Britannica Book of the Year 1989 0852295049

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1989

Britannica Book of the Year

>v>v/''{
ectacular snow-capped peaks such as Popocatepetl, Ixtacihuatl (17,342 feet [5,286 metres]), and Toluca (14,954 feet [4,558 metres]), forms the southern boundary of the Mexican Plateau. East and west of the Mexican Plateau lie the country's coastal lowlands. The Gulf Coastal Plain extends some 900 miles along the Gulf of Mexico from the Texas border to the Yucatan Peninsula. Characterized by lagoons and lowlying swampy areas east of the abrupt escarpment formed by the Sierra Madre Oriental, the triangular northern portion of the plain is more than 100 miles wide near the U.S. border but tapers toward the south. North of Tampico, an outlier of the Sierra Madre Oriental reaches the sea and interrupts the continuity of the Gulf Coastal Plain. South from there the plain is narrow and irregular, widening at the northern end of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and then encompassing the horizontal limestone formations that

Coastal lowlands

underlie the Yucatan Peninsula. The Pacific Coastal Lowlands, much narrower and less well defined than their east coast counterpart, begin near the Mexicali Valley in the north and terminate near Tuxpan, some 900 miles to the south; despite their name, for most of this distance the lowlands face the Gulf of California. Bounded on the east by the steep-sided Sierra Madre Occidental, the Pacific Coastal Lowlands are a series of coastal terraces, mesas, and small basins interspersed with riverine deltas and restricted coastal strips. Parts of this arid region have become important sites of irrigated agricultural production. An isolated strip of extremely arid land, the Baja California Peninsula is nearly 800 miles long but seldom more than 100 miles wide. The central core of the peninsula is a huge granitic fault block with peaks of more than 9,000 feet above sea level in the San Pedro Martir and Sierra de Juarez. The gently sloping western side of these

Baja California

mountain ranges is in contrast to the steep eastern escarpment, which makes access from the Gulf of California extremely

difficult.

Balsas Depression, which takes its name from the major river draining the region, lies immediately south of

The

the Mexican Plateau. The depression is formed of small, irregular basins interrupted by hilly outcrops, which gives this hot, dry area a distinctive physical landscape. The Southern Highlands are a series of highly dissected mountain ranges and plateaus. On their southwestern

approximately from Puerto Vallarta to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, are a series of ranges known collectively as the Sierra Madre del Sur. These relatively low (7,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level) crystalline mountains often reach the sea to create a rugged coastal margin, part of which is known as the Mexican Riviera. Picturesque coastal sites, such as Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Acapulco, and Puerto Escondido, are favourite tourist destinations, while the less hospitable inland basins provide a difficult enviside,

,

ronment for traditional peasant farmers. Farther northeast is the Mesa del Sur, with numerous stream-eroded ridges and small, isolated valleys some 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. The Oaxaca Valley is the largest and most densely settled of these valleys. With its predominantly Indian population, it is one of the most picturesque yet poorest parts of Mexico. A low-lying, narrow constriction of land, the Isthmus of Tehuantep)ec reaches an elevation of less than 900 feet. Its hilly central area is bordered on either side by narrow coastal plains.

The Chiapas Highlands, an extension of the mountain ranges of Central America, are composed of a series of fault block mountains surrounding a high rift valley. The low, crystalline Sierra de Soconusco range lies along the

Pacific coast.

To

the northwest

and

paralleling the coast

39

is

A

group of highly dissected, folded, and faulted mountains is located between the valley and the Tabasco Plain, a southeastern extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain. To the northeast of the Tabasco Plain and extending into the Gulf of Mexico is the Yucatan Peninsula. The

the

rift

valley of the Grijalva River.

is generally flat to rolling and seldom exceeds 500 feet in elevation. There is little surface drainage, and subterranean erosion has produced caverns and sinkholes, the latter being formed when cavern roofs collapse. The islands of Cozumel and Mujeres lie off" the

peninsula's limestone terrain

peninsula's northeastern

tip.

climatic characteristics and arrangement of landforms, Mexico has few major rivers or natural lakes. The largest are found in the central part of

Drainage.

Because of

its

The Lerma River has its headwaters in the Toluca Basin, west of Mexico City, and flows westward to form Lake Chapala, the country's largest natural lake. The the country.

Santiago River then flows out of the lake to the northwest, Madre Occidental on its way to the Pacific. The eastward-flowing Moctezuma-Panuco river system, which drains much of the eastern portion of the Mesa Central, has carved gorges through the Sierra Madre Oriental to reach the Gulf of Mexico. Lakes Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo, west of Mexico City, are remnants of the

crossing the Sierra

numerous lakes that once were found in the Mesa Central. The Balsas River and its tributaries drain the Balsas Depression as well as much of the southern portion of the Mesa Central. Dammed where it crosses the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Balsas is a major source of hydroelectric power. Farther southeast, the Grijalva-Usumacinta river system drains most of the humid Chiapas Highlands. Together with the Papaloapan River, which enters the Gulf of Mexico south of Veracruz, the Grijalva and Usumacinta account for about 40 percent of the total volume of

Mexico's rivers. In the north aridity and interior drainage limit the size and number of rivers. By far the most important stream in this part of the country is the Rio Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande in the United States), which forms part of the international border. The Conchos River, a tributary of the Rio Bravo, drains much of the Mesa del Norte. Because the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental originate close to the coastal margins, streams on the west and east coasts are short and steep. Along the Pacific Coastal Lowlands the Yaqui, Fuerte, and Culiacan rivers have been dammed and support major irrigated acreages. Aridity in Baja California and the porous limestones that underlie the Yucatan Peninsula cause these regions to be virtually devoid of permanent surface streams. Soils. In the tropical areas of southern Mexico, lateritic soils predominate. Throughout southeastern Mexico, leaching produces infertile reddish or yellow soils high in iron oxides and aluminum hydroxides. The richest soils in the country are the chenozem-like volcanic soils found

Mesa

Central. Deep, easily crumbled, base minerals, these dark soils have been, in in the

and

rich in

some

areas,

farmed continuously for several centuries. Because of their and good structural properties, they can be used for crops even on extremely steep slopes, but overuse has caused serious sheet erosion and exposure of tepetate (a Hme hardpan) in many areas. In the arid north, gray-brown desert soils occupy the largest expanses. High in lime and soluble salts, these soils can be extremely productive when irrigated, but salt buildup is sometimes a excellent drainage

serious problem.

Climate. Because of its topographic diversity and latitudinal range, Mexico has a wide array of climatic conditions, often occurring over short distances. More than half of the country lies south of the Tropic of Cancer. In these areas, tropical maritime air masses from the Gulf

of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, which are attracted by the relatively low pressures that occur over the land, are the main sources of precipitation that is heaviest during the period from May through August. Tropical hurricanes, which are spawned in oceans on both sides of the country, are common in the coastal lowland areas during the months of August through. October. The climates

Volcanic soils

40

Mexico

_i..

Mexico IMAP INDEX

Hidalgo del

Tizimin

Parral (Parral)

Political subdivisions

Aguascalientes

.22

.

Iguala

00 n 102 30

w

30 00 N 115 00

Baja California Sur

25 50 N

w

w 1900n 90 30w 16 30 n 92 30 w 28 30 n 106 00 w 27 20 n 102 00 w 19 10 N 104 00 w

Campecfie Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila

Colima

1 1 1

..19 15n

Distrito Federal

99

50

10w

24 50 n 104 50 w Guanajuato .... 21 00 n 101 00 w Guerrero 1740n10000w

Durango

20 30n 9900w 20 20 N 103 40 w

Hidalgo Jalisco

Mexico Michoacin Morelos

19

20N 9930w

19 10 n 101 50

18

w

45n 9900w

w w 17 00n 96 30w 18 50N 98 00w

22 00 n 105 00

Nayarit

... .25 40 n 100 00

Puebia 21 00 n 99 55 w Queretaro Quinfana Roo ... 19 40 n 88 30 w

San Luis Potosi

.22 30 n 100 30

.

w

25 00 n 107 30 w 29 20 n 1 10 40 w 18 00 n 92 40 w 24 00 n 98 45 w 1925n 98 lOw 19 20 n 96 40 w 20 50 n 89 00 w 23 00 n 103 00 w

Sinaloa

Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas TIaxcala

Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecas

and towns AcSmbaro 20 02 Cities

Acapuico Aguascalientes ApatzingSn

.

w w 18 w 21 w

n 100 44

99 55

16 51 N .21

53 n 102

19

05n 102

93 54 w 19 46 N 104 22 w 30 37 n 1 12 06 w 19 51 n 90 32 w

Arriaga

16

Autlan

Caborca

Campeche Cananea Cancun Carmen Casas Grandes

14n

w w 18 38n 91 50w .30 22 n 107 57 w 20 31 n 100 49 w 21 12 n 97 44 w 1830n 88l8w 28 38 n 106 05 w .17 33n 99 30w 30 57 n 21 05 n

.

Celaya Cerro Azul

Chetumal Chihuahua

1

10 18

86 46

Chilpancingo Ciudad Acufia (Las Vacas) ... .29 18 n 100 55 .

.

.

Ciudad de Mexico, see Mexico City Ciudad Delicias Ciudad Guzman Ciudad Hidalgo Ciudad Juarez Ciudad Mante Ciudad Obregon Ciudad Pernex Ciudad Victoria Coatzacoalcos Colima Comitan Cosamaloapan Cozumel .

.

Independencia

99 32W 20 41 n 101 21 w 19 32n 96 55W

.18 21 n

.

Jalapa Jerez de Garcia Salinas

Jimenez Juchitan

La Paz La Piedad

Cavadas

Guasave

Guaymas Hermosillo

Heroica Nogales

w

w w 27 w 54 w 58 w 56 w

24 27 N 104 07

21 01 n 101 15

25 34 n 108 27 56 n 1 10 29 04 n 1 10 .31 20 n 110

99 96 92

Zacapii

12N .1759N .19 50N

Zacatecas

.22 47 N 102

.

.

.

09w w 14 w 40W 26 w 43W 24W 18 w 07W 04 w 01 w 08W 55W 43 w 35 w

101

Zamora de

Ciudad Acuha Le6n

Hidalgo 21 07 n 101 40

w

24 52 n 99 34W Los Mochis 25 45n 108 57 w Los Tuxtlas, see San Andres

.19

Zapopan

59N 102 16w

.20 43 N 103 24

w

18

46n 92 36W 03n 104 20 w 36n 98 28W

25 23 23 20 32

53 n 97 30W 39 n 100 39 w 13 n 106 25 w 58 n 89 37W 40 n 11529W

17

Manzanillo

19

Matamoros Matamoros Matehuala Mazatliin

Merida Mexican Mexico City (Ciudad de Mexico) Mezquital

Monterrey Morelia

19

Mule)6

26 53 N 27 06 n

Monclova

Navo|oa

Nueva Rosita Nuevo Laredo Oaxaca

42n

.

.

.27 57 n 101

.

.

.27 1

7

30 n 03 n

Orizaba

18 51 n

Pachuca

20 07 n

Papantia

20 27n

Parral,

w 11201 w 109 26 w 101 07

13w

99 31 w 96 43W 97 06W 98 44W 97 19 w

see

Island

del Parral .

w 27W 40W

.28 42 n 100 31

.

.

55N 102

.28 15 N 108

.28

Catoche, Cape

Cedros Cedros

Island

02

w

00 N 112

00W

.

.20

00N 94 00W

.

.21

35 N

.

.28 12 N 115

87

05W 15w

Reserve Chapala, Lake

.28 12 N 115 .

.

.20

15w

15N 103 00 w

Chiapas,

de Itza, .

.

.20

40N 88 34W

w

18

27N 95

16

45n 92 38W

13

San Felipe San Francisco

31 00 n 114 52

w

w w 54 w 48 w 59 w

de) river

.

.

Sea

Santa Barbara Santa Catarina Santiago Papasquiaro

.

.

.

.25 03 n 105

.

20 56 N 22 13n

25 w 101 26 w 97 51 w 92 17 w 99 36W 103 53 w

Tecpan Tehuac^n

54n 18 33N 18 55n 1715n 100 41 w 18 27n 97 23W

Tepic

21 30 N 104 54

Tequila

20 54 n 103 47

14

Tierra Blanca ... .18 27 n

96 32 32 n 11701 21

w w w w

97 47

w

19

28n102 15w

Islands

19 02 n

98 38

w

OOn

111 30

Rio

w

25 55 n

97 09 99 19

w w

22 52 N 109 53

w

30 45 n 115 13

w

19

Grande

(Rio

Bravo)

Cape San Pedro

Martir,

Santiago Sebastian Vizcaino Bay

w

.... 1 5 30 n 92 35 ... .28 48 n 111 49

w w

OOn

de

.

river

18

Laguna de .26 00 N

98

.

.20 25 N

86

.

.25

.

Island

Fuerte, river

Cordillera)

OOn 100 00 w

21 35 n

97 35

w

Tehuantepec,

region

Cozumel

114 30

.. .28

Desierto

Nororiental Plain

.

54N 109

00W 55W 22 w

Gulf of

Tehuantepec, Isthmus of

16

OOn 94 50w

17

OOn 95 00w

Terminos,

Laguna de

.32 15 N 114 30

Desert)

w

9133w 12 25 w 08n 99 44w

....18 37n Tibur6n Island .29 00 n Toluca,

Santiago

Mount

.

.

.

.

.19

1

Tula, historical site

(Santiago),

36 N 105 26 w .18 36N 92 39W .21

.

.

.

.

20 03N

Tuxpan, river ... .20 59 n Usumacinta, river

18

99 21 w 97 18w

24n 92 38w

Plain,

Uxmal, historical

see Costera

89 46w Vicente Guerrero Reservoir 23 55 n 98 44 w Yaqui, river 27 37 n 110 39 w site

Nororiental Plain

National Park

.

.

.21 51 N

105 55

w

de

Sierra

.... .32 00 N 115

50W

La Venta, 15

w

Montebello National Park .16 03N 91 45 Lerma, river .... .20 13 N 102 46

w

.

.

.17

58N 94

Lagunas de .

Lower

.

w

California,

see Baja California Madre,

Laguna Madre

.25

00N 97 40W

Occidental, Sierra

20 22n

Yucatan

Juarez,

historical site .

Volcano Popocatepetl Volcano

Southern Highlands Tamiahua,

Isabela Island

San Pedro

w w

Paricutin

Sonoran Desert, see Gran

(Gulf Coastal

22 53 n 109 32 29 n 114

w w w w

26 00 n 108 00 OOn 110 00

.18

...1731n 9158w

w

Gulf of

Lucas

20 55 n 100 45 25 45 n 102 59 .26 48 n 105 49 .25 41 n 100 28

.

river ... .22 16 n

.20 25 N 105 42

Costera

.

.

Sonora,

California,

Gulf Coastal

Miguel de Allende

Ocean

w w

97 16

of,

Grijalva, river

.22 09 n 100

.

25 45 n 102 50 w 00 n 104 00 w .17 00 n 97 00 w

.27

Palenque,

.29 35 N 104 25

.19 01 N

Conchos,

27 27 n 11251

.

Pacific

Sierra

21 01 n 101 51

Luis Potosi

.

.M 00 N 96 43w

see Citlaltepetl Volcano

(Chiapas

Ignacio Luis

river

(Orizaba, Pico

river

del Rincon

historical site ..

Volcano

Grande de

de

Casas

59n 98 34w

96

Soconusco,

(Sonoran

Tuxtia (Los

15n

Grande de

see Soconusco, Chichfen

Plain),

30w

18

21

Monte Alban,

Sierra

Gran Desierto

San Andres

Reservoir

Moctezuma,

Santiago, see

Cordillera de.

w

20 34 n 101 12w 25 25 N 101 00 w

w w

.25 00 n

San Lucas,

Wildlife

see

24 00 n 102 00 91 00

.

Salado, river ... .26 52 n

Cape 25 48 n

w w w

.21

1

Revillagigedo

Island

20

Tijuana

.

of

Cortes,

1 1 1

27 30 n 103 30 25 n 106 28 26 45 n 109 47

.

Plateau

Mexico, Gulf of Miguel Alem^n

historical site

of)

Corrientes,

Tapachula Taxco

.17

Campeche, Bay

w

Tampico

.

Sea

89 98 12

03n

.

Mayo, river Mexican

PSnuco,

National Park

97

Silao

.

30W 10 w

Cascades

21 17 n

San San San San San

w

Basaseachic

20 33 n 19

desert Marias Islands

.24 35 n

Lowlands .... .28 00 N 113

Balsas, river

Progreso Puebia Puerto

Escondido

w w

.

Pacific Coastal

Poza Rica

Cristobal

.29 20 N 113 25

California),

Sierra

12 00

17 00 n 100 00

Sierra

Magdalena Bay Mapimi Basin,

.

Citlaltepetl

Piedras Negras

las

.

00n 99 30w

Orizaba, Pico de,

(Lower peninsula

historical site

Hidalgo

22 del Sur,

Mesa del Oaxaca Valley

Baja California

(Cortes,

19 24N 99 09W 23 29 n 104 23 w 17 59n 94 31 w 26 54 n 101 25 w 25 40 n 100 19w

Madre

Norte,

California, Gulf of

Minatitlan

Oriental,

Sierra

Nazas,

Physical features and points of interest Angel de la

Guarda

Tuxfia

Macuspana

Madre

river

Linares

TecomSn

.

Victoria

59 N

.19

Las Vacas. see

Guadalupe

.

1

Guanajuato

.21

Veracruz Villahermosa

Puerto Vallarta

San

.

99 97

.19

20 21 n 102 00

Tuxtlas)

.

.23 00 N

Uruapan

Saltillo

.

.25 33 N 103

Valles

.31

.

.19

24 IOn 110

.19 41 n 100

27 29 n 109 56 1 7 54 n 92 30 .23 44 n 99 08 18 09 n 94 25 19 14 N 103 43

Toluca Torreon Tula

19n 98 17N 99

45N 93 25N 102

.

.

.19

.16

.

.

TIaxcala

Tuxtia

Salamanca

.

88

57 N 105

.19 41 n 103 29

44 n 106 .22 44 n 98

09 N

.20 39 N 103 19

.

.21

.28 13 n 105 28

w w 34 w 29 w 57 w

.

.20 57 N

(Las Penas) ... .20 37 n 105 15 w Queretaro 20 36 n 100 23 w Reynosa 26 07 n 98 18 w Rio Bravo 25 59 n 98 06W Sabinas 27 51 n 101 07 w

.

.

Tuxpan Tuxpan

w w w 18w

Puerto Vallarta

w

.21

TIaquepaque

22 39 n 103 00 27 08 n 104 55 16 26n 95 01

Las Penas, see

w w w w w 16 15n 92 08w .18 22 n 95 48 w 20 31 n 86 55 w Cuauhtemoc ... .28 25 n 106 52 w Cuernavaca ....18 55n 99l5w Culiacan 24 48 n 107 24 w Diaz Gutierrez .22 12 n 100 57 w Durango 24 02 n 104 40 w El Dorado 24 17 n 107 21 w Ensenada 31 52 n 16 37 w Escuinapa 22 51 n 105 48 w Fresnillo 23 10 n 102 53 w Gomez Palacio .25 34 n 103 30 w Guadalajara ... .20 40 n 103 20 w Guadalupe 25 41 n 100 15 w .

w

la

Irapuato

Baja California Norte

Nuevo Leon Oaxaca

de

.26 56 n 105 40

.

.25 00 N 105

00

w

Peninsula

1930n 8900w

41

42

Mexico in northern Mexico, situated latitudinally within one of the world's great desert regions, are strongly influenced by the semipermanent Pacific subtropical anticyclone, which

minimizes precipitation. Within the tropics temperature variations from season to season are small, often only about 10° F (5° C) between the warmest and coldest months. In these areas winter is defined as the rainy rather than the cold season. Because elevation rather than latitude is the primary climatic influence in southern Mexico, several vertical climatic zones are recognized. In the Mexican tropics, from sea level to is the tierra caliente ("hot land"), with uniformly high temperatures. Veracruz, located on the Gulf of Mexico, for example, has an average daily temperature of approximately 77° F (25° C). The tierra ternplada ("temperate land") extends to about 6,000 feet. Located at an elevation of more than 4,600 feet, Jalapa has an average daily temperature of 66° F (19° C). Tierra fria ,000 feet. Pachuca, at ("cold land") extends as high as just under 8,000 feet, has an average annual temperature of 59° F ( 5° C). Above the tierra fria are the paramos, or alpine pastures, while the tierra helada ("frozen land"), or

just over 3,000 feet,

1

1

1

permanent snow line, in central Mexico is found between 13,000 and 14,000 feet. North of the tropics, temperature ranges increase substantially and are greatest in the north central portion of the

Mesa

del Norte. In the northern interior,

summer

are extreme. The highest temperatures in the country, exceeding 1 10° F (43° C), occur

and winter temperatures

and August in central Baja California and in the northern Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts. Outside of the high mountainous areas of northern Mexico and the north central portion of the Mesa del Norte, the lowest temperatures normally do not descend below 32° F (0° C). Most of Mexico lacks adequate precipitation at least during a part of the year. With the exception of the highland areas of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, and the Gulf Coastal Plain, all of the area north of the Tropic of Cancer generally receives less than 20 inches (500 millimetres) of precipitation annually and is classified climatically as either tropical desert or tropical steppe. Nearly all of Baja California, much of Sonora state, and large parts of Chihuahua state receive less than 10 inches of rainfall yearly. Much of central and southern Mexico receives less than 40 inches of precipitation annually, most from May through August, and is classified as having tropical savanna or highland savanna climates. Only the Gulf Coastal Plain and the adjacent mountains, from roughly Tampico southward to Villahermosa, the Chiapas Highlands, and the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula receive abundant rainfall year-round. In combination with uniformly high temperatures, this creates a tropical rain forest climate in these areas. Plant and animal life. The tropical deserts of Baja California, Sonora, and north central Mexico are characterized by sparse desert scrub vegetation. On the higher portions of the Sonoran and Chihuahuan steppes, as well as in much of Coahuila and Tamulipas, there have evolved distinctive ecosystems composed of short grasses, scattered shrubs, and a variety of cacti and other succulents. Sonora and Chihuahua are the archetypes for flora groups that bear their names. The boojum tree is unique to a limited portion of Sonora and central Baja California. Most of the Sierra Madre Occidental and large parts of the Mesa Central, including its dissected borders, originally were covered by forests of coniferous, evergreen deciduous, and deciduous trees. Similar forests extended southward into the Southern Highlands. Long periods of human occupation in these regions have decimated most of the natural vegetation. Major areas of coniferous forests in July

Rainfall

heights are among the most luxuriant and diversified in the world. Valuable tropical hardwoods, as well as ferns, epiphytes, and a variety of palms, make these selva areas of particular interest. A large portion of the Pacific coastal

from Mazatlan to the Guatemalan border, is covered by tropical deciduous or semi-deciduous forests, which lack the variety and density of tropical rain forests. Mexico sits astride the commonly accepted boundary dividing North and Middle American animal species and, area,

has a diverse array of fauna, especially in the selva regions of the south. The rain forests of the Gulf Coast and Chiapas Highlands and the semi-deciduous forests of the Pacific coast still provide a largely undisturbed habitat for monkeys, parrots, jaguars, tapirs, anteaters, and other tropical species. In contrast, the natural wildlife of northern Mexico was severely affected therefore,

by the introduction of European grazing animals more than 400 years ago. While rabbits, snakes, and armadillos abound in the deserts and steppes, larger animals such as deer, pumas, and coyotes are found mainly in isolated or mountainous areas. Countless ducks and geese migrate into the northern part of the Sierra

Madre Occidental

dian-mestizo south. This corresponds roughly to the preColumbian boundary that separated the highly developed Indian cultures of the Mesa Central and the south from the more primitive groups to the north. Northern Mexico is a sparsely populated area with isolated clusters of settlement; it can be divided into four separate cultural regions. The largest region is the North, which closely corresponds in area to the Mesa del Norte. Mining and ranching were introduced there by the Spanish in the 16th

and 18th

centuries, respectively,

and these

modern

irrigation projects

and

industrialization Chip and Rosa Maria de

la

programs Cueva Peterson

scrub vegetation composed of shrubs, low deciduous trees, scattered cacti.

The

high-precipitation zones of the Gulf Coastal Plain, the adjacent east-facing mountain slopes, the Chiapas Highlands, and the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula are dominated by tropical rain forest, or selva, vegetation.

These dense stands of broadleaf evergreen

trees of vai-ying

in-

dustries have continued to characterize the region, though

are found at higher elevations in the Sierra Madre Occidental. The semiarid Balsas Depression has a tropical

and

to

A

millennium of human habitation has brought about the decimation of natural fauna throughout much of the Mesa Central and parts of the Southern Highlands, especially in the Oaxaca Valley. Settlement patterns. Traditional regions. Because of distinctive differences in physical environment, ethnic and racial characteristics, and settlement histories, SF>ecific cultural areas have evolved. Mexico traditionally has been divided between the Spanish-mestizo north and the Inwinter.

Volcanic peak of IxtacihuatI overlooking a field of com sfiocks in tfie agricultural region of Puebia state in the l^esa Central of Ivlexico.

— Mexico along the border with the United States have diversified the

economy.

The Northeast stretches from Tampico to the U.S. border and inland to the Sierra Madre Oriental. The Indian population of the area was eliminated by early European settlers, who established farms and ranches in the area. Although it was long one of the country's poorest regions, the emerging petroleum and steel industries and the development of irrigation projects along the Rio Bravo del Norte have greatly improved the region's economic condition. The Northwest is an extensive region lying west of the crest of the Sierra Madre Occidental and stretching southward from the U.S. border to northern Nayarit state. This physiographically complex area had a substantial Indian population before the Spanish conquest, and the Tarahumara and Seri are among the Indian peoples still found in isolated parts of the region. As in the North, mineral resources originally attracted the Spanish, but agriculture, especially ranching, now characterizes the region. Baja California, historically one of the more isolated parts of Mexico, is largely a desert, with major concentrations of settlement in urban areas at both ends of the peninsula. The original Indian population, scattered and culturally poorly developed, was decimated by diseases introduced missionaries in the late 18th century. Europeans and mestizos established themselves in farming communities at oases, originally at sites such as San Ignacio and Muleje. Southern Mexico was much more strongly influenced by its Indian heritage than was the northern part of the country. The cultural core of the nation has been the Central region, which includes the central and eastern portions of the Mesa Central and its surrounding highlands. This was the centre of the Aztec Empire as well as numerous other Indian homelands. It became the core of New Spain and the political and economic capital of Mexico. In addition to being the primary centre of urbanization, this is also one of the nation's most important agricultural areas. Numerous basins, such as those of Mexico, Toluca, Puebla, and Morelos, are densely settled. Racial mixing has been intense in this region, but Indian groups are still found in the more isolated portions of Michoacan, Mezquital, Puebla, and Toluca. Nowhere is the contrast between modem urban Mexico and traditional rural Indian lifestyles sharper than in this region. The West region is centred on the city of Guadalajara and encompasses the state of Jalisco along with portions of Colima, Nayarit, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato states. With its relatively high rural population, Ijy

» The Central

region

fertile basins, and access to the Pacific, it was historically the most important agricultural region in the nation. The Guanajuato Basin has long been called the "breadbasket of Mexico." Despite its agricultural prominence, a large number of small urban centres, such as Queretaro, Salamanca, Irapuato, and Leon, are developing industrially while Manzanillo has become the most important port on the Pacific. Many of the things often thought of as distinctively Mexican such as tequila, mariachi music, and the ornate embroidered sombrero and charro costume originated in the West. The Balsas cultural region, which closely corresponds to the physiographic area of the same name, is arid, hot, and sparsely settled. Cattle ranching has been the mainstay of the economy, although subsistence-level slash-andbum agriculture is widely practiced by impoverished peasant farmers. The Southern Highlands, encompassing much of the states of Michoacan, Guerrero, and Oaxaca, is povertystricken. This region has the highest concentration of Indians in the country; and the Zapotec, Mixtec, and other Indian groups farm minifundia (small plots of land), using traditional methods. The picturesque, "crazy-quilt" landscape that results belies the widespread poverty. Modem coastal tourist centres, such as Acapulco and the more recently developed Puerto Escondido, are a marked contrast to the traditional rural life-styles of the region. The Gulf Coast region includes the coastal zones of Veracruz and Tabasco as well as the adjacent east-facing slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The population of the coastal area is overwhelmingly mestizo, but Indian

—

43

groups are found in the mountains north of Veracmz. Veracruz, the cultural centre of this region, has long been the country's major non-petroleum port. Cattle ranching and commercial agriculture are important components of the rural economy. The southem parts of the region were disease-infested, swampy, and nearly devoid of settlement until the Papaloapan and Grijalva-Usumacinta river projects allowed commercial exploitation of the rich alluvial soils.

Most of the Chiapas region is relatively isolated from the rest of Mexico. Commercial agriculture, particularly cotton production, is practiced on the Soconusco (Pacific) coast, while livestock grazing and subsistence agriculture are important elsewhere. Indian peoples are the majority in the northern highlands around San Cristobal de las Casas, but mestizos are the dominant population in the southem half of the region. The centre of the lowland Maya civilization, the Yucatan has a predominantly Indian rural population. This lowlying area is known for its archaeological sites, such as Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Tulum. Merida, the only major city in the region, was the centre for the production of henequen (a type of Agave), which led to a regional economic boom in the late 1800s. In the tropical rain forests to the south, the sparse population depends on subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Rural settlement. Before the arrival of Europeans, the indigenous population was highly concentrated in the Cen-

The Yucatan

West, and Southem Highland regions. The Spanish communities in order to exploit their labour in agriculture and mining. As a result, these areas have remained the most densely populated throughout Mexico's history. tral,

settled in existing Indian

Away from this central core, settlement was sparse and was attracted to specific opportunities, such as mines, mission sites, or military outposts. Mining had the largest impact on population redistribution. Silver-mining towns, such as Durango, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes, Pachuca, and Zacatecas, were founded in the middle to late 500s and represented the first settlements outside the central core. By contrast, it was not until the mid- 1800s that large-scale ranching was introduced into northern 1

Mexico. This clustered pattern of settlement, with large areas effectively devoid of population, has characterized the nation's mral settlement pattem. Urban settlement. Urbanization is taking place at a rapid pace in Mexico. While the largest urban places are growing the most rapidly in absolute numbers, smalland intermediate-sized cities have the highest percentage increases. By the mid-1980s the country had more than 100 urban centres with 50,000 or more people. The major axis of urbanization stretches as a narrow band across central Mexico from Puebla to Guadalajara, but the growth of the northem border cities has been the most spectacular.

Within the hierarchy of Mexican urban places, Mexico is the undisputed primary city. It is the political, economic, social, educational, and industrial capital of the nation. With a population of almost 10,000,000 in the mid-1980s, it is the largest city in the world (see Mexico

City

city).

Guadalajara is the nation's second largest urban area. It is a much more traditional city in stmcture and appearance than is Mexico City. As the regional capital of Jalisco and much of the West, Guadalajara is a major market centre and has developed a substantial industrial base. With a well-respected university and medical school, it is also a major educational and cultural centre. Monterrey developed as the iron and steel centre of the nation. Because the modem city dates only to the beginning of the 20th century, and because much of its grov^th is recent, it is singularly unremarkable in appearance, and the arid Mesa del Norte provides a stark, somewhat barren setting. High-grade coal from the nearby Sabinas fields was a major consideration in siting the steel industry in Monterrey. A number of heavy industries also have been located in the urban area. As the centre of the National Action Party (PAN), Monterrey is a stronghold of political conservatism. (ERNST C. GRIFFIN)

Major cities

44

Architecture,

The History of Western i

The History of Western

Architecture 20th-century architecture THE MODERN MOVEMENT Before World War II. The Modern movement was an

Austria

and

Germany

attempt to create a nonhistorical architecture of functionalism in which a new sense of space would be created with the help of modem materials. A reaction against the stylistic pluralism of the 19th century, the Modem movement was also coloured by the belief that the 20th century had given birth to "modem man," who would need a radically new kind of architecture. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos opposed the use of any omament at all and designed purist compositions of bald, functional blocks such as the Steiner House at Vienna (1910), one of the first private houses of reinforced concrete. Peter Behrens, having had contact with Olbrich at Darmstadt and with Hoffmann at Vienna, was in 1907 appointed artistic adviser in charge of the AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft), for which he designed a turbine factory (1909) at Berlin. Behrens strongly affected three great architects who worked in his office: Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In Germany, Gropius followed a mechanistic direction. His Fagus Works factory at Alfeld-an-der-Leine in Germany (1911) and the Werkbund exposition building at the Cologne exhibition (1914) had been models of industrial architecture in which vigorous forms were enclosed by masonry and glass; the effect of these buildings was gained by the use of steel frames, strong silhouette, and the logic of their plans. There were no historical influences or expressions of local landscape, traditions, or materials. The beauty of the buildings derived from adapting form to a technological culture.

Gropius succeeded van de Velde as director of the ducal Arts and Crafts School at

Weimar

By courtesy

in

ol (he

1919. Later called

Museum

of

Modern

Art,

New

York

the Bauhaus, it became the most important centre of modern design until the Nazis closed it in 1933. While he was at Weimar, Gropius developed a firm philosophy

about architecture and education, which he announced in 1923. The aim of the visual arts, he said, is to ereate a complete, homogeneous physical environment in which all the arts have their place. Architects, sculptors, furniture makers, and painters must learn practical crafts and obtain knowledge of tools, materials, and forms; they must become acquainted with the machine and attempt to use it in solving the social problems of an industrial society. At the Bauhaus, aesthetic investigations into space, colour, construction, and elementary forms were flavoured by Cubism and Constmctivism. Moving the school to Dessau in 1925, Gropius designed the pioneering new Bauhaus (1925-26) in which steel frames and glass walls provided workshops within severely Cubistic buildings. Gropius assembled a staff of modern teachers, including the artists Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul KJee, Marcel Breuer, and Adolf Meyer, whose projects, such as the 116 experimental standardized housing units of the Torten Estate at Dessau, Ger. (1926-28). bore a highly machined, depersonalized appearance. In France, Tony Gamier caught the modern currents in materials, stmcture, and composition when he evolved his masterful plan for a Cite industrielle (1901-04), published in 1917, in which reinforced concrete was to be used to create a modern city of modem buildings. The Futurist movement counted among its members another early 20th-century urban planner, the Italian architect Antonio Sant'Elia. Influenced by American industrial cities and the Viennese architects Wagner and Loos, he designed a grandiose futuristic city, entitled "Citta nuova" ("New City"). He conceived of the city as a symbol of the new technological age. It was an affirmative environment for the future, however, in opposition to the negating inhuman Expressionistic city of the future conceived by Fritz Lang in the 1926 film classic Metropolis. Centred in Germany between 1910 and 1925. Expressionist architects, like the painters who were part of the Briicke and Blaue Reiter groups, sought peculiarly personal .

.

Berlin (1919) for

These

visual

Max

Reinhardt's Expressionistic theatre.

works by Poelzig show the influence of the stmctural audacity of Max Berg's Centenary Hall at Breslau, Ger. (now Wroclaw, Pol.; 1912-13), with its gigantic reinforced concrete dome measuring 213 feet in diameter.

later

The second generation of Expressionists centred postwar Germany and The Netherlands.

activities in

tinctly personal architectural statements

Hotel Tassel, Brussels, by Victor Horta, 1892-93,

mechanistic

philosophy of Gropius

.

forms and effects. Among the earliest manifestations of an Expressionistic building style were the highly individual early works of Hans Poelzig, such as the Luban Chemical Factory (1911-12) and the municipal water tower (1911) of Posen, Ger. (now Poznan, Pol.), which led to his monumental, visionary "space caves," such as the project for the Salzburg Festival Theatre (1920-21) and the Grosses Schauspielhaus, built in

and often bizarre

The

their

Dis-

were given form

in such dynamically sculptured structures as the Einstein Observatory in Potsdam (1920). by Erich Mendelsohn; the anthroposophically based design by Rudolf Steiner for the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switz. (1925-28); the Eigen Haard Estates (housing development) at Amsterdam (1921), by Michel de Klerk; and Fritz Hogers (18771949) Chilehaus oflice building in Hamburg (1922-23). with its imperative thrust of mass and acute angularity. As Germany was the centre of Expressionism, Pans was the stronghold of the advocates of a new vision of space. Cubism, which Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso developed in 1906. Forms were dismembered into their faceted components; angular forms, interpenetrated planes, trans-

Expressionism in

Germany

Architecture,

The History of Western

45

t »

Casa

by Antonio Gaudi, 1905-10

Mila, Barcelona,

Archivo Mas. Barcelona

and diverse impressions were recorded as though seen simultaneously. Soon architectural reflections of the Cubist aesthetic appeared internationally. Interior spaces were defined by thin, discontinuous planes and glass walls; supports were reduced to slender metal columns, machine finished and without ornamentation; and Cubistic voids and masses were arranged programmatically in asymmetric compositions. The Dutch de Stijl movement was influenced by Cubism, although it sought a greater abstract purity in its geometric formalism. Organized in Leiden in 1917, the painters Piet Mondrian and Theo van Doesburg and the architects Jacobus Johannes Oud and Gerrit Thomas Rietveld were counted among its members. Their Neoplastic aesthetic advocated severe precision of line and shape, austerely pristine surfaces, a Spartan economy of form, and purity of colour. Rietveld's Schroeder House, built in 1924 at patencies,

By courtesy

of

Walter Gropius/Bauhaus Archive

Utrecht, was a three-dimensional parallel to Mondrian's paintings of the period. Van Doesburg's work for the Bauhaus art school at Weimar brought the influence of Dutch Neoplasticism to bear upon Gropius and Mies, for houses at times markedly resembled van Doesburg's paintings. Meanwhile Oud collaborated with van Doesburg for a time and vigorously proclaimed the new style in housing developments he built at Rotterdam (after 1918), Hook of Holland (1924-27), and Stuttgart, Ger. (1927). Cubism and the related movements of Futurism, Constructivism, Suprematism, and Neoplasticism, like any artistic styles, might have faltered and fallen into a merely decorative cliche, as at the Paris Exposition of 1925, but for Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier. Gropius was succeeded at the Bauhaus in 1930 by Mies van der Rohe, whose training as a mason was supplemented by the engineering experience he had gained from 1908 to 1911 in the office of Behrens; both of these elements of his education were synthesized in his project

whose plans

for the Kroller

House

in

The Hague

(1912). Influenced

by van Doesburg's de Stijl, Mies's natural elegance and precise orderliness soon revealed themselves in unrealized projects for a brick country house, a steel and glass skyscraper, and a glazed, cantilevered concrete-slab office building (1920-22). He directed the Weissenhof estate project of the Werkbund Exposition at Stuttgart (1927), contributing the design for an apartment house. Such practical

problems

failed to

show

his talent,

Mies van der Rohe's contribution

which was

not fully known until he designed the German pavilion for the International Exposition at Barcelona in 1929. The continuous spaces partitioned with thin marble planes and the chromed steel columns drew international applause. His Tugendhat House at Brno, Czech. (1930), along with Le Corbusier's Savoye House, epitomized the Modem domestic setting at its best. The Swiss-French architect Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, gave the new architecture, sometimes referred to as the International Style, a firm foundation by writing the strong theoretical statement. Vers une architecture {Towards a New Architecture), published in 1923. It revealed a world of new forms not classical capitals and Gothic arches but ships, turbines, grain elevators, airplanes, and machine products, which Le Corbusier said were indexes to 20th-century imagination. His love of machines was combined with a belief in communal authority as the best means of accomplishing social reforms, and Le Corbusier directed his attention toward the problems of housing and urban patterns. An architectural attack, using standardized building components and mass production,

—

Fagus Works, Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Walter Gropius, 1911.

Ger., by

Le Corbusier's

support of the Intemational Style

46

The History of Western

Architecture,

an exposed steel armature. A workers' club (1929) had a plan resembling half a gear, and the Ministry of Central Economic Planning (1928-32), designed by Le Corbusier, was intended to be a glass-filled slab but, because of Stalin's dislike of modem architecture, was never completed. Its foundation later was used for an rotate within in

Moscow

outdoor swimming pool.

Modem

European

styles

of architecture were subjected

to official disfavour in the Soviet

Union

in the

1930s,

as Stalin's government adopted classical monuments such as Boris Mikhaylovich lofan's winning design for the Palace of the Soviets (1931), which was intended to pile

colonnades to a height of 1,365 feet and have a Lenin at its summit. With its gigantic Corinthian columns, the building for the Central Committee of the Communist Party at Kiev (1937) showed an classical

colossal statue of

Centenary Hall, Breslau, Ger. (now Wroclaw, Berg, 1912-13. Dyckerhoff

Pol.),

by

Max

& Widmann

and formal ideas appeared housing (1916), and his aesthetic preferences led him, after World War I, to develop an extreme version of Cubist painting that he and was required. His

sociological

in a Cubist project for

the painter

Domino

Amedee Ozenfant

called Purism. Returning to

architecture in 1921, he designed a villa at Vaucresson, Fr.

(1922), the abstract planes and strip windows of which revealed his desire to "arrive at the house machine," that is,

standardized houses with standardized furniture. In 1922 he also brought forth his project for a skyscraper city of 3,000,000 people, in which tall office and apartment buildings would stand in broad open plazas and parks with the Cubist spaces between them defined by low row housing. Much of his work thereafter his Voisin city plan, his Pavilion of the New Spirit at the Paris Exposition of 1925, his exhibit of workers' apartments at the Werkbund Exposition at Stuttgart (1927), and his influential but unexecuted submittal to the League of Nations competition was a footnote to that dream of a new city. The villa, Les Terrasses, at Garches, Fr. (1927), was a lively play of spatial parallelepipeds (six-sided solid geometric forms the faces of which are parallelograms) ruled by horizontal planes, but his style seemed to culminate in the most famous of his houses, the Savoye House at Poissy, Fr. (1929-30). The building's principal block was raised one story above the ground on pilotis (heavy reinforcedconcrete columns); floors were cantilevered to permit long strip windows; and space was molded plastically and made to flow horizontally, vertically, and diagonally until, on the topmost terrace, the whole composition ended in a cadenza of rounded, terminating spaces. Gaining greater facility in manipulating flowing spaces, Le Corbusier designed the dormitory for Swiss students at the Cite Universitaire (1931-32) in Pans. In the period after the Revolution the Soviet Union

overbearing scale. After 1930 the Modem movement spread through Europe. In Switzerland Robert Maillart's experiments with reinforced concrete attained great grace in his Salginatobel Bridge (1930). Finland's Alvar Aalto won a competition for the Municipal Library at Viipuri (now Vyborg, U.S.S.R.) in 1927 with a building of glass walls, flat roof and round skylights (completed 1935; destroyed 1943); but he retained the traditional Scandinavian sympathy for wood and picturesque planning that were evident in his Villa Mairea at Noormarkku (1938-39), the factory and housing at Sunila (1936-39, completed 1951-54), and his later civic centre at Saynatsalo (1950-52). Aalto and other Scandinavians gained a following among those repelled by severe German modernism. Sweden's Erik Gunnar Asplund and Denmark's Kay Fisker, Christian Frederick Moller, and Ame Jacobsen also brought regional character into their modern work. In The Netherlands, Johannes Andreas Brinkman and Lodewijk Comelis van der Vlugt, at the Van Nelle Tobacco Factory in Rotterdam (1929-30), aimed at more mechanistic, universal form. In England, refugees from Germany and other countries, alone or with English designers, inaugurated a radical modernism for example, the apartment block known as Highpoint I, Highgate, London (by Berthold Lubetkin and the Tecton group, 1935). The locus for creative architecture in the United States remained the Middle West, although Californians such as the brothers Charles Sumner Greene and Henry Mather Greene stmck occasional regional and modem notes, as in the Gamble House at Pasadena, Calif (1908-09). The

—

By courtesy

of

Sonnenobservatortum Einsteinturm, Potsdam

—

—

Early

encouraged modern

Soviet ar-

at

chitecture

notably the

first

ernment

German Bruno

art,

and

several

Taut, looked to the

architects,

new gov-

for a sociological

program. The Constructivist project for a monument to the Third International (1920) by Vladimir Tallin was a machine in which the various sections (comprising legislative houses and offices) would

Einstein Observatory, Potsdam, E.Ger., by Erich Mendelsohn,

1920.

Architecture,

*iy:^ '^





95

markets.

assistance

I

1

United states -dollar)

tably Chile

Since private international banks showed increasing reluctance to lend to the less developed countries, measures were taken to increase the inflow of resources through official channels. Net disbursements of official development

130

Exchange Rates*

Effective

s

80

> sl

\^ / /

\

i

^/ I

Comecon) was

held in Prague, Czech., on July 5-7, 1988. It was attended by the heads of government of Bulgaria, East

Germany, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia, with the deputy prime ministers of Hungary and Vietnam and the vice-president of the Council of State and the Council of Ministers of Cuba. Also present were the secretary of Comecon, V. V. Sychev, and the

1

l^ltaly-llraj

1

which included the opening up of the Yamburg gas field, the building of the "Progress" pipeline, and the Khmelnitsky nuclear power station. The main discussion concentrated on the question of

member

mechanism of cooperation among the

and on the question of "socialist economic integration." Cooperation among the member states was not developing quickly enough. The growth in trade had in states

S

/

s l» /

J

1

^. '-' :*
57.4

Monaco (January

_

Party

77.0 11.0

(0)

Malaysia (August 1986)

(July 1988) Partido Accion Nacional Partido Revolucionario Institucional National Democratic Front

117

3.2

S K

(2)

L

Malawi (May 1987) Malawi Congress Party

Mouvement Mouvement

Military

Guyana (December 1985) Peoples National Congress

(14)

C

s Party for National Unity

Union Nationale

Committee for National Redress in power since 1984

(15)

2 2

Mexico

for

National Salvation

13.8

Guinea

April

(24)

14 21

Front des Travailleurs Socialiste

Kampuchea (May 1981) Kampuchean United Front

de Democratico de

C SD

People

Military

Japan

R

Revolution (Arema)

Nationalist Party

L

(0)

C

25

—

Madagascar Independence Congress Movement for Proletarian Power

(13)

(June 1987)

(191)

37.0

tation

(4)

(2)

K

49 46

9.1

Partido Revolucionario/Partido Conciliacion Nacional Partido Socialista Democratico

(16)

CR C SD SD SD

Israel

CR

Guatemala (November 1985) Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional ER Partido Institucional Democratico R

K

Movement (Monima)

ER R R

9.8

—

K K

Communiste

Sabah and Sarawak

Grenada (December 1984)

New

(70)

(November 1988)

Shas

Italy

(%)

Madagascar National Independence

Tehiya

174

Movement

Panhellenic Socialist (Pasok)

Greek Communist Party (KKE) Eurocommunists

(75)

27.1

11.9 6.5 10.4

Irish Labour Party Others

34.5

Ghana Military dictatorship since

CR C SD

Ecologists

44.1

Other parties

(January 1987) Christlich-Demokratische Union

Voting mentary strength represen-

Madagascar (August 1983) Advance Guard of the Malagasy

Hadash Germany. Federal Republic of

Parti Ouvrier Socialiste Parti

Citizens' Rights

others)

ation

Parti Chretien Social

Iraq (October 1984)

Agudat

of party

Parti Liberal

Likud National Religious

German Democratic Republic

Affili-

Luxembourg (June 1984)

Consultative Assembly, no parties since 1987

Israel

Gambia. The (fvlarch 1987) People s Progressive Party National Convention Party

Parlia-

Country

Name

tation

Iran (April-May 1988)

France (June 1988)

la

Country

of India (Marxist) (pro-Soviet)

395 22

(351)

K

K

6

(10)

Other opposition parties and independents

(35)

Liberia (October 1985)

National Democratic Party of Liberia

Opposition

R

Libya

Indonesia (April 1987) Golkar (Functional Groups) United Development Party Indonesian Democratic Party (merger of five nationalist and Christian parties)

— —

government since Sept. 1,1969

Military

73 o

299

(246)

16.O 11.0

61

(94)

40

(24)

Liechtenstein (February 1986) Vaterlandische Union Fortschrittllclie BiJrgerpartei

(2)

L

— CR C

50.2

(8)

427

(7)

Movement

K

96 668 1,4

1,5

1

World

Affairs: Political Parties

38

Political Parties Parlia-

Voting mentary Affili- strength represenation tation (%)

Country

Name

of party

Niger Military

government

since April 1974 Nigeria Military

government since

December 1983 Norway (September 1985)

R

Heyre (Conservative)

CR C C

Kristellg Folkeparti

Senlerpartiet (Agrarian)

Venstre (Liberal) Progress Party Arbeiderpartiet (Labour)

C SD

30.1 8.3 6.7

50

(53)

16 12

(15) (11)

Parlia-

Country

Name

3.7

2

(4)

41.2

71

(66)

Left)

(4)

Oman Independent sultanate, no parties

ation

(%)

tation

Parti Sociaiiste

CR

Parli Democratique Senegalais Other parties

—

L

civilian

president

Movement

Melanesian Alliance People's Action Party People's Progress Party Others Independents

Paraguay (February 1988) Partido Colorado (A. Stroessner) Opposition parties

Peru (April 1985) Convergencia Democratica Accion Popular Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana Izquierda Unida Izquierda Nacionalista

Philippines

_ — — — — — —

—

14.7 10.8 5.1

5.6 3.2 6.1

41.2

R

26 18 12 7 6

(13) (8) (7)

5 14

(12)

21

(4)

48 24

—

(51)

(14)

(40) (20)

CR

Leone (May-June 1986) People's Congress and

independents

People's Action Party Workers' Party Democratic Party

105

CR

SD

107

48

L

1

(77)

L

(1)

(1)

—

78.86

245 106 35 74

(261) (113) (37)

(49)

CR C SD K

4.4 4.9 50.2

4

(22)

7

(45) (88)

22.2

148 60

12.1

31

(38)

(57)

— —

99.99

369

ER

3.1

C

1.9

L

14.1

19

0.04

1

Spain (June 1986) Alianza Popular R Centro Democratico y Social C Convergencia (Catalan nationalists) C Partido Socialista Obrero Espanol SD Izquierda Unida (Communists) K Herri Batasuna (Basque radicals) Others

— — —

26 9

(171)

(0)

New

Partido Nacionalista Vasco

Lanka

22 123 1

—

(131) (8)

(26)

—

105

(105)

19 18

(11)

4 44.1

184

(202)

4

7

1.5

6 5 6

1.1

(12)

—

(8) (2)

(10)

(July 1977)

R

C C

—

140 8

(19)

18 2

(12)

(91)

(44)

Development Movement

Saint Lucia (April 1987) United Workers' Party St. Lucia Labour Party Progressive Labour Party

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (July 1984) St. Vincent Labour Party New Democratic Party United People's Movement

Comunlsta

Partito Socialista Partito Socialista

Unitario Christian Democrats Social Democratic Party

Republican Party

Sao Tome and

Principe

(August-September 1985) Movimento Libertapao

32

3

(26)

66

33

-

Tunisia (November 1986) National Front (led by the Parti Sociaiiste Destourien)

-

138

(136)

59 292 99

(212)

Turkey (November 1987) Right Path Motherland Social Democratic Populist Democratic Left Others

CR CR

(three-party coalition)

Swaziland (November 1987) House of Assembly, no parties

— —

36.2 24.8

L

8.5

—

70

CR CR

(3)

(2)

L

(4)

Communist Party

c

52.7

(14)

38.1 9.2

(2)

CR

(1)

United Arab Emirates Federal government of seven emirates

United Kingdom (June 1987) Conservative

42.3

375

c SD

12.8 9.8

17 5

(17)

Labour

L

30.8

229

(209)

Communist

K ^.3 0.4 1.2

13

(15)

Litieral

Social Democratic

Scottish National Party

Cymru (Welsh Nationalists) Ulster Unionists (three groups) Social Democratic and Labour Party Sinn Fein (Northern Ireland) Other (speaker)

41.4 51.4

(11)

C L

3.2

(0)

(2)

(Socialists)

Others Syria (February 1986) Ba'th Party National Progressive Front Communist Party

(15)

7

COPEI

R

66 42 44 156

(159)

21

(19)

20

(0)

R

42

(42)

R

3 3 25

(5)

(23)

51

(54)

8 9

(8)

41

(47)

K

18.4 11.4 12.2

43.6 5.9 5.5

(76)

(44)

(51)

R

CR C C L

SD

(3)

(8)

EL K

4

(3)

— —

1

(1)

9

(3)

4

(3)

— —

129 57 9

(1)

(177) (258)

42.0 47.0 11.0

20 26

(24)

31.43 43.76

67 98

10.27

19

14.54

20

38.6 2.3

32.9 20.4

CR

(Social Christians)

Accion Democratica Movimlento al Socialismo Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria Other parties

L

Vietnam (April 1987) Vietnam Fatherland Front

(12) (3)

496

Republic of (October 1986)

Yemen

Socialist Party

and independents

111

Yemen Arab

Republic (July 1988) Consultative Council

128

Yugoslavia (May 1986) Communist-controlled Federal

Chamber Zaire (September 1987) Mouvement Populaire de

!

Zimbabwe (June-July 1985) Zimbabwe African National Union Zimbabwe African People's

-

Union

169

(111)

220

(220)

210

(268)

la

Zambia (October 1988) United National Independence Party

Nationalist (Kuomlntang)

(118)

Yemen, People's Democratic

Revolution

United African National Council African National Union

67.0

125

77.0

63

(57)

20.0

15

(20)

-

(3)

Zimbabwe

(8)

(1)

CR C

173 262

Venezuela (December 1988)

Tanzania (October 1985) Chama Cha Maplnduzi (26)

R

CR

Others

Taiwan (Republic of China) 18

CR C

Vanuatu (November 1987) Union of Moderate Parties

—

Environmentalist Party

1

— —

Parti

(6)

(1)

L

—

(397)

Alliance

Frento Amplio (Broad Front)

Communists Greens

Communist Party

1,500(1,500)

of the Soviet

Union

—

Progressive Organization

s EL

99.99

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Novemtier 1984)

C

Social Democrats

Swiss People's Radical Democrats League of Independents Liberal Democrats Social Democrats

(188)

power since

National (Blanco) Party

CR C SD

Christian Democrats National Campaign Evangelical People's

10.9

July 1985

Uruguay (November 1984) Colorado Party (Conservative) Union Civica

Sweden (September 1988) Conservative Centre

19.2

C

political

Democratic

L

(369)

San Marino (May 1988) Partito

C

-

United States (November 1988) Republican

R

C

Suriname (November 1987) National Democratic Party Front for Democracy and Development Others

(67)

Reconstruction (four parties)

National Alliance for

Military Council in

National Party

Republic Party Progressive Federal Party Independent

77

Uganda 171

Switzerland (October 1987)

Saint Kitts and Nevis (June 1984) Peoples Action Movement Nevis Reformation Party Labour Party

96.0

tation

parties

26.4 52.5

Liberal

Rwanda (Decemtter

1988) National Revolutronary

Tobago (December 1986) Peoples National Movement

Vanuaaku

R

(%)

Trinidad and

Tuvalu (September 1985) House of Assembly, no

R R

(April 1986) National Islamic Front National Umma Party Democratic Unionist Party South Sudan Political Alliance 39 other parties

200

Non-party

Unity Front

(85)

Sudan, The

2

Poland (October 1985)

Romania (March 1985) Social Democracy and

61.8

99.86

United National Party Freedom Party Tamil United Liberation Front Communists and others

(May 1987)

Oatar Independent emirate, no parties

(23)

Voting mentary strength represen-

Singapore (September 1988)

Sri

12 10

of Representatives

Portugal (July 1987) Social Democratic Centre Party Democratic Renewal Party Social Democratic Party Socialist Party United People's Alliance

(8)

(1)

-

Plaid

R

L

Front of National Unity Polish United Workers' Party United Peasants' party Democratic Party

ation

Sierra

South Africa (May 1987) Herstigte Nasionale Party Conservative Party

—

Independents

(111)

Somalia (December 1984) Somalian Revolutionary Socialist

"indirect" military

People's Democratic National Party

17

Independents

supervision

Papua New Guinea (June-July 1987) Pangu Party

103

23

Party

under

71.3 24.7 4.0

Seychelles (December 1987) People s Progressive Front

Panama Since July 1982 a

of party

Tonga (February 1987) Legislative Assembly

Solomone Ano Sagufenua

Independents

Affili-

Senegal (February 1988)

Islands (October 1984) National Democratic Party United Party People's Alliance Party

Islamic Democratic Alliance Jamit-i-Ulema-i-lslam Pakistan Peoples Party Mohajir Qaumi Movement Other parties

Parlla-

Country

Name

Solomon

Pakistan (November 1988)

House

represen-

Togo (March 1985) Rassemblement du Peuple Togolais

(2)

Sosialistisk Venstreparti (Socialist

mentary

strengtfi

Saudi Arabia Royal government, no parties

All

3.1

of party

Voting Affili-

Thailand (July 1988) Prachakorn Thai Chart Thai Nation Democratic Party Social Action Party United Democratic Party United Thai Party

Others

(Sithole)

ER R

C C c

8.7

31

(24)

24.4 13.4

(100)

15.1

87 48 54

1.4

5

(38)

35 97

(19)

9.8 27.1

(63)

(51)

(52)

(0)

white roll Conservative Alliance of

Zimbabwe Independent Zimbabwe Independent

15

(20)

4

—

1

(0)

382

World

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

Africa

South of the Sahara

^^

AFRICAN AFFAIRS Reasonably good climatic conditions over

much of the con-

tinent except for the Sahel region just south of the Sahara improved the ability of most countries to provide for at least their minimum food requirements in 1988. However, economic recovery in most of sub-Saharan Africa was, at best, marginal, owing to the legacy of almost a decade of deterioration in the agricultural and industrial sectors and also because of reduced exports and the foreign debt burden. AIDS took a heavy toll of life and resources in such countries as Zaire, Zambia, Central African Republic. Uganda, and Tanzania. For the first time in 20 years, there were no successful military coups; however, the wars in Ethiopia and The Sudan and military strife in another

half-dozen countries continued. On the positive side were new prospects of peace returning to Angola, South West

Africa/Namibia, Chad, and Western Sahara. Organization of African Unity. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) celebrated the 25th anniversary of its founding in May at a summit meeting in Addis Ababa, Eth. The two items at the top of the agenda were the African Economic Recovery Plan (AERP) and the crisis in southern Africa. Strong misgivings were expressed about AERP's progress; it was decided to try again to persuade the industrialized nations to reduce the burden of foreign indebtedness on many members of the OAU. For the first time in 20 years, the wars in Chad and Western Sahara no longer featured prominently on the agenda. The encouraged the U.S. initiative to obtain the withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from An-

OAU

OAU

gola

and

to secure the independence of Namibia.

The

orga-

nization continued to press for comprehensive mandatory

sanctions against South Africa, and ans' right to a state of their own.

it

backed the

Palestini-

Moussa Traore of Mali was elected chairman of the The organization continued to suffer from financial difficulties owing to the failure of many of its members to pay their dues. Pres.

OAU

for 1988-89.

Southern Africa. Substantial progress was made toward Angola through tripartite talks among Angola, South Africa, and Cuba, under U.S. chairmanship. In December agreements were signed providing for a phased withdrawal of the approximately 50,000 Cuban troops stationed in Angola and for Namibian independence in accordance with UN Resolution 435. A UN peacekeeping force was to be in Namibia by April 1, 1989, when the first Cuban troops were scheduled to leave. Elections in Namibia were to be held by Nov. 1, 1989, and all Cuban troops were to be out of Angola by July 1, 1991. Thus a dispute that had occupied the international community for more than 40 years seemed to be coming to an end. The success of the talks over Angola and Namibia was facilitated by an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union reached at the summit meeting between U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. However, the agreement did not touch directly on the civil war in Angola between the government in Luanda and the challenging forces of Jonas Savimbi's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Nor did it lessen the conflicts inside South Africa itself, where the internal opposition to apartheid and the external challenge restoring peace in

by the forces of the African National Congress (ANC) were met with forceful repression under a continuing state of national emergency. Although some discriminatory laws, especially the Group Areas Act, were eased, few substantial reforms were undertaken by the regime of South African Pres. P. W. Botha. Domestic and international concern focused on the release of the charismatic ANC leader Nelson Mandela, who after 25 years in prison became seriously ill in the latter part of the year. South Africa's destabilization policies in neighbouring countries continued to be a major concern, especially in Mozambique. There the rebel Mozambique National Resistance (MNR or Renamo), allegedly with the backing of South Africa, brought chaos to much of the country, compelling three of its neighbours Zimbabwe, Tanzania, and

—

—

commit troops to assist in the fight against the rebels. A new attempt was made to resuscitate the Nkomati Accord, whereby South Africa and Mozambique had agreed in 1984 not to support the armed opponents of their respective regimes. President Botha visited the MozambiMalawi

can

to

capital,

Maputo,

One major was

to help revivify the agreement.

gain in the subcontinent's violent conflicts

registered in

Zimbabwe, where the

the major opposition, Joshua

ruling party

and

Nkomo's Zimbabwe African

Union (ZAPU), implemented an agreement to merge and form a unified government. Horn of Africa. The military conflicts between the government of Ethiopia and its opposition forces intensified. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) crushingly defeated the Ethiopian Army in heavy fighting on the Nakfa front, forcing Pres. Mengistu Haile Mariam to moPeople's

bilize his supporters

war

behind the slogan of "everything to the new supplies of armaments

front." Despite substantial

to Ethiopia

by the U.S.S.R.,

little

success was reported in

The civil war where the Tigrai

the counteroffensive by the end of the year. also continued to rage in Tigrai Province,

(TPLF) claimed substantial milput them in control of some 90% of the province. The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and three other armed movements also kept up their pressures on the Ethiopian government. Ethiopia and Somalia ended their 28 years of hostility through a treaty restoring good neighbourly relations and an undertaking no longer to support each other's military opponents. As part of this agreement the Ethiopians expelled forces of the Somali National Movement. These had managed for a time to overrun a part of northern Somalia, causing bitter fighting and heavy casualties. The civil war in The Sudan brought devastation to much of the southern part of the country, where, except for some of the larger towns, the challenging Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) maintained the upper hand. The war, drought, and famine wreaked havoc on the region. A third of the estimated 7.5 million southerners became refugees, either through internal displacement or by fleeing to neighbouring countries. The famine, and later an almost unprecedented flooding of the Nile River, threatened the lives of an estimated five million people. Hopes of a peaceful ending to the war were dashed by a decision of the government to introduce new laws based on the sacred scripture of Islam, the Qur'an. These were denounced by the SPLA as well as by a substantial section of the northern People's Liberation Front

itary successes that

Muslim community.

The Western Saharan war showed when, in August, the Moroccan government and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario Front) announced their acceptance of a UN peace plan providing for an inInter-African Affairs.

signs of ending

Africa South of the Sahara: Angola

383

Refugees grow crops and raise livestock within a tent city of

Western Sahara. Over 100,000 refugees have been forced to live in such makeshift cities after fleeing the regions

occupied by Morocco.

temationally supervised referendum to be held among the Western Saharan people. On acceptance of the plan, both sides attached comments reflecting their concerns over conditions of implementation. The level of fighting was substantially reduced while negotiations were under way. Normal diplomatic relations were established between Chad and Libya after the decisive defeat of the latter's army, which gave cause for optimism that the long military struggle would finally end. However, the Libyans still refused to give up their claims to the Aozou Strip in northem Chad, one of the issues that had precipitated the war. Relations between the Tutsi-dominated republic of Burundi and the neighbouring Hutu-dominated republic of Rwanda were severely strained in August when members of the Hutu majority in the former country revolted against the Tutsi minority, opening old wounds that had never healed since the two tribes engaged in a genocidal type of killing in the late 1950s. The Hutu revolt was put down with severe force, and hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people were massacred on both sides. External Relations. The new detente between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. was widely welcomed by the continent's leaders as presaging the possible ending of superpower rivalry in Africa. The leaders of the nations bordering on South Africa gave their full backing to the U.S. initiative for achieving settlements in Angola and Namibia. They expressed the hope that this would also mean the ending by the U.S. of support for UNITA. Cuba's constructive role in facilitating the Angolan agreement was generally praised.

While the U.S.S.R. continued to give its full support ANC, its spokesmen on a number of public occa-

to the

way to a peaceful settlement in South Africa lay in political negotiations rather than through an armed struggle. However, South

sions expressed the official view that the

Africa continued to be suspicious of Soviet intentions. The U.S.S.R. also showed no sign of suspending its military

support for the Ethiopian regime.

The European Communities and the North Americans full support to the Mozambican regime in its fight against the MNR and its resistance to South Africa.

gave their

1%

in 1986 and by 0.8% in 1987, while per capita income by 2 and 2.2% during those two years. Nevertheless, he reported that efforts to implement economic reforms had been "impressive," with the majority of countries having adopted policy reforms and structural adjustment meafell

UN

The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) reported that the total foreign indebtedness of all member nations had risen by more than $20 billion to a sures.

OAU

new

total

of $218 billion. The figure for the sub-Saharan

countries was $138 billion. This debt represented three times the export earnings in 1987.

While agricultural production improved by 3.8% in it rose by only 1.1% in 1987, much lower than the continent's 3% growth in population. In large part, adverse weather conditions caused the slow growth, and better harvests in 1988 gave some promise of improvement. One result of the slow economic recovery was that the share of education and health services fell from 25.2% in 1986 to 23.1% in 1987. Per capita income decreased by about 2% in 1986 and 2.2% in 1987, with a trend suggesting further decHnes for the rest of the 1980s. Africa's export earnings fell by almost 24% in 1986 but rose by 13% in 1987; however, this was due mainly to a partial recovery in oil prices. Net resource flows to the con1986,

tinent stagnated. In 1987 they

amounted

to $22.9 billion,

which was 2.3% higher in real terms than in 1986 but 2.2% lower than in 1985. There was a net transfer of financial resources from Africa to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) of almost $1 billion a year for both 1986 and 1987. (COLIN LEGUM) See also Dependent States, below.

ANGOLA A

people's republic, Angola is located on the Atlantic coast in southwestern Africa. The small exclave of Cabinda is separated from Angola by a strip of Zaire. Area: 1,246,700

km (481,350 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 9,386,000. Cap.: Luanda. Monetary unit: kwanza, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 29.90 kwanzas to U.S. $1 (51.20 kwanzas = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Jose Eduardo dos Santos. sq

Western countries contributed substantially to the of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference to lessen the dependency of South Africa's neighbours on trade and communication links with the Botha regime. Britain continued through its military advisory team to train military officers for both Zimbabwe and

Hopes of an end to the war that had lasted 1 3 years, which had flickered throughout 1988, seemed close to fruition late in the year with the conclusion of an agreement on the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola and independence for South West Africa/Namibia. Much of the impetus came from events taking place outside the country or from

Mozambique.

the activities of external powers acting within Angola itself The imminent retirement of U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan and

All the efforts

and Economic Conditions. Reporting on the United Nations Program of Action for African Economic Recovery, Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar stated that recovery continued to be disappointing. The gross domestic product of sub-Saharan Africa rose by only Social

UN

the prospect of his being succeeded by a less supportive candidate gave South Africa pause. Simultaneously, South Africa's powerful assistance to the National

Total Independence of Angola

(UNITA)

Union

for the

guerrillas fighting

World

384

against the

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

government inclined the U.S.S.R. to the view government seemed improb-

that military victory for the

and a political solution offered the best way out of an involvement that was proving increasingly unprofitable. Better relations between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. even led the heads of the two countries to propose a deadline of September 29 for a settlement to the Angolan war. Cuba, on the other hand, hoped for some striking military triumph before withdrawing its troops and was prepared, contrary to the Angolan government's wishes, to increase able

its

military contribution.

pressure from these various quarters, and subjected to a prolonged attack by South African troops intent

Under

upon seizing the important strategic and logistic base of Cuito Cuanavale, the government felt compelled to participate in a series of meetings held mainly on the initiative of the U.S. assistant secretary of state for African affairs, Chester Crocker, and aimed at reaching an accord acceptable to all parties. The series began in London on May 3-4 and continued intermittently in Brazzaville (Congo), Cairo, New York, Sal (Cape Verde), Geneva, and in Brazzaville again in September. Pres. Jose dos Santos stated firmly that he would accept no settlement that recognized Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA guerrillas. Neither UNITA nor the South West Africa People's Organization was represented. On August 8, after the Geneva meeting, a cease-fire was agreed to between Angolan and Cuban troops and South African troops. The Angolan government remained alert, however, because South African forces continued to carry out maneuvers along the Angola-Namibia border while, with U.S. assistance, UNITA stepped up its attacks in the north. This latter development made nonsense of an earlier attempt by the government, in June, to improve relations with neighbouring Zaire by signing an agreement

common border. Angola had frequently accused Zaire of allowing the U.S. to send supplies to the guerrillas. After the second Brazzaville meeting early in September, there were hopeful signs, indicating that a settlement might be reached, but the September 29 deadline was not met. Finally, on December 13, Angola, Cuba, and South Africa again meeting in Brazzaville reached agreement on timetables for withdrawal of the Cuban troops (to be completed by mid- 1991) and for Namibian independence. The accords were formally signed on December 22 at the UN headquarters in New York. They did not provide for an end to the civil war between the Angolan government and UNITA, but Angolan Foreign Minister Afonso Van-Diinem expressed the hope that they would promote reconciliation. For Angola the continuing war was an economic disaster. As the year began, its foreign debt stood at $4 billion, two-thirds of which was owed to the U.S.S.R., mainly for arms, and half of which was due to be repaid before the end of 1991. Between 40 and 50% of the budget was earmarked for defense, while the income from oil, the country's largest foreign exchange earner, produced by Americans in the Cabinda exclave, went, ironically, mainly to the U.S.S.R. to pay for military equipment. In a more encouraging development, Italy pledged $300 million in aid $200 million as a donation and the remaining $100 million as a loan to be used mainly to assist agriculture but also to help reconstruct the Benguela Railway. In April the African Development Bank also granted a credit of $100 million to be spread over three years. to strengthen security along their

—

—

—

(KENNETH INGHAM) Southern Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article Angola.

BENIN The

people's republic of Benin is on the southern coast of West on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 1 12,600 sq km (43,450 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 4,443,000. Cap.: Porto-Novo (official); Cotonou (de facto). Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 £1 sterling). President in 1988, Brig. Gen. Mathieu Kerekou. Africa,

=

The

year 1988 was an exceptionally difficult one for Pres. Mathieu Kerekou of Benin and his people. The economic situation, which had been deteriorating steadily since the early 1980s, was further undermined by falling world prices for two of the country's main export commodities cocoa and cotton and also by the relative strength of the CFA franc against the dollar. At the same time, the economic restructuring needed to end balance of payments and budgetary deficits remained blocked by disagreements with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank over the conditions attached to new funding and debt rescheduling;

—

—

as a result, living standards

fell

further.

The government was dogged, too, by persistent rumours of its own imminent demise. Between 100 and 200 people

A column of South African troops crosses the bridge connecting South West Africa/Namibia and Angola. The soldiers left Angola after an agreement was reached that would end the civil war in Angola and help lead to Namibian independence.

were reported to have been detained after an unsuccessful coup attempt on March 26, and there were reports of another plot's having been nipped in the bud while President Kerekou was attending a conference in neighbouring Togo in June. No government statement was forthcoming on these events, but on July 29 an extraordinary meeting of the National Assembly was called to endorse a wide-ranging Cabinet reshuffle attributed to the economic situation and defense and security needs. (nim caswell) This article updates the Macropadia article Western Africa: Benin.

Africa South of the Sahara:

Cameroon

385

A woman

comforts her three grandchildren,

BOTSWANA

whose parents were

A

landlocked republic of southern Africa, Botswana is a member of the Commonwealth. Area: 581,730 sq km (224,607 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1,21 1,000. Cap.: Gaborone. Monetary unit: pula, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 1.98 pula to U.S. $1 (3.39 pula = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Quett Masire.

during tribal wars Burundi. The Hutu and

killed in

Tutsi people of Burundi brutally attacked each other in continuation of an ancient tribal feud. AP/WIDE

WORLD

Botswana made special efforts during 1988 to stimulate the economy and attract foreign investment. Foreign exchange allowances for businessmen were raised, and investment rules were relaxed. Local firms could now invest offshore, while nonresident companies could borrow up to three

times their paid-up capital. One effect of these measures would be to make Botswana a conduit for South African funds, and this could be of considerable significance if sanctions were applied to the republic. Diamond and beef exports meant Botswana did not suffer from foreign exchange problems. There was an easing of relations with Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean exiles in Dukwe camp had returned home (closing a fruitful ground for South African subversive activities), and a joint venture had been announced between Botswana and the Zimbabwe Industrial Development Corporation to explore and develop Botswana's salt resources. During the year a British military team arrived to train the Botswana Defence Force, and Britain also sold Botswana nine secondhand Strikemasters. In June, following a South African raid into Botswana to seek out members of the African National Congress, Pres. Quett Masire accused Pretoria of state terrorism. Three policemen were hurt, while in an

1

BURUNDI Burundi

a landlocked republic of central Africa. Area: (10,747 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 5,131,000. Cap.: Bujumbura. Monetary unit: Burundi franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of FBu 151.85 to U.S. $1 (FBu 260.05 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Maj. Pierre Buyoya; prime minister from is

27,834 sq

km

Adrien Sibomana.

October

19,

During

his first year in

power, Pres. Pierre Buyoya gained human rights; he curbed

considerable respect for improving

Roman

and halted the antiCatholic policies of former president Jean-Baptiste

earlier

Bagaza.

Then

utilization project

tribal legacy

(March) raid three women had been killed. A coal was launched in collaboration with West Germany in order to use part of the country's huge coal resources in place of dwindling wood supplies. This article updates the Macropcedia article Botswana.

(guy ARNOLD) Southern Africa:

Cap.: Ouagadougou. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 £1 sterling). President (chairman) of the Popular Front and head of state and government in 1988, Capt. Blaise Compaore.

=

Burkina's Popular Front government, propelled to power by a bloody coup in October 1987, remained very much under the shadow of its predecessor, whose leader, Capt. Thomas Sankara, had won admirers throughout Africa. statutes,

published in

March

members of the group

—

that

had

The two other

surviving

originally brought

Sankara

power Commandant Jean-Baptiste Boukari Lingani and Capt. Henri Zongo retained their positions, despite rumours of a rift with Compaore. (nim caswell) This article updates the Macropcedia article Western Africa:

to

Burkina Faso.

—

— part of a

bitter

and deep

dispute sparked a series

in the rural areas, while tens of

fled into

and

thousands of

neighbouring countries. Former president

Bagaza was at Masaka in western Uganda near the Burundi border and was reported to be in contact with his supporters. The massacres were the worst since 1972, when an estimated 100,000 Hutu were killed. On October 19, in an effort to restore national unity, Buyoya appointed a new government headed by a Hutu prime minister, Adrien Sibomana. The 1988 budget raised public spending by 23%. The government was investigating a massive embezzlement of funds, which it claimed took place under Bagaza. Under Buyoya a structural adjustment program had been launched and had had some success. Development priority had been directed to rural activities such as veterinary services.

1988, established a

governmental structure consisting of a legislature elected every two years, a coordinating committee, and an executive committee in charge of day-to-day business. However, none of the executive committee members was named, and true mass organizations such as the labour unions maintained a discreet distance from the regime. A Cabinet reshuffle on August 23 was widely interpreted as a move by the new head of state, Capt. Blaise Compaore, to consolidate his position.

August 1988

new Tutsi-Hutu

slaughtered in and around the capital, Bujumbura,

Hutu

Burkina Paso is a landlocked country of West Africa. Area: 274,200 sq km (105,869 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 8,530,000.

in

—a

of massacres in which the Tutsi-dominated Army massacred thousands of Hutu in revenge for the earlier killing of Tutsi. Up to 3,000 families were reported to have been

many more

BURKINA FASO

The PF's

repression, released political prisoners,

This article updates the Macropcedia Burundi.

article

(guy ARNOLD) Central Africa:

CAMEROON A

republic of western central Africa, Cameroon lies on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 465,458 sq km (179,714 sq mi). Pop. (1988 1 1,206,000. Cap.: Yaounde. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Paul Biya.

est.):

Pres. Paul Biya obtained constitutional amendments that allowed him to raise the number of legislators from 120 to 180 and to call elections, which were duly held eight months early on April 24, 1988. These first multicandidate

386

World

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

90% of the National Assembly. Several candidates were allowed to run in some districts, in line with the cautious process of "democratization." Biya's presidential vote fell to 98.75% of the electorate from the 99.98% recorded at the January 1984 elections since independence replaced

elections.

Biya promised Cameroonians more austerity within the framework of an economic stabilization plan under discussion with international financial institutions. Oil production declined for the third year in a row, and the budget was reduced. Taxes were raised and subsidies cut owing to

shrinking revenue and rising concern over domestic and foreign payments. The Cameroonian Development Corp., the largest local employer, suffered a net loss of CFAF 4.8 billion in 1986-87 after a CFAF 512 million profit the

previous year. This

article

(nii k.

updates the Macropcedia

article

bentsi-enchill)

Western Africa:

1,200 French troops as well as Mirage and remained in the Central African Republic, but relations between French troops and citizens of the republic were often strained. Tax reform and import liberalization proceeded despite financial difficulties. The 1988 budget was CFAF 43.4 billion (down CFAF 2.4 billion from 1987), while external debt remained relatively low at $452.7 milhon. The revenue outlook was gloomy, with coffee export prices lower than domestic producer costs. Smuggling of diamonds through Bangui airport continued to reduce the important financial contribution of that natural resource, worth CFAF 1 5 billion in 1987 out of CFAF 39 biUion total export revenue. (Nil K. bentsi-enchill) This article updates the Macropadia article Central Africa:

More than Jaguar

Central African Republic.

Cameroon.

CHAD

CAPE VERDE

Chad

republic of Cape Verde occupies an island group in the Atlantic Ocean about 620 km (385 mi) off the west coast of Africa. Area: 4,033 sq km (1,557 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.):

359,000. Cap.: Praia. Monetary unit: Cape Verde escudo, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 76.86 escudos to U.S. $1 (131.61 £l sterling). President in 1988, Aristides Pereira; escudos

=

prime minister, Pedro

Pires.

Early in 1988 Pres. Aristides Pereira said people were free

and insisted no political prisoners or restrictions on free speech. Cape Verde established a joint commission with Nigeria to strengthen economic and technological cooperation, and Nigeria was to assist Cape Verde in setting up small-scale industries. The prime minister of Mozambique, Mario Machungo, visited Cape Verde in March, and the two countries pledged mutual assistance and friendship. In June Cape Verde signed a two-year cooperation agreement

to criticize the country's one-party socialist rule

there were

with Portugal covering a wide range of economic, social, and military assistance. It was concluded during the visit to Praia of Portugal's prime minister, Anibal Cavafo Silva. In August Cape Verde entered into a maritime agreement with the U.S.S.R., which was to construct Sal-Rei port on Boa Vista Island and provide technical assistance for the Palmeira port in Sal. As part of its telecommunications program, the Economic Community of West African States provided CFAF 34 million for spare parts to rehastation. A major fisheries project was inaugurated during the year. Its object was to raise the annual fish catch from 4,000 to 13,500 metric tons. (guy arnold) This article updates the Macropcedia article Western Africa: Cape Verde. bilitate the

a landlocked republic of central Africa. Area: 1 ,284,000 (495,755 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 5,395,000. Cap.: N'Djamena. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Hissen Habre. sq

The

Varzea earth

to cost $14.4 million

jets

is

km

Following the heavy fighting of the previous year, a steady improvement in relations between Chad and its northern neighbour, Libya, took place in 1988. The cease-fire of Sept. 1 1, 1987, held, thanks in part to heavy Libyan fortification of the disputed Aozou Strip and French refusal to provide the air cover necessary for Chadian forces to retake it. Hopes of a longer-term settlement received a setback when Libya's chief of state. Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhdhafi, failed to attend the summit conference of the Organization of African Unity in Addis Ababa, Eth., at the end of May. The meeting did coincide, however, with a surprise announcement from Libya that it was willing to recognize the government of Pres. Hissen Habre in N'Djamena, free prisoners of war, and launch a "Libyan Marshall Plan" to reconstruct war-torn areas. Observers concluded that Qadhdhafi had given up the attempt to remove Habre from power, at least for the time being. The resulting loss of interest in Libya among the various Chadian opposition factions brought an easing of domestic pressure on President Habre. A steady trickle of opposition figures continued to announce their conversion to his cause, while a recruitment drive by the ruling Union Nationale pour I'lndependance et la Revolution brought in large numbers of people dependent on the government for their future

employment.

The economy remained devastated by

the war; severe

flooding and locust infestation caused yet more damage during the 1988 rains. Low world cotton prices and de-

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

pressed overall economic activity caused government coffers to remain empty, and public employees outside the

The Central African Republic

capital often

is a landlocked state in central (240,324 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 2,843,000. Cap.: Bangui. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £l sterling). President in 1988, Gen. Andre Kolingba.

Africa. Area:

622,436 sq

km

This

article

went months without pay. updates the Macropadia article

(nim caswell) Western Africa:

Chad

COMOROS The

Andre Kolingba in February 1988 commuted the death sentence on former emperor Jean-Bedel Bokassa to life imprisonment with hard labour. During a visit to France in February, Kolingba was thanked by both Pres. Francois Mitterrand and Prime Minister Jacques Chirac Pres.

for his support during

French military operations

in

Chad.

republic of Comoros is an island state in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Africa. Area: 1,862 sq (719 sq mi), excluding the island of Mayotte, which continued to be a de facto

km

dependency of France. Pop. (1988 433,000. Cap.: Moroni. Monetary

est.,

unit:

excluding Mayotte): Comorian franc, with

(Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CF 541.38 £l sterling).

=

President in 1988,

Ahmed

Abdallah.

Africa South of the Sahara: Djibouti

A coup attempt in December 1987, while Pres. Ahmed Abdallah was attending the Franco-African summit, was The government said soldiers had attacked the main barracks in Moroni. Comoran security was still handled by the mercenary leader Bob Denard. Opposition groups in Paris said seven people had died from torture in December, not the official toll of three. Comoran refugees from Moheli Island living in Mayotte circulated tracts in March 1988 attacking government policies. A firm of South African hoteliers, Sun International, would manage two hotels on Grande Comore in equity partnership with defeated.

the government. Financial problems overshadowed the 13th anniversary

of independence on July 6. Weak prices for exports (principally vanilla) and revenue shortfalls led to serious arrears on the (French) F 1,460,000,000 external debt. Customs receipts were F 62 million for 1987 imports against the projected F 99 million, and F 1 1.5 million for exports instead of F 38 million. Civil service salaries were three months late. France added F 3 million to its 1988 budgetary aid of F 38 million. Discussions on structural adjustment began in July with the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the African Development Bank. (Nil K. BENTSI-ENCHILL) This article updates the Macropadia article Indian Ocean Islands: Comoros.

CONGO A

people's republic,

Congo

in central Africa

Ange-Edouard Poungui.

Pres. Denis Sassou-Nguesso was embarrassed by Congo's involvement in $300 million contracts to import toxic waste. Both the environment minister and the information minister were dismissed on July 30, 1988, for their role in the affair. This was timely housecleaning, just before the celebrations of the 25th anniversary of the revolution on August 15. French troops helped government security forces end the ten-month rebellion of Capt. Pierre Anga, who was killed in July near Owando in Cuvette Province. Prominent in the Congolese leadership since 1969, Anga claimed to possess embarrassing secrets about the assassination of Pres. Marien Ngouabi in 1977, from which both the next head of state, Joachim Yhombi-Opango, and Sassou himself

benefited.

An

estimated budget deficit of $400 million for 1988, a debt-to-exports ratio of 436%, a debt burden of $4.5 billion, and a grain-import requirement of more than 100,000 tons illustrated the nation's economic crisis. Additional auster-

and privatization measures were expected. (Nil K. BENTSI-ENCHILL) This article updates the Macropcedia article Central Africa:

Congo.

COTE D'lVOIRE A

tons achieved a record level for the fourth year in a row. Pres. Felix Houphouet-Boigny tried with little success to keep world cocoa prices up by withholding part of Ivorian production. He also resisted World Bank pressure to cut the guaranteed producer price of CFAF 400 per kilogram. The loss of more than CFAF 600 billion in export revenues since 1985 resulted in liquidity problems in the banking sector, and the export produce marketing board was facing its third year of record deficits. The president maintained absolute political primacy during the year, with a clear successor still to emerge. Henri Konan Bedie retained his National Assembly presidency, and a Cabinet reshuffle in October spHt up Laurent DonaFologo's "superministry" of information, culture, youth, and sports, leaving him the vital information portfoUo. A ministry to combat drug abuse and trafficking was created for former internal security minister Gen. Oumar N'Daw. Laurent Akoun and other dissident members of the secondary school teachers' union were reinstated after months at a military camp in the countryside. Laurent Gbagbo, a prominent opposition figure and historian, returned from six years of self-exile. (nii k. bentsi-enchill) This article updates the Macropcedia article Western Africa:

on the Atlantic

km (132,047 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 2,266,000. Cap.: Brazzaville. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £l sterUng). President in 1988, Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso; prime

ity

The financial problems of the economy dominated 1988. Tumbling cocoa and coffee prices resulted in revenue shortfalls, which caused difficulties in paying external and domestic creditors despite generous rescheduling of some foreign debts. Cocoa production of more than 630,000

Ivory Coast. is

Ocean. Area: 342,000 sq

minister,

387

republic of West Africa, Cote d'lvoire lies on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 320,763 sq km (123,847 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1 1,634,000. Cap., Abidjan; capital designate, Yamoussoukro. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316. 13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Felix Houphouet-Boigny.

DJIBOUTI The

republic of Djibouti

is

in the

Horn of northeastern

Africa

on the Gulf of Aden. Area: 23,200 sq km (8,950 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 484,000. Cap.: Djibouti. Monetary unit: Djibouti franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a pegged rate of DF 177.72 to U.S. $1 (DF 304.38 = £1 steriing) and a free rate of DF 172.85 to U.S. $1 (DF 296 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Hassan

Gouled Aptidon; prime

French the

first

and

his

minister, Barkat

Gourad Hamadou.

December 1987 visit, by a French president since independence in 1977, copious praise for Pres. Hassan Gouled Aptidon

Pres. Francois Mitterrand's

underlined Djibouti's strategic value in the Horn of Africa. In July 1988 France replaced its 11 Mirage-lllC planes, stationed there since 1978, with modem Mirage Fls to match the MiG-29s of Yemen (Aden) and Ethiopia. France also had 3,600 troops permanently stationed in Djibouti under a mutual defense agreement. It had successfully opposed locating a base there for the U.S. Rapid Deployment Force.

A

Somali

nic Somalis

pilot defected to Djibouti in July.

making up nearly one-third of

its

With

eth-

population,

Djibouti occupied a difficult position in relation to the tensions between Ethiopia and Somalia. Interior Minister and Political Bureau member Youssouf Ali Chirdon died in Paris in June.

Foreign aid received in 1988 included F 45 million in French budgetary aid, a DF 1.7 billion loan from the Kuwait fund for port development, and 6,000 metric tons of grain from the European Communities. The $16.6 million preparatory work on a project for geothermal electricity development neared completion, but the $30 million$40 million construction phase was delayed because of competing options for its financing. A controversial $ 1 8 tax was put on imported flour to protect the private Sopinad Milling Co. (nii k. bentsi-enchill) This article updates the Macropcedia article Eastern Africa: Djibouti.

World

388

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara political climate in 1988 was defined by the presidenaddress of September 12, on the 14th anniversary of the revolution and the first anniversary of the founding of the people's democratic republic. Pres. Mengistu Haile Madam's speech lasted less than 20 minutes and was notable because it was the first time that an address was unencumbered by quantitative data on development issues. Two-thirds of his remarks focused on the war against

The

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

tial

republic of Equatorial Guinea consists of Rio Muni, on the Atlantic coast of West Africa, and the offshore islands of Bioko and Annobon. Area: 28,051 sq km (10,831 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 335,000. Cap.: Malabo. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc

The

= free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 £1 sterling). President in 1988, Col. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo; prime minister, Capt. Cristino Seriche Bioko. and a

the dissident separatist groups in the northern provinces of Eritrea and Tigrai. The remainder of the speech was a

comment on the limited progress that had been implementing the new constitution. Final agreement on the divisions of the various administrative regions was reached by the national Shengo

qualified

Early in 1988 the government of Equatorial Guinea contracted with South Africa for the construction of a satellitetracking station. All materials and engineering support were to

come from the republic, as well as troops to protect the The South Africans were also to help extend and

project.

revamp Malabo

airport. Pres.

Teodoro Obiang Nguema

businessmen were welcome in the country, including South Africans, but denied that this meant support by Equatorial Guinea for the Pretoria regime. Later in the year the South Africans were expelled at Nigerian insistence, although five of them reportedly returned in June when Equatorial Guinea braced itself for a Nigerian "invasion." Nigeria had made plain that it would regard a South African presence in Equatorial Guinea as a threat to stated that

its

all

security.

During the year Severo Moto, president of the outlawed Progressive Party, claimed that chaos prevailed throughout the country. In late summer a plot to overthrow the government was uncovered. Two of nine plotters were sentenced to be executed, and seven others received long prison terms; later President Obiang Nguema commuted the death sentences to life imprisonment. A number of measures were taken to revive the economy. France replaced Spain as the country's leading aid donor, and ties were being fostered with Washington. (guy Arnold) This article updates the Macropcedia article Equatorial Guinea.

Western Africa:

ETHIOPIA The

people's republic of Ethiopia is in the Horn of northeastern on the Red Sea. Area: 1,223,500 sq km (472,400 sq mi).

Africa,

Pop. (1988 est.): 47,501,000. Cap.: Addis Ababa. Monetary unit: birr, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of 2.07 birr to U.S. $1 (free rate of 3.54 birr = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Lieut. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam; prime minister, Fikre Selassie Wogderess.

made

in

The reorganization defined 25 adminisautonomous regions, and 356 subregions {awrajas). Mengistu stated that the program of regional autonomy would begin to be progressively put into prac(assembly) in July.

trative regions, 5

tice

during the current year, but he acknowledged that

progress was "not to the degree

we had hoped" and

that

only 3 autonomous and 1 administrative regions would be established during the year. In March the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) captured a strategic government base at Afabet to the north of Asmara. The rebel group captured or wounded 20,000 government troops, thereby engineering the largest victory ever claimed by a guerrilla force. The Tigrai People's Liberation Front (TPLF) moved dramatically eastward to occupy the major towns in Tigrai and the main road system. These events provoked mobilization of the militia, acceleration of the national military service program for youth, a draft of technicians from various ministries to the north, a compulsory contribution of one month's income from all Ethiopians, and a drastic cutback in budgets for other programs. The government slogan, "Everything to the Warfront," had a negative impact on all development programs because national resources became severely 1

strained.

In

November 1987 drought and famine

victims were

again numbered in the millions. The immediate problem was exacerbated by a growing disruption of the rural economy, threatened by a continuing shortage of draft animals

and farm equipment. Invasions of locusts appeared in June and ravaged crops. There were also new waves of refugees from southern Sudan and from northern Somalia. Ethiopia remained highly dependent on external assistance, which was strained as the result of confrontations

AP/WIOE

WORLD

Two women watch

as a supply plane departs from a relief station in Ethiopia. The plane, which could carry nearly two tons of cargo and

made

deliveries to three other Ethiopian relief

make several supply runs a day. Continuing severe drought and shortages of farm animals and equipment forced the Ethiopians to rely more heavily on outside aid stations, might

Africa South of the Sahara:

over the administration of relief supplies and the limaccorded to relief workers in areas of military activity. External agencies had also been involved in diaited access

logues, often bitter, pertaining to policies for resettlement,

grouping of rural people in villages the agricultural

economy,

(villagization),

particularly with regard to

and com-

modity prices. Resettlement, while accepted as a necessary measure in the context of an expanding population and a deteriorating environment, had been criticized on administrative and technical grounds. Villagization, recognized as a component of long-range rural development, had attracted

comment

critical

directed against the priority given to

the program, the immediate consequences for agricultural

production, and the mandatory rather than participatory nature of the actions. Ethiopia, which for some time had had an extremely low per capita level of external assistance, was faced during the year with a variety of serious economic problems. Efficient

financial

"popular

sacrifice,"

management and

a large element of however, had saved the country from

total financial collapse.

Ethiopian Airlines (EAL) remained one of the strongest elements in the economy. In September 1988, however, one of the worst accidents in EAL's 40-year history resulted when a flock of birds was sucked into an aircraft's engine during takeoff, causing the plane to crash and burst into flames. Thirty-one of the 104 persons aboard died. External relations improved after Ethiopia signed an accord with Somalia in April, resulting in the resumption of diplomatic relations and the exchange of several thousand prisoners,

1977-78 Ogaden war.

incarcerated since the

High-level talks continued with

The Sudan.

During 1988 Legesse Asfaw, a party strongman, was appointed general administrator of Tigrai region. The patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church died in June, and the enthronement of his successor took place in September.

A

senior government

official,

Amamual AmdeMikael,

vice-president of the State Council

and a former minister

of justice, defected. In early August the country mourned Lemma (see Obituaries). Though rainfall patterns were more normal in 1988, a serious shortage of food grain by the end of the year was predicted, partly because several areas experienced crop damage caused by excessive rain. In August Asmara received 89.2 (3.5 in) of rain during one ten-hour period; it was the heaviest precipitation recorded in 26 years. (GEOFFREY C. LAST) This article updates the Macropadia article Eastern Africa:

the death of poet Menghistu

mm

Ethiopia.

GAMBIA, THE A republic and member of the Commonwealth, The Gambia extends from the Atlantic Ocean along the lower Gambia River in West Africa; it is surrounded by Senegal, with which it has formed an administrative union called Senegambia. Area: 10,689 sq km (4,127 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 81 1,000. Cap.: Banjul. Monetary unit: dalasi, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 7.10 dalasis to U.S. $1 (12.15 dalasis = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Sir Dawda Jawara. Rumours of a plot to overthrow Pres. Dawda Jawara at the beginning of 1988 led to some 20 arrests. In the subsequent treason trial, which dragged on for the rest of the year, the prosecution alleged that Gambians and Senegalese had been recruited for military training in Libya. The most likely outcome of the trial would be to weaken GambiaSenegal relations still further; little now remained of the concept of Senegambia. In July President Jawara became annual chairman of the

Economic Community of West African States. The Gambia passed a law against the dumping of industrial waste; like other West African countries, it had been a target for disposal of waste from the developed countries. The World Food Program was to implement a three-year food project to support community-based rural development and food security. Currently, domestic food production met only half of The Gambia's requirements. In presenting his June budget, the minister of finance. Sheriff Sisay, claimed that, for the first time in more than a decade, The Gambia had

achieved economic stability and sustained growth. At the beginning of the year. The Gambia signed a $20 million refinancing deal with five banks through the London Club. million in external debts,

nearly double the country's gross domestic product.

Gabon

is a republic of central Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 267,667 sq km (103,347 sq mi). Pop.: in 1988 estimates ranged from 900,000 to 1,490,000 (UN est., 1,219,000). Cap.: Libreville. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £l sterling). President in 1988, Omar Bongo; prime minister, Leon Mebiame.

This

Parti

Democratique Gabonais celebrated

niversary in

March 1988 with

Pres.

its

Omar Bongo

20th anpraising

Gabon's progress from "wild capitalism" and claiming that the country had no political prisoners. The presidents of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Congo, and Zaire attended the celebration. Bongo mediated with some success in the dispute between Libya and Chad. In January he sent back to France seven Iranians deported to Gabon by the French govern-

article

updates the Macropadia article

(guy ARNOLD) Western Africa:

The Gambia.

GHANA A

West Africa and member of the Commonwealth, on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 238,533 sq km (92,098 Pop. (1988 est.): 13,754,000. Cap.: Accra. Monetary

republic of

Ghana sq mi).

The

389

ment. Five other Iranians and three Turkish Kurds were deported to Spain. In June the government rounded up over 3,500 African immigrants. Nearly one- third of Libreville's 300,000 people feU into this category. Also in June Mariam Sankara, widow of the late Burkinabe leader, took up Bongo's offer of hospitality. Gabon still had the second highest gross national product per capita in Africa (over $3,000). However, the oil sector declined by 20% and domestic consumption by 3 1 % in 1987. The Paris Club of Western creditor governments rescheduled bilateral debts in March 1988, and the World Bank approved a $50 million loan in April, with equivalent cofinancing from the African Development Bank. (Nil K. BENTSI-ENCHILL) This article updates the Macropadia article Central Africa: Gabon.

The Gambia now owed $260

GABON

Ghana

lies

unit: cedi, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate

of 225.85 cedis to

U.S. $1 (386.77 cedis = £1 sterling). Chairman of the Provisional National Defense Council in 1988, Jerry John Rawlings.

The year 1988 was

the seventh since the Provisional Na-

came to power, and in orthodox terms the economy did quite well. In 1987 donors pledged more than $800 million in aid and committed $747 million. The budget stressed better management and showed a tional Defense Council

390

World

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

reduction in debt repayment obligations. The government claimed that the economic recovery program had restored the country's international credibility. However, the World Bank report on Ghana said, "The plight of the poor and

vulnerable remains desperate with limited access to health, education, or good drinking water." The country was experiencing a new gold boom. Current gold production was 300,000 oz a year, but this could rise to 2.7

million oz, and

it

was estimated that

1.8 billion

oz could be recovered in two geologic areas. With the fall in cocoa prices, the country had come to rely on gold output for the bulk of its foreign exchange. Currently, gold accounted for 20% of export earnings and employed 24,000. Like many other countries, Ghana had embarked on a privatization program, which would affect as many as 181 state-owned enterprises and another 54 in which the government was the minority shareholder. School dropout figures reached an alarming 40 to 60%, with a corresponding

rise in child

This

article

labour.

updates the Macropadia article

(guy Arnold) Western Africa:

Ghana.

GUINEA republic of Guinea is located in West Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 245,857 sq km (94,926 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 6,540,000. Cap.: Conakry. Monetary unit: Guinean 299.47 to U.S. $1 franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of £1 sterUng). President in 1988, Brig. Gen. (GF 512.85

The

GF

=

tional

Monetary Fund, while abroad he was attacked by opponents more or less openly supported by the

political

Portuguese. Luis Cabral,

whom

Vieira overthrew in 1980,

lived in Lisbon.

The World Bank had urged a series of economic reforms on Guinea-Bissau since the economic recovery program launched in 1983 lost its momentum, and in 1988 the structural adjustment program resulted in a 34% increase in exports, although this was accompanied by a rise in inflation. The main object of the program was to sustain a growth rate in gross domestic product of 3.5% per year and to reduce inflation (45% in 1986) to 8% by 1989. Early in the year the government agreed to accept toxic waste from Europe, the U.S., and Australia, but it backtracked under fierce criticism both from within the country and from its African neighbours. The contracts would have been worth $600 million over a period of years. Twentynine cases of AIDS had been diagnosed since the launching of the anti-AIDS campaign in 1987. In July-August Guinea-Bissau was host to two medical conferences on AIDS for Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) countries and the World Health Organization. The eighth Lusophone African summit was held in Guinea-Bissau in June. (guy ARNOLD) This article updates the Macropadia article Western Africa: Guinea-Bissau.

KENYA

Lansana Conte. in an atmosphere of some political tension following the last-minute cancellation by Pres. Lansana

The year began

Conte of a planned state visit to France in early December 1987 and reported restiveness among the army troops. Pay raises of 80% were announced for the civil service. Army, and private sector effective Jan. 1, 1988, but the government had to back down on a concurrent 78% increase in the price of fuel when rioting broke out because merchants were passing on the increases in the retail prices of basic necessities. On January 1 7 there was a wide-ranging Cabinet reshuffle and reorganization of ministerial responsibilities.

mark the fourth anniversary of the on April 4 was a catalog of the conof the economy and public life. There was

Conte's speech to military takeover

tinuing

no

ills

prospect, he said, of a

new

constitution or parliament

Committee for National Recovery number one priority of economic recovery. Behind the scenes, however, ethnic tensions and the lack of adequate means of enforcing government decisions resulted in continuing vacillation on the economic program. Privatization of state companies lagged behind schedule, and planned civil service job cuts again failed to materialize. The CMRN was also split over the proposed until the ruling Military

(CMRN) had achieved

its

reestablishment of the Popular Militia (disbanded after the 1984 coup) to fight a rising wave of petty crime. This article updates the Macropadia Guinea.

article

(nim caswell) Western Africa:

GUINEA-BISSAU A

republic of

West

Africa, Guinea-Bissau lies

Ocean. Area: 36,125 sq

on the Atlantic

km

(13,948 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 931,000. Cap.: Bissau. Monetary unit: Guinea-Bissau peso, with (Oct. 10. 1988) a free rate of 649 pesos to U.S. $1(1,111 pesos

=

£1 steriing). President in 1988, Joao Bernardo Vieira.

Pres. Joao Vieira faced a difficult year in 1988. At home he had to implement changes demanded by the Interna-

A republic and member of the Commonwealth, Kenya is in eastern Africa, on the Indian Ocean. Area: 582,646 sq km (224,961 sq mi), including 1 1,230 sq km of inland water. Pop. (1988 est.): 22,919,000. Cap.: Nairobi. Monetary unit: Kenya shilling, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 18.24 shillings £1 steriing). President in 1988, to U.S. $1 (31.23 shillings

=

Daniel arap Moi.

After the formidable sequence of government attacks alleged supporters of the so-called

on

MwaKenya movement,

on leading Asian businessmen and bankers, on university students, and on U.S. missionaries that took place during the closing months of 1987, the year 1988 began on a more subdued note. Excitement began to build with the approach of the parliamentary elections in February

and March. The election to the presidency was a foregone conclusion, with the only political party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), proposing Pres. Daniel arap Moi as its sole candidate. The preliminary election at which candidates for Parliament were chosen by members of aroused considerable controversy because of a change in procedures; a secret ballot had been replaced by a system under which voters had to line up behind photographs of their candidates. Any candidate who received more than 70% of the votes was then returned unopposed, while in other constituencies as many as three candidates were allowed to run for election. The government claimed that the new system would prevent any rigging of the elections because it took place in full view of everyone. Beyond, a magazine published by the National Council of Churches of Kenya, a body to which most Protestant churches belonged, challenged that claim, offered evidence that rigging had taken place in several constituencies to the disadvantage of candidates

KANU

known to be critical of the government, and condemned the introduction of queue voting. The magazine was immediately banned, and possession of a copy rendered the person concerned liable to up to three years in prison. Soon afterward, the editor,

Bedan Mbugua. was

arrested

and

charged with an offense concerning the nonsubmission of

— 1

Africa South of the Sahara: Lesotho

39

LESOTHO A

monarchy of southern Africa and member of the Com-

monwealth, Lesotho forms a landlocked enclave within South Africa. Area: 30,355 sq km (1 1,720 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1,671,000. Cap.: Maseru. Monetary unit: loti (plural: maloti), at par with the South African rand, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 2.49 maloti to U.S. $1 (4.26 maloti

Moshoeshoe

=

£l sterling). King,

chairman of the Military Council in 1988, Maj. Gen. Justin Metsino Lekhanya. II;

The much-heralded

visit of Pope John Paul II to Lesotho September 1988 was a near disaster. The pope's flight was diverted by bad weather to South Africa (providing Pretoria with a propaganda boost). He was then taken by land to Maseru, with a South African escort that ignored the border and accompanied the pope 65 km (40 mi) into Lesotho as though it were less than a Bantustan. A busload of pilgrims was hijacked, and in a drama at the gates of the British High Commission in Maseru, the South African military was called in to deal with the hijackers; three were killed, while the fourth, handed over to the Lesotho authorities, was also killed while in their hands. Two hostages were killed and 20 were hospitalized. Finally, fewer than 10,000 people far less than the predicted one milHon turned up for the papal mass. Work continued on the first phase of the Lesotho Highlands Water Scheme in the Maluti Mountains. The project was not due for completion until 2020, when it would supply power to South Africa. The huge project was highly technical, and Lesotho would probably benefit only to the extent of 2,000 jobs over the next few years. Meanwhile, the Lesotho National Development Corporation was wooing South African investors. (guy arnold) This article updates the Macropadia article Southern Africa:

in

Masai wait to cast their votes in Marcli in secret-ballot parliamentary elections at a polling station in southern Kenya. In preliminary elections in February the secret ballot had been replaced with a controversial system

in

which voters

lined

up behind a picture of

their

candidate. AP WIDE WORLD

and

the magazine's accounts, to nine

months

in

August he was sentenced

in prison.

The pariiamentary elections took place in March and produced no surprises because all the candidates had already been approved by the ruling party. In any case. President Moi had already declared that Parliament was subordinate to KANU, and policy decisions on all matters of importance were made neither by Parliament nor by the party but by the president and a close circle of trusted supporters. The power of the president was clearly demonstrated on August 2 when the required three readings of legislation to amend the constitution were waived and Parliament passed the amendments in a single day. Only one member voiced any protest against the waiving of normal procedures, and he was shouted down. The

amendments authorized

—

—

Lesotho. AP/WIDE

WORLD

the president to dismiss judges at

—

and increased from 24 hours to 14 days the period during which people suspected of capital offenses could be will

held without charges. This new threat to the security of tenure of judges confirmed fears already expressed by Kenyan lawyers that both civil rights

and the administration of

justice

were being

steadily eroded. Their fears arose as a result of a series of

under suspicious circumstances in February 1987 of Peter Karanja, a suspected dissident, and the resignation of Derek Schofield, a judge who had been summarily removed from a case involving the head of the Criminal Investigation Department. Concern about events in the political and judicial fields had its counterpart in the economic sphere. Unemployment was running at a rate of about 50%, and there was no indication that industrial development was taking place to meet this problem. The continuing rapid growth of the population meant that half of all Kenyans were under 15 years of age, and a foretaste of the problems this would bring was experienced when there were only 67,000 new jobs available for 300,000 school-leavers. In February, however, the International Monetary Fund came to the government's assistance with the offer of a generous standby arrangement aimed at developing rural areas, reviving industry, and reducing the budget deficit. events, including the death in custody

(KENNETH INGHAM) This Kenya.

article

updates the Macropadia

article

Eastern Africa:

Pope John Haul blesses a Basuto leader during his visit to Lesotho. The Pope traveled to the southern African nation to beatify the Rev. Joseph Gerard, a French missionary who worked among the Zulu and Basuto people. II

World

392

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

Fund standby loan of $14.8 million for ten months in expectation of faster currency depreciation. Debt service for 1988 had been projected at $400 million, but in October the Paris Club of Western donor governments rescheduled tary

LIBERIA republic of Liberia is located in West Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 99,067 sq km (38,250 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 2,427,000. Cap.: Monrovia. Monetary unit: Liberian dollar, at par with the U.S. dollar, with a free rate (Oct. 10. 1988) of L$ 1.71 to £1 sterling. President in 1988, Gen. Samuel

The

K. Doe.

in revenue collection. Doe commerce to finance and then appointed Wisseh McClain (a nephew of former president William Tolbert, Jr.) minister of commerce in a clear attempt to reconcile those who opposed him in the 1985

the

economy,

moved David

especially

Farhat from

elections.

The 1988 budget was approved to slim

at

$240

million. Efforts

down

the civil service continued throughout the agency in charge of U.S. aid to Liberia launched

The new program designed

year.

a

billion.

Total liberalization of the economy proceeded with the of all import controls and export duties on all but state-marketed commodities such as coffee and cloves. The three major banks were among the public-sector candidates lifting

Early in 1988 Pres. Samuel K. Doe sacked his minister of finance, John Bestman, the man responsible for inviting 17 U.S. financial experts to assist in minimizing "leakages" in

the external debt, which at the end of 1987 stood at $3.2

to encourage the private sector, re-

leasing $5 million to private

companies

for the importation

of machinery, equipment, spare parts, and raw materials. The goods had to originate in the U.S. and be used only

by the private

sector.

called on the government to bring William Gabriel Kpolleh and 13 others held on treason charges to trial speedily, but proceedings were still dragging on late in 1988. They were accused of plotting between 1986 and March 1988 to overthrow the government. In July another plot was alleged to have occurred; Nicholas Podier (former vice-head of state) and others "invaded" Liberia. Four were killed, and others, including two U.S. citizens, were arrested. Podier was later reported killed. James Bush and Curtis WiUiams, the two U.S. citizens, were released from detention in November. In June an amendment to the constitution altered clause 93, which had limited the president to two terms. The change allowed the president to serve an unlimited number

The Liberian Action Party (LAP)

of times. This article updates the Macropcedia article

(guy Arnold) Western Africa:

Liberia.

MADAGASCAR The republic of Madagascar occupies the island of the same name and minor adjacent islands in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of Africa. Area: 587,041 sq km (226,658 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 10,917,000. Cap.: Antananarivo. Monetary unit: Malagasy franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 1,250 to U.S. $1 (FMG 2,141 = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Didier Ratsiraka; prime ministers, Lieut. Col. Desire Rakotoarijaona and, from February 12, Lieut. Col. Victor Ramahatra.

FMG

The U.S.S.R., which supplied 60% of Madagascar's total petroleum requirements, suspended deliveries in July because of payment errors. Inflation was high at 30%, while civil service salaries rose by only 12%. In February Lieut. Col. Victor Ramahatra replaced Lieut. for foreign participation.

Col. Desire Rakotoarijaona as prime minister. (Nil K.

This article updates the Macropcedia Islands: Madagascar.

BENTSI-ENCHILL) Indian Ocean

article

MALAWI A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Malawi is a landlocked state in eastern Africa. Area: 1 18,484 sq km (45,747 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 8,21 1,000. Cap.: Lilongwe. Monetary unit: Malawi kwacha, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 2.66 kwacha to U.S. $1 (4.56 kwacha = £l sterling). President in 1988, Hastings Kamuzu Banda.

Two

heads of neighbouring nations visited Malawi during The visit of Pres. Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique in July was intended to strengthen the links between the two countries that had been affirmed by an agreement on security cooperation signed in December 1987. In fulfillment of that agreement, Pres. Hastings Banda had subsequently sent troops to help in the defense of one of Mozambique's main railway lines. Good relations were particularly important because Malawi had suffered an influx of refugees from the fighting in Mozambique, bringing the total of refugees currently in the country to more than half a million. Providing for them placed a heavy burden on the country's limited resources in spite of assistance of $50 million from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. Cooperation in bringing an end to hostilities in Mozambique was, therefore, vital to both countries, not least to Malawi, whose two outlets to the Indian Ocean, both running through Mozambique, had been severed for 1988.

four years.

The visit of South Africa's Pres. P. W. Botha in September also had important financial implications. He agreed to the rescheduling of Malawi's debt to South Africa and also offered to provide 3,000 tons of corn (maize) to meet the country's shortfall in the production of that staple food.

(KENNETH INGHAM) Southern Africa:

Madagascar's economic recovery program received a boost meeting in January 1 988 of the World Bank Con-

at the

sultative Group in Paris, when bilateral and multilateral donors pledged a sorely needed $700 million a year for three years. Despite lavish praise from donors, Madagascar's economy grew by just over 2%, thus failing to match the population growth of around 3%. The target for growth of gross domestic product until 1992 was 3.5% a year. The public investment program received an International Development Association loan of $117 million, aimed especially at achieving self-sufficiency in rice by 1990; some 85% of cultivated land was devoted to that crop. Additional balance of payments support amounting to $18.7 million came from the U.S., along with a new International Mone-

This article updates the Macropcedia article Malawi.

MALI Mali

is a landlocked republic of West Africa. Area: 1,240,192 sq (478,841 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 7,778,000. Cap.: Bamako. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Gen. Moussa Traore; prime minister until June 6, Mamadou

km

Dembele.

Malian Finance and Commerce Minister Tienna Coulibaly October signed an agreement with Western creditor

in

nations that rescheduled the nation's debt at lower inter-

Africa South of the Sahara:

main creditor, cut the value of the was owed by one-third. In a major Cabinet reshuffle on June 6, Pres. Moussa Traore became minister of national defense and the post of prime minister was aboUshed. The former defense minister. Gen. Sekou Ly, est rates. France, the

debt that

it

—

moved

considered sento the post of national education because of the clashes of students and teachers with the authorities in February and March. Elections to the National Assembly on June 26 resulted in an officially recorded 98.6% endorsement of the candidates of the ruhng Union Democratique du Peuple Malien but were of little importance, given the marginal role of the assembly in political life. The Organization of African Unity recognized Traore's 20th year in power by electing sitive

him chairman This

article

at the

OAU

summit

in late

updates the Macropcedia article

May.

(nim caswell) Western Africa:

Mali.

MAURITANIA The

republic of Mauritania

is

on the Atlantic coast of West

km

(398,000 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1,894,000. Cap.: Nouakchott. Monetary unit: ouguiya, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 74.14 ouguiya to U.S. $1 (126.97 ouguiya = £1 sterling). President of the Military Committee for National Salvation and prime minister in 1988, Col. Maaouya

Africa. Area: 1,030,700 sq

Ould

Sidi

Ahmed

Taya.

Events in 1988 were overshadowed by the unsuccessful coup attempt against Col. Maaouya Ould Sidi Ahmed Taya in October 1987, in the aftermath of which three black officers were executed. The attempt was the first in

Mozambique

393

unemployment. The growth of Mauritius's manuwas one of the success stories of the third world. Based mainly on the export processing zones (EPZs), falling

facturing sector

manufacturing accounted for 53% of exports, surpassing The EPZs contained over 500 companies employing 90,000 people. The high level of education was seen as a key to this success; virtually all primary-age children attended school, and a high proportion of them went on to secondary school. The success of tourism had created its own problems. Sir Gaetan Duval, minister of tourism, suggested that 300,000 arrivals a year were the most the island could accommodate. Sugar still dominated the agricultural sector; the current crop stood at approximately 650,000 metric tons, 540,000 tons of which were exported. In 1988 Mauritius was establishing its own stock exchange and hoped that the number of publicly owned companies would double over the next five years. The government, which had decided to quit the East and Southern African Preferential Trade Area, changed its mind, although continuing membership would cost it $40 million in lost revenues a year. The decision was political, to maintain solidarity with black Africa. In May the Mauritian delegate had walked out of a meeting of the Organization of African Unity to protest a report that criticized Mauritius's trade and investment ties with South Africa. The first offshore banks opened in Mauritius in October. Curbs on foreign exchange were to be relaxed further, and tax incentives were to be improved with free repatriation of sugar.

capital

and dividends allowed.

This article updates the Macropcedia Islands: Mauritius.

article

(guy arnold) Indian Ocean

MOZAMBIQUE

Mauritania's history to have been purely ethnically based, exposing latent tensions between the pohtically dominant white Moors and the black, predominantly Toucouleur, Mauritanians from the Senegal River Valley. Rioting was reported to have greeted the three executions, and the abrupt cancellation of a planned trip by Col. Taya to Tunisia at the end of March along with a school strike in April were indicative of continuing tension in the

people's republic of Mozambique is located in eastern on the Indian Ocean. Area: 799,380 sq km (308,642 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 14,890,000. Cap.: Maputo. Monetary unit: metical, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of 586 meticais £1 sterling). President to U.S. $1 (free rate of 1,003 meticais in 1988, Joaquim Chissano; prime minister, Mario de Graf a

There were two minor Cabinet reshuffles on March 20 and April 1 1 including the dismissal of the finance minister and his replacement by the former director of

The

The

Africa,

=

Machungo.

capital.

,

The trial of 1 7 people accused of threatening state security began on September 10. Meanwhile, the Senegal-based black opposition group FLAM said that some of those arrested in the wake of the attempted coup of October 1987 had died in the harsh conditions of a desert prison camp. Despite these events, the second stage of local elections part of a planned gradual return to democracy passed without incident in January. the central bank.

—

—

This article updates the Macropcedia Mauritania.

article

(nim caswell) Western Africa:

MAURITIUS The constitutional monarchy of Mauritius, a member of the Commonwealth, occupies an island in the Indian Ocean about 800 km (500 mi) east of Madagascar and includes the island dependencies of Rodrigues, Agalega, and Cargados Carajos Shoals. Area: 2,040 sq km (788 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1,049,000. Cap.: Port Louis. Monetary unit: Mauritian rupee, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of Mau Rs 14.05 to U.S. $1 (Mau Rs 24.07 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1988, Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo; prime minister, Aneerood Jugnauth.

war carried on by the Mozambique National (Renamo) rebels remained a constant threat to political stability and economic recovery in 1988. Deliveries of aid from other countries were seriously hampered by Renamo ambushes, while attacks on vital communications and on towns and villages in many parts of the country guerrilla

Resistance

continued unabated. It was not guerrilla activity, however, but dissatisfaction with the existing methods of supplying aid that led representatives of several donor countries and private assistance groups to propose in February a new approach to helping Mozambique. Food handouts, it was agreed, worked unevenly and in any case encouraged a spirit of dependence among the recipients. What was needed was greater emphasis on rehabilitation and on developing the country's own resources. The plan was not always easy to put into effect, however. A British-funded scheme to rebuild the railway linking southeastern Zimbabwe with the port of Maputo was constantly sabotaged by Renamo guerrillas, who killed groups of railway workers as well as members of the armed forces posted to guard the railway.

The government believed that the problem resulted from the military assistance given to the guerrillas by South African agencies. There were better prospects for rela-

when Jacinto Veloso, minister of international cooperation, flew to Cape Town to meet the South African foreign minister. In the tions with South Africa after April, however,

In his 1988 budget the minister of finance,

Vishnu Lutchmeenaraidoo, forecast continued economic growth and

394

World

Affairs Africa

South of the Sahara

course of discussions the two agreed to reactivate the Joint Security Commission, estabUshed by the Nkomati Accord in 1984; the commission had been allowed to lapse in 1986. Even before the meeting, South Africa had made a grant to upgrade the port of Maputo and later in April had agreed to reschedule Mozambique's debt of more than $ 1 million. As a further demonstration of its good intentions, South Africa also agreed in May to grant millions of dollars in military aid to help protect the Cabora Bassa hydroelectric project

from

rebel attacks.

At

least 1,500 soldiers

dam and the elecJune Mozambique signed tricity cable to South an agreement with South Africa and Portugal to reactivate the Cabora Bassa project and to repair the pylons damaged by guerrillas. During the same month, the government launched an important counteroffensive against the guerrillas, the immediate result of which was a new flood of refugees over the border into neighbouring countries. Pres. Joaquim Chissano visited Pres. Hastings Banda of Malawi in July and took the opportunity to reaffirm the agreement on would be

specially trained to

guard the

Africa. In

security cooperation signed in

December

1

By

South Africa, but he openly refused any support to the racial policies of his powerful neighbour. He did, however, act as a mediator in May between South Africa and Angola to clear the way for discussions leading to the cessation of hostilities between (kenneth ingham) the two countries. This article updates the Macropadia article Southern Africa: tied economically to

to give

Mozambique.

NIGER a landlocked republic of West Africa. Area: 1,186,408 (458,075 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 6,937,000. Cap.: Niamey. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £l sterling). Chief of state and president of the Supreme Military Council in 1988, Gen. Ali Seibou; prime ministers, Ahmid Algabid and, from July 15,

Niger sq

is

km

Mamane Oumarou.

1987, thereby ce-

menting more firmly relations with a neighbouring country that Chissano had, until recently, openly accused of assisting

994, vnth a further review at the end of the century. entering into these various agreements, Chissano acknowledged that, for geographic reasons, his country was

in

Renamo.

In September South Africa's Pres. P.

W. Botha

vis-

Mozambique and promised Chissano that his country would not supply the rebels. He also confirmed the agreement to revive the Nkomati Accord and to rebuild and defend the Cabora Bassa project and offered to provide 3,000 tons of com (maize). South Africa was also to pay more than $85 million a year initially for the electricity supplied by Mozambique and to increase the sum by 25% ited

Niger's

new

chief of state. Gen. Ali Seibou,

to the post after the death of Seyni

who succeeded in Novem-

Kountche

ber 1987, enjoyed wide popularity during his first year in office. His open and relaxed style of government was demonstrated by an amnesty announced on the 29th anniversary of independence for imprisoned leaders of coup attempts against Kountche in 1976 and 1983, and also by restraint in the face of strikes by students and workers at the Arlit uranium mines. In February 1988 Seibou said that those involved in the amnesty would soon appear before a judicial tribunal. Three reshuffles of centi^ and regional government, in November 1987 and then on March 10 and July 15, 1988, saw Seibou's allies posted to key jobs and his principal rival for the presidency, Col. Moumouni Djermakoye Adamo, put safely out of the way as ambassador to the U.S. On August 2 Seibou announced the formation of a political party, the Mouvement National de la Societe de Developpement (MNSD). It was likely to form the core of a one-party state under a new constitution; the National Development Council, presently a consultative body, was to be transformed first into a constituent assembly and later into a full legislature. (nim caswell) This

article

updates the Macropadia article

Western Africa:

Niger.

NIGERIA A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Nigeria is located in West Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 923,768 sq km (356,669 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1 12,258,000. Cap.. Lagos; capital designate, Abuja. Monetary unit: naira, with (Oct. 10. 1988) a free rate of 4.63 naira to U.S. $1 (7.92 naira £1 sterling). President and chairman of the Armed Forces Ruling Council in 1988, Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida.

=

Nigeria's January 1988 budget, designed to give breathing

space in a desperately strained economic situation, was more optimistic than subsequent developments allowed. Total expenditure for the year was set at 24.294.000.000 naira, just over half of which was for recurrent expenditure. In an innovation, 451 million naira was set aside for the maintenance of existing assets. Petroleum subsidies were

A

truck is lowered onto a dock in Mozambique as part of an aid shipment from South Africa. South Africa agreed to give Mozambique millions of dollars in military aid to defend the Cabora Bassa hydroelectric project from rebel guerrillas.

retained despite International

Monetary Fund pressures

to

reduce them. The five-year wage freeze was lifted, and measures were passed to protect home industries and to restructure the civil service.

The

fifth

development plan

Africa South of the Sahara: Sao

January 1989. Like many other African had embarked on a program of privatization, details of which were announced at the beginning of the year. The measures covered all commercial and merchant banks. A number of corporations were to remain public, but their operations would be commercialized; these included the Nigerian National Petroleum Corpora-

was postponed

to

countries, Nigeria

tion, radio, television,

Nigeria's

first

and the

p)etrochemical plant at

Ekpam was com-

missioned in March; part of the plant was designed to supply Nigeria with half the raw materials required for the

Ten years earlier Nigeria had announced plans for the commercial exploitation of its huge natural gas resources, but when oil prices fell these were shelved for lack of development capital. Now, with oil prices still depressed, liquefied natural gas was to be developed as a long-term replacement for the dwindling oil resources. France agreed on new credits to cover the costs of a new plastics industry.

water supply service for Lagos. West Germany agreed to resume insurance cover for its exports to Nigeria; this followed the March signing of an agreement to reschedule 2.4 billion. debts of

DM

government increased gasoline (petrol) prices by 3%, provoking violent demonstrations and leading to the closure of some 20 institutions of higher education. Nigeria still had very cheap gasoline, but transportation was a major item of individual expenditure, so any change in gasoline prices was felt throughout the economy. The question of whether to abolish gasoline subsidies was central to any restructuring of the economy. Meanwhile, prices continued to rise, and by midyear the January budget proposals had been cut back. Neither oil nor cocoa revenues came up to expectations, and the ending of the Gulf war could mean a greater glut of oil that would depress oil prices still further. Nigeria's economic performance had been so consistently poor in recent years that the country was in danger of being reclassified by the World Bank from a middle-income to a low-income country. U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher made a brief visit to Nigeria in January, marking the start of a rapprochement between the two countries after a period of poor relations. The head of state, Maj. Gen. Ibrahim BaIn April the

bangida, reaffirmed the decision to return the country to civilian rule by 1992. In June the 563-member constituent assembly began deliberations on a constitution for the third republic. One proposal being seriously considered was to create three vice-presidents to ensure broad-based representation at the top level of government. A new religious dispute was in the making as the place of Shari'ah (Islamic) law in the new constitution was debated by the country's Mushms. The issue was dividing the constitution makers,

was Nigeria's continued membership in the Islamic Conference Organization. The non-Muslim southern part of the country feared domination by the Muslim north. Abubakar III, the sultan of Sokoto and spiritual leader of Nigeria's Muslims, died on November 1 {see Obituaries). Rioting in which more than ten died greeted his government-appointed successor, Ibrahim Dasuki. as

This

article

updates the Macropcedia

article

(guy ARNOLD) Western Africa:

Nigeria.

RWANDA The landlocked

republic of Rwanda is situated in central Africa. Area: 26,338 sq km (10,169 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 6,709,000. Cap.: Kigali. Monetary unit: Rwanda franc, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of RF 77.68 to U.S. $1 (RF 133.02 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Maj. Gen. Juvenal Habyarimana.

Principe

395

October 1988 bodies from the tribal massacres in Burundi were floating down the Nyabarongo River into Rwanda at the rate of five a day. There were an estimated In

set up in Rwanda followRwanda watched the events in

63,000 Hutu refugees in camps ing the August massacres.

Burundi uneasily. The majority Hutu had wielded power in

Rwanda

Tutsi

railways.

Tome and

ever since they overthrew the

dominance

monarchy and

1959, but exiled Tutsi periodically

in

attempted a comeback.

During the summer the

torrential rains that afflicted

much

of northern Africa caused flooding and landslides that destroyed over 4,000 dwellings and left 20,000 homeless.

Rwanda

received emergency relief from the European

any case was the country's princiRwanda concluded a barter trade agreement with Uganda that permitted the exchange of goods valued at $10 million a year. The 1988 budget increased taxes on fuel, locally made cigarettes, and soft drinks and imposed further cutbacks in government spending. Faced with a CFAF 2.5 billion deficit, the government was reducing its public administration staff, which currently accounted for more than 50% of all state expenditure.

Communities, which

in

pal donor. Earlier in the year

After years of decline, the gorilla population in the

Virunga Mountains was increasing again as a result of strict antipoaching measures. There were known to be at least 279 mountain gorillas, and the government opened a chnic for them north of Kigali. This

article

updates the Macropcedia article

(guy Arnold) Central Africa:

Rwanda.

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE republic of Sao Tome and Principe comprises two main and several smaller islets that straddle the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, off the west coast of Africa. Area: 1,001 sq km (386 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1 17,000. Cap.: Sao Tome. Monetary unit: dobra, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 77.01 dobras to U.S. $1 (131.87 dobras = £1 sterhng). President in 1988, Manuel Pinto da Costa; prime minister from January 8, Celestino Rocha da Costa.

The

islands

In late 1987 the ruling party, the

Movimento de

Liber-

tafao de Sao Tome e Principe, announced constitutional reforms, to include presidential and legislative elections based on the universal right to vote. Pres. Manuel Pinto da Costa then appointed as prime minister (the post had been abolished in 1979) Celestino da Costa (a former minister of state for education, labour, and social security) with instructions to name a Cabinet and present a program of action for the approval of the National Assembly. The Assembly accepted the prime minister's program, in which he called for close cooperation with the European Communities and proposed deregulation of the economy. A curious coup attempt was mounted in March 1988 when a group landed from canoes and tried to capture Sao Tome police headquarters. The government attributed the attempt to the opposition group, the National Resistance Front. Two of the group were killed and about 40 were captured, including 2 U.S. mercenaries. President da Costa described the attempt as the work of adventurers and reaffirmed his commitment to the process of democratization,

promising elections for 1990. Following the coup attempt the U.S. promised to provide the government with two patrol vessels. Portugal agreed to set up a military academy in Sao Tome; previously most military assistance had come from the Eastern bloc. This

article

updates the Macropcedia article

Sao Tome and

Principe.

(guy ARNOLD) Central Africa:

396

World

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

SENEGAL

SEYCHELLES

The

republic of Senegal is located in West Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean; it surrounds the country of The Gambia, with which it has formed an administrative union called Senegambia. Area: 196,722 sq km (75,955 sq mi). Pop. (1988

A

est.):

sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 66,900. Cap.: Victoria. Monetary unit: Seychelles rupee, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of SR 5.43 £1 sterling). President in 1988, Franceto U.S. $1 (SR 9.30

7,187,000. Cap.: Dakar. Monetary unit:

CFA

franc, with

(Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc £1 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 and a free rate of

=

CFAF

sterling).

President in 1988,

republic and member of the Commonwealth, the Seychelles consists of about 100 islands in the Indian Ocean, 1,450 km (175 (900 mi) from the east coast of Africa. Area: 453 sq

km

=

Albert Rene.

Abdou Diouf

Rene held seven portfolios in 1988, including foreign affairs and defense, as well as being the leader of the state's only party, the Seychelles People's Progressive Front. The government emphasized that Seychelles belonged to a "zone of peace," and its nonalignment was accepted by both the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., neither Pres. France-Albert

A

turbulent year for Pres. Abdou Diouf and his government opened with an increasingly heated campaign for the presidential and legislative elections on Feb. 28, 1988. Six of the 1 7 registered political parties contested the poll, while four candidates presented themselves for the presidency. The winner was never in serious doubt, with Diouf

and

his Parti Socialiste reelected for

new

five-year terms

with 71.3% of the vote and 103 of the 120 parliamentary

Democratique Senegalais (PDS) finished second, with 24.7% and 17 seats. The closing days of the campaign were marked by clashes between government and opposition supporters, and, as the results were declared, gangs of youths took to the streets of the capital, looting and burning to chants of the PDS's campaign cry of "Change!" A state of emergency was declared, and a number of opposition figures were arrested for complicity in starting the riot. Although order was restored within two days, tension remained high, with continuing strikes in secondary schools and at Cheikh Anta Diop University in Dakar, open divisions between the government and labour unions, three bomb attacks in Dakar, and disturbances and arrests in the southern region of Casamance. The government responded with carefully gauged concessions, announcing a reduction in the retail prices of urban staple foodstuffs on May and subsequently agreeing to talks with the opposition parties. These broke up without agreement in July. President Diouf pledged that neither Senegal's democratic experiment nor its nine-year-old economic restructuring program would be reversed. Abundant rains from June onward ensured a good harvest with the exception of areas affected by locusts, and this led to a fourth successive year of positive economic growth. (nim caswell) seats, respectively;

Abdoulaye Wade's

Parti

1

This

article

updates the Macropadia article

Western Africa:

Senegal.

of whom wanted any escalation of tensions in the Indian Ocean. U.S. and Soviet warships visited Seychelles in suc-

and recreation." Nonalignment had meant a widening of the country's sources of international aid, which now included the U.K., the World Bank, the European Communities, India, the Arab states, the U.S.S.R., and China. The economy remained dependent on tourism and fishing. Unfortunately, 60% of the income from tourism went directly to tour operators or to pay for imports of luxury food and drink for the visitors. Even so, net earnings from tourism amounted to about $40 million a year. Despite its narrow economic base, Seychelles had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa and had been designated a middle-income councession for "rest

try,

This article updates the Macropcedia Islands: Seychelles.

article

(guy ARNOLD) Indian Ocean

SIERRA LEONE A

republic of

Leone

Sierra

West Africa and member of the Commonwealth, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 7 ,740 sq km

lies

1

(27,699 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 3,883,000. Cap.: Freetown. Monetary unit: leone, with (Oct. 10, 1988) an official rate of 37.01 leones to U.S. $1 (63.38 leones = £l sterling). President in 1988, Maj. Gen. Joseph Saidu Momoh.

Pres. Joseph Momoh had declared a of economic emergency; measures were passed to prevent hoarding of the national currency and essential commodities, and export licenses for diamonds and gold were suspended. This was the first such emergency in the country's history. In April 1988 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) formally suspended Sierra Leone because of its accumulating arrears with the Fund and the World Bank, a move that provoked anger in Sierra Leone, where President Momoh had inherited a $3 .5 million debt to the IMF and a $50 million debt to the World Bank from his predecessor. The general state of the economy remained depressed, although a three-year aid agreement with West Germany and a World Health Organization program to eradicate river blindness were encouraging developments, as was a plan to improve 10,000 km (6,210 mi) of roads. The civil service was especially affected by an anticorruption drive. As many as 64% of the civil service were "ghost" workers with political connections, not working but drawing pay. In one department it was discovered that 75% of those on the payroll did not exist. A 5-day period of official mourning was declared following the death of former president Siaka Stevens {see

In

November 1987

state

1

1

An angry mob hurls rocks at a taxi during riots in protest against the outcome of Senegal's national elections. Six of the nations 17 registered parties contested the election results.

Obituaries) on

May

29.

This article updates the Macropcedia Siena Leone.

article

(guy Arnold) Western Africa:

— Africa South of the Sahara: South Africa

SOUTH AFRICA

SOMALIA A

republic in the Horn of northeastern Africa, the Somali Democratic RepubHc, or SomaUa, Hes on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Area: 637,000 sq km (246,000 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 6,334,000. Cap.: Mogadishu. Monetary unit: Somali shilling, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 243.57 Somali shiUings to U.S. $1 (417.12 Somali shilhngs = £1 sterhng). President in 1988, Maj. Gen. Muhammad Siyad Barrah; prime minister, Lieut. Gen. Muhammad Ali Samatar.

In 1 988 the rebellion in the north of Somalia by the Somali National Movement (SNM), which had smoldered for seven years, flared into a full-scale civil war. The country's economic situation remained precarious, and behind-thescenes maneuvering continued for the succession to Pres. Muhammad Siyad Barrah, who after 19 years in power was in his 80s and in poor health. In December 1987 there was a reorganization of government structures in which the previous 25 ministries were reduced to 19. Taking over the Ministry of Finance, Abderrahman Jama Barrah, the president's brother, continued the program of austerity and self-reliance begun the previous year, when Somaha rejected its accommodation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In January 1988 price controls were introduced on essential goods, and exchange controls were tightened. On February 1 six leading politicians, including former vice-president Ismail Ali Abokor, were brought to trial, along with 17 others. The six and two others were found guilty of "engaging in the formation of a group of saboteurs," a reference to the SNM. They were condemned to death, but following protests from abroad, the sentences were commuted to imprisonment and house arrest. On April 3 the peace talks between Somalia and Ethiopia over the disputed Ogaden region, which had begun in 986, finally ended in an agreement. Somalia undertook to cease support for Ethiopian antigovemment groups; Ethiopia, in return, undertook to withdraw from a strip of country near the border that it had held since 1983, together with the second Somali antigovemment organization, the Somali Democratic Salvation Front (SDSF), and to withdraw all support from both that organization and the more impor1

tant

SNM.

The

SNM

was to mount a sudden mait captured the town of Burao and several smaller settlements and attacked the reaction of the

jor offensive.

397

At the end of

May

northern regional capital, Hargeysa. The strategic port of Berbera, whose air and naval facilities were used by the U.S., was virtually under siege. Reports emerging from the area indicated a disastrous situation, with a large part of Hargeysa and Burao destroyed by government bombing and shelling. The total dead were estimated at 10,000, and 300,000 refugees had crossed into Ethiopia. By November the government appeared to have largely regained control, although fighting continued around Hargeysa. In October a rapprochement between the Somali government and the IMF opened the way for release of $36 miUion in U.S. aid, due for 1987-88 but held back because of the government's economic pohcies. However, there were calls from the U.S. Congress to make this release conditional on the reform of human rights abuses in Somalia. In early November discontent among the general public erupted in Mogadishu when a march by former prisoners of war to protest living conditions turned into a popular mass demonstration. (Virginia r. luling) This article updates the Macropcedia article Eastern Africa: Somalia.

The Republic South Africa occupies the southern

tip of Africa, with the to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. It partially surrounds the four republics of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda (whose independence from South Africa is not recognized by the international community). Area:

Atlantic

Ocean

1,123,226 sq km (433,680 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 29,628,000. (Area and population figures exclude the four republics.) Executive cap., Pretoria; judicial cap., Bloemfontein; legislative cap.. Cape Town. Monetary unit: South African rand, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a financial rate of R 4.04 to U.S. $1 (R 6.92 = £1 sterling) and a commercial rate of R 2.49 to U.S. $1 (R 4.26 = £1 sterling). State president in 1988, Pieter Willem Botha.

The Republic. Domestic Affairs. South

Africa continued to be governed throughout 1988 under the state of emergency

declared in June 1986. There was no significant development in the National Party government's program of reform of apartheid, the official policy of racial separation. Pres. P. W. Botha's speech at the opening of Parliament in February concentrated almost exclusively on economic issues.

On that

February 24 the government announced measures banned the United Democratic Front

effectively

(UDF) and

16 other organizations, the main opposition groupings outside of Parliament. Severe restrictions were also imposed on the activities of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), whose membership was approximately 800,000. In March there was an international outcry over the government's intention to hang the "Sharpeville Six," six black youths convicted of murder on the sole grounds that they had been participants in a demonstration in 1984 during which the mayor of the black township complex of Lekoa had been killed. New evidence returned this case to the courts,

and

in

the sentences of

ranging from

1

President Botha commuted defendants to prison sentences

November all

six

8 to 25 years.

on the press were tightened during the year, and three newspapers New Nation, South, and the Weekly Mail were prohibited from publication for limited periods. In July a white conscientious objector, David Bruce, was sentenced to six years in prison for refusing to serve Restrictions

—

in the South African Army because it supported a racist government. Treason trials of black political leaders continued. According to the government, 17% of those arrested under the state of emergency remained in detention. In September three UDF leaders (and then a fourth) escaped from detention and took refuge in the U.S. consulate. The government stated that they would not be rearrested if they left, which they did after several weeks. Some of these measures were interpreted as attempts by the government to impede the organization of a boycott by blacks of elections for local councils, held on October 26. These, in which, for the first time, white, Indian, Coloured (mixed black and white), and African councils were up for election on the same day, were widely seen as a "referendum" on the government's program, rather than as purely local in character.

In the campaigning before the elections, Khotso

House

Johannesburg, headquarters of the South African Council of Churches, as well as Khanya House in Pretoria, headquarters of the South African Catholic Bishops' Conference, were gutted by bombs as had been the case with COSATU House in 1987. Church leaders such as Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu had called for a boycott of the in

—

elections.

World

398

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

A man

in

Soweto casts

his ballot during local

elections held on October 26. It was the first time that whites, Indians, Coloureds, and Africans had

held their separate elections on the

In August African National Congress (ANC) leader Nelson Mandela, imprisoned for 26 years, was transferred from PoUsmoor Prison to Tygerberg Hospital in Cape Town because he was suffering from tuberculosis. He was subsequently moved to Constantiaberg clinic. July 18, his 70th birthday, had been marked by widespread international celebrations, including a concert in Britain watched by an estimated one billion TV viewers throughout the world. In December he was moved again to a house on a prison farm near Cape Town. Despite the restrictions and repression, the October elections were overwhelmingly boycotted by blacks. The government claimed an overall poll of 25.2% among registered African voters, better than in previous such elections. This meant an actual voting figure of 382,952, however, a tiny proportion of the African population of voting age. The government's plan in pursuit of constitutional re-

form

— was that the

—

local councils

would

elect delegates to

same

day.

dependent Party, launched by former ambassador to Great Britain Denis Worrall. De Beer called for unification of these forces in the face of a likely parliamentary election in 1989.

A drift to the right was also reflected in legislation introduced during the year. Bills were introduced to strengthen the enforcement of residential racial segregation under the Group Areas Act (while also permitting mixed-race areas where local residents agreed) and to strengthen the government's powers to remove squi.tters forcibly. These provoked a crisis in the tricameral Parliament, marked by walkouts by opposition parties and refusals by the (Coloured) House of Representatives and (Indian) House of Delegates to vote on the measures. In November a presidential council rejected the residential segregation

A

bill.

Labour Relations Amendment Bill was enremoved a number of the labour union reforms

stringent

acted.

It

introduced in

1979,

including recognition of minority

councils would also, through an electoral college, elect representatives to the proposed black national council, in

These changes, which were supported by employers' organizations, reflected growing employer concern about union power. In response to the February restrictions on the UDF and

which a limited number of nonhomeland Africans would

to the labour

the regional service councils ("multiracial" bodies responsible for administration of services at interlocal level). Black

be involved in discussing further constitutional reform. The elections for white councils registered big gains for the Conservative Party (CP), which stood for a return to old-style apartheid based on racial partition of the country. In the Transvaal the CP gained up to 60 councils and narrowly missed winning control of the administrative capital, Pretoria. The CP threatened to use its position to block the work of the regional service councils and strengthen

March the CP had increased majorities in parliamentary by-elections in Standerton, Schweizer-Reneke, and Randfontein. These racial segregation at the local level. In

also

won

with the capture by the National Party (NP) of the Johannesburg and Pietermaritzburg councils, confirmed a drift to the right in white politics. However, the CP gains were not the landslide that some had anticipated. In a move that surprised some observers, Botha in September made a speech calling on CP leader Andries Treumicht to join in reuniting the Afrikaner people. To the left of the NP in white politics, there was continued disarray. Colin Eglin resigned in June as leader of the Progressive Federal Party (PFP) and was replaced by Zach de Beer. The PFP's position was contested by the National Democratic Movement (in which Wynand Malan, a member of Parliament, was a dominant figure) and the Inresults, together

unions.

bill, COSATU called a three-day national stay-away on June 6-8, which was supported by up to three million black workers and two million black youths. This was the biggest and longest such action in the history of South Africa. A one-day general strike also took place on March 21, the anniversary of the 1960 Sharpeville massacre. Industrial strike action declined from the peak it had reached in 1987. Major strikes included those by 30,000 metalworkers for two weeks in August and by up to 25,000 dockworkers during September and October. Coloured women garment workers in the western Cape Province staged their first big strike since 1936. The climate of repression hampered open activity among blacks. However, it proved unable to break the rent boycott that had continued since 1985-86 in a number of Transvaal townships, notably Soweto, the black urban complex near Johannesburg. The boycott was a protest against rent in-

and against the unpopular township councils that enforced them. School youths, particularly hard hit by the post- 1986 wave of detentions, again staged sporadic school boycotts in different parts of the country.

creases

The banned ANC continued to be regarded as the most popular organization among the black majority. It maintained its guerrilla actions through its armed wing, Umkhonto We Sizwe. The government claimed 262 "ter-

.

Africa South of the Sahara: South Africa

up to October 20, compared with 230 in 1986 and 235 in 1987. These included bombs or mines placed at restaurants, bus stations, and Ellis Park rugby ground, some admitted to by the ANC. Within the ANC National Executive Committee, there appeared to be division on the acceptability of attacking such "soft targets." Counterattacks were made on ANC targets in Europe and Africa during the year, including the murder of the ANC's representative in France, Dulcie September, in March. ror incidents"

ANC

leadership drew up constitutional proThe exiled posals for a future nonracial South Africa to supplement the Freedom Charter, which advocated a Bill of Rights and

a mixed economy. It also continued discussions with delegations from inside the country on its aims. These included spokesmen for the Indian community, church and labour union leaders, and, in October, Danie Craven, president of the South African Rugby Board (SARB). These latter discussions, in particular, were attacked by the government, and in November the SARB voted to discontinue them. The violent conflict between vigilante supporters of Chief Buthelezi's Inkatha movement and supporters of the continued in Natal, despite court injunctions and despite talks between Inkatha and COSATU that led to a peace accord in early September. By the end of October, it was estimated that 5 1 1 had been killed, as against 497 in the whole of 1987, largely at the hands of Inkatha supporters; 79 of these deaths had followed the peace accord. Foreign Relations. The limited sanctions agreed upon by

UDF

Western powers in 1986 remained in force. A bill for far more stringent sanctions measures (the Dellums Bill) was discussed in the U.S. Congress but not passed. West German pohtical leader Franz Josef Strauss {see Obituaries) visited southern Africa, including South Africa, in January; his funeral in October was attended by Botha on his first visit to Europe since 1984. In March four people were killed when the South African Defence Force raided Gabarone, capital of Botswana. South African police were also involved in ending the hijack of a bus containing pilgrims by presumed Lesotho Liberation Army guerrillas in September on the occasion of the pope's visit to Lesotho and other southern African countries. The major foreign policy development of the year was the series of talks among South Africa, the U.S., Angola, and Cuba Unking implementation of UN Resolution 435 on independence for South West Africa/Namibia with withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. These talks followed a major invasion of Angola by South African forces in late 1987 and early 1988, leading to a battle over the strategic town of Cuito Cuanavale, the biggest land battle in Africa since World War II. The South African forces, reinforcing the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) rebels against the Angolan government, failed to capture the town and suffered losses of at least 6 1 white

the year, relations between South Africa

399

and Mozambique

improved, with a revival of the 1984 Nkomati Accord and a visit by Botha to Mozambique. Economy. The mild 1986-87 upturn continued into the first part of 1988. For the first time in a number of years, there was a moderate pickup in the rate of fixed investment. However, because it was based upon consumer spending rather than export growth and led to an increase in imports, the upturn rapidly caused balance of trade and payments difficulties. These were compounded by the continued outflow of private capital (R 4.8 billion net in the first three quarters of 1988) and the need for servicing foreign debt obligations. Large surpluses on the current account of the balance of payments in 1986-87 (R 6.2 biUion in 1987) had been reduced to a seasonally adjusted annualized R 960 million by the second quarter of 1988. Foreign exchange reserves had declined by October to R 4,610,000,000 ($1,870,000,000, from a peak of $3.4 billion at the end of 1987). It was estimated that under these conditions, while 5% annual growth of gross domestic product (GDP) was needed for absorbing new entrants to the labour market (in addition to what was needed for reducing existing levels of unemployment, estimated among blacks at between three million and six million). South Africa could not afford more than 3% growth. The 1987 growth had been 2.6%; predictions for growth in 1988 were about the same. In response to the balance of payments problems. Minister of Finance Barend du Plessis in August introduced a package of measures, including import tariff surcharges of 10-60%. There were expectations that in the period after the elections, with the money supply growing at an annualized rate of 25-29%, further monetary or fiscal measures would have to be taken to curb inflation. The 1988-89 budget in March called for a rise in revenue of 13.3% over 1987-88, a rise in expenditure of 12.6%, and a deficit of 4.9% of estimated GDP.

Bophuthatswana

The

republic of Bophuthatswana consists of six discontinuous, landlocked geographic units, entirely surrounded by South Africa except for one unit that borders Botswana on the northwest. Area: 44,000 sq km (16,988 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 2,005,000. Cap.: Mmabatho. Monetary unit: South African rand. President in 1988, Lucas

Mangope.

Ciskei Bordering the Indian Ocean in the south, Ciskei is surrounded Africa. Area: 7,760 sq km (2,996 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 946,000. Cap.: Bisho. Monetary unit: South African

on land by South

rand. President in 1988,

Lennox

Sebe.

Transkei

conscript troops.

By September 1 South Africa had withdrawn its troops from Angola. Talks continued, though the November 1 deadline for beginning to implement Resolution 435 passed without further agreement. The U.S. government, with the encouragement of the U.S.S.R., continued during November to press the parties toward agreement. There remained considerable skepticism among commentators as to whether the issues could be resolved. However, on December 22 South Africa, Angola, and Cuba signed an accord in which South Africa agreed to grant independence to Namibia provided Cuba withdraw all of its approximately 50,000 troops from Angola by July 1 1 99 1 In connection with the talks, Botha for the first time paid visits to Malawi, Zaire, and Cote d'lvoire. Also during ,

Bordering the Indian Ocean and surrounded on land by South Africa, Transkei comprises three discontinuous geographic units, two of which are landlocked and one of which borders

Lesotho. Area: 43,653 sq km (16,855 sq mi). Pop. (1988 3,714,000. Cap.: Umtata. Monetary unit: South African rand. Head of the Military Council in 1988, Maj. Gen. Bantu

est.):

Holomisa.

Venda republic of Venda is located in extreme northeastern South Africa. Area: 7,176 sq km (2,771 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 547,000. Cap.: Thohoyandou. Monetary unit: South African rand. Presidents in 1988, Patrick Mphephu and, from April 18, Frank Ravele.

The landlocked

Africa South of the Sahara: South Africa

400

A man

in Sudan guides his camel through floodwaters near the city of Khartoum. Extensive rains combined with seasonal shifts of the Nile caused devastating flooding that left at least one million people

homeless. AP/WIDE

Sections of the Bophuthatswana Defence Force on

Febm-

ary 9 attempted to overthrow the government of the homeland, but they were crushed within 24 hours by the South

African Defence Force. Subsequently, 195 people were put on trial for treason, and the opposition Peoples' Progressive Party was banned in August. This was the fifth recent

attempted coup in the independent homelands, reflecting their increasing instability.

In April

Venda

President-for-life Patrick

Mphephu

died

in a Pretoria hospital

and was succeeded by Minister of

Finance Frank Ravele.

A

in

school boycott broke out in July a schoolteacher was found hanged and

Venda when murder by government

ritual

officials

was suspected. The

incident led to a massive four-day general strike in mid-

August, amid allegations of nepotism and corruption. A series of successful court actions against the KwaNdebele government resulted in the dissolution of its assembly and the caUing of new elections for December, delaying inde-

pendence

homeland. homelands evidence of massive corruption mounted. Former prime minister George Mantanzima fled the Transkei when a warrant was issued for his arrest on charges of corruption, but he was extradited and brought to trial in September. On the basis of two reports by the Transkei government published in August, the South African government set up a commission to investigate corruption in the Transkei and Ciskei. In

all

for that

the

In July South African Foreign Affairs Minister Roelof

("Pik") Botha stated in Parliament that the four independent homelands had received R 2,760,000,000 in the 1987-

88 financial year: R 1,060,000,000 for Transkei, R 834.1 miUion for Bophuthatswana, R 323.6 million for Venda, and R 520.5 million for Ciskei. The South African government also guaranteed bank loans to cover budget deficits in 1986-88. The Pretoria-based Africa Institute estimated that a minimum of R 175 million (5% of South African grants) was misappropriated or embezzled in 1987-88. (martin legassick) See also Dependent States, below.

A

republic of North Africa, The Sudan has a coastline on the Red Sea. Area: 2,503,890 sq km (966,757 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 26,263,000. Cap.: Khartoum. Monetary unit: Sudanese

1988) a par value of LSd 4.50 to U.S. $1 (free rate of LSd 7.69 = £1 sterling). Chairman of the Supreme Council in 1988, Ahmad al-Mirghani; prime minister, Sadiq al-

Mahdi.

In April 1988 Sadiq al-Mahdi

was reelected prime minis-

formation of a government of national conciUation. This brought to an end the hiatus that had begun when the ruling coaHtion was dissolved in August 1987, but it also further emphasized the division between north and south because the latter played no part in the new constitutional arrangements. In addition, the proposal to reintroduce some of the severe punishments approved by Islamic law suspended since the overthrow did nothing to settle of Pres. Gaafar Nimeiry in 1985 the dispute between the two halves of the country. The inclusion in the government for the first time of members of the fundamentalist National Islamic Front still further alienated the mostly non-Islamic south, and the government's continuing attempts to open negotiations or to destroy southern opposition by force of arms conspicuously failed to produce a solution. By the beginning of the year, the civil war had spread to the Blue Nile Province, a region previously considered to be part of the north. Hundreds of thousands of refugees fled over the Ethiopian border to escape the fighting, and thousands more joined those who had preceded them in settling near Khartoum. The sufferings of the latter group were multiplied in August when torrential rains resulted in serious flooding of the lowlying area in which they had made their temporary homes. Many people were drowned or died from starvation, and an estimated two million were made homeless. Areas in the east and north were similarly affected. In the south the casualties were due less to flooding than to the failure of ter in preparation for the

—

aid to reach

its

—

destination.

On December

21 the

government reported

that

it

had

thwarted an attempted coup and had arrested 25 civilians and retired soldiers. Demonstrations and a general strike took place in Khartoum in late December in protest against

government-imposed price

increases, including a

500%

rise

On December

28 the second largest party withdrew from the governing coalition, and on the next day the price increases were rescinded. (kenneth ingham) in sugar.

SWAZILAND

SUDAN, THE

pound, with (Oct.

WORLD

10,

Swaziland is a landlocked monarchy of southern Africa and a member of the Commonwealth. Area: 17.364 sq km (6.704 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 716,000. Administrative cap., Mbabane; royal

and

legislative cap.,

Lobamba. Monetary

(Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate

emalangeni = £1 Sotsha DIamini.

sterling).

unit: lilangeni

South African rand, with of 2.49 emalangeni to U.S. $1 (4.26 King, Mswati III; prime minister,

(plural: emalangeni), at par with the

Africa South of the Sahara:

Swaziland's overall economic deficit was expected to reach no more than $4 million (9.5 miUion emalangeni) in 1988, thanks to strict policies that had brought expenditure under control. Debts were manageable and required only 8% of

export earnings to service. The biggest problem concerned unemployment; 1 8% of those in paid employment (about 17,000) worked in the South African mines. Inflation stood at 15%. Agricultural production was down somewhat, but the manufacturing sector was showing a healthy increase, with an expected growth rate for the year of between 3 and 4%. A shake-up of the public enterprises was aimed at bringing them under more effective public control. Swaziland remained too dependent for comfort on the South African Customs Union, the terms of which were soon to be renegotiated. The government opposed sancit believed these would more than the republic. Members of the African National Congress, banned in South Africa, continued to be deported from the country. A new problem concerned the growing number of refugees from Mozambique, amounting to about 25,000 in 1988. (guy arnold) This article updates the Macropadia article Southern Africa:

tions against South Africa, since

hurt

it

presidency against him at the last election. He was regarded as a keen supporter of Mwinyi's liberalizing policies, which, to the black majority on Zanzibar and Pemba, seemed Hke an Arab plot to gain control first of the economy and then of political power in the islands. During a seminar in May organized by the ruling political party, Judge Hamis Msumi drew attention to the ways in which the application of parliamentary, customary, and Islamic law denied women their rights in regard to property, landowning, and many other spheres, even where the law stated that a husband and wife should have equal rights. His statement met with strong support from several women at the conference who claimed that the legal system made it difficult for them to contribute fully to the nation.

(KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropadia Tanzania.

TANZANIA republic of Tanzania, a member of the Commonwealth, on the east coast of Africa, and Zanzibar, just off the coast in the Indian Ocean, which includes Zanzibar Island, Pemba Island, and small islets. Area: 945,037 sq km (364,881 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 23,996,000. Seat of government, Dar es Salaam; capital designate, Dodoma. Monetary unit: Tanzania shilling, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 106.22 shillings to U.S. $1 (181.90 shillings £1 sterling). President in 1988, Ali Hassan Mwinyi; prime minister, Joseph

The

consists of Tanganyika,

=

article

A

republic of West Africa, Togo is situated on the Bight of Benin. Area: 56,785 sq km (21,925 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 3,486,000. Cap.: Lome. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 10. 1988) a par value of CFAF 50 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 316.13 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 541.38 = £l sterling). President in 1988, Gen. Gnassingbe Eyadema.

—

Gnassingbe Eyadema's regime the first in postindependence Africa to be installed by military coup celebrated its 21st anniversary in power on January 13 with the opposition more fragmented than ever before and the head of state increasingly taking on the role of continental statesman. In June the annual summit of the Economic Community of West African States regional grouping was held in Lome; shortly before it began, a new Libyan ambassador presented his credentials an unusual step, given Togo's diplomatic recognition of Israel. Togo's economic position remained precarious as commodity prices fell and the CFA franc strengthened against the dollar. Cocoa offered particularly poor prospects, while those of Togo's other main export products coffee, cotton, and phosphates were no better than mediocre. This Pres.

With a population growth averaging 3.2% per year, pressure on a weak economy continued to be heavy in Tanzania in 1988. Following International Monetary Fund guidelines, however, the nation slowly increased

its

gross

domestic product in spite of heavy foreign debts, which had to be serviced. A lack of foreign exchange forced the government to keep firm control on the export of profits, and this discouraged foreign investors. Britain, nevertheless, was willing to provide additional financial assistance, guaranteeing $32 million in February to help with the balance of payments deficit. This was in addition to nearly $50 million paid in annual aid for a variety of projects. Tanzania's relationship with Britain was strengthened Pres. Ali

Hassan Mwinyi

London in both Kenya and

visited

June. In October the president also visited Uganda, giving rise to hopes that some form of tripartite

commission might be

up to encourage cooperation in specific areas. In December Tanzania announced that it had withdrawn its troops from Mozambique, where they had been assisting in the fight against right-wing rebels. set

Adverse weather conditions during the year caused a country to suffer from food shortages. As a result, efforts were made to enlist science and technology in an attempt to reduce Tanzania's reliance upon a regular seasonal rainfall. The government's determination to deal firmly with large part of the population in the eastern half of the

anyone who sought

to

undermine

its

policies

was

vividly

demonstrated in January when Ali Jusuf Abdurabi, member of Parliament for Songea town, was arrested under the Economic Sabotage Act for being in illegal possession of 105 elephant tusks. Pres. Idris Abdul Wakil of Zanzibar appeared to have encountered even stiffer opposition. On January 12 he announced that he had discovered a plot to

Eastern Africa:

TOGO

Warioba.

when

401

overthrow his government with the help of foreign mercenaries. In consequence he reorganized the Revolutionary Council of Zanzibar, bringing in four new ministers. Particularly significant was the dismissal of the chief minister, Seif Shariff Hamad, and the transfer of control of the Special Zanzibar Revolutionary Government forces from the chief minister's office to that of the president. Hamad had been a longtime opponent of Wakil, having run for the

Swaziland.

further

Uganda

—

—

—

—

affected adversely not only the nation's balance of pay-

ments but also its public finances because the policy of guaranteeing crop prices well above world market equivalents required the payment of subsidies to farmers. Togolese phosphates also faced the problem of new health standards in the European Communities governing the cadmium content of fertilizers, which could end exports to one of Togo's traditional markets. (nim caswell) This article updates the Macwpcedia article Western Africa: Togo.

UGANDA A

member of the Commonwealth, located in eastern Africa. Area: 241,040 sq km (93,070 sq mi), including 44,000 sq km of inland water. Pop. (1988 est.): 15,990,000. Cap.: Kampala. Monetary unit: Uganda new shilling, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of 150 new shillings to U.S. $1 (free rate of 257 new shillings = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Yoweri Museveni; prime minister, Samson Kisekka. landlocked republic and

Uganda

is

402

World

Affairs: Africa

South of the Sahara

At the end of 1987 an accord was reached after a meeting between Presidents Yoweri Museveni of Uganda and Daniel arap Moi of Kenya to put an end to the crossborder shooting that had begun in mid-December. Each country agreed to reduce its security forces along the border in an effort to ease tension. As evidence of the subsequent slight improvement in relations between the two countries, Alice Lakwena, a rebel leader who had been driven by the Uganda Army to take refuge in Kenya, was arrested and jailed for illegally entering the country. Subsequently more than 100 of her followers were arrested by the Kenyan authorities.

Lakwena

the hands of the

UN

herself was released in March into High Commissioner for Refugees.

Early in January another rebel group, the Uganda Federal Army, protesting against the Libyan diplomatic presence in Uganda, was responsible for the death of a Libyan

diplomat and the injuring of several other persons when a bomb was thrown in Kampala. In an address to mark his second anniversary in office, Museveni urged all rebels to lay down their arms. It appeared to be a vain request, however, for 19 people were killed and 47 seriously wounded in February when rebels ambushed a bus in the northeast. In March, however, after negotiations that took place in Gulu, another rebel group, the Uganda People's Democratic Army, which consisted mainly of AcholJ soldiers from the army of the previous regime, was rumoured to be ready to sign a peace agreement. This was strongly denied by the movement's political leader, Otema AUimadi, from his exile in London, and the commander of the UPDA ordered his troops to continue the struggle. In spite of these instructions, however, a peace agreement of sorts was reached; its effect was to reduce guerrilla activities to sporadic clashes with the authorities. In October the

government was confident enough to release 950 prisoners who had been captured in the fighting against the rebels in the north and east. Meanwhile, near the capital itself, mutinous officers and soldiers of the National Resistance Army tried unsuccessfully to assassinate Museveni in June. The mutineers wanted the government to initiate all-party peace talks with all the rebel groups and to expel all Libyan and North Korean military instructors. A month later Paulo Muwanga, who had been vice-president in the government of Milton Obote, was acquitted of charges of kidnapping but was immediately rearrested on similar charges. In March representatives of the government of Uganda and The Sudan met in Kampala and signed a memo-

randum

that provided for the return of 60,000

who had

Ugandan

over the Sudanese border when the National Resistance Army entered northern Uganda and who now wished to return to their homes. The Sudan could ill afford to maintain them, but their return to Uganda was likely to impose a heavy burden on the government. Indeed, in September the desperate condition of the people in parts of the northern districts was revealed to the outside world by relief workers who were beginning to return to the area as guerrilla warfare died down. The acute cases of malnutrition discovered in the northern town of Lira and elsewhere were not due to the natural hazard of drought, which had caused havoc in other parts of the continent. They were instead the result of the destruction of homes and crops by rebels retreating before the advance of the National Resistance Army, by the Army itself taking reprisals against those whom it regarded as being sympathetic to the rebels, and later by marauding guerrillas. refugees

fled

(KENNETH INGHAM) This

article

Uganda.

updates the Macropadia article Eastern Africa:

ZAIRE The

republic of Zaire is located in central Africa with a short on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,344,885 sq km (905,365 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 32,559,000. Cap.: Kinshasa. Monetary unit: zaire, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 206.48 zaires to U.S. $1 (353.60 zaires = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Mobutu Sese Seko; first state commissioners (prime coastline

ministers),

Mabi Mulumba

until

March

7,

Sambwa

Pida

Nbagui until November 26, and, from November 26, Kengo Wa Dondo.

The Economy. The year 1987 ended with gloomy about the rapid been 60% in the

and higher

still

rise

reports

in the inflation rate, said to

have

months of that year in Kinshasa other towns. The government attributed

first six

in

the situation to high transport costs, to shortages of goods

caused by the lack of foreign exchange, and to the high cost of maintaining the industrial sector. Assistance provided by the International Monetary Fund had, however, caused some slowing down in the depreciation of the currency during the latter part of the year, and help was forthcoming from a wide range of sources. In January 1988 the Interna-

Fund for Agricultural Development agreed to give support to a development program in the rural areas of southern Shaba that would raise the annual income of farmers holding small amounts of land and improve food supplies through the use of better agricultural techniques. Surprisingly, perhaps, in view of its differing attitude toward affairs in Angola, Cuba expressed its willingness to become involved in the construction of a sugar factory in Bandundu, which was begun in the latter part of the year, tional its

and

also to give technical assistance in controlling diseases

of sugarcane. Japan also offered additional aid and, as in the previous year, half of this took the form of a loan and half was made as a grant. Substantial assistance was also made available by the African Development Bank, which planned to spend $450 million in Zaire in 1988 to promote a range of projects covering mining, transportation, energy, and agriculture. In its turn the Paris Club of Western creditor nations agreed to study the government's proposals for financing its official debt, while Brazil offered to increase the level of its cooperation by sending technological assistance for both the agricultural and industrial sectors. The Moroccan government awarded 35 scholarships to enable Zairian students to study in that country in 1988-89, and Israel promised to increase the help it had been giving. Political Affairs. Performance on the diplomatic and political fronts was less uniformly successful. On Dec. 3, 1987, President Mobutu denied charges made by the Angolan minister of external relations that the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) guerrillas were still receiving military supplies sent through Zaire, and he invited observers from the Organization of African Unity to maintain a permanent checkpoint at the Kamina air base. Nevertheless, the charge was repeated by the Angolan defense minister in March, and Angola's confidence was in no way restored when Zaire carried out joint military maneuvers with the U.S. in the vicinity of Kamina, Kolwezi, and Lubumbashi in April. Plans were announced in January to increase the number of provinces because the existing regions were proving too large to administer effectively. This was an extension of the experiment that had already been tried out with

some

success in the provinces of Kasai and Leopold ville. At the same time, the number of members of Parliament from Kinshasa was raised from 2 to 24 to ensure that all ethnic groups would be fairly represented. 1

7

Africa South of the Sahara:

Zimbabwe

403

Kengo Wa Dondo to replace Sambwa who had only held the post since March. Meanwhile, Mobutu himself was elected chairman of the Economic Community of Central African States and im-

mer prime

minister

Pida Nbagui,

mediately called upon members to increase production and buy within the Community. (kenneth ingham)

to

This

article

updates the Macropadia article

Central Africa:

Zaire.

ZAMBIA A

member

of the Commonwealth, 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 7,384,000. Cap.: Lusaka. Monetary unit: kwacha, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of 8 kwacha to landlocked republic and

Zambia

is

in eastern Africa. Area:

U.S. $1 (a free rate of 13.70 kwacha = £1 sterling). President Kenneth Kaunda; secretary-general of the United National Independence Party, Alexander Grey Zulu; prime

in 1988,

minister,

Kebby Musokotwane.

With the

rate of inflation

mounting

rapidly, Pres.

Ken-

Kaunda took stem action in February 1988 against a number of people accused of being involved in the black neth

Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire (left) greets Pres. P. W. Botha South Africa, who made his first visit to Zaire to discuss the Angolan peace settlement. Both countries had supported Angola's antigovernment guerrillas. Pres.

market. Sixty-six trading licenses were revoked, and several

of

officials

ect

were dismissed. In May a rural resettlement projin an attempt to find work for 10,000

was launched

youths. In another respect the year began unpromisingly with the arrest of Etienne Tshisekedi

wa Mulumba on January

1

while he was addressing a meeting of the opposition Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Tshisekedi, a former associate of Mobutu, and the UDPS were working to achieve a multiparty state or at least greater diversity within the ruling party. Largely as a result of Tshisekedi's arrest,

58 U.S. congressmen wrote to

Mobutu

in April

was urgently needed if the U.S. was to continue to supply aid, planned to total some $46 million in the current year. After further pressure, from Amnesty International and other bodies, Tshisekedi was released from prison in March, but a crowd of UDPS supporters that gathered to greet him was fiercely attacked by supporters of the government. Tshisekedi himself was sent to a psychiatric home and later was placed under house arrest. In April, however, he was rearrested after urging voters to boycott the elections in Kinshasa for new members of Parliament. He was released once more in September and announced that he was giving up politics. Criticism of the use of the Kamina airstrip to assist Angolan guerrillas was also voiced in France, and in February Mobutu visited Paris to try to enlist French sympathy and to seek help in strengthening Zaire's military position. Two months later the former French army chief of staff, Gen. Jeannon Lacaze, was appointed personal adviser to stressing that reform

Mobutu

with the task of assisting in the restructuring of the

armed forces. Meanwhile, in February, violent opponents of Mobutu, the Lumumba Patriotic Army, announced the election of new members to its high command with a view to pursuing more actively its armed struggle to overthrow the government.

The recall of Nguza Karl-I-Bond from his position as ambassador to the U.S. to become foreign minister once again in March was in keeping with Mobutu's practice of transferring officials from one post to another in rapid succession. The move was particularly startling, however, given Nguza's remarkable career both in support of and in opposition to the president. He was replaced as ambassador by Mushobekwa Kalimba Watana, previously ambassador to Belgium. In November Mobutu recalled for-

Kaunda, the sole candidate, was elected to a sixth term of office as president in October. His undiminished popularity had been boosted earlier in the year by his decision to restore the subsidy on com (maize) and to revoke the price increase on fuel. Although the country's debt remained at more than $5 billion, he had been encouraged to take these actions by the rise in the price of copper and by the excellent com crop. It proved impossible, however, to derive full benefit from the latter because of the lack of transportation to collect the crop.

(kenneth ingham)

This article updates the Macropadia article

Southern Africa:

Zambia.

ZIMBABWE A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Zimbabwe a landlocked state in eastern Africa. Area: 390,759 sq km (150,873 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 8,878,000. Cap.: Harare. Monetary unit: Zimbabwe dollar, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free £1 sterling). President in rate of Z$ 1.88 to U.S. $1 (Z$3.22 is

=

1988, Robert Mugabe.

The agreement signed on Dec. 22, 1987, by Prime Minister Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo, under the terms of which their two parties were to be united, was confirmed on April 2, 1988, by the last national congress of Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and then by Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (Patriotic Front) (ZANU [PF]) a week later. The last obstacle to union, Mugabe's insistence on retaining the name of his own party for the new united party, was at last overcome when Nkomo conceded the point. The agreement also stated that the new party would seek to establish a socialist society in Zimbabwe under the guidance of Marxist-Leninist principles. Both parties committed themselves to taking vigorous steps to eliminate the violence and insecurity in Matabeleland and to establish a one-party state. Meanwhile, on Dec. 31, 1987, Canaan Banana resigned as president and was succeeded by Mugabe. The formerly ceremonial presidency now incorporated the powers of the office of prime minister, which was abolished, but the change made little difference since Mugabe had been effectively in charge of the government since indepen-

404

World

dence.

Affairs:

Nkomo

secretary of

Middle East and North Africa

was appointed vice-president and second

ZANU

(PF). His disappointment at not being

—

appointed state deputy-president an office awarded to Simon Muzenda, who shared the vice-presidency of the party with Nkomo was partly assuaged when, in a Cabinet reshuffle announced on January 2, he became one of three senior ministers in the President's Office, with responsibility for overseeing a number of ministries including Local Government and Rural and Urban Development. The other two senior ministers were Bernard Chidzero, respon-

—

economic ministries and for planning, and Maurice Nyagumbo, who was to be in charge of political affairs. The three, together with Mugabe and Muzenda, formed an inner Cabinet, which met weekly. sible for all the

Mugabe avoided offending some of his old party stalwho feared losing their jobs because of the merger,

warts,

Cabinet to a total of 27, excluding himself, number of ZAPU members proportionate to the number of Matabele in the population as a whole. Witness Mangwende was transferred from the Foreign Office, where his tactlessness was thought to have led to the withdrawal of U.S. aid, and made minister of information. U.S. aid was resumed later in the year. Mangwende's successor was Nathan Shamuyarira. A controversial appointment was that of the outspoken Enos Nkala, an opponent of Nkomo, as defense minister. On January 11 a car bomb exploded outside a building owned by the African National Congress in Bulawayo, killing two people and injuring three others. The act was believed to have been inspired by the South African government. Six men (five of them white) were arrested; three of them were convicted of murder and sentenced to death in November. Also in January two men accused of spying for South Africa, who had been detained without trial for two years, were unconditionally released, while six others were arrested and held in detention, even after the charges were dropped in August. On April 19, the same day guerrillas in Matabeleland killed a Roman Catholic missionary in the worst act of violence by dissidents in the area since the signing of the interparty agreement, Mugabe announced an amnesty for political offenders. Almost at once guerrillas began to surrender, and by the deadline at midnight on May 3 more than 100, virtually all of those still active in the bush, had given themselves up. A month later the president ordered the release of 75 members of the security forces and of the ZANU (PF) youth wing who had been convicted of atrocities and abuse of human rights. This was said to have been his response to a demand from senior military officers and members of ZANU (PF) for a quid pro quo

by enlarging

his

so as to include a

1

,

amnesty offered to the guerrillas. Mugabe announced that a levy of 8% would 1 be imposed on the gross earnings of all employees to provide unemployment and retirement benefits. The serious problem presented by the rapidly rising level of unemployment was revealed in July, when 7,000 prospective recruits for the

On May

code, which called for extreme restraint in the standard

of living of senior officials, was also attacked. Opposition from those affected by the code had been so consistent that it had never been enforced. Edgar Tekere, dismissed as secretary-general of (PF) in 198 and since then a regular critic of corruption in

ZANU

1

government and the widening gap between rich and poor, went so far as to denounce the move toward a one-party state. In November his criticisms became so persistent that the party expelled him. His campaign against corruption was taken up by university students, who were confronted by police late in September when they attempted to mount a protest march into Harare, and many were detained. Their actions reflected a measure of disillusionment with the president, who had maintained that he would enforce the leadership code vigorously once the merger between the two parties had been effected.

On

the diplomatic front, the government's chief concern

was with what was believed

campaign to by South Africa, cou-

to be a growing

destabilize the country orchestrated

pled with South Africa's attempt to establish friendlier relations with some of the other frontline African states. The president continued to urge economic sanctions against his powerful neighbour, although Zimbabwe itself was in no position to participate in any such measures. The route through South Africa was Zimbabwe's main lifeline for exporting and importing goods, and diplomatic links had to be maintained despite a presidential ban on official

contacts at the ministerial level. (kenneth ingham) This article updates the Macropoedia article Southern Africa:

Zimbabwe.

Middle East and North Africa MIDDLE EASTERN AND

NORTH AFRICAN AFFAIRS The Gulf war

cease-fire and the historic declaration of statehood by the Palestine National Council (PNC) characterized a year in which violence in the occupied territories

and

terrorist attacks

concern.

homage off

on Dec.

The

rise to international

in Algiers paid

to the Palestinian uprising, or intifadeh, sparked

were

1987, when an Israeli Army truck killed year after the uprising began, the stones and

8,

A

four Arabs. bullets

continued to give

The Arab summit held June 7-9

still

flying.

intifadeh gave a

new

political credibility to Palestine

Liberation Organization (PLO) chairman Yasir Arafat in the events following the PNC's proclamation of statehood

offered themselves for service in the

15 in Algiers. On December 6 Arafat received a kiss on both cheeks from the Swedish foreign minister in Stockholm and went on to a hunting lodge

had vacancies

for

increasingly

armed forces, which The problem was becoming acute among young people with secondary or for only 500.

even university education, but the government's immediate concern was with the sheer numbers of students with primary education, products of the rapid expansion in that sector since independence. Mass education and the dissatisfaction felt by school-leavers who could not find what they regarded as suitable work were criticized in Pariiament, as was alleged corruption in the Ministry of Transport and the threatening manner adopted by Nkala toward those who leveled charges of corruption. Mugabe's leadership

on November

group of American Jews. On UN General Assembly Geneva and gave members the chance to hear

two days of

December meeting

in

talks with a

13 Arafat attended a

a speech denied to them in New York City after the U.S. government had declined to allow Arafat a visa to enter the country. The international response to Arafat's speech was highly favourable, and two days later, after Arafat had clearly renounced terrorism and recognized Israel, the U.S. ended its 1 3-year boycott to initiate talks with the PLO.

The Arab World and Arab-Israeli Relations. In the first more than 300 Palestinians were killed

year of the uprising,

Middle East and North Africa: Middle Eastern and North African Affairs

and thousands more were injured. Ordinary life in the occupied territories collapsed under the weight of strikes and curfews. At the Arab summit in Algiers the PLO asked for $128 million in urgent assistance and $43 million a month compensate Palestinian police and civil servants who had resigned their jobs with the Israeli administration in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Among those Palestinian groups opposed to Arafat was the Abu Musa faction, which in July assaulted the Shatila and Burj al-Barajinah camps in Beirut, Lebanon. Abu Musa was one of a handful of Palestinian leaders who did not rally to the PLO mainto

stream as a result of the uprising. Additional pressures on the Palestinians were produced when King Hussein of Jordan decided at the end of July to accept the secession from his kingdom of the West Bank, which had been annexed by his grandfather in 1950 and occupied by the Israelis since 1967. In doing this Hussein abandoned his role as an effective representative of the Palestinians. Jordanian policy before the uprising had consisted of trying to persuade influential sections of

community

West Bank and Gaza same time, Hussein did his best to promote Middle East peace talks aimed at securing Israel's withdrawal from most of the occupied territories and the establishment of some form of Palestinianthe Palestinian to

work

closely with

in the

Amman. At

the

Jordanian federation or confederation. The problem for King Hussein was that while the leader of Israel's Labour Party, Shimon Peres, was prepared to go some way toward accepting such a framework, he was not able to force the decision on the whole Israeli government. In elections in Israel on November 1. deadlock ensued between the two largest parties. The most notable feature of the poll was the strong showing by the four Orthodox Jewish religious parties; between them they secured 18 of the 1 20 Knesset (parliament) seats. The Likud bloc, led by the incumbent prime minister, Yitzhak Shamir, emerged with the best chance of forming a government, but extremist demands by Likud's potential allies on the right made compromise with the religious parties difficult. In late December, after seven weeks of intense negotiations, Shamir accepted Peres as finance minister in a Likud-Labour coalition similar to the "national unity government" of the past

Cairo Declaration of 1985,

in

which the

PLO

had been involved

in

"probably more than 30 in-

stances" of terrorist violence.

At a

special session of the

UN

13,

just settlement" in the

Middle East. He also proposed a UN-sponsored international peace

three-point plan for a

Arafat called for "peace and a

UN

conference and supervision of the occupied territories. The U.S. State Department said that Arafat's statement had not been sufficiently clear and unambiguous on three essential points: recognition of Israel, renunciation of terrorism, and acceptance of Resolutions 242 and 338. The next day Arafat clarified his remarks in a press conference, and the U.S. dropped its 13-year ban on formal talks with the PLO. The U.S. ambassador to Tunisia opened the first "substantive dialogue" with PLO representatives on December 15 in Carthage, Tunisia. In Israel, however, both Likud and Labour rejected the possibility of formal talks with the PLO. More than 500,000 Palestinians turned out to witness the funeral procession and burial of assassinated PLO military commander Khalil al-Wazir (Abu Jihad; see Obituaries) at the Yarmouk refugee camp south of Damascus, Syria,

UN

on April 20. Wazir was killed by unidentified commandos on April 16 in front of his wife and 14-year-old daughter at his home in Tunis Two bodyguards and a Tunisian driver were also killed. According to a report published by the Washington Post on April 21, the operation was directed from an airborne command centre by senior Israeli intelligence officers. The plans had been drawn up immediately after a bus hijacking in March for which Wazir had been held responsible. Tunisia was among the first countries to .

accuse

Israel

communique

of organizing the murders. issued by the

46-member

commandos were caught infiltrating from Lebanon. Critics pointed out that the Algiers resolutions were read in front of a map that showed Palestine before Israel was created. There was also much concern over Mahmoud Abul Abbas, a member of the PLO's executive committee, who was responsible for the 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking and the murder of Jewish-American Leon Klinghoffer. The Algiers declaration was nevertheless welcomed by more than 50 countries that announced recognition of the Palestinian state. European Communities (EC) foreign ministers meeting in late November stopped short adopted, Palestinian Israel

of recognition but welcomed the PNC's decisions. The U.S. decision on November 26 not to issue Arafat a visa to address the drew considerable criticism. At the the U.S. and Israel voted no and the U.K. was the only country to abstain on a resolution that passed 151-2

UN

UN

condemning the U.S. for its decision. The U.S. case against Arafat and the PLO was based on the fact that since the

April 20 a

election in November received a generally favourable reaction in the Arab world. Bush would come to the presidency with more experience of the region than any of his recent predecessors, a professional understanding

presidential

and close friendships with several Arab James Baker, his designated secretary of state, held complex talks with Saudi Arabia on financial issues, and Bush's chief of staff, John Sununu, was an administrator of the

oil industry,

of Lebanese-Palestinian extraction

nounced terrorism in general terms, still sanctioned attacks in Israel and the occupied territories; even as it was being

On

Islamic Conference

Organization condemned Israel for the assassination. The victory of Republican George Bush in the U.S.

The Israeli government claimed the world had been hoodwinked by the PLO declaration in Algiers. The Palestinians claimed to have renounced terrorism and accepted Security Council's Resolution 242, which implied recognition of Israel. The resolution in Algiers, which re-

General Assembly in

Geneva on December

leaders.

UN

renounced

the use of terrorism outside the occupied territories, the

four years.

the

PLO

405

role as the

most

successful

who took

Arab-American

pride in his

to hold public

office.

Terrorism. On July 1 1 a Greek ferry was attacked by extremist Palestinians with machine guns and grenades, killing nine tourists. The alleged reason for the grovving

number of

indiscriminate terrorist attacks was the attack-

put pressure on governments to release jailed convicted terrorists. On April 5 a Kuwaiti airliner was hijacked by eight men demanding the release of 17 coners' desire to

victed guerrillas in Kuwaiti prisons for a

bombing campaign

in 1983.

who had been jailed hijackers, who were

The

Shi'ite Muslims, killed two Kuwaiti passengers during the course of the hijack. The hijack ended peacefully in Algiers on April 20 without further bloodshed, but the eight hijackers were allowed to go free. Kuwait was praised for its refusal to make concessions despite the presence aboard the airplane of members of the ruling as-Sabah family. The U.S. Airline Pilots Association protested the release of the killers, saying it negated any incentive to stop this type of

"guerrilla warfare."

Gulf War. In a separate incident 290 people were killed a U.S. warship shot down an Iranian airliner over

when

World

406

Affairs:

Middle East and North Africa

Arab Emirates, on July 3. U.S. Vice-President Bush defended the shooting down of the aircraft before the UN Security Council on July 14. Prior to the shooting the U.S. ship had been defending a neutral tanker under attack by Iranian gunboats. A full Gulf war settlement was expected to follow the cease-fire that came into effect between Iran and Iraq on the Gulf near Dubai, United

August 20, ending eight years of war. The road to peace began with the surprise acceptance by Iran on July 18 of UN Security Council Resolution 598 of July 20, 1987. Although the cease-fire was at times fragile, the imposition of a monitoring force and ground disengagement was Ukely to prove easier than resolving the diplomatic arguments over the question of culpability and possible reparations.

The

initial

political gestures

leadership, meeting

—a

on July

were made by Iran, whose

16,

agreed to accept Resolution

move ratified by Iran's spiritual leader, Ayatollah RuhoUah Khomeini. The first concrete result of the peace negotiations was the return of wounded prisoners of war, which began on November 24 under the supervision of the International Red Cross. It was hoped that this would soon 598

lead to the repatriation of around

The

prisoners.

100,000 able-bodied

centre of the diplomatic

moves

shifted to

second round on November 1. UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar suggested that the question of sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had blocked progress in the first round, be set aside temporarily. Once the exchange of prisoners was finahzed, the UN hoped that talks could move to troop withdrawals. The border situation was deobservers in late November as "inherently scribed by

Geneva, where peace

talks entered

their

UN

unstable."

The Gulf war

cease-fire exposed internal problems in and sparked an international row over the use of chemical weapons by Iraq against Kurdish rebels. Largescale military operations were conducted against the Kurds by Iraqi forces August 27-September 5, during which some 60,000 Kurds fled across the border to Turkey. The allegations centred on an incident on August 29 at Bassat Gorge when 1,500-4,000 people were killed by nerve gas.

Iraq

Iraq's

Defense Minister Adnan Khairallah, in a statement

Baghdad on September 15, denied the use of gas, declaring that it was neither logical nor feasible to use poison gas against small groups of Kurds in areas through which government forces had to pass. The U.S. claimed that it had "compelling evidence" that Iraqi forces used chemical weapons. Iraq forced the evacuation of 200 villages in the Kurdish autonomous region near the border with Iran. The Kurds were transferred to a new housing project in Iraq, a policy that had begun several years previously. Regional Considerations. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) ministerial talks that opened on November 21 offered hope that an oil price rebound to $18 a barrel could be forthcoming. OPEC was aiming in

for a

and

new

deal defining production at between

1

8 million

would be within the limit the market could bear without prices falling to below $10 18.5 million bbl a day. This

a barrel.

and

To

achieve this a difficult balance between Iran

would be necessary. In separate regional matters the long-moribund Euro-Arab dialogue resumed at a June 24 meeting in Bonn of EC foreign ministers and representatives of Syria, The Sudan, and Somalia. The EC's supportive stance on the Palestinian uprising was expected to allow the talks to focus on economic cooperation, in-

Middle East. The World Health Organization had been notified of 78 AIDS cases in the region. North African Affairs. Senior North African politicians met in Fes, Morocco, on October 28-29 to discuss the next phase of the Greater Arab Maghreb initiative, involving Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The first Arab Maghreb Commission meeting in July followed a June 10 summit of Maghreb heads of state to chart the direction for economic integration and to establish the structures of a future Maghreb Community. At this summit the Libyan leader Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhdhafi was brought together with King Hassan of Morocco. Also in attendance was Saudi Arabia's King Fahd, who was responsible for reestablishing diplomatic relations between Morocco and Algeria in May. Saudi Arabia and Tunisia had also worked together on a plan to end North Africa's most intractable dispute, over the future of the Western Sahara. On the future agenda would be a single identity card for citizens of the Maghreb and a common currency.

tected in the

A second meeting of the heads of state was, however, delayed until 1989 because of rising tension in Algeria. A Maghreb Community treaty drafted by Tunisia would be presented for approval at that time. The plague of desert locusts that had begun in late 1987 expanded in 1988 into the worst such infestation since the 1950s. Maghreb countries set aside some political differences to participate in international efforts to control the locusts, but military actions such as those in The Sudan and Ethiopia often interfered. In December the Western Sahara's Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) mistakenly shot down a U.S. airplane carrying insecticide from Mauritania to Morocco.

The Algerian political crisis in October caused the deaths of at least 500 protesters according to unofficial sources (159 was the official count), but the October "events" failed to split Algeria along the expected lines. Muslim fundamentalists did not make significant political gains; the Berber minority remained silent; and the Army united behind the regime. Pres. Chadli Bendjedid emerged strengthened and was unanimously adopted as the ruling party's candidate for the presidential election on Dec. 22, 1988. On November 3 the electorate voted to make the prime minister more answerable to parliament, thus diminishing the power of the country's single political party, the National Liberation Front. In an increasingly democratizing Maghreb,

Morocco inThe crown

creasingly looked like the exception to the rule. prince, 25-year-old Sidi

nor as popular as

Muhammad, was

his father.

neither as strong

Morocco could become

vulner-

provoking even more pressure for change elsewhere in the Maghreb. Tunisia, by contrast, appeared secure under its new president, Zine alAbidine Ben Ali, who wanted to pursue the reforms started too late by his predecessor. All but a handful of Tunisia's imports were to enter duty free by 1992. Some state enterprises were to be privatized, and the liberalization of financial markets was continuing. (john whelan) able

if

the

economy continued

to sag,

Iraq

cluding investment protection. It was reported at a meeting in Kuwait on February 8 attended by health officials from 21 Middle Eastern countries that the AIDS virus was spreading often unde-

ALGERIA is a socialist republic of North Africa on the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 2,381,741 sq km (919.595 sq mi). Pop. (1988

Algeria

census): 23,849,000. Cap.: Algiers. Monetary unit: Algerian dinar, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 6.34 dinars to U.S.

dmars = £1 sterling). President in 1988. Col. Chadli Bendjedid; prime ministers, Abdelhamid Brahimi and. from November 5, Kasdi Merbah.

$1 (10.85

—

— Middle East and North Africa: Cyprus

For the Algerian government 1988 would be marked as the year in which the country faced the worst riots and social unrest since achieving independence in 1962. In early

October Algiers and

Annaba and Oran,

many

other towns, including

from several days of rioting in which government buildings and state-owned shops were destroyed.

The Algerian Army suppressed

cost of at least

(159

suffered

500 dead, according to

the rioters at the

unofficial sources

officially).

initially blamed the riots on was evident that the major cause was economic hardship. This was largely engendered by the reduction of consumer imports as a result of the fall in oil prices that began in 1986, coupled with government austerity measures and the 30% devaluation of the Alge-

Although the government

Islamic fundamentahsts,

it

rian dinar against the U.S. dollar during 1988. In addition,

factions within the National Liberation Front (FLN), Algeria's single

pohtical party, stimulated popular discontent by

government's policies of economic liberalization and encouragement of the private sector. The government reacted swiftly and, in addition to un-

their opposition to the

Army

improved consumer promised constitutional reform by making the government answerable to the directly elected Popular Assembly instead of the FLN. It appeared that these reforms were primarily designed to strengthen the power of the president against the FLN leashing the

to crush the riots,

supplies. Pres. Chadli Bendjedid also

rather than to increase political liberalization inside Algeria.

This reflected the determination of both the govern-

ment and

the

Army

—the ultimate power inside Algeria

On Feb.

29, 1988, three Bahraini

407

men arrested in December

1987 were charged with spying for Iran. The Interior Ministry said on January 4 that an underground cell "aimed at undermining economic and public installations" had been discovered. In a

move

to

improve security coordination,

Maj. Gen. Sheikh Khalifah ibn Ahmad al-Khalifah was appointed defense minister in April, a post formerly held by the heir apparent, Sheikh Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah. Security was also uppermost in preparations for the 1988 summit of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, which took place in Manama in December. While Bahrain remained committed to developing as a services centre with some $3 billion to be spent on expanding oil refining,

aluminum, and gas

industries in the next two to three minority problem continued to be a cause for concern. Just over 60% of the population was Shi'ite, with a small element opposed to the largely Sunni establishment.

years

—

its

Moving to diversify the financial sector, the government opened a stock exchange in late 1988, listing 28 public companies, with the market capitalized at around $1.8 billion. On the diplomatic front talks were held on June 2 1 with a Soviet envoy, opening up the possibility of early recognition of Moscow by the GCC's smallest state. In an interview with a Kuwaiti newspaper on April 26, Emir Isa ibn Sulman al-Khalifah warned of a possible severance of diplomatic relations with Iran. (john whelan) This

updates the Macropadia

article

article

Arabia: Bahrain.

CYPRUS An

national referendum on the president's proposed reforms was held on November 3 and received 92% approval from the voters. Bendjedid, armed with this public vote of confidence and backed by a more reform-minded government under the new prime minister, Kasdi Merbah, then dominated the FLN congress. In the presidential election on December 22, Bendjedid was reelected to his third five-

and member of the Commonwealth, Cyprus Mediterranean Sea. Island area: 9,25 1 sq km (3,572 sq mi). Island pop. (1988 est.): 720,000. Area of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which has occupied the northern third of the island since 1974: 3,355 sq km (1,295 sq mi); pop. (1988 est.): 167,000. Cap.: Nicosia. Monetary unit: Cyprus pound, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of £C 0.49 to U.S. $1 (£C 0.83 = £1 steriing). Presidents in 1988, Spyros Kyprianou and, from February 28, George Vassiliou. President of TRNC in 1988, Rauf Denktash.

year term with 81% of the vote. The riots interrupted a year that otherwise was

The year 1988 brought sudden change

to control the

FLN's

sixth congress in late

November.

A

marked

by significant developments for Algeria. In May the renewal of diplomatic relations with Morocco complemented Algeria's close links with Mauritania, Tunisia, and Libya. The Moroccan monarch, King Hassan II, crowned the new relationship in early June by visiting Algiers to attend both an Arab League meeting and the first joint meeting of all five Maghrebi heads of state.

—

This new relationship with Morocco which, like those with Tunisia and Libya, was sealed by closer economic cooperation was paralleled by changes in Algerian policy concerning Western Sahara. The Algerian government forced the Polisario Front in Western Sahara to accept a peace proposal concerning its dispute with Morocco and to reduce its military activities. Algeria also reinforced its image as a mediator in international affairs by successfully resolving the hijacking of a Kuwaiti Airlines airbus by Islamic fundamentahsts in April. (george joffe) This article updates the Macropcedia article North Africa:

—

UN

Algeria.

BAHRAIN The monarchy

(emirate) of Bahrain consists of a group of islands in the Persian Gulf between the Qatar Peninsula and

Saudi Arabia. Area: 691 sq km (267 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 421,000. Cap.: Manama. Monetary unit: Bahrain dinar, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 0.38 dinar to U.S. $1 (0.64 dinar

=

£1 steriing). Emir in 1988, Isa ibn Sulman al-Khalifah; prime minister, Khalifah ibn Sulman al-Khalifah.

is

island republic

in the eastern

first

sign in

many

year-old problem of Greek

George Vassiliou

made

millionaire

ident.

He won

to

Cyprus and the

years of a possible solution to

its

25-

and Turkish Cypriot enmity.

{see Biographies), a 56-year-old self-

and

political

unknown, was

the backing of the powerful

elected pres-

AKEL

(Com-

munist Party), enabling him to sweep Spyros Kyprianou from power in the February election. During his 1 1 years in office, Kyprianou had failed to reach any accommodation with the Turkish Cypriots in their unrecognized breakaway Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) in the northern third of the island. Vassiliou promptly called on Turkish Prime Minister Turgut Ozal to meet him and discuss pulling Ankara's 29,000 troops out of northern Cyprus. He pledged to dismantle all Greek Cypriot military forces if the troops left. Rauf Denktash, the TRNC president, at first eyed the new man with suspicion but later softened his stand. He was prompted in this by Ankara after Ozal and Greek Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou met in Switzerland to begin a historic rapprochement. Domestically, Vassiliou retained only the highly regarded George lacovou, from the Kyprianou Cab-

foreign minister,

He promised to remove anomalies from the island's already lively democracy and ordered the secret service to destroy all files on Cypriots' political opinions. inet.

Argentine diplomat Oscar Camilion was appointed to the long-vacant resident post of special In

Geneva

in

August to open peace

UN

representative.

talks in the

Gulf war,

408

World

Affairs:

Middle East and North Africa

but this failed to compensate for the weakness dragged on, though the dispute over the Taba strip of land in Sinai was decided

Canal

rose,

in oil prices. Bilateral issues with Israel

in Egypt's favour.

Domestic

Affairs. Egypt's

show

trials

featured accusa-

Khaled Abdel Nasser, son of the late president and father of Arab nationalism. He was named on February 8 as an alleged member of the Egypt

tions in absentia against

1

Revolution group, accused of carrying out several guerrilla attacks

on

foreign targets, including those resulting in the

diplomats. Another prominent figure, as-Sadat's brother Ahmad Esmat asSadat, had assets totaling $8 million confiscated by the official prosecutor because of alleged corruption. In June, 19 people were arrested and charged with conspiring with

deaths of two

Israeli

the late Pres.

Anwar

Members of the group headed Abdel-Khaleq were alleged to have

Iran to spread subversion.

by

Muhammad Ayman

received terrorist training in Iran. In April lawyers representing 33 Islamic militants accused

George Vassiliou acknowledges presidential election.

whose

1 1

years

his victory after winning the

He defeated incumbent

in office

Cyprus

Pres. Spyros Kyprianou,

were plagued by the unsolved problem

the breakaway Turkish state

in

of

northern Cyprus.

of political violence walked out of their trial, demanding more time to read the indictment. The government moved in March to renew, for another three years, the emergency laws imposed in 1981 after the assassination of President Sadat. Leaders of the two opposition groupings the

—

Wafd and

Labour-Muslim Brothers-Liberal Alliance said the proposal showed scorn for principles of parliamentary democracy. Prime Minister Atef Sedki said the extension was needed to combat terrorism and protect

—

UN

managed to and Denktash to meet informally. The two men struck up an instant rapport, and in mid-September they met for two sessions in Cyprus, the second held in secret at Camilion's home. In November they again met with Perez de Cuellar at UN headquarters in New York Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar

get Vassiliou

City, but

little

of substance emerged.

Cyprus was again sharply reminded of its proximity to the troubled Middle East. In February three senior Palestinians were killed by a car bomb in Limassol. A day later a ship the Palestinians were planning to use to sail deportees back to Israel was struck by a mine in Limassol Harbour. In April two Kuwaitis were shot dead and dumped from a hijacked Kuwait Airways Boeing 747, which landed at Lamaca and later flew on to Algiers. In the worst act of terrorism, a huge car bomb intended for the Israeli embassy exploded in one of Nicosia's busiest streets, killing 3 people and injuring at least 15. Cyprus reacted angrily by deporting nearly 70 Arabs and refusing entry to another 140. Economically, the Greek Cypriots continued their 13year-old success story, and Vassiliou promised more dramatic changes after the first phase of a customs union with the European Communities went into effect in January 1988. However, the isolated TRNC continued to stagnate.

(THOMAS O'DWYER)

A

republic of North Africa, Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean and Red seas. Area: 997,739 sq km (385,229

sq mi). Pop. (1988

est.): 50,273,000. Cap.: Cairo. Monetary pound (LE), with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of U.S. $1 (LE 3.93 = £1 steriing). President in 1988,

unit: Egyptian

2.29 to

freedom. The government's harsh approach was exemplified by the dragnet policy used by Interior Minister Zaki Badr to arrest hundreds of students and suspected activists following terrorist attacks, especially after the fatal stabbing of a government security agent in December. However, criticism of Badr paled into insignificance compared with the acrimony heaped on the supply and home trade minister, Galal Abul-Dahab, when sweet tea and edible oil were in short supply in the second half of March. The crisis highlighted Egypt's chronic dependence on imported food to feed its 50 million people. The population was increasing at the rate of one million every eight months, although, in a historic ruling in September, the al-Azhar Islamic Uni-

committee on religious edicts said there was no between Islam and birth control. The Economy. President Mubarak held talks in late September with several Western leaders with a view to pressuring the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to endorse Cairo's own program of economic reforms. He also wanted the current Club of Paris debt-rescheduling agreement extended to the end of 1989. The main areas of disagreement between Egypt and the IMF were energy prices and exchange rates policy. Egypt had resisted the IMF's demands versity's

conflict

that rapid action be taken to phase out energy subsidies.

EGYPT

LE

the Socialist

Hosni Mubarak; prime minister, Atef Sedki.

With Egypt's position in the Arab world at its strongest in ten years, Pres. Hosni Mubarak was free in 1988 to concentrate on the domestic economy and on dealing with Egypt's international creditors, whose patience was not inexhaustible.

The continuing

political trials involving re-

and opponents of the regime indicated a background of dissent. Income from tourism and the Suez ligious extremists

It also opposed the IMF's view that an overvalued U.S. dollar-Egyptian pound rate be applied to the central bank pool of hard currency. Fearful of social unrest over these unpopular measures, the government was seeking a longer timetable than the IMF required. Egypt was also in trouble over its projected budget deficit for 1988-89 of LE 4.5 billion, almost 50% higher than in the previous year. This failed the IMF criterion that the country should achieve a progressive reduction of the budget deficit as a proportion of gross domestic product. However, total revenues were expected to be up 16%, reflecting a rise in customs revenues, stemming from devaluation, and projected increases in Suez Canal dues and tourism. A number of developments were under way that would further enhance Egypt's attractiveness as a tourist desti-

Middle East and North Africa: Iran

—

funds to foreign destinations a specialty of the companies was to be controlled. The Islamic companies were the major players in the parallel economy, but any collapse of these investment houses would have severe implications for the economy as a whole. In November the government ordered more than 100 of the companies to comply with strict new regulations or face the prospect of liquidation within two years. Foreign Affairs. Egypt's improved standing with moderate Arab countries was attributable to its policy of tacit support for the Arab cause in the Iran-Iraq war. Although President Mubarak stepped back from sending troops, Egyptian advisers were present in Iraq and Kuwait during the last year preceding the cease-fire. On January 9 Mubarak made a week-long tour of the six Gulf Cooperation Council countries, and in June he welcomed King Fahd of Saudi Arabia on a visit to Cairo. Diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia had been restored after the Amman Arab summit in November 1987, and Saudi investment had poured into Egypt, especially into property. Saudi Arabia had also supported Egypt in its struggle with the IMF. The majority of Arab states had restored links with Cairo, broken at the time of the bilateral peace with Israel, and at year's end the only Arab nations that had not done so were Lebanon, Libya, and Syria. Relations with Israel remained correct but cool. On September 29 an international arbitration panel ruled in favour of Egypt in the six-year dispute over the Taba border strip 640 (2,100 ft) of Red Sea beach claimed by both countries although final details of the boundary remained to be worked out. Following the Gulf war ceasefire President Mubarak expressed no objections to restoring relations with Iran but said there was "no hurry" on the matter. According to official reports, several thousand Egyptians seized in the Gulf war fighting were being held by Iran. They were expected to be freed as part of the Baghdad-Tehran prisoner of war exchange.

—

Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak (right) greets Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasir Arafat before a meeting in Cairo. The Egyptian governnnent had formally recognized the Palestinian state proclaimed by the Palestine National Council on Nov. 15, 1988.

—

scheme for Safaga on the Red Sea by a Swedish entrepreneur and a similar plan by a nation. These included a

Kuwaiti group, both targeted

at relatively

wealthy Euro-

peans, Asians, and Arabs. Tourism and Civil Aviation

Minister Fouad Sultan had brought considerable expertise on the problem of restructuring the tourist industry. In the first quarter of 1988 the number of tourists rose 38% to 584,133, with the largest number coming from France to bear

and West Germany. In September it was reported

that the Cabinet

was to

$700 million plan to widen and deepen the Suez Canal. The canal earned Egypt some $1.2 billion in 1987, with $1.8 billion discuss a detailed report about an estimated

forecast for 1988.

On January 27 President Mubarak visited Washington, but aid was not on the agenda since it was accepted that U.S. assistance to Egypt was on the order of $2.2 billion$2.3 billion a year. The U.S. Treasury was working out final details of proposed legislation that would enable debtor nations, such as Egypt and Israel, to raise commercial loans to pay off existing defense-related debt, using the U.S. government as a guarantor for 90% of the new loans. In 1987 oil exports recovered strongly, thanks to increased output and more astute marketing by the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation. However, Egypt was expected to suffer from the disarray in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, following the cease-fire in the Gulf war and an increase in output by Iran and Iraq. The surplus on the oil trade account for Egypt in 1987 was $1.5 billion, compared with $697 million in 1986. In February the People's Assembly approved 1 1 hydrocarbons agreements, 7 of which were in the Western Desert and would result in more exploration. The authorities were pushing increased domestic use of gas in order to boost crude exports and reduce home consumption.

oil

A major internal debate took place over the status of Egypt's powerful Islamic investment companies. The PeoAssembly passed a law in June providing for a Capital Markets Authority with regulatory powers. Transfers of

ple's

409

m

—

In August Mubarak called on the Palestine Liberation Organization to adopt a moderate program for its govemment-in-exile. The appeal was made during a meeting on August 19, after King Hussein of Jordan had announced his decision to cut legal ties with the West Bank. In November Egypt recognized the independent Palestinian state declared that month by the Palestine National Council. In a gesture of reconciliation, Libya withdrew its forces from the Egyptian-Libyan border in March. Telecommunications links were restored, and Egypt silenced Libyan opposition broadcasts from Cairo. The Libyan leader, Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhdhafi, said that despite these actions he was still politically opposed to the Mubarak regime. In January President Mubarak's planned visit to Tunisia to meet the new Tunisian leader, Pres. Zine.al-Abidine Ben Ali, had been canceled because it would have coincided with Qadhdhafi's arrival. On March 1 Mubarak made his first visit in three years to Khartoum, where his talks included conditions in southern Sudan and relations with Ethiopia.

(JOHN whelan)

IRAN The

Islamic republic of Iran is in southwestern Asia on the Caspian and Arabian seas and the Persian Gulf Area: 1,648,196 sq km (636,372 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est., including some 2.1 million to 2.3 million Afghan and 400,000 Iraqi refugees): 51,225,000. Cap.: Tehran. Monetary unit: Iranian rial, with (Oct. 10, 1988) an official rate of 70.42 rials to U.S. $1 (120.60 rials = £1 sterling). Valiy-e faqih (supreme spiritual leader) in 1988, AyatoUah Ruhollah Khomeini; president, Sayyed Ali Khamenei; prime minister, Mir Hossein Moussavi.

World

410

On

Affairs:

Middle East and North Africa

Aug. 20, 1988, a cease-fire came into

effect in the eight-

war following Iran's acceptance of UN Resolution 598. Iran's supreme spiritual leader, AyatoUah RuhoUah Khomeini, declared that taking this decision was "more deadly than talcing poison," but he acquiesced in the cease-fire and thus endorsed the move toward a peace

year-old Iran-Iraq

The acceptance of the cease-fire came as a suralthough the Iranian regime had been facing severe difficulties. On April 17-18 the Iranian military enclave on Iraqi soil at al-Faw (Fao) was overrun with comparative ease by the Iraqi Army. An Iraqi advance on May 25 reclaimed the entire area of the Fish Lake as far as Shalamcheh, northeast of Basra, while the Iranians withdrew from Halabjah on June 14 and on June 25 were driven out of the Majnun oil field area of the important Hawizah marshes. Further losses were incurred at Mehran in June

Gulf waters. In retaliation, the U.S. Navy destroyed Iranian offshore platforms in the Sassan and Sirri oil fields

in

on April 18. That confrontation ended after an engagement in which two Iranian frigates and a number of patrol boats were sunk. Following an incident between Iranian gunboats and U.S. naval vessels off Bandar-e "Abbas on

USS

Vincennes accidentally shot

down

settlement.

July

prise,

290 Hves. The Iranian economy was crippled by the continuing war. Oil exports had fallen below two million barrels per day during the first quarter of 1988 as a result of Iraqi air attacks on oil facilities and tankers in the Gulf, and the position was exacerbated by falling oil prices. The ceasefire enabled the government to approach the problems of reconstruction in late 1988, though there was no prospect of an immediate cure for Iran's problems of inflation, unemployment, poor productivity, and war damage. Elections for the 270 seats in the Majlis (parliament) were held in April and May. Some 1 7 million persons took part, electing more Islamic radicals but fewer clergymen than in the outgoing Majlis. On June 30 Mir Hossein Moussavi was asked to form a new government. He attempted to resign in the wake of the cease-fire but was made to stay on by Khomeini. Hojatolislam Hashemi Rafsanjani, the

and Dehloran

in July.

Iranian losses on the battlefield were aggravated by Iraq's

growing dominance in the "war of the

cities."

Beginning

bombarded Tehran, Qom, and other targets with intermediate-range missiles on a scale that the Iranians could not match. Not only had the Iranians been unable to make good their losses of armour, aircraft, and missiles during the war, but by 1988 they could not even offer dedication, experience, and sacrifice in late February, the Iraqis

by their troops since losses of battle-hardened troops had been persistently high. Recruitment to the armed forces had fallen off sharply. Iran was also losing the confrontation in the Gulf against the U.S. On April 14 the USS Samuel B. Roberts was damaged by a mine while on patrol AP/WIOE

WORLD

3,

the

Iran Air

Flight 655, with the loss of

speaker of the Majlis, increased his authority. The Iranian leadership took a more pragmatic stance toward domestic issues while still ruthlessly removing all sources of opposition. At the year's end there were unconfirmed reports that

Moussavi had been

arrested.

Negotiations for a permanent peace were slow to develop. The status of the Shatt al-Arab waterway proved a particular problem. Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with Iran in April, but France restored full relations in June. Iran showed a slightly more amenable face to the outside world once a cease-fire had been arranged. Negotiations on diplomatic and commercial matters with the British and other Western Europeans made some progress, and in December a young Briton was freed after having spent more than two years in an Iranian prison. The U.S.S.R. remained in close touch with Iran in order to ensure the unhindered withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The U.S. made tentative diplomatic gestures and also reduced the level of confrontation in the Gulf area.

(KEITH

S.

MCLACHLAN)

IRAQ A republic of southwestern Asia, Iraq has a short coastline on the Persian Gulf. Area: 438,317 sq km (169,235 sq mi). Pop. (1988

est.):

16,630,000. Cap.: Baghdad. Monetary unit: Iraqi

dinar, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a par value of 0.31 dinar to U.S. $1 (free rate of 0.53 dinar £l sterling). President in 1988, Saddam Hussein at-Takriti.

=

The Gulf war

cease-fire on Aug. 20, 1988, brought the eight-year-old conflict with Iran to a sudden halt. Thou-

sands poured into the streets of Baghdad on August 8 to announcement, which was seen as a victory. Every indication, however, suggested that the UN-sponsored peace negotiations in Geneva would be protracted. The major sticking point was the status of the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which Iran claimed was determined by a 1975 agreement with the former shah. Iraq refused to acknowledge this arrangement, under which sovereignty was to be shared, on the grounds that it was signed under duress. In the immediate aftermath of the cease-fire, both sides greet the

Iranians demonstrate their rage and grief at a mass funeral held for some of the 290 people who were killed when the USS Vincennes shot down an Iranian passenger plane. The picture some of them

hold depicts the incident.

repatriated several

The

hundred injured

Iraqis' battlefield successes,

prisoners.

notably the recapture of

the al-Faw (Fao) Peninsula April 17-18

and the Majnun

1

Middle East and North Africa:

A group

of Iraqis cheer

Israel

and dance behind

41

their

country's flag to celebrate the cease-fire between

and

which went into effect on August had announced a willingness to accept the terms of UN Resolution 598 and had called for a cease-fire in the eight-year-old Iraq

Iran,

20. In July Iran

conflict. AP/WIOE

oil fields on June 25, were key factors in bringing about diplomatic capitulation by the Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Iraq's military triumphs had not been predicted by analysts of the war, in which more than 500,000 people had died. Pres. Saddam Hussein at-Takriti said Iraq's principles for peace were: a cease-fire and return to international frontiers; the signing of a peace treaty and nonaggression pact; agreement not to interfere in each other's internal affairs; and the commitment of both sides to work for the stability and security of the region. Iraq would watch with particular concern any Iranian

Kurdish independence struggle. On town in Iraqi Kurdistan captured by Iran, was bombed by the Iraqis with chemical weapons. This was followed by an Iraqi offensive against Kurdish rebels in August, during which some 60,000 people fled to southeastern Turkey. Baghdad denied that it had used chemical weapons, but in December a British laboratory found traces of mustard gas in soil samples from Iraqi Kurdistan. In September Iraq announced an amnesty for Kurds who wished to return, and official reports claimed that more than 60,000 accepted the offer, which excluded only the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan leader Jalal Talabani. Kurdish fighters in northern Iraq were unlikely to interference in the

March

16 Halabjah, a

abandon their struggle for autonomy, but Baghdad now had the military resources to deal them a severe blow. Oil Minister Issam Abdel-Rahim al-Chalabi indicated in October that Baghdad might revise its demand for an

OPEC

oil quota equal to Iran's. OPEC allotted Iraq a quota of 1,540,000 bbl a day in late 1987, compared with Iran's 2,369,000 bbl a day. Iraq had been producing up to 2.7 million bbl a day. Iraq's budget deficit for 1988 was projected at $4 billion, compared with about $3 billion in 1987. Excluding miHtary debt to the Eastern bloc and loans from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, Iraq's international debt amounted to about $25 billion. Because a high proportion was short-term, the country faced a severe debt service burden. Iraq could be expected to try to reschedule trade debts into longer term forms of finance. The introduction of additional competition into the economy was symbolized by the opening on November 1 of the state-

owned Rashid Bank

WORLD

to challenge the

monopoly held by

the Rafidain Bank. In October the 24-year-old son of Pres.

was

Saddam Hussein

and jailed for killing a presidential bodyguard. He was released from jail late in November but was to go on trial for murder. arrested

An

more promising business climate

indication of the

was the presence of 1,856 foreign companies at the Baghdad International Fair in December. British Airways resumed flights to Baghdad from London on November 2. However, these signs of normahty had to be weighed against the possibility that Baghdad would once again aggressively assert itself in the Arab world. Iraq called for the expulsion of Syria from the Arab League because it had backed Iran in the Gulf war, and it formed new links with Samir Geagea, the leader of the Christian Lebanese Forces militia.

(JOHN whelan)

ISRAEL A

republic of southwestern Asia, Israel is situated on the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 20,700 sq km (7,992 sq mi), not including territory occupied in the June 1967 war. Pop. (1988 est.): 4,512,000. Cap.: Jerusalem (but see Israel table in World section). Monetary unit: new (Israeli) sheqel, with (Oct. 1988) a free rate of'l.62 sheqalim to U.S. $1 (2.78 sheqalim = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Chaim Herzog; prime minister, Yitzhak Shamir.

Data 10,

It

had been intended to be a year of celebration

—40 sym-

bolic years since the estabUshment of a Jewish state out

of the ashes of the Holocaust. It was to become a year that lost its way. The celebrations were muted; not so the accumulating problems. It was a year overshadowed by two events: the intifadeh, or "uprising," of the West Bank and Gaza Palestinian Arabs, and the pending general election of November 1 Almost everything that happened in Israel during 1988 was somehow related to one or the other or both: all-pervading preoccupations that remained unresolved at the end of the year. .

Domestic

Affairs.

The

ical life rather like a spell

intifadeh

dominated

Israel's polit-

of unending rain affects daily

life:

412

World

Affairs:

Middle East and North Africa Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir (left) shakes hands with Rabbi Yitzhak Peretz of the Shas party. Shamir's Likud, which failed to win a majority in the Knesset (parliament), attempted to form an alliance with numerous small religious parties but then reached an agreement in December to form a coalition

with Labour. AP/WIDE

WORLD

it does not change anything, but it does create a constant awareness. For one thing, there were few IsraeU famihes where no son, daughter, or husband had been called up for military service in the occupied territories, and the nightly television was a continual reminder. The situation

tion against stone-throwing rioters, were unable to establish

was further complicated

Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin and the army command, under the watchful and critical glare of the world's media, armed with television cameras, had to rethink their tactics and then reequip and reinforce the soldiers dealing with the disturbances. The new tactics, which included beatings, deportations, and enforced curfews, were widely denounced, as was Israeli involvement in the assassination in April of

for the Israelis

by the emergence

of a plethora of political "voices" claiming to speak on behalf of the otherwise anonymous "uprising." By late 1988 nine such separate and disparate groups had publicly identified themselves. Only one, the "Unified Council of the National Uprising," identified with the official Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasir Arafat from its base in Baghdad, Iraq. The other eight organizations claiming to speak for the uprising denounced the official PLO and its leader. As the year progressed there emerged a powerful, militant Islamic group based largely on the Gaza Strip, called the Islamic Resistance Movement, or Hamas. Hamas was independent of and hostile to the PLO and radical in its opposition to the Israeli presence. None of this was evident when the first disorders and riots swept through the Gaza Strip on Dec. 9, 1987. Soon the West Bank and even Jerusalem were engulfed by stone throwing, tire burning, and window smashing. The rioting, mostly by young Palestinians, affected some 50 of the 600 towns and villages of the occupied territories. There were several possible explanations offered for the uprising. Perhaps the most common attributed the violence to a road

Gaza on December

which four Arabs euphoria had increased after a Palestinian hang-glider "martyr" had successfully jumped the boundary fence on the Lebanon border on November 25 and killed six Israeli soldiers before being shot himself There was also concern about pent-up Palestinian frustrations over the November Arab summit in neighbouring Amman, Jordan, which had virtually ignored the Palestinian problems. All of these reasons added up to an indication that the Israeli political and military authorities had been surprised by the outbreak and were accident in

were

killed

by an

8,

in

Israeli driver. Palestinian

unable to provide a convincing explanation for it. They also underlined the failure by the government and security agencies to have a proper system of cooperation and coordination, which would have alerted the authorities in time. It was su,Seoul

called for political

cultural

reunification with students

of the need for the U.S. military force of 43,000 troops. There was a steady erosion during the year of South Ko-

1

month he

and

and humanitarian exchanges. He offered to help the North improve its relations with the U.S. and other Western powers and at the same time declared his determination to improve ties with both the Soviet Union and China. In October the government declared trade with the North to be "internal" and duty-free. Though direct exchanges could occur only with mutual cooperation, the government pointed out that deals through third countries would not be impeded. About the same time, Roh Ufted a ban on meetings between students in the two parts of Korea. Earlier the determination of some South Korean students to march

Olympic Committee to act as host for two sports and part of three others. The North Korean government, which in January had declined to field a joint Korean team, kept demanding additional concessions until it was too late to gain any at all. The Games were the catalyst for far-reaching realignments of big-power attitudes toward Korea. The presence in Seoul of Soviet and Chinese teams, which the North had been unable to prevent, brought about a thaw in diplomatic relations between South Korea and those nations. China, for example, allowed commercial airliners bound for Seoul to fly over its territory. Trade contacts blossomed and feelings warmed. On the other hand, the United States was surprised by anti-American sentiments among some Korean spectators, who often cheered Soviet athletes. There were calls by mainstream South Korean politicians as well as by radical students for a reevaluation

*^

Biographies) proposed sports contests between the

dialogue, trade relations,

while contributing markedly to the further isolation of the North. Feared disruptions of the Games by the latter did not materialize. Apart from controversies that arose during the competition (in particular the banning of some athletes for taking performance-enhancing drugs), the Games were conducted with admirable efficiency. Until just a few weeks before competition was to begin, it was uncertain whether North Korea would accept an offer from the International

YELLOW

live television that she

two, and early the following

The Olympic Games, held in Seoul, South Korea, between Sept. 17 and Oct. 2, 1988, proved a triumph for the South

NORTH KOREA ^,/'

Burma

with the loss of 1 1 5 lives, had helped plant a bomb on the plane on the orders of Kim Jong II, son and designated successor of North Korean leader Kim II Sung. Nevertheless, South Korea actively pursued detente with the North. In May a long-standing ban on discussion of reunification was lifted. In June Pres. Roh Tae Woo aircraft in the sea off

Hall

Sangmu Gymnasium Seoul Equestrian Park Seoul National University

Gymnasium 19 Songnam Stadium

20 Taerung

International

Shooting Range 21 Tennis Courts

22 23 24 25

Tongdaemun Stadium Velodrome Weight Lifting Gymnasium Wondang Ranch

place.

2

East Asia: Korea

sincerely proposing deescalation of tension. In the

"war

of the dams," the South began construction of its "Peace Dam" on the Han River north of Seoul and 20 km ( 1 mi) south of the border. It was designed to catch the flow from the North's "water bomb," a dam farther upstream that supposedly had the capability of flooding Seoul. Republic of Korea (South Korea) Area: 99,173 sq km (38,291 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 42,593,Cap.: Seoul. Monetary unit: won, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 710 won to U.S. $1 (1,217 won = £l sterling). Presidents in 1988, Chun Doc Hwan and, from February 25, Rob Tae Woo; prime ministers, Kim Chung Yul, Lee Hyun Jae from February 25, and, from December 5, Kang Young Hoon.

(X)0.

by Chun's family. His brother, Chun Kyong Hwan, was subsequently convicted of misappropriation of funds. Throughout November there were violent demonstrations calling for his arrest and Roh's resignation. On Novemties

ber 23 Chun made a televised address apologizing to the nation for abuses of power that had occurred during his term of office and then retired to a monastery. On December 5 Roh reshuffled his Cabinet, replacing many of the ministers associated with the previous regime. However, the opposition claimed the housecleaning had not gone far

enough.

Commerce and industry early in 1988 were badly disrupted by labour disputes. The major industrial conglomerates were severely affected by stoppages that paralyzed industrial activity for a time.

Roh Tae Woo, elected on Dec. 16, 1987, to succeed Chun Doo Hwan, was inaugurated on February 25. As he had gained only 35.9% of the vote and had won only because neither of his opponents, Kim Dae Jung (26.5%) and Kim Young Sam (27.5%), had been willing to drop Pres.

was unable to consider his victory an unconditional mandate. Yet he gained so much goodwill in the early part of the year that his Democratic Justice Party (DJP) was widely predicted to triumph at the April 26 National Assembly elections, especially as the two Kims continued to bicker. Instead of improving on the presidential election, however, the DJP won only 33.9% of the popular vote. Kim Dae Jung's Party for Peace and Democracy (PPD) won 19.3%, and Kim Young Sam's Reunification Democratic Party (RDP) won 23.8%. Unexpected was the 15.6% share for the New Democratic Republican Party (NDRP) led by Kim Jong Pil, who had won only 7.9% in the presidential election. After allocation of seats under a complicated mixed direct and proportional system, the DJP ended up with 125, far short of a majority in the 299seat Assembly. The PPD had 70 seats and the RDP, though it had received a larger share of the popular vote, had 59. The NDRP gained 35 and others 10. Roh was unable to put together a coalition from his own party, independents, and the NDRP, so the opposition remained in control of out, he

the legislature. Exercising this control, the opposition insisted on an

inquiry into the

Kwangju

indirectly to the election of It

also forced

riots

of 1980, which had led

Chun Doo Hwan

as president.

an investigation of alleged criminal

Chief delegates Park Joon Kyu

(left)

of

South Korea and Chen Kum Choi of North Korea extend their hands in a gesture of goodwill at Korea's preliminary South-North interparliamentary talks.

activi-

427

However, most

strikes

had

run their course by midyear. Workers gained wage concessions, though fewer than they had demanded. Despite the industrial unrest, the economy performed remarkably well. Exports remained high, and the trade surplus grew. This led to relaxation of policies dating from the days of foreign-exchange shortages. Overseas tourism was permitted, and restrictions were lifted on investment abroad. Trade with the Communist bloc was encouraged. By October two Soviet trade missions were in Seoul and trade with China grew rapidly, reaching $2 billion by the middle of the year. Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) Area: 122,370 sq km (47,250 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 21,903,000. Cap.: Pyongyang. Monetary unit: won, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a nominal exchange rate of 0.97 won to U.S. $1 (1.66 won = £ 1 sterling). General secretary of the Central Committee of the Workers' (Communist) Party of Korea and president in 1988, Marshal Kim II Sung; chairmen of the Council of Ministers (premiers), Li Gun Mo and, from December 12, Yong

Hyong Muk.

Though

there

was no unequivocal evidence of opposition

Kim II Sung, who celebrated his 76th birthday with the customary extravagant adulation, there appeared to be dissension within the top ranks of the government. It was not known whether there was a power struggle for the succession or whether the abysmal performance of the economy was shaking up the regime. On February 12 Gen. O Guk Ryol, chief of staff" of the

to the regime of Pres.

428

World

Affairs: East Asia

and considered the third most powerful man Kim II Sung and Kim Jong II, was suddenly replaced by the much older Gen. Choe Kwang. In June and again in October there were reshuffles among government ministers. In December Yong Hyong Muk

armed

forces

in the country, after

replaced Li

Gun Mo

as premier.

Korea gave the two consortia of 140 international banks to which it owed $900 million some $5 million as a "goodwill payment." North Korea had defaulted on the loan in 1987, and the banks were moving toward a settlement that would involve writing off 70% of the debt in exchange for a commitment to pay the rest by 1991. Many creditors, however, complained that this was setting a dangerous precedent. In September North Korea announced a shift in economic emphasis from heavy industry to agriculture, though the government denied that (robert woodrow) there was a food shortage. In June North

Chu Kao-cheng

MONGOLIA A

landlocked people's republic of eastern Asia, Mongolia occupies the geographic area known as Outer Mongolia. Area: 1,566,500 sq km (604,800 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 2,041,000. Cap.: Ulan Bator. Monetary unit: tugrik, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 3.35 tugriks to U.S. $1 (5.74 tugriks = £l sterling). First secretary of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary (Communist) Party and chairman of the Presidium of the Great People's Hural (chief of state) in 1988, Zhambyn Batmunkh; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Dumaagiyn

Sodnom.

A

Mongolian governand the beginning of

far-reaching reorganization of the

ment took

place at the end of 1987

(right), a legislator from Taiwan's opposition Democratic Progressive Party whose frequent fights earned him the nickname "Rambo," grabs the tie of Chang Hung-hsieh, a Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) legislator, during a meeting of Taiwan's Legislative Yuan. AP/WIDE

WORLD

Ching-kuo {see Obituaries) on January 13 had been preceded by fears of a possible power struggle within

Kuomintang (KMT,

Nationalist Party). The smooth was remarkably uneventful. Vice-Pres. Lee Teng-hui (see Biographies) immediately assumed the presidency, in accord with constitutional law, and was elected chairman of the KMT at the party's 3th congress in July. It was the first time a native of Taiwan had held

the

transition, however,

1

1988, with the formation of new ministries including Light

either office.

and Food Industry (both headed by vice-premiers). Foreign Economic Relations, and Protection of Nature and the Environment. Supervision of a Soviet-style restructuring of economic management was undertaken by a new State Planning and Economic Com-

confidence, Lee named 12 newcomers to Cabinet in July. Although some appointments appeared to be dictated by a desire to give conservatives a continuing voice in government, Lee had clearly favoured reformminded politicians, many with advanced academic degrees. During the last years of his life, Chiang had initiated extraordinary changes in Taiwan. Restrictions on political activity (including the sanctioning of a formal political opposition and an increasingly vibrant press) were largely removed. These trends also included radical changes in Taiwan's mainland policy. Although the had repeatedly insisted it would not deal directly with the Communist Party of China (CPC), such a policy did not preclude a range of other dealings. Indirect trade, for example, was expected to exceed $2 billion in 1988; Taiwanese businessmen made direct but limited investments in China's coastal provinces, and citizens of both governments were involved in an ever wider range of contacts. Lee supported these initiatives and encouraged the heavy flow of visitors from Taiwan to the mainland. Since the change in the visitation policy was announced in late 1987, more than 300,000 citizens of Taiwan had visited the mainland. At the same time, the sought to maintain firm control over any dealings with the CPC, and it continued to reject all appeals from Beijing (Peking) for direct, official contact between the two ruling parties. During a mainland visit in October, senior legislator Hu Ch'iu-yiian held unauthorized meetings with senior Chinese officials, which led to his immediate expulsion from the party. Although the continued to explore other ways of dealing indirectly with Beijing. Lee clearly preferred that these measures be undertaken on a step-by-step basis. The leadership in Taipei also reiterated its determination to maintain technologically advanced military forces. In December, after years of eflFort and the expenditure of more than $ billion, Taiwan unveiled the prototype of its

Industry, Agriculture

mittee chaired by another vice-premier. In the pursuit of "renewal" and "openness," the Mongolian official media began a lively debate over the legacy of economic and social stagnation and bureaucracy left by the country's former leader, Yumzhagiyen Tsedenbal. There

was concern about food

supplies, since production was not keeping pace with population growth, and the government permitted an increase in private livestock holdings. The status and prospects of the Asia-Pacific region were debated at the second Mongol-American Bilateral Conference, held in Ulan Bator in June. According to Robert Scalapino of the University of California, the leader of the U.S. delegation, some differences of opinion emerged at the conference, but this was to be expected. "We are just

trying to get to

know one

another."

(alan

j.

k.

Sanders)

TAIWAN Taiwan, which consists of the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands off the coast of China, is the seat of the Republic of China (Nationalist China). Area: 36,000 sq km ( 1 3,900 sq mi), including the island of Taiwan and its 85 outlying islands, 21 In the Taiwan group and 64 in the Pescadores group. Pop. (1988 est.): 19,813,000. (Area and population figures exclude the Quemoy and Matsu groups, which are administered as an occupied part of Fujian [Fukien] Province.) Cap.: Taipei. Monetary unit: new Taiwan dollar, with (Oct. 10, 1988) an official rate of NT$28.72 to U.S. $1 (NT$49.18 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1988, Chiang Ching-kuo and, from January 13, Lee Teng-hui; president of the Executive Yuan (premier), Yu Kuo-hwa.

The year 1988 was marked by extraordinary political change in Taiwan. The death of long-time leader Chiang

Moving with

his

KMT

KMT

KMT

KMT

1

South Asia: Bangladesh

indigenous defense fighter (IDF), the aircraft intended to replace aging U.S. planes in Taipei's defense arsenal. Plans to build approximately 250 of these aircraft and to upgrade Taiwan's naval capabilities suggested that there would be no weakening of the island's defenses. Taiwan's long-term viability also continued to rest on its

Over the past several decades, Taiwan had sustained one of the highest economic growth rates in the world. Economic growth for the year was expected to exceed 7%, a decline from the double-digit growth in 1987 but still very robust. Per capita income was expected to surpass $6,000, bespeaking Taiwan's rapid advance to modernity. The steady increase in income, much of it a consequence of export-led growth, was manifested in foreign exchange reserves of approximately $75 billion, an amount exceeded only by Japan's reserves. Taiwan was also under increasing pressure to reduce its huge trade advantage, especially with the U.S., its leading trading partner. As a result of a number of "buy America" missions and the stimulation of domestic consumption, Taiwan's trade surplus with the U.S. dropped from $19 billion in 1987 to $14 billion in 1988. However, continued pressures from the U.S. to further reduce the deficit and vibrant economy.

provisions of U.S. trade legislation that Taipei protectionist clouded the longer-term

economic

(JONATHAN

D.

deemed

picture.

POLLACK)

The government of Afghanistan

revealed

429

on December

3

between the Soviet Union and guerrilla leaders were beginning in Saudi Arabia. This was the first publicly announced top-level meeting between the two antagonists since the conflict began. Though it was not represented at the meeting or at a subsequent conference in Pakistan on December 17, the Afghan government was that high-level negotiations

said to support the negotiations.

Even pleted,

it

if

the troop withdrawal resumed

was not expected

the Soviets

and was com-

to bring peace to Afghanistan; as

the division between Afghan Marxists and sharper, and the fear of even blood-

left,

Muslims became even

heightened. Leaders of the Pakistan-based Muslim insurgent groups vowed to continue fighting until they toppled the Marxist regime and proclaimed Afghanistan an ier fighting

The efforts by the government either to form a coalition or to bring King Mohammad Zahir Shah back from his exile in Italy failed. A UN report released in Geneva on September 22 said that the conflict had "produced unparalleled human sufferings and immeasurable social and economic havoc." The report stated that the war had reduced Afghanistan "to the status of one of the poorest, least developed countries." It also said that the fighting had caused an estimated one million deaths and that hundreds of thousands of widows, orphans, and disabled people would need sustained care for years to come. Islamic republic.

The 169-page

report cited extensive

damage

to agricul-

wheat-growing area reduced to 70% of its prewar size and one-fifth of the nation's livestock lost. It estimated that 2,000 schools and 130 health centres were damaged and that road transport infrastructure would reture, with the

South Asia

quire intensive repairs. The countryside, it said, was "littered with mines, unexploded bombs, hand grenades, shells

AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan is a landlocked people's republic in central Asia. Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 14,481,000 (excluding Afghan refugees estimated to number about 3.2 million in Pakistan and 2.1 million to 2.3 miUion in Iran). Cap.: Kabul. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 57.96 afghanis to U.S. $1 (99.25 afghanis = £1 steding). General secretary of the People's Democratic (Communist) Party and president in 1988, Mohammad Najibullah; prime ministers, Sultan Ali Keshtmand and, from May 26, Mohammad Hassan Sharq.

The withdrawal of an estimated 11 5,000 Soviet troops, who had entered Afghanistan in December 1979 to prop up a faltering Communist regime, began on May 15, 1988. The United States, the Soviet Union, Pakistan, and Afghanistan had signed an agreement in Geneva on April 14 after years of painstaking efforts by the United Nations to end one of modem history's most bitter conflicts. Under the accord Afghanistan and Pakistan pledged not to intervene in each other's affairs and to work for the safe, voluntary return of refugees. Early in November, however, the Soviets halted the withdrawal of their troops and also began supplying the Afghan Army with powerful weapons. The Soviets said that their action was caused by increased guerrilla activity in Afghanistan, and they accused Pakistan of supporting the rebels.

and other ordnance [that would] pose a major threat to life and limb for years to come." For the first time, the Soviet Union admitted that it had suffered almost 50,000 casualties, including 13,310 deaths, in the conflict.

A

Moscow on May 25 wounded and 311 missing with-

top general said in

that 35,478 soldiers were

out a trace. Gen. Aleksey D. Lizichev said that the death and injury toll included casualties suffered from Dec. 27, 1979, until May 1, 1988. The figure was slightly higher than some Western analysts had estimated. The Humanitarian and Economic Assistance Program for Afghanistan estimated that rebuilding the warshattered nation would cost $1,160,000,000 in 1988-89. Another $839 million would be needed for 1990-93, bringing the total cost to more than $2 billion, the agency determined. In the first phase of the program about one-third of the funds would be devoted to the relief needs and repatriation of the Afghan refugees. Of the remaining funds, about 65% was to go toward reviving agriculture. The remainder would be spent on rural health care facilities, education, basic agriculture industries, and clearing an estimated three

UN

minion mines sown by the Soviet Army. (DILIP

GANGULY)

BANGLADESH A

republic

is

in the northeastern part

and member of the Commonwealth, Bangladesh of the Indian subcontinent, on the

Bay of Bengal. Area: 143,998 sq km (55,598 sq mi). Pop. (1988 107,756,000. Cap.: Dhaka. Monetary unit: taka, with (Oct.

est.):

1988) a free rate of 31.07 taka to U.S. $1 (53.20 taka = £1 President in 1988, Lieut. Gen. Hossain Mohammad Ershad; prime ministers, Mizanur Rahman Chowdhury and, 10,

The redesigned flag of Afghanistan does not have the red star that was present on its previous

flag.

sterling).

from March

27,

Moudud Ahmed.

World

430

Affairs:

South Asia

a result of heavy monsoon rains, Bangladesh was batby floods in 1988 that were the worst in seven decades. An estimated 2,000 people were killed, 30 mil-

June 7 amended the country's constitution and made Islam the state religipn. He justified this step by saying that it would give due recognition to Islam, the religion of about

were made homeless, and $2 billion worth of property and crops were lost. Floodwaters entered Dhaka, submerging several low-lying areas and spreading hardship and disease among the city's six million residents. A seesaw political battle was waged during the year between the opposition and Pres. Hossain Mohammad Er-

85%

of the 1 10 million inhabitants of Bangladesh. Various women's groups challenged the vahdity of the amendment, claiming that it was aimed at curbing wom-

climaxed in the March 3 elections to Parliament during which violence left at least 1 3 people dead. The balloting was boycotted by the main opposition parties, which contended that no elections could be conducted fairly with Ershad in power. Beginning Nov. 10, 1987, the opposition sponsored a series of rallies and strikes in an effort to oust Ershad, who had seized power in a bloodless coup in 1982. Ershad went ahead with the elections, however, and his Jatiya Party won 250 of the seats. Twenty-five independent members were elected, and 23 seats were shared by small opposition parties. Opposition leaders claimed that only 4.8 milUon among 48 million eligible voters exercised their right to vote, but the government said that the turnout was more than 50%. On March 27 Ershad announced a new 23-member Council of Ministers. He replaced Prime Minister Mizanur Rahman Chowdhury with Deputy Prime Minister Moudud Ahmed, a British-trained lawyer. Foreign Minis-

Sheikh Hasina Wajed, eldest daughter of the country's first president, Mujibur Rahman, was the chief of the Awami League Party. The Parliament in July enacted a law providing the death penalty for drug traffickers and manufacturers. People convicted of trafficking more than 25 g (0.883 oz) of dangerous drugs could be sentenced to death under the new law. Bangladesh was estimated to have nearly 1.2 miUion drug addicts. The year was marked by escalating violence by Buddhist Chakma rebels in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, a 13,000-sq km (5,000-sq mi) rugged, hilly region bordering the Indian states of Tripura and Mizoram. The Chakmas had been

As

tered

lion people

shad's Jatiya Party.

It

ter

Humayun Rasheed Chowdhury

On

April

1

retained his portfolio.

2 Ershad lifted the state of emergency that he

had imposed on Nov.

27, 1987, to counter the opposition

en's rights.

Two women

led the

main opposition

Begum Khaleda Zia, wife of the Rahman, headed the Bangladesh

slain president

Nationalist Party,

fighting in the area for 12 years to gain

and

autonomy. More

than 200 people were killed in Chakma violence in 1988. Bangladesh continued to depend on foreign loans and grants for development projects. Defense spending for the 1988-89 fiscal year, which began on July 1, was projected to rise to $298 million from $249 million in 1987-88. The nation's gross national product, the value of all goods and services produced in the country, rose just 2.6% in 198788, compared with the projected target of 5.1%. (DILIP

threat.

Ershad took steps to strengthen the Islamic orientation of his Muslim-dominated country. Ignoring protests from the opposition, women, and minority groups, Ershad on

parties.

Zia ur-

GANGULY)

BHUTAN The monarchy of Bhutan

is a landlocked state situated in the eastern Himalayas between China and India. Area: 47,000 sq km (18,150 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 1,365,000. Cap.: Thimphu. Monetary unit: ngultrum, at par with the Indian rupee (which is also in use), with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 14.39 ngultrums to U.S. $1 (24.65 ngultrums = £l sterling). Druk gyalpo (king) in 1988, Jigme Singye Wangchuk.

The

Himalayan kingdom closed

its doors to individual 1988 after a government-appointed commission painted a grim picture of tourist-generated destruction. The commission said tourists were desecrating Buddhist monas-

tiny

tourists in

sacred relics, stealing valuable artifacts, and corrupting the local population; more than 50 monasteries had been robbed since 1974, when foreign tourists were first allowed into the country. The ban did not apply to tourists in groups, but restrictions were imposed on their movements, and hotel prices were raised. The decision was expected to have an adverse effect on the country's foreign exchange earnings from tourism, which had amounted to about $2 million annually. Relations with China improved during the year. In May the two countries agreed on guiding principles looking toward demarcation of their border and undertook not to use force to resolve the issue. The mountainous 500teries, defiling

km (310-mi) border between Bhutan and China had never been precisely defined. Talks had been held annually since 1984, with the next round expected in the spring of 1989. Relations with India remained warm, with New Delhi promanpower and financial assistance in setting up hydroelectric units and industries. Bhutan improved communications with the outside world by purchasing its viding liberal

Bangladesh Pres. Hossain

Mohammad

Ershad votes during parliamentary elections in March. The main opposition parties had urged voters to boycott the election, claiming that any election conducted under Ershad's Jatiya Party would be fixed.

first

passenger jet airliner. article updates the Micropadia

This

(dilip article

ganguly)

Bhutan.

South Asia: India

Singh went to Madhya Pradesh as chief minister. Also in February, elections were held for the state assemblies of Tripura and Meghalaya. In the former the Congress Party

INDIA

A

federal republic of southern Asia and member of the Commonwealth, India is situated on a peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the west and

the

Bay of Bengal to the east. Area: 3,166,414 sq km (1,222,559 sq mi), including the Indian-administered portion of Jammu and Kashmir. Pop. (1988 est.): 801,806,000, including Indianadministered Jammu and Kashmir. Cap.: New Delhi. Monetary unit: Indian rupee, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of Rs £1 sterUng). President in 1988, 14.39 to U.S. $1 (Rs 24.65 Ramaswamy Venkataraman; prime minister, Rajiv Gandhi.

=

Domestic

Affairs. In

1988, for the

first

time in several

had a good monsoon, which dispelled anxiety regarding food shortages. The political scene was marked by hectic moves by opposition parties to form an alternative to the Indian National Congress for the elections due in 1989. The efforts were spurred by the belief that Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi might choose to hold the election on short notice. Leaders of seven parties the Lok Dal, years, India

—

Assam Gana Parishad, the Congress (S), the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, the Telugu Desam, and the Jan Morcha met in New Delhi in August to form the National Front, which announced a 71 -point program. Four of these parties the Janata, the Lok Dai, Congress (S), and the Jan Morcha decided in July to unite into the

the Janata, the

—

—

—

Janata Dal under the chairmanship of Vishwanath Pratap Singh, who had held the portfolios of finance and defense in the Gandhi government. However, many followers of the new organization's constituent units seemed to favour the retention of their parties' identity. The two Communist parties and the Bharatiya Janata Party were lukewarm toward the new group. There were changes of government in several states. In Tamil Nadu, following the death of Chief Minister M. G.

Ramachandran

in

December

party, the All-India

1987, there was a split in his

Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.

His widow, Janaki Ramachandran, formed a government in January, but within a month it was dismissed by the union (national) government, and the state was placed under president's rule. The governor had claimed that Tamil

Nadu had become

impossible to govern. It was announced in the state early in 1989. In January Rajasthan gained a new chief minister, S. C. Mathur, who took the place of Harideo Joshi. In February B. J. Azad became the chief minister of Bihar, and Arjun

that elections

AP/WIOE

would be held

WORLD

Sikh militants surrender to Indian police after having been barricaded within the Golden Temple in Amritsar. The

government had conducted a ten-day blockade of the shrine in an attempt to clear out the extremists.

431

formed a government led by S. R. Majumdar in alliance with the Tripura Upjati Juba Samiti. In Meghalaya P. A. Sangma headed the government. R. K. Jaichandra Singh became chief minister of Manipur in March. In June N. D. Tiwari took over as chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, and Sharad Pawar became the head of the Maharashtra

government. In August the Nagaland government

and

fell,

was proclaimed. The Kamataka chief minister, Ramakrishna Hegde, resigned in favour of S. R. Bommai after a report that telephones had been tapped. In Punjab the terrorists continued their kiUing, but the poUce drive against them gathered strength. The authorities cleared terrorist hideouts in and around the Golden president's rule

Temple in Amritsar. Nonetheless, four Sikh extremists in early November ordered ten people off a bus in northern Punjab and shot them to death. A solution was found for the discontent of Gurkhas in West Bengal after longdrawn-out negotiations among the union and West Bengal governments and the Gurkha National Liberation Front.

A tripartite agreement, signed in August, provided for the estabUshment of a Gurkha Hill Council in the state. Peace returned to Tripura with an agreement signed with the TNV (Tripura National Volunteers). During the year, proPakistan elements caused riots in Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian government sent troops to Andhra Pradesh in December after more than 25 people were killed in rioting set off by the killing of a legislator. Late in October thousands of farmers arrived in New Delhi on tractor-driven wagons to stage a protest rally. Believing that agriculture should receive a larger share of the nation's development efforts, they demanded higher prices for their grains and sugarcane, longer hours of electricity for farms, and the writing off of bank loans. Prime Minister Gandhi said that he was willing to listen to the demands but "not under pressure," and after three days the protesters were escorted out of town by the police. The Union Cabinet underwent two major reshuffles during the year. Victories of opposition parties in byelections to the House of the People (Lok Sabha) in June (especially that of Vishwanath Pratap Singh) set off a bid by the Congress Party to reorganize itself. Several veteran poUticians who had quit or been expelled from the party were readmitted, among them Pranab Mukerji, Nandini

432

World

Affairs:

South Asia

Satpathy, and Chandrajit Yadav. The government invited opposition parties for discussions on the reform of the electoral system. The executive of the Congress Party in October put forward a recommendation for lowering the voting age from 21 to 18. The Supreme Court upheld the conviction of Satwant Singh and Kehar Singh for the murder of Indira Gandhi in 1984 but acquitted Balbir Singh. On August 21 Bihar and other eastern states were rocked by the country's worst

earthquake in 50 years, which killed at least 450 people. In July 103 persons died when a train fell into a lake in Kerala. Two air crashes on the same day, October 19, in Gujarat and Assam, killed 164 people. The Madhya Pradesh High Court in April ordered Union Carbide to pay Rs 2.5 billion as interim damages to the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984. The government expelled Pakistan's military attache and another Pakistani official in December on charges of spying. The Navy acquired its first nuclear-powered submarine, the Soviet-built INS Chakra, in February. Orders for West German submarines were canceled. A remote-sensing satellite, IRS-IA, was launched from the Soviet Union, and the multiple satellite Insat I-C was placed in orbit in July from Kourou in French Guiana. However, an attempt to launch an augmented satellite launch vehicle, ASLVD2, from Sriharikota failed. The first Jaguar aircraft to be built in India were introduced into the Indian Air Force. The Army and Air Force gained new chiefs of staff Gen. V. N. Sharma (succeeding Gen. K. Sundarji) and Air Chief Marshal S. K. Mehra (succeeding Air Chief Marshal D. A. La Fontaine). The death in Pakistan in January of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan {see Obituaries), a major figure of the Indian freedom movement, was widely mourned. The Economy. Prices during the year increased approximately 6.8%; the wholesale price index on October 23 stood at 439.1, compared with 411 on Sept. 5, 1987. A major achievement during the first half of the year was the avoidance of famine in spite of widespread drought, thanks to an efficient public distribution system. The good rains that followed raised hopes of a record harvest in spite of

HDW

the five-continent initiative

He

also addressed the

on disarmament

UN Special Session on

in

Stockholm.

Disarmament

June and presented a plan to achieve a world free of nuclear weapons by 2010. Other nations he visited during the year included Japan, Vietnam, Syria, West Germany, Hungary, Jordan, Yugoslavia, Spain, Turkey, and Bhutan. in

Pres.

Ramaswamy Venkataraman went

to the Pakistan

August to attend the funeral of Pres. Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited New Delhi in November to take part in the closing ceremony of the yearlong Soviet festival in India and to receive the Indira Gandhi Prize. He and Prime Minister Gandhi signed capital in

agreements, including a Soviet credit of Rs 53 billion. other notable visitors to India were Pres. J. R. Jayawardene of Sri Lanka, Premier Li Gun Mo of North Korea, Prime Minister Lee Kwan Yew of Singapore, and Pres. Mohammad Najibullah of Afghanistan. five

Among

(H. Y.

SHARADA PRASAD)

MALDIVES A

republic

and member of the Commonwealth

in the Indian

Ocean, the Maldives consists of about 2,000 small islands southwest of the southern tip of India. Area: 298 sq km (115 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 202,000. Cap.: Male. Monetary unit: rufiyaa, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 10.08 rufiyaa to U.S. $1 (17.27 rufiyaa

=

£1 sterling). President in 1988,

Maumoon

Abdul Gayoom.

—

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom was returned president of Maldives in a referendum

for a third

on

term as

Sept. 23, 1988.

He had been

selected as the sole candidate by the counParliament in August. At the beginning of November, India responded to an urgent request for help when Sri Lankan mercenaries invaded the islands in an attempted

try's

AP/WIDE

WORLD

,» m m.

floods in large areas.

The union budget estimates for 1988-89, presented on February 29, provided Rs 287,150,000,000 for development outlay and Rs 1 30 billion for defense. Revenue and capital receipts were placed at Rs 427,980,000,000 and Rs 232,780,000,000, respectively, and revenue and capital expenditure at Rs 526.4 billion and Rs 209.2 billion, leaving an overall deficit of Rs 74,840,000,000. New levies that would bring in Rs 6,140,000,000 were proposed. In February proposals were separately announced to increase the income from the railways and telecommunications by Rs 6,220,000,000 and Rs 5 billion, respectively. The World Bank lion for

1 1

projects.

announced credits of $3 bilThe Aid India Consortium in June

in April

announced concessional aid of $6.3 billion for the next 12 months. A major hydroelectric project was commissioned at Salal in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in February. In October the Planning Commission set a 6% growth target for the eighth five-year plan.

Foreign Relations. The Indian Peace-Keeping Force continued its operations in Sri Lanka and was subjected to repeated attacks by Tamil activists belonging to the group called Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. A large number of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in India were sent back to the island. Early in November India sent troops to the

Maldives to help put down an attempt by some 50 armed to overthrow the government of that island nation. 1

men

Prime Minister Gandhi

in

January attended a meeting of

Security forces in Maldives take into custody a mercenary soldier Involved in an unsuccessful coup attempt. On November 6 a boatload of Sri Lankan mercenaries had attacked the capital city of Male, but Indian commandos regained control for the president the same day.

South Asia: Pakistan coup. Indian troops regained control for President Gayoom later rounded up the fleeing mercenaries, who were identified as members of a Tamil guerrilla force. At year's end it was not clear who had hired the fighters. Since 1985 Maldives had enacted a series of economic adjustment measures designed to encourage "market forces." These included the introduction of credit controls and

and

exchange rate depreciations, which between them had led bank credit and a reduction of im-

to a drop in excessive

ports over exports, thus substantially lowering the current

account deficit. Fishing, which now accounted for 25% of gross domestic product and employed 50% of the labour force, had been undergoing modernization. According to recent scientific reports on the "greenhouse effect," Maldives was one of six countries that could disappear during the next century if the predicted warming of the Earth caused the Indian Ocean to rise. This article updates the Macropadia Islands: Maldives.

article

(guy ARNOLD) Indian Ocean

NEPAL A constitutional monarchy, Nepal is a landlocked country in the Himalayas between India and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. Area: 147,181 sq km (56,827 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est): 18,004,000. Cap.: Kathmandu. Monetary unit: Nepalese rupee, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of NRs 22.26 to U.S. $1 (NRs 38.12 = £1 steriing). King. Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva; prime minister, Marich Man Singh Shrestha.

80 fans dead and more than 100 seriously injured. Panicked by a sudden hailstorm, the crowd surged toward locked doors at the National Stadium. Most of those killed were crushed or trampled. In September a flash flood in the village of Darbang in western Nepal killed at least 87 people and destroyed at least

On the political

Pakistan's Benazir Bhutto has her

marked National

to signify that she

thumb

had voted

Assembly elections

in

in

November

Her Pakistan People's Party won the and in December Bhutto became the first woman prime minister of a Muslim country. largest block of seats,

1

5 buildings.

Prime Minister Marich Man Singh Shrestha in March expanded his Council of Ministers from 17 to 33. Six ministers were dropped and 22 new faces were inducted in an effort to infuse new blood into NepaU front.

(DILIP

politics.

GANGULY)

PAKISTAN A

federal republic. Pakistan is in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, on the Arabian Sea. Area: 796,095 sq km (307,374 sq mi), excluding the 83.716-sq km Pakistanicontrolled section of Jammu and Kashmir. Pop. (1988 est., including some 3 million Afghan refugees and 3 million residents of Pakistani-controlled Jammu and Kashmir): 109.434,000. Cap.: Islamabad. Monetary unit: Pakistan rupee, with (Oct. 10. 1988) a free rate of PRs 18.10 to U.S. $1 (PRs 31 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1988, Gen. Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq and, from August 17 (acting to December 12), Ghulam Ishaq Khan; prime ministers, Mohammad Khan Junejo to May 29, Zia from June 9 to August 17, and, from December 2, Benazir Bhutto.

Pakistan in 1988 lost the year with the in a

its

first

Muslim country.

aries),

who had

longest-serving president

and ended

woman prime minister to hold office Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq {see Obituhand since The U.S. -built

ruled the country with an iron

1977, died in a plane crash

A massive earthquake hit Nepal in August, killing more than 700 people by official count; however, witnesses and news reports from the affected areas put the death toll above 1,000. The tremor, registering 6.5 on the Richter scale, caused extensive damage to homes and road communications in the mountainous country and killed or injured a large number of cattle. The devastation would have been severe had the quake occurred in the northern region close to the Himalayas. The epicentre was in the south, however, close to Nepal's border with India. Two more tragic events took place during the year in the Himalayan kingdom. In March a stampede during a football (soccer) match in Kathmandu left approximately

433

on August

17.

C-130 transport plane crashed shortly after takeoff from Bahawalpur. 530 km (330 mi) south of Islamabad. All 30 people on board, including the U.S. ambassador, Arnold Raphel. and five Pakistani Army generals, were killed. The cause of the crash remained uncertain. Pakistani officials believed the evidence pointed to sabotage, probably Sovietbacked, while U.S. investigators were inclined to blame

mechanical failure. Contrary to fears that Zia's death would struggle within the

Army,

there

trigger a

was a smooth

power

transfer of

power as set forth in the constitution. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, the 73-year-old chairman of the Senate, became acting president and pledged that a parliamentary election

would

World

434

Affairs: Southeast

Asia

be held as scheduled on November 16. Earlier, on May 29, Zia had abruptly dismissed the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Khan Junejo for "incompetence, corruption and lack of attention to the Muslim faith" and on June 9 had formed a caretaker Cabinet, headed by Zia had wanted the election to be partyless, but on October 2 the Supreme Court ruled that Pakistan's constitution provided for elections

open

to all political parties

The

principal contenders were the conservative Islamic Democratic Alliance and the Pakistan People's Party. The latter was headed by Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Prime Minister Zulfikar AH Bhutto, who had been overthrown by Zia in 1977 and executed

and not merely

two years

to individuals.

later.

PPP won the largest block of seats, 105 out of 237. (For tabulated results, see Political Parties, above.) After two weeks of political maneuvering, on December 1 President Ishaq Khan named Bhutto as prime minister, and she was sworn in the following day. On December 12, as required by the constitution, Bhutto's government received a vote of confidence, with independents and minor parties joining the PPP to give her a 14855 majority. On the same day, Ishaq Khan was elected to In the election the

a five-year term as president by an electoral college composed of both houses of Parliament and the four provincial assemblies.

A presidential decree on June 15 confirmed the introduction of the Shari'ah, or Islamic legal code, and repealed existing secular civil law.

women's

organizations, but

it

The move was criticized by was believed the Bhutto gov-

ernment would move slowly in this area. Zia's death had no apparent effect on U.S. relations with Islamabad. The U.S. informed the Soviet Union and India on August 22 that its support for Pakistan's security remained strong. Despite the signing in April of the Geneva agreement for the phased withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, relations between Islamabad and Kabul remained strained, with each side accusing the other of violating the accords. The year witnessed the worst ethnic violence in two years in southern Pakistan, where riots in September between the native Sindhis and Muslim immigrants from India known as muhajimn left at least 175 dead by official count (hospitals reported 217). In July-September Pakistan was hit by monsoon-triggered floods, which killed at least 3 1 people and left one million homeless. Pakistan's economy registered moderate grov^h in 1988. Gross domestic product rose by 5.8%, a shade better than the 1987 rate of 5.7%. The government reported a 7% inflation rate, but independent economists put it close to 17%. The foreign debt stood at $12,440,000,000, up from

$12

billion in 1987.

SRI

LANKA

(dilip

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Sri Lanka occupies an island in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of peninsular India. Area: 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi) Pop. (1988 est.); 16,606,000. Legislative and judicial cap., Sri Jayawardenapura; administrative cap., Colombo. Monetary unit: Sri Lanka rupee, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of SL Rs 32.50 to U.S. $1 (SL Rs 55.65 = £1 steriing). President in 1988, Junius Richard Jayawardene; prime minister, Ranasingne

Premadasa. Pres. Junius

Jayawardene announced on Sept. 16, 1988, was stepping down after years in office. He named Prime Minister Ranasingne Premadasa to be his successor as candidate for the United National Party in the 1

1

regularity.

The Tamils, who made up about 18% of Sri Lanka's approximately 16 million people, were fighting for an independent homeland in the northern and eastern regions of the island. They alleged that they were discriminated against by the Sinhalese, who made up about 74% of the population and controlled the government and the mihtary. The peace plan signed by Sri Lanka and India in July 1987 to end the Tamil ethnic strife crumbled in 1988 with the most important of the Tamil militant groups, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, fighting an estimated 50,000 Indian troops. The troops were mobilized after the Tamil Tigers, as the group was popularly known, refused to surrender arms and abide by the accord, which offered limited autonomy to the Tamils. India was involved in the affair because of its own 60 million politically powerful Tamils. Elections for Parliament were scheduled to take place 15, 1989. In December a Tamil party that had not

on Feb.

participated in politics in that

it

would take

more than

ten years

announced

part in the elections. This decision by the

Tamil United Liberation Front would give Tamil voters a mainstream alternative to the militant Tamil parties. The Sri Lankan economy showed no improvement in 1988. The country lost $200 million in tourism revenue, $250 million in foreign investment, and another $250 million in agriculture and fishing industries as compared with 1987. The government said that it would need $3.3 billion over the next three years for reconstruction and for its youth employment program. (dilip ganguly)

Ganguly)

A

that he

44.9% for Banadaranaike and 4.5% for the candidate of a leftist alliance. Bandaranaike charged that there had been widespread fraud by the ruling party and the military during the election and said that she would challenge the result in the Sri Lankan Supreme Court. Some 55% of the electorate went to the polls, and only scattered incidents of violence were reported. Peace continued to elude Sri Lanka, where a five-yearold Tamil separatist war showed no sign of abatement in 1988. In addition, the People's Liberation Front, an organization of radical Sinhalese who were opposed to the Tamils, emerged and helped turn the once idyllic country into a nation where political assassinations, ethnic riots, and intragroup bloodshed occurred with near clockwise to

himself.

all

next presidential election. The opposition Freedom Party its candidate former prime minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The election took place on December 20, and Premadasa was declared the winner with 50.4% of the vote

nominated as

Southeast Asia SOUTHEAST ASIAN AFFAIRS The person who

stayed most consistently in the forefront

of regional news in 1988 was the unpredictable Prince Norodom Sihanouk, former king and later head of state of Kampuchea, who had not been in a position of real power since 1970. His country, occupied since 1979 by Vietnamese troops (120,000 by U.S. count at the beginning of 1988), remained the dominant focus of diplomatic effort as the major world powers and members of the Association

Southeast Asia: Southeast Asian Affairs

435

Lieut. Gen. Le Ngoc Hien Kampucheans during the

Vietnamese

waves

to

pullout of Vietnamese soldiers. After ten years of occupation, Vietnam in May that it planned withdraw 50,000 troops from Kampuchea by the end of the year and all remaining troops by early 1990.

announced to

AP/WIOE

WORLD

of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) struggled to find an acceptable formula to end the civil war. At the end of January, after an inconclusive meeting near Paris with Hun Sen, prime minister of the Vietnamese-supported government, Sihanouk announced his "irrevocable" decision to resign as president of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea, the grouping of three anti-Vietnamese resistance movements: the Khmer Rouge, the Khmer People's National Liberation Front, and Sihanouk's own military forces led by his son. Prince Norodom Rannariddh.

As the year progressed, it became clear that the U.S. was emerging as Sihanouk's chief supplier of military aid in place of China, which continued to support the Khmer Rouge with arms and money. The Soviet Union, meanwhile, by backing Vietnam, indirectly propped up the Hun Sen government in Phnom Penh. But with detente actively pursued by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, Moscow grew impatient with Vietnam's intransigence over a settlement. Japan for the first time took an active role, urging the creation of an international peacekeeping force proposed by Sihanouk and expressing willingness to help supervise free elections.

By

the end of February Sihanouk had withdrawn his on the grounds that the Vietnamese refused to

resignation

negotiate with him. He resigned again in July, just before an informal meeting held in Bogor, Indon., on Kampuchea, during which he was "visiting" President Suharto. Present at this meeting were Hun Sen and leaders of the three resistance groups, as well as Vietnamese Foreign Minister Nguyen Co Thach and representatives of Laos and the

part of the U.S. and the Soviet Union, and called for an international conference to declare the Indian Ocean a zone of peace. Four months earlier. Thai Foreign Minister Siddhi Savetsila had said the Soviet Union had approached him about joining ASEAN's "dialogue partners," the U.S., the European Communities, Japan, Canada, Australia, and

New

Zealand. In particular, Gorbachev offered to abandon

Cam Ranh

Bay in Vietwas a "base") if the U.S. would simultaneously give up two bases in the Philippines, Subic Bay (Navy) and Clark Air Base (Air Force). The suggestion was not taken seriously in Washington. The U.S. at the time was in the final stages of protracted negotiations with the Philippine government of Corazon Aquino over the future of those military installations. Philippine Foreign Secretary Raul Manglapus had been pushing for annual "rent" (actually an aid package) of $ 1 .2 billion a year until 1991, when a longer-term agreement was to be signed. U.S. Secretary of State George Shultz warned that the Philippines was "pricing itself out of the market." For a time it appeared that Subic Bay and Clark might be abandoned, but an agreement was signed at the end of October providing for $48 1 million a year in economic and military aid. Soviet naval support facilities at

nam (Moscow

consistently denied

The insurgency

it

situation in the Philippines stabilized. In

countries (Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei). No breakthrough was achieved, however. In November Hun Sen and Sihanouk again held discussions in France, again inconclusively. On

January armed forces commander Gen. Fidel Ramos, the key figure in the 1986 overthrow of then president Ferdinand Marcos, resigned and joined the Cabinet as defense secretary. Though the guerrillas remained powerful, the advantage appeared to be moving toward the military. This was due in part to a rapidly improving economy, though the gains tended to benefit mainly urban dwellers. On June 10 President Aquino signed the long-debated Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, which provided for

June 30 the Vietnamese high command left Kampuchea as part of a promised withdrawal of 50,000 troops in 1988. At

cized, however, for leaving loopholes that rich

ASEAN

same time Vietnam revealed that 55,000 of its soldiers had died in action in Kampuchea since 1977. In the Siberian city of Krasnoyarsk on September 16, Gorbachev made a watershed speech that had a strong bearing on Southeast Asian affairs. He proposed a number of measures to lower military tension in the area, including a mutually balanced reduction of naval forces on the the

redistribution of cultivated farmland.

It

was wddely

criti-

landowners

could exploit. In New York on October 21, Marcos and his wife, Imelda, were indicted on charges of having used $103 million from the Philippine treasury to purchase real estate in the U.S. for themselves.

While concern about the Philippines was lessening, it was mounting in long-quiescent Burma, which for much of the year dominated regional and international news.

436

World

Affairs: Southeast Asia

of serious unrest against the 26-year regime emerged in March. On July 23 Ne Win resigned as chairman of the ruHng party and was replaced by the hard-liner Sein Lwin, but in less than three weeks, during which time as many as 3,000 civilians may have been killed, Sein Lwin resigned; he was replaced by the moderate Attorney General Maung Maung on August 19. The revolt continued, however. The Army seized power in a coup on September 18, and Gen. Saw Maung took command under martial law, abolishing the state apparatus. It was widely believed that Ne Win was wielding behind-theFirst reports

of Gen

U Ne Win

scenes authority. In March the Spratly Islands, a cluster of widely spaced reefs and atolls in the South China Sea, were the cause of

heightened tensions. The uninhabited islands had long been claimed, in whole or in part, by Vietnam, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Malaysia. In a clash between Chinese and Vietnamese naval personnel, 3 Vietnamese died and

more than 70 were missing. The following month relations between Malaysia and the Philippines were strained over the arrest at sea in the Spratlys of Filipino fishermen in

waters claimed by Malaysia. The situation was defused in August when President Aquino telephoned Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Mahathir bin Mohamad. Several Southeast Asian leaders were replaced during the year. In March Vietnam's premier, Pham Hung, died

and was succeeded briefly by Vice-Premier Vo Van Kiet and then in June by Do Muoi. After an election on July 24, Thailand's Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanond declined overtures to draft

him

for another term; following

Choonhavan

Chatichai

{see

dismissed.

Free-market economies in the region prospered. Thailand and Singapore achieved high growth on top of impressive performances the year before, and Malaysia and the Philippines staged remarkable comebacks after recession. Indonesia did less well but, given low oil prices, showed resilience. Burma and the Indochina states were economically stagnant. At the ASEAN foreign ministers' conference in Bangkok, Thailand, in July, the Philippines requested "poly sectoral" assistance to enable it to reestablish a healthy economy. (robert woodrow)

good

sultanate of Brunei is located on the northern coast of the island of Borneo, on the South China Sea. Area: 5,765 sq km (2,226 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 250,000. Cap.: Bandar Seri Begawan. Monetary unit: Brunei dollar, with (Oct. 10, £1 sterling). 1988) a free rate of Br$2.04 to U.S. $1 (Br$3.49 Sultan and prime minister in 1988, Sir Muda Hassanal Bolkiah

The

=

Mu'izzadin Waddaulah.

Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah underlined his determination not to allow party politics when his government dissolved the reformist Brunei National Democratic Party (BNDP) in January 1988. The authorities reportedly arrested the party's president, Latif

Hamid, and

its

secretary-general, Latif

emergency powers, which permit indefinite detention without trial; the arrests were not confirmed by the government. The BNDP called for the sultan to step down as prime minister, the lifting of the emergency, and the holding of general elections. On National Day on February 23, the government released four political prisoners, one of whom had been in jail since 1962. The four were members of the banned Brunei People's Party, which staged a failed revolt in 1962. Singapore businessman Khoo Teck Puat, the partner of

Chuchu, under the

sultanate's

the royal family in the National

Bank of

Brunei, sold his

Australian hotel chain to help pay off his $225 million debt with the bank, which had been closed after a dispute involving fraud charges.

much

Biographies), leader of the Chart Thai party, was installed as prime minister. Powerful army chief Gen. Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth did not, as had been widely expected, move into the political scene. In February Chaovaht had personally negotiated a settlement to a tense situation on the border with Laos. There had been fighting over a disputed border demarcation, but a truce was called and both sides withdrew. President Suharto of Indonesia was reelected unopposed on March 10 to a fifth five-year term by the 1,000-member People's Consultative Assembly. Indonesia was active in diplomacy in the South Pacific. Both Singapore and Malaysia were criticized by international human rights groups for jailing without trial citizens who were opposed to the government. In April eight of nine detainees who had been released in Singapore were rearrested after issuing a statement saying that they had been both physically and psychologically abused. The next month a former solicitor general was detained, and immediately afterward a U.S. diplomat was ordered to leave for allegedly interfering in domestic affairs, prompting a retaliatory expulsion by Washington. In the general election on September 3, the ruling People's Action Party won 63% of the vote and 80 out of 8 1 seats. In Malaysia the top judge was dismissed after he complained that politicians were interfering with the judiciary. In October two judges who supported him in a ruling from the bench were also negotiation,

BRUNEI

Brunei experienced a drop in

oil

revenues resulting from

the decline in world prices, but the sultanate was able to fall

back on

its

enormous

foreign reserves.

(ZOHER This

article

updates the Macropcedia

F.

ABDOOLCARIM)

article

East Indies:

Brunei.

BURMA Burma

a people's republic of Southeast Asia with coastlines Sea. Area: 676,577 sq km (261,228 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 39,952,000. Cap.: Rangoon. Monetary unit: kyat, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 6.58 kyats to U.S. $1 (1 1.28 kyats = £l sterling). Chairmen of the Burma Socialist Program Party in 1988, U Ne Win to July 25, Sein Lwin from July 26, and, from August 19 to September 18, Maung Maung; chairman of the National Unity Party from September 29, Tha Kyaw; presidents, U San Yu to July 25, U Sein Lwin to August 12, Maung Maung from August 19, and, from September 18, Gen. Saw Maung; prime ministers, U Maung Maung Kha to July 26, U Tun Tin to September 18, and, from September 21, Gen. Saw Maung. is

on the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman

U

U

Ne Win, who had wielded authoritarian powers over Burma for 26 years, resigned as chairman of the ruling Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP) on July 23, 1988, waves of antigovemment demonstrations had led to mass arrests, and closure of the universities. The 77-year-old leader cited old age and indirect responsibility for bloody rioting in March and June. His resignation triggered a power struggle and more street violence by students and others who wanted a return to democracy. Ne Win was replaced by Sein Lwin, a former military after

violent deaths,

officer accused of having harshly repressed dissent. A series of protests led to Sein Lwin's resignation on August 12. His replacement on August 19 by Maung Maung, a Westerneducated lawyer and Burma's first civilian leader since

1962, failed to end the street violence, 18

Saw Maung

close associate of

ment. Saw

and on September and

{see Biographies), a four-star general

Maung

Ne Win, cracked

toppled the civilian govern-

down on

looters

and imposed

Southeast Asia: Indonesia

437

Thousands of protesters jam the streets of Rangoon to demand the removal of Burma's new leader, U Sein Lwin. Sein Lwin,

who had

after

replaced long-standing

—

Ne Win himself forced waves of antigovernment

leader

to resign riots

— was

pressured to leave office after a surge of violent antigovernment demonstrations. ALAIN EVRARD

nighttime curfew in Rangoon. By official count at 450 people were killed in security force actions and street violence after September 18. Diplomatic sources in a

strict

least

Rangoon put the death toll at more than a thousand. Saw Maung promised elections as soon as peace was

On

September 10 Article 1 of the constitution, making Burma a one-party state, was dropped. The opposition remained fragmented in 14 parties, but efforts were

restored.

being

made

1

to bring the smaller parties into the National

Democracy, headed by two former military officers, Aung Gyi and Tin Oo, and Aung San Suu Kyi, daughter of the revolutionary hero Aung San. On September 26 the name of the BSPP was changed to the National Unity Party. A Japan-led economic boycott by the international community exacerbated Burma's near economic ruin. The political turmoil had crippled an economy already on a rapid League

for

downward

spiral.

Factories halted production, transport

was paralyzed, and foreign currency reserves were virtually nil, while foreign debt climbed to more than $4 billion. Burma was ranked as the tenth poorest nation in the world, with a per capita income of $200. (dilip ganguly)

INDONESIA A

republic of Southeast Asia, Indonesia consists of the major islands of Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Celebes, and Irian Jaya (West New Guinea) and approximately 3,000 smaller islands and islets. Area: 1,919,443 sq km (741,101 sq mi). Pop. (1988 est.): 175,904,000. (Area and population figures include East [former Portuguese] Timor.) Cap.: Jakarta. Monetary unit: rupiah, with (Oct. 10, 1988) a free rate of 1,698 rupiah to U.S. $1 (2,907 rupiah = £1 sterling). President in 1988, Suharto.

The

months of 1988 were dominated by the March elections for president and vice-president. Suharto, the sole presidential candidate, was elected to his fifth consecutive five-year term by the ,000-member People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). The nominees for vice-president included Suharto's personal choice, Sudharmono, a Suharto loyalist and chairman of the dominant Golkar ("functional groups"), the country's most powerful political force, and Jailani Naro, leader of the United Development Party (PPP). The nomination of Naro by the PPP shattered the early

1

established tradition of consensus politics in the assembly.

Naro reportedly had some backing from the Indonesian

Armed

Forces (ABRI).

Some elements

in

ABRI

were said

unhappy with Sudharmono, a retired lieutenant general, because he had reduced the Army's influence in to be

Golkar; there were also unsubstantiated charges that he had had ties to the Communists. Moments after Suharto's election, Brig. Gen. Ibrahim Saleh leaped to the podium to defend the candidacy of Naro. This violation of traditional Indonesian political protocol expressed the unhappiness felt by certain elements within the military over the nomination of Sudharmono. Although Naro had no hope of winning the election, he waited until the last minute to withdraw from the vice-presidential race, thus paving the way for Sudharmono to fill the post vacated by Umar Wirhadikusuma. Gen. Try Sutrisno became commander in chief of ABRI, replacing Gen. Benny Murdani, who became defense minister. Senior government officials sounded warnings about the possibility of a comeback by the banned Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). At the same time, Beijing (Peking), which had once backed the PKI, seemed to move closer to Jakarta. Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister Liu Shuqing (Liu Shu-ching) visited Indonesia and called for a normalization of bilateral relations, which had been suspended following the bloody abortive Communist coup in 1965. Suharto again declared that improved relations depended in part on China's noninterference in other countries' affairs, but he did not reiterate his demand that Beijing apologize for its involvement in the 1965 coup. There were also moves to allow greater access to the largely isolated province of East Timor, a former Portuguese colony that Indonesia had annexed in 1976. Indonesia remained Asia's biggest foreign debtor its total debt was expected to reach $51 billion by March 1989. A large proportion of Indonesia's debt was yen-denominated. To help ease the burden, Japan's Export-Import Bank lent Indonesia U.S. $200 milhon. The government expected foreign aid to reach $4.3 billion in 1988. The economy performed better than expected in 1987, with a 3.5% growth in the gross domestic product (GDP), fueled especially by a dramatic increase in manufactured exports. GDP growth was expected to reach 3.8% in 1988. The private sector was given a boost when the government announced a wide range of reforms in its continuing

—

World

438

Affairs: Southeast Asia

At a meeting in Bogor, Indonesia, Vietnamese Foreign Minister Nguyen Co Thach talks to members of the media following informal talks with

Kampuchean

all

four

factions and representatives

from Laos and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. APAMOE WORLD

hio.y5 «ar/o«a//7roc/«c/

671,326;

Winnipeg 625,304; Quebec 603,267; Hamilton 557,029; Saint

Catharines-Niagara 343,258.

population

population

London

Jonquiere Halifax

Kingston Kitchener

158.458 295,990 122,350 311,195

(

1

986):

U.S.$36 1 ,720,000,000 (U.S.S 1 4, 1 00 per

capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1986

1987 in

% of total

value

Can$000,000 Agriculture

15,301

Mining Manufacturing Construction

21.883 74,575 27,050 11,828

Public

utilities

% of labour

labour force

value

force

590.000 185,000 2,015,000 627.000 121,000

4.0 5.8 19.6 7.1 3.1

4.6 1.4

15.7 4.9 0.9

Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

30,557 45.794 54,352 23,659 75,474

8.0 12.0 14.3 6.2 19.8

380,4739

lOO.O'O

777,000 2,082.000 654,000 800,000 3,783,000 1,236,0008 12,870,000

6.0 16.2 5.1

6.2 29.4 9.6« 100.0

Budget {\9S1-S%). Revenue: Can$93,22O,OOO,0O0 (personal income tax 46.4%; sales tax 12.8%; corporation income tax 10.5%; excise taxes and import

Other metropolitan areas (1986) Chicoutimi-

5 (h ighest)

43.0%

life (1986). Average workweek: 38.8 hours (3.1% overtime). Annual rate per 100,000 workers for (1985): injury, accident, or industrial illness 4,501; death 6.8. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from (1984): injury 99%; permanent disability 99%; death 99%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 employee-workdays (1986): 1.2. Average duration of journey to work (1983): 23 minutesS (17.3% public transportation, 72.8% automobile, 9.9% other). Rate per 1 ,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seek-

1

Capitals

~

2

10.4%

Quality of working

1

Provinces

income (1985)

Distribution of

population

Oshawa

342,302 203,543

Sherbrooke Sudbury

Regina Saint John's Saskatoon

186,521 161,901

Trois Rivieres

200,665

Windsor

Victoria

129,960 148,877 128,888 255,547 253,988

Place of birth (\9S6): 84.2% native-born; 15.8% foreign-bom, of which United Kingdom 3.2%, other European 6.6%, Asian countries 3.2%, other 2.8%. Mobility (1986). Population living in the same residence as in 1981: 56.3%; different residence, same municipality 24.2%; same province, different municipality 13.5%; different province 4.0%. Households (1986). Total number of households 8,991,670. Average household size 2.8; (1985) 1 person 20.5%, 2 persons 30.8%, 3 persons 18.0%, 4 persons 18.8%, 5 persons 8.1%, 6 or more persons 3.8%. Family households6,635,000 (73.8%), nonfamily 2,356,670 (26.2%, of which 1 person 21.5%). Immigration (1987): permanent immigrants admitted 149,384, from Asia 43.5%, Europe 24.8%, Central and South America 18.9%, Africa 5 4% United States 5.2%, other 2.2%; refugee arrivals (1986) 18,282.

duties 8.6%). Expenditures: Can$ 122,550,000,000 (education, health, and welfare 46.7%; public debt interest 23.0%; economic development 9.8%; defense 8.3%). National debt (1988): Can$245,608,000,000ii. Tourism (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,860,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$4,294,000,000.

Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1986) hourly

Manufacturing Transport equipment Food and beverages Paper and related products Chemicals and related products Primary metals Metal fabricating Electrical and electronics products

Wood

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1986): 14.8 (world avg. 26.0); (1985) legitimate 83.8%; illegitimate 16.2%4. Death rate per 1,000 population (1986): 7.3 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1986): 7.5 (worid avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1985): 1.7. Marriage rale per 1,000 population (1986): 7.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1985): 2.4. Life expectancy at birth (1983-85): male 72.9 years; female 79.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 309.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 182.7; diseases of the respiratory system 55.4; accidents and violence 52.9.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1986). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling, negligible; less than complete primary edu-

annual shipments (CanSOOO.OOO)

prises'

employees

1,471

187,088 220,168 121,426 92,048 99,667 149,490 112,564 95,822

119.4 90.3 125.3 114.8

179,480 81,749 66.761 88,840 38,763' 57,960 62,330

105.4 101 3 91.8 56.5

9,483

73.5 82.3 90.5 58.4 149.3

3,4726

20,5450

1123

21,428.0

3,532

688 1,256

435 5,537 1,471

all

wages

1271

43,150.4 38.118.3 19,145.9 18.166.8 16,596.0

96.5 105.0

14,4284 12,7654

938

11.853 4

and

related products

Machinery Rubber and

a of

no. of

3.476

Printing, publishing,

Vital statistics

wages as

% of avg.

no. of enter-

5,443 1.815 1.239 2.497 1,532

plastic

Clothing Nonmetallic mineral products Furniture and fixtures

1.727 1,017

Textile

Tobacco products Industries Leather industries Mining Construction

25

8.711

384

20.632 145,994 395,676

121

1

7,598.8 7,348.1

6,1534 5.879 1? 2,983.4 1,645.1

1,374

Production (farm cash receipts in Can$'000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): wheat 2.452,100, barley 741.300, rapcseed 681.500. vegetables 566,300, tobacco 447,900, corn (maize) 444,200. floriculture 401.300, potatoes 285.400. fruits 266.900. soybeans 240.300; livestock (number of live animals) 1.465,000 cattle. 10.708.0(X) pigs. 722.000 sheep. 96,300,000 poultry; roundwood (1985) 171.305.000 cu m; pelts 4.143,414 units; lish catch 1,399,027 metric tons. Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 1

Nations of die World

1987): iron ore 37,553,000; zinc 1,329,408; copper 767,000; lead 390,503: nickel 187,505; uranium 13,202; molybdenum 11,581; silver 1,250; gold 118. Manufacturing (metric tons; 1987): wood pulp 24,935,000; crude steel 14,737,000; cement 11,880,000; newsprint 9,673,000; pig iron 9.672,000; sulfuric acid 3,898,00012; caustic soda 1.769,00012; synthetic rubber 179,800; road motor vehicles 1,635,014 units, of which passenger cars 809,887 units, truck and buses 825,127 units; washing machines and dryers 830.-

520 units 12; refrigerators 568,960 units '2; footwear 38,774,000 pairs; beer 235,470,000 hectolitres 12. Construction (building permits; 1987): residential Can$ 18,647,000,000; nonresidential Can$l 1,899,000,000.

569

(1986): Can$ 120,494,900,000 is (transportation and communications equipment 33.7%, of which road motor vehicles and parts 28.4%; crude materials 12.7%, of which crude petroleum 3.1%, natural gas 2.1%; food 7.9%. of which wheat 2.4%; newsprint 4.7%; lumber 4.1%; wood pulp 3.4%; machinery 3.2%; chemicals 2.2%; iron and steel 2.1%; aluminum 1.9%). Major export destinations: United States 77.3%; Japan 4.9%; United Kingdom 2.3%; West Germany 1.1%; U.S.S.R. 1.0%; China 0.9%; The Netherlands 0.8%: South Korea 0.8%; Belgium-Luxembourg 0.7%; France

£.vpom

0.7%; Brazil 0.7%.

Trade by commodities (1986) Service enterprises

(1

987)

imports

weekly no. of enterprises

annual

a%of

sales (Can$ 000.000)

no. of

employees e

2,383 1,209 1,874

6,173

Ribe Ringkebing Roskilde Sonderjyiland

Storstrom

Abenra Nykebing

Vejle

Vejle

Ringkebing

Vestjaelland

Soro

Viborg

Viborg

Cities

— —

Frederiksberg TOTAL

3.131

344

poskilde

Copenhagen (Kobenhavn)

1985

% of total

value

in

7.13;

1,520 1,312 1,157 1,152 1,592

34 3 16,6383

Public

utilities

Transp. and

commun.

Trade Finance

28,276 5,053 115,006 40,405 6,992 48.146 77.002

4.9 0.9 19.8 7.0 1.2 8.3 13.3 4.2 22.7 1 21.4 J

24.711

Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

labour force

value

131.916 124.051

176.399 4.794 550.158 188.677 19,030 188,021 418,676 198,816

968,068

-3.75

-21,4025 580,156

100.0

6.8 0.7 6.8 15.2 7.2

35.2

40,322

1.5

2,752,961

100.0

agricultural

Balance of trade (current prices) Dkr 000,000

% of total

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

-4,696 1.8%

-4,371

+1,076

0.3%

-4,830 1 .4%

+8,677

1.5%

-3,560 1 .0%

1

1

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986): length 1,535 mi, 2,471 km; passenger-mi 2,818,000,000, passenger-km 4,535,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,227,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,791,000,000. Roads (1986): total length 43,614 mi, 70,190 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars 1,557,880; trucks and buses 282,050. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 983; total deadweight tonnage 6,961,068^. Air transport (1987): passenger-mi 4,596,204,000, passenger-km 7,396,888,000; short ton-mi cargo 565,951,000, metric ton-km cargo 826,274,000; airports (1988) with scheduled flights 13.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1986):

National economy

Education and health

Budget (1988). Revenue: Dkr 258,113,000,000 (customs and excise taxes 47.4%, income and property taxes 41.3%, other 1.3%). Expenditures: Dkr 257,596,000,000 (social services 26.3%, interest payments 18.9%, education 7.5%. defense 5.2%, other 42.1%). Public debt (1986): Dkr 101,464,000,000.

total number 47; total circulation 1,880,000; circulation per 1,000 population 367. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 2,052,467 (1 per 2.5 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 1,953,732 (1 per 2.6 persons). Telephones (1986): 4,195,000 (1 per 1.2 persons).

Education (1985-86) schools

teachers

students

Primary (age 7-12)

2,556

Secondary (age 13-18)

3.251

34.5417 36,105'

402,707 336,754 150,772 116,319

1

by

2.5%

Imports (1987): Dkr 173,918,000,000 (machinery and transportation equipment 29.8%, of which road vehicles 6.6% [of which passenger cars 3.0%, trucks and buses 2.2%]; manufactured goods 16.2%, of which iron and steel 3.4%; food and live animals 10.5%; chemicals and related products 9.5%; mineral fuels 7.7%, of which crude petroleum and petroleum products 5.6%). Major import sources: West Germany 23.5%; Sweden 12.2%; U.K. 7.6%; U.S. 5.3%; The Netherlands 5.3%; France 5.3%. Exports (1987): Dkr 175,097,000,000 (food and live animals 26.4%, of which meat and meat preparations 8.1%, fish and shellfish 6.4%, dairy products 6.2%; machinery and transport equipment 24.0%; chemicals and related products 8.2%; furniture 3.7%). Major export destinations: West Germany 16.9%; U.K. 1.5%; Sweden 1.5%; Norway 7.4%; U.S. 7.1%.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 11.0 (world avg. 26.0); (1986) legitimate 56.1%; illegitimate 43.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 1 1.3 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1986): -0.3 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1986): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1986): 6.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1986): 2.8. Life expectancy at birth (1985-86): male 71.6 years; female 77.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): ischemic heart disease 321.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 285.7; cerebrovascular disease 102.0.

visitors U.S.$ 1,759,000,000; expenditures

20.0

Foreign trade

Vital statistics

from

6.4 0.2

use (1985): forested 11.6%; meadows and pastures 5.2%; and under permanent cultivation 61.8%; other 21.4%.

Population (1988): 5,130,000. Density {198S): persons per sq mi 308.3, persons per sq km 1 19.1. Urban-rural (19$6): urban 84.4%; rural 15.6%. Sex distribution (1988): male 49.29%; female 50.71%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 17.6%; 15-29, 22.8%; 30-44, 22.8%; 45-59, 16.4%; 60-74, 13.7%; 75 and over, 6.7%. Population projection: (1990) 5,135,000; (2000) 5,146,000. Doubling time: n.a.; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Danish 97.3%; Turkish 0.5%; other Scandinavian 0.4%; Yugoslavian 0.2%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (1987): Evangelical Lutheran 90.6%; Roman Catholic 0.5%; Baptist 0.1%; Jewish 0.1%; other 8.7%. Major cities (1986): Greater Copenhagen 1,351,999; Arhus 195,152; Odense 137,286; Alborg 113,650.

(1986): receipts

labour force

Land

Demography

Tourism

% of

Vocational Higher

288 968

10,4118

student/ teacher ratio 12.07 9.4?

nationals abroad U.S.$2,1 19,000,000.

Population economically active (1985): total 2,752,961; activity rate of total population 53.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 79.6%; female 45.6%;

unemployed Price

9.0%).

and earnings indexes (1980= 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1982

1963

1984

1985

1986

123.0 120.6

1315

139.8 134.6

146.4 141.1

151.7 149.2

128.5

Educational attainment (1985). Percent of population age 25-64 having: primary education 2.9%; lower secondary 30.8%; upper secondary 48.7%; some postsecondary 13.5%; graduated from university 4.1%. Literacy (1986): virtually 100%. Health (1986): physicians 13,144 (1 per 390 persons); hospital beds 35,606 per 144 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 8.2. (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,512 (vegetable products 56%, animal products 44%); (1983) 128% of FAO recommended minirequirement.

(1

Food

mum Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1987) 2.3; income per household (1985) Dkr 124,800 (U.S.$1 1,780); principal sources of income (1982): wages and salaries 65.5%, transfers 12.4%, .self-employment 8.8%, other 13.3%; expenditure (1984): food and beverages 21.3%, housing 19.3%, transportation and communications 16.5%. education, recreation, and culture 9.4%, clothing and footwear 5.8%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1987): barley 4,355,000, sugar beets 2,681,000, wheat 2,311,000, potatoes 942,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,266,418 pigs, 2,350,833 cattle;

Military Total active duty personnel ( 987): 29,300 (army 58.0%, navy 8.4%, air force 23.6%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP {\985): 2.3% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S. $24 1. 1

1

'Excludes Greenland and the Faeroc Islatids. 2Januar^' I. 'Detail does not add to given because of rounding. 4May. 'Includes imputed bank service charges. ^Includes Greenland and Faeroc Islands. M 984-85. « 982-8.^.

total

1

1

Nations of the World

10.4%, housing 6.4%, clothing 1.7%, personal effects 1.4%, health care 1.0%, household goods 0.3%, other 15.4%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1984): U.S.$30 1,540,000 (U.S.$740 per capita).

Djibouti name: JumhOriyah Jlboti (Arabic); Republique de Djibouti (French) (Republic of Djibouti).

Official

Form of government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

unitary

1985

1984

one house (National Assembly

single-party republic with legislative

in

% of total

value

DF 000,000

value

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Djibouti.

Public

Official languages: Arabic; French. Official religion: none.

10, 1

1988)

£ = DF

1

U.S.$

= DF

2.690

Agriculture

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

4.920 4.490 1.942

8.2

6,010 9,400 6.530 16,170

10.0 15.6 10.8 26.8

950

1.6

utilities

7.5 3.2

% of labour

labour force

[65]).

Monetary unit: 1 Djibouti franc (DF) = 100 centimes; valuation

585

force

125,000

77.5

12,000

7.3

24,000

15.2

.

Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

(Oct.

172.85;

Services Other TOTAL

296.00.

Area and population

Land area

population

7,1326 60,234

use (1985): forested 0.3%;

and under permanent

11.86,

100.0

meadows and

161,000

pastures 9.1%; agricultural and other 90.6%.

cultivation^; built-on, wasteland,

1982 sq mi

Capitals

District*

'ing (1986): limestone 4,200,000; gold 319,000 troy oz. Manufacturing (value added in S/. '000,000; 1986): food products 147,915, of which beverages (including liquors) 23,427; petroleum products 138,081; textiles and clothing 44,895. Construction (in S/.5; 1984): residential 17,268,900,000; nonresidential 2,910,100,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 5,301,000,000 (5,31 1,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) 103,749,000 (34,481,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 4,541,000 (3,855,000); natural gas (cu nv 1986) 87,405,000 (87,405,000). Gross national product (1986): U.S.$ 1,200,000,000 (U.S.$1,I60 per capita). 1

1

% of total

1982

1983

+425.8 11.0%

+971.6

+1.124.3

+1.285.9

28.0%

27.8%

1984

1985

30.4%

1986 +603.4 16.0%

1987

+232.2

6.1%

Imports (1987): U.S.$2,232,5 17,000 (industrial raw materials 35.5%, industrial capital goods 22.4%, fuels and lubricants 16.5%, transport equipment 9.1%, consumer goods 9.3%). Major import sources (1986): United States 29.2%; Japan 1 1.2%; West Germany 9.5%; Brazil 6.7%; Italy 6.0%. Exports (1987): U.S.$2,02 1,327,000 (crude petroleum 36.6%. shrimp 19.0%, bananas 13.2%, coffee 9.5%. cacao 4.1%. petroleum products 3.9%). Major export destinations (1986): United States 60.5%; West Germany 3.6%; Panama 2.7%; Japan 2.6%; Chile 2.2%; Taiwan 1.7%; Colombia 1.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986): route length 600 mi, 965 km; passenger-mi 17,800,000, passenger-km 28,600,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,100,000. metric ton-km cargo 7,400,000. Roads (1986): total length 22,486 mi. 36,187 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars 256,812; trucks and buses 36,691. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 156; total deadweight tonnage 588,224. Air transport (1984): passenger-mi 555,000,000, passenger-km 893,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 29.200,000, metric ton-km cargo 42,600.000; airports (1988) 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1985): total number 7; total circulation 538,000; circulation per 1,000 population 57. Radio (1985): 2,750,000 receivers (1 per 3.4 persons). Television (1987): 600,000 receivers (I per 17 persons). Telephones (1986): 351,886 (1 per 28 persons).

Education and health Education (1985-86) teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

15.969

58.584

1.973.445

337

o n vegetable oil 109,2.30; toilet soap 7,062; woolen cloth 2,906 m; beer 6,693,900 hectolitres; shoes 7,334,000 pairs; matches 540,720,000 units; cigarettes 7,700,000 units. Construction (1985): authorized residential 11,521,000 sq m; authorized nonresidential 1,176,000 sq m. Energy production (consuinption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986)

18,850,000,000 (18,85().00(),()00); coal, none

(n.a.);

crude petroleum (barrels:

Educational attainment, n.a. Literacy (1984): total population age 15 and over literate 2,815,895 (45.9%); males literate 2,034,011 (65.9%); females literate 781,884(26.0%). Heahh (1984): physicians 4,428 (I per 3,324 persons); hospital beds 26,657 per 552 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1986) 63.3. daily per capita caloric intake 2,901 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); (1983) 121% of FAO recommended minimum.

(1

Food (1983-85):

Military Total active duty personnel (1988): 1,000,000 (army 95.5%. navy 0.5%. air force 4.0%). Military expenditure as percent ol(i\r (I'iM): 42.5% (world 5.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$ 1,080. iF.xcluding Iraq-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone. ^Based on land area onl>. M986. "Balance of trade is based on fob. valuation of imports and exports; however, commodities traded and trade partners information arc based on e.i.l^.

'

Nations of the World

2,265,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 12,307,000,000 (12,307,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) 54,000 (2,307,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) none (10,880,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 1,431,000 (4,325,000); natural gas (cu m; 1986) 1,590,600,000 (1,589,600,000). Gross national product (1986): U.S.$ 18, 190,000,000 (U.S.$5,080 per capita). tial

Ireland Official name: Eire (Irish); Ireland (English).

Form of government:

unitary multiparty republic with two legislative (Senate houses [60]; House of Representatives [ 1 66]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dublin. Official languages: Irish; English. Official religion: Roman Catholic.

Monetary

unit:

1

Irish

pound

(I£)

100 new pence; valuation (Oct. 1988) 1 I£ = U.S.$1.45 = £0.84.

Provinces Counties

Connacht Galway^ Leitrim

Mayo Roscommon Sligo Leinster

Carlow Dublin^ Kildare

Kilkenny Laoighis

Longford Louth

Meath Offaly

Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster

Monaghan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER

TOTAL AREA

=

Public

17.122 5,940 1,525 5,398 2.463 1.796 19.633

2,293 581 2,084 951

693 7.580

346 356 654 796 664 403 318 902 771 681

908 782 9,315

872 710 3,093

896 922 1,694 2.062 1.719 1.044

823 2.336 1.998 1.763 2.351

2.025 24.127 3.188 7,460 4.701

2,686 1.996 2.258 1.838 8.012

730

1.891

1,865

4,830

498

1.291

26.600

537 27.137

68.8953 1.390 70,285

1986 census 431.409 178.552 27.035 115.184 54,592 56,046

103,881 59,835

63,379 102,552 94.542 1.020.577 91.344 412.735 124.159 164.569 59,522 77,097 91.151 236,008 53,965 129.664 52.379 3.540.643

Demography Population (1988): 3,553,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 133.6, persons per sq km 51.6. Urban-rural (19^5): urban 57.0%; rural 43.0%. Sex distribution (1986): male 49.97%; female 50.03%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 30.5%; 15-29, 24.4%; 30-44, 17.4%; 45-59, 12.7%; 60-74, 10.8%; 75 and over, 4.2%. Population projection: (1990) 3,572,000; (2000) 3,673,000. Doubling time: 92 years. Ethnic composition (1981): more than 94% Irish nationality. Religious affiliation (1981): Roman Catholic 93.1%; Church of Ireland (Anglican) 2.8%; Presbyterian 0.4%; other 3.7%. Major cities* (1986): Dublin 502,749; Cork 133,271; Limerick 56,279; Gal47,104; Waterford 39,529.

1.622

10.0

6.105

37.5

1

Trade

2.971

18.2

J

1.106

6.8

4.476

27.5

16.280

100.0

% of

labour force

labour force

168,000 8,000 206,000 72,000 15,000 65,000 212,0006 71,000

12.8 0.6

15.8 5.5 1.2

5.0 16.2 5.4

...6

491,0067.8 1,307.0003

37.6 100.03

Population economically active (1986): total 1,307,000; activity rate of total population 36.9% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 59.8%; female 29.0%; unemployed [1986] 17.8%). Price and earnings indexes (1980

1.852.649 40.988 1.021.449 116.247

73,186 53,284 31,496 91,810

value

utilities

Transp. and commun.

Pub. admin., defense Services Finance Other TOTAL

population

6.611

1.231

Donegal

Mining Manufacturing Construction

sqkm

2.880 1.815 1.037 771

Cavan

Agriculture

sqmi

Cork 2

Ulster

1986

% of total

value

in

l£000.000

area

Clare

Kerry Limerick 2 Tipperary North Riding Tipperary South Riding Waterfordz

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

10,

Area and population

way

625

Consumer

price index

Weekly earnings index

=

100)

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

120.4 116.7

141.0 131.7

155.8

169.2

147.1

165.1

178.4 178.2

185.2 191.5

191.0 202.49

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1985): wages and salaries 60.3%, self-employment 14.4%, interest and dividends 5.1%; expenditure (1985): food 38.1%, rent and household goods 18.9%, transportation 13.0%.

Land

use (1985): forest 4.8%; pasture 71.2%; agricultural

1

1.6%; other 12.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1983

1982 l£

000.000

% of total

1984

1985

1986

-1.120

-420

-15.3

+312

1,164

2,004

9.1%

2.9%

0.1%

.6%

6.6%

10.6%

1

1987

Imports (1986): I£8,629,706,000 (mach. and transp. equip. 31.4%; chemicals 12.1%; petroleum and petroleum products 8.5%; food 4.3%; textiles 3.9%; paper 3.1%; iron and steel 1.8%). Major import sources: U.K. 41.6%; U.S. 15.8%; W.Ger. 8.9%; France 5.1%; The Netherlands 3.8%; Japan 3.8%. Exports (1986): I£9,388,206,000 (mach. and transp. equip. 30.5%, of which office machinery 19.8%, electrical machinery 4.3%; food 14.1%, of which meat 7.0%, dairy products 5.0%). Major export destinations: U.K. 34.1%; W.Ger. 10.9%; France 9.4%; U.S. 8.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986): length (1985) 2,975 km; passenger-km 1,085,600,000; metric ton-km cargo 574,400,000. Roads (1987): length 92,303 km (paved 94%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars 711,087; trucks and buses 106,285. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 153; total deadweight tonnage 162,870. Air transport (1986): passenger-km 2,496,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 79,020,000; airports (1988) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1986): 7; circulation 708,682; circulation per 1,000 population 200. Radio (1985): total number of receivers 2,050,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 795,000 (1 per 4.5 persons). Telephones (1985): 942,000 (1 per 3.8 persons).

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 16.6 (world avg. 26.0); (1984) legitimate 92.2%; illegitimate 7.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 8.8 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1987): 7.8 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1980-85): 3.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 5.1. Life expectancy at birth (1980-82): male 70.1 years; female 75.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1984): heart and circulatory diseases 451.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 188.9; pneumonia 57.0.

Education (1985-86) schools Primary (age 6-14)

Secondary (age 12-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

3,384

563 256 25

teachers

21,144 14,284 5,173 3,69010

students

student/ teacher ratio

567,086 252.896 83.938

26.8 17.7 16.2

51.341

Educational attainment (1981). Percent of population age 25 and over having: primary education 52.3%; secondary 23.3%; some postsecondary 16.5%; university or like institution 7.9%. Literacy (1987): virtually

National economy Budget (1987). Revenue: I£7,2 6,900,000 (income taxes 37.7%, value-added

100%

literate.

Health (1984): physicians 4,250 (1 per 830 persons); hospital beds (1982) 32,468" (1 per 181 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births

1

(1986)8.7. (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,689 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); (1983) 143% of FAO recommended minimum.

tax 22.6%, excise taxes 20.1%). Expenditures: I£8,437,000,000 (debt service 25.4%, social welfare 19.7%, education 12.6%, health 12.4%, defense 3.5%). Public debt {Dec. 31, 1987): U.S.$24,446,900,000. Tourism (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$634,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$472,000,000.

Food

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1987): sugar beets 1,623,000, barley 974,000, potatoes 424,000, wheat 266,000, oats 45,000, milk 53,620,000 hectolitres; livestock (number of live animals; 1986) 6,718,000 cattle, 4,234,000 sheep, 1,003,000 pigs; roundwood (1986) 1,245,000 cu m; fish catch (1986) 228,910. Mining and quarrying (1987):

Total active duty personnel {\9%1): 13,600 (army 87.5%, navy 6.6%, air force 5.9%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP (1985): 1.9% (worid 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.$84.

gypsum

284,200; zinc ore 177,0005; lead ore 33,8005. Manufacturing (value added in I£; 1984): food, beverages, and tobacco 1,450,400,000; metals and engineering goods 1,381,700,000; chemical products 805,900,000; nonmetallic mineral products 302,300,000; paper and paper products, printing, and publishing 190,400,000; textiles 135,800,000. Construction (1985): residen-

Military

As provided by the constitution; the 1948 Republic of Ireland Act provides precedent for this longer formulation of the official name but, per official sources, "has not changed the usage Ireland as the name of the state in the English language." 2lncludes county borough(s). ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''County boroughs. SMeial content of ores. ^Trade includes Finance. 'Other includes Services. ^Includes unemployed. 'Third quarter. ioi983_84. nincludes an attribution of 13,321 beds based on the average number of long-term resident psychiatric patients. I

626

Britannica

World Data

Israel

Price

and earnings indexes (1980

name: Medinat

Official

Yisra'el

Consumer

(NIS) 1988) 1

£

= 1

1

New

= NIS

1986 in

Agriculture

Manufacturing, mining Construction Public

Ramla Haifa

Norttiern (Ha 2afon) Southern (Ha Darom)

Tiberias

Tel Aviv

Tel Aviv-Yafo

Beersheba

value

% of labour

labour force

force

1,581.0

5.2

72,000

4.8

6,705.0 1,159.0 666.0 2.451.0 4,241.0

22.3 3.8 2.2

328,400 67,700 13,600 91,600 193,400 134,300

22.0

13,328.0

44.2

*°|'3°°

27.1 6.0 6.75

100.06

99,600S 1,494,000

8.1

14.1

4.5 0.9 6.1

12.9 9.0

Public and

community services Services

Other

10,

J

30.131.0

TOTAL

sq mi

population

sqkm

estimate

479 330 215

1,242

1,347 5,555

3,490 14,387

907,700 596.100 518,200 718,900 518,100

66

170 20,700

1,018,800 4,277,800

7,992

TOTAL

1988* 44,374 61.140

1987

% of total

Finance

1987

Jerusalem

commun.

Trade

areai

Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Uefa) Jerusalem (Yerushalayim)

utilities

Transp. and

Area and population Capitals

value

NIS 000,000

2.78.

DiitrlcU

1987 39,937 52,598

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(Israeli) sheqel

100 agorot; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = NIS 1.62;

33,330 39,977

Tourism (1987): receipts from visitors U.S.$ 1,347,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$998,000,000. Gross national product (1986): U.S.$26,730,000,000 (U.S.$4,300 per capita).

Official languages: Hebrew; Arabic. Official religion: none. unit:

1984

price index

Monthly earnings index

(Hebrew); Israll (Arabic) (State of Israel). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Knesset [120]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Jerusalem is the proclaimed capital of Israel (from Jan. 23, 1950) and the actual seat of government, but recognition of its status as capital by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of territorial and other issues through peace talks between Israel and the Arab parties concerned.

Monetary

= 100)

1983

1982

854 557

100.0

Household income and expenditure (1986). Average urban household size 3.6; monthly income per household NIS 1,667 (U.S.$1,120); sources of income (1984): wages 90.8%, transfer payments and other 8.4%, self-employ-

ment 0.8%; expenditure

(1986): food 30.3%, housing 21.3%, transportation 12.4%, education 9.1%, household durable goods 7.2%, health 6.8%, clothing 5.6%, energy 2.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

U.S.$000,000

-3,242

-3,210

22.6%

22.5%

-2,426 15.5%

-1.939 11.2%

-3,441

% of total

-2,600 17.4%

16.9%

Demography^ Population (1988): 4,512,000. Density^ (1988): persons per sq mi 564.6, persons per sq km 218.0. Urban-rural {\9S6): urban 89.4%; rural 10.6%. Sex distribution (1986): male 49.89%; female 50.11%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 32.4%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 19.1%; 45-59, 1 1.6%; 60-74, 8.9%; 75 and over, 3.4%. Population projection: (1990) 4,614,000; (2000) 5,490,000. Doubling time: 43 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Jewish 83.0%; Arab 16.8%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1987): Jewish 82.2%; Muslim (mostly SunnI) 13.7%; Christian 2.3%; Druze and other 1.8%. Major cities (1986): Jerusalem 457,700; Tel Aviv-Yafo 322,800; Haifa 224,600; Holon 138,800; Bat Yam 131,200.

Vital statistics 2 Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 22.7 (world avg. 26.0); (1984) legitimate 99.0%; illegitimate 1.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 6.7 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1987): 16.0 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1 986): 3. 1 Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 6.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 1.2. Life expectancy at birth (1985): male 73.5 years; female 77.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 273.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 118.5; diseases of the respiratory system 46.2.

National economy

27.8%, defense 20.9%, interest on loans 16.6%, health 13.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1986): U.S.$ 15,937,600,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in NIS '000; 1986): fruit excluding citrus 534,299 (of which apples 109,202, avocados 89,157, grapes 65,132, bananas 56,097, peaches 43,324, olives 32,606), citrus fruits 446,428, vegetables 287,587 (of which tomatoes 63,564, potatoes 88,041), cotton lint 118,502, wheat 48,015; livestock (number of live animals) 318,600 cattle, 281,300 sheep, 127,500 goats, 30,250,000 chickens; roundwood 118,000 cu m; fish catch 22,000. Mining and quarrying (1986-87): phosphate rock 2,731,000; potash 2,100,000; phosphoric acid 190,000; bromine compounds 162,000; periclase 38,000. Manufacturing (1987): cement 2,226,000; wheat flour 529,000; polyethylene 90,323; paper 65,119; cardboard 61,636; ammonium sulfate 40,843. Construction (1987): residential 2,676,000 sq m; nonresidential 1,240,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 16,277,000,000 (15,908,100,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) none (3,222,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) 89,862 (53,336,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 5,880,000 (5,373,000); natural gas (cu m; 1986) 39,571,000 (39,571,000). Land use (1985): forested 5.7%; meadows and pastures 40.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.5%, other 32.6%.

Population economically active ([9S7)h total 1,494,000; activity rate of total population 33.5% (participation rates: over age 15, 50.4%; female (1986)

unemployed

1

and Luxembourg 14.2%; W.Ger. 12.9%; U.K. 9.4%; Switzerland 7.4%; France 4.6%. Exports (1987): US$8,475,400,000 (machinery and electronics 28.7%; diamonds 27.2%; agricultural products 7.2%; textiles, clothing, and leather 7.0%; food, beverages, and tobacco 5.1%). Major export destinations: U.S. 32.5%; U.K. 7.7%; Japan 5.8%; W.Ger. 5.6%; France 4.6%; The Netherlands 4.5%; Hong Kong 4.5%; Belgium and Luxembourg 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986-87): route length 328 mi, 528 km; passengermi 107,700,000, passenger-km 173,400,000; short ton-mi cargo 673,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 983,600,000. Roads (1986): total length 7,968 mi, 12,823 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars 648,847; trucks and buses 129,033. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 62; total deadweight tonnage 612,579. Air transport^ (1987): passenger-mi 4,526,000,000, passenger-km 7,284,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 443,900,000, metric ton-km cargo 648,000,000; airports (1988) with scheduled flights 5. (1986): total number 25; total circulation 1,148,000; circulation per 1 ,000 population 263. Radio (1986): 700,000 receivers (1 per 6.2 persons). Television (1986): 620,000 receivers (1 per 7.0 persons). Telephones (1986-87): 1,935,000 (1 per 2.3 persons).

Communications. Daily newspapers

Education and health Education (1986-87)

Budget (1987-88). Revenue: NIS 39,294,000,000 (internal loans 25.1%, income tax and property tax 22.7%, foreign loans 18.0%, value-added tax 13.1%, sales tax 5.3%). Expenditures: NIS 39,294,000,000 (debt repayment

19.6%;

Imports (1987): US$11,916,400,000 (investment goods 18.0%; diamonds 17.8%; fuel and lubricants 9.6%; consumer goods 1.2%, of which durable goods 5.2%, foodstuffs 3.1%). Major import sources: U.S. 16.2%; Belgium

6.1%).

Primary (age 6-13)

Secondary (age 14-17)8 Vocational Higher

schools

teachers

students

1,832

44.409 39.242

621,393 249,040 102,739

572 373 7»

8.112'0

student/ teacher ratio 14.0 6.3

98,821"

Educational attainment (1982). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 9.7%; primary education 30.6%; secondary 36.6%; postsecondary, vocational, and higher 23.1%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate 2,542.403 (91.8%); males literate 1,312.258 (95.0%); females literate 1,230,145 (88.7%). Health (1986): physicians (1983) 11,895 (1 per 345 persons); hospital beds 27,399 (1 per 159 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 11.2. (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,037 (vegetable products 79%, animal products 21%); (1983) 121% of FAO recommended minimum.

Food

Military Total active duty personnel (\9%1): 141.000 (army 73.7%, navy 6.4%. air force 19.9%). Military expenditure as percent ofGNP(\9S5): 13.9% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.$854. lExcluding West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem. ^De jure; includes population of Eiast Jerusalem and about 25.000 Israeli residents living in occupied territories. 'Excludes armed forces; includes Israelis in occupied territories. •May. 'Mostly unemployed. '>Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'El Al only. "Includes intermediate education age 12-14. 'I'mversities only. ioi based on inhabited island areas (280 sq mi. 726 sq km) only. ^Indi^cnous population only, who constitute 98,7% of the total population. M982. (-Mining of phosphates on Banaba (Ocean Island) ceased in 1979. includes 18,719 persons engaged in "village work" (subsistence agriculture or fishing). "Includes 627 unemployed "At factor cost. ii'IXnail does not add to total given because of rounding. ii85 students overseas. I

I

Nations of the World

Population economically active (1985): total 9,084,000; activity rate of total population 44.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 75.3%; female 46.0%;

Korea, North

unemployed,

name: ChosOn MinjujuQi In'min Konghwaguk (Democratic People's Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary single-party republic with one legislative house (Supreme People's Official

Assembly

[655]).

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 won

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1982 in

=

Hamgyong-namdo

Hamhung

Hamgyong-pukto

Chongjin Haeju Sariwon

Hwanghae-namdo Hwanghae-pukto Kangwon-do

Pyongan-namdo

Wonsan Pyongsan

P'yongan-pukto

Sinuiju

Yanggang-do

Hyesan

Spadal cWat Ch'6ngjin-si

Hamhung-si Pyongyang-si

SpMial

— — Pyongyang

sq mi

sq

km

16,200 19.200 15,900 7,600 8,600 10.700 12.300 12,000 14,100

700 300 700

1,900

780,000 1,315,000 1,110,000 .340,000 1 .060,000 1.030.000 2,250,000 1,760,000

Land

1

385,000 530,000 1,275,000

and

Kaesong

500 47,3002

1,200

122,4002

HamhQng-HOngnam W6nsan 240,000.

Ch'Ongjin 490,000; KaesOng 240,000;

18.0

8.455.000

100.0

meadows and

(current price»S)

won

-601 31 .6%

1976

11.5%

1978

1979

1980

1981

-53

+165 6.3%

-256 9.4%

-285

3.3%

10.3%

Imports (1986): U.S.$2,0O0,000,0OO5 (crude petroleum, coal and coke, industrial machinery and transport equipment [including trucks], industrial chemicals, textile yam and fabrics, and grain are among the major imports). Major import sources (1985): U.S.S.R. 36.1%; China 18.8%; Japan

775,000;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 30.5 (world avg. 29.0).

Death rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 6.0 (world avg.

triide

% of total

289,000 13,559.000

P'y6ngyang 1,283,000;

100.0

11,800

1974

Demography

cities (1981):

1,521.000

n.a.

Balance of

Population ( 1 988): 2 1 ,903,000. Density (\9%i): persons per sq mi 463.1, persons per sq km 178.9. Urban-rural (msy. urban 63.8%; rural 36.2%. Sex distribution (1985): male 49.55%; female 50.45%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 38.7%; 15-29, 29.2%; 30-44, 16.6%; 45-59, 9.8%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (1990) 22,939,000; (2000) 28,166,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Korean 99.8%; Chinese 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1980): atheist or nonreligious 67.9%; traditional beliefs 15.6%; Ch'6ndogyo 13.9%; Buddhist 1.7%; Christian 0.9%.

Major

4.9

pastures 0.4%; agricultural under permanent cultivation 19.2%; other 5.9%.

000,000

Kaesong-chigu

418.000

Foreign trade

district

TOTAL

33.0

J

use (1985): forested 74.5%;

Tourism:

435,000

800

2,790,000

utilities

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

estimate

1,800

44.1

Trade

population

6,300 7,400 6.100 2,900 3,300 4.100 4,700 4,600 5,400

force

3,276,000 ...

Transp. and commun. area

% of labour

labour force

value

Mining and manufacturing Construction

Area and population

Kanggye

won

Agriculture

Public

Capitals

% of total

value

000,000

100 chon; valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.S = 0.97 won; 1 £ = 1.66 won.

Chagang-do

n.a.).

Price and earnings indexes: n.a. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1985): U.S.$4,000,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.7; average annual income per household 3,677 won (U.S.$4,275); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure^ (1984): food 46.5%; clothing 29.9%; furniture 3.8%; energy 3.3%; housing 0.6%. Gross national product (1986): U.S.S 17,400,000,000 (U.S.$860 per capita).

Chief of state: President. Heaid of government: Premier. Capital: P'ydngyang. Official language: Korean.

Provlncat

637

West European countries 4.0%; Hong Kong 3.5%.

the major exports). Major export destinations (1985): U.S.S.R. 43.6%; Japan 15.1%; China 13.4%; West European countries 4.3%; Australia 3.3%;

Hong Kong

18.0).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1985): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1 ,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1 ,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1984): male 65 years; female 72 years. Major causes of death: n.a.; however, major diseases include endemic diseases (typhoid fever, dysentery, clonorchiasis [liver fluke], paragonimiasis [lung fluke], encephalitis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles, tuberculosis of respiratory system, bronchitis, malignant neoplasms (cancers), hypertensive and ischemic heart diseases, and intestinal obstruction and hernia.

3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1985): length 2,779 mi, 4,473 km; passengers, n.a.; cargo, n.a. Roads (1985): total length 13,670 mi, 22,000 km (paved 2%). Vehicles (1982): passenger cars 180,000. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 73; total deadweight tonnage 603,049. Air transport (1979): passenger-mi 52,200,000, passenger-km 84,000,000; short tonmi cargo 1,370,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,000,000; airports (1988) with

scheduled

11.0).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 24.5 (world avg.

13.2%;

Exports (1985): U.S.S 1,700,000,0005 (minerals [including lead, magnesite, and zinc], metallurgical products [iron and steel, nonferrous metals], cement, agricultural products [including fish, grain, fruit and vegetables, tobacco], and manufactured goods [textile fabrics, clothing], are among

flights 3.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1984):

Budget (1987). Revenue: 30,308,000,000 won (1984; turnover tax 55.0%, payments by state enterprises 30%). Expenditures: 30,308,000,000 won (1984; national economy 63.3%, social and cultural affairs 20.0%, defense 14.6%, other 2.1%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): rice 6,000,000, vegetables 2,825,000, com (maize) 2,700,000, potatoes 1,895,000, wheat 710,000, barley 568,000, millet 545,000, sweet potatoes 482,000, soybeans 438,000, pulses 291,000, sugarcane 190,000, sorghum 187,000, pears 103,000, peaches 89,000, tobacco 58,000, dry onions 39,000, seed cotton 16,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,920,000 pigs, 1,122,000 cattle, 359,000 sheep, 272,000 goats, 19,000,000 chickens; roundwood 4,627,000 cu m; fish catch 1,700,000. Mining and quarrying (1986): iron ore 8,500,000; magnesite (metal content) 882,000; phosphate rock 500,000; sulfur 230,000; zinc 180,000; lead (metal content) 110,000; gypsum 82,000; fluorspar 40,000; graphite 25,000; silver 1,600,000 troy oz; gold 160,000 troy oz. Manufacturing (1986): cement 7,600,000; pig iron 5,750,000; crude steel 4,500,000; chemical fertilizers 4,000,000; steel semimanufactures 3,400,0003; meat 235,000; television sets 200,000 units3; machine tools 29,000 units3; tractors 24,000 units; cars 18,000 units^; textile fabrics 535,000,000 m. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 50,000,000 (50,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) 52,000,000 (54,450,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) none (19,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 2,650,000 (3,140,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

number

11; total circula-

Education and health Education (1982) Primary (age 5-9)

National economy

total

tion 1,000,0006; circulation per 1,000 population 506. Radio (1984): total number of receivers 4,100,000 (1 per 5 persons). Television (1984): total number of receivers 1,050,000(1 per 19 persons). Telephones (1983): 10,000 (1 per 2,000 persons).

Secondary (age 10-15) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

student/ teacher ratio

4,700'

.

•

c.

100,000

,

2.500.000 2.500,0008

200.000

21.6

Educational attainment, n.a. Literacy (1919): 90%. Health (1982): physicians 45,000 (1 per 417 persons); hospital beds 244,000 (1 per 77 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1980-85) 29.7. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,199 (vegetable products 92%, animal products 8%); (1983) 127% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (19S7): 838,000 (army 89.5%, navy 4.2%, air force 6.3%). Military expenditure as percent ofGNP (1985): 22.2% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.S265.

'Areas approximate. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 31984. clerical workers only. sEstimate based on trading partners' informa60ne daily only. '1976. ^Includes vocational students.

•Workers and tion.

638

Britannica

World Data health care 6.5%, transportation and communications 6.2%, housing 5.2%, household durable goods 5.0%, other 13.6%. Gross national product (1986): U.S.$98,370,000,000 (U.S.$2,370 per capita).

Korea, South Official

name: Taehan Min'guk

(Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a National Assembly (299 members).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1986

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Seoul. Official language: Korean. Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

1

Public

won (W)=

valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.$ = W710; 1 £ =

W

Cheju-do Cholla-namdo

Cheju

sq mi

705

population

sq

km

Kwangju Chonju Taejon

4,649 3,109 3.416

Chongju

2,871

Kyonggi-do

Ch'unchon' Inchon'

Kyongsang-namdo

Masan

Kyongsang-pukto

Taegu'

6,524 4,194 4,578 7,506

80 83 168 234 176

207 215 435 605 455

38,291

99,173

Ch'ungchong-namdo Chungchong-pukto Kangwon-do

1985 census

Kwangju-sl Pusan-si Soul-fukpyolsi Taegu-si TOTAL

Inchon Kwangju Pusan Seoul

Taegu

value

1

Price

,391 .004

1,724,809 4,794,135 3,010.945 3,516,660

1,386,911

905,896 3,514,798 9.639.110 2.029,853 40,448,486

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings Index

22.7

2,074.000

12.9

611.0005 16.116,000

3.85 100.0

1.3

30.0 7.8 3.2 8.1

13.1

24.2

5.5 0.2

4.6 21.6 3.8

1 100.0

=

100)

1981

1982

1983

121.3 120.0

130.1

134.5 154.4

137.7

137.6 167.3

141.0 186.9

1986

1987

145.0 200.6

149 3 223.9

Balance of trade (current prices) 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

-2.400 5.4%

-1,970 3.9%

-1,386

-853

4,236

-6,940

7.4%

9.8%

2.3%

1

.4%

Imports (1986): U.S.$31, 583,900,000 (machinery and transport equipment 33.7%, mineral fuels and related products 16.0%, crude materials except fuels 13.6%, chemicals and chemical products 11.1%). Major import sources: Japan 34.4%; United States 20.7%; West Germany 3.8%; Australia 3.4%; Malaysia 2.9%; Canada 2.2%; France 2.2%; Saudi Arabia 2.0%; United Kingdom 1.4%; China 1.4%; Indonesia 1.4%. Exports (\9S6): U.S.$34,7 14,500,000 (manufactured goods 55.5%, machinery and transport equipment 33.6%, food and live animals 4.5%, chemicals and chemical products 3.1%). Major export destinations: United States 40.0%; Japan 15.6%; Hong Kong 4.9%; Canada 3.6%; West Germany 3.6%; United Kingdom 3.0%; Saudi Arabia 2.5%; France 1.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986): length 3,914 mi, 6.299 km; passenger-km 23,563,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 12,831,000,000. Roads (1986): total length 32,475 mi, 52,264 km (paved 50%). Vehicles (1986): passenger cars 664,226; trucks and buses 627,228. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,899; total deadweight tonnage 1,452,759. Air transport (1986): passenger-km 13,404,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,467,528,000; airports (1988) with scheduled flights 5. 1

(1986): total number 26; total circulation 11,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 265. Radio (1985): 38,605,000 receivers (1 per 1.1 persons). Television (1987): 8,643,235 receivers (1 per 4.9 persons). Telephones (1987): 9,288,000 (1 per 4.5 persons).

Communications. Daily newspapers

Education and health

National economy

Education (1986-87)

W

Budget (1988). Revenue: 17,541,900,000,000 (internal tax 61.7%, defense surtax 13.9%, customs duties 12.4%, monopoly profits 4.2%). Expenditures: 17,541,900,000,000 (defense 32.8%. education 20.6%, economic develop-

schools

teachers

students

6,535 3,408

126.677 114.658 34,189 35,573

4,798,323 4,111.043 1 ,007,272 1.332.455

Primary (age 6-13)

W

Secondary (age 14-19) Vocational Higher

ment

14.4%, administration 10,2%, supports to provinces 8.7%). (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,550,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$6 13,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): nee 5,607,000, cabbages 3,409,000, radishes (1985) 1,586,000, sweet potatoes 684,000, potatoes 566,000, apples (1985) 533,000, barley 453,000, dry onions 379,000, garlic 370,000, tangerines 340,000, soybeans 199,000, chilies and peppers 198,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,347,000 pigs, 2,807,000 cattle, 217,000 goats, 56,095,000 chickens; roundwood 8,564,000 cu m; fish catch 3,660,000. Mining and quarrying (1986): iron ore 528,000; zinc ore 77,366; lead ore 20,061; tungsten ore 4,081; refined silver 51,581 kg. Manufacturing (1986): cement 23,403,000; pig iron 9,017,000; crude steel 4,081,000; chemical fertilizers 2,859,000; man-made fabrics 1,116,200,000 sq m; steel cargo ships 1,835,587 gross tons; television receivers 1,268,823 units; passenger cars 456,994 units. Construction (1986): residential 22,518,000 sq m; nonresidential 21,024,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 69,763,000,000 (69,763,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) 24,253,000 (41,153,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) none (210,019,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 24,313,000(22,800,000).

1.2

23.7

Foreign trade

% of total

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 19.4 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 6.1 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1987): 13.3 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate {a\g. births per childbearing woman; 1987): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1982): 8.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1982): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1987): male 65.6 years; female 71.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 155.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 73.5; accidents, poisonings, and violence 56.5; diseases of the digestive system 43.9; diseases of the respiratory system 22.6.

force

3.662.000 187.000 3.826,000 889.000 40.000 733,000 3.480.000 614,000

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1986): U.S.$29, 107,600,000. Land use (1985): forested 66.8%; meadows and pastureland 0.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.8%; other 10.6%.

Demography

Vital statistics

12.3

and earnings indexes (1980

US$000,000

Population (1988): 42,593,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 1,1 12.7, persons per sq km 429.6. Urban-rural {[9S5y. urban 65.4%; rural 34.6%. Sex distribution (1987): male 50.42%; female 49.58%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 29.9%; 15-29, 31.3%; 30-44, 19.5%; 45-59, 12.5%; 60-74, 5.5%; 75 and over, 1.3%, Population projection: (1990) 43,773,000; (2000) 49,914,000. Doubling time: 53 years. Ethnic composition (1985): Korean 99.9%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1985)3: Buddhist 19.9%; Protestant 16.1%; Roman Catholic 4.6%; Confucian 1.2%; Wonbulgyo 0.2%; Ch'ondogyo 0.1%; other 0.5%; none 57.4%. Major cities (1985): Seoul 9,639,110; Pusan 3,514,798; Taegu 2,029,853; Inch'6n 1,386,911; Kwangju 905,896.

10.648.5 1,158.7 25.965.5 6.769.0 2,737.6 6,965.5 11.294.9

% of labour

labour force

Population economically active (1986): total 16,116,000; activity rate 38.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.3%; female 39.1%; unemployed 3.8%).

488.576 2,842,532 2,202,078 3,001,179

Special cities lnch'6n-si

% of total

Pub. admin., defense ] i 20,970.2 Services Other J TOTAL 86,509.9

1,217.

1,825 12.040 8.051 8,848 7.436 16,896 10,863 11,856 19,441

Cholla-pukto

commun.

Trade Finance

area

Capitals

utilities

Transp. and

100 chon;

Area and population Provinces

value

000.000.000

in

W

Tourism

736 459

student/ teacher ratio

37.9 35.9 29.5 37.5

Educational attainment (1985). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 14.3%; primary education 46.2%; some secondary 3.8%; secondary 24.8%; postsecondary 10.9%. Literacy (1981): total population age 15 and over literate 13,191,432 (92.7%); males literate 6,937,242 (97.5%); females literate 6,254,190 (87.9%). Health (1986): physicians 31,616 (1 per 1,315 persons); hospital beds 79,935 (1 per 520 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1987): 25.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,876 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); (1983) 118% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

1

Household income and expenditure (1986)4. Average household size 4.2; income per household 5,772,200 (U.S.$6,550); sources of income: wages and salaries 62.2%, other 37.8%; expenditure: food and beverages 36.1%, education and recreation 12.3%, energy 7.6%, clothing and footwear 7.5%,

W

Total active duty personnel {\9%1): 629,000 (army 86.2%. navy 8.6%, air force 5.2%). Military expenditure as percent ofGNP (1986): 5.5% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure: U.S.$107.

During the 1980s Inch'On, Taegu, and Kwangju also became special cities. 'Detail docs not add to total given because of rounding. 'Refers to persons who have I

commandments, accepted baptism, or entered a faith and who participate in a religious function regularly or put the religious idea into practice. ^Excludes farm received

households. 'Unemployed.

.

Nations of the World

139,493; bread 73,850; bran 36,448; salt 35,279; cattle feed 17,500; liquefied caustic soda 16,1 10; chlorine gas 1 1,593; fats and oil 1 1,195; asbestos pipes 7,482; biscuits 2,107; detergents 1,550; hydrochloric acid 742,000 gallons;

Kuwait name: Dawlat al-Kuwayt (State of Kuwait). Form of government: Constitutional monarchy with a single parliamentary house (National Assembly [64]) i. Chief of state: Emir. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official

Capital:

Kuwait

hydrogen gas 4,518,000 cu m; concrete 70,448 cu m; sodium hydrochloride 25,325 cu m; standard accumulators (batteries) 4,794 units. Construction (1987): residential 3,262,000 sq m; nonresidential 177,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 17,216,000,000 (17,216,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) 518,100,000 (216,600,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 27,434,000 (4,000,000); natural gas (cu

City.

(KD)= 1988)

1

unit:

1,000

Kuwaiti dinar

1

fils;

valuation (Oct.

10,

KD = U.S.$3.45 = £2.04.

Price and earnings indexes (1980 Consumer area

price index

=

100)

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

19874

107.4

115.7

121.2

122.6

124.4

125.6

125.6

population

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 7.4; annual income per household (1973)5 KD 4,246 (U.S.$12,907); sources of income: wages and salaries 53.8%, self-employment 20.8%, other 25.4%; expenditure (1986-87): housing and energy 27.2%; food, beverages, and

1987 Capitals

al-Ahmadi

al-Ahmadi

al-Jahra'

al-Jahra'

Capital Hawalli

Kuwait City

km

sq mi

sq

1.984 4,372

5,138 11,324

38

98 358

138

Hawalli

—

Islands: TOTAL

(6,699,000,000).

Monthly earnings index

Area and population

Govemorates

m; 1986) 5,417,600,000

Population economically active ( 1 986): total 7 1 1 ,600; activity rate of total population 39.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 63.5%; female 20.6%; unemployed [1985)0.1%).

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

Monetary

348

900

6.880

17,818

estimate

345,783 329,588 160,860

tobacco 26.5%; transportation 13.0%, household appliances 10.5%, clothing and footwear 7.7%, education and recreation 4.9%, health 0.7%. Land use {\9%5): forested 0.1%; meadows and pastures 7.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.1%; other, built-up, and wasteland 92.3%.

1,036,337

1.872.568

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1988): 1,958,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 284.6, persons per sq km 109.9. Urban-rural (1986): urban 90.1%; rural 9.9%. Sex distribution (1987): male 56.77%; female 43.23%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 37.4%; 15-29, 27.9%; 30-44, 23.9%; 45-59, 8.6%; 60-74, 1.8%; 75 and over, 0.4%. Population projection: (1990) 2,143,000; (2000) 2,877,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (1985): Kuwaiti Arab 40.1%; non-Kuwaiti Arab 37.9%; Asian 21.0%; European 0.7%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 91.5% (Sunni about 80%, Shfah about 20%); Christian 6.4%; other 2.1%. A/a/ord//>5(1985):as-Salimiyah 153,220; Hawalli 145,215; al-Jahra' 111,165; al-Farwaniyah 68,665; Kuwait City 44,224.

Balance of trade (current prices) 1984

1985

-t-771.8

-1-1,224.5

-(-1.590.7

-1-1.367.2

-1-389.9

-1-854.0

13.9%

22.2%

28.0%

27.7%

10.2%

22.4%,

1982

KD

000,000

% of total

1983

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1986): 29.5 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1986): 2.4 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1986): 27.1 (world avg.

16.1).

woman; 1986): 5.1. (1987): 5.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (1986): male 70.3 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): circulatory diseases 75.7; accidents, poisonings, and violence 37.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 29.5%; respiratory diseases 1 3.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 8.8; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 8.5; diseases of the nervous system 6.3; diseases of the digestive system 5.1 Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing

Marriage rate per 1,000 population

km

(1984): total length 1,208 mi, 1,944 cars 420,643; trucks and buses

(100 gross tons and over) 236; transport (1986): passenger-mi short ton-mi cargo 235,040,000, metric ton-km cargo 343, 1 52,000; airports ( 1 988) with scheduled flights 1 Communications. Daily newspapers ( 1 986): total number 7; total circulation 453,000; circulation per 1,000 population 253. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 3.6 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 700,000 (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (1986): 310,132 (1 per 5.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1986-87)

KD

1,979,400,000 (oil revenue 87.2%). Expen3,355,900,000 (wages and salaries 24.9%, construction and expropriations 22.3%, goods and services 7.9%, reserve fund for future generations 5.9%, transport equipment 0.7%). Public debt: none. Tourism (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$86,000,000; expenditures by na-

KD

tionals abroad U.S.$ 1,222,000,000.

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.$24,650,000,000 (U.S.$13,890 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product

and labour force 1986

value

in

KD Agriculture

Mining (oil sector) Manufacturing Construction Public

utilities

000.000

51.9 1.841.8

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

-1.9

13.718 7,544 53,613 130,471 7,819

5.4 9.4 4.7

39,401 80.141 22,252

11.3

233.5 1,512.8

30.3

356.640

50.1

4,998.0

100.0

711,599

100.03

556.3 156.0 -94.1

1.0

36.9 11.1 3.1

Pub. admin., defense. services Other TOTAL

269.7 470.1

schools

teachers

students

Primary (age 6-10)

282

Secondary (age 11-18) Voc, teacher tr.s

401 6

9.704 19.158

175,767 245,865 12,272 17,414

Higher

1

788 887

student/ teacher ratio 18.1

12.8 15.6 19.6

Educational attainment (1985). Percent of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 44.4%; primary education 9.2%; some secondary 19.6%; complete secondary 18.2%; higher 8.6%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 856,146 (75.1%); males literate 539,058 (78.7%); females literate 317,088 (69.6%). Health (1986): physicians 2,803 (1 per 553 persons); hospital beds 5,52P (1 per 295 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1986) 34.2. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,076 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); (1983) 142% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

1.9 1.1

7.5 18.3 1.1

Transportation and

communications Trade Finance

1987

(paved 100%). Vehicles (1987): passenger 114,607. Merchant marine (1987): vessels total deadweight tonnage 3,183,610. Air 2,304,410,000, passenger-km 3,708,595,000;

National economy Budget (1987-88). Revenue:

1986

Imports (1987): KD 1,476,000,000 (1984; machinery and transport equipment 43.6%, manufactured goods 22.1%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 15.3%, food and live animals 12.3%, chemicals 3.6%). Major import sources (1986): Japan 21.1%; United States 11.2%; West Germany 7.9%; United Kingdom 7.5%; Italy 5.8%; France 5.0%. Exports (1987): KD 2,330,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 90.0%). Major export destinations (1986): Japan 15.9%; Italy 1 1.2%; United States 3.6%; West Germany 2.3%; France 2.1%; United Kingdom 1.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads

Vital statistics

ditures:

639

5.5

Military Total active duty personnel {\9%1): 16,100 (army 80.7%, navy 6.9%, air force 12.4%). Military expenditure as percent ofGNP (1985): 6.3% (worid 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.$884.

3.1

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing ( 1 986): tomatoes 15,000, melons 2,000, dates 2,000, onions 2,000, pumpkins and squash 1,000, cucumbers and gherkins 1,000, garlic 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 265,000 sheep, 34,000 goats, 21,000 cattle, 7,000 camels, 8,000,000 chickens; fish catch 7,013. Mining and quarrying (1985): sulfur 202,377; asphalt 945,000 barrels. Manufacturing (1987): urea 857,000; flour

Parliament was suspended on July 3, 1986; its membership includes 50 elected and most recent silting) 14 ex officio members of the Cabinet. ^Bubian Island and Island. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. '•October. SKuwaiti households only. 61985-86. 'Government hospitals only. 1

(at its

Warba

640

World Data

Britannica

(1983): domestic animal feed 3,(XX); washing powder 970; plastic products 185; textiles 1,451,400 metres; clothing 474,900 pieces; cigarettes 12,000,000 packets; bricks 10,900,000 units; rubber tires and tubes 1,000,000 units; beer 13,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 12,370 hectolitres. Construction: n.a.

Laos name: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao (Lao People's Democratic Republic). Form of government: unitary single-party people's republic with one legislative house (Supreme People's Official

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 1,050,000,000 (311,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1981) 1,000 (1,000); crude petroleum, n.a. (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) none (67,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).

Gross domestic product (U.S.$130 per capita).

Council [45])". Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Capital: Vientiane.

1984

Official language: Lao. Official religion: none.

1

£

unit:

= KN

1

KN

new

1985

% of total

value

in

kip (KN)= 100 at; valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 350.00; 1 U.S.S =

Monetary

current market prices; 1987): U.S.$500,000,000

(at

000,0003

value

9.105

Agriculture

75.2

„»^

Manufacturing! Mining J

"*

*

599.38.

Construction

620

5.1

utilities

74.0

*


established in 1975 pending election of a National Assembly; it continues lo serve, since no election had taken place by late 1988. 21985. 'At constant prices of 1982. ^Manufactunng includes public utilities. M98.^84.

M986.

1

Nations of the World

Population economically active (1986): total 693,812; activity rate of total population 25.1% (participation rates: ages 15-60, 45.6%; female 18.7%; unemployed [1987] 25-50%).

Lebanon name: al-Jumhortyah al-Lubnaniyah (Republic of Lebanon). Form of government: nominally, a multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [99]). On Sept. 23, 1988, however, Official

Price

and earnings indexes (1980 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings indexS

the Assembly failed to meet a constitutionally required deadline to name a new president, and an interim military cabinet headed by a prime

1981

1982

1983

1984

119,4 118.5

141.5

149.9

c 172

(LL)=

1(X) piastres;

10,

1988)

£

= LL

1

1

U.S.S

=

Public

commun.

1.218.0 2.722.6 1,060.2 1.036.5

Trade

Area and population

Pub. admin., defense Services

population

area

9.7173

1970 Capitals Beirut (BayrOt)

al-Biqa'

Jabal Uibnan al-Janub an-Nabajiyah

Zahlah B'abda Sidon (§ayda) an-Nabatiyah

ash-Shamil

Tripoli (Tafabulus)

sq mi 7 1.653

753 364 408 765 3,950

TOTAL

sqkm 18 4,280 1,950

943

10,230

18,9

694

0.1

123,647 43.357 6,668 48.242 24.224 114,706

17,8 6.2 1.0 7.0 3.5 16.5

200.063

28.8

693,812

100.08

estimate

Land

474,870 203,520 833,055 249,945

meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural cultivation 29.3%; wasteland and other areas 61.9%.

use (1985): forested 7.8%;

and under permanent Foreign trade

1,058 1,981

13.2 3.4 5,3 7.6 12.5 28,0 10.9 1 10.7 / 100.0

331.2 516.4 741.4

force

132.211

8.4

1,277.0

utilities

Transp, arxl Finance

735.08.

Bayrijt

1987 c 2.700

% of labour

labour force

value

8140

Mining Manufacturing Construction

valuation (Oct. LL 429.24;

Govemorates

518

1986

% Of total

value

Agriculture

Lebanese pound

1

c.

1984 in

LL 000,000

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: none. unit:

266

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Minister.

Capital: Beirut.

Monetary

1986

1985 c.

137

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1983): U.S.$4,600,000,000$5,500,000,000 (U.S.$1,636-$1,956 per capita).

minister was named.

Head of government: Prime

64

364.935 2.126.325

Balance of trade (current prices) LL 000.000

% of total

Demography Population (1988): 2,828,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 716.0, persons per sq km 276.4. Urban-rural (\9%6): urban 80.8%: rural 19.2%. Sex distribution (1986): male 48.36%; female 51.64%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 37.0%; 15-29. 29.5%; 30-44, 14.7%; 45-59. 10.9%; 60-74, 6.1%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (1990) 2,967,000; (2000) 3,617,000. Doubling time: during the 1970-75 prewar period the average growth rate was 2.6%; however, since 1976 continuing dislocation of the population by the civil war has rendered both the absolute size and principal components of population change (births, deaths, migration) highly problematic. Ethnic composition (1983): Lebanese 82.6%; Palestinian 9.6%: Armenian 4.9%; Syrian, Kurd, and other 2.9%. Religious affiliation: no official data exist subsequent to the 1932 census, when Christians (predominantly Maronite Roman Catholic) were a slight majority; it is thought that Muslims today constitute the majority but by what margin is hi^ly uncertain. An unofficial estimate (1984) indicated that the main religious groups were distributed as follows: Shfi Muslim 32%; Maronite Chnstian 24.5%; Sunni Muslim 21%; Druze 7%; Greek Orthodox 6.5%; Greek Catholic 4%; Armenian Christian 4%; other 1.0%.

1986

1982

1983

1984

-9,890

-12,461

-13.987

-25,581

-59,090

-269.311

1987

48.5%

69.0%

649%

61.8%

60.6%

50.4%

LL 402,027,000,000 (1982: consumer goods 40%, machinery and transport equipment 35%, petroleum products 20%). Major import sources: Italy 10.7%; Turkey 8.5%; France 8.1%; West Germany 5.9%;

Imports (1987):

United States 5.5%; Romania 4.7%; Saudi Arabia 4.5%. Exports (1987): LL 132,716,000,000 (1985; jewelry 10.2%, clothing 5.2%, pharmaceutical products 4.9%. metal products 4.8%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 8.7%; Switzeriand 7.6%; Jordan 6.0%; Kuwait 5.4%; United States 5.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1982): length (1986) 259 mi'^, 417 km''; passenger-mi 5,325,000, passenger-km 8,570.000; short ton-mi cargo 28,770,000, metric ton-km cargo 42,010,000. Roads (1987): total length 4,580 mi, 7,370 km (paved 85%). Vehicles (1982): passenger cars 473,372; trucks and buses 49,560. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 214; total deadweight tonnage 729,538. .Air transport^ (1987): passenger-mi 399,029,000, passenger-km 642,157,000; short ton-mi cargo 12,422,000, metric tonkm cargo 18,135,000; airports (1988) with scheduled flighu 1. total number 39; total circulation 572,7349; circulation per 1,000 population 211.6'. Radio (1987): 2,000,000 receivers (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1987): 500,000 receivers (1 per 5.4 persons). Telephones (1987): 150,400 (1 per 18.4 persons).

Communications. Daily newspapers (1986);

Major

cities (\9%5): Beirut 1,500.000; Tripoli 500,000; Zahlah 200,000; Sidon (Sayda) 100,000; an-Nabatlyah 100,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1986): 30.4 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate,

Education and health

n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1986): 7.7 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1986): 22.7 (world avg.

Education (1984-85)

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1986): 3.8. Life expectancy at birth (1986): male 64.7 years: female 68.8 years. Major causes of death: normally, heart ailments and gastrointestinal diseases, including typhoid fever and dysentery; but, with the continuing civil war, violence and acts of war are now among the principal causes of mortality.

National economy Budget (1989). Revenue: LL 130,000,000,000 (1986; income taxes 49.6%, customs duties 31.5%). Expenditure: LL 219,500,000,000 (1986; internal debt service 30.2%, defense 20.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1986): U.S.$2 11,000.000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): fioiits and vegetables 1.193,000 (of which oranges 250,000,' grapes 158,000. apples 133,000, tomatoes 130.000, cucumbers 73,000, lemons and limes 42,000, watermelons 31,000, cabbages 21,000, bananas 19,000. eggplants 19,000, cantaloupes 14.000. green beans 10,000, carrots 9,000, cauliflowers 7,000, onions 7.000), potatoes 230,000, sugar beets 80.000. wheal 13,000; Hvestock (number of live animals) 460,000 goats, 137,000 sheep. 50.000 cattle, 11.000,000 chickens; roundwood 486.000 cu m; fish catch 1.600. Mining and quarrying (1985): salt 6,000; gvpsum 3,000. Manufacturing (1984): cement 800,000; wheat flour 190,000'; paper and paperboard 45,000; quicklime 20,000. Construction (1981): 5,863,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 1,370,000,000 (1,400,000,000); coal, n.a. (none); crude petroleum (barrels: 1986) n.a. (8,136,000): petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 1,030.000 (1.871.000); natural gas. none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1974): wages and salaries 27.9%, transfers 3.0%, other 69.1%; expenditureZ- > food 42.8%, housing 16.8%, clothing 8.6%, health care 7.2%.

Tourism

(1980):

number of tourist

arrivals 135,548''.

schools '0

16.1).

Primary (age 5-9) Secondary (age 10-16) Voc.. teacher

tr.

Higher

1.116 1,405 181 18

1

teachers

53.450'0

J

3,506 7,460

students

student/ teacher ratio

329.340 230,934 37,036 70,510

10^6 9.4

Educational attainment (1970). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 45.6%; ability to read and write 35.6%; primary education 10.8%; secondary 4.9%; higher 3.1%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 1,325,000 (77.0%); males literate, c. 715,000 (85.7%); females literate, c. 610,000 (68.9%). Health (1986): physicians 3,509 (1.3 per 1,000 persons); hospital beds (1982) 1 1,400 (1 per 263 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 49.2. Food (1979-81): daily per capita calonc intake 2,995 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); (1983) 120% of F.AO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1988): Lebanese national armed forces 16,300 (army 92.0%. navy 3.1%. air force 4.9%); external regular military forces include: peacekeeping force in Lebanon 5,500; Syrian army 30,000. Principal armed civilian factions include": Maronite Christian (Lebanese Forces [Phalange]) 20,000; Shfl Muslim (pro-Syrian .Amal) 10,000; Druze (Progressive Socialist Party) 9.00O- 0.(X)0; Palestine Liberation Organization 7,500-10,000; Shu Muslim (pro-Iran Hezbollah [Party of God]) 5,000. Military^ expenditure as percent of GNP (1983): 8.2% (worid 6.2%); per capita expenditure: U.S.$201.

UN

1

1983. ^Weights based on consumer price index components. 3For capital city only. ^Approximately one-fourth the annual prewar rates of the early 1970s. SExcludes banking sector. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Only 38 mi (222 km) is currently in use. SME.A-.-Virliban international flights only. 'For 20 newspapers only. '01981-82. nActive-duty f)ersonnel only. •

1

642

Britannica

World Data sources of income (1978-79): self-employment 51.6%, wages and salaries 42.0% (of which migrant workers' remittances 32.4%), transfer payments and other 6.4%; expenditure (1975)^: food 34.0%, clothing 19.3%, housing 16.7%, transportation 9.5%, education 4.1%, health 1.8%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.$660,000,000 (U.S.$410 per capita).

Lesotho name: Lesotho (Sotho); Kingof Lesotho (English). Form ofgovernment: monarchy with two legislative houses (National Assembly [80]; Senate [30])'. Chief of state: King Head of government: Chairman of the Mihtary Council'. Capital: Maseru. Official

dom

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

'

1986

M

[M])= 1988)

100 U.S.$

lisente;

1

=M

£

1

=M

000.000

value

Public

10,

4.26.

commun.

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

sqkm

sq mi

Capital*

Teyateyaneng Butha-Buthe

Leribe

Leribe

Mafeteng

Mafeteng

858 682 1,092

818

Maseru

Maseru

Mohale's Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha's Nek Quthing

Mohale's Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha's Nek Quthing

Thaba-Tseka

Thaba-Tseka

1,652 1,363 1,573

907 1.126 1,649 11,720

TOTAL

0.3

59.28 57.5

9.1

2,222 1,767 2,828 2,119 4,279 3,530 4,075 2,349 2,916 4,270 30,355

TOTAL

1986 census

Land

194,631 100,644

8.9 0.8

% of labour force

396,192

2.1

92.5 74.6 78.6 52.8 103.09 647.2

Other

population

area

Berea Butha-Buthe

1.9

5.0 13.5

utilities

Transp. and

Area and population

Diatrictt

108.6

16.8

labour force

"]

Mining Manufacturing Construction

valuation (Oct. 2.49;

% of total

Agriculture

Official lanpiages: Sotho; English. Official religion: Christianity. Monetary unit: 1 loti (plural maloti

1985

value

in

12.1 8.2 J 15.99 100.0

118,512io

514,704"

meadows and pastures 65.9%; agricultural cultivation 9.9%; other 24.2%.

use (1985):

manent

77.0

14.3 11.5

23.010 100.0

and under

per-

257,988 195,591

Foreign trade '^

311,159 164,392 74,676 63,984 110,376 104,095

Balance of trade (current prices)

M

000,000

% of total

1,577,536

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

-327.0 78.3%

-405.9

-528.1

-594.0

-684.5

-746.9

-834.6

82.5%

87.1%

89.9%

89.5%

88.2%

87.8%

1986

M

Demography Population {\9%%): 1,671,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 142.6, persons per sq km 55.0. Urban-rural {insy. urban 16.7%; rural 83.3%. Sex distribution (1986): male 48.21%; female 51.79%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 42.3%; 15-29, 25.9%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 9.9%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (1990) 1,760,000; (2000) 2,281,800. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Sotho 99.7%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 43.5%; Protestant (mostly Lesotho Evangelical) 29.8%; Anglican 11.5%; other Christian 8.0%; tribal 6.2%; other 1.0%. Major urban centres (1916): Maseru 55,031 (Maseru-Roma-Morija metropolitan area [1986] 109,382); Maputsoe 15,823; Teyateyaneng 8,589.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 41.8 (world avg. 29.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1980-85):

16.5 (worid avg. 1 1.O). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 25.3 (world avg.

18.0).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1980-85): 5.8. Life expectancy at birth (1980-85): male 46.3 years; female 52.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, typhoid fever, and infectious and parasitic diseases.

Imports (1981): 449,060,000 (manufactured goods [excluding chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment] 37.4%, of which clothing 8.4%, blankets and traveling rugs 3.6%, footwear 3.3%; food and live animals 18.9%, of which cereals [all forms] 5.9%, sugar [all forms] 2.6%; machinery and transport equipment 17.0%, of which trucks and vans 3.5%; petroleum products 8.6%). Major import sources: Customs Union of Southern Africa 97.1%; European Economic Community 1.5%. Exports (1981): 43,124,000 (diamonds 42.1%; food and live animals 10.3%; umbrellas, brooms, brushes, and basketwork 8.1%; mohair 8.0%; road vehicles 3.1%; footwear 3.0%). Major export destinations: Customs Union of Southern Africa 46.7%; Switzeriand 41.8%; West Germany 7.0%.

M

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1985): length 1 mi, 2 km. Roads (1986): total length 2,640 mi, 4,250 km (paved 12%). Vehicles (1982): passenger cars 5,129; trucks and buses 11,962. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1987): passenger-mi 6,810,000, passenger-km 10,960,000; short ton-mi cargo 860,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,255,000; airports (1987) with scheduled flights 14. Communications. Daily newspapers (1985): total number 3; total circulation 44,000; circulation per 1,000 population 28. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 100,000 (1 per 16 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 1,500 (1 per 1,085 persons). Telephones (1986): 13,738 (1 per 1 1 2 persons).

Education and health Education (1984-85)13

National economy

M

Budget (1987-88). Revenue: 294,600,000 (tax revenue 83.3%, of which customs receipts 53.4%, sales tax 18.0%, income tax 6.4%, company tax nontax revenue 3.5%; 12.4%; grants 4.3%). Expenditures: 414,200,000 (recurrent expenditure 68.1%, of which personal emoluments 28.2%, interest payments 6.6%, subsidies and transfers 5.8%, other goods and services

Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary(age13-17) Voc. teacher tr.

M

27.6%; capital expenditure 31.9%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): com (maize) 86,488, sorghum 33,458, vegetables and melons 29,000, fruit 18,000, wheat 1 1,000, pulses 6,000, roots and tubers 6,000, peas 3,779, beans 1,502; livestock (number of live animals) 1,420,000 sheep, 1,010,000 goats, 520,000 cattle, 108,000 horses, 108,000 mules and asses, 65,000 pigs, 1,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1985) 293,000 cu m; fish catch 22. Mining and quarrying (1986): diamonds 2,100,0003. Manufacturing (total value added; 1986): 59,200,000; food and beverages 60.7%; textiles, apparel, and leather 14.7%; iron and steel products 5.3%; chemical products 4.8%; printing and publishing 4.5%; furniture and fixtures 3.4%. Construction (total value added; 1986): 57,500,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 1,000,000 (n.a.); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum, none

M

M

M

Higher

schools

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

1.141

5.663 1,676 221

314,003 35.423

21.1

2,221 1,119

10.0 7.7

143 9 1

146

55.4

Educational attainment (1976). Percent of population age 10 and over having: no formal education 28.8%; primary 64.6%; secondary 2.3%; higher 0.6%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 655,400 (73.6%); males literate 273,800 (62.4%); females literate 381,600 (84.5%). Health (1982): physicians 114 (1 per 12,265 persons); hospital beds 2,300 (1 per 608 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1983) 109. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,296 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); (1983) 104% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1986): 1,500'4. Military expenditure as percent ofGNP(\9S4y. 6.5% (world 5.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$37.

(n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1986): U.S.$ 182, 100,000. Tourism (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$7,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$5,000,000.

Population economically active (1985): total 514,704'*; activity rate of total population 33.3% (participation rates: age 12 and over, 55.8%; female 34.9%; unemployed 23%). Price

and earnings indexes (1980

Consumer

price index

Annual earnings index e

=

100)

1982

1963

1984

1985

1986

1987

125.9 311.2

147.1

164.0 518.8

188.2 577.6

220.5 597.8

275.9

441.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.4; average annual income per household (1985-86) M 3,110 (U.S.$1,400);

Following a military coup in January 1986, executive and legislative powers were nominally vested in the King, though effectively exercised by a six-member Militar> Council and a Council of Mmisters. The 1966 independence constitution, suspended in 1970 and reinstated in 1983. was again suspended in 1986 following the coup, dissolving Lesotho's legislative organs. ^Estimate. 'Individual diamond diggers. *Age 12 and over. 'First quarter; urban households only. ^Based on Basotho miners working in South Africa. ''Weights of consumer price index components, flncludes handicrafts 'Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges, irtl'nemployed. nin 1986. 140, ")50 workers, or 19% of the total labour force, were employed in South Africa, mostly as gold miners. '^Import figures are fo.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f in commodities and trading partners. "Excludes private schools. 'Royal Lesotho Defence Force. I

Nations of the World

crude petroleum (barrels; 1985) none (4,764,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 632,0009 (201,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 4.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1963)'0: food 34.4%, rent 14.9%, clothing and footwear 13.8%, household goods and services 6.1%, beverages and tobacco 5.7%, fuel and light 5.0%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.S 1 ,030,000,000 (U.S.$450 per capita).

Liberia Official

name: Republic of

Liberia.

Form of government:

multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [26]; House of Representatives [64]).

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Monrovia. Official language: English.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1985 in

Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Liberian dollar Agriculture

Public

Area and populal ion

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

population

1986 sq mi

Capital*

Bassa Cape Mount Gedeh

Kru^ Lofa Marglbi3

Gbarnga Buchanan

3,127 3.382 2.250 6,575

Robertsport

Zwedru

7,475 1,260 2,0662 1.058 4,650 3.959

Bensonville Sanniquellie Greenville

Nimba Sinoe

sq

km

estimate

2

TOTAL

2

7.1

7.2 14.8 16.1

\

4.7) -2.8 '2

-20.312 715.2

Other

force

481.177 17,500 10.699 4,072 2.878

71.9 2.6

13.986 46.850 2,117

2.1

61.168

9.2

28,883 669,330

100.0

1.6 0,6 0,4

100.0

7.0 0.3

4.3

Land

use (1985): forested 39.0%; meadows and pastures 2.5%; and under permanent cultivation 3.9%; other 54.6%.

261.000 104,000 137,7002 582,400 325,700 65,400

19.360 3,263 5,3512 2,740 12,043 10,254

50.9 51.4 105.9 115.3 34.0

Services

268,100 166,900 83.900 109,000

8.099 8.759 5.827 17.029

2

Barclayville

Voinjama Kakata Harper

Maryland Montserrado

19.4 19.2 8.2 3.8 2.3

Transportation and

area

Grand Grand Grand Grand

utilities

% of labour

labour force

value

138.9 137.0 58.7 26.9 16.5

Mining Manufacturing Construction

1984

% Of total

value

LSOOO.OOO"

(L$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.$ = L$1.00; 1 £ = L$1.71.

CotmUet Bong

643

agricultural

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1981

1982

1983

1984

+146.5 16.1%

+107.4 12.7%

+73.8

+137.6 17.1%

Territories

BomI

Tubmanburg

Rivercess TOTAL

Rivercess City

755 1.693

38.250

67,300 39.900

1.955 4.385 99.067*

LS'OOO.OOO

% of total

Demography Population (1988): 2,436,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 63.7, persons per sq km 24.6. Urban-rural {19B4): urban 38.8%; rural 61.2%. Sex distribution (1984): male 50.59%; female 49.41%. Age breakdown (1984): under 15, 43.2%; 15-29, 28.2%; 30-44, 14.7%; 45-59, 7.7%; 60-74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (1990) 2,605,000; (2000) 3,641,000.

Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Kpelle 19.4%; Bassa 13.8%; Grebe 9.0%; Gio 7.8%; Kru 7.3%; Mano 7.1%; other 35.6%. Religious affiliation (1984): Christian 67.7%; Muslim 13.8%^; traditional beliefs and other 18.5%. Major cities (1974): Monrovia 425,000^; Buchanan 23,999; Congo Town 21,495; Yekepa 14,189; Tubmanburg 14,089; Harbel 11,445.

Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1984-89): 46.8 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1984-89): 12.6 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1984-89): 34.2 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1984-89): 6.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1984-89): male 53.9 years; female 56.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population^ (1985): complications during pregnancy 632.6^; malaria 79.8; pneumonia 64.2; anemia 50.2; malnutrition 23.4;

measles

12.7.

Population economically active (1984): total 669,330; activity rate of total population 31.8% (participation rates: ages 15-59, 64.7%9; female 31.2%9; 12.5%).

and earnings indexes (1980

price index Monttily earnings index

33.1

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads '3 (1986): route length 304 mi, 490 km; short ton-mi cargo 2,154,000,000"', metric ton-km cargo 3,145,000,00014. Roads (1985): total length 4,138 mi, 6,659 km (paved 7%). Vehicles (1984): passenger cars 12,747; trucks and buses 8,288. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,574; total deadweight tonnage 97,957,869. Air transport (1980): passenger-mi 10,600,000, passenger-km 17,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 68,000, metric ton-km cargo 100,000; airports (1988) with

scheduled

flights

1.

Communications. Daily newspapers

(1986): total

number

5; total

circulation,

per 1,000 population, n.a. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 4.6 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 43,000 (1 per 55 persons). Telephones (1985): 1,023'5 (1 per 2,150 persons). n.a.; circulation

Education (1980)

tionals abroad, n.a.

Consumer

+201.1

27.8%

Education and health

Budget (1987). Revenue: L$ 184,300,000 (import duties and consular fees 28.0%; income and profits taxes 25.3%; excise tax 15.8%; nontax revenue 13.7%). Expenditures: L$290,500,000 (current expenditure 85.6%, of which wages and salaries 37.2%, interest on public debt 19.7%, goods and services 8.1%, subsidies and grants 1.9%; development expenditure 14.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1986): U.S.$ 1,001, 800,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1986) U.S.$6,000,000; expenditures by na-

Price

+189.4

Imports (1986): L$259,000,000 (machinery and transportation equipment 22.8%, food and live animals 20.7%, petroleum and petroleum products 20.5%, basic manufactures 13.9%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 7.1%, beverages and tobacco 1.5%, animal and vegetable oils 1.2%, chemicals 1.0%). Major import sources (1985): United States 25.9%; West Germany 9.8%; Japan 8.4%; United Kingdom 7.4%; The Netherlands 6.5%; Spain 2.5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 2.5%; China 2.3%; Denmark 2.1%. Exports (1986): L$408,400,000 (iron ore 60.8%, rubber 19.8%, logs and timber 8.1%, coffee 4.0%, cocoa 2.2%, diamonds 1.6%). Major export destinations (1985): West Germany 32.3%; United States 19.2%; Italy 15.8%; France 8.9%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.9%; The Netherlands 4.4%; Spain 4.0%; United Kingdom 1.0%; Japan 0.5%.

National economy

unemployed

9.4%

2,221 ,3005

=

100)

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

100.0

107.6

114.0

117.2

118.6

117.9

122.1

Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 13-18) Voc. teacher tr.

schools

teachers

students

1,232

9,099 1,129

208,0459 52,5149 2,322 3.9559

419

Higher

63 190

student/ teacher ratio

Educational attainment ( 1 974). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 87.1%; some primary education 4.8%; complete primary 1.5%; some secondary 5.1%; higher 1.5%. Literacy (1984): total population age 15 and over literate 273,670 (22.4%); males literate 164,059 (27.4%); females literate 109,611 (18.4%). Health (1981): physicians 236 (1 per 8,305 persons); hospital beds 3,000 (1 per 653 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1984-89) 122.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2,358 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); (1983) 102% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): cassava 326,000, rice 295,000, sugarcane 59,000, natural rubber 90,000, bananas 81,000, plantains 33,000, sweet potatoes 18,000, yams 18,000, green coffee 9,000, oranges 7,000, pineapples 7,000, cocoa beans 5,000; livestock (number of live animals) 246,000 sheep, 243,000 goats, 131,000 pigs, 43,000 cattle, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1985) 4,262,000 cu m; fish catch (1985) 1,478. Mining and quarrying (1986): iron ore 14,233,000; diamonds 229,500 carats; gold 20,229 troy oz. Manufacturing (1986): cement 96,350; palm oil 35,000; cigarettes 91,235,200 units; soft drinks 15,092 hectolitres; beer 105,547 hectolitres. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 819,000,000 (819,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); 1

1

1

Total active duty personnel (1987): 5,750 (army 92.2%i6, navy 7.8%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP (1985): 2.7% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 12.

New county created from Kru Coast and Sasstown territories and part of Maryland County. 2Figures for Grand Kru included in Maryland. 3New county created from Marshall and Gibi territories. •Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, sincludes 10,000 persons not accounted for. ^Some external sources estimate the Muslim population to exceed 30%. 71984. SHospital inpatient morbidity rates. '1985. 'OMonrovia only. HAt current factor cost, i^imputed bank service charges. I

'Lamco and Bong Mining Company iSNumber of subscribers. i^Army includes air force personnel. i3For iron-ore transport only.

railroads only.

644

Britannica

World Data

Libya

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1984

Official

name: al-Jamahlrlyah

LD 000.000

al-'Arablyah al-Llblyah ash-Sha'blyah al-Ishtiraklyah (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya).

Form of government:

Mining Manufacturing Construction

socialist state

Public

communications Trade

1

= U.S.$3.33 = £1.96.

employed, Price

Area and population c

Capital.

Ajdabiya

Ajdabiya

Awbari

Awbari

al-'Azlziyah

al-'Aziziyati

Banghazi Darnah

Bangtiazi Darnati

al-Fatah

al-Marj

Ghadamis Gharyan

Ghadamis Gharyan

al-Jabal al-Akh0ar

al-Bay^a'

al-Ktiums al-Kufrah

al-Khums

Marzuq

Marzuq

Mi$ratah Nigat al-Khums Sabtia

Mi$ratah

Zuwarah Sabha

Sawlajjin

Bani Walid

ash-Shati Surt

Jarabulus

Tripoli (Tarabulus)

Tartiunah

Tubruq

Tarhunah Tubruq

Yafran

Yafran

az-Zawiyah

-^lini-

sq

km

az-Zawiyah

Zlitan

Zlitan

Sun

TOTAL

2.4

93,000 41,000 13,000 69,000 183.500 66,000 1,062,000

5.2 7.4

3.6 18.6

1.395.5 84.7 244.1 7,521.7

1.1

3.2

100.0

8.7

3.9 1.2 6.5 17.3 6.2

100.0

685,524

n.a.).

and earnings indexes (1975

population

irea

al-Kufrah

BIrak

242

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1985): U.S.S 1,1 77,000,000. Tourism (1984): receipts from visitors U.S.$2,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$494,000,000. Population economically active ( 1 985): total 1 ,062,000; activity rate of total population 29.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 47.6%; female 8.1%; un-

Libyan dinar (LD)= 1,000 dirhams; valuation Libyan (Oct. 10, 1988) 1

Baladlyit

1.2

392.5 554.5 273.5

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

dinar

utilities

16.8 2.3 10.5

Transportation and

minister). Capital: Tripoli 2.

unit:

359.9 819.5 92.0

force

178,000 24,500 112,000 256,500 25,500

3.6 40.4 4.8 10.9

3.039.1

% of labour

labour force

value

266.4

Agriculture

with one policy-making body (General People's Congress [1,112]). Chief of state^: Mu'ammar al-Qadhdhafi. Head of government: Secretary of the General People's Committee (prime

Monetary

1985

% of total

value

in

1.775.500

1984 census 100,547 48,701 85,068 485.386 105,031 102,763 52,247 117,073 120.662 149,642 25,139 42,294 178.295 181.584 76,171 45,195 46.749 110,996 990,697 84,640 94,006 73,420 220,075 101,107 3.637,488

Demography Population (1988): 4,316,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 6.3, persons per sq km 2.4. Urban-rural (inS): urban 64.5%; rural 35.5%. Sex distribution (1984): male 53.61%; female 46.39%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 45.0%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 17.2%; 45-59, 8.4%; 60-74, 3.2%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (1990) 4,710,000; (2000) 7,292,000. Doubling time: 20 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Libyan Arab and Berber 89.0%; other 1 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1982): Sunni Muslim 97.0%; other 3.0%. Major cities (1979): Tripoli 587,400; Banghazi 267,700; Misratah 52,200.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 47.3 (worid avg. 29.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 12.7 (world avg. 1 1.0). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 34.6 (world avg. 18.0). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1980-85): 7.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1981): 4. 3 3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1981): 1.1 3. Life expectancy al birth (1980-85): male 56.6 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include trachoma, tuberculosis, malaria, and dysentery.

National economy Budget (1987). Revenue and expenditure:

LD 4,060,000,000 (development expenditures 34.5%, trade 33.7%, current spending 30.5%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): tomatoes 205,000, wheat 190,000, watermelons 142,000, olives 120,000, potatoes 112,000, dates 105,000, bariey 90,000, onions 88,000, oranges 75,000, grapes 21,000, pulses 11,000; livestock (number of live

animals) 5,550,000 sheep, 950,000 goats, 210,000 cattle, 180,000 camels, 61,000 asses; roundwood (1986) 635,000 cu m; fish catch 7,800. Mining and quarrying (1986): gypsum 180,000; salt 12,000. Manufacturing (1985): lime 270,000,000; cement 4,600,000; urea 668,300; ammonia 495,000; methanol 495,000; ethylene 247,500; asphalt 150,000; crude steel 10,000. Construction (gross value in LD; 1982): residential 127,051,000; nonresidential 200,877,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 9,000,000,000 (9,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) none (2,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1986) 376,674,000 (65,903,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) 7,380,000 (6,502,000); natural gas (cu m; 1985) 3,989,213.000(2,998,262,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.$20,000,000,000 (U.S.$5,410 per capita).

Consumer

price index

= 100)

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

85.3

91.6

100.0

105.4

112.1

145.0

137.1

Monthly earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household

size (1980) 5.1; inper household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1977): food 37.2%, housing 32.2%, transportation 9.4%, education and recreation 8.5%, clothing 6.9%, medical care 3.3%. Land use (1985): forested 0.4%; meadows and pastures 7.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.2%; desert and built-up areas 90.8%.

come

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) LD 000,000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

+4.674

+2.238 32.0%

+1,894

+1.348 25.9%

+1.486.2

+1,790.5

69.4%

38.3%

% of total

56.3%

29.8%

LD 2,124,323,000 (machinery and transport equipment 36.8%, consumer goods 27.1%, food and live animals 14.2%, chemicals and vegetable oil and fats 1.3%). Major import sources animal 3.9%, (1984): Italy 26.6%; West Germany 12.9%; Japan 6.6%; United Kingdom 5.3%; Austria 1.6%. Exports (1982): LD 4,131,000,000 (crude petroleum 99.9%). Major export destinations {19S4): Italy 24.0%; West Germany 19.0%; Spain 9.2%; Swiuerland 3.8%; The Netheriands 3.5%; United Kingdom 1.8%. Imports (1982):

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads

(1987): total length

11,992 mi, 19,300

km

(paved 56%). Vehicles (1982): passenger cars 415.509; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 102; total deadweight tonnage 1,447,491. Air transporf* (1987): passenger-mi 900,000,000, passenger-km 1,447,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 2,398,000, metric ton-km cargo 3,501,000; airports (1988) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1987): total number 1; circulation 40,000; circulation per 1,000 population 9.7. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 7.9 persons). Television (1987): total number of receivers 235,500 (1 per 18 persons). Telephones (1982): 102,000 (1 334,405.

per 33 persons).

Education and health Education (1982-83) Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher^

schools

teachers

Students

2.744 1,555 195 8

42,202 25,044 3,883 1,3406

741,502 301.415 50,363 25,700

student/ teacher ratio 17.6 12.0 12.9

Educational attainment (1973). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 72.7%; ability to read and write 18.8%; primary education 3.5%; secondary 4.0%; higher 1.0%. Literacy (1985): total population age 10 and over literate 2,701.446 (74.4%); males literate 1,666,170 (85.0%); females literate 1,035,276 (62.0%). Health (1982): physicians 5,2 10' (1 per 637 persons); hospital beds 16,051 (1 per 207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1980-85) 107.0. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 3,611 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); (1983) 155% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel {\9U): 71,500 (army 76.9%, navy 9.1%. air force 14.0%). Military expenditure as percent of GNP{\9M): 17.8% (world 5.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$ 1,408.

iNo formal titled office exists. ^Al-Jufur. designated new capital on Jan. I. 1986. is located 650 km south of Tripoli. Actual effective date of transfer is not clear yci. 'Incomplete, international scheduled (lights only. M 98 -82. '1979-80. 'Personnel in government services only. 1

Nations of the World

quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing (1986): whipped cream 1,449; yogurt 56; cheese 8; wine 100,242 kilograms; small-scale precision manufacturing includes optical lenses, electron microscopes, electronic equipment, and high-vacuum pumps; metal manufacturing is also important. Construction (1986): residential 197,046 cu m; nonresidential 282,504 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 43,371,000 (182,414,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) none (86); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) none (51,457); natural gas (metric tons; 1986) none (2,493). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1985): c. U.S.$450,000,000 (c. U.S.$ 16,500 per capita).

Liechtenstein name: FOrstentum

Official

Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein).

Form of government: monarchy with one

constitutional legislative

645

house

(Diet [15]).

Chief of state: Prince.

Head of government: Head of the Government.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Capital: Vaduz.

1980

Official language: German. Official religion: none.

Monetary unit: Swiss franc (Sw F) = 100 centimes; valuation

Sw

1987:

% of total

value

in

F 000

value

% of labour

labour force

force

1

10, 1

£

1988)

1

= Sw F

U.S.$

= SwF

380 65

2.8 0.5

4,540 1,076 142

34.0

Agriculture

(Oct.

Mining Manufacturing Construction

1.58;

2.70.

Public

utilities

8.1 1.1

Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Area and population area

population

1988

km

sq mi

sq

19.6 10.3

3,509 2,867

6.1

927

7.5 5.3

2,706

7.4

Vaduz

7.6 4.0 2.4 2.9 2.0 2.9 10.4 1.4 10.2 11.5 6.7

TOTAL

61.82

1,387 4,836 731 3,248 2,313 4,891 27,714

Commune* Balzers

Eschen Gamprin Mauren Planken Ruggeli

Schaan Schellentjerg

Triesen Triesenl)erg

estimate'

3.5

26.4 29.8 17.3 160.0

3.0 12.0 6.5 4.7 25.3 2.07 100.0

1,604

866 625

Services Other TOTAL

3,373

2717 876,000

100.0

13,337

use (1987): forested 34.8%; meadows and pastures 15.7%; and under permanent cultivation 24.3%; other 25.2%.

Land

299

26.8

395

agricultural

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Sw

F 000,000

% of total

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

+531.9

+523.5

38.6%

39.3%

+560.7 41 .6%

+625.4 41 .8%

+755.6 46.4%

+761.6 44.4%

Demography Population (1988): 27,840. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 450.5, persons per sq km 174.0. Urban-rural: n.a. Sex distribution (1988): male 48.81%; female 51.19%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 19.8%; 15-29, 24.6%; 30-44, 25.6%; 45-59, 15.6%; 60-74, 10.0%; 75 and over, 4.4%. Population projection: (1990) 28,400; (2000) 31,500. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Liechtensteiner 64.2%; Swiss 15.9%; Austrian 7.8%; German 3.7%; other 8.4%. Religious affiliation (1988): Roman Catholic 87.4%; Protestant 8.3%; other

destinations: European Economic Community countries 40.0%; Switzerland 19.2%; other European Free Trade Association countries 6.6%.

Transport and communications

4.3%.

Major

Imports (1986): Sw F 477,479,000 (machinery and transport equipment 32.1%; hardware 13.2%; limestone, cement, and other building materials 9.1%; unrefined and semifabricated metal 6.7%; chemical products 4.9%; food, beverages, and tobacco 2.0%, of which fruits and vegetables 0.6%; wood and cork 1.3%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (1986): Sw F 1,239,130,000 (machinery and transport equipment 46.5%; other finished goods 23.3%; hardware 19.1%; chemical products 5.7%; limestone, cement, and other building materials 3.8%). Major export

Vaduz

cities (1987):

4,891;

Schaan 4,836.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 13.2 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 94.8%; illegitimate 5.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 6.5 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1987): 6.7 (world avg. 16.1).

Transport. Railroads (1987): length 11.5 mi, 18.5 km; passenger and cargo traffic, n.a. Roads (1986): total length 201 mi, 323 km. Vehicles (1987): passenger cars 15,229; trucks and buses 1,651. Merchant marine: none. Air transport: none. (1987): total number 2; total circulation 15,000; circulation per 1,000 population 546. Radio (1986): total number Television (1986): total number of per persons). 3.0 (1 receivers 8,674 (1 per 3.1 persons). Telephones (1986): 26,529 (1 per 1.0

Communications. Daily newspapers of receivers 9,218

Total fertility rate: n.a.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987):

persons).

6.0.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1984): 7.3. Life expectancy at birth (1980-84): male 77.6 years; female 82.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): diseases of the circulatory system 221.4, of which heart disease 174.2 (including ischemic heart disease 65.3); malignant neoplasms (cancers) 152.4; accidents, poisonings, and acts of violence 40.0 (including suicide 18.1); diseases of the respiratory system 18.1.

Education and health Education (1987-88) schools Primary (age 7-12)

Secondary (age 13-19) Vocational 8

National economy Budget (1986). Revenue:

Sw F

337,257,584 (taxes and interest 69.6%; post, telephone, and telegraph 17.6%; other revenue sources include real estate capital-gains taxes and death and estate taxes). Expenditures: Sw F 31 1,604,845 (financial affairs 45.0%; education 13.7%; post, telephone, and telegraph 13.4%; social affairs 9.8%). Public debt: none. Tourism (1987): 75,682 tourist arrivals; receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Population economically active (19873): total 13,337; activity rate of total population 48.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.9%; female 35.9%;

unemployed Price

0.3%).

1981 price index ^

1

102 98 309

student/ teacher ratio

students

17.2 17.4

1,754 1,707

1179

Educational attainment (1980). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.2%; primary and lower secondary education 47.6%; higher secondary and vocational 41.0%; some postsecondary 6.6%; university 4.6%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health (1986): physicians 26 (1 per 1,048 persons); hospital beds (1985) 100 (1 per 269 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1982-86) 15.4.

Food (1984-86) '0:

daily per capita caloric intake 3,425 (vegetable products

61%, animal products 39%); (1983) 129% of

mum

FAO recommended

mini-

requirement.

Military

and earnings indexes (December 1982

Consumer

14 9

teachers

1982

1983

=

1984

92.8

Total active duty personnel: none. Military expenditure as percent of none.

100) 1985

1986

19874

108.2

109.7

GNP:

Monthly earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of earned income (1986): wages and self-employment 7.1%; expenditure (1986)6; food 21.3%, rent 18.0%, education and self-improvement 16.3%, transportation 13.3%, health 7.7%, clothing 6.6%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing salaries 92.9%,

(1986): silo com (maize) 29,400, milk 13,339, potatoes 1,194, barley 480, wheat 360; livestock (number of live animals; 1987) 6,487 cattle, 2,606 pigs,

2,337 sheep; commercial timber (1986)

10,104 cu m. Mining

and

January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. JDecember 31. •*September. sjhe index is for Switzerland, which is united with Liechtenstein in a customs and monetary union. ^Household expenditures are taken from a 1986 Swiss sample survey; a similarity of consumption patterns is assumed. 'Includes 36 unemployed persons. sOne evening school with part-time teachers, 91986-87. lOpigures are derived from statistics for Switzerland and Austria. I

646

World Data

Britannica

Luxembourg

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1985

name: Grand-Duche

Official

de Luxembourg (French); Grossherzogtum Luxemburg (German) (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Council of State [21]; Chamber of Deputies [64]). Chief of state: Grand Duke. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Luxembourg. Official languages: French; Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

(Lux F)

=100

1

Public

Pub admin., defense

Clervaux Diekirch

Redange Vianden

Grevenmacher Ectiternach

Grevenmacher Remich Luxembourg Capellen

Esch

Luxembourg (Ville et Campagne) Mersch TOTAL

13.1

100.0

force

5.100

32

32,500

20.5

13,900

8.8 0.6 6.6 20.6 10.1 9.3 17.4 2.95

900

2.5

5.6 16.0 13.4 11.7

% of labour

labour force

10,500 32,700 16,000 14,800 27,500 4,5005 158.400

100.0

Population economically active (1987): total 158,400; activity rate of total population 42.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1981] 61.3%; female 35.3%; unemployed 2.5%).

franc

Price

66.55.

and earnings indexes (1980

Consumer

price index Hourly earnings index'

estimate'

447 128 92 103

1,157

21

54 265 525 186

54.420 9,710 22,390 10,500 2,790 9,030 40.030 10,990 16.910 12.130 272,250 28,790 112,250

203 72 82 49 349 77 94 92 86 999

=

100)

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

109.3 104.6

118.2 116.9

128.4 127.6

135.7 137.6

141.2

141.6

141.5

population

km

sq mi

102

Wiltz

1

29.7 J 5,3

241,0756

TOTAL

1986

Diekirch

commun

Services Other

area

Cantons

utilities

Finance

Area and population Districts

0.1

71,600 12,780 6,030 13,500 38,570 32,300 28,210 31,580

Trade

=

F

2.6

240

Mining Manufacturing Construction

centimes; valuation

=

6,270

Agriculture

Transp. and

value

German.

Luxembourg

(Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.$ Lux F 38.86; 1 £ Lux

1987

% of total

value

in

Lux F 000,000

sq

332 239 267

211

128 904 199 243

238 224 2,586

113,570 17,640 366,700

Demography Population (1988): 372,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 372.4, persons per sq km 143.8. Urban-rural (\9&5): urban 77.6%; rural 22.4%. Sex distribution (1987): male 48.61%; female 51.39%. Age breakdown (1985): under 15, 17.3%; 15-29, 23.6%; 30-44, 21.9%; 45-59, 19.0%; 60-74, 12.6%; 75 and over, 5.6%. Population projection: (1990) 375,000; (2000) 388,000. Doubling time: n.a.; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Ethnic composition (nationality; 1986): Luxemburger 70.3%; Portuguese 8.6%; Italian 5.9%; French 4.0%; German 2.8%; other 8.4%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 93.0%; Protestant 1.3%; other

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1982) 2.8; income per household Lux F 751,800 (U.S.S 16,455); sources of income (1985): wages and salaries 88.1%, self-employment 9.4%, transfer payments 2.5%; expenditure (1985): food and beverages 16.9%, transportation and communications 16.9%, housing 12.4%, household goods and furniture 9.2%, health 6.7%, clothing and footwear 6.6%. Land use (1985): forested 34.2%; meadows and pastures 27.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 21.7%; other 17.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) Lux F 000.000

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

-17,192

-15.868

-16.492

-14.503

-13.390

6.9%

4.7%

-9.093 2.6%

% of total

8.8%

7.2%

3.9%

Imports (1986): Lux F 179,591,000,000 (metal products, machinery, and transport equipment 41.6%, of which electrical machinery 14.7%, transport equipment 9.8%; mineral products 13.4%; chemical products 8.5%; food, beverages, and tobacco 6.2%). Major import sources: Belgium 37.6%; West Germany 30.7%; France 12.2%; The Netherlands 5.1%; Italy 2.5%; United States 2.2%. Exports (1986): Lux F 166,201,000,000 (metal products, machinery, and transport equipment 60.3%, of which electrical machinery 9.0%; plastic materials and rubber manufactures 13.5%; textile yam, fabrics, and related products 5.2%; chemical products 4.7%; food, beverages, and tobacco 2.3%). Major export destinations: West Germany 29.1%; Belgium 16.7%; France 15.3%; The Netherlands 6.1%; United States 5.2%; United Kingdom 4.6%; Italy 4.4%.

5.7%.

Major

cities^ (1986):

Luxembourg

86,200; Esch-sur-Alzette 24,900; Differ-

dange 16,450; Dudelange 14,080. Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1987): 11.4 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 89.2%; illegitimate 10.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1987): 10.8 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1987): 0.6 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1987): 1.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1987): 5.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1987): 2.0. Life expectancy at birth (1985-87): male 70.6 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): circulatory diseases 521.2, of which cerebrovascular disease 189.8, ischemic heart disease 161.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 254.6; accidents and suicides 68.4, of which suicide 13.8.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1986): route length 168 mi, 270 km; passenger-mi 171,000,000, passenger-km 276,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 414.000,000. metric ton-km cargo 604.000.000. Roads (1986): total length 3.244 mi, 5.220 km (paved 99%). Vehicles (1987): passenger cars 162.481; trucks and buses 14.869. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1986): passenger arrivals 422.598. departures 431,023; cargo loaded and unloaded 77.91 metric tons; airports 1

(1988) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1986): total number 6; total circulation 130,000; circulation per 1.000 population 365. Radio (1986): 228.000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1987): 91.500 receivers (1 per 4.0 persons). Telephones (1986): 157. 12 (1 per 2.3 persons). 1

Education and health Education (1985-86)

National economy Budget (1986). Revenue: Lux F 78,625,858,000 (income and excise taxes 51.7%, customs taxes 11.6%). Expenditures^: Lux F 78,280,400,000 (social secunty 24.8%, transport and power 20.2%, education and arts 12.8%, debt service 12.2%, administration 7.7%, defense 2.8%). Public debt (1987): U.S.$508,000,000. Tourism: (1986): Number of tourist arrivals 71 1,0004. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): barley 64,561, wheat 29,516, potatoes 25,452, oats 21,934; livestock

(number of

live animals) 222,864 cattle, 75.609 pigs; roundwood (1985) 465,650 cu m. Mining and quarrying (1986): metal ores, none; sand and gravel 677,058, crushed stone 546,670, gypsum 420,000. Manufacturing (1986): finished rolled steel products 3,770,978; steel ingots and castings 3,705,300; pig iron 2,649,700; meat products 21,879, of which beef and veal 14,779, pork 7.100; wine 159,660 hectolitres. Construction (1985): residential and semiresidential 309,979 sq m; nonresidential 234,554 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 1.020,386,000 (3,884,437,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) none (135,900); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) none (1,160,769); natural gas

m; 1986) none

(356,600,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1986): U.S.$5,830.000.000 per capita). (U.S.$15.920 (cu

schools Primary (age 6-15) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teacher tr Higher

teachers

24.424

3.48289

15.785

.

.

J

student/ teacher ratio 14.0

7.951

'\

...

>

students

1.745

93410

Educational attainment, n.a. Literacy (\9S9,): virtually KX)% literate. Health (\9»b): physicians 686 (1 per 537 persons); hospital beds (1985) 4.587 (1 per 80 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1987) 9.3. Food (1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake" 3.850; (vegetable products 56%. animal products 44%); (1983) 139% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military lolal active duty personnel (1987): 690 (army 100.0%). Stiliiary expcndi turc as percent of GNP (1985): 0.8% (world 6.1%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 102. 'January 1. ^Proni country register. 'Percentage breakdown is for 1*184 cxiienditurc of Lux F 73.607.500,000. '•Hotel, camping, and free lodging amvals. Mncludcs .VHXI unemployed. '•Dclaii does not add to total given because of rounding. 'Manufaclunng i*'ig84-8S. npigurcs for Belgiumonly. «l982-83. ''Includes pan-time leachers

Luxembourg.

Nations of the World

Macau

products 586; footwear 376; optical materials 312. Construction (1986): residential 294,300 sq m; nonresidential 375,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 513,000,000 (555,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1986) none (none); petroleum (barrels; 1981) none (2,559); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) none (285,0(K)); natural gas, none

Official name: Macau. Political status: overseas territory (Portugal) with one legislative house

(Legislative

Assembly

(n.a.).

[17])'.

Population economically active (1981): total 127,359; activity rate of total population 48.6% (participation rates: over age 10, 61.5%; female 37.1%;

Head of state and government: Governor. Capital:

unemployed

Macau.

Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. unit:

3.9%).

Price and earnings indexes (Oct. 1982-Sept. 1983

pataca2 = 100 avos; valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.$ = 8.04 patacas; 1 £ = 13.76

Monetary

647

19837

1984?

1985?

1986

100

112.2

115.9

118.5

=

100)

1

Consumer

patacas.

Public debt (long-term, external, 1985): U.S.$9 1,000,000. Tourism (1986): number of tourist arrivals 4,238,300. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980): 4.8; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (198182): food 42.0%, housing 22.8%, education, health, and other services 8.1%, clothing and footwear 7.3%, transportation 4.9%, energy 4.9%, household durable goods 2.9%. Land use (1979): forested 50.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 4.0%; built-on area, wasteland, and other 46.0%.

Area and population area

population

1986 Oiatrict*

Capital

sq mi

sq l' I. 'Detail does not add to total given because ••Island of Mauritius only. 51985. *At factor cost. 'Employed persons in establishments employing 10 or more persons. «1983. 'June. lOMarch. "Current weights of C'PI components; Island of Mauritius only, i^import figures arc f.o.b. (free on board) in balance of trade and c.i.f (cost, insurance, and freight) for commodities and trading pariners. UAir Mauritius only. i.

100)

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

120.4 114.9

122.2

123.7

125.3 162.0

128.1

137.1

137.18

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1985): U.S.S 1 70,000,000 (U.S.$1,240 per capita).

*-a>.

^^^^

Capital: Castries. Official language: English. Official religion: none.

S^^r

^>5^Y

Eastern Caribbean Dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 10, 1988) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.62. unit:

;.

—

Head of government: Prime

Monetary

price index

Weekly earnings index9

constitutional

monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [II]; House of Assembly [17]). Chief of state: British Monarch

=

and earnings indexes (1980

1

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1986 in

EC$000,000 Agriculture

70.7

Mining Manufacturing Construction

34.0 31.9

Public

16.5

16.5 1 0.6 J 8.0 7.5 3.9

population

area

1986 sq mi

Quarters

Capitals

Anse-la-Raye Canaries

Anse-la-Raye Canaries

Castries Choiseui

Castries

Choiseui

12.1

Dennery Gros Islet

Dennery Gros Islet

26.9 39.2

1

sq

km

18.1

46 9

30.7

79.5 31.3 69.7 101.5 37.8 80.0 50.5 43.8 617.41

J

Laborie

Laborie

14.6

Micoud

Micoud

30.9

Soufriere Vieux Fort TOTAL

Soufriere Vieux Fort

19.5 16.9

238.41

estimate 6,111

2,567 52,868 7.995 1 1

,874

12,502 8,483 14,678 8,972 13,479 139.529

% of labour force

13,000

29.7

2,600 1.500

5.9 3.4

15,800

36.1

1

Transportation and

Area and population

labour force

value

2.5

utilities

198310

% of total

value

communications Trade

42.2

9.9

94.1

Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

45.2 92.0 20.5

22.0 10.6 21.6 4.8 -5.411

-23.0" 426.6

•

100.0

10.90012 43,800

24.912 100.0

Tourism (1986): receipts from visitors U.S.$68,800,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$52,200,000. Land use (1985): forested 13.0%; meadows and pastures 5.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 28.0%; other 54.0%.

Foreign trade '^ Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1988): 145,000. Density (1988): persons per sq mi 608.2, persons per sq km 234.9. Urban-rural (mi): urban 52.1%; rural 47.9%. Sex distribution (1986): male 48.54%; female 51.46%. Age breakdown (1986): under 15, 44.5%; 15-29, 27.7%; 30-44, 11.3%; 45-59, 8.5%; 60-74, 5.8%; 75 and over, 2.2%. Population projection: (1990) 151,000; (2000) 185,000. Doubling lime: 32 years. Ethnic composition (1982): black 90.3%; mixed 5.5%; East Indian 3.2%; white 0.8%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 86.3%; Protestant 11.3%, of which Anglican 3.0%, Seventh-day Adventist 2.5%; Rastafarian 2.2%; other 0.2%.

Major

cities (1986)2: Castries 52,868;

Vieux Fort

13,479.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1986): 28.0 (world avg. 26.0); legitimate 15.0%; illegitimate 85.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1986): 6.0 (world avg. 9.9). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1986): 22.0 (world avg. 16.1). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1986): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1 ,000 population ( 1 986): 3. 1 Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1986): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1986): male 68.0 years; female 74.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): diseases of the circulatory system 203.5, of which ischemic heart diseases 111.1, cerebrovascular diseases 50.9, hypertensive disease 38.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 65.2; diseases of the respiratory system 55.9; ill-defined conditions 84.6.

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

ECSOOO.OOO

203.3

177.0

133.9

161.9

166.3

156.0

% of total

47.5%

44.1%

34.3%

38.5%

37.2%

25.8%

Imports {m6): EC$4 17,900,000 (food 19.9%, of which meat and meat preparations 5.6%; cereal and cereal preparations 4.6%; machinery and transport equipment 19.8%, of which road vehicles 6.2%; chemicals and chemical products 12.2%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 6.7%; paper and paper products 6.4%; clothing 4.6%; metal manufactures 4.2%). Major import sources: United States 34.1%; United Kingdom 15.9%; Trinidad and Tobago 7.8%; Japan 6.9%; Canada 3.1%. Exports (1986): ECS 2 2 3, 900, 000 (bananas 66.9%; clothing 8.4%; cardboard boxes 6.9%; unrefined coconut oil 2.1%; electrical components and parts 2.0%; beer and ale 1.9%). Major export destinations^*: United Kingdom 70.5%; United States 1 1.3%; Trinidad and Tobago 2.9%; Barbados 2.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (

986): total length 464 mi, 747 km (paved 79%). Vehicles (1984): passenger cars 7,049; trucks and buses 2,084. Merchant marine (1987): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 2,530. Air transport (1986): passenger arrivals 143,571, passenger departures 145,774; cargo unloaded 1,691 metric tons, cargo loaded 2,479 metric tons; airports (1988) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1986): total number of receivers 92,500 (1 per 1.5 persons). Television (1986): total number of receivers 5,000 (1 per 28 persons). Telephones (1986): 14,104 (1 per 10

persons).

Education and health

National economy

Education (1986-87)

Budget (1987-88). Revenue: EC$ 192,800,000 (taxes on international trade 39.1%, taxes on goods and services 25.8%, taxes on income 24.3%, nontax revenue 9.5%). Expenditures: ECS 158,000,000 (wages and salaries 53.0%, goods and services 20.9%, transfer payments 13.3%, interest payments

Primary (age 5-11)15 Secondary (age 12-16)15 Voc, teacher tr. Higher

6.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1985): U.S.$28,700,0003. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1986): bananas 87,000", mangoes 46,000, coconuts 31,000, plantains 2,000, sweet potatoes 1,000, tomatoes 3055, oranges 2825, cabbages 1835, ginger 1275, cocoa beans 52; livestock (number of live animals) 1 5,000 sheep, 1 2,000 cattle, 12,000 pigs. 12,000 goats; roundwood. n.a.; fish catch 840. Mining and quarrying: excavation of sand for local construction and pumice. Manufacturing (value of production in ECS'OOO; 1986): paper products and cardboard boxes 41,210*; alcoholic beverages and tobacco 14,483; garments 13,477; nonalcoholic beverages 8,468; electrical components 5.7306; copra 5,566; other manufactures include refined coconut oil, scuba-diving suits, and wooden toys. Construction (buildings authorized; 1986): residential 17,300 sq m; nonresidential 10,140 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1986) 63,300,000 (53,700,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1986) none (40,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 4.6;

income per household:

n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1984)': food 46.8%. housing 13.5%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, transportation and communications 6.3%, household furnishings 5.8%, fuel and light 4.5%, recreation and education 3.2%, beverages and tobacco 2.8%. health care 2.3%, other 8.3%. Population economically active (1980): total 49,451; activity rate of total population 41.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, n.a.; female 55.2%; unemployed [1986] more than 20.0%).

1

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

78

1,103

32.400

29.4

12

337

5,934

176

16

817 123

77

schools

4 1

Educational attainment (1980). Percent of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 17.5%; primary education 74.4%; secondary 6.8%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1980): about 75%. Health: physicians (1985) 43 (1 per 3,185 persons); hospital beds (1986) 501 (1 per 279 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1984-86 avg.) 20.8.

Food

(1984-86): daily per capita caloric intake 2.499 (vegetable products

77%, animal products 23%); (1983) 98% of requirement.

FAO recommended minimum

Military Total active duty personnel {\9%1):

'6.

'Total includes the uninhabited 29.5 sq-mi (76.4-sq-km) Central Forest Reserve. -Populations cited are for quarters (first-order administrative subdivisions). 'Includes external long-term private debt not guaranteed by the government.