, Ankara, and five other large cities. 12Ministry of Health doctors only (excludes Ministry of Defense).

734

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$4,898,390,000

Turkmenistan

(U.S.$1,270 per capita)+.

Official name: Tiirkmenistan

Structure of net material product and labour force

Jumhuriyati (Republic of

1991

Turkmenistan). Form of government: republic with one legislative body (Majlis [175]+). Head of state and government: President.

Capital: Ashgabat.

:

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=10 manat;

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transportation and and communications Trade

A

Official language: Turkmen. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: manat2; valuation (Oct.

.

pe

L ot

Finance Public administration, defense Services Other TOTAL

1 £=15.91 manat.

Area and population area

population

1991 Provinces Balkan

Capitals Nebitdag

Mary Dashhowuz

Mary Dashhowuz

Charjew

Charjew

City Ashgabat TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

90,300 36,200 33,500 28,400

233,900 93,800 86,800 73,600

925,500 774,700 859,500 738,000

188,5003

488,100

3,714,100

1992 labour force 695,200

% of labour force 44.2

2,699.1

19.6

154,300

9.8

3,126.1

22.7

163,500

10.4

578.4 — _

4.2 — —_

_— — 977.7 13,771.0

= nats 7A

4

56,400 88,500 49,800 338,700 26,500 1,572,900

Foreign trade

416,400

Demography Population (1994): 4,044,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 21.5, persons per sq km 8.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 45.1%; rural 54.9%. Sex distribution (1989): male 49.30%; female 50.70%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 40.5%; 15-29, 28.8%; 30-44, 15.5%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 4,691,000; (2010) 6,007,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Russian

% of total value 46.4

Tourism: na. : Land use (1986): forested 35.4%; meadows and pastures 62.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.3%.

estimate

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

1990

1991

1992

—477 8.9%

—971 15.5%

+898 6.1%

+2,409 17.9%

‘000,000 rubles % of total

Ethnic composition (1992): Turkmen 73.3%; Kazakh 2.0%; Tatar 0.9%; other 5.0%.

in value 000,000 rubles 6,389.7

— 284 5.1%

—676 11.3%

Imports (1992): 5,497,000,000 rubles (machinery and transport equipment 30.3%,

manufactured

items

21.8%,

food

17.1%,

chemicals

6.5%). Major

import sources: former Soviet republics 83.8%; foreign countries 16.2%. Exports (1992): 7,906,000,000 (fuels and lubricants 42.3%, manufactured items 38.1%, chemicals 5.5%, food 4.0%). Major export destinations: former Soviet republics 85.8%; foreign countries 14.2%.

Transport and communications 9.8%;

Uzbek

9.0%;

Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Sunni Muslim (Sufi). Major cities (1991): Ashgabat 416,400; Charjew 166,400; Dashhowuz 117,000; Mary 94,900; Nebitdag 89,100.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 33.4 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 96.5%; illegitimate 3.5%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 26.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 61.4 years; female 68.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 275.3; diseases of the respiratory system 160.6; infectious

and parasitic diseases 79.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 65.1; accidents,

poisoning, and violence 62.4; diseases of the digestive system 32.2; diseases of the nervous system 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.0.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: 62,719,000,000 rubles (tax revenue 52.5%, of which turnover tax 26.3%, company profit tax 19.6%, individual income tax 4.8%, excise tax 1.9%, nontax revenue 47.5%). Expenditures: 94,882,000,000 rubles (1991; social and cultural affairs 56.9%, of which social security 26.7%, education and science 19.7%, health 9.4%; national economy 39.0%; gov-

ernment administration 2.7%).

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 1,317 mi, 2,120 km; passengers transported 5,900,000; short ton cargo 20,700,000, metric ton cargo 22,800,000.

Roads

(1990): total length 8,300 mi, 13,400 km (paved 86%). Vehicles

(1988):

passenger

vessels

cars

170,600;

trucks

and buses,

n.a. Merchant

marine:

(100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 2,021,000,000, passenger-km 3,253,000,000; short tonmi cargo 222,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 324,200,000; airports (1994) with

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 66; total circulation 1,141,000; circulation per 1,000 population 319. Radio (1991): 823,000 receivers (1 per 5.2 persons). Televisions (1991): 705,000 receivers (1 per 6.1 persons). Telephones (1992): 266,000 (1 per 15 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) schools

Primary (age 6-13) } Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

teachers

students

60,000

842,000

student/ teacher ratio

14.1

33,700 41,700

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 13.6%; some secondary 21.3%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 56.8%; higher 8.3%. Literacy: n.a. Health (1992): physicians 13,500 (1 per 412 persons); hospital beds 41,800 (1 per 92 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 43.6. Food; daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$650,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): seed cotton 1,290,000, vegetables 360,000, grain 320,000, fruit 228,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,600,000 sheep and goats, 1,400,000 cattle, 300,000 pigs, 8,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1990) 4,000,000 cu m; fish catch

20,949. Mining and quarrying (1989): sulfur 5,547,000; sodium sulphate 261,000. Manufacturing (1992): cement 1,051,000; cotton fibre 437,000; mineral fertilizers 103,000; centrifugal pumps 1,069,000 units; rugs 1,071,000 sq m. Construction (1992): 20,754,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 13,100,000,000 (13,100,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (269,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 35,184,000 (43,386,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 500,000 (500,000); natural gas

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): CIS joint-control forces 28,000 (100% army). Military expenditure as a percentage of GNP (1992): 8.8% (world

5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$112.

(cu m; 1992) 60,107,000,000 (11,197,000,000).

Population economically active (1992): total: 1,572,900; activity rate of total

population 40.8% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 81.0%; female 50.5%; unemployed [1991] 20-25%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

80.8 79.2

81.6 81.4

85.6 85.5

89.9 90.8

100 100

185.7 170.1

1,921.8 1,573.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.6; income

per household:

n.a.; sources of income

(1992): wages and salaries

73.5%, pensions and grants 17.3%, income from agriculture sales 6.6%, nonwage income of workers 2.6%; expenditure (1992): food and clothing 65.4%, services 9.7%, taxes and other payments 8.6%.

'The legislative body per the 1992 constitution was to be a 50-member Majlis, but the 175-Seat Supreme Soviet elected in January 1990 acts as the Majlis until expiration of

its 5-year term or new elections are held. constitution as a supreme representative not legislative, body. 2Sole legal tender add to total given because of rounding. are very speculative.

The People’s Council (created per the 1992 body including the Majlis) is a supervisory, as of November 1993. 3Detail does not 4Ruble-area GNP and exchange-rate data

Nations of the World

Tuvalu

735

and pawpaws; livestock (number of live animals) 13,000 pigs !0; forestry, n.a.; fish catch (1991) 1,460, of which tuna 71.2%. Mining and quarrying: n.a.11. Manufacturing (1988): copra 90 metric tons; handicrafts and baked goods are also important. Construction: n.a.; however, the main areas of construction activity are roadworks, coastal protection, government facilities, and waterrelated infrastructure projects. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,300,000 (1,300,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (none). Public debt: n.a. Tourism (1991): number of visitors 976; receipts from visitors $A 169,70012; hotel occupancy 95% 12, Population economically active (1991): total 5,910; activity rate of total population 65.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 85.5%; female [1979] 51.3%; unemployed [1979] 4.0%).

Official name: Tuvalu. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

(Parliament [12]). Chief of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister,

Capital: Fongafale, on Funafuti atoll.

Official language: none. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Tuvalu Dollar=

1 Australian Dollar ($T=$A)=

100 Tuvalu and Australian cents;

valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1US.$=$A 1.35; 1 £=$A 2.15. Area and population

eles Islands2

sq mi

Funafuti Nanumaga Nanumea

1987 estimate

sq km

Niulakita Niutao Nui

0.91 1.00 1.38

2.36 2.59 3.57

2,718 717 965

0.16 0.82 1.27

0.41 2.12 3.29

Nukufetau Nukulaelae Vaitupu TOTAL

1.18 0.64 1.89 9.253

3.06 1.66 4.90 23.963

75 867 622

1990

1991

1992

1993

Consumer price index Earnings index 13

123.2 112.5

130.0 ‘

132.9 a

134.9 ets

111.0 102.5

113.3 105.0

116.3 110.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 6.4; average annual income per household $A 2,575; sources of income (1987): agriculture and other 45.0%, cash economy only 38.0%, overseas remittances 17.3%; expenditure (1992)14: food 45.5%, housing and household operations 11.5%, transportation 10.5%, alcohol and tobacco 10.5%, clothing 7.5%, other 14.5%. Land use (1987): agricultural and under permanent cultivation 73.6% 15; scrub

Population

:

Price and earnings indexes (1986= 100) 1987 1988 1989

16.1%; other 10.3%.

722 335 1,437 8,4584,5

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

$A ’000 % of total

Population (1994): 9,300. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 989.4, persons per sq km 381.1. Urban-rural (1991): urban 43.0%; rural 57.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.39%; female 51.61%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 34.7%; 15-64, 59.4%; 65 and over, 5.9%.

Population projection: (2000) 11,000; (2010) 12,500. Doubling time: 39 years. _ Ethnic composition (1979): Tuvaluan (Polynesian) 91.2%; mixed (Polynesian/ Micronesian/other) 7.2%; European 1.0%; other 0.6%. Religious affiliation (1979): Church of Tuvalu (Congregational) 96.9%; Seventh-day Adventist 1.4%; Bahai 1.0%; Roman Catholic 0.2%; other 0.5%. Major locality (1990): Fongafale, on Funafuti atoll, 3,432.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 82.2%; illegitimate 17.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 60.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the digestive system 170.0; diseases of the circulatory system 150.0; diseases of the respiratory system 120.0; diseases of the nervous system 120.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 70.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 40.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 20.0; ill-defined conditions 430.0; in 1992 the leading causes of death included liver diseases, meningitis, tuberculosis, and

still and perinatal deaths; other health problems included acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, filariasis, conjunctivitis, fish poisoning, diabetes,

rheumatism, and hypertension.

National economy Budget (1990). Recurrent revenue: $A 5,301,000 (local sources: [including fisheries licenses, import duties, sales tax, and income and company taxes] 77.4%; Tuvalu Trust Fund6 22.6%). Expenditures: $A 10,826,0007 (1987; capital [development] expenditures 68.9%, of which marine transport 20.7%, education 13.0%, fisheries 5.6%, health 3.1%; current expenditures 31.1%). Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.$8,750,000

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

—3,637 85.4%

-—3,969 92.7%

-4076 99.9%

-4946 99.9%

-6,780 99.7%

-—-5,158 99.5%

Imports (1989): $A 5,170,000 (food 29.3%, manufactured goods 28.2%, petroleum and petroleum products 12.8%, machinery and transport equipment 12.2%, chemicals 7.1%, beverages and tobacco 3.9%). Major import sources (1986): Australia 40.6%; New Zealand 10.9%; United Kingdom 5.1%; Japan 3.0%; United States 1.0%. Exports (1990): $A 30,400 (1989; clothing and footwear 29.5%, copra 21.5%, fruits and vegetables 8.0%). Major export destinations: n.a.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1985): total length 5 mi, 8 km (paved, none). Vehicles16; passenger cars, n.a.; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 6; total deadweight tonnage 16,005. Air transport (1977): passenger arrivals (Funafuti) 1,443; cargo, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 4,000 (1 per 2.4 persons). Television: none. Telephones (1992): 190 (1 per 48 persons).

Education and health Education (1990)

student/ schools __ teachers

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational 17 Higher

students

72 21

1,485 314

16 —

354 —

teacher ratio

20.6 15.0 221 _—

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; primary education 93.0%; secondary 6.1%; higher 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population literate in Tuvaluan 8,593 (95.0%); literacy in English estimated at 45.0%. Health (1990): physicians 4 (1 per 2,261 persons); hospital beds 30 (1 per 302 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 78.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1987): there is a police force numbering 32.

(U.S.$967 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

in value $A Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing8 Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels, and restaurants Finance

Ean ervices TOTAL

Sete nee }

1991

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

2,699,000 302,000 358,000 1,635,000 235,000

24.1 Bali 3.2 14.6 on

4,020 _ 60 240 —_—

68.0 _ 1.0 4.0 —-

403,000 1,669,000 997,000

3.6 14.9 8.9

60 240 _

1.0 4.0 —-

2,901,000

25.9

1,290

22.0

11,199,000

100.0

5,910

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): coconuts 2,000, fruits 1,000, hens’ eggs 12, other agricultural products

include breadfruit, pulaka (taro), bananas, pandanus fruit, sweet potatoes,

'The value of the Tuvalu Dollar is pegged to the value of the Australian Dollar, which is also legal currency in Tuvalu. *Local government councils have been established

on all islands except Niulakita. 3A recent survey puts the area at 9.4 sq mi (24.4 sq km). 4De facto population. 51991 census total is 9,043. “The Tuvalu Trust Fund was capitalized in 1987 with $A 27,700,000 to replace recurrent grant aid from the

United Kingdom; the fund was valued at $A 36,000,000 in late 1991. 7Figure includes $A 5,200,000 of capital expenditures, paid for, primarily, by foreign-aid contributions that are not part of recurrent revenue. 8Including cottage industry. °Because of poor soil quality, only limited subsistence agriculture is possible on the islands. !0Other livestock include goats. 1!Research into the mineral potential of Tuvalu’s maritime exclusive economic zone (289,500 sq mi [750,000 sq km] of the Pacific Ocean) is currently being conducted by the South Pacific Geo-Science Commission. 121990. Average minimum wage. !4Weights of consumer price index components. !5Capable of supporting coconut palms, pandanus, and breadfruit. !°There are several cars, tractors, trailers, and light trucks on Funafuti; a few motorcycles are in use on most islands, 171982-83.

736

Britannica World Data

Uganda

Price index (1990 = 100)

Official name: Republic of Uganda. Form of government: transitional military regime with a constituent assembly (Constituent Assembly

Consumer price index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

16.0

47.0

75.0

100.0

128.0

195.0

1993

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): bananas and plantains 9,058,000, cassava 3,982,000, sweet potatoes 1,894,000, sugarcane 1,010,000, corn (maize) 681,000, millet 652,000, dry beans 441,000, sorghum 382,000, coffee 177,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 150,000, tea 12,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,200,000 cattle, 3,400,000 goats, 1,760,000

(2141]2).

Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Kampala. Official languages: English; Swahili. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Uganda shilling (U Sh) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

sheep; roundwood (1992) 15,046,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 254,900. Mining and quarrying (1992): tungsten (wolfram) 66.0; tin ore 30.0; gold 57,900 troy oz. Manufacturing (1990): soap 30,600; sugar 28,900; animal feed 15,000; cement 14,960; metal products 1,300; footwear 319,000 pairs; fabrics 8,200,000 sq m; 1,289,700,000 cigarettes; beer 194,000 hectolitres. Construction:

n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 786,000,000 (674,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (303,000).

1 U.S.$=U Sh 920.87; 1£=U Sh 1,465.

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,425,000,000 (U.S.$190 per capita).

Area and population Regions Districts Central Kalangala Kampala Kiboga Luwero Masaka Mpigi Mubende Mukono Rakai Eastern Iganga Jinja Kamuli Kapchorwa Kumi Mbale Pallisa Soroti Tororo Northern

1987

Capitals Kampala

sq mi

70

sq km

9,200 16,330 6,220 10,310 14,240 4,970

5,060 280 1,680 670 1,100 980

13,110 730 4,350 1,740 2,860 2,550

3,880 1,780

10,060

4,550

944,000 284,900 480,700 116,300 237,000 706,600 355,000 430,900 554,000

2,510 3,020 4,530 8,230 5,100 2,800 5,450 1,930 1,120

6,490 7,830 11,740 16,140 13,210 7,250 14,110 5,010 2,890

460,700 624,600 338,700 350,300 190,700 498,300 171,500 178,500 315,900

Busaru Bumbaire Hoima Rubale Karambe Rukoki

900 2,080 3,820 960 3,230

2,340 5,400 9,900 2,490 8,360 3,200

Nyangeya

3,720 4,190 1,060 76,080 16,990 93,0705

116,000 734,800 197,800 412,800 741,400 343,000 219,300 184,900 253,500 929,600 388,000

Bulamogi Jinja Namwendwa Kaptanya Kumi Bunkoko Soroti Sukulu

Apac

Apac

Arua Gulu Kitgum Kotido Lira Moroto Moyo Nebbi Western Bundibugyo Bushenyi Hoima Kabale Kabarole Kasese Kibaale Kisoro Masindi Mbarara Rukungiri TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER4 TOTAL

Olaki Bungatira Labongo Kotido Lira Katikekile Moyo . Nebbi

Kakika Kagunga

1,240

9,640 10,840 2,750 197,040 44,000 241,0405

1991 in value U Sh '000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services TOTAL

16,400 773,500 140,800 449,200 831,300 915,400 497,500 816,200 382,000

1 80

3,550 6,310 2,400 3,980 5,500 1,920

Luwero Kasawa Bukoto Mpigi Bageza Kawuga Mukono Byakabanda

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

population 1991 censuses

1,082,040 8,490 89,540 134,470 15,000 163,010 258,820 145,890 67,260 139,370 2,103,890

labour force 6,724,000

% of total value

0.4

% of labour force 80.4

478,000

5.7

1,163,000 8,365,000

Household size. Average household size (1983) 4.8; income per household: n.a.; expenditure (1989-90)8: food 57.1%, rent, education, and health 15.7%, fuel and lighting 7.3%, transportation 5.9%, clothing 5.5%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,495,000,000.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U Sh '000,000 % of total

1987

1988

1989

= 19/051.” 41.0%

—55,716° 48.9%

—23,471 17.4%

— 48,013 27.1%

+23,012 8.5%

— 363,753 53.3%

Imports (1991): U Sh 137,250,000,000 (producer goods 18.8%, of which construction materials 5.0%, machinery 4.8%; consumer goods 10.5%, of which automobiles 2.5%, drugs and pharmaceuticals 2.0%, sugar 1.7%; other goods 70.7%). Major import sources: Kenya 23.3%; U.K. 15.0%; Japan 9.3%; Germany 6.9%. Exports (1991): U Sh 146,661,000,000 (unroasted coffee 66.9%; cotton 6.1%;

gold 4.7%; tea 3.2%). Major export destinations: The Netherlands 21.5%; France 16.2%; U.S. 11.9%; Spain 11.1%; Germany 10.9%; Italy 7.9%.

Transport and communications

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.00%; female 51.00%.

Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 1,240 km9; passenger-km 330,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 87,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 28,660 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 35,492; trucks and buses 14,902. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2; total deadweight tonnage 8,60010. Air transport (1990)11: passenger-km 67,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,000,000; airports (1994) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 4; total circulation 55,000; circulation per 1,000 population 3.2. Radio (1993): 3,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1993): 115,000 receivers (1 per 154 persons). Telephones (1992): 55,270 (1 per 313 persons).

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 49.6%; 15-29, 25.4%; 30-44, 13.9%; 45-59, 7.1%; 60 and over, 4.0%.

Education and health

16,582,7005

Demography Population (1994): 18,194,000. Density (1994)6: persons per sq mi 239.1, persons per sq km 92.3. Urban-rural (1992): urban 11.7%; rural 88.3%.

Population projection: (2000) 21,168,000; (2010) 27,244,000. Doubling time: 19 years.

Education (1989)

Ethnic composition (1983): Ganda 17.8%; Teso 8.9%; Nkole 8.2%; Soga 8.2%; Gisu 7.2%; Chiga 6.8%; Lango 6.0%; Rwanda 5.8%; other 31.1%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 49.6%; Protestant 28.7%; Muslim 6.6%; other 15.1%. Major cities (1991): Kampala 773,000; Jinja 61,000; Mbale 54,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 51.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 37.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.3. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 51.4 years; female 54.7 years.

Budget (1991-92). Revenue: U Sh 434,335,000,000 (external assistance grants 52.9%; tax revenue 45.6%). Expenditures: U Sh 528,647,000,000 (1990-91; expenditures

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-15) Voc., teacher tr, Higher

7,905 774 136 9

teachers

75,561 13,356 2,081 93412

students 2,633,764 240,334 23,179 5,778

student/ teacher ratio 34.8 18.0 W4 8.812

Educational attainment (1969). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or less than one full year 58.2%; primary education 33.9%; lower secondary 5.0%; upper secondary 2.5%; higher 0.4%. Literacy (1990): population age 15 and over literate 4,586,000 (48.3%); males literate 2,900,000 (62.2%); females literate 1,686,000 (34.9%).

Health (1989): physicians 774 (1 per 20,720 persons); hospital beds 20,136 a per 817 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 94.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,178 (vegetable products 94%,

animal products 6%); 93% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

National economy current

schools

79.2%,

of which

security 51.7%,

education

16.5%,

public services 16.2%, health 5.5%; capital expenditures 20.8%). Tourism (1991): receipts from visitors U.S.$15,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$18,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 27.6%; meadows and pastures 9.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.9%; other 29.5%. Population economically active (1991): total 8,365,000; activity rate of total population 49.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 78.9%7; female 35.2%).

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 50,000 (army 97.6%, navy 0.8%, air force 1.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.6% (world 4.2%);

per capita U.S.$4.

‘Elective seats only. 2Body elected and appointed in 1994 to debate and enact a draft constitution, 3Preliminary. 4Includes swamps; excludes 30,960 sq km of Uganda’s Lake Victoria territorial waters. SDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. Based on land area. 71985. 8Kampala and Entebbe only. 91990, 101988. “Uganda Airlines only. 121984.

Nations of the World

Ukraine

000 (246,800,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 133,600,000 (138,900,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 32,800,000 (298,500,000); petroleum products 32,500,000 (28,800,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 18,200,000,000

Official name: Ukrayina (Ukraine). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Council [450]).

(96,900,000,000).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$99,589,000,000 (U.S.$1,910 per capita)2.

Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kiev (Kyyiv).

Structure of net material product and labour force 1991 in value ‘000,000 rubles

Official language: Ukrainian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: karbovanets! (no decimal unit); valuation

focus

ining

Manufacturing

(Oct. 7, 1994) free rate, 1 U.S.$ =30,028 karbovantsy;

Crimea (Krym) Provinces Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytsky Kirovohrad Kyyiv (Kiev) Luhansk Lviv Mykolayiv Odessa Poltava Rivne

Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsya Volyn Zakarpatska Zaporizhzhya Zhytomyr TOTAL

population Capitals Simferopol

Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk lvano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytsky Kirovohrad Kiev Luhansk Lviv Mykolayiv Odessa Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsya Volodymyr-Volynsky Uzhhorod Zaporizhzhya Zhytomyr

}

sq

mi

sq km

1991 estimate

10,400

27,000

2,596,000

8,100 12,300 3,100 12,300 10,200 5,400 12,100 11,000 8,000 9,500 11,200 10,300 8,400 9,500 12,900 11,100 7,800 9,200 5,300 10,200 7,800 4,900 10,500 11,600 233,100

20,900 31,900 8,100 31,900 26,500 13,900 31,400 28,500 20,600 24,600 28,900 26,700 21,800 24,600 33,300 28,800 20,100 23,800 13,800 26,500 20,200 12,800 27,200 29,900 603,700

1,531,800 1,398,000 940,500 3,918,600 5,352,600 1,451,500 3,188,600 1,270,000 1,521,500 1,247,500 4,588,900 2,877,400 2,771,300 1,350,800 2,634,500 1,762,800 1,181,600 1,430,700 1,177,100 1,908,400 1,072,700 1,271,600 2,108,500 1,503,700 52,056,600

Demography Population (1994): 52,304,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 224.4, persons per sq km 86.6. Urban-rural (1993): urban 67.8%; rural 32.2%. Sex distribution (1993): male 46.36%; female 53.63%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 21.5%; 15-29, 21.0%; 30-44, 20.6%: 45-59,

18.5%; 60-69, 10.7%; 70 and over, 7.7%. Population projection: (2000) 52,970,000; (2010) 54,098,000.

Ethnic composition (1991): Ukrainian 72.6%; Russian 22.2%; Jewish 0.7%; Belarusian 0.9%; Moldovan 0.6%; Tatar 0.4%; other 2.6%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Ukrainian Orthodox; there is a Ukrainian Catholic minority. Major cities (1993): Kiev 2,646,000; Kharkiv 1,615,000; Dnipropetrovsk 1,186,000; Donetsk 1,121,000; Odessa 1,087,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 88.1%; illegitimate 11.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 13.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): — 1.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.8. Marnage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.3 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): circulatory diseases 690.0; cancers 203.0; accidents 128.0; respiratory diseases 74.0; diseases of the digestive system (1989) 30.1; infectious diseases (1989) 11.6.

National economy

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

labour value

% of labour force

28.7

4,989,000

20.8

43.1 }

7201;008

13.8 45

12,000

898,000 1,910,000 1,623,000

eae

29,100 9,400

Dsl

— — — 8,900 210,600

1,751,000

— — — 4.2 100.0

7.3

144,000 562,000 3,920,000 787,000 23,985

0.6 2.3 16.3 3.3

90,800

Trade

Area and population

1992

% of total value

60,400

Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun.

1 £=47,760 karbovantsy.

Autonomous republic

737

3.7 8.0 6.8

Population economically active (1992): total 23,985,000; activity rate of total population 46.1% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 79.9%; [1991] female 54.5%; unemployed [1991] 3.1%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1987 1986 1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

85.5 86.3

100.0 100.0

191.2 190.8

3,132 2,677

68.4 69.4

70.3 71.3

76.3 78.0

Land use (1992): forested 17.0%; meadows and pastures 12.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 57.1%; other 13.5%.

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 3.0; income

per household 12,825 karbovantsy1!; sources of income (1991): wages 51.8%,

pensions 20.4%, financial receipts other 8.9%; expenditure (1991): consumer goods 32.2% (of which entertainment and culture 6.3%,

11.7%, sales of agricultural products 7.2%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 39.2%, furniture and household appliances 6.8%), alcoholic beverages 2.1%, housing 1.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) ‘000,000,000 rubles % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

36:2) 6.6%

329) 3.0%

,36.5) 63%

8: 81%

1991 — 12tm 10.6%

1992 88:0 4.3%

Imports (1992): 2,255,000,000,000 rubles (machinery 38.3%, transport equipment 10.7%, chemicals 9.8%, textiles 8.4%, food products 3.9%). Major import sources: Western countries 69.0%, of which Spain 12.3%, Britain

10.9%, Germany 10.6%, Italy 4.1%; former Soviet republics 31.0%. Exports (1992): 2,067,000,000,000 rubles (oil and gas 27.2%, ferrous metals 14.0%, transport equipment 10.5%, machinery 7.8%, food 4.2%). Major export destinations: Western countries 51.0%; former Soviet republics 49.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): length 22,799 km; passenger-km 75,600,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 338,000,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 170,000 km (paved 95%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 2,920,000. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 8,400,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 100,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 20. Communications (1991). Daily newspapers: total number 1,891; total circulation 26,804,000; circulation per 1,000 population 52. Radio: 14,520,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Television: 17,024,000 receivers (1 per 3.0 persons). Telephones (1992): 8,434,000 (1 per 6.2 persons). Education and health Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-13)

Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

Bone

579,000

} 754 156

students

7,087,000

student/ teacher ratio

12.2

1,368,000 856,000

of which value-added tax 24.5%, corporate tax 16.6%, foreign trade tax 12.4%; nontax revenue 12.4%). Expenditures: 9,094,600,000,000 karbovantsy

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: some primary education 6.8%; completed primary 13.8%; some secondary 18.4%; completed secondary 31.1%; some postsecondary 19.5%; higher 10.4%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and

(current expenditure 92.4%, of which social safety net 20.3%, national economy 14.6%, education 13.6%, health care 11.4%, capital expenditure 7.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

Health (1992): physicians 228,900 (1 per 228 persons); hospital beds 700,300 (1 per 75 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.8.

Budget (1993). Revenue: 8,121,300,000,000 karbovantsy (tax revenue 87.6%,

sugar beets 33,717,000, wheat 21,831,000, potatoes 21,009,000, corn (maize) 3,786,000, sunflower seeds 2,075,000, grapes 666,000; livestock (number of live animals) 22,457,000 cattle, 16,175,000 pigs, 7,237,000 sheep and goats;

roundwood (1992) 8,900,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 1,300,000. Mining and quarrying (1992): iron ore 75,700,000; manganese 5,800,000. Manufacturing (1993): iron rails 75,700,000; crude steel 41,800,000; pig iron 35,300,000; rolled metals 32,500,000; cement 20,100,000; paper products 653,500; caustic soda 401,800; detergents 211,800; synthetic fibre 119,000; cellulose 75,800; pesticides 21,700; fertilizer 3,300; sulfuric acid 3,000; bricks 9,300,000,000 units; automobiles 176,500 units; metal-cutting machines 33,900 units; forge

press machines 7,900 units; earth-moving equipment 6,900 units; reinforced concrete 20,500,000 cu m. Construction (1991): residential 14,454,000 sq m.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 252,400,000,-

over literate 98.4%; males literate 99.5%; females literate 97.4%.

Military Total active duty defense 40.4%). Black Sea Fleet and Georgia at

personnel (1994): 517,000 (army 59.6%, air force and air Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993) 3.9%. The of the former U.S.S.R. remained to be divided with Russia year-end. Commonwealth of Independent States- (CIS-) controlled Strategic Nuclear Forces constituted a third military establishment during a two-year transition period.

1On Noy. 12, 1992, Ukraine replaced the Russian ruble with the karbovanets, or Ukrainian coupon, a temporary national currency; a prospective permanent national

currency, the hryvnya, had not been issued as of December 1994. 2Ruble-area GNP and exchange-rate data are very speculative.

738

Britannica World Data

bers 15,000, green peppers 14,000, mangoes

United Arab Emirates

live animals) 747,000 goats, 277,000 sheep,

7,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1991) 92,300. Mining and quarrying (1992):

Official name: al-Imarat al-“Arabiyah al-Muttahidah (United Arab Emirates). Form of government: federation of seven emirates with one appointive

gypsum

(1992): cement

Manufacturing

ter and ghee 2329. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 17,460,000,000 (17,460,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 778,000,000 (65,831,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 13,485,000 (6,574,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

28,959,000,000 (25,503,000,000).

Capital: Abu Dhabi.

W0

Population economically active (1992): total 733,500; activity rate of total population 36.9% (participation rates [1986]: ages 15-64, 76.7%; female 6.6%; unemployed, n.a.).

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 U.A.E. dirham

(Dh) = 100 fils; valuation (Oct.

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Dh 3.67;

1 £=Dh 5.84.

Consumer price index19 Earnings index

Area and population

area

population 1991 estimate

_sgimis

_sq km_

28,2102 100 1,510 500 660

73,0602 260 3,900 1,300 1,700

798,000 76,000 501,000 63,000 130,000

1,000 300

2,600 780

314,000 27,000

32,280

83,600

1,909,000

Abu Dhabi ‘Ajman Dubayy Al-Fujayrah Ra’s al-Khaymah

al-Khaimah) Ash-Shariqah (Sharjah) Umm al-Qaywayn (Umm al-Qaiwain) TOTAL

for cement.

and aggregate

3,700,000; aluminum 240,000; mutton and lamb meat 23,0009; goat’s milk 18,0009; cow’s milk 6,0009; beef and veal 6,0009; goat meat 5,0009; but-

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Emirates Abu Dhabi (Abi Zaby) ‘Ajman (Ajman) Dubayy (Dubai) Al-Fujayrah (Fujairah) Ra’s al-Khaymah (Ras

95,000; sulfur 75,000; lime 45,000; also marble, shale for ceramic

applications,

advisory body (Federal National Council [401]).

Capitals

10,000; livestock (number of

130,000 camels, 58,000 cattle,

Ash-Shariqah Umm al-Qaywayn

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

91.2 ade

93.9 ie

95.0 ie

98.8 ae

100.0

105.5

102.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 6.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1991): rent, fuel, and light 23.9%, food 22.7%, transportation and communications 14.1%, durable

household

goods

Dh '000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 2,125,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 65.8, persons per sq km 25.4. Urban-rural (1990): urban 77.8%; rural 22.2%.

recreation,

and

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988

Demography

11.6%, education,

entertainment 8.6%. Land use (1992): forested, virtually none; meadows and pastures 2.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.5%; built-on, wasteland, and other 97.1%.

1989

+19,090 28.9%

+ 25,928 33.9%

1990 _1991 +30,200 22.8%

+27,420 28.1%

1992 + 21,800

14.6%

Imports (1989): Dh 35,080,000,000 (1987; machinery and transport equipment

Sex distribution (1992): male 63.35%; female 36.65%. Age breakdown (1992)3: under 15, 32.1%}; 15-29, 17.9%; 30-44, 34.4%; 45-59, 12.9%; 60-74, 2.2%; 75 and over, 0.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 2,393,000; (2010) 2,917,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 87.1%, of which Arab from United Arab Emirates 30.7%; Pakistani and Indian 9.1%; Persian 1.7%; Baluchi 0.8%; African 0.8%; British 0.2%; American 0.1%; other 0.2%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 94.9% (Sunni 80%, Shit 20%); Christian 3.8%; other 1.3%.

Major cities (1989): Dubayy 585,189; Abu Dhabi 363,432; al-“Ayn 176,411; ashSharigah 125,0004; Ra’s al-Khaymah 42,0004.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 23.3 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.;

30.5%, basic manufactures

16.8%, food and live animals 15.8%, chemicals

6.9%, mineral fuels 4.0%, crude minerals 1.8%). Major import sources: Japan 15.0%; United Kingdom 9.4%; United States 8.4%; West Germany 7.6%; Italy 4.7%; France 3.7%; Thailand 3.4%; Saudi Arabia 3.1%; China 2.9%; The Netherlands 2.5%; Australia 2.5%; Singapore 2.3%; Belgium-Luxem-

bourg 1.2%; Switzerland 1.2%; Turkey 1.2%. Exports (1989): Dh 62,500,000,000 (crude petroleum 65.6%, nonpetroleum exports and reexports 34.4%). Major export destinations: Japan 32.1%; Singapore 4.8%; India 4.4%; South Korea 4.3%; United States 3.9%; Oman 3.0%; Australia 2.4%; France 1.8%; Italy 1.7%; United Kingdom 1.4%;

West Germany 1.2%; Brazil 1.1%; Bangladesh 0.8%; The Netherlands 0.6%; Belgium-Luxembourg 0.6%; Iran 0.4%; Iraq 0.3%.

Transport and communications

Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.3 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 19.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 2.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 69.6 years; female 73.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989)5: accidents and poisoning 43.7; diseases of the circulatory system 34.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 13.7; respiratory diseases 8.1.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1984): total length 2,709 mi, 4,360 km (paved [1981] 61%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 302,000; trucks and buses 157,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 276; total deadweight tonnage 1,491,728. Air transport (1993)1!: passenger-mi 3,469,700,000, passenger-km 5,583,990,000; short ton-mi cargo 189,900,000, metric ton-km cargo 277,313,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991): total number 9; total circulation 246,60012; circulation per 1,000 population 12712. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 420,000 (1 per 5.0 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 170,000 (1 per 12.2 persons). Telephones (1991): 777,179 (1 per 2.5 persons).

National economy

Education and health

illegitimate, n.a.

Budget (1994). Revenue: Dh 16,200,000,000 (1992; domestic revenues 74.8%;

other sources 25.2%). Expenditures: Dh 17,600,000,000 (1992; current expenditures 95.4%, of which [1989] defense 43.9%, education 15.0%, public safety 13.5%, health 6.9%, economic services 4.3%; development expendi-

tures 4.5%).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$47,749,000,000

(U.S.$22,470 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in value Dh '000,0006 Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

2,838 51,719 10,891 11,582 2,961 7,390 13,382 15,139 14,881 3,7457 —2,8688 131,660

% of total value

2.2 39.3 8.3 8.8 Zia, 5.6 10.2 11.5 11.3 } 2.87 —2.28 100.0

labour force

1990 % of labour force

43,100 10,000 63,400 119,200 20,600

6.3 1.5 9,2 17.3 3.0

71,700 101,400 18,800

10.4 14.7 28

241,300

35.0

689,500

100.03

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$1,067,000,000.

Tourism (1992): total number of tourist arrivals 50,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): dates 176,000, tomatoes 90,000, eggplants 61,000, cabbages 58,000, lemons and limes 25,000, pumpkins and squash 18,000, cauliflowers 15,000, cucum-

Education (1991-92)

student/ schools

Primary (age 6-11)

Secondary (age 12-18)

Vocational Higher

}

or 914 1

teachers

students

teacher ratio

13,139

231,674 117,118 893

17.6

8,668

11.9

9,430 ;

ree

12.4

Educational attainment (1975). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 72.2%; primary education 5.2%; secondary 16.6%; higher 6.0%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and oyer literate 858,149 (73.0%); males literate 657,579 (74.5%); females literate 200,570 (68.4%).

Health (1991): physicians 3,090 (1 per 618 persons); hospital beds 6,540 (1 per 292 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 23.4. Food (1987-89): daily per capita caloric intake 3,295 (vegetable products 77%, animal products 23%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 61,500 (army 92.7%, navy 3.2%, air force 4.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 6.0% (world, n.a.); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,044. 'All appointed seats. 2Approximate, based on reported total and on reported partial areas for smaller emirates. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding.

41980. 5Registered; Abu Dhabi Emirate only. ©At factor cost. 7Services include domestic help. 8Less imputed bank service charges, 91993. 10City of Abu Dhabi. only. Emirates Airlines only. 12Based on seven dailies only. 131987-88. 141985-86.

Nations of the World

United Kingdom

Population projection: (2000) 59,648,000; (2010) 61,100,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1991)6: white 94.2%; Asian Indian 1.4%; Pakistani 0.9%;

Official name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (House of Lords [1,183]; House of Commons [651]). Chief of state: Sovereign. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: London. Official language: English. Official religion: Churches of England and Scotland “established” (protected by the state, but not “official”) in their respective countries; no established church in Northern Ireland or Wales. Monetary unit: 1 pound sterling (£) = 100 new pence; valuation

West Indian 0.8%; African 0.3%; Chinese 0.3%; Bangladeshi 0.2%; Arab 0.1%; other and not stated 1.8%.

Religious affiliation (religious participation of about 8,400,000 active members only; 1990): Christian c. 80%, of which Roman Catholic c. 21%, Anglican c. 20%, Presbyterian c. 14%, Methodist c. 5%, Baptist c. 3%; Muslim c. 11%; Sikh c. 4%; Hindu c. 2%; Jewish c. 1%; other c. 2%.

Major cities (1992): Greater London 6,904,600; Birmingham 1,009,100; Leeds 721,800; Glasgow 684,300; Sheffield 531,000; Liverpool 479,000; Bradford 477,500; Edinburgh 439,900; Manchester 434,600; Bristol 396,600.

Place of birth (1991): native-born 93.2% (52,721,000); foreign-born 6.8%, of Be 2.2%.

England

Counties

Avon Bedfordshire Berkshire

Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire Cheshire Cleveland Cornwall2 Cumbria

Derbyshire Devon Dorset Durham

East Sussex Essex Gloucestershire Greater London3 Greater Manchester?

Hampshire Hereford & Worcester Hertfordshire Humberside Isle of Wight Kent Lancashire Leicestershire Lincolnshire

sq km

1992 estimate

50,363

130,439

48,378,4001

Bristol Bedford Reading

520 477 486 727 1,316 899 225 1,376 2,629 1,016 2,591

1,346 1,235 1,259 1,883 3,409 2,329 583 3,564 6,810 2,631 6,711

968,400 536,500 758,100 645,700 677,700 966,900 560,000 475,400 490,200 947,400 1,045,100

Lewes Chelmsford

1,025 941

2,654 2,436

693 1,418

664,300 607,000

1,795 3,672

Gloucester London Manchester

720,600 1,555,800

1,020 610 497

2,643 1,579 1,287

Winchester Worcester Hertford Hull Newport Maidstone Preston Leicester Lincoln

1,458 1,516 631 1,356 147 1,441 1,183 986 2,284

3,777 3,927 1,634 3,512 381 3,731 3,064 2,553 5,915

541,400 6,904,600 2,573,500 1,587,500 690,400 994,200 881,400

252

652

1,445,600

2,073

5,368

763,000

3,208 914 1,943 836

8,309 2,367 5,032 2,164

723,000 590,100 307,200

Matlock Exeter Dorchester Durham

Merseyside3

Liverpool

Norfolk

Norwich

North Yorkshire Northamptonshire Northumberland

sq mi

population

London

Aylesbury Cambridge

125,600 1,538,300 1,413,600 902,300 596,800

Nottinghamshire

Northallerton Northampton Newcastle upon Tyne Nottingham

Oxfordshire

Oxford

1,007

2,608

587,100

Shropshire Somerset South Yorkshire3 Staffordshire

Shrewsbury Taunton Barnsley Stafford Ipswich Kingston upon Thames Newcastle upon Tyne Warwick Birmingham Chichester Wakefield Trowbridge Belfast Edinburgh

1,347 1,332 602 1,049

3,490 3,451 1,560 2,716

1,466 648 208 765 347

3,797 1,679 540 1,981 899

768 787 1,344 5,452 30,418

2,039 3,480 14,120 78,783

412,800 472,400 1,304,400 1,051,900 648,000 1,036,700 1,134,400 492,000 2,630,600 712,600 2,093,500 579,300 1,610,000 5,111,200

1,814 1,042 2,481

4,698 2,700 6,425

Suffolk Surrey Tyne and Wear3 Warwickshire West Midlands?

West Sussex West Yorkshire? Wiltshire Northern Ireland4 Scotland Regions Borders Central Dumfries and Galloway Fife

Grampian Highland Lothian Strathclyde Tayside Island areas® (TOTAL) Wales Ss eer

Newton Saint Boswells Stirling Dumfries Glenrothes

Aberdeen Inverness Edinburgh Glasgow Dundee — Cardiff Mold

Dyfed

Carmarthen

Gwent

Newport

Gwynedd Mid Glamorgan Powys South Glamorgan TOTAL

ina

Caernarvon Cardiff Llandrindod Wells Cardiff Swansea

0.9%, Pakistan 0.9.%, other

Households (1990-91)6.7. Average household size 2.5 (3.1); 1 person 26% (20%), 2 persons 34% (26%), 3 persons 17% (16%), 4 persons 16% (17%), 5 persons 6% (10%), 6 or more persons 2% (11%). Family households (1987): 17,836,500 (77.4%), nonfamily 5,208,500 (22.6%, of which 1-person 9.9%). Immigration (annual average; 1988-92): permanent residents 242,600, from area

Chester Middlesbrough Truro Carlisle

1.1%, Caribbean

different residence, same country (of the U.K.) 8.2%; different residence, different country within the U.K. 0.4%; from outside the U.K. 0.5%.

Area and population Capitals

India 1.5%, Ireland

Mobility (1981). Population living in the same residence as 1980: 90.9%:

(Oct. 7, 1994) 1 £=U.S.$1.59; IWUIS.$ = £063.

Countries

739

1,989

1,025,200

509

1,319

104,800 272,700 147,900 349,900

3,379 10,092 683 5,318 2,951 2,149 8,019

8,752 26,137 1,770 13,773 7,643 5,566 20,768

522,400 205,900 750,600 2,290,700 394,600 71,700 2,898,6001

937

2,427

414,600

2,227

5,768

351,100

531

1,376

449,300

1,494 393 1,960 aie

3,869 1,018 5,077 Ae

239,800 542,800 119,400 Bans F 57,998,200

94,251

244,110

- Demography Population (1994): 58,422,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 619.8, persons per sq km 239.3. Urban-rural (1985): urban eo sees ee istribution (1992): male 48.89%; female 51.11%. ee iio under 15, 19.3%; 15-29, 22.0%; 30-44, 21.1%; 45-59, 16.9%; 60-74, 13.8%; 75 and over, 6.9%.

|

Australia 10.6%, United States 10.4%, New Zealand 5.2%, Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka 5.0%, Pakistan 3.9%, South Africa 3.3%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 13.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 69.1%; illegitimate 30.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.5. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991)6: 3.0. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 73.2 years; female 78.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 501.0, of which ischemic heart disease 287.5, cerebrovascular disease 130.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 280.8; diseases of the respiratory system 120.4, of which pneumonia 54.4; diseases of the digestive system

36.7; accidents and violence 34.2; diseases of the endocrine system 19.5, of

which diabetes mellitus 14.8; diseases of the genitourinary system 11.1.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary or secondary education only 89.7%; some postsecondary 4.87%; bachelor’s or equivalent degree 4.9%; higher university degree 0.6%. Distribution of disposable income (1991) percentage of household income by quintile

1 77

2

3

4

12.1

16.4

22.5

5 (highest) 41.3

Quality of working life (1991). Average workweek (hours): male 42.2, female 37.4 (overtime [1986]; male 8.6%, female 2.1%). Annual rate per 100,000 workers for: injury or accident 752.6; industrial diseases 0.58; death 1.5. Proportion of labour force (employed persons) insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 employee workdays 1992: 0.1, Principal means of transport to work (1991; London only): public transportation 81%, private automobile 15%, motor or pedal cycle 2%, other 2%. Access to services (1990)6. Proportion of households having access to: bath or shower 98%; toilet 99%; central heating 80%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election: 76.9%. Population age 16 and over participating in voluntary work (1987)6: 22%. Trade union membership in total workforce (1990) 34.9%. Social deviance (19929). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: theft and handling stolen goods 5,561.2; burglary 2,643.1; violence against the person 393.5; fraud and forgery 328.8; robbery 103.2; sexual offense 57.5. Incidence per 100,000 population of: registered drug addicts 36.59; suicide 7.9. Leisure (1991). Favourite leisure activities (hours weekly): watching television 26.0; listening to radio 10.1; reading 2.619; cultural activities 1.510, Material well-being (1992). Households possessing: automobile 68%, telephone 88%, television receiver 98% (colour 95%), refrigerator 99%, central heating 82%, washing machine 88%, videocassette recorder 69%.

National economy Gross national product (1992): U.S.$1,024,025,000,000 (U.S.$17,770 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

in value £'000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

Agriculture

9,309

1.8

577,000

Mining

9,842

1.9

"1

114,698 32,002 13,717 41,613 72,549 * 121,704 89,114 32,892

22.2 6.2 2h 81 144 23.6 78 6.4

Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun, Trade Finance Pub, admin., defense Services Other

— 22,84613

— 4.413

TOTAL

514,594

100.01

sak 11

4,985,00011 1,515,000 414,000 1,497,000 5,351,000 3,086,000

18.011 515 1.5 5.4 19.3 1141

10,314,000 12

37.112

27,739,000

100.0

740

Britannica World Data

Budget (1993-94), Revenue: £208,979,000,000 (income tax 35.1%, taxes on ex-

penditures 18.7%, social-security contributions 17.7%). Expenditures: £256,865,000,000 (social-security benefits 30.5%, national health service education and science 12.5%, defense 9.0%, debt interest 7.0%). Total national debt (March 1992): £204,174,000,000.

13.5%,

1988

(000,000,000)

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

199414

, :

1,54 1.06

1.78 1.34

1.64 1.22

1.78 1.36

Tr 1.31

1.76 1.10

44.10 1.32

34.77 1.14

35.85 1.25

41.89 1.31

36.64 0.54

39.2415 0.41

AGT,

1.64

1.68

1.85

2.01

1:91

(31.99 18.99 2.0

~3293 18.97 2.0

38.73 18.89 2.0

34.09 18.61 20

20

ee 9.58

14.08

992

915

787

101.9

100.0

1098

114.7

Foreign exchange ('000,000,000) 4112 Gold ('000,000 fine troy oz) 19.00 % world reserves 2.0 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) oe Govt. bond yield (%) longterm 9.36 Industrial share prices (1990= 100) 85.0 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) — 36,994 Balance of visible trade, Imports, f.0.b. 180,527 Exports, f.o.b. 143,534 Balance of invisibles 8,205 Balance of payments, current account — 28,789

37.0415

18.4415

131.7 135.016

annual

tons

employees

wages as a % of avg. of all wages 10 103.0 108.4

14,875 13,30018

21,495

442,000

133.8

12,102

9,644 4,233 3,137 4,785 11,207 13,794 1,186 4,466 123

534,000 503,000 283,000 224,000 270,000 189,000 124,000 182,000 13,000

96.8 on 118.1 118.1. 85.6 98.1 102.8 79.2 118.1

12,008 11,574 11,100 4,976 3,219 3,165 3,063 2,842 1,484

99,000

118.1

9,391

8,000 1,035,000

103.1 of

368 18,306

as noted).

Agriculture,

forestry,

fishing

89,398,000; iron 13,20022; tin 2,000; lead 1,44022. Manufacturing (total sales

in £'000,000; 1992): motor vehicles and parts 19,909; aerospace equipment 9,351; electronic data-processing and telecommunications equipment 6,486; basic electrical equipment 3,999; mechanical lifting and handling equipment 2,471; constructional steelwork 2,445; boilers 2,265. Construction (value in £; 1992)6: residential 6,076,000,000; nonresidential 13,000,000,000, of which commercial 6,592,000,000, industrial 2,232,000,000.

Retail trade enterprises (1991)

92.0

111.5 118.5

age annual income per household £14,440 (U.S.$25,490); sources of income: wages and salaries 61.9%, social-security benefits Talay rent, dividends, and

interest 12.5%, income from self-employment 10.5%; expenditure: food and beverages 18.2%, transport and vehicles 16.8%, housing 15.1%, household goods 6.3%, clothing 5.6%, energy 3.8%. Land use (1991): forested 10.0%; meadows and pastures 46.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 27.3%; other 16.4%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

1988

1989

1990

—37,446 11.5%

-39,157 11.4%

-—31,131 7.8%

weekly

— 24,618 6.2%

— 20,570 5.4%

17.6%, road vehicles 10.6%; chemicals and

wage as

annual

a % of all wages

turnover

Exports (1992): £118,488,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 40.7%, of which

electrical equipment

and

Italy 5.1%; Spain 3.6%; Sweden 2.4%; Japan 2.2%; Switzerland 1.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993)?4: length 23,518 mi!8, 37,849 km!18; passenger-mi 19,693,000,000, passenger-km 31,693,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 10,623,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 15,509,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 240,241 mi, 386,631 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 20,344,000;

trucks and buses 2,753,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,631; total deadweight tonnage 4,355,063. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 53,892,300,000, passenger-km 86,731,400,000; short tonmi cargo 1,811,100,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,644,100,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 54. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 99; total circulation 22,253,500; circulation per 1,000 population 388. Radio

(1993): 70,000,000

receivers (1 per 0.8 person). Television (1991): 19,546,000 licenses (1 per 3.0

persons). Telephones (1984): 29,517,991 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) 25 schools

Primary (age 5-10)

Secondary (age 11-19) Voc., teacher tr.26, 27

23,958 4,731

Higher29

724 48

teachers

222,600 232,700 93,00028 32,638

students

student/ teacher ratio

4,849,500 3,534,500 539,718 401,657

21.8 15.2 er 12.3

Literacy (1990): total population literate, virtually 100%30. Health (1981): physicians 92,172 (1 per 611 persons); hospital beds (1987) 388,700 (1 per 146 persons); infant mortality rate (1992) 6.6. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,270 (vegetable products 66%, animal products 34%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

48,718

Military

74 19,130 12,773 49,248

522,000 95,000 66,000 322,000

37,827 4,073 2,555 21,035

Total active duty personnel

12,043 12,341 49,109

97,000 61,000 274,000

7,365 4,543 13,497

43,357 27,321

234,000 289,000

10,533 12,446

14,709 3,610 4,036 8,098 36

122,000 74,000 37,000 85,000 32,000

4,723 2,673 2,145 4,849 3,942

1990) 89,303,000 (100,249,000); crude

7.0%, chemicals

ments 4.0%; iron and steel products 2.6%; clothing and footwear 2.3%).

813,000

petroleum (barrels; 1990) 656,722,000 (568,604,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1990) 81,919,000 (79,470,000); natural gas (cu m; 1990) 53,895,-

road vehicles

Major export destinations: Germany 13.4%; United States 12.4%; France 10.1%; The Netherlands 6.8%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.9%; Ireland 5.3%;

62,009

(£'000,000) 28

17.5%,

chemical products 14.5%, of which organic chemicals 3.7%; petroleum and petroleum products 6.6%; professional, scientific, and controlling instru-

no. of employees

coal (metric tons;

— 17,990 4.7%

animals 8.5%, of which vegetables and fruits 2.3%, meat and meat preparations 1.4%; petroleum and petroleum products 4.2%; textile yarn and fabrics 2.9%; nonferrous metals 2.9%; paper and paperboard 2.8%; iron and steel products 1.9%). Major import sources: Germany 14.8%; U.S. 12.1%; France 10.0%; The Netherlands 6.7%; Japan 6.3%; Italy 5.0%; Belgium-

no. of enterprises

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1990) 318,979,000,000

000,000 (61,895,000,000).

1993

109.8 114.6

Luxembourg 5.0%; Ireland 4.1%; Switzerland 3.5%; Norway 3.1%. annual value added (£000,000)

(1992) 6,353,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 823,225. Mining (1992): limestone

(330,922,000,000);

1992

105.9 108.0

chemical products 9.5%, of which organic chemicals 2.2%; food and live

(1993): wheat 12,890,000, sugar beets 8,500,00019, potatoes 7,065,000, barley 6,013,000, turnips and rutabagas 3,451,00020. 21, corn (maize) 1,657,00020, 21, rapeseed 1,166,00019, cabbage 642,000, oats 477,000; livestock (number of live animals) 29,333,000 sheep, 11,709,000 cattle, 7,869,000 pigs; roundwood

Food and grocery, of which large grocery other grocery meats Household goods, of which electrical and musical goods furniture Drink, confectionery, and tobacco, of which tobacco and confectionery Clothing and footwear, of which women’s, girls’, and infants’ wear footwear men's and boys’ wear Pharmaceuticals Mail order

1991

100.0 100.0

of which electrical equipment

577,000 588,00018

8,916 23,322

except

1990

91.3 91.1

Imports (1993): £135,477,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 39.2%,

—35,587 — 29,390 — 11,222 — 20,714 —16,391

no. of enterprises 17

(metric

1989

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 2.4; aver-

£000,000 % of total

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1991)

Production

1988 84.7 83.5

Foreign trade 841

— 39,157 —32,400 — 17,990 — 24,618 — 20,570 190,898 214,693 201,081 212,058 201,802 151,741 182,293 183,091 187,440 181,232 3,570 3,010 6,768 3,904 4,179

793 185,854

1987 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

2.015

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$13,683,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$19,831,000,000.

Manufacturing Food, beverages, and tobacco Mechanical engineering Paper and paper products; printing and publishing Electrical and dataprocessing equipment Transport equipment Chemical engineering Rubber and plastics Clothing and footwear Timber and wood products Metal manufacturing Textiles Mineral-oil processing Mining Extraction of coal, mineral oil, and natural gas Extraction of minerals other than fuels Construction

48.3%; unemployed 9.8%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Financial aggregates Exchange rate: U.S. dollar per £ SDRs per £ International. reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; '000,000,000) SDRs (000,000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF

Population economically active (1992): total 27,739,000; activity rate of total Pepalation 48.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1988], 61.1%; female

(1993): 274,800

(army 49.0%,

navy 21.6%,

air

force 29.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1989): 4.2% (world

4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$605.

Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Includes separately administered Isles of Scilly (area 6 sq mi [16 sq km]; pop. 2,000). 3Geographic entity only; since April 1, 1986, the administrative functions of the former metropolitan county councils have been dispersed among other local authorities. 4Comprises 26 local government districts not shown separately. SIncludes three separately administered island groups (Orkney 377 sq mi [976 sq km], pop: 19,710; Shetland 553 sq mi [1,432 sq km], pop. 22,640; Western Isles 1,119 sq mi [5,808 sq km], pop. 29,350). 6Great Britain only. 7Figures in parentheses are for Northern Ireland en 81982. 9England and Wales only. 101984. 1!Manufacturing includes Mining. 12Includes 2,732,000 unemployed not distributed by sector. 13Plus rent; less imputed bank service charges. M4July. SMay. !6June. 171988. 181990, 191992. 20Primarily for fodder. 211987. 221991. 23Includes value-added taxes. ~4British Rail only. 25Public sector only. 26Third level. 271987-88. 281984-85. 29Universities only. 30A survey in 1986-87, however, put the number of functional illiterates at 9-12% of the adult population.

Nations of the World

United States

Major cities (1990): New York 7,322,564: Los Angeles 3,485,398; Chicago

2,783,726; Houston 1,630,553; Philadelphia 1,585,577; San Diego 1,110,549; Detroit 1,027,974; Dallas 1,006,877; Phoenix 983,403; San Antonio 935,933.

Official name: United States of America.

Form of government: federal republic

Other principal cities (1990)

with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; House of Representatives [4351]). Head of state and government:

population Akron Albuquerque

Anaheim Anchorage

President. Capital: Washington, D.C.

Arlington (Tex.)

Official language: none. Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: 1 dollar (U.S.$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994)

1 U.S.$= £0.63; 1 £=U.S.$1.59. Area and population

area2

_population _

Capitals

Alabama Alaska

Montgomery Juneau

51,705 591,004

Phoenix Little Rock Sacramento Denver Hartford Dover

133,915 1,530,693

114,000 53,187 158,706 104,091 5,018 2,045

4,229,000 619,000

295,259 137,754 411,407 269,594 12,997 5,294

58,664 58,910

151,939 152,576

3,994,000 2,445,000 31,902,000 3,631,000 3,276,000 709,000

6,471

16,760

83,564 57,871 36,413

1,200,000

216,430 149,885 94,309

1,126,000 11,782,000 5,769,000

56,275 82,277

145,752 213,096

40,410 47,752 33,265 10,460

2,845,000 2,575,000

104,659. 123,677 86,156 27,091

3,820,000 4,336,000 1,236,000 5,023,000

Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Minois Indiana lowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri ' Montana Nebraska

—sami__s

_sqkm____

Tallahassee Atlanta Honolulu Boise Springfield Indianapolis Des Moines Topeka Frankfort Baton Rouge Augusta Annapolis Boston Lansing St. Paul Jackson Jefferson City Helena Lincoln

8,284

21,455

5,983,000

97,102 86,614 47,689

251,493 224,329 123,514

9,531,000 4,573,000 2,649,000.

69,697 147,046 77,355

180,514 380,847 200,349

Nevada New Hampshire

Carson City Concord

110,561 9,279

286,352 24,032

5,255,000 849,000 1,632,000 1,429,000 1,125,000

New Jersey

Trenton

7,787

20,168

7,885,000

121,593 52,735 52,669 70,702 44,787

314,924 136,583 136,412 183,117 115,998

1,645,000 18,159,000 7,049,000 637,000 11,143,000

69,956 97,073

181,185 251,418

3,251,000 3,086,000

46,043 1,212 31,113 77,116 42,144

119,251 3,139 80,582 199,730 109,152

12,093,000 1,002,000 3,690,000 727,000 5,161,000

266,807

691,027

18,291,000

84,899

219,887

1,901,000

9,614 40,767 68,139 24,232 66,215 97,809

24,900 105,586 176,479 62,758 171,496 253,324

576,000 6,558,000 5,376,000 1,820,000

69 3,679,1923

179 9,529,063

New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee

Texas

Santa Fe Albany Raleigh Bismarck Columbus

Oklahoma City Salem Harrisburg Providence Columbia Pierre Nashville

Austin

Utah

Salt Lake City

Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming District Dist. of Columbia TOTAL

Montpelier Richmond Olympia Charleston Madison Cheyenne

—

Honolulu Indianapolis

Oklahoma City Omaha

365,272 741,952

Pittsburgh Portland (Ore.)

672,971

369,879 437,319

Riverside Rochester (N.Y.) Sacramento St. Louis St. Paul

226,505

Jacksonville

Charlotte Cincinnati Cleveland

Jersey City Kansas City (Mo.) Las Vegas Lexington (Ky.) Long Beach Louisville Memphis Mesa

228,537 435,146 258,295 225,366 429,433 269,063 610,337 288,091

395,934 364,040 505,616 281,140 632,910 257,453

Miami Milwaukee Minneapolis Nashville New Orleans Newark

467,610 515,342

Norfolk Oakland

Corpus Christi Denver El Paso

441,719 335,795

231,636 369,365 396,685 272,235 238,629 723,959 782,248 293,742

St. Petersburg

358,548 628,088 368,383 510,784 496,938 275,221

San Francisco San Jose Santa Ana Seattle Tampa Toledo Tucson Tulsa Virginia Beach

516,259 280,015 332,943 405,390 362,307 393,069

261,229 372,242

Washington, D.C. Wichita

606,900 304,011

Place of birth (1990): native-born 227,078,000 (91.3%); foreign-born 21,632,000 (8.77%), of which Mexico 4,447,000, Germany (East and West) 1,163,000, Philippines 998,000, Canada 871,000, United Kingdom 765,000, Cuba 751,000, South Korea 663,000, Italy 640,000, Vietnam

13,973,000 6,987,000

India 463,000, Japan 422,000, Poland 397,000, 219,000, Greece 189,000, other 8,208,000.

556,000, China 543,000,

U.S.S.R.

337,000,

Portugal

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 15.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1991) legitimate 70.5%; illegitimate 29.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.0; median age at first marriage (1991): men 26.3 years, women 24.1 years.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.6. Life expectancy at birth (1992): white male 73.2 years, black and other male

67.8 years; white female 79.7 years, black and other female 75.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (12 months ending May 1993): cardiovascular diseases 350.0, of which ischemic heart disease 180.0, other

forms of heart disease 76.2, cerebrovascular diseases 57.4, atherosclerosis 5.3, other cardiovascular diseases 10.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 195.3;

diseases of the respiratory system 71.9, of which pneumonia 30.2; accidents

and adverse effects 31.6, of which motor-vehicle accidents 14.1; diabetes mellitus 21.3; AIDS 13.7; suicide 12.2; chronic liver disease and cirrhosis 9.1; homicide 8.5.

Morbidity rates of infectious diseases per 100,000 population (1992): gonorrhea 196.1; chicken pox 62.0; syphilis 44.2; AIDS

17.8; salmonellosis 16.0; tuber-

culosis 10.4; shigellosis 9.4; hepatitis A (infectious) 9.0; hepatitis B (serum) 6.3; aseptic meningitis 4.8; mumps 1.6. Incidence of chronic health conditions per 1,000 population (1992): chronic sinusitus 143.5; arthritis 130.4; deformities or orthopedic impairments 123.7; hypertension 108.9; hay fever 100.6; hearing impairment 93.1; heart conditions 84.5; chronic bronchitis 52.8; asthma 48.4; hemorrhoids 37.4.

Social indicators

5,109,000 480,000

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: incomplete primary education 6.2%; primary 4.4%; incomplete secondary 11.0%; secondary 38.6%; some postsecondary 18:4%; 4-year higher degree or more 21.4%. Number of earned degrees (1991-92): bachelor’s

567,000 260,711,0003

1,105,000;

master’s

degree

344,000;

doctor’s

degree

39,800;

first-

professional degrees (in fields such as medicine, theology, and law) 74,900.

Demography Population (1994)4: 260,967,000. Density (1994)4: persons per sq mi 70.9, persons per sq km 27.3.

Distribution of income (1992) percentage of disposable household income by quintile

Urban-rural (1992): urban 75.6%; rural 24.4%, Sex distribution (1992): male 48.80%; female 51.20%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 21.9%; 15-29, 22.1%; 30-44, 24.4%; 45-59, 14.9%; 60-74, 11.3%; 75 and over, 5.4%. Population projection: (2000) 275,512,000; (2010) 298,865,000. Doubling time: 101 years. Population by race and Hispanic origin (1992): non-Hispanic white 74.87%; non-Hispanic black 11.9%; Hispanic 9.5%; Asian and Pacific Islander 3.1%;

American Indian and Eskimo 0.7%. ’ Religious affiliation (1990): Christian 86.5%, of which Protestant 52.77%, RoCatholic 26.2%,

266,406 226,338

population

447,619 354,202

261,721

degree

man

Fort Worth Fresno

394,017 222,103 465,622 736,014 219,531 265,968 574,283 328,123

Columbus

estimate_

population

223,019 384,736

Atlanta Aurora (Colo.) Austin Baltimore Baton Rouge Birmingham Boston Buffalo

Colorado Springs

1994

States Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware

741

other Christian

7.6%; Muslim

1.9%; Jewish

1.8%;

nonreligious 7.5%; other 2.3%. _ 5 Mobility (1992). Population living in the same residence as in 1991: 83.0%; different residence, same county 11.0%; different county, same state 3.0%; é different state 3.0%; moved from abroad 1.0%.

Households (1993). Total households 96,391,000 (married-couple families 53,. - 171,000 [55.2%]). Average household size 2.6; 1 person 24.5%, 2 persons 32.4%, 3 persons 17.5%, 4 persons 15.5%, 5 or more persons 10.1%. Family households: 68,144,000 (70.7%); nonfamily 28,247,000 (29.3%), of which

; 5; Dt ys 1-person 83.7%. Immigration (1992%): permanent immigrants admitted 974,000, from Mexico

21.9%, Vietnam 8.0%, Philippines 6.3%, former U.S.S.R. 4.5%, Dominican Republic 4.3%, China 3.8%, India 3.8%, El Salvador 2.7%, Poland 2.6%, South Korea 2.0%, Jamaica 1.9%, Taiwan 1.7%, Canada 1.6%, Ukraine

1.5%, Colombia 1.4%, Iran 1.4%. Refugee arrivals (1992): 117,037.

1

2

3

4

38

94

158

242

5 (highest)

469

Quality of working life (1993). Average workweek: 39.3 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers for (1992): injury or accident 2,700; death 6.0. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury, permanent disability, and death (1988) 56.6%. Average days per 1,000 workdays lost to labour stoppages (1993): 0.1. Average duration of journey to work (1979): 22.5 minutes (private automobile 85.7%, public transportation 5.9%, bicycle or motorcycle 1.3%, foot 3.9%, work at home 2.3%, other 0.9%). Rate per 1,000 employed workers of discouraged workers (unemployed no longer seeking work; 1992): 6.9. Access to services (1991). Proportion of occupied dwellings having access to: electricity, virtually 100.0%; safe public water supply 97.9% (13.2% from wells); public sewage collection 75.4%; septic tanks 24.1%; public fire protection, n.a. Stor ; : é Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last presidential election (1992): 54.0%. Population age 18 and over participating in voluntary work (1991): 51.1%. Trade-union membership in total workforce (1993): 15.8%. Practicing religious population in total affiliated population (church attendance; 1987): once a week 47%; once in six months 67%; once a year 74%. Social deviance (1992). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 9.3; rape 42.8; robbery 263.6; aggravated assault 441.8; motor-vehicle theft 631.5; burglary and housebreaking 1,168.2; larceny-theft 3,103.0; drug-abuse

742

Britannica World Data

violation 309.27; drunkenness 260.17. Drug and substance users (population age 26 and over; 1992): alcohol 47.8%; tobacco (cigarettes) 26.2%; marijuana 4.4%; cocaine 0.6%; tranquilizers 0.5%7; analgesics 0.5%7; stimulants 0.2%7; hallucinogens 0.1%7; heroin, n.a. Rate per 100,000 population

of

suicide (1993): 12.2.

violent crime total

murder

rape

940.2 1,359.4 686.5 Be 1,124.5 980.8 1,012.0

12:7 16.7 3.5 14.6 17.5 16.5 17.6

Los Angeles

1,778.6

20.9

42.0

Miami Minneapolis New York Philadelphia Pittsburgh St. Louis

2,037.0 478.0 2,163.7 673.1 409.7 1,003.4

17.0 43 27.1 11.0 43 15.7

54.2 53.5 38,2 33.6 29.3 173.2

1,085.9

11.0

38.2

774.9

15.7

30.7

Dallas Detroit Houston

San Francisco

Washington, D.C.

total Atlanta Baltimore Boston

Chicago Dallas Detroit

Houston Los Angeles Miami Minneapolis New York

Philadelphia Pittsburgh St. Louis San Francisco Washington, D.C.

000 (U.S.$24,700 per capita).

Gross domestic product and national income

(in U.S.$'000,000,000)

Crime rates per 100,000 population in metropolitan areas (1992)

Atlanta Baltimore Boston Chicago

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$6,378,100,000,-

6,991.7 6,022.9 4,040.5 5,357.0 7,327.2 5,506.3 5,935.7 5,629.0 10,299.5 5,108.3 6,326.8 3,769.0 2,872.1 4,904.6 5,960.1 4,796.6

59.6 53.9 33.6 ry 64.1 66.6 57.6

property crime burglary larceny 1,631.7 1,358.0 982.7 1,129.1 1,686.0 1,065.5 1,480.2 1,400.3 2,348.6 1,051.5 1,403.0 784.3 612.7 1,194.3 1,107.0 837.2

4,488.9 3,824.3 2,321.6 3,384.3 4,584.1 3,397.0 3,124.8 2,779.3 6,172.4 3,576.0 3,202.2 2,225.2 1,623.0 3,105.6 3,821.4 3,286.3

assault

robbery

370.1 637.1 183.3 577.4 422.7 366.1 399.2 750.1 902.5 180.4 :237.1 329.6 179.1 276.5 578.1 328.1

497.8 651.7 466.1 653.7 620.2 531.6 537.3 965.6 1,063.2 239.8 861.4 298.9 197.0 537.9 458.5 400.4

_autotheft 871.1 840.6 736.2 843.6 1,057.1 1,043.7 1,330.7 1,449.5 1,778.4 480.8 1,721.4 759.5 636.5 604.7 1,031.6 673.1

1989 _1990_

Gross domestic product By type of expenditure Personal consumption expenditures Durable goods Nondurable goods

Services Gross private domestic

Recreational expenditures (1991): U.S.$258,700,000,00019 (television and radio receivers 21.7%; nondurable toys and sports equipment 11.0%; sports supplies 10.2%; magazines and newspapers 7.8%; golfing, bowling, and other participatory activities 7.3%; books and maps 6.0%; spectator amusements 4.0%, of which spectator sports 1.5%, theatre and opera 1.4%, movies 1.1%; flowers, seeds, and potted plants 3.6%).

inventories Net exports of goods and services Exports Imports Government purchases of goods and services Federal State and local By major type of product Goods output Durable goods Nondurable goods Services Structures

Budget (1994). Revenue: U.S.$1,259,900,000,000 (individual income tax 43.6%, social-insurance taxes and contributions 36.5%, corporation income tax

11.1%, other 8.8%). Expenditures: U.S.$1,480,000,000,000 (social security and medicare 31.5%, defense 18.9%, income security 14.4%, interest on debt 13.8%, health 7.3%, other 14.1%). Total national debt (Oct. 17, 1994): U.S.$4,613,524,000,000.

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1993)

Furniture and fixtures Leather and leather products Miscellaneous manufacturing industries Mining Oil and gas extraction Coal mining Nonmetallic, except fuels Metal mining Construction Special trade contractors Heavy construction contractors. General contractors and operative builders

6,038.6

6,377.9

3,450.1 474.6 1,130.1 1,845.5

3,657.3 480.3 1,193.7 1,983.3

3,887.7 446.1 1,251.5 2,190.1

4,139.9 497.3 1,300.9 2,341.6

4,391.8 537.9 1,350.0 2,503.9

Ses 742.9

741.0 746.1

SANA 731.3

796.5 789.1

891.7 876.1

28.3

—5.0

=10.2

7.3

15.6

— 46.1 626.2 672.3

—31.2 672.8 704.0

—21.8 598.2 620.0

— 29.6 640.5 670.1

— 63.6 661.7 725.3

1,025.6 400.1 625.6

1,098.1 424.0 674.1

1,090.5 447.3 643.2

1,131.8 448.8 313.8

1,158.1 443.4 714.6

2,072.7 906.6 1,166.0 2,671.2 456.9

2,143.3 928.0 1,215.2 2,864.2 457.4

2,182.5 888.4 1,294.1 3,030.3 464.7

2,312.8 977.9 1,334.9 3,221.1 504.6

2,421.9 1,047.9 1,374.0 3,410.5 545.5

4,223.3

4,418.4

4,544.2

4,836.6

5,140.3

3,079.0

3,244.2

379.3

402.5

8.2 275.2 324.0

6.9 298.3 466.7

3,390.8 368.0 —10.4 346.3 449.5

3,582.0 414.3 =8:9) 407.2 442.0

3,772.2 321.0 12.6 466.6 445.6

140.8 95.3 99.0 669.3 685.0 1,002.5

100.9 251.3 895.3 501.7 393.6 151.0 103.7 101.5 700.3 748.9 1,085.8

105.3 268.1 929.0 523.0 406.1 161.8 107.4 106.9 742.8 815.6 1,171.0

699.5 17.4

734.5 7.3

765.3 0.2

Rental income of persons Corporate profits Net interest By industry division (excl. capital consumption adjustment) Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and construction Manufacturing Durable Nondurable Transportation Communications Public utilities : Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insurance, real estate Services Government and government enterprise Other

employees

hourly wage as a % of all wages

value added (U.S.$'000,000)7

12,109 10,500 20,624 52,135 15,962 10,326 36,105 6,342 14,515 6,771 22,872 16,166 33,982 6,412 138 2,254 11,613 2,193

1,078,200 1,698,500 1,733,100 1,882,100 1,503,100 875,600 1,306,900 683,100 889,700 673,500 975,700 523,300 698,800 666,900 46,200 158,100 481,000 116,400

137.4 146.1 96.6 118.1 104.4 113.6 108.3 124.4 97.9 129.8 65.6 110.2 89.8 82.7 161.4 170.2 86.6 70.7

154,793 1513979 145,336 124,235 106,669 82,536 76,670 58,281 50,295 46,605 33,432 31,839 26,995 26,925 24,484 24,024 20,669 4,293 19,999

101.0 261.5 803.8 465.6 338.2 136.6 87.4 90.2 607.5 613.8 883.0

103.4

90.9

267.3

246.8

806.5

841.0

461.5 345.0 144.0 92.8

464.2 376.8

92.0

417 37.6

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991 in value U.S.$'000,000,000 Agriculture

National economy

Petroleum and coal products

1993

5,677.5

Proprietors’ income

ing: automobile 84.9%8; telephone 93.9%; radio receiver 99.0%; television receiver 98.3%; air conditioner 69.9%9; washing machine 76.3%9; videocassette recorder 72.5%; cable television 60.2%.

Manufacturing Chemical and related products Transportation equipment Food and related products Machinery, except electrical Electric and electronic machinery Instruments and related products Fabricated metal products Paper and related products Rubber and plastic products Primary metals Apparel and related products Stone, clay, and glass products Lumber and wood Textile-mill products Tobacco products

1992

5,465.1

investment Fixed investment Changes in business

National income (incl. capital consumption adjustment) By type of income Compensation of employees

Leisure (1992). Favourite leisure activities (percentage of total population that undertook activity at least once in the previous year): movie 59.0%, amusement park 50.0%, sports event 37.0%, live play 31.0%, art museum 27.0%; exercising 60.0%, reading literature 54.0%, playing sports 39.0%. Material well-being (1992). Occupied dwellings with householder possess-

no, of enterprises 11

1991

5,200.8

109

1993 % of total value

labour force 12

% of labour force 12

1.9

3,074,000

24

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities

92 1,026 223 170

1.6 17.9 3.9 3.0

669,000 19,557,000 7,220,000

0.5 15.3 5.6

Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public administration, defense Services Other TOTAL

336 907 1,040

5.9 15.8 18.2

721 1,090 1013 5,7233

12.6 } 19.0 0.213 100.0

8,481,000

6.6

24,769,000 7,962,000

19.3 6.2

47,573,000

37.2

8,734,000 14 128,040,0003

6.814 100.03

Business activity (1990): number of businesses 20,054,000 (sole proprietorships 73.7%, active corporations 18.5%, active partnerships 7.8%), of which services 8,631,000, wholesaling and retailing 3,849,000; business receipts $12,186,000,000,000 (active corporations 89.6%, sole proprietorships 6.0%, active partnerships 4.4%), of which wholesaling and retailing $3,563,000,000,000, services $1,140,000,000,000; net profit $529,000,000,000 (active corporations

70.1%, sole proprietorships 26.7%, partnerships 3.2%), of which services $122,000,000,000,

wholesaling

and

retailing $47,000,000,000.

New

business

concerns and business failures (1993): total number of new incorporations

667,341 15; total failures 85,982, of which commercial service 24,311, retail trade 15,600; failure rate per 10,000 concerns 95.9; current liabilities of

failed concerns $48,281,000,000, of which retail trade $9,644,000,000, manufacturing and mining $4,931,300,000; average liability $561,500. Business expenditures for new plant and equipment (1993): total $584,600,000,000,

of which

trade, services,

and communications

$297,700,000,000,

manufac-

turing businesses $179,500,000,000 (nondurable goods 54.6%, durable goods 45.4%), public utilities $75,000,000,000, transportation $22,400,000,000, mining $10,100,000,000.

Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production/catch in U.S.$°000,000 except as noted; 1992): corn (maize) 19,378, soybeans 11,843,

16,544

362,400

86.4

22,910 3,905 5,775 1,027

352,600 95,900 104,300 48,000

130.5 158.7 118.7 140.4

342,000 36,600

3,019,900 779,800

136.7 132.5

117,48011 44,94011

cantaloupe 291, broccoli 280, pears 274, walnuts 268, lemons 256, sunflower

157,600

1,117,400

126.1

33,80211

animals) 99,559,000 cattle, 57,684,000 pigs, 10,750,000 sheep, 5,450,000 horses, 1,437,000,000 chickens; roundwood 495,800,000 cu m; fish and shellfish catch

80,0491 17,06811 9,233.11 4,61011

hay 10,506, wheat 7,979, cotton

lint 4,248, tobacco

3,059, potatoes 2,160,

grapes 1,825, sorghum 1,693, oranges 1,599, apples 1,422, tomatoes 1,310, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,285, sugar beets 1,157, rice 1,099, barley 951, sugar-

cane 844, lettuce 822, strawberries 685, almonds 670, onions 613, cottonseed 607, dry edible beans 467, grapefruit 426, oats 391, peaches 373, carrots 338,

seeds 246, pecans 240, cranberries 213, celery 206; livestock (number of live

Nations of the World 3,678,ofwhich fish 2,013 (including salmon 582, Alaska pollack 324), shellfish

1,665 (including shrimp 480, crabs 471). Mining (metal content in metric tons,

except as noted; 1993): iron 34,617,000; copper 1,787,000; zinc 488,000; lead

354,000; molybdenum 45,400; vanadium 1,700; mercury 70; silver 1,700,000 kg; gold 330,000 kg; helium 93,000,000 cu m. Quarrying (metric tons; 1993): sand and gravel 812,000,000; crushed stone 780,000,000; cement 72,600,000;

clay 42,200,000; common 16,600,000; gypsum

salt 38,000,000; phosphate rock 31,800,000; lime

15,500,000. Manufacturing (metric tons except as noted;

743

black household U.S.$25,409; sources of income: wages and salaries 57.8%,

transfer payments 16.7%, self-employment 8.1%, other 17.4%; expenditure: transportation 21.4%, housing 15.5%, food 10.8%, fuel and utilities 8.0%, wearing apparel 7.0%, recreation 6.8%, health 6.7%, expenditures in restauoe Yo

hotels 5.5%, household furnishings 4.8%, education 1.7%, other

Selected household characteristics (1993). Total number of households 96,-

1993): crude steel 87,343,000; paper and paperboard 76,688,000; wood pulp

391,000, of which (by race) white 85.2%, black 11.6%, other 3.2%; in central cities 31.4%, in suburbs 46.3%, outside metropolitan areas 22.3%;

carpets and rugs 1,134,300,000 sq m15; footwear 167,803,000 pairs15; motor-

households 68,144,000, of which married couple 78.0%, female head with own children?! under age 18, 7.5%, female head without own children21 under 18, 4.9%; nonfamily households 28,247,000, of which female living alone 50.3%, male living alone 33.2%, other 16.5%.

57,189,000; pig iron 48,275,000; sulfuric acid 40,153,000; coke 21,237,00 015; phosphoric acid 10,474,000; cheese 5,877,000; newsprint 5,833,000; aerospac e vehicles (sales) U.S.$121,852,000,00015; machine tools (new orders for metalcutting-type tools) U.S.$2,322,400,000; cotton fabric 4,402,000,000 sq m;

vehicle tires 237,448,000 units; major household appliances 51,277,00 0 units, of which 8,109,000 refrigerators, 7,703,000 microwave ovens, 6,793,000 washing machines, 5,074,000 clothes driers; television receivers 21,304,-

000 units!5; radio receivers 18,405,000 units; new passenger cars (factory sales) 5,955,000 units; new trucks and buses (factory sales) 4,786,000 units. Construction (completed; 1993): private U.S.$299,563,000,000, of which residential U.S.$208,092,000,000, nonresidential U.S.$91,471,000,000; public U.S.$55,103,000,000, of which residential U.S.$5,139,000,000, nonresidential

U.S.$49,964,000,000.

hardware, garden supply, and mobile home dealers

Furniture, home furnishings, equipment stores Apparel and accessory stores Drugstores and proprietary stores Liquor stores Wholesale trade 18

Durable goods Machinery, equipment, and supplies

Motor vehicles, automotive equipment

Professional and commercial equipment Electrical goods Lumber and other construction materials

Metals and minerals, except petroleum Hardware, plumbing, heating equipment and supplies Furniture and home. furnishings

Miscellaneous durable goods Nondurable goods Groceries and related products Petroleum and petroleum

products Farm-products raw materials Apparel and accessories Drugs, drug proprietaries, and druggists’ sundries Paper and paper products Beer, wine, and distilled alcoholic beverages Chemicals and allied products

Miscellaneous nondurable goods Services 16, 19 Health

processing services Legal services

no. of establishments 1,547,300 84,200 187,800

no. of employees

hourly wage as a % of all wages

annual sales or receipts (U.S.$’000,000)

19,954,000 1,432,300 3,227,800

67.1 101.8 71.8

2,081,600 454,400 392,400

36,900 415,200 101,900

2,416,500 7,044,300 626,400

71,700

110,700 147,600

67.6 49.417 61.7

267,000 211,000 133,500

805,500

80.0

115,900

824,100 1,152,000

87.9 64.2

113,700 106,100

49,100 30,600

588,000 114,200

75.1 xo

80,900 21,200

466,700

5,984,000

108.7

1,922,600

292,800

3,419,000

112.0

979,400

114,400

721,900

110.9

180,900

43,000

456,100

98.5

176,700

i

744,900

135.3

150,700

35,300

445,000

116.8

143,200

19,100

222,200

103.6

80,800

11,100

132,600

112.0

70,000

23,100 14,500 Ma 173,900 42,100

268,700 138,200 289,300 2,565,000 856,000

105.8 98.8 87.8 104.3 106.6

47,100 34,900 95,000 943,200 289,500

16,700

165,700

98.6

121,600

12,600

113,200

777

96,900

16,900

206,900

100.2

75,600

4,900 16,800

198,900 246,800

124.7 110.4

72,800 58,800

5,800 12,700 45,300 2,141,700

151,400 140,300 486,100 30,658,000

119.8 122.2 88.2 99.1

54,500 38,000 135,000 1,299,400

447,900

8,823,500

108.9

285,000

265,900

4,997,400

‘97.9

201,900

100,700

43,800

911,600

153.2

145,900

938,400

142.3

96,200

162,800

960,900

85.9

79,500

43,800

699,000

130.3

70,000

40,900 34,000 193,900-

1,626,100 580,800 1,095,800

68.2 150.0 72.8

62,100 61,500 59,100

79,800 36,800

1,449,000 426,800

71,7 113.6

51,100 43,800

Management and public relations

Hotels and motels Engineering services Personal services Amusement and recreation Motion pictures

£23 SDR23

1.78 1.34

1.64 1.28

1.78 1.36

A hes 1.37

1.76 1.41

1.50 1.40

1.54 1.46

36.74 9.64

63.55 9:95

72.26 10.99

66.66 11.24

60.27 8.50

62.35 9.02

64.39 9.70

9:75

9.05

9.08

9:49

914.76.

.41,80).

12:18

17.36 261.87

4455 261.93

5219 261.91

27.62

45.93 261.91

27.78

40.01 261.84

27.84

4153 261.79

27.86

42.51 261.76

28.13

28.67

28.70

6.5 8.24

7.0 8.56

6.5 8.25

3.5 6.81

3.0 5.31

3.0 444

3.50 6.48

78.5

94.7

100.0

1255

1323

134.5

International reserves (U.S.$) 24 Total (excl. gold; '000,000,000) SDRs ('000,000,000) ('000,000,000)

Automotive repair, services, garages

1988 _ 1989 EIS 1990 ESSAI BO po1991 OOILal OO2L palGO3id, wiiO94226 Exchange rate, U.S.$ per:

Foreign exchange

Business, except computer services Computer and data-

|Financial aggregates

Reserve pos. in IMF

Retail and wholesale trade and services (1993)

Retail trade 16 Automotive dealers Food stores General merchandise group stores Eating and drinking places Gasoline service stations Building materials,

(by tenure) owned 62,220,000 (64.5%), rented 32,499,000 (33.7%); family

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,797,000,000,000 (2,757,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 907,400,000 (809,700,000); crude

(000,000,000) Gold (000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices

Central bank discount (%) 24 Govt. bond yield (%)23 Industrial share prices23 (1990 = 100) Balance of payments ($'000,000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

1141

— 126.97 — 115.71 —108.84 —73.44 —96.14-—112.74 — 447.31 — 477.38 — 497.55 — 489.40 —536.28 580.51 320.34 361.67 388.71 415.96 440.14 467.77 0.60 14.51 18.38 69.75 29.84 3.49

— 126.37 —101.20

—90.46

-—3.69

—66.30 — 109.25

Population economically active (1993): total 128,040,00012; activity rate of total population 49.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 76.2%; female 45.6%; unemployed 6.8%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index25

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

199422

90.5 96.5

94.9 99.0

100.0 100.0

104.2 98.1

107.4 99.6

110.6 101.7

113.6

Average employee earnings average hourly earnings in U.S.$ July 1993 July 1994 Manufacturing Durable goods Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Stone, clay, and glass products

average weekly earnings in U.S.$ July 1993 July 1994

12.29 9.64 9.28

12.63 9.87 9.57

511.26 391.38 368.42

531.7 404.67 383.76

11.90

12.16

511.70

533.82

Primary metal industries Fabricated metal products Machinery, except electrical Electrical and electronic

14.07 11,65 12.76

14.39 11.88 12.95

613.45 482.31 543.58

637.48 500.15 558.15

equipment Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufacturing Nondurable goods Food and kindred products Tobacco manufactures Textile mill products Apparel and other textile products Paper and allied products Printing and publishing Chemicals and allied products Petroleum and coal products Rubber and miscellaneous

11.25 15.57

11.58 16.42

462.38 650.83

479.41 696.21

12.46

497.76

11.02 10.47 18.62 8.88

9.58 11.29 10.70 20.38 9.12

364.49 444.11 425.08 670.32 363.19

515.84 378.41 460.63 445.12 772.40 375.74

7.02 11.34 11.91 14.82 18.43

7.30 11.83 12.13 15.21 18.94

259.74 492.20 453.77 637.26 812.76

272.29 516.97 465.79 655.55 829.57

10.61 7.55

10.74 7.96

436.07 288.41

446.78 300.89

Metal mining Coal mining

15.10 17.18

16.03 17,54

649.30 731.87

708.53 747.20

Oil and gas extraction Nonmetallic minerals, except fuels Construction Transportation and public utilities Wholesale trade

14.08

13.92

613.89

623.62

12.78 14.35 13.65 11.71 7.24

13.14 14.72 13.82 11.99 7.44

604.49 566.83 546.00 448.49 214.30

632.03 585.86 556.95 460.42 220.97

plastics products Leather and leather products Nonmanufacturing

12.26 9.37

petroleum (barrels; 1992) 2,617,000,000 (4,895,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 758,400,000 (828,600,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992)

Retail trade Finance, insurance, and real estate

11.24

11.71

400.14

418.05

503,332,000,000 (558,946,000,000). Domestic production of energy by source (1993): natural gas 32.5%, coal 31.1%, crude petroleum 22.0%, other20

Hotels, motels, and tourist courts Health services Legal services Miscellaneous services

7.38 11.76 15.22 15.62

7,58 12.12 15.61 14.55

233.95 386.90

239.53 398.75 540.11 568.91

14.4%. Energy consumption by source (1993): petroleum and petroleum products 40.2%, enn 248%, coal 23.4%, other20 11.6%; by end use (1992): industrial 37.2%, residential and commercial 35.5%, transportation 27:3%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 2.6; average

mean) annual income per household U.S.$39,020, of which average white household U.S.$40,780, average Hispanic5 household U.S.$29,602, average

528.13 573.25

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$74,560,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$52,585,000,000; number of foreign visitors (1992) 16,450,000 (6,979,000 from Europe, 4,699,000 from Asia, 1,423,000 from South America, 1,201,000 from Central America and the Caribbean); number of

744

Britannica World Data

nationals traveling abroad26 (1992) 15,965,000 (7,136,000 to Europe, 5,285,-

000 to Latin America2’). Land use (1991): forested 31.3%; meadows and pastures 26.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 20.5%; other 22.1%.

Foreign trade

Daily

newspapers (1992): total number 1,570; total circula-

tion 62,160,000; ingilacion as 1,000 population 243. Radio (199329): total number of receivers 538,000,000 (1 per 0.5 persons). Television (199429): total number of receivers 211,000,000 (1 per 1.2 persons). Telephones (1992; access lines): 140,000,000 (1 per 1.8 persons). Other communications media (1993) titles

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1989 1988 U.S.$'000,000,000 % of total

Communications.

= 152.1 23.0%

—118.5 15.5%

— 109.4 13.1%

1990

1991

1992

1993

Ole 11.4%

-99.2 9.8%

— 84.5 8.6%

a) 1:7, 11.1%

Print Books (new) of which

manufactures 29.4%; mineral fuels and lubricants 9.6%; chemicals and related products 5.0%; food and live animals 4.0%). Major import sources: Canada 19.1%; Japan 18.5%; Mexico 6.9%; Taiwan 5.4%; Germany 4.9%; U.K. 3.7%; South Korea 2.9%; France 2.6%; Italy 2.3%; Singapore 2.2%; Hong Kong 1.6%; Saudi Arabia 1.3%. Exports (1993): U.S.$464,767,000,000 (machinery and transport 45.0%, of which motor vehicles and parts 17.2%; basic and miscellaneous manufactures 18.8%; chemicals and related products 9.7%; food and live animals

7.1%; inedible crude materials 5.2%). Major export destinations: Canada 21.6%; Japan 10.3%; Mexico 9.0%; U.K. 5.6%; Germany 4.1%; Taiwan 3.5%; South Korea 3.2%; France 2.9%; The Netherlands 2.8%; Belgium-

Luxembourg 2.0%. Trade by commodity group (1993) exports U.S.$'000,000

imports U.S.$'000,000

SITC Group 00 Food and live animals 01 Beverages and tobacco 02 Crude materials, excluding fuels 03 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 04 Animal and vegetable oils, fat, and waxes 05 Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. 06 Basic manufactures 07 Machinery and transport equipment 08 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 09 Goods not classified by kind TOTAL

%

22,984

32,895

rien

5,512

6,503

1.4

15,374

24,341

9.2

55,582

9,736

2.1

1,000

1,461

0.3

29,166 66,168

45,066 36,609

9.7 7.9

259,975

208,986

104,485

50,630

20,398 580,644

48,540 464,767

9,169 2,967 6,202 178,469 100,177

10,289

Asia

257,742

12,684 41,636 23,972 150,730 47,950 102,780 115,766 96,957 12,701 2,967 3,141 9,823 8,272 1,551

Japan Other Asia

39,930 24,119

107,268 150,474 117,451

Other Europe Oceania Australia Other Oceania Other TOTAL

97,824 15,802 1,744 2,081

4,730 3,294

1,436

f

914 580,664

731

Juvenile Language Law Literature Medicine Music Philosophy, psychology Poetry, drama Religion Science Sociology, economics Sports, recreation Technology Travel Periodicals8

5,062 548 904 1,867 2,651 315 1,589 839 2,274 2,153 6,408 914 1,720 340 3,731

of which Agriculture Business and economics Chemistry and physics Children’s periodicals Education Engineering Fine and applied arts General interest History

153 262 170 78 203 265 145 181 151

sciences Literature and language

_ Mathematics and science Medicine Philosophy and religion Physical education and recreation Political science Psychology Sociology and anthropology Zoology

136 138

94

Cinema's Feature films

431 traffic

Cellular telephones Number of subscribers

16,009,000

(pieces of mail) Post’ Mail Domestic International

165,851,000,000 165,058,000,000 793,000,000

Education and health student/

Primary (age 5-13) 30 } Secondary and vocational (age 14-17) Higher, including teachertraining colleges

teachers

students

teacher ratio

1,478,000

35,031,000

23.7

1,076,000

12,841,000

11.9

880,000

14,558,000

18.2

84,578

5,758

Literacy: studies in the late 1980s indicated that adult “functional” literacy may not exceed 85%. Health (1992): doctors of medicine 653,10031 (1 per 391 persons), of which office-based practice 387,900 (including specialties in internal medicine 16.8%, general and family practice 15.1%, pediatrics 7.5%, obstetrics and gynecology 7.0%, general surgery 6.4%, psychiatry 5.6%, anesthesiology 5.2%, orthopedics 4.1%, ophthalmology 3.8%); doctors of osteopathy 33,500; nurses 1,853,024 (1 per 138 persons); dentists 155,058 (1 per 1,647 persons); hospital beds 1,174,000 (1 per 218 persons), of which nonfederal 92.4% (community

U.S.$'000,000

14,547 1,847 12,700 185,260 110,922

1,482 1,960

Home economics

schools

exports

Africa South Africa Other Africa Americas Canada Caribbean countries and Central America Mexico South America

relations Law Library and information

443

Biography Business Education Fiction General works History

Education (1992-93)

Direction of trade (1993) imports U.S.$'000,000

1,186 1,065 4,841

Agriculture Art

Imports (1993): U.S.$580,644,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 44.8%, of which motor vehicles and parts 13.7%; basic and miscellaneous

1,124 1,801

Home economics Industrial arts Journalism and communications Labour and industrial

42,217

hospitals 80.9%, psychiatric 11.8%, long-term general and special 1.8%), federal 7.6%; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 8.3.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,642 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 138% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. Per capita consumption of major food groups (pounds annually; 1992): milk 230.8; grains 187.0; sweeteners

143.3; potatoes 133.5; red meat 114.1; fresh

vegetables 109.3; fresh fruits 98.7; fats and oils 65.6; poultry products 60.1; fish and shellfish 14.7.

810 464,767

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 1,729,700 (army 33.9%, navy 29.5%, air force 26.0%, marines

Transport and communications

oon 4.9%

Transport. Railroads (1993): length 136,000 mi!5, 219,000 km15; passengermi 6,062,000,000, passenger-km 9,756,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,088,990,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,590,048,000,000. Roads (1992): total length

10.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP

(world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$1,110. Military aid

1993): total $4,143,000,000 (Middle East 76.2%, of which Israel 43.4%, Egypt 31.4%; Europe 20.8%, of which Turkey 10.9%; Latin America 1.8%).

3,902,000 mi, 6,280,000 km (paved 88.9%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 144,213,000; trucks and buses 46,149,000. Merchant

marine (1993): vessels

(1,000 gross tons and over) 603; total deadweight tonnage 20,419,000. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 480,463,000,000, passenger-km 773,232,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 13,320,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 19,447,000,000;

localities (1993) with scheduled flights 83428, Certified route passenger/ cargo air carriers (1992) 77; operating revenue (U.S.$'000,000; 1991) 74,942, of which domestic 56,119, international 18,823; operating expenses 76,669, of which domestic 56,596, international 20,073.

Intercity passenger and freight traffic by mode of transportation (1992) cargo

Rail Road Inland water

Air Petroleum pipeline TOTAL

passenger

traffic

% of

(000,000,000 ton-mi)

nat’l total

1,107 815

37.4 27.6

454

15.3

11 571 2,958

0.4 19.3 100.0

traffic (000,000,000 passenger-mi)

% of

14 1,687

0.7 81.6

—

367 — 2,0663

nat’! total

—

17.8 ~ 100.03

‘Excludes 4 delegates having only committee voting privileges. 2Total area excluding U.S. share of Great Lakes is 3,618,770 sq mi (9,372,571 sq km). 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes military personnel residing overseas. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 6Fiscal year ending September 30. 71991. 81988, 91990. 10Constant 1987 dollars. 111987. 12Excludes military personnel overseas. !3Statistical discrepancy. 14Unemployed. 151992. 16Number of establishments for 1991. 17Excludes tips. 18Number of establishments for 1987. 19Annual receipts for 1992. 20Includes hydroelectric, nuclear, and geothermal power. 21“Own children” includes adopted children and stepchildren. 22July. 23Period average. 24End-of-year. 25Manufacturing sector only. 26Excludes Canada and Mexico, 27Includes Central and South America. 28Includes 292 localities in Alaska, 2°January 1. 30Primary includes kindergarten. 31578,100 professionally active.

Nations of the World

Uruguay

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

- Official name: Republica Oriental del Uruguay (Oriental Republic of Uruguay). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Senate [31]1; Chamber of Representatives [99]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Montevideo. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none.

1992

in value NUr$’000,000

Agriculture Mining

Paysandé

Rio Negro Rivera Rocha Salto

San José Soriano

Tacuarembo Treinta y Tres

170,183 1,771

14.5 0.1

Public utilities

214,945 64,385

785,152

18.3 5.4

2,063,285 4,501,501 3,583,271 3,379,347

— 1,456,6983

TOTAL

34,523,202

17,377

6.0 13.0 10.4

59,289 139,242 42,688

5.0 11.9 3.6

Bees

OG

9.8

8,817,939

Other

2.3

25.5 —4,23

1.5

97,6684

100.0

8.34

1,176,808

100.0

ticipation rates: ages 14 and over, 57.5%; female 40.7%; unemployed 2.5%).

population

Capitals Artigas Canelones Melo Colonia del Sacramento Durazno Trinidad Florida Minas Maldonado Montevideo Paysandu Fray Bentos

sq mi

sq km

1985 census

4,605 1,751 5,270 2,358 4,495 1,986 4,022 3,867 1,851 205 5,375 3,584

13,922 9,282

3,618 4,074 5,468

9,370 10,551 14,163

San José de Mayo

1,927

4,992

Mercedes

3,478

9,008

Tacuarembo Treinta y Tres

5,961 3,679

15,438 9,529

69,145 364,248 78,416 112,717 55,077 24,739 66,474 61,466 94,314 1,311,976 103,763 48,644 89,475 66,601 108,487 89,893 79,439 83,498 46,869

67,574 463 68,037

175,016 1,199 176,215

2,955,241

Rivera Rocha Salto

:

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

11,928 4,536 13,648 6,106 11,643 5,144 10,417

10,016 4,793 530

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer price index

Monthly earnings indexS

1987

1988

288.5

467.9 524.8

319.8

1989 844.4 946.1

1990

1991

1992

1993

1,794 1,844

3,624 3,909

6,105 6,706

9,408 10,844

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household

size (1985) 3.3; avg.

annual income per household (1985) NUr$266,261 (U.S.$2,625); sources of income®: wages 53.5%, self-employment 17.0%, transfer payments and other 29.5%; expenditure (1982-83)7: food 39.9%, housing 17.6%, transportation and communications 10.4%, health care 9.3%, clothing 7.0%, durable goods 6.3%, recreation 3.1%, education 1.3%, personal effects and other 5.1%.

Land use (1991): forested 3.8%; meadows and pastures 77.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.5%; other 11.4%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

+3003 12.0%

+478.8 17.6%

+435.4 14.8%

+44.9 1.4%

1992

1993

—248.9 6.8%

—536.7 14.0%

Imports (1993): U.S.$2,324,372,000 (machinery and appliances 23.4%; transport equipment 17.5%; chemical products 11.5%; mineral products 9.7%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 6.1%; base metals and products 5.7%;

Demography Population (1994): 3,168,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 46.6, persons per sq km 18.0. Urban-rural (1992): urban 89.3%; rural 10.7%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.74%; female 51.26%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 25.8%; 15-29, 23.0%; 30-44, 18.9%; 45-59, 15.8%; 60-74, 11.9%; 75 and over, 4.6%. Population projection: (2000) 3,274,000; (2010) 3,453,000.

Doubling time: 87 years. Ethnic composition (1990): white (mostly Spanish, Italian, or mixed SpanishItalian) 86.0%; mestizo 8.0%; mulatto or black 6.0%. Religious affiliation (1988): Roman Catholic 66.0%; Protestant 2.0%; Jewish 0.8%; nonreligious and atheist 31.2%. Major cities (1985): Montevideo 1,311,976; Salto 80,823; Paysandt 76,191; Las

Piedras 58,288; Rivera 57,316.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1991): 17.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1983) legitimate 73.8%; illegitimate 26.2%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1991): 9.6 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1991): 8.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.1. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 69.3 years; female 75.7 years. — Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 378.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 222.8; respiratory diseases 76.3; accidents 47.0; diseases of the digestive system 39.1.

textile products 5.4%). Major import sources: Brazil 27.3%; Argentina 20.8%; United States 9.6%; Italy 4.2%; Germany 3.9%; France 3.0%.

Exports (1993): U.S.$1,645,312,000 (textiles and textile products 23.6%; live animals and live-animal products 21.6%; vegetable products 15.2%; hides and skins 10.7%; synthetic plastics, resins, and rubber 3.6%; mineral products 3.5%). Major export destinations: Brazil 22.3%; Argentina 19.2%; United States 9.0%; Germany 6.3%; United Kingdom 3.9%; Italy 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads?: route length (1992) 3,004 km; 140,600,000; metric ton-km cargo (1990) 204,000,000. 52,000 km (paved 23%). Vehicles (1992): passenger and buses 148,644. Merchant marine (1992): vessels over) 93; deadweight tonnage 172,520. Air transport

passenger-km (1987) Roads (1985): length cars 310,833; trucks (100 gross tons and (1991): passenger-km

471,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,600,000; airports (1994) 7.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 30; total circulation 720,000; circulation per 1,000 population 233. Radio (1993): total receivers 1,800,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1993): total receivers 700,000 (1 per 4.5 persons). Telephones (1992): 668,407 (1 per 4.7 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Vocational Higher

schoois

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

2,419 351 103 2

16,376 15,522

338,020 208,015 55,042 62,842

20.6 13.4 a 9.4

6,666

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 25 and over hav-

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: Ur$10,109,681,000 (direct taxes 80.3%, receipts from foreign trade 7.0%). Expenditures: Ur$10,704,929,000 (social security and welfare 58.8%, general public services 15.3%, capital investments 7.8%, interest on public debt 7.2%, subsidies 3.7%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$3,092,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts U.S.$381,000,000; expenditures U.S.$104,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): rice 622,000, sugarcane

10.8 0.2 21.7 45

Population economically active (1991): total 1,239,400; activity rate 44.7% (par-

Area and population Departments Artigas Canelones Cerro Largo Colonia Durazno Flores Florida Lavalleja Maldonado Montevideo

% of labour force

3,720,173 65,434

ub, admin., defense

1994) 1 US$=Ur85.61; 1 £=Ur$8.92.

labour force

7,493,693 1,570,105

Services

peso)?2; valuation (Oct. 7,

1985

% of total value

Manufacturing Construction

Transp. and commun. Trade Se

Monetary unit: 1 peso uruguayo

(Uruguayan

745

430,000, barley 214,000, sugar beets 160,000, corn

(maize) 82,000, wheat 73,000; livestock (number of live animals) 25,702,000 sheep, 9,508,000 cattle, 475,000 horses; roundwood (1991) 3,829,000 cu _m;

fish catch 125,758. Mining and quarrying (1991): hydraulic cement 500,000; gypsum 145,000. Manufacturing (value added in NUr$’000,000; 1988): food products (excluding beverages) 128,600; petroleum products 69,873;

ing: no formal schooling 7.5%; less than primary education 26.6%; primary

31.2%; secondary 19.9%; higher 14.8%. Literacy (1985): population age 15

and over literate 95.0%; males 975,200 (94.5%); females 1,074,300 (95.4%).

Health (1992): physicians 10,608 (1 per 295 persons); hospital beds (1987)

14,133 (1 per 215 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 18.7.

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,668 (vegetable products 65%,

animal products 35%); 100% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 24,700 (army 69.6%, navy 18.2%, air force 12.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 2.1% (world 4.2%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$64.

- chemicals and chemical products 68,178; textiles 63,459; beverages 51,012;

transport equipment 46,570; tobacco products 31,004; leather products 28,155; paper and paper products 25,002. Construction (approvals; 1992): residential 295,350 sq m; nonresidential 155,616 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1991) 7,017,000,000 (5,226,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1991) none (9,742,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 1,139,000 (1,276,000); natural gas, none, (n.a.). Gross national product (1992): U.S.$10,444,000,000 (U.S.$3,340 per capita).

[Includes the vice president, who serves as ex officio presiding officer. 2The peso uruguayo (Uruguayan peso [Ur$]) replaced the new Uruguayan peso (Nur$) on March 1, 1993, at the rate of 1 Uruguayan peso=1,000 new Uruguayan pesos. 3Includes indirect taxes less subsidies. 4Includes unemployed not previously employed. 5From urban areas only. Salaried employees only. 7Weights of consumer price index components in Montevideo. 8Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 9Passenger service ceased in 1988.

746

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$21,030,000,000 (U.S.$960 per capita).

Uzbekistan

Structure of net material product and labour force

Official name: Ozbekistan Jumhuriyati (Republic of Uzbekistan). Form of government: multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Soviet [500]!). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tashkent (Toshkent). Official language: Uzbek. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: sum? (plural sumy);

1992

Area and population

Andizhan Bukhara Dzhizak Fergana Karshi Urgench Namangan Samarkand Termez Gulistan Tashkent

labour force

20,729

48.8

3,577,000

43.4

30.4 }

1,135,000

13.8

182,000 622,000 360,000 462,000 25,000 96,000 1,664,000 119,800 8,242,800

2.2

12,925

Public utilities Construction Transp, and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

16 sumy; 1 £=25.45 sumy.

Administrative centres Nukus

__.000,000 rubles_

% of total value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing

valuation (Oct. 3, 1994) 1 U.S.$=

Autonomous Republic Karakalpakstan Provinces Andizhan (Andijan) Bukhara Dzhizak (Djizak) Fergana Kashka Darya Khorezm Namangan Samarkand Surkhan Darya Syr Darya Tashkent (Toshkent) TOTAL

in value

sq mi

sq km

population 1992 estimate

63,700

164,900

1,311,000

1,600 54,900 7,900 2,700 11,000 2,400 3,100 9,500 8,000 2,000 6,000 172,7003

4,200 142,100 20,500 7,100 28,400 6,300 7,900 24,500 20,800 5,100 15,600 447,400

1,839,000 1,232,000 806,000 2,282,000 1,756,000 1,100,000 1,604,000 2,265,000 1,385,000 587,000 4,331,000 20,498,000

Demography Population (1994): 22,382,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 129.6, persons per sq km 50.0. Urban-rural (1992): urban 40.0%; rural 60.0%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 49.40%; female 50.60%.

Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 40.8%; 15-29, 28.4%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2000) 25,466,000; (2010) 31,577,000.

Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Uzbek 73.0%; Russian 7.7%; Tajik 4.8%; Tatar 2.3%; Kyrgyz 0.9%; Ukrainian 0.7%; Turkmen 0.6%; other 10.0%.

Religious affiliation (1993): believers are predominantly Sunni Muslim (Hanafiyah).

3,518 1,845 2,766

}

8.3 4.3 6.5 _ _ 7

% of labour force

Population economically active (1992): total 8,242,800; activity rate of total population 39.0% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 79.7%; female 43.8%; unemployed 1.1%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

1990

1991

1992

100.0 es

161.1 fea

1,428 ey

Land use (1992): forested 3.0%; meadows and pastures 51.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.8%; other 35.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) ‘000,000,000 rubles % of total

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

-3.9 20.8%

$2 8.5%

-3.5 17.0%

Ot 18.4%

-0.6 1.5%

Imports (1992): U.S.$929,300,000 (1991; textiles 20.6%, food products 10.0%, machinery 20.4%, basic manufactures 19.7%, chemicals 7.4%). Major import sources: Switzerland 21.3%; China 7.3%; Belgium 4.3%; Turkey 3.8%;

Afghanistan 3.5%. Exports (1992): U.S.$869,300,000 (1991; textiles 20.6%, food products 10.0%, metal manufactures 5.4%, transport equipment 3.6%, machinery 2.2%). Major export destinations: U.K. 13.5%; Belgium 12.9%; Germany 10.8%; Turkey 8.9%; Poland 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 4,225 mi, 6,800 km; passenger-mi 3,231,-

Major cities (1992): Tashkent 2,119,900; Samarkand 372,000; Namangan 333,000; Andizhan 302,000; Bukhara 235,000.

000,000,

Vital statistics

buses, n.a. Merchant

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 33.1 (world avg. 26.0); (1989) legitimate 95.8%; illegitimate 4.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 26.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 11.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 65.1 years; female 71.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 251.3; diseases of the respiratory system 119.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 60.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 55.9; infectious and parasitic diseases 44.5; diseases of the digestive system 27.1; diseases of the nervous system 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 6.5.

passenger-km 10,500,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 60,754,000,000; metric ton-

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: 74,700,000,000 rubles (price differential tax 36.1%, turnover tax 26.2%, excise tax 12.7%, corporate income tax 12.7%, individual income tax 5.5%). Expenditures: 86,200,000,000 rubles (social and

passenger-km

5,200,000,000;

short

ton-mi

cargo

48,357,000,000,

metric ton-km cargo 70,600,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 55,431 mi, 89,207 km (paved 83%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 790,800; trucks and marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total

deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 6,524,000,000, km cargo 88,700,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 279; total circulation 5,158,400; circulation per 1,000 population 249.1. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 3,677,000 (1 per 5.6 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 3,308,000 (1 per 6.3 persons). Telephones (1991): 1,458,000 (1 per 14.3 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-13) } Secondary (age 14-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

B87) 243 52

384,000

students

4,721,400

teacher ratio

12.3

254,400 337,400

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$123,000,000.

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no, formal schooling 13.3%; some secondary 19.8%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.7%; higher 9.2%. Literacy: (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 97.2%; males literate 98.5%; females literate 96.0%. Health (1992): physicians 75,900 (1 per 282 persons); hospital beds 236,200 (1 per 83 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 37.1.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): seed cotton 4,300,000, vegetables 3,500,000, fruit (except grapes) and berries

Military

cultural affairs 27.3%, subsidies 24.7%, national economy 18.9%). Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size (1989) 5.5; income per household 2,343 rubles; sources of income: wages and salaries 61.8%, subsidies, grants, and nonwage income 22.8%, other 15.4%; expen-

diture: food and consumer goods 72.4%, other 27.6%.

1,000,000, rice 500,000, grapes 480,000, potatoes 425,000, corn (maize) 341,000, barley 300,000, rye 10,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 9,400,000 sheep, 5,300,000 cattle, 530,000 pigs, 33,000,000 chickens; round-

wood (1990) 15,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 27,400. Mining and quarrying (1992): copper 80,000; lead 22,000; gold 80. Manufacturing (1992): ce-

ment 5,934,500; cotton fibre 1,399,400; mineral fertilizers 1,361,000; rolled metals 604,000; plastic 94,000; synthetic fibre 32,600; textiles 690,000,000 sq m; refrigerators 84,200,000 units; compressors 8,123,000 units; tractors 16,900 units; television receivers 5,000 units; cotton harvesters 2,350 units; footwear 39,200,000 pairs. Construction (1992): residential 7,000,000,000 sq

m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 50,900,000,-

000 (50,769,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 9,231,000 (10,681,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 8,063,000 (39,238,000); petroleum products (met-

ric tons; 1992) 4,901,000 (4,901,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 42,800,000,000 (41,300,000,000).

Total active duty personnel (1994): 45,0004 (army 99.0%, air force 1.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 0.2%: per capita ex-

penditure U.S.$17.

‘Elections to new 150-seat legislature (Supreme Assembly) were held Dec. 25, 1994. The Supreme Soviet was to continue to exercise legislative powers until the seating

of the new legislature. 2The sum was introduced on July 1, 1994, to replace the sumcoupon (an interim currency introduced in November

1993 to replace the Russian

ruble) at a rate of 1 sum to 1,000 sum-coupons. The Russian ruble was banned from circulation in Uzbekistan from mid-April 1994. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes CIS centrally controlled units. About 5,000 Russian troops remained in Uzbekistan in late 1994,

Nations of the World

Vanuatu

Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

Official name: Ripablik blong Vanuatu oan République de Vanuatu French); Republic of Vanuatu

Consumer price index Earnings index

(English).

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Public utilities Transportation and communications

area

esque

Longana Eas

Banks/Torres

Sola

Efaté Epi Malekula Paama Pentecost

Vila Ringdove Lakatoro Liro Loltong

Santo/Malo Shepherd

Luganville Morua

Taféa TOTAL

1990 eee 114 i

1990

Area and population

Ambrym

1989 142.7 =

in value VT '000,000

Bounties

270

699

257

666

341

882

356 172 793 23 193

60 499

33

86

Isangel

923 446

ub, admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

population 1989 census

% of total value

1991

1992

160.6 My

168.1 es

1993 ees 173.3 ree

1989 % of labour force

labour force

3,582

20.0

ea 1,050

ee 5.9

1,083

1 891

5.8

1,302

1.9

1.9

109

0.2

1,031 2,713 646

aS 41 1.0

339 1517. 5,772 1,743

8.5 32.2 9.7

1,985 1,278 — 4005 17,899

11.1 71 —2.25 100.0

Trade ces

Capitals

1988 132.2 of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Vila. Official languages: Bislama; French; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: vatu (VT); valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=VT 113.50; 1 £=VT 180.52.

Local Government Regions

1987 118.3 a

Gross national product (at current market ‘prices; 1992): U.S.$189,000,000 (U.S.$1,220 per capita).

Form of government: republic with a rae. legislative house (Parliament

Ambae/Maéwo

747

49,811

74.4

= 1.3

yisee 2,561

aie 3.8 100.0

66,957

Household income and expenditure (1985)!. Average household size (1989)

10,958 7,191 5,985 30,868 3,628 19,298 1,696 11,341 25,581 3,975 22,423 142,944

5.1; income

per household

U.S.$11,299;

sources

of income:

wages

and

salaries 59.0%, self-employment 33.7%; expenditure (1990)1,6: food and nonalcoholic beverages 30.5%, housing 20.7%, transportation 13.2%, health and recreation 12.3%, tobacco and alcohol 10.4%.

Land use (1992): forested 75.0%; meadows and pastures 2.0%; agricultural 11.8%; other 11.2%.

Foreign trade’ Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography VT ‘000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 164,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 34.8, persons per sq km 13.5. Urban-rural (1989): urban 18.4%1; rural 81.6%.

Age breakdown (1989)2: under 15, 45.5%; 15-29, 26.6%; 30-44, 15.2%; 45-59, 8.4%; 60-74, 3.7%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 189,000; (2010) 231,000. Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1989): Ni-Vanuatu 97.9%; European 1.0%; other Pacific Islanders 0.4%; other 0.7%.

Religious affiliation (1989): Christian 77.2%, of which Presbyterian 35.8%, Roman Catholic 14.5%, Anglican 14.0%, Seventh-day Adventist 8.2%; Custom 4.6%; nonreligious 1.7%; unknown 4.0%; other 12.5%.

Major towns (1989): Vila (Port-Vila) 19,400; Luganville (Santo) 6,900; Port Olry 8843; Isangel 7523. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 35.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1985): c. 7.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1985): less than 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 64.0 years; female 68.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985)4: infectious and parasitic diseases 69.3; diseases of the respiratory system 60.5; diseases of the circulatory system 37.6; accidents and violence 23.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 22.9; ill-defined conditions 117.3.

National economy (1989). Revenue:

VT

4,154,700,000

(taxes on international.

trade

58.6%; taxes on goods. and services 22.7%; nontax revenue 16.8%). Expenditures: VT 7,287,200,000 (manufacturing, mining, and construction 21.4%;

public services 13.7%; education 12.6%; transportation and communications 10.5%; agriculture 6.7%; health 6.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$39,600,000. . Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$27,000,000; expenditures by na-

tionals abroad (1991) U.S.$1,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): coconuts

259,000, roots and tubers 50,000, copra 35,000, bananas

13,000,

vegetables and melons 8,000, cacao beans 3,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 2,000, corn (maize) 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 128,000 cattle, 59,000 pigs; roundwood (1991) 63,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 3,200. Mining and quarrying (1985): small quantities of coral-reef limestone, crushed stone, sand, and gravel. Manufacturing (value added in "000 VT; 1984): food, beverages,

and tobacco

358,000; wood

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

—5,000 54.8%

=5,319 50.9%

— 8,566 66.0%

—7,364 67.0%

— 6,689 56.8%

Imports (1992): VT 9,228,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 27.5%;

Sex distribution (1989): male 51.60%; female 48.40%.

Budget

1987 —5,508 58.6%

products

96,000; fabricated metal

nonmetallic mineral products 24,600; handicrafts

14,600; textiles, clothing,

food

and

live animals

17.4%;

basic manufactures

14.9%;

mineral

fuels

9.0%; chemical products 6.6%; beverages and tobacco 4.1%). Major import

sources: Australia 38.7%; New Zealand

10.0%; Japan 9.1%; France 7.9%;

New Caledonia 6.3%; Fiji 5.2%; Hong Kong 3.5%; Singapore 2.8%. Exports (1992): VT 2,539,000,000 (domestic exports 74.5%, of which copra

32.8%, beef and veal 13.3%, seashells 8.0%, cacao beans and preparations

6.5%, timber 3.5%; reexports 25.5%). Major export destinations’: 19.9%; Australia 10.9%; New Caledonia 5.9%; South Korea 5.6%.

Japan

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993): total length 702 mi, 1,130 km (paved 21%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 4,500; trucks and buses 3,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 280; total deadweight tonnage 3,259,594. Air transport (1992): international passenger arrivals 52,188, international passenger departures 52,837; international cargo unloaded 571 metric tons, international cargo loaded 188 metric tons;

airports (1994) with scheduled flights 29. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 55,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 1,000 (1 per 136 persons). Telephones (1986): 3,240 (1 per 40 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 6-11)9 Secondary (age 11-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

student/ schools

teachers

students

272 2110 a 1

852 220 =

26,267 4,269 444 12411

teacher ratio

30.8 19.4

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling or less than one year 22.3%; some primary education 52.6%; lower-level secondary 18.3%; upper-level secondary and higher 4.8%; not stated 2.0%. Literacy (1979): total population age 15 and over literate 32,120 (52.9%); males 18,550 (57.3%); females 13,570 (47.8%). Health (1990): physicians 20 (1 per 7,345 persons); hospital beds 364 (1 per 404 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 44.0, Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,736 (vegetable products 81%,

animal products 19%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel: Vanuatu has a paramilitary force of about 300.

products 60,000; paper products, including printing and publishing, 48,800; and leather 12,900. Construction (approvals in Vila and Luganville; 1992): _ residential 20,386 sq m; nonresidential 19,876 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 28,681,000 (28,681,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) none (26,000); natural gas, none (none). ns Population economically active (1989): total 66,957; activity rate of total population 47.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 85.0%; female 46.37%; unemployed 0.5%).

1Vila and Luganville only. 2For indigenous population only. 31979. 4Deaths reported to the Ministry of Health only. *Imputed bank service charges. 6Weights of consumer price index components. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.0.b. 8Destination of domestic exports only. 9Excludes independent private schools. 101986, 111991.

748

Britannica World Data 1991)

Venezuela

in value Bs '000,0004

Area and population

area Capitals Puerto Ayacucho Barcelona San Fernando de Apure Maracay Barinas

Anzoategui

Ciudad Bolivar

Valencia San Carlos Tucupita Coro San Juan de Los Morros Barquisimeto Mérida Los Teques Maturin La Asuncion

sq mi

sq km

67,900 16,700 29,500 2,700 13,600 91,900 1,795 5,700 15,500 9,600 25,091 7,600

175,750 43,300 76,500 7,014 35,200 238,000 4,650 14,800 40,200 24,800 64,986 19,800 11,300 7,950 28,900 1,150 15,200 11,800 11,100 7,400 7,100 63,100

65,252 1,006,124 360,616 1,306,974 503,811 1,090,624 1,755,339 219,938 106,318 673,701 572,388 1,392,727 670,875 2,262,017 541,569 316,776 700,964 761,959 926,976 544,201 453,154 2,676,856

4,400

3,070 11,200 440 5,900

Cumana

4,600

San Cristébal Trujillo San Felipe

Trujillo Yaracuy Zulia

4,300 2,900 2,700

Maracaibo

Other federal entities Dependencias Federales Distrito Federal TOTAL

population 1994 estimate

Guanare

Tachira

24,400

— Caracas

50 745

120 1,930

352,1443

912,050

2,267,990 21,177,149

Demography Urban-rural (1992): urban 84.6%; rural 15.4%.

Population projection: (2000) 23,799,000; (2010) 27,816,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1993): mestizo 67%; white 21%; black 10%; Indian 2%.

Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 92.1%; other 7.1%.

Major cities (1990): Caracas 1,290,087; Maracaibo 1,206,726; Valencia 955,005; Barquisimeto 723,587; Maracay 538,616.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 27.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1974) legitimate 47.0%; illegitimate 53.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 4.5 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 23.2 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 3.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 5.4.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.9.

Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 69.8 years; female 75.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): heart diseases 79.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 53.7; accidents 43.6; perinatal problems 33.0; cerebrovascular diseases 29.7; pneumonia 17.3.

National economy Bs 961,495,000,000

(tax revenues 41.4%, oil rev-

enues 38.3%, nontax revenues 20.3%). Expenditures: Bs 1,192,848,000,000 (subsidies 29.8%, goods and services 28.9%, capital transfers 17.6%, interest

payments 16.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$25,252,000,000. (1992): receipts U.S.$432,000,000;

expenditures

U.S.$1,428,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1992): sugarcane 6,700,000, bananas 1,215,000, corn (maize) 904,000, rice 595,000, sorghum 528,000, plantains 510,000, cassava 382,000, coffee 72,000, cacao 14,-

000; livestock (number of live animals) 14,192,000 cattle; roundwood (1991) 1,290,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 352,835. Mining and quarrying (1992): bauxite

labour force

% of labour force

805,843

48

95,687

—

116,573: 40,681 9,154 28,763 80,392 77,065 47,823 34,926 2,773 560,630

10.7

81,977

1.1

1,214,979 725,410 68,306 462,802 1,610,180 446,184

16.1 9.6 0.9 6.1 21.4 5.9

2,045,748

274

76,388 7,537,817

1.0 100.03

i

Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index5

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

142.9 115.6

185.0 139.3

340.9 207.8

480.1 309.5

644.3

846.8

1,169.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 5.1; average annual income per household (1981) Bs 42,492 (U.S.$9,899); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1990): food 37.1%, rent and utilities 9.4%, clothing 8.3%, transportation and communications 5.1%, education and recreation 4.9%, household furnishings and maintenance 2.8%.

Land use (1991): forested 33.9%; meadows and pastures 20.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 4.4%; other 41.6%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

1988

— 65,434 18.2%

1989

+232,261 33.5%

1990

1991

1992

1993

+529,115 46.7%

+286,500 20.1%

+154,700 9.3%

+274,600 12.1%

Imports (1992): Bs 866,560,087,000 (machinery 33.0%, transport equipment 18.5%, chemicals 10.5%, basic metal manufactures 8.0%; textile products 4.3%, animal products 4.1%, processed food products 3.4%). Major import sources: U.S. 46.2%; Japan 7.5%; Ger. 6.5%; Italy 4.6%; Brazil 3.9%;

lands 4.0%; Puerto Rico 3.8%; Colombia 3.5%; Japan 2.6%; Germany 2.4%;

Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 37.4%; 15-29, 28.0%; 30-44, 19.0%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60 and over, 5.9%.

18,054,000;

23,750,000,000

Colombia 3.9%; U.K. 2.3%; Spain 2.3%.

Sex distribution (1994): male 50.40%; female 49.60%.

iron ore

1991)

Exports (1992): Bs 984,595,359,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 79.2%, iron ore 1.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 50.3%; The Nether-

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 60.1, persons per sq km 23.2.

Tourism

(cu m;

Population economically active (1992): total 7,537,817; activity rate 37.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 59.5%; female 31.9%; unemployed 7.1%).

Bs ’000,000 % of total

Population (1994): 21,177,000.

Budget (1993). Revenue:

gas

% of total value

26,793

Agriculture Petroleum and natural gas Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

1 £=Bs 270.38.

States Amazonas

natural

Structure of gross domestic product and Fecatird force

Bs)= 100 céntimos; valuation? (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=Bs 170;

Nueva Esparta Portuguesa Sucre

(19,090,000);

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$58,901,000,000 (U.S.$2,900 per capita).

Official name: Republica de Venezuela (Republic of Venezuela). Form of government: federal multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [491]; Chamber of Deputies [199]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Caracas. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 bolivar (B, plural

Apure Aragua Barinas Bolivar Carabobo Cojedes Delta Amacuro Falcon

53,212,000

(23,750,000,000).

1,530,000;

aluminum

ore 620,000; gold 7,500

kg. Manufacturing (value added in Bs ’000; 1990): base metals 60,320,000;

Brazil 1.8%; Trinidad and Tobago 1.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): route length 226 mi, 363 km; passenger-km 46,670,000; metric ton-km cargo 36,240,000. Roads (1992): total length 58,081 mi, 93,472 km (paved 32%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 1,565,872; trucks and buses 456,425. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 271; total deadweight tonnage 1,355,419. Air transport (1992): passenger-km 6,791,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 782,000,000; airports (1994)

with scheduled flights 25. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 54; total circulation 2,800,000; circulation per 1,000 population 142. Radio (1993): 8,100,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Television (1993): 3,700,000 receivers (1 per 5.6 persons). Telephones (1992): 1,804,220 (1 per 11.0 persons). Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-17)6 Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

15,800 1,621 997

183,298 32,572 43,833

4,190,047 289,430 550,783

22.9 8.9 12.6

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 9.5%; primary education 45.7%; secondary 35.9%; higher 8.9%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 13,371,743 (92.2%); males 6,742,992 (93.5%); females 6,628,751 (91.1%).

Health (1992): physicians (1989) 32,616 (1 per 576 persons); hospital beds 52,786 (1 per 382 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 25.2, Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,443 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 99% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 75,000 (army 76.0%, navy 14.7%, air force 9.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 3.6% (world 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$96.

food products 56,737,000; chemicals 51,838,000; beverages 27,350,000; metal

products 15,770,000; textiles 13,658,000; paper and paper products 12,982,000; tobacco 12,826,000; electrical machinery 11,506,000. Construction (in Bs; 1992): residential 77,648,000,000; nonresidential 356,982,000,000. Energy

production

(consumption):

electricity (kW-hr;

1991) 57,150,000,000

(57,-

150,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1991) 2,696,000 (400,000); crude petroleum

(barrels; 1991) 857,826,000 (357,155,000); petroleum products (metric tons;

‘In addition, four former presidents hold lifetime membership. 2Fixed exchange rate to U.S.$ introduced July 1994. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4At 1984 prices. 5Blue-collar workers. Includes vocational and teacher training. 71990-91.

Nations of the World

749

Vietnam

National economy

Official name: Cong Hoa Xa Hoi Chu

Budget (1994). Revenue: D 38,660,000,000,000 (transfers from state enterprises 52.5%; taxes 31.8%; oil revenues 15.3%). Expenditures: D 46,853,-

Nghia Viet Nam (Socialist Republic of Vietnam).

000,000,000 (current expenditures 74.4%, of which social services 28.8%).

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$17,700,000,000.

Form of government: socialist republic with one legislative house (National

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$12,053,000,0003 (U.S.$170 per capita3).

Assembly [395]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Hanoi. Official language: Vietnamese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 dong (D)=10 hao= 100 xu; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=D 11,053; 1 £=D

Structure of net material product and labour force 1993 in value D ‘000,000,000 fishing

Mining, manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, tourism, and restaurants Finance, insurance Pub. admin.

17,581.

area Capitals

Dong bang song Cuu Long An Giang Ben Tre

Long Xuyen Ben Tre

Can Tho

Can Tho

Dong Thap Kien Giang Long An Minh Hai

Soc Trang Tien Giang Tra Vinh

sq km

15,280 1,322 868

39,5751 3,424 2,247

15,214,300 1,896,800 1,286,100

1,179

3,054

1,265

1,741,700

Rach Gia Tan An Bac Lieu

3,276

1,433,800

2,410 1,675 2,969

6,243 4,338 7,689

1,296,500 1,198,400 1,682,100

tec

Vinh Long

sq mi

population 1992 estimate

Cao Lamh

A My Tho

=

Dong bang song Hong

1,200 903

3,107 2,339

915

2,369

574

1,487

1,146,300 1,590,200 919,200

1,023,200

4,810!

12,4571

13,547,000

Haiphong (MUNICIPALITY) Hanoi (caPitAL)

ae Hai Duong

831 985

— a

2,153 2,552

2,177,500 2,613,600

Nam Ha Ninh Binh

580 355

1,503 920

a or

1,556,600 2,099,600

934 536

2,419 1,387

2,537,600 821,500

Ha Tay Hai Hung

Thai Binh Dong Nam Bo Ba Ria-Vung Tau Dong Nai Ho Chi Minh City (municipauty)

Song Be Tay Ninh Duyen hai mien trung Binh Dinh

Thai Binh Sh Bien Hoa —

Thu Dau Mot Ho Chi Minh City Quy Nhon

Binh Thuan

J,

Khanh Hoa

Nha Trang

Ninh Thuan Phu Yen Quang Nam-—Da Nang

a Tuy Hoa Da Nang Quang Ngai

Quang Ngai

588 9,0661 756

1,524 23,481 1,957,

2,264 807

5,864 2,090

1,721,600 4,181,600

3,686 1,554 17,6921 2,346

9,546 4,024 45,823 6,076

1,057,400 848,500 7,199,8001 1,339,600

1,740,600 8,445,500 636,400

3,086

7,992

436,800

2,030

5,258

901,200

1,324 2,017 4,629 2,261

3,430 i228) 11,988

834,500 691,700 1,873,500

5,856

1,122,500

51,187 6,054 16,381 7,983 4,592

9,306,300 1,265,800 2,620,900 718,000 507,400

Khu Bon cu Ha Tinh Nghe An Quang Binh Quang Tri

or ie Dong Hoi Dong Ha

19,763 2,337 6,325 3,082 1,773

Thanh Hoa

Thanh Hoa

4,312

11,168

3,243,800

1,934 39,7491 2,511 3,261 1,781 3,024 1,781 6,618 3,153

5,009 102,949 6,503 8,445 4,614 7,831 4,612 17,140 8,167

950,400 11,843,600 1,117,800

Thua Thien—Hue Mien nui va trung du Bac Thai Cao Bang Ha Bac Ha Giang Hoa Binh Lai Chau Lang Son

Hue Thai Nguyen Cao Bang Bac Giang Ra $a Lai Chau Lang Son

614,500 2,218,400 507,200

697,500 485,700 656,800

Lao Cai Quang Ninh Son La

vee Hai Duong Son La

3,108 2,293 5,487

8,049 5,939 14,210

517,700 878,800 753,400

Tuyen Quang Vinh Phu Yen Bai

ah Viet Tri of

2,240 1,867 2,626

5,801 4,836 6,802

614,400 2,160,000 621,400

21,4551 7,645

55,569 19,800

2,803,900 1,126,900

3,835

9,934

241,100

Tay Nguyen Dac Lac

Gia Lai

Kon Tum

Lam Dong TOTAL

Buon Me Thoat

ie fe

Da Lat

labour force

% of labour force 72.8

Agriculture, forestry,

Area and population Regions Provinces

% of total value

6,047

3,929 127,8161

15,662

10,173 331,041

713,600

722,300 69,405,2002

Demography Population (1994): 72,342,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 566.0, persons per sq km 218.5. Urban-rural (1993): urban 20.4%; rural 79.6%.

Sex distribution (1993): male 48.64%; female 51.36%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 39.0%; 15-29, 28.7%; 30-44, 16.0%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 5.6%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 81,516,000; (2010) 97,097,000. Ethnic composition (1989): Vietnamese 87.1%; Tho (Tay)

/ 1.8%; Chinese (Hoa) 1.5%; Tai 1.5%; Khmer 1.4%; Muong 1.4%; Nung 1.1%; other 4.2%. Religious affiliation (1992): Buddhist c. 67.0%; Roman Catholic c. 8.0%. Major cities (1992): Ho Chi Minh City 4,181,600; Hanoi 2,099,600.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 27.1 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 19.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per. childbearing woman; 1994): 3.3. : Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 63.4 years; female 67.6 years.

Morbidity (cases of reportable infectious disease per 100,000 population; 1990): malaria 2,564; trachoma 241; diarrhea 183.

Senlices

}

Other TOTAL

37,328

29.8

26,960

23,815,000

21.6

8,495 5,116

3,500,000

6.8 44

830,000 539,000

2.5 1.6

28,557 2,318

22.8 1.8

3,026,000

9.2

15,100

12.4

1,202 125,076

1.0 100.0

1,008,000 32,718,000

3.1 100.01

10.7

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$50,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 22,300,000, sugarcane

6,656,000, cassava 2,631,000, coconuts

1,207,000,

corm (maize) 800,000; livestock (number of live animals) 14,861,000 pigs,

3,320,000 cattle, 2,956,000 buffalo; roundwood

(1992) 29,620,000 cu m; fish

catch (1992) 1,080,300. Mining and quarrying (1992): phosphate rock 280,000; gold 10,000 kg. Manufacturing (1993): cement 4,600,000; sugar 478,000;

steel 175,2004; fish sauce 131,700,000 litres4. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 9,800,000,000 (9,800,000,000); coal (metric

tons; 1992) 4,792,000 (3,424,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 38,880,000 (283,300); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 38,000 (2,878,000). Population economically active (1989): total 30,521,019; activity rate 47.4%

(participation rates: ages 15-64, 79.9%; female 51.7%; unemployed 5.8%). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 4.8; income per household (1990)5 D 577,008 (U.S.$93); expenditure (1990): food 62.4%, clothing 5.0%, household goods 4.6%, education 2.9%, housing 2.5%. Land use (1992): forest 29.6%; pasture 1.0%; agricultural 20.6%; other 48.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$'000,000 % of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

=679 31.7%

—350 11.7%

—41 1.2%

—63 1.5%

—60 1.2%

— 655 10.3%

Imports (1993): U.S.$3,505,000,000 (crude petroleum 19.5%, machinery and spare parts 15.7%, steel 5.4%, fertilizers 4.5%). Major import sources: Singapore 28.1%; Japan 14.1%; North and South Korea 12.5%; France 7.8%.

Exports (1993): U.S.$2,850,000,000 (crude petroleum 29.6%, agricultural and forestry products 21.1%, fish and fish products 13.0%, rice 12.3%). Major export destinations: Japan 33.7%; Singapore 17.5%; Hong Kong 6.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 3,220 km; passenger-km 1,767,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,103,300,000. Roads (1991): total length 88,000 km (paved 11%). Vehicles (1976): passenger cars 100,000; trucks and buses 200,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 230; total deadweight tonnage 872,752. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 87,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 12.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): 5. Radio (1993): 8,000,000 receivers. Television (1993): 2,500,000 receivers. Telephones (1992)7: 260,000.

Education and health Education (1993-94)

student/ schools

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18)9 Vocational Higher

13,0928 6,298 10 451 104

teachers

students

teacher ratio

275,640 166,968 12,197 20,648

9,725,095 3,815,852 137,405 118,589

35.3 22.9 11.3 WA

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population 25 and over having: no formal education (illiterate) 16.6%; some primary 46.6%; complete primary 23.5%; secondary 6.5%; postsecondary and higher 6.8%. Literacy (1991): persons 15 and over literate 88.0%; males 93.0%; females 84.0%. Health (1991): physicians 25,900 (1 per 2,617 persons); hospital beds 206,000 (1 per 329 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 45.5.

Food (1991): daily per capita caloric intake 1,943.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 572,000 (army 87.4%, navy 7.3%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1992): 7.2%. 1Detail does not add to total given because

persons

in special enumeration

groups

of rounding.

not distributed

2Total includes

1,044,800

in province and region es-

timates. 3Other international sources have accounted domestic growth performance and estimate the gross national product to be U.S.$72,000,000,000 (U.S.$1,000 per capita). 41992. [Wage workers and government officials only. ®Data reflects trade with the convertible currency area; import figures are f.o.b. 7Main telephone lines. 8Includes 2,955 institutions that provide primary and first cycle of secondary education, %Includes first and second cycle of secondary education. !Includes 534 institutions that provide both the first and second cycle of secondary education.

750

Britannica World Data

Western Samoa

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1989

Official name: Malo Sa‘oloto Tuto‘atasi o Samoa i Sisifo (Samoan); Independent State of Western Samoa (English). Form of government: constitutional monarchy! with one legislative house

in value WS$’'000 117,100

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance

(Legislative Assembly [48]2).

Chief of state: Head of State. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Apia. Official languages: Samoan; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 tala (WS$, plural tala) = 100 sene; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$ = WS$2.54; 1 £=WS$4.04.

63.6

‘i ;

3.5

oe 62 855 1,491 1,710 842

01 1.9 3.3 3.7 1.8

9,436 629 45,635

20.7 1.4 400.0

ulation 28.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1981] 48.6%; female [1986] 18.8%). ; t Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) -Population_ Consumer price index Earnings index

1986 census

Islands Political Districts Savaii Fa’aseleleaga Gaga’emauga Gaga’ifomauga Palauli

44,930

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

110.6

120.0

127.7

147.2 ae

145.2 ees

157.6

160.3

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$19,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,000,000.

)

Land use (1992): forested 47.3%; meadows and pastures 0.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 43.1%; other 9.2%.

Satupa’itea Vaisigano Upolu

1,119

Aana Aiga-i-le-Tai Atua Tuamasaga Vaa-o-Fonoti

112,228

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices)

1,0933

TOTAL

2,8313

WS$'000 % of total

157,1584

Imports

Demography

Zealand

9.1%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2000) 174,000; (2010) 192,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1982): Samoan (Polynesian) c. 88%; Euronesian c. 10%; European c. 2%. Religious affiliation (1986): Congregational 47.2%; Roman Catholic 22.3%; Methodist 15.1%; Mormon 8.6%; other 6.8%.

Major city (1981): Apia 33,170.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 31.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1978) legitimate 43.5%; illegitimate 56.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.8 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 4.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1989)5: 5.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1989)>: 0.2. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 63.8 years; female 70.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985)5: diseases of the circulatory system 42.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 18.2; diseases of the respiratory system 13.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 8.8; diabetes mellitus 5.6.

National economy Budget (1990). Revenue: WS$121,100,000 (tax revenue 74.5%, of which taxes on international trade 43.2%, income tax 17.4%, taxes on goods and services

13.5%; nontax revenue 25.5%, of which rents, royalties, and interest 6.9%). (development

expenditure

(1993):

1989

1990

1991

— 109,249 65.4%

— 137,300 77.0%

—196,994 83.9%

WS$269,079,000

(1983;

food

— 238,965 89.3%

21.3%,

— 228,318 87.4%

machinery

21.0%,

icals 5.9%, animal oils and fats 0.5%). Major import sources (1991): New

Sex distribution (1991): male 52.45%; female 47.55%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 41.2%; 15-29, 30.8%; 30-44, 13.3%; 45-59,

WS$158,700,000

Signed 64.0%

petroleum products 18.4%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 7.4%, chem-

Population (1994): 164,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 150.0, persons per sq km 57.9. Urban-rural (1993): urban 23.0%; rural 77.0%.

59.2%;

current

expenditure 40.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$117,400,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): coconuts

_1_force

29,023

Population economically active (1994): total 47,207; activity rate of total pop-

Area and population

Expenditures:

__force:1

31,000 22,000 248,400

government services Other services } Other TOTAL

1986 % of labour

471

4 31,600 4,600 11,000 5,200 25,600 cu)

Pub. admin., defense,

labour

% of total value

130,000, taro 37,000, copra 11,000, bananas 10,000, papayas 10,000,

pineapples 6,000, mangoes 5,000, avocados 2,000, cow’s milk 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,000,000 goats, 178,000 pigs, 25,000 cattle; round-

wood (1992) 131,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 565. Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing (in WS$’000; 1990): beer 8,708, cigarettes 6,551, coconut

38.3%; Australia

22.0%;

United

States

10.3%; Japan

9.5%;

Fiji

6.5%; Germany 1.9%; American Samoa 1.9%. Exports (1993): WS$16,522,000 (1991; taro 37.5%, coconut cream 28.8%, automotive wiring harnesses 15.3%, beer 4.6%, cigarettes 3.8%). Major export destinations (1991): New Zealand 49.1%; Australia 23.0%; American Samoa 13.8%; United States 7.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1987): total length8 1,296 mi, 2,085 km (paved 19%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 2,295; trucks and buses 3,252. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 6,501. Air transport: passengers, n.a.; cargo, n.a.; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1993): 75,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1990): 9,000 receivers (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1992): 9,000 (1 per 18 persons). Education and health Education (1986-87) Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

1649 3811 49 6

1,511 10 492 37 25

40,755 11,395 228 271

27.0 23.2 6.2 10.8

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: some primary education 16.5%; complete primary 24.5%; some secondary 52.1%; complete secondary 3.1%; higher 2.0%; unknown 1.8%. Literacy (1981): virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1990) 50 (1 per 3,183 persons); hospital beds (1989) 644 (1 per 255 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 47.0. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,695 (vegetable products 81%, animal products 19%); 118% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military No military forces are maintained; New Zealand is responsible for defense.

cream 5,576, sawn wood 3,662, coconut oil 3,442, corned meat 2,905, soap

1,487, paints 1,457. Construction (permits issued in WS$; 1990): residential 4,421,000; commercial, industrial, and other 12,874,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 48,000,000 (48,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (42,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household

come

per household

(1972) WS$1,518

(U.S.$2,200);

size (1981) 5.1; in-

sources

of income

(1972): wages 49.4%, self-employment 22.8%, remittances, gifts, and other

assistance 18.0%, land rent 8.7%, other 1.1%; expenditure (1987): food 58.8%, transportation 9.0%, housing and furnishings 5.1%, fuel and light 5.0%, clothing 4.2%, other goods and services 1.9%, other 16.0%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993); U.S.$160,000,000 (U.S.$980 per capita).

According

to the constitution,

the current

Head

of State,

paramount

chief HH

Malietoa Tanumafili II, will hold office for life. Upon his death, the monarchy will functionally cease, and future Heads of State will be elected by the Legislative Assembly. 2Includes the Head of State as an ex officio member. 3Total includes 2 sq mi (5 sq km) of uninhabited islands. 4The provisional total for the 1991 census is 159,862. >Registered only. °Consumer price index components. 7Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 8Total length includes 733 mi (1,180 km) of plantation roads. 91983. 10Includes some secondary teachers. 111982.

Nations of the World

Yemen

751

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1991): U.S.$6,746,000,000

(U.S.$540 per capita).

Official name: al-Jumhiriyah al-Yamaniyah (Republic of Yemen). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Council of Representatives [301]). Head of state: President!. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: San‘a’.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1 U.S.$=YRIs 12.01, 1 £=YRIs 19.10;

parallel market rate 1 U.S.$=

YRIs 84.00, 1 £=133.60 YRIs.

sq mi

sq km

estimate2

al-Bayda’ Dhamar Hajjah al-Hudaydah lbb al-Jawt

4,310 3,430 3,700 5,240 2,480

11,170 8,870 9,590 13,580 6,430

830 15,400 4,950 7,840 4,020

2,160 39,890 12,810 20,310 10,420

295,439 698,823 720,000 1,052,086 1,254,128 42,762 260,836 95,326 323,124 1,664,518 1,419,708

21,489 6,980 155,376 12,766 66,350 73,908 472,0993

279,241 326,919 537,095 458,385 44,225 192,324 9,664,939

al-Mahwit

Ma’rib Sa‘dah San‘a’ Ta‘izz Zinjibar Aden al-Mukalla al-Ghaydah

“‘Ataq

TOTAL

1986

Capitals

Lahij

al-Mahrah Shabwah

6,098 9,240

160,952

79

Trade

5.0 7.6

32,852 107,611

15,794

1.6 5.3

13.0

7,085 30,452 1,023 7,45010 121,341

5.8 25.1 0.8 6,110 100.04

% of labour force

1,151,348

56.3

AEA 94,913

0.6 4.6

248,979

12.2

8,757 226,054 % a 2,043,237

0.4 1141 i

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1992) U.S.$47,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1989) U.S.$81,000,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$5,207,000. Land use (1992): forested 3.8%; meadows and pastures 30.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.8%; other 63.0%.

population

Lahij

1.4

labour force

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

;

al-Jawf al-Mahwit Ma’rib Sa‘dah San‘a’ Ta‘izz South Yemen Abyan “Adan Hadramawt

1986 % of total value 19.9 5.5 9.7.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 5.6; in-

Area and population

Hajjah al-Hudaydah Ibb

Construction Transp. and commun.

1,694

Finance Pub, admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

(YRIs)=100 fils; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994): official rate (pegged to U.S.$)

North Yemen al-Bayda’ Dhamar

Public utilities

Agriculture

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: 1 Yemen rial

Governorates

Mining Manufacturing

1992 in value? _YRis 000,000 _ 24,144 6,623 11,738

8,297 2,695 59,991 4,928 25,618 28,536 182,2783, 4

Foreign trade! Balance of trade’ YRis 000,000 % of total

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

—10,540 93.7%

-15,182 87.4%

-13,344 56.9%

-—10,839 44.5%

-13,797 49.4%

—8,582 37.7%

Imports (1991): YRIs

basic

manufactured

15,667,000,000 (198712; food and live animals 31.6%,

goods

28.6%,

machinery

and

transport

equipment

21.9%, chemical products 9.3%, raw materials 5.8%, beverages and tobacco

2.4%). Major import sources (1987)12: Japan 12.0%; United States 10.8%;

The Netherlands

10.0%; West

Germany

7.1%; France

6.3%; Italy 5.3%;

Saudi Arabia 5.3%. Exports (1991): YRIs 7,084,700,000 (198712; coffee 16.6%, cigarettes 15.6%, biscuits 13.6%, leather 12.5%, grapes 8.6%, sesame seeds 4.2%). Major export destinations (1987)12: Saudi Arabia 53.6%; South Yemen 24.0%; Italy

8.2%; Japan 4.0%.

Demography Population (1994): 12,961,000. Density (1994)5: persons per sq mi 63.1, persons per sq km 24.4.

Transport and communications

Urban-rural (1990): urban 29.3%; rural 70.7%.

Sex distribution (1992): male 49.68%; female 50.32%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 50.6%; 15-29, 22.9%; 30-44, 13.6%; 45-59, 7.7%; 60-74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 1.2%.

Population projection: (2000) 15,859,000; (2010) 21,797,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1986): predominantly Arab. Religious

affiliation

(1980):

Muslim

99.9%,

of which

Sunni

53.0%,

Shiri

46.9%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1986): San‘@ 427,150; Aden 318,0006; Ta‘izz 178,043; al-Hudaydah 155,110; al-Mukalla 59,1006.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1988): total length 39,200 km (paved 5.7%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 186,172; trucks and buses 254,355. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 40; deadweight tonnage 13,653. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 1,032,248,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,661,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 11. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990) 12: total number 2; total circulation 120,000; circulation per 1,000 population 10. Radio (1993): 325,000 receivers (1 per 39 persons). Television (1991): 335,000 receivers (1 per 34 persons). Telephones (1992): 146,000 (1 per 83 persons). Education and health

Vital statistics

Education (1990-91) 12

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 48.1 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 14.2 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 33.9 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 8.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 53.3 years; female 55.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, and intestinal infections.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: YRIs 32,008,000,000 (excise tax 30.2%, taxes on income and profits 29.3%, import duties 29.1%). Expenditures: YRls 53,637,000,000 (defense 21.9%, education 14.3%, general public services 6.3%,

health 3.5%). 4 Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sorghum 465,000, potatoes 213,000, tomatoes 204,000, wheat 160,000, grapes 144,000, watermelons 120,000, bananas 62,000, onions 61,000, millet 60,000, papayas 56,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,715,000 sheep, 3,297,000 goats, 1,163,000 cattle, 500,000 asses, 173,000 camels, 3,000 horses, 24,000,-

schools Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc., teacher tr. Higher 13

7,31313 94214 7314 1

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

35,350 12,106 1,247 470

1,291,372 394,578 26,119 23,457

36.5 32.6 20.9 49.9

Educational attainment (1986)12. Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 74.2%; reading and writing ability 19.8%; primary education 4.0%; secondary education 0.6%; higher 0.6%; not specified 0.8%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 38.5%; males literate 53.3%; females literate 26.3%. Health (1986): physicians 1,886 (1 per 5,531 persons); hospital beds 10,485 (1 per 995 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 114.8. Food (1986-88): daily per capita caloric intake 2,284 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 94% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 66,000 (army 92.4%, navy 2.3%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 15.7% (world 5.0%); per capita expenditure U.S.$89.

000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 324,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 85,261. Mining and quarrying (1992): salt 250,000; gypsum 100,000. Manufacturing (1988)7: flour 23,700; wheat bran 10,500; canned tomatoes 1,265; cotton lint 800; foam rubber 715; soft drinks 49,000,000 bottles; beer 5,200,000 litres; textiles 2,600,000 metres; cigarettes 1,166,000,000 units. Construction:

n.a.

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,810,000,000 (1,810,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 62,139,000

(45,710,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 5,650,000 (2,808,000). Population economically active (1986): total 2,043,237; activity rate of total ' population 19.6% (participation rates: 15-64, 41.2%; female [1992] 14.0%; unemployed [1993] c. 40%). Price index (1990=100)® Consumer price index

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

41.7

50.5

58.5

64.7

74.5

100.0

1Presidential Council assisting the President was abolished per constitutional amendment of September 1994. 2Based on North Yemen’s 1986 census results and South Yemen’s 1986 estimates. 3Former North Yemeni territorial claims with regard to alignment of the long-undemarcated eastern boundary with Saudi Arabia (which increased Yemen’s claimed total area to 205,356 sq mi [531,869 sq km]) were under negotiation with Saudi Arabia in 1994. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. SBased on the higher total area estimate of 205,356 sq mi (531,869 sq km). ©1984, 7Democratic Republic of Yemen only. 8Urban areas only. °In purchasers’ value at current prices. !0Includes import duties of 7.9 million Yemeni rials less imputed bank service charges. !!Imports are f.0.b. ‘Yemen Arab Republic only.

131988-89. 141985-86.

752

Britannica World Data

8.6%, fuel and light 7.3%, beverages and tobacco 7.3%, transportation and communications 4.9%, health care 3.9%, housing 3.8%, education and

Yugoslavia

Gross national product (1990)5: U.S.$31,867,000,000 (U.S.$3,093 per capita). Structure of gross material product and labour force 1992 in value Din ’000,0003 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp, and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

100 paras; valuation (Sept. 26, 1994)

1 U.S.$= 1.56 new dinars (second); 1 £=2.47 new dinars (second). Area and population Republics Montenegro Serbia Autonomous provinces? Kosovo and Metohia Vojvodina

area Capitals Podgorica Belgrade

Pristina Novi Sad

TOTAL

sq mi

sq km

estimate

5,333 21,609

13,812 55,968

626,000 5,809,000

4,203 8,304 39,449

10,887 21,506 102,173

235,714

3.8

6,267,831

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index?

2,043,000 2,002,000 10,480,000

% of labour force 3.9

916,000

28.5

159,000 50,000 152,000 326,000 85,000 91,000 350,000 960,0006 3,215,000

5.0 1.6 47 10.1 2.6 2.8 10.9 29.96 100.0

0.0 0.2

0.2 0.4

0.9 1

1989

19903

19913

19923

13 19

100 100

324 195

r 295

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$88,000,000; expenditures, n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

1988

Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 22.8%; 15-29, 21.6%; 30-44, 21.7%; 45-59, 17.1%; 60-74, 12.2%; 75 and over, 3.5%; unknown, 1.1%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,724,000; (2010) 11,084,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Serb 62.3%; Albanian 16.6%; Montenegrin 5.0%; Yugoslav 3.3%; Hungarian 3.3%; Muslim 3.1%; Croat 1.1%; other 5.3%.

Religious affiliation (1991): most believers are affiliated with the Serbian Church;

19.5 40.7 7.4 1.0 5.4 22.5

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1986 1987 1988

Demography

Orthodox

1,220,080 2,548,855, 443,988 65,739 339,443 1,414,012

1993

labour force 126,000

% of total value

Population economically active (1993): total 3,215,000; activity rate 30.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female [1992] 45.3%; unemployed 23.0%).

population 1993

Population (1994): 10,515,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 266.5, persons per sq km 102.9. Urban-rural (1991): urban 52.0%; rural 48.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.6%; female 50.4%.

tant minorities.

;

entertainment 2.9%, household durable goods 2.2%.

Official name: Savezna Republika Jugoslavija (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). Form of government: federal multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Chamber of Republics [40]; Chamber of Citizens [138]). Chief of state: Federal President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Belgrade. Official language: Serbo-Croatian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit!: 1 new dinar (second)=

there are also Muslim,

Roman

Catholic,

and Protes-

Major cities (1993): Belgrade 1,168,454; Novi Sad 179,626; NiS 175,391; Kragujevac 147,305; Subotica 100,386.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 13.5 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.1 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.4 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1991): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 69.0 years; female 74.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 528.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 154.7; accidents, violence, and poisoning 56.6; diseases of the respiratory system 47.2; diseases of the digestive system 26.4. ;

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

Din

turnover tax 20.9%, income

30,353,000,0003

(social security tax 50.9%,

tax 9.7%). Expenditure4

Din 30,353,000,0003

(social security 50.9%, current transfers 46.6%). Land use (1990): forested 29.5%; meadows and pastures 20.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 35.7%; other 14.1%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): corn (maize) 4,004,000, wheat 3,049,000, potatoes 591,000, plums 509,000,

grapes 397,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,092,000 pigs, 2,752,000 sheep, 1,991,000 cattle, 23,293,000 poultry; roundwood

(1993) 1,755,000 cu

m; fish catch (1991) 36,511. Mining and quarrying (1993): copper ore 18,189,000; lead-zinc ore 337,000; lime 318,000; bauxite 102,000; magnesite 55,000; salt 39,000; aluminum and ingots 25,778; asbestos ore 9,000; refined silver

Din '000,0003 % of total

— 1,465 8.3%

—1,315 6.9%

— 1,887 9.5%

— 3,750 13.9%

— 1,825 8.6%

28.4%

Imports (1991): Din 104,591,000,0003 (machinery and transport equipment 22.7%, of which road vehicles 6.8%; mineral fuels and lubricants 19.0%; chemicals 13.7%; manufactured goods 10.4%, of which textiles 3.2%; food

and live animals 8.4%, of which beverages 0.8%). Major import sources: Germany 20.2%; former U.S.S.R. 12.6%; Italy 10.6%; U.S. 4.1%; Austria 3.9%.

Exports (1991): Din 89,707,000,0003 (manufactured goods 49.9%, of which clothing 14.2%, iron and steel 5.4%, textile products 4.3%; machinery and transport equipment 19.6%; food and live animals 11.8%, of which fruits and vegetables 3.7%; chemicals 9.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 23.1%; former U.S.S.R. 17.8%; Italy 14.0%; U.S. 4.4%; Romania 4.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 2,460 mi, 3,960 km; passenger-mi 1,802,000,000; passenger-km 2,901,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,055,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,698,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 29,771 mi, 47,912

km (paved 59%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 1,406,000; trucks and buses 132,100. Merchant marine (1992): fishing vessels 12. Air transport: (1993): passenger-mi 65,000,000, passenger-km

104,000,000, short ton-mi cargo 74,-

000,000, metric ton-km cargo 119,000,000; airports (1994) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990)5: total number 12; total circulation 1,006,000; circulation per 1,000 population 98. Radio (1993): 2,692,000 receivers (1 per 3.9 persons). Television (1989): 1,642,522 receivers (1 per 4.8 persons). Telephones (1992): 2,159,000 (1 per 4.8 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18) Higher

teachers

4,433 539 141

51,489 25,580 11,5868

students

student/ teacher ratio

945,237 359,568 142,3728

Educational attainment (1981)5. Percentage of population having: less than full primary education 44.6%; primary 24.7%; postsecondary and higher-5.7%. Literacy (1981): age 10 and over literate 7,411,500 (89.2%); males literate females literate 3,174,600 (83.2%).

18.4 14.1 12.2

age 15 and over 24.4%; secondary total population 4,236,900 (95.4%;

25,144 kg. Manufacturing (1993): wheat flour 986,000; crude steel 183,000;

Health (1992): physicians (1991) 25,873 (1 per 402 persons); hospital beds

nitric acid 116,000; sulfuric acid 75,000; canned fruit 65,000; electrolytic copper 51,300; welded pipes 31,000; rolled aluminum 11,000; canned meat 10,000; cotton yarn 10,000; rolled copper 10,000; medicines 9,500; refined lead 6,000; linoleum flooring 5,000; knitted clothing 4,103; woolen fabrics 16,380,000 sq m; parquet flooring 826,000 cu m; liquor 27,628,000 hectolitres;

58,339 (1 per 179 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 21.7. Food (1990)5: daily per capita caloric intake 3,545 (1988-90; vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 140% of FAO recommended minimum.

hosiery 19,000,000 pairs; leather footwear 10,435,000 pairs; furniture 961,000 units; kitchen ranges 119,000 units; refrigerators 39,000 units; television re-

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 126,500 (army 71.2%, air force 22.9%, navy 5.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of government expenditure: 76.6%.

ceivers 24,000 units; gasoline engines 15,000 units; telephones 14,000 units; bicycles 11,000 units; automobiles 8,000 units; tractors 5,000 units; radios 642 units; trucks 278 units; railway-goods cars 50 units. Construction (resi-

dential units constructed; 1993): 20,013. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 36,488,000,000 (38,088,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 40,105,000 (41,102,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 8,539,000,000 (23,199,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,983,000 (2,288,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 772,000,000 (1,984,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 3.6; income per household (1992) Din 1,155,0943 (U.S.$1,540); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 53.1%, transfer payments 15.3%, self-employment 9.3%, other 22.3%; expenditure (1992): food 48.0%, clothing and footwear

‘Yugoslavia experienced extreme hyperinflation between early 1993 and January 1994. The new dinar (second), or “super dinar,” introduced on Jan. 24, 1994, was pegged to the German Mark at a rate of one-to-one and equaled 13,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 new dinars. The new dinar had been introduced Jan. 1, 1990, at the rate of 1 new

dinar =10,000 (old) dinars. Inflation was close to zero between January 1994 and September 1994, 2The autonomous provinces are administratively part of the Republic of Serbia. 3In new dinars before extreme hyperinflation. 4External analysts estimate defense expenditure at 76.7% of government expenditure. 5Data refer to Yugoslavia as constituted prior to 1991. Includes 220,000 workers in the private sector. 7Based on worker nominal net personal income. 8Number of teachers and students is reduced because of a boycott of Serbian schools by Albanians.

Nations of the World

Zaire

753

and footwear 9.7%, transportation 5.9%, furniture and utensils 4.9%, med-

ical care 2.6%, recreation and education 2.0%.

Official name: République du Zaire (Republic of Zaire). Form of government: Transitional regime!. Chief of state: President}. Head of government: Prime Minister1. Capital: Kinshasa. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: new zaire (NZ)2; valuation (Oct. 7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=NZ 2,022; 1 £=NZ

Gross national product (1991): U.S.$8,123,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Capitals

Bandundu Matadi Mbandaka Kisangani Kananga Mbuji-Mayi — Kindu Goma

Shaba Sud-Kivu TOTAL

Lubumbashi Bukavu

152,327 8,636

Construction

area sg mi_

% of labour

force

31.4

9,021,000

65.1

a)

2,200,000

15.9

2.9 9:7. 6.7

2,627,000

19.0

13,848,000

100.0

24.2 1.4

34,874

Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade

394 5,047 110,356

Finance Pub, admin., defense Services

18,316 60,830 42,019 — 1,328 629,374

Other TOTAL

population

0.1 0.8 leo

=0:2 100.0

1991

; Regions

197,903

Mining Manufacturing

Area and population

labour

_force_

——4'000,000__ __ value

Agriculture

3,216.

Bandundu Bas-Zaire Equateur | Haute-Zaire Kasai-Occidental Kasai-Oriental Kinshasa Maniema Nord-Kivu

1991 % of total

in value

—sqkm__

114,154 20,819 155,712 194,302 59,746 65,754 3,848 51,062 22,967 191,845 25,147 905,3543

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$8,895,000,000.

_ estimate _

295,658 53,920 403,292 503,239 154,742 170,302 9,965 132,250 59,483

Population economically active (1991): total 13,848,000; activity rate 35.9% ee rates [1987]: over age 10, 57.4%; female 40.8%; unemployed,

4,458,000 2,357,000 4,022,000 5,017,000 2,502,000 2,851,000 3,919,000 926,000 3,089,000

496,877 65,130 2,344,858

n.a.).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 =1) Consumer price index Earnings index

4,771,000 2,758,000 36,672,0003

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

0.14 ee

0.27 we

0.55 fe

1 a.

23 ae

953 oi:

19,897 Ni

Land use (1992): forested 76.7%; meadows and pastures 6.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.5%; other 13.2%.

Demography

Foreign trade

Population (1994): 43,775,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 48.4, persons per sq km 18.7. Urban-rural (1985): urban 44.2%; rural 55.8%.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 1989

Sex distribution (1990): male 49.28%; female 50.72%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 45.2%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 15.5%; 45-59, 8.7%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 0.7%.

Population projection: (2000) 52,644,000; (2010) 70,841,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Luba 18.0%; Kongo 16.1%;

+121 19.9%

+289 261%

+663 26.3%

1990

1991

1992

+56.0 13.3%

+1,128.2 15.1%

+13,882.4 8.2%

Imports (1990): NZ 368,800 (machinery and transport equipment 31.7%, basic manufactures 21.1%, food and live animals 19.6%, chemicals 10.2%, min-

Mongo

13.5%;

Rwanda 10.3%; Azande 6.1%; Bangi and Ngale 5.8%; Rundi 3.8%; Teke 2.7%; Boa 2.3%; Chokwe 1.8%; Lugbara 1.6%; Banda 1.4%; other 16.6%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 48.4%; Protestant 29.0%; indigenous Christian 17.1%; traditional beliefs 3.4%; Muslim 1.4%; other 0.7%.

Major cities (1991): Kinshasa 3,804,000; Lubumbashi 613,027; Kisangani 373,397; Kananga 371,862.

Nz2 % of total

739,082; Mbuji-Mayi

eral fuels 7.5%). Major import sources (1991): Belgium-Luxembourg 21.2%; France 12.4%; Germany

11.6%; China 7.0%; U.S. 6.8%; The Netherlands

4.9%; Italy 4.5%. Exports (1990): NZ 512,400 (copper 47.6%, diamonds 11.4%, crude petroleum 10.8%, coffee 5.7%). Major export destinations (1991): Belgium-Luxembourg 44.7%; U.S. 18.3%; Germany 8.4%; Italy 5.8%; Japan 5.5%; France 2.6%;

Canada 2.2%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 45.3 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 13.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 32.3 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a.

Transport. Railroads (1991)7: length 3,162 mi, 5,088 km; passenger-mi 360,-

Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 52.3 years; female 55.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1977)4: measles 9.6; meningitis 1.1; influenza 0.4; whooping cough 0.3.

National economy Budget (1992-93). Revenue: Z 3,513,084,000,000,000,0005 (1991; revenue from

mining 30.4%, external trade taxes 26.8%, incotne tax 18.6%, petroleum tax 15.8%, other revenue 8.4%). Expenditures: Z 4,525,450,000,000,000,0005

(1991; service of external and internal debt 28.4%, capital expenditure 20.5%, administration 20.0%).

Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.$7,000,000; expenditures by nation-

als abroad U.S.$16,000,000.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): cassava

20,835,000,

1,201,000,

peanuts

plantains 2,291,000,

(groundnuts)

sugarcane

604,000,

1,400,000, corn

rice 458,000,

bananas

(maize)

406,000,

sweet potatoes 385,000, yams 315,000, mangoes 212,000, papayas 210,000, palm oil 181,000, oranges 156,000, pineapples 145,000, dry beans 123,000, coffee 78,000, seed cotton 77,000, palm kernels 72,000, dry peas 64,000, avocados 47,000, tomatoes 41,000, onions 32,000, cabbage 30,000, natural rubber 5,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,120,000 goats, 1,650,000

cattle, 1,130,000 pigs, 985,000 sheep, 35,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 43,243,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 150,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): copper 46,372; zinc 4,158; cobalt 2,174; cassiterite

amonds

1,002; gold 389 kg; di-

15,327,000 carats. Manufacturing (1990): cement 457,000; sulfuric

acid 164,000; sugar 70,000; soap 47,109; animal feedstuff 20,000; explosives 19,500; plastics 7,586%; iron and steel products 5,875; paint 2,458; medicine

456; printed fabrics 44,370,000 sq m; cigarettes 5,236,000,000 units; tires 102,000 units; bicycles 5,830 units; automobiles 2,038 units; beer 4,590,000 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 1,923,000 hectolitres; leather shoes 2,954,-

000 pairs. Construction (1985): residential 20,000 sq m; nonresidential 39,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 6,180,000 (5,984,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 128,000 (170,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 10,080,000 (2,750,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 346,000 (1,012,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household.income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 6.0; average annual income per household Z 1,200 (U.S.$209); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1985): food 61.7%, housing and energy 11.5%, clothing

000,000, passenger-km 580,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,258,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,836,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 91,200 mi, 146,800

km (paved 2%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 105,000; trucks and buses 95,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 27; total deadweight tonnage 30,692. Air transport (1991)8: passenger-mi 89,627,000, passenger-km

144,242,000;

short

ton-mi

cargo

14,415,000,

metric

ton-km

cargo 21,046,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 11. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988): total number 7; total circulation 45,000; circulation

per

1,000 population

1.4. Radio

(1993): 3,400,000

re-

ceivers (1 per 12 persons). Television (1993): 22,000 receivers (1 per 1,929 persons). Telephones (1988): 32,116 (1 per 1,144 persons). Education and health Education (1987-88) schools Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc., teacher tr. Higher

10,817 4,27610 10

teachers

students

113,4689 49,15310 10 3,506

4,356,516 507,944 558,407 52,800

student/ teacher ratio 36.69 21.710 10 15.1

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1984): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 38.2%; males literate 57.4%; females literate 20.4%. Health: physicians (1990) 2,469 (1 per 15,584 persons); hospital beds (1986) 68,508 (1 per 487 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1985-

90) 83.

Foon (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,130 (vegetable products 97%, animal products 3%); 96% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 28,100 (army 89.0%, navy 4.6%, air force 6.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1988): 2.6% (world 5.0%);

per capita expenditure U.S.$8.

1Transitional government stitutional Act. 2The new (old) zaires to 1 NZ on of rounding. 4Infectious

from April 9, 1994, per promulgation of Transitional Conzaire (NZ) replaced the (old) zaire (Z) at a rate of 3,000,000 Oct. 22, 1993. 3Detail does not add to total given because diseases only. 5Zaire is experiencing hyperinflation. ©1987.

7Traffic statistics are for services operated by the Zaire National Railways (SNCZ), which controls more than 90% of the country’s total rail facility. 8Air Zaire only. 91986-87. !0Secondary includes Voc., teacher tr.

754

Britannica World Data

Zambia

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Official name: Republic of Zambia. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [1511]. Head of state and government: President. Capital: Lusaka. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Zambian kwacha (K) = 100 ngwee; valuation (Oct.

Consumer price index Earnings index

Copperbelt Eastern Luapula Lusaka Northern North-Western Southern Western

Mansa Lusaka

Kasama Solwezi Livingstone Mongu

TOTAL

1990

1991

1992

1993

46.0 ia

100.0

192.6

572.8

1,655.4

(

and under permanent cultivation 7.1%; other 13.9%.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

1991

in value K ‘000,000

Area and population Capitals Kabwe Ndola Chipata

1989

20.2 ap

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,155,000,000 (U.S.$370 per capita).

1,067.

Provinces Central

1988

13.0 ma

Land use (1992): forested 38.6%; meadows and pastures 40.4%; agricultural

7, 1994) 1 U.S.$=K 671;

1 £=K

1987

population

1990

sq mi

sq km

census

36,446 12,096 26,682 19,524 8,454 57,076 48,582 32,928 48,798 290,586

94,395 31,328 69,106 50,567 21,896 147,826 125,827 85,283 126,386 752,614

725,611 1,579,542 973,818 526,705 1,207,980 867,795 383,146 946,353 607,497 7,818,447

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade Finance Public; admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

1990

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

28,132 33,755 61,725 10,911 1,909

12.8 15.3 28.0 5.0 . 09

1,872,000 56,800 50,900 29,100 8,900

68.9 21 1.9 11 0.3

15,812 24,021 24,832

fee 10.9 11.3

25,600 30,700 24,200

0.9 11 0.9

19,254

8.7

a 220,351

111,600

41

506,100 2,716,0007

as 100.07

18.6 100.07

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$4,809,000,000.

;

Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$51,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$56,000,000.

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1994): 9,132,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 31.4, persons per sq km 12.1. Urban-rural (1992): urban 42.4%; rural 57.6%. Sex distribution (1990): male 49.16%; female 50.84%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 48.4%; 15-29, 27.2%; 30-44, 13.7%; 45-59, 7.0%; 60-74, 3.1%; 75 and over, 0.6%.

Population projection: (2000) 10,672,000; (2010) 13,885,000. Doubling time: 19 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1980): Bemba peoples 36.2%; Maravi (Nyanja) peoples 17.6%; Tonga peoples 15.1%; North-Western peoples 10.1%;

Barotze peoples 8.2%; Mambwe peoples 4.6%; Tumbuka peoples 4.6%; other 3.6%. Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 72.0%, of which Protestant 34.2%, Roman Catholic 26.2%, African Christian 8.3%; traditional beliefs 27.0%; Muslim 0.3%; other 0.7%.

Major cities (1990): Lusaka 982,362; Ndola 376,311; Kitwe 348,571; Mufulira

175,025.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 50.3 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; however, marriage is both early and universal, suggesting that legitimate births are a relatively high proportion of all births. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 12.4 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 37.9 (world avg. 16.8).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 45.0 years; female 46.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; almost two-thirds of the reported illnesses are related to nutritional deficiencies and infectious and parasitic diseases.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: K 686,600,000,000 (1992; customs duties and excise taxes 62.6%, income tax 24.8%, mineral revenue 5.4%). Expenditures: K 686,600,000,000 (current expenditures 67.3%, capital expenditures 32.7%).

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): corn (maize) 1,598,000, sugarcane 1,300,000, cassava 570,000, fruits and vegetables 363,000 (of which onions 26,000, tomatoes 26,000, oranges 4,000), wheat 71,000, seed cotton 58,000, sweet potatoes 56,000, peanuts (ground-

nuts) 42,000, millet 37,000, sorghum 35,000, soybeans 28,000, sunflower seeds 21,000, tobacco 7,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,204,000 cattle, 600,000 goats, 293,000 pigs, 67,000 sheep, 21,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 13,790,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 65,945. Mining and quarrying (1993):

Balance of trade (current prices) 1987 1988 K '000,000 % of total

+1,431.1 9.7%

+2,888.1 17.3%

1989

1990

1991

1992

+5,833.5 18.8%

+2,589.6 3.4%

+17,884.6 14.7%

— 14,633 5.3%

Imports (1990): K 27,307,900,000 (1988; machinery and transport equipment 38.3%; basic manufactures 19.8%; chemicals 16.9%; mineral fuels, lubricants,

and electricity 12.3%; food 3.8%). Major import sources: South Africa 16.9%; United Kingdom 12.2%; Germany 11.6%; United States 10.2%; Japan 6.7%. Exports (1990): K 33,802,600,000 (1988; copper 85.2%; cobalt 6.1%; zinc 1.6%; tobacco 0.3%; lead 0.2%). Major export destinations: Japan 31.0%; France 13.6%; Thailand 6.8%; India 6.1%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads (1993): length 791 mi, 1,273 km; passenger-mi

166,-

690,0004, passenger-km 268,262,0004; short ton-mi cargo 735,600,000, metric

ton-km cargo 1,074,000. Roads (1992): total length 23,214 mi, 37,359 km (paved 18%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 100,000; trucks and buses 75,000. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 313,000,000, passenger-km 504,000,000; short tonmi cargo 11,425,000, metric ton-km cargo 16,680,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 8. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 2; total circulation 105,000; circulation per 1,000 population 13. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 1,660,380 (1 per 5.4 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 200,000 (1 per 44 persons). Telephones (1992): 112,630 (1 per 77 persons). Education and health Education (1989) Primary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc., teacher tr.

Higher

schools

teachers

3,489 480 26 2

32,3483 5,7863 846 320

students 1,446,847 161,3493 8,218 6,247

student/

teacher ratio

44.13 27.93 9.7 19.5

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 54.7%; some primary education 34.4%; some secondary 10.5%} higher 0.4%. Literacy (1990): population age 15 and over

literate 3,131,000 (72.8%); males literate 1,676,000 (80.8%); females literate

1,455,000 (65.3%).

Health: physicians (1984) 798 (1 per 8,437 persons); hospital beds (1989) a “aper 349 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-

copper 432,206; zinc 7,287; cobalt 4,797; lead 3,003; silver 20,972 kg; gold

Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,016 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 87% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

441,600; cement 372,0002; sulfuric acid 276,0003; raw sugar 147,0004; refined zinc 7,320; refined lead 3,600; cigarettes 1,500,000,000 units4. Construction (value in K; 1985): buildings 151,100,000; other construction 43,200,000.

Military

8,713 troy oz. Manufacturing (1992): smelter copper 483,700; refined copper

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 7,780,000,000 (6,300,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 395,000 (674,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (3,995,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 502,000 (440,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 5.8; average annual income per household (1981) K 1,041 (U.S.$908); sources of income (1981): wages and salaries 94.0%, other 6.0%; expenditure (1977): food 37.7%, housing 11.0%, clothing 8.3%, transportation 4.3%, education 2.1%, health 1.0%. Population economically active (1990): total 2,716,000; activity rate of total population 34.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.1%5; female 28.2%5; unemployed 17.4%).

Total active duty personnel (1994): 23,820 (army 87.4%; navy, none; air force 6.7%; paramilitary 5.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1990):

2.4% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$10.°

‘President may appoint a maximum of 8 additional members. 21991. 31988. 41990, 51985. ©1987. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding.

Nations of the World

Zimbabwe

ome

none).

Official name: Republic of Zimbabwe. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Assembly [1501]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Harare. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Zimbabwe dollar (Z$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 7,

products (metric tons; 1991) none (836,000); natural gas, none

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,783,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992) 4.8; income per household Z$1,689 (U.S.$2,628); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1987): food, beverages, and tobacco 30.1%, household durable goods

11.1%, clothing, footwear, and textiles 10.3%, energy 7.3%, housing 6.5%;

transportation 6.1%, education 6.0%, health service 3.8%, recreation 0.6%.

Gross national product (1992): U.S.$5,896,000,000 (U.S.$670 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

in value Z$'000,000

% of total value

labour force4

Agriculture Mining

5,692 1,226

224 4.8

292,100 49,300

23.9 4.0

Manufacturing Construction

7,760 499

30.2 1.9

199,200 92,700

16.3 7.6

8,900 51,500 98,700 16,600

0.7 4.2 8.1 1.4

1994) 1 U.S.$ = Z$8.36; 1 £=Z$13.30.

Area and population Provinces Bulawayo Harare Manicaland

Mashonaland Mashonaland Mashonaland Masvingo Matabeleland Matabeleland Midlands TOTAL

population

Capitals — —

etSQ IM gee SO.Kme 185 479 337 872

Mutare

Central East West North South

14,077

10,945 12,444 22,178 21,840 28,967 20,916 18,983 150,872

Bindura Marondera Chinhoyi Masvingo eo Gwanda Gweru

755

36,459

28,347 32,230 57,441 56,566 75,025 54,172 49,166 390,757

1992 census2 620,936 1,478,810 1,537,676 857,318 1,033,336 1,116,928 1,221,845 640,957 591,747 1,302,214 10,401,767

Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Oa Di ub. admin., defense

687 1,865 2,145 1,271 1,311

Services

2,569

Other TOTAL

27 7.3. 8.3 5.0 orl

10.0 }

6815 25,706

% of labour force4

ea o08

2.65 100.0

aoe

on 1,221,500

ae 100.0

Land use (1992): forested 49.1%; meadows and pastures 12.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 7.4%; other 31.0%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$105,000,000.

Foreign trade

Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (1994): 10,971,000.

Density (1994): persons per sq mi 72.7, persons per sq km 28.1.

Z$'000,000 % of total

Urban-rural (1988): urban 26.4%; rural 73.6%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.80%; female 51.20%.

Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.5%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 15.1%; 45-59, 7.2%; 60-74, 3.1%; 75 and over, 0.8%. Population projection: (2000) 13,194,000; (2010) 16,808,000.

Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1982): African 97.6%, of which Shona-speaking Bantu 70.8%, Ndebele-speaking Bantu 15.8%; European 2.0%; Asian 0.1%; other 0.3%.

Religious affiliation (1980): Christian 44.8%, of which Protestant (including Anglican) 17.5%, African indigenous 13.6%, Roman Catholic 11.7%; animist 40.4%; other 14.8%. Major cities (1992): Harare 1,184,169; Bulawayo 620,936; Chitungwiza 274,035; Mutare 131,808; Gweru 124,735.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 40.6 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 11.0 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 29.6 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.4 years; female 57.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; major causes of death include malnutrition, measles, pneumonia,

malaria, and diarrheal diseases.

National economy Budget (1993-94). Revenue: Z$13,300,000,000 (income tax 45.6%; customs duties 16.2%; sales tax 15.3%; revenue from investments and property 6.5%; international grants 5.3%; excise tax 3.8%). Expenditures: Z$14,684,870,000 (recurrent expenditures 78.7%, of which goods and services 48.7%, transfer

payments 29.9%).

1

Population economically active (1986-87): total 3,260,000; activity rate of total

population 38.3% (participation rates: over age 15, 76.5%; female 36.6%; unemployed 7.2%3). Price and earnings indexes (1985= 100) 1987 1988 1989 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

128.6 139.5

138.1 134.3

155.9) 173.9

1990

1991

1992

1993

183.0

227.5

332.7

409.1

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993):

1986

1987

1988

529.9 13.9%

629.7 15.38%

896.5 17.8%

1989

1990

1991

—296.8 3.4%

—1,867.4 14.4%

Imports (1992): Z$11,232,300,000 (machinery and transport equipment 35.9%, of which transport equipment 8.9%; manufactured goods 14.4%, of which paper and paperboard 1.6%, bars, rods, and sections 1.0%; fuels 12.1%, of which petroleum products 11.9%; chemicals 11.8%). Major import sources: South Africa 24.4%;

United

Kingdom

11.3%;

United

States 9.0%;

Ger-

many 6.4%; Japan 5.3%; Italy 2.1%; Switzerland 1.8%; France 1.7%; The Netherlands 1.5%. Exports (1992): Z$7,333,600,000 (domestic exports 87.4%, of which tobacco 28.5%;

gold sales

11.4%;

ferroalloys

7.9%;

nickel metal

5.0%;

asbestos

3.9%; corn [maize] 1.9%; cotton 1.9%; sugar 1.5%; copper 1.4%). Major export destinations®: South Africa 11.9%; United Kingdom 9.9%; Germany 6.1%; United States 5.6%; Japan 5.4%; Botswana 4.5%; Switzerland 4.4%; Zambia 3.4%; Italy 3.3%; China 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 1,714 mi, 2,759 km; passenger-mi 355,057,000, passenger-km 571,410,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,695,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,394,000. Roads (1992): total length 56,593 mi, 91,078 km

(paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 310,412; trucks and buses 30,182. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 508,000,-

000, passenger-km 817,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 44,000,000, metric tonkm cargo 64,000,000; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total circulation 208,032; circulation per 1,000 population 21. Radio (1993): 522,000 receivers (1 per 20 persons). Television (1993): 137,090 receivers (1 per 80 persons). Telephones (1991): 312,380 (1 per 31 persons). Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 14-19) Voc., teacher tr. Higher7

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

4,567 1,518 25 28

60,834 23,233 1,479 2,414

2,306,809 657,344 27,431 39,406

37.9 28.3 18.5 16.3

Educational attainment (1986-87). Percentage of employed population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 24.5%; primary 42.9%; secondary and tertiary 31.7%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 3,413,000 (76.0%); males literate 1,846,000 (81.5%); females literate

1,567,000 (66.8%).

corn (maize) 2,562,000, sugarcane 700,000, wheat 300,000, tobacco leaves 205,000, vegetables (including melons) 140,000, cottonseed 119,000, sorghum 90,000, soybeans 65,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 64,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,000,000 cattle, 2,500,000 goats, 530,000 sheep, 270,000 pigs,

Health: physicians (1990) 1,320 (1 per 7,371 persons); hospital beds (1985) 19,913 (1 per 411 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 67. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,256 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 94% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

12,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1992) 8,033,000 cu m; fish catch (1991) 22,155 metric tons. Mining and quarrying (value of production in Z$; 1993):

Military

gold 1,393,240,000; asbestos 475,681,000; coal 404,771,000; nickel 369,141,000; copper 87,761,000; chrome 54,878,000. Manufacturing (value in Z$; 1990): metals and metal products 2,355,800,000; foodstuffs 2,145,200,000; - chemicals and petroleum products 1,721,300,000; textiles 1,293,400,000; beverages and tobacco 1,197,100,000; clothing and footwear 836,500,000; paper,

Total active duty personnel (1994): 46,900 (army 91.5%, air force 8.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1991): 5.5% (world 4.2%); per capita

expenditure U.S.$29.

printing, and publishing 734,500,000; transport equipment 549,700,000; wood

and furniture 357,100,000; nonmetallic mineral products 306,400,000; other manufactured goods 127,600,000. Construction (Z$; 1992): residential 364,-

428,000; commercial 332,968,000; industrial 148,830,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 9,000,000,000 (10,520,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 6,000,000 (5,880,000); crude petroleum, none (none);

1Includes 30 nonelective seats. 2Preliminary results. 3Does not take into consideration seasonal unemployment of communal workers. 4Wage-earning workers only. 5Less imputed bank service charges. SExcludes gold sales and reexports. 7Includes postsecondary vocational and teacher training at the higher level.

Comparative National Statistics World and regional summaries region/bloc

area and population, 1994

area

gross national product, 1992

|population ulation

MAE e!oetuber square square miles kilometres

52,499,780 135,973,730 | 5,589,422,000

Africa

11,724,320

30,365,720

population persq

persq]|

projection, 2010

%. i

Ss.

Scat ture

nar

growth

|GNP per | total

services | 1985-92 | (U.S.$)

oan male ‘

female

106.5

6,942,172,000 | 23,020,153 adie

683,021,000

1,030,581,000

434,270

|Ee

4,250 | 2,363,545

639

36.1

242,784

65.6

34.4

26,428

64.7

35.3

85,082 40,016

588 846

41.2 15.4

2,553,070

6,612,400

81,986,000

5

;

129,328,000

34,900

East Africa North Africa

2,471,320 3,287,810

6,400,640 8,515,370

214,314,000 152,714,000

: :

: :

336,949,000 221,568,000

49,390 160,940

3 :

;

Southern Africa

1,033,890

2,667,770

47,605,000

i

'

67,526,000

114,340

;

’

West Africa

2,378,230

6,159,540

186,402,000

f

;

275,210,000

74,700

:

Americas

('000)

i

World Central Africa

i

me total

labour force, 1990

=O;

14,532

64.3

35.7

76,726

638

36.2

16,297,750

42,211,010

762,800,000

:

!

929,173,000 | 7,697,600

3

293,723

66.5

33.5

Anglo-America3 Canada United States

8,368,970 3,849,670 3,679,190

21,675,560 9,970,610 9,529,060

290,276,000 29,107,000 261,045,000

; : :

: : ’

334,054,000 | 6,472,950 35,050,000 565,790 298,865,000 | 5,904,820

2 2 2

135,438 13,360 122,005

58.7 60.2 586

41.3 39.8 41.4

Latin America Caribbean Central America Mexico

7,928,780 90,650 202,040 756,070

20,535,450 234,750 523,280 1,958,200

472,524,000 35,029,000 31,577,000 91,840,000

f i : ;

i : : ;

595,119,000 | 1,224,650 41,458,000 72,900 44,457,000 33,170 118,455,000 294,830

9 8 8 8

158,285 13,813. 9,520 30,487.

73.1 66.9 78.5 72.9

26.9 33.1 21.5 27.1

6,880,020 2,110,520 3,286,500 1,483,000

17,819,220 5,466,280 8,512,000 3,840,940

314,078,000 111,994,000 159,000,000 43,084,000

7 i : 3

: H ’ ;

390,749,000 144,726,000 194,002,000 52,021,000

73.6 75.6 72.6 724

264 24.4 27.4 276

South America Andean Group Brazil Other South America Asia

823,750 178,690 425,410 219,650

; i : :

i ; P ,

104,465 34,715 55,026 14,724

12,325,690

31,923,320 | 3,385,495,000

:

;

4,192,400,000 | 6,086,070

’

:

1,436,5224

Eastern Asia China Japan South Korea Other Eastern Asia

4,546,920 3,696,120 145,850 38,330 666,620

11,776,450 | 1,414,498,000 9,572,900 | 1,192,300,000 377,750 124,960,000 99,270 44,436,000 1,726,530 52,802,000

: ; i

; ; : i i

1,567,636,000 | 4,575,690 1,323,800,000 442,350 130,344,000 | 3,507,840 49,683,000 296,350 63,809,000 329,150

f ; i " "

E

775,590 669,693 62,202 18,664 25,031

57.4 56.7 62.1 66.2 58.8

42.6 43.3 37.9 33.8 41.2

South Asia India Pakistan Other South Asia

1,971,490 1,222,240 339,700 409,550

5,106,110 | 1,217,884,000 3,165,600 913,744,000 879,810 131,434,000 = 1,060,700 172,706,000

, :

361,910 271,640 49,480 40,790

? f : :

411,136 322,944 33,698 54,494

77.4 74.8 87.5 86.2

226 25.2 125 13.8

Southeast Asia ASEAN Non-ASEAN

1,735,800 1,185,080 550,720

4,495,710 3,069,370 1,426,340

189,297 132,060 57,237

63.0 65.6 57.1

37.0 34.4 429

Southwest Asia Central Asia Gulf Cooperation Council Iran Other Southwest Asia

4,071,480 1,542,250 1,026,860 632,460 869,910

1,159. :

8 : }

; \ I :

i

1,627,758,000 1,189,396,000 197,672,000 240,690,000

475,515,000 343,332,000 132,183,000

: ; :

; f :

606,070,000 426,866,000 179,204,000

481,690 378,590 103,100

: ‘ !

’ :

10,545,000 3,994,400 2,659,550 1,638,060 2,253,040

277,598,000 53,681,000 24,693,000 59,614,000 139,610,000

: : : \ :

y i : ; i

390,936,000 68,946,000 38,851,000 85,775,000 197,364,000

666,780 58,250 202,220 130,910 275,400

’ ; ; , :

5 5 ,

8,868,200

22,968,600

729,943,000

:

;

754,991,000 | 8,448,430

Eastern Europe Russia Other Eastern Europe

7,437,180 6,592,850 844,330

19,262,210 17,075,400 2,186,810

346,027,000 148,174,000 197,853,000

! } E

Western Europe EFTA European Union France Germany Italy Spain United Kingdom Other EU Other Western Europe

1,431,020 517,360 912,450 210,030 137,820 116,330 194,900 94,250 159,120 1,210

3,706,390 1,339,950 2,363,250 543,970 356,960 301,300 504,780 244,110 412,130 3,190

383,916,000 33,473,000 349,633,000 57,982,000 81,966,000 57,257,000 39,193,000 58,422,000 54,813,000 810,000

’ i : f : i : i ‘ i

i { i { y i ‘ ; ‘ ;

3,283,810

8,505,080

28,163,000

i

‘

2,966,150

7,682,300

17,875,000

317,660

822,780

10,288,000

Europe

Oceania Australia Pacific Ocean Islands

348,014,000 143,477,000 204,537,000 406,977,000 | 35,009,000 371,072,000 | 63,263,000 | 93,324,000 | 56,270,000 | 40,317,000 61,100,000 | 56,798,000 896,000

802,760 397,790 404,970

,

60,4994 4 6511 15,253 38,7354

76.24 23.84 4 4 91.7 83 82.0 18.0 71.34 28.74

i

11,680

378.3354

57.74 42.34

. ; ti

2,340 2,680 2,090

208,7494 146.6344 62,1154

53.04 47.04 52.04 48.04 55.44 44.64

7,645,670 889,630 6,774,840 1,278,650 1,846,060 1,186,570 547,950 1,024,770 860,840 11,200

J : ; : : y ‘ : . ‘

20,090 26,890 | 19,450 22,300 23,030 20,510 14,020 17,760 15,770 14,340

169,586 15,917 153,330 25,404 38,981 23,339 14,456 27,766 23,384 339

63.6 58.1 64.1 60.1 60.7 68.1 75.5 614 66.5 68.1

36.4 419 35.9 39.9 39.3 31.9 245 386 33.5 31.9

35,027,000

353,783

;

:

12,181

63.0

37.0

f

21,598,000

299,320

;

i

’

13,429,000

7,963

61.9

54,463

38.1

‘

,

4,218

65.0

35.0

‘Refers only to the long-term external public and publicly guaranteed debt of the 129 countries that report under the World Bank’s Debtor Reporting System (DRS).

Africa

Americas

Asia

at cual Africa

America

64.74 35.34

2Continental and regional totals may

Comparative National Statistics

economic indicators

social indicators (latest)

pop. per | electricity

trade ('000,000 U.S.$), 1993

1,000 ha | consumpof arable | tion (kWland, hr per 1992 Capita), 1992

imports (c.if.)

exports? (f.0.b.)

balance2

debt ('000,000 U.S.$), 19921

total

life expec- ~ tancy (years)

% of

male

GNP

4,020

female

757

region/bloc

health

pop, per doctor

infant mortality per 1,000 births

food (% FAO recompop. having | mended

safe water | minimum), (%)

literacy (%)

male

female

1988-90

3,682,110

—118,780

|1,097,735

81.8

69.1

World

110,900

96,560

—14,340

228,083

61.8

42.2

Africa

6,110 15,530 43,670 21,670 23,920

5,340 12,410 39,150 14,660 20,980

—770 —3,120 — 4,520 —7,010 — 2,940

30,704 39,313 97,220 1,213 59,632

71.8 60.3 61.7 777A 54.6

474 45.6 35.0 74.9 32.8

Central Africa East Africa North Africa Southern Africa West Africa

934,580

910,030

—24,550

90.4

88.7

742,900 138,290 603,310

719,090 135,530 582,350

—23,810 — 2,750 —20,950

95.8 96.6 95.745.

95.4 96.6 95.3

Anglo-America3 Canada United States

191,680 18,770 13,630 63,880

186,830 18,320 21,270 59,860

— 440 +7,650

322,516 10,538 23,437 72,219

86.4 87.0 75.0 88.7

83.5 84.2 68.1 83.5

Latin America Caribbean Central America Mexico

95,410 44,040 25,680 25,690

87,370 38,200 25,020 24,150

—5,840 —660

216,322 77,017 86,251 53,054

86.7 90.0 82.1 95.1

84.8 84.8 81.2 94.4

6,950

1,086,840

1,001,700

—85,140

369,458

78.8

61.1

13,550 12,640 30,590 22,980 12,740

647,910 103,550 240,710 84,340 219,310

591,520 110,440 215,800 72,390. 192,890

-—56,390 +6,890 —24,910 =11,950 -—26,420

82,690 58,475 = 23,919 296

89.0 87.0 100.0 99.1 97.4

73.0 68.0 100.0 93.5 92.4

5,660 5,300 6,040 8,270

41,070 22,490 9,490 9,090

41,080 24,020 9,590 7,470

+10 +1,530 +100 — 1,620

105,952 67,721 18,476 19,755

60.7 63.9 47.3 51.8

36.4 39.4 22.3 29.2

South Asia India Pakistan Other South Asia

7,810 8,200 6,960

233,780 225,910 7,870

215,830 208,700 7,130

—17,950 -—17,210 —740

108,742 101,877 6,865

88.3 88.7 87.0

76.6 77.3 74.8

Southeast Asia ASEAN Non-ASEAN

2,560 1,210 6,250 3,420 3,320

164,080 2,360 74,920 15,620 71,180

149,320 2,080 70,020 14,260 62,060

—14,760 —280 —4,900 — 1,360 —9,120

82.35 98.8 72.7 64.5

67.5 96.2 ~—«50.0 43.3 67.9

Southwest Asia Central Asia Gulf Cooperation Council

2,430

1,608,100

1,566,860

1,570 1,140 2,190

116,840 34,710 82,130

106,510 30,060 74,610

4,830 4,130 4,910 3,180 7,030 6,330 2,570 8,860 5,270 24,860

1,491,260 192,960 1,294,980 200,400 329,510 147,540 82,390 205,390 329,750 3,330

1,460,350 191,870 1,265,010 199,320 326,670 134,250 73,730 196,930 334,120 3,470

530

60,470

54,490

340 12,510

45,630 14,850

41,460 13,030

contain undistributable detail.

Europe

— 4,650 89,516

22.7

21,406

— 1,090 —29,960 — 1,080 — 2,850 —13,280 — 8,670 — 8,450 +4,370 +140

21,277

98.8

96.9

98.7 98.6 98.8

95.8 95.2 96.2

98.9 100.0 98.8 98.9 100.0 97.8 97.5 100.0 97.6 98.3

97.9 100.0 97.7 98.7 100.0 96.4 94.2 100.0 94.7 98.1

Americas

South America Andean Group Brazil Other South America Asia

Eastern Asia China Japan South Korea Other Eastern Asia

Iran

Other Southwest Asia Europe Eastern Europe Russia Other Eastern Europe Western Europe

EFTA European Union France Germany Italy Spain United Kingdom Other EU Other Western Europe Oceania Australia Pacific Ocean Islands

3Anglo-America includes Canada, the United States, Greenland, Bermuda, and St. Pierre and Miquelon.

Eastern Europe

Oceania

d

Data for Russia refer to all 15 republics of the former U.S.S.R.

758

Britannica World Data

Government and international organizations This table summarizes principal facts about the governments of the countries of the world, their branches and organs, the topmost layers of local government constituting each country’s chief administrative subdivisions, and the participation of their central governments in the principal intergovernmental organizations of the world. In this table “date of independence” may refer to a variety of circumstances. In the case of the newest countries, those that attained full independence after World War II, the date given is usually just what is implied by the heading—the date when the country, within its present borders, attained full sovereignty over both its internal and external affairs. In the case of longer established countries, the choice of a single date may be somewhat more complicated, and grounds for the use of several different dates often exist. The reader should refer to Macropeedia and Micropeedia articles on national histories and relevant historical acts. In cases of territorial annexation or dissolution, the date given here refers either to the final act of union of a

state composed of smaller entities or to the final act of separation from a larger whole (e.g., the separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971). The date of the current, or last, constitution is in some ways a less com-

plicated question, but governments sometimes do not, upon taking power, either adhere to existing constitutional forms or trouble to terminate the previous document and legitimize themselves by the installation of new constitutional forms. Often, however, the desire to legitimize extraconstitutional

political activity by associating it with existing forms of long precedent leads to partial or incomplete modification, suspension, or abrogation of a constitution, so that the actual day-to-day conduct of government may be largely

unrelated to the provisions of a constitution still theoretically in force. When a date in this column is given in italics, it refers to a document that has been suspended, abolished by extraconstitutional action, or modified extensively. The characterizations adopted under “type of government” represent a compromise between the forms provided for by the national constitution and the more pragmatic language that a political scientist might adopt to describe these same systems. For an explanation of the application of these terms in the Britannica World Data, see the Glossary at page 541. The positions denoted by the terms “chief of state” and “head of government” are usually those identified with those functions by the constitution. The duties of the chief of state may range from largely ceremonial responsibilities, with little or no authority over the day-to-day conduct of government, to complete executive authority as the effective head of government. In certain countries, an official of a political party or a revolutionary figure outside the constitutional structure may exercise the powers of both positions. Membership in the legislative house(s) of each country as given here includes all elected or appointed members, as well as ex officio members (those who by virtue of some other office or title are members of the body), whether voting or nonvoting. The legislature of a country with a unicameral system is shown as the upper house in this table. The number of administrative subdivisions for each country is listed down to the second level. A single country may, depending on its size, complexity, and historical antecedents, have as many as five levels of administrative subordination or it may have none at all. Each level of subordination may have several kinds of subdivisions.

Government and international organizations country

date of independencea

date of current or last constitution>

type of government

Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra

Aug. 19, 1919 Nov. 28, 1912 July 5, 1962 — Dec. 6, 1288

Sept. 27, April 29, Feb. 23, July 1, May 4,

19931 19911 1989 1967 1993

Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Aruba

Nov. 11, Nov. 1, July 9, Sept. 23,

1975 1981 1816 1991 —

Aug. 27, Nov. 1, Aug. 24, April Jan. 1,

1992 republic 1981 constitutional monarchy 199411 federal republic 1978 republic 1986 overseas territory (Neth.)

Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas, The Bahrain

Jan. 1, Oct. 30, Aug. 30, July 10, Aug. 15,

1901 1918 1991 1973 1971

July 9, 1900 Oct. 1, 1920 April 1978 July 10,1973 June 1973

March 26, Nov. 30, Aug. 25, Oct. 4, Sept. 21,

1971 1966 1991 1830 1981

Aug. 1, 1960 —

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bermuda

Bhutan March 24, 1910 Bolivia Aug. 6, 1825 Bosnia and Herzegovina | March 3, 1992 Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China

Colombia Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus28 Czech Republic

Sept. 30, Sept. 7, Jan. 1, Oct. 5, Aug. 5,

1966 1822 1984 1908 1960

July Nov. Jan. July July

1962 1953 1960

1, 9, 1, 1, 5,

1867 1975

Aug. 13, 1960 Aug. 11, 1960 Sept. 18, 1810. 1523 Bc

July 20, 1810 July 6, 1975 Aug. 15,1960 Sept. 15, 1821 Aug. 7, 1960 June 25, 1991 May 20, 1902 Aug. 16, 1960 Jan. 1, 1993

Denmark Djibouti

c. 800 June 27, 1977

Dominica Dominican Republic

Nov. 3, 1978 Feb. 27, 1844

Ecuador

Egypt El Salvador

May 24, 1822

Feb. 28, 1922 Jan. 30, 1841

seaward claims chief of state

republic republic republics territory (U.S.) parl. coprincipality

head of government

president president president HCS U.S. president 8

prime minister2 prime minister prime minister governor head of the govt.

upper house (members)

lower house (members)

firstsecond- | terriorder order torial (number) (number) | (nautical miles)

fishing/ economic (nautical miles)

12 12 12 _

3 12 200 _

president British monarch prime minister president president prime minister Dutch monarch 12

20 129 12 — 12

200 2002 200 — 200

federal parl. state 14 federal republic republic constitutional monarchy monarchy (emirate)

British monarch president president British monarch emir

12 = oa 3 12

200 — is 200 15

Dec. 16, 1972 Nov. 30,1966 March 30, 1994 May 5, 1993 Sept. 21, 1981

republic constitutional monarchy republic fed. const. monarchy constitutional monarchy

president prime British monarch prime president monarch prime British monarch prime

12 12 — 12 1217

200 200 — 15 200

Dec. 2, 1990 June 8, 1968

republic colony (U.K.)

_— Feb, 2, 1967 1990 Sept. 30, Oct. 5, Sept. 29, July 12, June 11,

1966 1988 1959 1991 19911

March 13, 19921 Sept. 24,1993 June 2, 1972 April 17, 1982 Sept. 25, 1992 Nov. 21, April 6, .March 11, Dec. 4,

1986 19931 1981 1982

July 5, 1991 June 7, March 15, Nov. 9, Oct. 31, Dec. 22,

199226 199226 1949 1960 1990

Feb. 24, 1976 Aug. 16, 1960 Jan. 1, 1993

19 republic republic20, 21 republic federal republic monarchy (sultanate) republic republic republic constitutional monarchy republic federal parl. state 14 republic republic republic republic people's republic

republic

Aug. 10, 1979 Sept. 11, 1971 Dec. 20, 1983

minister minister minister minister

———— president British monarch

king president president CP prime minister president president sultan president prime minister president prime minister president22 king 23 president prime minister Canadian GG24 prime minister president prime minister president prime minister president prime minister president ——————_ president premier SC

president ——————_

federal Islamic republic republic republic republic republic

president president Prime minister president prime minister

socialist republic republic republic

president president president prime minister

June 5, 1953 —_ constitutional monarchy Sept. 15, 1992 republic Nov. 3, 1978 Nov. 28, 1966

prime minister chancellor prime minister prime minister prime minister

republic republic

republic

republic republic

president president

prime minister Prime minister

monarch prime minister president president prime minister president

president

president prime minister president

200 12

200 200

a= —

=s —

— 12 12 12 —

80,721 53,757 80,533 5 311,746 rs ; 59,487

Winston-Salem (N.C.) Worcester (Mass.) a

144,791 163,414

Wyoming (Mich.) Yakima (Wash.)

64,123 58,448

Yonkers (N.Y.) Youngstown (Ohio)

186,063 56,806 94,387

Yorba Linda (Calif.)

Yuma (Ariz.)

——

412,331 :

106,944

cae

Wi

Gene (1982) iu ma. Western Samoa (1991) * Api

te

pl

s

Yemen (1986) * Aden (economic)

318,0002

* San‘a’ (political)

427.1 85

Al-Hudaydah Ta’izz

61,047

155,110 178,430 !

Yugoslavia ~ (1991)

Uruguay (1992 est.) 1,3

Uzbekistan (1992 est.) Andijon (Andizhan) Angren Bukhara

ats

302,000 133,000 235,000

158,000

:

oe Nis Novi Sad Podgorica (Titograd) Pristina

Subotica

= iene 175,555 1 78,896 118,059 148,65695

400,219

115,000

193,000

Marghilon (Margilan)

128,000

Namangan

333,000

Nawoiy (Navoi) Nukus Olmaliq (Almalyk)

Boma

Bukavu

Qarshi (Karshi)

175,000

Kananga Kikwit * Kinshasa

Quqon (Kokand) Samarqand

177,000

Kolwezi Likasi

(Samarkand)

* Tashkent (Toshkent)

Urgench

372,000 2,126,000

132,000

Vanuatu (1989)

* Vila

19,311

Venezuela (1990) Acarigua

Barcelona Barinas Barquisimeto Baruta

Cabimas

* Caracas Catia la Mar

Ciudad Bolivar Ciudad Guayana

(San Felix de Guayana) Cumana

116,551

221,792 153,630 625,450 182,9419

165,7559

1,822,465 100,104

225,340

453,047 212,432

241981 estimate. 311983 estimate.

J

Zaire (1991 est.)

113,000 182,000 116,000

21No separate areas within the state are distinguished administratively as cities. 22Population includes Comayagiela. 231980 census. 27Projections based on a repudiated census taken in 1963. 28Federal Capital Territory; 1992 estimate. 291990 census. 30Urban area. estimate. 34Population of local authority areas. 351981 census. 36Census-designated place (CDP).

423,102

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

Weatnster Gol)

* Montevideo

BPEO COOP 4,181,60015

211.718 1 28 B17

i

98,777

Fla.

wi

7

hy

104,724

: Been

71,929

oe

My Tho s

x

ee

208,078

Hong Gai

51,147

ick ( *Wanner Cc

Fergana

139,358

61,017

268,266

383,733

eae

Can Tho

54,

Waltham (Mass.) Warren (Mich.)

We

203,621

10506 114,041

grap | aa

Walnut Creek (Calif)

teerat

220,675

i

113,703

(N.J.

206,654 ee ae

cainPha Cam Rahn

Virginia ie (Va.)

Chirchik

Sioux Falls (S.D.)

i

BEBag 77,902

Vallejo (Calif.

Dzhizak

56,960

57.258. |Veam sep

ij

81,907

Sioux City (/owa)

South San Francisco

Pleasanton (Calif.) Plymouth (Minn.) Pomona (Calif.) Pompano Beach (Fia.)

96,754

wviielona ecto

Valencia

54,798

vith ell Vacaville (Calif.)

196,645

125,418

(Calif.) Southfield (Mich.)

Pittsburg (Calif.)

90,157

103,813

Shreveport (La.)

on

_«geaet | Union Wet)

202,263 238,601

peers ele

San Crist6bal

76,872

Union City (Calif)

Simi Valley (Calif.)

86,631

59,773 52,920

Pico Rivera (Calif.)

75,079

354,196

Maturin eri ee as

375,307

Tustin

14017 140,617

1,249,670

Maracay

Ment

Tyler (Texas)

132,605

52,029

Phoenix (Ariz.)

67,213

139,884

Ticaan (Ariz.)

Tulsa (Ok/a.)

79,746 519,598 50,199

Penn Hills (Pa.)

Philadelphia (Pa.)

oe

Scranton (Pa.) Seattle (Wash.) Sheboygan (Wis.)

Pensacola (Fla.) Peoria (Ariz.)

Peoria (/l/.)

nied

100,766

Melaeibe

le0.257,

Torrance (Calif) (N.J. tee TroyNY

70,119 84,430 56,189

366,852 142,106

610,275

Reno (Nev.)

Rialto (Calif)

Santee (Calif.) Sarasota (Fia.) Savannah (Ga.) Schaumburg ((//.)

Pittsburgh (Pa.) Plano (Texas)

Merced (Calif.) Meriden (Conn.)

60,994

69,437 174,215 56,292 119,260

107,257 195,161

Memphis (Tenn.)

Redlands (Calif.)

135,642 oot Pps

Santa Maria (Calif.) Santa Monica (Calif.) Santa Rosa (Calif.)

57,675

53,709

daneks (Kan.)

339,671 138,981 113,591

53,366 144,805

vasa os Teques

111,161 57,053

San Angelo (Texas) San Antonio (Texas)

66,236

Guacara

107,522 ,

mene pid City (S.D.) Reading (Pa.) Redding(Calif.)

Trenton

population

58,881 329,325

62,328 51,254

93,760

(Calif), " as

Toledo (Ohio)

Salinas (Calif.)

97,767 78,528 56,345 oe 73,219 139,718

Thornton (Colo.) Th

220,524

55,574

50,358

86,121 ;

eount ay

population

Raleigh (N.C.)

7° | heme pn)

423,966

98,552 84,457

country city

ra ae yeaonag

Seata | Richmeraicon)

Pine Bluff (Ark.)

97,307 53,226 56,702 64,276

Quincy (Mass.)

Racine; (Wis.)A

Redwood City (Calif.)

53,315

67,050

63,216

90,252

Pueblo (Colo.)

132,105

96,892 9! 72,919

New Orleans (La.) New Rochelle (N.Y.)

i population

ee Beach

New Bedford (Mass.). as New Britain (Conn.)

New Haven (Conm)

Pasadena (Calif.)

60,045

60,368

eu city

ie

eas :

176,870

438,771 54,627 72,695

Lynchburg (Va.)

“i

201'896 A 172.292 56,174

*ahiatiee a

197,488

Long Beach (Calif.) Longmont (Colo.) Longview (Texas)

Lowell (Mass.)

Naperville ((I/,)

Palm Bay (Fia.) Palmdale (Calif.) Palo Alto (Calif.)

101,375

Lorain (Ohio)

Murfreesboro (Tenn.) Napa (Calif.)

87,168 51,327 232,562

Livonia (Mich.)

Lodi (Calif.)

Mount Vernon (N.Y.)

| Nasiteoancon

55,450 , 163,319

;

oo

Mount Prospect (I//.) i

112,713 ; := oa

;

caetnae

Moreno Valley (Calif.)

eet :

Jackson (Tenn.)

—

No

F

~ontran wet

Inclependenes (Mo,

Monroe (La.)

"rorse | Mange (nay)

121,732 371,320

1,690,186

(Calif.) . eee Oe wr

Mobile Ala.)ie Modesto (Calif:

Montebello (Calif.) )

aa

{fouston (fexas)

Hurangon Beach

53,764

617,043 :

Minaaapolls iMiagy)

57,077

one ies) oe Grae

(Wis.)'

noe

84,358

paieenisen

(Calif)

52,845

84,256

115,189

Hossein (Cs My

ilpitas

i wien Fo

;

777

:

Kisangani Lubumbashi Matadi

Mbandaka

Mbuji-Mayi Zambia (1990)

246,207

209,566

371,862 182,850 3,804,000

373,397

544,497 279,839

739,082

172,926

165,623

613,027 r

Chingola Kabwe

167,954 166,519

Kitwe

338,207

Luanshya * Lusaka Mufulira Ndola

146,275 982,362 152,944 376,311

Zimbabwe (1992) Bulawayo

620,936

Chitungwiza Gweru

* Harare Mount Darwin Mutare

274,035 124,735

1,184,169 164,362 131,808

25County borough. 26Distrito Federal. 32Population refers to Kotte only. 331980

778

Britannica World Data

Language This table presents estimated data on the principal language communities of the countries of the world. The countries, and the principal languages (occasionally, language families) represented in each, are listed alphabetically. A bullet (@) indicates those languages that are official in each country. The sum of the estimates equals the 1994 population of the country given in the “Area and population” table. The estimates represent, so far as national data collection systems permit, the distribution of mother tongues (a mother tongue being the language spoken first and, usually, most fluently by an individual). Many countries do not collect any official data whatever on language use, and published estimates not based on census or survey data usually span a substantial range of uncertainty. The editors have adopted the best-founded distribution in the published literature (indicating uncertainty by the degree of rounding shown) but have also adjusted or interpolated using data not part of the base estimate(s). Such adjustments have not been made to account for large-scale refugee movements, as these are of a temporary nature.

A variety of approaches have been used to approximate mother-tongue distribution when census data were unavailable. Some countries collect data on ethnic or “national” groups only; for such countries ethnic distribution often had to be assumed to conform roughly to the distribution of language communities. This approach, however, should be viewed with caution, because a minority population is not always free to educate its children in its own language and because better economic opportunities often draw minority group members into the majority-language community. For some countries, a given individual may be visible in national statistics only as a passport-holder of a foreign country, however long he may remain resident. Such persons, often guest workers, have sometimes had to be assumed to be speakers of the principal language of their home country. For other countries, the language mosaic may be so complex, the language communities so minute in size, scholarly study so inadequate, or

the census base so obsolete that it was possible only to assign percentages to entire groups, or families, of related languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility (Papuan and Melanesian languages in Papua New Guinea,

for instance). For some countries in the Americas, so few speakers of any

single indigenous language remain that it was necessary to combine these groups as Amerindian so as to give a fair impression of their aggregate size

' within their respective countries. No systematic attempt has been’ made to account for populations that may legitimately be described as bilingual, unless the country itself collects data on that basis, as does Bolivia or the Comoros, for example. Where

a nonindigenous official or excolonial language constitutes a lingua franca of the country, however, speakers of the language as a second tongue are shown in italics, even though very few may speak it as a mother tongue. No comprehensive effort has been made to distinguish between dialect communities usually classified as belonging to the same language, though such distinctions were possible for some countries—e.g., between

French and Occitan (the dialect of southern France) or among the various dialects of Chinese. In giving the names of Bantu languages, grammatical particles specific to a language’s autonym (name for itself) have been omitted (the form Rwanda is used here, for example, rather than kinyaRwanda, and Tswana instead of seTswana). Parenthetical alternatives are given for a number of languages that differ markedly from the name of the people speaking them (such as Kurukh, spoken by the Oraon tribes of India) or that may be combined with other groups sometimes distinguishable in national data but appearing here under the name of the largest member—e.g., “Tamil (and other Indian languages)” combining data on South Asian Indian populations in Singapore. The term creole as used here refers to distinguishable dialectal communities

related

to a national,

official, or former

colonial

language (such as the French creole that survives in Mauritius from the end of French rule in 1810).

Language Major languages by country

Number of speakers

Afghanistan! , Indo-Aryan languages

Pashai Iranian languages Balochi ’

@ Dari (Persian)

Chahar Aimak Hazara Tajik

Naristani group

Pamir group @ Pashto Turkic languages Turkmen

Argentina Amerindian languages

100,000 590,000

Italian

160,000

@ Spanish Other

32,810,000 380,000

Armenia @ Armenian

3,320,000

470,000 1,490,000

3,450,000

130,000

100,000 8,850,000 330,000 1,490,000 320,000

Albania? @ Albanian Greek Macedonian

3,410,000 64,000 5,000

1,000

Azerbaijani

Other

Aruba e@ Dutch English Papiamento Spanish Other Australia Aboriginal languages Arabic

Cantonese

Dutch @ English

Algeria @ Arabic Berber French

Number of speakers

100,000

Uzbek Other

Other

Major languages by country

23,090,000 4,690,000 13,000,000

English (lingua franca) Filipino languages

Bahamas, The @ English English/English Creole French (Haitian) Creole

Bahrain2 @ Arabic

Other

4,000 6,000 55,000 5,000 1,000

Bangladesh! @ Bengali Chakma @ English

50,000 179,000

Garo Khasi Marma (Magh) Mro Santhalr Tripuri Other

52,000 15,188,000

Barbados Bajan (English

179,000

17,300,000 64,000

54,000

Indonesian (Malay)

50,000

2,000

Italian

Japanese

Other

2,000

Korean Macedonian Mandarin

21,000 70,000 59,000

Arabic @ Dutch @ French

Maltese Polish

57,000 73,000

@ German Italian

Portuguese Russian

29,000 27,000

Spanish Turkish

@ Catalan (Andorran) English French Portuguese

Spanish Other

Angola!

Ambo (Ovambo)

Chokwe Herero Kongo «

Luchazi Luimbe-Nganguela Lunda Luvale (Luena) Mbunda Mbundu

Nyaneka-Humbe Ovimbundu @ Portuguese Other 3 Antigua and Barbuda e English ; English/English Creole

Other

18,000 1,000 5,000 7,000

29,000 3,000

270,000 470,000 80,000 1,480,000

270,000 610,000 130,000 400,000 130,000 2,420,000

610,000 4,180,000 3,900,000 170,000 Ke 63,000

3,000

50,000 123,000 313,000

Creole) @ English

@ Samoan

Andorra2

Hindi

25,000

Hungarian

32,000

Serbo-Croatian Spanish Turkish Vietnamese

Other

Austria Czech

e@ German Hungarian Polish Romanian Serbo-Croatian Slovene

Turkish Other re Azerbaijan Armenian eAzerbaijani Lezgian Russian

Other

se 220,000 50,000 400,000

150,000

32,000

Belarus @ Belarusian Polish Russian Ukrainian Other

114,740,000 430,000 3,100,000 110,000 90,000 220,000 40,000 80,000 80,000 1,610,000

237,000 27,000

6,830,000 60,000

3,320,000 140,000

60,000

23,000 | Belgium23

97,000 98,000 46,000 120,000

Other 3 Belize Black Carib (Garifuna)

19,000

English Creole (lingua franca) German

409,000 | @ English

17,000 174,000 30,000

122,000 228,000 350,000 6,110,000 160,000 560,000

240,000

Number of speakers

Major languages by country

Yoruba (Nago) Other

620,000 190,000

Burkina Faso1,4 @ French

Fulani Bermuda e@ English

Bhutan! Assamese @ Dzongkha (Bhutia)

Mayan languages Spanish Spanish (lingua franca)

@ French Fulani (Peul) Houéda (Péda)

Somba (Otamary)

Other

Botswana! @ English (lingua franca) Khoikhoin (Hottentot) Ndebele San (Bushmen) Shona

160,000 6,000,000 3,310,000

90,000 240,000 50,000 90,000 180,000 14,000

106,000 160,000 3,000

20,000 66,000 120,000

580,000 440,000 110,000 160,000 2,050,000 810,000 290,000 450,000

340,000

62,000 120,000

400,000 280,000

174,000 2,000 413,000 3,476,000 1,487,000 25,000 1,948,000 140,000 222,000

4,410,000 40,000

580,000 36,000

19,000 50,000

180,000

Hausa Mande languages

Number of speakers

600,000 840,000 20,000

Busansi (Bisa)

200,000

Samo

290,000

Dyula Marka (Soninke) Songhai

Tamashek (Tuareg) Voltaic (Gur) languages Bobo Gurunsi (Grusi) Gurma Lobi Mossi Senufo Other

80,000 240,000 150,000

330,000 680,000 520,000 490,000 700,000 4,820,000 530,000 70,000

.

Burundi‘ @ French

540,000

@ Rundi Hutu Tutsi

5 650,000 4,750,000 "780,000

Twa Others

60,000 150,000 ‘

Cambodia‘ Cham

220,000

Chinese

300,000

Tswana

1,093,000

@ Khmer

8440,000

franca) Other

1,160,000 71,000

Others

50,000 '

Tswana (lingua

Benin‘

Adja Bariba Dendi Djougou Fon

Bolivia @ Aymara Guarani @ Quechua @ Spanish Spanish-Aymara Spanish-Guarani Spanish-Quechua Spanish-others Other

Bosnia and Herzegovina @ Serbo-Croatian

458,000

7,385,000 34,000 18,000

Major languages by country

Nepali (Hindi)

40,000

Tongan

Number of speakers

140,000

Other : American Samoa @ English — English (lingua franca)

2,000

French German Greek

90,000

Major languages by country

Vietnamese

520,000

Cameroon!

Brazil! Amerindian languages German

Italian Japanese @ Portuguese Other Brunei Chinese English

@ Malay Malay-Chinese Malay-English English-Chinese Malay-ChineseEnglish

Other Bulgaria’ @ Bulgarian French Macedonian Romany Turkish

Other

Chadic languages Buwal 270,000 870,000

670,000 760,000 154,950,000 1,480,000

:

26,000 10,000

129,000 2,000 82,000 6,000 ; 11,000

15,000 , 7,030,000 240,000 210,000 310,000 800,000

100,000

Hausa Kotoko

Mandara (Wandala) Masana (Masa) e@ English @ French

Niger-Congo

250,000 150,000 1 40,000 730,000 510,000 ' 1,940, 000

‘aves

languages Adamawa-Eastern languages

Chamba Gbaya Mbum Benue-Congo lan ae Bailes (edumbe -

310,000 1 50,000 170,000 ;

Widikum (Mo a mo)-Bamum : (Mum) 2,390,000 Basa (Bassa) 140,000 Duala 1 410,000 Fang (Pangwe)~e Beti-Bulu 2,530,000 Ibibio (Efik) ; 20,000

Jukun

80,000

Comparative National Statistics

Major languages by country

Number of speakers

Lundu

350,000

Maka

630,000

Tikar

960,000

Tiv

340,000

Wute Kwa languages Igbo West Atlantic languages

40,000 70,000

Fulani Saharan languages Kanuri Semitic languages Arabic Other

1,240,000 40,000 130,000 100,000

17,700,000 6,986,000 233,000 431,000 49,000

English-French-other Aboriginal (Amerindian and Eskimo [Inuktitut]) languages Arabic

210,000 47,000

Chinese Czech Danish Dutch Filipino (Pilipino)

306,000 26,000 23,000 143,000 49,000

Finnish German

29,000 504,000

Greek

128,000

Hungarian Italian

79,000 524,000

Polish Portuguese Punjabi

32,000

143,000 178,000 73,000

Russian Serbo-Croatian Spanish Ukrainian Vietnamese

29,000 47,000 96,000 239,000 47,000

Yiddish

26,000

Other

733,000

Creole) @ Portuguese

355,000 a,

Central African Republic’ Banda Baya (Gbaya) @ French Kare Mbaka Mbum Ngbandi Sango (lingua franca) Sara Zande (Azande) Other

880,000 750,000 350,000 80,000 130,000 130,000 330,000

770,000 210,000 300,000 270,000

1,700,000

Dagu

150,000

@ French Hausa Kanuri

840,000 150,000 150,000

Kotoko Masa

140,000 150,000

Masalit, Maba, and Mimi Mbum Mubi

410,000 420,000 270,000

Sara, Bagirmi, and

1,980,000

Tama

410,000

Teda (Tubu)

470,000

Other

110,000

Chile’ Araucanian (Mapuche) Aymara

Rapa Nui

@ Spanish Other

500,000 140,000

3,000

12,650,000 510,000

Bulang (Blang) Ch’iang (Qiang)

Chinese (Han)

Cantonese (Yiieh [Yue]) Hakka Hsiang (Xiang) Kan (Gan) @ Mandarin Min Wu Chingpo (Jingpo) Chuang (Zhuang) Daghur (Daur) Evenk (Ewenki)

Pumi Puyi (Chung-chia) Salar She Shui

Sibo (Xibe) Tai (Dai) Tajik Tibetan Tu T'u-chia (Tujia) Tung (Dong) Tung-hsiang (Dongxiang) Uighur Wa (Va) Yao Yi Other Colombia‘ Amerindian languages Arawakan Cariban Chibchan Other English Creole @ Spanish

Comorian-Malagasy Comorian-Arabic Comorian-Swahili Comorian-French-other @ French Other

Congo! Bubangi @ French Kongo Kota Lingala (lingua franca) Maka Mbete Mboshi Monokutuba (lingua franca) Punu Sango Teke Other

Costa Rica Chibchan languages Bribri

Cabécar Chinese English Creole @ Spanish

Akan (including Baule and Anyi) @ French Kru (including Bete) Malinke (including Dyula and Bambara) Southern Mande

Number of speakers

Czech Republic! Bulgarian @ Czech German Greek Hungarian

3,000 8,398,000 49,000 3,000 20,000

Moravian

Polish Romanian Romany Russian Ruthenian Silesian Slovak Ukrainian Other

Denmark2 @ Danish English German Iranian languages Norwegian

South Slavic languages

Swedish Turkish Other

90,000 210,000

and Lobi) Other (non-lvoirian population)

Croatia @ Serbo-Croatian Other Cuba @ Spanish

Cyprus! @ Greek @ Turkish Other

1,331,000

60,000 1,000 33,000 5,000 2,000 44,000 317,000 8,000 70,000

5,013,000 18,000 9,000 8,000 10,000 11,000

8,000 34,000 82,000

Djibouti1 390,000 7,590,000 370,000 2,240,000 6,910,000 940,000 290,000 30,000 20,000 140,000 90,000 40,000 34,180,000

396,000 68,000 29,000 9,000 2,000 21,000 30,000 2,000 30,000 830,000 1,470,000 30,000

50,000

140,000 330,000 1,700,000 90,000 80,000 490,000 150,000 10,000 6,000 4,000 6,000 66,000 3,226,000

4,180,000 4,900,000 1,460,000 1,590,000

(including Dan including Senufo

55,000,000 41,000,000 53,000,000 26,000,000 784,000,000. 45,000,000 93,000,000 130,000 16,290,000 130,000 30,000

460,000 1,320,000 9,050,000 1,170,000 2,020,000 150,000 430,000 1,170,000 600,000 10,330,000 80,000 7,780,000 5,060,000 170,000 290,000 30,000 1,680,000 30,000 2,680,000 90,000 660,000 360,000 180,000 1,080,000 40,000 4,830,000 200,000 6,000,000 2,640,000

Major languages by country

Afar @ Arabic @ French Somali Gadaboursi Issa Issaq Other

1,070,000

3,000 50,000

English

19,000

French Creole-

Dominican Republic French (Haitian) Creole @ Spanish Ecuador Quechua (and other Indian languages) @ Spanish

3,970,000 4,600,000 190,000

10,994,000

790,000 10,440,000

French

260,000

El Salvador @ Spanish

700,000 5,642,000

Equatorial Guinea’ Bubi Fang French @ Spanish

Other7 Eritrea Cushitic languages Afar Agew (Awngi) Beja Saho Nilotic languages Kunama

Nara Semitic languages Amharic @ Arabic

40,000 320,000 Be

fe 30,000

160,000 120,000 150,000 110,000

60,000 Rs 1,170,000

@ Tigrinya

1,810,000

Other Estonia @ Estonian Russian Other

Ethiopia! @ Amharic Oromo (Galla) Sidamo Somali Tigrinya Walaita (Welayta) Other Faeroe Islands @ Danish @ Faeroese

Finland @ Finnish ®@ Swedish Other France Arabic8

English @ French, 9, 10 Basque Breton Catalan (Rousillonais) Corsican Dutch (Flemish) German (Alsatian) Occitan Italian’ Polish8 Portuguese8 Spanish® Turkish8 Other’

10,000

930,000 520,000 50,000

16,040,000

2,500,000

16,550,000 1,710,000 2,160,000 3,840,000 1,480,000 9,100,000 a 45,000

Fiji

4,739,000 298,000 46,000 1,470,000

80,000 54,300,000 80,000 580,000 210,000 170,000 100,000 1,320,000 1,570,000 260,000 50,000 670,000 220,000 200,000 740,000

Major languages by country

Grenada @ English English/English Creole Guadeloupe French Creole/French

@ French

Other

(Garifuna)

French Polynesia‘! Chinese @ French Polynesian languages Other

12,000 173,000 196,000 42,000

Guernsey English French

470,000 440,000 50,000 190,000

@ French Mande languages Kpelle Loma Malinke

Mpongwe (Onyéné)

200,000 220,000

20,000 180,000 110,000 cm 200,000 430,000 90,000 150,000

80,000

Gaza Strip Hebrew Georgia Abkhaz Armenian Azerbaijani e@ Georgian Ossetian Russian

Other

Germany2 @ German Greek Italian Polish Portuguese South Slavic Spanish Turkish Kurdish Other

751,000

5,000 90,000 380,000 310,000 3,930,000 130,000 490,000

170,000

77,440,000 340,000 570,000 280,000 100,000 800,000

140,000 1,820,000 400,000 480,000

Ghana‘

Akan @ English Ewe Ga-Adangme Gurma Hausa (lingua franca)

Mole-Dagbani (Mossi) Yoruba Other Gibraltar2 Arabic @ English Spanish Other Greece! Albanian @ Greek Macedonian Turkish

Fijian

377,000

Greenland2

Hindi Other

356,000 38,000

@ Danish @ Greenlandic

42,000 2,000 2,000 54,000 144,000 3,000 5,000 2,000 29,000 6,000

20,000

3,620,000 920,000 500,000 280,000 1,050,000 6,680,000 64,000 Ss

Guinea‘

Punu, Sira, Nzebi

Arabic

405,000 2

Black Carib

Mayan languages Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam Quiché @ Spanish

Gambia, The Dyola @ English Fulani Malinke Soninke Wolof Other

cf 92,000

Guatemala

4,000 2,000 e 132,000 7,000

Gabon! Fang @ French Kota Mbete

Number of speakers

21,000

Guam @ Chamorro Chinese Chuukese (Trukese) @ English English (lingua franca) Japanese Korean Palauan Philippine languages er

Amerindian languages English Creole @ French French Creoles Other

Other

160,000

Number of speakers

French Guiana

languages

100,000 80,000

Tigré

e English 590,000 150,000 30,000

160,000 7,650,000

57,760,000

Other

Major languages by country

Teke Other

Egypt! @ Arabic

Gurage

1,630,000

110,000 30,000 50,000 350,000 90,000 190,000 80,000 70,000

Dominica e@ English French Creole

Céte d'Ivoire!

30,000

1,096,380,000

Number of speakers

Comoros

and Guro) Voltaic ({Gur]

China! Achang

Pai (Bai)

@ Arabic Comorian Comorian-French

Cape Verde Crioulo (Portuguese

Kreish

Nakhi (Naxi) Nu

Canada @ English @ French English-French English-other French-other

Chad‘ @ Arabic

Major languages by country

779

8,420,000

Susu Other West Atlantic languages Basari-Koniagi Fulani (Peul) Kissi Other Other

153,000

Crioulo-Portuguese

23,000

Crioulo-other (except Portuguese) Fulani Malinke Mandyako Pepel @ Portuguese Portuguese-other (except Crioulo)

Other

Guyana Amerindian languages Arawakan Cariban @ English English Creoles Other (includes Caribbean Hindi and English)

Haiti @ French French-Haitian (French) Creole

@ Haitian (French) Creole

314,000 174,000 72,000 52,000 29,000 — 85,000

24,000 14,000 10,000 ae 572,000 137,000

60,000 780,000

5,650,000

Hong Kong Chinese @ Cantonese Cantonese (lingua franca) Chiu Chau Fukien (Min) Hakka Putonghua (Mandarin) Putonghua (lingua

franca)

Sze Yap

@ English

45,000

103,000

English Creole Miskito @ Spanish Other

7,000 48,000

80,000 2,510,000 390,000 200,000 10,000

Balante Crioulo (Portuguese Creole)

2,540,000 220,000 1,190,000

150,000

190,000

450,000

Guinea-Bissau

Honduras Black Carib (Garifuna)

60,000 9,900,000 160,000 90,000

300,000 150,000 1,510,000

720,000

Yalunka

ere 1,910,000 1,250,000 530,000 9,600,000

2,000 26,000 at 1,000

550,000

—

English (lingua franca)

72,000 11,000

10,000 5,207,000 2,000

5,302,000

5,730,000 84,000 114,000 96,000 66,000

1,080,000

24,000

132,000 1,890,000

780

Britannica World Data

Language

continued)

Major languages by country Filipino (Pilipino) Japanese Other Hungary © German @ Hungarian Romanian Romany Serbo-Croatian Slovak Other Iceland2 @ Icelandic Other India Austro-Asiatic languages Ho Kharia Khasi Korku Munda Mundari Santali Savara (Sora) Dravidian languages

Gondi

Kannada Khond

Koya

Number of speakers

6,000 12,000 144,000

Madurese

40,000 10,110,000 10,000 50,000 20,000 10,000 20,000

fran! Armenian

251,000 16,000

1,080,000 260,000 850,000 490,000 470,000 1,010,000 5,640,000 320,000

Minang Sundanese Other

Iranian languages Bakhtyar (Lurl) Balochi @ Farsi (Persian) Farst (lingua franca) Gilaki Kurdish Lurt Mazandaran Other Semitic languages Arabic Other Turkic languages Afshari

Azerbaijani Qashqa’i Shahsavani

2,620,000 36,060,000 270,000 330,000 680,170 1,700,000 34,800,000 59,980,000 72,720,000 1,850,000 310,000

3,230,000 3,410,000 4,320,000 4,280,000 23,580,000 76,790,000

Number of speakers

Major languages by country

8,430,000 4,600,000 30,710,000 35,390,000

Kenya! Bantu languages Bajun (Rajun) Basuba Embu Gusii (Kisii) Kamba

290,000 1,000,000 1,360,000 27,200,000 49,300,000 3,150,000 5,440,000 2,580,000 2,150,000 1,290,000 1,290,000 140,000 670,000 19,020,000 760,000 ~ 360,000

Turkish (mostly Pishagchi,

Bayat, and Qajar)

Kui Kurukh (Oraon) Malayalam Tamil Telugu Tulu English e@ English (lingua franca) 30,000,000 Indo-Iranian (IndoAryan) languages Assamese 14,960,000 Bengali 69,060,000 Bhi (Bhilodi) 5,970,000 400,000 Barel 400,000 Bhilall Dogri 2,040,000 44,510,000 Gujarati 700,000 Halabr 354,270,000 @ Hind Anga (Angika) 700,000 400,000 Baghelkhandi Bagri 1,800,000 Banjari 800,000 Bhojpuri 23,900,000 Bundelkhandi 600,000 11,200,000 Chhattisgarhi 2,100,000 Garhwali Goji 600,000 Harauti 600,000 800,000 Khortha (Khotta) 2,100,000 Kumauni 2,000,000 Lamani (Banjari) Magahi (Magadhi) 11,100,000 Maithilt 10,200,000 Malvi 1,100,000 Mandeali 400,000 Marwari 7,900,000 Mewari 1,400,000 Nagpuri 600,000 Nimadi 1,300,000 Pahari 2,100,000 Rajasthani 3,500,000 Sadani (Sadri) 1,300,000 Surgujia 900,000 Hindi (lingua franca) 411,000,000 4,260,000 Kashmiri 1,590,000 Khandeshi 210,000 Kisan 2,120,000 Konkani Marathi 66,550,000 1,680,000 Nepali (Gorkhali) Oriya 30,680,000 Punjabi 24,930,000 Sindhi 2,610,000 Kachchi 800,000 Urda 47,370,000 Sino-Tibetan languages 160,000 Adi 140,000 Ao Garo 550,000 Lushai (Mizo) 520,000 Meithei (Manipur) 1,210,000 Nisst 190,000 Tripuri 660,000 Other 15,390,000 Indonesia Balinese Banjarese Batak Buginese @ Indonesian (Malay) Javanese

Major languages by country

Turkmen Other Other

430,000 930,000 120,000 440,000

Iraq) @ Arabic Assyrian Azerbaijani Kurdish Persian Other

15,320,000 160,000 340,000 3,770,000 160,000 120,000

Ireland e English @ Irish Isle of Man @ English

Israel 12 @ Arabic English French German @ Hebrew Hungarian Romanian Russian Spanish

Yiddish Other

Italy? Albanian Catalan French German Greek @ Italian Rhaetian Friulian Ladin Sardinian Slovene Other

Jamaica e English English/English Creoles Hindi and other Indian languages Other Japan2 Ainu Chinese English e@ Japanese Korean Philippine languages Other Jersey English @ French Jersey Norman French

3,340,000 180,000

Kikuyu Kuria Luhya Mbere Meru Nyika (Mijikenda) Pokomo Swahili @ Swahili (lingua franca) Taita Cushitic languages Oromo languages Boran Gabbra Gurreh Orma Somali languages Degodia Ogaden Somali English (lingua franca) Nilotic languages Kalenjin Luo Masai Sambur Teso Turkana Semitic languages Arabic Other

Kiribati’ @ English Kiribati (Gilbertese) Tuvaluan (Ellice) Other

Number of speakers

70,000 110,000 320,000 1,690,000 3,090,000 5,740,000 160,000 3,800,000 110,000 1,500,000 1,310,000 70,000 10,000 18,000,000 270,000 120,000 50,000 150,000 60,000

170,000 50,000 280,000 2,100,000 2,960,000 3,500,000 430,000 130,000 240,000 370,000 70,000 610,000

77,700

400 500

70,000

980,000 64,000 44,000 35,000 3,667,000 30,000 83,000 92,000 45,000 114,000 178,000 120,000 30,000 300,000 300,000 40,000 53,860,000 730,000 710,000 20,000 1,520,000 120,000 230,000

2,350,000

50,000 100,000 25,000 200,000 70,000 123,830,000 690,000 60,000 90,000 87,000

6,000

Jordan! @ Arabic Other

4,190,000 40,000

Kazakhstan German @ Kazakh Russian Tatar Uighur Ukrainian Uzbek Other

540,000 6,660,000 8,030,000 230,000 180,000 340,000 330,000 650,000

Korea, North! Chinese @ Korean

Korea, South! Chinese @ Korean Kuwait2 @ Arabic Other

Kyrgyzstan @ Kyrgyz Russian Uzbek Other

Laos! @ Lao-Lum (Lao) Lao-Soung (Miao [Hmong] and Man

[Yao})

Lao-Tai (Tai) Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) Other13

40,000 23,030,000 40,000 44,390,000

1,420,000 50,000 2,360,000 1,150,000 570,000 410,000 3,180,000 250,000 370,000 780,000 160,000 1,330,000 1,070,000 150,000

Lebanon! @ Arabic Armenian French Other

2,760,000 180,000 710,000 30,000

Liberia’ e@ English Krio (English Creole) Kwa (Kru) languages Bassa Belle (Bellleh) De (Dey) Grebo Krahn Kru Mande (Northern) languages Gbandi Kpelle Loma Malinke (Mandingo) Mende Vai

Mande (Southern) languages Gio (Dan) Mano West Atlantic (Mel) languages Gola Kissi Other

Libya! @ Arabic Berber Other 14 Liechtenstein2 @ German Italian Other Lithuania @ Lithuanian Polish Russian Other Luxembourg2 Belgian Danish Dutch English French German Greek Italian Luxemburgian Portuguese Spanish Other Macau Chinese @ Cantonese Mandarin Other Chinese languages English e@ Portuguese Other

Macedonia! Albanian @ Macedonian Romany Turkish Other

Latvia @ Latvian Russian Other

Lesotho! @ English @ Sotho Zulu

Major languages by country

Madagascar! @ French

@ Malagasy Other

Number of speakers

186,000 169,000

94,000 96,000 117,000 5,020,000 160,000 50,000 27,000 900 2,500 2,990,000 220,000 430,000 80,000 11,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 14,000 9,000 1,000 20,000 280,000 40,000 3,000 13,000

360,000 5,000

520,000 1,550,000 60,000 90,000 160,000 1,400,000 13,560,000 140,000

Malawi‘ Chewa (Maravi) @ English Lomwe Ngoni Yao Other

5,680,000 490,000 1,790,000 650,000 1,290,000 330,000

Malaysia Bajau Chinese Chinese-others Dusan @ English English-others English (lingua franca) Iban Iban-others @ Malay Malay-others Tamil Tamil-others Other

120,000 1,130,000 640,000 200,000 100,000 220,000 6,000,000 460,000 80,000 8,410,000 2,990,000 760,000 10,000 4,390,000

1,640,000 290,000 480,000 2,100,000 329,000 12,000 9,000 213,000 90,000 174,000 67,000 462,000 134,000 121,000 19,000 85,000

@ Divehi (Maldivian)

244,000

Mali’ Atro-Asiatic languages Berber languages Tamashek (Tuareg)

Semitic languages Arabic (Maure) @ French Niger-Congo languages Mande languages Bambara Bobo Fing Dyula Malinke, Khasonke, and Wasulunka Samo (Duun) Soninke Voltaic (Gur) languages Bwa (Bobo) Dogon

Mossi Senufo and Minianka West Atlantic languages Fulani and Tukulor Nilo-Saharan languages Songhai Other Malta‘ @ English @ Maltese Other Marshall Islands2 @ English @ Marshallese Other

Martinique French Creole/French @ French Other Mauritania‘ @ Arabic French Fulani Hassaniyah Arabic Soninke Tukulor Wolof Zenaga Other

Mauritius Bhojpuri Bhojpuri-other @ English French French Creole

Number of speakers

40,000 1,060,000

1,230,000 630,000 20,000 8,000 352,000 8,000

52,400 1.700 368,000 13,000 120,000 20,000 1,690,000 60,000 110,000 140,000 20,000 30,000 214,000

French Creole-other

40,000 2,000 10,000 4,000

Maldives 18

Major languages by country

650,000 140,000 700,000

Hindi Marathi Tamil Telugu Urdi Other Mayotte 15 Mahorais (local dialect of Comorian Swahili) Other Comorian Swahili dialects Malagasy @ French Other

Mexico Amerindian languages Amuzgo Aztec (Nahuatl) Chatino Chinantec Chocho Chol Chontal Cora Cuicatec Huastec Huave Huichol Kanjobal Mame Mayo Mazahua Mazatec Mixe Mixtec Otomi Popoluca Purepecha Tarahumara Tepehua Tepehuan Tlapanec Tojolabal Totonac Triqui Tzeltal Tzotzil Yaqui Yucatec (Mayan)

Zapotec 2,810,000 10,000 260,000 590,000 60,000 770,000

210,000 350,000

Zoque Other @ Spanish Spanish-Amerindian languages Micronesia Chuukese (Trukese) @ English Kosraean Mortlockese Palauan

96,000 42,000 37,000 46,000 7,000

7,250,000 40,000 1,650,000 40,000 150,000 20,000 180,000 50,000 20,000 20,000 170,000 20,000 30,000 20,000 20,000 50,000 180,000 230,000 130,000 530,000 390,000 40,000 130,000 70,000 10,000 30,000 90,000 50,000 290,000 20,000 360,000 320,000 10,000 970,000 540,000 60,000 320,000 84,590,000 5,890,000

43,300 500 7,600 7,900 400

Comparative National Statistics

Major languages by country

Pohnpeian Woleaian

Yapese Other Moldova

Gagauz

@ Romanian (Moldovan) Russian Ukrainian Other Monaco2 English @ French Italian Monegasque

Other

Number of speakers

24,700 3,800

6,000 9,800

140,000

2,700,000 1,010,000 370,000 130,000 2,000 12,000 5,000 5,000

6,000

Mongolia‘

Bayad Buryat

45,000 40,000

Dariganga

33,000

Darhat

Dorbed Dzakhchin Kazakh @ Khalkha (Mongolian)

Ould Torgut

Uryankhai

Other

17,000

64,000 26,000 139,000 1,858,000

9,000 12,000

24,000

92,000

Morocco! @ Arabic

Berber Others

Mozambique

Chopi

17,610,000

8,940,000 540,000

500,000

Chuabo Koti Kunda Lomwe Makonde Makua Marendje Mwani Ngulu Nsenga

990,000 60,000 10,000 1,350,000 330,000 4,820,000 600,000 80,000 20,000 40,000

Nyungwe Phimbi @ Portuguese Ronga Sena Shona

390,000 20,000 210,000 630,000 1,620,000 1,130,000

Nyanja

580,000

Swahili

10,000

Swazi Tonga Tsonga Tswa Yao Zulu Other

20,000 330,000 2,150,000 1,040,000 290,000 10,000 120,000

Myanmar (Burma)1 @ Burmese Chin Kayah Mon

190,000 1,100,000

Rakhine (Arakanese) Shan Other

(Damara)

e@ Nauruan Tuvaluan (Ellice)

Santalr

Netherlands Antilles e@ Dutch English Papiamento Other New Caledonia! @ French Melanesian languages Polynesian languages (mostly Wallisian) Other New Zealand e English English-Maori e@ Maori Other Nicaragua English Creole Misumalpan languages

Miskito

10,380,000 90,000 950,000

200,000 120,000

20,000 220,000

260,000 440,000 670,000

380,000 910,000 10,000 10,000 690,000

166,000 14,656,000 580,000 219,000 360,000 a 15,000 166,000 12,000 61,000 84,000 21,000 17,000 3,205,000 150,000 50,000 120,000 42,000

166,000 10,000

@ Spanish Other

3,989,000 4,000

Niger’ Berber languages Tamashek (Tuareg) Chadic languages

Other Nigeria‘ Arabic Bura Edo

franca)

910,000 4,670,000

6,170,000 1,320,000

390,000 40,000

30,000 1,870,000 20,000

860,000 10,000 300,000 1,500,000 3,100,000

14,000,000

60,000 130,000 120,000

English Creole

Fulani

10,500,000 19,900,000

150,000 70,000

Hausa Hausa (lingua franca)

47,000,000

Ibibio Igbo (Ibo) Ijo (Ijaw)

5,300,000 16,800,000 1,700,000

(lingua franca) 16

790,000 50,000 230,000 900 800 10,100 1,800 5,900 900

3,900,000

Nupe Tiv

1,200,000 2,100,000

Yoruba Other

19,900,000 7,300,000

Chamorro Chinese 30,000

20,000 1,290,000 20,000 170,000

Norway2 Danish English @ Norwegian Swedish Other

18,000 23,000 4,182,000 12,000 97,000

Oman @ Arabic (Omani) Balochi Farsi (Persian) Swahili Urda Other

1,500,000 380,000 60,000 30,000 50,000 20,000

Panama Amerindian languages Bokota Chibchan Cuna Teribe

Choc6é Embera Waunama Chinese English Creoles @ Spanish

Papua New Guinea‘ @ English Melanesian languages Motu (Hiri) Papuan languages Tok Pisin (English Creole) Other Paraguay German @ Guarani Guarani-Spanish

2,200 13,800 3,300

@ Spanish Other Peru Aymara @ Quechua @ Spanish Spanish-Aymara Spanish-Quechua Spanish-others Other

Chavacano Chinese Davaweno English (lingua franca) Filipino (Pilipino; Tagalog) Hamtikanon Hiligaynon/llongo Ibanag Ifugao llocano Kankanai Maguindanao Manobo Maranao Masbate Pampango Pangasinan Romblon Samal Samar-Leyte (Waray-Waray) Subanon Sulu-Moro (Tau Sug) Other

@ English English (lingua franca) Japanese

2,200 41,900 900

Korean Palauan Philippine languages Other

3,000 1,600 15,800 2,300

Portugal2 @ Portuguese Other

1,100

215,000 4,000 192,000 52,000 137,000 2,000 19,000 16,000 3,000 8,000 362,000 1,998,000 60,000 850,000 130,000 3,310,000 2,810,000 80,000 41,000 1,899,000 2,301,000 150,000 307,000 35,000 210,000 1,780,000 17,070,000 370,000 3,320,000 330,000 300,000

Puerto Rico . English

@ Spanish Spanish-English Other @ Arabic

Other 17

Number of speakers

19,000 1,875,000 1,713,000 47,000

670,000 4,750,000 290,000 16,660,000 350,000 170,000 200,000

36,000,000 16,260,000 560,000 6,820,000 400,000 210,000 7,600,000 250,000 820,000 210,000 980,000 500,000 2,340,000 1,540,000 280,000 400,000 3,160,000 230,000 540,000 2,080,000 190,000 500,000 37,730,000 230,000

9,720,000 100,000

220,000

330,000

Réunion @ French French Creole Other 18

Romania Bulgarian German Hebrew Hungarian @ Romanian Romany Russian Serbo-Croatian Slovak Tatar Turkish Ukrainian Other

Russia Adyghian Armenian Avar Azerbaijani Bashkir Belarusian Buryat

Chechen Chuvash Dargin Georgian

190,000 590,000 60,000

9,000 118,000 9,000 1,619,000 20,334,000 409,000 39,000 34,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 66,000 27,000

120,000 360,000 540,000

280,000 990,000 440,000 360,000

900,000 1,390,000 350,000 90,000

German

350,000

Ingush Kabardinian Kalmyk Karachay Kazakh Komi Komi-Permyak Kumyk Lak

210,000 380,000 160,000 150,000 560,000 240,000 110,000 270,000 100,000

Lezgian

Mari Mordovinian Ossetian Romanian Romany @ Russian

240,000

530,000 750,000 380,000 120,000 130,000 128,300,000

Tabasaran Tatar

90,000 4,760,000

Tuvinian Udmurt Ukrainian Uzbek Yakut Other

200,000 510,000 1,880,000 100,000 360,000 1,460,000

Rwanda @ French

Philippines Aklanon Bicol Bolinao (Zambal) Cebuano

Major languages

by country

Qatar2

Pakistan Balochi 3,960,000 Brahti 1,580,000 English (lingua franca) 15,000,000 Pashto 17,270,000 Punjabt Punjabi 63,310,000 Hindko 3,190,000 Sindhi Sindhi 15,470,000 Siraikt 12,920,000 e@ Urdi 9,990,000 Other 3,750,000

Poland Belarusian German @ Polish Ukrainian

Chuukese (Trukese)

j

33,000,000

Kanuri

Northern Mariana Islands Carolinian

Number of speakers

Portuguese

@ English (lingua

120,000

Major languages by country

Guaymi

Sumo

Gurma West Atlantic languages Fulani (Fulfulde)

2,050,000 3,860,000 2,500,000

. Nepal Austro-Asiatic (Munda) languages Indo-Aryan languages Bengali Bhojpuri Dhanwar Hind?

Arabic e@ Dutch Dutch and Frisian Turkish Other

Saharan languages Kanuri Teda (Tubu) Semitic languages Arabic Songhai and Zerma Voltaic (Gur) languages

Nauru Chinese English English (lingua franca) Kiribati (Gilbertese)

330,000 2,310,000

Netherlands, The2

franca) @ French

Namibia‘ Bergdama East Caprivian (mostly Lozi) e@ English Herero Kavango (Okavango) Nama Ovambo (Ambo [Kwanyama]) San (Bushmen) Other

Number of speakers

Hausa (lingua

990,000

620,000 2,830,000

Hindi (Awadhi dialect) Maithily @ Nepali (Eastern Pahari) Rajbanst Tharu Urda Tibeto-Burman languages Bhutia (Sherpa) Chepang Gurung Limba Magar Newari Rai and Kiranti Tamang Thakali Thami Other

Hausa

31,430,000

Kachin (Chingpo) Karen (Karan)

Major languages by country

e@ Rwanda

530,000 7,820,000

St. Kitts and Nevis e@ English English/English Creole

a3 42,000

St. Lucia e@ English English/French Creole

28,000 114,000

St. Vincent and the Grenadines e English English/English Creole Other San Marino! @ Italian

109,000 1,000 25,000

Sao Tomé and Principe Crioulo (Portuguese Creole) e@ Portuguese Other

Saudi Arabia‘ @ Arabic Other

110,000 Re 17,000

Major languages by country

Sierra Leone’ @ English Krio (English Creole [lingua franca]) Mande languages Kono-Vai

Chinese

170,000 170,000 110,000 390,000 1,460,000 80,000

" 2,275,000

1,097,000

@ Malay

416,000

@ Mandarin Chinese @ Tamil (and other Indian languages) Other

208,000 34,000

Slovakia’ Czech, Moravian, and Silesian German Hungarian

Polish Romany Russian

Ruthenian and Ukrainian @ Slovak Other

Slovenia Serbo-Croatian @ Slovene Other Solomon Islands‘ @ English Melanesian languages Papuan languages Polynesian languages Other19 Somalia! @ Arabic English @ Somali Other

South Africa20 @ Afrikaans e@ English Nguni @ Ndebele e@ Swazi @ Xhosa @ Zulu Sotho @ North Sotho (Pedi) @ South Sotho @ Tswana (Western Sotho) Tsonga Venda Other

P

59,000 5,000 572,000 3,000 81,000 2,000

31,000 4,585,000 13,000 140,000 1,830,000 40,000 na 308,000 31,000 13,000 8,000

= 6,550,000 110,000 6,540,000 3,620,000 18,120,000 850,000 980,000 7,280,000 9,020,000 10,240,000 3,630,000 2,800,000 3,800,000 1,420,000 810,000 1,000,000

Spain2 Basque (Euskera) e Castilian Spanish

590,000 31,530,000

Catalan (Catala)

5,120,000

English Galician (Gallego) Other

100,000 1,570,000 270,000

Sri Lanka English English-Sinhala English-SinhalaTamil English-Tamil Sinhala-Tamil

Senegal’ Diola (Dyola)

450,000

@ French

410,000

Sudan, The! @ Arabic Azande (Zande)

3,550,000 5,650,000 660,000

240,000 160,000 1,600,000 70,000 160,000

Singapore’ @ English

@ Tamil Other

1,880,000 370,000 1,200,000

4,400,000

Yalunka West Atlantic languages Bullom-Sherbro Kissi Limba Temne Other

1,000 66,000 3,000

700,000

Kuranko Mende Susu

900,000

Fulani (Peul)Tukulor Malinke (Mandingo) Serer Wolof Wolof (lingua franca) Other

2,000

French @ Seselwa (French Creole) Other

@ Sinhala

17,050,000

Number of speakers

Seychelles English

Fulani

781

Bari Beja Dinka Fur Lotuko Nubian

10,000 980,000

640,000 200,000 10,760,000

1,670,000 3,500,000 60,000 12,690,000 690,000

630,000 1,640,000 2,970,000 530,000 380,000 2,080,000

782

Britannica World Data

Language

continued)

Major languages by country

Number of speakers

Nuer Shilluk

1,260,000 440,000

Other

2,390,000

Suriname @ Dutch English Sranantonga

Sranantonga-other Other (mostly Hindi,

Javanese, and Saramacca)

Swaziland! @ English @ Swazi

Zulu Other

ee Le 170,000

170,000

80,000 on 790,000

20,000 70,000

Sweden2 Arabic Danish English

60,000 41,000 32,000

Finnish

211,000

German Iranian languages Norwegian

Polish South Slavic languages Spanish

@ Swedish Turkish Other

45,000 48,000 47,000

Tajikistan Russian @ Tajik Uzbek Other

Tanzania! Chaga (Chagga), Pare @ English Gogo Ha Haya

Hehet lramba Luguru

Luo Makonde Masai Ngoni

Nyakyusa

Nyamwezi (Sukuma)

Shambala @ Swahili Swahili (lingua franca)

2,910,000

Uzbek Other 6,990,000

Karen Malay

210,000 2,100,000

Khmer

Kuy

730,000 200,000

15,480,000

@ Thai (Siamese)

30,270,000

Other Other

Togo! @ French Chadic languages Hausa

400,000 590,000 670,000 11,000

Kwa languages

Adja-Ewe group Adja Ane (Mina)

530,000 40,000 620,000 12,300,000 390,000 870,000 290,000

Kpessi Peda-Hula (Pla) Watyi (Ouatchi) Ana-lfe group Ahlo Ana (Ana-Ife) Anyana Nago Yoruba Kebu-Akposo group Adele Akposo Kebu Voltaic (Gur)

122,000 222,000

340,000 126,000 80,000 39,000 61,000 8,000 8,000 4,000 6,000

4,000

Tamberma Yanga

15,810,000 20,000

West Atlantic (Mel) languages Fulani (Peul) Other

1,340,000 800,000 1,070,000 940,000 1,610,000

1,880,000

Tonga @ English @ Tongan Other

Trinidad and Tobago @ English English Creole21 Caribbean Hindi Trinidad English Other

@ Arabic Arabic-French Arabic-French-

1,610,000 270,000

English Arabic-other

360,000

5,760,000 1,170,000 2,410,000

25,000,000

8,000

10,000 7,000

8,000 105,000 45,000

Bantu languages Ganda (Luganda) Gisu Gwere Kiga (Chiga) Konjo Nkole Nyoro Rundi Rwanda Soga

franca) Toro

languages Lugbara

Madi English

Nilotic languages Acholi Alur Karamojong Kuman Lango Padhola Teso Other Ukraine Belarusian Bulgarian Hungarian Romanian

541,000

Russian

226,000 119,000

@ Ukrainian Other

161,000

United Arab Emirates? @ Arabic Other 17

69,000 46,000 38,000 37,000 133,000 55,000

211,000 10,000

United Kingdom e@ English Scots-Gaelic Welsh Other

22,000 11,000

United States Amharic

53,000 166,000

Arabic Armenian Bengali Cajun

‘x 98,000 2,000

he 36,000 44,000 1,190,000 3,000

Chinese (including Formosan) Czech Danish Dutch English English (lingua franca) Finnish French French Creole (mostly Haitian) German

Greek 6,120,000 2,300,000

280,000 10,000

Gujarati Hebrew Hindi (including

Urdii) Hungarian

Other-no Arabic

20,000

llocano

Other

30,000

Italian

Turkey! Arabic Kurdish 22 @ Turkish Other

700 9,000

3,230,000 1,310,000

Japanese Korean

840,000 6,490,000 53,580,000 280,000

Kru (Gullah) Lithuanian Malayalam Miao (Hmong)

Number of speakers

Major languages by country Mon-Khmer (mostly Cambodian)

Norwegian Pennsylvania Dutch Persian Polish Portuquese

Punjabi Romanian

Russian

Serbo-Croatian Slovak Spanish

490,000

60,000 70,000

270,000 40,000

130,000 90,000 19,640,000

Syriac Tagalog Thai (including Laotian) Turkish

560,000 1,060,000 1,490,000

Ukrainian Vietnamese Yiddish

90,000 40,000 950,000 230,000 50,000 110,000 570,000 240,000

Other

770,000

6,400,000 580,000

Swedish

Uruguay @ Spanish

700,000 250,000 180,000

850,000 310,000 370,000 190,000

1,100,000 300,000

1,620,000 180,000

160,000 170,000 160,000 30,000 340,000 17,180,000 33,820,000 450,000 890,000 1,230,000 56,830,000 80,000 560,000

950,000 40,000

400,000 170,000 40,000 40,000

= of speakers

Western Sahara Arabic

218,000

Western Samoa @ English , e@ Samoan

1,000 78,000

Samoan-English

6

1,240,000 250,000 1,490,000 600,000

520,000

Major languages by country

Navajo

Samoan

Central Sudanic

Polish

Tunisia

780,000 1,340,000 230,000

1,470,000

7,000

98,000

Kabre-Tem group

2,140,000 2,780,000

570,000 3,610,000 1,350,000 290,000

3,000 16,000 404,000

languages

Kotokoli (Tem) Namba (Lamba) Naudemba (Losso) para-Gurma group Basari Chekossi (Akan) Chamba Dye (Gangam) Gurma Konkomba Moba Mossi

Kiribati (Gilbertese) Tuvaluan (Ellice)

%

Swahili (lingua

39,000 5,000

7,901,000 29,000 190,000

Tuvalu @ English

350,000 310,000

620,000 | Uganda

Other Thai languages Lao

Kabre

Min (South Fuklen) Other

@ Turkmenian

Fon Hwe

4,450,000

Hakka @ Mandarin

4,200,000

75,000 55,000

@ German

Taiwan Austronesian languages Ami Atayal Bunun Paiwan Puyuma Rukai Saisiyat Tsou Yami Chinese

480,000

Thailand! Chinese Mon-Khmer languages

Number of speakers

Turkmenistan Russian

3,000 910,000

1,340,000

Syria! @ Arabic Armenian Kurdish Other

Other

Major languages by country

200,000 670,000

Anlo Ewe

@ French Romansch Other

Tatoga Yao

Number of speakers

39,000

Switzerland

@ Italian

Major languages by country

Other

Uzbekistan Crimean Tatar

Karakalpak Kazakh Korean Kyrgyz Russian Tajik Tatar Turkish Turkmenian Ukrainian @ Uzbek Other Vanuatu @ Bislama (English Creole) @ English @ French Melanesian languages Other Venezuela @ Amerindian languages Goajiro Warrau (Warao) Other @ Spanish

Other Vietnam! Bahnar

3,060,000

110,000

200,000 440,000 850,000 120,000 160,000

Yement @ Arabic

Other

12,710,000

,

1,440,000 400,000

Romanian Romany @ Serbo-Croatian Slovak Viach Other

60,000 100,000 8,120,000 70,000 140,000 200,000

Zaire1

Azande (Zande)

2,670,000

Boa Chokwe

1,020,000 800,000

@ French

Kongo Kongo (lingua

franca) Luba Lugbara Mongo

30,000,000 7,870,000 700,000 5,900,000 2,530,000 1,690,000 4,500,000

Ngala and Bangi Rwanda

Swahili (lingua franca) Teke Other

960,

Ss

50,000 161,000 3,000 210,000 80,000 30,000 100,000 20,510,000

460,000 150,000

Zambia24 Bemba group Aushi (Ushi) Bemba Bisa Lala Lamba Other @ English Lozi (Barotse) group Lozi (Barotse) Luyi (Luyana) Nkoya Other Mambwe group Lungu

Mambwe Mwanga (Winawanga) Other

North-Western group Chokwe Kaonde Luchazi

1,010,000 100,000 540,000 630,000 70,000 1,030,000

210,000 1,750,000

Khmer Ko'ho Man (Mien, or Yao) Miao (Meo, or Hmong) Mnong Muong Nung Rhadé Roglai San Chay (Cao Lan) San Diu Sedang Stieng

440,000

Tai

Lunda Luvale (Luena) Mbunda Nyanja (Maravi) group Chewa Ngoni Nsenga Nyanja (Maravi) Other Tonga (Ila-Tonga) group lla Lenje

1,170,000

120,000 160,000

380,000 170,000

Tho (Tay) @ Vietnamese Other

800,000 220,000 80,000 130,000 110,000 110,000 60,000

1,340,000 62,810,000 490,000

50,000

e@ English

‘85,000

French

3,000

Spanish Other

14,000 3,000

West Bank23 Arabic Hebrew

Soli Tonga Other Tumbuka group

Senga Tumbuka

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

1,480,000 480,000 710,000 70,000 60,000 40,000 90,000

7,030,000

13,000,000

110,000 1,010,000 110,000 270,000

253,410,000 60,000 1,930,000

3,400,000

franca) Lingala (lingua

Cham Chinese (Hoa) Hre Jarai

1,470,000 100,000 40,000 160,000 224,900,000

260,000

Yugoslavia Albanian Hungarian

Rundi 5

85,000

1,110,000 110,000

Other

Zimbabwe e English

Ndebele (Nguni) Nyanja Shona Other

21,000,000 1,200,000 7,870,000 3,310,000 160,000 2,280,000 130,000 260,000 210,000 270,000 800,000 750,000 550,000 140,000 50,000 10,000 420,000 90,000

150,000 170,000 20,000

920,000 60,000 250,000 60,000 240,000 180,000 140,000 1,610,000 480,000 180,000

420,000 470,000 50,000 1,380,000 70,000 160,000

70,000 1,000,000 70,000 420,000

70,000 340,000

330,000

240,000 1,780,000 250,000 7,920,000 790,000

'Figures given represent ethnolinguistic groups. ?Data refer to nationality (usually resident aliens holding foreign passports). 3Data are partly based on place of residence. 4Majority of population speak More (language of the Mossi); Dyula is language of commerce. SSwahili also spoken. 6§French also spoken. 7Pidgin English and Portuguese Creole also spoken. 8Based on “nationality” at 1982 census. 9%ncludes naturalized citizens. 10French is the universal language throughout France; traditional dialects and minority languages are retained regionally in the approximate numbers shown, however. 11Data reflect multilingualism; 1994 population estimate is 215,000. 12Includes the population of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem; excludes the Israeli population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. 1%English and French also spoken. ‘4English and Italian also spoken. 15Data reflect ability to speak the language, not mother tongue; 1994 population estimate is 110,000. 16Includes speakers of standard English. 17Mostly Pakistanis, Indians, and Iranians. _18Gujarati and Chinese also spoken. 19Solomon Islands Pidgin (English) is the lingua franca. 20Includes the former Black independent states of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda. 21Spoken on Tobago only. 22Other estimates of the Kurdish population range from 6 percent to 20-25 percent 23Excludes East Jerusalem. 24Groups are officially defined geographic divisions; elements comprising them are named by language. i

Comparative National Statistics

783

Religion The following table presents statistics on religious affiliation for each the countries of the world. An assessment was made for each country of of the available data on distribution of religious communities within the total population; the best available figures, whether originating as census data, membership figures of the churches concerned, or estimates by external analysts in the absence of reliable local data, were applied as percentages to the estimated 1994 midyear population of the country to obtain the data shown below. Several concepts govern the nature of the available data, each useful separately but none the basis of any standard of international practice in the collection of such data. The word “affiliation” was used above to describe the nature of the relationship joining the religious bodies named and the populations shown. This term implies some sort of formal, usually documentary, connection between the religion and the individual (a baptismal certificate, a child being assigned the religion of its parents on a census

form, maintenance of one’s name on the tax rolls of a state religion, etc.)

but says nothing about the nature of the individual’s personal religious

practice, in that the individual may have lapsed, never been confirmed as

an adult, joined another religion, or may have joined an organization that is formally atheist. The user of these statistics should be careful to note that not only does the nature of the affiliation (with an organized religion) differ greatly from

country to country, but the social context of religious practice does also. A country in which a single religion has long been predominant will often show more than 90% of its population to be affiliated, while in actual fact, no more than 10% may actually practice that religion on a regular basis. Such a situation often leads to undercounting of minority religions (where someone [head of household, communicant, child] is counted at all), blurring of distinctions seen to be significant elsewhere (a Hindu country may not distinguish Protestant [or even Christian] denominations; a Christian country may not distinguish among its Muslim or Buddhist poh or double-counting in countries where an individual may conscientiously practice more than one “religion” at a time. Until 1989 communist countries had for long consciously attempted to ignore, suppress, or render invisible religious practice within their borders. Countries with large numbers of adherents of traditional, often animist, re-

ligions and belief systems usually have little or no formal methodology for defining the nature of local religious practice. On the other hand, countries with strong missionary traditions, or good census organizations, or few religious sensitivities may have very good, detailed, and meaningful data. The most comprehensive work available is DAVID B. BARRETT (ed.), World Christian Encyclopedia (1982); it examines both the theoretical and practical problems of collecting and analyzing religious statistics, assembles a mine of national detail, and establishes a basis for further study.

Religion Religious affiliation

1994 | Religious population affiliation

Afghanistan Sunni Muslim Shi Muslim other

14,200,000 2,540,000 170,000

Albania Muslim Albanian Orthodox Roman Catholic other Algeria Sunni Muslim Ibadiyah Muslim other American Samoa

Congregational

Roman Catholic other

oe ee Catholke other angele . Roman

Azerbaijan Muslim (mostly Shi‘) Russian Orthodox Armenian Apostolic

6,460,000 420,000

(Orthodox) ties

2,190,000 670,000 440,000 70,000

320,000 Eo OOOU)

Bahamas, The Protestant

150,000 55,000 51,000

Anglican Roman Catholic

ae 27,680,000 110,000 | Bahrain 30,000 Shit Muslim Sunni Muslim other

euaoo 11,000 13,000

sa

330,000 140,000 80,000

101,730,000 14,240,000 1,430,000

Anglican Protestant

Catholic

eee

2,220,0

traditional beliefs other

1,070,000 230,000

Antigua and Barbuda

Anglican

Protestant

Roman Catholic other

29,000

Roman Catholic other

fetiouss) other (mostly

Roman Catholic and Muslim)

Aruba

Roman Catholic

other

31,030,000 2,850,000

Roman Catholic

Anglican

Uniting Church

and Methodist other Protestant

Presbyterian Orthodox

nonreligious other

other

Roman Catholic

Evangelical

Lutheran

atheist and

node

other 7 Brazil ; Roman Catholic (including syncretic Afro-Catholic cults having Spiritist beliefs and rituals) Evangelical Protestant

Brunei Muslim

sieedeoe

i

Bulgaria Bulgarian Orthodox

210,000

64,000 8,000

4,860,000

4,260,000

other

490,000

6,260,000

7,400,000

9,110,000 1,010,000

Burundi . Roman Catholic nonreligious other (mostly

Protestant)

121,000

57,000 | Cambodia

260,000 10,000

20,000

Protestant ;

Roman Catholic

Protestant Anglican

Eastern Orthodox

Jewish OOOO Tt asikh 140,000 50,000

,

other

390,000 | Bosnia and Herzegovina Sunni Muslim

Boo boo | Setbian Orthodox 690,000

Roman Catholic Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren Czechoslovak Hussite Silesian Evangelical Eastern Orthodox atheist and nonreligious Binge

17,000,000

Pau A araaianalbeliets

—"adiitio

:000.000 4000000

ee

590,000

Hindu

nonreligious other

Cape Verde

Homan Catholic

Protestant

1,780,000 | Central African Republic

1,980,000 |

“Protestant

523,000 4,000

Roman Catholic

Protestant Muslim

1,430,000

1,020,000

;

traditional beliefs

nonreligious

Croatia

2,690,000

peo

Roman Catholic

2,360,000

5,400,000

2,900,000 2,400,000

80,000

Roman Catholic

é Sunni Muslim

535,000

Dominica ' Roman Catholic

55,000

25,000

34,000

other fA

Dominican i Roman Catholic other

17,000

4

sass 120, 680,000

Peto:

a ioman

other

Catholic

10,440,000 aan

t

SimanMusiim

52,600,000

Coptic? optic2)

5,800,000 ,800,

Obtistian (mostly

Meise

See

Rec

Bec unaaiy

i

Protestant)

410, 1,410,000

Equatorial Guinea Reman Catholic

380,000

as

101000

900,000 | Eritrea

400,000

Christian (mostly

Ethiopian Orthodox)

1,900,000

other

nonreligious

atheist other

530,000 | Estonia 70,000 Believers are predominantly 60,000 | _ affiliated with the Evangeli-

470,000

cal Lutheran Church of

Estonia; Russian Orthodox

and Protestant minorities.

4,350,000

5,350,000

700,000

580,000

Cyprus

770,000 | Greek Orthodox

1900000

3,660,000

Guba

Roman Catholic

330,000

613,000

Pein

350,000 | — Serbian Orthodox 120,000 Protestant 80,000 | Sunni Muslim

3,610,000 640,000

4,592,000

1,900,000

8,270,000 440,000

4,130,000 1,760,000

v

otnet

13,160,000

180,000 30,000 20,000

; p Djibouti

350,000 60.000

Roman Catholic

other

200,000

Egypt

traditional beliefs

Protestant

Sen

er

32,140,000 2'380.000 Me

3,770,000 1,080,000 | Congo

2,810,000

4,040,000

143,000,000 | Christian! 101,000,000

es Christian

2,260,000

Muslim

Roman Catholic

i

F dt 4,480,000 | Cote d'ivoire 3,350,000 Muslim

150,000 30,000

Czech Republic

1,840,000 | Denmark é 870,000 Evangelical Lutheran

240,000,000

200,000 | Costa Rica

Muslim

9,000

other

Muslim (mostly Sunni) other (mostly Christian)

11,100,000

681,000,000

1,060,000 | Comoros

940,000

1994 population

other

Raman Catholic Bier

270,000

3,250,000 | Cameroon 1,100,000 Roman Catholic 630,000 traditional beliefs

Roman Catholic

Hindu

2,860,000 1,480,000 1,360,000 750,000 40,000

,050,

other

23,000 | Canada

otliGn

770,000 740,000 460,000 340,000

China , nonreligious Chinese folkreligionist

5,910,000 3,080,000

mn OEArBOD

Buddhist

Anglican

Methodist

a:

890,000 | 170,000

Bermuda

peat, g00 640,000 | Bhutan 1,110,000 Buddhist 2,270,000 3,100,000

20,700,000 teh,

Sunnt Muslim

17,000 | Muslim

i . Benin . traditional beliefs Roman Catholic Muslim

, Chile Roman Catholic Evangelical Protestant other

120,800,000 17,500,000

:

15,000

other

710,000 | Chad 390,000 Muslim 170,000 traditional beliefs 140,000 Roman Catholic 40,000 Protestant other

95,000 | atheist Buddhist

Christian

:

Protestant

Roman Catholic traditional beliefs Muslim other

188,000

other

Burkina Faso traditional beliefs Muslim

minorities.

Belize Roman Catholic

670,000 180,000 440,000

1994 | Religious population | affiliation

Colombia

Belarus Believers are predominantly Belarusian Orthodox; Roman Catholic and Jewish

Bolivia

Austria

Botswana traditional beliefs Protestant African Christian Roman Catholic

92,000 } phen Muslim

Anglican

i

Australia

105,000 67,000

7,000 | Belgium 2,000 Roman Catholic other

Armenia

Armenian Apostolic

Roman Catholic Protestant other

27,000

Argentina

1994 | Religious population | affiliation

other

Bangladesh Muslim Hindu other

Seon it Thies 5,000 arbados

Protestant

other

1994 | Religious population affiliation

ae

thiopia

Ethiopian Orthodox

28,120,000

Muslim (mostly

rane

Sunn)

iradiional beliefs

590,000

,060,

SRC

80)

784

Britannica World Data

Religion — (continued) Religious affiliation

Faeroe Islands Evangelical Lutheran other

1994 population

33,000 12,000

Fiji Christian (mostly Methodist and Roman Catholic) Hindu Muslim other

Finland Evangelical Lutheran other France Roman Catholic nonreligious Muslim atheist Jewish other French Guiana Roman Catholic other French Polynesia Protestant Roman Catholic other Gabon Roman Catholic traditional beliefs African Christian other

408,000 294,000 60,000 9,000

4,408,000 675,000

42,850,000 7,070,000 3,190,000 1,970,000 640,000 2,260,000

39,000

100,000 85,000 30,000

600,000 400,000 110,000 30,000

1,010,000 50,000

Gaza Strip Muslim (mostly

Georgia Georgian Orthodox Sunni Muslim Russian Orthodox Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) other (mostly nonreligious)

Germany Evangelical Lutheran Roman Catholic Muslim other (mostly nonreligious or unaffiliated) Ghana traditional beliefs Muslim Roman Catholic Protestant African Christian Anglican other Gibraltar Roman Catholic other

Greece Greek Orthodox Muslim other

Greenland Evangelical Lutheran other Grenada Roman Catholic Anglican other Guadeloupe man Catholic ther

Guatemala Roman Catholic Protestant

7,280,000 2,430,000

Guinea Muslim Christian traditional beliefs Guinea-Bissau traditional beliefs Muslim Christian Guyana Hindu Roman Catholic Protestant Anglican Muslim other

249,000 133,000 127,000 121,000 66,000 37,000

Haiti Roman Catholic Baptist Pentecostal other

5,210,000 630,000 230,000 420,000

Honduras Roman Catholic Protestant other

4,510,000 530,000 270,000

747,000 9,000

3,580,000 610,000 550,000

Hong Kong Buddhist and Taoist Roman Catholic Protestant other

Hungary Roman Catholic Protestant nonreligious and atheist Jewish other

4,410,000 270,000 220,000 1,060,000

6,950,000 2,570,000 490,000 55,000 180,000

Iceland

Evangelical 440,000

Lutheran other

32,960,000 28,970,000 1,750,000

18,290,000

6,100,000 4,820,000 1,940,000 790,000 780,000 340,000 1,280,000

22,000 7,000

10,120,000 160,000 90,000

55,000 1,000

49,000 13,000 30,000

Indonesia Muslim Protestant Roman Catholic Hindu Buddhist other

390,000 40,000

734,000,000 75,000,000 25,000,000 18,000,000 13,000,000 9,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 130,000 29,000,000

169,840,000 11,760,000 6,970,000 3,560,000 2,010,000 600,000

Iraq ShiT Muslim Sunni Muslim

12,300,000 6,820,000

other (mostly Christian)

750,000

other

Guam Roman Catholic Protestant other

115,000 23,000 7,000

Muslim (mostly Sunnt) other

1,230,000 180,000 120,000 970,000

110,200,000 97,320,000 1,470,000 10,620,000

Jersey Anglican Roman Catholic other Jordan Sunni Muslim other Kazakhstan Muslim (mostly Sunni) Russian Orthodox Protestant other (mostly nonreligious)

Kenya Roman Catholic Protestant traditional beliefs African Christian Anglican Muslim other

53,000 20,000 13,000

27,000

4,330,000 760,000 240,000

Korea, North atheist and nonreligious traditional beliefs

Korea, South Buddhist Confucian Protestant Roman Catholic Wonbulgyo Ch’dndogyo Taejong other Kuwait Sunni Muslim ShiT Muslim other

Kyrgyzstan Muslim (mostly Sunni) other (mostly nonreligious and Russian Orthodox)

Laos Buddhist traditional beliefs other

Liberia Christian traditional beliefs Muslim Libya Sunni Muslim other

1,610,000 440,000 330,000

5,070,000 160,000

Liechtenstein Roman Catholic other

25,000 6,000

Lithuania 2,980,000 Roman Catholic other (mostly Russian Orthodox, Old Believer, Evangelical Lutheran, 740,000 and nonreligious)

375,000 23,000

7,970,000 2,540,000 340,000

Macau nonreligious Buddhist other

191,000 188,000 37,000

6,100,000

7,250,000 5,300,000 5,190,000 4,830,000 1,980,000 1,650,000 1,250,000

Macedonia Macedonian Orthodox Sunni Muslim other

1,230,000 540,000 310,000

Madagascar traditional beliefs Protestant Roman Catholic Muslim

7,540,000 2,740,000 2,740,000 690,000

Malawi 42,000 31,000 6,000

15,660,000 3,600,000 3,210,000 600,000

16,130,000 10,860,000 10,370,000 2,290,000 1,160,000 1,030,000 500,000 2,090,000

930,000 400,000 150,000

3,140,000 1,350,000

2,740,000 1,590,000 410,000

Believers are predominantly affiliated with the Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church; Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant minorities.

Lesotho Roman Catholic

570,000 520,000

Protestant other

Luxembourg Roman Catholic other

other

Druze Greek Orthodox Greek Catholic Armenian Christian other

1994 population

3,930,000 300,000

Kiribati Roman Catholic Congregational

3,268,000 243,000 | Lebanon Shi7 Muslim Sunni Muslim Maronite Christian 43,000

Religious affiliation

Religious affiliation nonreligious other

1,070,000 700,000 590,000 200,000 160,000 100,000 100,000 30,000

840,000

Protestant (mostly Presbyterian) Roman Catholic Muslim traditional beliefs

4,870,000 1,950,000 1,950,000 970,000

Malaysia Muslim Buddhist Chinese folkreligionist Hindu Christian other

10,320,000 3,370,000 2,260,000 1,370,000 1,250,000 940,000

Maldives Sunni Muslim

Mali Muslim traditional beliefs Christian

244,000

7,940,000 790,000 90,000

Malta Roman Catholic other

363,000 5,000

Marshall Islands Believers are predominantly Protestant (mainly Congregational); Roman Catholic minority. Martinique Roman Catholic other Mauritania Sunni Muslim other Mauritius Hindu Roman Catholic Muslim other

Mayotte Sunni Muslim Christian

340,000 40,000

2,060,000 10,000

570,000 300,000 180,000 70,000

107,000 3,000

Moldova Russian (Moldovan)

Orthodox

82,370,000 4,490,000 70,000

2,980,000 1,930,000

4,340,000 20,000

Monaco Roman Catholic other

27,000 3,000

Mongolia Tantric Buddhist (Lamaist) Muslim

2,130,000 140,000

Morocco Muslim (mostly Sunni) other

26,240,000 300,000

Mozambique traditional beliefs Roman Catholic Muslim other

8,290,000 5,450,000 2,250,000 1,360,000

Myanmar (Burma) Buddhist Christian Muslim traditional beliefs Hindu other

40,760,000 2,240,000 1,750,000 520,000 230,000 70,000

Namibia Lutheran Roman Catholic Dutch Reformed Anglican other

Nauru Congregational other Nepal Hindu Buddhist Muslim other Netherlands, The Roman Catholic Dutch Reformed Church (NHK) Reformed Churches Muslim nonreligious other

817,000 316,000 97,000

80,000 286,000

5,600 4,600

16,820,000 1,520,000 740,000 440,000

5,080,000

2,310,000 1,230,000 490,000 6,010,000 280,000

Netherlands Antilles Roman Catholic other

162,000 31,000

New Caledonia Roman Catholic other

111,000 72,000

New Zealand Anglican Presbyterian Roman Catholic Methodist Baptist Ratana Mormon nonreligious other

750,000 560,000 520,000 140,000 70,000 50,000 50,000 690,000 680,000

Nicaragua Roman Catholic other (mostly Protestant)

3,760,000 450,000

Niger Sunni Muslim

other Mexico Roman Catholic Protestant and Evangelical Catholic Jewish

1994 population

Micronesia Believers are about equally Roman Catholic and Protestant (mainly Congregational).

other

Latvia

Israel Jewish3

47,580,000 7,790,000 1,490,000 410,000

21,000

55,770,000 3,370,000 470,000

Isle of Man Anglican

Italy Roman Catholic nonreligious atheist other

Ch’dndogyo

Iran Shi‘T Muslim Sunni Muslim other

lreland Roman Catholic other

1994 population

246,000 | other

330,000 India Hindu Sunni Muslim Shi‘7 Muslim Sikh Roman Catholic Protestant Buddhist Jain Zoroastrian (Parsi) other

Religious affiliation

42,000 22,000 | Jamaica Protestant Anglican Roman Catholic 5,530,000 Bor 520,000 460,000 Japan Shintoist4 Buddhist4 680,000 Christian 320,000 other 50,000

107,000

Muslim (mostly

Sunni) other

1994 population

Guernsey Anglican other

Gambia, The Sunni) other

Religious affiliation

Nigeria Muslim Protestant Roman Catholic

8,690,000

130,000

42,060,000 24,580,000 11,310,000

Comparative National Statistics

Religious

1994 ‘ | Religious e population | affiliation

lias affiliation

ee arten fale

9,910,000

elie

5,230,000

other

rwanda aed oman Catholic traditional beliefs

370,000 | Protestant Muslim

Northern Mariana

Islands

Roman Catholic

41,000

other

St. Kitts and Nevis Anglican

5,000 | ather Methodist

. Oorway

1994 | Religious

(Church of Norway) other

1,950,000

Lutheran

700,000 80,000

Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa

ene

14,000

Muslim

1,760,000

other

290,000

42,000 16.000

other’Apostolic Baptist Pentecostal Protestant

Roman Catholic other

Sunni)

P

Christian Hindu other

2,050,000 | San Marino 1,980,000 Roman Catholic 170,000 other

Panama

Sao Tomé and Principe

Roman Catholic Protestant

2,070,000 | Roman Catholic 260,000 | Protestant

other

250,000

Saudi Arabia

Papua New Guinea

Sunni Muslim

Protestant Roman Catholic Anglican other

2,480,000 1,390,000 230,000 150,000

Paraguay Roman Catholic other (mostly Protestant)

4,410,000 320,000

Shi Muslim other

Roman Catholic other (mostly Protestant

Sunni Muslim Christian other Seychelles

21,090,000 1,870,000

Philippines Roman Catholic Protestant

56,670,000 3,210,000

Muslim

2,940,000

Aglipayan Church of Christ (Iglesia ni Cristo)

2,120,000 1,570,000

other

Sienaileone Suan Muslim traditi ; raditional beliefs Christian Sinaanore

Decade: and Tate Muslim palestant Remani@atholic

1,780,000" f° Hindu

nonreligious other

Poland Roman Catholic

35,560,000

nonreligious Polish Orthodox other

2,160,000 580,000 353,000

Portugal Roman Catholic

other

9,270,000

Slovakia Romanicatholic Slovak Evangelical atheist other

540,000 | stovenia Roman

Puerto Rico Roman Catholic

Catholic

other 3,120,000 540,000 | solomon Islands Protestant Anglican Roman Catholic

other Qatar Muslim (mostly Sunni)

510,000

other

0,000 40,

Réunion

other

other

80,000

weer romeo bingy Muslim 17,130,000 | Jewish 600,000 210,000

Romanian Orthodox Roman Catholic other

19,740,000 1,140,000 1,860,000 ts.

:

Believers ve,predominantly affiliated with the Russian

persone CHT anCray Catholic, Protestant, MusMiaaclowishend Buddhist Saibritien” :

Christian

Protestant Dutch (Afrikaans) Reformed Churches Nederduitse

Gereformeerde

Gereformeerde Nederduitsch

Hervormde other Protestant Prote Methodist Presbyterian

ee

other beliefs nonreligious not stated

7,630,000 | Spain 400,000 Roman Catholic 90,000 Muslim other

64,000 | Sri Lanka 8,000 Buddhist 2770,000 Vea! 1,380,000 460,000

oot "451 ‘000 229 000 142.000

Hindu Muslim Roman Catholic other Sudan, The Sunni Muslim

traditional beliefs

Christian1 other

Hindu Roman Catholic Muslim

3,230,000

Protestant other

330,000 520,000 | Swaziland 1,270,000 Christian1 traditional beliefs

1,880,000

oe

120,000 | Sweden Church of Sweden (Lutheran) other 150,000 122,000 69,000 | Switzerland

6,650,000

EO

Roman Catholic Protestant other

nSSunni

Muslim ng Muslim 3 Shi‘T

Christian

22,990,000 11,460,000

other

80,000

3,650,000 | —_Buddhist 180,000

300,000 7,320,000 ee

Christian! other

Tajikistan

2,110,000 | “Sunnt Muslim 460,000 | Shit Muslim

other Christian

+fer fatto

50.000

é

9.550.000

traditional beliefs Buddhist Muslim

54,340,000 2,270,000

310,000

other

660,000

Togo

840,000

470,000

Protestant

270,000

43,000 16,000 41,000

37,190,000 | Turkey 450,000 Muslim (mostly 1,550,000 Sunni) other

116,000 96,000 83,000

79,000 48,000

680,000 180,000

2s

139,000 ; este

8,710,000 50,000

60,690,000 490,000

Muslim (mostly Sunni) Russian Orthodox other

Uganda Ronian Catholic

300

9,020,000

Anglican

4,770,000

Sunni)

Secon

traditional beliefs Muslim (mostly

910,01

Ukraine Believers are predominantly affiliated with theUkrainian Orthodox Church; Ukrainian

2,090,000

1,080,000

Sunni) Russian Orthodox other (mostly nonreligious)

Roman Catholic

other Christian

Muslim ;

Hindu Jewish Sikh nonreligious and atheist

9,060,000 | other

United States

2,010,000 670,000

59,000 24,000 23,000 58,000 ,

th hdl

Venezuela Roman Catholic other Vietnam Buddhist Roman Catholic New-Religionist ce a

19,500,000 1,670,000

48,220,000 6,110,000 cone

oa pee 48,000 35,000 21.000 ;

Muslim (mostly

Sunni) Jewishé Christian and other

1,010,000 110,000 100,000

208,000

WeeteriGamion Congregational

Verner

Musi

other

1,700,000 340.000 90.000 é

Yugoslavia Serbian Orthodox 5 ; Sunni Muslim ; Roman Catholic Protestant

S pas

Zalre

other

Eastern Orthodox as

19,700,000

78,000

Roman Catholic other

meer Creies? Pinenies

Seen “ei

4,650,000 290,000

Roman Catholic

other

2,290,000 | Western Sahara Sunni Muslim

other

2,800,000 | Uniteda Kingdom 970,000 Christian!

1,250,000 240,000

190,000 1,230,000

9,400 | West Bank

other

3,230,000

10,220,000

230,000

3,520,000 | Virgin Islands (U.S.) 440,000 Protestant 80,000 Roman Catholic other

Tuvalu Congregational

: , 7,741,000 | United Arab Emirates 1,032,000 Sunni Muslim Shit Muslim other

ara280,000

Buddhist Sikh other

aaa pack

5

10,250,000 ; 2,080,000 4250000

900,000

303,000 | Anglican

12,360,000 | Turkmenistan

2,340,000 310,000

860,000 300,000

940,000

Vanuatu

Angli eine oe

30,000 410,000 | Tunisia 9,530,000 Sunni Muslim other

4,290,000

atheist Baha’i

383,000 | Presbyterian 374,000 | Roman Catholic

1000 | Hindu

18,760,000

3180,000 5,060,000

Muslim (mostly

Free Wesleyan Roman Catholic other

Trinidad and Tobago

2,760,000 1,350,000 1,230,000 140,000

23,120,000

Muslim

30,000 | Uzbekistan

Tonga

1,380,000 9) protestant %,930,000 | Roman Catholic

120,000

HAG

43,580,000

2,310,000 | Uruguay

Roman Catholic

Sunni Muslim

7,500,000

440,000.) 380,000

5,580,000 2,330,000 11,220,000

New-Religionist Hindu

170,000 | ther 1,350,000 30,000

nonreligious

8,190,000 | Jewish oe

1,380,000 2,630,000

Christian (unaffiliated)

efsactoas

Ghngian

1994 population

Eastern Orthodox Anglican

870,000

30,000 | ‘traditional beliefs

400.000

Chinese folk-

religionist

other (mostly nonreligious)

Christian

Taiwan 4,130,000

1994 | Religious igi population affiliation

470,000 290,000 | Thailand

104,000 | Suriname

411,000 16,000

South Africa

Romania

Anglican Greek Orthodox black independent churches Be rensdan

410,000 20,000

19,000

570,000 | other

other

23,000 1,000

Somalla

Sunni Muslim

Roman Catholic

God

Roman Catholic

Senegal

Roman Catholic other

Peru

Reseraniieg of

.

127,230,000

160,000

20,000

avetiat

ee

450,000

Pentecostal

Swiss

23,000

850,000

40,000 230,000

oa

46,000

430,000

Church Full Gospel

the Grenadines

Anglican

oe

Muslim (mostly

African Protestant

112,000 30,000

St. Vincent and ee

Pakistan

;

nen

St. Lucia — 3,807,000 525,000

Oman

Russia

United ; Congregational

5,080,000

—

Evangelical Lutheran

1994 | Religigious population | affiliation

population | affiliation

785

*2°760,000

7,650,000qiay 350,000

820,000

820,000

sea eg

foe ce

African Christian ie : traditional beliefs Muslim other

410,000 320,000 230,000 | Zambia Christian’ 5,550,000 traditional beliefs

180,000 |

other

Zimbabwe

Christianae (professing) 222,580,000 | Christian’ 4 oes ss ‘ Christian (affiliated) 179,000,000 traditional beliefs Protestant 105,070,000 | other Roman Catholic 54,800,000

36,000 50,000

z

12,940,000 20,000 6,830,000 2,000,000 420,000 110,000 1,160,000

eee

See 7,490,000 1,490,000 610,000 310,000

6,630,000

2,490,000

90,000

6,360,000 ies a) 4,440,000 170,000

3Includes the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem; excludes the West Bank and Gaza Strip. 4Many Japanese 2Official 1986 census figure is 5.9 percent. 1Includes affiliated and nominal Christians. practice both Shintoism and Buddhism. Excludes the former black independent states of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda, in which there are about 5,800,000 Christians and 2,100,000 practicers of traditional beliefs.

SExcludes East Jerusalem.

786

Britannica World Data

Vital statistics, marriage, family This table provides some of the basic measures of the factors that influence the size, direction, and rates of population change within a country. The accuracy of these data depends on the effectiveness of each respective national system for registering vital and civil events (birth, death, marriage, etc.) and on the sophistication of the analysis that can be brought to bear upon the data so compiled. Data on birth rates, for example, depend not only on the completeness of registration of births in a particular country but also on the conditions under which those data are collected: Do all births take place in a hospi-

tal? Are the births reported comparably in all parts of the country? Are the records of the births tabulated at a central location in a timely way

with an effort to eliminate inconsistent reporting of birth events, perinatal mortality, etc.? Similar difficulties attach to death rates but with the added

need to identify “cause of death.” Even

in a developed

country

such

identifications are often left to nonmedical personnel, and in a developing country with, say, only one physician for every 10,000 population, there will be too few physicians to perform autopsies to assess accurately the cause of death after the fact and also too few to provide ongoing care at a level where records would permit inference about cause of death based on prior condition or diagnosis.

Calculating natural increase, which at its most basic is simply the difference between the birth and death rates, may be affected by the differing degrees of completeness of birth and death registration for a given country. The total fertility rate may be understood as the average number of children that would be borne per woman if all childbearing women lived to the end of their childbearing years and bore children at each age at the

average rate for that age. Calculating a meaningful fertility rate requires analysis of changing age structure of the female population over time, changing mortality rates among mothers and their infants, and changing medical practice at births, each improvement of natural survivorship or medical support leading to greater numbers of live-born children and greater numbers of children who survive their first year (the basis for measurement of infant mortality, another basic indicator of demographic conditions and trends within a population). As indicated above, data for causes of death are not only particularly difficult to obtain, since many countries are not well equipped to collect the data, but also difficult to assess, as their accuracy may be suspect and their meaning may be subject to varying interpretation. Take the case of a citizen of a less developed country who dies of what is clearly a lung infection: Was the death complicated by chronic malnutrition, itself complicated by a parasitic infestation, these last two together so weakening the subject that he died of an infection that he might have survived had his general health been better? Similarly, in a developed country: Someone may die from what is identified in an autopsy as a cerebrovascular accident, but if that accident occurred in a vascular system that was weakened by diabetes, what was the actual cause of death? Statistics on causes of death seek to identify the “underlying” cause (that which sets the final train of events leading to death in motion) but often must settle for the most proximate cause or symptom. Even this kind of analysis may be misleading for those charged with interpreting the data with a view to ordering health-care priorities for a particular country. The eight groups of causes of death utilized here include most, but not all, of the detailed

Vital statistics, marriage, family country

birth rate per 1,000 population

death rate per 1,000population

infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births

rate of natural

total fertility

increase per 1,000 popu-

rate

year

infectious and

malignant

endocrine and

Parasitic

neo-

metabolic

diseases

plasms (cancers)

disorders

diseases of the

diseases of the

diseases of the

diseases of the

nervous — circula-

respira-

digestive

and

system

tory system

system

violence

tory system

accidents, Poisoning,

lation Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra

1993 1990 1992 1990 1992

Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Aruba

1990-95 1993 1992 1992 1992

Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas, The

1993 1993 1994 1992

1990

16.45

468

16.46

431.17.)

9065.68

14.0 264 13.8 98 5.0 33) 42.4 18.0 28

44.5 1425 103.9 1249 1799 2464 72.1 80.4 32.3

25.4 25.7 16.9 47.7 13.5 24.2 8.6 72.2 16.8

76 2375 93. 358.1 41. 323.5 42. . 189.5 149 307.8 151... 5853 97 292.4 11.0 1263 3.8 86.6

44.5 50.8 53.2 30.9 56.8 49.8 88.9 52.2 27.7

15.2 34.6 22.3 23.9 22.0 53.4 25.6 29.0 10.2

51 515 58.8 14.2 40.3 64.6 42.4 40.8 19.0

79.8 7.116 23.0 37.06

15.2 97 39.2 2m

338.9 5458 4128 4164.0

47.9 73.6 93.1 57.1

36.6 22.2 40.9 32.8

44.0 100.5 64.7 92.618

344.4

25.2

Bahrain

1992

1988 1990 1990 4991 4992 4992 1989 1990 1991

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize

1993 1992 1994 1992 1993

1988 1990 1989 1990

19.8 160.7 74 171.8 106 - 2746 ¥ 52.4

Benin Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina

1992 1990 1993 1993 1994

4990

181.5

Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

1990-95 1991 1992 1993 1990-95

Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada

1991 1993 1990-95 1991

Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'Ivoire

122619

126

11.9

3444

29.0

29.2

47A

198922 1986 4992

41 53 7.0

72 27.0 181.4

22 a 223

‘9 * 5.7)

210 80.0 768.1

61 23.4 70.7

30 a 37.6

94 39.8 68.5

24.3 20.6

18.5 2786 16.5 ” 135.8

61.6 72.3

26.8 27.7

48.5 30.1

53) 153.7

wA9z7, 43.8

1988 1990-95 1991 1992 1990-95

1989 199023 199022

244 18.4 26

105.7 © 1245 83

1991 1991 1990 1992 1992

10.5 108 94 “36 92

1990 1985 4992 1987

87.5 51.4 52.0 98.9

Croatia

1992

Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti

1990-95 1992 1993 1993 1990-95

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador

99

1991 4980

1990-95

1993 1993 1993 1992 1994

38.6

1989

1992

1993 1990-95 1993

58.5

199022

52

114 8116 17

87 8644 10

157.8 «©2086 193

64.5 ~—Ss«1201.2 53

45.8 27.3 23

74.7 52.5 159

74.6 226119 128.7 270.0 2929

13.6 1491 23.3 14.9 21.4

82 69 10.6 85 13.0

1113 5718 294.7 6498 505.2

38.5 29.5 58.0 49.4 89.2

19.9 53.2 26.3 43.0 42.8

39.7 91.8 79.9 84,2 71.9

1166 27.4 50.0 22.0

51.4 12.3 11,86 94

97 8.6 1.926 136

17

273.5 100.3 93.1 314.4"

12

43.0 35.4 40.6 4407

20.8 22.3 13.2 45.8

18.0 33.7 66.7 39.1

38

137

43

120

49

Comparative National Statistics

causes classified by the World Health Organization and would not, thus, aggregate to the country’s crude death rate for the same year. Among lesser causes excluded by the present classification are: benign neoplasmthe s; nutritional disorders; anemias; mental disorders; kidney and genitourinary diseases not classifiable under the main groups; maternal deaths (for which

practice in terms of the age at which a man or woman typically marries, and the overall rate will at least define the number of legal civil marriages, though it cannot say anything about other, less formal arrangements (here the figure for the legitimacy rate for children in the next section may identify some of the societies in which economics or social constraints may Operate to limit the number of marriages that are actually confirmed on civil registers). The available data usually include both first marriages and

data are provided, however, in the “Health services” table); diseases of the

skin and musculoskeletal systems; congenital and perinatal conditions; and general senility and other ill-defined (ill-diagnosed) conditions, a kind of “other” category Expectation of life is probably the most accurate single measure of the quality of life in a given society. It summarizes in a single number all of the natural and social stresses that operate upon individuals in that society. The number may range from as few as 40 years of life in the least developed countries to as much as 80 years for women in the most developed nations. The lost potential in the years separating those two numbers is prodigious, regardless of how the loss arises—wars and civil violence, poor public health services, or poor individual health practice in

remarriages after annulment, divorce, widowhood, or the like.

The data for families provide information about the average size of a family unit (individuals related by blood or civil register) and the average number of children under a specified age (set here at 15 to provide a consistent measure of social minority internationally, though legal minority depends on the laws of each country). When well-defined family data are not collected as part of a country’s national census or vital statistics surveys, data for households are substituted on the assumption that most

households worldwide represent families in some conventional sense. In

the older countries of Europe and North America, increasing numbers of

matters of nutrition, exercise, stress management, and so on.

households are composed of unrelated individuals (unmarried heterosexual couples, aged [or younger] groups sharing limited [often fixed] incomes for reasons of economy, or homosexual couples); such arrangements are not

Data on marriages and marriage rates probably are less meaningful in terms of international comparisons than some of the measures mentioned above because the number, timing, and kinds of social relationships that

yet so common in the rest of the world that they represent great numbers overall. Very few census programs, even in developed countries, make adequate provision for distinguishing these households.

substitute for marriage depend on many kinds of social variables—income, degree of social control, heterogeneity of the society (race, class, language communities), or level of development of civil administration (if one must travel for a day or more to obtain a legal civil ceremony, one may forgo it). Nevertheless, the data for a single country say specific things about local

expectation of life at birth (latest year)

nuptiality, family, and family planning marriages year

male

female

country

age at marriage (latest) total number

rate groom (percent) per 1,000 popu- | 19and 20-29 lation | under

families (F), households (H) (latest) bride (percent)

30 and over

19and under

20-29

BS 21.0 29.84

ae 74.0 61.44

families (households) over

total ((000)

children size

number percent under _ legitiage 15 mate

= ; induced abortions number

ratio per 100 live births

440 69.3 66.3 69.0 75.3

43.0 75.4 68.4 74.0 81.3

449

484

st

oe

er

ar

ss

70.8 67.0 67.4 ‘tsi

-

74.9 74.0 73.3 eget

a

1988 1983 1989 1992

382 177,010 27,257 566

4.9 6.0 7.8 7.9

1.010 5.6 2.7

37.411 715 77.0 ms

61.6 22.9 20.3 a

3.710 26.0 34.0 me

52.411 58.6 54.2 ay

43.9 15.4 11.8 ee

H H H H

75.0 72.9 67.0 68.0 68.7

80.9 79.4 75.0 75.3 72.9

| 1991 1991 1989 1992 1990

113,869 44,106 71,874 2,407 2,942

6.6 5.6 10.4 9.1 5.8

14 17, 1.2 1.315 1.8

58.0 60.9 80.4 53.815 69.8

40.9 37.4 18.4 44.915 28.4

5.4 6.8 24.8 5.315 26.2

65.1 68.1 63.9 61.115 59.9

29.5 25.1 11.3 33.615] 13.9

Ee He he H H

55.0 2s 66.0 724 67.0

544 “TS 76.0 79.1 72.0

1990 1989 1989 1992 1991

1,130,000 2,047 97,929 58,156 1,047

10.8 8.0 9.6 5.8 5.4

aa 0.2 41 1.413 7.8

es 43.2 74.7 74.513 58.1

ue 56.6 Ali: 24,113 34.1

ea Aer 26.2 9.313 27.4

Aas 58.7 55.6 73.613°° 50.6

a 39.6 18.2 17.713) 22.0

HP H HL F H

19;700""* 67 °2796 3,613 38”

5.3 H3.7 Hig:2 F 2:7, H4.9

evs 140,900 re 822

49.0 73.0

52.0 | 1980-85 79.0 1990

49.6

=

Pt SOT

osO 1s:2

ae 0.2

es 37.4

eo 62.4

a 49.4

% 491

H

eed eee

ater. tHe 6:

at 92

; SoD

i ee

1980 1990

26,990 31,449

4.8 7.0

8.3 2.312

75.1 76.012

16.6 26.1 21,712 | 28,512

55.4 69.312,

18.5 12.212)

1,655 H H ~ 1,208

H38 H3.6

58.0 63:5 69.3 68.0

64.0 | 1986 1990 69.1 727 1992 |1991 74.7

1,638 777,460 1,795 48,820

Teo 5.2 6.7 a3

— To 5.64 5.915

33.0 72.6 72.54 76.615

5.0 67.0 33.3 19.9 12.54 21,94 17,515 | 38.015

69.2 55.2 58.94 51.815

25.8 11.5 28.64 10.215)

H F H F

12g 31,888 45 2627

Eon F 4.2 H58 F33

50.7

466

mi 1990 1988

a 28,992 139,930

oe 8.9 5.9

|1990 |1992

370 135

7.8 2.2

499

fo

moo

7 nes

6 ao

1990 1988

ee 3 Be 66.4

401 : See 723

30 nee |1980

Be

a0

ae

oon

f

30

e

HT

ae

377A7.1

187,737 1,040

iQ ancsoay. 102,448

3.2

oat

: 2 | 94 Sores62 | 0.4tig: 32,188 ae

3.3 2.3 6.4 8.3 44

— 8.025 112.2 12 5:94 6.2

z

H

=.

|

2,110 H62 675 F47 3,322 H69 7h 70

“a

48

207 10,097 559 19°

A355 H3.2 H47 H3.6

5,853 = 3.0 3,021 H 2.6 oe H 4.8 H38 68 67" H6:5

.

we

4

~H54

Heo

ie 3 a 2 | 20.3 oe ly ae a 696 240 | 315

a 646 a 565

i 151 | H .. | H 120 | F

H is

4. | HP®

10,018 59

H

H 4.7

H

1544

H3.4

57.012

34.712 | 24,312

49.912

25.812}

F

2,860

67.0 43.1:

238 | 332 2.1 565: :

504 556

163 | H 423 | F

3,984 2833

3.1 58.8 29.025 | 29.725 23.912: | a 83.712 32.3 ks 22.1 36.8

58.3 51.025 52.212 fa cs

38.6 19.325] 44.112 aos

18 H 753 H Hoyas a

52.9

25.0

H

41.2 63.025 512 64 Ba 61.8 57.0

;ae

eS Benin 11.0 | Bermuda

Bhutan

\ 0.1 | Botswana -. | Brazil . om Brunei 137.5 Bulgaria

.. | Burkina Faso

&

ie 29. 10,500,000 re

.. | Cameroon

17.3 | Canada

Cape Verde

Central African Republic

Chad — | Chile 47.7 | China .. | Colombia

o.6

15712]

;a

Bangladesh .. | Barbados 86.3 Belarus e Belgium neat Belize

Comoros

326°°H 47

6482

a

re

a5

1951

i

a 144,644

71,092

ae

H

17

Sed

H4.5 ae

16.212]

Australia PA Austria 23.2 | Azerbaijan oe Bahamas, The Bahrain

olivia F Bosnia and Herzegovina

27

681.62

66.012

ee 42,134 =

Antigua and Barbuda BS Argentina 34.7 | Armenia .. | Aruba

Burundi

H

28.712 | 17.812

Angola ie 26,141 aad

Cambodia

: ue

70.512

American Samoa Andorra

H 5.6

H39 3,261 H4.1 278.624 4.1 4,772 F5.4 rE

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

H4.6

bee

30.9 21.9

312

5 7.9

H Fe H

64, 61.1

41.3 35.3

26412]

oe

oe oak . 72.3 1992 69.3 | 1990 68.0 | 1989

0

+ 5.0 8.84

5.0 17.0

57.5 62.4

72412

ty We

ieee ! 67.1 65.0 63.0

3

.

46 | 1212

ee

228 15,642 68,337 456,000 23,167

a

ie

a8

22,169

oe

a

26.9

14863

50.6

De ao

65.6

jas

474

5

e

x

as

disco

2

dnc 2.3

8)

ms

as

a

7.66

eo Ba ofS |1992 1100) 77.8

.

s

=

4.

22,7033

Ga

oe 19.9 32.24

&

19900

peat Be 72.4

a 78.8 67.14

=e

di: 7.5 pe 3.8 | 64

(95,

i 75.6;

ee 1.3 0.74

787

160

1,046

Congo

Rica ‘osta dtivoire Che

Croatia Cuba

F3.7

147,530

79.0

H27 F1.8

126,055 19.729

96.2 | Czech Republic 30.7 | Denmark

H3.5

HBG

H 4.3 s es HAS: ae i

Ee

ee

es 562

.. | Cyprus

.. | Djibouti

.. | Dominica ; in eee Republic 0.5 Favor a eNRUCE

788

Britannica World Data

ee

as

Vital statistics, marriage, family

(continued)

country

birth rate per 1,000

death rateper

infant mortality

rate of natural

total fertility

1,000

rate per

increase

rate

per

popu-

popu-

1,000

lation

lation

live births

year

infectious and Parasitic

diseases

1,000 popu-

malignant

neoplasms (cancers)

endocrine and metabolic disorders

diseases of the nervous system

diseases of the circulatory system

diseases of the respiratory system

diseases of the digestive

system

accidents,

poisoning, and

violence

lation

117,017

Equatorial Guinea Eritrea27 Estonia Ethiopia27 Faeroe Islands

1993

Fiji Finland French Polynesia

1993 1992 1992 1990 1990

Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip Georgia Germany

1990-95 1990-95 1994 1994 1991

Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada

1990-95

Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala: Guernsey Guinea

1992 1994 1993 1993

Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong

1994

1994 1993 1993

Hungary Iceland India Indonesia lran

1993 1992 1991 1991 1993

17.6 29.3 32.2

11.0 19.5 20.5

2.2 3.914 3.7

lraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy

1992 1992 1993 1993 1992

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan

France French Guiana

18.5

15.814 422.0 8.52

-3.8 30.6

7.0

1990 1992

13.2 12.9 31.5

9.8 911 5.2

27.013 5.92 6.7 15.8 10.4

3.4 3.8 26.3

1.9 1.82 3.72

1987 1992 1991 1989 1985-89

44.1 56.0 17.0

19.4 6.0 9.0

94.0 132.0 43.0 16.0 6.814

24.7 50.0 8.0

6.1 7.7 2.2

20.2

9.1

11.1

28

4993 1990-95 4992

4991

1993 1993

14.0

10.0 30.8

9.4 65

1989

81.0

57 8.5 127

06. 244

1517 2.914

29.02

8.4 43 18.2 12.1 61.7 25.0

194.2 191.3 35.5 198.0 244.2 58.1 78.0

5.06 27.36 12.4 25.9

673

58.2 58.4

601.4

34.0

34 41.0

1987 1991 1992 1984

203.9

121.2 65.2 29.8 314.3

13.1 3.66 62.9 23.013 29.56 29.6 11.8

141.5

11.8 18.8

738.6 290.4

67.3 91.2

126.8 40.6

174

403.2 701.6 249.7 407.1 229.6 251.4

124.4 258.8 44.4 61.8 36.8 74.4

24.4

79 16.5 13.6 55

18.7 17.9 50.2 21.4 44.4

38.8 50.3 38.2 50.6 174 477

6.4

64

344.3

73.6

24.8

103.9

3.016 1416 74 4.0 10.1

65 7.2 Bz 69

224.9

46.7

51.6

38.2

144.0 187.5 255.4

7.0 24.2

75 15.5

75.9 102.419

7.4 13.3

2.9 5.1

27 60

25 11

60

176.8 29.1 135.5

30.7

47

4992

6.6 9.8 teZ

1992 1992

94 5.4

313.0 164.4

19.5 4.2

14.6 12.3 21.3

8.7 14.5 6.3

56.3 9.12 5.7 78 8.3

5.9 =2:2 15.0

1.812 2.915

1991 1993 1990 1990

206.0 337.8 125.6 251.5

1992 1993 1991 1992 1994

9.6 i 12.5 37.8

; 7.0 9.9 5.2

4.514 6.012 33.8

2.6 2.6 32.6

1985 1992

91.4 187.8

1.312 5.9

174 4.36 214 39.1 29.1 99

1990

135.7

Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait

1990-95 1993 1993 1993 1992

32.0 23.0 15.0

12.3 5.0 6.0

98.4 24.0 15.0

193% 18.0 11.0

3.8 2.4 1.6

Kyrgyzstan Laos

1994

44.0

16.0

107

69.0 111 28.7 76.4

28.0

: 6.3

1986 1991 22 1989 1990

Lebanon

4992 ° 4992

Lesotho

1990-95

135 45

174 28.0

Aisa 207

202 29

4990

Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg

1990-95 1990-95 1992 1992 1993

41.9 12.6 14.3

8.0 6.0 11.0

68 = 16.5

33.8 6.6 3.3

6.4 ee 2.012

1992

1990 1992

67 91 7.4

Macau Macedonia Madagascar

1992

16.0 45.5 54.5

7.0 127 215

245 110.0 142.0

90 328 33.0

19 66 7.6

1992 1989

10.0 20.3

1991

198699 198994

711

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique

1993 1993 1993 1991 1993

51.7 14.0 47.0

20.8 7.3 8.0

4988 4992 1991 1990

Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

1994 1991 1991 1992 1985-89

20.7 43.7 31.7

6.6 6.0 4.6

Moldova

1994

22.9

18.5

42.5 21.0 38.0

10.7 5.0 13.0

Latvia

Malawi Malaysia Maldives

Mali

Monaco

Mongolia

1994

4990-95 1990-95

1988 1994 4990-95

Morocco Mozambique

1990-95

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

1994 1990-95 1989 1993 1993

12.0 25.2

34.0 323

108.0 10.314 30.3

30.9 6.7 39.0

73 2.114 7A

23.0 38.0 27.1

144 37.7 27.1

2.2 6.812 3.715

44. 263 24.0

1.212 45 44

31.8 16.0 25.0

6.0 2.5 5.4

9.012 77 48 83 . 68.0 70.0 41.0 96.0

205.8

62 31.3 55 102.0 22.0

4992

62.5

1991 1984

48.6 27.4

1989

131.6

1976-8195 1991

255.2 47.9

56.5 42.2 29.2

14.0 48 88.017 90.0 62.1

1994

52.1 45.2 544 30.5 14.731

39.8 26.3 93.9

33.3 53 95

49.0 19.0 109.0 64ome47e

11.4

484.8 197.3 290.3 186.8 423.4 57.2 430.3

202.5 48.4

374 12.4 157.2

140.0

8.3 1,826

72.9 68.7 52.0 20.2

19.3 46.6 15.9

40.0 35.8

7.0.

2.426

145.7 112.6

1984 1983

20.0

147.0

98.0 89.0

51.4

2.614 4.714 49

1994

21.0

13.6 11.0

553.2 569.8

13.0 21.0 294

1994

20.9 29.0

44 164

1990 1992 1984 1990

10.4 9.8 55.6 1.315

129.8 57.4 32.2 90.0 82.7

12.0 29.2

3.3 49 1.612

4.0 Wet 9.5

11.0 14.9 15.5 38.7 46.7

16.3 12.0

26.0 28.5 1.2

30.0 36.2 10.7

24.6 59.5 31.7 72.2 63.1

153.4 482.3 307.9 114.3 121.0

98.6 263.2

152.0 90.5

746.7 352.8

17.4 19.5 10.9 * 10.0

1989 1991

195.5

1,326

14.98

33.0

38.0

6.0

236.5

417

12.313

166 81.4 267.9 759.9

13.7 123.9 44.2

45 52 277 34.7

90 29.4 92.8 139.6

22.9 41.6 31.3

20.1 120.2 66.2 23.6 34.5 78 67 99 36.2 35.4 54.8 45.5 68.6 23.8

160.7 620.1 429.0 136.0 346.2 50 117 170.4 363.0 74.9 208.0

33.5

49.0 65.9

13.4 23.3 48.3

53.0 49.8

20.2 18.2

265 14 66.2 68.5 52.0 34.2

34

279.5 99.3 53.2

67.0

68 45

47.5

33.1 39.7 57

716

12.4 40.725

17

36.1 40.7 6.8 8.3

5.0

8.2

452.2

64.2

85.4

105.3

24.0 29.6

13.0

89.0 344.3

16.0

53.0 31.4

116.0 34.5

18.3

474

70.9

Comparative National Statistics

expectation ee

at birth

iali i and family i planning i nuptiality, family,

marriages year

male female

age at marriage total

rate

number

ili bride (percent)

per

families

20-29

30 and over

ee 11,774

ae 8.0

ae GA

ve 61.1

a 31.8

203

4.3

1.028

68.828

30,228

6,039

8.4

6.6

68.7

24.7

61.112 61.710 we

37.612 37,910 i

23,093 269,940 465

987

Ee 38,288 454,291

&

46 1.312 47 | 0.410 44 os

1,477 46,155 403 =;

2

A

8.828 31.0

5.012 3.310 ie

30 and over

an 50.1

ad 26.7

70.728

20.528

‘i

total ('000)

a4

H

H4.5 x H3.1

es H 0.8

nD 66.1

rr 21,404

F

14

F 3.0

F0.9

57.5

26

97

F 6.0

F25

13.2

R

68.012 69.510 ae

27.012 27,210 “a

H 2,200 A! 20;899.6 H 33

H47

|H17

H4.0 H 8.3 ih

H

136

sd 16.5 29.9

H H

ee 1,244 34,827

H44 H23

me H1.1 H0.3

8.2 te 6.2 | 0.9 8.41 141

M3 58.3 44.6

& 40.8 54.3

aed 14.6 2.7

H

2355

# 66.6 59.6

H49

ia 18.8 37.7

H Hi F

H 2.2

nt

=

8.) -H3!2"4),H'0.7 92,990 SP H'3i3" "| 1H'0:7 30 F 18 9) 5F 0:5

ay

es

4.7 | 0.64 10.6 3.0 5.4 | 15.9 6.8 ak ee

ee

56.84

42.64

55.5 55.7 ot

41.5 28.4 if

8.84 9.2 41.5 vid

im

ate

a

cs

27.9

&

ied

ee

on

59.3 38.0 we

31.5 20.5 a

561

H 31 H * 1,614 H 21 H 1,064

H 4.0 H 5.4 H 2.6 H4.7

1 al) H 5.4 H 0.5

67.8 34.8 80.2 m

ea i 36

-. | Guam .. | Guatemala ... | Guernsey Guinea

H H

124 150

H44 H511

H2.8 H24

ilk

a

.. | Guinea-Bissau Guyana

H

1,147

a

Py

58.5

13.6

H44

H

4638

H 1.8

H5.7

|H28

es

a

30.512

H

1,582

H3.4

H 0.7

94.5

17,600

57:5. 64.4 Et

15.2 33.3 ac

F H H

3,058 85 97,093

F29 H29 H5.5

H 39,695 H.) 9,759.0

H45 H51

F 0.8 H1.3 H 2.4

81.5 43.6 me

89,931 658 596,345

70.7 | Hungary 14.5 | Iceland 2.4 | India

H89 1,873 H39 726 ees ct Fh. P5355. 1 TH? F 19,766 F2.8

H 4.1 H 1.3 : H14 F0.5

ee 82.0 73.5 98.5 93.7

Si a ce 15,800 165,456

« «. «. 14.9 29.8

| | | | |

traq Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy

a 17.029 a 5.9

H F H H

654 22,240 29° 375

H4.2 F5.4 -H2.6 H69

H F H H

1.4 1.2 0.4 3.4

14.9 99.0 88.1 iA

i 436,299 313 oo

.. 35.7 29.2 ..

| | | |

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan

58.2

15.8

H

3824

H40

|H14

88.0

358,124

93.7 | Kazakhstan

HH. H

1,988 a).

H6.2 | .H2.7 RA 2;5 OWAIG.6*

Re an 31.2

re 89.5 57.3

a 78 11.5

H H H

4,054 11,355 246

H48 | H1.7 H 1.0 H3.8 H 1.6 H74

oe 99.5 ae

Rs me

29.8 a“ 22.712 “ds

59.5 as 51.812 ee

10.7 a 25.512 A

H H H

856 « 732 405

H4.2 H60 °°H3.1 H53

H1.9 : H0.8 H 2.2

87.0 3 81.6 os

87,212 aa 45,149 AG

330

H48 | H2.0

143,518 16,109 417 30,683 312,585

8.1 46 6.0 6.5 5.4

ie 1.112 0.7 3.4 1.013

ane 72.212 55.9 74.0 69.913

te 26.712 43.4 22.6 29,113

exe 3.712 46 22.5 10.013

tie 80.612 61.6 66.8 75.713

wae 15.712 33.8 10.7 14.313

H H

13,254 722,138 as 32,706

5.3 5.8 eee 8.2

ses 1.229 bee 46

eis 61.829 sv 74.3

aw 37.029 ta 21.1

cre 3.429 re 39.5

es 79.629 es 54.6

76.0

20.2

26.0

ne ThA 69.5

# 22.6 27.3

82.4 we 63.512 we

15.4 a 30.012 oy

3.312 27.3 2.3 aa

H ite 202 36,310

ite 6.8 9.8

Ae — 74

Liv 54.5 70.0

hd 44.5 22.6

Sd 0.0 24.2

st 66.3 56.5

ad 29.2 19.3

H FA H H

2,512

64

1.0

55.2

43.8

3.9

64.9

31.2

H

5.8

0.3

41.7

58.0

2.6

67.1

30.3

H

79.012 ae

16.812 ”

7.5 | 4.212 ee &

|27.512 bed

64,312 i

8.212 oat

H H H H

des

aie

6.8 is 4.2

tvs

ie

11,252 ies

10.6 2

Ps

aye

25 mee 0.113

73.1 ve 46.813

6s

an

vl

H..©

9.9 at 3.313

76.9 5 61.513

13.2 ee 35.213

H H H

=

|H1.8 H 2.2

145

H28

|HO5

87.3

Be

... | Luxembourg

99

H3.5

H0.9

99.3

ae

-. | Macau

H 4.420) H4.7 SSH'43 H49

H 1.320 |H2.0

H61

H 2.7

43520 1,709 we 3,580

i

aa

.. | Maldives

ns

mi

tes

.. | Mali

76 SRO 107

H36 Hi8:7 H3.3

H 1,2 ae H 0.8

98.2 Bes 34.1

H5.0

er

23.

Ps

H

246

60.3 has

18.0 A

F H

155 “© F633 F120 19 H49 | H23

7.6 | 16.9 hits fie

64.7 a

18.4 ve

36.4 29

52.4 A

Wave: ie

A a7, 152 H 11.

eerie =H7.0

39,928

9.4

3.9

76.3

19.8

31.6

52.5

15.9.

H

1,144

H3.4

si 16,100

75 7.8

i

ih

iw

ie

a 93,638

i

re a 62 | 04

H

ft 53.0

sas 46.6

a8 21

‘ 65.6

a 32:3

14enhi2.2). F48 428

2,819

H58

H

1

H 5.2 H 4.8 H 8.0

Hi H

92:345 6185

F

Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia

tas

1,364 9 H'5.6

21,7 id

om: ine

Lesotho «. | Liberia .. | Libya Liechtenstein ae 47.3 | Lithuania

Re oe a 26,598

ts

H F

66.3 | Kyrgyzstan «. | Laos Latvia 119.1 «. | Lebanon

a oH 85.3 93.3

38.3 iS

w

Kenya Kiribati «. | Korea, North .. | Korea, South Kuwait

of F29 H 0.7 H 0.8

as

fa

.. | Indonesia Iran

H5.0 F5.4 H3.0 H3.2

60.2 LA

B

me

Haiti

... | Honduras 25.2 | Hong Kong

474 383 8 1,000

1.5 ei

667,598 ae

me

aif 23.8 we 53.113

.. | Grenada

8.7 | Guadeloupe

66.212

79 8.5

Za a 6.512 We

.. | Ghana

.. | Gibraltar 0.2 | Greece 80.7 | Greenland

39.3

1,210,570 458,708

9.7 oy 8.4 if

75.6 | Georgia 16.9 | Germany

|H2.2

22.4 46.3 if

41,790 a0 22,337 af

ee

tas 180 962

Gabon Gambia, The .. | Gaza Strip

| HOS

72.4 53.5 cae

am 0.3 3.2

on

97.1 96.1 28.0

... | French Polynesia

H3.7

6.4 47 ee

9.3 7.3 5.4

me 68,883 149,196

#5

Pf

H34

66,000 1,241 2

oa 05.2

a 82.3 84.9

41.5

Font

18.7 | Finland 21.2 | France 16.8 | French Guiana

24

48.812

ee 352!

a

12,232 161,646 388

112

21-2

188,007 309,872 11,051

82.7

72.6 68.1 20.3

.. | Ethiopia27

3.3 | Faeroe Islands

H

50.612

10.0 | 3.8

ve

H

65.1

5.2 0.2 hi

Be

Equatorial Guinea «. | Eritrea27 95.9 | Estonia

3828.74

79

0.612

;

67.54

49 | 7.7

2,476 ie 1,555

©*H23 | /H'0.4 H27 9)/Hi1:0 H3.4 |'H1.2

sp 55.7 65.8

19,875.

2,148

es

eo 27.8 46

45,702

15,973 pe

H45

we 28.1 43.3

ae

165,380

.

we 66.2 55.9

=

100 live births

i 427

55.8

Ae

ratio per

under _ legitiage 15 mate

& 5.7 0.8

ae 7.0 6.2

induced abortion Ss

number percent | number

size

40

Ete

1,880

:

Ree 23.2

20-29

4.9 | 11.328,29 75.828,29 12,928, 29] 44,528,29 52.528,29 6,928,29] H

as

229.) 65,568 451

Br

19 and under

children

(households)

1,000

Bs

1989-9032) 1989

(latest

groom (percent)

popu19 and lation | under

ao

miescountry

1,860

7% io 1,753

.. | Malta .. | Marshall Islands 30.6 | Martinique

Mauritania

Re

a

=

72.8 89.2

es oo

.. | Mauritius «- | Mayotte

H 2.0 re

72.5 ee

ae

i

Hi

89.6

90,860

| H)0:3 ais

96.8 -e

ti

73.1

me

|H25

F4.4 | F20

8

H 2.6

ae

Hes |i 2s |HO04 H24

oe 87.5

*

2g

fe 18,384

Mexico ; Micronesia

110.5 | Moldova

.. | Monaco Mongolia

.. | Morocco

.. | Mozambique Myanmar (Burma) Namibia .. | Nauru

.. | Nepal 9.3 | Netherlands, The

789

790

Britannica World Data SSS

Vital statistics, marriage, family

birth rate per

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria

Northern Mariana Islands Norway Oman

death rate per

1,000 popu-

1,000 popu-

lation

lation

1991 . 1994 1992 1993 1990-95

1993 1991

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico

1992 1992 1993

f

Qatar Réunion

1992 1992

ul ;

Romania

1993

Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia

1992 1990-95 1991 1992

St. Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino

1991 1989-93

Sao Tomé and Principe

1993

Saudi Arabia Senegal

1992 1994

9

as

135.7 488.5 5

70.2 101.9 of

9.4 30.0 oe

145.1 59.7 Po

1990

20.0

57.8

11.06

1,926

111.4

18.9

7.4

51.0

ee 56 85 179.8

ree 61 73 30.2

ee 23 19 13.4

me 17 11 Pe

rn 201 115 100.6

Ei 53 100 A

oa 21 36 ts

bel 49 67 16.8

200.0 190.2 120.0

16.7 37.6 93.0

8.0 8.9 15.3

537.3 448.6 238.4

34.6 68.4 72.0

32.5 49.2 42.3

78.2 66.9 70.2

7.315 24.916

2.6 18.139

59.9 185.0

7.5 43.0

3.4 46.1

36.0 66.3

12.4

163.4

1B%

8.2

707.7

94.0

57.9

74.3

i

1991 ai 1985 1990

12.1 2 50.0 27.8

197.3 # 95.5 48.3

8.0 La 20.56 25.8

7.6 WG 11.4 6.6

625.8 2 443.2 209.5

56.1 as 81.8 33.7

29.3 tf 25.0 28.4

143.5 ~7 29.5 36.4

12.2 &

189.4 324.5

30.0 16.3

15.9 9.4

42.2 42.9

143.5

86.5

15.2

14.3

a

2

f

a

1991 1989-9335

20.6 hee,

107.8 216.4

49.7 2.66

‘

:

2

1987

240.7

19.6

5.36

on

ad

Z

5 ?

i i :

; ‘

116.9 a 123.5 200.019 248.7

10.6 Bak 9.5 19.0 33.6

F ( : h

i 1988 1990 1986

kis 68.3 10.0 32.2

he 70.2 197.2 27.7

= 24.816 31.5 9.0

4 69.6 83.0 36.1

rz 17.0 48.4 15.5

rr 110.6 48.4 77.8

os

at

ba

179 cay 567.4

Nad

1992

34 83.5

16.7

25 aa 35.0

240.8

69 sex 58.4

24.616

17.7

391.8

62.5

27.5

75.1

:

198121 1992 1989

22 a 81.2

12 101.5 51.9

if 23,76 6.9

13 = 8.9

86 140.13 197.5

19 24.341 138.8

8 18.242 23.0

27 63.742 48.4

;

F

1991

: ; y i

j

ae

;

a

5 1 i

, ; 5 4

; {

K 4 ‘ tl

i

1990-95

ey 16.3 22.5 ne 23

°&

ast

a

162.0

.£

*

250.0

a

55.0

it

73.0

104.0

ns 15.2 83.36 sme 96

rs 6.1 2.426 ahs 326

ty 158.5 260.0 ae 358

a 31.5 31.1 s 29

= 18.3 13.7 Pe 12

cal 44 51.4 st 28

9.1

275.3

120.0 es 7.4 oh

160.6

150.0 oe 671.0 se

32.2

120.0 it 60.5 a

62.4

170.0 ka 31.3 se

; ia 107.7 it

oat 54.9 83.4 i 79

=

1989

79.3

65.1

40.0 i 11.6 wa

8.0

70.0 < 196.3 2

20.0 ce 6.716 Bs

; :

1992 1993 1990 1989 198544

5.1 27.543 16.0 44.5 69.3

280.8 206.0 222.8 55.9 22.9

19.5 21,36 25.5 6.5 16.2

21.8 0.326 16.2 91 11,8

501.0 364.7 378.4 251.3 37.6

120.4 70,131 76.3 119.3 60.5

36.7 15.2 39.1 24.7 12.5

34.2 54.9 61.7 60.1 23.6

1989 1979 1989 vib

30.0 48.0 10.8 ty

51.4 54.0 78.9 adh

18.6 me 36.55 =,

7.4 bis —

115.0 123.8 232.7 RT

29.0 ef 14.831 am

18.8 if 12.8 r

61.4 tf 56.2

ae 1991

ef 9.3

af 155.819

. 21.6

ats 8.2

ec 528.3

oh

ue 47.5

te

tf 26.6

ok

: 57.0

sh

y 5

ai

1990-95

«iy

7.

1990-95

5Septicemia only.

mit

1985 as 1990 As

; f :

i

ois

3

4 :

: : E

i 1992 1991 fe 199042

a

th

5 ‘ ; 4

1994

1Excludes nomadic tribes. 21991. 31993. 41986. pneumonia, and influenza only. 1991-92 average.

ie 133.9 348.0 101.9

10 ee 13.0

i i

; ;

67.0 cal 19.2 76.0 91.4

ak

:

1994

1991 1992 1992

40.5 Md 12.0 52.0 36.6

42 oe 22.2

; ; :

! ;

77.1 s 86.6 77.0 39.1

os

1990-95 1993 1994

1992 1994 1988 1994

263.5 ad 183.9 521.0 425.6

57 se 237.5

f

1992 1993 1991 1994 1994

ae

a

i

United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu

ab 10.7 11.9 45.3

=

35 = 7.3

;

1991 1990-95 1994 1990-95

7.9 a 4.3 8.0 1.026

42.9 na 11.6 4.0 6.2

i

Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates

a

1985-8935 ae 1992 1992 1992

bis

2.726

a

i i ; j A

i

E é 5

1992 1994

¥4

1992

21.419 90.3

5 :

: : : i

%

3.4 11.0

:

:

a

41.6 Fe 53.4 93 if

1992 1989

E

ri s

vA

21.1 fe 24.1 34 Re

7.0) 5 16.8

;

5 :

41.0 m3 78.0 73 A

14.0 19.1 oe

A 198838 198934 1984

10.8 of 13.9 13 as

205.4 a 345.0 142 tt

23.4 17.6 as

=

31.9 wae 17.9 18 ed

system

70.219 229.6 os

am

150.6 ing 201.2 56 i

system

accidents, poisoning, and violence

18.7 6.3 eae

I

1994

7 oe 4.6 100 iy

diseases diseases of the of the respiradigestive tory system

1992 1992 1991

:

i

metabolic disorders

diseases of the circulatory

1987 1991 te

; ; i }

: : é

H :

neoplasms

diseases of the nervous _ system

2; ;

i

Turkmenistan

Zambia

H

endocrine and 7

198736 me 1991 199134 -

;

1994 1993 1992

Zimbabwe

, i

malignant

ss i i i

1992

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey

Zaire

i

infectious and parasitic diseases

(cancers)

198741 mee 1990

1993

Western Samoa

:

year

: : I

Thailand

Yemen Yugoslavia

1,000 population

1993

Switzerland

Western Sahara

live

F a

1993 1990-95 1994 1991 1991

1990-95 1990-95 1992

Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.) West Bank

: i

1993 1990-95 1993 1993 1991

Suriname Swaziland Sweden

Tanzania

increase per

total fertility rate

Bs

1993 1991 1990-95 1994

Syria Taiwan Tajikistan

rate of natural

births

h

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines

Sudan, The

Ss.

1990-95

Panama

Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka

infant mortality rate per 1,000

: H ; '

1987 1992 1992

Pakistan

Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia

SS

(continued)

Diabetes mellitus only.

7Cerebrovascular disease and heart disease only.

+

=

8Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases

‘0Under 21 years of age. 1121-29 years of age. 121989. 131988. 141992. 151990. 16Includes nutritional disorders. 171990-95. 18Accidents only. 19%Includes benign neoplasms. 201981. 211994. 22Rates based on about 75 percent of total deaths. 23Results based on a sample population of about 100,000. 24Millions of households. 251985. 26Meningitis only. 27Ethiopia includes Eritrea. 281987. 29First marriages only. 30Former West Germany only. 31Bronchitis, pneumonia, and influenza. 32Muslims only.

oa

Comparative National Statistics

expectation of life at birth (latest year) male

female

Nuptiality, family, and family

plannin a

y

a age at marriage (latest)

total rate groom (percent) number _ per 1,000 popu- | 19and 20-29 lation | under 1,220 729 22,733 13,122 re

4 ‘ r R Ry

Pa ,

685 19,266

R

Et

Ri

g

10,528 te

Be

!

17,741

:

109,200 395,933

;

x i

233,206 71,654 21,498 1,578 3,831 183,388 1,277,282 14,313

>

19and under

20-29

Eha 10.2 Keay 48,210.25

as 61.9 27.9 66.0 28.5 —51.8 25,37

30 and | over

total (000)

41 wie 1,178 i

ad

ae

5

ee

1,130

PS

50.2

ee

47.3

Ee

OY

-

70.4

14,441

56.215

23.9

43.115

3.715

a

68.915

at

27.415

a

a

BD

H37 JAC H29 OHE.S H64

Nigeria op

Free

350 may)

H3, tp hts\s

34.1 24.0

46.5

25.9 21.9

19.5

, om

60.4 69.6

34.0

: i

i, f

31.8

524 674

51.4 63.9

H

22.6 14.2

868

H F

Fi

3,099 9,566

x

} é

f . f 3 -

s ‘ i re :

76.6 fO.2 70.0 717 65.2

19.0 20.6 13.3 23.5 33.6

21.8 19.0 33.1 34.0 12.5

65.0 67.3 57.8 56.9 66.8

13.2

F H Ee H H

9,435 2,954 005) 61 15800

il ; z K

a r

i . a

CoN 65.6 =e

19.1 ines an

30.2 od eB

57.9 45.6 is

444 169

if :

it

st

8

st

5

34.412

64.812

41.64 75.1

57.94 24.3

ss

ale

—

3.512 6.44 5.3

a

=p

.. | Northern Mariana Islands

15,528

H H

Tilt Ome H 40,426 H 1,509

Netherlands Antilles .. | New Caledonia 17.6 | New Zealand «. | Nicaragua

H5, area

1,983

28.612] -

:

ratio per 100 live births

Niger

55.812 as

nr

number

ve 10,200 %

41.412 | 15.612 BS et

r

induced abortions

number percent under __ legitiage 15 mate

size

7

55.012 Rs

children

64.4

436

&.

30 and over

families (households)

ke:

nm

Sai

families (F), households (H) (latest) bride (percent)

Et af 54.5 45.0 58.7 40.1 — 81,925, 37 —

ny

_

=

f

Norway

«» | Oman Pakistan

ae ey

.. | Panama .«. | Papua New Guinea

wei

.. | Paraguay

if sz

.. | Peru .. | Philippines

30,878 cf R. ca 4,302

ioe H3.2 H47

5

i3

866,934 4,242,028 =

is .. .. .. 31.7

| | | |

45,112

H

12>

H

H.3:7

25

H46

St. Lucia

59.54 85.3

H H

27 9...

3.9 Hi 2g,

St. Vincent and the Grenadines San Marino

ast

4

622 a 25,784 40,435 9,119

ae

211,228 141,533

. f

St. Kitts and Nevis

ee.

H

1,167

H48

Sao Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia

H H H H H

13. 749 510

H48 H47 H3.9 H 3.0 H34

F

Al

HH

10,665 2,724

2 i

H

3,471

h

H

122

Senegal

9 Ps 17,798 56,176 et

on

=

tas

39,805 45,080

101,946

H

3,670

H

2,859

F | A150

143,886 47,616

wa

I

Br we we

.. | Spain .. | Sri Lanka

ee

a

an

.. | Sudan, The

es

aa

a

.. | Suriname

1,145

.. | Swaziland

x

34,849

0.4

5,093 799

H6.1

H 2.7

er

.. | Taiwan

Syria

H4.0 | H1.0

54,494

3,435

H5.1

H23

H

10,418

H53

H 1.9

aaa 806 7,009 64,694

H F H H

479 15 301 1,703"

H5.6 JF Git H441 H5A

= Bier, H1.3 H1.9

FATS)

PF SiO.

H 1.7

as

34,890 3 24 489,330 =

H H H H H

598 1 2,766 14,507 247

H56 | H24 H64 |H22 H4.8 = H3.2 |HO8 H68

39,068 iH ae 1,019,038 Fs

375,410

H

21,672

H2.7

HAT

"54,754 200,681 at

Hy

H H

3,415

863 28

H33 H'5;5 H51

|HO9 H2.4 |H22

107,136

Ho H

2.707" 12,95845

5s H 4.845)

H 2.2 H 1.9

1,906 :

H

32

“o

a5 9 23,300

178,416

1,354,000

e _

226,276

ca




=

14

2118 %

12

‘9

54

BPce =

eh 6

8

71

6

p=

4

12

03

= ea

931

90

768

Comparative National Statistics

consumption (analyzed in greater detail in the “Household budgets consumption” table), government spending, and gross domestic investmenand t.

The fourth, nondomestic, component

of GDP

Average annual growth rate of real GDP. These columns show average

annual growth rates of real product for the decade from 1975 to 1985, as well as for the seven years from 1985 to 1992. Real GDP growth rates indicate the change in total output achieved by each country during the

expenditure is net foreign

trade; values are given for both exports (a positive value) and imports (a negative value, representing obligations to other countries). The sum of these five percentages, excluding statistical discrepancies and rounding, should be 100% of the GDP. The structure of GDP as accounted by cost components here comprises

periods indicated excluding inflation. Balance of payments

trade of goods and merchandise but also such invisible items as services, interest and dividends, short- and long-term investments, tourism, transfers

net operating surplus (“profits,” interests, rent, etc.). The distribution of GDP for ten industrial sectors is aggregated into three major industrial groups: 1. The primary sector, composed of agriculture (including forestry and fishing) and mineral production (including fossil fuels). 2. The secondary sector, composed of manufacturing, construction, and public utilities. 3. The tertiary sector, which includes transportation and communications, trade (wholesale and retail), financial services (including banking, real estate, insurance, and business services), other (community,

to or from overseas residents, etc. Each transaction gives rise either to a foreign claim for payment, recorded as a deficit (e.g., from imports, capital outflows), or a foreign obligation to pay, recorded as a surplus (e.g., from exports, capital inflows) or a domestic

payments of one country and a surplus in that of another. Values are given

in U.S. dollars for comparability. Tourist trade. Net income or expenditure from tourism (in U.S. dollars for comparability) is often a significant element in a country’s balance of payments. Receipts from foreign nationals reflect payments for goods and services from foreign currency resources by tourists in the given country. Expenditures by nationals abroad are also payments for goods and

522 362,5 52

3 3 172.6

:

manufacturing 262.3 422,35 162

=

conpublic | transp., trade —struc-_utilcommunications tion ities 72 62 162

6

42 32,5 52

Rte

g2 42,5 132

financial Svcs.

services, but in this case made by the residents of the given country as

tourists abroad.

avg. annual growth rate of real GDP (%)

secondary other sves.

——.

government

22 —___ 82,5 282

1975—

1985-

1985

1992

9,34 0.44 0.74

ne 6.1

se

°

balance of payments, 1993 (current external transactions; ’000,000 U.S.$)

tourist trade, 1992 (000,000 U.S.$)

net transfers

recehne

eeeng

rom foreign nationals

ures by nationals abroad

aoe

goods, merchandise

invisibles

—3711 —1792 2,560

2281 Ss —3,570

oh

— 542

alance of Payments

12 es 75

a

58

42 7 Ss *

22 2 3

3

2

_—

2

6

1

—18——

32 24

112 5 155

42 2

182 5 36

262 16 55

222 15

——182—— 25 —— 35

3.5

3

2.4

3.04

2,0807

45 —0.0

6.0 2.6 0.55 0 12.011

— 2069 — 2,455

6.75

oe

ts-

3

5

15

8

4

8

14

23

19

4

3.0

2.6

3

12

2612

7

3

6

16

17

4

14

2.4

2.8

3

373,5

85

3

35

45

2

—7.05

32

242

62

22

52

152

152

6

2

12

11

17

1 3 3 3

12 7 45 8

8 26 75 21

e 13

415 g2

1

19

17

= 255 2

—_— 1 3 _—

; 463.5 21

6 5 105 6

79

«29

aie

&cs

Seea4

&:

+é

ao.

vas

8

i

i

8

4

3

1

9

13

581,12,16

71,16

41,16

61, 16

141,16

7

4

5

4

1

4

209

19

159

149

189

65

111,16

“ 14

2

Pr

—

o5

3

39

8

3

Ne

15

3

433

5

3

8

8

19

159

69

19

49

159

49

16

12

4

6

3

9

ey

A,

ae

ae

e

a

12,6

222 ae 3:

P a

i

A

a,

8

409

Bs

141

281

Le ee

“3

fea

ze i ei an

62 iS a 23,9

0

os

oe

1 es

11 49

112

6

fe

252

69

5

3

9

9 ot

269

a 19,17

B22 99,17

722 119,17

91.20 giz]

g1.m

201.20ad

So 617

;

S

5

;

; :

: =

to % Se

S 8

. 199

; 39

61

61

;

31,16

5

24

2

19

1419

10

7

—24—

29

——229——

21———_— —

2—

1 ooo

“

—21— 239 169

a

101 79

12

er

50

3,992

3,994

Australia

8,700

14,832

8,371

Austria |

es

ee

a

Azerbaijan

— 8419

7149

1,244

187

Bahamas, The

47

2.34

—3139

—6809

Ag?

141

Bahrain

45 2.3 5.25 1.7

4.0 1.214 0.35 3.0

— 1,283 —3079 es 215915

1,480 4449 ve 5.1949,

8 463 ad 4,053

111 41 ie 6,603

2.3

8.1

-119

108

70

14

Belize

0.84

— 1839

1549

32

12

1.8 :

1.14

— ‘4812

4472

444

134

Ana

321

411

3

EG

0.1

2.5

—4329

—1019

105

68

Bolivia

3.617

0.313, 17

sad

Bosnia

45

nee

1472

= 112

15,5259

-'9,2509

9.814

3.8

1.5

3.0

0.914

oe

é,

ae

849

797

1,307

iy

321

407

1,332

Benin

Bermuda aa ste

; and Herzegovina

\ Botswana

Brazil

i

Brunei.

Bulgaria

= 0:6)

1.34

—3819

ce

49

23

41

3.6

— 3629

2639

9

36

Burkina Faso

5.3

3.4

ot

489

4

21

Pa

oe

oo

a

5.54

142 29

1.74 4.04 7.4

a

18

ay

4827

5,679

— 1699

1659

zd

os

—429 —1007 7489

=158 207 =—1,3319

— 5839

92 21 706

412 30 459

Central African Republic Chad Chile China

11,265

9.521

8.5

5,1839

1,2189

6,4019

3,948

812

28

3.8

44

1,2339

—3219

9129

705

641

- 297

207

als

4.2

14 1322

E004

27 if 2.817

46 een sie —1,74,17

6509

—9589

—4989 9949 ra

1279 —2,4189 a

5.75 Bi =—1.45,13 «6.3

—8179 20879

a —_‘1,8469

a6

07

—1,8349,25

1,8039:

3.24

=2.1

1.4

2.24

3

a Ms ‘ Me

10

a2 43

ae 26

59

20 359

8 109

10 79

8.0 —0.4

5:3 2D

14

14

arneroan

7047 —29,460

169

301

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium

8.3

f aes 3.5

6

Angola Antigua and Barbuda ene rmenia Aruba

~=10,686

44

5

6 89

oe

443

7 187 2,211

=157

232

1,23, 24 11a

OR

Re 3189

American Samoa

=7,825

3817 9,859

——922—_ 89,17

20

132 394 3,090

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

2.613

26

"

341

ce

—3.84 1.9

6

10

bc 1979 Oils

|

Andorra

see

—3749

9.0 3.4

189 DE

‘%

:

country

4.5

22

i

131

f

: 29

ti

—12—

12

11

20

9

;

is

69

i

99

12— 8 i——=

= 272 19 ——-

ea9

ne

e

122

3

7

i

251 429

69

9

oo

61 99

12 7

6 be 493,9,17

ooo

42 3

6

eo

4x20 |go1z a

a

1

79

cs

13

319

5 22 3 16 75———_ 13 12

109

14

719

20

5

—

-

——202——

12 er 163

107

—1,1512

10

claim on another country. Any

international transaction automatically creates a deficit in the balance of

social, and personal) services, and government services. Percentages in this section of the table may not add to 100 because the value of each economic sector is calculated as a percentage of the total GDP, which may contain adjustments such as import duties and bank service charges that are not distributed by sector.

agrimining culture

(external account transactions). The external ac-

count records the sum (net) of all economic transactions of a current nature between one country and the rest of the world. The account shows a country’s net of overseas receipts and obligations, including not only the

four general categories: indirect taxes (excise or value-added taxes), net of subsidies; consumption of fixed capital (depreciation); and two income categories: (a) compensation of employees (salaries, wages, etc.) and (b)

origin of gross domestic product (GDP) by economic sector, 1991 (%)

793

7848

— 4339

—439

—2,501

ay

189

= 97

—3089

—3719 1,4249 ane

8

6 431 53 a

ris

382

—319,

1,28025

-2419 | 41,539 5,347 at

—259

-4,6129 6449

1,2199 —1,1119

—3939 ~4679

=5,5019 —7069

8,3139 4939

2,8129 — 2139

3,784

62

25

1,054 192

2,730 49

6

83 223 228 a

Pe

Canada

Cape Verde

.

Colombia Comoros

Congo _

Costa Rica Cote d'ivoire Croatia Cuba

132 | Cyprus 67025

3,779

6

115 178

se 57

;

Czech Republic

Denmark

Djibouti

Dominica

k

Dominican Republic | Ecuador Egyet . alvador

794

Britannica World Data

National product and accounts country

(continueq) gross domestic product (GDP), by type of expenditure, 1991 (%)

cost components of gross domestic product (GDP), 1991 (%)

average annual growth rates, 1985-92

consumption

gross domestic invest-

real

popu-

real GNP

private

ment

indirect | consumptaxes tion of net of fixed subsidies capital

GNP

lation

per capita

gross national product (GNP) nominal, 1992 ((000,000

es

ey

uss)

U.S.$)

(%)

Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Ethiopia Faeroe Islands

146 400 4,297 6,206 63527

(%)

(%)

330 110 2,750 110 13,50027

govern-

exports _ imports

12

gis 1218

1,510 116,309 1,278,652 8911.27 3,0072,27

2,010 22,980 22,300 8,0201,27 15,2602, 27

Aaa

Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip Georgia Germany

5,341 367 8407 4,659 1,846,064

4,450 390 1,2707 850 23,030

7,066 4317 75,106 9872 210

450 15,0807 7,180 17,7802 2,310

Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey31 Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong

Hungary Iceland

India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel

2,0241,27 2,0007 9,586 1,531 3,103

5,7901,27 14,0007 980 26,000

217 268 2,479 3,142 89,274

330 370 580 15,380

30,671 6,177 271,638 122,825 130,910

3,010 23,670 310 670 2,190

Italy

35,0001 42,798 49030 67,658 1,186,568

1,9401 12,100 7,57030 13,230 20,510

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan

3,216 3,507,841 2,8847 4,406 28,584

1,340 28,220 34,2007 1,120 1,680

8,453 52 22,000 296,349 15,300

330 700 990 6,790 10,680

Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macau Macedonia Madagascar

Malawi Malaysia

Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

Moldova Monaco Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

3,667 1,104 5,080 4,8007 1,090

810 250 1,930 1,4007 590

9841 26,100 9787 4,922 13,716

3901 5,350 33,5107 1,310 35,260

5,05627

2,809

1,896 51,917

2.5 -5.1 =0.9 3.6 6.5

al 0.3 2.0 3.1 0.9

re. Ad, 5.4 6.5

-0.6 1.2 aud 1.8 3.7

4.9 Es

3.3 =071 1.4

es 0.6 9.9 0.8

71

411

37 268, 18 411

17

58

14

13

13

52

22

181 182

141 102

1

13

55

at

14

9

39

39

8

1330

8

62 1218

22

1130 132 102 112

ba 5.0

44

7630

7130

488, 30

158, 30

Gp ace

868 ——— 8930 ———— 57= 22 —— 882-—_ 72 432 392

52

8

13 18 11 7 22

8 11 10 s 152

11

351 341 a= 7222

452.8

59 20 52 19 —— 79——_ —— 88 3992 281

621

10

10

51

29

17

14

48

21

9

12

45

34

441

331

151

x

91

502

81

15

56

22

1618

'g18

4218

3518

14 1210

8 41210

35 5210

518 2510

14

10

47

32

=

161

501

341

43 > G42

47

a

7 192 418

15

gi8

4 ats

11

3418

5818

G18

65

10

13,39027

230

210 2,790

114 2,730 2,606 777,27 2,8351.27

500 300 7,240 1,5807,27 7,9701,.27

1,109 2,965 1347.27 294,831 1571

530 2,700 1,4307, 27 3,470 1,560!

5,485 4757 2,1007, 27 27,210 1,034

1,260 16,0007 9007, 27 1,040 60

28,00027 2,502 901 3,285 312,340

ns 3.2 2.9 1.2 2.8

6

meh ee Sins! 8 6218

12

630

“9 3.5 111 3.6

net operating surplus

ment

Fiji Finland France French Guiana French Polynesia

Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada

compensation of employees

66027 1,610 10,0001 170 20,590

1318 101 142

B18 122 4 4230 1318

8718 ———-90! —_—__+ 862

eC 52 4 8

432 70 6830

402 22 208, 30

——— a 87718

16

8

40

448

10

10

26

55

20

222

392

402,20

1518 618

4 131

72

515 9418

5 41

43 441

See g2

48 381

Comparative National Statistics

origin of gross domestic product (GDP) by economic sector, 1991 (%)

5 ers agrimining culture

manu- — con- public facturstruc- utiling tion _ ities

transp., communications

trade

financial Svcs.

ane 8

other sves.

102 1122

42

199

BAY

1

20

7

4

23

G61

12

24 na 89

7 53 ,

139

192

aa

we

—

oa

tourist trade, 1992 (000,000 U.S.$)

: ap :oe

net transfers

receipts from foreign nationals

goods, merchandise

invisibles

current balance of payments

14 ae 6

i

16

r28 536 3 oe 5 199

44 2,403

25,000

Finland

13,910

France

5

143

159 373.5 10

i

62

42

61 if 6 4 5

11 8

82

ie

41 = 9 29

383

ih

13 34

4 6

12

71

5 9

31 49

21

61 24

22

17

Ghana

82

a

Gibraltar

a 57

Greenland Grenada

we 58930 103 x

us 31

re

Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey31

Guinea

Guinea-Bissau Guyana

1287

—107

46

337

Haiti

— 1249

— 2649 at

32 6,037

38 re

Honduras Hong Kong

—4,262

1,251

661

Hungary

—2109 -—6,8262

129 1,415

288 4252

Iceland India

6 i

—9,7009 —1,3497

—3,6799 —7,9097

2,729 577

1,166 7347

Indonesia Iran

82 52 2

oe —4,1759 e

oe 2,6299 oe

552 1,620 3610

ea 1,361 5

Iraq Ireland Isle of Man

8

4,234

=1,373

1,876

1,674

6

—31,082

— 27,994

21,577

16,617

Italy

64 26,837

Jamaica Japan

—49

5219 —10,100

1179 131,470

858 3,588

os —1,7809 —1,6709

ts 1,0159 —4109

oat — 7659 —2,0809

462 if

350 sa

—5919

4939

—989

442

29

—1289 —2,1469 859

a —2,3839 7889

on —4,5299 8739

aa 3,272

ee 3,794

Korea, North Korea, South

273

1,705

Kuwait

1.514 ade 3.426

ES —6.9

Israel

—4049 141,570

— 1630

2230

630

5262

2

i

27

Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya

Kiribati

sa

pees:

6797

aos Latvia

=

— 3,854

=9.4

-—22.513

47

6.614

— 8239

1.24 1.24 ie

6318 3,7802 5747

4.226 24

1.214 78

3059 15

or 3.117 0.2 3.1

7.9 4.013, Ai 24

—2019 ei —1389 4430

2,234 1 39 137

6.8

7.3

3,409

1,768

15.5

9.2

—1119

113

22

Maldives

1.8

46

— 1459

45

68

Mali

6.5 iL 3.9

5.9 We 4.029

— 5992 re —1,5089

568 4 282

138

2.0 4.2

3.04 6.9

— 187 —96

152 299

312 142

ia

is

a

ne

Pt

0.0 =: if

2.526

62

me

17 232,12

5 132

3.9 -4.0

21

269 1,579 243 146 22

Greece

—241

342.3

6

1,186

—2129 — 7162

Ae

8 62

Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip Georgia Germany

8

44

383.5

me

French Guiana French Polynesia

8 7

&

21

131

ens

2

Fiji

167 3,268

i

59 145

aS 34 149

ey

56 13 618 1018 J mS 10,982 37,309

109

Ethiopia Faeroe Islands

223 a 170

12

77

Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia

1,315

a 38

oa

is 2

23

21

country

expenditure: oltete abroad

x 4

72 132 zee 28 eee G Ae

15

Att 206

balance of payments, 1993 (current external transactions; ’000,000 U.S.$)

government

13 oh 4

ae 2

avg. annual growth rate of real GDP (%)

Bio!

1.9 at

— 20,6779

ae

a

Lebanon

19

11

Lesotho

610 6

— 22,8119

re

—807

~1117

AS

3.4 2.2

—2,7369 —6599

—4279 —3819

1,360 a6

a

aN

— 17630 1429 ms

49

—3769

—1819

2.9

10,9569

6,7509

a

ek

i

—359 bas

— 20530 1109

1,740

6,108

a

Ore 3,532

57 os 37 32

5,996

= 373, oh

137 91 ee

110 5,004

Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg

ak 2902

—3.6 ae

4.137

a 154 -

af 242 ec

17 81 a

52 9,330

Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi

Malaysia

Malta * Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania eae

ayotte

Mexico _ Micronesia

pee. lonaco

Mongolia

Morocco Mozambique

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru

Nepal

Netherlands, The

795

796

Britannica World Data

National product and accounts

Continued)

tional product (GNP spencer,

oe

nominal, 1992

per capita, 1992

(000,000 U.S.$)

(U.S.$)

ross domestic product (GDP) bytype of Sebati, er (%)

average annual growth rates, 1985-92

consumption

real

popu-

real GNP

private

GNP

lation

per capita

(%)

Netherlands Antilles

1,60027

New Caledonia New Zealand

1,0007 41,186

Nicaragua

1,325

Niger

2,466

Nigeria

32,944

Northern Mariana Is.

Norway

541

2,440 1,340 950

Philippines

49,462

770

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Réunion

75,268 73,336 23,603 8,511 6,22527

10,1072 1,728 930 233,209 248,688

4002 3,700 1,080 26,780 36,230

Syria Taiwan

17,70027 210,722

1,37027 10,180

2,723 2,858

480 110

106,559

1,840

1,575 136 4,995 14,615 114,234

400 1,350 3,940 1,740 1,950

4,895 8.82, 27 2,968 87,025 37,068

United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu

1,024,769 5,904,822 10,444 18,377 189

Venezuela Vietnam

58,901 15,0007

West Bank

2,0207

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

1,246 18,27

Western Sahara

607,27

Western Samoa Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire

153 8,000 32,00027

Zambia

Zimbabwe 11989.

21990.

91992.

46

37

ete 37

592 34

46 16

20

Bs

8

ee

23

33

678, 20

12

112 14

—23 —40 —64 —3218 —399

Ba 13 5 410 1030

ves os se 8 45 428 42 6 47 —— 9910 —_____ 8 5730 338, 30

112 sa 71

132 or 81

712 s 251 “

42 a 611 oe

os

~

Jn

a

—42 =—2t

9

—0.21 1818

8

82 62

—851 —551 —20 —20 —39

1418 318 10 8 13

718 ———_ 16 11 5

20 60 28 35

ou —24 —78 =n —34

9 1518 13 5

25 48

—33 —43

4 718 12 10

—4 10

4 9

Be 16

= —50

= 17

me 2

35

—42

13

9

39 202

—532 a -—33 —43 — 232

2118 we 32 121 92

17,760 23,120 3,340 860 1,220

2,900 2207

11,74018,27

40

34

48

352 142

332 732

4818 3218 97 18 —____ 54 20 46 35 44 39 i 48 4518 62 64 — 53

32 3418 14 21 100-—— 28

Me] 24

Ee 72 53

——_£2£7918 es 4. me 102 502 332 111 —— 781—_ 62 332 522

# 6510 =a =e

ee ee a 132

13 8 19 a 201

11 13 8 Ea 8

58 61 44 4, 411

4 111

ra 71

33 591

we g2 ce ms

Ps 52 a ee

a

2,0607

37

8 461 541,8 ————— 82 18 —____

232 82

—9 —_ —— -8—_ =5!

80

eee

62 15

—499

521 81 25 17 29

14 52

11

—32

28

os

—32 —12

1,270 9702, 27 170 1,670 22,220

oF

. x 232

7,

Bs 662

18 18 378 tr, 381.8

56 221

-

3007, 27

940 780 3,00027

9,200

240

2,580

290

5,896

570

101986.

a+ be

8

—52

42

72

142

3Manufacturing includes mining and public utilities.

consumption of fixed capital.

6

9

—549

Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland

Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates

12

—36

9

710 1506 2,670 14,020 540

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey

—18

—329 aed

237 9466 106,019 547,947 9,459

ws

5

139 Be

5,480. 170 15,750 1,920 6,330

ie

a0! 82

15

-—39

20 9

370

es

Ant 45

1

—21 -3——_ 23 —902 —449

378 726 44,315 10,249 12,744

Thailand

48

1,990 17,0007, 27

vss

11 9

11

oe

17 — 8 512 99

Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia

vs

61 14

—24

1,090 2,680 250 3,990 2,900

7,940 780

surplus

—36

27 72 4118 49

126,355 6,124

Tajikistan Tanzania

—51

1,960 7,450 6,610 16,240 9,98027

Saudi Arabia Senegal

employees

=13'

ese

950

6,038 21,272

Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka

0720

=291 —26

43

410

Paraguay Peru

44

fixed capital

320

6,133

Sao Tomé and Principe

net of subsidies

21

12,080

Panama

217 4007.27

exports __ imports

12

49,477

St. Vincent San Marino

investment

300

Pakistan

24,865 397,786 1,813 181 453

consump- - compen- - net net tion of sation of operating

6630

410

6,490

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts St. Lucia

indi indirect taxes

321 29

10,683

3,846

foreign trade

6,0007 12,060

25,800

Papua New Guinea

gross domestic

(%)

8,32027

110,465

Oman

(%)

govern-

cost components of gross domestic product (GDP), 1991 (%)

111986-91.

41985-90.

5Net material product (NMP).

12Manufacturing includes mining.

131985-89.

Mining includes public utilities.

141985-91.

71991.

g2

ee

‘ oe += 8635. 4. a 2 , 572

8Net operating surplus includes

15Data refer to the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU).

material product. 17Social product. 181987. 19Services includes restaurants and hotels. 20Net Operating surplus includes indirect taxes net of subsidies. product. 24Activities in the material sphere not elsewhere specified. 25Data refer to former Czechoslovakia. 261980-85. 27Gross domestic product (GDP).

262

GOO

16Gross

211978-85. 221993. 23Global social 28Services includes transportation,

Comparative National Statistics

origin of gross domestic product (GDP) by economic sector, 1991 (%)

avg. annual

growth rate of teal GDP (%) tertiary

agriculture

mining

manu-

facturing

ABS

21 7 34 37 39 3 Ag 22 1 26 27 7 24

7 62 1

1

261.6 1 1 5 13 15 mnoae 1 J 1 aes 2 1 12 12 35

34

62

19 16 401 7 442 18

3 3 = 1 42

251

a

62) 8! 352 3 40

35 re 6 34 65 5 49 22

10 “3 }

361

12

12 13 3

= 10

3

3 1

=

32

12

282

142

4 445

os 3

4721.02 13 2 351 81 341 11 3 23 18 6 17 2

465

>

8

3

242 352 295 29 2 21 10 369 208 5 rr

32 12 3 «419 66 21 = 3 = 18 3

4918

12

public | transp.,

struc- util-

tion

ities

2

trade

commu-

nications

980 55/B30 =} 14.30

2680 16 24 18

Sl

ae ®

3 1 2

2

1

“i

8 4 4

3

st

me

en

ie

4 4 4

4 2 3

9 4 8 25

finan-

other

cial

svcs.

svcs.

4 3 2

13 4 15

211

3

ae

a

9 9 6

10 2 aq

16 17 7

12

14

10

12

4

6

2

7

10

17 25 26

4

5 9 So

3 1 2

4 6 6

30 19 14

2 18 4.

10 82 235

2 32 39

6 62 839

13 172 15

92 13

13

4

2

82

72

443 363 131 13

5 9 pil 13

3 3

82

62 10

si 101

ee 91

92 162.3

92 32

1740 9 29

533 33

3

6

—19—— —12—— 12 3 —21— 20 82 10

1140

132 1

——27—_

672

4.0 13.6 6.4 46

ee 1.8 3.914 6.0 1S)

1.2

3.9

6.3 0.6 2.8

49 =the 3.2 —1.614 3.6 4.314

—0.2 3.1 3.3

4.6

6.0

22

a 21

14

EA 121

1

2

ue 101

15

a 11)

6.3

6.7

m 1.8

62 92

82 242

72

18 20 18

7 4

8 12 27.

3 5

8 6

10 10

2 21

39 1 4 3 2

839 6 8 10

—

13 — 3 15 589 5

9 14 20

162

15 13 = 3 ——10—

12 2

7

3

38 1 ——____—_

9 2 7 82

5 2 3 22

ig 5 U 62

17 9 11 182

22 10 23. 212

42 5 435 32 ih

—12 3 3 12 2

92 6 35 72 a

252 16 65 122 23

42 19 — 52 9

41 61 9 4 7

41 41 2 2 3

TA 61 10 ic 15

231 101 14 24 18

a= 101 ——171—— 44 10 i, 12 ——. 13 ——_ ¥ 2 10

203.5 32 72,12 433,5 89

185 152 72 445 99

3 22 42 3 29

75 42 102 45 69

152 212 65 109

Yon ——262—— 32 102 45 4119 39 4119

21 191 25

7 51 4

6 31 3

e 61 6

15 161 12

18 171 13

7 191 24

17 121 9

62

22

82

322

102

72

112

22

6

2

5

13

13

203

3

3

4

12 ee

1 a

3

42

121

22 1 2 14 ——29—— ——202—— 22 6 65

102 1 62 3

6

92 52

209

9

6 ——

9 ——

2,2689

8,016 2,0479 —2,7009 — 986

131 92 40 12, 16 11

322 26

21 42 716 61

42 2

41 22 116 —

42 3

41 82 716 11

52 7

101 422 2016 211

422 10

62 —

72 6

=§ 12

121 242 101

62 6

—5,563 —2,4139 6809

ee 2,453 — 3669 —2,0209

29

= 977 30 9 348

fe 3,870 47 679

Norway Oman Pakistan

207

125

Panama

OG

49

ose —580 — 6,222

867 —1,195 2,933

— 4667 = hitits —3,289

153 237 1,674

120 480 102

—859 —9,5409 1,7307

-—3,0179 9,3569 —5,1317

—3,1029 —1849 —3,4017

4,100 3,721 1,511

132 1,165 760

at

is

=1539

42)

157 =3129 _ 879 399

989

—1,5069 —4,3009 —859 —219

Ea5og!

Nigeria

528

355"!

is

New Caledonia

1,975 85 120

931

a

Netherlands Antilles New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

262 hs 4 67

208

Northern Mariana Is.

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico

Qatar Réunion

260 is 17 5

177

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts

St. Lucia

ro 3.24

—179

a —62

Be =22

oe —82

2.8 2.0

a 12

4.9 3.44

12,9919 — 2847

—32,4229 467

— 19,4319 — 2387

1,8842 UTE

2,000 18 1037

Saudi Arabia Senegal

210 1.4 7.4

6.34 2.514 75

— 1439 —12 —4,9009

1419 — 682 7,8299

1.44 —4.441

—29 —692 2,9299

it

Tih 17 5,204

16 3 2,340

Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore

213 670

155 234

6 810 1,226 22,181 199

137 bh 1,544 5,542 111

6.8 1.4 2.6 Wie 533

3.413 2.54 0.8 3.7 3.614

—87 —2791 5,944 — 16,064 —7159

wat

pe

—297 1221 —4,130 9,807 2649

=O F tore 1,814 —6,257 — 4519

54

77

St. Vincent

ud 22

San Marino Sao Tomé and Principe

Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka

1.94

— 5979

919

—5069

5

33

Sudan, The

0.8 3.6 1.6 1.6

1.414 5.44 12 129

689 —909 7,708 —2519

—579 1159 —9,544 13,6709

119 259 — 1,836 13,4199

a! 32 3,086 7,650

12 16 6,794 6,068

Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland

4.5 8.6 3.75 2.0 6.8

4.0 8.2 1.845 41 10.014

1599 11,443 a —7792 —4,1559

— 1049 —5,601 ie 3532 § —2,4499

559 5,842 ae — 4262 —6,6049

600 2,449 “a 120 4,829

260 5,6787 es 192 1,590

Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand

—969 —369 6669 —2,0449 — 14,162

—99 359 —5449 1,0999 7,782

— 1059 te 1229 —9459 — 6,380

39 9 WW11 1,074 3,639

48 1 112 167 776

1949 41 —2719 = 4,5289

19 ee 1719 RO

1959 a — 1009 hit

na 0.3 157

ot 187

4.45

2.0 nee 4.1

0.95

— 20,172 — 132,470 — 2399

4,108 23,220 329

— 16,064 — 109,250 —2079

13,683 53,861 381

19,831 39,872 104

a

ii

Uzbekistan

5.1

1.74

—499

539

49

27

a?

Vanuatu

1.0

4.5

1,6899

—5,0549

—3,3659

432

—1,0939 —5002

cit a

=071

1.3 6.6 2.0 5i2 3.6

1.95 jv: —1.4 3.45 6.9 1.8 2.9 0.7

48

91 42 1016 71—

is

94

—3321

—231

4.54 i tout 41 6.04

3.55, 14 ee 4.8 1.05.14 1.9

a

5.214

—619

— 39118

i

ATE. 212 92 4416 12 31124 182 92 20 6

nt

abroad

249

3.75 —0.4

5618, 42

—2,3439

“

a

expendi-

—419

3 12

—— 23 —_ ie 6 2 15

4,6119

—1,1949 —4,3009 —1729 —609

a

32 272

529 1,032 21 17

=5.5 2,35, 14 1.0 5.8

18

a a ——311—_

379

1,6089

152

nationals

—1,0279 —457 —459

=2,1879

42

3

payments

country

from tures by foreign _ nationals

9009

ifs

132

receipts

balance of

—2.6909 —65 39

4.14

242

—

current

invisibles

1,6639 —392 —489

0.0

172

——81 3

(000,000 U.S.$)

—8639

—5189

Set

1

23 9 14

gi2,18 4718

5.2

re

32

26

40 = 2

439

= 017,

81 1

9 27 21 242, 12

62

0.3 ee 1.14

131 22

10

21

293,9

os

1.6 — Oem ate

Ont 3.95 5.0 2.9

8

51

71 91 10 17 19

1,938

-0.2

2

81,12

62 34 313.5 42 28

merchan-

8

—

net transfers

goods,

5 1% 71 16

40 1 6

—_ 7—_ 4 4 25 3 g9 233,9 if 17

9

iO

3

122

3 12 4 9 22 ——_—_

an] 14 AS

9

4012 292, 12 39

371

9

)

1985-

1992

ment

1430 == 2930

23 6 —_

13

govern-

1975-

1985

tourist trade, 1992

(current external transactions; '000,000 U.S.$)

dise

1430

10

9

212 5

630 ale A? 7

con-

balance of payments, 1993

1.3 =011

0.2 24

931985-88. 321987-92. 29 . 301988. 31Excludes Alderney and Sark. communications. 2°Transportation includes public utilities. 38|ncludes Aruba, includes public utilities.ea includes public utilities.

a 0.74

2.14 4.24

49

ise oY

52518

13418

at

oe

— 849

339

is 6002

“ — 1,2432

4202 487

579

—7272 —5377

—519 Be a —6432

—3072 — 4897

797

852 792

1018

1,428 or cob

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey

Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay

Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.)

4618. | West Bank

Western Sahara 19 47 88 72

51 105

2 811 i 162

56 707

Western Samoa Yemen . Yugoslavia Zaire Y

Zambia Zimbabwe

_%6Government %4Manufacturing includes public utilities. $5Construction includes mining. 42Tertiary sector 411987-91. 4°Manufacturing includes mining, construction, and public utilities.

798

Britannica World Data

Employment and labour This table provides international comparisons of the world’s national labour forces—giving their size; composition by demographic component and employment status; and structure by industry.

The table focuses on the concept of “economically active population,” which the International Labour Organisation (ILO) defines as persons of all ages who are either employed or looking for work. In general, “economically active population” does not include students, persons occupied solely in domestic duties, retired persons, persons living entirely on their own means, and persons wholly dependent on others. Persons engaged in illegal economic activities—smugglers, prostitutes, drug dealers, bootleggers, black marketeers, and others—also fall outside the purview of the ILO definition. Countries differ markedly in their treatment, as part of the labour force, of such groups as members of the armed forces, inmates of institutions, the unemployed (both persons seeking their first job and those previously employed), seasonal and international migrant workers, and persons engaged in informal, subsistence, or part-time economic activities. Some countries include all or most of these groups among the economically active, while others may treat the same groups as inactive. Three principal structural comparisons of the economically active total are given in the first part of the table: (1) participation rate, or the proportion of the economically active who possess some particular characteristic, is

given for women and for those of working age (usually ages 15 to 64), (2) activity rate, the proportion of the total population who are economically active, is given for both sexes and as a total, and (3) employment status, usually (and here) grouped as employers, self-employed, employees, family workers (usually unpaid), and others. =a ; Each of these measures indicates certain characteristics in a given national labour market; none should be interpreted in isolation, however, as

the meaning of each is influenced by a variety of factors—demographic structure and change, social or religious customs, educational opportunity, sexual differentiation in employment patterns, degree of technological development,

and the like. Participation and activity rates, for example,

may be high in a particular country because it possesses an older population with few children, hence a higher proportion of working age, or because, despite a young population with many below working age, the economy attracts eligible immigrant workers, themselves almost exclusively of working age. At the same time, low activity and participation rates might be characteristic of a country having a young population with poor employment possibilities or of a country with a good job market distorted by the presence of large numbers of “guest” or contract workers who are not part of the domestic labour force. An illiterate woman in a strongly sex-differentiated labour force is likely to begin and end as a family or

Employment and labour country

economically active population Participation rate (%) female

Afghanistan

distribution by economic sector activity rate (%)

ages 15-64

male

employment status (%)

female

3,941

49.1

54.2

Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra

19893 1987 1990 1989

1,458 5,341 14.2 25

78.74 44.3 52.66 74.3

48.0 42.4 34.8 Be

Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Aruba

1988 1985 1990 1990 1991

3,936 32 12,305 2,044 314

61.58 56.211, 59.6 79.918 67.1

51.5 53.3 55.4 63.2 54.5

32.9 21.0 59:5 39.0

Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas, The

199221 199121 1990 1990

8,586 3,607 3,242 114

73.0 68.1 71.818 75.2

57.3 56.6 52.1 48.8

41.0 36.4 38.8 41.0

Bahrain

1991

226

66.8

63.5

18.5

Bangladesh

1989

50,744

79.9,

53.2

40.2

Barbados Belarus

199221 1992

125 4,887

77.3 86.118

54.4 ie

46.4 oH

1990

4,179

51.227

50.1

34.1

Belize

1991

58.1

56.127

45.8

16.8

Benin

1988

2,100

72.58

50.2

44.3

Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina

1991 1985 1992 199032

35.2 632 2,530 1,026

76.012 69.0 64.0 fs

63.529 58.0 48.7 a

56.129 30.3 30.4 tn

Botswana Brazil

443 64,468

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

199121 199021 1991 1985 1988

112 4,686 4,547

59.2 63.628 67.6 75.7 78.18

43.1 B75 54.6 55.1 57.6

24.6 30.5 30.0 49.6 49.1

Burundi Cambodia

1990 1992

2,780 3,964

91.4 91,233

$1.2 41.2

53.8 44.7

Cameroon

1988

4,392

57.18

52.5

26.1

13,797

75.2

55.5

44.2

121

64.3

46.9

1,187 1,899 4,990 584,569

78.3 51.0 58.0 76.827

199221

1990

Central African Republic Chad Chile China

1988 1988 199221 198721

unpaid family

other

number

494

12.5

ia

re

4

279

19.1

61.7

:

:

5

622

11.6

92.6 se

: bag

M

he

48 ad

33.7 11.0

4009

10.29

>

i

a

69.913

0.613

71.216

3.316 =

71.4 9.014, 15

0.416 c

12.016 5.2.

0.5

23

7.3

5.0

1,431

16.7

83.1

3.6

3.4

t2

1,020

28.3

5.1 23

6.4 33

5.6 14.6

64.2

7,081 11.7

14.0 9.4

11.122 85.924

0.322 0.124

12.122 4.624

9.4 76.414

45.2 0.214

16.1 14.614

a

ase

RR

73.9 55.128

3.4 7.528

10.0 14.028

= 88.616 ae

e 0.516 a

ot 3.216 me

31.5

7A

ha

20.2

ie

ace

62.5

17.2

13.8

62.3 91.4 98.2

Wh 0.4 ae

3.7 47 1.5

Bs

33

=

24.9

St ae 14.614 89.8 53.7,

30.3 & 18.014 0.5 2.0

1.8 mn 7.114 0.8 19.6

52.2 56.1 52.1 59.6

44.3 14.8 23.5 49.7

8.0 eat 66.0 i®

84 te 3.4 Ts:

8.6 ae 44 ae

-

29.3

820 7.0

19.6 12.0

K

1739 1.430 169, 16

8.29 3.930 2.89, 16

F

281

11.1

519

50.5

46

10.5

10,217 11.6 1,778

15.9 10.4 37.9

.

2239 K 2,454 16 2,901 34 466 29.9 881 1,452 860 414,740 2,41216

22.3

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'Ivoire

1988 1984 1992 1988

197 563 1,087 4,263

68,48 54.0 55.627 66.6

54.2 33.0 52.4 52.2

36.5 26.2 21.9 26.0

25.616

— 26.816 —

31.4

12

37.4

72.2 tg

3.4 sae

0.7 oe

259 2,451

73.7

2.0

3.1

1,432 i .

.

46.6

: i : ‘

5316 ;

1991

2,040

65.2

53.9

11.6

341

4,57036 280 5,421 2,912 230

56.927, 36 73.0 77.9 82.4 67.08

55.436 = 31,736 59.9 36.5 56.8 48.7 61.5 51.8 52.7 36.9

94,124 72.2 88.7 89.5 ny

0.224 6.2 7.6 Lz =

0.924 3.5 1:5 0.4 5k

72132 34 628 161 176

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador

1989 1981 1990

30.6 1,915 3,360

62.3 53.6 55.7

47.1 48.1 1.6

29.3 19.7 18.3 24.0

1.9 3.3 4.4 20.7 10.9

18.3 8.9 7.4 6.9 1.7

7.7 420 1,036 6,335 637

i :

47.5

50.6 51.3 42.5 45.7 59.2

26.9

16.0

29.9

25.1

59.4

‘

51.3 34.1 23.9

ot 6.540 86.1

54.0

1,593

62.4

Equatorial Guinea

1983

103

66.7

Eritrea39

Estonia Ethiopia39 Faeroe Islands

Bs

ia

Mes

1989 1992

856 23,518

79.7 70.1

1977

17.6

64.0

42.8

18.0

=

Se 34.040 os

on 1.040 2.0

100 16,101 40 3.3

31 1249 925 95,977 1,231 16 50

1989 1991 1991 1991 1988

16,034

37 2209, 16 18034 2,354 6.8

4.116

294

Cuba Cyprus 37, 38 Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti

198921

9.114, 15

21.316 22.2

10.5

49.435

198021

2,136 16 453

0.9

9,558

El Salvador

2.114, 15

74.5

1985

Egypt

% of econ.

active

Colombia

Croatia

manufacturing; mining, quarrying; public utilities number ('000)

workers es

Belgium

Cape Verde

employees

employed

1979

Canada

employers, self-

agriculture, forestry, fishing

eu

4.99 1.3 6.79, 16 4.634 17.1 5.7 2.6 6.59 18.5 16.4 14.516 4.216 8.8

219 4339

20.1 10.29

571

28.0

76832 51 2,021 609 219

21.832 18.1 37.3 20.9 9.09

3.6 243 404 2,102 262

11.8 12.7 12.0 13.1 16.4

1.8

1.8

270 31240 3.9

31.5 1.740 21.9

Comparative National Statistics

traditional agricultural worker. Loss of working-age men to war, civil violence, or emigration for job opportunities may also affect the structure of a particular labour market. The distribution of the economically active population by employment status reveals that a large percentage of economically active persons in some less developed countries falls under the heading “employers, selfemployed.” This occurs because the countries involved have poor, largely agrarian economies in which the average worker is a farmer who tills his own small plot of land. In countries with well-developed economies, “employees” will usually constitute the largest portion of the economically active. Caution should be exercised when using the economically active data to make intercountry comparisons, as countries often differ in their choices of classification schemes, definitions, and coverage of groups and in their methods of collection and tabulation of data. The population base containing the economically active population, for example, may range, in developing countries, from age 9 or 10 with no upper limit to, in developed countries, age 18 or 19 upward to a usual retirement age of from 55 to 65, with sometimes a different range for each sex. Data on female labourforce participation, in particular, often lack comparability. In many less developed countries, particularly those dominated by the Islamic faith, a

cultural bias favouring traditional roles for women

results in the under-

counting of economically active women. In other less developed countries, particularly those in which subsistence workers are deemed economically active, the role of women may be overstated.

The second major section of the table provides data on the distribution by economic (also conventionally called industrial) sector of the “economically active population.” The data usually include such groups as unpaid family workers, members

of the armed forces, and the unemployed,

number (‘000)

% of

econ.

51 49 690 1.2 29

3.4 12.9 8.3 11.8

3 2.614,15

11.114,15

1,003 16

10.016

162

7.9

661 74 382 236 44

75

communications

restaurants

number (’000)

number

66 44 216 0.8

10 2.61415 46016

% of econ. active 1.6 3.0 41 5.5

10 11.114,15 4.616

(000)

finance, real estate % of

number

% of

econ.

(7000)

econ. active

1

active

public administration, defense

services

number

number (000)

% of econ. active

7491 2201

(000)

49 391 1.8 6.0

3.5 3.3 7.3 13.0 24.2

1 143 0.3 1.3

1 1 al 2:1 5.4

5.214,15

10 22.414,15

10 0.81415

10 3.414, 15

0 5

3.916

5

1,70216

17.016

396 16

4.917 ea

ere

=

5

5 3.5

10.9 66 79 76

“ 5.9 78 5.6 7.0

41 33.1 257 2.9

2.5 3.3 6.8 6.2 5.0

14.2 327 634 10.0

8.1 11.4 6.7 15.2 17.2

44 26 328 1.8

0.5 3.3 26 78 3.1

10

10

10

10

10

2M 10 117 69

7.6 10 4.6 6.7

27.1 10 9.2 12.8

4.6 10 54 39

13.0 10 2.1 3.8

10 2,440 5.4 315 10

2.3 3.6 4.8 6.7 10

7,976 15.4 397 10

7.7 12.4 13.8 8.5 10

13 1,716 5.8 25 10

3.0 2.7 5.2 0.5 10

10 5234 1,002

0.3 10 1.334 7.3 5.1

26 10 15434 2,412 12.7

0.9 10 3.934 17.5 10.6

92 10

7.8 10

29 50 10

t 51 4.6 10

1.916 67 180 10

17.0 3.6 14,916 11.8 16.6 10

v2 5 5.4

2.4 10 59

Ss 5

3,4395 5 9.2

5.5 6.8 6.7

39532 61 551 422 10

2.9

39.15 85326

1,3895 6.0

61610

Barbados Belarus

33.25

41520

10.3

2.8

29.410

—-

9,920

Belize

—

Benin

6.4

18.0

4.331

12.131

Bermuda

350

13.8

32317

12.717

Bolivia

1555

15.15

10

2710, 16

4.710, 16

=

—

as

— 17.820 3.77 4.720 _— —

855 625 10, 16 2935, 34 5,7675 17.45

3.15 18.910, 16 7.55, 34 41.85 14.45

2720 — 2285, 20 1067 24.1

705 32310 1,2215 17,414 1,9985, 16

5.95 17.010 24.55 3.0 23.65, 16

10020 — 21820 487 691 16, 17

5 5 10

5 238 218

Belgium

48

7920

0.216 0.5 3.5 10

61 26 8.7

Bangladesh

2,3677 5,320 1 —

3 39 10

Bahamas, The Bahrain

2.625

23.25

5 9,704 5

Australia

Austria Azerbaijan

30,520 8.3

33.75 46.65 21.25 10.010

49 0.2 3,916

Armenia Aruba

38.220 409

1035

10

Argentina

1,341 25

21,6945 62.15 9935 45510

5

Angola Antigua and Barbuda

6.85

5 5 5 1 onaung10

10

American Samoa Andorra

31.35 17,526

5

244 1,268 27816

17 26 253

2.823 7.320

Algeria

2.3

10 5 5 5 10 5 17

5

4.616 855

5

2585

10

1,37710 204

21.8 10.2 14.5

3.223 1620

Afghanistan Albania

6.8

223

15 366 195

35.55 645

23.95, 16

a _—

41817 40

935 236 9.0 17

2,3995, 16

= _—

25.5 22.85 ce 31.05 37.15

19.8 19.1 30.6 13.2

849 20,785 1,26216

18.510 33.95, 14, 15

zee

689 35.0 30

6.7 1.9

72610 7.95,14,15

5.ir 0.5

2,189 8225

6.1 63 76 64

335 10,898

25.7

0.77 0.1

ee

520 228 87 14

0.1 10

1,374

19.8 16.7

Fs 5

69 87 9.4 o44.8

0.7 10

22.15

2.8 41

5 5 5

5

0.6 10

1,1805

7.317

8

7.8

10

1.2

34.119 3.520

0.9

2.4

0.1 10 0,234 5.9 0.7

17

73617

18

35.4

2.0 10 834 809 0.8

19.01 15.11

69719 1.120

4.3

11.0

5

% of econ. active

20.2 27.75

88

7.5

9.5 10 232

5

number (000)

413 8.65

4.3

9.7

% of econ. active

0.4 5

88

9

3.4 9

trade, hotels,

2.3

3.2

504 313 10.8 27 2S

transportation,

the

last distributed by industry as far as possible. The categorization of industrial sectors is based on the divisions listed in the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities. The “other” category includes persons whose activities were not adequately defined and the unemployed who were not distributable by industrial sector. A substantial part of the data presented in this table is summarized from various issues of the ILO’s Year Book of Labour Statistics, which compiles its statistics both from official publications and from information submitted directly by national census and labour authorities. The editors have supplemented and updated ILO statistical data with information from Britannica’s holdings of relevant official publications and from direct correspondence with national authorities.

country construction

799

5 4.4

83632 545 1,00526

1.5

802

3310

4.716 15.15 23.85

28 16 10

8.520 — 4,420 0.1 8.216, 17 27.816 2.0

Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo

1.517

Costa Rica

—

—

Cte d'Ivoire

32920

16.120

23.732 19.35 18.526

5332 2425 200

1.532 8.625 3.7

Cuba Cyprus37, 38 Czech Republic

27.6

6217

1.817

Denmark

14.410

—

—

Djibouti

5,75 3635

18.65 18.95

5.425 55317

17.625 28.917

8385 3,1165

24.95 19.45

19617 1,11520

5.817 7.020

15.75 it 182 9335, 40 3.55

Bosnia and Herzegovina

10.0

32.310

1617

1.020 — 5.85, 20 0.77 20.0

Bhutan

8.25 is 21.3 5.15, 40 20.15

2723

1.723

25.820 3 60 562, 40 0.6

25.220 ae 7.0 0.32, 40 3.2

Croatia

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritreas9 Estonia Ethiopia39 Faeroe Islands

800

Britannica World Data

Employment and labour country

(continued)

year

distribution by economic sector

economically active population

participation tate (%) female

ages

activity rate (%)

total

male

33.7 50.1 44.5 42:5 39.9

52.4 54.8 51.1 *"50'5 48.2

43.3 47.3 165 46.4 50.2

548 -51.1 32:1 i 60.0

employment status (%)

female

15-64

Fiji French Guiana French Polynesia

1986 1992 199121 1990 1988

241 2,526 24,609 48.8 15

56.0 74.2 66.9 67.3 64.8

Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip Georgia Germany

1988 1983 1992 1991 1991

473 326 119 2,514 39,405

57.08 78.2 35.327 90,118, 22 72.6

Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada

1984 1991 199021 1976 1988

5,580 14.8 4,000 21.4 38.9

82.527 66.927 57.736 63.527 72.742

45.4 53.8 39.636 43.1 39:9

Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey 44 Guinea

1990 1990 198921 1991 1983

172 66.1 2,898 30.2 1,823

66.4 75,76 59.1 74.2 63.5

Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong

1988 198745 1990 199221 199221

446 270 2,679 1,729 2,793

Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran

1993 1993 1991 1989 1986

lraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy

1988 1991 1991 199221 199121

Finland

France

15.7 89.724 50.6 82.5

44.5 49,7 33.5 51.2 39.1

49.6 58.4 50.8 60.6 48.7

53.7 94.4 47.6 86.3 15.6

66.98 60.4 64.8 58.327 69.2

47.2 35.7 4441 34.8 49.5

57.2 50.9 50.3 49.0 61.6

5,015 149 314,904 75,508 12,855

82.818 81.646 67.7 46.8

486 56.2 37:6 426 26.0

52.3 60.7 51:5 51.2 45.6

51.7 22.7 34.0 5.5

4,127 1,334 33.2 1,858 24,245

45.3 59.7 73.2 58.3 65.148

24.7 37.8 47.6 35.5 42.5

42.3 51.4 56.9 41.4 54.9

6.1 24.3 38.9 29.6 30.7

43.8 52.9 56.5 22.8 43.7

46.2 63.9 66.1 39.3

629 9

13.19 2.9

| 47.9 48.9 486 54.0 53.5

6.843 3.5 405 2.4

27

59.547 77.8 80.1, 729 63.8

477 155 12 61 1,823

41.4 42.3 47.5 5.3

34,150 12.8 12.6 22.851

47.250 178 84.0 67.251

221

32.0 41.4 40.6 36.6 21.0

71.9 28.1 3.9

25.3 59.3 94.4

39:9 45.1 446 45.4 38.9

Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lesotho

1991 1985 1991 1988 1986

1,754 2,014 1,462 904 504

79.218 84.2 80.022 44.0 44.0

39.1 48.9 55.122 26.5 31.6

as 53.1 59,322 43.9 47.3

44.6 51.522 8.9 16.7

Liberia Libya

704 994 15.1 1,869 168

56.3

Luxembourg

1984 1989 1993 1992 199153

70.5 76.922 62.5

33.5 24.936 50.0 52.422 43.5

39.1 43,336 63.9 56.622 56.4

27.8 4.636 36.7 48.622 31.2

Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia

199121 1993 1988 1987 199021

175 632 4,945 3,458 6,685

66.454 65.38 89.4 63.5

50.1 30.5 44.0 43.3 37.6

60.2 fe 52.5 43.9 48.2

40.4

Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique

1990 1987 1990 1988 1990

56 3,438 132 17.5 165

50.2 67.4 47.454 54.127 68.1

26.5 44.7 37.2 26.5 45.9

41.3 $7.2 56.1 37.7 49.8

10.8 32.7 18.7 14.8 42.2

Mauritania Mauritius 56 Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

1988 1991 1991 1991 1990

593 463 27.3 31,229 30.5

45.88 68.0 56.4 59.9 60.6

31.0° 44.5 28.9 ~ 37.5 30.3

49.1 57.9 39.2 53.1 fee

13.3 31.2 17.7 22.6

Moldova Monaco Mongolia Morocco Mozambique

1991 1990 1990 1982 1980

2,070 12.6 694 5,999 5,671

86.329

47.4 42.0 46.934 29.3 48.6

i 53.2 50,934 47.1 476

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

1989-9021 1985 1977 1990 1991

67.6

40.211 30.8 30.5 45.4 46.6

52.411 47.3 i 57.5 56.9

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

198821 1989 199221 1991 198860

59.543 70.748 70.850 62,032 55,2

38.5 40.2 47.150 34.7 31.9

45.1 49.1 53.950 47.8 51.1

73 66 1,635 1,386

9.0 20.6 19.7 6.4 7.2

631 14 808 3.3 3.3

18.2 15.8 15.0 21.6

65.18 75.627 75.3 63.7 61.5

82.543

22 520 4,841 3.4 5.4

6909 11,898

172,71324 41,284 3,209

9,220 32.6 9,084 19,385 730

64.211 55.4

econ. active

16.324 26.2 415

1988 1990 1985 199221 1988

15,701 477 2.2 8,585 7,011

% of

(000)

8.6 9.5 66.424 54.7 25.0

Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait

48.9 87.327

number

% of econ. active

20.416 57.3 37.0 0.7

1,083 65,780 47.5 644 7,450

82.234

number (000)

63.816 16.5 48.7 86.5

1993 1992 1991 1988 1992

37.58, 36

other

91.4

449 719 50.836 53.0 42:9

60.7 24. 27

unpaid family workers

11.141

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan

Lithuania

employees

manufacturing; mining, quarrying; public utilities

78.0

71.629, 49 71.2 66.927 43.2 80.118

Liechtenstein

employers, selfemployed

agriculture, forestry, fishing

35.4

42.8 26.9

31.8 42.834 11.6 49.5

= 95 fa 16.8 55.7 59.1 21.6 23,752 69.652 63 91.6 9.2 85.3 9.5 86.3 66.6 16.2 61.936 49.3 5.2 77.411

36.5

32.3 30.8 40.650 22.3 13.0

75.716 17.0 19.143 25.9 68.3 19:2 2.2 18.4 3.2

3,830 2,968 1,88936

58.9 56.9 80.129 42.9 54.0 74.416

390 81 3.1 8,190 12.7

175 11.4 26.2 41.5

739 — 192 2,352 4,755

35.7 0.3 27.6 39.2 83.8

75.1 40.5 40.013

10,61458 18516

9.124 82.7

624424

64.3

0.5 7.8 159 415 1,764

70.2

293

5.343 5.3 14.0 7.9

1 3.99 16.816

178

6.6

15.3

671

24.0

1,304 24.2

26.0 16.3

28,84624

11.124

7,909 1,584

10.5 12.3

439

10.6

246 3.9

18.4 11.6

386

20.8

4,958

20.4

110 16,080 3.8 55 1,290

10.2 24.4 8.0 8.6 17.3 7.59 28

2,7909. 14

33.09. 14

4,894 69

25.2 9.4

319 1309. 16

18.2 7.19, 16

371

25.4

13143 142

18.943 28.2

31

44

144

14.5

49

32.2

594

31.8

26

15.8

57 170 5099

32.5 26.9 10.39

114

3.3

1,05936

17.136

9.4 191

38 1.0 7.143

67.658 43.416 94.124

11.3 75 20.2 15.3 8.6

264

6963 0.9

14.1 2,803 3 2.2 10.443

28.211 14.6

32.6

11.6 11.6

179 4116

9.441

27.49 30.2

609 146 1.3 5,175

16.6 5.6

28.8 9.0 4.943 10.29 31.5 47 16.6

1.6

5.2

424 27 123 1,016

20.5 21.8 17.8 16.9

347

6.1

1,232 939.16

78 21.89,16

3724 1,227

0.524 17.5

5.8 6.2 255 208

8.0 9.3 15.6 15.0

73

3.1

Comparative National Statistics

country

construction

number (000)

% of econ. active

transportation, communications

trade, hotels, restaurants

finance, real estate

number (000)

number

number (000)

% of

econ. active

% of econ. active

Public administration, defense

services

number (000)

number (000)

% of econ. active

number (000)

375 666 6,9825 17.55 21.55

15.25 26.4 28.45 35.95 28.65

2020 5823 2,537 20 11.87 21,120

8510

17.910 6.81 9.45 21.2 32.45

% of econ. active

ANZ. V2 10 1 41

2,763

221 11.15 534 12,7735

27 AUS 187 0.3 0.8

376 3.2 7215 6.35 5.95

0.7 259 1.8 1.7

3.0 672 27 5.4

4.043 45 72 14 29

9.643 11.5 375 7.4 37

18.743 3.9 38 5.8

10

10

10 gi6 21 52

295 369 9.8 6,207 24 2,192 631

5 30

282 201 61 245 4,660

191 14,360 6.8 76 916

TA 18 44

10

10

10

0.4 10

4,244 83

10

94 1,12036 8.9 159 13 1.4 12.443 10 61 2.0 6,150 57 137 2.5 49 498 112

1,405 10

10924 ” 1,138 15.9 9.5 308 196 209

47

2

6.7 5.3 13.7 12.2 17.5

1 15 141 14 15

20.9 10 10 2.7 18.136

10 10 5 13.736

10

6 23136 14 0.3 5 0.8 19.343

3.7 7.3 13.243

10

10

57

1 1.0 1

52.35 21.55 31.45 33.75 24.95

2295 14,0105 15.7 3585 1,055

eis 21.35 33.1 55.65 14.2

2,9725 3845

6 10

11 0.1 1,295

2,1605 2865 10.45 6255 6,0425

1,34210 23

Te 10 85

10

20.926 24.9 7.15, 24 11.75 23.75

1 ,939 10, 14

22

88

10

1,04926 37.0 18,5155, 24 8,9695 3,0515

43

1.3

37

0.2 ant 8.3

1.0 7A 13.1 9.7 4]

24.35, 43 21.9 14.45 17.7 7.55

16.710 11.916 5.85 19.35 19.45

10 12.116

26 8.7 0.724 0.5 0.9

654 25.7 12,63824 10,891 876

47 53 21 227 2g

31.45, 43

6.4

4

1516 353 282 748

178 11543 24

14.543

6.7 21.6 18.05 29.55 15.35

14.610 7.0 22.910, 14 15.35 52.65

25 9.525, 41 561 1587

% of econ. active

8.220 2.323 10.320 24.27 28.020

Fiji Finland France French Guiana French Polynesia

ath 8.025, 41 22.3

Gabon Gambia, The Gaza Strip Georgia Germany

2.87 5.023 2.8 32.520

40.67, 43 2.07 6020 0.4 156 61 16, 20

40420 5520

31.47, 43 3.17 2.120 1.3 8.5 24.716, 20 15.120 3.220 2.07

Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada

Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey 44

Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong

2,18320

13.27 5.27 6.024 2.820 17.020

Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran

20923 1.47 12823 2,6527

15.723 417 6.923 10.97

Iraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy

18720 1,72020 1.620

17.220 2.620 3.420

Jamaica Japan Jersey

1,522

20.4

Jordan Kazakhstan

4647 112

2.47 1.52

Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait

57

3.3

Kyrgyzstan

45 2.6

Laos

1,120

3.420

383 31610, 16 254 2005, 43 1575

21.7 17,210, 16 17.4 28.85, 43 31.15

631 48 3.7 290 31

9.01 48 24.6 15.5 18.7

475 18010 60610 1475 42738

27.15 28,510 12.210 4.35 6,936

3.15 32.95, 43

21.05 2.4 40.05 26.45 22.65, 43

51.17.43

12.520 35.07, 43

Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique

14310 945 5.75 6,5275 3.757

24.110 20.35 21,05 20.95 12.157

1420 10.520 88020 447

3,120 38,420 2.820 13.57

Mauritania Mauritius 56 Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

5191 1:9 1841 47426 2431

25.11 14.9 26.51 7.926 4.31

31 0.925 4720 5482 957

WS 7.125 6,720 9.12 1.77

Moldova Monaco Mongolia Morocco Mozambique

6.11

93559

6,059

12724 53720 14.77 13.57 17120

1.924 7.720 20.27 16.07 10.520

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

1882 11725

13.62 5.025

9561

14810, 16

3145.24 2,3135 21.35 22.05 4165 184 1235

34,710, 16

4.65.24 33.05 29,35 33.45 25,45 13.3 5.35

9.120 3.0 20 4.3 8.125 3.120

33.420 1.7

4,755 34 3.87

Latvia Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg

Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

801

802

Britannica World Data

Employment and labour country

(continued)

year

economically active population Participation

distribution by economic sector activity rate (%)

agriculture, forestry,

employment status (%)

fishing

rate (%)

female

male

ages

female

Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands Norway Oman Pakistan Panama

198621 1990 1992 1988 1992-9321] 199121

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru

30,766 26.6 2,130 644 33,829

58.8 83,36 79.948 57.2 50.8

859

employers,

3 ' 2

60.061

4141 66.2 55.1 GOW 46.4

209 559 44.5 5.9 8.2

48.9

256

733 1,039 7,435

Philippines

199221

26,938

i

66.5

51.3

30.7

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Réunion

1992 199221 199321 1988 199021

17,529 4,737 1,211 293 234

i “ fb ji

69.5 68.2 53.76 80.8 60.3

Si. 56.2 42.3 77.3 46.8

41.4 40.9 24.1 22.2 31.6

i A i i

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia

1992 1992 1989 1980 1980

10,290 72,878 3,143 17.1 42.2

39.3 47,922 48.0 31.2 28.0

f a r f A

St. Vincent San Marino Sao Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal

1980 1991 1981 1988 1990

34.7 13.3 31 5,369 2,433

46.6 61.8 43.1 54.9 50.9

25.0 44.4 20.4 3.6 17.0

i 5 i a?

Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia

1991 1988 199221 1991 1991

50.722. 50.2 59.4 54.0 52.9

37.322 23.9 40.7 45.5 43.6

I a if f ,

19.743 52.8 45.5 51.0 55.3

7.343 34.8 29.5 27.6 26.6

i ea ‘| $

50.0 51.9 50.3 54.2 64.7

20.4 35.9 31.9 48.8 38.8

44.6 50.9 os 49.6 60.4

10.2 33.3 ae 45.2 48.4

52.6 45.2 47.3 46.5 48.7

29.9 22.0 30.2 12.7 22.7

Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa68 Spain Sri Lanka

i

199267 1988 1991 199221 1992

Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland

198360 199021, 1988 199221 1992

Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand

199121 199321 1990 1988 199221,

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey

1988 1990 1991 1989 199221

Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates

1992 1991 1988 1992 1990

United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu

1991 199271 1991 1992 1989

Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.) West Bank

199121 1989 199021 1992

Western Sahara

Western Samoa Yemen Yugoslavia

Hh

1986 1988 1993

Zaire

1988

Zambia Zimbabwe

1988 1986-87

| A

f

2922 1,452 1,620 2,618 946

35.28 57.5 54.627

: i ;

.

67.2 77.122 77.68, 36 69.5 69.9

f

60.927 72.9 61.1 59.1 46.28

5 f

74.322 54.48 69.3 76.0 66.7

26.8 2,972 11,624 15,155 5,948

H

24,943, 65,18 68.334, 60.06 56.628

fi 4 i i

57.4 59.2 62.88 82.06 62.227 5 i

x

i i i

4 f 5 F

46.743 58.828 78.118 74.38 77.627

i é é

61.48 57.0 60.8 52.8 58.4

i K

80.318 85.5 69.58 83.1 18 69.036

e

Nk

|

i

; ‘

set

‘ i

.

75.4 74.9 67.749 79.718 85.0

62.2 79.9 67.512 41.227

a

48.624 52.6 as

57.48

52.68 76.527

ci i

: 4 f

28.3 548 .

O12 57.922 44.6 48.4 471

205 13.6 =

oe ot 52.9 ae 67.636

ate oD 36.7 ce 12.936

57.7 56.7 55.7 a 49.0

unpaid

:

('000)

;

f ;

; . ; a: ;

:

:

: ; : A

3

; 4 4 i fj

.

a

E i i

; f

E ‘

3,758 531

A

s

5 é

ie we ww

Z oe ats

if

i

12.424 ee 2.7 5 2

oa “a es é

F us 4 ‘ Fs

aed 4 ag

H ee a : ae

13.0 8.4 oe a 23.1

NE 3 a4 si F

F

$

;

11.324 16.8 2.9 74 27.9

a

i ‘ ; 5

& 5

. Re

557 3,653 56 3,577 49.8

50.1 47.0 50.3 35.5

24.2 47.7 43.1 5.2

cf ne fs ons

3 i ck

a ue i; oe

5 ne ; a

837 20,471 0.6 42.6

44.5 36.8 ne

11.6 16.4 ats

\ sit

43.524 He AR

35.024 ag i

s

ie a

42.516 es

bs

3.616 ave

31.016 at

496.

27.0

5

48.0 44.8

19.4 39.6

43

4.6 22.5 16.6 5.1 12.4

91

10.6

21 129 969

: r b F Z

4,153 21,800 52 3.8 3.7

40.4 29.9 1g 22.3 8.7

i f F i “i

2.3 45 1.9 595 =

6.6 33.7 6.2 4134 Pr

4.49,65 2449 443 867 335 2.5 290 2,361 3,178 711

9.0 9.7 20.3 21.0 11.9

471 2,538 26132 5589 4,489

13.5 28.6 13.532 4.79 14.3

1459 5.1 86 418 3,440

10.99 15.8 17.4 17.7 16.2

;

154 0.1 4049 7,401 94

9.8 2.0 5.29 30.9 13.6

5 3 . :

7,0769 24,005 265 1,317 1.0

25.09 18.7 21.4 16.0 1.5

a

i ; .

r

" id 5

29.0 2,152 121

p K

2.4 129 1,011

1,833 2,110

q :

8,483

17.99,65 16.89 27.3 33.1 35.4

5.0 11.3 11.09 19.2 24.0

1,346 3,390 3.7 27.641

a

29 12.4 13.2

317 11.2 339 857 859

936 11.7 51 510 8,785

8.1 0.8 2.7 ng i

1,401 6.0 353 33 4,190

10.6

: 4 R i i

917 1,005 83132 9,836 14,981 60

av 0.3 1.6 = es

% of econ. active

21.8 25.0 17.9 7.5 48

i i . 5 H

.

. ' i a a

(000)

2,781

a zi y .

41.0 44.4 34.7 a 44.9

number

3,827 1,184 217 22.0 14

21.4 Z A 7 :

ry 4

. a5 i

1,

: ’ ‘

10,869

695 4.2 6,307 4,989 43

=

. ‘ E d : .

at ts — 77.551 — xe a sss ay 0,116 0.516

sis

% of econ. active

E

:

te

+

19109 2869 179

18.1 114 78 12.841

ol

5.4 43 31.4

15.09 10.99 5.5

1Services includes finance, real estate and public administration, defense. 2Unemployed, not previously employed only. sEmployed persons only. 4Ages 15-59 (male) and 15-54 5 i includes public administration, defense. Ages 16-64. 7Unemployed only. 8Over age 10. 9Manufacturing; mining, quarrying; bublicutilities eames hice: Pcpmsoua ace communications; trade, hotels, restaurants; finance, real estate; and public administration, defense. 111983. 12Over age 16. 131970. 141982. 15Wage earners and self-employed only. 161980 17Includes unemployed, not previously employed. 18Ages 16-59 (male) and 16-54 (female). 19Includes self-employed and unemployed. 20Mostly unemployed. 21Excludes all or some classes or elements of the military. 221989. 23Mostly unemployed, not previously employed. 241981. 25includes unemployed. 26Services includes finance, real estate. 27Over age 15. 281983-84. 291990 30Agriculture includes mining, quarrying. 31Mostly employees of international companies and unemployed. 32State sector only. S8Ages 16-60. 341985. 35Over age 12. . 361988. 37Republic of Cyprus only. 381992 population economically active

for Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is 74,065.

39Ethiopia includes Eritrea.

401984.

‘

mining, quarrying; public utilities

; 4

as

;

number

other

family workers

“ ; ;

198062 1982 1990

; : '

employees

selfemployed

15-64

manufacturing;

41Other includes Public utilities and finance, real estate.

f

Comparative National Statistics

tr

‘ construction

transportation,

communications number ('000)

% of econ.

number (000)

% of econ. active

trade, hotels,

restaurants

public

real estate % of econ. active

number (000)

% of econ. active

7,417 5.3 366 23 4,198

24.1 19.8 17.2 3.6 12.4

120 1.0 157 1 283

0.4 3.8 74 0.2 0.8

34

4.0

4

0.6

3.6 5.3 7.6 4.0 4.9

54

6.3

Ie

167

19.5

2.4

25

3.4

Heniced

administration, defense

number (000)

é 161 26 1,663

31 323

country

finance,

number ('000)

% of econ. active

a other

number ('000)

% of econ. active

5 5.3 5 5 5

4,9025 45 7795 1105 4,2075

15.95 16.9 36.65 17.15 12.45

2,00920 0.67 6623 — 2,14620

6,520 2.37 3.123 _ 6.320

5

5

2275

5

5

26.45

5423

10.55

6.323

Panama

2

0.2

Papua New Guinea

5 1.4 5 5 5

775

number (‘000)

% of econ. active Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands Norway Oman Pakistan

29 4.4

86 1,146

8.3 15.6

47

18 176

3,283

17 2.4

12.5

5 5

452

5 5

aleY/

1745 1,9615

5

16.85 26.75

5

4,2545

16.25

2,284 20

47 47 3.6 41 3.1

1,636 936 258 34.2 18

9.3 19.8 21.3 11.7 77

204 143 37 6.2 3

flee 3.0 3.1 2.1 1.3

5 5 5 5 5

5 5 5 S Ss

3,8845 1,2915 5135 149.65 795

22.25 27.35 42.45 51,15 33.95

2,3947 422 152 — 8720

13:77 0.92 1.22 = 37.420

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Réunion

617 5,600 7 0.3 1.5

6.0 Cee 0.2 1.6 3.5

694 5,700 80 1.3 2.8

6.7 78 2,0 7.3 6.5

57: 26 3 0.8 0.5

0.6 26 0.1 47 14

5 2,900 5 1.0 2.4

Ss 4.0 5 5.7 5.6

1,5285 14,40026 1205 2.9 79

14.85 19.826 3.85 17.0 18.8

47523 4,47825 9 2.220 10.120

4.623 6.125 0.3 12.820 24.020

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia

10.2 7.9 5.9 22.0 Re

1.9 0.2 1.0 321 a

5.4 Ae 3.4 6.0 os

2.6 ie 2.0 964 i

74 16.7 6.5 18.0 mc

0.4 0.3 0.2 151 oe

1.0 2.2 0.5 2.8

5 2.1 2.4 5

24.85 16.0 11.3 36.65 ay

7.6 0.57 1.47 —

21.9 3.77 4.67 —

St. Vincent San Marino Sao Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal

9

9

66

66

8.665,66

35.365, 66

1

1

1

9

1

9g

10

38.11.65

10

10

==

10

a

10

10

10

10

28010

19.210

a

—

3395 49826 1775

20.95 19.026 18.75

4420 135 7120

1,221 831 225 44 11.9 fe

3.5 ta 1.8 1,181 Ar

5 15.7 7.8 5

103 243 42

6.4 9.3 44

158 165 53

9.8 6.3 5.6

356 246 103

22.0 9.4 10.9

171 26 44

10.6 26 47

S 99 5

5 3.8 5

14

41

14

5.3

3.2

11.9

1.2

4.5

10

10

10

10

10

7.65 21 3.5 1,9655 ae

9.31, 65

8617 =

8.317 =

Paraguay Peru

8.720

Philippines

2.720 52. 7.520

Seychelles Sierra Leone

Singapore Slovakia Slovenia

4.3

15.9

10

526 1,538 249

10

4.5 10.1 4.2

10

497 783 232

4.3 5.2 3.9

1,358 2,905 530

VAT 19.2 8.9

504 818 36

4.3 5.4 0.6

5 5 5

5 5 5

2,6415 3,4675 8215

22.75 22.95 13.85

2,51320 1,02023 99020

21.620 6.723 16.620

South Africas8 Spain Sri Lanka

139 3.9

2.2 3.9

215 5.3

3.4 5.3

294 13.8

4.6 13.9

9

21 2.6

9

0.3 2.6

10

5 5

10

5 5

5505 37.25

10

10

8.75 37.15

10

77723 22.720

10

12.323 22.920

Sudan, The Suriname

6.8 6.0

10

604 713

10

13.5 20.0

399 374

16.010

8.9 10.5

—

5 5

5 5

=

1,6685 8055

37.45 22.55

221 20 927

5.020 2.67

Sweden Switzerland

48 §.2

378 1,806

10.9 20.4

23} 482

0.7 5.4

5 313

a 10

5 3:5

9515 1,259

27.35 14.2

43732 1,608 10

2357 1287

22.532 13.410

6.87 1.47

Syria Taiwan

9

9

273 320

6.1 9.0

305 215

341 879

9.8 9.9

167 463

16132 9

8.332 9

6532 10

3.332 10

14532 10

7.532 10

2,055

6.6

936

3.0

3,821

12.2

he 10

1

3932 10

1

1

1

9 1.3 75 248

9 3:9 15.1 10.5

10 1.8 30 96

10 5.7 6.0 44

10 2.6 83 217

10 8.1 16.8 9.2

10 1.2 32 15

10 3.7 6.6 0.7

10 5 5 5

10 5 5 5

164

10.4

9

9

1,049

5.0

0.2

4.0

798

3.8

56

3.6

10

10

04

1,910

8.0

1,623

119

17.3

72

9

9

57

8,118

6.3

82

26

26

50

3.2

37326

10

10

10

10

10

97610

562

23

0.2 10

4.0

—

=

1,751

7.3

144

0.6

10.4

101

14.7

19

27

57

57

57

57

57

5.5 5.3

26,43172 219

20.672 17.7

13,359

60

10.4 48

360

44

462

5.6

25

0.3

1.3

1.9

1.0

1.5

on

41

0.6

1.0

685

9.2

421

9.7

1,549

20.9

426

1.9 12.0

67.5

576 37

31.4

‘

10.2

‘

0.1

0.1

178

5.9

159

49

9

aA

66

6.8

446

5.6

1.5

9

65. ow,

4.7 3.3

90

3.0

152

4.7

10 10

431986.

1.9 78

10 10

44Excludes Alderney

1,880 9.0 25.2

.

by7.

6.2 18.9

90 2.5

11.7

Al

mr

5.7

0.3 5.3 41

84

2.8

3.7

0.8

4

0.1

287

8.9

85

2.6

10 10 428

and Sark.

10 10 3.9

10 10 24

1.8

10 10

5

5

5

1,931

5

5

5

5 5

6.8

5 &

2415

4595

1.2

5

7.95

5

2,0625

5

23.15

5

5

5

5

5

10 10

1.0 10.8

;

5

5 5

10 10

1,664

‘4Over age 14.

27

tz

12.710

=

—

57.257

35.05.72

37.05

20.2

11.85

27.85

1,374 14.0

4.5 29.5

10.85

&

zi

9.45

3915 4415

787 _

2,2417

1,01823 3223

120 26

9223

1,854 20 3.2

19.220, 41




100.07 95.0 95.4 85.8

18,987 88 24 33

99.5 95.2 98.0 98.9 91.7 93.9

697 2,717

98.7 93.7

146

100.0

4,715 27,818 53,818 662 33

95.0

5,733

6.0 363.0 23.42,3 0.8

liabilities (%)

claims

reserve

money

govern-

foreign

capital

ment

liabilities

accounts

deposits

central bank discount

rate, 1994a

5.0

0.785 58.597 24,547

501

Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland

% foreign exchange

62 12.0 13.0

79,200 260 2,910 280 130 226,000

68 4.27,9 10.07 a5 6.37 18.0

1301

15.4

1,8301

Coe

5,092,000 384,000

35.0 12.0

7,600

i

16,2001 96,600

ai

a

20.01

3,250

11.07

1,820 1,600

6.57.8 7.07.8

830

6.57.8

7,2603

197.8

24,700

0.336 35.053 22,882

7,700 7,880

4,690

¥ 12.0 95

16.08 3.619

0.124

350

11.38

49.8585

14,3205

12.0

17,409.0 59.355

44,3053 3.2211 0.291

444,000 3,350

0.5 17.0

1,5003 7,9601 350 BS

io 11.0 45

181.9791 2,806.4

13,8001 134,000

7 5.5

237.9

8,840

sane

91.2

249,71

46.0 0.028 3.137 3.093 125,858.0

13.0603 214.4631

12,900

4,3601 11,900 280 aa

2,079,000

91.8 54.9 87.8 90.9

35,000

84.4

416.9

19,900

6,495 22.3603 5.788

9.07 120 4.37,9 13.0

8.810 262.810

4,2103

42,2001 3,3303 8,640

173.43 18.174 252.2 1,230.3 4.053 5.679

0.042

3.5

1740 4 Ded

‘< ry A ~

5,010 4.0 186.4 6.0 40 67.0

5.59

60.01 95.0 72.2

Comparative National Statistics

deposit money banks, 1993»

loans to government

loans to Private sector

reserves

external public debt outstanding (long-term, disbursed only), 1992

foreign assets

deposits (000,000,000 national currency)

composition (%) demand depos.

savings depos.

foreign liabilities

ile ae _— KH

39.1 oy 21.0 eh

‘ee , en 8,994

15.6

1,362

3.568 a 76.092 Re

1441 i 30.6 ny

42.76 rs 48.86 re

104.7

27.5

39.5

99.2641 a

31.31 xe

41.71 eR

3.61 aia

43.9 13.7 29.2

24.86 54.3 35.2

‘ i i

562.2 1.591 665.299 17.172

3.8

19.2

1.830

16.0

54.3

3,630.9 95!

10.1 13.61

59.8 54.11,

749.5

offi-i cial

govt. depos.

20.5

3

1.31 a

tid 2,340 18,476

66.0

3,770

6.4

1,539

74 6.81

1,462 15,417

| total rivate i (000,000. U.S.$)

ss on

28,458 5

12.8 4.0 13.5

:

if es sad é

i oe

country

9 eae princi- —_interpal est

47.72,3 86.02,3 es 56.3

52.32,3 14.02,3 ie 43.8

1

50.0

50.0

: my

55.6 es:

44.4 a

Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands

E

me 69.0 65.8

re 31.0 34.2

Norway Oman Pakistan

a

63.4

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua .

36.6

Hl

60.7

39.3

f 4

62.1 58.4

37.9 41.6

Niger

Panama

r

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru

6.6

63.7

i

10.8

26,004

71.0

29.0

726,505.0

13.3

49,96

i

4.3

43,034

16,756.2 a

17.4 axe

41.4 er

42.3

24.9 je

61.1

10.1

A Sn

38.9

d

21,277 Rs

0.6

:

3682, 3

%

-

ads

69.2 51

30.8 oa

ass

=

50.02,3

Ra

50.02,3

612,5

we

=

77.825

22.22,5

Réunion

js

9.4 ae 2.7

65.1 68.4 63.4 58.3 64.0

34.9 31.6 36.6 41.7 36.0

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia

62.2

37.8 ee

27.778 a

ees

7,603.4 bs 33.464 0.707 1.055

@

i

0.549 es

Z =5

at

204.21 508.8

Se

10.3 Sve 39.9 47.06 51.96

45.56 rae

:

44.11 19.9

45.41, 27.3

1.322 39.303 148.212 ave

15.2 32.4 9.4 a

58.1 40.6

;

40.0 es

0.230 ie: 134.0745

35.6 = 30.65

82,825.0

188.133 33.1223 4.6401

1.128 1,313.9 844.0

H z

147.2 680

b ep

3 eed

3,9142,3 Ps

54.8 kid 53.05

" ss

4

89.3

13.1

38.7

:

14.4

53.6

5

56.53 39.21

28,53

50.51 64.8 19.1 — 48.56 —_ 39.1 5.4

Es

Ba oe

28.11

59.5 se

349.400 2,419.91

33.0 2.71

33.3 77.21

175.8 0.086 11,951

20.0 22.6 19.0

38.0 37.4 62.7

9.195 711,525,.0

18.2 10.3

41.1 25.8

se 261.3591 a 149.352

#: 41.21 as 8.4

a 22.11 hs 33.6

1,428.1

16.4 19.8 4.3 ia 14.9

48.6 42.66 nae 62.96

: 5 tte _

i on i

16.6 0

70.96 “as

si as

‘ ae

‘

; ms

I

:

0.137

46.3. 22.73

47.6 19.13

4.582 63.0053

11.3

5.0

Se

10.519

i

i : bi b

25.36

f

3,2442,.3 oe

o ; ake ‘ f 4

t

f

Qatar

fs

i

79.723 65.3

20.32,3 34.7

6 oe

68.2 50.0 52.62,3 Eee

31.8 50.0

a

3

47.42,3 a

a

St. Vincent and the Grenadines . | San Marino Sao Tomé and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal

Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia

“te

Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa

a

Spain

5

Sri Lanka

i

:

a

v0

Ee

vs

:

!

# cS a

: = Pa

z

f

79.3

Syria

ws 5

Bos

78.12,3

Taiwan Tajikistan

64.5 67.4

Tanzania Thailand

ava

=

on

65.3 56.0 53.82,3

1,138 42.3 1,782

F H ;

or

:

18 , ‘ ss

hte

Be

67.4 oS ne

50.0 66.7 67.7

Sudan, The Suriname

3 se

i‘ i

68.2 61.3

‘| s

a 2,495 415.3 1,0672,3

25,252 16,6942, 3 Bs

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico

: a oa

a .

be 3,092 15.5 39.6

Philippines

Ba

a i

:

6,048 13,238

7,418 39,640

mt

78 .

s

ee 66.7

:

i

i

21.6 oe

1,543.2

es

od :

;

2,8932, 3 2,932

27.31

4,554.1 40,716.2 oa 29.873

at 168.8

s

10,816.8 es

195.1531

:

61.0

re

ce

1,322 64,703 804.3 39.3 88.3

ae an

ay 0

it ay

7 7

A re a

5

ite

i

863

= &

: Fi I:

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago

E

Tunisia Turkey

Turkmenistan Tuvalu

ee ae 43.0 57.0 — 100.0 74.22,3 25.82,3 es

Ree

a 53.7

i 46.3

60.7

39,3

16.8 17.023 a

83.2 83.023 et

Swaziland Sweden Switzerland

Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates

& ot i

ae

4

United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.) West Bank Western Sahara

Western Samoa Yemen

Yugoslavia13

eee Zambia Zimbabwe

1 i i i i government (pu blic) enterprises and/or local governments. 51990. on nonfinancial 4lncludes claims $1991. debt not guaranteed by the government. . 2Includes long-term private 1 13Data 12Data refer to former Czechoslovakia. 1!Republic of Cyprus only. 19Money market rate. Short-term deposit rate. Arateces eeieurenes deposit: 74993. i 8Treasury bill rate. refer to the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

864

Britannica World Data

Housing and construction The present table summarizes data about the housing stock and the construction industries of the countries of the world. The principal focus is on the elements that are most comparable internationally: the age of the housing (by decade, so far as possible), the legal tenure of the householder, construction of exterior walls, principal physical amenities, sanitary arrangements, and the amount of space both absolutely (total area of the average dwelling in square metres [1 square metre equals 1.20 square yards, or 10.76 square feet]) and relatively (persons per room). The data on construction characterize the industry in terms of: (1) the portion of national gross domestic product (GDP) represented by each country’s construction industry, (2) the number of new dwelling units constructed annually, their area, and the rate (in years) required to replace the total national stock of dwellings shown on the extreme

left of the table, and

(3), for nonresidential construction, the number of buildings or portions of buildings built for nonresidential purposes and their area in square metres. Because housing patterns differ greatly from country to country, the portion of each country’s housing stock for which data are compared was defined as specifically as possible. In general, the numbers refer to

permanent, private dwelling units that are usually occupied year-round, whether or not actually occupied on the date of the housing census or survey. That definition implies the exclusion of certain housing that is often part of national housing censuses: vacation homes, second homes occupied less than half the year, collective or communal dwellings, and so on. The housing unit to which the data on tenure refer may be either the individual dwelling or the household, according to the reporting practice of the country concerned. ; The data are collected mostly from national housing censuses and surveys. The majority of countries combine the housing census with the population census at five- to ten-year intervals. Some countries, however, can conduct a meaningful housing census only in the capital city or in the few largest cities; others may be able to collect and process data for only a few of the most important housing characteristics even when national coverage is complete. These choices may be dictated by the lack of funding to collect data for the entire country or by the perception, particularly in a tropical, rural country where adequate dwellings can be built by hand, that no urgent housing problem exists. These choices may be complex, however, as

Housing and construction country

housing stock year

Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia

Aruba Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas, The Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus

dwelling unitsa

3,940,0001 385,7694 3,050,812 6,959 xe pe 15,40520 10,096,888 12 559,00022

Cuba

Denmark

Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador

Egypt

El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Ethiopia Faeroe Islands Fiji Finland France

French Guiana French Polynesia

21.9 20.8

1.5 5.7

6,450,152 12 3,393,271 1,381,00022

37.926 33,05 ne

10.426 = 18.626 14.76 18.17 Bs ae

54,308

—— 54.7 ——_

52,810

58.3

14.5

om

fa 48.6 a

37.05

25.6

21.538 26.3

ok

22,061

Fe

—— 56.0 —— ais oi

1,318,800

938,00045 ra 1,390,89620 10,079,442 12 67,619

Cyprus Czech Republic

4.4 18.0

12.4

Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

Costa Rica Céte d'Ivoire Croatia

a 19.07 6.414

25.825

276,209 35,578,857 28,676

Comoros Congo

am ae 14.05 20.36 — 51,413 —

17.024

Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

China Colombia

196069

19,224

612,041

Chile

195059

i 46.1 22.0 wie

Benin

Central African Republic Chad

1949 or earlier

tenurec (percent)

of 31.4 17.3 fe

Belize Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina

decade built (percent)

as 23.3 24.0 os

14,785,048 75,211 2,796,00022 3,748,165 37,658

Belgium

median ageb (years)

197079

1980 or later

: 24.38 186 227

_ 22.49 23.6 43.5

23.5 88 24.615 21.9

21.3 — 12.415 pa

4118

2 = 18.3 18.4 168 283 =— 33,126 —— 18.58 15.79 ES Cif ae

40.4 14.8 26.7 26.722 38.7 37.4 33.6 5.0 20.4 34.2 22.8 10.1 52.4 13.4

3.7 17.5 27 5,122 11.3 14.2 18.2

a 641 = * a 4.03 =

4 22.9 18.58 17.8 *. 12.0

m 28.5 9.99 55.9 ‘3 16.2

ate ——

276,947,962 5,824,857

ai 46.2 ——

de 54.649

val 26,249

5.3 a

Te we

2,363,364

23.251

21.352

168,588 3,705,691

—— 39.9 —— 41.75 10.26

a

500,788

1,146,37050 1,575,644

17,31022 1,125,78520 2,111,121

9,732,728

680,456 ee 663,708 9,300,000 11,17215 124,098 2,152,938 21,535,677

33,285

39,513

53 3.5 13 ;

11.2 37.5 15.418

ia 20.06 73.6

2,510,275

25,00048

collective, vacant, other

traditional materials

20.0 0.2 m3 54 =

sawn/ framed wood

masonry _ other or cement

é. *, = 556.318 «= 34.918)

a 67 77 6 5.14 323 a 11.6 61.236 x 65.6 2 1.71836

if 4.718

iS 84.2 90.6 e 81.94 54.7 93.6

a 3.0 17 " 13.04 9.0 6.4

5.0 35.4 . 24.8 2. 95.118

63.4 3.2 Ps 45 Ys 3218

723

23

214

42

48.7 ~ 0.2 *

ss = 54.8

49.3 ie 36.5 if

2.0 A 8.5 a

755 . 36.1

13.9 cs es

95 “2 60.1

14 a 3.8

82.2 13.0 2 16.7 73.5 10.5 14

7A 44.4 e 7.0 1.8 15.9 60.1 ti

25 416 S 75.6 16.9 54.9 35.6 .

8.2 1.0 f, 0.7 7.8 18.7 3.2 i

61.5 87.6 67.1 e 22.5

1.4 0.5 0.9 G 45

20.8 31.4 57.7 Ad 46.9

44 6.2 08 oe 5.6

11 4 20.35

§19,31435 Bis

2,374,970

rented

22.9 17.7 11.8 22.7

3,326,00035 1,274,54622

81,791 363,14022

owned

construction of exterior walls (percent)

44.3

10.0

F.|

a

58.440 r% ts

16,940 we ee

—— 37.12 — in

oe am 18.556 11.857 oe 5, —— 60.1 —— ra is —— 29.6 —— — 43,541, 60 —

Sie

S256 = dE 447 19.68 14.09 18.1 14.2 . a + 1¢ig40 =

18.7 81.5227 23.6 34 24.1 20.7 35.4 en 16.5 41.718 44.5 rt

18.2 8.8 9.5 14.5 13.5 0.6 re 23.5 13.618

3.8 14.9 = f -

62.92 tf

21.9 17.0 22.6 27.2 22.355

2 314 32.2 ds 37.9

27.08 20.29 ie at 5 Os

81.5 47.22 9.9

89.5

n i 26.4 27.5 27.341,62 17.741,63 5 a 27.6 45.1

14.4 20.5 39.6

9.0 14.04.15 Es 29.4 36.9

33.2 = 32,053 < 73.054 75.4 313 93 a 9.6

18.2 < 43.9 26.4 81.8415 i 15.8

77.4 44 5.9 4.6 53.5 2.6 29.8 34.8 ——4.94,15__ 2 70.6 45.2 2.2

Comparative National Statistics

planners are always aware that much housing is physically inadequate to protect dwellers from the elements, is disadvantageously placed in relation to tainted or disease-infested water supply or to the outfall of unprocessed sewage, or is built of materials (mud, skins, thatch, etc.) that may harbour

pests or disease. In the developed countries, median age and the distribution of physical amenities provide strong indicators of the quality and availability of housing. The data for the construction industry refer to the most recent year in which a broad range of countries could be surveyed. The broadest indication of total activity in a national construction industry is its contribution to the national gross domestic product, since that figure, in addition

to construction

of buildings,

also includes

civil

engineering projects, such as dams, roads and other transportation infrastructure, recreational facilities, irrigation and land reclamation works, and

the like. The scope of the data relating to construction of buildings may be limited in several respects. It may be confined to activity capable of being surveyed in the modern or urban sectors only, may be limited to private new construction only or to government and government-financed

activity only, or may refer to construction mortgaged or financed through

certain organizations only. Depending on national data-collection systems, it usually excludes remodeling of old premises but may include extensions or enlargements of existing buildings. The data for new construction are

usually of two principal types: authorized new construction or certification after construction that newly built structures meet building and fire codes and the like. Data for construction completed are naturally more meaningful but are not available for every country, necessitating the substitution of authorized construction data, which are usually available only for areas regulated by certain types of governmental authorities. The following notes further define the column headings:

a. Data refer to permanent, private dwelling units that are usually occupied year-round, whether or not occupied on the census date. b. Data are estimates unless specifically provided by a country source. c. Data may be either for dwellings or for households, depending on country reporting practice. d. Data may be either for construction completed or for construction authorized, depending on country reporting practice.

construction industry (1991)

physical amenities (percent) | sewage disposal (percent) piped water

electricity

25.32 33.0 72.7 96.2 —

66.52 ca 73.315 94.4 “4

inside toilet or WC 5.52 21.3 as 93.4 —_-

closed pubopen lic sewer or — public septic tank sewer 5.5 ue 51.015 68.5 oe

a

other | average area (sqm)

779 16.6 50 a 22.815 26.215 — 31.5— — a

ee

spaced

ye

er 35.7

= a

rooms per dwelling unit 5:5 1.8 2.9 45 ro

percent of persons | GDP per room 2.1 2.6 2.6 1.6 m0

6.410, 11 19.516 ne 19.911

total no. of dwellings ee 12,428 12 71,43317 21819

a

3

oe

om

17.0

ah

—

83.0 —_

a

3.1

72.9 5 S79

a

86.8 ee, 98.726

11.011

95.1 on 89.226

77.1 ee

—

22.9—_

3.9 So Si2

1.3 ne 0.7

1.911 13.8 8.227

67,52821 er 15812

97.128 95.026

98.429 ee

92.226 88.7

99.026 94.326

— 1.026 — = 5.726

ner

ne

5.126 4.319

“0

0.626 0.619

a

8.030 7.3

132,700 36,553 11

oe

en

10.610

4.0 3.035

1.2 2.329

3.119 Sw

83.034 97.5

56.8 94.0 99.6 54.9

77.9 98.2

6.6 92.6 ee 100.0 67.2

2.6 66.2 oe 91,9 34.7

3

oe ce 90.3 i oe

Hy

0

—3318— oo ee 2775

os

i

4.26 ee 64.2 i a

25.426 aoe 94.2

8.626 60.119 57.4

2

a

‘9

100 a 24.9

2 2.2 99.435 25.1

34.6 55.3

hy

ae

+

Pe

— 98.7 — 0.4 32.8 re a — 37.540 — — 65.3 —

96.718 | 96,718 oe 2

oh 85.0

a

AS 66.8 Pee 62.540 34.7

ee

97.418 , 2

ists 16.2

63.2 44.7

355

ss 86.3

oe

as

2.0 4.3 x 4.3 53

3218 vs

2.9 0.8 te 0.6

§.731 48 11.810, 37 6.0 7.437

rd

5.816

0718 | 4.942 8.4 27

56.0

MS

71.026 20.426 — 39.919 — — 42.6 — _— — re pe

es

ae

‘4 2 27.66 70.4 2.2 —1.1— 98.926 96.618 —— 3.418 —_—

‘5

nt

t 25.2217}

3

63.2 47.02.17

4

‘4

0.4 36.4 —§3.02,17—

on

2 see, 0.5 2.818

5.516 6.637 15.619

3.6 ge

6

z 1.33 4.817

33 486 «1.6

1.216 5.8 5.3

4.6

2.5 3.72

2.1 1.72

5.937 1.816

77.9

12:9 30.5

53 8.8

aa 16.6

21 — 97.9 — 13.82 —— 86.22 ——

33.7

23.9

——

seagigie — 66.5 31.5 68.5 —— gas 80.8

70.4

Be

iE

B69 86.2

39.6

97.3 986

; 80.3

ee

ay

via

23.0

To odacie10.0 Loe) tet 100.0 100.0 els ae 62.720

73.1 48.0

= ae 88.5 98.1 i | 98.6"626 99.216 82.0

58.0

45.0

69.6

26.0

5

Ae

on

a 77.720

wo 49.620

Oeics 39,520

87.0 34.1

a 6329 | 20.022

a

fe 4 pee —

—

1.9—

1.426 1.426

—

51.0

23.0

“

cn

40 a oun

.043

41

41

9,310, 16

10.237

38‘

0.6i

1.0

11.3 1" 5.637 637

ie

1.9

6.9

5.8

2.840

1.740

7.3

ae

Ke :

os er

pets 35.4

cee 25.1

1.0

0.8

70.55 407.8i

—

eee.

4.6

on —80.022—

ena

Stee 1.58

0

105.216 a 94.512

589 11312

11,17031 3,981

48.6 92.811

23,34015 50015

2,60032 ase

Pe 5,39532 25,836 6,18541

a

aw

oa 218,304 16 a

6217 1,44419

49.1 a “fe 72.316 a5

ox 9,101 16 be:

74,9967

ee

2301 in 3127

a 44.016 es

a

564818

70.217

76015 a 996 93,235

53.4

re

25.417

149.5

;

694

82

3,825a 15

ia 53.016

34115

a

me 32 36,684 —

13217 8,18017 med

*

51.11 a 0.527

Es

oo

ee

99.7

99:5.

67.92

54

a

77.0 92.5

BON 91.0

95.0

io

* 89.7

9

a

96.4

ne 3.6

ae oo

Ce

eee

oA 78.9

ed 2.01

el 67.01

m8

2.2

8.1

nae 92.7

ars95.94.15 95.1

eae

po ae

ds

31.01

74.2 a

e

ao : 5.5

‘9

ache ial

0

eS

10.6 r

a

a

:

6.437

Db

de

9.316

;

:

8.6 aS

as

ms

22337

32932

26058

rm

ac

37.517

2,008 251,050

46915

1,103.15

cr 6,14117 pee

ae

178

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon

Canada Cape Verde

Chad ChileI China

;

rs

921 10517

1,209

195

35,711

ee

59.317

15617

32,88628 .

CostaRica

Vvoire

Cuba

Mi 4,195 oe

Czech Republic Denmark an

41115

i

412.715 ¥

ort7

emotes ongo

1,803 15

59615 .

45.117

8532

Botswana Brazil : eee ulgaria Burkina Faso

Cea

50817

49

‘70017

;

io

85617

4,127i

41.6 ne

Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize

1199416 | Colombia

51,803 eS

2.76717

Azerbaijan

Central African Republic

Cyprus

{

Dominica ini

.

Dominican Republic

Ecuador Egypt

0.715 | El Salvador

5.616

os

Australia Austria Bahamas, The Bahrain

so

ee,

nae

64817 ne qeascute

531 14,84615 327

2,86815 aS 477

1,80035

97917

47215 5,01715 5

ne

2,212 ; 1,449 ae

15,888

13,72731 10015

Bosnia and Herzegovina

a

69,300 \

6,639 17

Argentina Armenia Aruba

1111.48

32.116

Angola

Antigua and Barbuda

Benin

in

145

5) 940,020

Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra

Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia

tt

25,34435

37

TU | po2.997 3355

ea 147.0 53.016 er

Rte

12,623

a

ee

1511, 48 in 87,500 «.

3

52.917 27.519

ie

5.346

27 2.241 8.4

14 “a a ti

164.518

ee

9617 oe 20,09017 ce 1954, 41 62,80016 1,386 12 a Pa

414 ot 1.818

785

21018

5.731 Meal 2.811 9.410, 35 0.617

:

ae 17 @

a

20.219

a2

0.627

705

oo 47.518

3s 1,91023 art

1,02717 1,91919

300,90021 1,96019 a 30,120 =

number — floor area of units (000 sq m)

1s 1418

26,568 12

2.427

9

585 18

es 37.412 42.617 21.519

7,110, 16

227

59.935,43 37.017

Pa 9118

76419

1.7

24

years to replace nat'l stock

36.616 a 52.816

1.8 0.918 1.6 1.144

re

oa

new nonresidentiald

floor area (000 sq m)

55616 BM 24,98016

2.6 5.118 4.2 2.544

2 .343 age

country

new residentiald

85.4

1.9

865

23

32

Equatorial Guinea Eritrea

Estonia

63.358 | Ethiopia on

37

34,05023 ose

Faeroe Islands

Fiji

Finland Fore

oe

28.515 | French Guiana 32

French Polynesia

866

Britannica World Data

Housing and construction country

(continued)

housing stock unitsa

i

Gabon

1967

Gambia, The

1983

202,199

Georgia Germany 66

1989 1987

1,244,000 22 34,173,581 12

i

Ghana Gibraltar Greece Greenland Grenada

1984 1991 1981 1989 1981

1,216,677 7,60420 3,999,332 18,401 21,017

im 25.0 29.2 10.2 18,340

Gaza Strip

Guadeloupe

Guam Guatemala

2

1992

1990

1990 1981

66,81964

112,478

35,223 1,259,598

Rss

a

15.8 12.5

21,21520 674,15222

ee

Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti

1979 1980 1987

123,936 149,73422 1,164,136

ne 17.6 a

Honduras Hong Kong

1988 1991

809,263 1,580,072

12.177 a

Hungary Iceland India Indonesia

1990 1984 1981 1989

3,817,000 70,777 142,954,921 38,881 ,10622

25.6 a

8,211,375

Iraq

1956

741,000

es

1981 1991 1983 1991

1,038,000 12 27,316 1,104,270 19,509,36222

47.2 “fi a 19.426

Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan

1982 1988 1991 1979 1989

517,297 22 37,393,000 32,463 378,815 3,824,00022

17.0 11.0 aie

Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait

1979 1990 1987 1990 1985

2,956,369 22 11,301 22 4,054,027 22 11,301,006 228,781

Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia Lebanon Lesotho

1989 we

856,00022 i

1989 1970 1986

732,00022 483,90820 317,16120

Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg

197448 1984 1980 1991 1991

263,333 569,679 9,336 1,165,70022 144,683

Macau

1991

89,193

1989 1975

ee 1,671,47322

Malawi Malaysia

1987 1991

1,859,572 3,447,597

Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique

1990 1987 1985 1980 1990

37,114 1,364,079 101,509 4,163 123,317

Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

1977 1990 1991 1990 1980

24646222 223,821 19,227 16,197,802 11,562

Moldova Monaco

1989 1990

1,144,00022 16,122

Mongolia

1969

Morocco

Mozambique ee

(Burma)

Nauru

1982

1980

1983

1977

242,000

47

Ee 30.660

ead 15,267

ae 23.668

af 37.372 30.25 11.928 48.040

5 16.773 27.46 18.828 29.040

ie 15.674 20.77 46.528 22,240

en

tes

sds

Ss

2.3 74 —— 62.0 —

—

38.977 ——

ee

ms 29.4 aS 33.1

4 40.288 esd

ay 27.187 we 34.55

aes 15.088 os 17.66

63.9

21.9

si 19,869

ths 10,870

‘he 39.0

a 60.3

ee 23.075 —_ 21.5 — 22.828 — 0.840

ni 7.476 ——_ — ——

47,750 15.2 73,177 39.315 74.5

25.350 27.050 84.8 = 26.977 = — 60.715 —_ 14.4 11.1

23.9

ved

eee

a

sae

415 29.9 —— 28,0 —

Oe

89.115,65

ee 19.0

7 ak — 81.890 —_ 6.4 13.3 — 54,592 ——

its —

i 19.71 ——

Fe — 51.418 3.8

a 30.0

=

3,419,28222

13.0

7.615,65

14.2

3,315,65

w

ar —

e

28.2

1981 1989 1991

56,070 44,047 1,185,396

21.0 a

a —_ a2

se 39,560 —_

a

1990 1990

8,210 1,769,000

1980

12,597,000

; 11.8

— 39.6 ——_ — 24,945 — ¥: a

Be 68.255 ts 79.0 38.2

oa 17.955 a 17.7 53.6

ie 13.955 a 3.3 8.2

00 27.1 a 12.57

ee

a

ae 62.549 53.6 se 66.1

con 28.049 41.7 “a 28.3

Ss 9.549 47 a 5.6

—— 30.8 —— ae a 17.88 17.69

65.9 ne

32.0 a

2.1 xe

oss —

te 80.3

oo

oe 13.2

oo 6.5

——— 70.5 ———_—_

5.1 214 oe

85.8 19.3

9.1 4.0

“

o

0.1 85.6 57.4

23 6.6 5.4

1.9 6.0 0.2

61.077 +

26.477 oo

11.777 “

0.977 ov

21.8 om

14.6 9

63.6 71.978 an os

aes

oe

28.8

0.7

7.1 _— =

28.4 73.1 a

54.4 23:5 Xe

did 64.455 ad 7.8 46.54

a ——— ee 18.9 =—

mn 35.655 Ex 73.0 36.54

Se

hs

i.

ee

e

51.6 a

13.7 21.7 41.6 as Bic ———— 18.291 24.7 — 55.5 —— 17.963 —— 27.676 —_

84.2 53.9 60.0 60.9

3.6 8.5 43.0 33.0 32.5

_ 7.3 3.1 7.0 6.6

53.8 75.9 93.064 10.7 20.427

aa hc a 24,31,93 ——56.01, 94 — a fer is 15.418 — 33.218 —_ 21.3 —— 69.7 ——

~ 75.9 778 779 51.8

wed 15.2 14.8 14.6 39.2

sis 8.9 7:3 ise: 9.0

Ss _ 50.4 19.0 6.0

ie 23.3

iad 60.5

a 16.2

41.22

43,32

15.52

fe 13.061

o

Rr 19.762

f

-

t. 27.895

i

100.0

—

=

sa

ei

18.0

mn

5;

75.386

21.7

20.3

43.215

—— 30.5 — 80.7 ——_—_ —16,226—_ ef

es

+e

25 20.66

6.4 17.87

Ae

17.187

36.799

24.9100 = ——21,3101

«

13.3 20.78

&

3 76.8 16.09

fu

Re

24.5

10.786

14,086

56.815

ree

0.540 «=

69.2

99.340 is

oh

Fs

3.1 te

44.4 as

= on

1.3

10.1 1.4

2% 0.3 17.04

0.240 =

a 0.9 285

ad 414 8.5 10.3 et 92.964 63.5 15.9 ———79.627

2.4 5.3 0.2164 9.9

a de 4.21 66.81 —— 48.2 ——_. 8.1 69.5 41.8 14.6

es 28.91 1.4 3.4 37.6

a

—

86.5

2.3

80.3

80.686

e

1.0 44.15

e

=a

— 60.4—— 25.018 11.618

cor 25,3

i

_ esd

39.6 63.418

a

73.5

os

1.8

8.3

29

14.8

3.2

1.7

re

sr

a

56.4 72.4

35.2 29.7 22.7

13.9 4.9

64.4

20.3

= 6.4 2

15.3

18.3 14:7 2s

30.8

78.8 61.7 LN

29 20.2 a

45.6

21.8

1.8

$e

2.46927,

a

4.2

4.0

ae ee ————29.4 oH Se

19.7 ——— 19.226

—— 19,3 — — 64,126 — Be

5

ae

12.9

96.0

other

%.

6,750,884

330,422

|

masonry or cement

a

95.7 1.8 37.0

we

1,163,42422

Es a

“

17.528 —

2,712,439 22

50896

mae

29.5

17.2

Es

sawn/ framed wood

_

82.9

0.0 55.6

ss = —37.1—— — 24.1 —

—

traditional materials

aa 0.7

62.6

a

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand

1989

i

ae 30.1 87 igs

te

Oman

va

tr 13.1 14.518

-

Pakistan98

owned

37.869,77, —— 23.377 — 13.626 — 38.326 —_

—— 33.6 —— 28.8 7.383 — 67.884 —_ fs see a

25.4

Northern Mariana Islands Norway

25.8

és

82.528 —___

#

5,802,400

198297

fa

collective, vacant, other

rented

1980 or later

— 60.0 —— 12.8 —— 26.2 —— ae # as ee e 9.579 ——— 90,580 30.85 19.738 27.581 — 22.047 —

2,585,15422

Nigeria

197079

32.95 11.852 14.9 23.2 — 46.0 ——_ ————_ 54.1 ve cB rs ve Pe Gy as

1981

1971

8.177

19.2 10.0

i —— 43.5 — 19.4 — 75.9 __—_

1990

1988

a

14.3

Netherlands, The

Nicaragua

196069

31.2

Nepal

Niger

195059

re

———

Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy

Macedonia Madagascar

et

23.0

1991 1983

1986

1949 or earlier

15,88648

Guernsey Guinea

Iran

a

ageb eae)

rs

ne

66.5

nt

a

as

37.0

46.0

39.5 80.3

17.0

56.6 —

29.0

3.9 19,7 —

—

71.0

0.0 a4

=

13.5

66.5

a

a

20.0 ;

78.4

wm

13.9

49.2

2.4

702

198

208

a 41 ‘4

a

7A

Comparative National Statistics

ee

—s—™ construction industry (1991)

physical amenities (percent) piped water

electricity

inside toilet or WC

sewage disposal (percent) closed pubopen lic sewer or — public septic tank sewer

aa 21.9

50.5 as

97.215

97.6

98.4

99.7

98.3

97.118

ne 100.026

ts 99.2

Ra 100.026

Bd

100.0

34.071 96.726

81.329 62.728

other

ue

89.029 84.228

93,029 39,128

86.540

average area (sqm)

rooms per dwelling unit

*

3.0 2.0

144.343

af

a

82.112

A 39.128

ae am —60.928—

23.040

23.040

83.2

89.4

78.2

24.627

99.2 52.0 96.528

98.4 37.0 re

97.0 14.3 98.8

97.0 20.1 65.9

Es

oe

at

0.612

5.737

i 3.3

ok Ae

3.411 Res

1.0

4.727

67616

5.0 24 5,819

0.8 ee, 0.519

7.927 2.0 aa

41717 a 16516

5.611

ee

ei

te

90.1 99.178 67.049 12.9 74.6

98.841 94.678 53.52.49 44.0 84.1

75.9 93.678 20.049 26.618 43.6

85.5 86.578 oe 22.829

— 14.5— — 13,578 — at vat — 77,229 — cs oz

a 93.0 99.5

oe 72.329 ake

wed ae — 27.729 — te hn

—

95.8 —

#

2.4 3.715 a

E3 1.015 0.426

8.011 5.017 9.817

ae 23,56837 16817

11,52117 2,74111 ted

a 44.037 161.017

2

5.316

48.6 i eS 77.3

35.2 65.8 93.026 55.486

3 61.21 96.085 1837. Bsa

a 89.9

2.440 49 5.0

43 0.7 0.5

Be 84.3 — 41.0 —

Ss

99.518

ay

12.937 8.7 Pe ie H

a

69,60037

93,21423

98.5

3,793 1,370,000 35417 6,29219 a

re 117,219 a nl 7

136.4 28.7 82.517 60.219

6.911

35.918

93.4

82.9

e Ge ie

e ioe car | oe % 2

80.6

64.118 —

—

és

e

ba

28

4S

91

4.018

1.818

2.011

828

a

tee

750,00016 9,73519,45

ag

69,437

2,563 16

Re 3.7

1,232 ea

7.210, 37

432

2 oe 96.0 99.4

On

93.040

99.4

eer ee E

57.9 114.2

— 7.040 —

a

68.6

ees

ea

ee

- me

:4

bal;

a

23.6

22.818

33.418

33.064

65.018

64.418

-

56.418

oe

ts 67.064 —

—

re

3.34 1.849 Smee < 2 5.418

0.518

3.1

1.3

2.216

|42.716 49 7.5 wis

5.716

ne

La

3.817 f

1.9

isda

4.437

ks 15,30011,20 2,98237 10,796

10,1891 fn

23.517, 45

:

rie at

eee Me

7.528 5

a AS

— 58,227 —

3,2

0.9

3.627

1,528

55.8

me

5

7.941

Bs

40.0

28.3;

fac 100.0

0.3 30.52 12.7

100.0488 aa

4.

ee

rf5 a 96.2

h

oe

en

30:2 98.0

a 100.0

96.9

85.3

27.9

82.0

2 90.017

7

40.9

19.3

19.2 i

.